IC-NRLF

B 3 320 032

.IOLOGY

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

Biology Library

BEQUEST OF

Theodore S. Palmer

MEADOWLARK

Order— PASSERES Family— ICTERIOB

Genus— S TURN ELLA Species— MAGNA

National Association of Audubon Societies

South Dakota
Geological and Natural History Survey

Freeman Ward, State Geologist

Bulletin 9

BIRDS

OF

SOUTH DAKOTA

By

William H. <3ver and
Craig S. Thorns

Series XXI March 1920 No. 9

Bulletin
University of South Dakota

Entered as second-class matter, May 3, 19O2, at the Post Office at
Vermillion, South, under Act of July 16, 1894.

PREFACE

Effort has been made in this bulletin to obtain as com-
plete a list of South Dakota birds as possible. In all, 322 species
and subspecies have been recorded. With few exceptions these
are represented in the University Museum collections at Ver-
million.

There is perhaps no State in the Union where bird study
is more perplexing than in South Dakota. From east to west
the State embraces birds of woods, prairie and mountains. The
range of many birds is constantly moving westward, and this
causes variation in the migrating routes of many species. The
Black Hills, lying only a little apart from the Rocky Mountains,
are apt to be visited occasionally by western species.

From south to north, likewise, both trees and latitude
affect the bird problem. The Missouri River with its wooded
banks and ravines, traversing the middle of the State, provides
conditions which attract some species farther north than they
would otherwise come. But for this fact we probably would not
have the beautiful Western Blue Grosbeak within our borders.
Birds from farther east and south also, such as Cardinals and
Wood Thrushes, follow the growing trees into South Dakota.
Many birds are found in the southern part of the State which
are never seen in the northern part ; and some birds which form-
erly nested in South Dakota no longer do so.

So numerous, therefore, are the changes going on in bird
life within the State that observations which were made a few
years ago may not be accurate today and observations made to-
day may not be accurate tomorrow.

The authors desire to acknowledge their indebtedness
particularly to the late Dr. Elliott Coues and to Mr. Frank M.
Chapman, with whose works their own observations have been
diligently compared; and to Mr. H. C. Oberholser and Mr. A.

554

H. Howell of the United States Biological Survey, for determin-
ing species. Credit is given to other observers in the body of the
text.

They desire also to acknowledge the kindness of various
magazines in allowing the use of photographs previously used in
illustrating articles by the authors.

The number with which the description of each bird be-
gins is the one assigned to it by the American Ornithologist
Union (third and last edition), and is convenient for reference
to other works.

The authors have not attempted to give full descriptions
of the birds but only so much as seemed necessary for identifica-
tion. For more complete descriptions they refer the observer to
the principal works mentioned in the attached bibliography.

CONTENTS

PLATE OF WESTERN MEADOWLARK Frontispiece

PREFACE 5

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 8

REGENTS OF EDUCATION 10

SURVEY STAFF 10

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 11

PART I

The Importance of Bird Study 14

Bird Houses 17

The Bird Bath 19

The Food Box 20

How Birds Work for Us 22

Bird Enemies 24

Protective Coloration 28

Changes of Plumage 32

Bird Migration 34

PART II

List and Description of Birds of South Dakota 43

PART III

Bibliography 139

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Facing
Page

Male Bluebird at Nest • • 14

A Well Made Wren House Covered With Bark 18

A Rough Box Used for a Wren's Nest 18

The Robin Taking a Bath 19

Rose-brested Grosbeak Taking a Drink 19

Hairy Woodpecker at Window Sill Food Box 21

Downy Woodpecker at Food Box 21

White-breasted Nuthatch 27

Brown Creeper 27

Northern Flicker 27

Chickadee 27

A Chewink's Nest with Two Enemy Cowbird's Eggs 39

A Yellow-breasted Chat's Nest with Five Enemy Cowbird's

Eggs 39

Black Terns in Migration 48

Colony Nests of the Black-crowned Night Heron 48

Western Mourning Dove's Nest 52

Brown Thrasher's Nest 52

Mallard Duck's Nest 52

Marsh Hawk's Nest 52

Rough-legged Hawk 62

Red-shouldered Hawk 62

Burrowing Owl by Her Nest 93

Kingbird Watching for Flies 93

Young Wood Thrushes 93

Young Bronzed Crackle 93

Blue Jay Watching for Insects 95

Facing
Page

Catbird , 95

Holes Made by Woodpeckers Drilling for Borers .^ . . . 95

Downy Woodpecker 95

Roibn's Nest 101

Two Female Baltimore Orioles at the Bath 101

Red-Winged Blackbird's Nest 106

Nest of Yellow-headed Blackbird 106

Western Meadowlark on Nest 106

Western Meadowlark's Nest 106

Orchard Oriole's Nest 108

Baltimore Oriole's Nest 108

Goldfinch and Her Young 112

Male Bluebird Feeding His Mate 112

Young Baltimore Orioles 1 16

Young Rose-breasted Grosbeaks 116

Nest of Bell's Vireo 119

Blue Jay's Nest and Young 119

Young Chewink 123

Young Yellow Warblers 123

Young Brown Thrasher 123

Young Robin 123

White-breasted Nuthatch at Food Box 127

Phoebe's Nest Under a Bridge 127

Wood Thrush on Nest 133

Yellow-billed Cuckoo on Nest., .133

REGENTS OF EDUCATION

T. W. DWIGHT Sioux Falls

AUGUST FRIEBERG Beresford

FREDERICK A. SPAFFORD Flandreau

J. O. JOHNSON Watertown

ALVIN WAGGONER Philip

OFFICERS

T. W. DWIGHT, President Sioux Falls

AUGUST FRIEBERG, Vice-President Beresford

HELEN H. GAMBLE, Secretary Frederick

W. S. O'BRIEN, Treasurer ex-officio, State Treasurer Pierre

SURVEY STAFF

FREEMAN WARD, State Geologist Univ. of S. Dak., Vermillion

WILLIAM HENRY OVER, Naturalist Univ. of S. Dak., Vermillion

WALTER CARL TOEPELMAN, Geologist. .Univ. of S. Dak., Vermillion

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Vermillion, S. Dak.

March 21, 1921.
Hon. T. W. Dwight, President,
State Board of Regents.

Dear Sir:

To meet a very insistent demand for ac-
curate information concerning the birds of the
State the accompanying bulletin on the "Birds
of South Dakota" has been prepared. I here-
with submit this, as Bulletin 9 of our Survey
publications.

Mr. William H. Over, as a permanent
member of our Survey staff, has been investi-
gating and collecting birds all over the State
for many years. Dr. Craig S. Thorns, Profes-
sor of Sociology at the University, has always
been a keen observer and enthusiastic student
of the feathered tribe. This joint authorship
has resulted in a very fine product. I am sorry
to say that lack of funds allowed by the Legis-
lature for Survey work has limited the num-
ber and character of illustrations used.
Respectfully,
FREEMAN WARD,

State Geologist

PART I
BIRD STUDY

14 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIRD STUDY

The study of birds is of the utmost importance for every
young person, for youth is full of superabounding energy, which
must be expended in one direction or another. Any study that
takes one to woods and fields is not only a source of interest but
of health, and not only a present joy but also a delightful future
memory. There are few experiences that we remember with
greater pleasure in after years than our youthful field rambles
with some friend or chum.

The study of either birds or flowers is an open door to
Nature's secrets. It leads us into sympathetic companionship
with every living thing, and this is a bubbling spring of interest,
rest and joy. We weary of work and we tire of people, but
whoever is intelligently sympathetic with Nature never tires of
her companionship.

The writers always go on vacation in summer with a bird
book, a flower book, a tree book, a field glass and a camera. On
these trips they have met all sorts of people, some interested in
every tree, bush, flower and bird, as well as in hunting and
fishing. These interested people always have a good day
whether or not game is taken or fish is caught. Others are
dead to Nature; they know nothing of trees, bushes, flowers,
or birds, and have no interest in them : they usually return dis-
appointed and angry at night if fishing or hunting is poor.

It is of little use to go to woods and fields unless one sees
and is alive to what one sees. Simply the rotation of the sea-
sons is a delight to every nature student. The first Robin, Blue-
bird and Meadowlark are old friends come back again and he
actually feels the joy of renewed companionship. When apples
are in blossom he looks for the many-colored Warblers to fill
the trees and is never disappointed ; he counts the days until he
shall hear the songs of Wood Thrush, Catbird and Oriole or, if
he is on the prairie, of the Bobolink and Lark Bunting. He
becomes the guardian and helper to Bluebirds and Wrens by
providing them with nesting houses, and his bird bath brings
under his observation all the different feathered folk in the
neighborhood. He watches the two bird processions meet in

MALE BLUEBIRD AT NEST

BIRD STUDY 15

the arrival of the Robins and Bluebirds from the south and the
departure of Nuthatches and Juncos for the north. He has fed
birds all winter and knows every one of them by name. In a
word, he is alive to the out-of-doors, in sympathy with a great
sphere of life of surpassing daily interest.

One in beginning bird study is apt to become discouraged
because there are so many. But this is as foolish as to refuse
to make friends because there are so many people. Indeed, one
learns birds just as he learns people: he is introduced to Mr.
and Mrs. Robin or Bluebird; his acquaintance with these leads
to acquaintance with others. One of the delightful things about
bird study is that it takes a lifetime and every new acquaintance
is a new source of interest.

And yet bird study does not take much time either from
work or other study. It is not a matter of time but of attention.
One person walks along the street with his head down and his
thoughts far away ; another sees the Downy Woodpecker chisel-
ing a worm out of a tree beside the walk or the Nuthatch stand-
ing head downwards on a tree trunk across the street. One
person is wide awake and sees intelligently; the other is half
asleep and oblivious to what goes on about him.

G517:

Two boys take a tramp together in the woods. Both en-
joy the tramp but one has more than a tramp. He sees the
Scarlet Tanager and hears the Wood Thrush sing; he flushes
a Whip-poor-will and sees it light lengthwise on a limb ; he
hears the Flicker's call and knows why he is on the ground
feeding on ants. He sees a bird that he does not know and hears
a call that he does not recognize. New interests have thus come
into his life. It was a tramp worth while.

The main thing in bird study is to get started. When we
have once begun, it is a continuous delight; it opens the eyes
even wider to all nature about us, and in later life it becomes
a source of restfulness from work and worry. It adds to every
walk in the fields and to every tramp in the woods; it makes
every vacation on lake or in mountain tenfold enjoyable, for the
best way to rest and enjoy is not to sit idle but to give our-
selves to new interests.

16 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

The initiative in bird study should be taken by school
teachers. They are the natural leaders of the children in study,
and pupils look to them for guidance. A little extra work here
will amply repay any teacher by developing increased interest
on the part of her scholars and will furnish a means of recreation
and pleasure to them which she cannot measure.

One of the best ways to study is to form bird clubs, which
should hold periodic meetings. This gives companionship in
study, benefits each by the observations of all, and furnishes
opportunity for correcting possible mistakes. Societies should
be organized in winter and our few winter birds learned before
the spring migrations begin. It is important to have a simple
but good book, with colored plates, for purposes of identifica-
tion. The authors know none better than the pocket edition of
Chester A. Reed's "Bird Guide" for birds east of the Rocky
Mountains, published by Doubleday, Page and Company, Gar-
den City, New York. Farmers' Bulletin 513, entitled "Fifty
Common Birds of Orchard and Prairie," gives splendid colored
cuts of fifty common birds and especially emphasizes their econ-
omic value.

The University Museum at Vermillion is always glad to
identify birds or nests to those sending in a description of them,
and will answer inquiries about birds.

Every bird club may receive material help by getting in
touch with the National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974
Broadway, New York City. Our county farm agents are al-
ways glad to render assistance in bird study, and none appre-
ciates the value of birds more than they do. An effective or-
ganized relationship between our State Game Commission and
all the active bird organizations of the State would be very help-
ful. Bird clubs should distribute literature on the subject, have
their county papers publish short articles, and use every effort
in carrying on an educational campaign to change public senti-
ment in favor of bird protection.

It is obvious that those interested in birds must show to
the public that our birds are worth while, and one of the best
ways to acquire lasting results is to carry on educational propa-
ganda in the graded schools. All teachers should be urged to
spend at least one hour a week in bird study with their students.

BIRD STUDY 17

BIRD HOUSES

Much can be done to attract summer birds about our
homes by providing nesting places for them. Wrens, Bluebirds,
Martins, and sometimes Chickadees, build in bird houses but
each has individual taste in style and location of house.

Wrens are the least particular; they will build in any-
thing from an old boot or tin can to a fine carpenter-made bunga-
low. The authors have known them to build in the tool box
of a self-binder. They prefer a place with a small cavity, how-
ever, as it is their custom to fill completely the cavity with nest
material. We really cannot place their house too near our own.
They like it near the ceiling of the front or the back porch, where
we are constantly passing, for although they scold us roundly
for living in our own homes and for our impudence in encroach-
ing on their preserves they really like to be near us and they
feel safe in our presence. The entrance to the Wren's home
should be the size of a twenty-five cent piece.

The Bluebird's house should not be large, for it does not
build a bulky nest. The entrance must be the size of a fifty-cent
piece. It loves to have its house placed in the open — along a
fence, or even in the middle of a front or back lot, preferably in
a line of bushes.

To secure a Chickadee's nest in one's yard is quite an
achievement. They do not readily build in a house or in a made
home of any kind that is not a part of a standing tree. Fre-
quently they have been induced to build by excavations made in
dead trunks. One nest was secured in the stump of a dead
cherry tree by sawing half way through the trunk above and
below where the nest was to be, carefully splitting off the front,
making a gourd-shaped excavation, boring a hole in the top,
and then nailing the face back on. Another was secured by
cutting off a dead apple limb, excavating the center of the
stump from the top, boring a hole in the side near the top, and
then nailing on a round piece of board for a roof. The natural
nesting place of these birds is in old Woodpecker's holes, and
the nearer we simulate these the better the birds like it.

18 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Martins love a home in the open and elevated on a pole
from ten to twenty feet. Their house may be at least two stories
high and have many rooms, for they love to nest in colonies,
and they return to the same place year after year.

A brushpile left in the corner of the yard will usually
secure the nest of a Brown Thrasher or Catbird, and this means
the best of bird music during the nesting season. A dead limb
left on a tree, possibly with the top cut off, is likely to gain the
nest of the Downy Woodpecker, Flicker, or Redhead.

It is well, as far as possible, to provide two nests for
birds, as most of them rear a second brood. After their first
young were grown Bluebirds have been known to go straight
across the garden and take possession of a second house.

A WELL MADE WREN HOUSE COVERED WITH BARK

ROUGH BOX USED FOR A WREN HOUSE

THE ROBIN TAKING A BATH

ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK TAKING A DRINK

BIRD STUDY 19

THE BIRD BATH

Nothing will do so much to bring different birds about
the premises as a bird bath. This is especially important in
South Dakota, for in most places it is a long way to open water.
The bath should be contained in a wide, shallow dish, so that
more than one bird can drink or bathe at a time. This is not
necessary from the bird's standpoint, but it makes the bath
much more interesting to watch. It also makes it much more
instructive, as it gives ampler opportunity for birds to reveal
their characteristics and their relations to one another.

If the bath will admit of it, it should be lined with sod,
for in nature the favorite bathing place of birds is a grassy pool
beside a running stream. Cut a piece of sod well under the roots,
wash all the dirt out of it, shear the grass close, cover the floor
of the bath with this sod rug, and then pour in water until
it is an inch deep above it. The grass will grow in the water
and should be cut regularly with the rest of the lawn.

The bath should be placed in the open and raised abput
two feet above the ground. Birds are off their guard to some
extent when drinking and bathing, and the raising of the bath
helps to protect them from prowling cats.

20 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

THE FOOD BOX

Grosbeaks will come to a food box in summer for sun-
flower seeds, of which they are very fond, but in the bird world
the food box is a winter institution. The attractive foods are
suet, nuts and sunflower seeds. Chickadees and Nuthatches
are especially fond of the seeds and nuts, while the Downy and
the Hairy Woodpeckers are especially fond of suet. Grain of
any kind should never be put in the box, as the birds mentioned
do not care for it and the grain-eating English Sparrows will
flock to it, driving all other birds away.

It is always desirable to have the box just outside the
dining room window for then the family can watch the birds
while sitting at table. With a well supplied box one will eat few
meals in daylight during winter without enjoying the sight of
bird neighbors feasting on his bounty.

To get birds to come to the box at one's window is a
simple matter. The natural place for the birds mentioned to
search for food in winter is on the trunks and larger branches
of trees. There, in bark crevices, they find insects in their vari-
ous forms of winter preservation. If the food box is first placed
beside some tree the birds will soon find it. Then it may be
moved by gradual stages to any desired place and the birds
will follow.

The writer likes a box about two feet long and eight
inches wide, with a standard about two feet high at each end,
and these spanned by a crosspiece at the top. Nuts or sunflower
seeds may be placed in the box and suet tied to the standards
or crosspiece. This gives room for more than one bird to light
at a time, and furnishes many exhibitions of bird ways in out-
witting their fellows, at times even providing occasion for a
passage at arms. Woodpeckers prefer to eat perched on the
standards head upward and the Nuthatches head downward,
while Chickadees are most at home on the box itself.

One should also have a storm food box, the sort that will
let the birds in but keep the storm out. An ordinary box with
one side open to the window will answer but it is much more

HAIRY WOODPECKER AT WINDOW SILL FOOD BOX

DOWNY WOODPECKER AT FOOD BOX

BIRD STUDY 21

interesting to exercise one's ingenuity in making a special box
for the purpose and to notice what kind of box the birds like
best.

The Brown Creeper is not apt to come to the food box
except in excessively cold weather. But if one will place just
outside of his window an old tree trunk in which he has bored a
hole for the reception of suet this interesting bird will not be
long in searching it out and will visit it repeatedly.

22 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

HOW BIRDS WORK FOR US

To entice the birds about our homes and into our gardens
by bird houses, baths and food boxes is not only to make them
our friends but our servants. But for the birds there is no doubt
that our vegetables, bushes and trees would be destroyed by in-
sects. Most of our birds are insect eaters, and even seed-eating
birds feed their young upon insects. All birds are hot-blooded
creatures and require an enormous amount of food; and, too,
they seem to be feeding from morning till night. In winter in-
sects are in very condensed form, usually in the pupa stage, and
it requires a great many to satisfy a hungry bird, so that every
bird that searches our tree trunks in winter destroys what would
be a vast multiplication of insects during the following summer.

The hosts of insects that the birds destroy in migration
are beyond all computation, indeed beyond our imagining.
Whole families of insect eaters, as they pass northward, appear
in each locality just before or at blossom time — Flycatchers,
Warblers, Vireos, Kinglets, Swallows and Swifts. They come
just as most insects are emerging from the pupa state and just
as others are hatching from the egg. Everywhere the trees are
alive with hurrying, hungry, feeding birds. Their quick eyes
search every leaf and examine every bud and blossom. They
are the savers of our trees and bushes.

The larger birds that remain with us all summer, such as
Bluebirds, Orioles, Thrushes, Thrashers, Catbirds, and scores of
others, live largely on caterpillars. The favorite food of Cuckoos
is the tent caterpillar, which is so destructive to orchards; and
a few pairs of Grosbeaks in a potato patch will keep it free from
the destructive potato bug. The little Wrens will creep under
every vegetable in the garden looking for worms. Kingbirds
use the clothesline as a perch and gobble up the passing flies,
which carry disease from filthy places to infect our food. They
also destroy robber flies, which kill and eat honey bees.

Every place in nature has its bird, and few are the birds
which do not give good account of themselves in rendering
service for the benefit of man. Even the Hawks and Owls,
which most boys and hunters regard as legitimate prey, and shoot
to let lie and rot, are among our most useful birds. There are

BIRD STUDY 23

three medium-sized Hawks that pursue and kill small birds —
the Goshawk, the Sharp-shinned Hawk and Cooper's Hawk. But
these Hawks are not plentiful, and the damage they do is not
great. The small and large Hawks, together with the Owls,
are among the farmer's best helpers. When you see a large
Hawk on hay or straw stack he is watching for mice ; when
you see him perched on a tree or telephone pole he is on the
alert to destroy pocket gophers, which dig up the alfalfa fields;
when you find him in the orchard or by the hedge row he is
looking for rabbits, which girdle young fruit trees ; and when
you see him on wing leisurely searching meadow or marsh
he is hunting field mice, pocket gophers, ground squirrels and
other pests of the farmer. The little Sparrow Hawks, so abun-
dant in our State, live on large insects and small mammals.
The large Owls live chiefly on night-feeding mammals, such as
mice, rats and rabbits. The little Screech Owl, whose night
call is heard in practically every South Dakota town, is a great
destroyer of mice.

While we are benefited most by the insect-eating birds,
the seed-eaters render valuable service in destroying weed seeds.
As many as 9,200 weed seeds have been found in a single Mourn-
ing Dove's stomach. It has been estimated by the United States
Department of Agriculture that in Iowa the Tree Sparrows
alone, which only winter in the State, eat 875 tons of weed
seeds annually, and that in the whole United States in 1910 the
Sparrow family saved farm products to the value of $89,260.000.

The economic value of birds is no longer a matter of
speculation or sentiment. It is based on careful investigation.
The following data, for example, is taken from reports of the
United States Department of Agriculture. The stomach of
a Tree Sparrow held 40 chinch bugs and 10 other species ; that
of a Bank Swallow in Texas, 68 boll weevils; the stomachs of
thirty-five Cliff Swallows, an average of 18 boll weevils each;
those of two Pine Siskins in Colorado, 1,900 black olive scales
and 300 plant lice ; that of a Killdeer in Texas, over 300 mosquito
larvae; that of a Flicker, 28 white grubs; that of a Nighthawk,
34 May beetles ; that of another Nighthawk, 340 grasshoppers,
52 bugs, 3 beetles, 2 wasps and 1 spider; and that of a Duck,
over 72,000 seeds.

24 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

BIRD ENEMIES

There are more bird nests in the trees about our homes
than in the outlying groves, and more birds in a well shaded
town than in many times the same area of wild woods. The
Robin places its nest in the tree nearest the walk; the Wren
occupies a box under the porch roof; the Quail grows tamer in
spring and makes her nest in the old orchard.

Birds thus bring their families about our homes for pro-
tection from enemies, such as snakes, weasels, minks, skunks,
foxes, coyotes, and other mammals. Crows, some Hawks and
some Owls are also enemies. Some of these are not serious
bird enemies, but, taken together, they make a formidable
army, and the birds fly to us for protection.

The destruction of birds' nests by these enemies, together
with wind and storms, is almost past belief. A careful observer
says that during a whole season he has not known a single Wood
Thrush's nest to succeed. In 1915 five Meadowlarks' nests were
observed in a grassy corner of the University campus and only
one succeeded. During a whole season his efforts to secure a
photograph of young Kingbirds failed. Something invariably
happened either to eggs or young. Probably not more than one
out of five Yellow Warblers' nests succeeds. And even the
strong, masterful Robin has been observed to "make good"
only with his third nest.

English Sparrows are bird enemies in two ways: they
are so numerous, curious and persistent that they flock to an>
spot where other birds are busy and make themselves a nuisance,
so that other birds simply leave; they also rifle birds' nests.
The writer has seen them get into a Robin's nest, throw the
eggs to the ground, tear up the lining, and leave the egg-cradle
a wreck.

r •

There is perhaps no more destructive bird enemy than
the Cowbird. It builds no nest of its own, but lays its spotted
eggs in the nests of other birds, usually those that hold spotted
eggs. The egg of this parasite has a smoky ground color spotted

BIRD STUDY 25

all over with darker and somewhat irregular spots. It looks
like the sinister thing it is, lacking the clear ground color and
definite spots of most eggs.

While the Cowbirds are generally seen in pastures feed-
ing upon insects disturbed by cattle and horses as tkey graze,
during nesting time the females are seen in groves and among
bushes eyeing the movements of other birds and watching a
chance to slip into their nests to lay their own eggs. The
writer has found five eggs of this enemy in one Yellow-breasted
Chat's nest; three are not infrequently found, and two are quite
common.

These parasitic eggs are destructive of the rightful young
because they hatch more quickly than other eggs, and their
young are rapid-growing, pot-bellied things. Owing to their
rapid growth, size and strength they take most of the food
brought to the nest and literally starve and crowd the parents'
own young to death. The strange thing is that, with the excep-
tion of the Yellow Warbler, birds either do not know the
danger of this egg or do not know how to defend their own
young against it. Parent birds will even feed these foster chil-
dren after they have left the nest. The Yellow Warbler discerns
the danger and buries both these enemy eggs and her own by
building a second nest above them.

Next to the Cowbird as a nest rifler should be placed the
Blue Jay. He is an egg eater and will sometimes destroy young
birds. When other birds are nesting it is the regular custom
for Blue Jays to form in squads of three to six and make ex-
cursions from one grove to another, or from one part of a
shaded town to another. These are nest robbing expeditions
and are made with loud outcries, as though for the purpose of
terrifying other birds. The writer one day watched three at-
tacking a Robin's nest. The male Robin pursued the first in-
truder, the female the second, but there was no Robin to pur-
sue the third. On this occasion, however, the male Robin re-
turned in time and the pair succeeded in driving off the thieves,
but the next day the nest was rifled.

The Crow is listed by writers among bird enemies, al-
though the authors have never caught him in any nest robbing

26 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

acts. Every observer, however, has seen Kingbirds and Black-
birds light between his hurrying wings and drive him precipi-
tately from the vicinity of their nests, which is presumptive evi-
dence against him; and his thieving propensities are well
known.

Hawks and Owls as a rule do not make a business of kill-
ing young birds and, as far as the writer is aware, never molest
birds' nests. Exceptions must be made of the three Hawks al-
ready mentioned — the Sharp-shinned, Goshawk and Cooper's
Hawk. These three are swift fliers and kill and eat small birds
whenever they can catch them, and of course are always eager
to appropriate young birds either in the nest or out. Doubt-
less any Hawk or Owl will occasionally rifle a nest of young
birds, but the Owls and the large and small Hawks do not seek
their food in this way. Their food, as indicated elsewhere, con-
sists principally of small mammals, and they make it their busi-
ness to hunt for mammals and not for birds.

Snakes always seem to strike birds with terror, and for
this there is good reason. These stealthy creatures are always
on the watch for nests and young. They easily climb into high
bushes and even ascend sloping trees. The writer was one day
attracted by the combined cries of seemingly all the birds in the
neighborhood — cries of fear, terror and distress. A snake had
climbed into a high gooseberry bush which held a Catbird's
nest, and was leisurely gulping down one of the half-grown
young. All the birds were vainly endeavoring to drive him away,
but he paid no attention. A bull snake rifled a Cheewink's nest
which the writer was watching for photographic purposes, and
made his own nest or burrow under it. He had driven a hole
directly through the center of the nest. The young were de-
stroyed but one unbroken egg was found in the loose dirt which
the snake had worked up.

Many birds' nests are destroyed by wind and storm.
The writer has known a Cuckoo's nest to be literally blown out
of the tree; and every few years after a severe wind and rain
storm both eggs and young birds are seen beside or on the
walk between his home and the University in Vermillion.

-

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH

BROWN CREEPER

NORTHERN FLICKER

CHICKADEE

BIRD STUDY 27

The thoughtless bird photographer may be a bird enemy.
In photographing birds, leaves and twigs should never be re-
moved. They may be tied back to let light in for the picture,
but should always be carefully replaced. When they are torn
away the nest is almost sure to be rifled. Birds know how to
place their nests so as to protect them best and when their in-
stinctive plans are disarranged their treasures are endangered.
Everything about a bird's nest should be left precisely as found.
And even while photographing one should be careful not to al-
low direct sunlight to fall upon very young birds, as it is al-
most sure death to them.

Boys with air guns and other guns are sometimes bird
enemies while not meaning to be such. The writer once came
upon two fine boys of his acquaintance in an orchard shoot-
ing English Sparrows, as they thought. They were shooting
Tree Sparrows that had just arrived from the north to spend
the winter with us. Sparrows are difficult to tell apart, and
when we shoot English Sparrows it is safest to shoot those
near houses, so as to be sure that we are killing real bird ene-
mies.

There is no greater enemy of birds than the household
cat. Cats are natural hunters; they easily climb trees to get
at the nests; and young birds upon the lawn are entirely at
their mercy. It has been estimated that cats kill one half of
all young Robins in Vermillion every summer.

The list of bird enemies is long and it is not a pleasant
task to write about them. It is important for us to know a few
of them, for the more we know of these enemies the better
friends we will be to the birds, especially as they trust us and
bring their nests to our very doors for protection.

28 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

PROTECTIVE COLORATION

In studying birds one must ignore the females. This
would be a rather unsafe policy in studying human beings,
but among birds it is necessary because the males are the
singers and wear the bright colors, while the females do not
"shine" either in music or dress. One learns the females easily
because they are the companions of the males during the mat-
ing season. But for this fact the study of female birds would
be a very difficult task, for most of them have sober colors,
and the females of many species resemble each other. For ex-
ample, it is not easy to distinguish the females of several dif-
ferent Blackbirds, or of numerous Sparrows. Of course in
some species males and females are alike, but bright colored
males and sober colored females is the general rule.

The colors of male birds are always the brightest in
the mating season, as though for the purpose of being attrac-
tive to the females. Some have thought that the most attrac-
tive males won the females, and then, reproducing their kind,
developed in the species increased attractiveness. Others have
thought that beauty in males was connected with strength and
virility, and that stronger males won the females because of their
prowess in driving off other suitors.

It is difficult to decide such matters, but it seems cer-
tain that in the modest colors of females nature has made care-
ful provision for the protection of the mother on her nest. The
dappled brownish black of female Red-winged and Yellow-
headed Blackbirds blends perfectly with the varying light and
shade that play over their nests from the tops of flags and
rushes swaying above them.

The female Rose-breasted Grosbeak is about the color
of the materials of which she builds her nest, and the colors
of both herself and her nest are not unlike the color of bark.
The male Scarlet Tanager is like a burst of flame in the forest,
but his mate has the color of green leaves, and when on her
nest can scarcely be seen.

Birds of prowess, like Blue Jays, Crows and Hawks,
show little difference in color between males and females.

BIRD STUDY 29

They are able to defend themselves. Birds that make their
nests in cavities, like Woodpeckers, Kingfishers, Bluebirds and
some Swallows, show little difference in color between the
sexes, and in several of these cases the females are highly
colored.

While there are many exceptions, birds are generally col-
ored like their surroundings. The whole Vireo family, for ex-
ample, is olive green or greenish gray, and these birds are
scarcely noticed as they flit through the trees and gather food
from the leaves. The large Warbler family migrates north-
ward in blossom time, when the splashes of yellow and white
in their bluish gray plumage seem simply to add so many
more blossoms as they flit through the trees. When they re-
turn in the autumn the blossoms have disappeared and their
bright spots have been greatly obscured.

Prairie Chickens and Grouse can scarcely be seen in up-
land grass or stubble field. The Ruffed Grouse, both by col-
oration and rigid attitude, looks like the stump beside which
he stands. Woodcocks and Quail are the color of the dry
leaves in which they hide. All Snipes are the color of dried
grass beside which or in which they run. The American Bit-
tern can with difficulty be distinguished from the cat-tail be-
side which he stands; and the Great Blue Heron is almost
indistinguishable when viewed against the rushes.

The study of coloration in birds' eggs is very interesting
and very perplexing. In the wild there would seem to be a re-
lation between the color of a bird's egg and the color of the
bird that lays it. Among barnyard Chickens it is not so. All
hens lay white eggs whether they themselves are white, buff,
dappled gray or black. And yet, as we know, some hen's eggs
are whiter than others.

But a Crow lays just such an egg as you would expect a
Crow to lay — a smoky, darkly blotched egg. The Cowbird has
an egg of similar character. All Blackbirds' eggs have a dusky
ground color and are variously spotted and splashed with
black. The Orioles, which are are brighter colored Starlings, have
lighter colored eggs, which are not so heavily spotted and

30 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

splashed; while the Meadowlark, our lighter colored Starling,
has an ideal egg, with clear ground color and exquisite brown
spots.

This line of reasoning cannot be followed far, however,
without becoming inextricably tangled with the problem of pro-
tective coloration; for example, the eggs of the Catbird, Robin
and Wood Thrush, while varying in shade, are greenish blue,
while the birds themselves are very differently colored.

Notwithstanding exceptions, there would seem to be a
good deal of protective coloration in the shading and spotting of
eggs. The greenish blue eggs just mentioned are difficult to see
in the shade of trees and bushes where the nests are placed. All
eggs that are spotted and splashed are protected thereby in the
dappled lights and shadows that play over them when uncovered
in the nest. Most birds that nest inside of holes, such as Wood-
peckers, have white eggs; but exceptions at once occur in the
exquisite brown egg of the Wren and the delicate blue egg of
the Bluebird. It will be noticed that these fall under the other
rule, that of the color of the birds themselves.

The Mourning Dove's pure white eggs, laid on a slender
scaffolding of roots and exposed to the sight of every nest rob-
ber in the woods, are a glaring exception to color protection ; and
the exception is more marked when we remember that the Dove
offers no defense of its eggs, except to flutter away as though
wounded to lure the intruder from its treasures. The Mourning
Dove's nest is probably rifled more than any other nest in the
woods, but this is compensated for by the fact that the Dove
breeds almost continuously throughout the season. They have
been found brooding eggs in September.

Most Hawks' eggs are white or cream color, sometimes
with spots, but they are able to defend them.

Some colors are not only for defense but also for offense.
Owls are noted for protective coloration, doubtless not so much
for their own defense as to allow them to approach their prey
unobserved. The Snowy Owl changes color with the seasons,
becoming nearly white when the ground is covered with snow.

BIRD STUDY 31

Perhaps the most remarkable example of adaptive colora-
tion in the bird world is found among the Ptarmigans or Snow
Grouse, which, although having the Grouse colors in summer,
turn pure white in winter. Mr. Frank M. Chapman calls atten-
tion to the fact that Snowy Owls feed on Ptarmigans. It would
appear, therefore, that the Ptarmigan's colors mean conceal-
ment for defense, while the Owl's mean concealment for ap-
proach and attack. The soft, quiet flight of Owls also assists
them in coming upon their quarry unobserved.

The same relation would seem to exist between whole
classes of birds, for example, Hawks and Grouse. Both are
modestly colored, the Grouse evidently for concealment and
Hawks for attack. All Flycatchers also have modest colors.
They can hardly be seen as they perch upon dead branches
and doubtless this gives them advantage in darting out upon
passing insects.

It should be noted that all birds are lightest colored on
their under parts, many of them white. This is an important
element in protective coloring, since the under parts are always
in shadow. They must therefore be lighter in order to make the
color effect uniform.

The whole matter of color protection is filled with diffi-
cult questions, owing to the many exceptions, but it is a subject
of intense interest for study, and one that comes under almost
daily observation if our eyes are open to observe the facts.

32 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

CHANGES OF PLUMAGE

The changes of plumage observed in Ptarmigans and
Snowy Owls are evidently cases of adaptive coloration; but
there are other cases where such adaptation is not so evident.

The male Goldfinch is bright yellow with black cap, wings
and tail in summer, but in winter he is scarcely distinguishable
from his mate. Many think these birds migrate south in au-
tumn, whereas they are annual residents. They are little noticed
in winter because males, females and young all look practically
alike. Is this protective coloration? It is true, of course, that
the male's bright yellow summer dress would make him a marked
object in the bare winter landscape, whereas the unobtrusive,
sparrow-like plumage of the females and young permits these
birds to feed by the half dozen on sunflowers and weeds in win-
ter almost unobserved.

If the above suggestion regarding protective coloration be
correct, several other birds must be put in the same class. Be-
fore the Bobolinks go south the males have lost their glowing
white, buff and black and have taken the colors of the females
and young. They may be seen in late summer gathered in small
flocks perched on wire fences that run through meadows. They
are scarcely recognized as Bobolinks. The song is gone; the
wedding dress of the male has faded away; they are now pre-
pared for the southern journey, and are all dressed in "khaki," so
as to be as little observed as possible by enemies.

The flaming coat of the male Scarlet Tanager disappears
in autumn and, although his wings and tail remain black, his
body takes on the olive green of the female.

These seasonal color changes are not very well under-
stood. Of course, all birds molt their entire plumage after the
nesting season; some molt their whole plumage again in the
spring ; others molt their body feathers in spring ; while some do
not molt even all their body feathers. Changes which come by
molting are easily understood, but the above changes do not al-
ways come by molting. Some have thought that the feathers
change their pigment ; others that the tips of the feathers, which

BIRD STUDY 33

are sometimes differently colored, break up and fall away or are
worn off.

The writer has seen male Goldfinches in spring with the
yellow showing clearly under the brownish tips of the winter
plumage. These brownish tips in some way disappeared, leav-
ing the bodies of the birds pure yellow.

The colors of birds, as before indicated, are always high-
est in the mating season. Redwing's epaulets fairly blaze;
Yellowhead's neck and head are glowing yellow; Robin's breast
is really ruddy ; the colors of all male birds are as pure and fresh
as though they had just emerged from a Turkish bath; while
some cranes and Herons grow special plume-like feathers as a
wedding decoration.

Young birds always take on inconspicuous colors com-
pared with those of the most conspicuously dressed parent. Us-
ually they are the colors of the female. When parents are alike,
or nearly so, as with Robins and Blue Jays, the young are not
quite like either. In some cases where parents are unlike, as
with Rose-breasted Grosbeaks, the male and female young dif-
fer enough in plumage to be told apart. The young of course
need color protection.

Many young birds, like Prairie Chickens and Ducks, are
covered with downy coats. It requires several months for them
to acquire their first full plumage. Other birds, like the Orioles,
require two or three seasons to gain the full dress of the male.

The plumage of birds, even of the same species, seems to
vary with climate, rainfall, and character of the region inhabited.
For example, birds of the arid plains of the west are generally
lighter colored than their cousins of the east or south. The
Western Meadowlarks of our prairies and bad lands are lighter
than the Eastern Meadowlarks of Illinois. The same is true of
the Horned Larks, which vary considerably in different parts of
the country. This fact also would seem to be a phase of pro-
tective coloration. The lighter colored birds are most like their
surroundings on sandy soil, volcanic ash or where the short
grass is parched and dry during most of the summer.

The more deeply we study into Nature's secrets the more
evident it becomes that all nature is one, fitted part to part, and
that each part contemplates all the rest.

34 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

BIRD MIGRATION

We who live in the Northern Hemisphere are peculiarly
fortunate in the privilege we have of viewing a bird procession
twice a year that spreads over the whole of North America to
nest. Mr. Wells W. Cooke says, "South America has almost no
migratory land birds, for bleak Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego
offer no inducements to these dwellers of the limitless forests
of the Amazon." (Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No.
185, p. 4.)

There are four classes of birds with respect to migration :
(1) permanent residents ; those that do not migrate ; (2) summer
residents; those that come to us from the south in spring and
return in the autumn; (3) winter residents; those that come to
us from the north in the autumn and return in spring; (4) tran-
sients, or migrants; those that pass through our State on their
way north in spring and again when they return south in au-
tumn.

The general direction of bird migration is north and
south, but with many species this direction may swing at times
to east and west. Many Snipes and Plovers, for example, which
spend the winter in South America, come north across the Gulf
of Mexico, then up the Mississippi Valley, and nest in the in-
terior of North America. In the autumn they take an easterly
course to the Atlantic coast, thence south to their wintering
place. The Bobolinks that nest in the northwest go to their win-
ter home in South America by the roundabout way of Florida,
and the Connecticut 'Warblers come north through the interior
of the United States and return south along the Atlantic coast.

The reason for these circuitous routes is not well under-
stood. Generally speaking, birds migrating follow "mountain
chains, coast lines and particularly river valleys," but there are
so many exceptions that other causes evidently enter into the
problem. At present in South Dakota many birds are extending
their range westward with the growth of trees. These birds will
follow the migrating routes by which they come, returning
first east and then south. Many birds follow such a route be-
cause their range has been extended in this way.

BIRD STUDY 35

Some think that the ice age crowded the birds southward
from their ancient home in the Arctic Regions, which at one
time had a temperate climate. Geological changes, such as the
upheaval of mountain chains, the rise or subsidence of large
areas of land, doubtless enter into the problem ; evidently all
migratory routes are very ancient in their general outlines.

Another question that may not be answered with too
great assurance is, Why do birds migrate at all? What has al-
ready been said suggests an ancient and long standing habit,
which doubtless has something to do with migration. The cold
of our winters is probably not so large a factor in migration as
it is usually supposed to be. All birds are very warm blooded,
and many of them endure our coldest winters without undue
hardship unless caught in some exceptional storm or heavy
snowfall. A few birds which usually go south in autumn fre-
quently remain during the winter if certain food is plentiful. In
South Dakota the writer has seen Western Mourning Doves
and Western Meadowlarks in January, and Blackbirds have been
seen feeding in cattleyards in the middle of our coldest winters.
Robins, Bluebirds and Northern Flickers are frequently seen
at Vermillion in winter, especially when wild grapes are abun-
dant. A few years ago a flock of thirty or forty Robins was
seen on the University campus and in adjoining ravines in mid-
winter.

The supply of food would seem to be a much larger factor
than the need of warmth. In many cases the character of the
food eaten would seem to affect the distance of migration. All
insect eating birds, such as Swallows, Swifts, Flycatchers, Vireos
and Warblers, must leave our winters and find summer lands
where insects abound, which of course they do by going to the
Southern Hemisphere. Snipes, Rails and Woodcocks, which
gather their food around open water or in moist places, cannot
live where everything is frozen. Birds that live on both insect
larvae and fruit, like Flickers, Robins and Bluebirds, need not
go as far south as wholly insectivorous birds. Flickers do not
go far south and Robins and Bluebirds winter in our Southern
States, while the insectivorous birds push on for the most part
into Central and South America.

36 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

We must be careful, however, not to make the food factor
or any other factor explain too much. Mr. Frank M. Chapman
is probably right in associating bird migration with the homing
instinct. It is simply natural for all animals at the mating sea-
son to want to get away and be alone. Birds can best do this
by distributing themselves over the entire country. Indeed
some of the birds remain in the north only long enough to nest
and rear their young to full strength. The familiar Yellow
Warbler, the common Orchard Oriole, and the less well known
Redstart, are all leading their broods on the return journey
southward before the middle of July.

It is quite as natural that the mating instinct should be
associated with places as with time. And after all possible ex-
planations have been made the most fundamental fact is that
birds have been made so. This fact becomes increasingly signi-
ficant when we consider that birds not only scatter over the
entire country during our summer, but that every place in Nature
— the pond, the shore, the grass that skirts it, the open fields,
the woods, the orchards, every place to our very doors — has its
birds. Each bird has its special habitat for nesting and feeding,
and each is adapted to its place. They have been made so.

Although, as indicated above, it is natural for birds to mi-
grate so as to gain as much seclusion as possible at nesting time,
birds love to migrate in company, the closeness of the compan-
ionship varying greatly with the species. Before migration in
the autumn one may see Meadowlarks and Robins gathering in
loose companies. In the same way several species of Blackbirds,
such as Red-wings, Yellow-heads, Cowbirds, Crackles and oth-
ers, gradually draw together before going south.

While camped near the badlands in the eastern part of
Pennington County in late August, 1914, the writer saw Western
Lark Sparrows, Lark Buntings and Cowbirds flocking together,
resting together under shady creek banks, and feeding together.
Whether they were simply gathered about "water holes" in a
country where water was scarce or were beginning to associate
preparatory to migration, one may not say. The writer has seen
Western Yellow-throats and Lazula Buntings feeding together
in late July in weeds and thickets of the Missouri River bottom

BIRD STUDY 37

in Corson County. On a wooded island in the Missouri River
in August, 1919, Black and White Warblers and Chickadees
were seen a number of times feeding together ; and in September,
1918, English Sparrows, Bronze Crackles and Robins were ob-
served at Vermillion roosting at night in the same trees. Prairie
Chickens gather in large flocks in winter and remain associated
until the next breeding season. Crows are seen in winter in
large flocks, and thousands of them often frequent the same
"roost" at night. Ducks and Gulls often gather in exceedingly
large flocks to migrate; and in the height of the migrating sea-
son one will often count half a dozen different species of Warblers
in as many minutes. They travel in large, loose companies of
many species. In the spring many kinds of Sparrows migrate to-
gether. Often the Juncos are associated with them ; and the
Olive-backed, Gray-cheeked, and Veery Thrushes are found in
company.

In South Dakota there are perhaps twenty-five species
known as "residents," and yet few of these spend the winter in
the immediate vicinity of their summer homes. The Cardinal,
Quail, Screech Owl, Chickadee, Gray Ruffed Grouse, Canada
Jay, and perhaps Downy Woodpecker, would about complete the
list. The Cardinal both nests and winters at Vermillion. The
Quail seldom goes a mile from its nesting home. There is evi-
dence that Screech Owls do not go far from the place where they
were hatched. The same Chickadees that feed at your bird table
in winter will build their nest in your yard in summer; and
"Downy" may be seen in early autumn excavating his winter
home.

But most of our "residents" doubtless migrate a little way.
Prairie Chickens raised in the northern part of the State, where
there is still much prairie grass and wheat stubble, gather in
flocks and drift to the cornfields of the southern part of the
State to pass the winter. Clay County raises few Prairie
Chickens, but feeds many large flocks when the ground is cov-
ered with snow farther north. The Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse
nests in the western part of the State, but moves eastward more
or less to spend the winter.

Crows, Hawks, Hairy Woodpeckers, and most Owls that

38 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

winter in the State were very likely raised some distance farther
north; and yet such questions are very difficult to settle. We
have Crows, Hawks, Owls, Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers,
and sometimes Flickers, summer and winter. Are they the
same ones? Some think that the greater portion of the bird pro-
cession simply "moves up"; that is, with many species those
that winter farther north go farther north to nest, while others
come from farther south to nest where the first wintered, and
so on. However this may be with numerous species, the ex-
ceptions are many and marked. For example, the Arctic Tern
summers in the North Polar regions and winters in the South
Polar regions, seeing practically no darkness the year round.
The Golden Plover nests in northern North America and winters
in southern South America.

One seeing birds in flight would think that they migrate
at tremendous speed, but the average for all species is not over
twenty-five miles a day. Land birds that migrate by day do
not average so much, some of them not over half of it. Mr.
Wells W. Cooke shows that the van of the migrating procession,
though constantly changing in bird personnel on account of
birds dropping out when they have reached their nesting places,
moves with increasing rapidity as it comes north. He says:
"The average speed of migration from New Orleans to southern
Minnesota for all species is close to twenty-three miles a day.
Sixteen species maintain a daily average of forty miles from
southern Minnesota to southern Manitoba; and from this point
twelve species travel to Lake Athabasca at an average speed of
seventy-two miles a day, five others to Great Slave Lake at 116
miles a day, and five more to Alaska at 150 miles a day."

Both the time of arrival and speed would seem to be gov-
erned largely by temperature. The Canada Goose and the Robin
move at the same speed as spring temperature, which is 35* F.
The hosts of Warblers come with the blossoms, which usually
appear at a certain general temperature ; and temperature moves
north with increasing rapidity as the season progresses. This
is especially true in the Northwest, where it is affected by the
Chinook winds.

In addition to the regular migration of birds there are also

CHE WINK'S NEST WITH
TWO ENEMY COWBIRD'S EGGS

YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT'S NEST
WITH FIVE ENEMY COWBIRD'S EGGS

BIRD STUDY 39

occasional migrations. A noted instance of this kind occurred
in 1904, when heavy snows in the northern regions brought the
Lapland Longspurs to South Dakota on the wings of a storm
in great numbers. The writer of this chapter was returning
home about 10 o'clock at night. A keen north wind was blow-
ing, and the air was filled with snow as fine as sifted flour. It
was the beginning of a vicious storm. Several times he stopped
to listen. The storm seemed filled with birds moving south-
ward. Their sweet calls were heard in every direction. The
next morning Vermillion was filled with dead and, wounded
birds. Becoming bewildered in the storm, they had been hurled
against buildings, telephone poles and wires. Such migrations
are not uncommon and seem to be occasioned by lack of food,
or by the covering of food by snow in the birds' usual winter
habitat.

The great majority of birds migrate at night; noted ex-
ceptions are the birds of prey, such as Hawks and Vultures, and
birds that gather their food on the wing, such as Swallows and
Swifts. Other birds, such as Ducks and Geese, seem to migrate
partly by day and partly by night.

It has generally been thought that birds migrate at night
to avoid attack by their enemies. It seems reasonable, however,
to suppose that the food problem is a larger element than the
safety problem. Swallows and Swifts must migrate by day to
supply themselves with food. Hawks and Vultures have better
opportunity for securing food in the course of the day's migra-
tion than they would have by migrating at night and resting
in some particular place during the day. The food of the great
host of small birds is such that they must spend practically the
whole day seeking it. If they migrated by day they would not
be able to secure sufficient food, for they cannot search for it by
night. Ducks and Geese, of course, need only to descend into
any corn or wheat field for a few hours, morning and evening, in
the course of flight. This is their regular method of feeding
when they remain in one locality.

Bird flights are preferably upon still, clear nights, and
are thought to reach at times an altitude of at least three miles. If
a storm is raging, the birds cannot hear one another's calls and,

40 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

becoming confused and flying low, often perish by dashing
themselves against monuments, light houses, telegraph poles
and wires and even the sides of buildings. It is stated upon the
best authority that "over 1,500 birds have been found dead at the
base of the Bartholdi statue in New York harbor in a single
morning, and 230 birds of one species (Black-poll Warblers)
were killed in a single night by the Fire Island Light. The
Washington monument, though not illuminated at night, causes
the death of hundreds of birds annually/1

Looking through a telescope focused on the moon during
migrations, the observer sees many birds cross the moon's disc.
In this way the direction is noted, their height calculated, and
often even the species recognized. The multitude of feathered
migrants that fill the air at such times may be discovered, at
least in part, by counting the calls as the birds pass.

The writer stood one evening in early September on the
shore of Pickerel Lake, in South Dakota, and watched the pass-
ing of Franklin's Gulls. They flew southward in great streams.
When one stream had passed, and what seemed a few belated
stragglers were hurrying forward, another stream would appear
in the distance, then another, and another. For half an hour he
watched them and wondered if there was to be no end. A year
later, and within a few days of the former date, he witnessed
the same beautiful sight a second time.

So regular are the seasonal conditions, so constant also
is the habit of most birds, that any one who observes dates can
tell within a few days when any bird will appear.

A sudden drop of temperature during spring migration
will often cause birds which otherwise would pass on, to remain
about for days. Black Terns have been known to linger even for
weeks as though settled for the summer. A pleasant autumn
also will retard the fall migrations of many of the feathered folk,
especially those that come north early in the spring, and do not
winter far south. In ordinary seasons and weather, however,
as stated above, the migration of birds is surprisingly regular.

The males of most species arrive a few days ahead of the
females. Male House Wrens will carry sticks into three or four

BIRD STUDY 41

houses while waiting for a possible mate to come and choose
between them; and male Red-winged Blackbirds may be seen
in considerable flocks before the females arrive. One would be
glad to think that bird migrations were their honeymoon trips,
but most of them do not mate until they arrive in the region
where they are to nest.

As far as evidence has been collected it tends to show
that the same group of birds returns to the same region year
after year. Lack of sufficient data forbids the reaching of defin-
ite conclusions, yet observers have often noticed the return
even to the same yard of individuals with some peculiar charac-
teristic, such as a white feather, a drooping wing, only one leg,
or a familiarity with premises not shown by other members of
the species. In Audubon's "Birds of America" he tells of fast-
ening silver threads on the legs of young Phoebes along the
Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania, and the next summer having
the satisfaction of finding two females on nests in the same vi-
cinity with the silver thread on their legs. The banding of
young birds would not only help to determine this question but
would assist materially in solving other questions of migration
such as routes, speed and regularity of seasons.

The strangest thing at present in the field of bird migra-
tions is that the Chimney Swifts, so familiar to everyone in sum-
mer by their nervous flight and constant chippering, gather in
great swarms on the Gulf Coast in autumn and then suddenly
disappear. No one knows where they pass the winter.

PART II

LIST AND DESCRIPTION OF
BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

44 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY COLYMBID^E, GREBES; FAMILY GAVIID^,

LOONS

Among water birds Grebes and Loons are known as the
Divers. Six species of Grebes are found in North America, and
five of them have been taken in South Dakota. The other species,
known as the Mexican Grebe, is found in the extreme south-
western part of the United States.

Of the five Loons inhabiting North America only one can
be called native to South Dakota, and this one is quite rare in the
State.

All Grebes and Loons have legs set farther back on their
bodies than other water birds. They are therefore rapid and
graceful divers and able to swim long distances under water.
So quickly can they dive that when shot at three or four rods
away they disappear in the interval between the flash of the
gun and the striking of the shot.

Neither of these species is edible. The Grebes are not
only harmless but useful, feeding on insects and larvae in or
about water. Loons feed on small fish and other aquatic forms.
Neither family is gregarious ; hence one sees only one or two in-
dividuals at a time.

1. WESTERN GREBE (Aechmophorus occidentalis.)

This Grebe is about twenty-six inches in length (from tip
of bill to end of tail), and is the largest of the Grebe family.
Body gray; throat and breast white; crown and back of neck
black in summer and gray in winter. A specimen in the Univer-
sity Museum, taken in Hamlin County by Mr. H. E. Lee, is in
winter plumage. This is a western species and a rare migrant
in South Dakota, although it formerly nested in Devil's Lake,
North Dakota.

2. HOLBOELL'S GREBE (Colymbus holboelli.)

Also a rare migrant in South Dakota and slightly smaller
than the Western Grebe.

Back nearly black; belly white; crown black; cheeks and
throat white ; fore-neck light brown in adults and gray in young.
The specimen in the University Museum is a young one and
was taken in the Bellefourche Reservoir, Butte County. Winters
chiefly along the sea coasts.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 45-

3. HORNED GREBE (Colymbus auritus.)

A rather rare bird, but it probably nests in the northeastern
part of our State. It is slightly smaller than a Blue-winged Teal.
Crown and throat black with a small buff crest extending back
from the eyes ; neck buff, shading to darker on the back.

4. EARED GREBE (Colymbus nigricollis calif or nicus.)

This Grebe is about the size of the last and very similar in
plumage except that the buff crest is smaller and the neck black.
It is more westerly in range and probably does not nest in South
Dakota, although specimens have been taken in the State.

6. PIED-BILLED GREBE (Podilymbus podiceps.)

About the size of a Green-winged Teal, and commonly
called "Hell Diver." Brownish black above with belly nearly
white ; throat black ; a black band around the light brown bill.
In winter the throat changes to nearly white and the band on
the bill disappears. A common summer resident, thoroughly at
home in the water, nesting over most of the State in rivers,
lakes and ponds. The nests are carelessly built, usually on
clumps of moss or bog, but frequently on old muskrat houses.
The seven or eight bluish eggs hatch in about twenty-one days.
The young immediately take to the water and remain with the
mother until old enough to care for themselves.

7. LOON (Gavia immer.)

This fine bird is sometimes called the Great Northern
Diver. It is not abundant in South Dakota but individuals
may be seen on our largest lakes during summer. A specimen
in the University Museum was taken in the Vermillion River,
Clay County. The black head, white belly, and distinctly black
and white markings on neck and back of the summer plumage
contrast strangely with the dull gray of the winter dress. At
present these birds rarely nest within our borders but prefer to-
rear their young farther north, widely separated from mankind.
The nests are usually on an island or point of land and near the
shore, so that the birds when disturbed can immediately escape
into the water and dive.

Their food consists of small fish and other aquatic forms.
They are not edible.

46 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY LARIM:. GULLS AND TERNS

51. HERRING GULL (Larus Argentatus.)

The largest of our Gulls. Though only migrants in South
Dakota these fine birds are quite common for a few days in the
spring, feeding on dead fish and garbage along the Missouri
River. Head, neck and belly white ; back and wings gray, with
white spots on the end of the larger black wing feathers; feet
webbed ; young streaked with gray over the entire body. They
breed from the Great Lakes northward.

54. RING-BILLED GULL (Larus delawarensis.)

Some seasons this Gull is quite common in migration. It
is doubtful, however, if it nests in our State at present. It has
been reported as nesting abundantly on an island in Devil's
Lake, North Dakota. Head, neck, and under parts nearly white ;
back gray; largest wing feathers black, with spots on tips; bill
greenish, with black band near tip. The plumage of this Gull
is very similar to that of the Herring Gull but the bird is
smaller.

59. FRANKLIN'S GULL (Larus franklini.)

The most common of the Gulls in South Dakota. They
migrate from the south in May and are seen in flocks hovering
over sloughs and fields, the birds occasionally darting to the
surface of the water or to the ground for a choice morsel. This
is the Gull that follows the plowman and frequently lights in the
furrow to hunt for grubs and other insects. Head and neck
black; breast white; back and wings bluish gray to black on
larger wing feathers, which have white tips. They nest around
sloughs in the northeastern part of the State.

Most of the Gulls of North America inhabit the seacoast,
but the three just described spend part of the summer in the in-
terior and are of great economic value as scavengers and insect
destroyers.

No man should be guilty of shooting a Gull under any
conditions. It is not edible, and its food during the entire year
consists of destructive insects and dead animal matter found on
or near water.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 47

According to the United States Biological Survey, Farm-
ers' Bulletin No. 497, from ninety-three stomachs of the Frank-
lin's Gull examined it was found that during the breeding season
grasshoppers constituted over forty-three per cent, and during
September and October over eighty per cent of their food. All
Gulls are valuable to the farmer, and he should use every effort
in his power to see that they are protected from the gunner.

Instances are on record of Gulls coming to the rescue of
early settlers when insects were about to destroy their crops.
One such instance is described by the Hon. George A. Cannon of
Utah, in the Farmers' Bulletin above referred to. In 1848 the
Mormons had sown their first crop of wheat, with good pros-
pects. Then, he says : "Black crickets came down by the mil-
lion and destroyed our grain crops; promising fields of wheat
in the morning were as smooth as a man's hand at night —
devoured by the crickets. At this juncture sea gulls (California
Gulls) came by hundreds and thousands, and before the crops
were entirely destroyed these gulls devoured the insects, so that
our fields were entirely freed from them. The settlers at Salt
Lake regarded the advent of the birds as a heaven-sent miracle,
I have been along the ditches in the morning and have seen
lumps of these crickets vomited up by these gulls, so that they
could again begin killing." The bulletin says, "These lumps
of crickets were undoubtedly pellets of the indigestible parts
habitually disgorged by the birds." Gulls have ever since been
held in reverence by the Mormon people. In October, 1913, a
monument, said to have cost $40,000, was erected to the memory
of the birds that saved these early settlers from a serious famine,

60. BONAPARTE'S GULL (Larus Philadelphia.)

This Gull is often seen in large flocks during the fall mi-
gration in our State.

About fourteen inches in length and very similar in ap-
pearance to the Franklin Gull but the tip of outer wing feathers
is black and it does not have the rosy tinge on its breast that
the latter may have.

It breeds in Canada and northward.

64. CASPIAN TERN (Sterna caspia.)

The largest of the Terns and slightly larger than the com-

48 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

mon Crow. It has a black cap, white neck and belly, and gray
wings and back. The dull orange bill changes to red during the
mating season. No doubt this bird is rather rare and migratory
in South Dakota, yet since most Terns and Gulls are similar in
color and size one may sometimes be mistaken for the other.
They may be distinguished in flight by the fact that the Tern
usually carries its bill pointed downward while the Gull carries
its bill pointed ahead in line with the body. Another distinguish-
ing mark is that the Terns usually seen in our State have forked
tails.

Terns are not scavengers like the Gulls. Their food con-
sists almost wholly of aquatic forms taken alive, part being larvae
of insects injurious to the farmer, and the bulk of the rest small
fish not useful to man.

69. FORSTER'S TERN (Sterna forsteri.)

This graceful bird is smaller than the Caspian Tern
though similar in color, the tail feathers being darker. The tip of
the orange bill is also dark.

It comes to us in migration, when it may be seen sailing
over lakes and rivers and darting into the water after small fish
or insects.

70. COMMON^ TERN (Sterna hirundo.)

This bird is rare even in migration in South Dakota. It
is about the size of the last, except that the tail is shorter. Under
parts dusky; back gray; crown black; bill orange tipped with
black.

74. LEAST TERN (Sterna antillarum.)

As the name implies, this is the smallest of our Terns.
It is reported as breeding in South Dakota. Forehead white
with black crown; gray back, and white below.

77. BLACK TERN (Hydrochelidon nigra Surinam en sis.)

This is preeminently our Tern. A common summer resi-
dent, nesting in marshy places in the eastern part of the State,
where it may be seen sailing gracefully over water and reeds,
feeding on land and water insects, or frequently resting on wire
fences that run through ponds and marshes.

BLACK TERNS IN MIGRATION

COLONY NESTS OF THE
BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 49

It would not surprise us to hear of an occasional nest of
any of the migratory Gulls or Terns being found in the north-
eastern part of the State, for those that are now stragglers doubt-
less nested in the State when the country was new.

FAMILY PHALACROCORACIME. CORMORANTS
120. DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus.)

This beautiful bird is a rare migrant in the eastern part of
the State and probably does not nest here. Three specimens
taken from this locality are in the University Museum.

Head, neck and under parts black ; back brown mixed with
black; throat orange; tufts on sides of head just above eyes dur-
ing breeding season ; tip of bill hooked. They use the strong tail
feathers as a third leg in standing.

FAMILY PELECANID;E. PELICANS

125. WHITE PELICAN (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos.)

We have the Pelicans only in migration when large flocks
are seen in May resting on sandbars along the Missouri River.
Later they may be found for a few days on any of the larger
lakes in the eastern part of the State. They are the last of our
large swimmers to come north in spring, and the first to return
south in autumn. Their nesting haunts at present are in Can-
ada, Yellowstone Park, Utah, California, and Oregon.

In water they are sluggish, which probably accounts for
many of them being shot every year in the State, although they
are not edible.

The plumage is white, save for the black outer under-
wing feathers. They measure about five feet from tip of bill
to end of tail, but the long yellow bill, with pouch underneath,
takes up at least twelve inches. The pouch is probably not used
for carrying a supply of food, as many think, but for scooping
up minnows in shallow water. The regurgitated food is depos-
ited in this bag, and from it the young feed.

V

FAMILY ANATIM:. DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS

This family is divided into five sub-families: Merginae,

50 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Mergansers; Anatinae, River Ducks; Fuligulinae, Sea Ducks;
Anserinae, Geese ; and Cygninae, Swans.

SUBFAMILY MERGING. MERGANSERS

The Mergansers are represented in North America by
three species, all of which have been taken in South Dakota.
Since the hind toe is webbed, they are classed by some authors
as Sea Ducks. They are very appropriately called Fish Ducks,
as they have narrow, round bills with saw-like teeth, showing
that their habits of feeding are different from those of the true
Ducks. The Mergansers are seldom used for food in our State ;
since they feed almost exclusively on fish and frogs their flesh
has a "fishy flavor." In migration they are among the last of
this family of birds to go south, and are never seen in large
flocks like true Ducks.

129. MERGANSER (Mergus americanus.)

"Fish Duck," "Sheldrake."

These are about the size of Mallards. The male has a very
dark blue head, white breast and belly, white and black wings,
and gray back. The female, entirely different from the male in
plumage, has white chin, reddish brown on crown and crest,
white under parts, and gray back.

While a few pairs may occasionally nest in South Dakota,
their nesting locality is much farther north. A few are shot each
year in migration by hunters.

130. RED-BREASTED MERGANSER (Mergus Serrator.)

Smaller than the American Merganser. The dark green
head of the male has feathers longer than the head of the Ameri-
can. Breast brown with black spots; under parts light; wings
whitish; back black. The female has crown ashy brown; back
gray; and the end of wing feathers white. Migratory only, as
their nesting grounds are well towards the Arctic Circle.

131. HOODED MERGANSER (Lophodytes cucullatus.)

This is the smallest of the Merganser family. The male
has a large black and white hood, black neck, white under parts,
and black back. The female is similar but with brownish head
and gray neck. These birds summer occasionally in South Da-

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 51

kota, sometimes placing their nests in hollow trees near water.
In identifying the Mergansers, one must continually bear
in mind not only the difference between species but the wide
difference between male and female of the same species.

SUBFAMILIES ANATIN^B AND FULIGULIN^3. DUCKS

The Duck family is a large and important one. No fewer
than twenty species are found in South Dakota either as sum-
mer residents or in migration. Since the federal game laws pro-
hibiting spring shooting were enacted there is a marked increase
in numbers, and it is hoped that public sentiment will become so
strong that everyone will discourage the violation of the game
laws.

Ducks as a rule do not feed on injurious insects and, while
a few species consume quantities of obnoxious weed seeds, their
chief economic value is in the food they supply for mankind.

One of the chief characteristics of the Duck family is the
marked color contrast in plumage between sexes. The plumage
of the young of the first year in most species resembles that of
the female. Females of Mallards, Black Ducks, Teals and Shov-
elers exhibit a marked similarity to the common breeds of barn-
yard Ducks.

Ducks are usually separated into two divisions: River
Ducks and Sea Ducks. River Ducks embrace Mallards, Teals,
Shovelers, Pintails, Wood Ducks, Gadwalls, Baldpates and Black
Ducks. The most common species of Sea Ducks in our State
are the Canvasbacks, Redheads, Scaups, Scoters, Golden-eyes,
Ruddy Ducks and Buffleheads.

The distinguishing feature of the Sea Ducks is the large
webbed hind toe.

132. MALLARD (Anas platyrhynchos.)

This fine bird is the largest of our edible Ducks, and an
abundant breeder and migrant in the State. Indeed it is more
or less common over the whole northern hemisphere. The male
adult has a green head, white neck ring, brown breast, purple
wing patch, with the balance of body mixed with gray. The fe-
male is uniformly buffy streaked with black, except for the purple
wing patch bordered with white. Most of our domestic breeds
are descendants of this species.

52 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Mallards are not particular about their food, but are at
home in shallow ponds or sloughs of the prairie. In the fall they
often gather in large flocks and feed in stubble and cornfields.
They are inclined to nest farther from water than most species,
and have even been found nesting "out" on the prairie. They
have been known to build their nests on the tops of old hay-
stacks.

Because the nesting grounds of all our Ducks are being
curtailed each year by the breaking up of prairie and the draining
of sloughs, their nesting area is being shifted northward, and
in the future we shall perhaps know the Mallard only as a mi-
grant.

133. BLACK DUCK (Anas rubripes.)

Usually called "Black Mallard." They are not abundant
in the State and occur only as migrants, usually late in the sea-
son. About the size of Mallards. Plumage of both sexes very
similar, uniformly brown and black, with purple wing patch
tipped with black. Legs are not so reddish as the Mallards.

135. GADWALL (Chaulelasrnus streperus.)

Neck and head gray, top mixed with buff; breast, sides
and back barred with gray and white ; wings marked with brown,
black and white. The wingpatch of the female is ashy gray.

The Gadwall is smaller than the Mallard and nests quite
regularly in the State.

137. BALDPATE (Mareca americana.)

By many this Duck is erroneously called "Widgeon." It
is doubtful if a specimen of the true Widgeon has ever been taken
in South Dakota, as it is a coast Duck, seldom migrating into
the interior. The Baldpate is not so large as the Mallard. It
breeds in the State, and some seasons is quite abundant. Males
white, or nearly so, on top of head; balance of head and neck
gray, except patch of green back of eyes ; breast and shoulders
buffy; back barred with black and white; wing patch white.
Females: head gray; breast and back mottled with buff and
black; wing patch black and white; bill smaller than in other
Ducks of this State.

WESTERN MOURNING
DOVE'S NEST

BROWN THRASHER'S NEST

MALLARD DUCK'S NEST

MARSH HAWK'S NEST

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 53

139. GREEN-WINGED TEAL (Nettion carolinense.)

One of the smallest of our Ducks and usually very abun-
dant in the State, both in nesting and migration.

Males : head reddish brown, with wide patch of green ex-
tending from eyes to nape of neck, slightly crested; breast mot-
tled with black and white; back and sides barred with gray;
green wing patch; white crescent on shoulder. Females: uni-
formly buff and black, with larger spots on the breast, and green
wing patch.

140. BLUE-WINGED TEAL (Querquedula discors.)

'Somewhat larger than the Green-winged Teal and prob-
ably the most abundant Duck of the State, breeding freely near
small ponds with shallow water. Males : top of head black with
white crescent in front of eyes; sides of head slaty; body buff
and black, with a patch of blue, green and white on wings. The
females are more uniformly buff and black, with blue wing patch.

These little Ducks are sociable fellows and may often be
seen feeding with other species. They love shallow water and
feed on aquatic vegetable and animal forms. They are the first
of the Teals to go south in the fall and usually gather in large
flocks when migrating.

141. CINNAMON TEAL (Querquedula cyanoptera.)

The distribution of this Duck is given as "west of the
Rocky Mountains." It is therefore considered a straggler in
South Dakota, although pairs were taken by Mr. F. A. Patton,
of Artesian, in Miner County, in 1896, and records are reported
from adjoining States. It is about the size of the Blue-winged
Teal. Males : head, neck, breast and sides reddish brown ; wing
like that of the male Blue-winged Teal. The plumage of the fe-
male is much like that of the female Blue-winged Teal, but more
rusty brown. The bill is shaped like the Shoveler's, but is
smaller.

142. SHOVELER (Spatula clypeata.)

Breeds locally over the State near lakes and ponds, al-
though it has been known to nest a mile from water. Mr. F. A.
Patton reports the following peculiarity in the nesting habits of

54 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

this Duck: The female will select a nesting site in a patch of
high, dead grass and lay an egg. As each successive egg is de-
posited she works at the nest by pulling dry grass up around her,
so that by the time all her eggs are laid the nest is finished. In
size the Shoveler is nearly as long as the Mallard but the body
is much smaller. It is easily distinguished from other Ducks by
its long spatulate bill. Male: head green; breast white; back
white streaked with black; belly brown. Female : buff and black.
Both sexes have a blue wing patch.

At a distance this Duck is often taken for the Mallard,
and many a time has the hunter espied what he thought to be
a flock of Mallards feeding in a slough and crawled several hun-
dred feet through mud and water, weeds and briers only to find
a bunch of "Spoonbills." They are apparently a sociable Duck
and are often seen feeding in shallow water with Blue-winged
Teal.

143. PINTAIL (Dafila acuta.)

Central tail feathers black, very long and pointed in both
sexes, but shorter in the female; head mixed with gray buff;
breast and under parts light ; back and wings dark gray and more
or less barred. Not so large as the Mallard; quite abundant;
nests locally over the State.

144. WOOD DUCK (Aix sponsa.)

In color of plumage this is considered the most beautiful
Duck in North America. It breeds occasionally in the eastern
part of the State, placing its nest in hollow branches of trees or
hollow stumps near water. A male was taken in Hamlin County
in 1909 by Mr. H. E. Lee, and one the same year by Mr. Alex
Walker. During August and early September of 1916 a flock
of twelve or fifteen was seen a number of times on a waterhole
in the woods four miles west of Vermillion. It was presumed at
the time that they were an old female with her brood and that
they had been raised in the vicinity.

During the fall these Ducks feed extensively on acorns,
and it is said that they also feed to some extent on insects. The
bill is small, with upper mandible hooked. Male: a green crest
striped with white; sides of head and neck patched with black
and white ; breast brown specked with white ; belly nearly white ;

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 55

a white black-edged crescent on the shoulder; wings and back
striped with green, brown and white. Female : similar in plum-
age but much duller; only a very slight crest and with small
white patch back of eyes.

146. REDHEAD (Marila americana.)

This Duck is nearly as large as the Mallard and in early
years was a common breeder, nesting on floating bogs or old
rat houses. Male: head and neck reddish brown; breast dark
gray; balance of body gray. Female: white throat; balance of
body dull brown or gray.

147. CANVASBACK (Marila valisineria.)

This Duck is not as common in the State as some other
species but it nests occasionally in the eastern part. Like its
relative, the Redhead, it builds a nest on floating bogs, old rat
houses, or fastened to rushes over the water. It is slightly larger
than Redhead. Male: brown head and neck, usually darker
around base of bill ; black band in breast reaching around to front
of back; back and sides gray; wings ashy gray; tail black. Plum-
age of the female quite uniformly brownish gray. One charac-
teristic of this Duck is its upper mandible, which gradually slants
toward the forehead like the mandible of some geese.

Mr. G. A. Abbott, in "Birds and Nature," Vol. XVI, page
216, says : "Very few of the game birds are more celebrated
than the Canvasback. Both sportsmen and epicures find that
it meets their highest ideal of game qualities. It flies rapidly
and with directness, dives quickly, swims rapidly and withal
is remarkably wary and alert. Its flesh is considered incom-
parably delicious by many, especially if the bird has been feed-
ing on the 'water-celery', an abundant fresh water plant, which
is its favorite food. In fact, the Canvasback was given its spe-
cific name because of its known fondness for this water plant,
which bears the Latin name Vallisneria sp'ir.-lis."

148. SCAUP DUCK (Marila marila.) "BLACKHEAD," "BLUEBILL."

Nearly as large as the Redhead and some seasons quite
abundant in the State. Probaly a rare breeder in South Dakota
although it has frequently nested at Devils Lake, North Dakota.
Male: head black glossed with green; breast black; sides and

56 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

belly light; back barred with gray and white. Female like No.

147, but feathers at base of bill white.

149. LESSER SCAUP DUCK (Mania af finis.)

The plumage of both male and female is similar to No.

148, but the bird is smaller. It rarely nests in South Dakota but
is common in migration. Both of the Scaups are lovers of deep
water and common in the Great Lakes region.

150. RING-NECKED DUCK (Marila collaris.)

This Duck is smaller than No. 149. Head black; chin
•white; brown neck ring, whence its name; back and tail black;
under parts light. Female similar but more rusty on breast and
back. A rare breeder in the northeastern part of the State.

151. GOLDEN-EYE (Clangula clangula americana.)

About the size of the Redhead and common in the State
.some seasons as a migrant.

Male: green head slightly crested with a round white
patch on cheek ; breast and belly white. Female : head brown ;
throat white; breast and back gray. Their summer home is
well within the Arctic regions.

153. BUFFLE-HEAD (Charitonetta albeola.)

A rather small Duck. Green head slightly crested; white
patch extending back from eyes ; neck, breast and belly white or
grayish ; back black. Female : brown head and neck with white
on sides of head; throat and breast grayish brown. Probably
seen only in migration.

154. OLD-SQUAW (Harelda hy emails.)

Very rare; seen only in migration. There are only two
specimens in the University Museum.

Central tail feathers of both sexes very long and black.
Male in summer: black, with some rusty on back; white patch
around eye. IP winter: head white, with black patch on sides
of neck; breast white; black crescent over shoulders. Female
in summer: head and upper parts mostly dusky, with whitish
patch back of eye. In winter: cheeks, neck and under parts
white; breast dusky. Breeds in the Arctic regions.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 57

166. SURF SCOTER (Oidemia perspicillata.)

A large Duck. Rare in migration. Male: black, with
crown and nape white. Female: above black, breast dusky;
belly lighter; white patch at base of bill. In both sexes black
feathers extend forward on top of bill. A female in the Museum
was taken on Lake Madison by Mr. J. C. Green, of Sioux Falls,
in 1914.

167. RUDDY DUCK (Erismatura jamaicensis.) "BUTTERBALL."

Breeds quite commonly in the State, building floating
nests in high rushes. A very small Duck, but Mr. F. A. Patton
says that "the eggs are of the same size as those of the larger
Ducks." Male: crown black; cheeks white; back and neck red-
dish brown. Female: head dusky; back grayish brown; belly
white. Tail feathers narrow and stiff in both sexes.

SUB FAMILY ANSERINE. GEESE

Geese are intermediate between Ducks and Swans in size
and in length of neck. They are the largest of our aquatic game
birds and are more terrestrial in their habits than Ducks. They
feed almost entirely on vegetable foods — stubble or cornfields,
winter grainfields, or tender grass shoots in the water. ' There
is little difference in plumage between sexes ; they lack the highly
contrasted colors of Ducks. Eight species or varieties, usually
called "Wild Geese/' are mostly migrants in South Dakota.

169. SNOW GOOSE (Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus.)

Length from tip of bill to end of tail about twenty-six
inches ; all white except the longest wing feathers or primaries,
which are black. A western species that breeds in Alaska and is
common in South Dakota in migration.

169a. GREATER SNOW GOOSE (Chen hyperboreus nivalis.)

Rare; seen only in migration. An eastern variety that
breeds in the Arctic regions. Similar to 169 but larger, length
up to thirty-eight inches.

169. 1. BLUE GOOSE (Chen caerulescens.)

Rare in migration. About the size of the Snow Goose.
Head and neck white ; body bluish gray ; rump lighter.

58 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

A fine specimen was taken in Minnehaha County and
sent to the Museum in 1916 by Mr. C. J. Stringham of Sioux
Falls.

170. Ross's GOOSE (Chen rossi.)

A straggler in South Dakota, but specimens were taken
in Miner County in 1890 by Mr. F. A. Patton.

The Ross Snow Goose is much like the Snow Goose in
color but the bird is smaller, and the bill noticeably shorter.

17 la. WHITE- FRONT ED GOOSE (A user albifrons gambeli.)

Size of 169.1. Forehead white; back gray; breast and un-
der parts light gray spotted with black.

172. CANADA GOOSE (Branta canadensis canadensis.)

The Canada Goose is the species most popularly known
as the "Wild Goose" and has always nested in the State.

It is the largest of the Goose family, the last to go south
and the first to come north in migration. The loud "honk, honk,"
is the foreword of spring. In the southern part of the State the
Canada Goose remains until January, or until the last "airholes"
freeze over in the Missouri River. In these they rest during the
night and much of the day. At daybreak they can usually be
seen going out to their feeding grounds.

Length up to forty inches; head and neck black, except
throat and cheeks, which are white ; body bluish gray but lighter
underneath.

172a. HUTCHINS'S GOOSE (Branta canadensis hutchinsi.)

Similar to 172 but smaller. Length about thirty inches.
Seen only in migration. Breeds in the Arctic regions.

I72c. CACKLING GOOSE (Branta canadensis minima.)

Similar to 172a but smaller, with black throat.
Length twenty-four inches. A western variety; breeds
in Alaska ; migrant in South Dakota.

173a. BRANT (Branta bernicla glaucogast~a.)

A rare straggler in our State; breeds in Alaska and mi-
grates east of this territory. Head and breast black; white
patches on sides of neck ; back gray ; under parts nearly white.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 59

SUB FAMILY CYGNIN^E. SWANS

The Swan is the largest of the Family Anatidae, and is
hardly considered a game bird. It has a very graceful form and is
largely used in a semi-domesticated state in parks and private
bird preserves. Only two species are found in America. The
Trumpeter Swan is practically extinct, probably only a few speci-
mens remaining in captivity.

180. WHISTLING SWAN (Olor columbianus.)

Length about fifty-five inches; all white except bill and
feet, which are black ; yellow spot in front of eyes ; nostrils nearer
to tip of bill than eyes. Breeds within the Arctic Circle ; rare,
but a few are reported in migration from the State each year.

181. TRUMPETER SWAN (Olor buccinator.)

Very similar in color to the Whistling Swan but larger,
and no yellow spot before the eyes. The nostrils about midway
between eyes and tip of bill.

This beautiful bird nested in South Dakota in the eighties
but no specimen has been seen for several years and it is be-
lieved to be nearly extinct

FAMILY ARDEID^E. BITTERNS AND HERONS

190. BITTERN (Botaurus lentiginosus.) "THUNDER PUMPER,"
"SHITEPOKE."

A very common summer resident, especially in the high
grassy sloughs of the eastern part of the State, where it nests
and makes its home. It stands about eighteen inches high and
feeds principally on frogs. At times, when seemingly trying to
evade detection, it stands erect with bill pointing skyward. As-
sisted by the resemblance of its plumage to surroundings it thus
secures protection from its enemies. This bird, however, would
seem to need no protection. It is not hunted for food by man,
and we have never known it to be eaten by Hawk, Owl, or
coyote. Surely any flesh-eating animal or bird would be near
to starvation before eating a Bittern. Body very small for size
of bird; head small; black patch extending down sides of neck;
back and sides buff and brown mixed; lighter underneath.

<60 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

191. LEAST BITTERN (Ixobrychus exilis.)

This Bittern is a summer resident and nests in the east-
ern part of the State. It resembles the Heron in shape, but is
very small, measuring only about twelve and one half inches
from tip of bill to end of tail. When standing erect it is not over
nine or ten inches high. These birds live in marshy places
among high reeds and rushes. They are usually seen perched
on perpendicular reeds where they evade detection by their pro-
tective coloration. They are slightly crested. Male : crown and
back black ; neck and under parts buff streaked with some white.
Female: similar, with crown and back brownish.

194. GREAT BLUE HERON (Ardea herodias herodias.)

The Great Blue Heron is erroneously called "Blue Crane"
by many, probably because it is bluish and has a long neck and
legs. They are common over the State. Individuals may be
seen feeding or resting along river bank and lake shores. Rarely
are two seen together. In August, 1914, however, nine were
observed in a small "waterhole" near the Missouri River in Sully
County, making their breakfast of minnows. Yet when flushed
they took flight separately, going in different directions. The
Great Blue Heron stands about three feet high and has a very
small body in proportion to the length of its legs and neck.
Crown white with black crest feathers; neck and body bluish
gray ; under parts light. They nest in colonies in trees.

.201. GREEN HERON (Butorides virescens virescens.)

The smallest of the Herons and a summer resident in
South Dakota. Crown dark green, crested; neck and breast
•chestnut brown; under parts ashy; back green mixed with brown
and gray. The nest is usually built over water in high rushes,
"but sometimes in bushes near water.

202. BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON (Nycticorax nycticorax

naevius.)

A common resident over the State in summer, nesting
in colonies in trees ; much smaller than No. 194. Forehead white ;
crown and back dark glossy green; two or three long white
feathers on head except during the molting period; wings and
tail gray; neck, breast and belly light. The young are a uni-
form buff and brown.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 61

FAMILY GRUID^. CRANES

Cranes are more terrestrial in habit than Herons.

During migration they frequently light in numbers to
feed, usually on knolls or in winter wheat or rye fields. During
the breeding season they inhabit marshy places and their food
consists chiefly of aquatic animal forms. Cranes reproduce
slowly, rarely laying more than two eggs in one nest.

204. WHOOPING CRANES (Grus americana.) "WHITE CRANES."

This beautiful bird stands three and one half to four feet
high. The forehead is bare and dull red. Plumage all white ex-
cept the longer wing feathers, which are black. The head of the
young is feathered, both head and neck feathers being more or
less rusty. There is a young specimen in the Museum the plum-
age of which is washed with rusty over the entire body. They
nest north of us and are seen only in migration in South Dakota.

205. LITTLE BROWN CRANE (Grus canadensis.)

The range of migration of this Crane is given as "western
part of the United States and east to the Rocky Mountains."

The specimen in the University Museum was taken in
Walworth County. There is one in the United States National
Museum taken in Edmunds County, October 22, 1883. Mr. F. A.
Patton, of Artesian, took one in Miner County in 1896. Mr. F.
M. Chapman gives the following description: "Length, thirty-
five inches ; bill, four inches. Adults : skin of top of head dull
red ; plumage brownish gray. Young : head feathered, plumage
with more or less rusty. Probably very difficult to distinguish
from a young or immature specimen of the Sandhill Crane."

206. SANDHILL CRANE (Grus mexicana.)

This splendid bird is quite abundant in migration and has
nested in the State.

In general appearance it is very similar to No. 205, but
larger. Length three and one half to four feet; bill five to five
and one-half inches.

62 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY RALLID;E. RAILS, GALLINULK^ AND COOTS

208. KING RAIL (Rallus elegans.)

Rails are related to Cranes in general structure, but in
appearance they are quite different, being much smaller in size.
The King Rail is the largest of his tribe and measures about
fifteen inches from tip of bill to end of tail. Neck and breast
brown ; back and win^s black and brown ; sides and belly barred
with brown and white. This bird breeds in the Mississippi River
valley and east to the Atlantic coast, and is therefore considered
a straggler in the eastern part of the State.

212. VIRGINIA RAIL (Rallus virginianus.)

The plumage is similar to that of No. 208, but the bird is
smaller, measuring only about nine inches ; bill one and one half
inches. This Rail is common and breeds in the eastern part of
the State. An abandoned nest with eggs was found July 2, 1917,
near Lake Preston. The Rails all make their home in wet,
marshy places where there is a thick growth of sedges or rushes.
They are fleet in the use of their legs but are not adapted to rapid
flight.

214. SORA (Porzana Carolina.)

Slightly smaller than No. 212. Bill three quarters of an
inch in length ; feathers at base of bill and on throat very dark
brown or black ; back streaked with brown, buff and white ; un-
der parts barred with gray and white. This beautiful Rail is
more or less common over the State, nesting frequently in
marshy places.

219. FLORIDA GALLINULE (Galimula galeata.)

Slightly smaller than the Coot. Head, neck and breast
gray ; back brownish gray ; belly barred with white. The crown
plate is red; the feet are not lobed for swimming; and the legs
and bill are smaller than those of the Coot. These birds are not
nearly so abundant in South Dakota as the Coots but from their
similarity in appearance doubtless the Coots and Gallinules are
often confused.

221. COOT (Fulica americana.)

The Coots are a sort of connecting link between Ducks

ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 63

and Rails, both in general structure and also in size. They are
aquatic in habit, having lobed or semi-webbed feet. They are
fairly good swimmers but not equal to Ducks. Unlike Loons
and Grebes they are not adept divers. The wings of Coots are
small in proportion to their bodies, hence they are slow and
rather clumsy, both in rising from the water and in flight. Their
legs are too short to place them with the waders, but notwith-
standing their apparent defects they hold their own fairly well.
Probably this is partly due to the fact that their flesh is not es-
teemed for food.

In regard to the quality of the flesh and the feeding
habits of the Coot we quote Mr. H. Waltan Clark in "Birds and
Nature," Vol. Ill, page 131 : "During the first few weeks after
their arrival in the spring the Coots find plenty of dainty tit bits
of succulent vegetation, and they are then very good eating. He
who feasts on them at this time is likely to think of 'Mud-hen'
with the accent on the last syllable. Later, however, the food
becomes scarcer, and the birds subsist more and more on the rank
chara or other similar growths of the lake bottom. The flavor
then becomes rank and muddy, and he who feeds on 'Mud-hens'
is pretty sure to think of the name with a change of accent."

The general appearance of the Coot is dark slate, although
the head and neck are usually darker, and the belly lighter, than
the body. The bill is whitish with brown spots near the tip,
and the crown plate is brown. The Coot is common over the
State, nesting on old muskrat houses or on a bunch of old rushes
that are still attached but floating. Their flight in migration is
during the night.

64 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

SHORE BIRDS

This order embraces several families usually called Snipes
or Waders. Most of them have long legs and bills, which en-
able them to procure their food along muddy shores or in shal-
low water. The Killdeer and the Upland Plover are more terres-
trial than the others and frequent our prairies, especially during
the nesting season. On the other hand the Phalaropes and
Avocets have lobed or partly webbed feet and are fairly good
swimmers. Two species of the Phalaropes, when not nesting,
spend much of their time at sea several miles from the coast,
feeding on small marine forms. Other interesting characteristics
of the Phalaropes are that the females are larger and more bright-
ly colored than the males, and that after the eggs are laid the
males do the incubating. It is believed by some authorities that
he alone feeds and cares for the young.

In earlier years many of the Shore Birds nested in abun-
dance in our State, but today their former nesting grounds are
either under cultivation or in pasture. With no grassy environ-
ment and the continual tramping of stock, no safe place is left in
South Dakota for the Snipes to nest and rear their young. Their
food consists chiefly of insects and insect larvae, consequently
the economic value of Shore Birds is very great. Not only do
they destroy great numbers of insects which are destructive to
crops, but eight species recorded as summer residents of South
Dakota devour immense quantities of mosquito larvae. (United
States Biological Survey Circular No. 79.) The Killdeer and
the Upland Plover eat the larvae of the horsefly. Eight species
are known to eat the larvae of the crane-fly, a pest of the grass
fields. Later in summer a large portion of the food of many of
our Snipes consists of young Rocky Mountain locusts and grass-
hoppers. Although their flesh is considered a great delicacy,
yet on account of their small size and the fact that they feed
upon many of the worst enemies of agriculture, their protection
deserves the encouragement of every one.

FAMILY PHALAROPODID^E. PHALAROPES

223. NORTHERN PHALAROPE (Lobipes lobatus.)

This is one of the "Swimming Snipes" that lives much of

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 65

the time near the coast, and is only a migrant in South Dakota.
It nests north of the United States.

Crown dark gray; throat white; sides of neck reddish
brown; breast rusty brown; back dark slate streaked with buff;
belly white. The male is about seven and one half inches long,
the female slightly larger and with more rufous plumage.

224. WILSON'S PHALAROPE (Steganopus tricolor.)

The Wilson is larger than the Northern Phalarope and
usually a common summer resident. In earlier years it nested
abundantly over the eastern part of the State. Female : crown
gray ; throat light ; a black line extends from the base of the bill
down the sides of the neck, blending into chestnut brown; back
gray patched with brown; under parts white. The male is
slightly smaller, with duller colors and darker crown. This
Phalarope is more terrestrial in habit than No. 223.

FAMILY RECURVIROSTRID^E. AVOCETS

225. AVOCET (Recurvirostra americana.)

The Avocet, with its extremely long legs and bill and
very small body, is an odd looking bird and certainly a true
"wader." During August it is fairly common in migration west
of the Missouri River and doubtless breeds occasionally in that
part of the State. It is about seventeen inches long from tip
of bill to end of tail. Head and neck rufous, growing lighter
about the base of bill; under parts white; back and wings black
and white. The settling up of our wild land is driving the
Avocets westward, and their breeding grounds will soon be re-
stricted to the federal bird preserves of the western States.

FAMILY SCOLOPACIDyE. SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS
228. WOODCOCK (Philohela minor.)

Swamps and wet woodlands are the natural environment
of the Woodcock. It is therefore a rare visitant in South Dakota,
migrating from the east; and yet records of its occurrence are
rather numerous. A specimen in the University Museum was
taken by Mr. H; E. Lee in Beadle County in 1913.

In contrast with the Avocet the Woodcock is low and

•66 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

stockily built and more nearly resembles the true Snipes. Fore-
head gray ; crown black with light brown bars ; breast and belly
rufous ; back and wings mixed with black, brown and gray. Bill
about two and three quarters inches in length.

230. WILSON'S SNIPE (Gallinago deUcata.) "JACKSNIPE."

The Wilson Snipe is common in migration over most of
the State, but nests only in the eastern part in marshy sloughs.

Crown and back brown; throat and under parts light; bill
about two and one half inches in length.

Like the Woodcock, it has short legs and a long thick bill
and secures its food of worms and insect larvae by probing into
the soft moist ground.

231. DOWITCHER (Macrorhamphus griseus griseus.)

This bird is about the size of a Robin and has a rough or
pitted bill slightly over two inches long. Crown, back and wings
black, margined or barred with rufous; under parts reddish
brown spotted and barred with black; rump and tail barred with
black and white.

It is an eastern species and out of its range in South
Dakota, but in earlier days was no doubt quite abundant. The
specimen in the University Museum was taken several years ago
in Miner County by Mr. F. A. Patton.

232. LONG-BILLED DOWITCHER (Macrorhamphus griseus scolopaceus.)

Very similar to No. 231 but darker on the under part and
with longer bill, averaging nearly three inches. The females are
said to be slightly larger than the males.

This is supposed to be the western form of the Dowitcher
but it is probably rare in South Dakota today even in migration.
Both species breed in the Arctic regions.

233. STILT SANDPIPER (Micropalama himantopus.)

This Sandpiper is about eight incehs long, including the
bill, which measures one and one-half inches. The crown, back
and wings are black, mixed with white and brown. There is a
reddish brown line from bill to eye and extending to the auricu-
lars. The under parts are white, barred with black and brown.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 67

This is an eastern species and quite rare at present, al-
though abundant in earlier days. Two specimens in the Univer-
sity Museum were taken from near the mouth of the Cheyenne
River by Mr. F. W. Smith in 1904.

It nests in the Arctic regions.

234. KNOT (Tringa Canutus.) " ROBIN SNIPE."

Another rare Shore Bird but reported by Mr. F. A. Pat-
ton as a common visitor twenty-five years ago.

Above, reddish brown, mixed with black and gray ; breast
and belly reddish brown; ten and one half inches long; bill about
one and one third inches. Nests within the Arctic Circle.

239. PECTORAL SANDPIPER (Pisobia maculata.)

Fairly common in South Dakota, only in migration. This
Snipe nests in the Arctic regions.

It is about nine inches in length; bill one and one eighth
inches ; upper parts black, margined with rufous or rusty brown ;
belly white; throat and breast streaked with black; tail pointed.

241. BAIRD'S SANDPIPER (Pisobia bairdi.)

This Sandpiper also breeds in the Arctic regions and is
common in South Dakota in migration.

About seven and one half inches in length; bill about
seven eighths of an inch long; grooves in both mandibles very
noticeable ; upper parts brownish black with neck lighter ; long-
est wing feathers nearly black; belly white; throat streaked with
black.

242. LEAST SANDPIPER (Pisobia minutilla.)

This is the smallest of our Sandpipers, being not over six
inches in length. Crown and back black and reddish brown,
many of the feathers tipped with buff; belly white; breast
streaked with black. Seen in South Dakota only in migration.

243a. RED-BACKED SANDPIPER (Pelidna alpina sakhalina.)

A rare migrant in South Dakota; nesting in the Arctic
regions. Back and crown reddish brown and black; wings and
tail gray; belly black; breast and throat white streaked with
black; about eight inches in length; bill one and one half inches
and slightly curved.

•68 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

246. SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER (Ereunetes pusillus.)

This eastern species is a rare migrant in our State and
breeds in the Arctic regions. Mr. F. A. Patton of Artesian took
specimens in Miner County in 1896.

It is one of the small Sandpipers, averaging slightly over
six inches in length. Toes webbed at base; upper parts black
and gray; belly white, with breast slightly mixed with black;
tail ashy gray.

248. SANDERLING (Calidris leucophaea.)

Another of the Shore Birds seen only in migration. Un-
like its near relatives it has only three toes, and these are not
partially webbed, as in the others. It is eight inches long in-
cluding a bill one inch long. Above, spotted with rusty, black
and white ; under parts white except breast, which is tinged with
rusty brown.

249. MARBLED GODWIT (Limosa fedoa.)

One of the largest of the Shore Birds which probably
still nests in the State, but not so frequently as in earlier days.
Length, eighteen inches, including a slightly curved bill of four
inches; back reddish brown; tail barred with black; under parts
much lighter and also barred with black.

251. HUDSONIAN GODWIT (Limosa haemastica.)

This Godwit is smaller than the Marbled, being only about
fifteen inches long, including a three and one half inch bill, which
is slightly curved upward. Above, black, gray and buff: below
grayish, barred with rufous and black; usually ocherous on the
belly.

In the early days it was probably an abundant breeder in
South Dakota and at present it may occasionally be found nest-
ing, but its natural environment is being rapidly plowed up or
tramped down by stock.

It feeds mostly in shallow water or along muddy shores.

254. GREATER YELLOW-LEGS (Totanus melanoleucus.)

This "Snipe" is fourteen inches long, including a two inch
bill. Legs very long, slender and yellow; upper parts grayish
black, margined with white; tail barred with black and white;

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 69

under parts white barred with black.

It breeds north of the United States and is usually seen
in large, migrating flocks.

255. YELLOW-LEGS (Totanus flavipes.)

The plumage of this "Snipe" is almost identical with that
of the Greater Yellowlegs but the bird is only about two thirds
as large, with yellow legs comparative longer. It rarely nests
as far south as our State and, like its larger cousin, is often seen
in large, migrating flocks.

256. SOLITARY SANDPIPER (Melodramas solitarius solitarius.)

Another eastern species that breeds north of the United
States and is seen in South Dakota only in migration. It is about
eight inches long, including the bill, which is about one inch in
length. Above it is gray spotted with white. Most of the tail
feathers as well as the under wing feathers are barred with
black and white. Throat and belly white; breast streaked with
brownish gray.

This little Sandpiper is usually seen alone at the water's
edge by streams or pools and may be recognized by its continual
"teetering" as it hunts for worms and larvae in the soft mud.

258. WILLET (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus.)

Another Shore Bird with long, blue legs and a rather stout
bill two and one quarter inches in length. Upper parts gray
mixed with brownish black and buff; below, white mixed with
black and buff; larger wing feathers black with a broad white
band.

The specimen in the University Museum was taken May
6, 1894, by Mr. F, A. Patton, in Miner County.

258a. WESTERN WILLET (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus.)

This Willet is similar to No. 258 but larger, and with paler
plumage, both above and below, and also with fewer black mark-
ings. There is very little buff on the specimen at hand. Prob-
ably it nested abundantly here in early days, but it is doubtful if
a nest could be found at present, as its favorite breeding grounds
have been destroyed by the plow and the pasturing of the low
lands.

70 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

261. UPLAND PLOVER (Bartramia longicauda.)

This Sandpiper is more terrestrial in habits than its rela-
tive and is a common summer resident over the western half of
South Dakota. Before the prairies were broken up it nested over
the entire State. When alighting it has the habit of gracefully
extending the wings almost perpendicularly over its back. It
is about eleven and one half inches long, including a one and a
quarter inch bill. Above, nearly black, with feathers edged with
buff; throat and belly white; breast and sides marked with dusky
arrows.

This bird deserves careful protection by everyone. Nine-
ty-seven per cent of its food consists of insects, and over one
half is made up of insects injurious to crops or stock, such as
grasshoppers, crickets, wire worms and cut worms, and larvae
of horseflies and cattle ticks.

262. BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER (Tryngites subruficollis.)

A rare migrant in our State. Length about eight inches.
Above, black, the feathers margined with brown; below, buff
with black spots.

263. SPOTTED SANDPIPER (Actitis macularia.)

This cosmopolitan Sandpiper may be seen during the sum-
mer over most of North America. It inhabits the muddy banks
of ponds and streams, and is always seen alone. From its "teet-
ering" habit it is often called "Teeter." Seven and one half
inches long; brownish gray above, lightly barred with black;
under parts white with black spots.

264. LONG-BILLED CURLEW (Numenius americanus.)

One of the largest of our "Snipes," measuring up to twen-
ty-four inches, including a bill varying in length from four and
one half to six and one quarter inches, curving downward. Back
and tail black, barred or blotched with buff; belly buff; breast
slightly streaked with grayish brown. Its habits are more ter-
restrial than most of the Shore Birds.

Although not so abundant in South Dakota as in early
days it is frequently found nesting on the grassy plains west
of the Missouri River.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 71

265. HUDSONIAN CURLEW (Nttmenius hudsonicus.)

Much smaller than No. 264, only about seventeen inches
long. Bill three and one half inches long and curved downward ;
crown dusky with a light medium stripe; back dusky, slightly
mixed with rufous; under parts whitish; breast streaked; sides
marked with broken blackish bars.

This Curlew breeds in the Arctic regions but may be seen
in South Dakota in migration.

266. ESKIMO CURLEW (Numenius borealis.)

The smallest of the Curlews, measuring only about thir-
teen inches from tip of bill to end of tail. The bill is perhaps
slightly over two inches long. Upper parts dusky, blotched with
buff, tail barred; under parts buff, marked with dusky streaks
or bars ; throat nearly white.

Breeds in the Arctic regions. In early days it was quite
common in migration but is now probably nearly extinct.

FAMILY CHARADRIID;E. PLOVERS

270. BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER (Squatarola squatarola.)

This Plover is a rare migrant which breeds in the Arctic
regions.

Black and white on back and wings; tail barred; under
parts black in adults and white in the young. It Has a very small
hind toe. The length is about eleven inches, including the bill,
which is one inch long. A young specimen in the University
Museum was taken by Mr. J. C. Green in Minnehaha County.

272. GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius dominicus dominions.)

The Golden Plover is slightly smaller than No. 270 and
has no hind toe. Above dusky and black, spotted with golden
yellow; below black. Whitish lines extend from the forehead
over the eyes and down the sides of the neck and breast. The
young are lighter above and grayish white below.

It spends its nesting season in the Arctic regions and is
found in South Dakota only during migration.

273. KILLDEER (Oxyechus vociferus.)

Length about ten inches ; crown and back grayish, tinged

72 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

with brown ; rump and upper tail feathers rufous ; below, white
with a black ring around neck and a partial black ring on the
breast. It may be recognized by its loud notes uttered while
flying, and resembling, "Killdeer ! Killdeer !"

It nests commonly over the State, usually laying four eggs
in a slight depression on rather bare pastures or gravelly places.
It winters in the southern part of the United States.

274. SEMIPALMATED PLOVER (Aegialitis semipalmata.)

This Plover is much smaller than the Killdeer, being only
about six and one half inches long. The nape and back are gray-
ish brown; under parts white; one white and one black ring
around the neck. Breeds in the northern part of North America ;
only a migrant in our State.

277. PIPING PLOVER (Aegialitis rneloda.)

Slightly larger than No. 274 but the bill is very short.
Above, ashy gray with the crown and sides of breast black;
under parts white.

In 1891 this Plover nested abundantly on the sandy shore
of Lake Herman, Lake County, but at present it is rarely found
nesting in the State.

281. MOUNTAIN PLOVER (Podasocys montanus.)

The Mountain Plover probably nests in the western part
of South Dakota, as small flocks have been seen during August
feeding in prairie dog towns. About nine inches in length ;
above, gray and rufous with a black crown band ; below, white
with an occasional gray tinge on the breast.

FAMILY APHRIZID^E. TURNSTONE
283a. RUDDY TURNSTONE (Arenaria interpret morinella.)

Upper parts reddish brown, black and white; throat and
belly white; breast black, with a black band extending up the
sides of neck. In young specimens the upper parts and the
breast are grayish brown and buff. The body is about nine
inches long.

Nests in the Arctic regions ; in South Dakota only during
migration.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 73

FAMILY ODONTOPHORID^:. BOBWHITES, QUAILS;
FAMILY TETRAONID^:. GROUSE

These families include such well known birds as our Prai-
rie Chicken, Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse and Bobwhite or Quail.
They are of great economic value, not only as excellent game
birds, but because during the summer months a very large part
of their food consists of injurious insects.

Quails or Bobwhites followed the farmer westward. The
first record of these birds in the State, as far as known, was in
1872 when Dr. Elliott Coues, the noted ornithologist, took speci-
mens at Fort Randall. They are non-migratory, and many per-
ish if caught in severe snowstorms without artificial feeding and
protection. Whole coveys have been found frozen or starved
to death upon the melting of snow in spring. In summer they
feed on insects, and usually upon those that are injurious to
crops, such as grasshoppers, chinch bugs, crickets, etc.

Prairie Chickens, which were formerly native to the Mis-
sissippi Valley States farther south, also followed the farmer
into the northern prairie States, where they were very abundant
until a few years ago. They are rather scarce today, because
the land has become , thickly settled and they have been per-
sistently hunted.

After the grain is cut they resort to stubble fields, where
they feed on insects and the fruit and leaves of the wild rose.
Very little grain is eaten until winter. When the ground is
covered with snow they resort to corn fields, where they eat
only a portion of the extra corn that the farmer has been per-
mitted to raise because they reduce injurious insects to the
minimum.

On December 27, 1915, the crop and stomach of a Prairie
Chicken was examined and the contents consisted of timothy and
red clover leaves and a few weed seed, but not a single kernel
of grain was found. There was no snow on the ground. The
same week the crop and stomach of a Ring-necked Pheasant
taken in the same locality was examined and the following found :
132 kernels of corn, twenty-five kernels of oats, and a few seeds
each of wild sunflower, pigeon grass, and smartweed.

Although Prairie Chickens gather in flocks in the fall,

74 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

they migrate only a few miles, perhaps to find more suitable
feeding grounds.

The Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse once inhabited the whole
State, but they do not take kindly to civilization. At present
they live in open thickets along the Missouri River and westward
in the Black Hills. Their numbers have been greatly depleted
by incoming settlers, but in the future they will probably hold
their own as they are wary birds and will select the most se-
cluded areas for breeding grounds. In summer they live largely
on insects, while in winter they depend mostly on weed seeds
and berries. During deep snows they occasionally resort to
corn fields for a meal.

The Ruffed Grouse is probably found within the State only
in the Black Hills, although one may occasionally be found on
the west shore of Big Stone Lake, across from Minnesota. In
the latter case it would be the eastern species or "red phase,"
while the native of the Black Hills is the western species or
"gray phase." Its natural haunts are wooded hillsides and deep
ravines, where it feeds on insects, buds and wild berries. These
beautiful birds are not abundant and will in time become quite
rare, as they are continually hunted for sport and food. How-
ever, under present conditions the Ruffed Grouse will probably
be the last of our game birds to become extinct.

All members of the Grouse family are highly favored with
protective coloration. This is especially noticeable in the two
species of Ruffed Grouse. The plumage of the eastern form or
"red phase," has the tinge of reddish autumn leaves, while that
of the western or "gray phase" in the Black Hills has the tinge
of dead gray pine needles. In their natural haunts it is almost
impossible to see either bird before it is flushed, so nearly do
they match the background of their native woods.

The Grouse family must be protected and allowed to in-
crease in South Dakota. Upon the Prairie Chicken, Quail and
Grouse we must depend for assistance in keeping down the ever
increasing number of injurious insects, such as grasshoppers,
crickets, chinch bugs, army and wire worms, and beetles. Years
ago Shore Birds were abundant in South Dakota and lived on
these insects, thus helping to balance nature; but Shore Birds
have been forced from the State, never to return, because their

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 75

natural haunts have been destroyed by the drainage and cultiva-
tion of all the wild land. Prairie Chickens, Quail and Grouse
constitute the only big family of birds that can take their place in
successfully keeping down insects.

Our game laws are adequate but sadly disregarded by a
large portion of our population.

289. BOBWHITE (Colinus virginianus virginianus.)

The "Quail" is one of our most valuable and best known
birds. However, it is shy and said to be very difficult of domes-
tication; yet it is never found far away from civilization. It is
now found over the State except, perhaps, in the northwestern
part ; but it is not abundant and never will be unless given more
protection. It is not a migratory bird, seldom moving a mile
from where it was raised; it is therefore placed at the mercy of
our severe winters with their deep snow. During the fall low
rude pole sheds should be erected in thickets and covered with
straw or fodder to afford protection : they should be quite large
and banked on two sides, so that snow will not fill them com-
pletely. In these sheds a few handfuls of grain should be scat-
tered often enough to attract the birds and keep them familiar
with the surroundings. They should also be fed now and then
during deep snow. When there is little or no snow they have
no trouble in securing weed seeds, of which each "Quail" will
devour many pounds during a winter season. In the summer
their food consists principally of insects, hence we can readily
see that they are continually working for the farmer and that
he can well afford to offer the little fellows the small protec-
tion and food that are necessary to help through the severe
snow storms.

The Bobwhite is about nine inches in length. In the male
the throat, forehead and line over eye are white, bordered with
black; while in the female these white markings around the head
are buffy or dull. The body is brownish red mixed with white
and black.

297. DUSKY GROUSE (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus.)

"FooL HEX."

This Grouse is rare in South Dakota, but a few may be
seen in or near the Black Hills. It is one of the largest of our

76 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Grouse, measuring in length from eighteen to twenty inches.
The back of the male is dark slate mixed with brown and gray ;
below it is light slate. The tail is dark slate fully barred on the
back. Like all true Grouse it is feathered on the legs, but not
so persistently as the Sharp-tailed Grouse. The Dusky Grouse is
a bird of the mountains, usually found in the evergreen zone.
It feeds on berries and insects.

300b. GRAY RUFFED GROUSE (Bonasa umbellus umbelloides.)

An annual resident and rather abundant in the Black
Hills. This is the Partridge or Pheasant of wooded areas east o
Minnesota and the Mississippi River, except that its general
color is grayish instead of mixed rusty brown. About seventeen
inches long; head slightly crested with gray; body gray, mixed
with rufous and black ; tail mixed gray with a wide slate colored
band near the tip. Both male and female have back neck tufts,
hence the name.

The male produces his drumming sound by rapidly beat-
ing his wings, usually while perched on a log. They are fre-
quently found in deep woods feeding on berries, buds and insects.

305. PRAIRIE CHICKEN (Tympc.nuchu$ amencanus americanus.)

The male is eighteen inches in length; female slightly
smaller ; alike in color ; irregularly barred with black and rufous,
with some white on wings and tail; under parts barred with
white, dark brown and buff; front and side of legs covered with
short, downy feathers; head slightly crested. On the sides of
the neck there are tufts of feathers, which, when extended, re-
semble small wings. These tufts cover a yellow, bare sac that
is capable of being expanded by the male to the size of a small
lemon. The function of this inflated sac is perhaps not definitely
known but it is thought to connect by a canal with the windpipe
and thus assist in producing that "booming" sound which is so
often heard, especially during the early spring.

Their nesting place is usually in meadows, but an un-
plowed strip of wild hay land is sometimes preferred.

A closed hunting season for a few years, and the creating
of public sentiment for law enforcement, are much needed to in-
crease Prairie Chickens in sufficient numbers to make them of
economic importance, either as game birds or insect destroyers.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 77

308b. PRAIRIE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE (Pedioecetes phasianellus
campestris.)

This Grouse is slightly smaller than the Prairie Chicken,
though similar in color. It has more white on wings and under
parts, and V-shaped instead of bar-shaped markings. It has a
small head crest, but no neck tufts. The tail narrows to a sharp
point, and the legs are more heavily feathered than in the Prairie
Chicken.

Its nesting places are open thickets and grassy flats along
the Missouri River and westward. Late in the fall several
coveys may flock together and migrate a short distance, perhaps
for more favorable feeding grounds. It should, however, be
classed as one of our resident birds.

309. SAGE HEN (Centrocercus urophasianus.)

The largest of our Grouse, the males measuring up to
twenty-nine inches and the females to twenty-two. The sexes
do not differ much in color. Back variegated with black, white
and buff; under parts whitish with black areas; long tail feathers
of the male pointed, having the appearance of being worn off;
legs feathered.

They formerly inhabited the whole western half of the
State, but are now limited in range to Fall River, Butte and
Harding counties. They are usually found in sagebrush regions
and feed on sage buds and insects, the latter principally grass-
hoppers. Their nesting places are usually under or near a clump
of sagebrush, or along sparsely grass covered creek flats.

They are not eagerly sought after by hunters, as the flesh
has a rather strong sage taste.

RING-NECKED PHEASANT (Phasianus torquatus.)

This bird was originally from China and is known in some
localities as the Chinese Pheasant. It has, however, been crossed
with the English Pheasant, Phasianus colchius, and specimens
without the white neck ring are hybrids.

This beautiful Pheasant was introduced into South Da-
kota several years ago and is living in a semi-wild state. In
some localities it is said to be increasing rapidly; but it is per-
haps too early to say whether or not it is really a valuable addi-
tion to our list of game birds.

78 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY MELEAGRID^:. TURKEYS
310a. WILD TURKEY (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris.)

There are no Wild Turkeys in South Dakota today, but
until about 1875 they were frequently hunted for food by the
early settlers in Union and Clay counties. In the diary of Cap-
tain Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark expedition, of date Septem-
ber 5, 1804, it is stated that, at a point up the Missouri River
145 miles from the mouth of the Sioux, their hunters brought in
among other game "some wild turkeys." The diary also states
that "3 wild turkeys were secured" at a point just above the
present site of old Fort Randall.

The Wild Turkey is about the size of the common Turkey
but of a uniform color, the plumage being a rusty black with
the rump and tail feathers a reddish brown, while the larger
wing feathers are grayish.

Today the Wild Turkey is nearly extinct in the United
States and it is doubtful if many of the present generation will
ever see a specimen of the ancestor of our domestic Turkey,
which is so much appreciated at our Thanksgiving dinners.

FAMILY COLUMBIM:. PIGEONS

315. PASSENGER PIGEON, WILD PIGEON (Ectopistes migratorius.)

While the range of the Passenger Pigeon was usually
farther east, old South Dakota settlers reported its occurrence
quite frequently in our southeastern tier of counties.

It can perhaps be said that for one hundred years the
Passenger Pigeon was one of the most abundant birds in the
eastern half of North America. Their numbers in migration
could be compared to those of migrating buffaloes on the western
plains. It would take hours for either a flock of Pigeons or a
herd of buffaloes to pass a given point. A flock of Pigeons
would, for a time, shut off the sun's rays, while a massive herd
of buffaloes would often prevent the movement of trains on
the frontier until the great mass had passed over the track.
But the fate of the buffalo is the counterpart of that of the Pi-
geon.

One of the writers saw Passenger Pigeons in abundance
in Illinois in the early seventies, but in describing them at this

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 79-

date memory only recalls that in general appearance they very
much resembled our Mourning Dove, except that the Pigeon
was a third larger. It is also likely that the head of the Pigeon
was slaty while that of the Dove is buffy. Their food consisted
of acorns, berries, weed seeds and grain. They were gregarious
in nesting habits, building slight nests of fine twigs and laying
one or two white eggs, which were somewhat larger than those
of the Mourning Dove.

316. 1. WESTERN MOURNING DOVE (Zenaidura macroura
marginella.)

A common bird over the entire State. It comes early it>
the spring and remains till late autumn. Specimens have been,
seen in Clay County even in January. This Dove is about eleven,
inches in length. The forehead and sides of head are buff; top
of head and back slate or slaty brown. The male has under
parts of buff with iridescent neck feathers, while the female is
paler, with breast more grayish brown.

The very slight nest is placed in low trees, or sometimes
on the ground. They frequently use old nests of other birds,
but always place a few weed stems in the old nests for their
eggs and young to rest upon. Their principal diet is weed seeds,
of which they devour vast quantities, as many as 9,200 having
been found in a single bird's stomach.

80 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

RAPTORES

The Raptores are divided into six families, which include
the Vultures, Eagles, Hawks and Owls, etc. About thirty-five
species of these families are represented in South Dakota. Most
of them are summer residents: the Great Horned and Screech
Owls and Eagles are annual residents: the Snowy Owl and the
Goshawk are winter residents, and individuals of other species
may occasionally spend a winter in the State.

Perhaps no other class of birds is of greater economic
value to our agricultural interests, although none is less appre-
ciated. Of the thirty-five species, at least thirty are working
day or night to keep down the great armies of mice, gophers
and larger insects, such as grasshoppers and crickets, which
destroy millions of dollars worth of crops every year. And yet
the average citizen seems proud of positive knowledge, as he
thinks, that every Hawk and Owl lives especially to feed upon
his poultry. Many of our boys are given guns and allowed to
destroy innocent life, perhaps even ordered by their parents to
"kill every Hawk in sight." This is the reason that our so-
called sportsmen, while hunting, slay every Hawk and Owl that
cross their paths. Will we ever be educated up to the point
where public sentiment is against this everlasting murder,
murder, murder of innocent life?

Sufficient investigations and examination of the contents
of stomachs of these birds at different seasons have been made
by the Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, to justify
them in making authoritative statements as to the character of
Hawks and Owls in the United States. Every Hawk or Owl of
South Dakota, whether resident or migratory, will be described
in this bulletin to further aid the public in identifying the species
that should be protected.

FAMILY CATHARTID;E. AMERICAN VULTURES

325. TURKEY VULTURE: TURKEY BUZZARD (Cathartes aura
septentrionaJis.)

These large birds are frequently seen during the summer
along the Missouri River and over the western half of the State,
especially in the bad lands. They have been known to nest in

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 81

Harding County, which is the northwestern corner county of
the State.

Length about thirty inches; head and neck bare, with
red skin; balance of body brownish black, except under wings
and tail, where it is grayish.

Their food consists entirely of carrion, so that they are of
inestimable value as scavengers.

Farther south they usually nest in hollow logs, but in
our State they use shelves under overhanging cliffs in the bad-
lands. Eggs usually two, white, and somewhat larger than that
of the domestic Chicken.

One noticeable characteristic in the flight of this bird is
its ability to sail or soar for hours with very few wing move-
ments.

326. BLACK VULTURE (Gatharista urubu.)

Sometimes called Carrion Crow. This Vulture is a rare
straggler during the summer in South Dakota. Although some-
what shorter than the preceding it is heavier in weight. Head
and neck bare, with black skin ; balance of body black.

FAMILY BUTEONIDJE. KITES, HAWKS, EAGLES

327. SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (Elanoides forficatus.)

A rare visitor in our State during the summer months.
Length about twenty-four inches, but the long, forked tail com-
prises over half ; head, neck and under parts white ; back, wings
and tail bluish black. Their food consists of large insects and
snakes.

331. MARSH HAWK (Circus hudsonius.)

A very common Hawk and well distributed over th^
State. The male is about twenty inches long; above, bluish
gray, with the ends of the long wings much darker; throat and
breast ashy gray; belly white; tail usually with seven dark
bands. Female about twenty-two inches long; above, dark
brown, sometimes mixed with cinnamon or whitish spots ; under
parts whitish streaked with brown. The young resemble the
female but are usually darker. A distinguishing mark of the
Marsh Hawk is its white rump, plainly seen as the bird flies

82 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

over meadows and weed fields in search of small rodents. In
proportion to its size the wings and tail are longer than in other
Hawks. The nest is always placed on the ground in tall grass
or buck-brush thickets. This Hawk should never be killed, and
everyone, farmers in particular, should become familiar with it
and aid in its protection. Mice and gophers comprise the bulk
of its food. Of 124 stomachs examined by the Biological Sur-
vey, Department of Agriculture, forty-five per cent had fed on
mice, eighteen per cent on other small mammals, twenty-eight per
cent on reptiles, frogs and insects, and only a low percentage on
poultry and small birds. In 1910 a pair nested within thirty
rods of a farm house in Perkins County. Their family con-
sisted of five young, and as far as known not a single member of
the poultry yard was molested.

One should not be surprised if the young birds, while
beginning to feed themselves, and with that ravenous appetite
which all young creatures have, should sometimes take a young
Chicken. This might be done occasionally in the immediate
neighborhood of their nest, when the fields have been searched
for mice and gophers during the summer by the parent Hawks.
However, the harm they do is negligible compared with the
vast amount they save the farmers each season.

332. SHARP-SHINNED HAWK (Accipiter velox.)

One of our smaller Hawks, measuring only from eleven
to thirteen inches in length, and not as common as the Marsh
Hawk. The female is longer than the male but the extra length
of her tail makes the difference. Back dark slate; head and
neck usually more or less streaked with brown and white ; under
parts including wings barred with white and rufous; tail with
four bars. Of the stomachs examined by the Biological Survey,
Department of Agriculture, ninety-four per cent of the contents
showed small birds and young poultry. This Hawk should be
destroyed with the same care that we use in protecting the
Marsh Hawk. But no Hawk should ever be killed until one is
sure what species he is killing. The destructive Hawks are the
exception, the beneficial ones the rule.

333. COOPER'S HAWK (Accipiter cooperi.) "CHICKEN HAWK/'

This Hawk is found quite generally over the State. Its

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 83

plumage is similar to that of the last, but the bird is larger,
measuring from fifteen to nineteen inches. The female is
longer than the male but the difference, as in the Sharp-shinned
is in the extra length of tail.

The food of this Hawk is about the same as that of the
Sharp-shinned, and the bird should be persecuted with the same
earnestness. Being larger than the Sharp-shinned it will prob-
ably destroy more poultry.

334. GOSHAWK (Astur atricapillus atricapillus.) "HEN HAWK/'

This Hawk usually nests in the northern part of North
America and is regarded as only a winter visitor, although it
probably nests sometimes in our State. Length from twenty
to twenty-four inches; female slightly larger; back bluish gray;
crown and area back of eyes black; white line over eyes; under
parts white, irregularly finely barred with gray, and with occa-
sional black streaks extending lengthwise ; tail with four or five
blackish bars.

If this Hawk were a summer resident it would probably
be the most destructive of all Hawks to poultry, as, on account
of its large size, it is capable of carrying away full-grown hens.
It also destroys many game birds such as Quail, Grouse and
Prairie Chickens. It therefore comes in the list of harmful
Hawks and should be killed.

337. RED-TAILED HAWK (Buteo borealis borealis.)

A rather common Hawk over most of the State during the
nesting season; twenty to twenty-five inches in length, the fe-
male larger; tail usually reddish brown, tipped with white and
a subterminal black band, although occasionally one will be seen
with several narrow black bars on the tail. Above, blackish
brown, the brown-tipped crown feathers showing white when
raised. Under parts whitish, usually with a dark area across
the belly. In the young the upper tail surface is often grayish
with several darker bars. The plumage of the Red-tailed Hawks
varies in color so that it is impossible to give a description that
will apply to all individuals.

This Hawk is heavier than the preceding species although
its length is the same, and it is not so agile in flight. Examina-
tion of many stomachs reveals the fact that it lives on snakes,
mice and other small rodents and should be protected.

84 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

337a. KRIDER'S HAWK (Buteo borealis krideri.)

The Krider Hawk is a subspecies of the Red-tail and
similiar but lighter in plumage, being nearly white on the under
parts. It is of the same size and has the same feeding and nest-
ing habits. A few specimens have been taken in our State.

339. RED-SHOULDERED HAWK (Buteo lineatus lineatus.)

As far as we know this Hawk is rare in South Dakota, its
principal range being east of us.

Among specimens taken in this range the male is about
twenty inches in length and the female twenty-two. Farther
south they are smaller. Above, dark reddish brown, shading to
rich brown on wings; head, neck, and under parts rufous, more
or less streaked with light and dark ; tail with several light nar-
row bands, and tipped with white. Young usually darker above
and lighter below.

Its feeding and nesting habits are much the same as those
of the preceding species and it should therefore be protected.

342. SWAINSON'S HAWK (Buteo sicainsoni.)

In abundance this Hawk ranks next to the Marsh Hawk
in our State, being rather more common west of the Missouri
River, where it nests in cottonwood trees along wooded creeks.

In size it is about the same as the Red-shouldered, viz.,
twenty to twenty-two inches. Swainson's Hawk has such a wide
variation in plumage that any description must be of only gen-
eral application. Adults, on the back, usually plain sooty brown ;
throat nearly white, with under parts buff or tawny, blotched
with brown of the same shade as the back; flanks usually
barred; under tail dark slate crossed with several zigzag black
bars; a wider band near the tip. The young are usually much
darker, many specimens running to plain soot brown both above
and below, sometimes showing a rufous tinge and bars on the
flanks.

These Hawks are said to nest on the ground and on cliffs
as well as in trees. Like many of our larger species they will
at times take possession of a last year's Crow's nest. Their food
consists of mice, gophers, large grasshoppers and crickets.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 85

343. BROAD-WINGED HAWK (Buteo platypterus.)

This bird is only fairly common in South Dakota. Its
range is farther east. Size fifteen to eighteen inches, the female
larger. Upper parts dark brown ; feathers on nape white at base ;
under parts irregularly barred with white and buff; under tail
with two white bands and a white tip. The young are usually
much darker both above and below. The belly is not barred
but is streaked with blackish brown and tawny. On September
25, 1915, a young specimen was sent to the University Museum
and, upon examination, the crop and stomach showed the fol-
lowing contents : thirteen large grasshoppers, two field mice, and
one frog. These would be sufficient food for this Hawk for not
more than one day. A similar supply would be used daily
throughout August and September, when mice and grasshoppers
are most destructive to ripening crops. The Hawks are each
worth fifteen dollars annually to the farmers of South Dakota
because they devour mice and grasshoppers that would destroy
crops of that vlaue.

347a. ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK (Archibuteo lagopus sanctl-johannis.)

This Hawk nests north of the United States and comes to
us as a spring and fall migrant.

The male is about twenty, and the female about twenty-
two inches in length. On account of its remarkable variation in
plumage the bird is difficult of description. The fact that it is
feathered to the toes, however, easily distinguishes it from any
Hawk thus far listed from South Dakota. The back and upper
wing feathers are usually dark slaty black, mingled with reddish
brown or buff, the head and hind neck being lighter. The under
parts are buff mixed with black, except that on the lower belly
there is usually a very dark area. The under tail is nearly white
with a black band near the tip. The young average darker than
the adults.

Its diet of mice, gophers, grasshoppers, frogs and snakes
easily places it in the protective list.

348. FERRUGINOUS ROUGH-LEG (Anchibuteo ferruameus.)

This Hawk is slightly larger than the preceding, measur-
ing from twenty-two to twenty-five inches in length, the female
being the larger. Like the Rough-legged Hawk, it is feathered

S6 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

to the toes. Under parts usually white the entire length; leg
feathers barred with brown ; back and upper wing feathers red-
dish brown streaked with black; head and neck streaked with
black and white. The young are much darker.

These birds are not abundant in South Dakota, and they
should never be killed, as they are very destructive of small ro-
dents and large insects.

349. GOLDEN EAGLE (Aquila chrysaetos.)

This Eagle is quite common in western South Dakota
though rare in the eastern part of the State during the winter.
It nests in the badlands and forest reserves. Length about three
feet ; plumage dark brown more or less mixed with light brown ;
head and back of neck grayish ; under side of wings and tail with
white spots, which increase in extent with age.

The nest, which is built of sticks, is usually a bulky af-
fair, and is sometimes placed on a rock ledge or in a high tree.
The same pair will use the old nest with slight repairing year
after year.

Eagles live on rodents, game birds, and even lambs. When
they become too numerous in a neighborhood they must be class-
ed as destructive.

Among the North American Indians the tail feathers of
the Golden Eagle have always been considered a symbol of
power, either in war or the chase, consequently they have been
in great demand. One pony, or more if the feathers were nearly
white, was the price for a set of twelve.

The Sioux Indians adopted a unique method of captur-
ing the Eagle. A pit was dug large enough for a brave to secrete
himself in. This was covered over with brush and grass to re-
semble the surrounding surface and a bait placed on the cover-
ing. When the Eagle alighted for his meal he was captured by
the occupant of the pit clutching his legs. Many are now caught
during the winter in the western part of the State in steel traps
set for wolves and coyotes.

352. BALD EAGLE (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus.)

The Bald Eagle rarely nests in South Dakota, but is fre-
quently seen during the winter months. It is slightly smaller
than the Golden Eagle and the adults are easily distinguished

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 87

from the latter by the white head, neck and tail. The balance of
the body is dark brown, and the legs bare. During the first
year the young are nearly black, including the head; the second
year they are gray, and not until the third year do they take on
the plumage of the adults. Their nesting and feeding habits are
similar to those of the Golden Eagle.

The Bald Eagle is used as our national emblem, and is
represented on our different coins.

During the Civil War the 8th Wisconsin Regiment carried
a Bald Eagle as a mascot. It was known as "Old Abe," and
became a noted bird, being exhibited at Philadelphia during the
Centennial in 1876. Later its body was preserved in the State
capitol at Madison.

354. GRAY GYRFALCON (Falco rusticolus rusticolus.)

A rare winter visitor in South Dakota; breeds in the
Arctic regions. Twenty to twenty-four inches in length, female
the larger. Above, brownish gray. Under parts streaked with
gray and white. Legs feathered to the toes. The pair in the
University Museum were taken in Miner County.

355. PRAIRIE FALCON (Falco mexicanus.)

A rather common bird in our State west of the Missouri
River, nesting frequently on shelving cliffs in the badlands.

It is about eighteen to twenty inches in length, the female
being the larger. The sexes are similar in plumage, being
brownish gray on the back and lighter on head and neck. The
under parts are white with dark brown streaks on throat and
breast. The young are marked with rufous above and brown
buff below. Unlike true Hawks, the Falcons have a toothed
beak.

356a. DUCK HAWK (Falco peregrimis anatum.)

This Hawk is frequently seen in the State, though it is
not common. It is about the size of No. 355 but has longer toes.
Its peculiar characteristic is black spots on the sides of the
throat. Back, wings and tail are bluish slate with irregular dark
gray bars. Below, buff with black markings running to bars
on the flanks and extreme lower parts.

On account of its great strength much of its food consists
of game birds and if abundant it would be considered destructive.

88 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

357. PIGEON HAWK (Falco columbarius columbarius.)

Probably seen only in migration in South Dakota. From
eleven to twelve inches in length. Male above bluish slate;
throat usually nearly white; belly light but streaked with
brown; tail with four dark bands, the wide end one tipped with
white. Female and young, dark brown above; below buffy and
more heavily streaked with brown ; tail with four or five bands.

357b. RICHARDSON'S PIGEON HAWK (Falco columbarius richardsoni.)

This Hawk is not common in the State but probably
nests occasionally. In size and plumage it clearly resembles No.
257 but is more of a grayish drab in color, and usually has six
bands on the tail.

360. SPARROW HAWK (Falco sparver'ms sparverius.)

Abundant over the entire State, nesting in old Woodpecker
holes, hollow trees, and crevices in the badlands. The smallest
of our Hawks, measuring not over ten or eleven inches in length.
The crown of both sexes is bluish slate, usually with a chestnut
patch. Male : back and tail chestnut with a few black bars on
back and one wide black bar on tail; wing coverts bluish slate;
under parts creamy white with black spots. Female: chestnut
brown above, with many blackish bars on back and tail; below
whitish, streaked with brown. Its food is chiefly mice, grass-
hoppers, beetles, and occasionally small birds.

364. OSPREY; FISH HAWK (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis.)

Rather rare in South Dakota. Crown white streaked with
black; throat and breast white or streaked with brown; black
line on sides of neck reaching to eyes. Under parts white ; back
black or blotched with white and brown; legs longer than in
Hawks; toes open to the base; claws of equal length. The
plumage is close and oily, which fits it for diving after fish, its
principal food.

365. BARN OWL (Aluco pratincola.)

This Owl has been rarely taken except in the southern
part of South Dakota. Length about eighteen inches; above,
buff mixed with gray; below, white and tawny usually with
small black 'spots; no ear tufts; eyes black; face disk almost a

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 89

complete circle and darkly bordered. Its chief food is mice,
which makes it highly valuable from an economic standpoint.

In the summer of 1919 a number of these Owls were seen
during day time hiding in cavities of the red brown limestone
bluffs along the Missouri River near Springfield. The reddish
gray plumage of the Owl was so nearly the color of the "red
chalk rock" that the protective coloration was almost perfect.

366. LONG-EARED OWL (Asio wilsonianus.)

Common over the entire State, nesting in trees along
wooded rivers and creeks. About fourteen inches in length;
below, buff, usually streaked and crossbarred with brownish
black; long ear tufts and yellow eyes. These birds are invalu-
able to the farmer, as their food consists almost entirely of in-
jurious rodents.

367. SHORT-EARED OWL (Asio flammeus.)

Length fifteen to sixteen inches; ear tufts short; above,
black and brown, each feather having a blackish center margined
with brown; below, lighter and streaked with brown; never
barred. The plumage of the female is usually slightly darker
than that of the male.

This is almost exclusively a prairie Owl. It hunts for
mice and other small rodents over our prairies and marshes, and
nests on the ground in a clump of weeds or tall grass. It is
found over the entire State, and should never be killed, but pro-
tected and encouraged to increase in numbers.

368. BARRED OWL (Strix varia varia.)

A summer resident but rare in South Dakota, its range
being in the eastern United States.

Length twenty inches; general appearance tawny, with
back, head and breast barred with white ; belly lighter but with
blackish streaks ; no ear tufts ; eyes black ; toes feathered nearly
to the nails.

370. GREAT GRAY OWL (Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa.)

This Owl breeds in the far north. As far as we know
there is no record of its having been taken in the State, except
that Dr. Elliott Coues reports it as "straying south iri winter

$0 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

to Dakota, etc." Mr. Rudolph M. Anderson in "The Birds of
Jowa" reports it as "a casual straggler in winter."

It is the largest of North American Owls, measuring two
feet or more in length. Upper parts dark brown mixed with gray-
ish white.' Under parts the same in color, with irregular bars but
paler. Prominent facial disk with small eyes. No ear tufts;
legs and feet feathered. It inhabits wooded regions.

371. RICHARDSON'S OWL (Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni.)

A rare winter resident in our State. Length ten inches;
no ear tufts; above, brown with white spots; below, white
streaked with brown ; feet feathered to the toes. Nests north of
the United States in hollow trees.

372. SAW-WHET OWL (Cryptoglaux acadica acadica.)

The smallest of our Owls, averaging only about eight
inches in length. Back, wings and tail uniform dull brown
spotted with white; crown streaked with white; under parts
white and brown; facial disk nearly white; toes feathered.

This Owl inhabits wooded districts and nests in hollow
trees or old Woodpecker holes. Owing to its habit of retiring
into dark woods it probably is not often observed. In some in-
stances it may be taken for the Screech Owl.

373. SCREECH OWL (Otus asio asio.)

Screech Owls are common over the state and are perman-
ent residents, spending their lives in the vicinity where they are
raised. They are larger than the Saw-whet Owl, measuring
nine to ten inches in length. Unlike other species of Owls in
our State, the Screech Owl has two color phases, gray and red.
We quote Mr. Frank M. Chapman's description: "With ear
tufts; eyes yellow. Adults, gray phase: above, buffy gray ir-
regularly marked with black; below, gray, white, rusty and
black. Adults, red phase : above, bright rusty brown with a few
black streaks ; below, white streaked with black and barred with
rusty brown. Young : above, gray or rusty barred with black
and white; below, white thickly barred with blackish." The
two-color phases may develop in individuals of the same nest.
Some writers contend that the same individuals may pass from
one phase to the other independently of sex, season or locality.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 91

According to the writers' observation the "gray phase" predom-
inates in South Dakota, while records from eastern Iowa seem
to show the reverse.

The Screech Owl may be found at home along wooded
creeks in the most sparsely settled districts, or in resident por-
tions of our larger towns and cities. In the latter case they no
doubt help to keep down the increasing numbers of "pesky"
English sparrows. Their food consists chiefly of mice. They
should be encouraged to nest around buildings. Their weird,
wailing notes, heard at dusk or in early morning, have caused
some who are not acquainted with the call notes of these little
fellows to suspect that a strange wild cat was prowling in the
vicinity.

373e. ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL (Otus asio maxwelliae.)

Specimen taken in Fall River County, August 8, 1911, by
Stephen S. Visher and determined by H. C. Oberholser of
United States Biological Survey as this species.

Resembles the common gray Screech Owl but paler; black
markings not so prominent.

375. GREAT HORNED OWL (Bubo virginianus virginianus.)

Common over the State and more or less resident. One
of our largest Owls, measuring up to twenty-two inches in length,
the female always larger.

The Great Horned Owl is quite variable in color mark-
ings. Above their base the feathers are tawny, sometimes tawny
and gray, but more or less irregularly tipped with black and
white. Below, usually lighter, mixed with tawny, and occa-
sionally there are black spots on the breast and a white throat.
Tail barred with black; long ear tufts.

They nest in hollow trees or nests used by Crows the
previous season. The eggs are laid as early as February or
March. On April 1, 1919, two weeks old young were taken from
an old Crow's nest near the Vermillion River in Clay County.

Great Horned Owls catch and eat a variety of animals
ranging in size from small birds and mice to cottontail rabbits
or full grown poultry. In some instances they have been known
to kill more poultry than was necessary to satisfy their hunger.
This is probably true only of certain individuals, and a good way

92 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

to dispose of these is to keep a steel trap set on a small plat-
form erected at the top of a pole located near the poultry house.
It is evident that where these Owls become too numerous in a
neighborhood they must be classed as destructive.

375a. WESTERN HORNED OWL (Bubo virginianus pallescens.)

This is a variety of the Great Horned Owl said to be
found in South Dakota. It is described as smaller and paler than
No. 375. One of the authors in examining many specimens from
over the State, has been unable to detect any form which was
more than a variation in plumage of the Great Horned Owl.

375b. ARCTIC HORNED OWL (Bubo virginianus subarcticus.)

Another variety of the Great Horned Owl, very similar in
size but lighter in plumage, varying from gray to nearly white,
mixed with tawny and black. At a distance it resembles the
Snowy Owl but is easily distinguished by its long ear tufts. As
the name implies, its habitat is in the Arctic regions, where it
breeds. Only occasionally during the winter an individual strag-
gles as far south as our State.

A specimen was taken by Mr. F. A. Patton, of Artesian,
in Sanborn County, in January, 1895.

376. SNOWY OWL (Nyctea nyctea.)

About the same size as the Great Horned Owl. It breeds
in the Arctic regions and migrates irregularly to South Dakota
during the winter. In plumage it varies from pure white to mixed
white and brownish black. A pure white specimen is rare, the
common markings being white barred with brownish black, the
female usually darker. They are without ear tufts and the feet
are almost completely feathered. Since their food consists
chiefly of mice and other small rodents, they are of great econ-
omic value to our agricultural interests. •

The Snowy Owl seems to be more abundant some winters
than others, and it is believed that an early winter with con-
tinuous cold is favorable to their southern migration. During
the severe winter of 1917-18 at least a dozen were taken in the
State, while during the mild winter of 1918-19 only a single
specimen was reported. Such a beautiful bird should never be
killed.

BURROWING OWL,
BY HER NEST

KINGBIRD WATCHING
FOR FLIES

YOUNG WOOD THRUSHES

YOUNG BRONZED CRACKLE

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 93

378. BURROWING OWL (Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea.)

This little Owl is a common summer 'resident over the
State, but most abundant west of the Missouri River. Length
from nine to ten inches ; above dull grayish brown spotted with
white; white throat patch crossed by dusky band; belly light
but barred with brown; legs much longer than with other South
Dakota Owls and feathered in front but bare behind. This bird
also differs from other Owls in its habits of nesting. Instead of
building in trees or on the ground, it appropriates the abandoned
hole of some burrowing animal. East of the Missouri River it
occupies the holes of skunks, badgers or foxes ; west of the river
it usually takes possession of deserted prairie dog holes. It does
not, however, live in common with prairie dogs and rattlesnakes,
as many suppose. In every prairie dog town there are many un-
occupied holes. These offer convenient nesting places for the
little Owls. The food of the Burrowing Owl consists mostly
of small rodents, grasshoppers and bettles.

FAMILY CUCULIDJE. CUCKOOS

The Cuckoos or "Rain Crows" are beautiful velvety olive
brown birds with rather short wings and long tails. They are
about the size of the Brown Thrasher and much the same in form.
Their "cow, cow" notes are heard oftener than the birds are
seen, as they love dense shade and keep well within the foliage
of trees and bushes. They devour vast numbers of hairy cater-
pillars, of which they are especially fond, a single stomach some-
times containing as many as 250.

387. YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO (Coccyzus americanus arnericanus.)

The lower bill is more yellow than in the following species,
and the white patches on the tail feathers much larger. It pre-
fers nesting in trees rather than in bushes. A summer resident.

388. BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO (Coccyzus erythrophthalmus.)

This species is more plentiful in the State than the pre-
ceding. It prefers nesting in bushes rather than in trees. There
are only slight traces of yellow at the base of the black bill,
and the tail lacks the strong contrasts of white and black. A
summer resident.

94 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY ALCEDINID^:. KINGFISHERS

Kingfishers, as the name implies, are fishers and are usu-
ally seen flying or perched above the water. Their sole diet
seems to consist of fish.

390. BELTED KINGFISHER (Ceryle alcyon.)

It is about twelve inches in length, including a long, stout
bill. The bushy crest and back are bluish gray; belly white or
marked with rusty.

The chief characteristics are the white throat and neck
bands. The male has a bluish gray breast band, which in the
female is rusty.

The Kingfisher, though not very abundant, is found in
every State in the Union. Every stream, millpond and wooded
lake shore is wakened by its rattling notes as it plunges in head-
long flight from one dead limb perch to another. It lives entirely
on small fish, which it takes by plunging into the water. Its
nest is the enlarged end of a hole, sometimes eight or ten feet
long, which it tunnels into some high bank. A summer resident.

FAMILY PICID.E. WOODPECKERS

South Dakota has a number of the choicest of this family.
Theirs is the difficult task of chiseling through the bark to ex-
tract wood borers that would destroy our trees. They also feed
upon the insect eggs, larvae and cocoons found in bark crevices.
They excavate nest holes in dead trees, and in the autumn some
of them excavate winter homes. When these excavations have
been used by them they become the natural nesting places of
Wrens, Bluebirds and Chickadees. At one time the idea was
prevalent that Woodpeckers usually constructed their nest holes
so that the entrance was toward the northeast or east, but a care-
ful survey made by one of the writers along the Missouri River
in 1919 of over 70 holes would tend to disprove the statement,
as 20 opened to the west, 17 to the north, 10 to the south, while
6 opened to the northeast, and 2 to the east.

The toes of Woodpeckers are arranged differently from
those of most other birds, two being in front and two behind,
which with their long nails enable them to cling to bark while
climbing. They are also supported in climbing by their stiff
tail feathers.

BLUE JAY
WATCHING FOR INSECTS

CATBIRD

fc < 1

;

HOLES MADE BY WOODPECKERS
DRILLING FOR BORERS

DOWNY WOODPECKER

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 95

393. HAIRY WOODPECKER (Dry abates villosus villosus.)

This fine annual resident has the same color markings as
the familiar Downy (black and white), lacking- only "Downy's"
black spots in the white of the side tail feathers. It is much
larger than "Downy," and wilder, and has a more rattling call.
It keeps more to the woods and to the high tree tops..

394b. BATCHELDER'S WOODPECKER (Dryobates pubescent homorus.)

A summer resident in the western counties of South Da-
kota. Similar to the Downy Woodpecker, but having fewer spots
on the wing, and with under parts lighter.

394c. DOWNY WOODPECKER (Dryobates pubescens medianus.)

Our smallest and most common Woodpecker. Colors
black and white, like those of Hairy, with the exception above
noted. The males of both "Hairy" and "Downy" have a red patch
across the back of the head. An annual resident.

400. ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER (Picoides arcticus.)

Found in the Black Hills and the forest reserves of Hard-
ing County. Probably an annual resident, but not common.
About the size of the Red-headed Woodpecker. Two toes in
front and one behind. Back black; under parts whitish. Crown
yellow in male and black in female.

402. YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER (Sphyrapicus varius varius.)

This fine bird belongs farther east, but is occasionally seen
as an irregular migrant in South Dakota, though rarely found
as a summer resident. The general colors are black and white
with a yellowish wash on the belly. Crown and throat red.

406. RED-HEADED WOODPECKER (Melanerpes erythrocephalus.)

There is no mistaking this tricolored summer resident.
Its red, white and blue black are spread on in large patches, and
it has no other colors. It is often seen by the roadside on fence
posts and telegraph poles, which it uses at watchtowers from
which to detect insects in the grass. It will even take a passing
one on the wing. It is regarded as a lazy bird, and prefers to
gather its food as above stated rather than to search and chisel
for insects like its more industrious cousins.

96 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

408. LEWIS'S WOODPECKER (Asyndesmus leivisi.)

A summer resident of the Black Hills. Crown and back
dark green. Neck and breast gray; belly ruby; cheeks dark
red. Slightly larger than the Red-headed Woodpecker.

409. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER (Centurus carolinus.)

The range of this Woodpecker is the "eastern United
States" but it has been authoritatively recorded from eastern
South Dakota.

It is slightly smaller than the Red-headed Woodpecker.
Crown and nape red; back and wings barred with black and
white. Throat and breast gray ; lower parts of belly red. Crown
of female gray ; otherwise similar to the male.

41 2a. NORTHERN FLICKER (Colaptes auratus luteus.)

This is our largest, most widely distributed, and most
beautiful Woodpecker. It is even found nesting west of the Mis-
souri River in fence-posts, far from trees. Its colors are many-
bluish gray, pinkish brown, scarlet, yellow, black, white, golden,
tawny, ash, lilac brown, olive brown. Yet though so many,
with some of them very distinct, these colors are exquisitely
blended. The Flickers are often seen upon the ground, for their
favorite food is ants. They often return to the same nest, exca-
vating a little deeper each year.

Flickers frequently pass the winter in the southeastern
part of the State, especially when the wild grape crop is plenti-
ful.

413. RED-SHAFTED FLICKER (Colaptes cafer collaris.)

A summer resident of the western part of the State. Back
gray, barred with black; crown grayish brown. No red nape
band; sides of throat red instead of black, as in the Nortkern
Flicker. Throat gray; under wings and tail light salmon. Fe-
males do not have the red throat patch.

Specimens have been taken along White River that are
thought to be hybrids. They much resemble this species but
lack the salmon shades under the wings and tail.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 97

FAMILY CAPRIMULGID^E. GOATSUCKERS

Five species of Goatsuckers — two Whippoorwills and
three Nighthawks — are summer residents of South Dakota.

The Goatsuckers are birds of the morning and evening,
between day birds and night flying Owls. By day they are
perched on fence posts, limbs of trees or on the ground, and they
are so nearly like their surroundings that, but for their form,
the eye could scarcely detect them. At evening these birds
mount on wing and may be seen circling and wheeling high in the
air, where they gather flying insects and moths into their large,
bristle rimmed mouths. Their two white eggs are always laid
upon the ground or upon leaves.

417. WHIPPOORWILL (Antrostomus vociferus vodferus.)

This bird resembles the Nighthawks but is slightly
smaller, and gray predominates on the upper parts rather than
the mixed colors.

A bird of the woods, where moths in abundance fly at
night. In the day it perches lengthwise upon a limb or beside
a stump, and its protective coloration is almost perfect.

Its call, a repeated "whip-poor-will," has been heard from
the woods along the Missouri River and as far north as Brook-
ings.

418. POORWILL (Phalaenoptilus nuttalli nuttalli.)

A summer resident west of the Missouri River. Smaller
than the Whippoorwill and with more rufous plumage, the gen-
eral appearance being lighter. It always rests on the ground
during the day.

420. NIGHTHAWK (Chordeiles virginianus virginianus.)

The range of this Nighthawk is east of South Dakota, but
it is frequently seen in the eastern half of the State.

About ten inches in length, and the darkest of all the Goat-
sucker family. Above, black with white and buff mixed; under
parts black, barred with white. Throat white in the male and
rusty in the female.

Just as the Whippoorwill is a bird of the woods, the
Nighthawk is a bird of the prairies.

08 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

420a. WESTERN NIGHTHAWK (Chordeiles virginianus henryi.)

A subspecies, very common west of the Missouri River
and not rare in the eastern part of the State. Similar to the pre-
ceding but lighter, more buffy both above and below.

420c. SENNETT'S NIGHTHAWK (Chordeiles virginianus sennetti.)

Another subspecies of the Nighthawk family, but smaller
than the preceding, and the palest of them all in color. It is
also a bird of the plains, but it seems to follow the foothills of
the mountainous districts more closely than the other species.

A summer resident. Habits the same as the others.

FAMILY MICROPODID;E. SWIFTS

Two species of Swifts live in our State during the summer.
They are well named, as few birds can surpass them in speed,
and they spend most of the day on the wing hunting for insects.

One noticeable characteristic of the Goatsuckers and
Swifts is their very small feet. They are all valuable birds as
insect destroyers.

423. CHIMNEY SWIFT (Chaetura pelagica.)

Before chimneys came to this country these insect eaters
slept and rested in hollow trees ; now they may be seen at dusk
by hundreds circling over buildings and, one by one or by twos
or threes, dropping into high chimneys, where they perch for the
night, clinging to the sides. Their feet are so small that they
can perch only by clinging, supported by their stiff, spiny tail
feathers. It has been said that they can fly all day without rest-
ing, living literally on the wing. They even break off the small
twigs of which their nests are built as they fly past dead tree
tops. These twigs are glued together and to the inside of the
chimney with a saliva which they secrete.

The Chimney Swifts are about five inches long from tip
of tail to end of bill, but their wings are unusually long and ex-
tend beyond the tail. Above, greenish black or dark gray; belly
lighter but gray at throat. A summer resident. It is not known
yet where they pass the winter.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 99

425. WHITE-THROATED SWIFT (Aeronautes melanoleucus.)

Common summer resident in the badlands of South Da-
kota. Larger than the Chimney Swift. Above and sides green-
ish black; throat, belly and flanks white. Tail slightly forked.
Nests in holes in inaccessible sides of cliffs.

FAMILY TROCHILID;E. HUMMINGBIRDS

Hummingbirds are the smallest of all the birds and, as far
as we know, only one species visits South Dakota long enough
to raise one brood of young; after which it departs for tropical
regions.

This exquisite species gathers its food from the flowers
of our gardens, but must be carefully distinguished from equally
large moths which gather their food in the same way, poising on
wing before flowers in hummingbird fashion.

428. RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD (Archilochus colubris.)

The smallest and one of the most beautiful of our birds.
About three and one half inches in length. The male above is
a glossy golden green; belly grayish and throat ruby. Tail
forked. In the female the throat is gray, and the tail is not so
prominently forked.

Breeds occasionally over the State. The nest is fastened
to the top side of a horizontal limb and consists of downy ma-
terial supported on the outside by lichens, which are apparently
glued on by saliva which the bird secretes, or by some gummy
substance gathered by the builder. Two white eggs are de-
posited.

FAMILY TYRANNID^E. FLYCATCHERS

The Flycatchers are named for their habit of catching
insects on the wing. This is their regular way of securing food.
They do not fly continuously however, like Swallows and Swifts,
but dart out upon their prey from some perch, usually a dead
limb or telephone wire. They are all summer residents and do
not arrive in the spring until numerous flies are on the wing.
They have broad bills and bristled mouths like all fly-catching
birds. A number of the smaller ones are so similar in size and

100 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

color that it is not easy to tell them apart, but a knowledge of
their nesting habits will be helpful. None of them is classed
as a singer.

The Kingbird is the most abundant in our State and dur-
ing the last two weeks of August thousands are seen in loose
flocks along the Missouri River. Their movement is always
down the river as though they had begun their southward migra-
tion but were loitering by the way. As they fly from grove to
grove some are racing and chasing and picking at their fellows in
a playful mood; others sail over the water, occasionally swoop-
ing down for a drink, which they always take on the wing;
others are catching insects, and frequently one comes out of
curiosity to inspect a passing boat. They remind one of a crowd
of boys returning from school. Most of these Kingbirds, of
course, are young and are migrating for the first time. If the
weather remains mild doubtless their whole southward flight
will be made in this way, as it is customary for birds that feed
on the wing to migrate rather slowly by day and feed as they go.

444. KINGBIRD (Tyrannus tyrannus.)

Sometimes called Bee Bird. Above, slate color, with a
white margin across the end of the tail. Below, whitish. A
reddish orange patch on the crown somewhat overlaid by longer
feathers. The same in size and general habits as the Arkansas
Kingbird. These two large Flycatchers are often seen in the
same neighborhood. They frequent the vicinity of homes and
barns where there are trees, and are exceedingly useful in kill-
ing disease carrying flies, destroying robber flies, which are so
harmful to bees, and driving away chicken eating Hawks.

447. ARKANSAS KINGBIRD (Tyrannus verticdis.)

More commonly called Arkansas Flycatcher. This bird is
like the well known Kingbird in size, shape and general habits,
but gray in color, with the outer tail feathers margined with
white, and belly yellow. A reddish orange patch on the crown
as in No. 444. Few of these birds are found in the extreme east-
ern part of our State, but their numbers increase as one goes
west, their range extending to the Pacific coast.

ROBIN'S NEST

TWO FEMALE BALTIMORE ORIOLES AT THE BATH

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 101

456. PHOEBE (Sayornis phoebe.)

One should distinguish carefully between "Phoebe" and
"Pewee"; and one should not confuse the name "Phoebe" with
the "phe-bee-ee-ee" note of the Chickadee.

The Phoebe is lighter colored than most Flycatchers of its
size. It always builds its nest under a bridge, when it can find
one, plastering its half-saucer to the side of a beam like a Barn
Swallow. Its note is an emphatic "phee-bee," usually accom-
panied with a nervous flirt of the tail. A summer resident.

457. SAY'S PHOEBE (Sayornis sayus.)

A summer resident west of the Missouri River. Nearly
as large as the Kingbird, but gray above with black tail. Throat
and breast gray, changing to a rusty brown on belly.

459. OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER (Nuttallornis borealis.)

This rare Flycatcher has been observed for several sum-
mers at Pierre by Miss Sophia DeLand, Miss Abbie Whitney
and Mr. A. E. Beaumont. So certain of its identification are
they that we are glad to include it in this Bulletin. They report
that one of its favorite perching places is on the dome of the
State Capitol, where it is often seen and heard. As it is a con-
stant visitor through the summer it more than likely nests in the
vicinity.

It is about seven inches in length. Above it is gray with
a slight tinge of brown. The throat and belly are light yellow,
while the breast is gray but tinged with yellow. The yellowish,
long, brushy-like feathers under the wings and sides of rump are
prominent. This description is given from a specimen taken
in Colorado in May.

461. WOOD PEWEE (Myiochanes virens.)

The Pewee is darked colored than the Phoebe, with a
slight tinge of olive green above and a touch of yellow on the
gray belly. Its call is decidedly plaintive, a soft, rather hopeless
"pee-awee." It is famous for its exquisite nest, which it sad-
dles neatly on a horizontal limb and covers so completely with
lichens that it can scarcely be distinguished from the limb itself.

102 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

462. WESTERN WOOD PEWEE (Myiochanes richardsonl richardsoni.)

Found in the Black Hills. Similar to the preceding but
duller, and seldom shows the green or yellow tinge. Nesting
habits the same.

464. WESTERN FLYCATCHER (Empidonax difficilis diff tails.)

This is also a western form found in the Black Hills.
Among the smallest of our Flycatchers. General appearance
gray, but yellowish on back and under parts.

466. TRAILL'S FLYCATCHER (Empidonax trail It trailli.)

This is a western species but nests frequently in the
State. About six inches in length. Upper parts are gray tinged
with brown ; below, white and gray.

466a. ALDER FLYCATCHER (Empidonax trailli alnorurn.)

This is an eastern form but there are specimens in the
University Museum from Walworth, Sanborn and Clay coun-
ties which have been identified by Mr. H. C. Oberholser of the
United States Biological Survey. It is about six inches in length.
Above, grayish ; wings and tail not as dark as in most Flycatch-
ers; below, whitish.

467. LEAST FLYCATCHER (Empidonax minimus.)

Sometimes called "Chebec" from the similarity of its vigo-
rous note to this word. Smallest of the Flycatchers and with
tail slightly forked. Similar in color to the Alder Flycatcher.
It places its nest in the fork of tree or bush.

FAMILY ALAUDID;E. LARKS

There are fourteen species and subspecies of Larks in the
United States. Two of the latter are common to South Dakota,
the Prairie Horned Lark to the eastern part of the State, and the
Desert Horned Lark to the western portion.

The Horned Lark, sometimes called "Shorelark," is named
from the two tufts of feathers on its head which, when raised
slightly, simulate horns. It is a modest but well marked bird of
fine spirit, and the only Lark native to this country (the Mead-
owlark is a Starling, and the Skylark is a straggler from the Old

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 103

World). It is seen on prairie and pasture hills, about straw
stacks in winter picking up weed seeds and grain, in our barn-
yards during storms feeding with the cattle, and even on coun-
try roads gathering spilled grain from the farmer's loaded wagon.

474b. PRAIRIE HORNED LARK (Otocoris alpestris praticola.)

Some call it "Snow-bird," others do not distinguish it
from a Sparrow. It is, however, distinctly marked, with its
black crown horseshoe terminating in horns, its black mustache,
and its black breast patch. Moreover, the gray of its general
plumage is washed, especially on the shoulders, with delicate
lilac brown. With the exception of the Great Horned Owl, it is
the first bird to nest in spring. A full clutch of eggs has been
seen a number of times in March when snowbanks were visible
on the distant hills.

474c. DESERT HORNED LARK (Otocoris alpestris leucolaema.)

Similar to the preceding but lighter, the lilac brown tinge
not so prominent on back and shoulders. Throat usually yellow.
Nesting habits the same as the latter. A resident in the west-
ern half of our State.

FAMILY CORVID;E. CROWS, JAYS AND MAGPIES

This family is well represented in South Dakota, and is
so characteristic in habits and plumage that most of them are
well known. By varying their food according to season they
usually find an adequate supply; and since they migrate only a
short distance they are considered annual residents. The Blue
Jay is represented during the winter by only a few stragglers in
the southern part of the State.

Records show that prior to 1880 there were few Crows
in the Territory, but that Ravens were frequently seen. At pres-
ent conditions are reversed. Has the Crow followed settlers into
the State and driven the straggling Ravens farther west ?

The whole family is in disfavor and has few friends. They
all possess thieving qualities and will occasionally despoil birds'
and hen's nests of both eggs and young.

Though not classed as singers they are the most intelli-
gent of our birds and may be taught to articulate some words.

104 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

475. MAGPIE (Pica pica hudsonia.)

The Magpie is more or less common along the Missouri
River and westward in our State, where it is an annual resident.
It strays eastward sometimes during the winter. Specimens
have been taken at Vermillion in December and January.

The bird is about twenty inches in length, including a
very long tail. Head and back black; tail and large wing feath-
ers glossy black; upper wing feathers and belly white.

There is no mistaking this beautiful, interesting and rogu-
ish bird. Its harsh notes inform you of its presence and warn
you that you are intruding upon its premises. The nest is a
bulky affair, sometimes two or three feet in diameter, built of
coarse sticks and placed in low, bushy trees. The nest proper is
placed in the center of the mass of sticks, and it is almost im-
possible for a larger animal to get near the seven to nine eggs.

477. BLUE JAY (Cyanocitta cristata cristata.)

About eleven inches in length. Above, including its crest,
light blue, slightly marked with white and black; below, gray.
Easily identified by its harsh call, "jay, jay."

The beautiful color of the Blue Jay belies his character.
While ideal about their own nests, these birds frequently rifle
other birds* nests and kill their young. They have thieving pro-
pensities and often secrete food like Woodpeckers.

484. CANADA JAY; CAMP ROBBER (Perisoreus canadensis canadensis.)

An annual resident of the Black Hills. Same in size as
the Blue Jay. Above, gray except back part of head, which is
much darker ; below, whitish. Considered a pest around logging
camps.

486. RAVEN (Corvus corax sinuatus.)

While frequently seen along the Missouri River and west-
ward in early days, it is found at present only as a straggler in
the Black Hills.

It is similar to the common Crow in plumage, but larger,
and easily identified by its size, particularly by its large bill.

Habits much the same as the Crow except that in nesting
it is more likely to choose a rock shelf or cliff than a tree.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 105

488. CROW (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos.)

Perhaps the best known bird in South Dakota. An annual
resident, gathering in large flocks during the fall and winter and
migrating south or east a little way to find more suitable feed-
ing grounds. In the spring they scatter in pairs over the State
to nest.

The economic value of the Crow is perhaps a matter of
conditions and numbers. The writers have watched hundreds,
day after day, making a meal from grasshoppers in the alfalfa
fields along the Missouri River. This was during the summers
of 1916 to 1919 inclusive, when the grasshoppers were a pest in
that locality. To the settlers along the river the crows were a
valuable asset, while perhaps in other parts of the State they
were committing acts of depredation that would place them in
disrepute.

491. CLARKE'S NUTCRACKER (Nucifraga columbiana.)

Frequently seen in the pine forests of the Black Hills.

Slightly larger than the Canada Jay, but similar in color.
Whole body ashy gray. Wings and middle tail feathers black;
outer tail feathers white. Habits much like those of the Pinon
Jay.

492. PINON JAY (Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus.)

Locally abundant in the Black Hills and forest reserves
of Harding County. Has been seen in Douglas and Washabaugh
counties, and may be found anywhere west of the Missouri
River where a few pine trees are growing, as it feeds principally
on seeds from the cones of this tree.

It is about the size of the Blue Jay. Its entire plumage
is uniform grayish blue. Except during the breeding season it
is usually seen in small flocks.

FAMILY ICTERID^:. BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES,
MEADOWLARKS

This is a family of weavers, and includes Orioles, Black-
birds, Meadowlarks, etc. These vary greatly in nest weaving
ability, power of song, and beauty of color, but constitute one
of our most charming and useful bird families.

106 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

494. BOBOLINK (Dolichonyx oryzivorus.)

Found locally over the State as a summer resident.

The male is black with a buffy patch on nape (hind neck),
and a broad white streak on lower back which divides on the
upper back and reaches to the shoulders. The female above,
is buff streaked with black; below, whitish.

A bird of the low prairie which utters its ecstatic, bubbling
song on the wing, and in a straight-away flight.

495. COWBIRD (Molothrus ater ater.)

Abundant over the State as a summer resident. Nearly
eight inches in length. The male is black with head and neck
light brown. Female brownish gray.

To some people a Blackbird is simply a Blackbird, but
there are many kinds of Blackbirds, and the Cowbird is the
worst. It builds no nest of its own, but lays its speckled egg
in the nests of other birds — Redwings, Warblers, Vireos, Tow-
hees, etc. Its egg hatches more quickly than other birds' eggs,
and the young grow very rapidly, crowding their nestmates un-
duly and taking most of the food : this frequently results in the
death of the rightful young. Except when watching for oppor-
tunity to lay their eggs in other birds' nests they are usually
seen in pastures near cattle and horses. They feed on the ground
insects disturbed by the stock and not on flies that harass the
cows and horses.

497. YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus.)

The gleaming yellow head and throat of the male makes a
marked object in field or marsh. The nesting habits are the
same as Redwing's. The females of Yellowhead and Redwing
are not readily distinguished by the unpracticed observer. A
summer resident.

This Blackbird is not so abundant in South Dakota as
formerly. Are they decreasing in numbers or have they changed
their nesting grounds?

498. RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus.)

The "Redwing" is familiar to every boy, at least in South
Dakota. It is a bird of the marsh, of the reed-encircled slough,

RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD'S NEST

NEST OF YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD

m. •

WESTERN MEADOWLARK
ON NEST

WESTERN MEADOWLARK'S
NEST

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 107

and of the willow bordered river. It nests commonly over the
State, and, being one of the Starlings, all of which are weavers,
it fastens its nest securely among the rushes. Early in the fall
these birds gather in large flocks before migrating southward.

498d. THICK-BILLED REDWING (Agelaius Phoeniceus fortis.)

Similar in plumage to the preceding but larger, with bill
shorter and thicker. Breeds in Western Canada. Seen in South
Dakota only in migration. This is the Blackbird observed feed-
ing in large flocks early in winter. Small flocks have been seen
in Clay County in January.

501. 1. WESTERN MEADOWLARK (Sturnella neglecta.)

There are two species of Meadowlarks in the Northern
States, the Eastern (Sturnella magna) and the Western (Sturnella
neglecta). In our latitude the eastern State line of South
Dakota is about the dividing line of the range of the two species.
For a considerable distance east or west of this line there is much
overlapping of their range and perhaps interbreeding, producing
intermediates. Some believe that the range of the western
form is gradually extending eastward. It is also smaller
+V»an the eastern form. There is a wide difference in the song-
notes of the two species, and some evidence to justify the sug-
gestion that there may be a variation, both in song and tone,
between those west of the Missouri River and the intermediates
of the eastern part of the State.

Those west of the Missouri River are all Sturnella neolecia,
and doubtless all those east of central Iowa are Sturnella magna.
As far as known no true type of the Eastern Meadowlark has
been taken in South Dakota.

The song of this bird is a wonderfully exuberant expres-
sion of bird music. It may he heard for half a mile and fairly
fills the prairie. There is not room enough for it anywhere else.
The singer is sure of his audience and is thrilled and inspired
by his surroundings. The songs and calls are exceedingly varied,
but the rapturous love song, rendered in full flight, is Nature in
her most ecstatic mood, and nowhere is the song finer than in
South Dakota.

The home of the Western Meadowlark is on the prairies
or in open meadows. As noted elsewhere in this bulletin, the

108 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Meadowlark is not a "Lark," but a Starling. It was called a
"Lark" by the first settlers in New England because it reminded
them of the English Skylark. The Starlings are all weavers,
and while the Meadowlark builds its nest upon the ground in the
hay meadow, it carefully arches it over with dried grass woven
into a well shaped roof, and sometimes there is a runway two-
feet long through the standing grass to the entrance.

The general coloration of the Western Meadowlark is
paler than that of the Eastern, and the black crescent on its
breast is not so prominent. The yellow of the throat usually
extends up on the lower cheeks and the bars on the tail feathers
are more distinct.

506. ORCHARD ORIOLE (Icterus spurius.)

In color the Orchard Oriole is chestnut where the Balti-
more is orange. It is slightly smaller and neither so beautiful
nor such a good weaver as the Baltimore. It builds a shallower
nest and lashes it to twigs and leaves after the fashion of Red-
wing's nest in the rushes. Indeed this Starling seems to stand
midway between Baltimore and Redwing in color, song notes,
and weaving ability. The female is olive yellow above and dull
yellow below, with black markings. The young of the first
year are like the female, but with a black throat.

507. BALTIMORE ORIOLE (Icterus galbula.)

The Baltimore is the most expert weaver of the Starlings,
as well as the most beautiful in coloration and the most accom-
plished in song. His long pendant nest is placed in the high
tree top, where he is more frequently heard than seen. But with
his deep orange body, contrasting with his black head, wings and
middle tail feathers, it is more difficult for him to hide than for
his modest female with her dull yellow dress. The young males
of this Oriole resemble the female the first season. The second
season the yellow parts are nearly lemon color and deepen to
orange red with age. A summer resident east of the Missouri
River.

508. BULLOCK'S ORIOLE (Icterus bullocki.)

Frequently seen nesting along the sparsely wooded creeks
west of the Missouri River, where it seems to take the place

ORCHARD ORIOLE'S NEST

BALTIMORE ORIOLE'S NEST

LIST AND DESCRIPTION

of the Baltimore Oriole in our State. It is paler than the Balti-
more, the male nearly resembling the female Baltimore, while
his own female is dull gray with very little yellow showing. It
prefers to nest in tall cottonwood trees, and its basket is not so
bulky as that of its eastern cousin. It weaves hair from the tails
of horses and cattle into its nest instead of strings or yarn, pos-
sibly because these are more available in ranching regions.

509. RUSTY BLACKBIRD (Euphagus carolinus.)

Nests north of us, hence may be looked for only in migra-
tion. About the size of the Redwing, but in color the male is
greenish black with rusty markings. The female is grayish, with
some rusty above and streaked with black below.

Both sexes may be recognized by a whitish line over the
eyes.

510. BREWER'S BLACKBIRD (Euphagus cyanocephalus.)

A western species, but frequently seen in migration in
South Dakota. Slightly larger than the preceding and dis-
tinguished from it by its violet purple head and uniform black
body.

51 Ib. BRONZED GRACKLE (Quiscalus quiscula aeneus.)

This is the largest Blackbird in the State, and the one that
comes familiarly about our homes. They are quite unafraid on
our lawns, and walk in stately fashion, swinging their long tails
from side to side. They sometimes become unpleasantly numer-
ous and crowd other birds out, especially if a good nesting grove
is near.

Head and neck steel blue; back and under parts bronze;
wings and tail purple. The tail of the old birds is often V-shaped
when flying. Nests in shade trees, often several in the same
tree.

FAMILY FRINGILLID.E. FINCHES, GROSBEAKS AND

SPARROWS

The Finch family is the largest of our bird families, num-
bering nearly 600 species, over ninety of which are in North
America. They are seed eating birds and have strong bills for
crushing their food. The family comprises the Finches proper,.

110 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Sparrows, Grosbeaks, and others. Many of them are fine sing-
ers, and some are beautiful in color.

The Sparrows are modest colored birds and not always
easily distinguished from each other. They are unpretentious
in song and not remarkably interesting to study. We have them
with us all the time, but not always the same species : some are
annual residents, some winter residents, others summer resi-
dents, but most are migrants. They are all of great value in de-
stroying weed seeds, although, like practically all birds, they
feed their young on insects. The English Sparrow is known to
every child, and for this reason may be taken as the type and
measure of them all, some being larger and some smaller; al-
though the English Sparrow is utterly different in habits from
all others.

The Grosbeaks are a notable group in this family, much
larger than most Sparrows, some of them gorgeously colored,
and many noted for sweet song. They have thick, powerful bills
for crushing seeds and opening cones.

The Longspurs are distinctively birds of the open prairie.
They are named from the unusual development of the hind toe
and claw. The unpracticed observer would not distinguish them
from Sparrows, to which they are closely related.

514. EVENING GROSBEAK (Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina.)

A winter resident in our State and not abundant. Similar
in size to the well known Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Crown and
tail black; upper part of wings white, lower part black; back
and under parts dark yellow. Female dingy yellow, lighter be-
low. The bill is thicker than in other Grosbeaks.

515. PINE GROSBEAK (Pinicola enucleator leucura.)

This bird is rare in the State as a winter resident. Mr.
A. T. Solem, a keen bird observer of Union County, says, "In
earlier years I saw it frequently, but rarely of late." Mr. Charles
E. McChesney also saw it at Fort Sisseton in 1898.

It is about eight and one half inches in length. Male gray,
ringed with rosy red but gray predominating on center of back,
wings and under parts. Female gray and not tinged with red.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 111

517. PURPLE FINCH (Carpodacus purpureus purpureus.)

A rare summer resident in South Dakota. Thick bill;
forked tail; head, back and breast pinkish purple; lower belly
whitish; wings and tail slaty. About the size of the English
Sparrow, which the female and young resemble. While it has
none of the obnoxious habits of the English Sparrow, it is sup-
posed to be its nearest relative.

521. CROSSBILL (Loxia curvirostra minor.)

The Crossbill may be an annual resident in our western
tier of counties. It has been taken in the eastern part of the
State as a migrant. About the size of the English Sparrow.
As the name implies, the two halves of the bill are crossed,
adapting it for twisting seeds from pine cones. These seeds are
their main food and they often eat hanging to branches head
downward.

Wings and tail slaty gray. Head, back and under parts
brownish red. Females and young dull olive green ; rump and
under parts tinged with yellow.

522. WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL (Loxia leucoptera.)

Size similar to the Crossbill ; range farther north ; irregu-
lar in migration during winter in South Dakota.

Male dull carmine red, lighter on rump ; wings black with
two white bars; female and young brownish, tinged with yellow;
bill crossed as in the preceding species. The Crossbills are
great wanderers during winter and for that reason have been
called the "gypsies" among birds ; however, it may be said that
their habitat is the coniferous forests of North America.

528. REDPOLL (Acanthis linaria linaria.)

The somewhat obscured red crown patch and rosy breast
help to distinguish this cheery little bird in winter from numer-
ous Sparrows. It nests -in the northern part of the Northern
Hemisphere, but in winter it comes to us and may be seen feed-
ing on weed seeds, usually about the edges of groves.

529. GOLDFINCH (Astragalinus tristis tristis.)

This charming bird is frequently called "Wild Canary," but
there are no Wild Canaries in this country. Its black cap, wings

112 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

and tail, contrasting strongly with the yellow body, easily dis-
tinguish it from the Yellow Warbler, which is wholly yellow.
It is an abundant annual resident. In winter the yellow of the
male has disappeared. Males, females and young can scarcely
be distinguished in their grayish brown plumage as they feed
by half dozens on sunflower or other weed seeds. They believe
in long courtships and do not nest until late June or early July.

530. ARKANSAS GOLDFINCH (Astragalinus psaltria psaltria.)

Probably rare in our State but it has been found nesting
in Sanborn County. It is much shorter than the preceding ; has
the black cap, wings and tail, and yellow belly, but is wholly
greenish gray on back and cheeks. It may easily, be distin-
guished from the preceding by its smaller size.

533. PINE SISKIN: PINE FINCH (Sp'mus pinus.)

Has the appearance of a small Sparrow. Above brownish
black, feathers edged with gray; below, lighter; outer tail and
wing feathers edged with yellow; tail forked; bill sharp. A
winter resident in South Dakota.

534. SNOW BUNTING (Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis.)

Frequently in large flocks, and exceedingly beautiful in
their soft, white winter plumage. Named from the fact that as
they circle and alight on the northern prairies they are thought
to resemble whirling and falling snow. The Snow Bunting is
one of the Longspurs, possessing the long hind-toe nail. Feeds
on weed seeds ; nests in the Arctic regions.

536. LAPLAND LONGSPUR (Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus.)
•fe

We see these birds only in winter, when they come to us

from their snow covered northern home on the wings of a storm.
In their winter plumage the unpracticed observer would take
them for Sparrows, but in summer the males are beautifully
marked. The cap, cheeks, throat and upper breast are black.
The long hind-toe nail will help to identify tht-ia.

537. SMITH'S LONGSPUR (Calcarius pictus.)

This is also a migrant and Sparrow-like in coloration, ex-
cept that the under parts arc buft.

GOLDFINCH AND HER YOUNG

MALE BLUEBIRD FEEDING HIS MATE

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 113

It is an early breeder in northern British America, as
young have been taken in Sully County the eighteenth of August.

538. CHESTNUT-COLLARED LONGSPUR (Calcarius ornatus.)

One of the most familiar birds of our unbroken prairie.
To the general Sparrow colors are added a black cap, chestnut
collar, white throat, and breast heavily washed with black. It
nests by a bunch of grass and its sweet warble is uttered on the
wing after the fashion of the Lark.

539. McCowAN's LONGSPUR (Rhynchophanes m'cowni.)

This bird is similar in form and habits to the preceding,
but the shoulder of the wing is chestnut instead of the collar,
the black of the breast does not extend over the belly, and there
is a black mustache. This species is not so plentiful as the last,
but both are found nesting on the same prairie hills.

540a. WESTERN VESPER SPARROW (Pooecetes gramineus confinis.)

A summer resident, and one of our smallest Sparrows,
shoulder patch and white margined outer tail feathers. It sings
from some lone pasture tree or bushtop in the evening.

542a. SAVANNAH SPARROW (Passer culus" sandw ichensis savanna.)

A summer resident, recognized by the yellow line over
the eye, together with the well spotted breast. Most abundant in
migration.

542b. WESTERN SAVANNAH SPARROW (Passerculus sandwichensis
alaudinus.)

Similar to the preceding, but its general appearance is
paler, with the line over the eyes gray instead of yellow, and
a more slender bill.

A western species and a migrant in South Dakota.

545. BAIRD'S SPARROW (Amrnodramus bairdi.)

A Sparrow of the western plains, which nests north of us.
Crown buffy; back black and brown; below, white
streaked with black.

546a. WESTERN GRASSHOPPER SPARROW (Ammodramus savannarum

bimaculatus.)
A summer resident, and one of our smallest Sparrows.

114 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

It is frequently seen on a fence by the roadside or on tall weeds
in meadows. It is easily recognized by the action of wings in
flight like a Hummingbird or by its insect-like song.

547 a. WESTERN HENSLOW'S SPARROW (Passerherbulus henslowi
occidentalis.)

A small Sparrow that nests in the State. Above, reddish
brown streaked with gray ; below, white ; ,tail feathers pointed.

548. LECONTE'S SPARROW (Passerherbulus lecontei.)

A migrant in the southeastern part of the State, nesting
west of the Missouri River.

Size of the preceding but no yellow on wings; otherwise
not unusually marked.

549. 1. NELSON'S SPARROW (Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni.)

A summer resident. All the tail feathers are pointed, the
outer ones being shortest. Breast buffy.

552. LARK SPARROW (Chondestes grarnmacus gramrnacus.)

A summer resident and beautiful singer, a thoroughly
lovable bird. The sides of the head have distinct chestnut
patches, and the outer tail feathers are margined with white,
which extends to broad tips on all but the central feathers. The
song may be recognized by a distinct nasal note in the middle
of it. They nest upon the ground, but love the edges of towns
where there are a few trees. Very common on the grassy hill-
sides bordering the Missouri River.

553. HARRIS'S SPARROW (Zonotrichia querula.)

An abundant migrant. A fine large Sparrow, recognized
instantly by the black head, throat and upper breast, and by the
clear, rather plaintive whistle. For a few days in spring and
fall in the southeastern part of the State the bushes are full of
them : suddenly they are gone.

ENGLISH SPARROW (Passer domesticus.)

Introduced from England in 1851.. Too common in cities,
towns and around farm buildings to need description. The color
of the male would be pleasing if only he were clean. So dogged

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 115

in disposition are these birds of city gutters that they crowd
other birds out. They attempt to occupy every house made for
Bluebirds and Wrens, seek to monopolize every bird bath and
food box, and even tear up the lining of other birds' nests and
throw out their eggs. Their young are raised on insects but at
all other times their food is chiefly grain. They are considered
a pest but must not be confused with our native Sparrows, which
are all beneficial.

554. WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW (Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys.)

A medium sized Sparrow seen only in migration. White
crown and white stripe over eyes separated by a black stripe
reaching to bill.

554a. GAMBEL'S SPARROW (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambel.)

A western species of No. 553 and very similar but for
white stripes over eyes reaching to bill. In South Dakota only
in migration.

558. WHITE-THROATED SPARROW (Zonotrichia albicollis.)

A common ihigrant. Called the Peabody Bird and easily
recognized by its white throat, black crown divided by a white
stripe, and white stripe over the eye, yellowish at the front.

559. TREE SPARROW (Spizella monticola monticola.)

These are winter residents, and come to us in large num-
bers. Loose flocks of them are seen wherever there are groves
or bushes, and they are easily recognized by the dark spot in
the center of a gray white breast. They are cheery birds, and
ere they return north in spring they "tune up," so that their com-
bined call notes and songs amount almost to chorus singing.

The Western Tree Sparrow No. 559a is no doubt the
prevailing subspecies of western South Dakota.

560. CHIPPING SPARROW (Spizella passerina passerina.)

A summer resident. This little gem, easily recognized by
his small size, chestnut crown, distinct white stripe over eye,
black line through eye, and black forehead, loves the trees about
our homes. His song is a single trill — "chip, chip, chip, chee-
ee-ee."

116 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

560a. WESTERN CHIPPING SPARROW (Spizella passerina arizonae.)

Similar to the eastern form, but paler above. Has been
taken in Fall River County.

561. CLAY-COLORED SPARROW (Spizella pallida.)

A common migrant, frequently nesting in the State. The
colors are paler above than is common with Sparrows; belly
white. The song has a distinct nasal note.

563a. WESTERN FIELD SPARROW (Spizella pusilla arenacea.)

A summer resident. This is a slender, light colored Spar-
row, with a grayish brown cap. It is unfortunately named, for
it loves the trees which border fields rather than the open spaces.
Its song, which is easily recognized, is a vigorous "cher-wee-
cher-wee, chee-o-dee-e-e-e-e-e" in ascending scale.

566. WHITE-WINGED JUNCO (Junco aikeni.)

A summer resident in the Black Hills and forest reserves
of Harding County. Slaty gray above ; two white wing bars and
three outer tail feathers white.

567. SLATE-COLORED JUNCO (Junco hyemalis hyemalis.) "SNOWBIRD"

A frequent winter resident in the southeastern part of
the State, seen in flocks about thickets and often near homes
feeding with Sparrows. A sleek, slate colored bird, about the
size of the female English Sparrow. The bill, belly and outer tail
feathers are white.

581. SONG SPARROW (Melospiza melodia melodia.)

A frequent migrant in the eastern part of the State, easily
recognized by its heavily streaked breast, the streaks merging
into a dark patch at the center. Above reddish brown with black
streaks.

It is an attractive singer.

581 j. DAKOTA SONG SPARROW- (Melospiza melodia juddi.)

Common over the State in migration and probably nests
west of the Missouri River.

Similar to No. 581 but paler above; the black patch on
the belly is less prominent, with more white showing.

YOUNG BALTIMORE ORIOLES

YOUNG ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAKS

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 117

583. LINCOLN'S SPARROW (Melospiza lincolni lincolni.)

A small Sparrow rather dark colored, profusely striped,
with a brownish area on the breast. It loves to run about on the
ground, going in and out of brush piles. A migrant.

585. Fox SPARROW (Passerella iliaca iliaca.)

A somewhat irregular migrant in the eastern part of the
State and larger than most of our Sparrows.

Above, gray and brown; below, profusely marked with
reddish brown spots; tail reddish brown.

587. ToWHEE (Pipilo erythrophthalrnus erythrophthalmus.)

"CHEWINK."

This splendid bird of the underbrush is a little larger than
an Oriole. The male has black head and back, chestnut sides,
and white belly. Three outer tail feathers also are white. It is
named for its song, "to-hee-ee-ee," uttered with a distinct pause
after "to," almost as though the song came from two birds.
Chewinks are found only in the eastern part of the State. They
are often seen scratching up leaves under bushes like barnyard
hens. Summer residents.

588. ARCTIC TOWHEE (Pipilo maculatus arcticus.)

Abundant in migration over the State and probably breeds
west of the Missouri River. Larger than the preceding. More
white on wings but only one third of outer tail feathers white.
Habits same as No. 587.

593. CARDINAL (Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis.)

The Cardinal is nearly as large as the Blue Jay. The
male is flaming red but for the black throat and forehead. Fe-
male, dull brownish red. Both have crest feathers. The Gros-
beaks all have massive bills for the crushing of seeds. South
Dakota is at the northern limit of their range, but several pairs
are now annual residents in the timbered area of Union and Clay
counties.

595. ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK (Zamelodia ludoviciana.)

The male is black and white, with V-shaped rose colored
breast. The female is as homely as the male is beautiful. Her

118 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

general appearance is brownish mixed with some white. She
may easily be taken for a large Sparrow.

This splendid bird is now common in the southeastern
part of the State and rivals our best songsters in musical per-
formance. It is the only bird that feeds on potato bugs. A few
pairs of these summer residents in the garden will keep the po-
tato patch free from these pests.

596. BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK (Zamelodia melanocephala.)

A rare summer resident in the western part of the State,
where it takes the place of the Rose-breasted Grosbeak. It pre-
fers the wooded creeks and ravines rather than the thick pine
woods.

Head black; neck, rump and under parts light brown;
wings with white patches ; yellow patch on belly ; back streaked
with black and brown.

597a. WESTERN BLUE GROSBEAK (Guiraca caerulea lazula.)

Known to nest along the Missouri River as far north as
Pierre. The male is bright blue with wings grayish slate and
two chestnut bars. The female is grayish brown above and
lighter below.

598. INDIGO BUNTING (Passerina cyanea.)

This beautiful Bunting, whose every feather is indigo or
blackish, is about the size of a Canary. The female is brownish.
Like the Tanagers, they are not plentiful, but scattered sparingly
over their range. They love the edges of outlying groves, and
where available the male loves to perch on a telegraph wire
while singing.

599. LAZULI BUNTING (Passerina amoena.)

Probably breeds in the western part of the State. A male
was seen along the Missouri River in July, 1915.

About the size of the Indigo Bunting. Head, neck and
upper parts blue ; back mixed with black ; breast light brown ;
belly white; two white bars on the dull gray wings.

604. DICKCISSEL (Spiza americana.)

"Dickey", while suggesting a Sparrow, is marked not un-

NEST OF BELL'S VIREO

BLUE JAY'S NEST AND YOUNG

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 119

like the Meadowlark. Breast yellow with black throat patch,
the upper throat being white. One cannot ride far into the
country without seeing him on fence or weed. He is always
singing, but he can't sing. With strenuous repetition however,
he does say, "dick dick-che, che, che che, e e e." A summer
resident in the southern part of the State. Nests on the ground
or in low bushes.

605. LARK BUNTING (Calamospiza melanocorys.)

This splendid summer resident is found over the State but
is most abundant west of the Missouri River. It is distinctly a
bird of the Plains. The male is black with large white wing
patches. The female is Sparrow-like in plumage, but with white
tipped tail, and buff wing bars.

Nests on the ground near a sagebush or clump of weeds.
As the male rises on wing he begins his song, which continues
almost until he alights, and is uttered in several distinct phrases.
Each song-phrase seems to coincide with a distinct flight-phase
or direction. The Lark Bunting is often confused with the
Bobolink.

FAMILY TANGARID^E. TANAGERS

The Tanagers are not plentiful in South Dakota, but their
gleaming colors and rather shy ways make them subjects of
great interest. One belongs to the eastern part of the State and
the other to the Black Hills region. They are summer residents.

607. WESTERN TAN ACER (Piranga ludoviciana.)

But for the reddish wash on head and neck, the inexpe-
rienced observer, upon seeing this bird, would exclaim, "What a
large Goldfinch !" It is about the size of an Oriole. The gen-
eral color is yellow. Head and neck are washed with red, while
wings, shoulders across the back, and tail are black. This ex-
quisite bird is found from the Pacific to the Plains; the Black
Hills and the wooded areas of Washabaugh County are the
eastern limit of its range.

608. SCARLET TANAGER (Piranga erythromelas.)

The male is like a flaming torch among the trees. Every
feather on its body proper is brilliant scarlet while every feather

120 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

on wings and tail is jet black. Female olive green on back and
yellow below; wings and tail slaty brown. They are summer
residents in South Dakota, but are not plentiful. Seldom is more
than one pair found in any grove. The song is a rather weak
imitation of the Robin's, but the male's lack of musical ability
is more than compensated for by its beauty.
Tanagers have short, thick bills.

FAMILY HIRUNDINIME. SWALLOWS

Swallows are numerous in South Dakota, but very unob-
trusive. Seldom can one look up into the sky without seeing a
Swallow pass. With the exception of the Martin they are not
singers, and they gather their food entirely upon the wing. They
come to us late in spring, when there are insects enough to eat,
and leave early in autumn before the supply is too much de-
pleted.

611. PURPLE MARTIN (Progne subis subis.)

This is our largest Swallow, and the only one that sings.
A common summer resident, nesting readily wherever Martin
houses are erected. The house may be two or three stories high
and of many rooms, for these are sociable birds. The more there
are together the better they seem to like it.

612. CLIFF SWALLOW (Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons.)

These Swallows have brought their mud-bottle nests from
rocky cliffs and placed them under the eaves of barns. They
are therefore sometimes called the Eaves Swallow. Tail square,
forehead and rump buffy. They are social birds and build in
colonies.

613. BARN SWALLOW (Hirundo erythrogastra.)

Barn Swallows nest inside the barn, plastering their half-
saucers to beam or rafter. They seem quite fearless of men
or animals and pass in and out close to one's head. They are
easily identified by their iridescent plumage ; chestnut forehead,
throat and upper breast ; and forked tail.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 121

614. TREE SWALLOW (Iridoprocne bicolor.)

"An abundant migrant and rare breeder" (Visher, for Clay
County).

Upper parts glossy green; wings and tail darker; belly
white.

The Tree Swallows nest in abandoned Woodpecker holes
*nd can be encouraged to rear their young in bird houses.

615. NORTHERN VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW (Tachycineta thalass'ma

lepida.)

A western species occasionally seen in the western part of
South Dakota during the summer. One of the smallest of our
Swallows. Above, glossy green; around eyes and under parts
white.

616. BANK SWALLOW (Riparia riparia.)

This is our smallest and lightest colored Swallow, being
grayish brown.

It is easily recognized by the wide, grayish brown band
across the breast. Like the Cliff Swallows, they nest in colo-
nies, tunneling their holes into banks and making a grass nest at
the enlarged end.

617. ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW (Stelgidopteryx serripcnnis.)

Very like the Bank Swallow and with similar nesting
habits, but without a band across the breast.

FAMILY BOMBYCILLID^:. WAXWINGS

Waxwings are represented in North America by only two
species and South Dakota entertains one as a summer and the
other as a winter resident. They are usually seen in small flocks
feeding on cedar or other wild berries.

618. BOHEMIAN WAXWING (Bomby cilia garrula.)

An irregular winter resident, always in compact flocks of
a dozen or so. Brownish gray, with plumage of smooth, velvety
effect. Distinguishing marks are the crest, the black throat, the
wax-wing tips, and yellow on the end of the tail. They keep
well up in the trees and seldom utter a note.

122 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

619. CEDAR WAXWING (Bomby cilia cedrorurn.)

A little smaller than the Bohemian, and more uniformly
brownish gray in color. A common migrant, occasionally nest-
ing. In migration these silent birds have the habit of sitting in
a row on a limb. They are always in close flocks of a dozen or
so, and impress one as being very much attached to each other.
In 1919 a few pairs nested in the vicinity of Vermillion. The
young were full grown by August 1st.

FAMILY LANIID^E. SHRIKES

The Shrikes are commonly known as Butcherbirds. They
kill smaller birds and mice and hang them upon a hedge thorn
or the barb of a wire fence. Flies then lay their eggs in the fresh
meat, and the maggots are dainty morsels for the Butcher.

621. NORTHERN SHRIKE (Lanius borealis.)

About the size of a Blue. Jay; bluish gray, with black
wings, tail and eye line. Margin of tail and wing spots white.
The white under parts are dotted with wavy bars.

622a. WHITE-RUMPED SHRIKE (Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides.)

A common summer resident. Similar to the Northern,
but smaller, and without the wavy bars on the breast. Fre-
quently seen on telephone wires or wire fences by the roadside.
Nests in low bushes and brush heaps.

FAMILY VIREONID^E. VIREOS

The Vireos or "Greenlets" keep well among the foliage,
some of them to the high tree tops. Their colors are not con-
spicuous, being for the most part olive green above and whitish
below, and their songs attract little attention. The nest is a
neat, pendent cup, the upper edge being lashed closely around
the fork of a horizontal twig. The Vireos all have the "Fly-
catcher bill."

624. RED-EYED VIREO (J'ireosylva olivacea.)

This bird lives for the most part in the upper third of
high trees. He may be recognized by the distinct white line
over the eye, a black line separating it from a gray crown. His

YOUNG CHEWINK

YOUNG YELLOW WARBLERS

YOUNG BROWN THRASHER

YOUNG ROBIN

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 123

song is incessant. The rather unattractive warble has been de-
scribed as "you see it — you know it — do you hear me, — do you
believe it?"

627. WARBLING VIREO (Vireosylva gilva gilva.)

This is our most delightful Vireo. An inhabitant of the
high tree top and seldom seen, but heard almost any hour of the
day. Its song is a pleasing and all but incessant warble. No day
is too hot, even at the noon hour, to discourage its melody.

Similar to No. 624 but lacks the gray crown with black
margin.

627a. WESTERN WARBLING VIREO (Vireosylva gilva swainsoni.)

This subspecies strays east to the western part of our
State. It is similar to the preceding but slightly smaller and
grayer.

629. BLUE-HEADED VIREO (Lanivireo solitarius solitarius.)

"A rare spring migrant" (Visher, for Clay County). Also
reported as common in migration for Iowa.

629b. PLUMBEOUS VIREO (Lanivireo solitarius plumbeus.)

Reported by Chapman as "breeding in southwestern Da-
kota."

633. BELL'S VIREO (Vireo belli belli.)

This "Greenlet" is a lover of tall underbrush and may be
found among the ddgwood bushes of our river bottoms, in the
stunted growth of many tree claims, or wherever tall bushes are
to be found. It keeps well away from the observer, but its wav-
ering and rather unmusical song is unmistakable.

FAMILY MNIOTILTID^:. WARBLERS

The Warbler family of the Western Hemisphere com-
prises about 140 species of small, beautifully colored birds, most
of+ them about the size of the Canary, Forty or fifty of the
species visit the United States, and most of them are migratory.
The Warblers are insect eating birds, and their migrations are
closely connected with this fact. They are nearly the last of the
whole bird procession to come north in spring. They arrive in

124 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

each locality about blossom time, when insects in vast numbers
are emerging from the larval state to wreak depredations upon
shade and fruit trees.

The great number of Warblers in migration is a constant
surprise. There are days when the trees seem alive with them,
and no tree escapes their helpful ministries. With few excep-
tions they are birds of the tree rather than of the ground. And
they are birds of the wing ; they literally feed on the wing and on
the run ; they are never still ; they flit from leaf to leaf and blos-
som to blossom ; they cling to twigs and run along branches ; they
search out insect eggs, feast on insect larvae and swallow mature
insects indiscriminately ; and they are busy in this way from day-
light to dark.

Though called Warblers, they are really not songsters;
they have no time to sing ; they are too busy eating ; they sing as
they go, uttering little snatches of song between mouthfuls.
These bits of song are never obtrusive, but as much a part of
open woodlands, groves and orchards as atmosphere or blossoms
or the humming of bees.

Warblers are birds of variegated colors, the most conspi-
cuous being yellow and black, followed by white, blue and chest-
nut. These colors are usually distributed in large patches or
prominent stripes on crown, throat, breast, sides, rump, tail and
wings. Apart from these the general body color of the upper
parts, while varying much, is apt to be bluish gray, or olive
green, or a combination of these two.

636. BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER (Mniotilta varia.)

A common migrant. Black and white striped, with a
broad white stripe through the center of the black crown, and
a narrower white stripe over each eye. It is sometimes called the
Creeping Warbler from its habit of creeping along tree branches
like the Brown Creeper.

645. NASHVILLE WARBLER (I'ermivora rubricapilla rubricapilla.)

Nests in the Cave Hills Fores' Reserve of Harding

•
County.

About four and one half inches in length. Above, olive
green; below, yellow. Head gray with a brown crown-patch,
but the latter is not conspicuous in the female.

, LIST AND DESCRIPTION 125

646. ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER (Vermivora celata celata.)

Above, olive green with concealed orange crown patch;
below, dusky yellow. It is seen only in migration and might
€asily be mistaken for the female Summer Warbler.

647. TENNESSEE WARBLER (Vermivora peregrina.)

Rare in migration over the State. Above, olive green;
below, whitish. Head light slate with white line over the eyes.
Plumage much like that of the Red-eyed Vireo but easily iden-
tified by its smaller size and bill.

652. YELLOW WARBLER (Dendroica aestiva aestiva.)

A common resident. Called also Summer Warbler. This
is the only South Dakota bird that has the appearance of being
wholly yellow. The yellow of the male is much less olivaceous
than that of the female, while his breast is obscurely striped with
broad bands of reddish brown. By many this bird is confused
with the American Godfinch. Although a bird of the under-
brush, in South Dakota, where there is so little underbrush, it
nests freely in orchards, and even in the bushes of our door yards.
It is the best known bird that discerns the danger of the Cow-
bird's egg, and when this egg is found in her nest, the little
mother will often bury it, together with her own, by laying a
new bottom and sometimes adding a second story to her nest.

655. MYRTLE WARBLER (Dendroica coronata.)

An abundant migrant. Bluish gray, heavily streaked and
blotched with black and white; easily recognized by the yellow
patches on crown, rump and sides. It is commonly called the
Myrtle Bird.

656. AUDUBON'S WARBLER .Dendroica auduboni auduboni.)

"Seen frequently in the Black Hills ; probably nests. Com-
mon spring migrant along the White River" (Sweet). It is easy
to mistake this beautiful bird for the more common Myrtle
Warbler. Its yellow throat patch, however, distinguishes it;
and, unlike the two bars of the Myrtle Bird, the white of its
'wings is a solid patch.

126 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

657. MAGNOLIA WARBLER (Dendroica magnolia.)

A common migrant. The casual observer must look
sharply to distinguish this charming Warbler from the Myrtle
Bird. The colors are the same but differently distributed. The
crown lacks the yellow patch of the Myrtle Bird. The under
parts are yellow, heavily streaked with black on throat and sides.

659. CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER (Dendroica pennsylvanica.)

A rather rare migrant, but instantly recognized by its
chestnut sides, white cheeks and yellow crown.

660. BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica castanea.)

"A rare migrant" (Visher, for Clay County). Throat,
sides and crown chestnut, with a black mask crossing the fore-
head and falling upon the cheeks.

661. BLACK-POLL WARBLER (Dendroica striata.)

An abundant migrant. Chiefly black and white, the upper
parts having a ground color of bluish gray ; much like the Black
and White Warblers, but the body is not so streaked; crown
black; cheeks with an elongated white patch. In autumn the
male has lost his black cap, both male and female having as-
sumed the colors of their young.

662. BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER (Dendroica fusca.)

"A rare spring migrant" (Visher, for Clay County).
Orange and black, with a flaring white spot on the wings ; crown
spot, line over the eyes, eyelids, large ear patch, throat and breast
flaming orange. This "flaming torch" of deep woods and big
trees is one of the most exquisite birds in the Warbler family.

667. BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER (Dendroica virens.)

"An uncommon migrant" (Visher, for Clay County). Olive
green, with yellow cheeks ; throat and breast black ; much white
marking on the wings.

672. PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmarum palmarum.)

"A common migrant" (Visher, for Clay County). Olive
brown, with dark chestnut crown ; line over eye, throat and breast
yellow.

WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH AT FOOD BOX

PHOEBE'S NEST UNDER A BRIDGE
(The Eggs are Reflected by a Mirror Placed Over the Nest.)

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 127

674. OVEN-BIRD (Seiurus aurocapillus.)

A summer migrant and occasional resident. Somewhat
larger than the English Sparrow; but very different in form.
Olive green above, the white under parts heavily streaked with
black on throat and sides. Two black stripes on the crown in-
close a brownish, or golden patch, from which the bird has been
called the "Golden-crowned Wagtail Warbler". The Oven-bird
is large for a Warbler, and strictly a ground bird, though a bird
of the woods. When you come upon them they walk grace-
fully from you like diminutive Bantam Cocks. They are most
frequently seen in migration, though some nest in the State,
which is in the western edge of their breeding range. They are
named from their oven-like nest.

675a. GRINNELL'S WATER-THRUSH (Seiurus noveboracensif
notabilis.)

A common migrant. This bird, as the name indicates,
looks more like a Thrush than a Warbler. It is found along
streams, and may easily be recognized from its olive color, heav-
ily streaked breast, yellowish line over eye, and teetering tail.

679. MOURNING WARBLER (Oporornis Philadelphia.)

A rare migrant in eastern South Dakota. Olive green,
the bluish slate of head and neck darkening from throat to lower
breast, where it meets the yellow belly.

680. MACGILLIVRAY'S WARBLER (Oporornis tolmiei.)

"A summer resident of southwestern South Dakota"
(Henshaw). Scarcely distinguishable from the Mourning
Warbler but for the white eye ring above and below the eyes.
Its favorite habitat is in bushes along streams and in moist
places.

68 la. WESTERN YELLOW THROAT (Geothlypis trichas occidentalis.)

A summer resident. Upper parts rich olive green ; under
parts bright yellow. The male wears a black mask across the
forehead which falls obliquely upon the checks, including the
eyes. One wonders if a little bird bandit is challenging one's
right to. intrude in his neighborhood as curiosity brings him to
the top of bush or weed. The Yellowthroat's favorite haunt is

128 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

among underbrush or clumps of tall weeds adjacent to low or
swampy ground. The nest is on or near the ground, and here
most of the bird's time is spent. The song is a cheerful "witchy,
witchy, witch," which, when once heard, can never be forgotten.

683. YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT (Icteria virens virens.)

Upper parts olive green, with a clear white line over the
eye reaching to the base of the bill; throat and breast bright
yellow. The Chat is nearly as large as an Oriole, and so unlike
all other Warblers that the ordinary observer would not put him
in the Warbler family but for the insistence of the books that
he belongs there. These birds love a tangle of trees, vines and
bushes, such as are often found in the fringe of woods skirting
the Missouri River. They love to be heard rather than seen,
and when you are in their vicinity the male whistles, quacks,
barks, chuckles and makes numerous other noises, seemingly to
attract your attention. His love antics are like the bucking of
a bronco. With drooping wings and legs, and intensified quacks
and "whistles, he bucks his way in aerial circles for the admira-
tion of his mate.

685. WILSON'S WARBLER (Wihonia pusilla pusilla.)

"A common migrant" (Visher, for Clay County). Olive
green, with shiny black crown, and forehead; cheeks and under
parts yellow.

687. REDSTART (Setophaga ruticilla.) |

A common migrant and a frequent summer resident. The
male is black, with salmon red on sides, wings and tail. When
the tail is spread in flight the salmon patches are large and fan
shaped, and are the bird's best distinguishing mark. This little
"torch-bearer," as the Spaniards call it, is seen in a certain grove
near Vermillion nearly every year in June and July, where it
evidently nests. It is one of the choicest of the Warbler family,
extremely light and airy of wing, flitting and poising like a
Hummingbird as it gathers insect food from leaf and blossom.

FAMILY MOTACILLIDJE. PIPITS
697. PIPIT; "TITLARK" (Anthus rubescens.)

This interesting bird, though not common, is found locally

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 129

over the State. It is a slim Sparrow-like bird with a long hind-
toe nail. Upper parts brownish gray ; below, brownish gray,
streaked with black on sides of breast. Sexes are alike in plum-
age but vary slightly with season to a buffy appearance. Song
uttered while on the wing.

700. SPRAGUE'S PIPIT; "TITLARK" (Anthus spraguei.)

A common migrant in the eastern part of the State, nest-
ing in the western part. Very similar to the American Pipit but
more buffy above and below and streaked with brownish black.

A bird of the plains with feeding habits resembling those
of the Horned Larks. It delivers its song while in a soaring
flight. Dr. Elliott Coues says, "The song itself possesses all
the qualities which have made the European Skylark famous."

FAMILY CINCLID.E. DIPPERS

701. DIPPER (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor.)

The Dipper or Water Ouzel is a slate colored Thrush
found in South Dakota which the ordinary observer would never
suspect of being a Thrush. It is a bird of the mountains and of
the tumbling water of rock bottomed streams. Within our
State, therefore, it is found only in the Black Hills. These birds
love the rocks in midstream that are partially submerged. Here
they are accustomed to feed by dipping under the water with
head upstream. The song resembles somewhat that of the
Brown Thrasher but is sweeter and more subdued.

FAMILY MIMID^E. THRASHERS, MOCKING BIRDS

702. SAGE THRASHER (Oreoscoptes montanus.)

A summer resident west of the Missouri River. Smaller
than the Brown Thrasher. Brownish gray above; below, white
streaked with black ; outer tail feathers tipped with white.

703a. WESTERN MOCKING BIRD (Mimus polyglottos leucopterus.)

South Dakota is north of the range of the Western
Mockers, although they are occasionally seen in the Black Hills
or along streams on the adjacent plains. These matchless song-
sters are ashy gray above and soiled white below, with wing

130 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

patches and outer tail feathers white. The Western is dis-
tinguished from the Southern Mocker by a brownish tinge below
and larger white wing patches. The Mocking Birds have no
equal as singers, and it is hoped that by kind treatment they
may become regular summer residents of our State.

704. CATBIRD (Dumetella carolinensis.)

This slate colored bird is familiar everywhere in South
Dakota. It is named from its catlike danger note, and, like the
Brown Thrasher, is a lover of thorns and thickets. It is the
nearest relative of the Mocking Bird. While the Catbird is
known better for its catcall than for its song, it is really a fine
singer, and has been pronounced our most accurate songster by
musically trained bird students. Being a mocker, its song is
a medley of other birds' notes, which often deceives the unmusi-
cal bird lover. One will sometimes come upon the male in a
deep thicket practicing his song in an undertone with closed
eyes. The finest song one of the authors ever heard from this
mocker was given from the midst of a low bush in a pouring
rain.

705. BROWN THRASHER (Toxostoma rufum.)

The Brown Thrasher is a familiar summer resident in
every part of the State. It is a bird of the underbrush, the
plum thicket, the brushpile, and the thistle-bestrewn pasture. Its
tail is noticeably long — about as long as its rusty body. Al-
though they are quite in keeping with the thorny places which
the bird loves, its yellow eyes, skulking manner, and threatening,
hissing notes, make the impression on one that the bird is un-
warrantably concealing something. But the impression is
wholly inconsistent with the bird's character, which is in every
way excellent. Its real nature flows forth in its song, which is
sung from the highest tree tops, and is a musical performance
of real merit, which often continues intermittently for half an
hour.

FAMILY TROGLODYTID;E. WRENS

715. ROCK WREN (Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus.)

A common summer resident in South Dakota from the

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 131

Missouri River westward. Larger than our well known House
Wren and of paler plumage. The general color is grayish mixed
with black, very little of the cinnamon brown showing on the
rump. It nests in the rocky bluffs of rivers and badlands.

72 la. WESTERN HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes aedon parkmani.)

A small bird about five inches long. Above, brownish
gray with narrow black bars. Below, lighter.

This is the common Wren that comes familiarly about our
homes, and is always active and always singing. The Wrens
will build a nest in any sort of house that is made for them,
and a second home will generally secure their second brood.
They are exceedingly useful in destroying insects. The song
of the Wren with its cheery, gurgling melody, is always welcome
in the spring.

722. WINTER WREN (Nannus hiemalis hiemalls.)

Probably only a summer resident. The smallest of our
Wrens. Above, dark brown, irregularly barred with black and
white. Below, brown; sides and belly barred with black.

724. SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN (Cistothorus stellaris.)

A common resident in the marshes of the eastern and
southern parts of the State. Its nest, which is a hollow ball of
grasses entered from the side, is lashed to the rushes. Ere the
female arrives from the south the male has built several "cock
nests," hoping that she will choose one of them. The House
Wren shows similar habits when he carries a few twigs into sev-
eral bird houses.

Slightly smaller than the House Wren and more or less
streaked with white on the back; sides rusty.

725d. PRAIRIE MARSH WREN (Telmatodytes palustris iliacus.)

A summer resident wherever sloughs or marshes abound
in the State. One inch longer than No. 724. Above, streaked
with black, mixed with brown and white. Below, white, washed
with rusty.

132 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY CERTHIID^E. CREEPERS

726. BROWN CREEPER (Certhia familiaris americana.)

A regular winter resident. A small, slender bird slightly
larger than a Wren ; brown, lightly streaked with whitish. It is
seen creeping up tree trunks, usually in spirals. In gathering
food it goes from tree to tree, alighting on the trunk near the
ground and leaving it after reaching the branches.

FAMILY SITTID;E. NUTHATCHES, CHICKADEES

Nuthatches are represented in South Dakota by two
species, both winter residents. Chickadees are represented by
two species, both annual residents. They are an interesting
group to study in their natural habitat and take kindly to arti-
ficial feeding during the winter.

727. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH (Sitta caroimensis carolinensis.)

Common in winter, frequently remaining all summer and
nesting. Ashy gray above, white below, with a black cap ex-
tending low on the neck. The unpracticed observer must be
careful not to confuse this bird with the Chickadee. Both are
ashen color, but the Nuthatch is a chunky, flattish bird. His
favorite position is head downward on a tree trunk, and he gath-
ers his food going downward rather than upward.

728. RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH (Sitta canadensis.)

A winter visitant, somewhat irregular in the southern part
of the State. Smaller than the preceding, with a black line
through the eye and reddish under parts.

731. TUFTED TITMOUSE (Baeolophus bicolor.)

During the fall of 1920 Mr. R. A. Morgan of Vermillion
had many opportunities of observing this interesting little bird
at his feed box.

In its established range the Titmouse is a resident but
probably only a straggler here. However, it may be looked for
in the southern part of the State.

Slightly larger than the Chickadee, it may be distinguished
from the latter by a gray crest. Above it is ashy gray, below,

WOOD THRUSH ON NEST

YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO ON NEST

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 133

whitish with brown on sides. Forehead black. Nests in old
Woodpecker holes.

735. CHICKADEE (Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus.)

A permanent resident, and one of our most charming
small birds. Ashen body, lighter on under parts and cheeks;
black cap and throat. Nuts and suet quickly entice it to a food
box in winter and an excavation made in an old tree trunk
will often induce it to nest in summer. Its most common note
is "chi-dee-dee-dee." On warm winter days it utters a "phoebe"
note, which leads many to confuse it with a Flycatcher by that
name.

735a. LONG-TAILED CHICKADEE (Penthestes atricapillus
septentrionalis.)

A winter resident in the Black Hills and northward. Simi-
lar to the preceding but tail longer. General appearance paler
and lighter.

FAMILY SYLVIID^:. KINGLETS

We see the Kinglets only in migration. They are no
larger than Wrens, and their greenish gray plumage attracts
little attention. Both species migrate at the same time and are
frequently found together. They are scarcely, distinguishable
to the ordinary observer, as their brilliant crown patches are
nearly overlaid with other feathers. They are very active birds,
flitting through trees like Warblers in search of food. Their
general color is olive green.

748. GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET (Regulus satrapa satrapa.)

The male has crown with heart of orange. The orange
is encircled by yellow, and the yellow by black. The crown of
the female is yellow.

749. RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET (Regulus calendula calendula.)

The size of a Wren, olive green above, lighter below. The
male has a ruby patch on the crown, but it is usually overlaid
with greenish feathers.

134 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

FAMILY TURDID^:. THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS
i

The Thrush family is well represented in South Dakota,
as indeed in all parts of the United States. It is preeminently
the singing family among birds ; and, as though one superb gift
was enough for one family, its members are clothed in modest
colors.

754. TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE (Myadestes townsendi.)

A summer resident of the Black Hills. One was taken
July 24, 1911 by S. S. Visher.

Size of the Kingbird. Above, ashy brown ; wings and tail
darker, outer tail feathers edged with white ; below, light gray.

755. WOOD THRUSH (Hylocichla mustelina.)

The Wood Thrush is not widely distributed over the
State, but is a common resident in the southeastern corner. Its
upper parts are bright cinnamon brown; its under parts pure
white freely speckled with roundish black spots. It must not
be confused with the Olive-backed Veery and Gray-cheeked
Thrushes, all of which are smaller and more olivaceous. They
are not readily distinguished from each other but together form
a numerous group in migration. They do not nest within the
State. Neither must the Wood Thrush be confused with the
Brown Thrasher, which is similar in color, but has a curved bill,
yellow eye ring, long tail, and skulking manner.

The Wood Thrush is a thoroughly lovable bird, with neat
form, graceful movements, and frank, open manner. They come
freely about our homes and often place their nests in the trees
of our yards, though ordinarily preferring a wooded ravine if
free from bird enemies. This Thrush is one of our best singers.
Its bell-like notes, uttered with marked pauses, are heard at
morning and evening and on cloudy days, the bird usually perch-
ing on some low branch as it sings. The song rivals that of the
Hermit Thrush, but, unlike the Hermit, it brings its melody to
our door instead of requiring us to go to the deep forest to
hear it.

756. VEERY (Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens.)

This Thrush migrates in company with the Olive-backed
and Gray-cheeked Thrushes, and is not easily distinguishable

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 135

from them by the ordinary observer, though more rufous in color.
In this three-fold migrating company the Olive-backed is by
far the most numerous and dominates the group to such an ex-
tent that the other two are apt to pass unobserved. The breed-
ing range of the Wilson Thrush, as this bird is called, is north
of South Dakota in our longitude.

756a. WILLOW THRUSH (Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola.)

This Thrush is found among the lower willowy portions
of the Rockies, and is named from this fact. It is quite common
in migration in the eastern part of the State, and may be found
nesting by the willow lined streams of the Black Hills. It is
about the same size as the Gray-cheeked and Olive-backed
Thrushes, but the upper parts are more russet. It is similar to
the Wilson Thrush in coloration.

757. GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH (Hylocichla aliciae aliciae.)

The ordinary observer will with difficulty distinguish this
bird from the Olive-backed Thrush. It is about the same in
size and coloration, except that its eye ring is whitish instead
of buff, and its cheeks are gray instead of yellowish. It migrates
through South Dakota to its northern nesting home about the
same time as the Olive-backed, and few are aware that more
than one species is passing.

758a. OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH (Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni.)

This Thrush is very abundant in the southeastern part of
the State in spring migrations. At Vermillion it fairly takes
possession of the town, being seen for a few days in every yard.
A week or more is often required for the whole procession to
pass. Sometimes it is mistaken for the Wood Thrush; but it
arrives earlier, is a little smaller, and decidely more olivaceous.
The white breast is not pure white and luminously spotted like
that of the Wood Thrush, but has an olivaceous wash, with
rather obscure and more blended spots.

759b. HERMIT THRUSH (Hylocichla guttata pallasi.)

Seen only as stragglers in migration in the eastern part of
the State, arriving about ten days earlier than the other
Thrushes. It has been observed by the authors for several years

136 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

but never certain as to its identity. On April 20, 1920, a dead
bird was found by Miss Bertha Nagle of Vermillion, which
proved to be a Hermit Thrush. On close examination they can
be easily separated from the abundant Olive-backed Thrush by
the reddish brown tail and absence of any buff on breast and
sides of neck. In size they are about the same.

761. ROBIN (Planesticus rnigratorius migratorius.)

Few people think of the Robin as a Thrush. He is just
"the Robin" to us — one of the common people, a good neighbor,
a dependable friend, a thoroughly substantial bird citizen.

The Robin, however, is the typical Thrush, the most
highly developed of them all. Everything about this exceedingly
satisfactory bird might well be characterized by the one word,
substantial — its colors, its song, its nest, its young, its friend-
ship, its prowess. Robins are found all over our State in sum-
mer, and in the southeastern part loose flocks not infrequently
remain all winter. Indeed in our coldest winters flocks of
twenty or more have been seen on the University campus and
in the wooded ravines at Vermillion.

The Robin is the first bird in the migrating procession to
arrive from the south. Even after his lusty song has been heard,
snowstorms are not infrequent. At such times half a dozen may
often be seen in the top of a maple feeding on the swelling buds.

761 a. WESTERN ROBIN (Planesticus migratorius propinquus.)

A summer resident in the Black Hills and Harding County.
Similar to the preceding but there is no white on the tail feath-
ers. Feeding and nesting habits the same.

766. BLUEBIRD (Sialia sialis sialis.)

The Bluebird, sometimes called Wilson's Bluebird, is a
close companion of the Robin in its spring arrival in the north
and, like the Robin, occasionally winters in South Dakota.

Length seven inches. Male: above, bright blue; throat
and breast reddish brown; lower belly white; female: paler, both
above and below.

LIST AND DESCRIPTION 137

MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD (Sialia currucoides.)

This exquisite bird, sometimes called Arctic or^Rocky
Mountain Bluebird, belongs to the mountains and the intermoun-
tain plateaus. It is found within the State, therefore, only in
:he Black Hills and in the badland areas. It lacks the chestnut
breast of its eastern cousin and is of a lighter blue. On seeing
this bird for the first time one goes into transports of delight.
It is like a winged bit of sky from the snow crowned peaks
where the sky is purest. And, as though to accentuate its beauty,
it has a delightful habit of poising like a Hummingbird on
wing while watching for insects in the grass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

140 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following books, bulletins, pamphlets, reprints and
magazine articles comprise those that the reader will find most
helpful in further study of South Dakota birds. The authors
have found C. A. Reed's "Bird Guide, Land Birds East of the
Rockies" a pocket manual helpful for identification in the field ;
Dr. Elliott Coues' "Key to North American Birds" indispens-
able for detailed description; Mr. Frank M. Chapman's "Color
Key to North American Birds" helpful in comparative analysis,
and Farmers' Bulletin 513, entitled "Fifty Common Birds of
Farm and Orchard," informing as to food of birds.

Audubon, John J., — The Birds of North America.

Agersborg, C. S. — List of Birds of Southeastern South
Dakota. The Auk, 1885.

Anderson, Rudolph M., — The Birds of Iowa. Davenport
Academy of Science, 1907, Davenport, Iowa.

Bailey, Bert Heald— The Raptorial Birds of Iowa. 1918.
Iowa Geol. Surv.

Beal, F. E. L.,— Some Common Birds Useful to the
Farmer. U. S. Bur. of Biol. Survey, Farmers' Bull. 630, 1915,
Washington, D. C.

Beal, F. E. L. and W. L. McAtee— Food of Some Well
Known Birds of Forest, Farm and Garden. U. S. Bur. of Biol.
Survey, Farmers' Bulletin 506, 1915, Washington, D. C.

— Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. U. S. Bur.
of Biol. Survey, Farmers' Bulletin 513, 1913, Washington, D. C.

Coues, Elliott — Key to North American Birds. 1903, two
vols.

Chapman, Frank M. — Color Key to North American Birds.

D. Appleton and Co., New York.
—The Travels of Birds, D. Appleton

and Co.

—A Bird Book for Teachers. D. Ap-
pleton and Co.

— The Warblers of North America. D.
Appleton and Co.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

— Handbook of Birds of Eastern North

America. D. Appleton and Co.
— Bird Life. D. Appleton and Co.

Grinell, G. B.— List of Birds Collected as Zoologist With
Custer Expedition, 1874.

Graves, B. H. and Ernest P. Walker — Birds of Wyoming.
University of Wyoming, 1913.

Hayden, F. V. — List of Birds Collected in Territory That
Is Now South Dakota in 1857-1860. U. S. Geological Survey.
Washington, D. C.

Holmes, Charles E. — Birds of the West. Hammond and
Stephens Co., 1907, Fremont, Neb.

Jones, Sheridan R. — List of Birds of Rosebud Indian Res-
ervation. S. D. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. No. 4, 1908,
pp. 139-142, Vermillion, S. D.

McAttee, W. L. and F. E. L. Beal — Some Common Game,
Aquatic and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. U. S. Bur.
of Biol. Survey, Farmers' Bulletin 497, 1916, Washington, D. C.
. McChesney, C. E. — Birds of the Coteau des Prairies. For-
est and Stream, 1871.

Roberts, Thos. S. — Winter Birds of Minnesota. Geol. and

Nat. Hist. Survey Minn., 1916,
Minneapolis, Minn.

— Water Birds of Minnesota. State
Game and Fish Com., Minneapo-
lis, Minn.

Reagan, Albert B. — List of Birds Seen on the Rosebud In-
dian Reservation. S. D. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bulletin No.
4, 1908, pp. 154-164, Vermillion, S. D.

Reed Charles A. — Bird Guide, Land Birds East of the
Rockies. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York.

Stephens, T. C. — Notes on the Birds of South Dakota,
With a Preliminary List for Union
County. Proc. Iowa Academy of Sci-
ence, XXV, 1918.

—Red Phalarope in South Dakota. Wil-
son Bulletin, XXVIII, 1916, p. 92.

142 BIRDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA

Tullsen, H. — My Avian Visitors. The Condor, May-June,
1911, p. 89.

Visher, Stephen S. — List of the Birds of Western South

Dakota. The Auk, April, 1909, p.
144.

— An Annotated List of the Birds of
Sanborn Co. South Dakota. The
Auk, Oct., 1913.

'—List of Birds of the Pine Ridge In-
dian Reservation. S. D. Geol. and
Nat. Hist. Survey, Bulletin No. 5,
pp. 109-121, 1912, Vermillion, S. D.

— List of Birds of Harding County. S.
D. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey,
Bull. No. 6, pp. 68-87, 1914, Ver-
million, S. D.

— List of the Birds of Clay County,
Southeastern South Dakota. The
Wilson Bull. No. 91, June 1915.

— South Dakota Geological and Natur-
al History Survey, Bulletin No. 8,
1918, pp. 68-108, Vermillion, S. D.

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