~~ a a ° Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/birdsofnewyork02eatouoft r ; Wew. Yor ic atate — Cu | th - ——-—~ Myvseu be The University of the State of New York New York State Museum GENERAL CHAPTERS; LAND BIRDS Joun M. Crarke, Director Memoir 12 5 pT 2 ———— BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON Part 2 PAGS PAGE Introductory note - - - - 3 | Private preserves - - - 59 Bird ecology - - - - - 5 | Description of genera and species - 61 The economic value of birds - - 46 | Addendum: New York bird history The status of our bird laws - - 51 since 1910 - - - - - 542 Special measures for increasing bird life 52 | Explanations of plates - - - 545 Bird refuges - - - - - 58 | Index - - - - - - - 673 ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1914 1917 1926 1915 1922 1918 1921 1923 1924 1925 1919 1920 1916 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire Sr Crain McKriwav M.A. 2 ED: DCL. E-HeED. Chanecllor - Purny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Vice Chancellor - ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. CueEsTErR S. Lorp M.A. LL.D: - - - - Wiii1amM NottrincuaM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. : 2 Francis M. CARPENTER - - - - Asram I. Erxus LL.B. D.C. 4. : 2 : : ADELBERT Moor. - : CHARLES B. ALEXANDER M. A. IE: B. L ‘_ 12); is D. Joux Moore - e = ANDREW J. SHIPMAN M. A. Le B. ae D. - - WaLrerR Guest KeE.voce B.A. E 2 = = President of the University and Commissioner of Education Joun H. Fintey MA. LL.D. Assistant Commissioners MA.cea DED” Brooklyn Palmyra Albany New York Syracuse Mount Kisco New York Buffalo Tuxedo Elmira New York Ogdensburg Avucustus S. Downine M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. for Higher Education Cuarces F. WHeEELock B.S. LL.D. For Secondary Education Tuomas E, Finecan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. For Elementary Education Director of State Library James J. Wver, Jr, M.L.S. Director of Science and State Museum Joun M. Crarke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs of Divisions Administration, Grorce M. Witey M.A. Attendance, James D, SuLLivan Educational Extension, WitLiam R. Warson B.S. Examinations, Hartan H. Horner B.A. History, James A. Houpen B.A. Inspections, FRANK H. Woop M.A. Law, Frank B. Givserr B.A. Library School, Frank K. WaLrerR M.A. M.L.S. Public Records, Tuomas C. Quinn Schoo] Libraries, SHERMAN WILLIAMS Pd.D. Statistics, Hiram C, Case Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. Aprams Ph.B. Vocational Schools, ArrHur D. Dean B.Sc. INTRODUCTORY NOTE The first volume of this work was communicated for publication in 1908 and was distributed to the people of this State and to the general scientific public in 1910. It was the expectation that volume 1 would be immediately followed by another volume which would afford descriptive accounts, with necessary illustrations, of the land birds of New York, but this purpose has been obstructed by the regrettable illness of the author. Students of the birds interested in this work will, therefore, understand the reason for the apparent long delay in the completion of this under- taking. With the presentation of this volume 2, the entire field, as originally planned for the work, is covered, and there are excellent reasons for feeling that the unavoidable delay has, in some regards, increased the real value of the present book, as it has afforded opportunity for the preparation of chapters of a more general import, particularly bearing upon the relations of the bird life of the State to human concerns. Joun M. CLARKE Director cae The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joun M. Crarke, Director Memoir 12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON PART 2 BIRD ECOLOGY It is evident that any comprehensive scheme for the protection of bird life, the increase of valuable species or the introduction of new ones, must proceed on sound principles of bird ecology, or the relationship of birds to their environment, and their ability to adapt themselves to new conditions as they arise. It is not our purpose in this short chapter to discuss the reaction to environment which resulted in the development of the bird’s wing and feathers or its numberless other structures which fit the various species of birds for life in their chosen spheres, but rather to consider those general principles of ecology which show the relationship of our different species of birds, first, to their natural environment as it existed in primeval times, and second, to the changed environment which . obtains throughout the greater portion of the State at the present day. It is so often thought to be merely a question of the protection of birds from boys, gunners, cats and hawks which is necessary to insure their proper abundance that a consideration of the subject of ecology seems 5 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM absolutely necessary at the present time in order to explain the probable reasons why some birds are abundant in various sections of the State and others are fast disappearing; and to suggest reasonable means of encouraging desirable birds to increase in our domains. FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENT Climatic. Of the natural factors which influence the bird life of any part of the world, those due to the climate are undoubtedly of foremost importance. Among these is light, the effect of which may be illustrated by reference to owls, goatsuckers and woodcocks, which feed mostly by night or in the twilight, and in the daytime must hide away in hollows or dark portions of the forest. To a less extent the influence of this factor is observed in those forest species such as many thrushes and wood warb- lers whose eyes are noticeably larger than those of their relatives which live in more open surroundings, and unquestionably the intensity of light affects their nervous equilibrium to such an extent that it even determines their presence or absence in a given locality, apart from all other factors. Temperature has usually been considered the most important climatic factor and is the principal one taken into account by the United States Biological Survey in mapping the distribution of animals in America. As illustrations of this factor, it is frequently evident when surveying a ravine in central New York or when approaching the outskirts of the Adirondacks, that such species as the Junco, Canada warbler and Hermit thrush will frequently be present or absent according as the average temperature varies 2 or 3 degrees during the six hottest weeks of summer. Of very great importance is the humidity, which is largely dependent upon temperature and, with it, regulates the distribution of many species. As direct examples of this factor, the author has become convinced that such birds as the Wood thrush and the Hooded warbler are usually found in a denser cover than some of their allies merely because the percentage of humidity is higher in the coverts where they are found than in other localities which, by the casual observer, might be considered equally con- . BIRDS OF NEW YORK 7 genial to them, and because of the humidity, the rate of evaporation from their bodies is proportionately reduced. In the hard wood tract described on page 27, it was noticeable that as’ the lower thickets disappeared by growth of the taller poles, the amount of humidity within ten feet of the ground was perceptibly lower, so that it undoubtedly was not only the lack of favorable nesting sites, but the slight change in humidity acting with it, which caused the Hooded warbler and the Wood thrush to disappear. Conversely, on many bushy hillsides, if the atmosphere is comparatively dry, the Field sparrows, chewinks and thrashers will be in evidence. In damper thickets yellowthroats and Yellow-billed cuckoos will appear, undoubtedly attracted not primarily by the edaphic condition but by the humidity of the bush stratum which lies just above the ground. Another climatic factor of great import is rainfall, which affects the forest growth; but apart from its influence upon vegetation and thus upon bird life, it is also a direct factor when flooding marshes and destroying the nests with eggs and young, or when beating down nests directly from their support, and sometimes even destroying the full-grown birds them- selves,! and by the destruction of migrating birds, often observed, while crossing the sea or large lakes. When the rain is dense enough birds frequently lose their bearing and fly headlong into the water without realizing the direction they are taking. Ice and snow are also factors worthy of consideration as they frequently cover the food of many species during the winter season. In this way Quail are frequently winterkilled, and in the early spring meadowlarks and Savannah sparrows in western New York may often be observed in severe straits during the days of late March and early April. Many species during an extensive ice storm or snow storm are in danger of starvation. In the winter of 1895, as elsewhere noted, the Bluebird was nearly exterminated by continued ice storms in its winter home and its numbers were again decimated by the severe winter of 1911-12. During a severe 1Great numbers of sparrows killed in Providence by cold rain and sleet (Bumpus, Wood’s Hole Biological Lectures 1898, p. 24). 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM snowstorm millions of longspurs were destroyed in Minnesota (see page 56, volume 1). Winds are also a climatic factor of effective influence not only in determining the humidity and the rainfall of a region, but also because of their influence upon migrating birds. Asan example note the destruction of warblers, beaten into the sea by severe head winds while crossing the Gulf of Mexico, mentioned by Frazar (Henshaw, Nutt. Orn. Club Bul. 6, ; 189). Every bird student may also recall numerous instances of nests and young birds blown down and destroyed by high winds. Other climatic factors, such as hail and electricity, might also be mentioned, and the illustrations given might be multiplied indefinitely, but we trust that those cited will serve to show that these various factors act directly upon the physiological nature of the bird and thus serve to control its abundance,.or even its very presence in a given locality. Physiographic factors. The wrinkling and sculpturing of the earth’s surface into great or small land masses, mountains, ravines, valleys, flood plains, marshes, streams, lakes, sounds and seas, thereby determining the slope of the land and the influence of the sun’s rays upon it, all have great influence upon the avifauna of a region. It is evident that they control many of the climatic factors, especially the latitude and altitude determin- ing the temperature and the humidity, and the latter is controlled also by the nearness to the sea and the presence of streams or underground water on the slopes of ravines and hillsides. The various statements made in the chapter on distribution in volume 1, illustrate the influence of mountains or altitude upon the various zones of bird life within the State. The effect of ravines is well displayed in central and western New York where many Canadian species are often found on the south side of ravines which are not exposed so directly to the sun’s rays, whereas on the north margin of the same ravine Alleghanian and Carolinian species usually predominate. The influence of streams and bodies of water is clearly illustrated by their effect on the presence of such species as kingfishers, herons, ducks and shore birds. Marshes are =~ oe. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 9 indispensable to the presence of rails, bitterns and numerous species ‘which belong to their community. Rocky cliffs determine the nesting site of Duck hawks and murres. Thus it might be shown that the physi- ography of every locality attracts its own characteristic bird life. Soil factors. The character of the soil, whether it is wet or dry, must not be neglected while making a study of bird ecology; and the material of its composition, whether rock, gravel, sand, clay, loam, marl, muck or peaty ooze; also its richness in mineral ingredients such as lime, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates etc. These edaphic conditions influence bird life mainly through their control of vegetation and so affect the breeding and feeding habitats of numerous species. Some are more directly affected, such as the Bank swallows, woodcocks, and snipes which can not breed or find their food supply except in proper soil. . Biotic factors. Under this heading must be considered first, plants as furnishing nesting sites, food and shelter, and also as controlling the light, heat, humidity, and through the heat and humidity the rate of evaporation which is of great importance in determining the presence of various species of animals in a given habitat. The effect of vegetation upon the nesting site is illustrated in the case of all arboreal species which decline directly in proportion to the deforestation of a region, and of the thicket community which is very quickly affected by pasturing or the clearing of hillsides and swamps. Illustrating the important effect upon various species by certain kinds of vegetation, I noticed that in 1880 the Purple finch appeared as a common breeding species in the village of Spring- ville at the same time with the growth of numerous spruce and cedar trees which were planted by residents in their dooryards. When these became of a height from ten to twenty feet they were invariably utilized by the finch as breeding sites. Everyone has noticed the influence of the American elm upon the abundance of the Baltimore oriole, which, although it breeds also in various other kinds of trees, succeeds much more often in rearing its young when it chooses the drooping branches of an elm. In driving across the country in springtime everyone must have noticed that colonies |e) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Bronzed grackles are almost always found about dooryards and road- sides where groups of spruces or pine trees are growing. Thus, if carefully studied, a large percentage of our native birds will be found to choose a preferred site for nesting. Plants as affecting the food directly are of most importance, of course, in the case of frugivorous and granivorous species such as the Grouse, Bobwhite and Sparrow which will not be abundant in any district unless their favorite food can be found. Striking examples of the influence of food are frequently noticed; a crop of mountain ash berries attracts flocks of Cedar birds and Pine grosbeaks. Large beds of vallisneria in the central lakes, of recent years have attracted flocks of redheads and canvasbacks, sometimes hundreds and thousands, during the early winter. The Ruffed grouse is frequently observed traveling long distances in the winter to feed on the buds of birch and apple trees. Unless its coverts contain a suffi- cient admixture of such species upon which it can feed in winter it will rapidly disappear. A crop of cones in spruce or pine trees frequently attracts flocks of crossbills in winter or early spring, and a field of lettuce or dandelions will bring large numbers of goldfinches to feed on the seeds. Plants are also of great importance as shelter for birds apart from their use as nesting sites, and apart from furnishing food. They afford a refuge from enemies as well as from storms and the heat of the sun. Everyone has seen sparrows and other birds scurrying to the shrubbery when disturbed in the open field or when pursued by hawks or cats. When grouse are frightened they seek either the dense thicket or trees as a refuge, the former when pursued by hawks and the latter when pursued by dogs or foxes. During the migration season one must look for transient birds on the leeward side of the woods during wind storms. Here they are often found feeding at leisure, while on the windy side few or none are observed. Once while seeking refuge beneath a dense maple from an approaching ‘thunder shower, I observed a small company of goldfinches come diving into the tree and arrange themselves so that . ; , ; : BIRDS OF NEW YORK II each was protected as by an umbrella under the overhanging leaves near the top of the twig selected for its perch. Everyone has noticed how rapidly the birds disappear during a severe storm, each seeking its proper refuge and almost without exception this refuge is some kind of vegetation. The importance of a shelter from the heat of the sun is illustrated by the actions of mother robins and other birds when the sun shines directly upon their nestlings. Then they stand on the edge of the nest and shade the birds with their outstretched wings. In a similar way the older birds themselves are affected by the extreme heat of midday. As everyone knows, the time to go birding is in the morning or in the afternoon. During the middle of the day the birds are quiet and a greater portion of them are hidden away in the shadows of the trees and shrubs. During the hottest days of midsummer one may often notice our common birds standing with drooping wings and open mouths within the shade of the foliage seeking to avoid the overheating due to the direct rays of the sun. Under biotic factors must also be classed the various animals which affect the bird as a part of its environment, either food, allies or enemies. As food it is evident that all carnivorous, piscivorous and insectivorous species will necessarily be present or absent according as their favorite food may be found. One may not seek for Belted kingfishers in the midst of a plain, nor for insectivorous birds over the middle of the lake or sea. During the winter of 1901 meadow mice were very abundant in the fields of western New York, and the Rough-legged hawk, their principal enemy, appeared in abundance. The withdrawing of water from the Erie canal left large numbers of small fish stranded in the wide waters of eastern Rochester, and immediately great numbers of Herring and Ring-billed gulls appeared and remained there until the fish were devoured. During the migration seasons of 1911 and 1912 the author noticed an unusual number of warblers of eleven species frequenting a group of beech trees on a tree-covered campus in Geneva, and on investigation discovered that this group of trees was infested with an innumerable swarm of plant lice upon which the birds were feeding. Other groups of trees which I2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM looked equally attractive to the casual observer had no warblers among their branches. These illustrations easily indicate the relationship between food and the abundance of a species, but it must be borne in mind that similar relationships are all the while at work governing the abundance of birds when the exact cause is not manifest to the observer. As allies, some animals affect slightly the abundance of species. Undoubtedly the Kingbird assists the Yellow warbler and other birds in escaping from the depredations of hawks and crows when nesting in the same orchard, and the various little associations observed, such as the Downy woodpecker, Nuthatch, Chicadee, Creeper and Kinglet coterie, have a real cause for their existence other than the desire for mutual companionship. The most evident cause of the disappearance of birds, to the casual observer, is the enemy factor. Under the head of enemies must be classed all beasts and birds of prey, rivals and parasites. To illustrate the influence of these factors, it is often observed by bird students that a single pair of Sharp-shinned hawks will destroy nearly every song bird in the wood where they are nesting, and a cat which has discovered a brood of bob- whites will return to their range and follow the birds until every chick has been destroyed. In the same way the cat destroys the broods of numerous birds which nest in the garden and dooryard, and the parasitic Cowbird which lays her egg in the nest of a small warbler or sparrow thereby destroys the entire brood of the other bird. To illustrate the influence of rivalry, we might mention the effect of the English sparrow upon the martins and bluebirds. By continually occupying their nesting sites it is gradually forcing these birds more and more from our dooryards, and, unless the martins and bluebirds are assisted, they will finally be driven from the immediate vicinity of our homes. I have also observed that the Wren frequently picks holes in the Bluebird’s eggs, and thus destroys one of her rivals in the race for food. The problem of food rivalry is rather complex, but unquestionably is very often of a determining influence in governing the abundance of various species. Parasites must BIRDS OF NEW YORK 13 also be regarded as enemies of the birds, especially the bird-lice which frequently destroy whole broods of phoebes and swallows, and seriously impair the vitality of others. Internal parasites are also a source of great harm. During one afternoon in the’ summer of 1900, the author picked up forty terns on the Weepecket islands which had died from the effect of flat-worms growing within the intestine. Thus various kinds of parasites frequently sap the vitality of birds or destroy them altogether. The various factors enumerated work together to make up the bird’s environment. By a combination of favorable factors, as opposed to the unfavorable ones in any given locality, the balance may be turned to the bird’s advantage, so that it may increase like the English sparrow in America. If the natural influences which are unfriendly to the presence of a bird overbalance the favorable factors, it is useless to expect the species to increase. The factors which naturally produce a favorable environment for it must be induced artificially if the species is to be encouraged. A thorough study of the ecologic status of the birds which societies or individuals wish to encourage in a given locality, should be made when any action is taken either to introduce or to encourage the species and by varying those factors which are of the greatest importance to produce a favorable environment they may finally be successfully encouraged. Birp HABITATS For ecological purposes, birds are properly classified according to the nesting habitats which they occupy, but for various reasons these do not always agree with the places chosen for the birds’ other life activities, and it is necessary, for purposes of general discussion, to recognize also the feeding habitat. This is different from the breeding habitat of all truly aerial and aquatic species, of which we have a goodly number. All our diving birds, gulls and waterfowl must necessarily make their nests on shore and are usually classified according to the habitat which they ~ utilize for that purpose; but in many of the species, especially the diving ducks, grebes and loons, the food is almost entirely pursued and taken I4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the water. In the aerial feeding habitat we notice such species as the Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, swifts and swallows; and, to a certain degree, the flycatchers, waxwings, the Red-headed woodpecker, warblers, kinglets and even many species of sparrows. Of our land birds, likewise, many that are arboreal in nesting habits are eminently terrestrial in their feeding, such as the crows, grackles, robins, and, to a certain extent, many species which normally feed in trees or shrubbery, as they frequently alight upon the ground to capture their prey; and others like the Bluebird and Red- headed woodpecker which frequently take their food from the ground although watching for it from more elevated stations. Many species like the herons are arboreal in nesting habits but seek their food in the marshes and streams and lake shores. Some species of ducks that feed in the open water or in the marsh make their nests in hollow trees. Thus the feeding habitat must be recognized in considering the landscape which should be most advantageous to a species, as well as the breeding habitat which is necessary for its increase. Likewise, the refuge habitat is of importance in this connection, for many birds will not appear even in migration time unless their proper refuge is at hand to protect them both from their enemies and from the wind or rain or sunshine. Everyone has noticed that many species of waterfowl which feed in the shallows-or marshes make their refuge habitat on the wide waters of lakes and bays, or even the ocean, and that birds like the Blackbird, Robin and Swallow, that feed in the open field and scatter widely during the nesting season, unite to seek a safe refuge for roosting purposes, often congregating in immense numbers to pass the night or to combine against their enemies. The importance of the refuge habitat is more noticeable in the case of granivorous species than others, for they necessarily seek their food largely in the fields, and yet most of them do not roost or nest in the field, and, if disturbed while feeding, will quickly seek the friendly shelter of shrubbery or dense foliage. This is particularly noticeable in the case of sparrows and juncos during the migrating season. Scores of them may be feeding in the open field, but BIRDS OF NEW YORK 15 if any one approaches, or'if a dog runs toward them, they immediately rise and follow each other in succession to the shelter of the thickets. These shelter or refuge habitats are of particular importance in the case of game birds, as all sportsmen know, for it is in the best cover that they search for the Grouse, Pheasant and Bobwhite. The various nesting habitats are enumerated in connection with the bird communities which inhabit them. NESTING SITES OF NEW YORK BIRDS For ecological purposes it is necessary to determine the nesting habitat and exact nesting site of birds in order to classify them properly. In recording the nesting site, we might arrange our birds according to the strata or layers or stories which they occupy, as follows: Subterranean stratum. In this are included the Kingfisher, Bank swallow, Rough-winged swallow and occasionally the English sparrow when usurping the nesting holes of Bank swallows. Ground stratum. Here are found all the birds which place their nests directly upon the ground, such as the Loon, Herring gull (on rocks), Mallard, Black duck, Blue-winged teal, Woodcock, Bertramian sandpiper, Killdeer, Piping plover (sand or pebbles), Bobwhite, Ruffed grouse, Pheasant, Mourning dove (occasionally), Duck hawk (on rocky ledges), Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, Prairie horned lark, Bobolink, Cowbird (in Song sparrow’s nest, etc.), Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, Grasshopper sparrow, Song sparrow (usually), Field sparrow (usually), Junco, Towhee.(usually), Black and white warbler, Canada warbler, Worm- eating warbler, Nashville warbler, Blue-winged warbler (occasionally), Ovenbird, Kentucky warbler, Brown thrasher (frequently), Wilson thrush, and Hermit thrush. Here also might be included those species which nest on the oozy ground or grass or moss of marshes, such as the Pied-billed grebe, Black tern, American bittern, King rail, Sora rail, Virginia rail, Florida gallinule, Coot, Wilson snipe, Marsh hawk and Short-eared owl. Also those species whose nests are usually placed in mossy banks or moss- 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM covered logs and in the roots of trees, like the Yellow-bellied fly-catcher, White-throated sparrow, Junco, Water thrush and Louisiana water thrush. Herb stratum. Here are included those species whose nests are usually placed in tussocks of grass or flags or among tangles of ferns and weeds. Many species which nest habitually upon the ground or in thickets are frequently found nesting in this stratum, but its most characteristic representatives are the Least bittern, Red-winged blackbird, Sharp-tailed sparrow, Seaside sparrow, Swamp sparrow, Song. sparrow, Blue-winged warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Mourning warbler, Maryland yellow- throat, Short-billed marsh wren and Long-billed marsh wren. Thicket stratum. In this are included all birds which usually nest in bushes or in small saplings, usually in tangles on the borders of woods and in the undergrowth of the forest. The nests are usually placed from one to eight feet above the ground. The characteristic representatives of this story are the Yellow-billed cuckoo, Black-billed cuckoo, Alder flycatcher, Cowbird, Rusty blackbird, American goldfinch (often in trees), Field sparrow (frequently on the ground), Song sparrow (later broods), Cardinal, Indigo bird, Migrant shrike (often in low trees), White-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler (frequently in trees), Chestnut-sided warbler, Prairie warbler, Black-throated blue warbler, Myrtle warbler and Blackpoll warbler (in low spruces), Maryland yellowthroat (occasionally on the ground), Yellow-breasted chat, Hooded warbler, Redstart (occasionally), Catbird, Brown thrasher (sometimes on ground), Olive-backed thrush. I was surprised to note how few species had been entered under this stratum, because it seemed to me it would include by far the most of all the strata enumerated, but this impression is undoubtedly due to the fact that the layer is so frequently invaded by both terrestrial and by arboreal species which belong more characteristically in the lower tree stratum. Lower tree stratum. In this are included those birds that do not require so dense a covert for the nesting site as the thicket stratum, but prefer a moisture habitat in which the rate of evaporation is lower than in the tree-top story which follows. They are characteristically the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 17 birds of the shaded or lower branches of forests and groves, placing their nests from 5 to 35 feet above the ground. Here we might include the Green heron, Mourning dove, Sharp-shinned hawk, Ruby-throated humming bird, Kingbird, Wood pewee, Green-crested flycatcher, Least flycatcher, Bluejay, Orchard oriole, Purple finch, Goldfinch, Chipping sparrow, Rose- breasted grosbeak, Scarlet tanager, Cedar waxwing, Red-eyed vireo, Blue-headed vireo, Parula warbler, Magnolia warbler, Black-throated green warbler, Redstart, Golden-crowned kinglet, Wood thrush, Robin. Higher tree stratum or tree-top story. Many species included in the former story frequently invade the higher portions of the trees, especially trees which have not reached their maximum height in the forest; but as building more characteristically in this layer we might mention the Great blue heron, Black-crowned night heron, Cooper hawk, Goshawk, Red-tailed hawk, Red-shouldered hawk, Broad-winged hawk, Bald eagle, Fish hawk, Long-eared owl, Barred owl (occasionally), Great horned owl (frequently), Olive-sided flycatcher, Raven, Crow, Fish crow, Baltimore oriole, Purple grackle, Bronzed grackle, Crossbill, Siskin, Warbling vireo, Yellow-throated vireo, Cerulean warbler, Blackburnian warbler, Pine warbler. Birds nesting in hollow trees. These species might have been included in the last two strata enumerated, but as it is of more importance to recognize them as birds nesting in hollows or woodpecker holes, they are placed under this separate heading. In it are included the American merganser, Hooded merganser, Wood duck, Golden eye, Duck hawk (very rarely), Sparrow hawk, Long-eared owl (occasionally), Barred owl (usually), Saw-whet owl, Screech owl, Great horned owl (frequently), Chimney swift (rarely at the present day), Crested flycatcher, Bronzed grackle (occasionally), Song sparrow (rarely), Purple martin (occasionally), Tree swallow, Prothonotary warbler (built once in this State), Carolina wren, House wren, Brown creeper (behind loose bark), White-breasted nuthatch, Red-breasted nuthatch, Tufted titmouse, Chickadee, Robin (rarely), Starling, English sparrow. 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Birds that excavate their nesting holes in trees. Here belong all our nine species of woodpeckers, Chickadee (usually), White-breasted nut- hatch and Red-breasted nuthatch (partially excavate their holes). Birds that nest in boxes. Under this heading we place those species that are known to avail themselves of bird boxes: Wood duck (occasion- ally), Screech owl, Crested flycatcher (occasionally), Purple martin, Tree swallow, Carolina wren, House wren, Chickadee (occasionally), Robin (in boxes with large openings), Bluebird, Starling, English sparrow. All species which nest in hollows, included under the previous heading, might be induced by judicious treatment to nest in properly prepared boxes or hollowed limbs. Birds that nest on structures erected by man. ‘These species, like the last, have shown some adaptation to civilized surroundings and furnish clues to methods which might be employed to increase their numbers. Under this heading we include the Mourning dove (rarely on fence posts and fence rails), Fish hawk (on wheels or platforms erected on poles), Barn owl (in belfries and outbuildings), Screech owl (in openings in gable ends etc.), Downy woodpecker, Red-headed woodpecker and Flicker (in posts and poles), Nighthawk (on flat roofs), Chimney swift (in unused chimneys and gable ends), Kingbird (rarely on posts), Crested flycatcher (sometimes in hollow poles), Phoebe (on beams and under eaves and bridges), Cowbird (in nests of Phoebe, Robin, Chippy etc.), Chipping sparrow (in vines on porches and sides of houses), Purple martin (under eaves etc.), Cliff swallow (under eaves of barns), Barn swallow (on beams and rafters of sheds and barns), Tree swallow (in holes of posts and tele- graph poles), Rough-winged swallow (in abutments of bridges), House wren (in posts, crannies of buildings, etc.), Chickadee (in hollow fence posts), Robin (on beams, brackets, porch posts, fence posts, window sills, etc.), Bluebird (in crannies of eaves occasionally), Starling (in eaves and crannies), English sparrow (in every available hollow, nook and cranny). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 19 BIRD COMMUNITIES After long continued consideration and sorting of the species of birds that nest within the limits of New York State, the author is convinced that the following communities might be recognized, although the obvious difficulty of confining many species of birds to one of them is no more than can be expected. Communities of the seashore and lake shore. Here we might place all those species whose nesting site is confined to the immediate vicinity of larger bodies of water. In this State there seems to be no sharp dis- tinction between lake shore and seashore communities, so this difference is not recognized. Even the Roseate tern and the Least tern undoubtedly nested at one time on the shores of the Great Lakes and the Common tern at the present time nests on the Canada-New York border among the Thousand Islands. Those species which breed on the sandy or gravelly beach are the Common tern, Roseate tern, Least tern and Piping plover. The species which nest on rocks or waste near the shore are the Loon and Herring gull. Here might also be included those that nest on trees in the immediate vicinity of the seashore such as the Osprey, Bald eagle, Golden eye, and also the Fish crow, which has not been found far from the sea or the brackish waters of the Hudson. ‘Community of the salt marsh. A few species are not known to nest except in the salt marshes of the coast. These are the Laughing gull, Clapper rail, Sharp-tailed sparrow and Seaside sparrow. Communities of the fresh water marshes. The marshland com- ‘munity is one of the most sharply defined on account of the peculiar edaphic and humid conditions found within the coverts of the cat-tail, reed and sedge formations. Herein are included, in the wider and deeper portions of the marsh where the water is continually standing, such species as the Pied-billed grebe, Black tern, Least bittern, Sora, Florida gallinule, Coot, Red-winged blackbird, Long-billed marsh wren. Where the ground is still moist and water may be standing, but nearer the solid ground than 9 a 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM those already mentioned, may be found the American bittern, King rail, Virginia rail, Marsh hawk, Short-eared owl, Swamp sparrow and Short-billed marsh wren; where the wet. ground is sparsely covered or about its swampy borders, the Wilson snipe; and invading the marshland from the shore side, numerous examples of the stream margin and damp meadow communities, such as the Spotted sandpiper, Song sparrow and Maryland yellowthroat. Communities of the meadowland. These birds are related ecologically to the prairie society, to which they undoubtedly belonged in primeval time. In the damper portions of our meadowlands will be found the Bobolink and Savannah sparrow, and in the wet meadows, sometimes in bogs and weedy marshes, the Henslow sparrow. In the dryer portions of the meadowland may be found the Bartram sandpiper, Bobwhite, Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow and Grasshopper sparrow. What might be called another general division but more or less related to the meadowland communities, are those inhabiting plains, waste fields and pastures and plowed fields which have a very sparse vegetation. Here belong more properly than in the grassland the Vesper sparrow, Killdeer, Prairie horned lark and Nighthawk, the latter, however, preferring rocky fields in the wildest districts. Community of the pond and stream margins. It has often been noted that many species are practically confined to pond shores and stream courses although they are not called aquatic species, and it might be said that the presence of streams and bodies of water is unquestionably a factor which attracts nearly all species of birds to a greater or less extent, but those confined to the immediate margins of ponds or streams are the American merganser (in hollow trees), Red-breasted merganser (nesting among the grass or low shrubbery), Hooded merganser (in hollow trees), Green heron (nesting among the lower trees), Spotted sandpiper (nesting among the grass and weeds), Belted kingfisher, Bank swallow and Rough- winged swallow (nesting in banks), the Phoebe (on ledges and bridge beams), Tree swallow ‘(in hollow trees), the Alder flycatcher, Rusty black- bird, Lincoln sparrow and Northern yellowthroat (in bordering thickets). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 21 Community of the wooded swamp. These birds are related to the marshland and stream margin species on one side and to the forest society on the other, but characteristically seem to prefer wooded country of considerable extent covering damp or flooded land. Here are included the Black duck, Wood duck, Great blue heron, Black-crowned night heron, American woodcock, and Water thrush. Communities of the deciduous forest. Under this heading we might make several subdivisions, as, first, those preferring the mature mesophytic forest. Here might be included the Red-bellied woodpecker, Green-crested flycatcher, Crested flycatcher, Yellow-throated vireo and Cerulean warbler. In the same kind of forest, but determined by more or less dense growth of underbrush may be found the Black-throated blue warbler, Mourning warbler, Kentucky warbler, Hooded warbler, Canada warbler and Red- start; and in swampy bottomlands and wooded streamsides, the Louisiana water thrush; in the flooded bottomlands, the Prothonotary warbler. In the deciduous woodland but also showing no objection to the presence of coniferous trees and sometimes preferring the mixed woodland might be mentioned the Ruffed grouse, Cooper hawk, Red-tailed hawk (mostly on the higher ground and gully margins), Red-shouldered hawk (pre- ferring swampy forests), Broad-winged hawk, Great horned owl, Long- eared owl, Barred owl, Saw-whet owl, Hairy woodpecker, Whippoorwill, Ruby-throated humming bird, Wood pewee, Bluejay, Crow, Rose-breasted grosbeak, Scarlet tanager, Red-eyed vireo, Tufted titmouse and Chickadee. Communities of the open woodland. Here might be included the Mourning dove, Sparrow hawk, Screech owl, Downy woodpecker, Red- headed woodpecker, Northern flicker, White-breasted nuthatch. In scattered trees or bushes in fields and along the roadside nest the Kingbird, Cedar bird, Migrant shrike. Open woodlands with thick underbrush are characterized by such species as the Yellow-billed cuckoo, Black-billed cuckoo, Least flycatcher, Orchard oriole, Golden-winged warbler, Nashville warbler, Canada warbler, Yellow warbler, Catbird, Brown thrasher, Carolina wren, Wilson thrush. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Communities of the thicket and forest margin. These are closely related to the open woodland communities which prefer dense underbrush, represented by such species as the White-eyed vireo, Black and White warbler, Worm-eating warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Blue-winged warbler, Yellow warbler, Chestnut-sided warbler, Prairie warbler, Mary- land yellowthroat, Yellow-breasted chat, Field sparrow, Towhee, Cardinal, Indigo bunting, Catbird, Brown thrasher. Communities of the mixed and coniferous forests. Many of our species are almost never found except in woodlands with a fair admixture of coniferous trees or with a preponderance of them. ‘To this group belong the Sharp-shinned hawk, Goshawk, Broad-winged hawk, Long-eared owl, Saw-whet owl, Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Whippoorwill, Bluejay, Blue- headed vireo, Brown creeper, Black-throated green warbler, Chickadee and Hermit thrush. Communities of the coniferous forest. Practically confined to the pine forests, especially those of pitch and red pine, is the Pine warbler. To the spruce and balsam forests belong the Canada grouse, Arctic three- toed woodpecker, American three-toed woodpecker, Olive-sided flycatcher, Yellow-bellied flycatcher, Canada jay, Raven, American crossbill, White- winged crossbill, Pine siskin, Winter wren, Red-breasted nuthatch, Hudsonian chickadee, Golden crowned kinglet, Bicknell thrush, Olive- backed thrush, Myrtle warbler and Black-poll warbler. Practically con- fined to spruce, pine or hemlock forests are the Magnolia warbler, Black- throated green warbler and Blackburnian warbler. Communities of the culture formations. The shade tree and orchard community includes a few species which have adapted themselves so much to civilized conditions that their breeding site is more confined to these situations than to the open woodland formation to which they probably | belonged at the beginning. In this are included such species as the Kingbird, Baltimore oriole, Purple grackle, Bronzed grackle, American Goldfinch, Chipping sparrow, Cedar waxwing, Warbling vireo, Robin, Bluebird. This community is often joined by other representatives from BIRDS OF NEW YORK 23 the forest, especially from the open woodland, such as the Mourning dove, Screech owl, Downy woodpecker, Flicker, Least flycatcher, Cowbird, Orchard oriole, Purple finch, White-breasted nuthatch and Chickadee. The garden and shrubbery community is represented by the Song sparrow, Chipping sparrow and Yellow warbler. This is also frequently invaded by representatives from the orchards and shade trees as well as from the open woodland and thicket, such as the Catbird, Goldfinch, and Maryland yellowthroat. The bird box and barn communities are represented by the Wren, Bluebird, Purple martin, White-breasted swallow, Barn swallow, Eaves swallow, Chimney swift and Phoebe. These species have accommodated themselves most fully to the culture conditions which prevail about towns and dooryards. SUCCESSION OF BrrRD LIFE Just as a succession of plant formations may be observed in different localities as the climatic and edaphic conditions change, so different bird societies will be found in the same locality, as the plant formations and the various factors of environment vary. When the mature forest is cleared off, the thickets or underbrush which grow up will support various brushland communities; and if the thickets are destroyed by pasturing and cultivation, and grassland succeeds it, the meadow community will occupy the country. Likewise, when marshes are drained, there will usually be a grassland or meadow association succeeding the marsh com- munity which preceded it. If lakes are lowered by the deepening of their outlets, the marshes which are usually found at their heads or near their . outlets, become less in area, and grassland communities invade the marsh- land country. This subject is illustrated by the paragraphs on “‘ Potter Swamp,” and a ‘‘ Typical Deciduous Forest.’ During the last thirty years in western New York I have noticed various illustrations of the succession of bird communities besides those alluded to. When the waters of Canandaigua lake are held up in the springtime at a higher level than formerly prevailed, certain marshlands both at the foot and at the head 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the lake become more extensive. As a result, the marshland com- munity has noticeably increased in numbers. In a single year at the foot of the lake I noticed that the number of pairs of Least bitterns nesting in a marsh of only a few acres in extent increased from one to seven pairs, and the Florida gallinules from two to four pairs, whereas the rails, Marsh wrens, Red-winged blackbirds and Swamp sparrows increased in like ratio, and American bitterns which had not nested near the mouth of Sucker brook for many years again returned to their old haunts at the foot of the lake and nested there as they do in the marshes near the outlet. A similar change is noticed at the head of the lake in the marsh between the Inlet and Clark’s Bridge. Here great numbers of Marsh wrens, Red- winged blackbirds, Swamp sparrows, soras and Virginia rails, likewise a goodly number of gallinules, Least bitterns and American bitterns, as well as a few Black ducks and Blue-winged teals made their summer home. On a smaller scale I have noticed an increase of marshland com- munity in a bit of land near Springville, where a small brook was bridged by the highway and its channel was dammed by the raising of the outlet beneath the bridge. As a result, the land, covering only a few acres, which had been slightly swampy before, grew up to sedges, cat-tails and rank marsh grass. In the swamp there had been found Wilson’s snipe and Virginia rail nesting. In one year after the raising of the outlet the appearance of soras and the Red-winged blackbird was noted, while within two years both Least bitterns and King rails also appeared. In like manner the draining of marshes has been observed to result in the reverse condition. The swamp near the foot of Canandaigua lake, lying between the ‘‘ feeder’’ and the old outlet, has been drained and largely converted into meadowland and cultivated fields. As a result, within five years the Short-eared owl, Marsh hawk, Bittern, Least bittern, Sora, Virginia rail, Marsh wren, Red-winged blackbird and Swamp sparrow, together with an occasional pair of Black duck and Blue-winged teal which formerly occupied it as a breeding ground, disappeared, and in their places ete) <> ae BIRDS OF NEW YORK 25 I noticed only Spotted sandpiper, Killdeer, Savannah sparrow, Song sparrow, Vesper sparrow, Horned lark and Meadowlark. On a hillside overlooking Canandaigua lake I noticed a definite change brought about by the cutting off of woodland and the resultant growth of dense thicket six to twelve feet in height. In this woodland there had been the usual bird community of that region, especially Wood thrush, Red-eyed vireo, Scarlet tanager, Crested flycatcher, Redstart and Oven- bird. Two years after the cutting of the taller trees the thicket was occupied by Brown thrashers, catbirds, Chestnut-sided warbler, Yellow- breasted chat, Field sparrow and Indigo bird. I am aware that most of these successions are more or less unnatural; but all of them do occur at times in nature, though more slowly, and what we are at present concerned with is the line of succession which is likely to occur as a result of conditions now obtaining in the State. THE Birps oF PoTtTER SwAMP To give bird students a basis for future comparison as well as to illustrate the exact nature of swamp bird life in central New York, and the rapid changes brought about by clearing woodland, we could select no better bit of territory than Potter swamp which lies in Yates county, between the villages of Potter and Gorham. The upper part of this swamp has been carefully studied by Messrs Verdi Burtch and Clarence F. Stone of Branchport, N. Y., and an estimate made of the number of breeding birds of the various species inhabiting the swamp. This portion of the swamp occupies about two square miles of moist and wet woodland along the course of Flint creek. The tree growth is mostly deciduous, consisting of red and white maple, white elm and ash, interspersed with “ islands ”’ of white pine and hemlock, and thickets of Arbor vitae. In most places, especially where the larger trees have been cut down by recent lumbering operations, there is a dense growth of underbrush, consisting of sprouts and saplings of the species mentioned and various swamp shrubs like spice bush, winterberry, alder, willow and a great variety of herbs, ferns, grasses 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and sedges, and, in some localities along the brook, cat-tails and rushes. Numerous moss-covered logs and hummocks rise from the standing water or from the soggy earth. Around the edge of the swamp and along the wood roads there are also dense tangles and thickets of weeds and shrub- bery and near the southern end, an expanse of damp meadow. The altitude of the swamp is 880 feet and it is surrounded by hills rising to a height of 1000 to 1200 feet. The estimated average summer temperature during the six hottest weeks is about 69 degrees F. The birds included in this list are from the records of Burtch and Stone, the number after each species representing its relative abundance as compared with the Song sparrow, which is held to be the most abundant bird in the swamp and is marked 100. In addition to those birds which nest within the swamp, the author has added from his own observation and consultation with Messrs Burtch and Stone the following species which nest within half a mile, but their relative abundance can not be determined: Killdeer, Belted kingfisher, Chimney swift, Prairie horned lark, Vesper sparrow. Savannah sparrow, Grasshopper sparrow, Chipping sparrow, Field sparrow, Cliff swallow, Barn swallow, House wren and Ring-necked pheasant. Birds of Potter swamp in 1908. Numbers after each species indicate relative abundance on the scale of 100. Black duck 1, Wood duck 5, American bittern 2, Least bittern 2, Great blue heron 7, Green heron 5, Virginia rail 5, Sora 5, American woodcock 2, Wilson snipe 1, Spotted sandpiper 5, Ruffed grouse 5, Mourning dove 15, Marsh hawk 1, Sharp- shinned hawk 1, Cooper hawk 1, Red-tailed hawk 2, Red-shouldered hawk 2, Sparrow hawk 2, Long-eared owl 3, Barred owl 2, Screech owl 8, Great horned owl 2, Yellow-billed cuckoo 10, Black-billed cuckoo 1, Hairy wood- pecker 25, Downy woodpecker 30, Yellow-bellied sapsucker 5, Red-headed woodpecker 8, Red-bellied woodpecker 15, Flicker 35, Ruby-throated humming bird 15, Kingbird 8, Crested flycatcher 40, Phoebe 15, Wood pewee 25, Alder flycatcher 10, Least flycatcher 20, Blue jay 10, Crow 30, Bobolink 15, Cowbird 40, Red-winged blackbird 50, Meadowlark 10, Baltimore oriole 30, Bronzed grackle 40, Goldfinch 30, Song sparrow 100, . 25 4 BIRDS OF NEW YORK 27 Swamp sparrow 20, Rose-breasted grosbeak 30, Indigo bunting 5, Scarlet tanager 25, Cedar waxwing 5, Red-eyed vireo 25, Warbling vireo 10, Yellow- throated vireo 20, Golden-winged warbler 3, Yellow warbler 35, Cerulean warbler 40, Chestnut-sided warbler 1, Ovenbird 10, Water thrush 70, Louisiana water thrush 2, Mourning warbler 20, Northern yellowthroat 50, Canadian warbler 15, American redstart 75, Catbird 10, Winter wren 1, Long-billed marsh wren 15, Brown creeper 20, White-breasted nuthatch 30, Black-capped chickadee 15, Wood thrush 3, Wilson thrush go, Robin 4o, Bluebird 15, English sparrow 5. In the year I911 a single pair of White-throated sparrows nested in the swamp. During the year 1911-1912 nearly all the standing timber in the upper portion of the swamp was cut away and manufactured into barrel staves. As a result of the cutting of the timber a dense growth of weeds and shrubbery appeared in the summer of 1912. The effect upon the bird life was very manifest. No Black duck nor Wood duck were found in this portion of the swamp. The Great blue heron had no nesting trees and disappeared. Such species as the Hairy woodpecker, Crested flycatcher, Wood pewee, Blue jay, Crow, Rose-breasted grosbeak, Red-eyed vireo, Cerulean warbler and Water thrush had noticeably diminished in numbers, but the Bitterns, Rails, Marsh hawks, Indigo bunting, Golden-winged warbler and Chestnut-sided warbler had noticeably increased in number, the last to such an extent that 60 would represent its standing in 1912. The Brown creeper increased in the swamp just previous to 1908 due to the winter ice-girdling of the trees near the ground and the production of favorable nesting sites beneath the dead bark. In 1912 it had diminished to the standing of 3, the nesting sites having been destroyed. BirDS OF A TYPICAL DEcipUOUS FOREST One and one-half miles north of the village of Springville in Erie county there is a small tract of woodland composed of a formation of sugar maple and beech with a small admixture of hop hornbeam, black cherry, white elm and cork elm; the soil is a gravelly loam, well drained, 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with an intermittent brook flowing near one corner of the wood. This grove covers not more than 30 acres of land. Sometime before 1860 it was pastured by sheep and the entire growth of seedlings and small sap- lings as well as the ground cover was practically killed out, so that one passing along the highway at the edge of the wood could look the whole length of the grove beneath the branches of the trees. After 1865 the grove was again allowed to grow up and, as would naturally be expected, there arose a thick growth of maple and beech seedlings with a slight admixture of other forms. By the year 1880 there was a dense stand of saplings from 8 to 20 feet in height, and around the edge of the wood as well as in a few of the more open spots, a dense growth of red raspberry, blackberry, elderberry and sumac. The stand of trees and saplings was so dense that there was only a slight ground cover, except a continuous coating of dead leaves throughout the summertime, and fair growth of early spring flowers, such as Trillium, Sanguinaria, Dicentra, Dentaria, Erythronium and Claytonia. Beginning with the year 1879-1880, the author made a very careful study of this woodland recording minutely everything he could observe in regard to its bird life. The species found nesting in the wood at that time were the Ruffed grouse, Black- billed cuckoo, Downy woodpecker, Red-headed woodpecker, Flicker, Least flycatcher, Crested flycatcher, Crow, Cowbird, Red-eyed vireo,* Yellow warbler,* Chestnut-sided warbler, Hooded warbler, Redstart, Ovenbird,* Song sparrow,* Field sparrow,* Goldfinch, Rose-breasted grosbeak,* Indigo bird, White-breasted nuthatch, Wood thrush and Veery. The species marked with a star were found about the edge of the wood and in the raspberry thickets. Twenty years later I had an opportunity of observing the bird life in this same wood. In the interim the saplings had grown to tall poles and as one walked through the wood he could see for a considerable distance in all directions. There was no thicket within eight feet of the ground; in fact, very little foliage lower than the height of twenty feet. The stand of poles had killed off all the lower growths. I was interested to note that of the species found there a BIRDS OF NEW YORK 29 twenty years before, although the wood was, in other respects than those mentioned, in the same condition as formerly, one could find no longer any Ruffed grouse, Least flycatcher, Red-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler, Chestnut-sided warbler, Hooded warbler, Redstart, Field sparrow, Gold- finch, Rose-breasted grosbeak and Indigo bird. There were only a few Wood thrushes left, probably only one pair. Only two new species, how- ever, were observed. These were the Scarlet tanager and Yellow-throated vireo, which seemed fairly common throughout the grove, and the Ovenbird and Veery were much more common than they had been twenty years before. The student of bird life will readily account for most of the change in the avifauna noted, which is principally due to the destruc- tion of the breeding and feeding sites of the birds which had disappeared. It would seem natural enough that the Yellow-throated vireo should now be commoner than the Red-eyed vireo, but that it should have been entirely absent in 1880 and the Red-eyed entirely absent in 1900, was hard to explain. Also why the Veery was more common and the Wood thrush less common is equally difficult of solution. These cases of the vireos and thrushes may possibly be due to questions of rivalry which are not fully understood at the present time. ‘This brief chapter in history will serve to answer more forcibly than any general argument a question which has been put to me so often by nature lovers in different portions of the State, as to why they can not have certain species of birds in their groves and wood lots, or in their orchards and gardens. It is absolutely essential that the proper nesting and feeding habitat shall be provided for those species which are not universal in their choice of.environment. BIRDS OF THE CENTRAL LAKE RAVINES In the west-central part of New York State and extending like the thumb and fingers of the outstretched palm from the Lake Ontario low- land toward the highlands of eastern and southern New York, lies the chain of lakes: Oneida, Onondaga, Otisco, Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua, Canadice, Conesus and Hemlock. These lakes are all of glacial origin, being the drainage valleys of'a preglacial river system. At the close of the ice age their outlets to the north were blocked by extensive deposits of drift dropped by the retreating glacier, causing the general line of lakes with their outlet system to assume a direction parallel with the margin of the great Ontario lobe of the ice sheet, the lake valleys running radially to the edge of the ice lobe and extending mostly in a north and south direction. With the exception of the three westernmost lakes of the chain, they drain through the Canandaigua- Seneca-Oneida-Oswego system into Lake Ontario. Thus, the country under consideration is practically the basin of the Oswego river. The lakes lie at altitudes ranging from 364 feet to over 700 feet in the case of the smaller southern and western members of the chain. The northern and eastern portions of this country average about 500 feet in elevation. About the southern ends, after Oneida and Onondaga are passed, lie the hills which mark the northern slopes of the Alleghanian plateau. Many of these hills surpass 2000 feet in elevation. This lake country is well settled, and extensive forests are nowhere in evidence except in the larger swamps and on the more elevated hills. Characteristic trees are the beech, maple, elm, ash, basswood, sycamore, oaks, chestnut, sassafras, hornbeams, shad tree, flowering dogwood, thorn trees, white pine, pitch pine and red cedar. Arbor vitae and tamarack swamps are of frequent occurrence. In the gullies, hemlock, yellow birch, mountain maple and striped maple are common, especially on the shaded slopes. There are numerous deep-cut ravines in the shaly rock of the Hamilton and Chemung periods, well typified by the famous Watkins glen. Their prevailing east and west direction causes the southern sides to lie mostly in shade, and at the same time percolating waters from the outcropping strata on the sides of the glen, and the tumbling waters of the glen streams, cause a high moisture content in the glen atmosphere. Consequently, there is both a lower tem- perature in the glen and a slower rate of evaporation from the surface of BIRDS OF NEW YORK 31 the plants and animals that inhabit it, which approaches the conditions found in the North Woods. This is illustrated by the admixture of Canadian flora on the cooler side of the glen, such as the mountain maple and moosewood, and by a number of Canadian birds which are found in nearly every one of the larger and deeper glens. The conditions may best be understood by enumerating the birds of a typical ravine like the Seneca glen on Canandaigua lake. Here are found on the forest slopes such breeding species as the Junco, Hermit thrush, and the Magnolia, Parula, Blackburnian, Black-throated green, and Black-throated blue warb- lers; in tangles near the bottom of the glen or about its source, the Cana- dian and Mourning warblers are found in small numbers. In the woodland or thicket just above the edge of the glen the Black and white warbler and Redstart are fairly common, and in the thickets near the edge the Chestnut- sided warbler, and, in some seasons, the Yellow-breasted chat. In the pine grove within hearing of the glen itself, three or four pairs of Pine warblers nest. Near the stream at the bottom of the glen, three or four pairs of Louisiana water thrushes are found; on the shaly ledges near the falls, Phoebes are nesting; near the mouth of the glen, a Wood pewee; in the woods on either side are found the Wood thrush, Scarlet tanager, Crested flycatcher, Ruffed grouse, and near the head of the glen one pair of Great horned owls, and one pair each of Red-tailed and Sharp-shinned hawks. In the thickets near the northern edge of theglen, catbirds, Brown thrash- ers, chewinks, Indigo birds and Field sparrows are fairly common, and rarely the Yellow-breasted chat, while near at hand in the dry field are found the Grasshopper sparrow and Prairie horned lark; not far from these, in damper situations, the Savannah sparrow and Bobolink. At the mouth of the glen by the lake shore, the Rough-winged swallow may be seen flying back and forth to his nest in the shaly bank nearby. In addition to the species mentioned, all the common birds of the Alleghanian fauna may be found in suitable sites within the woods surrounding the glen or in near-by fields. Similar conditions to these prevail in many glens which the author has visited, both on Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca and 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cayuga lakes. It will be noticed by the student of bird distribution that here is a curious admixture within a short radius of various Caro- linian and Canadian faunal species, and a striking illustration of the effects of slope and of evaporating waters, both upon the temperature and the low rate of evaporation, which determines the presence of northern species. THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE OPERATIONS The effect of the so-called culture conditions upon our native bird life has been referred to in volume I, pages 50 to 57. Anyone who has perused the present chapter thus far can not fail to perceive that all the various bird communities are immediately affected by the manifold changes which have occurred since the settlement of the State. Eighteen and one-half millions of acres of the State domains are no longer wooded, only twelve million acres of woodland remaining. The result of such a change within two centuries has been keenly felt by all the sylvan birds. The effect of the principal operations which have a widespread influence upon bird life may be briefly summarized. Timber cutting. The destruction of our primeval forest has often been noted as the main cause for the decrease of bird life, but this subject should be considered more carefully by the students of bird conservation. There can be no doubt that such species as the Raven, Pileated woodpecker, larger hawks and owls, and most of those species which are classed as belonging to the mature forest communities, whether deciduous or evergreen, will be discouraged by a reduc- tion of the growth of standing timber. At the same time, the effect of cutting the forest benefits all species of the open field, and nearly every kind of bird which is ordinarily classed as a forest species increases when the forest growth is less dense and the amount of underbrush increases. As an example of this, we might cite the case of the Chestnut- - sided warbler. This bird was considered a rare species in the days of Wilson and Audubon. Chapman in his Warblers of North America, page 189, calls attention to the fact that it is now a common species in BIRDS OF NEW YORK = BGS many sections of the country. The author’s own experience at Springville, where many forests were cut off and followed in 1880-85 by dense thickets of briars and saplings, which caused this species to become as abundant as the Yellow warbler; and the experience of bird students in Potter swamp, where nearly two square miles within two years have been cleared of the tall timber, and dense thickets have sprung up all around the edge of the swamp, shows that this species has increased at least 1000 per cent. There can be no doubt that the gradual clearing of the Alleghanian and Canadian zone in the northeastern states and lower Canada has opened up vast stretches of hillside and bushy pasture as a breeding ground for the Chestnut-sided warbler since the days of Wilson and Audubon, and that these general conditions are the cause of the fact that this species is now one of our commonest migratory warblers as well as one of our commonest breeding species in- many sections of the State. A similar condition has been noted in regard to the Nashville warbler in other parts of the country. Alexander Wilson secured only three speci- mens of this bird and regarded it as a rare species. According to William Brewster, Samuel Cabot found it a rare species in eastern Massachusetts up to 1836, but by the year 1842 it had become common in that section, and a similar condition has taken place over the northeastern states so_ that now, in nearly every portion of New York State, the Nashville warbler is recorded as common or abundant during the migration season of early — May. The immense tracts of slashings and burnt lands growing up to birch and poplar throughout the North Woods region have undoubtedly helped this warbler in its race for supremacy. The author has noticed within the last ten years an unusual increase in the numbers of Cape May warblers observed in central and western New York, and reports of similar observations have come from various other sources. There can be little doubt that the gradual advance of clearings and lumbering operations in Northern Ontario and Quebec has gradually opened up tracts of country favorable as breeding sites for this species, which formerly were covered by forests so dense that they did not furnish it the conditions necessary 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for rearing its young, but that now it is increasing as the Nasliville and Chestnut-sided warblers have done before it. Furthermore, there can be little doubt that nearly all the North Woods warblers which migrate through New York in the early days of May have increased in numbers since the colonial time. The author’s experience in 1905 while studying the bird life of the Mt Marcy district, illustrates these general conclusions. Within the mature forest of the Adirondack Forest Reserve we found very few warblers except the Blackburnian, Black-throated green and Ovenbird, but as soon as we visited the slashings where the McIntyre Iron Company had cut off all the large timber, and the extensive burnt tracts in the vicinity of Elk lake, the number of breeding warblers immediately increased. This was especially noticeable in the case of such warblers as the Chestnut-sided, Mourning, Magnolia and the Redstart. The Black-poll warbler, which in this State is confined mostly to the stunted spruces on higher slopes of the mountains, and the Myrtle warbler as well, are favorably affected by the increase of low spruces which follows the cutting of the larger timber of the mountain sides. What is true of the warblers is also true of the Ruffed grouse in Canada and the North Woods. ‘This species is always known to increase when the mature forest is cut off, and clearings and slashings spring up in various parts of the forest tract. It is thus evident that the cutting of the forest, provided the land is not entirely cleared and turned into cultivated field, is a boon to most of the species which inhabit second growth of shrubbery or open woodland, to which number must be assigned the greater portion of our song and insectivorous birds. Draining of swamps and marshes. It is impossible to hold suck hopeful opinions in regard to the draining of swamps and marshes. The marshland society is so closely confined to its own special habitat and its conditions are so different from those of any other available habitat that all those birds which nest in the marsh are surely exiled in any district where the marshes are drained and turned into cultivated fields. A similar statement could be made in regard to the extensive swamp lands which ae ee, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 35 are more or less covered with forest growth. The author has seen one heronry after another disappear in western New York through the draining of swamps, and the Wood duck and the Woodcock, as well as the other members of that community, must necessarily disappear as their coverts are destroyed. An examination of the health of people living along the margins of the Montezuma marsh and the Potter swamp reveals the fact that malaria is practically unknown, and the claim so often made by com- panies who wish to have the State drain such extensive marshes, that they are unhealthy in their influence, can not be sustained. The mos- quitoes bred in such places are undoubtedly annoying to visitors in these districts, but the mosquitoes certainly do not spread the malaria unless the malarial parasite is present. However, we expect to see most of the swamps and marshes disappear, but we hope that a few will be preserved, at least about the Seneca river, the Hudson, and the shores of Lake Ontario, which will be preserves for marsh birds in centuries to come. Pasturing. In many of the bird books one finds the expression that this or that species is ‘‘ common on hillside pastures,’’ and the ease with which the bird student walks over the unencumbered ground and examines the edges of the bushy tracts for favorite species has given the impression that pastures are favorable habitats for many birds. A more careful study of the situation reveals the fact that not only most of the grassland species are driven from the land by pasturing, partly because their nests are frequently trod upon by the pasturing animals, but also because the cover which protects the nesting birds is destroyed and they are obliged to seek more grassy fields outside the pasture. Furthermore, the principal harm of pasturing, to the bird life, is found in the destruction of ground cover which inevitably results in woods and thickets. This is especially noticeable in sheep pastures where all the vegetation is destroyed to a height of three or four feet above the ground. In such pasture land the thickets and undergrowth, which usually support an abundant bird life, are eliminated and the birds must seek other coverts. When we consider how few woodlands in the more cultivated portions of the State 3 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are governed with any idea of protecting the ground cover and undergrowth, there is no wonder that the birds of the thicket community are becoming rarer except in certain favored localities. Pruning of orchards and shade trees. In other connections we have spoken of the disastrous effects to bluebirds, chickadees and Downy woodpeckers of cutting every dead limb from shade and fruit trees, but this practice is likely to become more uniform and the only salvation for those species which nest in hollows and dead limbs, is the erection of artificial nesting sites by State authorities and by the individual land- owners. The government officials of Germany that control the forest land are beginning to give more and more attention to the erecting of nesting sites, finding that woodland birds are necessary to hold in check the tree-destroying insects which sometimes do widespread damage to the young forest trees, and many private landowners in various parts of the world have demonstrated the utility of erecting hollow limbs and boxes for the woodpecker and bird box communities. It is a noticeable fact that those birds are usually species which are most useful in holding the pests of forest trees under proper check, and the day:can not come too soon when bird protection societies as well as the State officials who have conservation questions in their hands, will erect nesting limbs and nesting boxes for all species that can be thus encouraged, to counteract the wholesale destruction of nesting sites which results from the “ cleaning up in orchards, parklands, shade trees and State forests. The spraying of trees. The necessity which is increasing year by year of holding various insect pests in check by spraying with poisons, has resulted in some destruction of bird life, although the opinion is usually held that this danger is largely exaggerated; but when we consider the fact that dead birds in any case are very rarely seen, the fact that we find so few which have been killed by spraying operations is not at all surprising. Dead birds are quickly put out of sight by cats, dogs and skunks, or buried by the sexton beetles and other scavengers. Sick birds almost always fly away to some shelter, an instinct which is universal BIRDS OF NEW YORK 37 among wild creatures, and thus the deadly effects of the spraying upon bird life are rarely observed. There can be no doubt that many birds such as cuckoos and orioles feeding continuously on poisoned caterpillars finally succumb to the cumulative effect of the arsenical poisons which are most commonly employed. There is some remedy in the fact that birds will rarely touch larvae that show evidence of sickness, and probably never touch them after they are dead. The author, however, has examined two cuckoos which evidently died from arsenical poisoning, and other instances have been reported by Brewster, Ridgway and Forbush, and by many inhabitants of New York State. We believe that the decrease of both species of cuckoos in the apple districts of western New York is partly due to their gluttonous desire for caterpillar diet. Plowing and cultivating. The author sees no satisfactory means of overcoming the disastrous effects of late plowing which are so destructive to bird communities of the open field. The Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow, Bobolink and Bartram sandpiper have all suffered tremendously from this cause during the last fifty years. The Prairie horned lark escapes the effects to a slight extent by nesting early in the season, but a part of their broods are destroyed by the early plowing. Much good may be done, however, by the plowman if he is on the watch for nests, and plows around them. The slight loss of time and of crop space which results from such - measures, will undoubtedly be repaid tenfold by the larks, sparrows, kill- deers and sandpipers that are thus preserved. They feed on the weed seeds and insects which injure the crops, and the presence of their nests in the field should be hailed with delight by the agriculturist. Mowing. In late years the practice of mowing earlier in the season than was the custom in former years, and completing all the mowing very quickly by the aid of improved machinery, whereas in former days the hand mowing prolonged the operation through several weeks, has nearly completed the destruction of the Bobolink in many localities where it was formerly one of our most familiar birds. All the meadowland species suffer from mowing operations and there is little hope of overcoming the 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM evil. Even where the nests are discovered and moved, or the knife is raised before it has done its fatal work, the nests become an easy prey to grackles and crows or other marauders before the young are able to leave the nest. Our only escape from this evil seems to be the adaptability of many of the grassland species which finally teaches them to nest in the edges of the field, or to nest earlier in the season, or to rear another brood as soon as the first is destroyed. This, while not a perfect remedy, has worked marvels in many cases which have come under the author’s observation where meadowlarks and bobolinks have finally succeeded in inhabiting grasslands in spite of modern conditions of harvesting and hay cropping. Foop or Brrps Insectivorous species. Of the thirty-two families of land birds found within the State of New York, every one feeds to some extent upon insects, and several families are almost exclusively insectivorous. Among these may be mentioned the goatsuckers, swifts, flycatchers, swallows, vireos, cuckoos, wood warblers, wrens, titmice, nuthatches and_ kinglets. Of the great order Passeres, which includes almost all our familiar birds, every family feeds largely upon insects during the nesting season, and the young of all are fed upon them. The families which are largely -insectivorous but vary their diet to some extent on seeds or fruit are the woodpeckers, larks, blackbirds, orioles, waxwings, tanagers, thrashers and thrushes. Thus it is evident that birds act as the regulators of insect life, maintaining the balance of nature so that vegetation, which is the natural food of the insects, may increase; and it is generally conceded that if the natural enemies of insects were destroyed the result would be the rapid disappearance of all vegetation in the fields and forests) We would not maintain for an instant that birds are the only enemies of foliage-feeding insects, for unquestionably among their most effective enemies are unfavorable changes in climatic conditions and the increase of parasitic species which hold them in check to a great extent; but a study of the food habits of birds, as observed in the field and by examination BIRDS OF NEW YORK 39 of their stomach contents in the laboratory, reveals the fact that they destroy incredible numbers of insects, for they have the most voracious appetities of all warm-blooded animals. When we consider that one Whippoorwill has been known to devour thirty-six good-sized moths within one hour and that a warbler has been seen to swallow five hundred seventy-six plant lice in four minutes, it is evident that an abundance of bird life in the field and forest can not fail to keep down the number of insect pests. Furthermore, the freedom with which birds move from place to place suggests the especial value of the birds’ work, for, by reason of their migratory habits and their unrestricted activity, both over the ground and through the trees and in the air, they are able to discover danger centers of insect life and prevent serious outbreaks in many cases when insect parasites might be too slow in their attacks or weather con- ditions unfavorable to the pest might fail to appear. The especial value of each family of birds or of each order will be found briefly summarized in the pages of this book immediately following the family and ordinal descriptions. Carnivorous birds. Every one knows that hawks and owls feed on birds and mice. It is also a fact that nearly every species of hawk and owl feeds, especially in summer and fall, upon large quantities of insects, although this is especially true of the smaller species like the Sparrow hawk and Screech owl. Other members of this family vary their diet with fish, frogs and reptiles, as the occasion offers, so that the order Rap- tores can not be considered exclusively carnivorous, although the main food of all the larger species is composed of some kind of flesh. Besides the hawks, owls and vultures that are typically carnivorous species, many other birds at times kill smaller mammals or even other birds, as is the case with gulls, jaegers, herons, and bitterns, which occasionally capture mice or young birds; some Red-headed woodpeckers are known to feed on the young of other birds; crows, jays and grackles are especially fond of nestlings and also capture small mice in the field; and shrikes are adapted for capturing birds, which they impale on thorns and partly devour. It 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is thus evident that only the order Raptores, of all our native birds, is characteristically carnivorous. Piscivorous species. Many families of water birds subsist largely on a diet of fish, as is the case with the loons, grebes, auks, gulls, jaegers, cormorants, pelicans, mergansers and herons, as well as fish hawks and kingfishers. In addition, some families have a few representatives which partake to some extent of a fish diet whenever they have the opportunity. Here are included many of the larger shore birds like the Yellow-legs; a few of the Accipitres, as the Bald eagle and Red-shouldered hawk; some of the owls, like the Snowy, Great-horned and Barred owl; and crows and grackles, both of which I have observed capturing minnows in the shallow water of ponds and streams. Granivorous species. A cursory glance at the bird kingdom will reveal the fact that the most characteristically granivorous of our native birds are the pigeons, grouse and pheasants. Of these, undoubtedly the pigeons are more granivorous than the grouse, and all these families at the same time feed to considerable extent on fruit and insects. Of our common perching birds, the larks, blackbirds, sparrows and finches are the most addicted to granivorous diet, in fact subsisting for the most part on seeds of various kinds except during the breeding season. To these families we might add a few which feed to a slight extent on seeds in addition to their other diet. Here belong many of the ducks and geese, especially the river ducks and our wild goose, which feed mostly upon grain and seeds during the fall and winter; likewise, the rails, gallinules, crows, and jays, and to a slight extent the pipits, titmice and nuthatches. Frugivorous species. As the season of ripe fruit in this State is of comparatively short duration, except for trees and shrubs which retain their fruit late into the winter, we could scarcely expect to find any families of native birds characteristically fruit eaters, but of those that seem to prefer the fruit diet while it is obtainable, we might mention the thrushes and waxwings. Other birds which partake to a considerable extent are the rails, gallinules, pigeons, grouse, pheasants, woodpeckers, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 41 some flycatchers like the kingbirds, crows, jays, blackbirds, orioles, sparrows, finches, a few of the vireos and warblers like the Myrtle warbler which feeds on the waxberry, and the thrashers and nuthatches. In addition to the main articles of diet in the birds’ regimen included in this brief summary, we might mention the various species of animals like snails, spiders, millipeds and crayfish, all of which are devoured by the fish-eating and insect-eating species; the sea ducks feeding largely on aquatic mollusca; thrushes frequently attacking the land snails; grebes, kingfishers and ducks devouring the crayfish; wrens, thrashers and various other species feeding on spiders. The buds and leaves of trees are attractive to many species like the grouse and some of the finches. The sap and cambium layer is eagerly sought by one species of woodpecker, the Sapsucker. The tender shoots of many plants are also eaten by ducks, pigeons, grouse, bobwhites etc. In fact, any kind of animal or vegetable food which is tender and easily obtainable is likely to be found an article of diet of some species of bird; but the more conspicuous varieties of diet we have enumerated to suggest the benefit and the injury which it is possible for birds to accomplish. InyJuRY DONE BY Birps Destruction of grain. The Crow and the Blackbird have long been reviled as corn thieves by the inhabitants of New York and there can be no doubt that many fields which are located near the haunts of the Crow and the Grackle have suffered much from the destruction of newly planted grain, as they pull up the sprouting kernels and render the work of the planter useless. Various devices have been tried for preventing this pulling of newly planted corn, such as tarring the seed, which is more or less effective, but there is little doubt that the crow is injurious in other ways and there is little reason to preserve him although his injury to the corn fields might be overlooked. The newly introduced Ring-necked pheasant has also been destructive in some localities by digging up the newly planted corn with its beak, following the rows and destroying each hill in succession. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Injury to standing grain, especially corn in the ear, is often attributed to the Crow and the Blackbird. The author has examined on several occasions hundreds of acres of corn fields which have been injured while in the milk by grackles and Red-winged blackbirds, at least the upper third of nearly every ear in the field having been mutilated by the birds. Such depredations, however, are mostly confined to low-lying districts near extensive marshes inhabited by the blackbirds, and are by no means general, in fact, scarcely noticed in most sections of the country. Corn in the shock is extensively injured by crows and pheasants when it is left standing in the field through the late fall and early winter. The loca- tion of crow roosts in western New York is determined to a considerable extent by the crops of corn left unhusked in the field. It is also true that the blackbirds, English sparrows and pheasants, where numerous, do considerable damage to the wheat, barley and oat fields by attacking the grain while standing, and also in the shock or grain stack; but none of our native sparrows have been accused of doing damage to grain in New York. While ducks, geese and bobwhites take a little corn, wheat and buckwheat, near the marshes or coverts where they reside, almost all their foraging is done on waste grain which is scattered over the field and never would be brought into the granary, so they can not be called injurious from the grain which they devour. Injury to cultivated fruit. Of all the frugivorous species mentioned in a preceding paragraph, only the Robin, Cedarbird, Red-headed wood- pecker, Catbird and English sparrow have caused extensive trouble from their destruction of the smaller cultivated fruits in this State. In some sections the Crow and the Grackle have done some damage and occasionally slight complaints have been issued against thrashers, flickers, tanagers and orioles for attacks upon outlying cherry trees. The Crow and Red- headed woodpecker also attack summer apples to an annoying extent in some orchards, and in the vineyards of central and western New York, the Robin and the Pheasant, as well as the Crow, have been annoying in a few districts. Of all the damage which has been done to the fruit BIRDS OF NEW YORK 43 crop, however, very little is worthy of sober consideration except the depredations of robins and cedarbirds in the cherry orchards of the State. Some of the other small fruits have suffered, especially the berry crop, but the main damage seems to be to the cherry, and the principal offenders are the Robin and Cedarbird. It is almost hopeless to attempt frightening the birds from the trees by any device which can be erected. We believe the best safeguard is to plant a few trees bearing early fruit around the edges of the orchard or on the roadside to attract the robins and cedar- birds away from the orchard. Destruction of poultry and game. Many farmers have the idea that every hawk is an enemy to their poultry yard, although Fisher’s famous work on the economic status of hawks and owls has been in print for twenty-five years; and it has been impossible for the Audubon Society or the scientists that have borne testimony before the legislative committees of New York State to change this popular misapprehension. The main obstacle in dealing with this subject before legislators undoubtedly arises from the difficulty which is apparent of recognizing in the field the different species of hawks, and so for the average citizen to distinguish the useful from the injurious species. Certain it is, however, that some of the hawks should be classed as injurious while others are useful in their habits. Birds decidedly injurious from their attacks upon poultry and game are the Goshawk, Cooper hawk, Duck hawk and Great horned owl. Other species of the large hawks and owls also do some injury, but, according to the most careful study of the subject, should not be classed as more injurious than beneficial because of their depredations. These are the Red-tailed hawk, Marsh hawk, Barred owl and Snowy owl. A comparative summary of the food and habits of the various species will be found on page 62. Destruction of insectivorous birds. Several species of hawks seem to be extremely fond of small birds, especially of thrushes, sparrows, larks and warblers. In this number are the Cooper hawk, Sharp-shinned hawk, Duck hawk and Pigeon hawk. The Sharp-shinned and Pigeon hawks feed almost exclusively on small birds. Less destructive in this 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM respect, but, nevertheless, feeding to the extent of more than 15 per cent upon our smaller birds, are the Sparrow hawk, Marsh hawk, Screech owl, Barred owl and Snowy owl. Especially destructive to nestlings and eggs are the Crow, Bluejay, Bronzed grackle, Cowbird and English sparrow. Destruction of fish and frogs. It will be evident to the reader that all the fish-eating species would fall in this category. Especially injurious in this respect are the loons, larger grebes, cormorants, gannets, American and Red-breasted mergansers, herons, Fish hawk and Kingfisher. It is often urged by bird lovers that the loon, grebe, fish hawk and heron are more valuable from the picturesqueness which they lend to the lake and stream-side than the small fry which they destroy in gaining their daily livelihood, and it is undoubtedly a fact that the larger fishes — the game fishes in particular — rarely fall a prey to these piscivorous species; but the destruction of great numbers of minnows, chubs and shiners has a direct influence upon the abundance of food fishes as that is their principal sustenance. The birds mentioned also destroy a considerable number of the young of trout and white fish, as I have found by the dissection of loons, grebes and mergansers; and the Great blue heron as well as the Kingfisher are sometimes veritable scourges of brook trout preserves. I have watched a Great blue heron feeding on the edge of a trout pond strike and swallow seven fingerling trout in the course of as many minutes; and the Kingfisher also destroys large numbers of these speckled beauties. All the fish-eating species are especially voracious. While duck shooting on the Montezuma marshes, I once noticed a small flock of Red-breasted mergansers feeding in shallow water capturing what appeared to be great numbers of fish. After they had been feeding for half an hour two of the birds were shot, and from the gullet and stomach of one I took thirteen chubs, some of them five inches in length. The Hooded merganser is not known to feed to such an extent on fish, although it destroys a considerable number. Many of the sea ducks, especially the Old squaw and Golden-eye, are partially fish-eaters. As far as direct usefulness is concerned, undoubtedly the American and Red-breasted ee (ev BIRDS OF NEW YORK 45 mergansers are of no value, but their depredations are chiefly confined to larger lakes and rivers. The Great blue heron and Kingfisher are the only ones that are especially destructive to brook trout culture throughout the State. Frogs, which should be ranked as mostly beneficial animals, are destroyed in great numbers by all the heron family, and especially by the bitterns as well as to some extent by the ducks and geese and even by the shore birds, crows and grackles. The Broad-winged hawk and Red-shouldered hawk, though mainly beneficial, are especially destructive to frogs, capturing them in great numbers during the spring when the frogs are in their spawning pools. Destruction of trees and timber. There is only one New York species that can be branded as a serious destroyer of trees. This is the Yellow- bellied sapsucker. I have noticed many specimens of Scotch pines, spruces, mountain ashes and birch trees that were so girdled by this sapsucker that their life was finally destroyed, and innumerable specimens of wood that showed the scars due to holes bored by the sapsucker which had been grown over but still left knots and shaky spots in the wood. Fortunately, this woodpecker also does a great deal of good during a large portion of the year, but in parks, dooryards and nurseries where his attack is concen- trated upon valuable trees he must be considered an injurious species and not to be protected. Destruction of beneficial insects. As has been stated already, insects must be regarded as the principal food of our native birds, but it must not be supposed that all the insects destroyed are injurious species. As every one knows, the ichneumon flies are examples of a large number of parasitic hymenoptera which lay their eggs on caterpillars or other leaf-eating insects, thereby destroying them and preventing their increase. There is also a large number of ground beetles and tiger beetles which are predaceous in habits and destroy the vegetable-feeding species. There are also the lady beetles or ladybirds that feed to a great extent on scales and plant lice and many other insects beneficial in various ways, even the despised earthworm or angleworm being extremely beneficial to agricultural interests, 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as shown by the investigation of Charles Darwin. These beneficial insects are destroyed as well as the injurious ones by many of our native birds, ground beetles and tiger beetles especially being destroyed by such ground feeders as the Crow, Blackbird, Robin and Bluebird; the parasitic hymen- optera by the flycatchers and to some extent by other species like the vireos, warblers and kinglets. The earthworm and ground beetles are, unfortunately, a large percentage of the food of the Robin while he is not devouring fruit of some kind. Dispersal of injurious plants. The especial harm done in this manner may be attributed to such species as the Downy woodpecker, Hairy wood- pecker, Robin, Cedarbird and to a less extent to others which feed on the fruit of the poison ivy, poison sumac, or other injurious plants and disperse their seeds broadcast over the country on the roadsides, fence rows and lake shores. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIRDS Destruction of insects. As intimated in various connections hereto- fore, the main value of birds is in holding tree and crop enemies in check. Modern methods of fighting injurious insects seem, in some cases, to render the aid of birds unnecessary, but the special value of the birds’ work con- sists in attacking insect pests which are not reached by poison spray and at seasons of the year when spraying is not practised, thereby preventing outbreaks which otherwise would cause great destruction and expense. There can be no doubt that the hordes of migrating warblers attacking plant lice, which can not be controlled by poison, and other injurious species early in the season, thereby destroying the mother insect from which innumerable progeny would later result, are of inestimable value. In fact, insect scourges can never make great headway when the proper enemies are at hand. Next after weather, parasites and predaceous beetles, birds are the most efficient force in preventing outbreaks of insects. The almost incredible voracity of birds and the rapidity of their digestive process, caused by their high temperature, rapid circulation, activity and generally high-strung mode of life, inevitably results in the consumption of large —_— m BIRDS OF NEW YORK 47 quantities of food. This is especially true of growing birds which require one-half their own weight of food daily. As the young of our insectivorous birds are being reared while our crops are in the midst of their growth, it is evident that the resultant destruction of insects for food occurs at just the time of year to be of most service to the agriculturist. When- ever undue increase of insects begins, birds of the neighboring region invade the infected area and destroy the injurious species before they have become a consuming plague. In sections of the country, however, where nearly all the land is under cultivation and there are few breeding sites for birds, it is impossible for the few remaining birds to hold the insects in check, and thus arises the necessity of spraying on an extensive scale. During the spring of 1898 in the town of Brighton, Monroe county, the author noticed that several orchards were practically defoliated by cankerworms. On visiting orchards to which the scourge was spreading, I observed many ‘species of birds coming from the surrounding country and feeding upon the worms. While seated in a small orchard, thirteen species of birds were noticed in the course of half an hour coming and devouring the worms as fast as they could be swallowed, or gathering mouthfuls and carrying them away to feed their young which were oftentimes at a considerable distance. Species like the Kingbird and Phoebe which rarely prefer cater- pillars as diet, and others like the Bobolink, Red-winged blackbird and Vesper sparrow which are seldom seen feeding in the orchards, were coming and carrying away the worms for their nestlings. Cuckoos, orioles, cat- birds and cedarbirds were noticed among the foliage swallowing the larvae at the rate of fifteen to forty a minute. There seemed to be little inter- ruption of this work even during midday, but in the morning and late afternoon there was a decided increase in the birds visiting the orchard for the cankerworms. There could be no doubt if the birds had been in sufficient number in the immediate vicinity where this plague of cater- pillars started they would have held them in check and prevented the destruction of crop and leaves in several orchards. It is probable that, in nature, worms of this kind rarely increase to such an extent as to defoliate 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the forests. The service rendered by insectivorous species in destroying centers of infection is especially to be emphasized in connection with the benefit the birds render by destroying insects; while in the case of arboreal species it is immediately evident that we are practically dependent upon the birds for preserving our forests and taller shade trees, because spraying operations in these cases are practically out of our control, and the only means of preserving us from undue increase of the defoliating insect is, besides weather conditions, the work of parasites and the voracious appetite of our insectivorous birds. Some birds are especially fond of plant lice. In this number we might include the wood warblers and kinglets, which, while loitering with us on their annual migration, attack the female plant lice which have survived the winter and are about to produce countless progeny of leaf-sucking descendants. I have watched them on many occasions and counted from fifteen to seventy-five a minute swallowed by each warbler observed. Some are even fond of hairy caterpillars. This number, unfortunately, is very small but includes the cuckoos and, to a certain extent, the orioles and waxwings. Others prefer the white ground grub. Here should be mentioned the Robin, Grackle and Crow, which do considerable damage in other respects but atone in this manner for many of their sins. Woodpeckers seek the boring larvae of various beetles and moths found beneath the bark and in winter destroy numerous cocoons which are hidden in the crevices of the bark and dead limbs. Thus, if the whole list of birds is examined, we shall find that nearly every kind of insect which is conspicuous as a destructive species will have some bird enemy which seems to prefer it as diet; and if the balance of nature had not been so ruthlessly disturbed by mankind the plagues of locusts, plant lice, army worms and elm tree beetles would be cured in the natural process of adaptation. Destruction of weed seeds. In all cultivated fields there are found many species of plants popularly known as weeds which often seem more adapted to occupying the soil successfully than the crops which the farmer wishes to raise. These weeds must be destroyed or held in check by some BIRDS OF NEW YORK 49 process such as cultivating, or by destroying the seed, if the crop reaches its maximum productiveness. Our various granivorous species of birds such as the blackbirds and sparrows feed for a large portion of the year upon the seeds of these injurious plants. Even wild ducks and wild geese destroy immense quantities of weed seeds on the grain fields that are partially flooded in fall or early spring. The author took from the crop of a single Pintail duck that had been feeding all the morning in a corn field at the foot of Canandaigua lake, one hundred and twenty-seven thousand seeds of the common purslane. There were many other ducks feeding in this field and it is evident that in six weeks a hundred and fifty ducks might do some good in this manner. From the crop of a Mourning dove coming out of a wheat field in the town of Cheshire, I took fifty- seven hundred seeds of the pigeon grass, one of the commonest weeds that grow in our grain fields and hinder the development of wheat, rye and oats. All through the fall, winter and spring our various native sparrows, and the winter visitants from the far north, are destroying tons upon tons of weed seed every week in the fields of New York State. From the crop of a Snowflake taken from a flock of five hundred individuals, one-half ounce of seed from the Red-rooted pigweed (Amaranthus) and the goosefoot (Chenopodium) and the ragweed (Ambrosia) were taken. It needs only a slight arithmetical computation to convince the reader that this flock of snowflakes might do some good in the course of a few weeks if they remained in that locality. The Tree sparrow, Junco, Song sparrow, White- throated sparrow, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, Chipping sparrow and Field sparrow, as well as all our less common species of this family, are doing a similar service for several months during the year. Other birds that are especially beneficial in this respect are the ground-feeding species of the family Icteridae including the Meadowlark, grackles, Red- winged blackbird, Bobolink, and even the Cowbird which does much good in this manner but can not, however, overcome the evil which it has done early in the season by destroying the young of insectivorous birds in whose nest it has left its egg to be hatched. The Prairie horned lark, which is 50° NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a common species in our fields, is another seed eater and in this category must also be placed the Bobwhite and, as already intimated, all our graniv- orous species. I would not seek to overestimate the good done in this manner, but if we consider that when these birds are not destroying the weed seeds they are usually rearing their broods of young and must feed them chiefly on insectivorous diet, it is evident that our smaller graniv- orous species are an invaluable asset to the State. Distributing fruit seed. While the inhabitants of New York State have been destroying the forests more rapidly than wise policy would dictate, especially on land which is poorly fitted for any other growth than trees, the birds have been overcoming to some extent the evil effects of excessive deforestation. As one drives across the country, the roadside and fence row bear abundant evidence to the effects of planting by the birds. The sweet cherry and the black tartarian have been scattered along every fence row, roadside, and the edges of the forests throughout the greater portion of the State. The Robin and the Cedarbird are principally respon- sible for this planting. In like manner various sections of the country have a pleasing line of junipers along the highways and fence rows planted by the selfsame birds. Likewise, throughout the forest the various dog- woods and viburnums are scattered by all the fruit-eating species mentioned in a preceding paragraph, especially by the thrushes. In western New York the panicled dogwood has been planted along roadsides and many fence rows and throughout every swamp. The seeds of the shadbush, which brightens the landscape with its showy blossoms, have been scattered ‘by the thrushes and finches. The forester might object that most of these trees are of little use for timber, but there is at least one valuable timber tree which is planted extensively, especially by the Flicker and Robin,—the black cherry (Prunus serotina), and to some extent the cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata) and sour gum (Nyssa). If the lumberman is not pleased by the fruit-planting species, the botanist certainly is, for all the fruit-bearing plants must necessarily become exterminated except for the agency of the birds in scattering their seeds throughout the fields and woodland. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 5I Destruction of meadow mice and other injurious rodents. Just as outbreaks of insect pests are held in check by birds, so a great increase of meadow mice, squirrels and rabbits is prevented by the agency of our hawks and owls. Many species like the Rough-legged hawk, feed almost exclusively on meadow mice, and most of the heavier soaring species like the Red-tail and Red-shouldered hawks are principally beneficial for the same reason. Most of the smaller owls, as would naturally be expected, feed principally upon mice, since these animals are partially nocturnal in habit like the owls themselves, and the owls are unquestionably nature’s remedy for rodent pests. THE STATUS OF OUR BIRD LAWS For many years on the statute books of the State there has been a paragraph in the game laws excepting certain birds from the protection which is afforded the desirable species. There has scarcely been a year within the author’s memory when this list has not been changed for some reason or other, but from the beginning hawks, with- out exception, have been included, on the theory that they are all injurious or that the injurious can not be distinguished from the beneficial by the sportsman. As a matter of fact, opinions will differ about many species; and some species of birds that are beneficial, or at least innocuous in many localities, will be found decidedly injurious in others. Further- more, in the same locality certain individuals frequently acquire habits which place them in the injurious list. Some individuals of the Red- headed woodpecker become much more cannibalistic than their fellows. The same is true of grackles, crows and other species which occasionally feed upon nestlings or eggs. Consequently, there is great difficulty in decid- ing upon a black list which shall apply to all localities of the State and be unchangeable. The general consensus of opinion, however, as a result of observation and examination of stomach contents, should certainly place the following birds on the black list: Cooper hawk, Sharp-shinned hawk, Goshawk, Gyrfalcon, Duck hawk, Pigeon hawk, Great-horned owl, Snowy 4 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM owl, Great blue heron, Kingfisher, Crow, Bluejay, Crow blackbird (Purple grackle and Bronzed grackle), Cowbird and English sparrow. Some would prefer to add to this list various of the hawks mentioned above which are injurious to a certain degree in the destruction of poultry, game and insec- tivorous birds. Others would place upon the list all birds the majority of whose food consists of fishes, and there can be little doubt that the fish- eating species mentioned above are in reality injurious, but in their case, as in the case of the Bluejay and Duck hawk, there is such a strong senti- ment in favor of the bird due to its interesting personality, that either the Audubon Society or nature lovers in general have succeeded in keeping them off the black list. As a bird lover I sympathize with this attitude, but also as a bird lover I can not endure to see all the nestlings and birds’ eggs of the coverts surrounding my own home destroyed even by bluejays or cowbirds, but these species are both protected according to the current laws in New York State. I might consent to see the Bluejay remain on the protected list, but I could never willingly consent to protect the Cow- bird. In regard to such species as the Red-tailed hawk, Marsh hawk and Barred owl, circumstances should govern the attitude of the farmer. If Marsh hawks have discovered that the chickens on his premises are more attractive than meadow mice and are destroying his poultry, he certainly should be allowed in that particular instance to protect his property. If a bird lover finds the Red-tailed hawk is destroying all the grouse in the coverts which he frequents, those particular hawks should be removed from the scenes of their operations, and the same principles should govern our attitude toward all those species that are on the doubtful list. Where they are doing good in their little community they should be left undis- turbed; where they develop habits which apparently are doing injury to the best interests of the State, they should be removed. SPECIAL MEASURES FOR INCREASING BIRD LIFE Erecting artificial nesting sites. As suggested on page 18, all birds which nest in hollows or deserted woodpeckers’ holes, and even the wood- di BIRDS OF NEW YORK 53 peckers themselves, may be induced to make their nests in hollow limbs or boxes erected in orchards, groves and shade trees. It is necessary to provide these artificial sites if those birds which nest in hollows are to be encouraged about our homes. It seems that no better work could be sug- gested for the Boy Scouts or the country boys that wish to do some good in the world and have unbounded energies, than to provide boxes for the bluebirds and wrens. Those intended for the Bluebird should be not less than four by four inches inside measurement, and from eight to ten inches in height with a hole one and three-fourths inches in diameter near the upper part of one side of the box. Boxes of the same construction will attract the wrens, sometimes, unfortunately, to the exclusion of bluebirds and other species, but boxes erected in the garden or in a corner of the orchard near the house or even on the corner of the woodshed or under the eaves of a shed or low barn, with an opening one and one-eighth inches in diameter, will be utilized by the wren, and if a sufficient number is provided the house- holder may succeed in gaining some families of these interesting and bene- ficial birds. The wren has a habit of filling many boxes with sticks and other nesting materials, so that those which really contain no nests should be emptied occasionally to give other birds a chance. Thus, if the boxes are constructed so that one side can be removed: when necessary, this work will be facilitated. I have found that the Bluebird will utilize nesting boxes placed on the tops of fence posts about the fields and gardens, but these boxes are more subject to the depredations of cats which dash up the posts and sometimes even secure the mother bird, as I have found upon several occasions. At the same time, these boxes erected on fence posts are seldom utilized by the English sparrow. Thus, if the marauding cats can be held in check, the Bluebird can be encouraged without undue rivalry with the sparrow for a nesting site. Boxes or hollow limbs should also be erected in the orchard for bluebirds, and if sparrows occupy the nests they may be destroyed by capturing them in nets thrown over the opening of the box after nightfall and then the box emptied of the bulky contents. Martin boxes should consist of four to eight or twelve com- 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM partments, each about eight inches square and six inches high inside, with an opening two inches wide, in this case near the bottom of each section, and a ledge or doorstep for the birds to occupy. The martins are nearly as well satisfied with a starch box which has been divided into compart- inents and covered with a roof as they are with the elaborately constructed martin boxes described in the bird magazines. Martin houses should be erected on poles in the garden or back yard at a height of from ten to fifteen feet, the box so mounted on the top of the pole that marauding cats can not disturb it and with removable front, if possible, so that the boxes may be cleaned each spring just before the martins arrive in April, and prefer- ably should be closed during the winter to keep the English sparrows from occupying them, and opened just before the time of the Martin’s arrival from the South. If martin houses were erected in all our villages and cities and even about many farmyards, this interesting and extremely beneficial bird might be preserved; but we can scarcely hope that it will remain a common species in any locality without special protection from the English sparrow, and unless it is furnished with suitable houses for shelter and nesting. The progressive decline of all woodpeckers in the agricultural districts leads us to suggest that unless nesting limbs are provided for these species as well as for nuthatches, chickadees, Crested flycatchers, Tree swallows, and all those birds which nest in hollows, they will continue to decline; but if nesting limbs are provided they will undoubtedly, to a certain extent, be tided over the most difficult stage in adapting themselves to culture conditions and will finally become established among our orchards and shade trees. At least, this would certainly be the result with the Flicker, Downy woodpecker, Chickadee and Nuthatch and probably the Crested fly- catcher. Likewise, the Red-headed woodpecker and Hairy woodpecker might occasionally avail themselves of the artificial sites and so be estab- lished in localities where dead and hollow limbs have all been cut away to improve the parks and shade trees. These limbs for woodpeckers, in the author’s estimation, should be at least two feet in length, and for the EE ne eS ——— = BIRDS OF NEW YORK 55 larger species six inches in diameter, cut diagonally at either end so that they could be nailed to the side of a large branch or the main trunk of the tree at a moderate elevation. For smaller species like the Downy wood- pecker and Nuthatch, the limbs need not be more than four inches in _diameter. In the case of the Nuthatch, Crested flycatcher and Chickadee, the branches erected for their accommodation should be hollowed artificially, the size of the entrance being accommodated to the size of the bird expected as an inmate. Mr William Brewster and Mr E. H. Forbush have recom- mended nesting boxes made of the bark of birch and elm nailed at the ends to rounded boards. Branches of these trees cut in late spring or early summer may be peeled with comparative ease. They should be cut in the lengths desired, eight to ten inches for chickadees, nuthatches and bluebirds, and a hole of the proper diameter bored before the sections are peeled. The Chickadee limbs should have the entrance hole about one and one-eighth inches in diameter; nuthatches, one and one-half inches; Crested flycatcher, one and three-fourths inches. In some localities bird lovers have found that Downy woodpeckers and flickers take possession of hollowed limbs provided the entrance hole is of a proper size (see descrip- tion of the nesting holes of the various species of woodpecker which the bird fancier wishes to attract). Holes should be round or nearly so and the depth of the excavated interior correspond nearly with the holes usually constructed by these birds for their own accommodation. The experience of bird lovers in various parts of the country shows that Screech owls may also be attracted to limbs of this description, likewise the Sparrow hawk, and in rare instance, the Wood duck. We believe that hollowed limbs or even boxes, especially if covered with bark or constructed from bark- covered slabs, should be erected in the swamps frequented by the Wood duck so that the gradual disappearance of hollow trees in these localities should not force this interesting species to desert the locality from failure of suitable nesting sites. These boxes or hollow limbs for the Wood duck should have an entrance hole four or five inches in diameter and be placed at an altitude of at least fifteen to twenty feet from the ground. 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The author has noticed that swallows are discouraged in most of the barns which have been erected during the last fifteen years in western New York. The entrance holes for these birds are apparently becoming ‘ out of date ”’ and many farmers even knock down the nests of the swallows which have entered through a window or the barn door and constructed their nests on the rafters. We believe that every barn should be con- structed with an opening for swallows to enter throughout the breeding season, and even narrow ledges placed on some of the rafters to furnish the birds with suitable places to attach their nests. The slight annoyance of droppings from the nest can be overcome by stretching a piece of canvas three or four feet in diameter beneath the nest or the suspension of a small platform of half inch boards. Thus the farmyard would be tenanted by twittering swallows, not only a pleasing addition to the landscape, but a safeguard against the increase of noxious insects. The Eaves swallow has practically disappeared in many districts of central and western New York where it was a common species thirty years ago, because there is no chance beneath the eaves of the barns for these birds to attach their gourd-shaped nests. Farmers and bird fanciers might finally secure colonies of these interesting birds by erecting a very narrow ledge not more than one inch in projection beneath the eaves, running a part of the distance but interrupted over the entrance door. In this way we have seen colonies of the birds attracted. Although one may have to wait several years, finally the birds will discover the favorable site and utilize it. Baron von Berlepsch has suggested and put into practice the habit of trimming shrubs and the lower branches of trees in such a way that they will sprout out and form suitable crotches for the attachment of nests like those of our Goldfinch, Yellow warbler, Wood thrush and any species which the landowner wishes to attract. This is unnecessary in many localities, but where bird lovers have planted shrubbery and trees for the special accommodation of birds it is worth while to practise in this respect so that safe supports may be afforded these crotch-building species. ES BIRDS OF NEW YORK 57 Planting to attract birds. Those who wish to attract various species of birds to coverts which are reserved for their accommodation should plant species like red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), red osier (Cornus stolonifera), green osier (Cornus alterni- folia), sheep berry (Viburnum lentago), tree cranberry (Viburnum opulus), spice bush (Benzoin benzoin), blueberries of various species (Vaccinium), huckleberries (Gaylussacia), tupelo or sour gum (Nyssa silvatica), bird cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica), choke cherry (Prunus virginiana), shad bush (Amelanchier canadensis), barberry (Berberis vulgaris), winterberry (Ilex verticillata), bayberry (Myrica carolinensis), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), white or Russian mulberry (Morus alba), red mulberry (Morus rubra), sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), the various species of Ameri- can hawthorn or thorn trees (Crataegus), English hawthorn (Crataegus oxya- cantha), wild grapes (Vitis), Virginia creeper or woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), elder (Sambucus canadensis), red-berried elder (Sambucus pubens), dwarf wild rose (Rosa humilis), blackberries and raspberries (Rubus), smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), staghorn sumac (Rhus hirta), Euro- pean mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), American mountain ash (Sorbus americana), ginseng (Aralia quinquefolia), sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis), spikenard (Aralia racemosa), wintergreen (Gaultheria), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), panicled dogwood (Cornus paniculata), maple leaf vibur- num (Viburnum acerifolium), hobble-bush (Viburnum alnifolium), bunch berry or dwarf cornel (Cornus canadensis), fly honeysuckle (Lonicera canadensis), privet (Ligustrum), also cone-bearing and strobile-bearing trees like the spruce, hemlock, larch, alder and birch which furnish seeds for winter birds and buds for grouse. In addition to these shrubs and trees, bird fanciers would also do well to plant various herbs which retain seeds through the fall and winter, such as the sunflower and the much- despised pigweed (Amarantus) and goosefoot (Chenopodium), which remain standing through the winter and furnish welcome sustenance for Song sparrows, Tree sparrows, juncos and others of the family when few other seeds are obtainable. The plantation of even a few acres of the sorts 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM named, with small clearings interspersed, planted to large-seeded grasses and the weeds mentioned, would be ideal coverts for attracting numerous species of birds. The day will undoubtedly come when bird societies will own preserves of this kind and plant them with the principal object of attracting great numbers of their feathered friends. Water supply. Birds are more numerous during the summer where there is convenient access to water for baths and drinking. When no pond or stream is close at hand, an artificial bath or drinking fountain will add to the attractiveness of the preserves from the birds’ viewpoint. Where more elaborate provision is impracticable, a shallow tray filled with clear , water to the depth of one to two inches, will serve the purpose. BIRD REFUGES For many years the author has had a growing belief in the efficacy of refuges or preserves, not only of trees and flowers, but for the purpose of preserving our varied and interesting bird life. The Audubon Society and the national government have demonstrated already the great impor- tance of large preserves in saving species of birds and animals from exter- mination. Several foreign governments have also accomplished the same purpose. It seems that there is especial need in this State for the establish- ment of several well-distributed preserves, in order to save to future generations such species as the Wood duck, Woodcock, Ruffed grouse and many of the woodland song birds that naturally disappear with the culti- vation of the country. One hundred fifty thousand dollars are collected annually by the State in gun taxes. Since the principal object of gun licensing is the protection of game and wild birds, it seems that one of the most rational expenditures of this sum would be in the establishment of bird and animal preserves in various parts of the State, which could be under the control of the nearest game protectors, and be dedicated to the preservation of plants and animals which are in danger of extermination, and to act as centers of dispersal for the surrounding region. By judicious control of i BIRDS OF NEW YORK 59 the forest and thickets within such preserves, conditions could be made favorable to the species for which they were established, and thus, without additional expense to the State, they could be policed by the protectors who are already in existence as guardians of the law. It is absolutely certain that in many counties of the State the Ruffed grouse, Woodcock and Wood duck can never thrive except with such aid; and as these are three of the species with which the Game Commission is most concerned, it would seem that no better expenditure of the gun license money could be devised than the establishment of such preserves to be owned by the State and controlled by the State Conservation Commission. PRIVATE PRESERVES The salvation of many birds and quadrupeds in various countries of Europe has been the private preserves which have furnished them with the only habitat and protection from many of their enemies. In America the same practice is gaining ground. In New England and various other states of the Union, landowners are beginning to set aside portions of their wood- lands, thickets and fields as refuges for the animals in which they are especially interested. There can be no doubt that if this practice becomes general in our own State the protection of bits of woodland and stream- side thickets will be the final means of rescuing many of our most valued songsters from extirpation in the more thickly populated districts. The widespread interest in the means of protecting birds and inquiries as to the proper trees and shrubs to plant for their accommodation are becoming more frequent. By a study of the bird communities outlined above and of the habitats which they prefer, bird fanciers may find the information they need in planting waste land for the encouragement of their feathered friends. The species of fruit and seed-bearing trees which are so often recommended (see Forbush Useful Birds and Their Protection, page 374; Kennard, Bird-Lore 14, 201) will undoubtedly attract the frugivorous and granivorous species, thereby encouraging many of the thrushes and sparrows, and at the same time these trees and shrubs will furnish nesting 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sites and insect food for the vireos, warblers and wrens which would not be attracted by their fruit. The main object in planting for bird refuges, besides providing food, is to furnish shelter from storm, nesting sites for the birds and vegetation upon which insects will find abundant food. Combinations of forest growth, second growth, thickets and tangles and, wherever possible, pond-side or stream-side thickets with moist land for some distance on each side of the stream will be found to furnish the character of cover most suitable to a large number of birds. From observations on the partially cleared hillsides of southwestern New York and in the groves and patches of the deciduous forest still common in the center of the State, the author is well convinced that most of our birds of the forest and thicket require a higher degree of humidity than is usually found in brush lots and pastures which are exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and that slopes furnishing less exposure to direct sunlight and kept humid by sufficient cover of vegetation, are necessary to attract most of our thrushes and warblers. Even the birds of the dryer thickets, such as the Field sparrow and Indigo bird, must have shelter of foliage to which they may retreat during the hottest portion of the day. A recent report of the Conservation Commission calls attention to the fact that there are in New York State at least four million five hundred thousand acres of land which is more fitted to produce forest growth than for agricultural purposes, but which is not at the present time covered with forest. If all this land were gradually planted to forest trees, the resulting growth to cover, which would gradually become fitted for various communities of woodland birds, would tend to increase to a perceptible degree the bird life of our domain, and if the twelve million acres of land which is already covered with forest growth were managed either by the clean-cutting system which some foresters advise or by selective cutting, the result would be that a sufficient portion of our domain would be left in the various types of woodland to attract both the forest community and the community of the open wood and thicket, so that conservation of birds might progress hand in hand with the conservation of our forests. BIRDS OF NEW YORK Order RAPTORES Birds of prey Ordinal characters. Bill stout, epignathous, hooked at the tip, cered at the base; feet strong, usually with long, curved talons; the skull des- mognathos and holorhinal; sternum broad and deeply keeled; furculum U-shaped; ambiens muscle present except in owls; the biceps slip wanting; the oil gland nude; wings aquincubital; 2 carotids; crop large; regimen carnivorous; flight powerful; young downy but remaining long in the nest. While it is true that the so-called raptorial birds may be recognized as related in the characters stated above, it is evident that the order is rather loosely connected and many ornithologists would prefer to separate at least the owls, and some the American vultures, into independent orders. The American Ornithologists Union, however, still recognizes the order as given above. On account of their rapacious habits they are associated more in the popular mind than they are in scientific classification. They have always received much attention from the agriculturist and, with the exception of the vultures, have almost universally been considered injurious species. I have found very few communities in the State of New York where even the Rough-legged hawk is recognized as beneficial in spite of the fact that Doctor Fisher’s admirable work on hawks and owls has been in print for many years. A careful study of the economic value of Raptores has been undertaken by the Biological Survey, as well as by ornithologists throughout the country, and a fairly accurate estimate of their food can be made. The following table, compiled mostly from the reports of the Biological Survey, but also from many notes made by the author and other New York ornithologists, will show the exact composition, as far as it has been determined by dissection, by the examination of the stomach balls collected under owl trees and hawk trees, and by observation of the birds in the field. The fact that two or three kinds of food are frequently found in the same stomach explains the fact that the percentage of stomachs containing each variety of food will not add up to one hundred, but it is thought more instructive to show 61 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the percentage of stomachs containing various kinds of food than to try to estimate the percentage of each kind of food taken by the species. Species marked g are near the border line of beneficial birds. Food of New York hawks and owls Percentage of stomachs examined containing various kinds of food D (s) n> a s [8 | | 28 : zs SPECIES EXAMINED z 2 Si a a g 8 wi 2 : 5 3 5o| a |&z Es 8 HS a 28 a z S| at a FI 5 z oe B Beneficial | ; Rough-legged hawk... ° ro) at ae ede ae 81 Be) a bie cece 8 Broad-winged hawk... ° 3 18 19 22 19 45 6 10 Red-shouldered hawk. I 6 10 | 19(fish 2) 50 20 45 3 7 Sparrow hawk........| 1/3 | 17 4 4 28 4 71 sp. 9 9 Red-tailed hawk (g)...| 10 9 A 3 50 24 8 | sp. 1/5 16 Marsh hawk (g)...... 6 | 27 6 2 46 18 Loy | nae 7 Barn Owl: ... 26.0 ci 3 bees | ie srde| rac heene ste 56 54 TAs |! cterheore 22 Long-eared owl....... Tout Lvavy|l cecewll) ocenaley s 82 5 Till scare ee 15 Saw-whet owl........ re) Ae race | hs deeeo 79 oe A) Rn eee 14 Short-eared owl... ... Croll) eae la al heicee cece: 77 7 We as Reta 14 Screech owl.....:.... i Oe el ee a 1 | 2(fish 1) 36 5 40 | 4(sp. 3) 17 Barred owl (g)....... 5 | 12 1 | 4(fish 2) 42 17 13 | 9(sp. 2) 18 Snowy owl (g)........ 5 Aa hese (eee eee 48 La tee a fare. es oe 33 Injurious MTOSHA WIC ere chore coos bo 26 Bi betarta ll" ReGen 40 TQ en aae 32 Cooper hawk......... 23: || 449 2 I 8 a yc 30 Sharp-shinned hawk... Ae OO inte tik wrade even X AN meters 7 ey ha 35 Duck hawk. ns: Buta Nee | geome Rta eee a trae aio fal ler eee Ae * SG Pigeon hawk......... GN ON hie dolor eas An Pee. Ba Sees 9 Great horned owl.....| 25 a eine, | Sets) Il 53 Silica oes 14 Suborder SARCORHAMPHI Family CA’*7THARTIDAE American vultures Characters. Bill strong, elongated, hooked at the tip and blunt; nostrils large, longitudinal and perforate; head and neck rather long, bare, rough and usually bright colored; tongue thick and fleshy; eyes prominent; feet clumsy and covered with small scales; front toes long, webbed at the base; hind toe short and elevated; talons obtuse and only slightly curved; wings very ample; 11 primaries; tail of moderate length, even or slightly rounded, consisting of 12 or 14 rectrices; the basipterygoid process is present; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 63 the oil gland is naked; there are no coeca; no syrinx or lower larynx; the ambiens, semitendinosus and its accessories are present, as is usually the femorocaudal; there are no aftershafts on the feathers; color somber; sexes alike in size and plumage. This is a well-marked group, evidently of neotropical origin, con- sisting of 9 species. The characters in which they differ from other diurnal birds of prey are deemed sufficient by many ornithologists to place them in a separate order, the Cathartidiformes of Sharpe’s Handlist. Their appearance and habits are also strongly characteristic. They are ambula- torial in gait and listless in attitude. More or less gregarious in habit, they sit about on dead trees, fences and large buildings sunning them- selves in somber companies, or soar with easy, circling flight high over the fields looking for refuse or carrion which is their principal food. Their feet are wholly unfitted for carrying prey, as the blunt talons and small, elevated hallux would indicate; and thus rarely or never subsist on living animals. They regurgitate the disgusting contents of their crops for the young to feed upon. The nest is usually built on the ground, among rocks, or in a hollow stump in a secluded part of the woods. The eggs are commonly two.in number. These birds have long been considered bene- ficial and are the principal scavengers of the southern fields, rendering efficient service to the community by destroying all kinds of offal. Cathartes aura septentrionalis (Wied.) Turkey Vulture Plate 43 Vultur aura septentrionalis Wied. Reise Nord-America. 1839. 1: 162 Cathartes aura DeKay. Zool. N.Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 2, fig. 12 Cathartes aura septentrionalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p- 152. No. 325 cathartes, Gr. xafapty¢ a cleanser, i. e. a scavenger; atira, probably a latinized form of urubu; septentriondlis, Lat., Northern Description. Adult: Head and upper portion of meck bare, dull crimson, becoming bright red on base of bill. Plumage black, glossed with purple or greenish on the back, and the feathers of the upper parts, especially the wing-coverts and the secondaries, margined with grayish 64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM brown. Quill shafts from light brown to yellowish white. Bill dull white. Iris grayish brown. Immature: Similar, but head dusky and covered with more or less furry down. Downy young: Cottony white, except the naked head. Length 26-32 inches; extent 72; wing 20-23; tail 11-12; bill (culmen) 1; tarsus 2.23-2.30; middle toe 2.50 Distribution. The Turkey vulture, or Turkey buzzard as it is usually called in the Southern States, inhabits tropical and temperate America from Patagonia to New York, Saskatchewan and British Columbia. In our State it seems to occur only as a summer visitor, more commonly on Long Island, in the Hudson valley, and in the warmer por- tions of western New York. In these numbers, usually in the months of July and August. Dozens of records are before me, the earliest being April 24, and the latest December 28. Mr F. B. Robinson of Newburgh reports a young bird killed near Gardiner, Ulster county, June 1, 1904; and thinks this species breeds in that locality, but the speci- men referred to was old enough to have flown hundreds of miles, and as yet we lack definite proof of its breeding within the limits of the State. ae Habits. This bird is the most Turkey vulture. Cathartes aura septentrio- accomplished aeronaut among our birds lis ied). F speci in the State M = a SE a ae ae prey. When rising from the ground its initial flaps are hurried and somewhat ungainly, but when fairly under way it sweeps in wide interlocking circles, higher and higher, with scarcely localities it appears yearly in limited . tr gy ae kf 1 em, Ae BIRDS OF NEW YORK 65 a motion of its long wings, except when struggling against adverse currents of air. It nests upon the ground in a secluded spot. The eggs are one to three in number, nearly plain or spotted with chocolate, 2.8 by 2 inches in size. Its food consists almost entirely of carrion, and in the South it is considered of great value as a scavenger. Catharista urubu (Vieillot) Black Vulture Vultur urubu Vieillot. Ois. Amer. Sept. 1807. 1:23. pl.2 Catharista urubu A. O. U. Check list. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 153. ~« No. 326 catharista, Gr. xabaptto (xabatew) to cleanse or purify, referring to its work as a scavenger; zirubu, a vulture Description. Glossy black, the under surface of the wings frosted or silvery, giving a distinctly whitish sheen to wing quills as the bird flies overhead; head and neck bare, black- ishin color. Decidedly more stumpy in build and less graceful in flight than the Turkey vulture, the fai noticeably shorter and the wing strokes more frequent. Length 24 inches; extent 55; wing 17. Distribution. The Black vult- ure, or Carrion crow as it is some- times called, inhabits America from Kansas and Virginia southward Black vulture. Catharista urubu (Vieillot). From through Mexico and Central America specimen in Am. Mus, Nat. Hist. 3 nat. size and the greater part of South America, and wanders northward rarely as far as Maine, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ohio. There are records of two or three specimens taken in New York, near Sandy Hook in the spring of 1877 (Robt. Lawrence, N. O. C. Bul. 5: 116), Coney Island beach, about 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1881 (Le Berier, N. O. C. Bul. 6:126), Shelby Center, May 28, 1892 (Posson, Auk 16:195), Auburn, April 11, 1911 (F. J. Stupp), and Steuben co., July 11, 1909, Burtch, Auk, 28:112. Mr Ottomar Reinecke reports that he and the late Charles Linden watched a bird of this species for some time asit flew about the village of West Seneca, near Buffalo, N. Y., one day in June 1884. Mr Dana C. Gillett also reports it from Tona- wanda swamp, May 1899. The Black vulture therefore must be regarded as a rare and irregular visitor to New York, not appearing regularly in any part of the State like the Turkey vulture, but straggling within © our boundaries only at long intervals. Suborder FALCONES Hawks, Falcons, Ospreys etc. Family BUTEONIDAE Buzzards, Eagles, True Hawks, Kites and Harriers Nostrils oval and impervious; nasal septum, however, is incomplete; the palate without a median ridge; the scapular process of the coracoid not reaching furculum; tarsus shorter than tibia, scutellate in front, partly feathered; wings ample, usually somewhat rounded in shape; tail usually of 12 rectrices; the legs well feathered, usually below the heel joint, and the “ flag ’’ well developed; the basipterygoid process is wanting, and the plumage is aftershafted; general build heavy. Beside the subfamily Buteoninae, recognized by some authors, which is the most typical of this family and includes our common buzzards or soaring hawks and eagles, is the subfamily Circinae or harriers, represented by our Marsh hawk, which is characterized by weak beak; long tarsus, bare and equal to the tibia in length; long, narrow, pointed wings; long slender tail; the legs long and slender; the general build light and slim; and a facial disc forming an incomplete ruff; as well as ears with large external opening and a conch, and a soft, fluffy plumage, which characters link them with the owls. Among the harriers, the sexes are usually unlike. The nest is placed upon the ground, contrary to the usual practice in this family. The subfamily Milvinae, including the kites, have very weak beak BIRDS OF NEW YORK 67 and extremely short tarsus, shorter than the tibia, with reticulate scales; the wings very long, narrow and pointed; the legs unusually small; and the general build very light. They have no ruff like the harriers and the plumage is not so soft and owl-like. The subfamily Accipitrinae, or ‘‘ true hawks,” like our Cooper and Sharp-shinned hawks, has a stronger beak, with a prominent festoon on the cutting edge; the tarsus is slender and as long as the tibia; wings short, rounded, concavo-convex, with 3 to 5 of the quills emarginate; the tail is long; legs long and slim; and the general build light as compared with the buzzard. Difference in size of sexes is especially marked in this sub- family. The young are characteristically mottled and streaked longi- tudinally, whereas the adults are barred and heart-spotted in their marking. They are arboreal in habits, usually lie in wait for their prey and swoop upon it with a swift, dashing flight. The flight is low as compared with the buzzard, and not so free and easy as that of the Marsh hawk. Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus) Swallow-tailed Kite Falco forficatus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 1o. 1758. 1:89 Nauclerus furcatus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 12, fig. 15 Elanoides forficatus A.O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 153. No. 327 elanoides, from Lat. elanus, a kite; forficdtus, from Lat. forfex, a pair of shears, referring to the forked tail Description. Wings very long, thin and pointed; tail also very long and deeply forked; feet stout but very short, the tarsus feathered halfway in front; talons short, well curved, scooped out and sharp edged on the under surface; bill weak; cere small. Adult: Head, neck, rump and entire underparts white; wings, back and tail lustrous black. Young: Less lus- trous; wings and tail feathers tipped with white, the head and neck with black shaft streaks; tail shorter. Length 24 inches, more or less according to the development of the outer tail feathers; extent 50; wing 15-17.50; tail 13-14.50; tarsus 1.25. Distribution. The Swallow-tailed kite, or Snake hawk as it is often called, inhabits America from the warm portions of South America north- ward to Manitoba and Assiniboia, wintering from Florida and Texas south- 5 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ward. It is of rare or casual occurrence in New England and New York, only a few State records being before me: Raynor South L. I., 1837. Giraud, Birds of L. I. p. 13 South Shore of L. I., 1845. Le Berier, N. O. C. Bul. 6, 126 Fisrmont, Rockland co., Aug. 22, 1900. G. N. Nicholas, Auk 17, 386. In Rensselaer county, near the villages of Pittstown and West Hoosick, the male figured on this page was secured July 16, 1886 (see 50th Report N. Y. State Museum, p. 14; and Auk 3, 484). Relating to this specimen Mr Griffin Haight, who secured it, writes: ‘‘I live two miles west of West Hoosick in the town of Fittstown; and two miles from the Hoosick line. I keep a poultry yard and breed fancy fowls. Being troubled with hawks of late I thought I would clean out a few of them and stopped at home on the 16th of July for that purpose. I had succeeded in killing three hawks and had just fired at the fourth one, when I saw this kite rise from the woods back of my house sles ees date Naa Sa - =e» and go perpendicularly up, as near as fi Biles phi él, * 9). = a : P Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus). I could judge, out of sight. He was From specimen in State Museum, } nat. s‘ze. gone about 20 minutes when I saw him coming down again. I called my wife to the door and asked her if she would like to see a Swallow-tailed kite. She said a kite was no sight to her. I told her it was a bird by that name, and that I never saw one north of Port Royal, S. C. The bird came down and lit on a dead pine. He sat there a short time. Then he took another upward flight, going straight up out of sight. He was gone just 30 minutes this time and came BIRDS OF NEW YORK 69 down in the same place where he went up and lit on the same tree. He sat there 7 minutes this time, when up he went again straight out of sight. This time he was gone 51 minutes. I had about given him up and turned to go to the house when I saw him coming down again and another one with him. They lit on the same tree. I started for them and one started up again out of sight. He went ina flash. The other sat still. I walked on a short distance farther, when up he went and I fired at him. He folded his wings and came down. From where I stood to where the kite lay was 17 rods, 3 feet. I watched for the other one, but did not see him again that day; but I have seen him once since, yesterday, the 29th. . . . I shot the kite on the 16th of July, 10.30 o’clock, a. m. ‘‘T live near a big timber lot of about 500 acres, and about a mile from my house is a large ash swamp of as much more, with quite a body of water in the center.” Under date of August 3, 1886: ‘I will get the mate to this bird (the mounted kite), and will send it to you gratis. I am watching him and his manouvering and actions and learning a little something of his habits. His roosting spot is in the large swamp west of me.” Under date of August 9, 1886, Mr Haight writes: ‘I shot this bird (a great blue heron) while hunting for the kite in the big swamp. I saw him today several times. The last time that I saw him he was dissecting a hornets’ nest and sat on the top of a dead stub out in the water, so I could not get a shot at him. I am going to give him another trial tomorrow if the day is cloudy. A clear day is not a good time to hunt him. He is a third larger than the other kite I sent you, and I think there are more in the swamp. I could see some birds in the dead ashes that looked like them and moved around like a kite.” Evidently, from its size, this kite was a female and was probably the mate of the male secured on July 16th. The birds seen among the ashes in the swamp may have been their young, Under date of July 17, 1891, Mr Haight writes: ‘‘ We are watching the kite very closely. It seems to alight in the top of the tallest trees in the woods. It lit on the side hill a short ways from the house today, and 70 — NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM seemed to be catching grasshoppers. I do not know what else he could be after by the way he ran around and would fly a few feet and light again. It was after something, whatever it was. I could not approach it as I was in plain view so I let it work and it flew into the woods after about 25 minutes of flapping and running around. I have not seen any mate as yet. Mosher [one of his sons] saw the bird yesterday [July 16th] while I was from home and he said it lit on a tall pine and sat there for a full hour and then took a sail in the air and went out of sight behind some trees. I am watching its movements and will write you again.” In 1900 Mr Haight saw three more kites on June 9, and noticed one about his place until June 19. All of this evidence would seem to indicate that the Swallow-tailed kite has established a home in Rensselaer county, N. Y., but absolute evidence of its breeding in this State is still lacking. Circus hudsonius (Linnaeus) Marsh Hawk Plates 43 and 48 Falco hudsonius Linnaeus. S.N. Ed.12. 1766. 1:128 Circus uligenosus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 20, fig. 7 Circus hudsonius A. O.U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 155. No. 331 circus L., Gr. xfpxoc, a hawk, from its circling flight; hudsénius of Hudson Bay Description. Wings and tail long, legs long and slender, face with a partial ruff, external ear large and fitted with a conch, general build light, plumage loose and owl-like in softness, sexes unlike in color, but both with white upper tail coverts. Aduli #: Ashy or bluish gray above and on the upper breast, rest of under parts white with a few rufous streaks and mottlings on the sides and belly; tail lighter pearly gray with 5 or 6 imperfectly defined blackish bars; 5 outer primaries blackish, and all the wing feathers with the inner webs near the bases white; legs, cere and iris yellow. Adult 9: Fuscous or umber brown above varied with rufous or yellowish brown, especially streakings on the head and neck and mottlings on the wing coverts; under parts ocherous buff or brownish yellow, streaked more or less with fuscous or umber brown; tail with 6 or 7 blackish bars, the middle feathers also with ashy bars. Young: Resemble the female but are darker above with more reddish mottlings on the wing coverts and feather edges. More rufous below with no streaks on the belly. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 71 _ Length @ 17.50-19 inches, 9 19-22; extent o 40-45, 9 45-52; wing o 13-14.50, 2 14-16.50; tail o 9-10, 2 9.50-10.50; tarsus 2.75-3.25. Field marks. This is the easiest of our native hawks to identify. The long wings and tail, light build, low wavering or coursing flight when hawking over the marshes or meadows, distinguish the Marsh hawk at a great distance. The very light color of the old males and the dark brown- ish appearance of the females and young coupled with the conspicuous white upper tail coverts make identification doubly sure. Distribution. The Marsh hawk is one of the most abundant and generally distributed members of its family in North America, occurring from Panama to the Arctic tundras, and wintering from 41st parallel south- ward. In New York it breeds in every portion of the State, from an altitude of 2000 to 3000 feet in the Adirondacks (Elk lake, Flowed land) to the tidal marshes of Long Island and the lower Hudson river. In the warmer portions of the State a few pass the winter, particularly along the coast and Hudson river, but they are commonest in nearly all portions of New York from March to to April 30, and from August 1 to November 10, especially in early April and in September and October, when the bulk of the migration is accomplished. Habits. Like the Sparrow hawk this species is most common in the open country, hunting its prey over meadows, marshes and waste fields. Though it sometimes watches from a low perch, it usually searches out the mice and small birds which constitute its principal food by hawking with slowly circling or wavering flight over the marshes and lowland meadows. When attracted by some movement in the grass it wheels suddenly about and shoots upward a short distance to examine the spot; at other times it turns a complete somersault or makes a half turn and drops suddenly in the grass to strike its humble and unsuspecting quarry. The prey is devoured on the spot or carried to some sheltered hummock or muskrat house and swallowed without the plucking or tearing which is the custom of falcons and true hawks, but more after the manner of the Buteos. Doctor Fisher reports that ‘“‘ of 124 stomachs examined, 7 contained 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM poultry or game birds; 34, other birds; 57, mice; 22, other mammals; 7, reptiles; 2, frogs; 14, insects; 8 were empty.’’ My own experience shows that the food of this hawk, as is the case of other Raptores, depends much upon the individual hawk as well as the locality and the season. Most of the Marsh hawks from the Montezuma swamp which I have examined contained nothing but birds (Song sparrows, Tree sparrows, juncos, Red- winged blackbirds) and a few batrachians, while specimens from the more cultivated country were largely filled with mice and insects, mostly grass- hoppers (these latter usually in young birds). Mr Foster Parker, who lives near Montezuma, has seen Marsh hawks repeatedly attack young gallinules and finally exterminate the whole brood. In the mating season Marsh hawks indulge in extensive gyrations above their nesting sites, often somersaulting over and over from a con- siderable height and soaring upward again just before reaching the ground. Both sexes take part in nest building, incubating and rearing the young. The female sits closely and often remains on the nest until nearly trod upon, when she rises with a loud harsh cackling note uttered with a jerky intonation and resembling the syllables Cac-cac-cac-cac-cac. The male usually joins her at once and they circle excitedly about the swamp uttering intermittently their complaining screams. If the eggs are nearing the hatching period, or if the nestlings are quite young, the old birds, especially the female, will usually charge the intruder, dashing downward from a height of 200 feet or more with alarming swiftness directly at one’s head but veering off and upward just before striking. I have been brushed by the wings of a female Marsh hawk when charging to protect her newly hatched young, and have had the bellows of my camera, which I had concealed in the neighboring brush in hopes of securing a snap shot of the old bird while feeding her young, torn to pieces by the sharp claws of the parent birds as they attacked the alarming object which they did not fail to discover at their first approach. The nest, unlike that of any of our other hawks, is placed upon the ground, usually in a tangle of low bushes, weeds and grasses in the midst of a swamp or bog. On several oe BIRDS OF NEW YORK 73 occasions I have found the nest of the Marsh hawk in small peat bogs overgrown with huckleberries, cassandra and Labrador tea, the situation being surrounded by cultivated fields and not far from the farm house. The nest is nearly the size of a crow’s nest, but not quite so deep, and is composed entirely of grasses, twigs and weed stalks. The eggs, which are laid from the 15th to the 3oth of May, are from 3 to 7 or even 9 in number, usually 5 or 6 in western New York, ovate in shape and bluish white in color, often with obscure shell markings and brownish spots, and nearly always much nest-stained. They average about 1.78 by 1.40 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is 23 days or more, the young hatching at successive intervals for several days, the female usually beginning to sit as soon as I or 2 eggs have been laid, a habit which has probably been acquired to protect the eggs from the attacks of crows which would easily discover them, attracted by the light-colored eggs, as. they fly over the exposed nest. While crossing bogs like those in Bergen swamp, Junius pond and Mendon pond I have several times picked up eggs of the Marsh hawk which had recently been sucked by crows, and have known them to treat the nests of Cooper and Red-tailed hawks in a similar manner. Marsh hawk nestlings are covered with a buffy white down, through which the wing feathers begin to show in about 10 days, and in 5 or 6 weeks they are able to fly. Nestlings which I brought up by hand required each from 2 to 5 mice or English sparrows daily to supply the cravings of hunger, so that the 5 young if left at Mendon pond would have consumed 600 mice and small birds, more or less, before they left the nest. The two old birds would consume in the 10 weeks of their sojourn near the nest about 500 more. So it is easy to see that a family of Marsh hawks on the farm makes a considerable difference in the abundance of meadow mice, song sparrows and other small inhabitants of the fields. 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Accipiter velox (Wilson) Sharp-shinned Hawk Plate 44 Falco velox Wilson. Am. Orn. 1812. 5:116. Pl. 4s, fig. x Astur fuscus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 17, fig. 2 Accipiter velox A. 0.U. Check List. Ed.3. xzo10. p.xss: ‘No: 3332 accipiter, L., a hawk; vélox, L., swift Description. Wings short and rounded; tail long and nearly square; tarsi and toes long and slender; the former feathered one-third of the way down in front; bill stout, sharp and festooned or sinuate on the cutting edge. Adult @ and 2: Above, slaty or bluish-gray, more fuscous on wings and tail; primaries and tail barred with blackish, the tail usually with 4 bars, the subterminal one broad, and the tip whitish; wnder parts white more or less heavily barred with rufous except on throat and crissum, these rufous bars borne outward along each feather shaft, and the shafts, even on the throat, mostly blackish; bases of the occipital feathers downy white; scapulars and bases of primaries with concealed white spots. Young: Above fuscous or urubu brown, varied with rusty on the feather edges; below, dull white or buffy, spotted and streaked with dark brown or pale reddish brown; the wings, tail and concealed spots on occiput and scapular much as in the adults. Cere and feet yellow, often with greenish tinge; iris according to age varying from grayish yellow to yellow and in high plumage red. Length & 10-12 inches, 9 13-14; extent o& 21-23, 9 25-27; wing 6-7, 9 7-8.75; tail @ 5-7.75, 9 6-8; tarsus 2-2.15; middle toe 1.18-1.38. Field marks. The small size of this hawk, when taken with its short rounded wings and long square tail, will serve to distinguish it. Its dashing flight, consisting successively of several rapid flappings followed by a short soar, together with its general shape, it shares with the Cooper hawk, the males of which species little more than equal females of this species in size, but the Sharp-shinned hawk has the square tail while the Cooper hawk has the rounded tail and, as intimated, is really larger. From the small falcons, that is the Pigeon hawk and the Sparrow hawk, it can be distinguished easily by its short rounded wings as compared with the falcon’s long and pointed ones. Distribution. The Sharp-shinned hawk is one of our commonest and ae Ee a BIRDS OF NEW YORK 75 most generally distributed species, breeding from Hudson bay and the lower MacKenzie to Florida and Lower California; and wintering from New England and New York southward to Central America. In our State it is very common during the migrations, March 20 to April 30 and September 1 to October 30, especially about April 10 and from September 20 to October 10, when several scores, or even hundreds, of these hawks may be seen in a single day, in the line of greatest migration not far from the coast and in the country near the southern shore of Lake Ontario. A few remain through the winter in the warmer portions of the State, and the species nests throughout the State, most commonly in the wooded country. Habits. This American representative of the European Sparrow hawk is often miscalled the Pigeon hawk but is quite different in appearance, as already indicated, from Falco columbarius. It is “blue,” however, in the adult plumage, and is not inferior to that little falcon in fierceness, often attacking birds which are fully its equal in size, and working terrible destruction upon the small birds of the field and forest which are unfortunate enough to establish their homes near its chosen haunts. About the ‘ killing log” or “ butchering block,’’ which is found near the nest of the Sharp-shinned hawk, one may see the feathers of thrushes, sparrows, wood warblers, flickers and young grouse scattered in profusion, telling their sad tale of the carnage which this little demon has wrought among the peaceful denizens of the wood. It is a low-flying hawk, dashing swiftly through the groves and coppice, and seizing its victims as they dash for cover or watching for them from the shade of some leafy tree and pouncing upon them as they pass by. In this respect this and the two following species, our true hawks, differ from those hawks which feed largely upon mammals, batrachians and insects, and watch for them from some con- spicuous perch. Doctor Fisher’s examinations show that the food of this species consists almost entirely of birds, and the experience of all New York observers as well as my own studies of its habits and of its stomach contents point to the same result. Consequently I believe this hawk should be 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM destroyed wherever the more desirable song and game birds are to be preserved. The nest of the Sharp-shinned hawk in New York is almost always built in an evergreen tree near the edge of a wooded gully or beside a log- ging road in the forest. Hemlock, pine and arbor vitae seem to be its preference, and the nest is built close to the trunk of the tree at a height varying from 10 to 40 feet. Compared with the nests of other hawks it is rather large for the size of the bird, about equalling that of the crow, and is deeply hollowed to receive the eggs. It is composed of sticks, usually of the pine and hemlock, and lined with smaller twigs and strips of bark. The eggs are usually laid by the 1oth or 25th of May. They are 4 or 5 in number, oval or short ovate in shape, averaging 1.47 by 1.16 inches in size, and bluish white or greenish white in ground color, more or less heavily blotched and spotted with brown of different shades mingled with marblings of drab or lavender and clay color. (Acme «These markings are sometimes Photo byiGay A. Bailey ‘ st F Sharp-shinned hawk’s nest and eggs uniformly distributed over the surface of the egg, sometimes in a heavy wreath near the larger end, and at other times shading down from heaviest at the very tip of the smaller end. There is endless variety in the coloration of the eggs of this species, caus- ing them to be eagerly sought by egg collectors, and I will confess that cabinets filled with eggs of this bloodthirsty little pirate, as well as those of the Cooper hawk, Crow, and Cowbird, have shown me that egg-gather- eh tne = a ai ie BIRDS OF NEW YORK 77 ing when indulged in by a discriminating youth may become a strong element in bird protection. Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) Cooper Hawk Plates 43, 44 and 46 Falco cooperii Bonaparte. Am. Orn. 1828. 2:1. PI. 10, fig. 1 Astur cooperi DeKay. Zool.N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 18, fig. 10 Accipiter cooperi A.O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. roro. p. 156. No. 333 4 coopert, in honor of William Cooper Distinctive marks. A medium sized species, larger than the Sharp- shinned hawk but of the same general shape and color, the tail more rounded, the legs shorter and stouter, and the top of the head darker slate or blackish; in high plumage the Cooper hawk is of a clearer and more uniform bluish slate on the upper parts. A large young female of this species resembles closely a young male Goshawk in size and color, but may be surely dis- tinguished by the feathering of the tarsus, which extends only one-third of the way down the front of the slender tarsus in the Cooper hawk, but one-half of the way on the stouter tarsus of the Goshawk. Length o 15-18 inches, 9 18-20; extent oc 30, 9 36; wing o& 9-10, Q 10-11; tail o& 7-8, 9 8-9; tarsus o 2.60, 9 2.70; middle toe @ 1.60, Q 1.75. Distribution. The Cooper hawk breeds throughout the United States and southern Canada, and winters from southern New England and Illinois southward into Mexico and Costa Rica. In New York it is common during the migrations, March 20 to April 20 and September 15 to October 20, but may be seen at all times of the year except in the northern and more elevated portions of the State, where it is only a summer resident. In the more thickly settled districts it is much less common than formerly, the nesting birds having been killed off on account of their destructiveness to poultry and game birds. In the wilder and more wooded portions of the State it is one of the commonest breeding species but is not seen as 78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM frequently as the Marsh, Red-shouldered and Red-tailed hawks because it remains most of the time silently under cover of the forest. Habits. This hawk resembles the Sharp-shinned hawk in habits as well as in appearance, being fully as fierce and intrepid as that little pirate and much more destructive to game birds and poultry on account of its greater size and strength. Early in April, before the migration of those individuals that are to breed farther northward has ceased, our summer residents pair and select some old crow’s or hawk’s nest or the forks of a tree 20 to 50 feet from the ground as the site for their home. The nest when entirely constructed by the hawks themselves is of good size, composed of sticks and twigs and nearly always lined with the outer bark of trees, such as the hemlock, cedar and yellow pine. -In New York the eggs are laid from April 25 to May 20. They are 3 to 5 in number, are of a pale bluish white color, occasionally spotted lightly with brownish, resembling those of the Marsh hawk but more broadly ovate, averaging about 1.90 by 1.55 inches. The period of incubation lasts about 24 days, and the young hawks are covered with a whitish down. During the nesting season the old birds occasionally utter a loud rattling or cackling noise similar to the Sharp-shinned hawk’s note but louder and also the repeated tick, tick call, besides the loud shrill scream uttered by the setting female when disturbed. At other times of the year this bird is mostly silent. Astur atricapillus atricapillus (Wilson) Goshawk Plate 45 Falco atricapillus Wilson. Am. Orn. 1812. 6:80. Pl. 52, fig. 3 Astur atricapillus DeKay. Zool. N.Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 10, fig..4-and 5 Astur atricapillus atricapillus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 156. No. 334 astur, Lat., a hawk, perhaps from aster, star, i. e. spotted; atricapillus, Lat., black- haired, i. e. the top of the head black Description. A large powerful hawk with the general shape of the Cooper hawk; but with the tarsus more robust and more extensively feathered and scutellate. Upper parts dark bluish slate, the feathers with es BIRDS OF NEW YORK 79 black shaft-lines; tail with 4 or 5 broad blackish bars and tipped with whitish; wings also barred; top of head and broad auricular stripe blackish; a whitish stripe over the eyes, broadening toward the back of head where the bases of the feathers are cottony white as in other true hawks (Accipi- trinae); under parts white, thickly barred in fine wavy pattern or vermicu- lated with slaty brown or dusky except on throat and crissum. All the feathers, even on the throat, with blackish shaft-lines; bill dark bluish, cere and feet yellow, iris red. Young: Dark brown above, margined with rusty, and varied, especially on neck and scapulars, with whitish or buffy; wings and tail, barred with blackish and buffy; under parts tawny whitish, with oblong, club-shaped, or drop-shaped streaks; cere and feet duller yellow, iris yellow, bill brownish. Length, o& 21-22 inches, 9 22-25; extent o 41-43, 2 44-47; wing o 12.50-13, 9 13.50-14.50; tail co’ 9.50-10.50, 2 11-13; tarsus co 2.90-3.10, Q 2.95-3.17; middle toe @ 2.75, @ 1.90. Field marks. Adult hawks of this species can not be mistaken for the Cooper hawk which is our only species approaching it in size and resembling it in form. They are larger, have no rufous markings below, are more blue and gray in general color and have the decided blackish crown and ear-stripe as well as the whitish superciliary stripe. The young males of this species are only slightly larger than the young females of cooperi and resemble them in color but are more conspicuously buffy in the ground color of the under parts, and of the tail and scapulars. When the bird is in hand the feathering of the tarsus is, of course, distinctive. Distribution. The American Goshawk inhabits the boreal region of North America, breeding from central Maine and northern New York northward through the Hudsonian zone and wintering southward to about the 38th parallel. In this State it is chiefly a winter visitor, rather irregular in occurrence, but some years is fairly common, as in 1863, when many were killed on Long Island, and in 1889, 1895-096, 1898-99, and in 1906. On Long Island they usually appear between the 18th and 25th of December and disappear between the 15th and 27th ot March; in western New York my dates range between October 21 and November 15 for arrival from the north, Mr Burtch giving one record for September 15; and March 11 to 20 to 28 for last seen in the spring. Mr 80 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM George F. Guelf of Brockport has called to my attention that a considerable flight of these hawks often occurs during the third week in March not far from the southern shore of Lake Ontario, the birds moving toward the eastward and recalling the similar flights of Sharp-shinned, Cooper, Marsh and Broad-winged hawks which occur a little later in the season. Audubon, during his visit to western New York, found this hawk nesting near Niagara Falls, but since that time very few evidences of the Goshawk breeding in our State have been recorded. In June 1877, Roosevelt and Minot observed it in Franklin county; Merriam in 1881 ranked it as a rare resident of the Adirondack region; in June 1905, I observed two of these hawks near the Upper Ausable lake in Essex county; and Ralph and Bagg have given us a definite breeding record for the Adirondacks, May 9, 1898. Fortunately, however, this bird is rare as a summer resident, even in the wildest portions of the Adirondack forest. Habits. This is the most dreaded scourge of our grouse coverts and poultry yards. Fierce, daring and more powerful than the Cooper hawk, it seizes and carries off full-grown fowls with such ease, and makes its attacks so suddenly and unexpectedly that flight by the intended victim and resistance by the outraged farmer are alike useless. Both the examina- tion of the stomach contents of specimens secured and the testimony of hunters and naturalists who have observed this bird and its nesting sites, agree in establishing the Goshawk’s unenviable character. Grouse, pheas- ants, poultry, hares and other larger animals are its usual food. The Goshawk’s nest is usually placed in a birch, beech or poplar tree and resembles that of the Cooper hawk in construction. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, ovate or elliptical-ovate in shape, and white or pale bluish white in color, about 2.30 by 1.74 inches, and are laid about the ist of May. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 81 Buteo borealis borealis (Gmelin) Red-tailed Hawk Plates 43, 46 and 47 Falco borealis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1: 266 Buteo borealis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 9, fig. 17 Buteo borealis borealis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. roro. Di T57. No. 337 biiteo, Lat., a buzzard; boredlis, Lat., northern Description. Our typical and commonest buzzard hawk, character- ized by heavy build, long and broad wings, wide spreading tail of medium length, 4 primaries notched; a large hawk of high, soaring, circling flight and conspicuous perches, commonly but improperly called Hen hawk. Adult: Upper parts dark brown, more or less variegated with whitish and ocherous buff; tail bright rufous or brick red with a narrow subterminal band of blackish and tipped with whitish; under parts white more or less tinged with buffy and variegated with blackish, especially across the fore breast and on the flanks and abdominal zone, the throat, middle of breast, crissum, and tibiae being mostly unmarked; iris brown, bill horn color, legs yellow. Immature: Tail gray with numerous blackish bands; body colors similar to adult but lacking fulvous markings above and buffy tinge below; the dark markings below heavier forming a dark abdominal zone but leaving a large unmarked whitish area on the breast; iris yellow. Length o 19-21 inches, 9 22-24; extent @ 46-50, 2 52-56; wing @ 13.50-16, 2 15-17.50; tail 8.50-10.50; tarsus 3-3.40; middle toe 1.60-1.85; weight 3-4 pounds. Distribution. The Red-tailed hawk inhabits eastern North America from the Gulf States to Northern Canada, being partially migratory in the northern states and only a summer resident in the boreal region. It is quite generally distributed in New York, breeding in all parts of the State and wintering sparingly in the warmer counties. During March and October large numbers pass through our State on their migrations, the movement beginning from February 20 to March to and ending from April 1 to 20, migrants often being seen in numbers, near Rochester at least, after the summer residents have eggs well advanced in incubation. In our State this hawk nests both in swampy woods and on rugged gullies and hillsides, but on the whole, in western New York, seems to prefer 82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM upland or hilly country, leaving the swamps more exclusively to the Red- shouldered hawk. Habits. This species is often seen in spring and summer, and again in the fine days of autumn, sweeping in wide circles over the hills and valleys, sometimes soaring upward until, with its broad wings and tail spread, it disappears from sight in the upper air. These evolutions usually occur over its native woods and hunting fields, and in spring are quite sure to mark the neighborhood of its nesting site, when both sexes take part in the performance and wheel about for hours almost out of sight. It chooses a conspicuous perch on the dead top of a tree by the edge of the forest or isolated in broad fields, to watch for its humble prey, and may sit thus for hours apparently asleep, but really continuing a keen scrutiny of its surroundings, and when it discovers a mouse, shrew, squirrel or bird which offers a favorable chance, it swoops down and, gliding low, snatches it up in its heavy talons and bears it away. At other times it may be seen coursing back and forth over old fields and pastures searching for meadow mice and grasshoppers. This hawk, though called ‘‘ Hen hawk,” rarely visits the poultry yard, not more than one chicken being chargeable to this species while ten go to the Cooper hawk and the Goshawk. It captures a few cottontails and Ruffed grouse, but the majority of its food consists of small mammals. ‘“ Of 562 stomachs, 54 contained poultry, 51 other birds, 409 mice and small mammals and 47 insects.” (Fisher) The nest of the Red-tail is piaced in the fork of a tall tree, a maple, birch, beech, elm, basswood, hemlock or pine, 40 to 80 feet from the ground, and is occupied year after year as long as the owners are not destroyed. If one of the pair is killed, another mate is soon secured and brought back to the long established site. If the eggs are taken, a new nest is built not far from the old one, but the next spring the original nest is almost sure to be occupied again. The birds pair and begin working on the nest early in March, almost immediately after their arrival from the south. It is a bulky structure composed of sticks and lined with small twigs and strips of bark, and usually decorated with green hemlock sprays, fern leaves BIRDS OF NEW YORK 83 and other evergreens. The eggs are laid from April 1 to 25. They are from 2 to 4 in number, dull whitish, often tinged with bluish, and usually spotted or blotched with reddish or yellowish brown and obscurely marked with lavender, about -2.40 by 1.90 inches in dimensions. The call of the Red-tail, when soaring, is ‘‘a long drawn squealing whistle’ somewhat resembling the syllables kee-aahrr-r-r, and in the nesting woods it utters a sharp scream like kerr or chirr. Buteo lineatus lineatus (Gmelin) Red-shouldered Hawk Plate 47 Falco lineatus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1: 268 Buteo hyemalis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 10, fig. 13 Buteo lineatus lineatus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p.158. No. 339 linedtus, Lat., marked with stripes or bars Description. Like the Red-tail or common ‘“‘ Hen hawk” of the New York farmer, but slightly smaller and lighter in build. Four outer primaries notched. Adult: Lesser wing coverts and under parts rufous, the wing coverts marked with fuscous, and the under parts barred with whitish or ocherous buff; wings and tail blackish barred with white; the white tail bars about 4 or 5, of uniform width and narrower than those of the Broad-wing, forming with the rufous under parts good identification marks as the bird flies overhead. Upper parts altogether of a more grayish appearance than those of the Red-tail, being dark grayish brown, more or less striped or edged with whitish and ocherous; throat with black shaft streaks; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Immature: Upper parts similar to adult but more dusky; lesser wing coverts distinctly rusty but less so than in adult plumage; bases of primaries and of outer tail feather mostly ocherous buff or yellowish red; tail grayish brown barred with blackish; under parts white or buffy white streaked and spotted with blackish; iris yellow. Length o& 17.5-19 inches, Q 19.5-21; extent co 40-44, 2 44-50; wing 12-14; tail 7.5-9.5; tarsus 2.8-3; middle toe 1.60; weight 2-3 pounds. Distribution. The Red-shouldered hawk inhabits eastern North America from Manitoba and Nova Scotia southward to Oklahoma and North Carolina, moving slightly southward in winter as far as the Gulf coast. In New York it is a permanent resident in the warmer portions of the State and may be found sparingly in winter throughout central and western New York. It is common during the spring and fall migrations, 6 84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM especially during March and October, and breeds commonly in all parts of the State, except the Adirondack wilderness, where it is largely replaced by the Broad-winged hawk. In the more thickly inhabited counties it is commoner than the Red-tail. Habits. This bird is probably the commonest large hawk in the southern, central and western counties of New York, where most of the original forests have been cleared away and small patches of woodland have been left standing along the streams and in swampy tracts. In such Photo by Verdi Burtch Red-shouldered hawk’s nest and eggs localities it is often seen in spring, summer and early fall soaring about over its chosen haunts after the manner of the so-called ‘‘Hen hawks,” uttering its shrill kee-you, kee-you, kee-you as it soars upward above the tree-tops, but becoming silent as it reaches a higher altitude, and mounting higher and higher, perhaps accompanied by its mate, almost disappears from view in the upper air. It is less powerful than the Red-tail and its quarry is of a humbler nature, consisting almost entirely of mice, frogs, snakes, insects, spiders and crayfish. This species keeps more under cover of the forest than the Red-tail and though it watches for its prey from BIRDS OF NEW YORK 85 a lofty perch it is less often observed seated upon dead tree-tops and stubs in the open, or on the towering hillside. In the breeding season it is per- haps our noisiest hawk, its oft-repeated cry coming many times each day from the vicinity of the nesting site. The nest is a bulky structure mostly made of sticks and placed in the fork of a lofty tree, an elm, birch, maple, black cherry or beech being commonly selected, rarely an ever- green. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, dingy white or bluish white in color, irregularly and usu- ally rather heavily spotted and blotched with dark brown and yel- lowish brown and obscure shell markings. The nest is often built or repaired as early as the middle of March but the eggs are laid from April 1 to May to in this State. The period of incubation is about 4 weeks, and the young remain in the nest from 4 to 6 weeks. Like other hawks this species is much attached to its home, and the same nest or at least the same locality is occupied as long as either of the pair survives. Swainson hawk. Buteo swainsoni (Bonaparte). From specimen in Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. } nat. size Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte Swainson Hawk Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte. Geol. & Comp. List. 1838. 3 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p.1s9. No. 342 Distinctive marks. Only 3 outer quills emarginate; tail grayish brown, often tinged with hoary, with about 9 or 10 narrow dusky bands; variable 86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in color of body; iris brown; cere and feet yellow. Adult male: Above grayish brown; chest plain rufous; forehead, chin and throat white; rest of under parts buffy or whitish, usually more or less barred and spotted with brown. Female: Similar, but chest grayish brown. Dark phase: Whole plumage sooty brown, but specimens show all degrees of melanism from the normal phase to a uniform sooty color. Young: Above blackish brown, varied with buffy; head, neck and under parts buff or buffy white, more or less marked with blackish. Length o& 19-20, 9 21-22; extent o 48-51, 2 51-57; wing o& 14.50- 16, Q 15-17.50; tail 8-10; tarsus 2.30-2.90; middle toe 1.40-1.65; weight 1.6-3.5 pounds. This species inhabits western America from Alaska to Chili, and occasionally wanders eastward as far as New England. There are at least three records from Massachusetts and two from Maine. It is an accidental visitant in our State, records of only three undoubted New York specimens being before me: Onondaga co., N. Y., Oct. 1877. Brewster. Auk, 10: 83 Brockport, N. Y., Oct. 1, 1889. Short. Birds of Western N. Y. p. 10 Cornwall, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1892. Dutcher. Auk, 10: 83-84 Buteo platypterus (Vieillot) Broad-winged Hawk Plate 48 Sparvius platypterus Vieillot. Tableaux Encycl. Meth. 1823. 3:1273 Buteo pennsylvanicus DeKay. Zool. N.Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 11, fig. x1 Buteo platypterus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 159. No. 343 platypterus, Gr., signifying broad-winged Description. Our smallest buteo; tail with 2 or more rather broad bands of white; only 3 wing quills emarginate; upper parts dark grayish brown or slaty gray, more or less edged or marbled with grayish and buffy; under parts brownish or reddish brown, more or less spotted and barred with white, especially posteriorly, the chest being nearly solid ocherous brown; rather distinct dusky mustachios; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Young: Upper parts dusky, more or less edged with buff and rusty; under parts BIRDS OF NEW YORK 87 buffy white, rather heavily spotted and streaked with blackish; tail grayish brown with 4-8 narrow blackish bands. Length o 13.5-16, 9 16.5-17.5; extent 33-38; wing 10-12; tail 6.5-7.3; tarsus 2.2-2.8. Distribution. The Broad-winged hawk is a fairly common summer resident of the wooded districts of New York. In the Adirondacks it is probably the commonest hawk. On Long Island and in eastern New York generally, it is a summer resident of irregular distribution, but in western and central New York it is almost unknown as a breeding species. Although it breeds from the Gulf States northward to Alberta, Quebec and New Brunswick, it is much more local in distribution than the Red-tailed and , Red-shouldered hawks, inhabiting more exclusively the wooded country, either by preference or because its unsuspicious nature has brought about its extirpation in the more cultivated districts. In all parts of New York, however, it is a rather common migrant, at least in the coastal district, the Hudson valley, and in the country immediately south of Lake Ontario, where large flights often occur late in April and early in October, the migrations being accomplished between April 15 and May 25, and between August 10 and October 20. In southeastern New York the Broad-wing often remains throughout the winter as it does in the Ohio and Delaware valleys, but in western New York I have never seen a winter specimen. This species soars about in the air less than our other buteos and I have never heard it utter such loud and screaming notes. Fisher aptly compares its common note to that of the Wood pewee. It sometimes sits for hours on some high and conspicuous perch, but is more often found in the midst of the forest or silently seated in a low tree beside a stream or swamp, watching for snakes, mice, frogs or insects which constitute the principal part of its food. It shows little fear of man and when approached too closely will usually fly for only a short distance before alighting unconcernedly and continuing its scrutiny of the ground where its humble prey resides. The Broad-wing places its nest in trees, from 25 to 60 feet from the ground. It is about the size of a crow’s nest and composed of sticks, bark 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and leaves. The eggs are 3 to 4 in number, dull buffy white in ground color, spotted and blotched with yellowish brown and cinnamon brown, about 2.12 by 1.6 inches in dimensions. Eight sets of eggs in the Smith- sonian collection from Hamilton and Herkimer counties, N. Y., were all taken between May 19 and June 15, May 25 being the usual date for northern New York. Chapman gives April 18 as the date for eggs near New York City. Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis (Gmelin) Rough-legged Hawk Plates 43 and 48 Falco s. johannis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:273 Buteo sancti-joannis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 7, fig. 3 Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 161. No. 347a Archibiiteo, chief buzzard; lagépus, Gr., hare-footed; sancti-johdnnis, of St John Description. Legs feathered to the toes; base of tail white; body color varies from brownish gray above and white or buffy white below streaked with dusky, forming a more or less complete broad abdominal band, to a nearly uniform black; cere and toes yellow; iris brown. Light phase: Upper parts fuscous or grayish brown, margined with whitish and buffy; under parts varying from white to ocherous buff, spotted and streaked with blackish, forming a dark band in the abdominal region; inner webs of primaries and under surfaces of wing feathers white toward their bases; the tips of the wings black; under wing coverts in the carpal region form a conspicuous black patch; wing and tail feathers barred with gray and whitish. The bird gives the appearance of white and black in large patches, when flying. Dark phase: Varies from slightly darker than the normal to a uniform sooty black, except the base of tail, a portion of the bases of the wing feathers, slight marblings or bars on tail and wings, and a small frontlet of whitish. These white markings, however, do not show except when the bird is closely examined or, partly, when flying. Length 21-23; extent 52-56; wing 15-17; tail 9-10. Distribution. The Rough-legged hawk inhabits the northern portion of the boreal zone from Newfoundland and central British Columbia to the limit of trees, and wanders southward in winter over most of the United States. In New York it is a winter visitor of irregular occurrence, rather BIRDS OF NEW YORK 89 rare in the eastern and southern highland regions, but common, some winters, in the larger river valleys, the Lake Ontario lowlands, and the central lake region, and sometimes on eastern Long Island. At intervals of a few years there appear large flights of these hawks in western New York, especially in the Genesee valley and the extensive farm lands which lie south of Lake Ontario. This was the case in the winter of 1905-6, when Roughlegs were fairly abundant about Canandaigua, Geneseo, Cayuga, and many other localities. The birds begin to arrive from the north late in October, or some years not till the middle of November, and depart for their breeding grounds between March 25 and April 12, except for disabled or delayed stragglers which have been seen as late as May 30. This species prefers an open country of wide marshes, river bottoms, or rolling plains, with scattered trees from which to watch. for its humble prey. When trees are too few it is often seen coursing back and forth over the fields somewhat after the manner of the Marsh hawk, but with heavier flight and, whenever he discovers a luckless mouse, pounces silently upon it. Its flight seems low and labored, even when compared to the Red-tail, although its wings are longer and more pointed. Its habit of hunting largely in the twilight is correlated with its choice of diet, which consists almost exclusively of meadow mice. I have frequently found the remains of 7 to 9 mice in the stomach of one Rough-legged hawk, and never found a beneficial animal on its bill of fare. It therefore must be regarded as the most beneficial of all our Raptores, and the farmer should distinguish it carefully from such injurious species as the Goshawk, and protect it as one of his most valued allies. As recently as twenty years after the publication of Fisher’s ‘‘ Hawks and Owls,’”’ one of the most intelligent and extensive landholders in New York State was paying a hunter to rid his fields of dozens of this valuable mouser under the mis- apprehension that it was destroying his game birds. Thus there is need of spreading further the knowledge of our birds. ; 90 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Aquila chrysaétos (Linnaeus) Golden Eagle Plate 49 Falco chrysaetos Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:88 Aquila chrysaetos DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 4, fig. 14 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 162. No. 340 aquila, Lat., eagle; chrysdétos, Gr., ’aet6¢, eagle; xeveds, golden Description. Legs feathered to toes, tarsus whitish; basal two-thirds of tail white; back of head and neck ocherous buff or ‘‘ golden brown’’; general plumage dark brown with purplish gloss; the flight feathers and tip of tail darker, the latter forming a conspicuous terminal zone of black; cere and feet yellow; iris brown. Immature birds are darker and have the base of tail only slightly marked with grayish, and the tarsi and under tail coverts buffy. This species is little larger than the Bald eagle and at a distance can hardly be distinguished from immature birds of that species. Length o 30-34 inches, 9 35-41; extent o 78-84, 2 84-92; wing o 23-25, 9 25-27.5; tail 14-16; tarsus 3.6-4.3; weixht Io or 12 pounds. Distribution. This noble eagle inhabits the entire holarctic realm but is mostly confined to mountainous districts. It is rather rare in the eastern United States, and was never common in New York. In early colonial days it undoubtedly nested in the Highlands, Catskills and Adirondacks, but at the present time there seems to be no evidence of its nesting within our borders, although in 1877 Doctor Mearns thought it possible that it still bred in some secluded portion of the Highlands, and in 1900 Mr F. G. Pember of Granville, N. Y., thought it might breed on Pond mountain, Vermont, four miles east of Granville, where two young were taken from a nest several years before. Doctor Ralph is also authority for the state- ment that its eggs have been taken in the Adirondacks. This species must now be classed as an accidental, or a rare transient visitant. Within the last 60 years specimens have been reported from Schenectady, Putnam, Fulton, Chemung, Steuben, Orange, Westchester, Suffolk, Rensselaer, Herkimer, Columbia, Washington, Madison and Monroe counties. The latest record before me is October 25, 1900, when a golden eagle was captured alive in the city of Rochester, and placed in the local zoo (see Eaton, Birds of Western N. Y. p. 35). BIRDS OF NEW YORK gI Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus (Linnaeus) Bald Eagle Plates 43 and 49 Falco leucocephalus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. 1:124 Haliaetos leucocephalus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 5, fig. 1 Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus A.O. U. Check List. Ed.3. 1910. p. 162. No. 352 haligetus, sea eagle; leucocéphalus, white-headed Description. Adult: Head, neck and tail white; rest of plumage brownish black; bill and legs yellow; iris yellow. Immature: Nearly uniform brownish black, more or less varied with white spots, mostly on the under parts and tail; bill blackish; legs yellow; iris brown; during the second and third years they show more white on the under parts and tail, but are still of a prevailing blackish color. Length o 31-34 inches, 2 35-37; extent o 80-85, 9 85-90; wing o 21-23, 9 23-25; tail 11-13; bill 2.3-2.9; weight 8-12 pounds. Distribution. The Bald eagle, or its larger northern subspecies, inhabits nearly the whole of North America north of Mexico, but prefers the sea coast and regions of lakes and rivers. In New York it is still no unusual sight to see eagles along the shores of Long Island, in the Hudson valley, in the Adirondacks, along the Great Lakes, and in the central lake country. They are commonest in spring and summer, but may be seen at any time of year, mature birds, evidently not breeders, frequenting such localities as Conesus lake, Canandaigua lake and Niagara river through- out the spring and summer months. At latest accounts Bald eagles were nesting near Sodus bay in Wayne county, Constantia in Oswego county, Whelby pond in Dutchess county, and Indian lake and Taylor pond in the Adirondacks. It formerly nested in many places along the shores of Long Island, along the Hudson, the Great Lakes, the central lakes, the Adiron- _ dack lakes and Lake Champlain, but constant persecution or the destruc- tion of the nesting site has caused the abandonment of the majority of these localities, and ‘‘the eagle tree,’’ or the place where it stood, is gradually passing from the memory of the nearest inhabitants. 92 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Habits. The Bald eagle frequents the shores of lakes and rivers and chooses a sightly perch from which to scan the surface of the water for the dead fish which constitute its principal food in summer time. It is frequently seen also high in air soaring about in search of some dead sheep or other offal, which it seems to prefer next after fish, and I have seen it on several occasions set its wings when at a great height and descend to an ignoble repast of dead calf or other vulturine provender. Its power of sight is justly famous, but it is scarcely probable that it surpasses that of other raptores. Once I watched an eagle that was soaring at a great altitude above me when all at once he caught sight of a dead fish floating on the surface of the lake and, making a direct line for the fish, snatched it from the water and bore it off to shore. The fish I found by subsequent computation was three miles from the spot over which the eagle was soaring and I could not see the fish in the eagle’s talons at the time it was picked from the water although I was using a pair of six power field glasses. It is possible, however, that even a man could have seen the fish from the eagle’s station in the air as a white spot on the water. When the eagle does not find sufficient supply of dead fish it will rob the Fishhawk of its booty, as is well known by all naturalists, and will even take live fish from the water, but can not be compared with the Osprey as a fisherman, and probably does not even equal the Red-shouldered hawk or Barred owl in this accom- plishment. In the winter this eagle often attacks water fowl successfully, but can not easily capture the diving species when they are on the water. I have seen an eagle make repeated attacks upon a Canvasback duck which dove at every swoop of the eagle and finally escaped. Some have objected that the habits of this eagle scarcely entitle it to be chosen as the emblem of our native land, but its appearance, when soaring in the clouds or perched on the tip of a lofty pine tree, is truly majestic. The scream of | the eagle resembles somewhat the voice of the seagull; others have likened it to the bark of a fox or of a small dog, and Doctor Ralph called attention to the difference in the notes of the sexes, the male’s cry being a high , BIRDS OF NEW YORK 93 clear cac-cac-cac, and the female’s more harsh and broken, a note which, when heard nearby, Doctor Fisher compares to a loud maniacal laugh. The Bald eagle lays her eggs very early in the season, in February or early March, being the largest resident and earliest breeder of our diurnal birds of prey, as the Great horned owl is of our nocturnal Raptores. The eagle’s nest is usually built in a lofty tree, near the top, and the tree dies after a few years leaving the huge nest of sticks a conspicious object easily seen for a long distance by all who pass by. If undisturbed a pair will occupy the same nest for many years but, although the eagles are quite Bald eagle’s nest with young harmless neighbors and a distinct addition to the picturesqueness of the landscape, and legally protected by the statutes of our State, few eagle eyries have survived the vandalism of thoughtless tourists and fishermen, or of countrymen who shoot the birds for the local taxidermist or trap them for the nearest zoo, or of summer visitors from the city who conceive it a great achievement to lie in wait with a rifle and slaughter the parents or climb to the nest and carry off the young, or of oologists who take the eggs repeatedly. The eggs are 2 or 3 in number, dull white in color, 94 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and measure about 2.85 by 2.2 inches. The period of incubation is 4 weeks or more, and the young do not leave the nest till July or the first of August. When hatched they are covered with whitish down, but before they are able to fly have acquired the brownish black plumage as described above. Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus C. H. Leonard Northern Bald Eagle Eagles of the species leucocephalus inhabiting the boreal zone of North America are larger than southern birds and equal or surpass the largest dimensions given (wing 25, tail 13, tarsus 4, depth of bill 1.5). Many specimens from this State exhibit these dimensions, and are to be assigned to the northern race. In deciding this question, however, it is well for the amateur to remember that immature eagles have longer wings and tails than old ones. Family FALCONIDAE The Falcons Characters. Beak sharply hooked, toothed and notched, the lower mandible truncate and notched near the tip; nostrils circular, high up in the cere, with a central tubercle; bony eye shield projecting, of a single piece; septum of the nose much ossified; palatal bone with a median keel anteriorly; scapular process of the coracoid united to the clavicle; tarsus shorter than tibia, more or less feathered above, its scales reticulate; middle toe long; talons strong and curved; wings long, strong and pointed; tail stiff and rather short; legs stout; general build strong and muscular; the plumage aftershafted; basipterygoid process wanting; eyes brown in color; flight swift and strong, the prey usually pursued and captured in the air; courage great for the size of the birds. In this family the raptorial nature reaches its highest differentiation. The muscular build, the length and strength of the wings, the curious sculpturing of the sharp cutting edges of the beak, the powerful legs and long, strong, curved talons fit the falcons admirably for their career of rapine. They choose prey which is oftentimes larger and heavier than themselves. Few birds can escape their powerful, sweeping flight. They strike down and slaughter without trouble the swiftest flying ducks, grouse and pigeons, and, with the exception of the smaller members of the family BIRDS OF NEW YORK 95 such as the Kestrel and American sparrow hawk, are usually to be classed as injurious species because of their destructiveness in the feathered king- dom, though they often evade the condemnation of mankind because of the general admiration of their dashing bravery and preeminent fitness for their avocation. In the Orient, members of this family are still employed in the practice of falconry, but in western Europe this occupa- tion has fallen into disuse in recent times. Falco islandus Briinnich White Gryfa!con Plate 59 Distinctive marks. Wiite, the head and under parts almost without marks, only slightly streaked on the top and sides of head and on flanks and flags; the back, wings and tail marked with dusky broken bars and arrowheads. Young birds are somewhat more heavily marked than the old ones, and the markings are more lengthwise of the feathers than in bars, but still the predominant impression is of a white bird, especially the head, neck and under parts. Size the same as Gyrfalcon. This Arctic species has been taken in Maine and Ontario. Mr Frederic S. Webster reports one killed near Troy, N. Y., in the winter of 1874, but the specimen has not been traced. Arthur H. Helme writes that he saw a bird near Miller’s Place, L. I., which he feels sure belonged to this species, but as he was unable to secure the specimen, can not prove its occurrence beyond a doubt. Mr Helme’s experience as a field naturalist and familiarity with all our native birds, and Mr Webster’s work as a bird student and taxi- dermist give credence to these reports, but we still lack a New York specimen of this Gyrfalcon. ; Falco rusticolus rusticolus (Linnaeus) Gray Gyrfalcon This bird differs from the White gyrfalcon only in coloring. The upper parts barred, arrow-pointed and spotted transversely with grayish fuscous, whitish prevailing on the head and neck, dark prevailing on the back and wings, under parts white, decidedly lighter than upper parts, streaked and spotted with dark on the sides, flanks and under tail- coverts. Like the preceding this Arctic species has been taken in Wisconsin, Ontario and Maine, and must visit the northern portions of New York at rare intervals, but no specimens from the State as yet have been discovered. 96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Falco rusticolus gyrfalco (Linnaeus) Gyrfalcon Plate 50 Falco gyrfalco Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:91 Falco rusticolus gyrfalco A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 164. No. 354a falco, Lat., a falcon, from falx, a sickle from the shape of the bill; rusticolus, Lat., inhabiting the country; gyrfdlco, probably=hierofalco, divine or noble falcon Description. Upper parts brownish gray or fuscous, slightly marked with buffy white, the whitish markings in the form of streaks, and edgings on the neck and head, but narrow bars on the tail coverts and tail, and the back only slightly marked. Under parts heavily streaked with fuscous and dull white. Heavy blackish “mustaches.” Bill bluish horn color, nearly black at tip; legs bluish gray, claws black; iris brown. As in all species of gyrfalcons, the immature birds have a tendency to buffy white in the light markings of the upper parts, and these markings are rather in streakings than in bars. Length 23-24 inches, extent 50-55; wing 13.50-16; tail 8.5-10; tarsus 2.4, feathered one-half way down on front and sides; middle toe 2.2; weight 5 1/4 pounds. This Gyrfalcon breeds in the Arctic regions from Ellesmere Land east- ward to Franz-Josef Land, and wanders southward in winter to Minnesota, New York and Rhode Island. The New York records are as follows: Long Island, winter of 1856, 9 immature, mounted by John Akhurst, now in collection Long Island Historical Society, Brooklyn, N. Y. Law- rence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., 8280. Dutcher, Auk, 10: 274; Chapman, Birds of N. Y., etc., p. 41, no. 171; and Braislin, Birds of L. I., p. 69, no. 182, reported asFalcoislandus. Pond Quogue, L. I., 1877, o adult, shot by William Lane, mounted by Knoess of Riverhead, N. Y., secured from John Wallace by Robert Lawrence and presented to the Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Robert Lawrence, N. O. C. Bul., 5: 117, reported as Falco sacer. Rome, N. Y., winter of 1895, 2 killed, H. L. Bowers. Auburn, N. Y., March 29, 1902, 2 immature, shot by Edwin Redman, mounted by L. O. Ashbury. Specimen now in State Museum. Canandaigua, N. Y., Dec. 25, 1905, 9 immature, shot by Duel, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 97 obtained by Ernest Watts for the author's collection, original of the painting by Fuertes, plate 50. The Gyrfalcon is the largest, swiftest and most powerful of our falcons though, according to Saunders, inferior to the Peregrine in dash and spirit. It preys upon waterfowl, ptarmigan, grouse and hares. The Canandaigua specimen mentioned above was feasting on a large Plymouth rock hen when shot, and its gullet and stomach were filled with the breast meat of the fowl, with scarcely a trace of bone and feathers. These birds are very destructive to grouse, pheasants and rabbits but as they are so uncommon in New York, they can not become a great menace to game coverts except in rare instances. Falco rusticolus obsoletus Gmelin Black Gyrfalcon Plate 50 Falco obsoletus Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. I. 1: 268 Falco rusticolus obsoletus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 164. No. 354b obsolétus, Lat., dusky Distinguishing marks. Uniformly dusky or slaty fuscous, without bars above except obscure broken bars on the tail and with few and incon- spicuous streaks below. Size the same as the common Gyrfalcon. This dark phase of the Gyrfalcon breeds in northern Ungava and Labrador, and spreads southward in winter as far as Ontario, New York and Rhode Island. Four New York specimens are known, the first from Flushing, L. I., fall of 1875, mounted by J. Wallace and now in the collection of George A. Boardman. See Berier N. O. C. Bul. 6: 126 and 247. Through a misunderstanding this bird was reported as from Westchester county. See Rod and Gun, 7:153. Westchester co., winter of 1879, Sage, Bishop & Bliss, Birds of Conn. State Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. bul. 20, p. 83, 1913. The third specimen from this State was killed near Lake Ontario in Monroe county, October 1890, mounted at Ward’s Natural Science Establishment. and now in the State Museum at Albany. See Marshall, 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Auk, 9: 203. This specimen is a female, and measured ‘‘ Length 22.5 inches; tail 9.50; wing 15.50, spread 51; cere and feet gray, not so bright a gray as in the Osprey.’’ Another specimen is reported from Bellport, L. I., winter of 1899, by Mr W. A. Babson. Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte Duck Hawk Plates 43 and 51 Falco anatum Bonaparte. Geog. and Comp. List. 1838. 4 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 13, fig. 8 Falco peregrinus anatum A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. x9z0. p. 164. No. 356a peregrinus, Lat., wandering; dnuatum, Lat., of ducks Description. A large powerful falcon. Adult: # and 2 bluish slate above becoming black on crown and sides of head; the back and wing-coverts indistinctly barred or spotted with dusky; tail with several blackish bars; under parts buffy or dull whitish, the chest sparingly streaked, and the remainder, including the under surfaces of wings and tail, uniformly barred with blackish; throat white or buffy white, bordered by conspicuous black mustachios; cere, eyelids and feet yellow; bill bluish; claws black; iris dark brown. Young: Brownish or dusky above, under parts more buffy or ocherous, quite heavily streaked with blackish. Length o& about 17 inches; 9 19; extent 40-46; wing o I1.5-13, 92 13-15; statsus1 7-2-1. Distribution. This noble falcon is found throughout the United States and breeds from North Carolina and Mexico north to the Arctic coasts. It prefers the mountainous districts, occurring in New York along the Palisades, the Highlands, and the Adirondacks. Undoubtedly it is much more generally distributed than is commonly known, its seclusive habits and custom of traveling long distances on its foraging excursions often concealing the location of its home, or even the fact of its residence, from people who live in the immediate vicinity. Several pairs are known to nest in the Palisades and Highlands. I have found its eyrie on a spur of Mt Colvin overlooking the Lower Ausable lake where the guides of the Adirondack Mountain Reserve have known of its nesting for many years; also in a deep gorge near the Massachusetts line in Columbia county; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 99 and at Taughannock Falls near the shore of Cayuga lake, June 25, 1909. This nest, discovered by Miss Gertrude Yeames and identified by the author, Mr Fuertes tells me, was occupied again in 1910, and undoubtedly has been used for many years. It has been photographed and described by Allen, Knight and Bailey. See Bird Lore, Jan. 1913. This hawk possibly breeds in the Montezuma swamps in the cavities of basswoods or syca- mores as it does in the Mississippi valley, for the birds are occasionally seen there in the nesting season. Nests of the Duck hawk with eggs have been reported from the Palisades, March 30 (Chapman); from the Helder- berg mountains 30 miles from Albany, April 11, 1884 (Lintner, Auk, 1: 391); from Morehouse, Hamilton county, May 16, 1896 (Bagg, Auk, 14: 226) and from Pond mountain, Vermont, 4 miles from Granville, N. Y., by F. T. Pember. As a transient this falcon is recorded regularly along the Long Island coast, September 17 to October 25 (Dutcher), along the Great Lakes, April and October; and the Montezuma marshes, March 10 to April 20, and August 20 to October 30 (Foster Parker). Mr Batty reported it as a ‘‘ common fall and winter resident ’’ along the shores of Long Island (Forest & Stream, 4:374). From the interior of the State this hawk has also been mentioned from Seneca lake and Grand island by Ottomar Reinecke; from Lowville by James H. Miller; from Harmony, Chautauqua county, by A. E. Kibbe; from Ithaca, 1899, by Fuertes; from Yates county by James Flahive; from Orleans county by Bruce and Langille; from West River, Canandaigua lake, June 3, 1906, by Maurice Blake; and from Canan- daigua, March 15, 1903, a fine male captured by Addison P. Wilbur. But these reports do not represent its actual occurrence, as it is so rarely taken or recognized; it surely occurs regularly, though sparingly, in all parts of the State, but is most often found along the coast, lakes and marshes, where waterfowl and shore birds are common. Habits. The Duck hawk differs from the Peregrine falcon of the Eastern Hemisphere only in having the throat and upper chest unmarked; its power, swiftness and intrepidity are the same. The Noble falcon, as it is often called, attacks any kind of game from the size of a wild duck 7 100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to a sparrow, but usually chooses birds of medium size, such as pigeons, flickers, plover and small ducks. It pursues its chosen quarry with astonish- ing rapidity, the wing strokes resembling more the flight of a pigeon than that of our common hawks. It rarely soars except for an instant in making a turn, or after it has struck its prey in mid-air, or has made an wnsuccess- ful attack and wheels to reconnoitre. I once saw a Duck hawk come like a descending rocket and snatch a gold finch in the air so suddenly that the poor finch apparently was not aware of its enemy or, if so, had no time to change its course to an appreciable degree. Mr Parker has described the actions of a falcon which came to the Montezuma marshes with the migrating shore birds in August 1908, as particularly cruel and destructive. It would pursue the flocks of sandpipers and plover, striking one after another into the mud or water, but seldom pausing to devour or carry off its plunder. Whenever the falcon appears over the marshes all the ducks within sight exhibit the greatest distress, but when an eagle, Red-tail or Marsh hawk comes over they are not at all concerned. It is not an unusual experience for this daring pirate to carry off a hunter’s decoy or a wounded duck so rapidly and unexpectedly that the gun is powerless against him. The nest of this falcon is almost always placed on a ledge or opening in the rocks of some precipitous cliff, and in this State the eggs are laid from March 30 to April 20. These are 3 or 4 in number, about 2.1 by 1.7 inches in dimensions, of a color ranging from light buff to reddish brown and heavily marked with cinnamon and dark reddish brown. The young nestlings are covered with white down, but soon the brown feathers of the juvenal plumage appear on the wings, tail and scapulars, at the age of about four weeks entirely displacing or concealing the nestling down. Both sexes of the eyas or young falcon, unlike the subgenus Cerchneis, are similar in coloration, dark brown above and heavily streaked below, and do not show the ashy or slaty color of the adults nor the barring of the under parts till after the first complete moult. As the nestling falcon approaches the age for leaving the eyry, its restless disposition asserts itself, and it screams and hops and tries its wings about its native BIRDS OF NEW YORK 101 ledge, each day with greater freedom. Sometimes they fall from the nesting- shelf and perish on the rocks below, as was the case with a tiercel in my collection, from the Lower Ausable lake. The unhappy fall of this bird was witnessed by Messrs Achilles, Taylor and Fuller, who were helping me in the Adirondack bird survey. They had watched the eyry for 24 hours from a concealed station to observe the visits of the parent falcons. Food was brought only once in this time, and the young birds became unusually restless. Finally the male fell over the mountain side and was killed on the talus slope. I believe that the old birds in this case were trying to lure the young from the nest by bringing insufficient food to the ledge. As the young begin to fly the parent birds fly by with prey in their talons, and the young rise to snatch it from them in mid-air as they pass. Thus the weaklings are sometimes left to perish, or in their struggles to obtain the prize meet their destruction. The falcon’s eyry must needs be a strenuous school to train the fiercest of all our raptores for his murderous career. Falco columbarius columbarius Linnaeus Pigeon Hawk Plate 52 Falco columbarius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed.10. 1758. 1:90 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 15, fig. 9 Falco columbarius columbarius A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 165. No. 357 3. ot go E 6 § > £ |os|ea] seal ¢.| | 32] & gi | $23 #8 New York Species “3 aes a3 gas 5 & § ¢| 8 Se = 4. 4 a ms & Ae x 35 « 2 88 83 a8 oe go] os ¥ z B35 B 2 BE é S 33 - a 2) q q ra) a Lt AR aan 88.93 4 07 a 35 oie 3 7 3 be Ir 83 ae Ai a ae! 36 See ETCHED. case 93.70 30] 16.7 13. 14.26] 3 15.62 d , 7 Sanaa Papas wieis 89 23] 10.77] 15.33] 26.69] 10.38} 6.89) 12.91 8:86 $17 ° 4.99] 5 78 Olive-sided = ome acme bhatt 99.95 05 24) 82.56] 3.25) 1.12 4.13] 1.77 ° -04 or Wood pewee............. 98.97| 1.03] 14.23 28.20} 5.99] 29.08 3.44) 12.31] 2.61 2.21 -84 19 Yellow-bellied fiyeaicher. 97.01} 2.90] 16.53 46.25 .16] 14.890 ° 5.68) .98 8.52] 2.51 48 Acadian flycatcher. . 97.05} 2.95| 13.76 39.93 -03| 8.15 6.38 18.87 .99 2.94) 2.68 -27 Alder flycatcher.......... 96.05} 3.95] 17.80 41.37] 7.24] 14.20] . 3.91 7.73| 2.77 -94| 3.88 .07 Least flycatcher.......... 97.83| 2.17] 21.35 41.10] If.12) 11.34 2.59) 7.27 +95 2.11] 1.83 -39 1From Bulletin 44, Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus) Kingbird Plate 67 Lanius tyrannus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758. 1:94 Tyrannus intrepidus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 117, fig. 72 Tyrannus tyrannus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. ror10. p. 298. No. 444 tyrdnnus, Lat., a tyrant Description. Upper parts grayish slate color; the wing feathers Photo by James H. Miller Young kingbirds blackish; tail black, tipped with white; under parts white, a grayish tinge on the sides of breast; top of the head blackish concealing a brilliant orange patch which flashes into view when the bird is excited; bill blackish. Length 8.40-8.75 inches; extent 14-15; wing 4.65; tail 3.56; bill .60. The slaty upper parts of this bird, his white throat and under parts, blackish tail with sharp white tip, combined with his ordinary quivering and soaring flight low over the fields, with tail spread, make him one of the easiest of our common birds for the amateur to recognize. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 183 Distribution. The Kingbird breeds from British Columbia, Macken- zie, Quebec and Newfoundland south to New Mexico and Florida, and spends the winter from southern Mexico to Bolivia and British Guiana. In New York it is a common summer resident in all portions of the State except the interior of the densely forested regions, but it invades the Catskill and Adirondack districts along the clearings and river valleys to the edge of the spruce and balsam forests. In the cultivated portions it is one of the commonest of our dominant species, among the flycatchers ranking next to the Phoebe and the Wood pewee in abundance. It arrives from the south from the 25th of April to the 1oth of May and departs for the south from September 15th to 3oth. Habits. The Kingbird inhabits orchards, pastures, hedgerows and roadsides. It is a common sight to see this bird seated on the top of a mullein stalk, fence post, telegraph wire or the peak of an apple tree, on the lookout for beetles, bees, grasshoppers, moths and flying insects of all _ kinds. Whenever he sees an attractive insect he swoops down and snaps - him up with perfect precision. If a hawk or crow approaches the limits of _ his domain he immediately gives chase. Mounting above the intruder he darts down and striking him on the top of the head or the: back drives him rapidly from the neighborhood. In this way he renders efficient service in keeping crows and hawks away from the chicken yard. On the other hand, most beekeepers denounce the Kingbird because of the great number of bees which he destroys. Examination of stomachs, however, has shown repeatedly that he prefers the drones to the worker bees, and consequently does no great damage; but unquestionably at times he becomes too destruc- tive when he makes his home in the immediate vicinity of a beehive. The nest of the Kingbird is usually constructed in an apple tree, thorn bush or shade tree of any species, at a height of from 6 to 20 feet from the ground. I have even known of its being placed on the top of an old fence post and in vines overrunning a stone wall. It is composed of straws, weeds and roots, lined with rootlets, soft bark, fine grasses, hair and wool. The eggs are usually 4 to 5 in number laid from the 25th of May to the 15th of June, 184 = NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a rich creamy white in color rather coarsely spotted with reddish brown, chocolate and lavender, mostly in a wreath near the larger end. They are oval in shape and measure I by .74 inches. The notes of the Kingbird are loud, the commonest being a rapidly repeated rattling call resembling remotely the rattle of a Kingfisher. The researches of the Biological Survey have shown that their food consists principally of beetles, flies, grasshoppers and members of the bee family. Tyrannus dominicensis (Gmelin) Gray Kingbird Lanius dominicensis Gmelin. Syst. Nat. 1788. 1:302 Tyrannus dominicensis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 208. No. 445 dominicénsis, of St Domingo Description. Upper parts plumbeous gray. The adults have con- cealed orange crown patch; lower parts white; fail emarginate, without a white ttp. Length 9-9.75 inches; wing 4.5~-4.75; tail 3.5-4; bill large, length from nostril .8. Distribution. The Gray kingbird is an inhabitant of the southeastern United States from South Carolina to the Greater Antilles; winters in the Lesser Antilles, Mexico and Central America. In New York it is only an accidental visitant, a single specimen having been obtained at Seetauket, Long Island, in Suffolk county, 30 miles east of New York and reported in ‘“‘ Forest and Stream,” volume 2, 1874, page 373. Specimens of this species have been obtained similarly in Maine and New Jersey, but it rarely wanders north of Carolina. Tyrannus verticalis Say Arkansas Kingbird Tyrannus verticalis Say. Long’s Exped. 1823. 2:60 (note) A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p.209. No. 447 verticdlis, Lat., pertaining to vertex, the top or head, in allusion to the brilliant crown patch of the adult Description. Head, neck and back light ashy gray; wings dusky brown; tail black, the outer feathers with white outer webs; a concealed BIRDS OF NEW YORK 185 ia a crown patch; belly yellow; young, duller colored, with no crown atch. P Length 8.5-9.5 inches; wing o 4.75-5.25; tail even or slightly emar- ginate 3.7-4; bill from nostril .5. Distribution. The Arkansas kingbird, a western species, has been _ taken accidentally in the eastern part of the United States, in Iowa, New Jersey, Maine and the District of Columbia. A single specimen from New York, taken at Riverdale October 19, 1875, an immature male, is recorded by E. P. Bicknell in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, volume 4, page 60. Myiarchus crinitus (Linnaeus) Crested Flycatcher Plate 67 Turdus crinitus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:170 Tyrannus crinitus DeKay. Zool.N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 119, fig. 70 - Myiarchus crinitus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910, p.210. No. 452 myidrchus, Gr., wuta, fly, and aey6c, ruler; crinitus, Lat., haired or crested Description. Upper parts olive; throat and breast ash gray; belly and under tail coverts sulphur yellow; tail from below shows all the inner webs rufous, many of the wing feathers also rufous on the inner webs; head ° somewhat crested. Length 8.75-9.15 inches; extent 13-14; wing 3.9-4.4; tail 3.6-4.2; bill from nostril .6; tarsus .8. , Distribution. The Crested flycatcher is a summer inhabitant of eastern North America from the gulf coast to New Brunswick and Ontario; winters from southern Florida to Central America. in New York State it is a common summer resident in the warmer districts and fairly common on the uplands above 1000 feet, but is practically absent from the interior of the Catskill and Adirondack forests, although it invades the valleys almost to the heart of those regions. It arrives from the 25th of April to the 12th of May and disappears in the fall between the 1st and the 25th of September. During some seasons this flycatcher rivals the King- bird and the Wood pewee in abundance, but, in general, is less common ~ 186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM than either the Kingbird, Phoebe, Wood pewee or Least flycatcher, though commoner and more generally distributed than the other members of the family. The Crested flycatcher is more confined to the groves and forests than the Kingbird and though often seen occupying exposed posi- tions on tops of dead trees or fence posts, is rarely observed far from the friendly shelter of abundant foliage. His loud shrill whistle which sounds like the syllable ‘“‘wheep’’ and resembles somewhat a similar cry of the Red-headed woodpecker may be heard for one-fourth of a mile and serves inevitably to call attention to this bird wherever he has established his home. He is the brightest colored of all our flycatchers and is a bird of great courage and interesting habits. The nest is usually concealed in a hollow tree or old woodpecker’s hole at a height of 15 to 50 feet from the ground, composed of grasses, rootlets, hair, pine needles and invariably the cast off skin of a snake is woven among the contents of the nest, to act as some have fancied, as a terrifier of red squirrels and Red-headed wood- peckers which might see fit to attack the eggs or young. The eggs are usually 4 in number, sometimes 5 or 6, the ground color a rich cream, profusely marked with ‘‘ pen streaks’’ of chocolate and reddish brown. . They average .92 by .68 inches in dimensions. After the mating and breeding season this flycatcher is less noisy and often escapes attention so that he is supposed to depart for the south early in August, but if one searches carefully in his haunts among the foliage and watches for his spirited sallies in quest of flying insects, it is evident that he has not deserted his favorite groves but remains with us to the date stated above. The Kingbird and Crested flycatcher are both valuable on account of their preference for the larger flying insects, especially beetles, like the June beetles and other large Coleoptera which are shunned by our smaller species. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 187 Sayornis phoebe (Latham) Phoebe Plate 67 Muscicapa phoebe Latham. Index Orn. 1790. 2: 489 Muscicapa fusca DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 115, fig. 67 Sayornis phoebe A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. roro. p. 212. No. 456 sayérnis, from the name of Thomas Say and Gr., épvt¢, bird; phéebe, in imitation of its note Description. Upper parts grayish brown; the top of the head notice- ‘ably darker, almost blackish; wings and tail fuscous; wing bars almost indistinguishable; under parts dingy white, tinged with brownish gray on the breast and sides, and washed with yellowish on the belly; bill blackish. Length 7 inches; extent 11.25; wing 3.4; tail 3.5; bill .45. The Phoebe may be distinguished from the Wood pewee by its blackish under mandible, the whitish outer vane of the outer tail feather and the fuscous crown. It is also slightly larger and more brownish, a scarcely showing any olive or greenish tinge on the upper parts. Its note ~ also, a two syllabled call of pe-wee or phoebe is clearly different from the three syllabled plaintive pee-a-wee of its smaller relative. Distribution. The Phoebe inhabits eastern America from Alberta, Keewatin, Quebec and New Brunswick to New Mexico, Mississippi and Georgia, and winters from latitude 37 southward to Vera Cruz. In New York it is probably the commonest member of the flycatcher family, being ‘a summer resident throughout the State except in the spruce and balsam forests of the Catskills and Adirondacks. It arrives from the south from the 15th of March to the toth of April and departs for more southern latitudes from October 15th to 30th. Habits. The Phoebe bird prefers the vicinity of water. It usually a constructs its nest on the timbers of a bridge, or on the shaly overhanging bank of some stream, or on the beams of the lakeside cottage or on the veranda post, or beneath the shed or eaves of the barn. In fact, nearly any position which is sheltered from the rain and storm is suitable for this bird. It has adapted itself both to civilized conditions and to the wilder- ness. Like all flycatchers, the Phoebe chooses a conspicuous lookout from (o7) 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM which it darts upon any passing insect and returns to its chosen perch, always pumping its tail decidedly as soon as it alights, and frequently while seated. The note which is often heard and has given it its common name consists of the two syllables ‘‘Phoe-be”’ or ‘‘ pee-wee,” Photo by Ralph S. Paddock Phoebe’s nest and eggs which also distinguishes the bird from the Wood peewee whose note con- sists of three syllables. The Phoebe begins to construct her nest as early as the third week in April and the first sets of eggs are to be found from the 20th of April to the middle of May. The eggs are usually 5 in number, Pe a a BIRDS OF NEW YORK 189 sometimes 4 or 6; creamy white in color, rather broadly oval in shape, sometimes with a few fine reddish brown spots; average size .79 by .60 inches. Two broods are reared in a season in this State, but rarely in the same nest, for before the young are able to fly they and the whole nesting site usually become infested with innumerable small reddish lice which sometimes kill the young birds and render the nest uninhabitable for the remainder of the season. This pitiful misfortune of the Phoebe bird has made her an unwelcome neighbor about the summer camp, and many nests are destroyed each season by people who might better dust the nests and young with insect powder and thus protect themselves and the birds alike from the unwelcome parasites. Nuttallornis borealis (Swainson) Olive-sided Flycatcher Plate 67 Tyrannus borealis Swainson. Fauna Bor.-Am. 1831 (1832). 2: 141, pl. 35 Tyrannus ccoperi DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 118, fig. 73 Nuttallornis borealis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p.213. No. 459 nuttall6rnis, formed from the surname of Thomas Nuttall and éovs, bird; borealis, northern Description. Upper parts brownish slate; wings and tail blackish; the indistinct wing bars and edgings of the secondaries grayish; sides brownish gray; middle line of all the under parts from throat to tail, whitish; a conspicuous tuft of silky white feathers on the flank, usually showing on the sides of the rump when the bird is at rest. Length 7.2-8 inches; wing 4-4.5; tail emarginate, 2.9-3.5; bill from nostril .54; tarsus .6. Distribution. The Olive-sided flycatcher inhabits eastern North America, breeding from Massachusetts to Minnesota, and in the Alleghanies from North Carolina northward to the Hudsonian zone; winters in tropical America. In New York State this bird is a rather uncommon transient visitant in the greater portion of the State, arriving from the 12th to the 20th of May and passing on to the north between the 24th and 31st of the month. In the fall they make their appearance in the coastal district 190 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM between the 15th and 3oth of August and specimens are last seen in southern New York between the 1oth and the 30th of September. In the Catskills and Adirondacks the Olive-sided flycatcher is a fairly common summer resident, breeding from an altitude of 1500 feet to the highest portions of the mountains. It inhabits the burned districts, ‘‘ slashings,’’ partially cleared valleys and mountain slopes, spruce swamps and the borders of flowed lands throughout this spruce and balsam belt. It has been reported by Mr Maxon as breeding in Madison county especially about the eastern end of Oneida lake; and one instance of its nesting not far from the city of Albany has been reported. But aside from this, it is confined as a summer resident to the Canadian zone not even occurring in the colder swamps and uplands of western New York as far as I know. This bird is a conspicuous inhabitant of the burned lands and swamps of the Adiron- dacks, his loud whistie resembling the syllables “‘ pi-pee,’’ being audible at a distance of half a mile. It has also a lower note like the syllable “chip,” or “ pip-pip-pip,’ which he utters when disturbed, and also a chatter somewhat similar to the Kingbird’s, uttered when the nest is disturbed. Its nest is placed at a height of 25 to 40 feet, usually on the limb of a spruce tree, and composed of roots, grasses and mosses. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, deposited from the 20th to the 30th of June. They are creamy white, spotted, especially about the larger end, with reddish brown and lilac and measure .85 by .63 inches. Myiochanes virens (Linnaeus) Wood Pewee Plate 68 Muscicapa virens Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed.12. 1:327 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 114, fig. 69 Myiochanes virens A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 213. No. 461 mytochanes, Gr., puta, fly, and probably some form of éy, to grasp (cf. 6yavov); virens, Lat., green Description. Upper parts olive brown; the head somewhat darker; under parts whitish tinged with dull yellow; the breast and sides washed BIRDS OF NEW YORK I9I with gray. Fall specimens have the under parts more heavily tinged with yellow; under mandible light colored toward the base. Length 6-6.5 inches; extent 10-11; wing 3-3.45; tail 2.5-2.9, slightly emarginate; bill from nostril .4; tarsus .51. The Wood pewee may be distinguished from the other small flycatchers by its larger size, from the Phoebe by being smaller and less brown, more greenish on the upper parts. Its note, however, a plaintively whistled “ pee-a-wee,’’ will distinguish it at a distance better than anything else, both from the Phoebe and its smaller relatives, Distribution. This species inhabits North America from Manitoba and southern Quebec, south to Texas and central Florida, and winters from Nicarauga to Peru. In New York it is universally distributed as .a summer resident and breeds commonly in every county of the State. It arrives from the south from the 3d to the 14th of May, in cold seasons Photo by Clarence F. Stone Pewee’s nest and eggs sometimes not appearing in the northern portions till the 20th or 22d of the month. It is last seen in the fall between the 5th and the 25th of September. A few October records, however, have come to my notice. In the southern part of the State it occasionally remains until October 2d and one record of October 19th comes from Long Island. 192 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Habits. The Wood pewee inhabits orchards, shade trees, groves and forests in all parts of the State. I have found it breeding in the shade trees of lawns and in apple trees in the city back yard, as well as in the midst of the Adirondack wilderness at a distance of only 4 miles from the top of Mt Marcy. It selects a humble perch, usually one of the lower limbs of a forest tree or an apple tree. Here it sits, occasionally whistling its common note and giving chase now and then to the flying insects which pass its station, returning again to the same perch after the usual habit of its family. When slightly disturbed it utters a low ‘‘chit,” and when its nest is in danger flies about uttering a continual “ chitter.” The nest is usually placed on a horizontal limb or a small fork at aheight | of from 6 to 30 feet from the ground. The outside dimensions are 2.75 by 1.75 inches and the inside dimensions 1.75 by 1.25. It is constructed of small twigs, rootlets and grass stalks neatly matted together, and over the outside a coating of greenish and grayish lichens is invariably affixed. The center of the nest is so loosely constructed that when it is placed in the horizontal fork one may see through it from the ground. In general. appearance it resembles the hummingbird’s nest, but is less downy and not so deep in proportion to its size. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, usually 3, of a creamy white color more or less heavily spotted, usually in a wreath near the large end of the egg, with chestnut, claret brown, rufous and lavender. They average about .72 by .54 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is usually 12 days and the young remain in the nest for 10 days or 2 weeks after hatching. This flycatcher is not commonly accused, like the Kingbird, of feeding upon the honey bees, but confines its diet largely to injurious insects, although it occasionally takes some of the beneficial Hymenoptera. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 193 Empidonax flaviventris (W. M. & S. F. Baird) Yellow-bellied Flycatcher Plate 68 Tyrannula flaviventris W. M. &S. F. Baird. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1843. 1: 283 Muscicapa flaviventris DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 113 Empidonax flaviventris A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 214. No. 463 empidonax, Gr., meaning gnat king; flavivéntris, Lat., yellow-bellied Description. _ Upper parts olive green, nearly uniform in color, but the wings with lighter bars and edgings; under parts yellow; sides of breast somewhat washed with grayish. This species is one of our four little flycatchers which can be identified unmistakably at sight, its nearly uniform yellow under parts and olive green upper parts being an infallible guide. Length 5.4-5.8 inches; extent 8.6; wing 2.45-2.75; tail emarginate 2-2.3; bill from nostril .31; width at base .26; tarsus .66. Distribution. The Yellow-bellied flycatcher inhabits eastern North America from Alberta, northern Quebec and Newfoundland to North Dakota, Michigan, New York and the mountains of Pennsylvania, and winters from southern Mexico to Panama. In New York it is a transient visitant, fairly common in most portions of the State, arriving from the 5th to the 19th of May, usually by the roth, and passing on to the breeding grounds from May 30th to June 1oth. In the fall the southern migration begins from the 4th to the 20th of August and the last have passed us from the 2d to the 18th of September. Our Adirondack party found them nesting in July on the damp slopes of the Geological Cobble, Indian Head, Skylight and Mt Marcy; and after the first week of August we found them more abundant about Elk lake, Boreas pond and similar locali- ties. This flycatcher has also been reported as spending the summer at Tully, N. Y., by Mr J. A. Dakin, and at Peterboro (June 15th) by Mr Gerritt S. Miller; also reported as a summer resident of Granville, Wash- ington county, by Mr F. T. Pember, and near Buffalo by Mr Ottomar Reinecke. In the Canadian zone of New York it is a fairly common summer resident, but is somewhat local in distribution inhabiting mostly the damp 194 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM shady slopes and mountains where the rocks and soil are covered with a dense mat of green mosses and the atmosphere is continually laden with moisture. Here it may be found from early in June to the first of August and here it constructs its nest hidden among the moss on some fallen log or thickly covered rock or steeply sloping bank. Its external dimensions are 4 by 4.5 inches and the internal dimensions 2 by 1} inches, composed of mosses, lichens and liverworts, mostly mosses of various kinds. It is almost impossible to discover the nest except when the bird is driven from it. The eggs are from 3 to 5 in number, usually 4, milky white, finely spotted with rusty or cinnamon brown, and average .67 by .51 inches in dimensions. They are laid from the 15th to the 25th of June and fresh ones are occasionally found as late as the middle of July. The Yellow- bellied flycatcher utters a low plaintive ‘ peeh-peeh”’ or “‘ pee-a,”’ as some write it, or as it sounds at other times, ‘‘ pee-wick’’; another note might be written ‘‘ ti-pee-a.” After the young are able to care for them- selves they commonly descend from the mountainside and are found more about the streams, swamps and lakesides. Empidonax virescens (Vicillot) Acadian Flycatcher Plate 68 Platyrhynchos virescens Vieillot. Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. 1878. Py Ba Empidonax virescens A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. r910. p.2rs5.. No. 465 ~ viréscens, Lat., greenish (lit. becoming green) Description. Upper parts olive green, but lighter in shade than that of the Yellow-bellied flycatcher; under parts white washed with pale yellowish and slightly tinged with greenish on the breast, but the throat and the center of the belly tawny white; wing bars and edgings of the secondaries tawny. Length 5.75-6.25 inches; extent 9.50; wing 2.6-3.15; tail 2.25-2.75; | bill from nostril .35; width at base .30; tarsus .65. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America from Iowa, southern Ontario, New York and Connecticut south to Texas and northern Florida; winters in northwestern South America. In New York BIRDS OF NEW YORK 195 State it is confined to the Carolinean faunal area, common in the lower _ Hudson valley as far north as the lower edge of the highlands, fairly com- mon in the western portion of Long Island, but local and uncommon in _ Suffolk county. In the upper Hudson valley and on the lowlands of a western New York it is very irregular in occurrence and must be regarded as rare or certainly uncommon. Mr Bicknell found it breeding at River- P dale from the roth to the 25th of June; Doctor Fisher called it a common summer resident at Ossining; Mr Brownell found it a fairly common summer resident at Nyack; Mr Roosevelt and Mr Howell found it fairly common in the vicinity of Oyster Bay, Northport and Wood Haven, Long Island; Mr Helm has taken two nests with eggs at Millers Place in Suffolk county. In the interior of New York the definite records are as follows: Amsterdam, June 5, 1885; Syracuse, May 29, 1887, Smithsonian, Institution collection no. 162,523; Ithaca, June 4, 1899, T. L. Hankinson; Hilton, August 14, 1903, seen by Albert H. Wright. Definite breeding at records for the interior are: Fairhaven, July 18, 1876, see Auburn list, _ page 23; Canandaigua, 1883, nest found by E. J. Durand; Niagara county, June 14, 1887, female with nest and three eggs taken by J. L. Davison; Chili, Monroe county, June 29, 1900, nest found by E. H. Short; Meridian, Cayuga county, July 4, 1891, nest with three eggs, see Bendire, Life His- tories, 2:302; Erie, Pa., June 26, 1899, see Todd, Birds of Erie, page 563; Woodlawn, Monroe county, N. Y., May 30, 1909, nest seen by the author. B: Besides these, reports of its breeding not confirmed by specimens are: 5 Buffalo, O. Reinecke; Onondaga county, A. W. Perrior; Rensselaer county, Dr T. B. Heimstreet; Little Falls, J. R. Benton; Orleans county, —_ O. Reinecke; Jamestown, Mrs R. R. Rogers; West Barry, C. D. Clarkson and G. D. Gillett. a The Acadian or Green-crested flycatcher inhabits the dense wood- 4 land, usually of second growth deciduous trees, and seems to prefer dry situations to swampy localities. Its note is usually written “ wick-up,” ag or “ hick-up,” often followed by a harsh, abrupt “ queep-queep "; at other times its call sounds like ‘‘ whoty-whoty’’ (Bendire). The nest is usually 13 ae 196 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM built from 5 to 20 feet from the ground on the horizontal limb of a deciduous shrub or tree, made of fine roots, grass, and catkins, rather loosely constructed in flat saucer shape about 3 inches in outside diameter and 2 inches by I inch inside dimensions. The eggs are from 2 to 4 in number, usually 3, of a creamy ground color boldly spotted with dark, reddish brown; average dimensions .74 by .53 inches. They are usually laid from the 30th of May to the 15th or 25th of June. Empidonax trailli alnorum Brewster Alder Flycatcher Plate 68 Empidonax traillii alnorum Brewster. Auk. April 1895. 12: 161 Empidonax trailli alnoaym A. O. U. Check List.. Ed: 3. r1oro. piers No. 466a trailli, to Thomas S. Traill, a Scotch naturalist Description. Upper parts grayish brown tinged with olivaceous; wing bars and edgings of the wing tawny whitish; under parts yellowish white tinged on the breast with grayish; flanks and under tail coverts strongly washed with yellowish. Lower mandible light colored; tail slightly rounded instead of emarginate. Length 5.5-6 inches; extent 9; wing 2.6-3; tail 2.3-2.6; bill from nostril .34; width at base .30; tarsus .66. Distribution. This subspecies inhabits eastern North America from central Alaska, Keewatin, central Quebec and Newfoundland south to Montana, southern Ontario and northern New Jersey, and the mountains as far south as West Virginia, and winters in Central America. In New York it is a summer resident in the greater part of the State, fairly com- mon in the Catskills and Adirondacks and in the colder swamps of central and western New York. It has been found breeding at Buffalo by James Savage; Penn Yan by Verdi Burtch; Branchport by Clarence F. Stone; West Barry by Neil F. Possun; Oneida county by Egbert Bagg; Wilmurt by Doctor Ralph; Phelps by B. 5. Bowdish; Nyack by L. W. Brownell; Gretna by Lispenard Horton; Cortland by H. C. Higgins; Kenwood by W. R. Maxon; Cayuta by L. A. Fuertes; Medina by Dana C. Gillette; BIRDS OF NEW YORK 197 the upper Ausable lake, Elk lake and Boreas pond by the author and his assistaats in 1905. This little flycatcher has evidently extended its range within recent years in some parts of the State, for no nests and eggs of this species were collected in the years between 1860 and 1885 in many portions of western New York where it is now known to breed, although during those years the country was very thoroughly worked over by inveterate oologists. Mr Miller (Auk, 20, 68) found it breeding at Plain- field, N. J. It is thus evident that this species is not confined to the Canadian zone, but is found both in the transition and the Canadian swamps. During the migration season it occurs in nearly every portion of the State, arriving from May 8 to 15 and passing on to its breeding grounds between the 20th and the 3oth. In the fall the migration is principally accomplished between the 15th and the 30th of August. The Alder flycatcher prefers swamps more or less thickly covered. with a low growth of alders, willows, meadowsweet and other low shrubs, _ but is rarely found within the depths of the forest. It sometimes occupies a rather lofty perch on a dead tree or top of an alder while singing its peculiar song which is uttered with apparent difficulty with a swelling of the throat and a labored jerk of the head. Doctor Dwight who heard it in the North Woods syllabizes it ‘‘ ee-zee-e-up.”” Mr F. H. Allen writes it ‘‘ wee-zee-up,” the ‘‘up”’ very faint. DeWitt Miller writes it “‘ grea’- deal”’ or “‘ krateel.’’ Tom Taylor, one of my assistants in the Mt Marcy region, insisted that the birds on the Upper Ausable marshes sang “ bu-te-o.”” It is evident that these different attempts to write the song of the Alder flycatcher could not refer to the same note, and in different parts of the country he evidently sings differently. Beside this so-called song he has a little alarm note that sounds like “ pep” or “ pip”; and according to Bendire one like ‘‘ whuish-whuish”; and Allen noted an emphatic “‘ ca-weet.’’ Like the Green-crested flycatcher this species usually keeps out of sight among the foliage. It is not found in dense woodland growths on the upland, but rather in the swampy tangles. The nest is usually concealed in a low alder or spirea or willow or swamp rose at . 198 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a height of from 14 to 4 feet from the ground, and according to my experi- ence resembles considerably the nest of the Indigo bird, ustally some large leaves, grasses and straws forming a substantial foundation and the interior lined with grasses, pine needles and vegetable fibers. The outside dimensions of the nest are about 3 by 2.5 inches; inside dimensions Photo by James H. Miller Alder flycatcher’s nest and eggs 2 by 1.75; the eggs are 3 or 4 in number, creamy white, sprinkled with brown, more thickly about the larger end and average .73 by .53 inches in diameter. The dates when fresh eggs have been found vary from June 13th to 28th and a few have been taken as late as the 25th of July. The period of incubation, as in most of the small flycatchers, is 12 days. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 199 Empidonax minimus (W. M. & S. F. Baird) Least Flycatcher Plate 68 Tyrannula minima W. M. &S. F. Baird. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1843. 1: 284 Empidonax minimus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1g10. p. 216. No. 467 minimus, Lat., smallest Description. This is the smallest of all our smal! flycatchers. Upper parts grayish brown tinged with olivaceous; wing bars and edgings whitish; under parts dull whitish tinged across the breast with grayish brown and washed on the flanks with light yellowish, but much whiter in general on the under part than either the Alder or the Green-crested flycatcher. Length 5-5.5 inches; extent 8; wing 2.2-2.6; tail slightly emarginate 2.1-2.4; bill from nostril .29, width at base .25; tarsus .65. Distribution. The Least flycatcher or Chebeck, as it is usually called, is a common summer resident of all portions of the State, being almost or quite as common as the Wood pewee both in settled districts and in the wooded hills of the ‘‘ southern tier ” and the outskirts of the Adiron- dacks. It arrives from the south from April 25th to the 12th of May, average date being May 3, and departs for the south from the 5th to the 25th of September. Its general distribution is from central Mackenzie, Quebec and Cape Breton southward to Nebraska, Indiana, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and its winter range from northeastern Mexico to Panama and Peru. , The haunts of the Least flycatcher are the garden, orchard, grove and open woodland. He is more often seen in exposed positions than either the Alder, Green-crested or Yellow-bellied flycatchers and is a rather familiar bird of orchard lands, sitting on the top of the apple tree or the telegraph wire, uttering continually his chebeck or sebic with a slight jerk of the head. At other times it seems to say “ s-slick-s-slick”’ or ‘‘ sewick.”’ It has also a call note which resembles the syllable ‘‘ whit’’ and is some- times seen hovering over the trees where the nest is concealed twittering a low “ whit-wee-wee.’’ The nest is a compactly felted structure, more delicate in appearance than that of any of our other small flycatchers, 200 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and resembles somewhat a Goldfinch’s nest, mostly composed of gray plant fibers and cottony down, feathers, hair and a few grasses, placed in the upright crotch of a tall bush or small tree 10 to 25 feet from the ground. The outside dimensions are about 3 by 2.5 inches, the inside dimensions 2 by 1.5. The eggs are 3 or 4 in number, milk white in color, the average size .65 by .50 inches. Fresh eggs are found from May: 20 to 30, or in the northern counties from the 5th to the 15th of June. Suborder OSCINES Songbirds Syrinx with 4 or 5 pairs of intrinsic muscles. These are inserted at the ends of the 3 upper bronchial half rings, thereby producing a greater flexibility and effectiveness of the voice apparatus. The tarsus is bilami- nate, each side being covered with a horny plate meeting its mate behind inasharp ridge. The primaries are g or 10, the first often short or spurious. This suborder includes the greater number of our perching birds which are characterized by the complexity of their song. They all have the bilaminate tarsus, with the exception of the larks described under Family Alaudidae, and the thrushes with their relatives, that have a ‘‘ booted tarsus,” the chief characteristic of these highly differentiated birds which are usually considered to represent the acme of avian evolution. Family ALAUDIDAE Larks Wings long and pointed, the inner secondaries conspicuously elongated; primaries 9 to 10 in number; tail of moderate length, rather broad and squarish; bill stout, short, subconical; nostrils covered with tufts of bristles; tarsus subcylindrical and scutellate both before and behind, a very unusual condition for the passerine foot; the. hind claw long and much straightened, evidently adapted for walking in the field or snow; moult single; plumage more or less mottled and streaked. This family is holarctic in distribution, numbering about one hundred species. They resemble sparrows in feed- ing habits. Most, if not all the members of the family, however, seem to be walkers instead of hoppers, spending most of their time upon the ground. They are excellent flyers, however, progressing in long, sweeping undulations, and many of the species migrate over vast extents of country. They are musical, several species singing while on the wing, mounting BIRDS OF NEW YORK 201 higher and higher in the air like the famous skylark of Europe. They nest upon the ground. Eggs usually 4, closely mottled with brown. The sexes are nearly alike in coloration. The larks are valuable not only for their interesting habits and song, but the destruction of weed seeds and, during the nesting season, of numerous insects on which the young are fed. Alauda arvensis Linnaeus Skylark Plate 69 Alauda arvensis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:165 : A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 218. No. 473 alavida, Lat., lark (from Celtic, meaning high song); arvénsis, Lat., of the ploughed field Description. About the size of the Horned lark but lighter colored; upper parts of 3 different shades; the center of the feathers dark brown, fading to grayish white or yellowish white on the outer margin, giving a general streaky grayish appearance to the upper parts. Under parts dull whitish and yellowish white more or less spotted on the breast with . grayish brown. The outer tail feathers whitish. Length 7.5 inches; extent 14.7; wing 4; tail 2.5; bill .5. Distribution. This European species has been introduced in New York State, especially on the western end of Long Island and in the southern Hudson valley. In 1887 it had evidently become established near Flatbush, Long Island, and was found breeding there July 2, 1887 (see Dutcher, Auk, 5, 180). It was still breeding near Flatbush in July 1895 (see Proctor, Auk, 12, 390) and Doctor Braislin noticed them at Neck Road, Long Island, in March 1898. John Burroughs speaks of them as occurring at Esopus-on-the-Hudson (see Pepacton, pages 150-53). It is thus evident that this famous songster became definitely established in the southeastern portion of New York and retained its hold for many years. But the latest reports from western Long Island seem to indicate that the birds are not increasing in numbers or barely holding their own. So it is evident that without further introduction of new stock from Europe this bird will not become a widely dispersed species in America as the English sparrow and Starling have done. 202 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Otocoris alpestris alpestris (Linnaeus) Horned Lark Plate 69 Alauda alpestris Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1: 166 Alauda cornuta DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 179, fig. 165 Otocoris alpestris alpestris A. O. U. Check List. Ed.3. 920. p. 210; No. 474 otécorys, Gr., earcrest, alluding to the plumicorns; alpéstris, new Lat., of the Alps Description. Upper parts ocherous brown and grayish brown ; the scapulars, back and side of neck and head more or less tinged with vinaceous; tail square, mostly black; the central tail coverts almost as long as the tail feathers, colored like the back and mostly concealing the tail when it is closed; a black maxillary stripe on each side of the head from the base of bill to below the ear; black ear tufts or plumicorns above the eyes rising from the sides of the forehead and connected around the frontlet by a blackish line; a black breast plate somewhat crescent shaped in the middle of the breast; the throat deep sulphur yellow; frontlet near the base of the bill and line over the eye also decidedly tinged with yellow. Under parts otherwise grayish white, tinged on the sides with vinaceous and brownish. Female: Smaller and less brightly colored. Length 7.75 inches; wing 4-4.25; tail 2.4-2.9; bill .38-.45. Distribution. The Horned lark inhabits the boreal region from Boothia peninsula to James bay, Labrador, and Newfoundland, and winters south to the Ohio valley and the Atlantic coast to Georgia. In New York it is a common winter resident of Long Island and the coastal region of the State in general, but in the interior and western portion of the State it has not been taken in recent years to my knowledge. Thirty or 40 years ago it was considered a winter resident of the lake shore region of western New York, but for 15 years I have failed to secure any specimens on the shores of Lake Ontario or Lake Erie although it unquestionably does occur there in the winter or during the migration time in the late fall. In general, however, we must say that this species is confined princi- pally to the coastal districts, and that the Prairie horned lark is the sub- species commonly found in the western portion of the State both in sum- mer and in winter. The horned lark arrives from the north on Long Island from October 20 to November 15 and is last seen in the spring from the Ist to the 20th of March. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 203 Otocoris alpestris praticola Henshaw Prairie Horned Lark Plate 69 Otocorys alpestris praticola Henshaw. Auk. July 1884. 1: 264 Otocoris alpestris praticola A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 219. No. 474b praticola, Lat., pratum, meadow, and colere, to inhabit Description. This species resembles the Horned lark in color, but is paler; throat not so deep a yellow and often white without a tinge of sul- phur; the forehead and line over the eye a dull white without any decided tinge of yellow. It is also smaller than the Horned lark. Length 7.25 inches; wing 3.75-4.2; tail 2.4-2.6; bill .38-.40. Distribution. The Prairie horned lark, which is a subspecies of the preceding, inhabits the interior of North America from southern Manitoba, southern Quebec and southern New Hampshire to eastern Kansas, Ohio, West Virginia and Connecticut. It winters as far south as Texas and _ Georgia. In New York State the history of this species has been exceed- _ ingly interesting. While many of our valuable song and insectivorous birds have been diminishing in numbers, this species has gradually increased year after year, until at the present time it inhabits the greater portion of this State as a summer resident. A perusal of the records before me indicates that in 1876 this species was found breeding in central and western New York. At Canandaigua by Mr Howey (see N. O. C. Bull. 3, 40); at Rochester by Mr Jones (ibid., 3, 89); at Lowville by Doctor Merriam (ibid., 3, 53); in 1877 Mr Rathbun found it breeding at Auburn; in 1881 Mr Park found it breeding at Green Island near Troy. In 1884 it was found breeding first in Niagara county by Davison and in 1885 at Virgil (see Forest and Stream 22, 145). In 1886 a female was taken at Long Island City on July 31 (see Dutcher, Auk, 5, 181). In 1900 Mr Lispenard S. Horton found it breeding at Gretna, and in 1899 Mr Pember at Granville, Washington county. In 1905 the author found it on June 16 feeding its fledglings at Elizabethtown in Essex county. It is evident by a perusal of these records and many others, that there has been a great 204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM increase in the abundance of this species on the grasslands of New York and also of the surrounding states, until at the present time it has invaded not only the eastern part of New York, but Connecticut, Massachusetts Vermont and other New England states. This species having originally been confined to the prairie region has now found conditions favorable to its habitation in the eastern states and has gradually been spreading year after year till now we must call it one of the common birds of the open field. It is almost a permanent resident of New York for it is found, in western New York at least, during every month of the year, although it is decidedly uncommon in most localities from the middle of December until the middle of January. We may safely say, however, that it is the earliest species of passerine birds to migrate. From the 17th to the 23d of January, provided there is fair weather, we are almost sure to see an increase in the number: of Prairie horned larks in the fields of western New York, and their number gradually increases until the middle of February when the mating song of the males is distinctly heard and nearly all the birds are paired by the middle of March. They frequently begin to breed, however, as early as the first of March for I have found the nest containing eggs well started in incubation on the 11th of March at Rochester. Nests have also been reported from Erie county in February and early March. It is thus the earliest of our small songbirds to nest in western New York. The Prairie horned lark is a bird of decided per- sonality. He is often seen running along the road in front of the carriage or horseman; when approached too closely he erects the jet black tufts of feathers like devils’ horns on the sides of the head, and if more closely pressed flies over the field at a moderate elevation with long gliding strokes of his pointed wings and alights on some stone, clod of earth or. possibly on a fence post. If watched for some time the male will be seen gradually to mount in the air higher and higher with continued hovering motion of the wings, uttering his fine, threadlike whistle. He mounts higher and higher, after. the manner of the famous Skylark, sometimes reaching a height of several hundred feet, all the while uttering his twittering song - plies atine “Agee meh ee BIRDS OF NEW YORK 205 until finally exhausted he drops like a dart to the field to rejoin his mate. This flight song is almost sure to be heard several times a day over the field in which the nest is concealed. The Prairie horned lark walks and runs instead of hopping like our common sparrows, and his ample square tail, which is black when extended in flight, as well as his long pointed wings and easy gliding flight, distinguish him readily from any of our other field birds. It is evident that two broods are often reared in this latitude, for after the first brood are well fledged, it is a common thing to find nests containing fresh eggs as late as the middle of May or early in June. After the young are reared, they are found about plowed fields and waste lands, in little troops consisting ; usually of a pair of old birds and their young. Frequently the troop consists of 5 or 6 birds; at other times of 10 or 12, which leads me _ to believe that the old and their young keep together during the greater part of the season. Late in the fall they gather into larger bands and in the springtime after the migra- tions are well advanced, it is Prdicic Danet lnck’e neck anc eggs not unusual to see flocks of 15 and 20 Prairie horned larks feeding together on the open fields in any part of central or western New York. The nest is concealed in the pasture or meadow beside a clod of earth, a cobblestone, or a tuft of grass, and consists simply of a few grasses lining the hole which the mother bird has scooped out in the earth, or in a depression caused by the foot of a cow or some other domestic animal, which she has rounded and lined with grasses. The eggs are almost invariably 4 in number, grayish white in ground color, very thickly spotted with light brown, resembling closely the eggs of the English sparrow but more thickly and 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM evenly spotted and of a slightly different shape; average dimensions .85 by .63 inches. Frequently, as will be inferred from what is said above, the eggs are laid before the last severe snow storms of the season. Photographs by Professor Bailey and others which I have seen frequently show the nest through a round hole in the snow which is several inches deep about it. Evidently the old bird by continually sitting on the nest and raising her head keeps it open to the sky and so preserves her eggs from destruction; but frequently, if the snow is deep and the temperature severe, the first brood is destroyed. But as soon as the weather becomes pleasant again they invariably make new nests and continue until the young are successfully reared. This interesting little bird must be called a beneficial species, for its food consists through the winter months almost entirely of weed seeds. In this manner it destroys millions of noxious plants which otherwise would interfere with the proper development of the farmers’ crops; and during the breeding season as well as through a large portion of the summer months, feeds to a great extent on the insects which destroy the field vegetation, especially small grasshoppers and leaf- eating beetles and the larvae of all kinds of insects. Otocoris alpestris hoyti Bishop Hoyt Horned Lark Paler than alpestris, more grayish brown; throat paler yellow, and superciliary stripe white; size of alpestris. (A.O.U. No. 474k) This subspecies breeds from the western shore of Hudson bay to the mouth of the MacKenzie and the Arctic coast; migrates southward to Utah, Kansas, Ohio, and Long Island in winter. For New York records see Oberholzer, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 24, 845. Dwight, Auk, 7:143. Bishop, Auk, 13:132. It is uncommon in this State, and can be identified only by collecting specimens and comparing them with museum series. Family CORVIDAE Crows, Jays and Magpies Primaries 10; tail variable, usually rounded; 12 rectrices; bill cultri- rostal, stout; nostril covered by dense tufts of bristles; rictus also provided BIRDS OF NEW YORK 207 with a few bristles; middle toe joined to the outer as far as the first joint; size medium to large, the family including the Raven and the Crow, cur two largest passerine birds. Sexes alike in coloration and size; voice harsh and unmusical, though the syrinx is well developed; subfamilies of Crows or Corvinae, and Jays and Magpies (Garrulinae) are recognized. These birds are mostly omnivorous in diet, feeding on insects, young birds, small mammals, fish and crayfish, fruits and grains. Thus, as would be expected, they frequently develop injurious habits which are very destructive to song birds and sometimes to the farmers’ crops. Undoubt- edly, in general, the Crow and the Blue jay arc injurious species. A care- ful study of the food of the Crow by Prof. Walter B. Barrows will be found in Bulletin 6, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agri- culture, and of the Blue jay in the Yearbook for 1896, pages 197-206. Pica pica hudsonia (Sabine) Magpie Corvus hudsonius Sabine. Franklin, Narr. Journ. Polar Sea. 1823. 671 Pica caudata DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 131, fig. 53 Pica pica hudsonia A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 221. No. 475 pica, Lat., magpie; hudsénia, of Hudson bay Description. Tail very long, rounded, and the central feathers elongated. Head, neck, back, throat, breast and under tail covers black; secondaries, belly, sides and inner webs of primaries white; wings and tail glossy, metallic greenish blue, the whole varied with bronze and purplish. Length 17.4-22 inches; wing 7.3-8.5; tail 9.3-12; culmen 1.1—1.4. Distribution. This species is mostly confined to the western country from the Yukon, Saskatchewan and Winnipeg to New Mexico; and rarely straggles eastward as far as Illinois, Michigan, Ontario, Hudson bay and Quebec. The only record for New York State is on the authority of DeKay who reports its occurrence near Niagara, but there is, as far as I know, no specimen in existence which was taken within the limits of the State. It is not improbable that it may have occurred in the northern and north- western portion of the State, however, for it occurred at Odessa, Ontario, in March 1898 (see Clarke, Auk, 15:274). 208 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cyanocitta cristata cristata (Linnaeus) Blue Jay Plate 70 Corvus cristatus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed.10. 1: 106 Garrulus cristatus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 120,. fig. 54 Cyanocitta cristata cristata A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 222. No. 477 cyanocitta, Gr., %5av0s, blue, and x{:t%, jay; cristata, Lat., crested Description. Head conspicuously crested; tail and wings rounded; upper parts light purplish blue; wings and tail bright cobalt blue; the secondaries and tail feathers barred with black, the longer wing coverts, secondaries and tail feathers except the central pair conspicuously tipped with white; side of the head and throat purplish white bordered by a black collar running over the nape down the sides of the head and neck and across the forebreast; lores black; breast and sides grayish fading to clear white on the belly and under tail covert. Length 11-12.5 inches; extent 15.7-17.5; wing 5-5.7; tail 5-5.7; bill 1.25; tarsus 1.25—-1:35. Distribution. The Blue jay inhabits eastern North America from central Alberta, Quebec, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland south to the gulf coast. In New York it is a resident of all portions of the State but is a common species only in the less settled districts, seeming to prefer evergreen or mixed woodlands, and in western New York is confined mostly to the larger forests, swamps and ravines. Although Blue jays may be found in nearly every county of the State at any time of the year, it is perfectly evident to a careful bird student that there is a decided migration of the species, the southward movement occurring in October from about September 20 to October 30. In the spring the northern migration is later than would be expected, migrating individuals often occurring in considerable numbers from the 25th of April to the 25th of May. I have frequently noticed as many as 20 or 30 Blue jays in small patches of wood- land near the shore of Lake Ontario and on the shores of Canandaigua and Seneca lakes at this season of the year, evidently migrating northward to _ their breeding grounds, for whatever specimens were taken were found not to be nearer than three weeks to the breeding period although Blue ee BIRDS OF NEW YORK 209 jays which nest in the localities mentioned already were incubating their eggs or had young in the nest. In southern and western New York the Blue jay makes its nest in April. It is usually placed in an evergreen, although small deciduous trees are often selected, and is composed of sticks, leaves, bark and plant fibers, and lined with dead twigs of hemlock or strips of bark and other fine materials. The eggs are com- monly deposited from the 20th of April to the 15th of May. They are from 3 to 6 in num- ber, pale olive greenish or buffy in ground color, spotted more or less profusely with brown. They average 1.1 by .82 inches in size. The Blue jay is one of the noisy birds of our wood- lands, especially when he sees a man, a hawk or any large object moving through the forest. He seems always | to be shouting his high shrill ‘‘jay’’or “ yaéh-yah-yah”’ ; and also imitates very suc- cessfully the scream of the Red-shouldered hawk, and has other notes resembling the _ "SI ake eS Horta tooting of a small bugle. His Blne jay'a nest Gaaiaer activity is almost incessant and his mischief never ending. Most naturalists consider the Blue jay one of the worst nest robbers we have, and there is little doubt that they are correct, for my own experience shows that he is extremely fond of birds’ eggs and young birds; but he also does some 210 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM good by destroying many injurious insects, and plants many forest trees. I have seen him carrying acorns and chestnuts near my camp on Canan- daigua lake, and hiding them at a considerable distance from the trees where he found them, evidently with the idea of picking them up later. I had heard that the Blue jay was a tree planter but I had always supposed that he planted them simply by dropping the nuts while flying from place to place in the forest; but in this instance, he carried the acorns and placed them under the dead leaves. Going to the spot I uncovered them myself and was surprised to find that sometimes at least, like the gray squirrel, he actually plants the nuts in the ground evidently intending to store them for future use. In the fall and winter the Blue jay frequently attacks the corn standing in the shock and also visits the granaries to peck at the kernels which are exposed between the cracks of the boards. This slight destruction of grain in the fall but more particularly his wanton destruc- tion of young birds, perhaps more than overbalances the good he does. Perisoreus canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus) Canada Jay Plate 71 Corvus canadensis Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed.12. 1:158 Garrulus canadensis DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 130, fig. 55 Perisoreus canadensis canadensis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. toro. p. 226. No. 484 periséreus, derivation uncertain, perhaps from teetoweedw, to heap up around, refer- ring either to the bird’s instinct to hoard food, or to the large, high-walled nest; canadén- sis, of Canada Description. Tail long and rounded; frontlet, nasal tufts, sides of the head, throat and forechest dull white; occiput and back of neck blackish; upper parts dusky gray; tips of the wing feathers and tail feathers indis- tinctly tipped with whitish; under parts dull grayish. Young similar but darker, without any white about the head and throat. Length 11-12 inches; wing 5.6-5.9; tail 5.6-6.4. Distribution. The Canada jay inhabits the boreal region of eastern America from Mackenzie, Keewatin and northern Quebec to Alberta, northern Minnesota, Michigan, New York and Maine. It rarely straggles BIRDS OF NEW YORK 211 southward in the winter, but has been taken in Nebraska, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. In New York State it is confined to the Adirondack district and is scarcely if ever, seen outside the spruce and balsam belt. In the denser portion of this Adirondack forest it is a fairly common resident, both in the spruce and tamarack swamps and on the wooded mountain slopes. While our party was camping in the Mt Marcy region these birds were found at intervals in all the forests from the Ausable lakes to Skylight camp on the slopes of Mt Marcy. . This jay is known to the northern hunters also under the names of Whiskey jack, Moose bird and Camp robber as well as various other epithets referring to his fearlessness in attacking and devouring any kind of meat or fat which is accessible about the camp. In the winter season it is almost impossible to drive these birds away from the carcasses of deer or other animals which have been killed, and they will enter the camp and hop about the table devouring anything within reach, scarcely giving any attention to the human occupants who are endeavoring to drive them away. This jay is much less noisy than the Blue jay and consequently is a more agreeable attendant of the northern hunter. When following deer through the North Woods I have frequently discovered that these birds were also following me, evidently expecting that I might be suc- cessful in bringing down the quarry, but the only evidence that I had of their approach was the silent flitting of shadows behind me as the birds alighted from time to time in the branches not far above my head. The Canada jay breeds very early in the season, in the Adirondack forests evidently making its nest late in February or early in March. This is a bulky affair and is composed of twigs, rotten wood, bark, and catkins, lined with softer materials of the same kind, especially catkins and feathers from the bird itself. It is usually placed in a small conifer close to the trunk. The eggs are 3 to 5 in number, dull gray, profusely speckled with brown and purplish, the average dimensions being about 1.15 by .82 inches. The young are out of the nest and flying about foraging for themselves by the middle of June. 14 : 212 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Corvus corax principalis Ridgway Northern Raven Plate 71 Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Manual N. A. Birds. 1887. 361 Corvus corax DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 134, fig. 5x Corvus corax principalis A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 228. No. 486a cérvus, Lat., crow; cérax, Lat., and Gr., x6ea&, raven; principdlis, Lat., chief Description. Decidedly larger than the crow; bill much heavier and the feathers of the throat long and pointed; color as in the crow. Length 22-26.5 inches; extent 46-53; bill about 3.05; wing 16.5-18; tail 9.9; tarsus 2.65. Range. The Northern raven breeds from northwestern Alaska, northern Elsmere Land and northern Greenland south to Washington, central Minnesota and the coast of New Jersey; in the mountains as far as Georgia. In the eastern states it is uncommon in the cultivated districts. In New York the species is confined to the western Adirondack region, although stragglers are sometimes taken in various parts of the State, as follows: Comac hill, Long Island, in 1836; Brooklyn, 1848; Mayville, three seen in 1861 by A. E. Kibbe; Wolcott, 1875 (see Auburn List); Lansingburgh, one seen in 1872 by F. 5S. Webster; Cayuga, 1880, one seen by Foster Parker; Canandaigua lake, one shot about 1885 by “ Quake” Smith; Sandy Creek, about 1890, J. W. Soule; shore of Lake Ontario in Monroe county, about 1885, taken by David Bruce; border of Schoharie county, one seen by John Burroughs; Lake George, October 29, 1897, specimen in the State Museum; Granville, a rare straggler, F. T. Pember; Mt Marcy, October 23, 1875, several seen (see Colvin, seventh report Adirondack Survey, page 96); Oneida lake, October 1878, J. P. Hutchins. All these records are evidently of stragglers, usually seen in the fall or winter. At the present time a few may be seen in the western Adirondack region, especially in the northern portions of Hamilton and Herkimer counties, the southern portion of St Lawrence county and the eastern portion of Lewis county. In this part of the North Woods the Raven ae Sarl are Relat mw di BIRDS OF NEW YORK 213 still breeds, but in constantly diminishing numbers. Formerly it was well distributed throughout the State, before the virgin forest was destroyed. In 1810, when Dewitt Clinton visited the western counties, he saw great numbers of ravens on the borders on Seneca lake near the village of Geneva and was told that no crows had made their appearance in that part of the country (see Clinton, Intro. Dis. before the Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, May 4, 1814). One hundred years from this date, or in 1910, the Raven had been unknown for many years by the inhabitants of Ontario county and the common Crow had been for 50 years an abundant resident of all the surrounding country. Such is the history of the Raven and the Crow in all portions of New York. Habits. In habits the Raven is more sedate and retiring than the Crow, walks with an easy graceful air, is more deliberate and dignified. On the wing he sails more than the Crow, and the wing stroke is peculiar, at once attracting the eye as decidedly different from the flight of its. commoner relative. His notes are a low, gurgling chuckle, or a hoarse rolling cr-r-r-cruck, sometimes cra-ack, cra-a-ck, varied by deep grunting koe-rr-koerr (Bendire). This description of its notes enabled me to identify the Raven at once long before it was seen, in the region of Lake Nipissing and in the Adirondack forest. The Raven's breeding site is on cliffs or trees. The nest is compact, symmetrical, made of sticks and weed stalks, lined with grasses, hair, wool and other soft materials. It is usually occupied year after year. The eggs have been found to vary from 2 to 7 in number, and resemble those of the Crow, but average 1.75 by 1.2 inches in dimensions. The food of the Raven is offal or refuse of any kind such as dead fish and other animals. In the North Woods it is a common experience to find ravens about the spot where deer have been killed and “ dressed.’’ They feed also on young birds, frogs, mice etc., but there seems to be no likelihood that ravens will ever be common enough in New York to receive economic consideration. There is rather cause to fear that this famous and picturesque bird will disappear entirely from the State domains. 214 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm Crow Plate 72 Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm. Beitr. Végelkunde. 1822. 2:56 Corvus americanus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 132, fig. 52 Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos A.O.U.Check List. Ed. 3. 1gto. p. 228. No. 488 brachyrhynchos, Gr., shortbilled Description. With the exception of the Raven, our largest passerine bird. Plumage entirely shiny black with purplish reflections. The bristly nasal tufts reach halfway to the end of the bill. Length 17-21 inches; extent 34.5-38; wing I1.9-13.3; tail 7-8; bill 1.8-2; tarsus 2.2—2.4. Distribution. The Crow inhabits eastern North America from southern Mackenzie, central Quebec and Newfoundland to Texas and the Gulf States. In winter it withdraws from the northern limit of its range, but in New York is an abundant winter resident throughout the coastal district, the Hudson valley, and the lowlands of western New York. It breeds in every county of the State, entering the Catskills and Adirondacks along the cleared land and river valleys to the very centers of those districts. About Mt Marcy we found crows at Boreas pond, Flowed land, Keene ~ valley, and John Brown’s grave, but they do not inhabit the depths of ‘the Adirondack forest, being replaced by the Raven in the wildest portion -of the western Adirondacks. On the highlands of southwestern New York and in the northern portions of the State, the Crow makes its appearance early in March with the first warm weather, perhaps about the same time as the Robin and Blue bird, sometimes a few days earlier. In all parts of the State the mating season may be said to occur in March and in the warmer portions of the State the nests are repaired, or the construction begun, as early as the third week in March, and the eggs are frequently laid by the 1st of April. But the average date would perhaps be April 15 to 30. The nest of the Crow is usually placed in the fork of a tall tree, either evergreen or deciduous, at a height varying from 10 to 80 feet from BIRDS OF NEW YORK 215 the ground, usually above 30 feet. It is a bulky affair, with a large founda- tion of sticks, twigs, cornstalks or other similar materials, and a well-formed central cup of the soft inner bark of dead trees, vegetable fibers, or grasses and cow’s hair. Typical nests in western New York are lined with the bark of grapevines and Arbor vitae or the inner bark of the basswood. It is deeply hollowed, so that the bird can scarcely be seen from the ground except the tip of her tail projecting over the edge of the nest. The eggs. are 3 to 5 in number, frequently as many as 7, the ground color varying from a pale bluish green to olive green, rather thickly spotted and blotched with brown and gray. They average 1.7 by 1.18 inches in dimensions. The period of incubation is about 17 or 18 days, and the young remain in the nest about 3 weeks. The habits of the Crow are too well known to require extended comment, with the possible exception of its tendency to gather in roosts during the winter months. There are situated in New York State, on Staten Island, on Long Island, in the Hudson valley and in the lowlands of western New York perhaps one dozen to two dozen large crow roosts. It has been practically impossible to obtain reliable information as to the different roosts. In the vicinity of the author’s home there has been for 15 years a large roost just west of the city of Rochester, usually in the town of Gates, and also an immense roost in the vicinity of Niagara Falls, a large roost in Ontario county, and another in Tompkins county near the head of Cayuga lake. I have several times visited the Gates crow roost and as nearly as I could estimate the numbers congregated were between 20,000 and 40,000. During the day they are accustomed to spread over the country about the lower Genesee valley as far north as Scottsville and sometimes to Geneseo and along the shores of Lake Ontario and Irondequoit bay. The Ontario crow roost was formerly just north of the village of Canandaigua. It has been moved several times within the last 12 years. Eleven years ago it was at Paddlefords Station in a small patch of second growth deciduous timber. The number of crows was estimated at 20,000 (see Eaton, Auk 20, 57-59). The fol- lowing year it moved several miles to the eastward and for 5 years at least 216 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM has been in the Gainey swamp, 13 miles south of Phelps, where many thousands of crows—probably 30,000 to 40,000—have been in the habit of roosting from November to March. About the last of December IgII, however, this roost broke up. A small portion, that is, the crows of west- ern Ontario county, still remained to roost to the number of 3,000 or 4,000 just northwest of Melvin hill; the remainder joined the crows of Seneca county roosting near the town of Varick, a few miles southeast of Geneva. Inquiry in different parts of the State indicates that it is customary for the crow roosts to vary both in numbers of crows assembled and in the exact location of the roost from year to year, but it is a fact that during the winter months in all portions of the State the crows congregate in great numbers to roost, whereas, during the summer months, the roosts consist of only a few crows, from 50 to 300 being the usual number of male crows and others which are not engaged about the nest, which meet together to roost at night, and as soon as the young are out of the nest the roosts become larger but rarely more than a few hundred, until the winter season begins, when large roosts are organized, and usually the country covered during the day extends from 20 to 30 miles in various directions from the roost. The food of the crows at this time of the year consists mostly of grain left in the field, especially unhusked corn, dead animals such as cattle, horses, calves, sheep etc., which are left exposed in the field, dead fish and other animals found along the shores of lakes and streams, crayfish and other aquatic animals taken from the shallow water, thorn apples and other fruits which are searched for under the dead leaves, beetles, cocoons and larvae of insects which are unearthed from rotten wood, dead leaves and sod, and occasionally frozen apples hanging on the trees, and field mice which are hunted in the swamps and meadows. During the summer the food of the Crow consists to a large extent of cutworms and other injurious larvae of insects, but they also feed to a considerable extent upon pre- daceous beetles and the eggs and young of smaller birds, as well as upon chickens and hens’ eggs found at some distance from the farmhouse. They also destroy numbers of grouse and pheasant eggs as well as the young of $$ $$ ; 2 ane, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 217 these birds. On account of the destruction of eggs and young of beneficial species, I am inclined to think that the Crow in most localities is to be ranked as an injurious species, but we must remember that the injurious insects destroyed by the Crow’s victims, while far outnumbering what the Crow himself would destroy of those special insects, would never equal the number of cutworms and white grubs which the Crow destroys on meadows and cultivated land. Consequently, we must take into considera- tion the fact that the Crow is the principal enemy of cutworms and white grubs, whereas most of the small birds which he destroys, though decidedly beneficial, do not reduce the numbers of cutworms to any great extent. I believe that the Crow’s case must be decided independently by each intelligent agriculturist, for in some localities he may be in the main bene- ficial while in others he should be considered injurious. I am certain that the crows which live on the hillsides back of my camp are injurious from my standpoint in life, because they destroy a large percentage of the eggs and young of the small song birds which are so beneficial and such pleasant neighbors, whereas it is evident that they do very little good in destroying cutworms or other insects, except grasshoppers, in that locality. On the other hand, I have seen wide fields of lowland where cutworms had destroyed perhaps 30 per cent of the corn crop and crows were rendering efficient service in reducing the number of the pest. The Crow is such an active, intelligent and versatile character that it is practically impossible to balance his general account satisfactorily to the agriculturist. At times he appears in a highly beneficent rédle, energetically bent on the wholesale destruc- tion of grasshoppers, cutworms and “ Junebugs'’; at others, he is the traditional black robber of the cornfield, the orchard, the pea patch and the chicken yard; and again he is the ruthless destroyer and the cannibal, rifling the Thrush’s and the Grouse’s nest and slaughtering the helpless nestlings of our vireos and warblers. The farmers of New York are more or less at variance in their opinions regarding the Crow’s character, accord- ing as their individual experiences have been favorable or otherwise. But bird lovers can have no two opinions in their reports if they have followed 218 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Crow, early and late, through the months of May, June and July and have watched with loving care the nests of their woodland songsters. They will find the Crow among the worst enemies of the bird’s nest and the fledgling. Corvus ossifragus Wilson Fish Crow Plate 72 Corvus ossifragus Wilson. Amer. Orn. 1812. 5:27, pl. 37, fig. 2 DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. 2:135 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 229. No. 490 osstfragus, Lat., bonebreaking, referring to its piscivorous diet Description. Distinguished from the common Crow by its smaller size. It is, however, of a more uniform black color, with bright bluish and greenish reflection on the under parts as well as on the upper parts. It may also be distinguished by its call notes which resemble those of a young Crow. Length 15-17.5 inches; wing 10-11; tail 6-7; bill 1.7; tarsus 1.7-2. -. Distribution. This crow inhabits the coastal districts of the eastern United States from Connecticut to Louisiana and Florida. In New York it is confined to the lower Hudson valley as far as West Point and occasionally to Poughkeepsie, very rarely farther up the river, and to the western portion of Long Island. It has been reported from Rockaway, July 1873, by Eagle; Oyster Bay, December 30, 1874, by T. Roosevelt; Riverdale, by Bicknell; West Point, by Mearns; Mt Vernon, by Eames; Sandy Hook, by Zarega; Esopus-on-the-Hudson, as a common summer resident, by Burroughs (see Bicknell, ‘‘ Birds of the Catskills,’ page 135); Staten Island, fairly common, and Long Island, fairly common and breed- ing, by Purdy; Bellport, Long Island, common summer resident, breeding, W. A. Babson; Manhasset, Long Island, 4 specimens, by Dutcher; Park- ville, Long Island, nest and eggs taken in 1894 by H. C. Oberholzer; reported from Hudson by Will Richard and Troy by F. S. Webster; also reported as identified by size and note near Geneva, N. Y., by F. H. Hall and Otto McCreary. Although the species may occasionally be found as far inland BIRDS OF NEW YORK 219 as Troy, it is extremely rare to find it far from a tidal river and it is usually confined to the immediate vicinity of the seashore. Haunts and habits. When there is no Common crow nearby with which to compare the size of the Fish crow, it is very difficult to identify him by size alone, but. his notes are very characteristic, consisting of an expressionless croak, resembling, as before said, the note of a young Crow, but a hoarser “‘ car,”’ sometimes a clear ‘‘ cah”’ or a “ cahk”’ often repeated. The breeding site of the Fish crow is usually in cedars, about 25 feet from the ground, near the waterside. The nesting materials are sticks, bark and grasses, lined with inner strips of grapevine bark and fine grasses, the structure resembling very closely the nest of the Common crow. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number, in color not distinguishable from those of its larger relative, but smaller, averaging 1.46 by 1.06 inches. Its food consists mostly of fishes, crabs and other small crustaceans and offal washed up on the shore. Occasionally, like its larger relative, it feeds on the young and eggs of smaller birds. It is less sociable in habits than the Common crow, but is often seen in company with that species. It is less suspicious, however, than the Common crow and more easily approached. Family STURNIDAE Starlings Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus Starling F Plate 74 Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1: 167 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 230. No. 493 stirnus, Lat., starling; vulgaris, Lat., common Description. Shaped somewhat like the Meadowlark but with a relatively longer bill and shorter tail; general color black glossed with iridescent purple and greenish, spotted with buff or brownish white; Dzil yellow; winter plumage with the brownish or buffy of the upper and under parts mostly obscuring the greenish and purple. Sexes almost alike. Female slightly more spotted below; young plain grayish-brown. Length 8.5 inches; wing 5.1; tail 2.6; bill 1; tarsus 1.2. Distribution. The Starling is a native of western and central Europe wintering mostly in southern Europe and northern Africa, now introduced 220 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the vicinity of New York City. Several attempts were unsuccessful, but the birds liberated by Mr Eugene Schieffelin in 1890 in Central Park, have spread over all the country in the vicinity of New York as far east as central Long Island and up the Connecticut valley as far as Hartford and Springfield; up the Hudson valley to Newburgh and through New Jersey to Princeton. As early as 1900 I noticed hundreds of starlings spending the winter in Morningside Park and the vicinity of Kings Bridge, and in 1905 Mr Robinson reported them as well established at Newburgh. They undoubtedly will continue to spread up the Hudson valley and throughout the State, if not throughout the country, unless their advance is artificially checked. There is scarcely reason to believe that they could ever become the pest that the English sparrow has proved itself in all parts of the country, and yet it is doubtful whether this is a desirable species to introduce in all parts of the State, for, like the sparrow, it occupies the nesting sites of all those birds which naturally breed in boxes or holes in trees, thus crowding out our martins, tree swallows, blue birds, nut- hatches and probably the woodpeckers. Besides this, they are largely frugivorous, being particularly destructive to cherries, currants, berries and other small fruits, and doubtless would become a veritable pest in the grape regions of central and western New York if they ever became abundant in those localities. The Starling, nevertheless, is an interesting bird. It feeds mostly on the ground like our Meadowlark, destroying large numbers of cutworms and grasshoppers. I have noticed it taking the berries from ampelopsis and other vines. It is more arboreal in habits, however, than the Meadowlark, often sitting and singing for hours: amongst the foliage of parks and groves. His chatter is rather pleasing although he is scarcely the mimic that he is famed to be. Apparently he takes suggestion from the songs of all birds and utters a confused jargon of notes interspersed with clear whistling sounds and gutteral chortlings. The starlings are more closely gregarious than the meadowlarks, the fiocks frequently appearing as dense as flocks of rice birds. In England are justly famous, some- ““ ’ and northern Europe the “ clouds of starlings ’ \y i ‘ i | t t { I BIRDS OF NEW YORK 221 times practically darkening the sky and appearing in the distance like great storm clouds drifting over the country. The eggs of the Starling number from 4 to 7, usually 5 or 6, of a pale greenish blue to bluish white in color and average 1.16 by .84 in dimensions. Family ICTERIDAE Blackbirds and Orioles Nine primaries; 9 secondaries; tail feathers 12; bill rather stoutand more or less conical, with the commissure sharply bent downward as in the sparrow; tarsus scutellate and bilaminate, most of which characteristics they share in common with the sparrows; the Dill, however, is typically cultrirostral and shows a decided tendency to taper to a sharp point but in species like the Cowbird and Bobolink approaches very closely the typical sparrow type. There is considerable variability in this family, as in the sparrow family, in the shape of the tail and the wing, but they are both usually more or less rounded. The family is American, consisting of about 130 species, the Oriole branch of the family usually characterized by brilliant plumage, while the Blackbird section shows darker plumage with more or less brilliant iridescence. Many build hanging nests, and the whole family is frequently spoken of as the “‘ hang nests.’’ The eggs are usually 5 or 6 in number and show a tendency to pen-line markings as in our common Oriole and Blackbird. There is usually a distinct sexual differentiation in color, the females being decidedly duller and usually smaller in size. This family, like the sparrows which they resemble, is largely granivorous except the orioles which are more confined to insectivorous and frugiv- orous diet. The blackbirds and meadowlarks are among the best of the ground gleaners which we possess, feeding largely on worms, white grubs and grasshoppers. Only the Crow blackbird and Red-winged black- bird have been accused of serious depredations in the grain fields and the family in general is beneficial, excepting the Cowbird, which has developed the curious parasitic habit so destructive to our smaller songbirds, and, at times, the Crow blackbird because of its destruction of the eggs and 222 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM nestlings of our smaller birds. An account of the food of blackbirds and Grackles, determined by examination of stomach contents, by Prof. F. E. L. Beal, is found in Bulletin 13, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus) Bobolink Plate 73 Fringilla oryzivora Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:179 Dolichonyx oryzivorus DeKay. Zool.N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 144, fig. 48 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p.231. No. 494 dolichényx, Gr., S0Aty%6s, long, and 6vvé, nail; oryzivorus, Lat., oryza, rice, and vorare, to devour Description. Male: Mostly black; the scapulars, rump, and upper tail coverts dull white; the back of the neck buff; except in high plumage the feathers of the back, wings and even the under parts are more or less edged with buffy whitish; the high plumage almost pure black, white and buff. Female: Upper parts olive buff streaked with blackish; under parts buffy white; a conspicuous line of buffy through the center of the crown and from the base of the bill over each eye. Winter plumage: Both sexes and young similar to female but more olivaceous above and more buffy below. In all plumages the tail feathers are sharp pointed. Length, o& 7.25-8 inches, 9 6.5-7; extent 12-12.5; wing 3.75-4; tail 2.6-2.9; bill .6; tarsus 1.1. Distribution. The Bobolink breeds from southeastern British Colum- bia, Saskatchewan, central Quebec and Cape Breton to Utah, Illinois, West Virginia and New Jersey, being most abundant in the Alleghanian area; winters in South America as far as Paraguay; migrates mostly through. the West Indies and the coast of Central America. In New York State the Bobolink probably breeds in every county. In the Catskills and Adirondacks, however, he only enters as far as civilization has established meadows and open, grassy fields for his accommodation. He is not especially common on Staten Island and Long Island but, nevertheless, breeds in each locality especially near the edge of the salt meadows. In the rocky and dryer portions of the plateau region of Nery York he is not so common as on the lowlands. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 223 Haunts and habits. The spring migration is accomplished between ‘the 29th of April and the roth of May. Sometimes he is not noted before ’ the 15th or 20th in the northern portions of the State. In the fall they disappear between the 10th and the 30th of September, but are occasionally found as late as the 5th of October; at least, they have been heard migrating at night as late as the 1st and 5th of October. This species must be regarded as a common summer resident of the State in all the grasslands, but late plowing and early mowing have reduced its members considerably in recent years. All country people know the Bobolink and nearly all the American poets have celebrated him in song. There certainly is something very entertaining in the abandonment, ecstacy and irrepressible merriment of the Bobolink’s melody as he sits in the blossoming apple tree or swaying on a tall spear of grass pouring forth his soul to his mate hidden in the meadow, or to the soul of summer. Frequently he is too much overcome with his feelings to remain in the apple tree and soars about over the meadows with quivering wings and gurgling roundelay. If his mate chances to appear he gives chase and pursues until she darts among the thick grasses to resume her duties of housekeeping. The bobolinks, even in the nesting season, are somewhat sociable in habits and several males are sometimes found both in the migration a season and in the nesting period seated in the same tree trying to drown each other’s voices in song, and sometimes several at the same time may be seen in the air circling and singing over the same meadow or swamp- land. Besides the gurgling, bubbling melody of the Bobolink he has = a call note, a clear metallic ‘‘ chink,”’ which he utters in migration, evidently to tell his associates where he is flying, and over the meadows as a sign of alarm or as a call to his companions. There is something peculiarly characteristic about this clear ‘‘ chink’’ which makes it unmistakable even when heard at night as the birds are migrating at a great distance above the ground. The nest of the Bobolink is hidden under the thick grass of meadows 224 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM or clover fields or swamplands, in’a slight hollow in the ground, composed of dry leaves, weed stems and coarse grasses, lined with finer grasses. Outside dimensions, 4 by 2 inches; inside dimensions, 23 by 14. The eggs are from 4 to 7 in number — in this State usually 5 or 6 — pale drab or pearl gray in color, sometimes pale rufous, rather thickly blotched and spotted with irregular lines and marks of chocolate, claret brown, lavender and deep purplish. They average .84 inches in length by .62 in diameter. The nest is very difficult to discover as the female rarely leaves it directly - when disturbed, but almost without exception runs through the grass. before taking wing. The surest way is to lie in wait and watch the locality where they disappear with nesting materials or when visiting the nest. after the eggs are laid; but even then they usually alight some distance from the nest and considerable strategy is necessary in order to locate it exactly. The young are hatched in about 11 days and develop very rapidly so that they are able to take wing in from 10 to 14 days; but even at this rate, although the fresh sets of eggs are usually found from the 25th of May to the 1oth of June, the nest is often uncovered by the mowers. and the young destroyed on account of the practice, which is becoming more and more prevalent, of mowing the meadows in June rather than in July, as was formerly the custom. Consequently, the Bobolink is becoming less common in most portions of New York. By the 20th of July the Bobolink’s song has entirely ceased and only a very few males at that date may be found that are still in the black and white coat, and by the first week in August they will be found in the edge of the swamps or in the tall meadows, the males, females and young almost. indistinguishable in color. They remain in this State until late in August or early September when they visit the flowed lands of the Delaware and Susquehanna and are known as Reed birds and are slaughtered by thousands. for the city market; but when they reach the coast of Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana they become a scourge to the southern planters, descending on the rice fields in such myriads that it is necessary to station many men on every rice field and shoot several pounds of powder for each acre in a BIRDS OF NEW YORK 225 order to preserve the crop from their depredations, at ‘least if the grain is still in the milk. It has been estimated by the Biological Survey experts that millions of dollars damage is done every year to the rice crop of the South by the Ricebird, as he is invariably called in the southern states. . The Bobolink does not remain in the rice states, but before he has left sometimes a large portion of the planters’ income has been destroyed. Therefore, more than any of our native species, he has a double reputation, being perhaps our most favorite songbird in the northern states and the most dreaded of all the small birds of America in the southern states. Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert) Cowbird Plate 74 Oriolus ater Boddaert. Table Pl. Enl. 1783. 37 ~Molothrus pecoris DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 143, fig. 45 (?) _Molcthrus ater ater A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. roro. p. 231. No. 495 molothrus, Gr., ‘“ one who enters others’ habitations unbidden ’’ (Swainson); dter, Lat., black Description. Head and neck “ coffee” or ‘ deep wood’ brown with purplish iridescence. The rest of the plumage glossy black, lustrous with greenish and bluish reflections. Female: Dusky brownish gray, often with dark shaft streaks giving a slightly streaked appearance. Young in their first plumage resemble the female, but the belly is whiter, tinged with greenish buff and spotted with dusky. In August and September while changing to the adult plumage, many of the young are seen in pied coloration, large patches of black showing among the grayish or mouse- colored immature plumage. Length 7.5-8.25 inches; 9 7-7.5; extent 11.7-13.5; wing 4-46; tail 3-3.35; tarsus 1; bill .68. Distribution. This species breeds in North America from southern Mackenzie and Keewatin, Quebec and New Brunswick to northern Cali- fornia, northern New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana and North Carolina, and winters from southern New York to the gulf coast and central Mexico. In New York it is altogether too common a summer resident in all portions of the State up to the beginning of the Canadian zone, but it also invades 226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the valleys and cleared lands of the Adirondacks to the farthest edge of the Alleghanian area in that district. In the southern portion of the State it is frequently found throughout the winter. On several occasions in different cities of central and western New York I have noticed one or more cowbirds that were spending the winter in company with English sparrows, and on the Montezuma marshes, when the sedges and grasses have borne good seed, it is not an uncommon occurrence to meet with flocks of from 100 to 300 cowbirds in the severest part of the winter; but this has not been observed in recent years. Occasionally small flocks are observed during winter in the Hudson valley, and in central and western New York, but they seem to be wandering from place to place. The spring migration of the Cowbird is well started by the middle or the 20th of March, the bulk of birds which have migrated southward arriving before the 30th of March or the 1oth of April. In the fall the species becomes scarce or wholly disappears from the Ist to the roth of November. Haunts and habits. The Cowbird is so named from its habit cf following cattle in the pasture and frequently alighting on their backs in order to secure insects which infest them or which are driven from the grass as they browse along. In this way, of course, the bird accomplishes some good. It also devours immense quantities of weed seeds, not only in the spring and summer, but more particularly in the fall when it fre- quents grain fields and, as my examinations have shown, feeds not so much upon the waste grain as upon the seeds of pigeon grass, ragweed, smart- weed, pigweed and other species which grow in profusion in all cultivated lands. In this way I have reckoned that at least half an ounce of seed a day is, on the average, destroyed by each member of the flock. The flecks of cowbirds found during September in the grain fields and pastures are so large that on one occasion after discharging my gun into a flock which was passing I picked up 64 birds from the two discharges of the gun, which will indicate the density of the flock. My estimate of the flock referred to was that there were between 7000 and 10,000 birds. The usual flock in the fall, however, consists of from 50 to 200 birds. They ey A BIRDS OF NEW YORK 227 fly more densely at this season than the redwings and grackles. In the evening, like these species, they visit the marshes to roost near the ground in the dense reeds and sedges close to the water line. - In spite of all the good the Cowbird does, however, I can not believe that it is a beneficial species to have about the gardens, lawns and orchards, for, as is well known, it parasitizes all our small song and insectivorous species, thereby destroying the whole brood of the foster parent, and in return for a brood of Yellow warblers, vireos, Song sparrows or some other interesting and beneficial species we have one Cowbird as the result of the foster parent’s work. Consequently, although, as Bendire says in his Life Histories, the Cowbird is beneficial when taking into consideration its food alone, it certainly must be reckoned injurious, because the four song birds which would reasonably represent one Cowbird do much more good than the Cowbird to the agriculturist as well as the nature lover. The Cowbird begins to deposit her eggs from the Ist to the 15th of May and they are often found as late as the roth or 20th of June. Every one of our small song birds is more or less frequently chosen as a foster parent. A list of 91 species in whose nests the eggs of the Cowbird have been found was compiled by Bendire. In this State I have noticed at least 35 species parasitized by this bird, the commonest of which in my experience are the Phoebe, Song sparrow, Towhee, Indigo bird, Red-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler, American goldfinch, Vesper sparrow, Chipping sparrow, Warbling vireo, Redstart and Chestnut-sided warbler.. Fre- quently as many as 2, 3 or 4 eggs of the parasite are found in one nest, but in this case only 1 or 2 or possibly none of the eggs of the nest owner are found with the Cowbird’s eggs. The egg, being usually larger than that of the foster parent, receives the greater amount of heat from the incubating bird and consequently hatches more quickly, usually in 10 days after being laid. The young Cowbird, also being larger than the rightful offspring, takes more of the food and so in a short time he is left as the sole occupant of the nest. Of all the hundreds of young cowbirds which I have seen being led about and fed by Indigo birds, Song sparrows, 15 228 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Yellow warblers and Phoebe birds, as well as many other species, not one in my experience has.ever been accompanied.at the same time by any of the parent’s own offspring, showing that in every instance the Cowbird destroys the rightful inhabitants of the nest. Frequently the mother Cowbird herself assists in this destruction by picking holes in the eggs she finds in the nest, or by casting them out upon the ground; but this is unnecessary as the young Cowbird always will effect this result if left to himself alone. I have noticed in several instances that interesting species as, for instance, the Yellow-breasted chat and the Yellow-throated vireo, which came to the hillside near my camp on Canandaigua lake and were parasitized by the Cowbird, never returned to nest in the locality. I had become enthusiastic over the vireos and the chats that sang to me every morning as I sat by the campside and was counting on a fine brood of young ones which might return the next season and enliven our surroundings; but although I should have been wiser and discovered the nest to see that all was going well, I trusted to nature in each instance and what was my disgust when the young came from the nest to find the Yellow-throated vireos leading around one disgusting Cowbird instead of their brood of young, and the chats deserted the hillside in the middle of July. They evidently were disgusted in their season’s occupation or, having been killed during their southward migration, never returned. So these instances, like others of my personal experience, are typical of numberless instances that could be noted of birds which fail to rear their young and consequently never return to the nesting site again. When we consider this influence which the Cowbird exerts on our avifauna, I can not consent to consider him otherwise than as an injurious neighbor. Cowbirds are not only parasites but polygamists and free lovers in habit. Small troops of several males and a few females are found all — through the breeding season flying around together and walking about on the lawns with spritely step, pruning their glossy plumage and exulting in the freedom from family cares, the males occasionally uttering their uncouth guttural notes and the females, when startled or when seated ee BIRDS OF NEW YORK 229 upon the fence or trees, uttering a shrill note resembling that of the Cedar- bird. The male, when uttering his squeaking chortle, ruffles up the feathers of the breast and extends the wings, somewhat after the manner of the Red-winged blackbird when uttering his ‘‘ congaree,’’ an attitude which is evidently more or less characteristic of the family. The eggs of the Cowbird are white in color, rather profusely and evenly speckled with various shades of brown and grayish lavender. They average .84 by .65 inches, extremes lying between .7 and 1 inch in length, and .61—.66 in width. They resemble more closely the eggs of the English sparrow than those of any native species. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte) Yellow-headed Blackbird Icterus xanthocephalus Bonaparte. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1826. 51223 “Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 232. No. 497 xanthocéphalus, Gr., §av06¢, yellow, and xepaAy, head Description. Male: Head, neck and chest yellow; primary coverts and a portion of the greater coverts white; otherwise uniform black. Female: Brownish dusky, throat and chest dingy yellow; breast mixed with white; young o similar to the female, larger, darker color. Length o& 10.6-11 inches; 9 9-10; wing 4.5—5.8; tail 3.6-4.8. Distribution. This species inhabits western North America from southern British Columbia, southern Mackenzie and northern Minnesota to southern California, Arizona and the valley of Toluca in Mexico, its eastern limit being southern Wisconsin, central Iowa, northern Indiana; winters from southern California and southwestern Louisiana to Puebla in Mexico; appears accidentally in eastern North America, in Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania and Florida, and once in New York State. The specimen now in the State Museum was reported as taken at Irondequoit bay near Rochester in September 1899. Its occurrence was purely acci- dental, but this species is likely at any time to appear in flocks of Red- winged blackbirds which are coming in from the Northwest. 230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus (Linnaeus) Red-winged Blackbird Plate 73 Oriolus phoeniceus Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed. 12. .1:161 Icterus phoeniceus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 141, fig. 47 Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 233. No. 498 agelaius, Gr., gregarious; phoeniceus, Lat. and Gr., deep red, Phoenician red, referring to the male’s epaulets | Description. Male: Lustrous black; bend of the wing bright deep scarlet, bordered with creamy buff. Female: Considerably smaller, blackish feathers of the back with rusty and buffy edges, giving a rather streaked appearance; under parts blackish heavily streaked with dull white; the throat and bend of the wing more or less tinged with salmon or reddish. Young males at first like female; the first winter plumage resembling the male, but the red of the wing much duller and all the feathers broadly margined with rusty and buffy above and buffy or whitish below. Length o& 9.5-9.75 inches, ? 7.5-8; extent o 15-16, 9 12.5; wing 4.7-8; tail 3.7—3.9; bill .93; tarsus 1.12; weight 2.5-3 ounces. Distribution. This species inhabits North America east of the plains from Ontario and Quebec to northern Georgia and Louisiana; winters from southern New York and Ohio to the gulf coast. In this State the Redwing is a common summer resident of all districts, even the marshes of Staten Island and Long Island and the edges of Elk lake and the Flowed land near Mt Marcy. A few spend the winter in the southern portion, but the majority are migratory, making. their appear- ance in the spring from the 15th of February to the roth of March in the southern portions and from March 5 to 25 in the northern counties. In the fall they disappear from the Ist to the 20th of November, sometimes remaining in numbers till the 1st of December. Haunts and habits. Everyone who has visited the marshes or river- side is familiar with the Red-winged blackbird and with his gorgeous epaulets and the spritely ‘ congaree’’ which he continually utters when perched on the top of the cat-tails or alders or on the neighboring telegraph wire or when flying along with outspread tail over the tops of the sedges. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 231 The female is a smaller, inconspicuous bird. As far as I have observed, she never utters the clear congaree call so characteristic of the male, but frequently, as she flies up from the marsh and away over the field, shouts out a confused rattling sound or a single clicking call note. Photo by Ralph S. Paddock Red-winged blackbird’s nest and eggs , ) These birds are gregarious both in the spring and fall, the first migrants usually coming in flocks of from 30 to 300. Frequently I have been in the marshes during the first warm spring days without seeing the expected redwings, when all at once, late in the afternoon, from the southward, 232 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with measured wing strokes, a scattered company would come over the hill at an elevation of from 50 to 100 feet and make directly for the marsh, alighting on the alders and sedges as if they were perfectly at home. — Evidently these birds migrate by day, as I have seen them come into the marshes many times in this manner, making their first appearance late in the afternoon. The habitat of the Redwing in nesting time is almost without exception in flooded land where sedges, cat-tails and bushes rise from very wet soil or from the water, preferably where the water is from 1 to 3 feet deep. The nests are attached on all sides to the cat-tails, sedge grass or the bushes in which they are constructed, and are usually placed only a few inches above the water, but sometimes at a height of 3 or 4 feet. They are made entirely of grass and sedges woven into a compact structure with the live grass intertwined between the outer and coarser portions of the nesting material. The inner portion is lined with fine rushes, grasses and sedges. The eggs are from 4 to 6 in number, usually 5, of a pale bluish or greenish white with pen lines of blackish and dark brown and claret brown some- times arranged in a wreath near the large end, on others irregularly and thinly scattered over the surface. The average dimensions are 1.05 by . -72 inches. This species is more or less injurious to the grain fields, especially corn, when it is in the milk. I have seen hundreds of acres of corn land in the vicinity of extensive marshes which had been seriously injured by the attacks of these birds. In the early days of the country the Redwing was called the maize thief from his depredations upon the cornfield, but now when the cornfields are so numerous and the marshes of such com- paratively slight extent and, consequently, the redwings are so few in number, the damage they do is so small as scarcely to be noticeable except in a few instances. At other times of the year they are a beneficial species, feeding upon weed seeds, cutworms, grasshoppers and all kinds of insects. Scores of stomachs which I have examined in August, September and October were filled with grasshoppers. About 70 per cent of the food in autumn was weed seeds, occasionally mixed with grasshoppers and cutworms. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 233 Agelaius phoeniceus fortis Ridgway Thick-billed Red-wing Like phoeniceus but larger; bill relatively shorter and thicker. o wing 4.9-5.2 inches; tail 3.5-4.1; bill, length .82-1.06, depth .53; 9 wing 4-4.3; tail 2.8-3.25; bill, length .68—.81, depth .45. This subspecies breeds from MacKenzie and southern Keewatin to northern Texas; wanders eastward during migrations. Specimens showing the dimensions of this form of Red-wing are occasionally taken in New York during the spring and fall migrations, especially in autumn. Sturnella magna magna (Linnaeus) Meadowlark Plate 75 Alauda magna Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1:167 Sturnella ludoviciana DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 138, fig 42 Sturnella magna magna A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 235. No. sor sturnélla, Lat., diminutive of sturnus, starling; magna, Lat., large Description. Prevailing color of upper parts brown streaked with blackish, the ground color really being black, each feather edged ard tipped with rufous or brown and ocherous buff; the head with 3 broad stripes of buffy white; sides of the head and neck grayish white; 3 or 4 outer tail feathers mostly white; spot in front of eye, throat, breast and belly mostly bright yellow, the breast with a large black crescent; sides grayish white tinged with buff, streaked with black; wing coverts grayish ash mottled with blackish; lower belly white. At a distance the white tail feathers are conspicuous as is also the bright yellow breast when turned toward one, and the black crescent, also the brownish black head striped with buff and the general striped brown and black effect of the upper part. The female smaller, duller colored. In fall plumage the yellow and black more or less veiled with buffy or ocherous. Length o& 10.5-11 inches; 2 9-10.25; extent 14-16.50; wing 4.7—5; tail 3.16; bill 1.4; tarsus 1.70; weight 4 to 5 ounces. Distribution. The Meadowlark inhabits eastern North America ees eastern Minnesota, southern Quebec and New Brunswick to northern Texas, Missouri, and North Carolina, and winters mostly from southern New York and the Ohio valley to the Gulf of Mexico. In New York it is a common summer resident of all parts of the State except the forested portions of the Catskills, Adirondacks and Allegany highland and in the 234 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM southern counties is almost always met with in small numbers throughout the winter. On the Montezuma marshes and other large swamps good sized flocks are also observed in winter when grass seed is abundant. The majority of individuals, however, are migratory. These arrive from the south from the 2d to the 20th of March, sometimes as late as the 30th, and disappear in the fall between the Ist and the 30th of November. The Meadowlark prefers open grass country, prairies, wide meadows and pasture lands being his favorite haunts. He secures all his food upon the ground, and walks, like all the ground-feeding members of his family, preferring weed seeds and some waste grain in the fall and winter, but in the spring, summer and early fall lives mostly on grasshoppers, crickets, larvae of insects which are found in the meadows, and ground-feeding beetles. He sometimes does harm by destroying tiger beetles and black ground beetles which are predaceous in habit, but secures much less of | these on account of their activity than of the species whose larvae feed upon the vegetation of the meadows. In fact, he spends most of his time upon the ground but is frequently seen perching on tree tops, fence posts and other elevated stations, apparently to watch the locality for members of his own company or to utter his clear call note. The Meadowlark’s flight is strong and well-sustained. When under way it usually consists of several rapid wing strokes alternating with short periods of sailing. He rises with a buzzing of the wings which reminds one somewhat of a Quail’s flight and has given him in many localities the name of ‘‘ Marsh quail.”” He was formerly hunted for game throughout most of the north central states, but his flesh is comparatively unpalatable and his beauty, as well as beneficial habits, should place him in the list of song and insec- tivorous birds rather than among the game birds. The clear, plaintive whistle of the Meadowlark which is heard from the time he arrives in spring till almost the end of the season has been variously described by different authors. Bendire says it is often interpreted ‘‘ laze-kill-dee.” I have frequently heard it interpreted ‘‘ spring-most-here.”’ At least it consists of about three syllables, a high and plaintive whistle. Beside this note he has a harsh guttural chatter uttered when flying from the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 235 grass or over the meadow, also a nasal “‘ peent”’ as it is written by Chapman, as well as a call frequently uttered when alighting upon a fence post or tree and accompanied with a fluttering of the tail, which may be written “« eeck-eeck.”’ The nest of the Meadowlark is hidden among the thick grasses or underneath a tussock of sedge or clover, and consists of weed Meadowlark’s nest and eggs stems and coarse grasses, lined with finer blades of grass. It is somewhat arched over, both by the construction materials and by the grass among which it is placed so that it is almost impossible to. detect its situation unless the bird is flushed from the nest. The eggs are from 4 to 6 or 7 in number, usually 5 in my experience, with a white ground color more or less thickly speckled and spotted with brown, rusty and lavender. They 236 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are rather elongated ovate in shape, sometimes practically elliptical and measure from .85 to 1.21 inches in length by from .72 to .89 in width, the average dimension being 1.1 by .8 inches. The period of incubation is about 16 days. The young after a few days are so covered with down interspersed with brownish and buffy feathering, and remain so silent and motionless, closing their eyes when any unusual sound approaches, that it is practically impossible to distinguish them. I have frequently looked into the nest of a Meadowlark and been unable to tell whether there were 2 or 7 young, without first unraveling the tangle with my fingers. This is undoubtedly a great protection to the young birds as they would not be noticed by their enemies. Nevertheless, great numbers of the young are destroyed by early mowing which is practised so generally throughout the New York meadows. This species which in 1895 was reported by Bendire as decreasing throughout central New York due to this cause seems at present time to be maintaining its numbers by adapta- tion to the existing conditions, nesting more in waste places, or in localities which are not mowed and raked by machinery, or by nesting so early that the young are out of the way of the mowing machine. Meadowlarks like blackbirds are a sociable species, very rarely an individual being found alone. In the fall they gather into small troops, not simply one pair with their young, but apparently several families, so that from the same meadow or marshland from 30 to 50 or even 100 meadowlarks are frequently flushed and in the southern states where the principal number of the species pass the winter I have frequently seen thousands gathered in the same field. Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) Orchard Oriole Plate 75 Oriolus spurius Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1766. Ed.12. 1: 162 Icterus spurius DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 140, fig. 46 A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 23. No. 506 icterus, Gr. and Lat. for jaundice, a yellow bird, probably the golden oriole; spzirius, Lat., spurious, bastard, referring to this bird’s former name of ‘‘ Bastard Baltimore oriole H4 Description. Adult male: Iead, neck, throat and forward part of the back black; rump, under parts and lesser wing coverts chestnut; wings BIRDS OF NEW YORK 237 and tail fuscous edged with whitish. Female: Grayish olive green; wing coverts tipped with whitish; tail bright olive green; under parts dingy yellow. Male of the first year: Similar to female but browner. Male second year: Similar but with occasional patches of chestnut on the under parts. Length o& 7.25 inches, 2 6.5; extent 10.35; wing 2.9-3.25; tail 2.7-3.2; tarsus .88; bill .7. Distribution. The Orchard oriole inhabits eastern North America from North Dakota, Wisconsin, southern Ontario and coastal Massachu- setts to Texas and the gulf coast, and winters from southern Mexico to northwestern South America. In New York it is commonest in the vicinity of New York City, and in the lower Hudson valley, but is fairly common as far north as Albany and also on Long Island as far east as Bellport; also in the Delaware valley; but is decidedly uncommon in western New York although breeding records occur for several stations. On Staten Island and in the lower Hudson valley this species arrives from the 2d to the 1oth of May and departs again from the Ist to the 17th of September, the breeding dates ranging from May 25 to June 20. In the interior of the State records of its breeding are as follows: Holley, 1876, Possun, Auk, 16:195; Canandaigua, 1883, E. J. Durand; Granville, 1886, F. T. Pember; Hamilton, May 26, 1899, G. C. Embody; Montezuma, May 27, 1899, Burdette Wright; Saratoga, June 11, 1810, A. S. Brower; Chau- tauqua county, 1902, Sarah Waite; Niagara county, Davison; Brockport, David Bruce; Orleans county, Davison; Green Island, Parks, June 2, 1880; Esopus-on-the-Hudson, Burroughs; Orleans county, June 1904, E. H. Short; Auburn, 1885, F. S. Wright. Beside these breeding records there are numerous reports of individuals taken, the northernmost among my notes being from North Creek and Port Henry, June 22, and July 5, 1905, by Will Richard. It will thus be seen that this species at least as far as its distribution in New York State would indicate, is nearly confined to the Carolinian faunal area as a breeding species, rarely going beyond this into the lower portions of the Alleghanian zone. The favorite haunts of this species are orchards, shade trees and leafy tangles on the hillside and along a stream. The nest is usually placed nearer the ground than that of the Baltimore oriole, and is not so bag-shaped, but hangs only 238 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM about 3 to 4 inches downward from the twigs on which it is suspended. The outside diameter is usually about 4-4.5 inches; the inner cup is usually about 3 inches deep by 2.5-3 inches outer diameter. The upper rim of the nest is, however, somewhat contracted, and it is almost entirely con- structed of thin, wiry grass; lined with softer substances like thistledown. The eggs are 4 to 6 in number, ovate in shape, with a paie bluish white ground color, overlaid with grayish or pearly. The markings consist of blotches, spots, scrawls and pen blots of purple, brown and pearl gray, heaviest about the larger end, forming more or less of a wreath, the darker brownish and blackish tints predominating. The average dimensions of the eggs are .82 by .57 inches. The song of the Orchard oriole is decidedly different from that of our commoner Baltimore oriole. It is a more finished effort, the voice rich and flexible with considerable expression. The song, however, is uttered in a rather hurried manner as if the bird were restless and implusive (Bendire). This bird is even more beneficial than the Baltimore oriole as it rarely, if ever, is known to feed on green peas or small fruits, so far as reported in this State, but subsists almost entirely on caterpillars and rose bugs, beetles and plant lice. Icterus galbula (Linnaeus) Baltimore Oriole Plate 75 Coracias galbula Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 1758. Ed. 10. 1: 108 Icterus baltimore DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 139, fig. 43 and 44 Icterus galbula A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 507 gdlbula, Lat., name of some yellow bird Description. Colors orange and black; secondaries and greater coverts edged with white, the. former producing a rather distinct wing bar, the latter, wing streaks; the head, neck, throat and forward portion of back and greater portion of wings, and the middle portion of tail, black; under parts, sides, rump, upper tail coverts, base of the tail, internal portion of all except the middle tail feathers, orange, deepest on the forebreast where it is of a decidedly reddish orange. Bill and feet leaden bluish. Female and young: Much duller, the upper parts being mostly grayish brown to grayish olive, more or less mottled on the head, sides of neck and back BIRDS OF NEW YORK 239 with blackish; under parts dingy orange. The female has more blackish about the head, especially on the throat which shows more or less blackish, wanting in the young birds of the season. Length o 7-8.2 inches, 9 7-7.6; extent 11.75-12.3; wing 3.6; tail 2.85; bill .7; tarsus .85. Distribution. The Baltimore oriole inhabits eastern North America from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Nova Scotia to northern Texas, Louisiana and northern Georgia; and winters from southern Mexico to northwestern South America. It is a common summer resident of all New York State with the exception of the wooded portions of the Catskills and Adirondacks, but enters the river valleys and cleared lands of the Adirondacks as far as Keene valley, Ausable chasm, Old Forge and similar locations. It is commonest in those portions of the State which lie in the Carolinian and warmer portions of the Alleghanian zone, inhabiting the orchards, shade trees and open groves. It evidently has increased considerably since the greater portion of the State was cleared and settled, and is as common in the streets and yards of our villages and cities as it is in the country districts. In several villages which I have examined, it is easy to make a census of the number of orioles which evidently inhabited the region during the preceding summer. Usually about three nests will be found on each oriole tree, showing three years of habitation, sometimes as many as five in different stages of dilapidation, but the nest of the preceding season is almost always in fairly good condition. By inspecting these trees it will be evident to nearly any bird student that from 3 to 5 pairs of orioles must inhabit each large block of our cities and villages, where shade trees are abundant. Some seasons, however, "the orioles seem much less common than in others when late snow storms in May kill large numbers or prevent them from migrating to their old haunts. The beautiful appearance and melodious notes of the Baltimore oriole are justly famous and have been praised by many poets, and every amateur bird student is enthusiastic over this bird which can always be found and heard during the “birding” season. Next to the Scarlet tanager he is probably our most gorgeously colored bird, and his song ranks at 240 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM least among the first 20 for melody, but far excels the majority in familiarity, in fact, rivaling the Robin in this respect. The orioles arrive from the 27th of April to the 8th of May in the warmer portions of the State, depending upon the season, in the northern districts sometimes not appearing until the 1oth or even the 20th. They immediately pair and begin building. By the 15th or the 20th of May fresh eggs may be found in the southern portions of the State; or from the 25th of May to the 1oth of June in cases where the first nest was destroyed; and in the northern portions of the State, sometimes as late as the 20th of June. The period of incubation is about 12 days and the female is an ideal mother, defend- ing her young with great courage and caring for them in all kinds of weather. The young, however, are not such ideal offspring as she ought to expect, for they are, as Mrs Miller has called them, the crybabies of the bird world. From the time they begin to feather out until several days after they have left the nest, they keep up a continual complaining cry for food. In this way they are unquestionably located by many predaceous animals and thereby destroyed. The young orioles are usually out of the nest from the 20th of June to the 5th of July, and are very soon led away by the old birds into the woods, groves and dense hedgerows. Then we hear no more of the oriole’s song until the latter days of August or the first week in September, when, after the autumn moult has been completed, the males frequently burst into melody for a few days before departing for their winter home. This departure occurs between the 1oth and the 22d of September. The vernal song period almost always ends by the 12th of July, usually several days before then. The Baltimore oriole is especially valuable to the horticulturist and forester on account of its attacks upon the caterpillars of various species which feed upon the foliage of trees. He even feeds upon the hairy caterpillars which are chosen by few birds with the exception of the cuckoo, and destroys large numbers of leaf-eating beetles or their larvae and devours also many aphids, rose bugs and other hemiptera. Occasionally the oriole destroys a few cherries and berries and frequently discovers the green peas of the garden, deftly BIRDS OF NEW YORK 241 opening the pods with his sharp bill and devouring large quantities of the tender seeds. In this way, in my experience, he does much more harm than by depredations upon the berries; but he is so much less destructive than the Robin, Cedar bird, and Red-headed woodpecker that complaints are rarely made against him and there can be no doubt that he is one of the very best friends which the gardener can have about his premises. As everyone knows, the oriole builds a pensile nest, usually suspending it from the drooping branches of an elm tree, soft maple, apple tree or in fact any tree, although his preference seems to be for the elm. I have found this oriole’s nest hanging from Norway spruce, hemlock, and horsechestnut which one would naturally expect he never would select. In different villages of western New York the preference seems to be in this order: white elm, silver maple, sugar maple, and apple. The main construction materials used by the oriole are gray plant fibers, especially those from the outside of milkweed stalks, waste packing cord and horsehair; sometimes pieces of rags and paper are discovered in the nest, but it is almost without exception a grayish bag as it appears from the outside, and is lined principally with horsehairs and softer materials, making a thick felted gourd-shaped structure which swells considerably toward the bottom so that there is ample room for the 5 young birds to develop. The eggs, though usually 5, are from 4 to 6 in number. Incu- bation occupies 12 days. The eggs are ovate in shape but are rather an elongated ovate, colored grayish or bluish white, more or less heavily marked with irregular pen lines and blotches of blackish brown, purplish and pearl gray, usually thickest near the larger end of the egg. The average dimensions of the eggs are .92 by .61. The average external dimensions of the oriole’s nest are 6 inches in depth by 4 inches in greatest diameter. I have seen nests which are no more than 4 inches in depth and 3} in external diameter but I have been unable to verify the observations of those popular writers who claim that orioles build shallower nests in villages or near houses because they are less liable to be visited by predaceous birds. The height of the nest from the ground in my experience varies 242 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM from 7 to 60 feet, the average being about 25 to 30 feet. In spite of the skilful placing of the oriole’s nest, it is frequently visited by plunderers. I have seen crows on several occasions succeed in getting young birds from the nest and the home of the Screech owl very often shows that the young orioles have been taken and fed to the owlets. Red squirrels also descend to the nest to get the eggs and young birds, and I have seen the gray squirrels do this on one or two occasions. Generally, however, the young are reared successfully and I am inclined to think that dangers in migration and severe weather are the principal checks to the increase of this species. Icterus bullocki (Swainson) Bullock Oriole Xanthornus bullockii Swainson. Philos. Mag. N.S. 1827. 1: 436 Icterus bullocki A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 508 biillocki, in honor of William Bullock of London Description. Size of the Baltimore oriole; color somewhat similar but the under parts not so reddish orange; the head and neck not black but yellowish or orange spotted on the crown and back of the neck with black; chin and center of the throat black; large patch of white on the wing caused by the white middle and longer coverts. Female considerably duller, lower parts a light olive gray and the upper parts bright yellowish olive; where the male is yellowish orange and black, more olive brownish. - Distribution. This species is purely accidental in New York State. A single specimen has been reported by Mr Dakin from Onondaga county on May 17, 1875. Unfortunately, this specimen disappeared from Mr Dakin’s collection and I have not been able to trace it, but Mr Dakin’s carefulness as a bird student seems ample proof that the bird which he describes was a Bullock oriole and was taken in Onondaga county, although, of course, it may have been an escaped caged bird which gave no evidence of previous confinement. The normal range of this species is in western America, from southern British Columbia and southern Saskatchewan to southern Texas and Sonora; and from California eastward to South Dakota and central Nebraska. s BIRDS OF NEW YORK 243 Euphagus carolinus (Miller) Rusty Blackbird Plate 73 Turdus carolinus Miller. Natursyst. Suppl. 1776. 140 Quiscalus ferrugineus DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 137, fig. 50 Euphagus carolinus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 238. No. 509 euphagus Gr., a ‘good feeder"’; carolinus, of Carolina Description. Male: Shiny black with greenish metallic iridescence. In high plumage no rusty showing on the edges of the feathers; but in the fall the upper parts are more or less extensively edged with rusty and the under parts with ocherous buff and whitish. In specimens taken late in the spring this rusty has not entirely worn off from the edges of the feathers; but in the very highest plumage the bird is entirely a lustrous black. Female: Dark slaty gray; upper parts with more or less greenish reflections, more extensively edged with rusty in the fall than is the case with the male and the under parts sometimes almost a uniform ocherous on the throat and breast. This edging of rusty and ocherous shows in the female as late as April and May in New York specimens. Jris straw-colored; feet and legs blackish. Length 9-9.6 inches; extent 13.5-14.5; wing 4.6-4.8; tail 3.52; bill .o1; tarsus 1.06; weight 2—2.5 ounces. Distribution. This species inhabits eastern North America, breeding in the boreal zone from Alaska, central Keewatin and northern Ungava to central Alberta, central Ontario, northern New York and Maine, and winters from the Ohio river and the Delaware valley to the Gulf of Mexico. In New York this species is a common transient visitant in all parts of the State, arriving from the south from the Ist to the 20th of March in the southern counties; in western New York, from March 10 to March 30, passing on to the north from April 20 to May 10. In the fall it returns from the north in western New York from the roth to the 20th of September; in the vicinity of New York City, from September 20 to October 10; and departs for the south in November, usually remaining the last of all our blackbirds and going only when the marshes are frozen over. The Rusty blackbird is a summer resident of the wilder portions of the Adirondacks, especially in northern Hamilton and Herkimer counties and the south- eastern portion of St Lawrence county. Its nest has been found on Raquette 16 244 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM river June 5, 1878, by C. J. Pennock; by Ralph and Bagg from the 7th to the 20th of May 1886, at Wilmurt in Herkimer county; by Merriam at Big Moose on the 15th of June; on Second lake and Moose river, June 16th. This species has been called the Thrush blackbird, I suppose on account of its flight and song which resemble somewhat those of the thrushes. The nest also is usually walled with mud or rotten wood after the manner of thrushes, but this habit is shared also by the Crow blackbird. The bill of this bird is slimmer than that of most blackbirds, and superficially shaped like that of a thrush. Its notes are also more liquid, but it seems to me a true blackbird, its guttural chortlings reminding me more of our redwings and grackles than the thrushes. Its flight, however, is more like that of the Wilson thrush, the longer wings and gliding, wavering motion suggesting the thrushes. In the spring and fall it is a pleasant sound to listen to the gurglings of these birds as they pass through the swamp from field to field and tree to tree in long scattered companies, keeping up a continual bubbling note suggestive of gushing springs and wandering waters. The Rusty blackbird is more aquatic in its habits than even the Crow blackbird, and is frequently seen wading in the water hunting for crayfish and larvae of water insects. Whole flocks of these birds are often seen over the beds of chara or rockweed, wading as long as they are able, and then flying to some partly submerged log or projecting bunch of flags and picking up the larvae of dragon flies, may flies, snails etc. from beneath the surface of the water. The nest is placed in a low alder or willow a few feet above the water, sometimes within 18 inches of its surface. It is constructed of leaves and straws, then a layer of mud, and lined with fine grasses; a rather bulky affair thickly lined with bright green grass. The outside dimensions according to Merriam are about 7 inches in diameter, by about 5.5 in depth, the inner cup 3.5 by 2.5. The eggs are 4 to 5 in number, ovate in shape, the ground color light bluish green blotched and spotted rather profusely, especially about the larger end with various shades of chestnut brown, chocolate and drab; but rarely exhibit the pen lines and scrawls so common in other blackbirds. They average about I inch in length by .73 in diameter. BIRDS OF NEW YORK 245 Quiscalus quiscula quiscula (Linnaeus) Purple Grackle Plate 74 Gracula quiscula Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. Ed.1o. 1758. 1:109 Quiscalus versicolor DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 136. (part) Quiscalus quiscula quiscula A. O.U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 239. No. 511 quiscalus, quiscula, forms of the same word, of uncertain origin; perhaps from the Spanish, a worthless fellow (quisquilla); perhaps like the common name grackle, an onomatopoeon Description. Tail long and rounded; whole plumage appears black in the distance but on a close inspection the head, neck and upper breast a rich, purplish blue, with metallic green reflection; back, rump and a portion of the under parts rich purple with bronzy and bluish iridescence, each feather of the back showing rainbows of peacock blue, purplish and bronze; the wings and tail bluish purple with green and brassy iridescence. The female smaller and much duller, especially below, the lower breast and belly being greenish brown with purplish and bronzy reflections. Length 2 12 inches; o 12.50-13.50; extent 17-18; wing 5.6-5.8; tail 5.2-5.4; bill 1.2-1.35; tarsus 1.45. Distribution. The Purple grackle inhabits the Atlantic coastal region from Connecticut, Long Island and the lower Hudson valley to the high- lands of Georgia and Alabama and winters in the southern states; not found west of the Alleghanies except in the south. The range of this subspecies in New York overlaps the range of the Bronzed grackle, and, as one would expect, on the border line there are many intermediate forms which can scarcely be assigned with certainty either to the Purple grackle or Bronzed grackle but must be labeled intermediate specimens. Almost all the specimens from Long Island except in migration time are typical of the Purple grackle, but sometimes of “ phase 3’ as Chapman calls it. in his review of the species. In the Hudson valley as far north as Ossining, at least, the residents are fairly typical of the subspecies; further north intermediates become more common. Phase no. 3 is sometimes found as far north as Troy but intermediates and the second or first phase of the Bronzed grackle are more common in the upper Hudson valley, the birds 246 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Elk lake, in the northern extremity of the Hudson valley, showing only a slight admixture of the Purple grackle coloration, hence ranking as aeneus. A specimen taken at Waterford, Saratoga county, now in the State Museum, is evidently intermediate between the two subspecies. At Athens, Pa., Chapman found the third phase intermediate of the Purple grackle and the second phase of the Bronzed grackle. At Port Jervis he found one intermediate and one aeneus. Thus it is evident that in the Susquehanna and Delaware valleys the range of overlapping is about the southern boundary of New York. In western New York north of the Susquehanna divide I have seen nothing but typical Bronzed grackle with an occasional specimen which shows a very slight tendency toward quiscula. Thus we must assign the range of this subspecies as south- eastern New York below the highlands; but its intermediate forms are found as far north as Saratoga county. On Staten Island, Long Island and the immediate vicinity of New York City practically nothing but typical Pur- ple grackle in one phase or another is found during the breeding season. The Purple grackle arrives in this State from the 15th of February to the toth of March, and departs from the 1oth to the 30th of November. Breeding records range from April 20 to May 25. In habits and economic importance this species does not differ from the Bronzed grackle which is the more abundant subspecies in this State. In voice, however, Mr Ridgway notices a difference, the note of the Purple grackle being less loud and metallic. The nest and eggs are indistinguishable from those of the Bronzed grackle. Quiscalus quiscula aeneus Ridgway Bronzed Grackle Plate 74 Quiscalus aeneus Ridgway. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1869. 134 Quiscalus versicolor DeKay. Zool. N. Y. 1844. pt 2, p. 136 (part) fig. 49 Quiscalus quiscula aeneus A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 239. No. 511b ; : aéneus, Lat., brassy, referring to the sheen of the body plumage Description. Longer and a little larger than the Robin; tail long, rounded or wedge-shaped, frequently, especially in the nesting season, BIRDS OF NEW YORK 247 carried in a keeled shape. Head, neck and upper breast deep purplish, steely blue or peacock blue; wings and iail purplish with metallic reflections, the outer flight feathers almost plain black. The whole body bronzy or brassy with changeable sheen. At a distance, however, the bird appears to be uniform black. Jris straw colored; bill and feet blackish. The body feathers, especially those of the back, are without the purplish and bluish rainbows seen on the feathers of the true purple grackle. Female: Smaller and duller. Length & 13-13.50 inches, 9 12-12.50; extent 15.75-19; wing 5.63; tail 5.05; bill 1.2; tarsus 1.48; weight 5-6 ounces. Distribution. The Bronzed grackle inhabits eastern North America from Great Slave lake, Keewatin, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Colorado, northern Mississippi, western Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts. He is thus to be regarded a bird of the Mississippi valley, and not of the Atlantic coastal plain which is inhabited by the Purple grackle. In New York this subspecies is found throughout all the western portion of the State as well as the northern portion and, in fact, in all the _ State except the lower Hudson valley, Long Island, Staten Island, Man- _hattan island and adjacent country. It passes the winter from the Ohio valley to southern Texas. In New York it is a common summer resident, abundant in some localities, arriving from the 26th of February to the 10th or 18th of March and departing for the south from the Ist to the 20th of November. A few specimens are sometimes found throughout the winter in the southern portion of the State, but this occurrence is rarer than with the Red-winged blackbird and Cowbird. The Bronzed grackle, or Crow blackbird as he is almost universally called in this State, is principally an inhabitant of the cleared lands, but is found as far up in the Adirondacks as Elk lake, Flowed land and Boreas pond, and on the highlands of western New York keeps more particularly to the river valleys and lake shores. He feeds almost entirely on the ground and during the breeding season does a great deal of good by destroying cutworms, wire worms, beetles and caterpillars and later in the summer feeds largely upon grasshoppers. At this season, however, he partakes more or less freely of berries, cherries, green peas, and, in the 248 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM early fall, of corn in the milk. In this manner they sometimes do immense damage to fields of corn which are situated near the great marshes where they congregate to spend the night, and about which they spend most of their time after the breeding season is over. During the nesting season they are found about the dooryards, both in the country and in villages and cities, building their nests in the evergreen trees, especially spruces in the thickest part near the top. Frequently, however, they place them in Lombardy poplars and in various kinds of deciduous trees when the spruces and pines are not at their disposal. I have often found them also in deserted nest holes of the flicker and in hollow trees. The nest is a rather bulky affair varying from 5 to 8 inches in height and from 7 to 9 inches in diameter. The base and outer portion are mostly composed of weed stalks, small twigs and coarse grasses, the inner cup of finer materials like dry grass, strings, rags and a few feathers or any suitable soft substance. The eggs vary from 4 to 6 or even 7 in number, usually 5 in this State, elongated oval or ovate in shape, varying from a bluish white or pale greenish to a grayish brown ground color, more or less thickly blotched, spotted, lined and clouded with blackish, brown and lavender. They vary in dimensions from I to 1.25 inches in length by from .75 to .86 in diameter. The young are ready to leave the nest about one month after the eggs are laid and are rather noisy at this time, and frequent alarm notes and squabblings of the old birds with their neighbors are heard about the orchards and gardens. The young are led away from the nest as rapidly as possible and seem to disappear entirely from the vicinity of our door- yards late in June or sometimes by the middle of the month. They gradually gather into flocks of dozens, sometimes hundreds, and spend the day foraging about the country in various localities wherever food is most abundant. At this season of the year they are found about the orchards, plowed fields, river banks, swamps, and groves, and almost invariably gather at night to roost in the nearest marsh which is covered with a low growth of bushes or dense sedges and cat-tails. They settle close to the surface of the water among the sedges or in bushes at a height of several BIRDS OF NEW YORK 249 feet. Such a locality is a veritable bedlam at dusk when the birds are coming in and settling for the night. In these localities they are associated to a greater or less extent with Red-winged blackbirds and cowbirds. On the Montezuma marshes, in the spring and fall, I have seen tens of thousands of grackles come in from the migration flights to roost amongst the dead sedges. This grackle has a coarse call note, sounding somewhat like the syllable ‘‘ clack,” which he utters when on the migration flight or on the way to and from his roosting grounds, and a similar note though louder serves as his alarm when the nest is approached or when he is suddenly disturbed. In the spring he has also a song which, however, is uttered with great difficulty and when successfully produced is far from melodious. It has a loud metallic squeaky quality which has given this bird the name of ‘‘rusty hinge’”’ or ‘‘ creaky hinge ’”’ in various parts of the country. It is commonly uttered while the bird is perched on some tree or fence post, and is accompanied by a puffing out of the plumage, a partial extension of the wings, and a spreading of the tail, until he seems actually to burst with the hoarse squawk. This performance reminds one of the similar actions of the Red-winged blackbird and the Cowbird when uttering their love notes. The grackle has been placed for many years on the black list in this State along with the crows, hawks and English sparrows; and I will confess that my experience leads me to believe that _ this is a just decision of our lawmakers, not only because of the destructive- ness of the Crow blackbird to fields of corn, as well as other grain, green peas and small fruits, but particularly on account of his appetite for the eggs and young of smaller birds which might do much more good than he would if left to grow and multiply. My experience on a single farm will serve to show what my general estimate of this bird would be. This farm had an orchard, pond, brook, patches of willows, meadowland, pasture and a large lawn with shade trees, including several evergreens. It was the happy home of numerous robins, Least flycatchers, Yellow warblers, Chipping sparrows, Song sparrows, Purple finches, Cedar birds, cuckoos and other useful species. As soon as the evergreens grew so tall that the 250 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Crow blackbirds found them suitable for nesting sites, numerous pairs of these sleek grackles built in the dooryard. At first the owner thought all was going weil, but he noticed that the robins, sparrows and other birds were not on friendly terms with the grackles, and when I came to investigate the case, about the 20th of June, when the Grackles’ young were nearly ready to leave the nests, I found that of 12 pairs of robins which ordinarily would be raising their second brood at that time, only one pair had been able to bring the young to a size able to leave the nest. This pair had built under the edge of the veranda roof and thus had escaped the attacks of the Grackle. All the other pairs of robins up to that time had been unable to accomplish anything and I was also unable to find any nests with young or any old birds caring for their young of more than 2 or 3 of the other species named. I did find numerous nests of warblers, sparrows and flycatchers which had been rifled and showed clearly from their general appearance that they had been visited by grackles or some other nest robbers and the young or eggs destroyed. As soon as the grackles led their voung away, however, and the yard was once more in peace, the robins which had been attempting all this time to raise their broods, proceeded to bring up their nestlings unmolested, and the other small birds likewise brought off their broods successfully; but in this instance it meant only one brood instead of two for all those species which raise two broods and undoubtedly a weakened brood for all the others. . On the day of my arrival I witnessed the destruction of a Robin’s brood which was the only one remaining besides the one mentioned, under the eaves of the veranda. The young were just ready to leave the nest. I heard the battle cry of the robins and came upon the scene just in time to see the grackles attacking the young birds. The robins had already become large enough to flutter their wings, and one of the two remaining young started to fly, succeeded in reaching the garden about three rods distant, but at the moment it landed upon the ground the Grackle was upon him and with one blow demolished the base of his skull. Many naturalists have suggested that some grackles are worse than others in BIRDS OF NEW YORK 25! _ their propensity for eating eggs and killing young birds, and I have no doubt that this is true, but unfortunately many experiences like the one above recorded have taught me to keep watch on all the grackles wherever I have any regard for the welfare of the other birds nesting in their vicinity. Family FRINGILLIDAE Finches, Sparrows etc. Wing variable in shape, containing only 9 primaries; tail also variable in shape, containing 12 rectrices; bill conical, the cutting edges usually plain, distinguishing them from tanagers; the commissure bent more or less abruptly down near the base, a characteristic which they share with the Icteridae; nostrils high up, bare in some species, covered with dense tufts of bristles in others; tarsus scutellate in front, plated on the side, with a sharp ridge behind like the characteristic passerine tarsus; in size they range from small to medium; plumage very variable, from almost plain to highly variegated. The family is granivorous in diet, although they all feed to a con- siderable extent on insects, especially in the summer time and when rear- ing the young. Asa family they are highly melodious, including some of our finest musicians, like the grosbeaks and Purple finch. The family is almost cosmopolitan in distribution, numbering over 600 species. In this country, as in many others, it is likewise the largest of all the families of passerine birds. As would be expected from the variability of the wing and tail, as well as the details in the shape of the bill and in the coloration, several sections of the family are popularly recognized, such as the linnets, represented by our Redpoll, the grosbeaks, finches, buntings and sparrows. These groups merge into each other by such insensible degrees, however, that no division into subfamilies is recognized by the A. O. U. The economic value of our native sparrows as destroyers of insects and weed seeds is clearly shown by Sylvester D. Judd, Bulletins 15 and 17, Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture. 252 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina (W. Cooper) Evening Grosbeak Plate 79 Fringilla vespertina W. Cooper. Ann. Lyc. N. H. N. Y. 1825. 1:220 Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina A. O. U. Check List. Ed. 3. 1910. p. 241. No. 514 hesperiphéna, Gr, 2sm¢90¢, at evening, 9W¥4, voice; vespertina, of evening Description. Adult male: Forehead and streak over the eye, yellow; crown blackish; rest of the head, neck and back deep olivaceous changing to yellow on scapulars and rump; wings, tail and upper tail coverts black; tertials white; the inner webs of the secondaries and inner webs of tail feathers partially white. Adult female: Top of the head brownish gray; body plumage light grayish, tinged with olive yellowish; throat bordered with dusky on each side; greater wing coverts, edgings of secondaries, and tail coverts, inner webs of tip of tail, and patch on the base of the primaries white. Young: Similar to female but duller and more brownish. Lower parts much paler. Length 7-8.5 inches; wing 4.2-4.5; tail 2.75-3.2; bill .8; depth of bill at base .55-.7. Distribution. The Evening grosbeak inhabits boreal North America, breeding in western Alberta and the surrounding country; and winters from southern Saskatchewan to Missouri, Kentucky, Ohio, and irregularly to New England, New York and Pennsylvania. When I began to study the migration and distribution of New York birds, I supposed that only one visitation of the Evening grosbeak had ever occurred in New York State, namely, the great invasion of 1890, when these birds were found in almost all the northeastern states in considerable abundance; but on further investigation I find that it has occurred almost certainly on all the following dates: 1875, 1882, 1886, 1887, 1889-1890, 1896, 1899, 1900, 1904, 1906, and another large visitation in 1910-1911. Thus this bird must be considered as an occasional winter visitant in recent years, but usually in very small numbers, especially when the seed crop in the north- west has failed. Haunts and habits. With us it feeds on seeds and buds of the maple, ash, mountain ash and various fruits which are left hanging on the trees. This interesting species, which is related to the Hawfinch of Europe, is BIRDS OF NEW YORK 253 a bird of striking appearance, especially the full plumaged males, whose conspicuous coloration of bright yellow, olive, black and white, and their enormously heavy beaks, immediately attract the attention of the most cas- ual observer. The sight of a mountain ash tree full of Evening grosbeaks, feeding on the brilliant red berries is an event long to be remembered. The fruits of the sumac and the ash-leaved maple also attract them, and they sometimes remain for weeks in localities where these trees are loaded with food, as was the case reported by Mr Verdi Burtch from Branchport in 1911. The following records of occurrence may be interesting to students of migration: Elizabethtown........ Winter 1875 (seen by Doctor Cutting) Brewer, BN; OCA. 75 NS: 4 (?) 1866, Lawrence, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. 8, 289 Marcellus....... ae ee July 8, 1882 (seen) Coues, B. N. O. C. 7, 250 SS OS ee ea Winter 1886 (20 taken) Ottomar Reinecke 1 SSE 5 ea ee April 15, 1887, Fenton, “ F. & S.” vol. 28, 267 Auk 7, 210 ON Sa Nov. 25, 1887 (1 taken) Swift, “ F. & S.’’ 29, 383 MMO oh cess t-écewld's <4 Dec. 11, 1889, Jan. 21, Mar. 7, 1890 (Fuertes) Fisher, ‘‘ F. & S.” 34, 65 TAR SC ne Mar. 28, 1890, Cornell Univ. Col. BOCKPOTt ¢.2< 00005 «5.3 Dec. 14, 1889 (7) (Davison) Fisher, “F. & S.” 34, 65 Feb. 1890, J. L. Davison, MSS. Orleans county....... Winter 1889, Posson, Auk 16, 195 PTOUEPOLE. ie ges Dec. 30, 1889, Jan. 29, 1890 (Guelf) Fisher, “F, & S.” 34, 65 a Jan. 30, 1890, Truman R. Taylor Albion, Chili, Gaines.. © 1889-1890, E. H. Short Lake George......... Jan. 6, 23, 25, 30 and 31, 1890, several taken (Lockhart), Fisher, ‘ F. & S.” 34, 64 OS Jan. 10, 11, 18, 1890 (9) (Bergtold), Fisher, “F. & S.” 34, 65; Auk 7, 210 254 Painted Post Lowville.... Binghamton. Lake George Lake George Westernville. 0.070.915 © v6 8 Rea oa fale fe, ef SP 0. ei 6 ear eh @ ere te i ee eae 6) a -6 6) 6 0 a> Oia Te ae a diet ree Oe ae ele ee ow: Car aK Sat say sa TE hat} MU tH Oa ace Bocuse arteries ole. ble Rie,