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THE
BIRDS OF TUNISIA

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BIRDS OF TUNISIA

BEING A HISTORY OF THE BIRDS FOUND IN
THE REGENCY OF TUNIS

BY

J” I. S. WHITAKER

F.Z.8. M.B.0.U., ETC.

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7, PRINCES STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE, W.

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MY. DEAR WIFE

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INTRODUCTION.

THE object of the present work is chiefly to supply a want, which
I myself, and probably others, have felt, in the absence of any English
publication which treats systematically of the birds to be found in
the Regency of Tunis. It is true that during the past few years our
brother-ornithologists in Germany have not been idle in this part of
North-west Africa, but, on the contrary, have contributed valuable
information to our knowledge of the Tunisian Avifauna, and to Prof.
A. Koenig of Bonn and the late Carlo Freiherr von Erlanger of
Ingelheim, we are indebted for highly interesting accounts of their
researches in the Regency, which have been published in the Journal
fur Ornithologie.

I take this opportunity of publicly expressing my deep regret at
the premature death of Carlo v. Erlanger, whom I had the privilege
of knowing personally, and whose many good qualities I was thus
the better able to appreciate. As an ardent naturalist and careful
observer he was perhaps unsurpassed, and the promise he gave of
good work in the future was great. His loss is a serious one to
Science in general, and to our much-loved branch of Ornithology
in particular.

With the exception of the publications mentioned above, and
some minor ones, among which may be included a series of papers
written by myself in the Ibis, little has been written of late years
on the Ornis of the Tunisian Regency, but I may observe, en passant,
that Algeria and Tunisia were among the first countries regarding
the Avifauna of which articles appeared in the Ibis, such pioneers
of Ornithology as Canon Tristram, Osbert Salvin and Mr. J. H.
Gurney junr., having each in their turn written on the subject in
the earlier volumes of that journal.

- Algeria having been under French rule for so many years, has

vill. Introduction

naturally been more visited by ornithologists and naturalists generally
than Tunisia, and its Avifauna has been treated of by Malherbe,
Loche, Taczanowski, Salvin, Canon Tristram, Mr. J. H. Gurney
and others, as also more recently by Dr. Koenig.

Marocco, owing to its unfortunate state of almost perpetual
internecine strife and tribal warfare, with the consequent absolute
absence of public security for travellers, has been the least explored
of the three North-west African countries, but some valuable infor-
mation regarding the Ornis of Tangier and its neighbourhood is to
be found in Colonel Irby’s ‘‘ Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar,”
while papers and articles on the birds of the Empire by Mr. Tyrwhitt-
Drake, Mr. Meade-Waldo and myself have at various times appeared
in the Ibis. Dr. Hartert also has given an interesting account of
a journey made by him in Marocco, together with some excellent
notes regarding the birds he met with (Novit. Zool. ix, pp. 310-339).

Obviously a good deal that has been written on the Ornithology
of Algeria will apply equally to that of Tunisia, and vice-versa, for
there is no natural boundary or division separating the two countries,
or much difference in their physical features to cause a diversity in
their Avifauna.

Between the Ornis of Tunisia and that of Marocco, however, there
undoubtedly is a considerable variation, which is due to the different
climate, physical character and geographical position of the two
countries. Thus Marocco, with the greater part of its seaboard
washed by the stormy Atlantic, and with its mountainous and well
watered interior, may naturally be expected to have a different climate,
soil and character generally, from that of Tunisia, which is bounded
by the Mediterranean on the north and east, is less mountainous and
watered and has the sandy desert for its ‘‘ hinterland.”

Hence we find that certain species, which are abundant in the
one country, are rare or entirely absent in the other. Most noticeable
also is the variation in the coloration of birds according to their more
easterly or westerly habitat in this portion of North-west Africa, the
tendency of species in Tunisia being to become pale, whereas in
Marocco, on the contrary, the inclination is towards an intensity of
colour.

This colour variation is apparently not confined to birds alone, but
extends to animal and vegetable life generally in this region. Prof.
A. Newton, speaking of Madeira birds (bis, 1863, p. 189), and

Introduction 1b

referring to Mr. Wollaston’s admirable remarks on the effects of
isolation and exposure to a stormy atmosphere upon the insect world
(Variation of Species. p. 70, et seq.), alludes to the effect of the latter
conditions as one of the principal causes of the darkening of the
plumage of birds.

With regard to the Ornithology of that part of North-west Africa
included in the Western Palearctic Region and which, roughly
speaking, may be said to comprise the greater part of Tunisia, Algeria
and Marocco, or that portion lying to the north of the Great Sahara
Desert, we are perhaps justified in considering our knowledge fairly
well advanced, although we probably still have a good deal to learn
concerning it. Regarding, however, the Ornis of the country imme-
diately south of the above region, stretching from South Marocco,
across the Sahara, to Tripoli and Cyrenaica, we know comparatively
little and of some parts absolutely nothing.

There can be no doubt that the Ornis of the country lying
immediately north of the Atlas mountains bears considerable affinity
to that of South Europe and the Mediterranean sub-region generally,
but, on the other hand, it differs from the latter in possessing many
species and forms, which either never occur north of the Mediterranean,
or which are only to be met with there accidentally as stragglers.

Immediately to the south of the Atlas mountains also certain
species and forms are to be found, which do not occur north of that
range, or are merely met with there accidentally from time to time.

Although I am not of the opinion held by some ornithologists that
there is more difference between the Ornis of the districts north of the
Atlas and that immediately to the south of those mountains than
between the former and the South European Ornis, it is undoubted
that the Atlas range does form a very important natural barrier
between the two districts, and still further south in Tunisia there are
other, though less important and less clearly defined, natural
divisions.

Confining myself to the Regency, and wishing to give some idea of
the varied character of the country, as affecting its Ornis, I may make
the following remarks :—

Tunisia has been subdivided by geographers into three natural
divisions or regions, each of these differing from the other two in its
climate, hydrography and topography, and consequently in its flora
and fauna, viz.: the Northern region comprising that part of the

x Introduction

Regency lying to the north of the Atlas mountains, the Central region
including the districts between the Atlas and the Chotts, and the
Southern region embracing all the country south of the Chotts.

This rough division is no doubt correct, so far as it goes, and may
perhaps be adopted for all ordinary purposes, but wishing for greater
precision, it may be found advisable to modify it somewhat, and to
subdivide the Southern region into two separate regions. This would
give four distinct regions, which may be described as follows, viz. :—

(1) The Northern region, comprising that part of the Regency
lying to the north of the Atlas mountains, which, in Tunisia, run from
North-east to South-west, and extend from Hammanet on the east
coast to El Oubira on the western frontier. This region is moun-
tainous in great part, well watered, the usual annual rainfall, accord-
ing to recent statistics, being from 450 mm. to 1 metre, and well
wooded, besides having large tracts of fertile plains. Its climate,
temperature and flora, resemble greatly those of South Europe and
the Mediterranean, the latter including, in addition to cereals, fine
forest trees, such as oaks and conifers of various species, olive and
other fruit trees, vines, and a great extent of “ maquis”’ vegetation,
consisting of tree-heath, juniper, thuja, myrtle, cistus, and similar low-
growing shrubs.

(2) The Central region, embracing the country lying between the
Atlas and the irregular and broken chain of mountains running from
Midés, on the Algerio-Tunisian frontier, across the Regency north of
Gafsa to the neighbourhood of Skirra, between Sfax and Gabes, on the
east coast. This region includes the high plateaux between El Oubira
and the Feriana district, and the lower plateaux between the latter
and Gafsa, as also those lying to the west of this country. It also
comprises the fertile plains of the Sahel in the neighbourhood of
Sousa, and the less fertile districts south of the last named town.
The region is less hilly and much drier than the Northern region, the
annual rainfall being only about 200 mm. It is, however, fairly pro-
ductive in some years, and has a large extent of excellent pasturage
and grazing land. The vegetation consists chiefly of cereals and olive
trees in the Sahel, of Aleppo-pine-woods and ‘‘ maquis’”’ growth on the
mountains and higher plateaux, and of Halfa grass on the vast plains
of the southern part of the region. The climate is naturally drier and
the temperature higher than in the preceding region.

(3) The semi-desert region, comprising the country between the

Introduction x1.

southern boundary of the Central region and the southern shores of
the Chotts Djerid and Rharsa, together with a zone of country extend-
ing along the south-east coast of the Regency as far as the Tripoli
frontier, this zone or belt reaching inland as far as the Matmata range
of mountains. The elevation of this region is considerably lower than
that of the Central one, there being a great dip in the land immediately
to the north of Gafsa. The Chotts or Sebkas cover a large extent of
country and form an important feature of this region. Although not
quite so low in level as the Chott Melghir in Algeria, they are in some
parts as low as, or lower than, the level of the sea. Mountains of a
certain altitude are to be found in different parts, but the general
character of the country is arid and more or less desert-like, being only
redeemed in some measure by the oases, of which the most important
are those of Gabés, Gafsa, Tozer, and Nefta. Rain falls but seldom
here, and some parts of the country may be said to be practically rain-
less. I have, however, known torrential rains fall at Gafsa, the streets
of that town being flooded for several hours. The flora, except in the
oases, is scanty and dwarfed, and is confined chiefly to the banks of
the oweds, or water-courses, which are dry, as a rule, above ground, but
contain sufficient moisture below the surface to sustain life in certain
plants, such as tamarisks and oleanders. In the oases, however, par-
ticularly those where water is plentiful, a rich and luxuriant vegeta-
tion may be found; below the magnificent date-palms, fruit trees of
all descriptions flourish, and below these crops of corn and vegetables
are grown, not an inch of land being uncultivated, or a drop of the
precious life-giving water lost. The temperature of this region is high
during the summer months, but very pleasant in winter, and occa-
sionally even cold, falling as low as freezing point.

(4) The Desert region, consisting of the inland country south of
the Chotts, is bounded on the east by the Matmata mountains, and a
continuation of that chain running to the Tripoli frontier. This
region is composed chiefly of sandy desert or sand-dunes formed by
blown sand, intermixed here and there with more solid ground, par-
ticularly on the east, in some parts of which the desert is distinctly
petraic or rocky, and the hills of a conical shape, with flat summits.

As might be expected, the vegetation of this region is extremely
scanty and is limited to a few desert plants which eke out an existence
in spots where there may be a little moisture. Most of the country,
however, is practically rainless. Between the temperature of this and

xii. Introduction

the preceding region there does not appear to be much difference, but
dust storms are more frequent and add to the discomforts of the hot
season.

The above partition may not perhaps be quite in accordance with
the views of some travellers and authorities on the subject, and is of
course open to criticism, but in the main I think it may be taken to
be fairly correct.

Some writers, M. Fernand Lataste among them (Expl. Scient. de
la Tunisie, p. xiv.), have eliminated the Central zone entirely, on the
ground that no Hauwts Plateaux exist in Tunisia. This I need hardly
say is a mistake, for although the high plateaux may be limited and
less in extent than in Algeria, they certainly are to be found in
the west of Tunisia, and extend like terraces, gradually diminishing in
elevation, almost tu the Chott district. Apart from this, however,
there are other extensive tracts of country in the Central Tunisian
region, which differ in their character both from the country north
of the Atlas and from the southern desert districts. It is true that
the Central region comprises such districts as the Sebka Sidi-el-Hani
and the Sebka-el-Melah, which in character undoubtedly belong to
the Chott region, but these districts are limited in extent and cannot
be taken as representing the greater part of Central Tunisia.

With regard to the Ornis of the several regions mentioned, each
appears to have certain species which are either peculiar to that par-
ticular region or are more abundant in it than in the other regions.
Besides this, in the case of some of the resident species, such as the
Crested Larks, for instance, different forms of the same species are to
be found in the different regions, the variation of these forms being in
some cases considerable, and not always limited to the coloration of
the plumage alone, but occasionally extending to the structural parts
of the birds. The Crested Larks undoubtedly afford a striking
example of the extent to which local variation may be carried by
natural causes, and no country probably affords a better opportunity
of observing and studying this interesting subject than Tunisia.

The Larks, as a family, are remarkably well represented in this
country, their sole rivals being perhaps the Chats, especially in some
of the southern districts of the Regency, where these two families
are often the only birds to be met with.

It may at first sight appear somewhat curious that of these two
families of birds, both so well represented in this country, one, that

Introduction xi.

of the Larks, should bear what may be called distinctly protectively
coloured plumage, while the other, that of the Chats, except in a few
instances, is more or less conspicuously attired, particularly in the
case of the males. It will, however, be found that these conspicuously
attired species of Chats frequent, as a rule, rocky and broken ground,
full of dark clefts and fissures, where a strongly-marked plumage is
really far less conspicuous than a uniform light-coloured one would
be, thus Saxicola leucura or Saxicola halophila ave very much less in
evidence in such spots than Sazxicola isabellina or Saxicola deserti
would be. Even between the rock-frequenting Chats, moreover, there
is a difference in plumage, according to the particular character of
their habitat, for instance, the favourite haunts of Saxicola leucura
are dark mountain ravines and chasms strewn with black rocks and
boulders, while those of Saxicola halophila, although also very rocky
and broken, are less dark and gloomy, and often, on the contrary, as in
the Metlaoui district, where the species is particularly abundant, of a
glistening white, relieved by numerous deep cracks and fissures, the
general environment harmonising wonderfully in appearance with that
of this bird’s plumage.

As is the case with several other species of birds, the females of
most of the Chats are more soberly coloured than the males, and con-
sequently escape notice to a great extent.

The necessity of protective colouring is undoubtedly great in a
country like Southern Tunisia, where the scanty vegetation affords
but little shelter to its feathered denizens. Hence we find that the
plumage of most of the species resident in those desert or semi-desert
regions harmonises with the sandy coloration of the soil and environ-
ment. The Ravens, it is true, do not do so, but they frequent for the
most part cliffs and rocky localities, and their case appears to be
analogous to that of the rock-frequenting Chats.

The Birds of Prey may be reckoned as next in importance to the
Larks and Chats among the Tunisian Avifauna. Including both
diurnal and nocturnal species, these number over forty, many being
plentiful in some parts of the Regency, others less so, while a few
are distinctly rare. In some localities Birds of Prey are not at all
common, and it is a mistake to suppose that the Raptores are equally
distributed and generally abundant throughout Tunisia.

Of other birds found in Tunisia the following are fairly well repre-
sented, viz., the Warblers, Wagtails, Pipits, Shrikes, Swallows, Finches,

XIV. Introduction

Crows, Swifts, Nightjars, Doves and Sand-Grouse. The Herodii and
many of the Anseres, Gralla and Limicole, are also well represented in
the north of the Regency, particularly in winter. The Gavieé are
equally numerous, not only in the north but also in the south of the
Regency, and many members of the Order breed in the country.

Among the species or forms most noteworthy individually may be
mentioned the following: Saxzicola catering, Saxicola moesta, Saxicola
halophila, Diplootocus moussieri, Melizophilus deserticolus, Argya
fulva, Scotocerca sahare, Parus ledoucit, Parus ultramarinus,
Pycnonotus barbatus, Lanius elegans, Lanius algeriensis, Telephonus
cucullatus, Passer simplex, Fringilla spodiogenys, Hrythrospiza githa-
ginea, Loxia curvirostra poliogyna, Chersophilus duponti, Chersophilus
duponti margarite, Galerida cristata macrorhyncha, Galerida cristata
arenicola, Galerida thekle major, Galerida thekle superflua, Galerida
thekle deichleri, Galerida thekle caroline, Ammomanes deserti
algeriensis, Ammomanes cinctura arenicola, Rhamphocorys clotbey,
Otocorys bilopha, Garrulus cervicalis, Pica mauritanica, Corvus
corax tingitanus, Corvus umbrinus, Cypselus murinus, Cypselus affinis
galilejensis, Dendrocopus numidicus, Gecinus vaillanti, Bubo ascala-
phus desertorum, Gypactus barbatus, Falco barbarus, Falco eleonore,
Phenicopterus roseus, Turtur senegalensis, Pterocles coronatus, Pterocles
senegalus, Turnix sylvatica, Porphyrio ceruleus, Porphyriola alleni,
Otis undulata, Cursorius gallicus, Sterna dougalli, and Larus audouinit.

Although the present work purports to be merely a history of the
birds noticed in Tunisia, and of their lives as observed in that country,
I have thought it advisable, when possible, to allude to the occurrence
of the various species also in Algeria and Marocco, as likewise, in some
cases, in Tripoli and in the Mediterranean basin generally. Italy and
particularly Sicily, so near the North-west African coast, are constantly
referred to in the pages of this book, the latter island, my winter
home, having afforded me considerable opportunity for the observa-
tion and study of Mediterranean bird-lfe.

Regarding the migration of birds as noticed in Tunisia, space will
not allow of my saying more than a few words here, but I may briefly
remark that few countries are, geographically, so favourably situated
as the Regency for the observation of this important instinct. Placed
as Tunisia is at the extreme eastern corner of this portion of North-
west Africa, and with its relatively long stretch of coast-line extending
northwards from Tripoli, it may be considered as one of the main

Introduction XV,

highways for the passage of our feathered travellers to and fro between
the European and African Continents. There are indeed several
localities in the Tunisian Regency which would form admirable
ornithological stations for the study and observation of migration.

The Regency also appears to form the meeting point of some of
the eastern and western Palearctic birds, thus we find in Tunisia such
eastern forms as Saxtcola stapazina, Saxicola melanoleuca, and Hypolais
icterina, which either do not occur or are rare, further west, and on
the other hand, such western forms as Saxicola catering, Saxicola
occidentalis and Hypolais polyglotta, which do not occur, or are rare,
further east.

With regard to nidification and alimentation, two other important
factors in the economy of bird-life, I have given such information as
lies in my power when treating of the several species individually in
the body of this work.

The number of species and subspecies of birds included in this
work as belonging to the Tunisia Avifauna is about 365. Of most of
these my collection contains examples which have been obtained either
by myself, when travelling in the Regency, or have been collected for
me by M. Marius Blanc, a French naturalist resident in Tunis for
many years.

Those species included in my list, of which I do not actually
possess specimens, have either been observed by myself or my
collectors, or are recorded on good authority in other ornithological
works. A few species are also included which, though not actually
recorded as haying occurred in the Regency, are believed to be found
there.

Most of the information given regarding the occurrence and life
of the several species in Tunisia is first hand, and the result of
personal observation during the various journeys I have made in the
Regency, but in some cases I have had to rely on the information
kindly supplied me by others, foremost among whom I may mention
Mr. O. V. Aplin of Bloxham, Oxon, who collected for me in Tunisia
between the months of January and June, 1895, and M. Blanc of
Tunis. To Mr. Edward Dodson also I am indebted for valuable
information regarding the birds of Marocco and Tripoli, in both of
which countries he spent several months collecting for me, and in
the course of his travels visited districts rarely, if ever, previously
explored by Europeans. ‘To each of these gentlemen I beg to express
my gratitude and thanks,

XV1. Introduction

My own collecting expeditions in Tunisia have extended over
a period of about ten years, and apart from the ornithological know-
ledge and interest accruing therefrom, they have afforded me intense
pleasure and delight. So pleasant and delightful have my experiences
been, that I can heartily recommend a trip into the interior of the
Regency to anyone fond of natural history and sport who wishes
to enjoy a few weeks of rest and quiet out of Europe, but not too far
from home and civilisation.

Naturally, since Tunisia has been under French protection, and
European civilisation, with the ‘iron horse” as its pioneer and chief
auxiliary, bas penetrated the savage wilds and fastnesses of many
previously all but unknown inland districts, a change has been
wrought in various ways, chiefly, no doubt, to the advantage and
personal comfort of the ordinary traveller, though to the detriment
of the sportsman and naturalist.

The fauna of the country, particularly its larger Carnivora and
Raptores, have been most affected by the inroads of civilisation, and
the sportsman to-day must not expect to hear Lions roaring at night,
or to come face to face with one of these animals, as did Canon
Tristram, some fifty years ago, not far from Tebessa in the Eastern
Atlas ; or even to meet with the fresh footprints of a Lion, as I myself
did not more than fifteen years ago in the forest of Ghardimaou. He
may, it is true, still come upon a Panther, of which there are a few
left in the country, but the chances of his dog so are remote, and
he had better turn his attention to other game, such as the Barbary-
Sheep, the ‘‘ Edmi” (Gazella cuviert) and Wild-boar, of which, as
well as of feathered game, there is no lack in the hilly districts of
the Atlas. The common Dorcas Gazelle is abundant on the plains
further south, and still further south, in the true desert, may be found
the pale Loder’s Gazelle (G. leptoceros) and the Addax Antelope
(Addax naso-maculatus).

As a country for Caravan-travel and nomad-lfe the Tunisian
Regency is perhaps unrivalled, its climate throughout a considerable
portion of the year being all that could be desired, and its safety and
freedom from hostile or fanatical natives absolute, provided the French
military outposts in the south be not overstepped. Its accessibility
and its roads, save in some few districts, are excellent, while means
of transport are easily obtainable, and hospitality, both on the part
of the French authorities, military and civil, as well as on that of

THE BIRDS OF TUNISIA.

Roman Gateway at Kasrin (the ancient Cillium),
Central Tunisia.

(from a Photograph by the Author.)

Bale & Danielason, Ltd

Introduction XVil.

the native inhabitants, is proverbial and unfailing. To add to the
pleasure and interest of such travel the varied aspect and scenery
of the Regency contributes largely; richly wooded mountains and
valleys, with fertile plains relieved by lakes and rivers, being charac-
teristic of the more northern districts, lower hills and picturesque
undulating park-like country predominating in the Central region,
and vast semi-desert prairie-like plains, bounded by savage and richly
coloured mountains in the south. To the archeologist the Regency
specially commends itself by reason of the numerous remains of
important and magnificent monuments, which are to be found
throughout the entire length and breadth of the country, traces of
pre-historic, Phoenician, Punic, and particularly Roman occupation,
being abundant, and attesting to the former greatness of the Kingdom.

Returning to our subject, I would say that of the above number
of species and subspecies of birds treated of in the present work about
150 are resident, and to be found in the Regency throughout the
entire year; of the remainder about 90 may be considered as summer
migrants, appearing in spring and disappearing in autumn; 90 may be
regarded as winter migrants, arriving in autumn and departing in
spring; while about 35 species are of occasional or accidental
occurrence.

The systematic arrangement and nomenclature followed in this
work are more or less in accordance with those observed by Mr.
Dresser in his “ Birds of Europe,” which in their turn are based on
Huxley’s classification, or rather on Dr. Sclater’s modification of it,
and those of the ‘‘ List of British Birds” compiled by a Committee of
the British Ornithologists’ Union. The two do not greatly differ from
each other, and for the present perhaps, may be considered as good as
any other.

I have, however, deviated therefrom, when I have thought it
advisable, and particularly in using trinomials in the case of local
forms, or subspecies, although making a point of preserving the
binomial names of species intact, as I do not think it right that they
should be tampered with, or that a species should be degraded to the
level or rank of a subspecies, simply because other forms of that
species happen to have been subsequently discovered. It is true that
the species may be no better than its forms, or that it may not have
existed before them, but as it was discovered first, it should have
priority over those other forms. If priority counts for anything,

XVill. Introduction

surely this is a case where it should do so. The very term subspecies
implies the recognition of the species as a higher grade, and this can
only be carried out by retaining the original binomial name of that
species in its pristine integrity.

With regard to subspecies or local forms, I may observe that I am
distinctly in favour of recognising such forms, provided they are
constant in their variation, within their range or sphere of habitat.
It would, indeed, be contrary to the advancement of science not to do
so, and no true lover of Nature would wilfully close his eyes to their
recognition. It is, moreover, a highly interesting and instructive
study to follow the working of Nature in this respect, and one, which
if patiently and perseveringly carried out, cannot fail to teach us much
in connection with the mutability of species and the formation of new
species.

On the other hand, though strongly in favour of recognising sub-
species or local forms, I need hardly observe that I am entirely
opposed to doing so on insufficient grounds. Unfortunately there has
recently been, I fear, far too much “ splitting,” based often on most
slender grounds, at times on mere individual variation, and this, in
some cases, even on the part of good and conscientious ornithologists,
who, in their zeal and ardour, have been too prone to grasp at what
may at first sight have appeared plausible and sound argument for
their conclusions. I trust I may not be accused of having myself
erred in this respect, but should I unwittingly have done so, I shall
be quite ready to admit my fault and ery “ peccavt.”

Most of the descriptions of birds given in my work are of examples
in my own collection, and when it has been possible, particularly as
regards the measurements and soft parts, they have been taken from
freshly-killed specimens.

The few plates in the work are of some of the more interesting
species which occur in Tunisia, and testify to the artistic ability of
their author, Mr. H. Grénvold, to whom I am much indebted for the
care and attention devoted to their execution.

Messrs. Mintern Brothers have carried out the lithograph printing
in their customary excellent style.

The colouring of some of the illustrations has been undertaken by
Miss Dora Bowdler Sharpe, and bear testimony to that lady’s fine
touch ; the remainder and greater part have been carefully coloured by
Mr. G. Edwards.

The printing of the text throughout, together with the Photo-

Introduction Rix.

gravure and “ Black and White” illustrations, have been carefully
attended to by Messrs. Bale and Danielsson.

In the two maps given, one of the Regency of Tunisia, the other
of Marocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, as also throughout this work
generally, I have adopted, to a considerable extent, the French official
orthography, as being that now most in use, and employed in recently
published maps of those countries.

My best thanks are due and are most heartily tendered to Mr.
W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, for having kindly read through the whole of my
proof-sheets, and for having given me the benefit of his advice on
various points. I also beg to thank those who have afforded me the
opportunity of examining specimens, or otherwise assisted me in my
work, and among such kind friends in England may be mentioned Dr.
Bowdler Sharpe, Dr. Ernst Hartert, and the late Mr. EK. Cavendish
Taylor, while on the Continent Prof. EK. H. Giglioli of Florence,
Prof. G. Martorelli of Milan, Count T. Salvadori of Turin, and Dr,
KE. Oustalet of Paris, have each and all been most kind in allowing
me “the run” of the fine collections under their charge, and offering
me every facility in their power.

I also take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to Dr.
P. L. Sclater for having first directed my attention to the study of
Ornithology, thus affording me so pleasant a “ hobby,” and interesting
an occupation for waning years.

Finally, to Mr. R. H. Porter, and particularly to Mr. E. A. Porter,
my thanks are due for the care and attention devoted to the publica-
tion and production of these volumes. Mr. HE. A. Porter has been of
the greatest assistance to me in making out the synonymy and index
of the species.

Tn conclusion, I beg to say that this work has no advanced scientific
aim, but is merely intended to be a short, though I trust a faithful,
history of the birds to be met with in the Regency of Tunis. It may,
LT hope, be of some use to ornithologists and bird-lovers generally, and
in particular to those who may travel in the country of which it
treats, which has proved to me for many years so ‘‘ happy a hunting
ground,” and afforded such endless enjoyment.

With these valedictory remarks, and relying on the lenient
criticism of brother ornithologists for such shortcomings as may be
found in it, I beg to place my book before the public.

JOSEPH I. 8. WHITAKER.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

Tirne Page
DEDICATION .
INTRODUCTION .
CoNnTENTS
LITERATURE .

List of PratEs
Systematic INDEX

Birps or Tunista

LITERATURE.

MaHerse (A.). Catal. Rais. d’Ois. de l’Algerie. Svo. 1846.

Faune Ornith. de l’Algerie. 8vo. 1858.
Locus (Comm.). Catal. des Mamm. et des Ois. obs. en Algerie. Syo. 1858.
Tristram (Rey. H. B.). On the Ornith. of Northern Africa, Ibis. 1859.

SaLvin (Osbert). Five Months’ Bird-nesting in the Eastern Atlas, Ibis.
1859.

TristRAM (Rey. H. B.). On the Ornith. of Northern Africa, Ibis. 1860.

Drake (C. F. Tyrwhitt). Notes on the Birds of Tangier and Hastern
Marocco, Ibis. 1867.

Cuampers (W. T. H.). A Month in Tripoli, Ibis. 1867.

Locur (Comm.). Expl. Scient. de l’Algerie; Hist. Nat. des Ois. 2 vols.
4to. 1867.

Taczanowski (L.). Ubersicht der Végel Algeriens, Journ. f. Orn. 1870.
Gurney (J. H., junr.). On the Ornith. of Algeria, Ibis. 1871.

Trey (Col. L. Howard). The Ornith. of the Straits of Gibraltar. 8vo. 1875.
Drxon (Charles). On the Birds of the Prov. of Constantine, Ibis, 1882.

Koenie (Dr. A. F.). Avifauna von Tunis, Journ. f. Orn. 1888.

II. Beitrag. zur Avif. von Tunis, Journ. f. Orn. 1892-3.

Beitrige zur Ornis Algeriens, Journ. f. Orn. 1895-6.
Warraker (J. I. S.). On Tunisian Birds, Ibis, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1898.

On a Collection of Birds from Marocco, Ibis, 1898.
—— ae Small Collection of Birds from Tripoli, Ibis.

Eruancer (Freiherr Carlo von). Eine Ornith. Forsch. durch Tunesien,
Journ. f. Orn., 1898-1900.

ng m4 ioxat al

7 att) “u a

LIST OF PLATES.

VOL. I.

PAGE,
AuTHoR’s CARAVAN APPROACHING GAFSA, TUNISIAN SAHARA . F'rontispuece

Roman Gateway At KasRIn (THE ANCIENT CILLIUM), CENTRAL
FRUNICTAMEP ONT sMuer Hue | Burt nc as, Sel. ot wee © LO faces xvi
DAXICOUARGATERING = tlie fs a sass 8 os o is 28
RAR C OTIAGRECHS TA Summ MMR Rr We yee eR ee vat a 42
SP AMICOUAMHAO PHA enn EN Fe; Sue Gi cae Paisley cee 4 . 48
SDIPLOOLOOUS:MOUSSIERI.. =. « = «6 = “% < « « + 62
MigniZOPHUUS, DESERTICOLUS . =. - + « «© « « «= « « 33 96
LIGURINUS CHLORIS AURANTIIVENTRIS . . . .... . s 198
OXIA CURVIROSTRA POLIOGYNA .......-. - . é 5 224
CHBRSORH MUSED UPONTD simian esac as as) Geek le sw es = 246
CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI MARGARITE a BL) Biel od Ae eee sf 250
GALERIDA CRISTATA MACRORHYNCHA. . .. . . «. @ « ts 954
GAEMRIDA ‘CRISTATA ARENIGOLA . . . .« « + © « «8 « ‘A 258
GAUERIDAUTHRKG A MAJOR | 6 «= « « © » so © « « » ss 260
GALERIDA THEKLZ DEICHLERI ....... 6.66. a 266

Map or Tunisia. «

* Lettered Pratincola moussieri on plate.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Order PASSERES.
Family TURDIDAL.
Subfamily TURDIN Ai.

Turdus viscivorus, Linn. Mistle-Thrush .

Turdus musicus, Linn. Song-Thrush .

Turdus iliacus, Linn. Redwing .

Turdus pilaris, Linn, Fieldfare .

Turdus merula, Linn. Blackbird ‘ ss
Turdus merula mauritanica, Hartert. Moorish Blackbird .
Turdus torquatus, Linn. Ring-Ouzel Pr Serene
Turdus torquatus alpestris (C. L. Brehm). Alpine Ring-Ouzel
Monticola saxatilis (Linn.). Rock-Thrush .

Monticola cyanus (Linn.). Blue Rock-Thrush .

Subfamily SAXICOLINA.

Saxicola enanthe (Linn.). Common Wheatear
Saxicola isabellina, Riipp. Isabelline Chat .
Saxicola stapazina (Linn.). Black-eared Wheatear

Sawicola caterine, Whitaker. Western Black-eared Chat .

Saaicola occidentalis, Salvadori. Western Black-throated Chat .

Saxicola melanolewca (Gild.). Eastern Black-throated Chat .
Sawicola deserti, Riipp. Desert Chat .

Saxicola mesta, Licht. Tristram’s Chat .

Saaxicola halophila, Tristram. Western Pied Chat

Saxicola leucopyga (C. L. Brehm). White-rumped Chat

XXVII1. Systematic Index

Saaxicola leucura (Gmel.). Black Chat

Pratincola rubetra (Linn.). Whin-Chat .

Pratincola rubicola (Linn.). Stone-Chat .

Diplootocus moussiert (Olphe-Gall.). Moussier’s Redstart
iuticilla phenicurus (Linn.). Redstart

Ruticilla titys (Scop.). Black Redstart

Subfamily SYLVIIN Al.

Cyanecula suecica (Linn.). Orange-spotted Bluethroat .

Cyanecula wolfi, C. L. Brehm. White-spotted Bluethroat .

Erithacus rubecula (Linn.). Robin .

Aédon luscinia (Linn.). Nightingale

Agrobates galactodes (Temm.). Rufous Warbler
Sylvia cinerea, Lath. Whitethroat .

Sylvia curruca (Linn.). Lesser Whitethroat

Sylvia subalpina, Bonelli. Subalpine Warbler .
Sylvia conspicillata, Marm. Spectacled Warbler .
Sylvia nana deserti (Iuoche). Western Desert-Warbler .
Sylvia melanocephala (Gmel.). Sardinian Warbler
Sylvia orphea, Temm. Orphean Warbler

Sylvia atricapilla (Linn.). Blackcap

Sylvia hortensis, Bechst. Garden-Warbler .
Melizophilus undatus (Bodd.). Dartford Warbler .

Melizophilus sardus (Marm.). Marmora’s Warbler

Melizophilus deserticolus (Tristram). ‘'Tristram’s Warbler .

Subfamily PHYLLOSCOPIN Ai.

Regulus cristatus, Koch. Golden-crested Wren
Regulus ignicapillus (C. L. Brehm). Fire-crested Wren
Phylloscopus rufus (Bechst.). Chiffchaff .

Phylloscopus trochilus (Linn.). Willow-Wren .
Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechst.). Wood-Wren
Phylloscopus bonelli (Vieill.). Bonelli’s Warbler

101

Systematic Index

Subfamily ACROCEPHALIN i.

Hypolais polyglotta (Vieill.). Melodious Warbler .

Hypolais icterina (Vieill.). Icterine Warbler ie Pes
Hypolais pallida opaca (Licht.). Western Olivaceous Warbler
Acrocephalus streperus (Vieill.). Reed-Warbler

Acrocephalus palustris, Bechst. Marsh-Warbler

Acrocephalus arundinaceus (Linn.). Great Reed-Warbler .
Acrocephalus aquaticus (Gmel.). Aquatic Warbler
Acrocephalus schenobenus (Linn.). Sedge-Warbler

Locustella nevia (Bodd.). Grasshopper-Warbler .

Locustella luscinioides (Savi). Savi’s Warbler .

Cettia cettii (Marm.). Cetti’s Warbler

Subfamily DRYMA&CIN Ad.

Cisticola cisticola (Temm.) Fantail- Warbler

Cisticola cisticola mauritanica, Whitaker. Moorish Fantail- Warbler

Scotocerca sahare (Loche). Desert Wren-Warbler

Subfamily CRATEROPODIN ZH.
Argya fulva (Desf.). Algerian Bush-Babbler

Family ACCENTORIDAL.

Accentor modularis (Linn.). Hedge-Sparrow

Family CINCLIDA.
Cinclus melanogaster C. L. Brehm. Dipper

Family PARIDAS.
Parus major excelsus Brehm. Mediterranean Great Titmouse
Parus ledouci Malh. Algerian Coal-Titmouse .

Parus ultramarinus, Bp. Ultramarine Titmouse .

Family CERTHIIDAL.

Certhia familaris brachydactyla, Brehm. Tree-Creeper .

130

141

XK Systematic Index

Family TROGLODYTID As.
Anorthura troglodytes (Linn.). Wren

Family MOTACILLIDA.

Motacilla alba, Linn. White Wagtail

Motacilla melanope, Pall. Grey Wagtail

Motacilla flava, Linn. Blue-headed Wagtail
Motacilla cinereocapilla, Savi. Grey-headed Wagtail
Motacilla borealis, Sundey. Slate-headed Wagtail
Motacilla melanocephala, Licht. Black-headed Wastail
Motacilla rayi (Bp.). Yellow Wagtail
Anthus pratensis (Linn.). Meadow-Pipit

Anthus cervinus (Pall.). Red-throated Pipit

Anthus trivialis (Linn.), Tree-Pipit .

Anthus campestris (Linn.). Tawny Pipit

Anthus sprpoletta (Linn.). Water-Pipit

Family PYCNONOTIDAN.

Pycnonotus barbatus (Desf.). Dusky Bulbul

Family ORIOLIDAL.

Oriolus galbula, Linn. Golden Oriole

Family LANIIDAL.

Lanius algeriensis, Less. Algerian Grey Shrike
Lanius elegans, Swains. Pallid Shrike
Lanius pomeranus, Sparrm, Woodchat-Shrike

Telephonus cucullatus (Temm.). Hooded Shrike .

Family MUSCICAPIDAi.

Muscicapa grisola, Linn. Spotted Flycatcher .
Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. Pied Flycatcher .

Muscicapa collaris, Bechst. White-collared Flycatcher

PAGE

164

166
ral
174
176

178
179
181

Systematic Index

Family HIRUNDINIDA.
Hirundo rustica, Linn. Swallow eat
Hirundo rufula, Temm. Red-rumped Swallow
Chelidon urbica (Linn.). House-Martin .
Cotile riparia (Linn.). Sand-Martin
Biblis rwpestris (Scop.). Crag-Martin .

Family FRINGILLIDA.
Subfamily FRINGILLIN A.

Carduelis carduelis (Linn.). Goldfinch
Chrysomitris spinus (Linn.). Siskin
Chrysomitris citrinella (Linn.). Citril Finch
Serinus serinus (Linn.). Serin-Finch .

Ligurinus chloris (Linn.). Greenfinch

Ligurinus chloris aurantiiventris (Cab.). North African Greenfinch

Coccothraustes coccothraustes (Linn.). Hawfinch .
Passer domesticus (Linn.). House-Sparrow .
Passer italia (Vieill.). Italian Sparrow .

Passer hispaniolensis (Temm.). Spanish Sparrow
Passer montanus (Linn.). Tree-Sparrow

Passer simplex (Licht.). Desert-Sparrow
Petroma petroma (Linn.). Rock-Sparrow
Fringilla celebs, Linn. Chaffinch . :
Fringilla spodiogenys, Bp. Algerian Chaffinch .
Pringilla montifringilla, Linn. Brambling .

Acanthis cannabina (Linn.) Linnet

Subfamily LOXIINA.

Hrythrospiza githaginea (Licht.). Desert Bullfinch .

Erythrospiza sanguinea (Gould). Crimson-winged Finch .

Pyrrhula europea, Vieill. Bullfinch

Loxia curvirostra poliogyna, Whitaker. Tunisian Crossbill

189

XXXI. Systematic Index

Subfamily EMBERIZIN ZS.

Fringillaria sahare (Levaill. jr.) House-Bunting
Emberiza miliaria, Linn. Corn-Bunting .
Emberiza citrinella, Linn. Yellow Bunting
Emberiza cirlus, Linn. Cirl Bunting .

Emberiza hortulana, Linn. Ortolan

Emberiza pusilla, Pall. Little Bunting

Emberiza cia, Linn. Meadow-Bunting

Emberiza scheniclus, Linn. Reed-Bunting. . . . .

Emberiza scheniclus pyrrhuloides (Pall.). Thick-billed Reed-Bunting .

Family ALAUDID.

Alemon alaudipes (Desf.). Bifasciated Lark

Chersophilus duponti (Vieill.). Dupont’s Lark. . . .. .
Chersophilus duponti margarite (Koenig). Rufous Dupont’s Lark .
Galerida cristata macrorhyncha (Tristr.). Tristram’s Lark

Galerida cristata arenicola (Tristr.). Pale Long-billed Crested Lark

Galerida thekle major (Brehm.). Greater Small-billed Crested Lark

Galerida thekle superflua (Hartert). Pale Small-billed Crested Lark .

Galerida thekle deichleri, Hirvl. Isabelline Small-billed Crested Lark
Galerida thekle caroline, Eirl. Rufous Small-billed Crested Lark
Alauda arvensis, Linn. Sky-Lark

Alauda arvensis harterti, Whit. Tunisian Sky-Lark .

Alauda arvensis cantarella (Bp.) Mealy Sky-Lark

Alauda arborea, Linn. Woodlark

Ammomanes deserti algeriensis (Sharpe). Algerian Desert Lark .
Ammomanes cinctura arenicolor (Sund.). Pale Lesser Desert Lark .

Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisl.). Short-toed Lark

Calandrella brachydactyla ztala (Brehm.). Rufous-headed Short-toed

lark” 4 cna Se! :
Calandrella minor (Cab.). Lesser Short-toed Lark
Melanocorypha calandra (Linn.). Calandra Lark .
Rhamphocorys clot-bey, Bp. Thick-billed Lark
Otocorys bilopha (Temm.). Desert Horned Lark .

PAGE

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Order PASSERES.

Family TURDIDA.

Subfamily TURDINA.

TURDUS VISCIYORUS, Linneus.
MISTLE-THRUSH.

Turdus viscivorus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 291 (1766); Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 194; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 183
(1867); Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 92; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 248.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Bou-Chebka, Central Tunisia.

Above grey-brown, with an olivaceous tint, inclining to golden-yellow on
rump; the outer pair of tail-feathers tipped with white, this colour extending
upwards on the inner web, the next adjoining pair also slightly tipped with
white ; lores dull white; ear-coverts brown, streaked with yellowish-white ;
throat creamy-white, slightly streaked with brown; breast, abdomen and
remainder of underparts yellowish-cream colour, plentifully spotted with
dark brown, the markings being triangular in shape above, and rounder
lower down ; axillaries and under wing-coverts pure white.

Tris brown; bill dark brown, with the base of the lower mandible yel-
lowish ; feet light brown.

Total length about 10-50 inches, wing 6, culmen °85, tarsus, 1:30.

Adult female similar to male, but rather smaller.

The Mistle-Thrush occurs somewhat sparingly in the Tunisian
Regency, and is apparently extremely local in its distribution there,
being found only in the more mountainous districts, and on the high
wooded plateaux of Northern and Central Tunisia, where, however,
it is resident and breeds. From Southern Tunisia the species seems
to be unrecorded, which is not surprising, when we consider the arid
and treeless nature of the country south of the Atlas.

The Mistle-Thrush also occurs both in Algeria and Marocco, north
of the Atlas, but as in Tunisia, is more or less sparingly distributed,

1

2 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

though probably a resident, as well as, to a certain extent, a migratory
species.

In Tunisia I met with this Thrush at Bou-Chebka, and at
El-Oubira, both localities situated in the extreme west of the Central
Region, and not far from the Algerio-Tunisian frontier. These high
plateau districts, which are covered in great part with woods of Aleppo
Pine (P. halepensis, Desf.), have an altitude of between 3,000 and
4,000 feet above sea-level, and according to the resident forest guards,
whom I interrogated on the subject, are never excessively hot, even
in the middle of summer. This I can well believe, having myself,
when travelling in that neighbourhood in the late spring, found the
temperature delightfully cool during the day-time and decidedly cold
at night. Meeting with the Mistle-Thrush in the above districts so
late as the end of April, I concluded that the species probably bred
there, and this fact has since been confirmed by Baron vy. Erlanger,
who obtained its nest and eggs at Ain-Bou-Dries, an adjacent locality
(J. f. O. 1899, p. 249). This nest was taken as late as June 18th,
and the eggs were no doubt of a second laying.

Although a resident and breeding species in Tunisia, the Mistle-
Thrush no doubt also occurs in the Regency as a migrant in winter,
and may probably, in severe seasons, be fairly numerous in the more
hilly and wooded parts. Essentially a tree-loving species, it is rarely
to be found far from woods or gardens, and although naturally one
of the most wary and suspicious of birds, it affects the neighbourhood
of human habitations with the utmost self-assurance and temerity,
feeding on the berries of bushes adjoining houses, and even venturing
within a few feet of an open window. In order, however, to form an
opinion of its extreme vigilance and caution, one has only to watch
one of these birds when feeding in a field or on a grass plot. Need-
less to say, prior to visiting any spot, the bird will have scanned the
surroundings carefully, to be sure that the coast is clear; but not
content with that, immediately on alighting on the ground, it stands
motionless for a few seconds, looking around it, before proceeding
further. When satisfied at last that no danger is to be apprehended,
it commences operations, hopping along for a few paces, and then
suddenly stopping again to listen and look about it. On seizing a
worm, and when pulling it out of the soil, the bird jumps vigorously
from the ground; then after swallowing the toothsome morsel, it
resumes its original attitude of attention, preparatory to repeating its

TURDUS VISCIVOROUS 3}.

former tactics. In addition to worms, snails. and insects of different
sorts, the Mistle-Thrush feeds to a great extent upon various berries,
and, when in season, the fruit of the wild olive in Tunisia forms an
important item in its diet. Although no doubt the berry of the
mistletoe, in those countries where this parasitic plant flourishes, is
eaten by this Thrush, as well as by others of the family, it could
never have constituted a very important part of the bird’s food, but
nevertheless, both the scientific name of the species, as well as some
of its trivial names, seem to have had their origin in the popular
supposition of this berry having a particular attraction for the bird.

Though non-gregarious during the greater part of the year, the
species in autumn seems to become more sociable, and may then be
seen consorting together in fairly large numbers, feeding in company
in fields, and distributed in open order over the ground. The flight
of this Thrush, when rising from the ground, is rather heavy, but
when well on the wing it attains considerable velocity. Its alarm
note, sure to be heard when the bird is disturbed, is a low grating
churr, at times degenerating into a harsh scream, but its song, which
has the advantage of being one of the earliest to be heard in the year,
and consequently the more appreciated, is pleasing and full of power.
When nesting, Mistle-Thrushes become very bold, and will courage-
ously attack and put to flight birds much larger and stronger than
themselves, should their eggs or young broods be menaced. In
The Zoologist for 1903 (p. 129), Mr. J. H. Gurney, in some
interesting ornithological notes from Norfolk, writes as follows :—

“May 8th.—Mr. Watson, of Letton, saw a Mistle-Thrush actually
strike and kill a Jackdaw as it was circling round the tree which
contained the Thrush’s nest. They are strong birds, and I have often
been threatened by them in the most determined manner when near
a nest, both male and female dashing round with loud cries. A few
days ago my nephew put a Barn-Owl off her eggs, when immediately
a pugnacious Mistle-Thrush knocked her quite off the bough on which
she had perched, and which was probably near its own nest.”

Authors appear to differ as to the species being of a pacific or
quarrelsome nature, but the balance of opinion seenis to be in favour
of the latter being the case, and instances of its pugnacity, even out of
the breeding season, are not wanting. The bird also enjoys the
unenviable reputation of occasionally preying upon the young of
other species of birds.

4 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The Mistle-Thrush is an early breeder, and generally rears two
broods in the course of a season. The fork of a tree is nearly always
selected as a site for its nest, this being roughly constructed of dry
grasses and fine roots, cemented together with mud. The eggs, as
a rule, four or five in number, have the ground colour light greenish-
grey, with a few pale lilac under-lying shell marks, and rusty brown
spots and blotches, irregularly distributed over the surface. Average
measurements, 29 * 21 mm.

TURDUS MUSICUS, Linneus.
SONG-THRUSH.

Turdus musicus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 292 (1766); Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 191; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 9
(1846) ; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 186 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O.
1888, p. 212; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 86; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 249.

Description Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above uniform olive-brown, the upper wing-coverts tipped with buff;
lores and superciliary stripes creamy-buff; ear-coverts and cheeks thickly
streaked with dark brown ; a distinct dark brown moustachial stripe; throat
creamy-white ; breast the same, but tinged with golden-buff; the greater
part of the under-surface spotted with dark brown, more thickly so on the
abdomen and crissum ; axillaries and under wing-coverts golden-buff.

Tris brown; bill horn-brown, yellowish at the base of the lower mandible;
feet yellowish-flesh colour.

Total length about 8°75 inches, wing 4°75, culmen -75, tarsus 1:30.

Adult female similar to male, but rather smaller.

The Song-Thrush is to be met with in winter in large numbers
throughout the mountainous and wooded regions of Northern and
Central Tunisia, and also, though more sparingly, in the south of the
Regency. In Tunisia, as in the rest of North-west Africa, the
species seem to be merely a winter visitant, arriving in October and
November, and leaving again towards the end of March and beginning
of April. It is possible that a few individuals may remain to breed
in the higher woods of the Tell, or more northern region, where water

TURDUS MUSICUS 5

is never wanting; but I know of no instance of this being the case,
at any rate in Tunisia, although Mr. C. Dixon, when travelling in the
Province of Constantine, seems to have met with the Song-Thrush
sparingly in the Aurés Mountains as late as the month of May (Lbis,
1882, p. 568). After the end of March an occasional straggler may be
met with in the Regency, but such cases are rare, and from Marocco
I have no note of the species’ occurrence later than April 2nd. Mr.
O. V. Aplin, who was collecting for me in Tunisia in 1895, found the
Song-Thrush at Gafsa in the south, as late as March 26th, but he
never came across the species during his sojourn in the forests of
North Tunisia later on in the season.

Throughout the winter and during the periods of passage, most
of the wooded hills in the neighbourhood of Kasrin and Feriana, in
Central Tunisia, simply swarm with Thrushes, and in particular those
where the wild olive and juniper flourish, the berries of these plants
being specially attractive to the birds, and probably forming their
principal aliment during the time they are in the country. Naturally
other food is eaten as well, as for several months of the year Thrushes
subsist more upon worms, snails and insects than they do upon
berries and fruit, and on the whole live more on animal than on
vegetable food.

In its habits the Song-Thrush varies somewhat, according to the
season. During a considerable portion of the year it is more or less
seclusive, keeping to thick plantations and shrubberies, where it is
but little seen or heard, but on the approach of spring it throws off
its shyness, and resorts to more exposed spots and to high trees,
from the topmost branches of which it pours forth its sweet and rich
song for hours together, particularly in the morning and evening.
At no time, however, can the bird be called sociable or really
gregarious, as even when migrating with others of its kind, each
bird seems to shift for itself, and acts independently of its fellows,
flying off singly, and, apparently, leading an entirely separate life.

The migration of the Thrush appears to be effected solely during
the night and earliest morning hours. In most Continental countries
vast numbers of the species are snared during the periods of passage.
It has been stated by a competent authority (bis, 1902, p. 515), that
over one million Thrushes are annually slaughtered in Central Europe,
of which more than half are Song-Thrushes. This computation is
probably by no means exaggerated, but the reverse, as in Italy alone

6 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

the number of Thrushes annually netted must considerably exceed
half a million. Some interesting statistics touching on this subject,
and regarding the numerical passage of birds generally in Italy, are
to be found in Professor Giglioli’s ‘‘ Avifauna Italica”’ (pp. 501-505),
from which it would appear, inter alia, that in the Florence market
alone more than 6,000 Thrushes have been exposed for sale in a
single day, and this in a season by no means one of the richest so far
as regards the passage of migrants. From my own personal obser-
vation, however, I can well believe the above statement, as on fre-
quent visits to the Florence market during the autumn months I have
always found vast numbers of Thrushes, Larks, and other species of
small birds displayed on all the poultry and game stalls, and the
supply is apparently renewed almost daily throughout the season.
As Florence is but one of the many important Italian centres, in the
neighbourhood of which the wholesale and indiscriminate netting of
small birds is carried on, one may form some idea of the total number
annually captured in the country, as also, in some measure, of the
countless numbers of migrants which must pass through the Peninsula.

Heterochrosis is not unfrequent in the Song-Thrush, pale yellowish
and isabelline “‘ varieties ’’ being the most common.

TURDUS ILIACUS, Linneus.
REDWING.

Turdus iliacus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 292 (1766); Seebohm, Cat. Birds,
Brit. Mus. v, p. 189; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846) ;
Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois., i, p. 189 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888,
p. 191; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 389; Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 126.

Description.— Adult male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above dark olive-brown, darkest on the crown and quills ; a conspicuous
buff superciliary stripe, extending from the bill to behind the eye ; ear-coverts
very dark brown; sides of neck golden-buff; under-parts white, suffused
here and there with golden-buff, and heavily striped and spotted on the
lower throat and breast with very dark brown markings; sides of the body
rich rusty red ; axillaries and under wing-coverts a paler rusty red.

Iris dark brown; bill dark brown; yellowish at base of lower mandible ;
feet very light brown.

Total length about 8 inches, wing 4°70, culmen 65, tarsus 1-10.

TURDUS ILIACUS 7

The Redwing is not a common species in Tunisia, but occurs there
in limited numbers as an irregular winter migrant, being more plen-
tiful in some years than others. In exceptionally severe winters the
species may be fairly abundant, and it was probably during such a
season that Loche observed these birds in Algeria, and alluded to
their arriving in autumn in large flocks, and remaining in the country
for two or three months (Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois. i, p. 190). Asa
rule, however, the Redwing is by no means plentiful in North-west
Africa, and in ordinary winters only occurs in limited numbers in the
more wooded and hilly districts north of the Atlas, never, so far as I
am aware, straying south of these mountains.

In North Marocco, as in Algeria and Tunisia, the species is to
be met with occasionally in winter, and it has also been recorded
from the Canary Islands and Madeira, but appears to be wanting
in North-east Africa. Neither the Redwing nor the Fieldfare came
under the notice of Mr. Dodson during his collecting tour in Tripoli.

My collection contains specimens from El-Kef and other districts
in North Tunisia, and Redwings may sometimes be seen in the Tunis
market, the bird-catchers of that town occasionally taking them in
their nets together with the common Thrush. When met with in
Tunisia the Redwing is generally to be found in small flocks, fre-
quenting well-wooded districts where seeds and berries are plentiful,
the food of the species to a great extent consisting of such diet,
although worms, snails and larve of different kinds, as well as
coleoptera and other insects, are eaten by it quite as much, or perhaps
even more, than vegetable food.

In its flight and in many of its habits the Redwing greatly
resembles the common Thrush, although it is somewhat more shy
and wary. Its note in winter is in no way remarkable, but those
who have heard the bird in full song in its northern home consider
it a good and sweet songster, although not equal to our common
Thrush.

Sports or varieties of the Redwing are to be met with occasionally,
a rufous form being not uncommon.

8 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

TURDUS PILARIS, Linnzus.

FIELDFARE.

Turdus pilaris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 291 (1766); Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 205; Loche, Hapl. Sct. Alg. Otis. i, p. 185 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888; p. 191, id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 389.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Crown ashy-grey with dark streaks; nape slate-grey ; back and upper
wing-coverts chestnut-brown ; rump slate-grey ; quills brown; tail-feathers
blackish-brown ; a slight buff-coloured superciliary stripe; ear-coverts ashy-
brown; throat buffy-white, striped with blackish-brown ; breast, sides and
flanks buff, suffused with yellowish-brown, and thickly marked with dark
centres to the feathers, which are fringed with white; centre of abdomen
creamy-white ; axillaries and under tail-coverts pure white.

Tris dark brown ; bill yellowish, darker at tip; feet dark brown.

Total length about 10:50 inches, wing 5:70, culmen -80, tarsus 1:25.

Like the preceding species, the Fieldfare is merely an irregular
winter migrant in Tunisia, occurring in moderate numbers, or even
fairly abundantly in some years, but being scarce, or entirely wanting
in others. Of the two species the Redwing is perhaps rather more
often met with in the Regency.

The Fieldfare occurs also in Algeria and Marocco as a winter
migrant, and, according to Captain Shelley (Birds of Egypt, p. 65), is
to be found as a winter visitant in Egypt.

In Tunisia I have obtained examples of the species from one or
two districts in the north of the Regency, but have no note of its
having ever been met with south of the Atlas.

Like the Redwing, it frequents the more wooded hilly districts,
particularly those where berry-bearing trees and bushes flourish, and
is fond of perching on lofty trees, from which a good look-out can be
obtained. Of all the Thrushes, not even excepting the Mistle-Thrush,
the present species is perhaps the most wary and suspicious, and
seldom allows itself to be caught napping. It is no doubt due to
this instinctive shyness that the Fieldfare rarely resorts to the
neighbourhood of human habitations for food and shelter in severe
weather, as many other Thrushes do. South of the Mediterranean
very severe cold is seldom experienced, but even in northern countries,

TURDUS MERULA 9

where hard frosts and heavy snow-storms occur, and food in certain
seasons is unobtainable, these birds are rarely to be found in gardens,
or the immediate vicinity of buildings, and large numbers of them
often perish for want of food and from the inclemency of the weather.

Unlike many of the Thrushes, the Fieldfare is essentially gre-
garious, and is nearly always to be found in flocks, although in
southern countries these flocks in point of number rarely equal those
commonly met with in more northern parts. The flight of these
birds is easy and rather undulating, and the approach of a flock of
Fieldfares is unmistakably proclaimed by the peculiar chuckling cry
they utter. Open fields and moist meadows are often resorted to by
the species for the sake of food, for, like its congeners, the Fieldfare
feeds largely upon worms and insects of various sorts, as well as upon
berries. The stomachs of the few specimens of the species I have
obtained in Tunisia generally contained small olives.

That the Fieldfare at times roosts upon the ground appears to be
undoubted, although where trees are available for the purpose these
are naturally preferred.

Both the Redwing and the Fieldfare are reported to have bred in
the Italian Alps, but in either case the statements seem to rest upon
somewhat slender evidence, and require confirmation, the true breed-
ing home of both species being so very much further north.

Like the Redwing, the Fieldfare is subject to occasional variation
in the colour of its plumage, melanic forms being probably most
frequently observed.

TURDUS MERULA, Linneus.
BLACKBIRD,

Turdus merula, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 295 (1766) ; Malherbe, Cat. Rais.
d’Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846); Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 86.

Merula merula, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 235; Hrlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 246.

Merula vulgaris, Loche, Hupl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 192 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 211; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 24.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Italy.
Entire plumage glossy black, the colour of the wings less intense.

10 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Iris brown; bill and rim round the eyes orange-yellow ; feet dark brown.

Total length 10:25 inches, wing 5, culmen 1, tarsus 1:25.

Adult female has the upper parts dark olivaceous-brown; the throat
and the sides of the neck greyish, slightly washed with rufous, and streaked
with dark brown; breast rufous-brown, striped with dark brown; abdomen
ashy-grey, becoming darker on the under tail-coverts.

Tris brown; bill and feet dark brown.

Observations.—The plumage of the female Blackbird is subject to con-
siderable individual variation, independent of that due to season or age.

The Blackbird found in Tunisia has hitherto been considered
identical with our common European bird, and has been referred
to it accordingly. Apparently, however, the resident form of the
species occurring in the Regency differs from typical T. merula, L.
sufficiently to require separation, and must be referred to the following
sub-species.

There is, however, every reason to believe that the common
European Blackbird occurs in Tunisia as a migrant in winter, for,
according to Blanc, the number of Blackbirds observable at that
season is far greater than it is at any other time of the year, and
this can only be due to the influx of migrants. I hope to be able to
verify this fact shortly, and obtain specimens of typical T. merula, L.
from Tunis.

The Blackbird frequents gardens, groves, and wooded localities,
where it can conceal itself among thick foliage. In its habits it is
bright and active, not particularly shy as a rule, although more so
when on migration than at other periods of the year, or when
established in its breeding home. It feeds on insects and their larve,
worms, snails, and slugs, as well as on berries and fruit when in
season. Its well-known rich and melodious notes are the cause of
the bird being often kept in confinement.

The species is very subject to albinism, both partial and complete.

TURDUS MERULA MAURITANICA 11

TURDUS MERULA MAURITANICA, Havrtert.
MOORISH BLACKBIRD.

Turdus merula mauritanica, Hurtert, Novit. Zoolog. ix, p. 323 (1902).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ain-Rhorab, Central Tunisia.

Differs from 7’. merula, L., in having a larger and stouter bill; the other
measurements are about the same as those of that species.

Adult female differs from that of 7. merula, L., in being greyer,
particularly on the underparts, and in lacking any tinge of rufous. It also
appears to have a yellow bill at all seasons.

The young bird has the upper parts blackish-brown; the feathers of the
back and wing-coverts with buff-coloured shafts, and the tail almost black ;
the under parts grey, mottled with dark brown, and slightly tinged here and
there with yellowish-buff; the throat white, streaked and spotted on the
sides with blackish-brown ; bill dark brown.

This sub-species, described by Mr. Hartert from Marocco (Novy.
Zool. ix, p. 323), appears to be the resident form of Blackbird in
Tunisia, as it probably is generally throughout North-west Africa.
Examples in my collection from Tunisia, Algeria, and Marocco do
not differ appreciably from each other.

The Blackbird of the Canary Islands, which has been distin-
guished by Mr. Hartert under the name of TJ. merula cabrere,
according to him has the large stout bill of the present form, but
differs from it in some other respects. Examples from Madeira also
seem to differ somewhat from typical 7’. merula, L., particularly the
females, which are greyer on the underparts than those of that
species.

T. merula mauritanica is to be met with in Tunisia in most of
the wooded districts north of the Atlas, as also, though more sparingly,
south of those mountains. I have observed it at Ain-Rhorab, near
Kairouan, and on the slopes of the Djebel Semama in Central Tunisia,
as also on the Djebel Eshkul, near Bizerta, in the north of the
Regency, and have notes of its occurrence at other places. It is to
be met with occasionally even in some of the southern oases of the
Regency. In the oases of Biskra and E] Kantara in Algeria, accord-
ing to Dr. Koenig, Blackbirds may be met with nesting. In Marocco
they are also to be found breeding in the extreme south of the
Enupire.

12 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In its habits the present sub-species seems not to differ materially
from T'. merula, Li., but, according to Dr. Koenig, its song is inferior
to that of our European bird, being harsher, shriller, shorter, and
more broken, and with far less depth of tone. Its alarm note, when
surprised, is, however, the same as that of the Kuropean Blackbird.

Dr. Koenig took nests and eggs of Blackbirds near E]-Djem, and
on the Djebel Batteria. The nest and eggs apparently do not differ
from those of the common Blackbird, the former being a compact,
cup-shaped structure, composed chiefly of dry grasses and plant-fibre
neatly woven together, while the eggs, generally four in number, are
dull bluish-green, streaked and spotted all over with reddish-brown.
Average measurements 26 X 22 mm. The nest is usually placed
in a thick bush.

TURDUS TORQUATUS, Linneus.
RING-OUZEL.

Turdus torquatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 296 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846); Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 126.

Merula torquata, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 552; Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. v, p. 246 ; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. 1, p. 190 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 212; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 24; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 247.

Description.—Adult, winter, from Sousa, Central Tunisia.

Above dark brownish-black, slightly paler on the quills and upper wing-
coverts ; throat and upper breast brownish-black, with a broad soiled white
pectoral band; underparts below the gorget brownish-black, with a very
slight whitish fringe to the feathers, and no median white markings.

Iris dark brown; bill dark brown, yellowish at the base; feet dark
brown.

Total length 10-5 inches, wing 5-75, culmen °7, tarsus 1-25.

The Ring-Ouzel occurs in winter in some of the more mountainous
regions of Tunisia, but is probably only a migrant in the Regency, and
not-a resident and breeding species.

It is true Malherbe (Faune Orn. Alg. p. 18) alludes to it as
having been observed on the Edough Mountain near Bone, in Algeria,
as late as the month of May, and Loche (Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois. i.

TURDUS TORQUATUS ALPESTRIS 13

p. 192) mentions having met with the species on the Djebel-Arib, and
near Boghar at different times of the year, but the birds met with are
more likely to have been examples of the southern or Alpine form of
the Ring-Ouzel, and not of the typical T. torquatus. Loche, more-
over, speaks of the song of the species as being “‘ dur, et pew agréable,”
which terms are more applicable to the song of the former than to
that of the latter.

In Marocco, as in Algeria and Tunisia, the Ring-Ouzel is to be
found in the more mountainous districts in winter.

In Tunisia the species is far from common, and seems to be very
local in its distribution, but, as in the case of some of the other
Thrushes, it may occur more plentifully in some years than in others.
The only example I have of this form in my collection was obtained
in the neighbourhood of Sousa on the east coast of the Regency,
where, however, according to information gathered on the spot, the
species is but rarely seen. On the higher mountains further inland it
is said to be more often observed.

The food of the Ring-Ouzel appears to consist of insects, worms,
and snails, as well as berries of various kinds in their season. The
bird is generally admitted to be a good songster, although opinions
seem to differ somewhat as to its notes being soft or powerful. Its
call-note is a sharp “ tack,”’ repeated several times.

TURDUS TORQUATUS ALPESTRIS (C. L. Brehm).
ALPINE RING-OUZEL.

Merula alpestris, CU. L. Brehm, Isis, 1828, p. 1281.
Turdus alpestris, Stejneger, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1886, p. 365.
Merula torquata alpestris, Scebohm, Ibis, 1888, p. 310.

Description.—Adult, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above brownish-black ; wings lighter, and upper wing-coverts fringed
with white; throat and upper breast brownish-black, with a broad soiled
white pectoral band ; lower breast brownish-black, the feathers fringed with
white ; abdomen and rest of underparts brownish-black, the feathers fringed
with white, and most of them having white centres, those of the under tail-
coverts having very pronounced and elongate white median spots running
along each side of the shafts, which are also white.

14 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Tris dark brown; bill brown, and yellowish at base of lower mandible ;
feet dark brown.
Total length 10:50 inches, wing 5-50, culmen ‘85, tarsus 1°25.

The present form of Ring-Ouzel was first noticed and alluded to
by C. L. Brehm, under the name of Merula alpestris (Isis, 1828, p.
1281), but no description was given of the bird. This was, however,
supplied by Brehm in 1831 (Handb. Vog. Deutchsl. p. 372), and
further supplemented by him in 1848 (Isis, 1848, p. 92) and in 1860
(J. f. O. 1860, p. 239). To Stejneger is due the credit of having, one
may say, rediscovered this Ring-Ouzel, and brought about its recog-
nition as distinct from the typical 7’. torquatus, (Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 1886, p. 365), and subsequently other good ornithologists, such
as Seebohm, Count Salvadori, and Mr. Dresser have all written
interesting articles regarding the bird, fully admitting its claim to
separation from 7’. torquatus.

Apparently the chief distinguishing feature between T. torquatus,
and 1. t. alpestris, is to be found in the feathers of the underparts
below the white collar, which in T’. ¢. alpestris, at all seasons, have
white or light-coloured margins, many of them also, particularly those
of the under tail-coverts, having white central spots, whereas in 1.
torquatus the white margins to the feathers are only to be found in
autumn and winter, while the white median spots are entirely absent
at all seasons.

Besides the above, other minor differential characters are notice-
able in the greater prevalence of white in the colouring of the upper
wing-coverts and the axillaries of T. t. alpestris, as also in the colour
of its bill as compared with that of 7. torquatus and lastly, in the
respective notes of the two forms, that of 7’. ¢. alpestris being said
to be much shriller and more powerful than that of 7. torquatus,
although as regards the two latter points further and more conclusive
evidence is desirable.

According to Seebohm (Jbis, 1888, p. 309), a third form, or
geographical race, of 7. torqguatus is recognisable, and occurs in the
Caucasus and Persia. In this form the white on the upper wing-
coverts and on the axillaries is much more pronounced than it is in
T. t. alpestris ; whilst on the underparts the white on the margins of
the feathers is less pronounced, and in the centre altogether absent.
For this form Seebohm proposed the name of Merula torquata

TURDUS TORQUATUS ALPESTRIS 15

orientalis. Apparently intermediate forms between the local races
have been met with, and it is, of course, not unnatural that hybridism
should occur between such closely-allied forms.

The range of the Alpine Ring-Ouzel appears to extend throughout
the greater part of the mountainous regions of Southern and Central
Europe, reaching as far as Central Germany on the north, Asia Minor
on the east, and North-west Africa on the south. Westward it is
said to occur in Spain and the south of France, which is no doubt
the case, although typical 7’. torquatus is also to be found in these
countries.

South of the Mediterranean, the Alpine Ring-Ouzel undoubtedly
occurs in Tunisia, as shown by specimens in my collection; and,
although I have no examples of it from Algeria and Marocco, the
species probably also occurs in both those countries, as well as typical
T. torquatus.

In Tunisia the present subspecies is not common or of general
distribution, although Baron Erlanger mentions having met with it
frequently in some of the mountainous parts of the centre of the
Regency, and it is not unlikely that it may be more numerous in some
years than in others.

There is at present no authentic proof that the Alpine Ring-Ouzel
breeds in Tunisia, or indeed anywhere in North-west Africa, but I
think it highly probable that it does so in some of the higher
mountains of the Tell.

As mentioned in the preceding article, Malherbe alludes to the
Ring-Ouzel having been observed on the Edough monntain, near Bone,
in the month of May, and it is more probable that the Alpine bird
should occur as a breeding species south of the Mediterranean than
the northern form.

In its general habits the Alpine Ring-Ouzel does not seem to differ
ereatly from T. torquatus, although it apparently does so in its choice
of a site for its nest, this being invariably placed in a tree, and not on
the ground or in a low bush, as in the case of the northern bird.

16 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

MONTICOLA SAXATILIS (Linnzus.)
ROCK-THRUSH.

Turdus saxatilis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 294 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 10 (1846).

Monticola saxatilis, Bote, Isis; 1822, p. 522, Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 313; Loche, Hxpl. Sct. Alg. Ois. i, p. 196 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 889; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 92; Hrlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 243.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ain Rhorab, Central Tunisia.

The entire head and neck, above and below, slate-blue, becoming darker
on the mantle, where there is an admixture of blackish-brown ; lower part
of the back pure white ; rump bluish-slate; upper tail-coverts rich orange ;
tail also orange, with the exception of the two central rectrices, which are
light brown, being only orange-coloured at the base; quills brown; upper
wing-coverts darker, most of the feathers being slightly fringed with white ;
entire under-surface below the throat, as well as the under tail-coverts and
the axillaries, rich orange.

Tris, bill and feet, very dark brown.

Total length 8 inches, wing 5, culmen °85, tarsus 1:15.

Adult female, spring. Above mottled brown of different shades; tail
and upper tail-coverts orange; below also mottled, but much lighter, the
prevailing colours being buff, suffused with pale orange and pale brown,
darker on the throat and breast, and lighter on the abdomen and erissum ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries orange.

Soft parts as in male ; measurements slightly less.

Although nowhere plentiful, the Rock-Thrush is not uncommon
in Tunisia during the periods of migration, and probably a good many
of the birds also remain throughout the summer and breed in the
Regency. I have no positive information on this point, but judging
from the lateness of the season when pairs of the species have been
met with, there can be little doubt as to their nesting in the country.
At Kasrin, in Central Tunisia, I found Rock-Thrushes at the end of
April, apparently established in their summer quarters; and from other
parts of Central and Northern Tunisia I have notes of the occurrence
of the species as late as the end of May, when presumably all, except
the nesting birds, must have passed northwards. From the far south
of the Regency I have only notes of these birds occurring on passage,
and apparently the species does not winter anywhere in Tunisia.

MONTICOLA SAXATILIS LT

In Algeria the Rock-Thrush, although not numerous, occurs in
most of the mountainous districts, and probably breeds there.

In Marocco also, according to Mr. Meade-Waldo (Ibis, 1903,
p. 205), the species is not numerous, but breeds in all suitable
localities up to a great elevation. He observed it at an altitude of
10,500 feet.

In its habits and life generally the present species greatly resembles
its more frequently observed congener, the Blue Rock-Thrush, though
differing from that species in being far more migratory in its instincts.
M. saxatilis is, in fact, essentially a migrant, occurring in Hurope and
North Africa almost exclusively in summer and on passage, whereas
M. cyanus is resident and to be met with at all seasons in most
Mediterranean countries. Both species well deserve their names,
being true mountain birds, and rarely to be found at any distance
from rocky ground, the rougher and more broken this may be, the
better suited it is to the tastes and requirements of the birds. Wooded
districts are more or less shunned, unless there should happen to be
rocky ground also near at hand. The favourite haunts of Monticola,
however, are undoubtedly wild mountain ravines and valleys, strewn
with huge boulders and rocks of every size, where a few dwarf bushes
and an occasional stunted and weather-beaten tree are the only signs
of vegetation. In such spots as these, which abound in the Atlas
region, one may be pretty sure of meeting with M. cyanus at any time
of the year, and with M. sazatilis during the periods of migration,
although the latter species is far less abundant than the former, and
generally frequents somewhat higher altitudes. Both species are, how-
ever, extremely solitary in their habits, and it is a rare occurrence, out
of the breeding season, to meet with these birds otherwise than singly.
When nesting, they may occasionally be observed in pairs, but as a
rule they are not at all sociable in their instincts, or naturally
gregarious.

Canon Tristram, however, appears to have had the highly interest-
ing and exceptional experience of seeing a large flock of M. sazatilis
in Palestine, where, on one occasion, early in April, the whole of
Mount Gerizim, according to his account, was covered by a restless
flock of these birds, on their passage northwards. A similar flock was
also seen by him on another occasion near Damascus in 1881.

The food of the Rock-Thrush consists chiefly of insects and their

larvee, worms, and snails, as also of berries to a certain extent, although
9

4

18 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

both this and the following species are far more exclusively insec-
tivorous than the true Thrushes.

M. saxatilis is considered to be a good songster, with sweet, flute-
like notes, resembling those of MW. cyanus, and like that species, is
said to be much prized as a cage-bird.

MONTICOLA CYANUS (Linneus).
BLUE ROCK-THRUSH.

Turdus cyanus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 296 (1766).

Monticola cyana, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 552; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 211.

Turdus cyaneus, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Petrocossyphus cyaneus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 194 (1867).

Monticola cyanus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 316; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1895, p. 92; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 244.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Nearly the whole of the plumage, both above and below, of a dark
slate-blue colour, the wings and tail being of a brownish-black.

Tris brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 9 inches, wing 5, culmen 1, tarsus 1°15.

Adult female, spring, from Doux, South Tunisia.

Above uniform umber-brown, below mottled brown and buff. Soft
parts and measurements as in male.

The Blue Rock-Thrush is a commoner bird in Tunisia than the
preceding species, and is to be met with, as a resident, in most of
the mountainous parts of the Regency.

On the Djebel Ressas, near the town of Tunis, as also in the
neighbourhood of Kasrin and Tebessa, I have found this Rock-
Thrush by no means uncommon, and Mr. Aplin met with it in the
far south of the Regency at Tatahouine, Guermessa, and Tamerzed.
At the last-named place he found the species frequenting the old
troglodytic cave dwellings existing in that neighbourhood, and in some
of the caves he noticed several old nests, which, from his description
of their shape and structure, I have little doubt were built by the
present species.

Like its congener, M. saxatilis, the Blue Rock-Thrush is a true
mountain bird, frequenting rocky valleys and hill-sides clothed with

MONTICOLA CYANUS 19

a scanty and dwarfed vegetation, and though at times found at
a considerable elevation, it generally occurs at a lower altitude than
the preceding species. Broken ground of any kind seems to attract
this species, and the bird appears to be as much at home among
crumbling marl cliffs and banks as on solid rocky ground. It is
also fond of ruins and old walls, and may sometimes be seen
perching on buildings, for although extremely watchful and wary,
it is not a particularly timid bird, and ventures near human
dwellings without fear, occasionally even building its nest in the
walls of houses.

Colonel Irby (“Orn. Strs. Gib.” p. 75) gives an interesting account,
which has also appeared in Mr. Dresser’s ‘‘ Birds of Europe,’ of
the nesting of a pair of this species in a hole outside the wall of
his stable at Gibraltar.

In their more slender form and sprightly movements, as well
as In some of their habits, the Rock-Thrushes resemble Chats more
than true Thrushes, and there is no doubt that the genus Monticola
forms a connecting link between the two subfamilies, partaking as
it does of the characters of both.

Like its congener, the present species is generally to be seen
perched conspicuously on a rock or other eminence, whence a good
look-out can be obtained. Should it be disturbed, the bird will
drop quietly off and fly away, reappearing again on a similar perch
at some distance. When met with, as is often the case, in under-
ground caves or very broken ground, it will sometimes disappear
entirely from view, making its exit through some intricate winding,
or tortuous tunnel which is probably too narrow to admit of the
passage of a human body.

Like the Chats, this species appears to be chiefly insectivorous,
and in Tunisia locusts and coleoptera form an important item of
its diet. In confinement, however, it will eat meal, fruit, and indeed
almost anything that is given to it, but to keep it in good health
a certain amount of animal food appears to be necessary. In most
cases chopped meat or liver, varied with a little meal, will be found
to be the best food, and on this the bird will thrive and live for
several years in captivity. Lizards are sometimes attacked by the
Blue Rock-Thrush, and a correspondent of the Italian journal,
Avicula,” writes that he has often seen one of these birds nip off
a lizard’s tail and carry it away to its young brood.

20 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The Passero Solitario, as this bird is called in Italy, is greatly
prized in that and other Mediterranean countries, not only on account
of its agreeable song, but also because of its bright and attractive
ways; for though rather shy in its natural state, it is capable of
becoming remarkably tame in confinement, particularly when brought
up from the nest. At the present time I have one which is a delight-
ful pet.

The song of the Blue Rock-Thrush is composed of sweet, flute-
like notes, resembling some of those of the common Thrush, although
not quite equal to them. The bird is also a good mimic, and has
a facility for acquiring the notes of other birds.

The nest of this species, which is generally to be found in a
fissure or cleft between rocks, or in the hole of a wall, is composed
chiefly of root-fibres loosely put together. The eggs, usually five in
number, are of a beautiful glossy greenish-blue, and, in the case of
all those in my collection, are without any spots. Average measure-
ments, 25 X 19 mm.

Subfamily SAXICOLINA.

SAXICOLA CG:NANTHE (Linnzus).
COMMON WHEATEAR.

Motacilla cenanthe, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 332 (1766).

Saxicola cenanthe, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. i, p. 217 (1802); Seebohm,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 891; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11,
(1846) ; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Otis. i, p. 202 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O.
1892, pp. 301, 416; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 92.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Crown, neck aud back bluish-grey; forehead and superciliary stripes
white; lores and ear-coverts black; wings and wing-coverts black, the
secondaries and coverts slightly margined with buff; rump and upper tail-
coverts pure white; tail-feathers white at the base, the two central ones
being black on the terminal half, the remaining ones black on the terminal
third only ; underparts buffy-white ; under-coverts and axillaries blackish,
broadly margined with white.

Iris very dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°80, culmen ‘60, tarsus 1:10.

SAXICOLA GNANTHE 21

Adult female, spring. Above dull grey-brown; wings and tail browner
than in male ; rump white ; lores and ear-coverts brownish ; underparts buff.
Soft parts as in male, measurements rather less.

Observations.—I have no specimens in full breeding plumage in my
collection from Tunis. The adult male in this stage has the crown, nape
and back of a clear blue-grey colour, and the wings and tail quite black,
while the underparts are quite white.

The autumn plumage of this species is very different to the spring one,
that of the male becoming more like that of the female.

The common Wheatear is abundant in some parts of the Regency
during the periods of migration, arriving as a rule after the beginning
of March, and repassing, on its return from the north, in September.
I know of no instance of the species wintering in the Regency,
although Canon Tristram (The Great Sahara, p. 395) mentions it
as occurring in Algeria in winter. With regard to the common
Wheatear breeding in Tunisia, or, indeed, anywhere in North Africa,
I have no positive information, but having obtained specimens of it
as late as the month of May in the neighbourhood of Tozer and
Metlaoui, in South Tunisia, I am inclined to believe that individuals
of the species do remain and breed in the Regency, although perhaps
they may not be many. Loche, indeed, states that it is resident in
Algeria, and Mr. Salvin shot a bird of this species in the month of
June, near Zana in the Eastern Atlas (Ibis, 1859, p. 306).

After the middle of March, and throughout the month of April,
I have found §S. ewnanthe more or less abundant on most of the
Tunisian plains and mountain-sides. In the Atlas district I have met
with the species in considerable numbers about the end of March on
some of the higher plateaux, where tracts of bleak, inhospitable
uplands extend for many miles, bare or almost so of vegetation, but
rich in Roman ruins. On the lower plateaux further south I have
also found the common Wheatear plentiful at times, as also in the
Chott country of South Tunisia.

In September, on their return southwards, these Chats are fairly
numerous in the Regency, but the autumnal migration seems to be ,
less noticeable or conspicuous in Tunisia than it is in some other
Mediterranean countries, as in Sicily for instance, where the “ codi-
bianchi” at times form quite an important item in the ‘“‘ bag”’ of the
local “‘ cacciatore.”

The flesh of the Wheatear is considered by epicures to be a dainty

22, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

morsel, and large numbers of these birds used once to be snared in
England, as well as in other countries, for the table.

In its habits the common Wheatear is an active, lively bird, and,
being very restless, is perhaps more often noticed on the wing than
perching. When in this latter position it is almost invariably to be
seen on a stone or rock, and not on a bush or other plant, as is the
case with some other members of the genus. Stony spots generally
are affected by this species, and the old Roman ruins, so plentiful in
Tunisia, seem to have a special attraction for these birds. The
Wheatear’s flight is probably more powerful than it appears to be,
and when the bird is actually on migration, can be sustained for
a considerable length of time.

The food of this species, like that of most of the Chats, is almost
entirely composed of insects.

Its song is rather insignificant, and one more often hears the
simple “chat, chat’ of the bird than any other of its notes.

During the nesting season, in those countries in which it breeds,
S. enanthe is often met with at a considerable elevation, and I have
found the species abundant in summer in the Upper Engadine, at 6,000
feet above sea-level. In Sicily it retires to the higher mountains of
the interior for the breeding season, and is not then to be met with
in the lower-lying country.

In Europe nests of this species are generally found in holes in
rough broken ground, or among rocks, and are shallow structures
composed principally of dry grasses and rootlets, with a slight lining
of hair or wool. The eggs, four to six in number, are of a delicate
pale greenish-blue, sometimes spotless, but more often with a few
dark red specks on them. Average measurements 20 X 15 mm.

I am unable to include in my list of Tunisian birds the rare
Saxicola seebohmi, as up to the present time at any rate, the species
has not been met with within the limits of the Regency. As, how-
ever, it occurs in the Aurés Mountains in Algeria, it is quite possible
that it may be found on some of the higher mountains further east,
which are but a continuation of the Atlas chain, and I shall not be
surprised should this eventually prove to be the case, although this
range in Tunisia does not attain the same altitude that it does in
Algeria and Marocco.

From Marocco I have three examples of S. seebohmi, which were
obtained in 1897 by Mr. Dodson, at Tilula and Zarakten in the Western

SAXICOLA @NANTHE 93

Atlas, and as comparatively little is at present known respecting this
rare and interesting Chat, it may perhaps not be out of place to give
an extract of what I wrote at the time regarding the species (Ibis,
1898, p. 595) :—

* Saxicola seebohmi.—Three specimens, all males; one obtained at
Tilula on May 24th, and the other two at Zarakten on May 29th.
Two of the specimens are in fine adult plumage, while the third,
which is probably a last year’s bird, shows some immature feathers.
No female specimens were obtained, and Mr. Dodson says he met
with none, and concluded that the hen birds were on their nests at
the time. Mr. Dodson met with this rare Chat only in the above-
named districts in the Atlas Mountains, where he found it by no
means common, and always in the most desolate and barren spots.
The height of Zarakten and Tilula is apparently about 5,000 feet
above sea-level, or about the same as that of the plateaux of the
Djebel Mahmel in Algeria, where Mr. C. Dixon and Dr. Koenig found
the species, and this degree of elevation is doubtless a characteristic
of the bird’s habitat. The range of S. seebohmi probably extends
throughout the entire chain of the Atlas Mountains, wherever the
above-mentioned altitude is reached, but the species appears to be
nowhere very abundant, at any rate now, although Mr. Dixon found
it common on the Djebel Mahmel in 1882. I may here mention that
last year I sent a collector to the Djebel Mahmel in the month of
May, with a view to obtaining the nests and eggs of S. seebohmi, but
although my man spent a couple of days on the mountain, he failed to
find what I wanted, nor did he even come across the bird itself, the
only Chat he found being Sazicola aurita, of which species he
brought me a nest with five eggs and the female parent.”

Whether S. seebohmi is a resident species in the Atlas, or
whether it migrates further south in winter, is at present unknown,
the only recorded occasions on which this rare Chat has been met
with having been in the late spring. Considering, however, the tem-
perature of the Atlas regions in winter, and the fact of the species
never having been met with there during that season, it seems more
than probable that it does migrate on the approach of winter, only
returning to its summer quarters when the spring is fairly well
advanced.

In the month of November, 1902, I purposely sent a collector to
Djebel Mahmel in search of S. seebohmi, but although he spent some
days in the neighbourhood he failed to meet with the species.

24 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

As in the case of the Black-eared and Black-throated Chats, there
would appear to be an analogous affinity between S. enanthe and
S. seebohmi, not only in their plumage-colouring and marking, but
also in their habits and mode of life generally. I am not the first
to have remarked this, for Dr. Koenig, in his work on the Ornis
of Algeria (‘‘ Reis. und Forsch. in Algerien,” p. 189), alludes to this
resemblance, and makes some highly interesting remarks thereon.

Although we have no examples of S. seebohmi available for com-
parison, except those obtained in spring, judging from the incomplete
plumage of some of the male specimens, which show a certain admix-
ture of brownish feathers among the pure blue-grey plumage of the
upper parts, we may presume that the autumn dress of this species
undergoes a similar change to that observable in S. wnanthe, and
that the males of S. seebohmi in autumn, like those of S. enanthe,
become more like the females in their plumage. Judging, moreover,
from the incompletely attired specimens above alluded to, the black
throat of the male of S. seebohmi probably disappears in part, if not
entirely, on the approach of autumn. The females of the two species
are apparently scarcely distinguishable one from the other, that of
S. seebohmi being merely a shade browner and less grey than that of
S. enanthe. In their choice of habitat the two species also resemble
each other greatly. Both are eminently mountain species, frequenting
rocky, barren tracts of country, where there is little or no vegetation,
and breeding, as a rule, at a considerable elevation. Comparatively
little, however, is known thus far regarding S. seebohmi, and further
information concerning this rare species is highly desirable. This
may perhaps be forthcoming shortly, for I hear of an active collector
having recently visited the Aurés and there obtained quite a large
number of specimens of this Chat.

SAXICOLA ISABELLINA, Riippell.
ISABELLINE CHAT.

Saxicola isabellina, Riipp, Atlas (1826), p. 52; Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 399; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 190; Whitaker, Ibis,
1896, p. 91; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 231.

Dromolea isabellina, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 201 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.
Above sandy-brown ; quills rather darker; rump and upper tail-coverts

SAXICOLA STAPAZINA 25

white; tail-feathers white at the base, the two central ones dark brown on
the terminal two-thirds, the remaining ones black on the terminal half;
lores black ; a whitish stripe from the bill to the eye; ear-coverts darkish
buff ; chin whitish ; remainder of the underparts creamy-buff; axillaries and
under wing-coverts white.

Iris dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 6:50 inches, wing 4, culmen ‘60, tarsus 1:25.

Adult female, similar to the male in plumage, but rather smaller.

This is a rare species in Tunisia, apparently only occurring in the
more southern districts, and even there not often met with. I have
specimens of it, both male and female, obtained from the neighbour-
hood of Tatahouine, but from no other part of the Regency. Baron v.
Erlanger obtained an example of the Isabelline Chat on the Djebel
Tfel near Gafsa, but the species is evidently rare in Tunisia, and from
Algeria and Marocco it seems to be as yet unrecorded. The species
is, indeed, an eastern one, its habitat proper being South-eastern
Europe, Asia Minor, North-eastern Africa, and Asia, and although
it has been stated to occur in Greece and other parts of Southern
Europe, these records apparently lack confirmation. An undoubted
example of the species, however, seems to have occurred in England
in 1887. This specimen was shot by Mr. Thomas Mann, at Allonby
in Cumberland, on November 11th, and was exhibited at a meeting
of the Zoological Society of London on December 6th, 1887.

I have no information regarding the breeding of the Isabelline
Chat in Tunisia.

SAXICOLA STAPAZINA (Linnzus).
BLACK-EARED WHEATEAR.

Motacilla stapazina, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 331 (1766).

@nanthe albicolis, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. xxi, p. 424 (1818).

Saxicola aurita, Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 241 (1820); Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 394; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 210; id. J. f. O.
1892, p. 416; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 92; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 224.

S. albicollis, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 205 (1867).

S. vitiflora rufescens, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 210.

S. stapazina, Dresser, Birds of Europe, ii, p. 203, pl. 23 (1874) ; Sal-
vadori, Ibis, 1904, p. 77.

26 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Oglet-Zellés, South Tunisia.

A frontal stripe, extending over the base of the hill, lores, a stripe over
the eye, ear-coveits, wings, and scapulars jet-black; crown, nape, back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts silvery white, with a tinge of cream colour
on the back; the two central tail-feathers white on the basal third, other-
wise black ; the remaining rectrices white, tipped with black, broadly so
on the exterior pair, and slightly so on the rest; underparts white, with
a strong tinge of cream colour on the breast; the under-surface of the
primaries and secondaries black.

Tris very dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:50, culmen -60, tarsus -90.

Adult female is indistinguishable, or nearly so, from that of the fol-
lowing species.

The autumnal plumage of the male is a rich russet-brown, the wing-
feathers being conspicuously bordered with rufescent-buff. Besides the
seasonal variation there is also some variation in plumage entirely
dependent upon age. f

As recently pointed out by Count Salvadori (Ibis, 1904, pp. 75-78),
the Linnean specific name of stapazina undoubtedly applies to the
Black-eared and not to the Black-throated Chat. This is clearly
shown, not perhaps by Linneus’s own description of his Motacilla
stapazina, but hy his reference to @nanthe altera ( Aldrovandi, Orn.”’
ii., p. 763), where, besides a good description of the bird, we find an
unmistakable figure of the Black-eared Chat.

From the very first considerable confusion appears to have reigned
regarding the names of these two closely-allied species, the Black-eared
and the Black-throated Chat. Edwards, as far back as 1743 (‘‘Nat.
Hist.” 1, p. 31, pl. 31), figured under the name of the Red or Russet-
coloured Wheat-ear, the Black-throated Chat as the male, and the
Black-eared Chat asthe female. Brisson, in L760 (‘‘Orn.” ii, pp. 457-
459), refers to Hdwards’s plates, and falls into the same mistake.
Vieillot, in 1818 (“ Nouv. Dict.” xxi, pp. 424-425), first pointed out that
Edwards had figured two distinct species under one name, as different
sexes of the same bird, but overlooked the fact that Linneeus, in his
description of M. stapazina, referred to Edwards’s figure representing
the Black-eared Chat, and retaining the name of S. stapazina for the
Black-throated Chat, redescribed the Black-eared Chat under the
name of Cnanthe albicollis. Temminck, two years later, also
discovered Edwards's mistake, but, like Vieillot, overlooking Linneus’s
application of the name M. stapazina to the Black-eared Chat, gave
this bird the name of S. awrita. Mr. Dresser, in his articles on these

SAXICOLA STAPAZINA 27

two Chats (“Birds Eur.” 1, pp. 203-210), enters at some length into
the matter of their nomenclature, and rightly refers the Black-eared
Chat to S. stapazina, although he has recently (‘‘ Man. Pal. Birds,” p.
37) referred this species to S. albicollis, Vieill., and applied the name of
§. stapazina to the western form of the Black-throated Chat. Finally,
Dr. Sharpe, in his “‘ Hand List of the Genera and Species of Birds,”
has relegated the name of stapazina to the synonyms of the Western
Black-throated Chat, which he refers to Saxicola rufa (Steph.),
although that name, from Stephens’s description of the bird, appears
to belong to the Black-eared Chat.

Neither of the two names, stapazina or rufa, being available for
the Western Black-throated Chat, this bird must no doubt bear Count
Salvadori’s name of Saxicola occidentalis (“Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen.” 2, iii,
p- 116).

As mentioned in the following article on S. catering, both forms
or species of Black-eared Chat occur in Tunisia, the present, or
Eastern form, however, not being nearly so common as the Western
form, S. catering. Possibly the Regency forms the extreme western
limit of its range in Africa, although in Europe it occurs further west,
being found in France, Spain and Portugal. In my Marocco collection
I have a large series of Black-eared Chats, but they are all of the
Western species. In Spain, Sicily, and the Riviera, as well, perhaps,
as in some other West Mediterranean districts, both species occur. I
would here observe that in localities where the two species meet, it is
by no means unlikely that they may interbreed, being so closely allied
to each other, and hybrids be the result ; indeed, I have seen one or
two specimens of Black-eared Chats which seem to partake equally
of the distinguishing characters of the two species.

While on this subject I may allude to the close relationship which
evidently exists between not only the two species of Black-eared Chat,
but also between them and the two species of Black-throated Chat.
These four species, indeed, form a fairly distinct group in themselves,
closely resembling one another in many respects, such as structure
and plumage colouring, as well as in their choice of habitat, their
nesting, and in their habits generally.

In a paper recently published on the birds of the ‘ Bocche
di Cattaro,”’ South Dalmatia (J. f. O. 1904, pp. 93-100), Herr P.
Kollibay gives some interesting notes regarding the Black-eared and
Black-throated Chats, and enters at some length into the question
of their close relationship.

28 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

I have met with S. stapazina on three occasions only in Tunisia,
and the species is evidently not common there. Whether it breeds
in the Regency I cannot say, but it possibly does so, and no doubt its
nest and eggs are similar to those of S. catering. Baron v. Erlanger
seems to have met with S. stapazina on one occasion in Tunisia, but
treating of the Black-eared Chats found in the Regency (J. f. O. 1899,
pp. 224-227), he refers the Western form to S. awrita awrita (Temm.)
(= 8S. stapazina), and the Eastern form to S. amphileuca (H. and E.).
Curiously enough, although noticing most of the differential characters
between the two forms, he failed to observe what is probably the
most salient one, viz., the colour of the under-wing surface.

From Tripoli I have a young male specimen of the Black-eared
Chat, which appears to belong to the Hastern form, but it is not
sufficiently adult for positive certainty of identification.

In the small collection of skins at the Paris Jardin des Plantes
Museum I have, however, seen a fully adult male specimen from
Tripoli which is undoubtedly of this species.

I would here observe that for proper comparison of the two
forms, or species, of Black-eared Chats, it is necessary to have fully
adult male specimens in breeding plumage, immature examples being
useless for the purpose.

SAXICOLA CATERINA, Whitaker.
WESTERN BLACK-EARED CHAT.

Saxicola caterine, Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p..624; zd. Ibis, 1903, p. 408;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1900, p. 99.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Madjen, Central Tunisia.

A narrow frontal line, not extending over the base of the bill, lores, a
narrow stripe not extending completely over the eye, ear-coverts and wings
black ; crown, nape, back, and scapulars rich cream colour ; rump and upper
tail-coverts white; the two central tail-feathers white on the basal third,
otherwise black, the remaining rectrices white, broadly tipped with black, the
outer pair rather more so than the rest; entire underparts white, faintly
tinged with cream colour; under-surface of the primaries and secondaries
white and grey.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

“euULLI Teo BLOOIXES

‘VISINOL JO Salad FHL

SAXICOLA CATERINZ 29

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°60, culmen ‘60, tarsus 1.

Adult female, spring, from the Plain of Carthage, North Tunisia.

Forehead, lores, and a stripe over the eyes pale buff; ear-coverts
brownish-buff; crown, nape, back and scapulars dark buff; rump and upper
tail-coverts white, tinged with buff; the two central rectrices brownish-black,
except the basal portion, which is white; remaining tail-feathers white,
broadly tipped with brownish-black; quills brown; the secondaries and
coverts slightly margined with dark buff; under wing-coverts and axillaries
dark brown ; under-surface of the primaries and secondaries greyish-brown
and whitish ; chin and throat pale buff, breast warmer buff, becoming darker
on the flanks, and lighter on the abdomen, crissum, and under tail-coverts.

Tris, bill, and feet dark brown.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3°55, culmen °55, tarsus ‘90.

Young, apparently about six weeks old, from near the town of Tunis.

Entire crown, sides of head, nape, and back pale buff, mottled with
darker buff; rump and upper tail-coverts white ; tail as in the adult male,
except for a whitish fringe at the tip; quills brown, the secondaries and
coverts broadly margined with rufescent-buff; underparts very pale buff,
slightly mottled on breast with a darker buff. Soft parts brown.

Observations—In autumn the male of this species assumes a handsome

russet-brown attire, the new wing-feathers being conspicuously margined
with buff.

Besides the seasonal variation, there is also a considerable variation in
plumage dependent entirely upon age, the tendency in the males being to
become whiter and more hoary as they grow older. There is also a slight
amount of individual variation, and I have two males of this species in my
collection which have no black at all on the forehead and lores, but these
cases are no doubt rare and exceptional.

In the Ibis for 1898 (pp. 624-625) I wrote a short article, pointing
out the distinctness of the Black-eared Chat commonly found
in North-western Africa and South-western Europe from that
occurring in the rest of Southern Europe, in Asia Minor, and in
North-eastern Africa, and describing the former as a new species
under the name of Sazicola catering. The following is an extract
of what I then wrote, stating in what way the two forms. differ from
each other :—

“The Western Black-eared Chat differs from the Eastern bird in
the following respects :—

“‘(a) The black of the lores does not extend over the base of the
bill in a narrow frontal band, this point being of a creamy-white
colour, the same as the rest of the crown.

““(b) The scapulars are cream coloured, and not black.

30 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

“(c) The under-surface of the wings, both primaries and
secondaries, is of a light colour, sometimes quite white, instead of
being black.

“The adult male of the Western bird, moreover, does not seem
to assume, as a rule, the silvery-white plumage on the head and back
found in adult examples of S. awrita in spring, but remains always
more or less cream coloured.

“On the other hand, the Western bird is generally whiter on the
throat and underparts than the Eastern bird.

‘‘In some specimens of the Western form there is very little
black on the lores, some examples, indeed, having none at all, although
probably this is exceptional.

“The measurements and soft parts are the same in both forms.
As in the case of the two species of Black-throated Chat, the meeting-
point of the two species of Black-eared Chat is probably, roughly
speaking, about the tenth degree of east longitude. From Tunis I
have both forms, although the Western is by far the commoner of
the two; in fact, out of some twenty specimens in my collection,
only one is of the Eastern form. All my specimens from Algeria
and Marocco are of the Western form.”

The validity of the name S. caterine having been disputed, I
subsequently wrote on the subject as follows (Ibis, 1903, pp. 408-
410) :— .

“In order to arrive at a satisfactory solution of this question of
names (for apparently the distinctness of the two forms or species
is now recognised by most ornithologists), it is necessary to examine
and carefully consider previous descriptions of the Black-eared Chat,
with a view to ascertaining, so far as may be possible, to which form
they refer.

“Taking first Vieillot’s Gnanthe albicollis (“ Nouv. Dict.” xxi.,
p. 424, 1818), the description given of this bird, although in many
respects applying equally to both forms, when taken as a whole
applies far better to the Eastern form than to the Western. To
begin with, the plumage of the upper parts in the Western form
could never correctly be described as of a ‘‘beau blanc,” even
‘“‘léoérement teint de roux,” &c., the upper plumage of this form
being distinctly cream coloured. On the other hand, in the Eastern
form these parts are of a fine white. Secondly, the words ‘une
bande noire traverse et enveloppe loeil’’ are certainly more applic-

SAXICOLA CATERINZ 31

able to the Eastern form, in which the eye is completely and very
markedly encircled by the black band; whereas in the Western form
it is not generally so, being either without any black at all above
the eye or with merely a very narrow line. Lastly, the words “les
couvertures du dessus et du dessous des ailes sont de cette couleur
(noire) ainsi que les pennes’’ would indicate that Vieillot meant that
the quills as well as the wing-coverts were black, both above and
below.

“‘T do not know where Vieillot’s type-specimen may be, if, indeed,
there be one in existence; but I may say that the form of Black-eared
Chat most often met with in Europe appears to be the Eastern and
not the Western, the range of the latter being more or less confined
to a comparatively small portion of the Continent.

““T would here observe that the term Eastern, as applied to the
Black-eared Chat with a dark under-wing, is somewhat misleading,
the range of this form extending right across the European Con-
tinent as far west as France and Portugal. Mr. Dresser is evidently
unaware of this fact, as, in a letter, he informs me that he has never
heard of its occurrence further west than Montenegro and Albania.

“With regard to Temminck’s Saxicola aurita (‘Man d’Orn.” i,
1820, p. 241), his description, although, on the whole, more applic-
able to the Eastern form of Black-eared Chat than to the Western, is
so vague that it might apply equally to either. Owing, however, to the
kindness of Dr. Otto Finsch, of the Rikjs Museum at Leiden, where
Temminck’s collection is preserved, I have been able to ascertain
that Temminck’s specimens of Black-eared Chats are from South
France, Italy, Portugal, Egypt, Bogosland, and Arabia, and that they
all agree in having the under-surface of the wing black. Dr. Finsch
was unable to inform me which particular specimen had served
Temminck as his type; but presumably his description was taken
from one of these examples, and seeing that all the specimens have
the under-surface of the wing black, we are justified in concluding
that Temminck’s description of S. awrita applies to the Eastern and
not to the Western Black-eared Chat, which has the under-surface of
the wing of a light colour.

‘This is, indeed, all the more probable when we consider that the
Eastern Black-eared Chat is the form found throughout the greater
part of Southern Europe, as well as in Asia Minor and North-east
Africa ; while the Western form, so far as I have been able to ascer-

32 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

tain, with the exception, perhaps, of an occasional straggler, occurs
only in North-west Africa, South Spain, Sicily, and one or two other
West Mediterranean coast districts.

“ Hemprich and Khrenberg’s descriptions of S. awrita var. libyca,
and S. amphileuca (Symb. Phys. 1829, and Symb. Aves, 1833) are also
rather vague, but there can be no doubt that both refer to the
Eastern Black-eared Chat, and must therefore be regarded as
synonyms of S. albicollis (Vieill.), or S. aurita (Temm.).

“Dr. Finsch, in his ‘ Catalogue of Birds in the Leyden Museum’
(p. 151), is unable to separate S. aurita and S. amphileuca, specimens
in his collection from South France and Bogosland being identical.
This form of the species, in fact, as already mentioned, has a wide
range from east to west, and the term Kastern as applied to it, being
misleading, might perhaps with advantage be changed for some other
more appropriate designation.

“Tn conclusion, I maintain that both Vieillot’s and Temminck’s
descriptions refer to the Kastern Black-eared Chat, and that Hemprich
and Ehrenberg’s names are synonyms; so that the name Sazicola
catering, failing proof to the contrary, should stand for the Western
Black-eared Chat.”

In addition to the various differential characters pointed out in the
first of my above letters in the Ibis, there is another rather im-
portant one, which I had not at first noticed. This lies in the black
band at the extremity of the rectrices, which in S. stapazina is much
narrower than it is in S. catering. Very old males, indeed, of the
former species have very little black at all on the tips of most of the
rectrices, and occasionally specimens are to be met with having all
these feathers, with the exception of the central and outermost pairs,
entirely white. The same difference in the tail-pattern is observable
between the two forms of Black-throated Chat.

I would also here observe that, although so far as is at present
known, the range of S. catering, with the exception of an occasional
straggler, appears to be confined to North-western Africa and South-
western Europe, the species being migratory and non-resident in
those countries 1n winter, it must occur also somewhere further
south. I may further here allude to the recent occurrence of a fine
male specimen of S. caterin@ in England, the first recorded in the
British Islands. This interesting discovery was made near Polegate
in Sussex, on May 28th, 1902, and, together with the specimen itself,

SAXICOLA CATERINE 33

was brought before the notice of the British Ornithologists’ Club by
Mr. W. Ruskin Butterfield, at a meeting held in June of that year
(Bull BON CGxxu;, 1p. 78).

S. catering is tolerably abundant in many parts of Tunisia as a
summer migrant, arriving, as a rule, after the middle of March, and
leaving again in September. Its winter quarters are evidently further
south, and I have no note of its occurrence anywhere in the Regency
during the cold months.

After the termination of the spring passage S. caterine@ is more
often to be met with north of the Atlas, though a good many of
these Chats also breed in the central districts of the Regency, and
probably do not cross the Atlas at all. Towards the end of March,
and throughout the month of April, I have found the species in
considerable numbers on most of the high plateaux and stony scrub-
covered plains of Central and South-western Tunisia, notably on
those lying between Feriana and Gafsa, and near Oglet-Zellés in
the west of the Regency. About Kasrin, too, and on the slopes of
the Djebel Semama it is more or less plentiful, and in constant
evidence during the spring months. In North Tunisia I have found
this Chat common on the plain of Carthage, and on the lower hill-
sides near Hamman-Lif, within a short drive of the town of Tunis.

Like its near ally, S. stapazina, the present species is a bush-loving
bird, and evinces a partiality for open, undulating country, where a
scrub or dwarf vegetation flourishes, apparently avoiding the more
rocky and barren districts frequented by S. wnanthe. The species,
however, is also to be met with at times on some of the higher
mountains, and I have an example of it, a female, which was obtained,
together with its nest and eggs, on the Djebel Mahmel in Algeria,
at an altitude of about 5,000 feet above sea-level.

Mr. Meade-Waldo (Ibis, 1903, p. 204) also mentions having met
with the species in Marocco at considerable elevations.

Resembling the preceding species, and the Black-throated Chats,
in its slender build and sprightliness, the present species also
resembles them in its habits generally, and in its nesting.

Perched on the top of a low bush, or shrub, the male of this
species is a conspicuous object, and is oftener to be noticed than its
more soberly attired mate. It seems probable that the males precede
the females somewhat in their arrival, and this would account for

the fact that several of the former sex are occasionally to be seen
3

34 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

together in the early spring. Later on, however, the birds are
always to be met with in pairs. Although generally to be found
perching on low bushes, or on the ground, this Chat may sometimes
be seen on railings, posts, or telegraph wires, and I have shot
specimens when thus perching. Naturally rather shy and wary, the
present species, like many other birds, becomes doubly so when it
perceives that it is being watched or followed, and under such
circumstances a near approach to it is extremely difficult. Many a
chase used I to have after these birds when wishing to secure them
in pairs.

In its flight this Chat does not differ greatly from the common
Wheatear, skimming along usually two or three feet above the surface
of the ground, and at times darting from side to side. It does not,
as a rule, make a long flight, except when pursued, and then it is
capable of flying a considerable distance. Occasionally, during the
nesting season, this Chat may be observed hovering in mid air, like
a Lark, at a considerable height from the ground.

Its song, generally uttered when perching on a bush or stone, is
pleasing, though not very powerful or varied.

Its food consists chiefly of insects of different kinds, and in some
parts of Tunisia almost entirely of coleoptera.

S. catering generally breeds on a low hill-side, or on broken
rugged ground, where it places its nest under a rock, or tussock of
grass or other plant. The nest is rather a flat structure, composed
of dry bents and fibres, loosely put together, and lined with a little
hair or wool. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a rich bluish-
green, spotted, chiefly at the blunt end, with russet-brown spots.
Average measurements 19 X 14 mm. The nesting season extends
throughout April, May and June.

The smaller figure in the accompanying plate shows the light
colour of the under-wing in this species.

SAXICOLA OCCIDENTALIS 35

SAXICOLA OCCIDENTALIS, Salvadori.
WESTERN BLACK-THROATED CHAT.

Qnanthe stapazina, Vicill. (nec Linn.) Nouv. Dict. xxi, p. 425 (1818).

Saxicola stapazina, Temm. (nec Linn.) Man. d’Orn. i, p. 239 (1820) ;
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 887; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ots.
i, p. 204 (1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 209; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 13;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 87; id. Ibis, 1895, p. 93; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 222.

S. rufa (Brehm), Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 209; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 13

S. occidentalis, Salvad. Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. (2) iii, p. 116 (1886) ; id.
Ibis, 1904, p. 78.

Description —Adult male, spring, from Sbeitla, Central Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, nape, back and scapulars cream coloured; rump and
upper tail-coverts white; wings black; the two central rectrices white at
the base, otherwise black; the two exterior rectrices white on the basal two-
thirds, and black on the terminal third; the remaining tail-feathers white,
broadly tipped with black ; lores and region round the eye, ear-coverts, and
upper throat jet-black, this colour extending in a narrow line as far as the
culmen, but not over it; the remainder of the underparts white, tinged with
cream colour; under-surface of the primaries and secondaries greyish-
white,

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°65, culmen ‘65, tarsus ‘90.

Adult female, spring, from North Tunisia.

Forehead, lores, and a streak over the eyes greyish-buff; ear-coverts
light brown; crown, nape, back and scapulars greyish-brown; rump and
upper tail-coverts white ; the two central rectrices white at the base, other-
wise blackish-brown; the remaining rectrices white, broadly tipped with
dark brown; wings brown, the secondaries and coverts margined with buff;
chin and throat light grey; breast buff, becoming darker on the flanks and
paler on the abdomen, crissum, and under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts
and axillaries grey.

Tris, bill and feet dark brown.

Measurements slightly less than in the male.

Observations.—In autumn plumage the light colouring of the upper parts
in the male becomes a rich russet-brown, while the wing-feathers are very
conspicuously margined with buff.

The principal difference between the females of S. caterin@ and
S. occidentalis appears to be that in the former the general tone of
plumage inclines to buff, and in the latter to grey, or in other words,
the former is lighter, and the latter darker in colouring. Between
individuals of the same species, however, there is a certain amount of

36 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

yariation in colour, according to age and season, and unless pairs are
obtained together, it is not always easy to decide to which of the two
species the females may belong.

The fully adult plumage, whether male or female, is probably not
assumed by this and allied species until after the first breeding season.

I know of no instance of the female of the present species assuming a
dark throat, as appears to be the case, not uncommonly, in the female of
S. melanoleuca.

As mentioned in the article on the Eastern Black-eared Chat, the
proper name for the Western Black-throated Chat must, no doubt, be
that of S. occidentalis, given it by Count Salvadori (Ann. Mus. Civ.
Gen. (2) ui, p. 116).

As stated in my notes on Tunisian Birds (Ibis, 1895, p. 93), both
species of Black-throated Chat occur in Tunisia, S. melanoleuca, or
the eastern species, being, however, far less common than S. occi-
dentalis, its western representative. That the two species are clearly
separable is undoubted, the points of difference between them being
the same as those between the two species of Black-eared Chat, in
addition, of course, to the black throat-band.

Roughly speaking, the degree of longitude in which Tunis hes
seems to be the meeting point of the two species of Black-throated
Chat, and, so far as I am aware, the eastern bird does not occur
further west than the Regency.

North of the Mediterranean we find the same holding good in
Italy, both species, according to Prof. Gigholi, occurring in the
neighbourhood of Florence, which lies nearly in the same degree of
longitude as Tunis, S. melanoleuca being rarer to the west, and S. occt-
dentalis to the east of that town, the former, indeed, being unrecorded
from Genoa and the western Riviera, while the latter is unrecorded
from Bari, and the extreme east of the Peninsula.

In Sicily both species occur, though S. melanoleuca appears to be
the commoner of the two.

Although the two species are undoubtedly distinct, it is not
impossible they may interbreed in districts where they meet, and that
hybrids may occasionally occur. In the Florence Royal Natural
History Museum, for instance, a male specimen is to be found,
obtained from Genoa, which has the narrow black throat-band of
S. occidentalis, but the dark scapulars, and the dark under-wing
surface of S. melanoleuca. The specimen in question, however, also

SAXICOLA OCCIDENTALIS 87

has a curiously marked back, and is evidently abnormal, and possibly
a hybrid.

As a straggler the present species has occurred as far north as
Heligoland and in England.

Although perhaps not quite so abundant as the preceding species
in Tunisia, S. occidentalis is fairly common there, arriving, as a rule,
after the middle of March, and leaving again in September. I have
no note of its occurrence anywhere in the Regency during the
winter.

Like S. caterine, the present species breeds in Tunisia, both north
and south of the Atlas Mountains.

In Algeria and Marocco this Chat is fairly abundant, and I also
have a specimen of it, a male, from Tripoli.

The Black-throated Chats frequent the same description of
country as the Black-eared Chats, and in their habits and lie
generally greatly resemble those birds, being in fact, as I have
already pointed out in the preceding articles, closely allied to them,
and forming, it may be said, members of the same group.

In Tunisia the vast semi-desert plains, and lower hill sides clad
with a scanty vegetation, seem to be most affected by these Chats,
and in such localities one may often detect the handsomely plumaged
male birds, perched conspicuously on the tops of low bushes or scrub
plants, from whence they are able to keep a good look out around
them. Soon after their arrival from the south, pairing commences,
and by the beginning of April the nesting season may be said to have
begun in earnest. During the period of courtship, these Chats may
constantly be observed darting about, and chasing each other, and
when thus engaged, they appear to be less shy and wary than at
other times.

Their flight, like that of the Black-eared Chats, is not usually a
prolonged one, and the birds are generally to be observed flitting
along within a few feet of the ground. In their diet, they do not
appear to differ from their congeners, living almost exclusively, if not
entirely, upon insects and worms.

As regards the song of this species, I cannot say I have ever heard
what I could call a true song, but according to Loche, the notes are
pleasing and varied.

The Black-throated Chat, as a rule, selects for its nesting place a
hole under a rock or tuft of grass, and not uncommonly in a wall,

38 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

where it builds a somewhat shallow nest composed of grass-bents and
rootlets, lined with a little hair or wool. In this it lays four or five
eges of a rather glossy bluish-green, spotted with minute reddish-
brown spots, arranged in a zone round the larger end. Average
measurements 19 x 15 mm.

Second broods are probably not uncommon, and I have in my
collection young birds of the species obtained in the month of July.

SAXICOLA MELANOLEUCA (Giildenstadt).
EASTERN BLACK-THROATED CHAT.

Muscicapa melanoleuca, Guild. Nov. Com. Petr. xix, p. 468, pl. xv.
(1775).

Saxicola melanoleuca, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 385;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 98; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 223.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Source des Trois Palmiers,
Central Tunisia.

Crown, nape, back, rump and upper tail-coverts silvery-white, with a
slight tinge of cream on the back; a narrow frontal line, extending over
the base of the bill, lores, entire region round the eye, ear-coverts, and
upper and lower throat jet-black; wings and scapulars also jet-black; the
two central rectrices white at the base, otherwise black, the two exterior
rectrices white on the basal half, and black on the terminal half, the remain-
ing tail-feathers white, slightly tipped with black; breast and rest of under-
parts white, tinged with cream colour; under-surface of the primaries and
secondaries black.

Tris very dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 5:80 inches, wing 3:55, culmen ‘60, tarsus ‘89.

Adult female, from Nubia.

Crown, nape, back and scapulars umber-brown; a faint paler brown
stripe over the eye; ear-coverts darker; rump and upper tail-coverts white ;
the two central rectrices white at the base, otherwise dull brown, the
remaining tail-feathers white, broadly tipped with dull brown; wings dull
brown ; chin and throat greyish-buff; breast buff; rest of underparts pale
buff.

Observations.—The chin and throat in some female specimens of this
Chat in the British Museum collection are much darker and almost blackish.
This is perhaps due to age.

As mentioned in my article on S. catering, the tail pattern in the present
species differs somewhat from that of S. occidentalis, the black band at the

SAXICOLA MELANOLEUCA 39

tip being, as a rule, narrower in the present species, and broader in the
Western bird. Very old males indeed of the present species have very
little black at all at the tip of the tail, and I have even seen some with all
the rectrices, except the central and outer pairs, entirely white.

Although less common than the preceding species, the Eastern
Black-throated Chat also occurs in Tunisia, being more often met
with in the east than in the west of the Regency, its usual course of
migration probably extending along the coast-line from Tripoli and
the Gulf of Gabes northward. I have, however, obtained specimens
of this Chat, on more than one occasion, as far west as Gafsa, which
is situated some way inland from the coast.

As stated in my notes on the preceding species, I am not aware of
S. melanoleuca having occurred in North-west Africa further west
than Tunisia. Neither Dr. Koenig, when collecting in Algeria, nor
Mr. Dodson in Marocco, appear to have met with it. The latter
gentleman, however, obtained specimens of the species for me in
Tripoh, during the early part of April, when the bird was no doubt
on passage.

In its habits generally, as well as in its mode of nesting,
S. melanoleuca seems to differ in no way from S. occidentalis. I
took a nest of this species with five eggs, on April 8th, 1902, on the
mountain slopes immediately north of Gafsa. The nest, which was
placed under a rock on the hillside, was composed of fine rootlets,
lined with a little hair. The eggs were greenish-blue, slightly spotted,
and chiefly at the larger end, with russet-brown. Average measure-
ments 19 x 14mm. I secured the male bird at the same time.

SAXICOLA DESERTI, Riippell.
DESERT CHAT.

Saxicola deserti, Riipp. in Temm. Pl. Col. pl. 359, fig. 2 (1825) ; Seebohm,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 383; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 208
(1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 211; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 13; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1894, p. 87; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 227.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Djemma, South Tunisia.
Forehead and superciliary stripes whitish-buff; crown, nape, back and
scapulars sandy isabelline buff, brighter on the back and scapulars, and

40 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

greyer on the crown and nape; rump and upper tail-coverts white, faintly
tinged with buff; upper wing-coverts jet-black ; primaries and secondaries
brown, the latter broadly tinged with white and buff; tail white at the
base, otherwise jet-black; lores, a narrow line over the eye, ear-coverts,
throat and sides of neck jet black; rest of the underparts white, tinged
with buff, particularly on the breast ; axillaries black, tipped with white.

Iris very dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°60, culmen -60, tarsus 1.

Adult female, spring, from Gafsa Plain, South Tunisia.

Upper parts similar to those of the male, but the wings and tail much
lighter in colouring, the black pattern being replaced by shades of brown ;
underparts buffy-white, the throat and sides of neck rather greyer.

Soft parts as in the male.

Total length 5:80 inches, wing 3:40, culmen -55, tarsus 95.

Observations.—Some female specimens have the throat and sides of
neck blackish, as in immature males. These are probably very old birds.
Young males have the black colouring less intense than adults, and the
wing-feathers more fringed with white. There does not appear to be much,
if any, seasonal change in the plumage of this species, some specimens
obtained in winter being identical with those obtained in spring.

A true desert bird, this Chat has its habitat proper in Tunisia in
the more southern districts, where it is resident and non-migratory.
The species appears not to occur in the north of the Regency, and
no doubt the Saharan chain of mountains forms its natural northern
boundary. I, however, possess a specimen obtained at the Sebka
of Sidi-el-Hani, not far from Kairouan in Central Tunisia, where a
tract of salt-marsh country exists. Here Mr. Aplin met with this
Chat when collecting for me in the spring of 1895. As a rule, how-
ever, the country north of Gafsa is not suited to the requirements
of the species, and its true habitat is to be found in the Chott country,
and on the semi-desert plains further south. These districts are
indeed typical of the upper Saharan region, being vast stretches of
slightly undulating and broken country, extending for many miles
and bounded on the north and south by ranges of hills, which
decrease in height as one approaches the true desert. The plains
here are mostly hard and stony, with a gravel soil, here and there
becoming more sandy, and dotted over with dwarf shrubs and low-
growing plants. During the winter and early spring, particularly
should there happen to have been copious rains, a certain amount
of grass and other herbage crops up, and the country then bears a

SAXICOLA DESERTI 41

green and fresh appearance, but at other seasons it is more or less
parched and dry. Numerous Oueds, or river courses, also dry as a
rule, intersect the country at intervals, and along their borders may
be found clumps of Oleander and Tamarisk bushes.

The Chotts and Sebkas, or salt marshes, are natural depressions
formed in the soil, some of them being actually below the level of
the sea, where water collects in winter, after abundant rain, but
which are more or less dry in summer, and indeed for the greater
part of the year. During this season these districts are covered with
a thick stratum of crystallised salt, below which the soil is a soft clay,
or viscid mud, most difficult and unpleasant to walk upon. The
larger and most important of the Chotts, however, have a certain
proportion of solid ground traversed by roads.

Sazicola mesta is also a lover of these semi-desert districts, and
the two species of Chat, which resemble each other in many respects,
may often be found near one another.

In the districts it frequents S. deserti is very abundant, and one
of the commonest birds to be met with. On some of the plains lying
to the west of Gafsa the species is plentiful, and from them as well
as from many localities further south, and in the neighbourhood of
the Chott Djerid, I have numerous examples.

In the Algerian Sahara, according to various authors, the Desert
Chat is abundant in suitable localities, and Dr. Koenig has published
some excellent notes regarding the bird and its breeding habits.
Canon Tristram’s S. homochroa, and Eversman’s S. salina are
without doubt referable to the present species. In Marocco Mr.
Dodson failed to meet with the Desert Chat when collecting for me
in that country, but he found the species remarkably plentiful in
Tripoli and Cyrenaica.

As a straggler, this Chat has undoubtedly occurred on three
occasions in Great Britain, and likewise thrice on Heligoland. Two
of the British specimens were obtained as far north as Scotland,
while the third (which I have myself seen) was obtained on the
Yorkshire coast and is now in Mr. J. H. Gurney’s collection.

Of all the species of Chat the present is perbaps the least shy, and
so tame and confiding is it at times, that it will allow a person to
approach within two or three yards of it before taking to flight. It
is fond of perching on shrubs and low bushes, and the males are
often to be seen thus, uttering their short but fairly varied and not

42, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

unpleasant song. The call note is particularly sweet. The food of
this Chat, like that of other insectivorous birds inhabiting Southern
Tunisia, consists largely of coleoptera, of which there is an extra-
ordinary abundance in these southern regions.

S. deserti is an early breeder, nests and eggs being commonly
found in March, although its nesting continues throughout April
and May, and second broods are probably frequent. As a rule the
nest is placed in a hole in the ground, or in a mound of earth, at the
foot of some shrub, the deserted burrows of small rodents being often
used for the purpose. The nest is built of dry grasses and root-
fibres, lined with wool or hair. The eggs are usually four or five in
number and of a greenish-blue colour, spotted with violet and reddish-
brown. Average measurements 20 X 15 mm.

SAXICOLA MSTA, Lichtenstein.
TRISTRAM’S CHAT.

Saxicola meesta, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 33 (1823); Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 882; Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 16; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894,
p. 86; zd. Ibis, 1898, p. 129; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 234.

Dromolea isabellina, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 201 (1867).

Description.— Adult male, spring, from Ras-el-Aioum, South Tunisia.

Forehead, crown and nape hoary white, becoming greyer on the top
of tbe crown; back and scapulars smoke-black, shading into dark grey on
the lower back; rump and upper tail-coverts whitish, with a rufescent
tinge; the two central rectrices pale rufous at the base, otherwise dark
brown, the remaining tail-feathers rufous on the basal half and dark brown
on the terminal half; primaries and secondaries brown, the outer webs
being fringed with white; upper wing-coverts smoke-black, broadly fringed
with white; lores and a line over the eye, ear-coverts, upper and lower
throat, neck and sides of breast smoke-black; breast and abdomen pure
white; under tail-coverts very pale rufescent.

Iris dark hazel; bill and feet black.

Total length, 6°75 inches, wing 3°75, culmen °70, tarsus 1-15.

Adult female, spring, from Oglet-Zellés, South Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, nape and ear-coverts light rufous, superciliary stripes
rather paler; back and scapulars sandy isabelline grey; rump and upper
tail-coverts pale rufescent; tail and wings as in the male, but rather paler,
and the wing-edges rufescent and not white; underparts whitish, tinged

“BAS 90UL BLOOLXKeS

‘VISINOL 40 SCUYla 4H

SAXICOLA M@STA 43

with rufescent, and a certain admixture of sandy-grey; under tail-coverts
pale rufescent.

Tris dark hazel ; bill and feet brown.

Total length 6:50 inches, wing 3-40, culmen ‘65, tarsus 1-10.

The young of this species, when a few weeks old, resemble the adult
birds in the distribution of colouring, but this is less intense, and less
clearly defined. Even at an early age the males are distinguishable from
the. females by their darker and greyer plumage, the latter being lighter
and browner. My collection contains young birds in various stages of
plumage, from nestlings to almost full-grown birds.

Observations.—The winter plumage of both sexes is duller than the
spring one, and the crown of the male bird instead of being white is then
grey. There appears to be a certain amount of variation in the colouring
of the female, some examples being more rufous than others, though
obtained in the same season. Whether this is due to age, or is merely
individual variation, I am not able to say.

Regarding this handsome Chat little, if anything, appears to have
been known until Canon Tristram, meeting with it in Algeria in
1859, and thinking it a new species, described it as such under the
name of Sazxicola philothamna, publishing at the same time some
interesting notes respecting the bird’s habits and mode of life (Ibis,
1859, pp. 58 and 299). As specimens of this species from Egypt
already existed in the Berlin Museum under the name of Saxicola
meesta, Licht., Tristram’s name has had to give way to the older one
and sink into a synonym.

So far as is at present known, the range of S. masta extends
throughout the semi-desert regions of North Africa from the Algerian
Sahara on the west to the Lybian Desert on the east, and possibly
through the latter region into Egypt.

The species also occurs in Palestine, and not improbably throughout
a considerable part of Syria and Arabia, as also perhaps in Persia.

Curiously enough, although the type specimen of S. masta comes
from Egypt, recent travellers in that country have failed entirely to
meet with the species there, although discovering a somewhat closely
allied Chat, S. xanthoprymna, Hemp. and Ehr., the range of which
appears to be confined to North-east Africa. Two other closely allied
species occur in Persia, S. chrysopygia, De Fil, and S. cwmmingi,
Whit., the latter of which is so rare that only one specimen of it is
known to exist. This is in the British Museum collection, and was
obtained by Mr. W. D. Cumming at Fao on the Persian Gulf. Mr.

44 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Dresser (Man. Palearctic Birds, p. 41) includes this Chat as a sub-
species of S. zanthoprymna, but the point of difference between the
two species is so well marked and clearly defined as to warrant full
specific distinction.

In North Africa S. m@sta occurs more or less abundantly through-
out the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara, and in corresponding districts
in Tripoli and Cyrenaica. In the last-named country Mr. Dodson
found it plentiful along the coast line of the Gulf of Syrtis, south
of Benghazi, and obtained numerous examples of it in those
districts.

Whether the western range of S. me@sta in Africa, extends into
Marocco, seems to be at present unknown, but it is quite possible that
it does so, and that the species occurs in some of the inland semi-
desert districts of the Empire. It is true that Mr. Dodson, when
collecting for me in Marocco, never came across the bird, but
apparently none of the districts visited by him were suited to the
requirements of this Chat, or likely to attract it. For the same
reason, many other desert forms of birds, which are common in the
Tunisian and Algerian Sahara, are entirely unrepresented in my
Marocean collection.

In Algeria, as already mentioned, S. mesta is not uncommon, and
I have met with the species in considerable numbers on the plains
lying to the east of Biskra, which run into the semi-desert country of
the Tunisian Sahara, and like it, are mostly of a stony, or sandy
gravel description, scantily clothed with a scrub-vegetation. Loche,
writing of Algerian birds, refers to this Chat under the name of
Dromolea isabellina (Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois. 1. p. 201).

In the Tunisian Regency the present species is resident and not
uncommon in the more southern districts, but it appears never to
stray north of the Atlas Mountains, and may therefore be looked upon
as being strictly a desert bird. I have found the species particularly
abundant on the stony plains lying to the west of Gafsa, where, in the
late spring, when most of the migrants have passed northwards,
S. mesta and S. deserti are the two species most often met with. It
must not be supposed, however, that these two species of Chat are
always to be found together in the same localities, as in certain
districts the one may be most plentiful, while the other is scarce,
or even totally wanting.

Although the sandy gravel plains of the Upper Sahara may be

SAXICOLA M@STA 45

looked upon as the favourite haunts of the species, S. ma@sta also
occurs in the Chott, or salt-marsh country, and indeed the most
northerly district in the Regency from which I have a note of its
occurrence, is precisely of that description. This district lies between
Source des Trois Palmiers and Maharés on the east coast, and Mr.
Aplin here met with two pairs of this Chat, both with young broods,
about the middle of April. On the whole, however, I am of opinion
that the sandy gravel or stony plains are more attractive to the
species than the soft salt-marsh country.

From most of the districts bordering the Chott Djerid I have
either specimens or notes of the occurrence of this Chat, as also from
the country further south, lying between the coast and the true sandy
desert, and extending nearly to the Tripoli frontier. In the spring,
when my visits to North Africa have generally taken place, I have
found S. masta mostly in pairs, and throughout the month of April
often met with such pairs, with their young broods, fully fledged and
on the wing. The species is undoubtedly an early breeder, and young
birds six weeks old may be obtained at the beginning of April. Nest-
ing, however, continues throughout the spring, and second broods are
no doubt common. With regard to the breeding of this interesting
species, I think I cannot do better than give the following extract of
what I wrote on the subject in the Jbis for 1898 (pp. 129-132) :—

“With regard to the nesting of Saxicola mesta, comparatively little
has previously been recorded, Canon Tristram, I believe, being the
only one who has hitherto been fortunate enough to find the nest and
eggs of this bird (bis, 1859, p. 299; ‘‘ Birds of Europe,” vol. ii. p. 227).
I propose, therefore, giving a description of the nest and eggs I found
of this species, and of its breeding-habits generally, so far as I was
able to observe them.

“Of this Chat I took three nests, two of them near Ras-el-Aioum,
a district about twenty-five miles to the west of Gafsa, and a third at
Oglet-Zellés, a few miles still further west. Ras-el-Aioum is situated
at the extreme south of the Haut Plateau, which is bounded on the
north by the high range of mountains forming the natural frontier
between Algeria and Tunisia, and on the south by the lower range,
beyond which lies the desert country of the Chotts. The elevation
of this district is about 1,200 feet above sea-level, and the character
of the country is of the semi-desert description, with stony plains,
covered with a scanty scrub vegetation; although, owing to its

46 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

proximity to the southern range of hills, there is much broken ground
and numerous watercourses, dry as a rule, intersecting the plain. In
the immediate vicinity of Ras-el-Aioum, through which flows the
Oued Seldja, the vegetation is of a less stunted nature; and by the
river-banks there is a thick growth of tamarisks and oleanders, the
favourite haunt of many birds. Oglet-Zellés stands a little higher
than Ras-el-Aioum ; and being situated near the centre of the plain,
has a more open and less broken country, but in other respects the
two districts resemble each other.

“The first nest taken at Ras-el-Aioum I found on April 18th.
It was placed in a hole at the foot of a low marl cliff, a bare spot,
destitute of vegetation. The hole, which was just large enough to
admit the easy passage of the bird, extended nearly a yard in length,
in a horizontal direction, with a bend about half-way. ‘The nest,
placed at the further extremity of the hole, was cup-shaped, and fairly
large for the size of the bird. It was composed exteriorly of coarse
grass-bents, rather loosely put together, with finer and softer grass
inside, and lined plentifully with wool and hair, both camels’ and goats’.
The eggs, which unfortunately were rather hard sat upon, were five
in number, and of a very delicate, pale-greenish blue, sparsely spotted,
and principally at the larger end, with spots of a pale lake-colour.
The following are the dimensions of three of the eggs which IT
measured: (a) 24 x 17 mm.; (0) 28 x 16 mm.; (c) 24 x 16 mm.

“The second nest, also taken at Nas-el-Aioum on April 138th,
was placed in a hole in a marl cliff, like the first; but as this cliff
formed one of the banks of a dry water-course, the hole was about five
feet from the ground, or bed of the stream, a providential instinct
having no doubt taught the bird to avoid a possible catastrophe. As
in the first instance, this hole extended nearly a yard in length in a
horizontal direction, but without any bend. The nest and eggs, of
which there were again five, apparently the full complement, resembled
those previously found. These eggs were also somewhat incubated.
I did not measure any of them, but they appeared identical with the
first clutch. In digging out this nest I unearthed a rather large
scorpion, which made me wonder how these birds can bring up their
young safely, exposed as they are, particularly those nesting in holes
in the ground, to so many dangers.

“The third nest I took at Oglet-Zelles on April 17th. In this
instance the hole, which was probably the deserted home of some

SAXICOLA M@STA 47

small rodent, was in almost level ground, where a few scrub plants
served to hold the light crumbling soil together. Like the other two,
this hole extended about a yard in length, but in a slightly oblique
downward direction. This nest contained only four eggs, very slightly
incubated. In colour they resembled those previously found, but the
spots were fewer and more minute, in one egg being almost entirely
wanting; in another, the few there were, being collected in a zone at
the larger end. In shape these eggs were more oval than those of the
other two clutches. The following are the measurements of two of
them: (a) 24 x 15°5 mm.; (b) 23 x 16 mm.

““T secured the hen-bird in each instance, after having seen her
enter and leave her nest-hole, and in two of the cases I shot what
was presumably the cock-bird as well. I doubt the male parent taking
much, if any, part in the incubation of the eggs, as although generally
to be seen in the immediate vicinity of the nest, I failed to observe
it enter or leave the hole in any one of the three cases I have men-
tioned. The fact also of the male birds being so much oftener seen
during the breeding season than the females, would tend to support
this supposition, allowing even for the more conspicuons plumage
of the former.

“ Saxicola mesta is, without doubt, an early breeder, and has
more than one brood in the course of the season, young birds of this
species, fully fledged and able to fly, being met with at the beginning
of April, or even earlier, and probably the three clutches of eggs found
by me were all of a second laying. At Ras-el-Aioum I shot a young
male S. masta on April 13th, which must have been nearly two
months old, and at Oglet-Zellés I saw two or three young broods
of this species shifting for themselves at the middle of April.

In its mode of life and general habits S. mesta resembles S.
deserti. It is by no means a shy bird, and will often allow one to
approach within a few feet of it before taking flight, indeed I consider
the present species and S. deserti both remarkably tame and trustful,
differing greatly in this respect from most other species of Chat. The
male bird has a most melodious note, its short rippling song being
singularly sweet and pathetic. As a rule this song is uttered by the
bird when perching on a bush or low plant, but I have often known
it sing when on the wing, flying from bush to bush. When taking
such short flights the bird is in the habit of spreading its tail like a
fan, after the manner of S. lewcewra. I have never known S. mesta

48 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

take a long flight. The food of this species, like that of S. deserti,
consists chiefly of coleopterous insects.

The Arabs have a pretty little legend regarding this bird and its
song, which so far as I can recall it to mind, runs as follows :—

“An Arab chieftain of great renown had a most beautiful wife,
to whom he was greatly attached, and whom he loved almost as much
as his Sloughis, which is saying a good deal, for the Sloughi, or Arab
Greyhound, is held in the highest possible esteem by the Arabs. In
parenthesis, this may appear curious, considering how the Arabs
despise all other breeds of dog, the very word Kelb, or dog, so often
hurled at the unfortunate and unsuspecting Giaour, being synonymous
with opprobrium and reproach. War breaking out between his tribe
and another, the chief had to leave his home, but before doing so, he
called his wife and commended his Sloughis to her particular care and
attention. Time passed, but no husband returned from the war, and
finally came the news of his death on the battlefield. His widow,
who had at first strictly complied with her lord’s injunction respecting
the dogs, now gradually relaxed her solicitude for their welfare, and
eventually left her home and re-married! In course of time death
came to her also, and on entering another world she was welcomed
by her first husband, the Arab chief, who immediately enquired after
his Sloughis. Confessing her fault, the beautiful wife was ordered
to return to Mother earth in the shape of a bird, and she has ever
since been wandering over the desert plains under the form of Saxicola
mesta, bewailing her lot, and vainly whistling for the lost Sloughis /”

SAXICOLA HALOPHILA, Tristram.
WESTERN PIED CHAT.

Saxicola halophila, Zristram, Ibis, 1859, pp. 59, 8301; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 231.

Saxicola lugens, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 207 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1892, p. 889; Spatz und Erlanger, Orn. Monatab. 1894, p. 1;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Douirat, South Tunisia.
Forehead, crown and nape silvery-white, slightly greyer on the crown ;
back, scapulars, and upper wing-coverts jet-black; rump and upper tail-

een BLOOIXES

VISINOL 40 SCUYIG AHL

SAXICOLA HALOPHILA 49

coverts pure white; quills brownish-black, with a slight white fringe on the
tips of the secondaries; the two central rectrices white on the basal half
and black on the terminal half; the remaining rectrices white, broadly
tipped with black; lores, ear-coverts, throat and sides of the neck jet-
black; breast and abdomen pure white; under tail-coverts white, tinged
with rufescent ; axillaries and under wing-coverts black.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:50, culmen °60, tarsus ‘90.

Adult female, spring, from Douirat, South Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, nape and back silvery sandy-grey, whiter over the
eye-region and on the nape, and greyer on the top of crown and back;
rump and upper tail-coverts pure white; wings and scapulars sandy-brown,
the secondaries and upper wing-coyerts fringed with white; the two central
rectrices white on the basal half and black on the terminal half; the remain-
ing rectrices white, broadly tipped with dark brown; lores greyish ; ear-
coverts sandy-grey ; entire underparts whitish, with a slight tinge of grey
on the throat; under tail-coverts white, faintly tinged with rufescent ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts white and grey.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3:40, culmen ‘60, tarsus -90.

Very old female, spring, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Similar to the female just described as regards the upper parts, but
differing in having the following parts blackish, viz., the lores, ear-coverts,
throat, sides of neck, axillaries and under wing-coverts.

Observations.—As will be seen by the foregoing description given of two
females of this species, there is considerable variation in the plumage of
this sex, which is no doubt due to age ; the older the bird grows, the darker
its throat and some other parts become, approximating in these respects
more nearly to the plumage of the male bird. The upper plumage, how-
ever, of the female does not seem to grow dark like that of the male, or to
materially alter with age. Between the spring and winter dress, either of
the males or of the females, there does not appear to be much, if any,
variation.

The accompanying plate shows the difference in plumage between the
old and young females.

This Chat appears to be distinct from S. lugens, Licht., from
Egypt and Palestine, the females of the two species differing entirely
from each other in their plumage-colouring, that of S. lugens bearing
the same plumage as the male of that species, whereas in the present
species the two sexes differ from each other altogether, particularly in
the colouring of the upper parts. The males of the two species
appear to be indistinguishable from each other in plumage, except
for the colouring of the crissum and under tail-coverts, which in

4

50 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

S. lugens is of a darker-rufescent hue than it is in S. halophila, in
which latter species it is sometimes almost pure white. Besides the
difference in the colouring of the crissum and under tail-coverts,
however, there is also a certain difference in the relative size of the
two species; adult males, showing an average wing-measurement of
3:75 inches in S. lugens against 3°50 inches in S. halophila. In both
species the females are slightly smaller than the males, and perhaps
this forms the only external means of distinguishing between the
sexes of S. lugens.

Canon Tristram, during his travels in Algeria, appears to have met
with adult males and females, as well as with immature males of the
present species. The adult males he referred to S. lugens, Licht., but
the females and the immature males he took to be belonging to a
new species, and called them Saxicola halophila (Ibis, 1859, pp. 59
and 300). This being the case, his name, although given in ignorance
of the real state of matters, must stand.

Both Dr. Koenig (J. 7. O. 1895, p. 876) and Baron Erlanger (J.f. O.
1898, p. 231) have entered at some length into the question of this
interesting discovery, and the former has given some good plates of
the species, showing plainly the difference between the adult male
and female, and a very old female. The peculiarly silky texture of
this Chat’s plumage, alluded to by Canon Tristram, is well shown in
these plates.

Seebohm, when describing the female of S. dugens (Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. vy, p. 371) as quite different from the male in plumage, must
have had before him specimens which were not from Egypt but
probably from North-west Africa. Loche (‘‘ Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois.” 1,
p. 207) appears to have noticed the difference between the sexes
of the present species, but did not distinguish S. halophila from
S. lugens. Mr. C. Dixon also seems to have noticed, and called
attention to the difference between the sexes of the two species (Lbis,
1882, p. 562). Mr. Dresser’s plate of immature so-called S. erythrea
(Birds Eur. ii, pl. 29) shows the types of Canon Tristram’s S. halophila.
It is a pity Mr. Dresser did not avail himself of the opportunity
afforded him, when publishing the Supplement to his “ Birds of
Europe,” to correct certain errors regarding some of the Chats which
appeared in his above great work.

With regard to the range of S. halophila, so far as it is at present
known, it extends throughout the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara, and

SAXICOLA HALOPHILA 51

in corresponding semi-desert districts in Tripoli, and Cyrenaica, in
the last named of which countries Mr. Dodson met with the species
as far east as the Wed-Agarib, and the Wed-Domaran. How much
further eastward its range extends, or where it meets S. lugens—if,
indeed the two species meet at all—seems at present to be unknown,
but presumably the present species does not occur in Egypt.

From Marocco S. halophila appears so far to be unrecorded. In
Algeria it is by no means uncommon in certain districts, and I have
frequently observed the species a few miles to the east of Biskra,
but it is very local in its distribution.

In the Tunisian Regency this Chat, although nowhere particu-
larly abundant, is to be found in several districts south of the
Atlas Mountains. North of that range the species does not seem to
occur, and the semi-desert regions of the south are undoubtedly the
true habitat of S. halophila. Here it frequents the most barren and
desolate spots, choosing for preference the neighbourhood of marl
cliffs and gravel hillocks, in the fissures and crevices of which suitable
nesting sites abound. I have obtained specimens of the species near
Gafsa, and at Ras-el-Aioum, Metlaoui, and Tozer in the south-west
of the Regency. From Douirat and one or two other places in the
far south I also have examples. The district, however, in which
I found this Chat most abundant was undoubtedly Metlaoui, where
the country is of the most arid and inhospitable description, rolling
hillocks of hard white gravel, with occasional patches of scanty scrub
vegetation, stretching away for miles in a southerly direction, while
almost immediately to the north rise the rugged and precipitous cliffs
of the Seldja range of mountains. Until quite recently this neighbour-
hood was rarely visited by Europeans, but Metlaoui now bids fair to
become an important commercial centre, owing to the abundance of
phosphates lately discovered in the locality; and a railway already
exists there, constructed expressly for the purpose of transporting
the valuable product to its port of exportation at Sfax.

In its habits, as well as in the localities it frequents, S. halophila
resembles S. lewcopyga to a great extent, being found not only in the
open country, far from any buman dwelling, but also in the immediate
vicinity of towns and villages, and at times even within their walls.
Mr. Aplin actually secured a pair of these birds at Douirat, in a very
busy part of the town. He had noticed the birds entering and leaving
a hole as if nesting there, but on probing the hole, which was very

52 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

small and deep, with a stick, failed to find any indication of a nest,
and concluded therefore that the birds were only contemplating
breeding.

The species is generally to be found in pairs, although the males,
owing to their more conspicuous plumage, are more often noticed
than the females. When perching on a wall or bank, the male bird
dips and makes play with its tail, after the manner of some other
species, and if approached quietly and not too near, will allow itself
to be watched for a considerable length of time, though in its turn
watching the intruder carefully at the same time.

The flight of the species seem to be fairly powerful, but is not,
as a rule, prolonged for any great distance.

Its food consists, probably, almost entirely of insects, coleoptera,
no doubt, entering largely into its diet.

The song of this species, which is generally uttered by the bird
when perching on a rock or stone, is rather subdued and very sweet,
but at times it becomes chattering.

S. halophila apparently always nests in holes in the sides of cliffs
or banks, and deep down into the soil. I have no nest or eggs of the
species in my collection from Tunisia, but, according to Dr. Koenig,
the nest is rather a loosely constructed flat structure, composed
chiefly of grasses and plant material, and lined with hair, while the
eggs, five to six in number, are of a fine unglossed blue-green, spotted
with reddish - brown, chiefly in a zone at the blunt end. Average
measurements, 20 X 15mm. March and April seem to be the prin-
cipal months for the nesting of the species, and by the middle of the
latter month I have met with fully-grown young birds just able to
fly. The parent birds show great solicitude for their young, and
when with them may be more easily approached and observed.

SAXICOLA LEUCOPYGA (C. L. Brehm).
WHITH-RUMPED CHAT.

Vitiflora leucopyga, Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 225 (1855).

Saxicola leucopyga, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 374.
Dromolza monacha, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 199 (1867).
D. nigra, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 200 (1867).

D. leucopyga, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 240,

SAXICOLA LEUCOPYGA 30

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tamerza, South Tunisia.

Crown, nape, rump, upper and under tail-coverts and crissum pure
white ; the tail also pure white, with the exception of the terminal half of
the two central rectrices, which is black; the remainder of plumage, above
and below, jet black, the wings less intense in colour.

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 6°25 inches, wing 4, culmen -70, tarsus 1.

Immature female, winter, from Kebili, South Tunisia. Nearly the
entire plumage, above and below, black; the wings with a brown tinge,
rump, upper and under tail-coverts and crissum pure white; the central
pair of rectrices dark brown on the terminal half, and white on the basal
half, the remaining tail-feathers white, with dark brown spots near their
tips.

Soft parts as in the male.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:75, culmen ‘65, tarsus 1.

Regarding the present species, considerable confusion existed at
one time, owing to the difference in plumage between the adult and
young birds, the two being looked upon as distinct species, and
separated accordingly; the former under the name of Sazicola
leucocephala (A. E. Brehm), and the latter under that of Sazicola
leucopyga (C.L. Brehm). What greatly contributed towards this con-
fusion, and indeed may be held mainly responsible for it, was the fact
of birds of this species breeding in immature plumage, the additional
fact of pairs being found, as a rule, with the two sexes in the same
plumage, tending still further to confirm naturalists in their error.
Mating in the case of the present species no doubt takes place, as a
rule, between individuals of the same age, and consequently in the
same stage of plumage, but that this is not invariably the case has
been proved by pairs having occasionally been found with the sexes
in different dress, one with a white and the other with a black head.
Dr. Koenig seems to have met with such pairs in Egypt, and Mr.
HK. Cavendish Taylor also once shot two of these birds, which were
very probably mated, together near Cairo, one with a white, and the
other with a black head.

Captain Shelley (bis, 1871, p. 53) also mentions having found
young birds of this species, with black heads, in company with their
undoubted parents, with white heads.

There would appear, therefore, to be no longer any reason to
question the identity of S. lewcopyga with S. lewcocephala, and the
former being the older name, must stand, the latter becoming merely
a synonym.

54 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The adult birds of both sexes have pure white crowns, immature
birds black crowns, the white crown being probably not attained
until after the first breeding season. While in a state of transition
birds may be found with black and white feathers intermingled on
the crown.

In a large series of specimens of this Chat in my collection from
Tripoli examples may be found in the various stages of plumage.
Comparing the measurements of these, I find the average length of
wing of the white-crowned males to be 4°10 inches, that of females
3°80 inches, while the average wing-length of the black-crowned birds
is 4 inches in the case of males and 3°75 inches in that of females.

The range of S. lewcopyga appears to extend throughout the desert
regions of North’ Africa, Palestine, and Arabia, and in some parts of
these countries the species is abundant, and the commonest of all the
Chats. It is also said to occur in West Africa at Sierra Leone.
From Marocco I have no specimens of the species, nor any note of
its occurrence there, but it probably inhabits the more inland desert
parts of that country, as it occurs abundantly in the Algerian and
Tunisian Sahara. In Tripoli and Cyrenaica the species is quite one
of the commonest of the Chats, and my collection from these
countries contains examples of it obtained in various districts. In
North-east Africa the species is most abundant in Nubia.

As a straggler, S. lewcopyga has once been recorded as occurring
in Europe, a specimen of it, with the white head, having been
obtained by Mr. C. A. Wright in Malta (Ibis, 1874, p. 223). This
bird was shot on April 18th, 1872, by Signor Vitali, on some
rocky ground called Tal Cappuccini, on the south side of the grand
harbour of Valetta, and after having been set up by Siguor Francesco
Ellul, came into Mr. Wright’s possession, and was eventually
presented by him to the Royal Florence Museum of Vertebrates,
where it exists at present, under the Catalogue No. 1,759.

In Tunisia, S. lewcopyga is to be found only in the more southern
districts, but where it occurs it is by no means uncommon. It does
not appear to stray north of the Chott Djerid, nor have I any note
of its occurrence in the Regency further north than Kebili on the
south-east, and Tamerza on the south-west.

Baron Erlanger appears to have found the species not uncommon
on the Djebel Dekamis, and in the neighbourhood of Gar-el-Areif,
both situated in the far south of Tunisia.

SAXICOLA LEUCOPYGA 5d

In Algeria this Chat has been met with by several travellers, and
to Canon Tristram, Mr. Gurney, and Dr. Koenig we are indebted for
interesting notes regarding the species.

Loche’s names of D. monacha and D. nigra also no doubt refer to
this bird, in fact specimens of it exist in the Turati collection of the
Milan Museum, which are wrongly labelled as D. monacha. Of the
occurrence of this latter species in North-west Africa there appears
to be no authentic record. According to the above authors, S. lew-
copyga is abundant in the Algerian Sahara, being found not only
on the slopes of the desert mountains and in the rocky ‘‘ Oueds,” or
dry watercourses, but also in the immediate vicinity of villages and
isolated “ Bordjs,” or stone-built dwellings. In its habits it resembles
the Black Chat (S. lewcura) to a certain extent, but is less shy and
solitary than that bird, frequenting the neighbourhood of man without
fear, and often actually entering the courtyards of habitations and
perching on the flat roofs of hcuses. It is, indeed, a bold and fearless
bird as a rule, although always on the alert, and at times, when
apprehensive of danger, even wary and cautious.

Its food, like that of most Chats in these desert regions, consists
principally of coleoptera and other insects, but it has been known to
eat the seeds of the pomegranate, and it also probably feeds on scraps
of other food, which it picks up in the neighbourhood of habitations.
The song of this Chat is said to be short, but very pleasing. Mr.
Dodson, who had constant opportunity of hearing it when travelling
in Tripoli, considers some of its notes like those of the Skylark: he
adds that he heard only the black-headed birds singing, and never
those with white heads.

Regarding the nidification of S. lewcopyga our knowledge 1s still
somewhat limited. I myself have no nest or eggs of the species,
nor do I know of any existing in collections. In his article on
D. monacha (‘ Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois.’’i, p. 200), Loche says the species
nests in the holes and crevices of rocks, building a loosely constructed
nest composed of leaves, rootlets and other plant materials, with a
lining of wool, hair, or feathers. The eggs, he says, number four at
the most, and are white, slightly more tinged with blue than the eggs
of §. lewcwra, and spotted with very small spots of a reddish-brown,
collected in a wreath at the larger end, their measurements being
22 x 17 mm.

Dr. Koenig also gives some particulars regarding the nesting of this

56 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

species and its fledglings, although he was not fortunate enough to
find its eggs (J. f. O. 1895, p. 396). According to him, two eggs
appear to form the usual complement, and of these, often one egg
only is hatched. This, however, is contrary to what usually obtains
among birds of this family, and, to say the least, seems unnatural.
Henglin (“ Orn. N. O. Afr.” i, p. 359) gives three or four as the usual
number of a brood of this Chat, and says the colour of bits of egg-
shells found by him was a uniform pale green. Dr. Koenig says
the nests he found of the species were placed very low down in holes
and clefts of rocks.

SAXICOLA LEUCURA (Gmelin).
BLACK CHAT.

Turdus leucurus, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i, p. 820 (1788).

Saxicola leucura, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 8375; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1894, p. 87.

S. cachinnans, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ovs. Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Dromolea leucura, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 197 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1898, p. 21; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 237.

Description.— Adult male, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

Entire body, with the exception of the upper and lower tail-coverts, of
a rich smoke-black; wings dark brown; tail-coverts pure white; the two
central rectrices white on the basal third, otherwise black; the remaining
rectrices white, broadly tipped with black.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3°80, culmen °70, tarsus 1.

Adult female, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

General colour smoke-brown, otherwise like the male. Soft parts as in
the male; measurements slightly less.

This Chat is apparently closely allied to the Rock-Thrushes, and
seems to form a connecting link between the two genera Monticola
and Saxicola. It is a question, indeed, whether it and the preceding
species should not be generically separated from the other Chats under
the name of Dromolea.

S. leucura is, 1 think, the most universally distributed Chat
resident in Tunisia, occurring generally throughout the Regency,

SAXICOLA LEUCURA 57

although more abundantly perhaps south of the Atlas Mountains than
north of that range. In the central districts the species is very
plentiful, every mountain gorge or rocky ravine harbouring at least a
pair of these birds, but I have also met with it on the arid mountains
of the south near Gafsa, and have either specimens, or notes of its
occurrence, from various localities south of the Chott Djerid, so that it
is evident the species has a wide range in the Regency.

In Algeria the Black Chat is common on the southern slopes of
the Atlas, and from Marocco I have numerous examples of the
species, obtained principally in the Atlas districts, some at the
considerable altitude of five or six thousand feet above sea-level.

The Black Chat occurs in Tripoli, and in some districts is not
uncommon, but I have no note of its occurrence in Cyrenaica. In
Egypt the species does not seem to occur.

North of the Mediterranean S. lewcwra occurs in’ South-western
Europe, where it is not uncommon in South Spain, chiefly as a
migrant. In the South of France, and in Italy, the species, although
rarer, also occurs, principally, if not entirely,as a migrant. S. leucwra
is eminently a mountain or rock-loving bird, and is not to be met
with in open country or at any distance from rocky ground ; the more
barren and forbidding this may be in appearance, the more suited
does it seem to be to the tastes of this species. Here in the darker
and more solitary mountain recesses one may be almost certain of
meeting with the Black Chat, and as the bird is fond of perching
conspicuously on the top of a rock or boulder, one cannot fail to
notice it, particularly as it is of a restless nature, and dips and bows
incessantly, as if courting attention. It is a shy and wary bird,
however, and not easy to approach; although, as a rule, during the
nesting season it appears to become less suspicious and may then be
approached and observed at close quarters. The male bird, during
that season, is most assiduous in his courtship, and it is a pretty sight
to see a pair of these birds chasing each other from rock to rock, and
darting in and out among the clefts and caverns of the mountain-side,
their outspread black and white tails forming a conspicuous feature in
the picture. The song of the Black Chat is short, but rich and
pleasing, and in the stillness of the mountain ravines may be heard
at a considerable distance. The bird sometimes sings on the wing.
The flight of this species is short, as a rule, and apparently not
powerlul. Its food is chiefly of an insect nature.

58 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The nesting time of S. lewcura varies considerably, not only
according to the locality, but also according to the climatic conditions
of the season, and in the south of Tunisia I have sometimes met with
young birds of about six weeks old at the beginning of April. As a
rule, though, nesting commences about the beginning of March in the
south and the middle or end of that month in the north. The site
selected by the Black Chat for its nest is generally a cleft or crevice
in the rock, but often merely a hole under a tussock of grass or other
plant on the mountain-side is utilised. The nest, which is not as a
rule placed deep down in the hole, is rather a bulky structure, com-
posed of coarse grass, and neatly and plentifally ined with hair and
wool. The eggs, of which the normal complement is four or five,
appear to vary in colouring, being sometimes of a delicate white, at
others of a light greenish colour, spotted sparsely with lake-brown
shell-markings and reddish surface-spots, generally forming a zone at
the blunt end. Average measurements 24 x 17mm.

This Chat seems to be in the habit of protecting the entrance to
its nest by erecting a wall of smail stones, but I have found nests
without any such barriers, which, after all, could not afford any real
protection against reptiles or other natural enemies of the bird, and
I think it more probable that the wall may be constructed as a pro-
tection against the inclemencies of the weather.

PRATINCOLA RUBETRA, (Linnveus).
WHIN-CHAT.

Motacilla rubetra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 332 (1766).

Pratincola rubetra, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. iv. 179; Loche, Expl.
Sei. Alg. Ois. p. 211 (1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 206; ad. J. f. O.
1892, p. 413; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 218.

Saxicola (Fruticicola) rubetra, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11
(1846).

Pratincola rubetra spatzi, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1900, p. 101.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Feriana, Central Tunisia.

Entire upper parts mottled, the feathers being butf, with clearly defined
black centres, rather greyer on the crown and nape, and brighter on the
back and rump; a conspicuous white stripe extending from the bill over

PRATINCOLA RUBETRA 59

the eye, and for some distance behind it; upper wing-coverts showing a
black and white pattern, formed by a small white alar patch on the outer
lesser coverts, followed by black on the greater coyerts, and then by white
again on the inside of the latter ; the two centre rectrices white at the base,
otherwise dark brown; the remaining rectrices white on the basal half, and
dark brown on the terminal half; lores, ear-coverts and moustachial stripe
blackish ; chin and sides of neck white; throat, breast and flanks rufous-
buff; abdomen white; crissum and under tail-coverts pale rufous-buff.

Tris, bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3, culmen ‘45, tarsus ‘85.

Adult female, spring, from Feriana, Central Tunisia.

Upper parts presenting a mottled appearance, as in the male, but much
duller in colour generally, and lacking the black and white markings on the
sides of head and on the wings; the under parts also duller and without
any white.

Soft parts and measurements as in the male.

The Whin-Chat is abundant in Tunisia as a migrant, being chiefly
noticeable during the spring passage. Many of the birds also winter
in the oases of the south of the Regency, although probably few, if
any, spend the colder months north of the Atlas. There appears to
be every reason to believe that the Whin-Chat breeds in limited
numbers in Tunisia, the species being met with in the country late
in May, during which month I have obtained specimens of it in
some of the high plateaux districts. From Tripoli also I have
examples of this bird, which were obtained as late as May 18th, at
Sebka, an oasis situated as far south as 27° N. lat.

The Whin-Chat is generally to be met with, either singly or in
pairs, in open country, and on plains where a bush vegetation prevails ;
it is also frequently to be found on the outskirts of gardens and
plantations, and in South Tunisia is abundant in spring on the borders
of olive groves and palm oases.

In its habits it resembles the bush-frequenting Sazicoline to a
great extent, and is an active, restless little bird, constantly on the
move, and rarely remains long in one spot. Even when perching it
is never quiet, its tail being constantly in motion. Its food seems to
consist mainly of insects, and in Tunisia is composed chiefly of
coleoptera and flies of different kinds. The song of this species,
although very short, is considered to be pleasing. Its call note,
which is more often heard, is a sharp “ticking” note, repeated two
or three times.

60 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Pied varieties of this bird are not uncommon, and are occasionally
to be met with in Tunisia. .

Baron v. Erlanger (J. f. O. 1900, p. 101) separates the Tunisian
Whin-Chat from typical P. rwbetra on the ground of its being of a
constantly lighter colour, but I cannot find sufficient reason for this
differentiation.

PRATINCOLA RUBICOLA (Linnzus).
STONE-CHAT.

Motacilla rubicola, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 332 (1766).

Pratincola rubicola, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. iv, p. 185; Loche,
Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois.i, p. 218 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 206;
id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 413; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 219.

Saxicola rubicola, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Hamman-Lif, North Tunisia.

Entire head, above and below, as well as the nape, back and scapulars,
black, the feathers of the nape and back slightly fringed with buff; wings
blackish-brown, with a conspicuous white alar patch on the inner coverts ;
rump and upper tail-coverts white, striated with brown; tail blackish-
brown, the two exterior feathers with a fringe of buff on outer webs; sides
of the neck pure white; breast rich rufous-buff, becoming paler on the
abdomen.

Tris dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°65, culmen -40, tarsus °95.

Adult female, spring, from Hamman-Lif, North Tunisia.

Plumage generally much browner and duller than in the male, with a
total absence of white on the rump, and only a slight indication of it on the
sides of the neck, although the white alar patch is fairly conspicuous. Soft
parts and measurements as in the male.

The Stone-Chat is a common and resident species throughout a
considerable portion of Tunisia, being found chiefly on the “ maquis ’’-
covered hill-slopes and bushy plains of the northern and central
districts of the Regency. In some parts of South Tunisia the species
also appears to be abundant during the winter months. In Algeria
and Marocco, as in Tunisia, the Stone-Chat is a common and resident
species. Adult male specimens from Marocco, in full spring attire,

-'-

DIPLOOTOCUS MOUSSIERI 61

are very intensely coloured, the upper parts, in some individuals, being
perfectly black, and without any light edgings to the feathers.

In its habits the present species greatly resembles the Whin-Chat,
although it is perhaps more of a bush-loying bird, and as a rule affects
wilder and more hilly country. Like the Whin-Chat it is generally
to be found singly or in pairs, and is fond of perching conspicuously
on the top of a bush or stone wall, from which a good outlook can be
obtained. A wooden post is a favourite perch of this bird, whence its
Italian name of ‘ Saltinpalo.” The food of the Stone-Chat appears
to be entirely of an insect nature. Its song is short, but fairly
agreeable, and its call note, or more properly alarm note, is a short
“chat” repeated once or twice.

The nest of this species, which is generally placed at the foot of
some bush and well hidden from view, is built of grasses, and
plentifully lined with hair. The eggs, of which five form the usual
complement, are of a bluish-green colour, with small dark red spots,
often forming a zone at the blunt end. I have a nest of this species
containing a Cuckoo’s egg, in addition to the five eggs of its rightful
owner.

The Stone-Chat in Tunisia nests rather early in the season, and
young birds, fully fledged, may be met with by the end of April.

DIPLOOTOCUS MOUSSIERI (Olphe-Galliard).
MOUSSIER’S REDSTART.

Erithacus moussieri, Olphe-Galliard, Ann. Soc. d'Agric. &ce. Lyon, iv,
p. 101, pl. 2 (1852).

Pinarochroa moussieri, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vii, p. 20;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 220.

Ruticilla moussieri, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de U'Alg. p. 14 (1855); Loche,
Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 219 (1867); Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 88.

Erythacus moussieri, Koeniy, J. f. O. 1888, p. 206.

Pratincola moussieri, Koenig, J. 7. O. 1892, p. 414.

Diplootocus moussieri, Hartcrt, Nov. Zool. ix, p. 324 (1902).

Description —Adult male, spring, from El-Oubira, Central Tunisia.

A frontal line extending over the base of the bill, as well as the lores,
ear-coyerts, sides of neck, crown, nape, back, scapulars and the greater part
of the wings black; a broad band across the forehead, extending over the

62 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

eyes and ending in a large patch on each side of the nape, as also a large
and conspicuous alar patch on the secondaries pure white; rump, tail,
excepting the two central feathers, which are dark brown, and entire
underparts a rich oravge-colour, rather paler on the abdomen and crissum.

Tris dark hazel; bill and feet black.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°60, culmen °45, tarsus 95.

Adult female, spring, from Djebel Ressas, North Tunisia.

Above brownish-grey, rump and tail orange, except the two central
rectrices, which are pale brown; underparts pale brownish-grey, tinged with
orange, and becoming whitish on the abdomen and crissum. Soft parts as
in the male, measurements slightly less.

Observations.—The females vary a good deal in the colouring of the
underparts, some being greyer and others more orange-coloured. ‘The latter
are probably older birds, and when in this plumage resemble the females
of R. phenicurus, although their smaller size is safficient to distinguish
them from that species. There is also a certain amount of seasonal
variation, particularly noticeable in the plumage of the male birds, which in
winter have the dark feathers of the upper parts margined with brown, and
are generally less brilliantly coloured than in spring and summer.

The young of this species are spotted like young Robins, the tail only
being as in the adult bird.

Following Mr. Hartert (Nov. Zool. ix, p. 324), I place this species
in a new genus, as it cannot rightly be referred to any previously
existing one. Of the four genera, to one or other of which this
species has hitherto been referred by authors, Rudicilla is no doubt
the one most nearly allied to Diplootocus, but the latter differs from
that genus in its shape generally, and particularly in having the wing
more rounded, with, proportionately, much longer secondaries. From
Pratincola it differs still more markedly than it does from Ruticilla,
the general colouring and pattern of its plumage being totally unlike
those of the Bush-Chats, but closely resembling those of Ruwticilla,
and the female, at first sight, looks hke a diminutive example of the
female of R. phanicurus. The shape of the bill is also quite different
from that of Pratincola, and more hke that of the Redstarts. The
habits of the present species are not quite like those of the Red-
starts, and its nest, instead of being placed in the hole of a tree or
bank, as in the case of those birds, is usually built on the ground at
the foot of a bush or plant. The colouring of the eggs is more like
that of the Redstarts.

From Hrithacus and Pinarochroa, the two other genera to which

F
Cola

Pratinc

DIPLOOTOCUS MOUSSIERI 63

the present species has been referred, Diplootocus differs still more
than it does from the preceding ones.

Under the circumstances, therefore, I see no way out of the
difficulty other than that of placing it in a new genus, and adopting
Mr. Hartert’s somewhat uneuphonious name of Diplootocus, derived
from the Greek évrdovs @otoxos, and referring to the differently
coloured eggs which the species lays.

This richly coloured and attractive little bird, which‘*is to be met
with throughout the Atlas districts generally, appears to be peculiar
to the north-west portion of the African continent. A male specimen
of the species which is in the Florence Royal Natural History Museum
appears to have been obtained in the neighbourhood of Nice on
November 22nd, 1890, and Colonel Irby, writmg on the Ornithology
of the Straits of Gibraltar, mentions having seen a bird near Tarifa,
which he felt sure belonged to the present species. Giitke also
records the capture of a specimen in Heligoland in 1842. With
these exceptions, however, D. moussieri, does not seem to have been
recorded from any other country except North-west Africa.

D. moussiert, although a resident species, appears to be migratory
to a certain extent within its own habitat, and in winter is to be found
in some of the oases and more bushy steppe-country of the South.
In spring, however, it leaves these districts for the Atlas and moun-
tainous country further north, which may be called the true home
of the species. Canon Tristram met with the bird in winter-time
near Ouaregla and in the M’zab country, and I have numerous notes
of its occurrence during that season in South Tunisia. In the spring
I have found the species abundant throughout the Tunisian Atlas
region and in the districts further north.

In Algeria it is common in spring and summer throughout the
Aurés range and other mountainous districts.

From Marocco I have a large series of examples, many of them
obtained in the Atlas at considerable elevations, other specimens
being from Ecru and Ras-el-Ain, coast districts lying south of
Mogador. Mr. Meade-Waldo also appears to have found the species
common in the Maroccan Atlas, at altitudes as high as 9,000 feet,
and likewise in the neighbourhood of Mogador (bis, 1903, p. 206).
I have no note of its occurrence in Tripoli.

D. moussieri, as a rule, frequents the bush-covered slopes of hill-
sides and uncultivated country, where the vegetation is of the

64 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

“maquis’’ description common to the Atlas regions, thuja, juniper,
rosemary and lavender being among the most conspicuous -plants, all
flourishing in a luxuriant tangle, and occasionally intermixed with a
forest growth of Aleppo-pines. The species, however, may often be
found at considerable altitudes, and in the districts it frequents, it
is probably to be met with as high as vegetation occurs. On the
Dj-Semama in Central Tunisia I found it nesting at about 5,000 feet
above sea-level. D. moussiert is generally to be found in pairs, and
in certain favoured localities several pairs may be met with within a
very limited area. It is a shy, timid little bird, and does its best to
hide on the approach of a person or on the first sign of any danger,
although the bright plumage of the male and the natural restlessness
of the bird render detection comparatively easy. The males are more
often to be seen than the females, owing partly to their conspicuous
plumage, and partly to their more inquisitive or watchful habits
inducing them to perch on the outside of a bush, while the females
keep more to the inside and lower parts. The species has a soft and
rather pretty little song, and its call or alarm note may often be
heard. The Arab name for this bird, ‘‘Zimzuck,”’ is said to be
derived from the note or cry it utters. The food of this species is
probably almost entirely composed of insects. The nesting of
D. moussieri commences early in April, and by the middle of that
month eggs may be found. The nest is generally placed on the
ground, at the foot of a bush or tuft of grass, and occasionally in a
shrub close to the ground. It is rather a bulky structure, composed
exteriorly of fine twigs and dry grasses, with a lining of hair and
feathers. The eggs, usually four or five in number, are, as a rule,
of a very pale bluish-white, and spotless, but they seem to be subject
to considerable variation, being sometimes of a greenish-blue, and at
others almost pure white. Their average measurements are 18 xX
14 mm. The parent birds, when nesting, seem to be more shy
than at any other time, and I recollect on one occasion waiting vainly
for nearly an hour for one or both of a pair to return to their nest,
near which [ was hidden, as I thought, well out of sight.

The accompanying plate shows a pair of this species, in spring
plumage, from Central Tunisia.

RUTICILLA PHGNICURUS 65

RUTICILLA PHNICURUS (Linnzus).
REDSTART.

Motacilla phenicurus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 335 (1766).

Ruticilla phceenicurus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 336;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 217.

Ruticilla phoenicura, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de lV Alg. p. 14 (1855);
Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 215 (1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p.
203; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 404; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 88.

Description—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Forehead and superciliaries white; crown, nape, back, scapulars and
upper wing-coverts bluish-grey ; lower back, rump, upper tail-coverts and
tail, excepting the two central rectrices, a rich rusty orange colour; the
two central rectrices dull brown ; wings brown; lores, a line extending over
the base of the bill, eye region, ear-coverts and throat black ; breast and
flanks bright orange ; abdomen whitish ; under tail-coverts pale rufous.

Tris dark brown ; bill black; feet dark brown.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3:20, culmen °45, tarsus ‘85.

Adult female, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Upper plumage much browner and duller than in the male, and lacking
the white forehead, and black on the head; chin greyish-white; breast and
rest of underparts greyish, tinged with orange; tail of a duller rust-colour
than in the male.

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet brown.

Measurements rather less than in the male.

The common Redstart occurs throughout Tunisia generally as a
migrant, being particularly abundant during the spring passage, and
a certain number of individuals also winter in the oases and more
southern districts.

Although I have no positive knowledge of the fact, I think it not
improbable that a few of these birds may breed in the Regency.
I certainly have a note of a Redstart having been met with by Mr.
Aplin near El-Kef on May 2nd, a late date for such an early migrant
to be found still in the country, were it not nesting there.

During the height of the spring migration the Tunisian oases and
gardens swarm with Redstarts, and numbers of the birds are then
snared by the Arab boys, together with Nightingales and other
Warblers.

When actually on migration the Redstart may sometimes be
found in small parties, but as a rule it 1s to be met with either

5

66 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

singly or in pairs. It is a bright, active bird, constantly in evidence,
as it flits from bush to bush along a pathway or woodside, and one
cannot fail to recognise it by its conspicuously marked tail, the bright
colouring of which has given rise to the bird’s trivial name in most
languages. Shy and restless to a degree, the Redstart seems to be in
perpetual motion, and even when perching cannot keep still, but dips
its body and flicks its tail up and down incessantly. The food of this
species seems to be almost entirely of an insect nature, and the bird
exhibits great dexterity in catching flies on the wing. It is rather a
silent bird, but its short song is considered to be fairly pleasing.

RUTICILLA TITYS (Scopoli).
BLACK REDSTART.

Sylvia tithys, Scop. Ann. i, p. 157 (1769) ; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois.
Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Ruticilla tithys, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 339; Loche,
Hapl. Sci. Alg. Ovs. i, p. 217 (1867); Koemg, J. f. O. 1888, p. 203 ;
id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 404; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 88; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 216.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Guettar, South Tunisia.

Crown, nape, back, scapulars and upper wing-coverts bluish-slate ;
wings greyish-brown, the secondaries broadly margined with white on the
outer webs; rump, upper tail-coverts and tail, with the exception of the
two central feathers, rich rust colour, the two central rectrices brown ; lores,
frontal band, eye-region, ear-coverts, throat, neck and breast black ; flanks
and sides of the body pale slate; centre of abdomen whitish; under tail-
coverts orange.

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3°30, culmen :45, tarsus ‘90.

Adult female, spring, from North Tunisia.

Plumage much greyer than in the male, the black being replaced by
grey-brown, and the breast and underparts being grey throughout.

Tris dark brown; bill and feet brown.

Measurements slightly less than in the male.

The Black Redstart occurs in Tunisia in winter and spring, and
is not uncommon in some parts of the Regency, although never so
abundant during the latter season as the preceding species. In the

RUTICILLA TITYS 67

vicinity of the town of Tunis the species may often be met with, and
in Central Tunisia it is by no means uncommon in the neighbourhood
of Kasrin, and other parts where rocky ground and Roman ruins are
plentiful. The species, indeed, seems to have a predilection for stone-
work and masonry in general, and ruins, from the fact of their being
generally situated in quiet and deserted localities, are much frequented
by these birds. In Rome the Black Redstart may often be seen
among the ruins of the Forum and Colosseum. Buildings of any
kind, however, attract the species, which, although naturally rather
shy and suspicious, at times becomes remarkably tame and confiding,
and in some Continental towns, where birds are unmolested, it may
constantly be observed in the immediate vicinity of dwellings.

Although resembling the common Redstart in some of its habits
and tastes, the present species differs from that bird essentially in
the decided preference it evinces for stonework and rocky ground,
and although occasionally to be found perching on bushes, it is much
more often to be seen on rocks or on the ground. When on passage
the species may sometimes be found in small flocks, but as a rule it
is to be met with singly or in pairs.

The song of the Black Redstart is pleasing, and much fuller than
that of the preceding species.

Its food consists chiefly of worms and insects. I know of no
instance of FR. titys breeding in Tunisia, but it is said to nest in
Algeria, and may possibly also do so in the Regency. In Marocco
Mr. Meade-Waldo appears to have met with this species on the
highest elevations of the Atlas in summer-time (Ibis, 1903, p. 206).

Under the name of Ruticilla nigra Professor Giglioli has recently
described as belonging to a new species a pair of Redstarts, which
were obtained in November, 1902, at Loceri, near Lanusei, in the
island of Sardinia (Bull. B. O. C. xiii, p. 79). The plumage of these
birds, a male and female, is almost entirely of a deep sooty-black
colour, the tail-feathers and upper tail-coverts alone showing traces
of the rusty or orange-brown so characteristic of the genus Ruticilla.
Like Professor Giglioli, with whom I happened to be at the time
these specimens arrived from Sardinia, I at first thought that they
were examples of f. titys dyed black, but such proves not to have
been the case. Intensely developed melanism might perhaps account
for the peculiar phase of plumage, and in this case, being highly
abnormal examples, the difference pointed out by Professor Giglioli as

68 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

being noticeable in the sternum of R. nigra as compared with that of
R. titys, apparently its nearest ally, as also the slight difference in the
respective measurements of the two species, would not necessarily
be surprising. Whatever may be its explanation, however, the case
is a singularly interesting one.

The specimens in question are preserved in the Royal Zoological
Museum at Florence under the Nos. 3,906 and 3,907 of the Bird series.

Subfamily SYLVIIN Al.

CYANECULA SUECICA (Linneus).
ORANGE-SPOTTED BLUETHROAT.

Motacilla suecica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 336 (1766).

Cyanecula suecica, Brehm, Vg. Deutschl. p. 350 (1831); Koenig, J. f. O.
1888, p. 205; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 412.

Erithacus ceeruleculus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 308.

Description.—Adult male, from Europe.

Upper parts brown, darkest on the crown and lores; forehead and a
stripe over the eyes dull white; wings, median rectrices and terminal half
of the other rectrices dark brown, the basal portion of the latter being bright
rufous; chin, throat and pectoral gorget glossy ultramarine-blue, with a
central patch bright rufous; below the blue gorget successive narrow bands
of black, white and rufous; abdomen dull white, flanks and sides light
brown ; axillaries and under tail-coverts pale rufous.

Tris, bill and feet brown.

Total length 5-75 inches, wing 3°10, culmen °50, tarsus 1:10.

The female generally has the whole of the underparts tawny-white, with
the exception of the breast, which has a dark brown band across it, but very
adult birds show some blue and rufous feathers there also.

Observations.—The size of the rufous breast patch varies in individuals.
Occasionally specimens are met with having the rufous patch surrounded
by a white ring.

Both the Orange-spotted and the White-spotted Bluethroat
apparently occur in Tunisia, but the former is probably extremely
rare there and of merely accidental occurrence. The latter, although

CYANECULA WOLFI 69

by no means common, is the form which is most frequently met
with in the Regency and generally throughout North-west Africa.
Between the two species there is apparently no difference in structure,
and the only difference in plumage is the colour of the spot in the
centre of the blue throat-patch, and were it not that the two forms
seem to have very distinct breeding areas, one might hesitate to
separate them. Although the distribution of the Bluethroats has not
yet been quite clearly defined, it would seem that C. swecica is more
of a northern and eastern species, with its breeding habitat in Northern
Europe and Asia, while C. wolfi is more of a southern and western
species, breeding in Central and South-western Europe. In winter
both forms are to be met with on migration in North Africa, C. swecica
being more abundant in the east and C. wolji in the west of the
Continent.

The only authentic record of the occurrence of the Orange-spotted
Bluethroat in Tunisia appears to be Dr. Koenig’s statement of his
having secured a male specimen in the neighbourhood of Gabes, on
May 18th, 1887 (J. f. O. 1888, p. 205).

In its habits the Bluethroat is said to closely resemble the Robin,
but is more partial to marshy localities where reeds and similar
aquatic plants flourish. In such spots the bird, although by no means
shy, is more or less hidden, and is therefore not so often seen as it
otherwise might be, particularly as it keeps to a great extent on the
ground, taking, indeed, most of its food there. This seems to consist
almost entirely of insects and worms. The species is said to be a
good songster, having some powerful and varied notes, which are to be
heard mostly in the early morning and late evening.

CYANECULA WOLFI, ©. L. Brehm.
WHITEH-SPOTTED BLUETHROAT.

Cyanecula wolfi, C. L. Brehm, Beitr. zur Végelk. ii, p. 173 (1822).
Erithacus cyaneculus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vy, p. 311.
Sylvia (Cyanecula) suecica, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846)
Cyanecula suecica, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 222 (1867).

C. leucocyana, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 205; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 412.
C. cyanecula, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 215.

70 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Marocco.

Differs from C. swecica merely in having the spot in the centre of the
blue throat-patch silvery-white instead of bright rufous.

Female resembles that of CU. swecica.

Observations.—Specimens are occasionally met with without any white
spot in the centre of the blue throat, but these are probably merely immature
individuals.

The White-spotted Bluethroat occurs in Tunisia and other parts
of North-west Africa as a winter migrant, but is not common
anywhere in the country, though more plentiful in some years than
in others. Dr. Koenig and Baron v. Erlanger have both met with the
species in the Regency, and the latter mentions having seen it
frequently in October and November in the neighbourhood of the
Oued Gabes (J. f. O. 1899, p. 215).

Dr. Koenig also met with it near Gabés in spring as late as May
18th, on which occasion he obtained specimens and saw many others
(J. f. O. 1888, p. 205).

In Algeria and Marocco, from both of which countries I have
specimens, the species occurs in limited numbers in winter and on
passage, as it does in Tunisia.

In its general habits and in its song the present form appears not
to differ from C. swecica.

ERITHACUS RUBECULA (Linneus).
ROBIN.

Motacilla rubecula, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 337 (1766).

Erythaca rubecula, Swainson, Fawna Amer., Birds, p. 488 (1831).

Erithacus rubecula, Scebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 299; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1892, p. 413; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 218.

Sylvia (Erythacus) rubecula, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11
(1846).

Rubecula familiaris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 224 (1867).

Dandalus rubecula, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 206.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.
Above olive-brown; forehead, lores, entire throat and breast bright

ERITHACUS RUBECULA (fil

orange, bordered with bluish-grey on the sides of the neck and breast;
abdomen white; flanks and thighs olive-brown; vent and under tail-coverts
whitish, tinged with brown.

Tris dark hazel; bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 2:75, culmen °45, tarsus ‘95.

Adult female similar to the male.

The Robin occurs chiefly as a winter migrant in Tunisia, being
more abundant north of the Atlas and along the coastline than in
the southern and more inland districts ; indeed, I do not remember ever
to have met with it in the central and south-western parts of the
Regency. ‘Tbe range of the species, however, extends to the extreme
south of Tunisia, and I have specimens, or notes of its occurrence,
from Tatahouine, Oglet-Ksar, and Tamerzed.

In Algeria and Marocco, as in Tunisia, the Robin occurs chiefly as
a winter migrant, but in no part of North-west Africa does the species
appear ever to be found in such large numbers as it is in some parts
of Southern Europe during the autumn and winter months. In most
of these South Huropean countries, unfortunately, our familiar little
songster is not accorded the same protection that it receives in
England, and vast numbers of Robins are annually snared for the
foreign markets.

The spring passage of this species commences in Tunisia rather
early, and by the beginning of March the bulk of the birds have
departed for their summer quarters. A few individuals remain and
breed in the forests and wooded hilly districts of the north of the
Regency, and I have notes of nests and young broods being met with
near Ghardimaou and El-Fedja during the months of May and June.

The nest of this species is generally placed in a bank, or in a hole
in some wall or hollow tree, and is loosely constructed of dry grasses
and leaves, lined with hair and feathers. The eggs, usually five in
number, are whitish, with pale reddish spots and markings.

The Robin’s habits are too well known to need description here,
but I may observe that the species, like many others, when on
migration becomes far more shy and less confiding than when at
home. During the greater part of the year insects and worms form
its chief diet, but it will eat almost anything in winter, when its
natural food is difficult to obtain.

Very pale varieties of the Robin are not uncommon, and my
collection contains examples of such light-coloured birds.

72 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

AEDON LUSCINIA (Linnzus).
NIGHTINGALE.

Motacilla luscinia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 328 (1766).

Aédon luscinia, Forst. Syn. Cat. Brit. Birds, p. 53 (1817) ; Erlanger,
Je Owle99 spe ales

Erithacus luscinia, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 294.

Luscinia philomela, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d'Ois Alg. j». 10 (1846).

Philomela luscinia, Zoche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 227 (1867).

Luscinia minor, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 205; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 412.

Daulias luscinia, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Above rich russet-brown, becoming more rufous on the rump and tail ;
below whitish-grey, darker on the sides and flanks, and lighter on the chin
and abdomen ; vent and under tail-coverts pale buff.

Tris dark hazel ; bill brown; feet purplish-brown.

Total length 6°50 inches, wing 3°35, culmen °d5, tarsus 1:08.

Female similar to the male.

The Nightingale is abundant during the spring migration through-
out the wooded parts of Northern and Central Tunisia, and in the
oases of the south of the Regency. In Algeria and Marocco the
species is also plentiful in spring, and from the latter country I have
examples obtained in the neighbourhood of the city of Marocco
during the month of May, when the birds were probably nesting.
From Tripoli I have specimens obtained in April. In some of the
Tunisian oases, and among the tamarisk thickets bordering the
southern Oueds, Nightingales are among the commonest birds to be
seen during the spring passage, and my morning strolls among the
magnificent palms and luxuriant orchards of the extensive Gafsa
oasis used to be rendered doubly pleasant by the wealth of bird-music
to be heard on every side. Unfortunately, many of these delightful
songsters fall victims to the Arab urchins, who trap the too confiding
birds by means of an ingenious contrivance made of palm leaf wicker-
work, with a bait placed below it. Numerous were the Nightingales
and other birds I used to release from these snares, much to the
astonishment of the natives, who failed to comprehend so irrational
a proceeding and such tender-heartedness on the part of one who had
come professedly for the purpose of collecting birds.

AEDON LUSCINIA ie

Like most of the Warblers, the Nightingale frequents localities
where a bush vegetation, with a tolerably thick undergrowth, pre-
vails, lofty trees being rarely resorted to, and evergreen forests and
plantations more or less shunned. Deciduous-leafed woods and copses
are favourite haunts of the species, although the bird being far from
shy, gardens and the neighbourhood of human dwellings are quite as
much affected by it as the more secluded retreats. By no means a
restless bird, it will remain quietly in one spot for a considerable
length of time, unless disturbed, when it flits off to some other bush
or low tree at no great distance. Its food, which is taken chiefly on
the ground, consists almost exclusively of worms and insects. In
captivity, however, the bird thrives well on meal paste, with a little
chopped meat or liver mixed with it.

In many European countries the Nightingale is greatly prized as
a cage-bird, and when brought up from the nest becomes remarkably
tame, and may live for several years in confinement. Birds caught
when full-grown, however, never seem to bear imprisonment well,
and rarely live long under such circumstances.

Besides its well-known melodious song, the Nightingale has some
harsh, grating notes, which are more often heard after the breeding
season is over. Its call note seems to be a low churr. When on
passage the Nightingale does not generally sing at night, but in the
daytime, the early morning being the time when its song is chiefly to
be heard. Occasionally, when half a dozen or more of the birds are
singing at the same time around one, the music is somewhat over-
powering, and becomes quite a case of ‘‘ embarras de richesses.”’

The Nightingale probably breeds in certain numbers south of the
Atlas, but not so abundantly as it does further north, where the
country is more wooded and better watered. In the oak forests of
Ghardimaou Mr. Aplin found nests and young birds of this species in
May and June. Nesting in these districts seems to commence about
the end of April, and by the end of May one may meet with young
birds fully fledged and on the wing. The nest of this species is usually
placed at the foot of a bush, or on a bank, and is roughly constructed
of small roots, grasses, and dry leaves. The eggs, generally four or
five in number, are of a uniform olive-brown colour, their average
measurements being 21 x 15 mm.

74 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

AGROBATES GALACTODES (Temminck).
RUFOUS WARBLER.

Sylvia galactodes, Zemm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 182 (1820); Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 84; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 273.

Agrobates galactodes, Swainson, Class. of Birds, ii, p. 241 (1837).

Sylvia rubiginosa, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. de Alg., p. 10 (1845).

Aédon galactodes, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i. p. 279 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 203; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 405; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895,
p- 9d.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above rich rufous, brighter on the rump and tail-coverts; quills brown,
margined with rufous, the secondaries and wing-coverts broadly margined
with buff and grey; tail rounded and conspicuously marked, the two central
feathers bright rufous, the others bright rufous throughout the greater part
of their length, with a subterminal broad blackish band, and tipped with
pure white, the white tip measuring about half an inch on the outer rectrices,
and gradually decreasing till it becomes entirely lost on the centre feathers ;
a broad stripe over the eye buffy-white; lores and a short stripe below the
eye dark brown; underparts buffy-white, with a rufous-grey tinge on the
sides and flanks.

Tris brown ; bill brown ; feet flesh colour.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3°50, culmen ‘70, tarsus 1-05.

Female similar to the male.

The genus Agrobates seems to bear but slight resemblance to that
of Acrocephalus, with which it has been united by many authors, and,
following one or two good authorities, I have placed it nearer the
genus Sylvia, to which it appears to be more closely related. By
some ornithologists it has been considered as approaching the
Crateropodidé, and not without reason, as in many respects it
certainly resembles some members of that family, but on the whole
it is, perhaps, more nearly related to the Sylviide.

The range of the Rufous Warbler extends throughout North
Africa, Palestine, Spain and Portugal. In Italy, as well as in Eng-
land, it has occurred occasionally as a straggler, and the Florence
Museum possesses specimens of it obtained in the Peninsula. In the
more eastern countries of South Europe, and in Asia, the closely-allied
species, A. familiaris, takes the place of the present species, occasionally
straying westward as far as Italy. Canon Tristram (Lbis, 1882, p. 409)

AGROBATES GALACTODES 75

gives some interesting notes regarding the geographical ranges of the
two species, and alludes particularly to the sharp line of demarcation
existing between them in Syria and Palestine, A. galactodes being
exceedingly abundant south of the Lebanon, throughout the whole of
Palestine, and entirely absent in the country north of those mountains ;
while A. familiaris abounds in the latter districts, and is wanting in
Palestine. This no doubt refers to the breeding habitat of the species,
as on migration A. familiaris presumably passes through Palestine.

In Tunisia, as well as in Algeria and Marocco, A. galactodes occurs
abundantly as a summer migrant, arriving, as a rule, rather late in the
spring, and leaving again in the early autumn. According to Canon
Tristram, this species winters in the Algerian Sahara, but I have no
note of its occurrence anywhere in the Regency during the colder
months, and its winter quarters are evidently further south than
Tunisia. During this season it has been met with in Abyssinia.
From Tripoli I have examples of the species, but all obtained in
spring and summer, and I cannot say whether it winters there also.

In the southern oases of Tunisia the Rufous Warbler generally
makes its first appearance at the end of March or beginning of April,
but it does not hurry northwards as quickly as most of the summer
migrants do, and in the central and northern districts of the Regency
the bird is not to be seen in any numbers until after the middle of
April. By the end of that month, however, the species is abundant
throughout the country generally, and I have sometimes counted as
many as six or eight of these birds on the ground together, within a
foot or two of each other. It is a pretty sight to see them on such
occasions, as they dart to and fro, sporting with one another, and
displaying conspicuously their handsomely marked fanlike tails.

The Rufous Warbler evinces a marked partiality for dry, sandy
localities, and dusty roads bordered with cactus and aloes. The
prickly-pear plantations, abundant in many parts of the Regency, are
much frequented by these birds, but where these plants do not occur,
one may meet with the species among thickets of tamarisk
(T. africana), or other bushes, or even on a “‘ maquis’’-covered hillside,
provided there are shrubs of a certain height. Wet or marshy ground
seems to be shunned by this Warbler, and when found among
tamarisks, it is generally seen among those standing high and dry,
and not among those actually bordering streams. Although a bush-
loving bird, it seems to be equally fond of the ground, and probably

76 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

obtains its food entirely there, its diet consisting chiefly of beetles and
worms. Rather shy than otherwise, this Warbler would probably
often escape notice, were it not for its extreme restlessness and bright
plumage. Its fine song, too, cannot fail to attract attention, and excite
the curiosity of the listener to discover the sweet songster. The song
of this Warbler is composed of some particularly melodious notes and
is most varied, being at times very powerful, and at others soft and
murmuring. It is rather difficult to give any proper rendering of it,
but the syllables “‘ wheet-a-wheet,’’ repeated two or three times rather
loudly, and then followed by a soft ‘‘twee-twee, twee, twee,” may
perhaps convey an idea of it.

A. galactodes breeds throughout Northern and Central Tunisia,
and probably also in some of the southern oases. Its nest is generally
placed in a cactus clump, but occasionally in some other thick bush,
and as a rule at a height of from one to six feet from the ground. It
is loosely built of grasses and rootlets, plentifully lined with wool and
hair, and very often has a piece of snake-skin in it, though with what
object this is placed there by the bird it is difficult to say. Possibly
it may be for no other reason than that which leads some other birds
to introduce bits of rag or similar soft materials into their nests, but
on the other hand, it is quite possible that the snake’s skin may
possess some scent or other property which serves to keep off some
of the bird’s natural enemies.

The eggs are generally four or five in number and of a greenish-
white colour, spotted and streaked with reddish-brown and grey
markings. Average measurements 22 x 16 mm.

Canon Tristram states (bis, 1867, p. 81) that the eggs of this
species which he collected in Palestine differ considerably in their
markings from those which he took in Algeria, the distinction being
perfectly constant, as shown by a comparison of large series of both.
This is an interesting fact, pointing as it does to the influence of
environment, and possibly also of climate, on egg-coloration. The
birds themselves found in the two countries appear to be identical
in every way.

SYLVIA CINEREA 77

SYLVIA CINEREA, Latham.
WHITETHROAT.

Sylvia cinerea, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii, p. 514 (1790); Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v. p. 8; Malherbe, Faune Ornith. del’ Alg. p. 13 (1855);
Loche, Expl. Scr. Alg. Ois. i. p. 240 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p.
195 ; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 397 ; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94.

S. sylvia, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 264.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ras-el-Aioum, South Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, lores and ear-coverts pale slate-grey ; nape, back,
rump and upper tail-coverts greyish-brown ; wings dark brown, the second-
aries and coverts broadly fringed with rufous-buff; tail dark brown, the
exterior feathers white, with a little brown on the inner webs, the next
adjoining rectrices tipped with white; chin and throat white, shading into
pale vinous on the breast and greyish-buff on the flanks; under tail-coverts
whitish, tinged with buff.

Tris yellowish-brown ; bill grey ; feet light brown.

Total length 5-50 inches, wing 2°80, culmen °45, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female resembles the male to a great extent, but is browner and
duller in its colouration. ;

The Whitethroat is very common as a migrant throughout Tunisia,
and is also resident in the Regency to a certain extent, breeding there,
and occurring in winter-time in the southern oases.

The species apparently occurs throughout the whole of North
Africa, from Marocco to Egypt, although perhaps not common in the
latter country. From Tripoli and Cyrenaica I have examples of it
obtained during the summer.

During the spring migration the Whitethroat is remarkably abun-
dant on some of the bush-covered plains of the Central Tunisian
districts, particularly should the wind happen to be favourable for the
passage of the birds. On such occasions one may see numbers of
these Warblers in the company of others, such as S. swbalpina and
S. conspicillata, flitting from bush to bush, and enlivening with their
presence the somewhat monotonous landscape. Olive groves are
much resorted to by these and other Warblers, no doubt for the sake
of the numerous small insects which infest the gnarled trunks and
the foliage of these trees.

The food of the Whitethroat consists chiefly of insects and their
larve, but berries and fruit seem also to be eaten at times.

78 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Its song, if such it can be called, is poor, and composed of merely
afew harsh notes. Its alarm note is more often to be heard, parti-
cularly during the breeding season, when, on its nest being approached,
the bird becomes very clamorous, and shows great resentment at the
intrusion. Far from being shy, the Whitethroat often seems actually
to court observation, rising from a bush into the air and hovering
over it immediately in front of one. Occasionally, however, it skulks
among thick bushes, and is then not easily detected.

The cup-shaped nest of this species, usually to be found in or at
the root of a low bush, is a neat structure, composed of fine grasses,
and lined with hair. The eggs, four to six in number, are of a
greenish-white colour, spotted and marked with grey and light brown,
chiefly at the blunt end. Average measurements 17 x 13 mm.

SYLVIA CURRUCA (Linnzus).
LESSER WHITETHROAT.

Motacilla curruca, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 329 (1766).

Sylvia curruca, Scop. Ann. i, p. 155 (1769); Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. v, p. 16; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846); Loche,
Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 239 (1867) ; Koemg, J. f. O., 1888, pp. 190,
195; id. J. f. O. 1892, pp. 389, 397 ; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94.

Description.—Adult male, from Algeria.

Forehead and crown slate-grey, darker on the lores and ear-coverts ;
rest of upper parts greyish-brown; quills blackish-brown, most of the
feathers slightly margined with grey ; tail blackish-brown, the two outer-
most feathers with the outer web white; chin and throat white; rest of
the underparts white, tinged with vinous.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 2°50, culmen ‘40, tarsus °75.

Tris white; bill blackish ; feet lead colour.

Adult female resembles the male, but is duller in colouring.

The Lesser Whitethroat, although more or less rare in the
Regency, apparently occurs there occasionally, and according to
Malherbe, Loche, Canon Tristram, and Mr. C. Dixon, is also met
with in Algeria. A specimen of it obtained by Loche in Algeria,
which I have examined, exists in the Turati Collection of the Milan
Museum, under the No. 17,566. I know of no instance of the

SYLVIA SUBALPINA 79

occurrence of the species in Marocco, but it occurs in Spain, and Mr.
Howard Saunders mentions having seen an individual of it in the
Western Pyrenees. He also states that a few pass the winter to
the east of Malaga, and that in some years the species is fairly
common on migration about Valencia and Murcia (Man. Br. Birds,
Qnd ed., p. 44). In Eastern Europe, however, the species is far
commoner, and going still further eastward into Asia closely allied
forms of the bird are to be met with.

In Egypt and North-east Africa this species is common on
migration.

In its general habits the Lesser Whitethroat resembles the
common Whitethroat to a great extent. Iam unaware of its nesting
anywhere in North-west Africa.

SYLVIA SUBALPINA, Bonelli.
SUBALPINE WARBLER.

Sylvia subalpina, Bonelli, fide Temm, Man. d’Orn, i, p. 214 (1820)
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vy, p. 27; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 196;
id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 398; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 94; Hrlanger,
AN js (Os WERE fos PAO

S. passerina, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de l’Alg. p. 12 (1855).

Stoparola subalpina, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 243 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Feriana, Central Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, nape, back, scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts
slate-grey, rather darker on the head ; wings brown, with light margins
to the feathers; tail blackish-brown; exterior rectrices white; lores and
ear-coverts slate-brown; a white moustachial stripe; chin and entire
throat rich chestnut; upper breast and sides of the body and flanks pale
chestnut; abdomen white, tinged with chestnut; under tail-coverts
whitish.

Tris bright hazel; eyelid brick-colour; bill dark brown, yellowish at the
base of lower mandible ; feet yellow-ochre, or yellowish-flesh colour.

Total length 5:20 inches, wing 2°40, culmen °40, tarsus -70.

Adult female, above ashy-brown; wings and tail as in the male; below
whitish, tinged with buff. Soft parts and measurements as in the male,
except that the eyelid is whitish instead of being reddish, and the iris is
paler, being sometimes straw-yellow.

80 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Observations.— Some specimens in my collection from Tunis are larger
than others, and paler in colouring, having less chestnut on the breast and
sides, the underparts of a purer white, and rather more white on the tail-
feathers. The wing of these specimens measures as much as 2:55 inches in
males. Other specimens, again, are found in which the entire under-surface
of the body is of a vinous-rose colour, without any white on the centre of
the abdomen. Marocco examples have the throat and breast rather more
rusty than Tunisian specimens. In short, there seems to be considerable
variation in the coloration of this species, but whether this is partly or
entirely due to season or age is not easy to say.

This Warbler is abundant in Tunisia, particularly during the spring
migration, when, should the wind be favourable for the passage of the
birds, considerable numbers of them may be seen. According to
Blane, the species is also to be found in the Regency in limited num-
bers during the winter months. It breeds in many parts of the
country, both north and south of the Atlas.

In Algeria and Marocco the Subalpine Warbler occurs more or less
plentifully, as it does in Tunisia, being found in Marocco at considerable
elevations on the Atlas Mountains. In both countries the species is to
be found nesting. From Tripoli also I have specimens of this Warbler,
obtained during the spring and summer months.

In Tunisia I have found S. swhalpina most plentiful in the neigh-
bourhood of Sousa, and along the east coast of the Regency, where
the extensive olive groves, abundant there, offer food and shelter to the
freshly arrived migrants. In such localities, during the first fortnight
or so of April, numbers of the present species, and other soft-billed
migrants, may be seen flitting from tree to tree, and feeding on the
small insects which swarm in these groves. Later on, however, when
the breeding season has set in, more bushy spots are resorted to by
the birds for nesting purposes.

In its habits and life generally the Subalpine Warbler resembles
other bush-frequenting Warblers, being of feeble and wavering flight,
but active and agile in threading its way in and out of bushes and thick
vegetation. It is not particularly shy, and may often be approached
closely. Its food consists chiefly of the smaller insects and their
larve. It is a silent bird as a rule, but during the nesting season
becomes rather more loquacious, and should its nest or young be
approached, its soft ‘‘chatting’’ note of remonstrance may often be
heard. This is uttered by both sexes, though the male’s note is rather
louder than that of the female,

SYLVIA SUBALPINA 8]

The breeding season of this Warbler may be said to extend from
the middle of April to the middle of June, and second broods are not
uncommon. A low bush is usually selected as a site for the nest,
which is composed of small root fibres and fine dry grasses, sometimes
lined with a little horse-hair or vegetable down. The usual comple-
ment of eggs is four; the ground colour varies from white slightly
tinged with green, to white slightly tinged with rose, and is spotted
and freckled all over, but principally at the larger end, with violet and
brown markings. Measurements 17 x 13 mm. I remember once
finding a nest of this species, containing four young birds, in the
garden of a hotel at Taormina, much frequented by visitors. The old
birds were unremitting in their attentions to their young brood, and
apparently did not greatly object to the presence of the numerous hotel
guests, although their nest was close to a path along which people
constantly passed.

As above mentioned, this species varies somewhat in the coloration
of its plumage, and also slightly in size, and should perhaps be
subdivided into two, if not three, forms, one of these being referable
to Heckel’s Sylvia lewcopogon (Meyer, 'aschenbuch, 1882, p. 91).
As, however, there seems to be a good deal of variation in the plumage
of this bird dependent on season and age, a large amount of material,
and a most careful study of the same, are necessary before one can
come to any satisfactory settlement of the question, pending which
I prefer to retain the Tunisian Subalpine Warbler under Bonelli’s
name.

I may here observe that Bonelli’s type of S. swbalpina is unfortu-
nately not available for comparison. I had quite expected to find it
in the Turin Zoological Museum, and indeed it once existed there, as
Count Salvadori and I ascertained by reference to the old registers of
the Museum. There it is recorded that the type was a skin obtained
in Piedmont, but being in poor condition it was not preserved, and
another specimen from Sardinia was substituted in its place. The
Sardinian skin, however, is no longer to be found either, and Count
Salvadori had made a note to that effect when going over the Museum
registers some years previously.

82 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

SYLVIA CONSPICILLATA, Marmora.
SPECTACLED WARBLER.

Sylvia conspicillata, Marm. fide Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 210 (1820) ;
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v. p. 22; Malherbe, Faune Ornith.
de l'Alg. p. 13 (1855); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 195; id. J. f. O. 1892,
p. 397; Whitaker, Ibis, 1095, p. 95; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 265.

Stoparola conspicillata, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 242 (1867).

Description Adult male, spring, from El-Oubira, Central Tunisia.

Above slate-grey, the back and scapulars browner; secondaries and
wing-coverts conspicuously margined with light cinnamon ; the two exterior
rectrices white, the next adjoining pair tipped with white, the remainder
brownish-black; lores and ear-coverts very dark slate; chin and sides of
the throat pure white; lower throat pale slate; breast and remainder of
underparts pale vinous, becoming whitish on the middle of the abdomen
and crissum.

Iris bright hazel, eyelid fringed with small white feathers ; bill brownish-
grey, yellowish at the base of the lower mandible; feet yellowish.

Total length 4 inches, wing 2:25, culmen -40, tarsus -70.

Adult female, winter, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Above uniform sandy-brown; wings and tail as in the male; below
whitish, with a buff instead of a vinous tinge.

Soft parts and measurements as in the male.

Observation.—There is a considerable difference between the summer
and the winter plumage of this species, the latter being a good deal browner,
and generally duller than the former.

This little Warbler is of general distribution throughout the
Tunisian Regency, where it is resident and breeds. The species is,
however, also to some extent migratory, and during the spring
months seems to be more abundant than at other seasons.

In Algeria S. conspicillata is by no means uncommon, and I have
numerous examples of it from South Marocco. According to Favier,
however, the species is not common about Tangier, where it is only
to be seen in the spring, on its passage northward.

Col. Irby includes this Warbler in his list of birds to be found in
South Spain (Orn. Straits Gib. p. 87). In Italy the Spectacled Warbler
occurs occasionally, and in Sicily it is by no means uncommon during
the spring and summer months, nesting in the higher mountainous
districts of the island. I have no specimens from, or notes of its

SYLVIA NANA DESERTI é 83

occurrence, in Tripoli and Cyrenaica, although I should imagine the
species occurs in some parts of the Vilayet, whatever may be the case
further east. Capt. Shelley includes it in his list of the birds of
Egypt, on the authority of Canon Tristram, although he had not
himself met with the species there.

On most of the semi-desert plains of Central Tunisia, as well as in
the salt-marsh country further south, S. conspicillata may be found
most abundantly during the spring months. In the vicinity of the
town of Tunis, and at Hamman-Lif, I have also found it plentiful, and
Blane the naturalist informs me that a favourite breeding haunt of
the species is among the Mimosa bushes in the gardens at the last-
mentioned place. Bushes of any kind, however, are resorted to by
this Warbler for breeding purposes, and in South Tunisia the white
broom, and many of the low-growing salsolaceous plants, are often
selected for that object. In its mode of life and in its general habits
it greatly resembles the Whitethroats, to which, indeed, it is most
closely related. In the south of the Regency S. conspicillata commences
nesting operations about the middle or end of March, but in the north
the date is considerably later, and nests with eggs may be found even
in June. The nest, which is usually placed in or at the foot of a low
bush, is cup-shaped and bears considerable resemblance to that of the
Whitethroat. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a greenish-
white colour, freckled all over, but chiefly at the blunt end, with
minute spots of greenish-grey or greenish-brown. Average measure-
ments16 xX 12 mm.

SYLVIA NANA DESERTI (Loche).
WESTERN DESERT-WARBLER.

Stoparola desertii, Loche, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1858, p. 394, pl. xi,
fig. i, id. Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i. p. 245 (1867).
Sylvia nana deserti, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 269.

Description.—Adult male, July, from Oumsinerma, Tripoli.

Upper plumage sandy-isabelline, paler on the crown and mantle, and
more rufescent on the lower back and upper tail-coverts; quills grey,
margined with rufescent-isabelline ; central rectrices rufous-isabelline ;
outer pair of rectrices white, the remainder blackish-brown, margined

84 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

with rufous; underparts silvery-white, washed on the sides and flanks with
light buff.

Iris light yellow; bill light brown above and yellowish below; feet
light yellow.

Total length 4 inches, wing 2°20, culmen ‘35, tarsus °75.

Observation.—The plumage of the only two specimens of this Warbler in
my collection is exceedingly pale, but is probably faded, the birds having
been obtained in the month of July.

This little Desert-Warbler appears to be the western representa-
tive of S. nana (Hemp. and Ehr.), differing from that species in the
more rufescent-isabelline colour of its plumage, and in its slightly
smaller size. It is no doubt a good geographical form, and fully
entitled to subspecific distinction, being, indeed, one of the many
illustrations we have of the tendency shown by birds, as well as by
other members of the fauna and flora of the Sahara region, to assume
rufous or isabelline hues, and forming another example of Nature’s
providential disposition for the preservation of species by protective
colouring.

The species occurs in the more southern and desert districts of the
Tunisian and Algerian Sahara, as also in Tripoli, from whence I have
specimens in my collection, obtained by Mr. Dodson at Oumsinerma,
in the extreme east of the Vilayet.

Loche seems to have been the first to distinguish the form,
meeting with it in Southern Algeria, and describing it as a new
species under the name of Stoparola desertii (Rev. et Mag. de Zool.,
1858, p. 394, pl. 11, fig. 1).

The Turati Collection of the Milan Museum possesses a specimen
of this Warbler, which was obtained by Loche in the Algerian Sahara,
and is probably the type of his S. desertit.

More recently the species has been met with by Dr. Koenig near
Dzelfana, El-Alia and El-Mouilah in the Algerian Sahara, and by
Baron v. Erlanger on the Djebel Dekanis, Gelb-el-Assued and Bou-
Kartuf in the Tunisian Sahara. To both these gentlemen, as well
as to Loche, we are indebted for interesting notes regarding the
species,

The Western Desert-Warbler appears to be somewhat local in its
distribution, and is nowhere really abundant. It affects sandy

SYLVIA NANA DESERTI 85

country as a rule, where but little vegetation is to be found, and
that merely of a dwarf or scrub description. Owing to its small size,
and to its shyness, as well as to the fact that its colour harmonises so
well with that of the soil and surroundings of the districts it inhabits,
this little bird may easily escape notice, and is probably often passed
by, although within a few feet of one. Like Scotocerca sahara, it
seems to be fond of diving into the middle of a desert-bush, in order to
hide itself. While travelling in Tripoli Mr. Dodson was only for-
tunate enough to meet with the species on a single occasion, when he
came across five individuals together, probably a family party, as it
was in the month of July. As a rule the birds are more often to be
found in pairs. The food of this little Warbler appears to consist
chiefly of insects and their larve. Its flight is short and jerky. Both
Loche and Dr. Koenig speak of its song as being very soft and
pleasing, and the latter says that the little songster is in the habit of
rising into the air when singing, and then dropping down again into
the bush from which it rose. Loche considers that its song bears
some resemblance to that of S. conspicillata. Its call-note appears to
be rather sharp and piercing.

Dr. Koenig informs us that the nest of this species differs totally
from the ordinary type of Warbler’s nest, and is more like that of the
Reed- Warbler, being very deep and purse-shaped, with an aperture at
the top. It is placed in a desert-bush, and is composed principally of
grasses and other plant-material, well lined with animal wool and
vegetable down. Dr. Koenig found several nests, but only one with
eggs in it. This he took in the neighbourhood of Dzelfana on April
13th. The two eggs it contained had a greenish-white ground colour,
spotted with olive-green surface spots, and pale lilac shell-marks
chiefly at the larger end. They both measured 14 X 11 mm.

A specimen of this species which was obtained by Signor Odoardo
Ferragni of Cremona, in the vicinity of that town on November 7th,
1883, is preserved in the Florence Museum under the Catalogue No.
2,252. So far as I am aware, this is the only recorded instance of
the occurrence of this desert-species in Europe.

86 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

SYLVIA MELANOCEPHALA (Gmelin).
SARDINIAN WARBLER.

Motacilla melanocephala, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i, p, 970 (1788).

Sylvia melanocephala, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 29;
Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846); Whitaker, Ibis, 1895,
p. 98.

Pyropthalma melanocephala, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 246
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 200; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 403; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 260.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kebilli, South Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, lores and ear-coyerts jet-black; the remainder of the
upper plumage dark slate, with the exception of the quills which are brown,
the secondaries being fringed with pale grey ; tail, which is rather Jong and
rounded, blackish-slate, the outer feathers with the outer web and tip white,
the next adjoining pair also tipped with white ; chin and throat pure white,
the remainder of the underparts white, washed with slate.

Tris red, eyelid brick-red; bill black, becoming grey below; feet light
brown.

Total length 5:30 inches, wing 2°35, culmen °45, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female, spring, from Kebilli, South Tunisia.

Forehead and crown brownish-slate ; the remainder of upper plumage
brown; tail pattern as in the male; chin and throat white ; remainder of
the underparts white, tinged with buff-brown.

Soft parts as in the male; measurements slightly less.

Observations.—The colour of the iris in this species appears to vary,
according to age, from orange-yellow to deep red, but is generally of the
latter colour in fully adult males.

This Warbler is common in many parts of the Regency, occurring
as a resident and breeding species in the northern and Atlas districts,
but apparently only as a winter migrant in the south, where its range
does not usually extend to the more inland oases. I have a note of
its occurrence, however, at Douirat, which is fairly far inland.

In Marocco the Sardinian Warbler is very common, and I have
numerous examples of it, obtained in different parts of the Empire,
both north and south. These seem to be rather darker in colouring
than the generality of specimens found further east.

From Tripoli also I have specimens of this species.

SYLVIA MELANOCEPHALA 87

~ In Central Tunisia I have found this Warbler not uncommon, and
in the neighbourhood of Kasrin the species seemed to be breeding in
April. In Northern Tunisia it is abundant in the vicinity of
Hamman-Lif, and other localities near the town of Tunis, as well as
at Bizerta, and on the slopes of the Djebel Eshkul, near that town, in
all of which districts the species was nesting at the end of April.

In its habits the Sardinian Warbler resembles the members of
the genus Melizophilus to a great extent, being essentially a bush-
frequenting species, and rarely to be seen in trees. Its jerky, undulating
flight also is like that of Melizophilus, and altogether it appears to
bear much affinity to this group.

It is extremely sedentary as a rule, and if undisturbed will remain
in the same garden, or shrubbery, all the year round, the sexes
keeping in pairs throughout the year, and being most devoted to each
other. During the nesting season the male bird takes part in the
incubation of the eggs, and on these being hatched, he evinces the
ereatest solicitude for the welfare of the young brood, even after they
leave the nest. His chiding alarm notes, however, often draw
attention to the young birds when they would otherwise pass
unobserved, and both parents at times take part in vehemently
protesting against an invasion of their privacy.

The song proper of the Sardinian Warbler is sweet and pleasing,
though not very varied. It may often be heard in spring-time, if
care be taken in approaching the songster quietly.

The food of this species consists chiefly of insects and worms,
varied to a slight extent by berries and fruit.

Nesting commences early in the spring, and by the middle or
end of March nests, with their full complement of eggs, may be
found. The ‘‘ maquis’’-covered hill-slopes so abundant in Tunisia are
favourite breeding haunts of this species, the nest being generally
placed in the fork of a bush, about four or five feet from the ground,
and composed of fine rootlets and bents, lined with hair. The shape
of the nest is cup-like, and rather deep, and the eggs, usually four or
five in number, are of a greenish-white colour, closely spotted all
over with grey and brown. Average measurements 17 X 14 mm.
According to some authors the eggs of this species vary considerably,
but I cannot say that such is my experience, although, of course, there
is a certain amount of variation.

I have alluded to the nest of this bird being generally placed about

88 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

four or five feet from the ground, but occasionally it may be found at
twice that height or even more. At times, on the contrary, it is low
down, and I once found a nest of this species in a small Asparagus-
fern in a greenhouse in my garden in Palermo. The parent birds used
to pass in and out through an open window of the greenhouse, and
seemed perfectly at home there.

Like many other species, this Warbler, when disturbed on its nest,
will fly off, feigning disablement, in order to entice the intruder away
from its home, and its acting on such occasions is remarkably clever.

I may here observe that in Sicily S. melanocephala is the
commonest Warbler to be met with, and, with the exception perhaps
of the Blackcap, is the only strictly resident Warbler to be found in
the island. Every garden of any size at Palermo, and other places
in Sicily, can show several pairs of these birds, and such of the
mountains as have a ‘‘ maquis”’ growth are also much frequented by
the species.

Loche includes S. rweppelli in his list of Algerian birds, but any
occurrence of this eastern species so far west must have been purely
accidental, and exceptional.

SYLVIA ORPHEA, Temminck.
ORPHEAN WARBLER.

Sylvia orphea, Zemm. Man. d’Orn. p. 107 (1815); Whitaker, Ibis,
1895, p. 95.

S. orpheus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 14.

S. orphea, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de VAlg. p. 12 (1855); Koemg,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 196; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 401; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 208.

Curruca orphea, Loche, Hupl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 238 (1867).

Description.—-Adult male, spring, from Hamman-Lif, North Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, lores and ear-coverts dull smoke-black; rest of the
upper plumage ashen-grey, becoming brown on the wings; tail dark brown,
outer rectrices white, except for a narrow brown band on the inner webs, the
adjoining two pairs on either side slightly tipped with white; entire under
plumage white, tinged on the sides, tanks and crissum with vinous-grey.

Tris pale lemon-yellow ; bill and feet lead colour.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:20, culmen -50, tarsus ‘95.

SYLVIA ORPHEA 89

Adult female resembles the male, but is duller in colour generally, and
without the black crown, this part being dark ashen-grey.

The Orphean Warbler is very abundant in the wooded parts of
Tunisia as a summer migrant, arriving about the end of March or
beginning of April, breeding in the Regency, and leaving again in the
autumn. In the Gafsa oasis I found the species particularly plentiful
throughout the month of April, and in the neighbourhood of Sousa in
Central Tunisia it is very common among the olive groves, which
abound there. Olive groves, indeed, seem to have a special attraction
for this, as well as for some other species of Warbler, and in the height
of the periods of migration, are the resort of numbers of these small
birds, which may be seen flitting from tree to tree, and feeding on the
ants and other small insects which infest the gnarled trunks and
rough branches of the olive tree. Throughout the wooded districts
of the country north of the Atlas the species is also common during
the spring and summer.

From Tripoli I have examples of the Orphean Warbler obtained
during the month of April, and from Marocco some obtained in June.
This species apparently breeds in both these countries.

In its general habits the present species resembles the Blackcap,
but is less shy, allowing one to approach within a short distance of it.
The food of the Orphean Warbler consists of worms and insects,
varied perhaps to a slight extent by fruit and berries. Its song, though
hardly such as to merit the bird’s high-sounding name, possesses some
fairly rich and melodious notes.

In South Tunisia this Warbler commences nesting operations soon
after its arrival in April; north of the Atlas the breeding season is
somewhat later. The nest is generally to be found in a low bush, and
is built of fine grasses, lined with a little hair or wool. The eggs,
which are usually three or four in number, are sometimes greenish-
white, at others cream-coloured, marked and spotted with pale lake
and brown. Average measurements 20 x 15 mm.

90 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA (Linneus).
BLACKCAP.

Motacilla atricapilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 332 (1766).

Sylvia atricapilla, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 23 ; Malherbe,
Cat. Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 200 ; id.
J. f. O. 1892, p. 402; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 88; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 262.

Curruca atricapilla, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 233 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kebilli, South Tunisia.

Forehead and crown jet-black; lores, ear-coveris, cheeks and nape
bluish-grey ; remainder of the upper plumage olive-brown ; underparts pale
bluish-grey, becoming whitish on chin, abdomen and crissum, and brownish
on the flanks.

Tris dark brown ; bill dark greyish-brown ; feet lead colour.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 2-95, culmen -45, tarsus ‘85.

Adult female, spring, from Kebilli, South Tunisia.

Forehead and crown bright chestnut-brown; remainder of the upper
plumage olive-brown; underparts greyish, tinged with olive-brown on the
sides, and whitish on the abdomen.

Soft parts and measurements as in the male.

Observations.—Young males before the first moult resemble more or
less the female of this species, and instances are said to occur of the brown
head being retained by the male even until the following summer. Such
cases, however, can only be very exceptional, the black head being assumed,
as a rule, before the breeding season. The length of the wing in this species
varies considerably in individuals. The colour of the legs and feet also
varies, and examples occur with these parts dark brown instead of lead
colour.

The Blackcap appears to be both resident and migratory in
Tunisia, occurring abundantly during the periods of migration in
spring and autumn, and more sparingly in summer and winter.
During the latter season it is to be found in the southern oases, and I
have notes of its occurrence at Gabes, Tatahouine, and other places
in the south of the Regency. Baron Erlanger says he never came
across any females of this species in Tunisia in winter time, and
concluded, therefore, that they went further south. Mr. Aplin,
however, when at Tatahouine about the middle of February saw a
female Blackcap which had just been obtained in that neighbourhood.

SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA 91

During the spring passage this species is very common in all the
southern oases, as well as in the gardens and orchards of the north
of the Regency. The species is eminently a garden bird, and were
its own vernacular name not so appropriate, it might well lay claim
to that of the Garden-Warbler, whose song is certainly inferior to
that of the Blackcap. As a songster, indeed, S. atricapilla has but
few superiors, or even rivals, and in Mediterranean countries it has
the additional charm of being one of the earliest birds to sing, its rich
mellow notes being sometimes heard long before the winter is over.

In addition to the usual insect diet common to most Warblers, the
present species feeds largely upon fruit and berries of different kinds,
and it is no uncommon occurrence to find Blackcaps with the plumage
of their head and underparts tinged with the pollen of some plant
upon which they may have been feeding. The berries of the Tree-
privet (Ligustrum japonicum), abundant in many Mediterranean
gardens, are greedily devoured by Blackcaps, and numbers of the
birds may often be seen together busily engaged in feeding upon this
fruit. The decaying seed-pods of various species of Yucca also seem
to have a particular attraction for these Warblers, as well as the
bright berries of the Pepper-tree (Schinus molle).

I have never taken a nest of the Blackcap in Tunisia myself, but
Blane tells me that it breeds in the north of the Regency, and
Mr. Aplin certainly met with the species near Ghardimaou after the
middle of May, when it was presumably nesting. The nest, which is
generally placed in a low tree or bush, is composed almost entirely of
dry bents, with a little horse-hair. The eggs, four or five in number,
are of a pale brown, clouded and spotted with a darker shade of brown.
Their average measurements are 18 X 15 mm. Occasionally eggs are
found with a pink hue.

In Madeira and the Azores a variety of the Blackcap occurs in
which the black colouring of the head in the male bird extends to the
shoulders and under the throat. This form has been described as
distinct from typical S. atricapilla under the name of Curruca
heinekent, Jardine (Edin. Journ. Nat. and Geogr. Sci. i, p. 248).
Females of this variety are also met with, but are much rarer
than the males. There is an example from Madeira in the British
Museum collection.

Another insular form has recently been described as subspecifically
distinct from S. atricapilla by Prof. Arrigoni, who finds that the

92 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Blackcap of Sardinia differs from the ordinary form in being generally
darker, both above and below, the rufous head of the female being
also darker. This bird has been named Sylvia atricapilla Pauluccii
(Avicula, 1902, p. 103). Not having seen any specimens from Sardinia.
I cannot give any opinion as to the validity of this form.

“Sports” or “varieties ”’ of the Blackcap are occasionally met with,
and I have a specimen in my collection which is of a silvery-grey all
over, excepting the black head.

SYLVIA HORTENSIS, Bechstein.
GARDEN-WARBLER.

Motacilla hortensis, Bechst. Gemeinn. Naiurg. Deutsch. iv, p. 550 (1795).

Sylvia hortensis, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. p. 169 (1802) ; Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 10; Malherbe, Fauwne Ornith. de VAlg. p. 18
(1855); Whitaker, Ibis, 1896. p. 91.

Curruca hortensis, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 236 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1892, p. 389.

Sylvia salicaria, Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 597; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 263.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above uniform olive-brown, with a buff superciliary stripe; below pale
buff, becoming whiter on the middle of the abdomen and crissum.

Tris dark hazel; bill and feet grey.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3°20, culmen -45, tarsus -80.

Female almost similar to male.

The Garden-Warbler, although not particularly common in
Tunisia, occurs there in certain numbers as a spring and autumn
migrant, and also breeds in some parts of the Regency. I have
specimens of it obtained during the month of May from both the
north and south of the Atlas Mountains. From Marocco, as also from
Tripoli, I have examples obtained as late as the middle of May, which
would lead one to suppose that it breeds in both those countries.

As its name implies, the Garden-Warbler frequents gardens and
plantations where there are plenty of bushes and thick cover, and
is rather shy and unsociable in its habits. Its song, although vastly
inferior to that of the Blackcap, is mellow and has some sweet notes.

MELIZOPHILUS UNDATUS 93

It feeds on insects and their larve, and also to a great extent upon
fruit and berries. During the bird’s autumnal passage through Italy
ripe figs are largely eaten by it, whence its Italian name of “‘ Beccafico,”’
although this name is applied to other species as well. In some parts
of Sicily numbers of these birds are captured at night, as they are
roosting on the lower branches of the fig-trees. The method employed
on such occasions seems very simple; a sharp-eyed boy, armed merely
with a lantern, walks along quietly under the trees, and with his hand
seizes the poor birds, which are either asleep, or so dazed by the light
suddenly turned on them, that they are incapable of taking flight.

The species is said to bear confinement well and to become very
tame in captivity.

Its nest, which is generally to be found in a low bush, is composed
of fine grasses and root-fibres, lined with hair, and its eggs, four
or five in number, are whitish, marbled and spotted with violet and
brown markings. Average measurements 18 x 15 mm.

MELIZOPHILUS UNDATUS (Boddaert).
DARTFORD WARBLER.

Motacilla undata, Bodd. Table Pl. Enl. p. 40 (1783).

Sylvia provincialis, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 31.

Melizophilus provincialis, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 249 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. 0. 1888, pp. 130, 202; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 404.

Description.— Adult male, autumn, from Italy.

General colour of upper parts greyish-brown, rather more slate on the
crown and browner on the back, quills brownish-slate ; tail, which is long
and rounded, also brownish-slate, the outer rectrices fringed with white ;
underparts mostly chestnut-red, the middle of the abdomen white; the
throat spotted with white; and the under tail-coverts grey.

Tris bright hazel; bill dark brown, yellowish at the base of the lower
mandible ; feet yellowish-brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2:10, culmen °40, tarsus ‘75.

Adult female resembles the male, but is rather duller in plumage,
and slightly smaller.

According to the naturalist Blanc, this species is not uncommon in
some parts of Tunisia during the periods of migration, being found

94 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

occasionally near the town of Tunis itself, as well as on the small
island of Djerba off the south-east coast. Dr. Koenig also seems to
think that it may occur on the small island of Curiat, near Monastir.
Although I cannot positively affirm having met with the Dartford
Warbler myself in the Regency, I remember on one occasion seeing
a bird which appeared to be of that species at Hamman-Lif near the
town of Tunis, and there seems to be no reason to doubt the fact of
its occurrence in the country, particularly as it occurs not unfrequently
in Algeria and Marocco, from which countries specimens are to be seen
in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, and that of Milan.
Canon Tristram and Loche both record its occurrence in Algeria, and
Mr. T. Drake and Favier its occurrence in Marocco. Loche, indeed.
states that it is resident in Algeria, and Favier that it is resident

in Marocco. Whether it is so in Tunisia I cannot say, but I have no -

knowledge of the species nesting anywhere in the Regency.

Like M. sardus, the Dartford Warbler appears to be very local
in its distribution, and seems to have a partiality for some of the
smaller Mediterranean islands, no doubt on account of the absence
of cultivation, and the consequent growth of wild plants of the
“maquis”’ description, so dear to the members of this group of
Warblers. Most of the Italian islands include M. undatus in their
Ornis, but the species appears to be abundant only where this vege-
tation flourishes luxuriantly. On the island of Pantelleria, not far
distant from the Tunisian coast, both M. sardus and M. undatus are
fairly plentiful, according to Doderlein.

In its habits the present species is active and restless, flitting
from one bush to another, or creeping in and out among the thickest
scrub plants, without stopping for a moment. Its flight is jerky
and undulating. Insects and grubs form its principal food.

Its song is short but rather pleasing, its alarm note rather harsh
and grating, while its call note is said to resemble the syllables

3D?)

pit-it-chou, whence its French vernacular name, Pitchow.

MELIZOPHILUS SARDUS 95

MELIZOPHILUS SARDUS (Marmora).
MARMORA’S WARBLER.

Sylvia sarda, Marm. fide Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 204 (1820); Seebohm,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 33.

Pyrophthalma sarda, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 247 (1867);

Melizophilus sardus, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 201; id. J. f. O. 1892,
p. 404.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Above dull slate colour, darker on the crown; wings and tail dark brown,
slightly margined with greyish-brown, the outer rectrices with whitish;
under-parts slate-grey, becoming paler on the abdomen.

Tris yellow, eyelid reddish; bill brown, the lower mandible yellowish
at the base; feet yellowish.

Total length 4:75 inches, wing 2:20, culmen -40, tarsus -80.

Adult female, winter, from Gabés, South Tunisia. Like the male,
but rather paler, and with a slight vinous tinge on the underparts. Soft
parts as in the male; measurements slightly less.

This species, although more or less local in its distribution, is not
uncommon in some parts of Tunisia, particularly on the east coast,
and in the southern districts during winter. At that season Mr.
Aplin frequently met with the species on the bushy hill-slopes and
among the rocky gorges, covered with ‘‘maquis”’ vegetation, and
obtained specimens of it at or near Gabes, Oum-Ali, and Tatahouine.
I have also seen specimens of it obtained at Gafsa.

Dr. Koenig found this Warbler common in spring on the small
island of Curiat, off the east coast of Tunis (J. 7. O. 1892, p. 404).
In the more western districts of the Regency I have never met with
this species, although it is no doubt to be found there occasionally,
as it occurs in Algeria, An example of this species, obtained by
Loche in the Algerian Sahara, is preserved in the Turati Collection
at Milan under the No. 17,575, and I have seen another specimen,
a male, which was obtained by Mr. H. F. Witherby at Biskra on
March 8th, 1904.

From Spain the species appears to be unrecorded, although appar-
ently it has been obtained in Portugal (J. 7. O. 1872, p. 148), and both
Mr. Howard Saunders and A. von Homeyer mention its occurrence
in the Balearic Islands. In the island of Sardinia, and probably also
in Corsica, this Warbler is common and resident. In Sicily, although

96 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

nowhere abundant, Marmora’s Warbler is to be met with occasionally,
and in some districts on the south coast it may possibly be resident.
On the Italian mainland, however, the species is distinctly rare, for
it has only been procured on one or two occasions from Liguria.
Further eastwards it appears to have been met with occasionally in
some parts of Greece, as well as, perhaps, in Turkey and Palestine,
and according to von Henglin (Orn. N. O. Afr. p. 303), the species
also occurs in spring in Egypt. In conclusion, it would appear that
Marmora’s Warbler is decidedly local in its distribution, and were
it not for its occurrence in Portugal, the species might be considered
as a strictly Mediterranean form, occurring most commonly in the
islands of that basin where a “ maquis’’ vegetation flourishes.

In its general habits, food and nidification the present species
greatly resembles the Dartford Warbler. Its song, however, appears
to be more like that of S. melanocephala, and its alarm note is
particularly harsh and grating, like that of the latter bird.

Although I have no positive information as to the nesting of
M. sardus in Tunisia, I am inclined to think that the species breeds
in the Regency, and Dr. Koenig seems to have been of the same
opinion when he met with this warbler in March on the island of
Curiat.

MELIZOPHILUS DESERTICOLUS (Tristram).
TRISTRAM’S WARBLER.

Sylvia deserticola, Tristram, Ibis, 1859, pp. 58, 417; Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 32, pl. iii.; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 91; ad. Ibis,
1898, p. 132.

Melizophilus deserticolus, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 271.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Oubira, Central Tunisia.

Crown and entire upper plumage dark slate, shaded with brown on
the back and rump; wings dark brown, the feathers broadly fringed with
rufous-buff ; tail-feathers dark brown, with lighter fringes, the outer pair
with the outer webs and the terminal portion of the inner webs white; a
faint moustachial stripe and a few feathers on the chin white; the
remainder of the underparts chestnut colour, becoming paler on the
abdomen and crissum.

SIA

N

S) (OR INU

BIRDS

THE

MELIZOPHILUS DESERTICOLUS 97

Tris bright hazel, eyelid reddish-brown, with a circle of minute white
feathers round it; bill brown, becoming yellowish at the base of lower
mandible; feet yellowish.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 2:10, culmen :40, tarsus °75.

Adult female, spring, very like the male, but rather duller and browner
in colouring.

The winter plumage of both sexes is duller and less clear than the
summer one,

Observations.—Some specimens show no white on the chin. As com-
pared with the Dartford Warbler, there is but little difference in the
relative length of the wing, but the tail of the present species is shorter
than that of M. wndatus, and the total length is less.

This species has no doubt rightly been placed by Mr. Dresser and
other ornithologists in the genus Melizophilus. Its long, rounded tail,
well shown in the accompanying plate, at once indicates that it belongs
to this genus and not to Sylvia, and its habits and mode of nesting are
distinctly Melizophiline. The species is, indeed, closely allied to the
Dartford Warbler, but is a rather smaller and more brightly coloured
bird. I may here observe that probably some of the notices of the
occurrence of the Dartford Warbler in North-west Africa are incorrect,
and really apply to the present species. Apparently Loche met with
M. deserticolus in the Algerian Sahara in its winter plumage, but did
not recognise the species in that dress, or even refer it to M. undatus,
for a specimen of WM. deserticolus obtamed by him at Guerrara,
which is preserved in the Milan Museum under the No. 17,574, is
labelled as S. swhalpina.

M. deserticolus was first discovered and described under the name
Sylvia deserticola by Canon Tristram, who appears to have met with
if in the Algerian Sahara in the winter season (Ibis, 1859, p. 58).
Several years afterwards Mr. C. Dixon, and later still Dr. Koenig,
found the species in its breeding home in the Atlas, and to both these
authors we are indebted for some valuable and interesting notes
regarding this Warbler, which, so far as is at present known, is
peculiar to the Atlas region. Throughout this region, in Tunisia,
Algeria, and Marocco, the species is, however, not uncommon, and may
be met with, during the breeding season, at considerable altitudes.
Mr. Meade-Waldo mentions having found it abundant in the
Maroccan Atlas at elevations up to 9,000 feet above sea-level (Lbis,
1903, p. 206).

7

98 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

I have no note of the occurrence of M. deserticolus in Tripoli, but
this is not surprising, considering the desert character of that country,
with its lack of wooded mountains and, above all, of the ‘‘ maquis”’
vegetation so attractive to this and allied Warblers.

Like Moussier’s Redstart, Tristram’s Warbler seems to shift its
quarters to a certain extent, its habitat throughout the spring’ and
summer months being undoubtedly the Atlas region, while in winter
it frequents the oases and bushy districts of the Algerian and
Tunisian Sahara. Whether it deserts the Atlas region entirely in
winter I do not know, but apparently it occurs in the Saharan districts
only during that season, and never in summer. By the end of March
it is certainly to be found in its breeding quarters, and the frst
specimens I obtained were procured at that season in the hilly country
lying between Feriana and El-Oubira. Throughout that district
M. deserticolus is by no means uncommon, and I collected several
examples’ of it in full breeding plumage during the month of April,
and met with young birds able to fly in the early part of May. On
the Djebel Selloum, near Kasrin, W. deserticolus also occurs, although
not so abundantly as further west.

Like its congeners, M. undatus and M. sardus, Tristram’s Warbler
loves a “ maquis”’ growth, and this it finds in abundance on the slopes
and hillsides of the Atlas. Many of these districts are thickly clothed
with a bush vegetation, among the most characteristic plants of which
may be mentioned the juniper, thuja, dwarf ilex oak, rosemary,
lavender, and different species of broom. The Aleppo pine (P. hale-
pensis) also flourishes here in some places, forming tolerably thick
woods, while in others it is merely represented by a few trees cropping
up here and there among the undergrowth.

In its habits I. deserticolus, as already mentioned, greatly resembles
the Dartford Warbler, and is a bright, active little bird, frequenting
as a rule thick bushes, but owing to its restlessness, and perhaps to its
inquisitiveness, being constantly in evidence. It is fond of perching
conspicuously on the top of a shrub, from which it pours forth its
short but sweet and pleasing song. This is also uttered at times by
the bird when on the wing, as it hovers for a few seconds over a
bush, where, perhaps, its nest is concealed.

Its flight is rather feeble and wavering. The food of the species,
like that of its congeners, consists chiefly of small worms, cater-
pillars and insects of various kinds.

MELIZOPHILUS DESERTICOLUS 99

M. deserticolus commences nesting operations soon after settling
down in its summer quarters, and by the end of April nests may be
found with their full complement of eggs, the number of which
appears to be four. As the nest and eggs of this species are probably
rare in collections, I think it advisable to give the following detailed
description, taken from my diary, of two nests and clutches obtained
by me in Tunisia :—

(a) Nest and eggs of M. deserticolus taken at Bou-Chebka, May
7th, 1898. The nest, which was placed in a low rosemary-bush
(Rosmarinus officinalis), measures 10 cm. in diameter externally and
5 em. internally, and is cup-shaped; it is composed externally of
coarse grass-bents, and internally of finer bents, with a lining of the
soft, dry flower of Aerva javanica (Desf.). The eggs, four in number
and of a medium oval shape, are of a greenish-white, plentifully
spotted, particularly at the larger end, with dark brown markings and
blotches, forming a zone. Average measurements 16 X 13 mm.

(b) Nest and eggs of M. deserticolus taken at El-Oubira, May 9th,
1898. This nest, which was also found in a rosemary-bush, is very
similar in size and composition to that described above, but is much
more thickly lined with the dry woolly flower of A. javanica, and has
also a little horse-hair linmg. The eggs, four in number, differ from
those already mentioned in being less spotted with dark-brown, and
without any zone at the larger end; they are also rather smaller,
their average dimensions being 15 X 12 mm.

The dry flower of Aerva javanica (Desf.), one of the Amarantacea,
is admirably adapted for the lining of a nest, being exceedingly soft
and woolly in texture. In appearance it is peculiar, resembling a
small white woolly caterpillar.

100 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subfamily PHYLLOSCOPINAl.

REGULUS CRISTATUS, Koch.
GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

Regulus cristatus, Koch, Baier. Zool. p. 199 (1816) ; Gadow, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. viii, p. 80; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d'’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846) ;
Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 302 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888,
p. 175; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 374.

Description.—Adult male, autumn, from Italy.

Forehead and lores greyish, a dark brown streak above the forehead,
merging into a black stripe on each side of the crown, on the centre of
which is a brilliant orange-coloured crest surrounded by bright yellow;
upper plumage generally olive-green, greyer on the nape, and brighter on
the rump; wings and tail greyish-brown, the secondaries and wing-coyerts
tipped with white, and a black bar across the upper part of the former ;
underparts greyish-white, tinged with greenish on sides and flanks.

Tris dark brown; bill dark brown; feet light brown, toes and claws
yellowish.

Total length 3:65 inches, wing 2-10, culmen °35, tarsus ‘65.

Adult female duller in colour, and with the crest light yellow.

Soft parts as in the male; measurements slightly less.

The Gold-crest is said to be met with in Tunisia. Malherbe and
Loche both record it as occurring in Algeria, and a specimen of it
obtained by Loche in that country certainly exists in the Turati
Collection of the Milan Museum under the No. 17,630. Although
recent travellers in North-west Africa do not appear to have met with
the species, but only with the Fire-crest, it seems, nevertheless,
probable that the Gold-crest also occurs throughout the country north
of the Atlas, if not as a resident, or even as a regular winter migrant,
at any rate as an occasional or accidental visitor in severe winters.
In Sicily and Malta, so near the African continent, the species occurs
regularly as a winter migrant, and in the former of these islands it
is said to be partially resident.

In its habits, note and food the Golden-crested Wren differs but
little from the following species, although it is perhaps less shy than
that bird,

REGULUS IGNICAPILLUS 101

REGULUS IGNICAPILLUS (C. L. Brehm).
FIRE-CRESTED WREN.

Sylvia ignicapilla, Brehm. in Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 232 (1820).

Regulus ignicapillus, Meyer, Taschenb. Deutsch. Végelk. iii, p. 109
(1822); Gadow. Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. viii, p. 83; Malherbe, Cat. Rais.
@d Ois. Alg. p. 13 (1846) ; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 804 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 175; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 874; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 283.

Description. —-Adult male, winter, from Ain Draham, North Tunisia.

Frontal streak, extending from the eye over the base of the bill, greyish-
buff; superciliary stripes, extending backwards to the nape, white; above
the greyish-buff frontal streak there is a black stripe, extending backwards
over the superciliaries, as far as the nape; in the centre of the crown a
flame-coloured crest, becoming yellow on the sides; nape, back and rump
bright golden-green; quills and tail grey-brown; lores and a streak just
below and behind the eye blackish ; below this another whitish line; ear-
coverts and sides of the head bluish-grey; underparts whitish, tinged with
grey and green.

Tris almost black; bill dark brown ; feet pale brown; toes yellowish.

Total length 3°50 inches, wing 2, culmen ‘30, tarsus -70.

Adult female resembles the male, except in the crest, which is pale
yellow and not flame-coloured.

I have several specimens of the Fire-crested Wren, obtained in
winter, in the oak forests of Ain Draham and Fernana in the north
of the Regency, and apparently the species is not uncommon in some
parts of North Tunis, although not to be found south of the Atlas.
It also seems to be a resident and breeding species in those localities
where it occurs. R. ignicapillus is not uncommon in North Algeria,
and is probably also to be found in North Marocco, although I have
no examples of it in my collection from that country. In Madeira
the present species is replaced by R. maderensis, a closely allied
but perfectly distinct form. In the Canaries another form occurs,
Rf. teneriffz, Seebohm, which apparently differs but slightly from
R. cristatus.

Tn its general habits and mode of nesting the Fire-crested Wren
resembles the Gold-crest, but the eggs of the two species are distin-
guishable one from the other. In winter these tiny birds are gener-
ally to be met with in small parties, flitting about from bush to bush

102 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

in wooded country, and being exceedingly restless and constantly on
the move, they do not easily escape notice. Their call note is a
simple “‘ zeet-zeet.”” Their song in spring is said to be soft and
pleasing. The nest of R. ignicapillus, as above mentioned, resembles
that of R. cristatus, being generally built of moss, plentifully lined
with feathers, and placed at the extremity of a branch. The eggs,
however, of which as many as ten are sometimes laid, differ from
those of R. cristatus in being redder, the ground colour being
pinkish-white minutely spotted with reddish-brown.

PHYLLOSCOPUS RUFUS (Bechstein).
CHIFFCHAFF.

Sylvia rufa, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb, i, p. 188 (nec Bodd.), 1802;
Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de V Alg. p. 13 (1855).

Phylloscopus rufus, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 60; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1895, p. 95; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 258.

Phyllopneuste rufa, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 253 (1867);
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 192; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 390.

Description. Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Above olive-green, darker on the crown, and lighter on the rump; quills
and tail pale brown; superciliary stripe yellowish, becoming lighter over
the ear-coverts; underparts whitish, tinged with yellowish-green ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries bright yellow.

Tris dark hazel; bill and feet dark greyish-brown.

Total length 4 inches, wing 2°30, culmen °35, tarsus -70.

Adult female resembles the male, but is slightly smaller.

Observations—The Chiffehaff may be distinguished from the Willow-
Wren by its smaller size, slightly duller coloration, darker coloured feet, and
more rounded wing, the formula of which also differs from that of the
Willow-Wren, its second primary quill being shorter than the sixth, and
about equal to the seventh.

The Chiffchaff is a common winter migrant in Tunisia, arriving in
the late autumn, and leaving again on the approach of spring. I know
of no instance of this little Warbler breeding in the Regency, but as
the species breeds in some parts of Southern Europe, it may possibly

PHYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS 103

do so in some of the Atlas districts, where the climate and surround-
ings would appear to be suited to the bird’s requirements. The species
occurs in Algeria and Marocco in autumn, winter and spring. The
Chiffchaff is to be met with in most of the wooded and cultivated
districts of Northern and Central Tunisia, and also in the oases of the
south. Gardens and orchards are much frequented by these little
birds, which may constantly be observed, in small parties of three or
four individuals, busily engaged in searching for aphides and small
insects. lakes and ponds are also favourite resorts of this and the
following species, on account of the numerous gnats and small flies
generally plentiful in such spots. Winged insects are captured flying,
and it is a pretty sight to see the birds hawking for their prey, after
the manner of the Muscicapide. A strand of wire stretched across a
pond or other piece of water is a great attraction, forming an excellent
point of vantage from which the birds can pounce down upon their
prey, and at times quite a large number of them may be seen con-
gregating together in such a spot. The Phylloscopine, however, also
take their food on the ground, and may often be seen picking up small
insects on pathways. Although restless and constantly on the move,
the Chiffchaff is by no means shy and may easily be approached. Its
peculiar song resembling the words “ chiff chaff,” repeated many times
in succession, has given rise to the bird’s English name.

PHYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS (Linnzus).

WILLOW-WREN.

Motacilla trochilus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 338 (1766).

Phylloscopus trochilus, Bote, Isis, 1826, p. 972; Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p.56; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 95; Hrlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 257,

Sylvia (Ficedula) trochilus, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de l'Alg. p. 13,
(1855).

Phyllopneuste trochilus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 252 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 192; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 390.

Description. Adult male, spring, from Oum-Ali, South Tunisia.
Above olive-green, slightly darker on the crown, and paler on the rump ;
quills and tail-feathers brown, margined with yellowish-green ; a superciliary

104 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

stripe lemon-coloured, becoming paler. over the ear-coverts; underparts
yellowish-white ; under wing-coverts and axillaries bright lemon.

Tris dark hazel ; bill and feet light brown.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 2°70, culmen -45, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female resembles the male, but is slightly smaller.

Observations.—The Willow-Wren may be distinguished from the Chiff-
chaff by its larger size, rather brighter coloration, lighter coloured feet, and
more pointed wing, the second primary quill being shorter than the fifth and,
as a rule, slightly longer than the sixth.

Like the preceding species, the Willow-Wren is a winter migrant
in Tunisia, but more particularly in the south of the Regency, as
probably few, if any, of the species pass the colder months north of
the Atlas. It arrives in the late autumn, and leaves again in the early
spring, and I am unaware of any instance of its breeding in the
Regency. I have, however, a specimen of this Warbler from Tripoli,
which was obtained at Ziegen, a considerable way inland from the
coast, as late as May 16th.

In North Tunisia the Willow-Wren is mostly to be seen during
the periods of migration, but in the oases of the south it is at times
most abundant during the winter months. From Kef, in North
Tunisia, I have specimens obtained in November, but the species
was far less numerous there at that season than P. rufus.

In its mode of living and in its habits generally the present
species does not differ greatly from the Chiffchaff, showing a partiality
for gardens and orchards, and being constantly and actively engaged
in hunting for insects and their larve. The stomachs of those
obtained by me generally contained the remains of small flies. The
notes of the Willow-Wren are, however, far superior to those of the
Chiffchaff, and its well-known song, descending the scale in a long
succession of liquid notes, is one of the most charming sounds of
spring.

PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX 105

PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX (Bechstein).
WOOD-WREN.

Motacilla sibilatrix, Bechst. Natwrforscher, xxvii, p. 47 (1793).
Phylloscopus sibilatrix, Blyth, Cat. Birds Mus. As. Soc. p. 184 (1849) ;
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 54; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 95.
Sylvia (Ficedula) sibilatrix, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de l'Alg. p. 18
(1855).

Phyllopneuste sibilatrix, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 250 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 192; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 390.

P. sibilatrix flavescens, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 254.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ain-Moularés, South Tunisia.

Above yellowish-green, lighter on the rump; quills and tail greyish-brown,
margined with yellowish-green, a lemon-yellow stripe extending from base
of bill backward over the eye; lores and a short stripe behind the eye grey ;
cheeks, throat and sides of the breast pale lemon-yellow ; rest of the under-
parts white ; under wing-coverts and axillaries lemon-yellow.

Tris dark brown; bill brown; feet pale brown, with a yellowish tinge.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3, culmen ‘45, tarsus -70.

Adult female resembles the male, but is slightly smaller.

The Wood-Wren is abundant is Tunisia during the periods of
migration, particularly during the spring passage, and, according to
the naturalist Blanc, it also passes the winter in some parts of the
south. With regard to its breeding in the Regency I have no positive
information, but judging from the fact that the species is met with
during the month of May, it seems not unlikely that it does nest in
that country. From Tripoli I have specimens of the Wood-Wren
obtained in April and May, and even as late as the 15th of the latter
month, when one would suppose the bird to be breeding. Loche
also, writing of this species, gives one to understand that it nests in
Algeria. In this latter country, as well as in Marocco, the species is
not uncommon during the periods of migration.

In most of its habits the present species resembles the two
preceding, and is generally found frequenting woods and gardens
where the vegetation is fairly lofty and aphides and smaller winged
insects are plentiful. The call note is a plaintive whistle, ‘‘ dee-wr,”
and the peculiar shivering song has no doubt, given rise to the bird’s
specific name.

Although I have no nest or eggs of the Wood-Wren from Tunisia,

106 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

as the bird possibly breeds there, I may here say that the Phyllo-
scoping, as a rule, nest on the ground, building semi-domed nests,
composed chiefly of dry grasses and mosses, at times lined with
feathers and a little hair, but often, as in the case of the present
species, without any lining whatever. They lay from four to seven
eggs with a white or whitish ground colour, spotted with reddish-violet
and grey.

Baron y. Erlanger (J. f. O. 1899, p. 254) has separated the Wood-
Wren found in Tunisia from typical P. sibilatriz (Bech.), under the
name of P. sibilatrix jflavescens, on the grounds of its being more
brightly coloured. These grounds, however, do not seem to be
sufficient for such distinction, as specimens equally brightly coloured
may be met with in Northern Europe. Mr. Hartert and Mr. Meade-
Waldo, however, both seem to have noticed a difference between the
song of the Wood-Wren found in Marocco and that of our common
European bird, and if not merely a seasonal modification of notes,
this would, of course, be a strong argument in favour of separation.

Mr. Ogilvie-Grant, writing on ‘“ Birds obtained at Madeira” (Ibis,
1890, p. 440), also alludes to the song of the Wood-Wrens he heard
in the neighbourhood of Funchal being different from that of any he
had ever heard at home, but he states that the four specimens which
he then obtained undoubtedly belonged to P. sibilatrix.

PHYLLOSCOPUS BONELLI (Vieillot).
BONELLI’S WARBLER.

Sylvia bonelli, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. xxviii, p. 91 (1819).

Phylloscopus bonellii, Tristram, Ibis, 1859, p. 418; Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 59; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 256.

Sylvia (Ficedula) nattererii, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de V'Alg. p. 13
(18565).

Phyllopneuste bonelli, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 255 (1867).

Phylloscopus bonelli, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 95.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above pale greyish-green, yellower on the rump; quills and tail-feathers
greyish-brown, margined with yellowish-green; a whitish superciliary
stripe; underparts whitish, with a tinge of greyish-green on the flanks;
under wing-coverts and axillaries pale lemon-colour.

=

PHYLLOSCOPUS BONELLI 107

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet light brown.
Total length 4°50 inches, wing 2°70, culmen -40, tarsus ‘70.
Adult female resembles the male, but is slightly smaller.

Observations.—The plumage of this species varies a good deal in colour,
being sometimes greyer, at others greener.

Dr. Koenig says he finds considerable difference in colour between the
male and female birds (J. f. O. 1895, p. 259).

Bonelli’s Warbler is abundant throughout the more wooded parts
of Tunisia as a summer migrant, arriving in spring and returning
southwards in the autumn. A certain number of the species may
possibly also winter in the southern oases of the Regency, although
I have no positive knowledge of their doing so. Canon Tristram
(Ibis, 1859, p. 418) says that this Warbler is abundant in the oases
of Algeria during the winter months, and Dr. Koenig met with it in
the same locality, migrating northwards in March and April. In the
mountainous and wooded parts of Algeria Bonelli’s Warbler seems
to be plentiful during the breeding season, and from the Atlas districts
of Marocco, where in many parts it is the commonest Warbler to be
met with, I have examples of the species obtained in the month of
May at altitudes of over 5,000 feet above sea-level.

This species seems to visit high altitudes more than the other
Phylloscopi, and in the upper Engadine I have found it common at
elevations of about 6,000 feet.

Bonelli’s Warbler undoubtedly breeds in North Tunisia, although
I never took a nest of the species there myself. Mr. Aplin, however,
met with it constantly in the oak-woods of Ghardimaou and El-Fedja
during the nesting season, and Baron Erlanger found young birds
of the species in July in the woods near Souk-el-Arba (J. f. O. 1899,
p. 256). In its general habits this Warbler appears to resemble
P. sibilatrizx, but its song, according to some observant ornithologists,
differs from that of the common Wood-Wren in being more melan-
choly or pathetic.

Its breeding habits are said to resemble those of the Wood-Wren,
its nest being built of fine grasses, without any lining, and placed on
the ground. Its eggs, however, are said to be rather smaller than
those of P. stbilatriz.

108 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subfamily ACROCEPHALINA.

HYPOLAIS POLYGLOTTA (Vieillot).
MELODIOUS WARBLER.

Sylvia polyglotta, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. xi, p. 200 (1817).

Hypolais polyglotta, Gerbe, Iev. Zool. 1844, p. 440; Seebohm, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 79; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 275 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 190; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 289; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1896, p. 92; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 294.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above olive-green; wings and tail-feathers pale brown, very narrowly
margined with grey; lores, superciliaries and entire underparts pale lemon-
yellow ; bastard primary longer than the primary-coverts.

Iris brown; bill yellowish-brown, becoming pale orange on lower
mandible; feet pale brown.

Total length 4-50 inches, wing 2°50, culmen ‘55, tarsus °75.

Adult female similar to the male.

Observations.—This species may be distinguished from the Icterine
Warbler by its smaller size, and by its bastard primary being longer than
the primary coverts.

Like some other birds, such as the Chats, which have an eastern
and a western representative species in the Western Palearctic Region,
H. polyglotta and H. icterina both occur in the Tunisian Regency,
which appears to be the meeting point of the two forms. The present
species is perhaps the commoner of the two in the Regency, although
H. icterina is by no means scarce there either. In Algeria H. poly-
glotta appears to be more or less abundant, while I have no note
of the occurrence of H. icterina in that country. From Marocco,
as might naturally be expected, the latter species is unrecorded,
while H. polyglotta is plentiful there. In Europe the Melodious
Warbler is common in Spain and Portugal, as also in the south and
west of France, becoming rarer further eastward, although in some
parts of Italy itis by no means uncommon. JH. polyglotta is abundant
in many parts of Tunisia during the spring and summer months, and
breeds in the oases of the south as well as in the woods of the north of
the Regency. Mr. Aplin found the species not at all uncommon in
May and June among the wild olive groves, and on the bush-clad

HYPOLAIS ICTERINA 109

hillsides near Ghardimaou, and in the same districts as H. icterina,
although generally at rather higher altitudes than the latter species.
In the neighbourhood of the town of Tunis H. polyglotta is also often
to be met with in spring and summer. Apparently none of the
members of this genus winter in the Regency, but go further south.

H. polyglotta frequents gardens and orchards, as well as the less
cultivated hillsides and wilder country districts, and is particularly
fond of the banks of streams, and of the vicinity of water in general.
Its diet appears to be almost entirely composed of insects. The song
of this species is very rich and varied, and its specific name of poly-
glotta, as well as its English appellation of melodious, are most
appropriate.

The species seems to be rather a late breeder, and does not nest, as
arule, until May and June. Its nest, which resembles that of the
Icterme Warbler, is generally to be found in the fork of a low tree
or bush, and is a neat, cup-shaped structure, composed chiefly of fine
grasses, lined with the seed-down of some plant, and with a little
hair. The eggs, usually four in number, are very oval in shape, and
of a pinkish colour, sparsely spotted with dark brown. Average
measurements 18 X 13 mm.

HYPOLAIS ICTERINA (Vieillot).
ICTERINE WARBLER.

Sylvia icterina, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. xi, p. 194 (1817).

Hypolais icterina, Gerbe, Rev. Zool. 1844, p. 440; Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 77; Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 390; Whitaker, Ibis,
1896, p. 92.

Hypolais salicaria, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 273 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above olive-green ; wings and tail brown, margined with grey; lores,
superciliaries and entire underparts pale lemon-yellow; bastard primary
shorter than the primary coverts.

Iris brown ; bill yellowish-brown, becoming yellowish-orange on lower
mandible; feet pale brown.

Total length 5-25 inches, wing 3:15, culmen °60, tarsus ‘80,

Adult female similar to the male.

110 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Observations.—This species can be distinguished from the Melodious
Warbler by its larger size, and by its bastard primary being shorter than
the primary coverts.

As mentioned in the preceding article on H. polyglotta, the present
species also occurs in Tunisia, although perhaps rather less plentifully
than that Warbler, and is generally to be found at a lower altitude.
The Icterine Warbler is, however, far from uncommon in certain
districts of the Regency during the spring months, and particularly
in the wooded districts north of the Atlas, such as the neighbourhood
of Ghardimaou and the valley of the Medjerdah, where Mr. Aplin
met with the species in considerable numbers, frequenting the shrubs
and bushes bordering the river of that name.

As already stated, the range of the Icterine Warbler in North-west
Africa does not, apparently, extend further west than Tunisia, at any
rate, [ have no note of its occurrence in either Algeria or Marocco.
In Europe the western range of the species seems to extend to the
eastern provinces of France, and, as a straggler, it has even occurred
in the British Islands.

In its general habits the Icterine Warbler resembles the Melodious
Warbler, being fond of wooded localities, or gardens and orchards,
where water is near at hand. Like that bird also, it is shy and
retiring in its habits, and were it not for its fine song, might often
pass unobserved. Its song, however, although generally considered
as inferior to that of the Melodious Warbler, has some rich notes,
and cannot fail to attract attention. Its food consists almost entirely
of insects. Like allied species, this Warbler is generally to be met
either singly, or in pairs. Although I have no information on the
point, I think it probable that the Icterine Warbler breeds in Tunisia,
its nest and eggs presumably differing but little from those of the
preceding species.

HYPOLAIS PALLIDA OPACA ina

HYPOLAIS PALLIDA OPACA (Lichtenstein).
WESTERN OLIVACHEOUS WARBLER.

Sylvia opaca, Licht. fide Cab. Mus. Hein. i, p. 36 (1850).

Hypolais opaca, Cab. Mus. Hein. i, p. 36 (1850); Seebohm, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. v, p. 83; Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 390.

Hypolais pallida, Malherbe, Faune Ornith. de VAlg. p. 13 (1855);
Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 95.

Chloropeta pallida, Loche, Expl. Sct. Alg. Ois. i, p. 271 (1867).

Hypolais pallida opaca, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 251.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above pale olive-brown, with a faint yellowish tinge on the back and
rump ; a faint buffy-white stripe running from the base of the bill over the
eye ; entire underparts dull white, faintly washed with buff, and grey on
the sides and flanks.

Tris brown; bill yellowish-brown, becoming yellow on the lower
mandible; feet pale brown.

Total length 5°50 inches, wing 2°80, culmen ‘65, tarsus ‘90.

Adult female similar to the male.

The present species, which was included in my list of Tunisian
birds (Ibis, 1895, p. 95) under the name of H. pallida (H. and E.),
should no doubt be referred to H. pallida opaca (Licht.), a western
form of Hypolais, closely allied to H. pallida, but differing from it
sufficiently perhaps to merit subspecific rank. The chief point of
difference between the two appears to be that of size, H. p. opaca,
the western form, being somewhat larger than H. pallida, the wing
measurement of the former averaging 2°80 inches while that of the
latter averages only 2°60 inches. The bill of H. p. opaca also is
said to be somewhat broader than that of H. pallida, and its
bastard primary rather longer than that of the latter species, but
I do not fina these characters reliable.

H. p. opaca is very common in Tunisia as a summer migrant,
arriving, as a rule, after the middle of April and leaving again in the
early autumn. I know of no instance of its wintering anywhere in
the Regency. The species, throughout the spring and summer”
months, is to be met with throughout Tunisia generally, both north
and south of the Atlas, wherever the environment happens to be
suitable. Well-watered localities are mostly frequented by these
birds, and the southern oases and tamarisk-bordered Oueds harbour

112 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

large numbers of them throughout the spring months. Gardens and
orchards are also visited by the species in the more populated
districts.

In Central Tunisia I found H. p. opaca remarkably abundant on
the tamarisk-clothed banks of the River Hattoub near Kasrin, and
in Northern Tunisia on the borders of the Medjerdah river. In the
immediate vicinity of the town of Tunis it is also not uncommon.

In Algeria and Marocco the species appears to be as common as
it is in the Regency.

In the localities it frequents, and in its habits generally, as well as
in its song, this Warbler seems to be more Acrocephaline than the
preceding members of the group. Like the Aquatic Warblers, it is
rarely to be found far from water, and seldom ascends to any great
elevation. Although frequenting thickets and more or less dense
shrubbery, the species is not shy, and owing to its somewhat restless
habits it may constantly be seen and observed at close quarters. It
seems to feed entirely on insects. The song of H. p. opaca is not
to be compared with that of either of the two preceding species, and
is altogether more Acrocephaline in its character.

The species breeds both north and south of the Atlas, and by the
beginning of May nests with eggs may be found. Like other
members of the group, it places its nest in the fork of a tree or high
bush. The nest is a compact, cup-shaped structure, composed of fine
rootlets, and lined plentifully with vegetable-down, or with wool and
hair. The eggs, generally four or five in number, are of a pale dove,
or vinous-grey colour, spotted and very slightly streaked with dark
brown. Average measurements 18 x 14 mm.

ACROCEPHALUS STREPERUS (Vieillot).
REED-WARBLER,

Sylvia strepera, Vicill. Nowv. Dict. xi, p. 182 (1817).

Acrocephalus streperus, Newton’s ed. Yarr. Birds, i, p. 369 (1873);
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 102.

Calamoherpe arundinacea, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 258 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from near Tunis, North Tunisia.
Above a warm olive-brown, brighter on the rump and upper tail-coyerts ;

_

ACROCEPHALUS PALUSTRIS 113

superciliary stripe, extending from the base of the bill to behind the eye,
buff; chin and throat white, becoming suffused with buff on the breast and
rest of the underparts, flanks darker.

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°65, culmen °60, tarsus -90.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

The Reed-Warbler is apparently not very common in Tunisia, and
I have but three examples of it in my collection, two of which were
obtained near the town of Tunis, and the third near Gafsa in the
south. I have only met with the species in spring, and whether it
is merely a summer migrant in Tunisia, or whether it also winters
there, I cannot say. Regarding the nesting of the Reed-Warbler
in the Regency I have no information of a positive nature, but I am
inclined to think that individuals of the species remain and breed
there, as from South Marocco I have examples obtained as late as the
month of May, and Loche states that it breeds in Algeria. In the
south of Spain it is a common breeding species.

The Reed-Warbler is rather skulking in its habits, and is not often
to be found far from the neighbourhood of the thick reeds and other
water-plants which form its home. Its song, which is varied, and
fairly powerful, may often be heard proceeding from a_reed-bed,
although the songster is hidden from view. Like other aquatic
Warblers, it is mainly insectivorous, and its food consists largely of
water-insects and their larvee.

ACROCEPHALUS PALUSTRIS, Bechstein.
MARSH-WARBLER.

Sylvia palustris, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. i, p. 186 (1802).

Acrocephalus palustris, Nawm. Nat. Land. u. Wass. Vég. nérdl. Deutsch.
Nachtr. Heft. iv, p. 202 (1811); Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p.
101; Koenig. J. f. O. 1892, p. 215.

Calamoherpe palustris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 259 (1867).

Description—Adult male, from neighbourhood of Tunis, North Tunisia.
Above greyish olive-brown, greyer on the crown, and brighter on the
back, rump and upper tail-coverts ; a superciliary stripe pale buff; chin and

8

114 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

throat white, becoming very pale buff on the breast and rest of the under-
parts; flanks darker.
Tris dark brown ; bill brown, paler on lower mandible; feet pale brown.
Total length 5 inches, wing 2:75, culmen °60, tarsus -90.
Adult female resembles the male, but is slightly smaller.

The present species must be more or less rare in Tunisia, as I have
never met with it myself, and have only one or two specimens of
the bird, which were obtained by Blanc in the neighbourhood of the
town of Tunis. The species, however, probably occurs sparingly
in suitable localities throughout North Tunisia as a regular winter
migrant.

Loche says that it is to be found in Algeria, inhabiting the higher
and more inaccessible parts of the Chiffa Mountains, where it is,
however, rarely to be seen owing to its shyness. He adds, however,
that its song may often be heard, and that its notes are varied and
pleasing. Specimens of this and of the preceding species obtained
by Loche in Algeria exist in the Milan Museum.

The Marsh-Warbler differs from the Reed-Warbler in being far
less aquatic and less skulking in its habits. It is, indeed, often found
at a considerable distance from water and marshy spots, and breeds in
bushes, and never apparently among reeds.

Its song is also considered to be superior to that of the Reed-
Warbler and others of the genus, and is more lke that of the species
of Hypolais. Its food is no doubt similar to that of its congeners.

ACROCEPHALUS ARUNDINACEUS (Linneus).
GREAT REED-WARBLER.

Turdus arundinaceus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 296 (1766).

Acrocephalus arundinaceus, Gray, List. Gen. Birds, p. 28 (1841).

Acrocephalus turdoides, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 95;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 95.

Calamoherpe turdoides, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 256 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 192; zd. J. f. O. 1892, p. 391.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Oued Hattoub, Central Tunisia.
Above olive-brown, brighter on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; super-

out

7]

ACROCEPHALUS ARUNDINACEUS 115

ciliary stripe, extending from the base of bill to behind the eye, buff; lores
and ear-coverts olive-brown ; chin and throat white, shading into buff on
the breast and abdomen, and bright yellowish-buff on the flanks, crissum
and under tail-coverts.

Iris dark brown; bill dark brown; inside of bill orange-yellow ; feet
pale brown.

Total length 7-50 inches, wing 4, culmen °75, tarsus 1-20.

Adult female similar to the male, but slightly smaller.

Although I have only occasionally met with this species in
Tunisia, I believe it to be by no means uncommon there as a summer
migrant, arriving in April and leaving again in the autumn. Among
the tamarisk thickets bordering the banks of the Oued Hattoub near
Kasrin, in Central Tunisia, I found the species in certain numbers
and in North Tunisia it seems to occur generally wherever high reed-
beds and similar aquatic vegetation are to be found. In Algeria,
according to Loche and other authors, the species is very common,
and it seems to be found in Marocco also. Owing to its large size
and noisy song this bird does not easily escape notice, although it
keeps more or less to the thicker clumps, and does not often venture
into the open country. Its notes are rather harsh and unmusical,
and may be heard at all hours of the day. Its food consists chiefly of
aquatic insects. It is rather pugnacious, and does not brook the
presence of other smaller birds in its immediate vicinity, driving them
away should they venture to intrude on its territory.

The nest of the species, like that of some other members of the
genus, is artistically built of rush-leaves and filaments neatly inter-
woven, and attached to the stems of aquatic plants two or three feet
above the level of the water. The eggs, four or five in number, are
of a pale bluish-green, with grey and brown spots. Average measure-
ments 23 X 19 mm.

The present species is very distinct from its eastern ally, A.
stentoreus, the latter having a much longer bill and a much shorter
wing.

116 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

ACROCEPHALUS AQUATICUS (Gmelin).
AQUATIC WARBLER.

Motacilla aquatica, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i, p. 953 (1788).

Acrocephalus aquaticus, Newton's ed. Yarr. Birds, i, p. 380 (1873);
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 89.

Calamodyta aquatica, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 263 (1867) ;
Koemg, J. f. O. 1892, p. 392.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Medjerdah River, North Tunisia.

Forehead rufous-buff; lores and ear-coverts greyish-brown; crown
blackish, with a broad median and superciliary stripes yellowish-buff ; nape
and back greyish-buff, broadly striped with black ; rump rufous-buff, slightly
striped with black; wings and tail brown, margined with tawny-buff;
underparts pale yellowish-buff, lighter on the chin and darker on the
flanks.

Tris dark brown ; bill dark brown ; feet yellowish-brown.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 2°45, culmen :35, tarsus -75.

Adult female similar to the male.

The Aquatic Warbler appears to be rather uncommon in Tunisia,
but I have obtained examples of it from the banks of the Medjerdah
River, and the species probably occurs throughout the better watered
districts of the Regency generally as a summer migrant. Owing to
its resemblance to the Sedge-Warbler the present species has no
doubt often been confused with that bird, and examples of it may
have escaped notice. A comparison of the two, however, will at once
show how they differ, the central buff stripe on the crown of the
present species, and its somewhat smaller size, being very distinctive
characters.

In its habits it resembles the Sedge-Warbler to a considerable
extent, being of a shy and skulking nature, and seeking seclusion in
dense aquatic vegetation, through which it threads its way with the
utmost facility. Its song is considered by authorities to be inferior
to that of the Sedge-Warbler. Its diet consists chiefly of insects and
worms.

The Aquatic Warbler probably breeds in suitable localities in the
Regency. Both Canon Tristram and Mr. O. Salvin appear to have met
with it nesting in Algeria, where the species is not uncommon. Mr.
C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake obtained it in Marocco in spring. From
Tripoli I have no note of its occurrence. The nest of this species,

ACROCEPHALUS SCH@NOBANUS 117

like that of the Sedge-Warbler, is placed in a low bush or among
herbage, and is composed of fine grasses, neatly woven together, and
lined with a little hair or vegetable-down. The eggs, four or five
in number, resemble those of the above species, but are slightly
smaller.

ACROCEPHALUS SCHG@NOBANUS (Linneeus).
SEDGE-WARBLER.

Motacilla scheenobenus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 329 (1766).

Acrocephalus schcenobenus, Newton's ed. Yarr. Birds, i, p. 376 (1878).

Acrocephalus phragmitis, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vy, p. 91;
Whitaker, [bis, 1896, p. 93.

Calamodyta phragmitis, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 262 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 192; zd. J. f. O. 1892, p. 391.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Source Trois Palmiers, Central
Tunisia. :

Forehead and crown blackish-brown, slightly striated with olive-brown ;
broad superciliary stripe pale buff; lores and ear-coverts brown; nape and
back olive-brown, the latter having the feathers with black centres ; rump
and upper tail-coverts yellowish-brown ; wings and tail brown, the secondaries
and upper wing-coverts broadly margined with greyish-buff; entire under-
parts buffy-white, becoming rather darker on the flanks.

Tris hazel; bill and feet greenish-brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°65, culmen °55, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather duller in colouring.

The Sedge-Warbler is not uncommon in Tunisia, particularly
during the spring migration, and from the fact of its occurring
throughout the month of May in many parts of the north of the
Regency there can be but little doubt that it breeds there. The
species seems to occur in suitable localities throughout North-west
Africa generally, during the spring, and Loche alludes to its nest-
ing in Algeria. | From Tripoli I have examples of it which were
obtained at Ziegen on the 15th of May.

In North Tunisia I obtained the species in the neighbourhood of
Ghardimaou and on the Medjerdah River during the month of May,
and at El-Madjen el-Abbés and on the banks of the Gafsa River respec-
tively in Central and Southern Tunisia I found it plentiful in Apyril.

118 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In its habits and life generally the Sedge-Warbler resembles the
Reed-Warbler to a great extent, although it is perhaps rather more
active and restless, and is consequently more often observed than that
bird and some of the other aquatic Warblers. Like most of its
congeners, however, the present species is fond of hiding, and frequents
the thickest clumps of reeds and sedges, where it more surely escapes
notice. Amongst such vegetation it is in its element, and seems
to have no difficulty in creeping through places which appear to
be almost impenetrable. Occasionally, though rarely, the species is to
be found at some distance from any water, but this is very exceptional.
It is rather a noisy bird, and its song may sometimes be heard late in
the evening, or even at night. About sunset, however, is the hour
when it sings most lustily. Its notes, although powerful for so small
a bird, are not considered by good authorities to be very musical or
pleasing to the ear. The food of the species consists chiefly of water-
insects and worms. Its nest, which is placed in a bush or among rank
herbage, is built chiefly of fine grasses with a little lining of hair, and
its eggs, four or five in number, are of a buff-colour, streaked and
spotted with dark brown. Average measurements 16°50 x 12°50 mm.

LOCUSTELLA NA YIA (Boddaert).
GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER,.

Motacilla nevia, Bodd. Tabl. des Pl. Enl. p. 35, No. 581 (1783).

Locustella nzvia, Degl. Orn. Eur. i, p. 589 (1849); Koenig, J. f. O.
1888, p. 190; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1898, p. 384.

Locustella locustella, Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 115;
Koenig. J. f. O. 1892, p. 389.

Description.—Adult, spring, from Europe.

Upper parts olive-brown, spotted with blackish-brown; quills and tail-
feathers dark brown, unspotted, the latter much rounded ; underparts whitish,
purer on the chin and abdomen, and tinged with yellow elsewhere ; under
tail-coverts very long, and with a brown shaft stripe.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°40, culmen -55, tarsus -75.

Sexes alike.

Mr. Salvin, when travelling in the Eastern Atlas, met with the
Grasshopper-Warbler, and the species has been obtained in Algeria,

bo eed

LOCUSTELLA LUSCINIOIDES 119

close to the Tunisian frontier, as well asin Marocco. Specimens of the
bird, obtained by Loche near Lake Fezzara, and Harrach, exist in the
Turati Collection of the Milan Museum. According to Loche (Expl.
Scient. Alg. Ois. 1, p. 277) the species is not often met with in Algeria,
and it is probably more or less rare throughout North-west Africa
generally. In Marocco it has been obtained by Mr. Tyrwhitt-Drake
(Ibis, 1867, p. 427), and the bird is no doubt to be found there in
limited numbers during the winter, as it appears to be not uncommon
at that season in South Spain. In Italy, on the other hand, the species
is rather rare, being, in fact, unrecorded from the south of the Peninsula
and some of the Italian islands.

The Grasshopper - Warbler is generally to be found in wet or
humid localities, where the vegetation is rank and luxuriant ;
occasionally, however, it may be met with in dry spots, provided
always there are bushes near at hand. It is of shy and retiring
habits, and is more often heard than seen, particularly during the
early morning or late evening hours. Its song, which has given rise
to the bird’s trivial English name, is supposed to resemble the
chirping of the grasshopper or cricket, and by some it has been
likened to the grinding of a mill-stone. Its food consists chiefly of
insects and their larve.

LOCUSTELLA LUSCINIOIDES (Savi).
SAVI’S WARBLER.

Sylvia luscinioides, Savi, Nuov. Giorn. Letter. vii, p. 341 (1824) ;
Malherbe, Faune Orn. del Alg. p. 13 (1855) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 190.

Locustella luscinioides, Gould, Birds of Europe, ii, pl. 104 (1837);
Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. v, p. 112.

Lusciniola savii, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 265 (1867) ; Koenig
J. f. O. 1892, p. 389.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Italy.

Entire upper plumage dull reddish-brown ; a faint buff superciliary
stripe; under plumage pale rufescent-brown, becoming whitish on the
throat and middle of the abdomen; tail-feathers, which are twelve in
number, indistinctly barred.

Tris, bill and feet brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 2°75, culmen °60, tarsus “85.

Sexes alike.

120 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Savi’s Warbler has been met with not unfrequently both in
Algeria and Marocco, and there can be no doubt that it also occurs
in Tunisia, in fact, the species has been found so close to the Algerio-
Tunisian frontier, that no one could deny its claim to be included
in the Ornis. of the Regency. The Milan Museum possesses several
specimens of the species, which were obtained by Loche in Algeria.
Mr. O. Salvin, too, found it abundant at Zana in the Hastern Atlas
region, and gives a description of a nest of the species, which
apparently breeds freely in the marshes of that district. Canon
Tristram also met with it frequently in the Algerian Sahara,
frequenting the sedges bordering the Sebkas. Mr. Drake records the
species as occurring in Marocco.

In its distribution Savi’s Warbler seems to be somewhat irregular
and local, being abundant in one district and entirely wanting in
another not far distant, which apparently offers equal advantages in
the way of environment. In Italy and its islands this difference of
distribution is very marked.

Kssentially a denizen of the marshes, this Warbler is shy and
retiring, keeping as much as possible to the dense reed-beds which
form its shelter, and rarely taking to flight unless very hard pressed.
When nesting this bird appears to be still more reluctant to fly, and
according to Colonel Irby (Orn. Strs. Gib. p. 96), it will creep off
quietly from its nest like a mouse, or even run across an open space,
in preference to using its wings.

Its song, which is uttered by the male bird from the top of some
tall reed or other plant, is said to be not unlike that of the Grass-
hopper-Warbler, its call note being low and churring. Concerning
the breeding of this Warbler Mr. Salvin writes as follows: ‘‘ The
peculiar nest of the species, a beautifully compact structure, composed
entirely of dead flags, is artfully concealed in the thickest parts, and
at Zana can only be found by wading in mud and water up to the
middle, and even then it is quite a chance to find one. The eggs from
this locality are decidedly smaller than English and Dutch specimens.”
The number of eggs laid by this species is generally four or five, and
their colour is whitish or pale buff, freckled all over, but chiefly at
the larger end, with small brown spots.

Loche includes L. fluviatilis among the birds of Algeria (Expl.
Scient. Alg. Ois. i, p. 266), but says that it is of very accidental
occurrence.

CETTIA CETTE IPA

CETTIA CETTII (Marmora).
CETTI’S WARBLER.

Sylvia cetti, Warm. Mem. Acad. Tor. xxv, p. 254 (1820).

Cettia cetti, Degl. Orn. Hur. i, p. 578 (1849) ; Seebohm, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. v, p. 135.

Cettia sericea, Loche, Expl. Sct. Alg. Ois. i, p. 268 (1867).

Bradypterus cettii, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 193; id. J. f. O. 1892,
p. 392.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Marocco.

Upper plumage rich rufous-brown, wings and tail darker; lores and
a faint superciliary stripe dull white; throat, breast and middle of abdomen
dull white; sides and flanks greyish-brown ; under tail-coverts reddish-
brown tipped with dull white ; tail composed of ten feathers.

Iris and bill dark brown ; feet light brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 2°35, culmen -50, tarsus ‘90.

Sexes alike.

This Warbler is not uncommon in the better watered and marshy
district of North-west Africa, where it is a resident and breeding
species. Dr. Koenig obtained a specimen of it in winter just outside
the town of Tunis (J. f. O. 1888, p. 193). In the Saharan region
south of the Atlas the species probably occurs only in winter and does
not nest there. Canon Tristram appears to have met with it in
the Southern Algerian Sahara during that season. Loche mentions
having met with it in various places north of the Atlas, where he
found it breeding in June and July. In Marocco Ceiti’s Warbler is
not uncommon in suitable localities, and my collection contains
examples of it from the neighbourhood of Fez, Marocco City and
Ras-el-Ain, the last-named locality being situated on the coast of
South Marocco, in latitude 31° N. ‘The specimens collected at
Ras-el-Ain were obtained in June, and were presumably of birds
which had bred in the neighbourhood. Mr. Hartert also appears to
have found this Warbler not at all uncommon in the Mhoiwla district,
and took a nest of the species with two eggs on April Sth (Nov.
Zool. ix. p. 327).

Cetti’s Warbler is essentially an aquatic bird, and is rarely to be
found at any distance from water. Owing to its shyness and retiring
habits it probably often escapes notice, and is thought to be scarcer

199, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

than it reallyis. Indeed, in some localities where the species is known
to be abundant one may often search long and diligently before
meeting with the bird, and even then, perhaps, only catch a glimpse
of one as it flits from one clump of reeds to another, diving imme-
diately into the thickest part in order to hide itself. I remember on
one occasion, when wishing to obtain a specimen of this Warbler on
the banks of the River Anapus near Syracuse, experiencing the greatest
difficulty in achieving my object, although I knew for a fact that there
were several of the birds there. The magnificent Papyrus clumps
growing on each side of this small but celebrated river are favourite
resorts of Cetti’s Warbler in winter, and no doubt throughout the
year, as the species is a sedentary one.

The Anapus, or more properly the Cyane (the modern Pisma), a
smaller stream flowing into the Anapus, appears now to be the only
home, in Europe at any rate, of the Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) in its
wild state. In Egypt, from whence this plant is said to have been
originally introduced into Sicily, the Papyrus is apparently now no
longer to be found. In Palestine, however, it flourishes, or did
flourish some years ago, by the shores of the Lake of Galilee, where
Canon Tristram found it in 1864, growing luxuriantly close to the
Ain-el-Tin, on the north of the Plain of Gennesaret (Linn. Soc.
Journ. Botany, vol. ix.).

The song of this Warbler, although clear and powerful, is rather
abrupt and somewhat metallic. Some of its notes are considered to
resemble those of the Nightingale, but, taken as a whole, its song
cannot be compared with that of our sweetest of songsters. This
resemblance in some of its notes, and the fact of the bird singing
sometimes by night as well as by day, as also, no doubt, its somewhat
similar plumage-colouring, have given rise to the species’ Italian
name of Water or Marsh Nightingale. The Arabs of Marocco also
apparently confound the two species together.

The food of this Warbler consists chiefly, if not entirely, of insects
and their larvee.

The nest of Cetti’s Warbler, according to Colonel Irby (Orn.
Strs. Gib. p. 93), is either placed in a bush, at a height of two or
three feet from the ground, or attached to reeds, lke that of the
Reed-Warbler. In the former case it is composed chiefly of grass
and willow-cotton and entirely lined with hair, in the latter it is
built of bits of small sedges, intermingled with willow-cotton, coated

CISTICOLA CISTICOLA 123

outside with strips of the Hpilobiwm and lined inside with fine grass,
a little hair and bits of cotton at the top. In all cases the nests
are deep and cup-shaped, while the eggs, as a rule from three to five
in number, vary from a delicate rose colour to a brownish or brick-red
colour, and are unspotted. Average measurements 19 x 14 mm.

Subfamily DRYMCICIN A.

CISTICOLA CISTICOLA (Temminck).
FANTAIL-WARBLER.

Sylvia cisticola, Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 228 (1820); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 10 (1846).

Cisticola cisticola, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vii, p. 259; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 279.

Cisticola schcenicola, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois.i, p. 281 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. 0. 1888, p. 193; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 392.

C. cursitans, Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 93.

Description.—Adult female, winter, from Gabés, South ‘Tunisia.

Upper parts tawny-buff, the feathers with broad blackish shaft-stripes,
more pronounced on the crown, back and wings, and less so on the nape;
rump bright rusty-buff; upper tail-coverts the same, but with darker centres
to the feathers; the central pair of rectrices brownish-buff, with dark brown
centres, the remaining tail-feathers dark brown, broadly tipped with white ;
chin, throat and middle of the abdomen white rest of the underparts buff.

Iris bright hazel; bill brown above and flesh colour below; feet pale
flesh colour.

Total length 4 inches, wing 1:85, culmen -40, tarsus ‘70.

Adult male resembles the female in coloration, but is slightly larger.

Two forms of Cisticola occur in North-west Africa, the ordinary
C. cisticola (Temm.) and a darker and somewhat larger form, recently
described by me under the name of Cisticola cisticola mauritanica
(Bull. B. O. C. xiv, p. 20), which will be treated of in the following
article.

The former probably occurs south of the Mediterranean chiefly as
a winter migrant, though it may also be resident in North-west Africa
to a certain extent, while the latter seems to be met with there

Seite

124 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

throughout the year and is no doubt a resident and local race, the
range of which apparently extends over the Atlas region, and to the
extreme southern portion of the Iberian Peninsula.

During the winter months C.cisticolais to be met with in Tunisia
wherever there may be moist or sedgy ground, and occasionally it may
also be found in cornfields and more or less dry localities at some
distance from water.

Though not exactly shy, this tiny Warbler is rather secretive, and
is fond of resorting to uncultivated localities, among the rough grass
and tangled vegetation of which it can hide with ease. In such spots
it may often be seen hovering over some clump of rushes or long grass,
suspended, as it were, in mid-air, and uttering the while its short
song, which may be fairly well rendered by the monosyllable “ zic”’
repeated rapidly several times. On the approach of danger the little
songster suddenly disappears, dropping down into the thick herbage,
from whence it is dislodged with difficulty. Its flight is feeble and
wavering, and 1t is a matter for wonder how this diminutive bird,
and some others of seemingly limited powers of flight, are able to
accomplish the long journeys they undertake. Small insects form
the principal food of the species. Its deep, purse-shaped nest, which
is attached to the blades of corn or grass, is a wonderfully artistic
piece of work, composed chiefly of fine grasses neatly interwoven,
and lined with vegetable-down or other soft materials. Its eggs,
four or six in number, are generally white, or rosy-white, and more
rarely pale blue, spotted with reddish or pale brown. Average
measurements 15 xX 12 mm.

CISTICOLA CISTICOLA MAURITANICA, Whitaker.
MOORISH FANTAIL-WARBLER.

Cisticola cisticola mauritanica, Whitaker, Bull. B. O. C. 1903, xiv,
p. 20.

Description.—Adult male, autumn, from Batna, Algeria.

Differs from C. cisticola (Temm.) in the darker coloration of the plumage
generally, and particularly that of the rump and flanks, which are far less
yellow or tawny; the soft parts are also darker, and the measurements
larger than in C. cisticola.

SCOTOCERCA SAHARA 125

Tris light brown ; bill blackish above, lighter below; feet light brown.
Total length 4:40 inches, wing 2°10, culmen -50, tarsus ‘80.
Adult female similar to the male, but slightly smaller.

Observations.—The wing of some examples in my collection measures
as much as 2:25 inches.

‘Specimens of Cisticola from Ceylon are very dark coloured, and
resemble the birds from North-western Africa.

This form or subspecies of Ovsticola, appears to differ con-
stantly from typical C. cisticola (Temm.), and sufficiently so as to
merit separation. It is no doubt a local race, differing from the
ordinary form in its darker coloration and somewhat larger size, its
wing measurement averaging about two-tenths of an inch more than
that of C. cisticola (Temm.).

The form occurs throughout Northern and Central Tunisia as a
resident and breeding species. It is also to be found in Algeria and
Marocco, from both of which countries I have specimens of it. In
Southern Spain also it appears to be met with occasionally, though
not as commonly as typical C. cisticola (Temm. ).

In the Tunisian Regency I have found this dark form abundant
in the neighbourhood of El-Kef, and at Mateur near Bizerta, and
it no doubt occurs more or less plentifully throughout all the country
north of the Atlas. From the districts south of those mountains
I have no specimens of it, but it may possibly be found there too.

In its habits, note and mode of nesting C. c. mauritanica does
not seem to differ from C. cisticola (Temm.).

SCOTOCERCA SAHARA (Loche).
DESERT WREN-WARBLER.

Malurus sahare, Loche, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1858, p. 395, pl. xi,
fig. 2.

Scotocerca sahare, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vii, p. 214; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1895, p. 95; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 277.

Drymoica saharze, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 283 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1892, p. 395.

126 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description. Adult male, spring, from near Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Above sandy-grey, the crown with greyish-brown striations; wings and
tail brown, margined with greyish-isabelline, the latter very long; super-
ciliary streak extending from the base of the bill over the eye pale
isabelline ; entire underparts whitish, tinged with isabelline-grey on the
sides and flanks.

Tris pale yellow ; bill and feet yellowish-flesh colour.

Total length 4 inches, wing 1°80, culmen °35, tarsus -70.

Adult female similar to the male.

Observations.—The winter plumage of the species is rather darker and
less isabelline.

This little bird, the western representative of S. inquieta (Cretz-
schm.), may be easily distinguished from that species by its paler
isabelline colour and smaller size. It seems to be strictly a desert
species, never, so far as I am aware, occurring north of the Atlas
Mountains. In most of the South Tunisian districts, however, it is
of common occurrence, frequenting both the semi-desert stony plains
and the Chott or Sebkha country, where it, and perhaps one or two
species of Saxicola, are often the only representives of bird-life during
a considerable portion of the year.

In the Regency I have met with the present species in certain
numbers on the plains lying to the west of Gafsa, but it seems to be
more abundant south of the Chott Djerid, where in some localities
it is indeed plentiful.

In the Algerian Sahara I have found S. sahare abundant on the
stony plains lying to the east of Biskra. From Tripoli and Cyrenaica
also I have numerous examples of the species, which were obtained
between April and August. From Marocco I have no note of its
occurrence, but it may occur in some of the more inland desert
districts in the south, where the character of the country probably
resembles that of the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara.

S. sahare is a characteristic bird of the semi-desert region where
a scrub vegetation prevails, and it is probably rarely, if ever, seen
except in that description of country.

_ Extremely shy and timid, this diminutive Warbler will, on the
approach of danger, dive into the middle of a desert bush, seeking to
hide itself there and escape notice, and should the bush be a large
and thick one, the little bird is not easily dislodged from its retreat.

—

SCOTOCERCA SAHARAD 127

When suddenly surprised it shows evident signs of anger, as if
resenting the intrusion, and it will then utter a comparatively loud and
scolding note or alarm cry. ‘The usual song of the species, however,
is composed of a few rather shrill and somewhat grating or hissing
notes, something like ‘‘ sit-sit-ecree.”” The song of the allied species,
Drymoeca gracilis, according to various authorities, is, on the contrary,
melodious and powerful for the size of the bird.

In the spring-time S. sahare is generally to be found in pairs, but
small parties of three and four individuals may often be noticed. It
is a most active, or one might more correctly say restless, little bird,
constantly on the move, hopping from some bush to the ground and
back again, or threading its way in and out among the inner branches
of a bush, with its long tail often held well up over its back. At
times, on alighting on the ground it will run across the sand mounds
from one shrub to another, for it is rather given to running and makes
good use of its legs in creeping through bushes, as shown by the
development of its thigh muscles. When wounded the bird will often
run into the hole of some rodent, and thus make good its escape. Its
flight must be fairly powerful, judging from the distance it is able to
fly without stopping, and, owing partly to its small size and sandy
colouring, the bird will often disappear entirely out of sight. Its
food consists of small insects, both winged and wingless. The
breeding season of S. sahare continues throughout April, May and
June, second broods being probably common. Its rather large nest,
which is generally placed in the centre of some dwarf desert bush,
is round in shape and has a comparatively small aperture at the top.
Fine grass-bents and other particles of plants form its outer structure,
which is lined with feathers and wool. The eggs, four or five in
number, are usually white, spotted, chiefly at the blunt end, with
reddish surface spots and a few pale blue shell markings. The eggs,
however, vary a good deal, both in marking and in shape. Average
measurements 15 X 11 mm. Dr. Koenig has given a very good
plate of the nest and eggs of this species (J. f. O. 1895, tab. xiii.).

128 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subfamily CRATEROPODIN AK.

ARGYA FULYA (Desfontaines).
ALGERIAN BUSH-BABBLER.

Turdus fulvus, Desfontaines, Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. Sci. 1787, p. 498,
pl. xi.

Argya fulva, Dresser, Birds of Europe, iii, p. 21, pl. 98, fig. 1 (1875) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vii, p. 397; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 88;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 281.

Crateropus acacia, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de VAlg. p. 18 (1855).

Crateropus numidicus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 286 (1867).

Description. Adult male, spring, from Kairouan, Central Tunisia.

Above tawny or fulvous-isabelline, slightly darker on the crown, the
feathers on that part having faint darkish shaft-stripes; wings and tail
dusky isabelline-brown, slightly margined with a paler shade ; lores greyish ;
chin and upper throat white; the remainder of the underparts pale rufescent-
isabelline, lighter on the middle of the abdomen and on the crissum.

Tris hazel; bill dark brown; feet pale brown.

Total length 10 inches, wing 3°90, culmen -85, tarsus 1:30.

Adult female, similar to the male.

Young birds have the plumage similar in colour, but downy in texture.

Observations.—There seems to be no difference between the summer and
the winter plumage of this species.

The Algerian Bush-Babbler is one of the comparatively few species
peculiar to this portion of the African Continent, and is common in
Southern and Central Tunisia wherever a bush vegetation prevails,
being, as its English name implies, eminently a bush-loving bird.
In the north of the Regency I have never met with it myself, and
do not think it often occurs there, although the naturalist Blanc
tells me he once obtained two examples of the species which had
been shot in the immediate vicinity of the town of Tunis. Its true
home in Tunisia is undoubtedly south of the Atlas, and more
particularly those districts where patches of cultivated land occur,
with clumps of wild jujube bushes (Ziziphus lotus) and other thorny
plants interspersed here and there. In such localities one may be
almost certain of meeting with A. fulva, and owing to its somewhat
conspicuous colouring and size, one can hardly fail to notice it. In

ARGYA FULVA 129

the neighbourhood of Kairouan, and even a little further north in
Central Tunis, the species may be met with not unfrequently.

In Algeria the species is to be found in the same description of
country as in Tunisia. According to Mr. Tyrwhitt-Drake it occurs
in Southern Marocco, and Mr. Meade-Waldo also met with a party
of these birds near the city of Marocco. The species, however, does
not appear to be so abundant in Marocco as it is in Algeria and
Tunisia, probably owing to the character of the country in general
being less suited to the bird’s requirements. From Tripoli I have
specimens of A. fulva obtained in the more bushy districts of the
Vilayet, where it is not uncommon. These specimens are identical
with examples from Tunisia.

During the greater part of the year the Algerian Bush-Babbler is to
be found in small parties of half-a-dozen birds or so, but occasionally
as many as a dozen may be seen together. In the breeding season
pairs may be met with, but even during the spring small flocks are
frequently to be found together, and the species is eminently gregarious
and sociable in its habits.

Canon Tristram has given a very good description of the peculiar
habit this bird has of creeping up one side of the bush and down
again on the other side, preparatory to stealing off quietly to another
bush, in order to escape detection (Ibis, 1859, p. 420). One may often
see these birds flying out of a bush, one after the other, in a string and
skimming along over the ground. Their flight is rather feeble and
not sustained for any great distance. It seems to be performed by
a succession of rapid beats of the wings, which are then outspread,
and the bird sails along without further effort. It may be fre-
quently seen on the ground and is a great runner. I once had the
pleasure of watching, from a short distance, one of these birds taking a
bath in a pool, which it evidently enjoyed immensely, judging from
its actions and the length of time it remained in the water.

The call note of A. fulva is something like ‘‘ peeah, peeah, peeah,”
and the alarm note a chwrring or grating cry.

Although distinctly wary birds, their restlessness and loquacity
often betray their whereabouts, should they not happen to have
noticed one’s approach from afar. The food of this species consists
largely of coleoptera and other insects as well as of berries and seeds.
Dates are also eaten, and I have a specimen which was shot in the
act of feeding upon this fruit.

9

130 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The nesting season of A. fulva commences early in April and is
continued throughout that and the following month. The earliest
date on which I have taken a nest of the species, with eggs in it, has
been on April 9th. The nest, as a rule, is placed in a thick thorn-
bush, and is composed chiefly of bents and dry grasses, lined with
some soft substance such as vegetable-down, wool and hair, and often
with a piece of rag or cotton stuff, picked up probably near some Arab
dowar or encampment. The eggs, from four to six in number, are
of a beautiful glossy blue-green, and unspotted. They vary consider-
ably in size and shape, being sometimes oval and at others almost
round. They are rather small for the size of the bird, their average
measurements being 24 x 18 mm.

A. fulva is easily distinguished from its eastern congener,
A. squamiceps, by its brighter and more rufescent colouring, and by
its smaller size.

Family ACCENTORIDAL.

ACCENTOR MODULARIS (Linnzus).
HEDGE-SPARROW.

Motacilla modularis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 329 (1766).

Accentor modularis, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. i, p. 191 (1802); Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vii, p. 649; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 175.

Prunella modularis, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 284 (1867);
Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 374.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Sicily.

Forehead, crown and nape brownish-slate; back, scapulars and secondaries
rufous-brown, broadly streaked with blackish ; rump and upper tail-coverts
brown : primaries and tail blackish-brown, the former margined with rufous-
brown ; chin, throat and breast slate, lighter on the chin; middle of the
abdomen whitish ; sides of the body and flanks rufous-brown, streaked with
darker brown ; under tail-coverts brown, broadly fringed with white.

Iris and bill dark brown; feet yellowish-brown.

Total length 5-25 inches, wing 2°75, culmen ‘45, tarsus -75.

Sexes alike.

The Hedge-Sparrow, so familiar to us in England, is ot compara-

ACCENTOR MODULARIS 131

tively rare occurrence in North-west Africa, being found there merely
as a straggler or occasional winter visitor.

In Tunisia I have never met with the species, but I am informed
that it has been found there occasionally in winter. Loche states
that it is to be met with in Algeria, but is of very accidental occurrence
(Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois. i, p. 284). In Marocco it apparently also
occurs as a winter migrant, and Colonel Irby mentions having seen
specimens of it from the African side of the Straits (Orn. Strs.
Gib. p. 84).

There seems to be no record of the species having ever nested
south of the Mediterranean, or indeed on the northern shores of that
sea, although it breeds in the mountain valleys of North Italy. In
South Italy and its islands the bird seems to be merely a winter
migrant, although by no means uncommon in some parts during the
colder months.

The species frequents gardens and hedgerows in the vicinity of
human habitations, and being remarkably tame and easy to approach,
should be easily identified when met with in countries like North-west
Africa, where it is of uncommon occurrence. Its food consists of
worms, insects and their larve, as well as seeds, and when feeding
it may often be seen on the ground. Its song, though short, is
particularly sweet and pleasing.

The Alpine Accentor (A. collaris), so far as I am aware, is
unrecorded from North-west Africa, or indeed from any part of the
African Continent. The species, however, appears to be a regular
winter visitor to the island of Sicily, and is met with there not
unfrequently during the colder months. Doderlein also obtained
specimens of it, in two successive autumns, on the small island of
Ustica, lying about forty miles to the north of Palermo, when the
species was no doubt on its way to Sicily. The same author makes
some interesting remarks regarding this annual and apparently
regular migration of an Alpine species like A. collaris to Sicily
(Avif. Mod. et Sic. p. 336).

132 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Family CINCLIDA.

CINCLUS MELANOGASTER, C. L. Brehm.
DIPPER.

Cinclus melanogaster, Brehm, Lehrb. Eur. Vég. i, p. 289 (1823).

C. cinclus, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vi, p. 311.

C. aquaticus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 305 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 175 ; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 374.

C. minor, Zristram, Ibis, 1870, p. 497.

Description —Adult, spring, from Sicily.

Top of the head and nape dark brown, shading into dark slate on the
upper parts, which are slightly squamated on the back and rump ; wings and
tail blackish-brown; chin, throat and breast pure white; abdomen rusty
blackish-brown ; flank and crissum dark slate.

Tris and bill dark brown ; feet light brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°40, culmen °80, tarsus 1:10.

Sexes alike.

Young birds have the upper-plumage more squamated or scaly in
appearance, and the under plumage almost entirely white.

According to several authorities the Dipper, or a form of it, occurs
in Algeria and Marocco, and although I have no actual note of its
occurrence in Tunisia, the species in all probability is to be found
there also, inhabiting the more mountainous and better watered
districts of the north-west of the Regency. Canon Tristram met
with the Dipper in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, but finding its
measurements less than those of typical specimens, distinguished this
bird as C. minor, stating, however, that ‘‘in coloration it exactly
coincides with the true C. aquaticus” (Ibis, 1870, p. 497). The
measurements given by him of C. minor are as follows : whole length
5°75 inches, wing 2°90, tail 1°90, bill from gape ‘65. Loche mentions
having obtained two examples of the Dipper in the neighbourhood of
Oued-el-Kebir, but states that the species seems to be extremely rare
in Algeria, and is presumably only a bird of passage (Expl. Scient. Alg.
Ois. i, p. 306). An Algerian specimen which I have examined in the
Turati Collection of the Milan Museum, numbered 17,631, and which
is presumably one of the two examples above referred to, differs in no

d
|

CINCLUS MELANOGASTER 1188)

way from dark-bellied specimens of European Dippers, C. melanogaster,
Brehm. Its wing length is 3°75 inches.

In some parts of the Maroccan Atlas the Dipper appears to be far
from uncommon and resident. Mr. EK. G. Meade-Waldo, in a recent
journey in the Great Atlas, met with the bird in the Amsmiz district,
and writes as follows concerning it :—

“On the stream (a branch of the Amsmiz River), which we followed
up to its source at about 8,500 feet, we found numbers of what was
apparently the common Dipper (Cinclus aquaticus). I caught a nearly
full-fledged young bird, which dived all about the bottom of a pool, and
tried to hide under the stones below; this was on July 12th.” And
further on, in a list of the birds met with during the same journey,
Mr. Meade-Waldo writes :—

‘“‘T saw the Dipper on a branch of the upper waters of the Wad-
Amsmiz, running down from the east of Tizi-Gourza. It was common
and breeding. I saw it up to some 9,000 feet. There appeared to be
a pair about every mile. They had young out of the nest but unable
to fly, in July” (bis, 1903, pp. 204 and 205).

Although the physical characters of the greater part of the
Tunisian Regeucy are no doubt but ill adapted to the tastes of a
bird like the Dipper, there are nevertheless some parts, particularly
in the north-western districts, which offer suitable surroundings, and
where there is every reason to believe that a few of these birds may be
found, not merely as wanderers, for the species is not a true migrant,
but as residents, occurring all the year round.

Eminently a water-loving bird, the Dipper, or Water-Ouzel, is
generally to be found frequenting clear-running streams and mountain
torrents where it may be seen perching on some rock or stone in
mid-stream, or darting rapidly over the surface of the water. In this
element itself the bird seems quite at home, being able to dive and
swim under water with the utmost facility, and obtaining its food
there to a great extent. This consists chiefly of aquatic insects and
their larvee.

In Europe the dome-shaped nest of this species is generally to be
found placed in a hole in a bank or under a ledge of rocks, and is
constructed chiefly of moss, grass and leaves, closely matted together.
The eggs, from four to six in number, are pure white, and measure
about 25 x 18 mm.

Various local forms of the Dipper occur, some of which are no

134 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

doubt entitled to subspecific, if not to specific, distinction. Mr.
Dresser, in his ‘‘ Manual of Palearctic Birds,’’ enumerates no less than
ten different forms! Among these he includes Canon Tristram’s
C. minor from the Atlas. Three forms of the Dipper have been
recognised by many ornithologists as occurring in Hurope, viz.,
C. aquaticus, Bechst., C. melanogaster, C. L. Brehm, and C. albicollis
(Vieill.), and according to Prof. Giglioli (Avifauna Italica, p. 144)
all three are to be met with in Italy.

Mr. Hartert has recently distinguished the Sardinian Dipper under
the name of Cinclus cinclus sardus (Bull. B. O. C. xiv, p. 51).

I have in my collection a single specimen of the Dipper from
Sardinia, but have hesitated to separate it from the Scandinavian
form.

Family PARIDA.

PARUS MAJOR EXCELSUS, Brehm.
MEDITERRANEAN GREAT TITMOUSE.

Parus major, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 341 (1766) ; Gadow, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. viii, p. 19; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’ Ors. Alg. p. 12 (1846); Loche,
Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 296 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 175; zd.
J. f. O. 1892, p. 374; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 93; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 285.

P. major excelsus, ‘‘ Brehm,” Buvry, J. f. O. 1857, p. 194.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Entire head, except the cheeks and ear-coverts, glossy blue-black ; cheeks,
ear-coverts and a few feathers at top of the nape white; nape and back
greenish, being brighter higher up and darker lower down ; rump and upper
tail-coverts bluish-grey ; tail bluish-grey, with the outer webs of the exterior
rectrices white; primaries blackish, fringed with bluish-grey ; secondaries
blackish, fringed with whitish; upper wing-coverts bluish-grey, greater-
coverts tipped with white; underparts bright greenish-yellow, with a broad
irregular black stripe running down the middle of the breast and abdomen
to the crissum.

Tris dark brown; bill black ; feet bluish-slate.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3, culmen °50, tarsus -80.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather duller in colouring.

PARUS MAJOR EXCELSUS 135

The Great Tit of the Mediterranean subregion, which includes
the Atlas districts, differs slightly, but apparently constantly, from
typical Parus major, L., and it should therefore no doubt be recognised
as a distinct form, or subspecies, referable to Parus major excelsus,
Brehm, the type of which was obtained by Buvry in Algeria (J. f. O.
1857, p. 194). The difference, as just stated, is slight, extremely slight
in fact, but it appears to be perfectly constant in a large series of
specimens. It consists in the brighter coloration of the underparts
of the bird, which in the present southern form may be described as
bright greenish-yellow, while in the more northern, or typical form
it is a dull yellowish-green. Beyond this there appears to be no
difference between the two forms, unless it be that in North-west
African birds the bill is slightly larger on an average than it is in
typical P. major, although this slight difference does not seem to be
noticeable in most examples from other Mediterranean districts.

Specimens of the Great Tit from Tunisia, Algeria, Marocco,
Spain, and Italy all agree in the bright colouring of their underparts,
and should therefore, no doubt, all be referred to P. m. excelsus. The
Great Tit found in Cyprus has been described by Madarasz as distinct
from P. major under the name of Parus aphrodite, but specimens in
my collection from that island appear to be identical in coloration
with West Mediterranean examples, although they are slightly smaller
in size. Specimens from Persia and Palestine appear to be rather
greyer on the back, and have been distinguished under the name of
P.m. blandfordi, Praz.

This Titmouse is a common and resident species in most of the
forests of North Tunisia, but does not occur, so far as I am aware, in
any of the central or southern districts of the Regency.

In Algeria, however, Dr. Koenig met with the species not
only in the mountains and wooded regions around Batna, but also
in the Oasis of El-Kantara, which is situated on the south side of
the Atlas (J. f. O., 1895, p. 122). It is true El-Kantara is only just
the other side of the Aurés Mountains, and scarcely in the desert,
but it is none the less an oasis, with its palm-trees and accompanying
vegetation. In the Biskra oasis I never met with the species. From
Marocco I have a good series of specimens of this Tit, most of them
obtained in the neighbourhood of Fez and Marocco City, others
being from districts higher up in the Great Atlas, and some, including
young birds, from the vicinity of Ras-el-Ain, on the coast south of
Mogador.

136 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In the oak-woods of Ghardimaou and El Fedja in North Tunisia,
where Q. mirbeckii and Q. suber are the principal forest-trees, as also
at Ain-Draham further north, this species is to be found at all seasons,
and nests there between the months of April and June. In its choice
of habitat and in its habits it differs in no way from birds of the same
species found in Europe, frequenting woods and plantations, where in
spring it is usually to be seen in pairs, and at other seasons in small
parties, roaming about from tree to tree. Its food is mainly of an
insect nature, but seeds and berries are also eaten, particularly the
hard seeds of firs and other conifers. Fruit gardens and orchards are
visited at times, but whether for the sake of the fruit and fruit-
buds, or for the grubs which the latter may contain, does not appear
to be clearly established. It is an undoubted fact, however, that both
the Great Tit and the Blue Tit sometimes eat fruit, and damage con-
siderably more than they actually eat by pecking at it. Young peas
also are much eaten by these Tits, which, to get at the pods, will even
creep through the meshes of the netting spread over the plants to pro-
tect them. The present species will also occasionally attack and kill
small, weakly birds and feed, it is said, upon their brains.

The song of this Tit is powerful, but rather metallic. It can be
heard from a considerable distance. Its call note is a subdued
“« zwee.” When in parties the birds are sometimes very noisy and
quarrelsome. The nest of the species is placed in the hole of a tree
or wall, and is rather a voluminous structure, composed chiefly of
moss, lined abundantly with wool or hair. I once found a Great Tit’s
nest, which was composed entirely of donkey’s hair, closely felted
together. It appears that one of these animals had recently been
clipped in the immediate vicinity of the site chosen for the nest. I
have no eggs of the Great Tit from Tunisia, but Huropean eggs vary
from six to eight in number, and are whitish, speckled with pale red.
Average measurements 18 x 14 mm.

PARUS LEDOUCI 137

PARUS LEDOUCI, Malherbe.
ALGERIAN COAL-TITMOUSE.

Parus ledoucii, Malherbe, Cat. Ois. Alg. in Mém. de la Soc. d’ Hist.
Nat. de la Moselle, 1842, p. 45.

Parus ledouci, Gadow, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. viii, p. 44; Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d’'Ois. Alg. p. 12 (1846); Loche, Hapl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 298,
pl. vii. (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 175; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 374.

Parus ater ledouci, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 309.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Entire crown, region over the eye, sides of nape and throat glossy black ;
ear-coverts, cheeks, sides of the neck and nape lemon-yellow; the remainder
of the upper plumage greyish-green, becoming brighter on the rump; wings
and tail grey, fringed with greenish ; upper wing-coverts tipped with whitish,
forming a double alar bar; breast and abdomen lemon-yellow, becoming
greyer on the sides and flanks.

Tris dark brown ; bill black; feet bluish-slate.

Total length 4 inches, wing 2°50, culmen -35, tarsus ‘70.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather duller in colouring, and
slightly smaller.

Observations. Examples are sometimes met with in which the yellow
coloration of the underparts is very pale; this is probably merely due to
immaturity. It is also to be found in the Great Tit.

This Titmouse appears to be the representative in Tunisia of the
Coal-Tit group. It occurs in most of the forests of the north of the
Regency, though less abundantly than either the Great Tit or the
Ultramarine Tit, and, as a rule, is to be found at rather a higher
elevation than either of these species.

P. ledouci also occurs in the mountainous and more wooded parts
of Algeria, and Dr. Koenig found it not at all uncommon on the
Djebel Touggour, and throughout the Aurés range. Mr. C. Dixon, too,
found the species abundant in the Aurés Mountains, and particularly
so in the Cedar range west of Batna, where, he writes, “the trees
were literally alive with them.’ He moreover met with the birds
in the lower-lying evergreen oak-woods, as well as in the pine-forests,
and gives some interesting details regarding the habits of this species,
among other things observing that, unlike other Tits, he saw it
repeatedly perched on rocks ([bis, 1882, p. 570).

138 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

I have no examples of the species from Marocco, but it may occur
there, although Mr. Meade-Waldo has recently discovered a new form
of Coal-Tit in that country, to which he has given the name of Parus
atlas (Bull. B. O. C. xii, p. 27). This new form, which appears to be
abundant throughout the moister woods of the Maroccan Atlas,
ascending as high as the limit of trees or scrub vegetation, may
perhaps entirely replace P. ledowci in that country.

In the Tunisian Regency the range of P. ledouci seems to be
strictly confined to the wooded parts of the north, and I have never
heard of its occurrence anywhere south of the Atlas. Mr. Aplin
found it fairly common in the higher oak-forests of Ghardimaou
and El Fedja, although not in the lower-lying cork-woods, where
P. major and P. ultramarinus are abundant. M. Blane reports the
species as by no means uncommon in the woods of Ain-Draham and
at Camp de la Sante, from whence I have numerous specimens.

I never met with this Tit in the Aleppo pine forests of the moun-
tains near Kasrin and El Oubira, where one would expect to find it,
as it is not uncommon in the pine-woods of the Aurés range further
west.

In many ways the present species seems to resemble our European
Coal-Tit, and like other Titmice, is often to be found in the company
of its congeners, busily engaged in hunting for food, and when thus
employed is by no means shy.

In spring-time, however, it is generally to be found in pairs, and,
according to Dr. Koenig, the species is less gregarious than most other
Tits, being rarely observed in companies, like P. ultramarinus and
P. major. In many of its habits, however, Dr. Koenig considers that
it resembles our Huropean Coal-Tits to a great extent. Its song is
soft and pleasing, and its call note sharp and clear. The stomachs of
those I obtained contained only the remains of small insects, but the
species is said to feed largely upon seeds, particularly those of conifers.
I have not myself been fortunate enough to meet with the nest and
eggs of P. ledowci, and thus far little appears to be known regarding
the nesting of the species, the only positive information we possess on
the subject being, apparently, that given by Malherbe, when describing
the bird as new (Mém. Soc. His. Nat. Moselle, 1842, p. 45). This
was to the effect that M. Ledoux, the French officer after whom the
species was named, had taken one of these Tits on a nest placed
fifteen centimetres deep in the ground in the Forest of Edough, near

PARUS ULTRAMARINUS 139

Bone. Dr. Koenig is also of opinion that this Tit nests in holes in
the ground, having frequently noticed these birds on the ground
during the nesting season. Probably the species nests both in the
holes of trees and in the ground, like its European congener.

No Marsh-Tit appears to occur in North-west Africa, or indeed
anywhere in the African continent.

PARUS ULTRAMARINUS, Bonaparte.
ULTRAMARINE TITMOUSE.

Parus ultramarinus, Bonaparte, ev. et Mag. de Zool. 1841, p. 146;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 388; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96.

Parus coeruleanus, Malherbe, Cat, Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 13 (1846).

Cyanistes ultramarinus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 300 (1867).

Parus teneriffee, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 188.

Parus coeruleus ultramarinus, H7langer, J. f. O. 1899, p. 310.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Forehead, superciliary stripes, ear-coverts, cheeks and a line round
the hind part of the crown pure white; crown, lores, a streak behind the
eyes, throat and a stripe from this round the hindpart of the neck deep
glossy blue; nape, back, wings and tail bluish, the two central rectrices
and the wing-coverts brighter; the secondaries and greater-coverts tipped
with white ; breast and remainder of the underparts greenish-yellow, with
some blackish feathers on the centre of the lower breast.

Tris dark brown ; bill black ; feet bluish-slate.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 2°40, culmen ‘38, tarsus °70.

Adult female similar to the male, but slightly duller in colouring.

This species, which appears to be the North-west African represen-
tative of the Blue Titmouse group, is quite the commonest Tit to
be found in Tunisia, and has a much more extensive range in the
Regency than either of the preceding members of the family. Besides
being generally distributed throughout the more northern and better
wooded parts of the country, it is also to be met with in Central
Tunisia and in some of the southern oases. In the fine oasis of
Gafsa I have found this Tit in considerable numbers in spring among
the olive-groves and fruit-orchards which are so plentiful there, and
I am informed that it also occurs in the oases of Tozer and Nefta,

140 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

further west, as well as in the small oasis of El-Guettar to the south-
east of Gafsa. It does not seem to occur in other oases in Tunisia,
and is, indeed, scarcely a bird which one would expect to meet with
in palm oases, being probably only found in them on account of the
olive and other fruit trees growing there.

In Algeria P. ultramarinus is common throughout the Atlas
districts, and I have also found it abundant in the public gardens
at Biskra in the desert. In Marocco the species is likewise plentiful,
and I have numerous examples of it both from northern and southern
districts. Mr. Meade-Waldo met with it in the Maroccan Atlas
at elevations of 7,000 feet above sea-level. In its habits the Ultra-
marine Titmouse resembles P. cwruleus, being active and restless,
and frequenting woods and gardens, where it is generally to be seen
in small parties, busily engaged in foraging for food. It feeds chiefly
upon insects and their larve, but also eats seeds and berries, and
occasionally fruit. It is very pugnacious and quarrelsome, as well
as courageous, and anything but shy or timid. Its note most often
heard is a grating ‘‘zee”’ repeated two or three times. This species
breeds in the holes of old walls and trees, using principally moss and
wool in the construction of its nest. The eggs are said to be generally
six to eight in number, and of a clear white spotted with reddish-
brown, chiefly at the blunt end. Dimensions 15 X 12mm. Occasion-
ally this Tit breeds in holes in the ground, and Mr. Meade-Waldo
met with an interesting case of this in the Canary Islands. The hen
bird was taken on her nest and kept a captive while it was dug out,
examined and replaced, but on being released she immediately flew
straight back into the hole (Ibis, 1890, p. 436).

P. ultramarinus has often been confused with P. tenerife, Lesson,
but the two are fairly distinguishable from each other, the former
having its secondary quill-feathers and greater wing-coverts tipped
with white, while the latter has no white on those feathers, or, to be
exact, has no white on the greater wing-coverts, and generally none
on the secondaries, faint whitish tips to the latter being exceptional.

P. palmensis, Meade-Waldo, and P. ombriosus, Meade-Waldo, two
other forms of the Blue Titmouse found in the Canaries, also resemble
P. ultramarinus, but the former differs in having the abdomen white,
and the latter in having the lower part of the back and the rump
creen.

CERTHIA FAMILIARIS BRACHYDACTYLA 141

Family CHERTHIIDAL.

CERTHIA FAMILIARIS BRACHYDACTYLA, Brehm.
TREE-CREEPER.

Certhia familiaris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 184 (1766) ; Gadow, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. viii, p. 323; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ous. Alg. p. 17 (1846) ;
Loche, Hxpl. Sct. Alg. Ois. i, p. 292 (1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p.
170; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 374; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 93.

Certhia brachydactyla, Brelm, Vig. Dewtschl. p. 210 (1831); Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p 313.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above dark brown, striated with dull white, the forehead and crown only
very slightly so; lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts rufous-brown ;
wings dark brown, barred with dull yellow and tipped with white; the
tail feathers, which are very stiff and pointed, pale rufescent-brown ; super-
ciliaries dull white; chin and throat pure white ; rest of underparts dusky-
white, becoming grey and yellowish-brown on the sides, flanks and vent.

Tris brown ; bill dark brown ; feet pale brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2:50, culmen -75, tarsus °65, hind claw 35.

Adult female, similar to the male.

Young birds have the plumage yellower and the bill shorter.

The Tree-Creeper is subject to considerable variation, and has
been split up by ornithologists into several subspecies. The form
found in Tunisia, and probably throughout the whole of North-west
Africa, answers best to that which has been distinguished under the
name of C. brachydactyla, Brehm, and appears to be constant in its
differential characters, as shown by the examination of a large series
of specimens from various parts of the country. The principal of
these characters, as compared with those of what may be taken to be
typical C. familiaris, Linn., seem to be the generally darker coloration
of its upper parts, with a less amount of white striation, particularly
on the forehead and crown, less pronounced superciliary stripes, the
more dusky colour of the underparts below the throat and breast,
and lastly, the rather shorter length of the hind-claw. The other
differential characters given by some ornithologists do not appear to
be constant.

Bailly’s description of his C. coste (Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. de Savoie,

142 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

1852, pp. 11-13), does not well apply to the present form, and that
name could not therefore be used for it, even supposing Brehm’s
name were not available.

The Tree-Creeper is not uncommon in the north of the Regency,
where it is a resident and breeding species. South of the Atlas I
have no note of its occurrence.

In Algeria I have seen the species at El-Kroubs, and Dr. Koenig
found it not uncommon in the oak-woods around Lambessa, as also
in the cedar-forests on the Djebel Touggour.

In the oak-woods of Ghardimaou and El-Fedja, as also at Ain-
Draham in North Tunisia, the Tree-Creeper is to be met with
frequently and throughout the year.

In its habits it is shy and rather solitary, though exceedingly
restless, and for this latter reason is more often noticed than it other-
wise would be, as its plumage is particularly sober and unattractive
in its colouring. The bird is generally to be seen alone, creeping
rapidly up a tree trunk with a jerky movement, and, as a rule, im a
spiral direction, and stopping at intervals to probe the bark in search
of the insects and their larve which form its principal food. When
it reaches the top of the tree trunk it flits off to the foot of another
tree and immediately repeats the same tactics. The bird’s stiff,
pointed and somewhat decurved tail-feathers, and large feet with
strongly curved claws, are eminently adapted for climbing.

In winter the Tree-Creeper may sometimes be found in the
company of various species of Titmice, but, as already mentioned, it
is not of a sociable disposition, and is more often to be seen alone.
Its short warbling song uttered in spring is considered to be pleasing,
though rather shrill, and its call note is a feeble “‘ cheep, cheep,” con-
stantly uttered as it climbs.

Mr. Aplin found a nest of the species with young birds in it on
May 20th in the oak-forest of El-Fedja, and met with young Tree-
Creepers on the wing about a fortnight later. The nest he found
was placed in a curl of the bark of an old oak-tree, rotten at the core,
and was composed of pieces of stick and a little moss, with a lining
of feathers. The bits of stick seemed large for so small a bird to
carry.

The eggs of the Tree-Creeper, generally from four to eight in
number, are white spotted with reddish-brown, chiefly at the blunt
end. Average measurements 16 X-11 mm.

ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES 143

So far as I am aware there is no authentic record of the Wall-
Creeper (Tichodroma muraria) having ever been met with in North-
west Africa, although, according to Riippell, the species once occurred
in Egypt and Abyssinia.

The Nuthatch (Sitta c@sia), on the other hand, is recorded by
Loche as occurring in Algeria, where it appears to be sedentary,
though not common.

Family TROGLODYTIDAS.

ANORTHURA TROGLODYTES (Linneus).
WREN.

Motacilla troglodytes, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 337 (1766).

Anorthura troglodytes, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vi, p. 269;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 276.

Troglodytes vulgaris, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Troglodytes europzus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 290 (1867).

Troglodytes parvulus, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 188; id. J. f. O. 1892,
p. 387; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above rufous-brown, rather brighter on the wings, lower back, rump and
tail, these parts being finely barred with blackish-brown ; superciliary stripes
dull white, underparts dull white, washed with rufous-brown.

Tris brown, bill brown, feet pale brown.

Total length 3-50 inches, wing 1:90, culmen ‘50, tarsus -70.

Adult female slightly smaller than the male and duller in colouring.

The Wren is a resident species in the Regency, and is not uncom-
mon in some of the northern districts and in the wooded valleys of
the Atlas. South of these mountains I have not met with the species,
but it may perhaps occur in some of the southern oases in winter-
time. At Zaghouan, and near the town of Tunis itself, it may fre-
quently be met with, as well as in the forests of Ghardimaou and
Fernana.

In Algeria and Maroceo the Wren occurs in suitable localities.
Although not particularly timid or shy of man, owing to its diminu-

144 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

tive size and soberly-coloured plumage this little bird often escapes
notice and is considered less common than it really is. In Tunisia it
is perhaps also less in evidence than it is in most European countries,
as there it seems to frequent woods and secluded spots more than
gardens and the neighbourhood of human habitations, its usual haunts
in our own country, particularly in severe weather. Its flight is
feeble and jerky, and never maintained for any distance. Insects and
grubs form its principal food, but seeds and berries are also eaten,
especially perhaps in winter-time. The Wren’s song is pleasing and
decidedly powerful for so small a bird, being at times poured forth by
the tiny songster with surprising energy and vigour. Its call note is
a sharp “click.” The nest of this species is a most artistic structure,
and is generally placed in the midst of picturesque surroundings, such
as ivy or other creepers, on a mossy bank, or against the trunk of
some old tree. Walls, or the sides of outbuildings, sometimes furnish
a convenient site. The nest itself is decidedly large and dome-shaped,
with an aperture on one side. It is constructed chiefly of moss and
lichens, with a plentiful lining of feathers. The eggs, usually six or
seven in number, are white, and generally finely spotted with red.

In some continental countries one of the common trivial names of
the Wren is ‘‘ The King of Birds.” The same title is applied to the
species in some doggerel verses quoted in Morris’s ‘“‘ British Birds,”
anent the former persecution of this poor little bird in England on
St. Stephen’s day. How such cruelty could ever have been practised
and allowed in an enlightened country like ours is inconceivable !

Family MOTACILLIDA.

MOTACILLA ALBA, Linnezus.
WHITE WAGTAIL.

Motacilla alba, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 331 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. x, p. 464; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 3 (1867) ; Koenag
J. f. O. 1888, p. 213; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 25; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896,
p. 89; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 323.

Description —Adult male, early spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.
Forehead, region round eye, ear-coverts and sides of neck pure white ;

MOTACILLA ALBA 145

hind part of crown, nape, throat and upper breast jet-black; back bluish-
grey, becoming darker on the rump and upper tail-coverts ; quills blackish-
brown, the secondaries and upper wing-coverts broadly margined with
white ; tail black, excepting the two outer pairs of feathers, which are pure
white, slightly margined with black on the inner webs; rest of underparts
white, washed with grey on the flanks.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3°50, culmen ‘50, tarsus -90.

Adult female rather smaller than the male and greyer in colouring, and
with but little black on the head and throat.

A winter migrant in Tunisia, this is one of the commonest birds
to be met with during that season in the Regency, arriving in autumn
and leaving again in spring. Whether any individuals of the species
remain to breed in this country, or indeed anywhere in North-west
Africa, I cannot say, but there seems to be no authentic record of
their doing so. What Motacilla alba algira of de Selys-Longchamps
may have been it is difficult to say, but according to Bonaparte (Rey.
Zool. 1857, p. 61), de Selys’ bird resembled M. yarrelli (M. lugubris)
more than M. alba in having a very dark back, while it approached
M. lugens, Pall, or M. lewcoptera, Vigors, in having the white on the
wings very extended.

In Algeria and Marocco M. alba is abundant as a winter migrant,
but I have no knowledge of the species breeding in either of those
countries.

In Tunisia the White Wagtail is to be found plentifully through-
out the country wherever water occurs, and particularly so during
the periods of migration. I have notes of its occurrence from most
parts of the Regency, and its favourite line of passage is apparently
along the east coast down to the Tripoli frontier.

In its habits the present species resembles its congener, M. lugubris,
chiefly frequenting meadows and moist ground, where flies and other
winged insects abound. These it catches with wonderful dexterity,
its rapid and at the same time graceful movements when thus
engaged being well worth watching. On the sea-shore it feeds on
small crustacea and marine insects. Its alarm note isa sharp ‘‘ tizzick.”
Though essentially a ground bird, 1 have seen the White Wagtail
perching on a bush, and it is also fond of resorting to the roofs of
houses and other buildings, particularly in spring, for breeding
purposes.

10

146 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

M. lugubris has not come under my notice in Tunisia, although
from North Marocco I have specimens of it obtained in the month
of March, and it may possibly also occur both in Algeria and in the
Regency. In Marocco the two species, M. lugubris and M. alba, are
to be found in the same districts. Although the range of the former
species seems to be more or less restricted to the west of the Western
Palearctic region, it has been known to occur in Southern Italy and
Malta. No doubt the two species, MW. lugubris, and M. alba, are very
closely allied, and in countries where both occur they have been
known to interbreed (Saunders, Man. Brit. Birds, p. 115).

Under the name of M. subpersonata Mr. Meade- Waldo has recently
described a new Wagtail from Marocco (Bull. B. O. C. xii, p. 27).
This species seems to be most nearly allied to M. personata, though
easily distinguishable from that bird.

MOTACILLA MELANOPE, Pallas.
GREY WAGTAIL.

Motacilla melanope, Pall. Reis. Russ. Reichs., iii, p.696 (1776) ; Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 497.

Motacilla boarula, Malherbe, Cat: Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846);
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 322.

Pallenura sulphurea, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 5 (1867).

Calabates sulphurea, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 213; id. J. f. O. 1893,
p. 25.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Titula, South Marocco.

Forehead, crown, ear-coverts, nape, back and rump slate-grey, rather
darker on the crown and ear-coverts; upper tail-coverts greenish-yellow ;
outer tail-feathers pure white, the next two pairs also white, with black on
their outer webs, the remaining reetrices blackish-brown; quills blackish-
brown; the longer secondaries fringed with grey; chin and throat black,
with a white stripe running backwards from the base of the bill; rest of the
underparts canary-yellow.

Tris dark brown; bill blackish; feet brown.

Total length 7-20 inches, wing 3°30, culmen ‘50, tarsus -75.

Adult female duller in colouring than the male, and generally with less
black on the throat.

|

MOTACILLA FLAVA 147

Observations.—In winter the black throat in both sexes disappears and
is replaced by white or whitish-buff.

The Grey Wagtail is a winter migrant in Tunisia, being more
often seen during the periods of migration than at any other season.
The species, however, can scarcely be considered common in the
Regency at any time, and none of the examples I have obtained there
are in full breeding plumage. It may possibly sometimes escape
notice, being taken for some other species of Wagtail, although at
close quarters this would hardly be possible, its very long tail being
a sufficiently distinctive character. Mr. Aplin met with the species
at Sfax, and M. Blanc says it occurs occasionally near the town of
Tunis. The species occurs in Algeria, but appears to be more abun-
dant in Marocco, where it is common throughout the Atlas districts,
and probably breeds, as I have specimens which were obtained at the
very end of the month of May. It may also nest in Tunisia, although
I have no knowledge of its doing so. In many parts of South Europe
the species is known to breed.

In many of its habits the Grey Wagtail resembles others of the
family, but it frequents hilly districts and the neighbourhood of
running water far more than most of its allies, and is rarely to be found
otherwise than singly or in pairs. It is not a sociable bird, nor is it
particularly shy, and at times it will frequent the neighbourhood of
dwellings with the utmost self-assurance. It feeds chiefly on insects
and worms. Its note is a simple “ zi-zz’ repeated once or twice.

MOTACILLA FLAYA, Linneus.
BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL.

Motacilla flava, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 331 (1766); Sharpe Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. x, p. 516, pl. vi, figs. 8-5; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg.
p. 11 (1846); Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96.

Budytes fiava, Zoche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Os. ii, p. 7 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 213; id. J. f. O. 18938, p. 25.

Budytes flavus flavus, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 320.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.
Forehead, crown, nape and sides of the neck bluish-slate ; lores and
ear-coverts rather darker slate; a white superciliary stripe running from

148 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

the base of the bill to behind the eye; back olive-green ; rump and upper
tail-coverts slightly brighter green, the latter with blackish centres to the
feathers; quills dark brown, secondaries and wing-coverts broadly margined
with yellowish-white and buff; the two outer pairs of tail-feathers white,
with a diagonal blackish margin on part of inner web, the remaining tail-
feathers blackish-brown; chin and a line below the lores white; throat
and entire under surface of body bright canary-yellow, slightly tinged with
dull green on sides.

Tris, bill and feet very dark brown.

Total length 6:25 inches, wing 3°35, culmen °55, tarsus 1.

Adult female rather duller in colour than the male and slightly
smaller.

Young birds have the upper parts olive-brown, the rump and upper tail-
coverts greener, the underparts buffy-white, tinged with pale yellow on
abdomen and crissum, and the fore-neck with a collar of brown spots.

Observations.— Most of the Yellow Wagtails at times show a few blackish
or dark greenish feathers on the breast, these dark markings occasionally
becoming more developed. The white eyebrow of the present species is
not unfrequently tinged with yellow.

Varieties are sometimes met with in the various forms in which the
yellow underparts have a distinct orange hue.

Specimens may occasionally be found with an admixture of yellowish-
green feathers on the crown. I have one such specimen from South Tunisia
and there are similar examples in Mr. J. H. Gurney’s collection from South
Algeria.

The Yellow Wagtails, the group to which the present species
belongs, were separated by Cuvier from other members of the family
under the generic name of Budytes, but the grounds for such separa-,
tion being somewhat slender, the subdivision has not been generally
accepted by modern authors, many of whom consider it advisable to
retain the group under the genus Motacilla.

As most ornithologists must have had occasion to observe, the
group is a difficult one to deal with, owing to the number of forms
which it presents; and the separation or subdivision of these, with
our present limited knowledge regarding some of them, is no doubt
more or less a matter of opinion.

Treating of those which occur in the Tunisian Regency, I may
briefly say that the following forms are to be found, which in their
fully adult and typical plumage may be thus characterised, viz. :—

(a) M. flava : with a bluish-slate-coloured crown, a distinct white

MOTACILLA FLAVA 149

superciliary stripe, little or no white on the chin and none at all on
the throat.

(0) M. cinereocapilla: with a similarly coloured crown, generally
without a white superciliary stripe, but sometimes with a slight one,
chiefly behind the eye, and with a distinct white chin aud throat.

(c) M. borealis : with a darker slate-coloured crown, without any
superciliary stripe, and with little or no white on the chin, and none at
all on the throat.

(d) M. melanocephala : with a perfectly black crown, and without
any superciliary stripe, or any white on the chin and throat.

(e) M. rayi : with a yellowish-green crown, a yellow superciliary
stripe, and no white on the chin and throat.

It is not without considerable hesitation that I admit all these
forms to full specific rank, some, if not all of them, appearing to me
to be merely subspecies, or local forms, and some authors, indeed, go
so far as to lump them all together under MW. flava, Linn. According
to excellent authorities, however, there are good reasons for specific
separation or sub-division, apart from the variation of plumage
colouring and marking, and some careful observers profess to be able
to distinguish a difference between the respective notes and habits
of the various forms, as well as between the relative dates of their
arrival and departure, and even, in one or two cases, in their structural
parts. According to some good ornithologists also, the various forms
have different breeding areas, and should this fact be established for a
certainty, it would no doubt constitute a strong argument in favour of
specific distinction. So far, however, as our present knowledge goes,
it is difficult to arrive at a definite conclusion on the matter, and
we must be content to wait until further research may throw more
light upon the subject.

The fact of the young birds of the various forms being practically
indistinguishable one from the other greatly adds to the difficulty of
identification, and it is by no means an uncommon occurrence to find
birds, not fully adult which show, in a greater or less degree, what
are considered to be the characteristic features of two different forms,
thus rendering their identification an absolute impossibility.

The Blue-headed Wagtail is a bird of regular passage throughout
the greater partof the Tunisian Regency, being particularly plentiful
during the spring migration, when the species may be noticed, in
greater or lesser numbers, from about March 20th until the end of

150 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

April. After that date a few individuals may be met with, but I
am unable to say whether the species breeds in the Regency or not.
Blanc, the Tunis naturalist, is of opinion that it does not do so, giving
as a reason the fact of his not having met with the species in any
part of Tunisia after the month of May, whereas M. cinereocapilla,
according to him, is abundant there in the month of June. Baron
von Erlanger, on the other hand, thinks that the present species does
nest in the Regency, as he has met with it in pairs and not in flocks
as late as the middle of May.

In Algeria MW. flava is common both north and south of the Atlas.
Dr. Koenig found it abundant in the Algerian Sahara, and Loche
says the species is plentiful in Algeria during the periods of passage,
and is also sedentary there to a certain extent. In Marocco it is
common in spring, and I have examples of the species obtained as
late as the month of May. Mr. Edward Dodson, when travelling in
Tripoli, met with the Blue-headed Wagtail in considerable numbers
in April at Bonjem and its.vicinity, and found the famine-stricken
residents of those districts subsisting to a great extent upon the flesh
of these birds, which were caught in snares and greedily devoured.

M. flava frequents low-lying plains and moist meadows, as well
as cattle-pastures and localties in the vicinity of water, where flies
and other insects are numerous.

Grazing herds are sure to attract these birds, on account of the
swarms of gnats and small flies which collect around them, and it is
an interesting sight to see the birds threading their way in and out
between the feet of the cattle or horses with the utmost fearlessness
and self-assurance. For the same reason these Wagtails often
accompany a travelling caravan for a considerable distance.

In most of its habits M. flava resembles other members of the
group, although it is perhaps the least shy of them all. In its flight
and movements it is particularly graceful and adroit. Its ordinary

st vea's
2-20.

note appears to be a simple

MOTACILLA CINEREOCAPILLA 151

MOTACILLA CINEREOCAPILLA, Savi.
GREY-HEADED WAGTAIL.

Motacilla cinereocapilla, Savi, Nuov. Giorn. del. Letter. p. 190 (1831).

Motacilla cinereicapilla, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 526.

Budytes cinereocapilla, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 9 (1867);
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 213; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 26.

Motacilla viridis, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96.

Budytes flavus cinereocapillus, H7rlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 321.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Differs from MW. flava in having the chin and throat white and the
white superciliary stripe absent or less developed.

Soft parts and measurements as in M. flava.

Adult female like the female of I. flava, but with a white throat.

Young like the young of M. flava, but with little or no eye-stripe as a
rule. The young of the different forms of Yellow Wagtail are not easily
distinguishable from each other.

Observations.—The absence of the white superciliary stripe in this species
is by no means a constant character, and specimens are often found with
a stripe, although as a rule this is less pronounced than in WM. flava, and
more at the back of the eye. Apparently, therefore, the only constant and
well-marked differential character between the two lies in the distinct
white throat of the present species.

This Wagtail is common in Tunisia as a regular migrant, arriving
in April and returning southwards in the early autumn.

According to Blanc, however, the species nests in the Regency,
which is highly probable, as it is a common breeding species in Sicily
and Southern Italy, being, indeed, a Mediterranean form. In the
localities it frequents and in its general habits this species does not
differ greatly from M. flava, although, according to some ornith-
ologists, it is far more shy than that species, and also has a different
note. In Sicily the principal vernacular name for the present species
is Pispisa vizzitana, that of M. flava being Pispisa virritana, the
local “‘cacciatori”’ and bird-fanciers professing to be able to dis-
tinguish the two by their notes, those of M. flava, according to them,
resembling the words virri-virri, whereas those of M. cinereocapilla
are more like vizzi-vizzi.

Nests of this species found in Europe are placed on the ground,

152 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

and are composed of grasses and root-fibres, lined with horsehair and
a few feathers. The eggs, four to six in number, are a dull white,
clouded with pale brown, and measure about 20 x 15 mm.

MOTACILLA BOREALIS, Sundevall.
SLATE-HEADED WAGTAIL.

Motacilla flava borealis, Suwndev. Gifv. K. Vet.-Akad. Forh. Stockh.
1840, p. 53.

Motacilla borealis, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 522, pl. vii,
figs. 1-3; Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 25.

Budytes flavus borealis, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 322.

Motacilla viridis, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Hadj-el-Aioun, Central Tunisia.

Differs from MW. flava in having the crown and sides of the head darker,
no white superciliary stripe, and no white on the chin or throat.

Soft parts and measurements as in M. flava.

Adult female duller in coloration than the male.

The young are hardly distinguishable from those of the preceding forms.

Observations.—Examples are occasionally found with a slight white
supercilium, and a little white on the chin.

My Tunisian collection contains only two or three specimens of
this Wagtail, which were obtained in spring. The form does not
appear to be nearly so abundant in the Regency as either of the two
preceding ones, and I have no knowledge of its nesting anywhere in
that country. It is, in fact, supposed to breed much further north
than any of the other Yellow Wagtails. In Tunisia it may sometimes
be met with in the company of M. flava, from which species it
probably does not differ much, if at all, in its general habits.

MOTACILLA MELANOCEPHALA 153

MOTACILLA MELANOCEPHALA, Lichtenstein.
BLACK-HEADED WAGTAIL.

Motacilla melanocephala, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 36 (1823).

Motacilla feldeggi, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 527, pl. 8,
figs. i.-iv.

Budytes melanocephalus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 10 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 214.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Bari, Italy.

Differs from M. flava in having the crown, nape and ear-coverts of a
rich glossy black, the rest of the upper parts rather deeper in their colora-
tion, and in lacking the superciliary stripe.

Soft parts and measurements as in MW. flava.

Adult female much duller in coloration than the male.

The young resemble those of the preceding forms, but are rather darker
on the head.

Though [I have not met with this form of Wagtail in Tunisia,
Blane informs me that, although rare, it occurs occasionally in the
Regency, having been found as far south as Tatahouine. Dr. Koenig
also includes it in his list of Tunisian birds (J. f. O. 1888, p. 214),
haying obtained a specimen of it in the Regency in the month of
April, 1886. Loche mentions haying obtained an example near Ain
Oussera, in Algeria (Expl. Scient. Alg. Ois. u, p. 11). A male
specimen which exists in the Milan Museum under the No. 17,639
is probably this very example.

In Italy and Sicily MW. melanocephala occurs in limited numbers
and at irregular intervals. In the latter island the late Dr. Mina
Palumbo stated that he had observed the species on several occasions
in spring frequenting the torrent-beds of the Madonian mountains,
where the birds remained until the end of July. Prof. Doderlein also
obtained specimens of it near Palermo.

In some years M. melanocephala is not uncommon at Bari on the
extreme eastern coast of Italy.

Examples of Black-headed Wagtails with a white supercilium
have been named M. paradoza (Brehm), and those with a yellow
supercilium, M. xanthophrys (Sharpe). The former occurs in South-
eastern Europe and has been found as far west as Bari, while the latter
is principally met with in the Caucasus region, but strays westward to
Dalmatia and, according to some authors, even to Italy.

154 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

MOTACILLA RAYI (Bonaparte).
YELLOW WAGTAIL.

Budytes rayi, Bonaparte, Comp. List Birds Eur. and N. Amer. p. 18
(1838) ; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 8 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O.
1888, p. 191; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 389.

Motacilla campestris, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 510, pl. 6,
figs. i, i.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Mazagan, Central Marocco.

Upper parts mostly yellowish-green, brighter on the forehead and lores ;
a conspicuous yellow stripe over the eye; wings and tail blackish-brown,
but the longer secondaries are fringed with grey, and the two outer pairs of
rectrices are white ; entire underparts canary-yellow.

Tris dark brown ; bill blackish ; feet dark brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:20, culmen 50, tarsus ‘85.

Adult female differs from the male in being duller and browner above,
less brightly coloured below, and also somewhat smaller.

The young are hardly distinguishable from those of MW. flava.

There is a specimen in my Tunisian collection, obtained on the
plains to the west of Gafsa, which, though it is not a very typically
coloured Yellow Wagtail, I can only refer to this species. Loche
includes it in his list of the birds of Algeria, and states that he only
met with the species on migration and considered it to be merely an
accidental straggler in that country. ‘Two male specimens obtained
by Loche in Algeria exist in the Milan Museum under the numbers
17,642 and 17,643. From Marocco I have a few specimens of the
Yellow Wagtail, which were obtained at Mazagan on the coast, and
the species is probably not uncommon in some parts of that country.
Although no doubt more or less a western species, M. rayi occurs
occasionally in Italy, Sicily and Malta, and apparently even as far
aast as Turkestan. According to some ornithologists there are two
forms of this species, one inhabiting Western Europe and migrating
in winter to the west coast of Africa, the other inhabiting South
Russia, the Caspian region and Turkestan, and wintering in East
Africa. The former has been distinguished by the name of Budytes
campestris flavissimus (Blyth), the latter bearing that of Budytes
campestris campestris (Pallas).

With regard to Pallas’s specific name of campestris, although much

ANTHUS PRATENSIS 155

older than Bonaparte’s name of rayi, I have rejected it because the
description given of the bird by Pallas is rather vague and does not
well apply to the Yellow Wagtail, but better to the Blue-headed
Wasgtail. The description, in any case, appears to refer to an immature
and not to an adult bird.

ANTHUS PRATENSIS (Linnzus).
MEADOW-PIPIT.

Alauda pratensis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 287 (1766).

Anthus pratensis, Bechst. Natury. Dewtschl. iii, p. 732 (1807) ; Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 580; Loche, Expl. Scr. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 16
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 214; ad. J. f. O. 1893, p. 28;
Whutaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 317.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above olive-brown, with dark brown centres to feathers; faint superciliary
stripe buff; wings dark brown, the secondaries and coverts broadly margined
with buffy-white ; tail dark brown, with the exception of the outermost pair
of rectrices, which are white, with an oblique brown margin to the inner web
and the adjoining pair, which have a white patch on the tip of the inner web ;
underparts buffy-white, thickly spotted on the sides of the neck, breast and
flanks with longitudinal blackish-brown markings; hind-claw long and only
slightly curved.

Iris dark brown ; bill dark brown ; feet light brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3, culmen 40, tarsus -80, hind-claw ‘80.

Adult female similar to the male.

The Meadow-Pipit is common in Tunisia during the winter
months, arriving regularly in autumn and leaving again in the early
spring. By the end of March the vernal migration of these birds seems
to have terminated, and I have no note of the species occurring after
that date, or of its breeding anywhere in the Regency. Mr. C. Dixon,
however, appears to have met with the species in Algeria in the month
of May (Ibis, 1882, p. 571).

Although the Meadow-Pipit is generally to be found in Tunisia
in the coast districts, or on the borders of inland lakes, it may
occasionally be met with on some of the plains of the interior at a
considerable distance from the coast. As a rule, however, in its

156 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

winter home it frequents localities either actually adjoining or at
no great distance from water. The shores of Kl Bahira or the Lake
of Tunis, and the little islet of Sheikli in the centre of that lagoon,
are favourite resorts of Meadow-Pipits, which no doubt find an
abundance of food among the sedges and rough grass plentiful there.
The diet of these and allied Pipits consists of insects, small snails
and worms, varied to a certain extent by seeds and other vegetable
matter. The flight of the Meadow-Pipit is not unlike that of the
Short-toed Lark, being jerky and flitting, although capable of being
maintained for a considerable length of time. The call note of this
species is sharp and shrill, but its song, generally uttered on the
wing, is said to be well sustained and varied. In Marocco A. pratensis
is common as a winter migrant. In the Canaries and Madeira a
resident form, A. bertheloti, occurs, which differs from A. pratensis
in being paler in colour and rather smaller in size.

ANTHUS CERVINUS (Pallas).
RED-THROATED PIPIT.

Motacilla cervina, Pall. Zoo. Ross.-As. i, p. 511 (1811).

Anthus cervinus, Nawm. Vég. Deutsch. iii, pl. 85, fig. 1 (1823); Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 585; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 17
(1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 215; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 30; Hrlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 318.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Above brown, the feathers with blackish centres and buff-brown margins,
more pronounced on back; wings blackish-brown, secondaries and coverts
broadly fringed with buff-white; outer pair of rectrices white on the ter-
minal half of inner web, the remaining half being blackish, the outer web
being brown at the base and very pale brown at the tip; the adjoining
rectrices slightly tipped with white on inner webs; the remaining rectrices
dark brown; a broad stripe of rufous-buff running from the base of the bill
over and below the eye; lores and ear-coverts rufous-brown ; chin, throat,
sides of neck and breast vinous-chestnut, the lower breast and the flanks
being spotted with longitudinal dark markings ; rest of the underparts pale
buff; hind-claw as in A. pratensis.

Iris dark brown ; bill dark brown ; feet light brown.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3-40, culmen ‘45, tarsus *85.

Adult female resembles the male, but the vinous-chestnut colour does
not extend so low down on the breast.

ANTHUS CERVINUS 157

Observations—In winter the rufous colour is wanting in both the sexes,
except in the very old birds, and it is then not easy to distinguish at a glance
between the present species and the Meadow-Pipit. On closer examination,
however, and a comparison of the respective measurements, the differences
between the two species are apparent. The browner colour of the upper
parts and the bolder markings of the underparts in the present species are
distinctive features.

I have examples of this Pipit from Central and Southern, Tunisia,
where in certain districts the species is not uncommon during the
winter and spring months. Owing, however, to its resemblance in
winter plumage to the Meadow-Pipit, it is no doubt often mistaken
for that species, and is probably less uncommon than is generally
supposed. Whether the Red-throated Pipit breeds in Tunisia or
anywhere in North-west Africa I cannot say, but seeing that it occurs
in the Regency as late as the end of April and the beginning of May
(Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 318) it is not unlikely that it does so. I
have myself obtained a specimen of the species at Metlaoui in South
Tunisia about the middle of April, and Mr. Aplin met with it near
Maktar in North Tunisia at the end of that month.

In its habits and mode of life generally the Red-throated Pipit
resembles the Meadow-Pipit to a great extent, and it is not unfre-
quently to be found consorting with that species. The notes,
however, of the two species, according to Mr. Aplin, are altogether
different, that of the present species, when flushed, being fairly
rendered by the syllable “chzee,’’ whereas that of the Meadow-Pipit
is more like “snick”’ or “ sneek.”’ Apparently, too, although often to
be met with on the sea-coast and in the vicinity of water, like A.
pratensis, the present species seems to be almost equally at home on
inland plains and drier spots.

Its diet is the same as that of the Meadow-Pipit.

I have no note of the occurrence of the Red-Throated Pipit in
Marocco and cannot say whether the species extends its western range
to that country. It has been recorded, however, from South Spain.
In Egypt it appears to be very abundant.

158 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

ANTHUS TRIVIALIS (Linnzus).
TREE-PIPIT.

Alauda trivialis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 288 (1766).

Anthus trivialis, lemming, Brit. Anim. p. 75 (1828) ; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. x, p. 543; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 316.

Anthus arboreus, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 216; zd. J. f. O. 1893, p. 30:

Dendronanthus arboreus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 11 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Above olive-brown, the feathers with dark centres and pale margins ;
wings dark brown, the secondaries and coverts broadly margined with buff
outer pair of rectrices white on the terminal half of the inner web and the
greater part of outer web, the remaining part dark brown, the adjoining
pair tipped with white on the inner webs ; rest of tail-feathers dark brown ;
superciliaries yellowish-buff; chin whitish; throat and breast yellowish-
buff, becoming whitish on the abdomen and crissum; sides of the neck,
breast and flanks spotted with longitudinal dark brown markings ; hind-claw
short and curved.

Tris very dark brown ; bill light brown ; feet flesh-colour.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°50, culmen °60, tarsus -90, hind claw -28.

Adult female very similar to the male.

The Tree-Pipit is common in Tunisia during both the spring and
autumn periods of migration, and a certain number of individuals
remain in the Regency throughout the winter, but I have no know-
ledge of its breeding in this country, or, indeed, in any part of North-
west Africa. I have specimens of it from Marocco, but all obtained
during the winter or early spring.

During the months of March and April I have found the Tree-
Pipit very abundant in all orchards and olive-groves, both north and
south of the Atlas. It is a tame, confiding bird, and when disturbed
on the ground flies quietly up into the nearest tree, remaining there
till the intruder has passed on, when it again descends. Although a
tree-haunting species, it is perhaps as often to be found on the
eround, and its food is mostly obtained there. It lives chiefly upon
worms and insects, but also eats seeds and other vegetable matter.
The song of this Pipit is rather powerful and far superior to that of
other members of the family. It has even been likened to that of the
Canary.

ANTHUS CAMPESTRIS 159

ANTHUS CAMPESTRIS (Linnus).
TAWNY PIPIT.

Alauda campestris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 288 (1766).

Anthus campestris, Bechst. Natury. Deutschl. iii, p. 722 (1807) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 569; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 318.

Anthus rufescens, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846).

Agrodoma campestris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 13 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 216; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 30.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kanghat-Sloughi, Central
Tunisia.

Above light sandy-brown or tawny-grey, most of the feathers with
darker centres, particularly on the crown; a pale buff superciliary stripe
extending from the base of the bill to behind the eye; wings brown, the
secondaries and coverts broadly margined with buff; the outer pair of
rectrices dull white on the outer web and on the terminal half of the inner
web, the remaining portion dark brown, the adjoining pair dull white on
the outer web and at the tip; the remaining tail-feathers dark brown, the
two central ones fringed with buff; lores and ear-coyerts greyish-brown ;
underparts buaffy-white, paler on the chin and throat, and darker on the
breast and flanks; faint indication of a moustachial stripe and a few spots
on the sides of neck and breast light brown.

Tris very dark brown; bill light brown ; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3°75, culmen -65, tarsus 1.

Adult female resembles the male in plumage, but is rather smaller.

Observaticns.—Some specimens haye a decided tinge of yellow on the
underparts, at times considerably developed.

The Tawny Pipit is abundant in Tunisia during the periods of
migration, and also nests in the Regency. I have no note of its
occurrence in that country, or, indeed, in any part of North-west Africa
during the winter, but it is not unlikely that a few individuals may
pass the colder months in some of the semi-desert districts imme-
diately south of the Atlas Mountains.

The species appears to be common in spring in Algeria, Marocco
and Tripoli, and probably breeds in all three countries.

During the months of March and April I have found the Tawny
Pipit plentiful on the borders of the oases, and on the stony plains

160 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

adjoining the southern slopes of the Atlas, and later on I have met
with the species further north.

Unhke most other members of the family this Pipit evinces a
preference for dry sandy country, where vegetation is scanty or
almost entirely wanting, and on the stony plains and barren wastes
of Southern and Central Tunisia no doubt finds an ideal home.
Essentially a ground bird, it is not often to be met with in hilly or
wooded country, but keeps to the open and level plains, where it can
move and run about with greater freedom.

When running it might be mistaken for a Lark, but its flight is
very different to that of any member of the Alaudide, being much
stronger and wilder. The diet of this Pipit consists chiefly, if not
entirely, of insects and small coleoptera. Its notes, which are some-
times uttered by the bird when on the wing, are poor, and are hardly
worthy of being called a song. The birds are, however, capable of
being lured by an artificial call, and the local ‘‘gunners”’ in Sicily
often entice them within shot by such means. At times, when thus
called, they will drop down like a stone from a considerable height.

Apparently the species breeds twice, if not three times, during the
season, nests being found throughout April, May and June. The
nest is placed on the ground in a cavity or depression, sheltered by a
tuft of grass, or merely by a stone, and is composed of dry grasses and
plant stems, lined with wool or hair. The eggs, usually five in
number, vary considerably both in colour and marking, as well as in
shape and size. Some in my collection have a greyish-white ground-
colour, spotted all over with grey shell-marks and light brown surface
spots, while others are purplish-brown, with darker brown markings.
As a rule they are rather round and their average measurements are
20 < 17 mm.

ANTHUS SPIPOLETTA 161

ANTHUS SPIPOLETTA (Linnzus).
WATER-PIPIT.

Alauda spinoletta, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 288 (1766).

Anthus spipoletta, Juwb. et Lapomm. Itich. Orn. p. 285 (1859) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p.592; Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 389 ;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 320. ;

Anthus spinoletta, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 14 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Italy.

Upper parts light brownish-grey, the feathers with rather darker centres ;
superciliaries broad and whitish; quills brown, margined with whitish ;
tail-feathers brown, the outer pair with their outer webs and the terminal
portion of inner webs white, the next adjoining pair slightly tipped with
white; chin and throat whitish, becoming oale ferruginous on the breast,
and white on the abdomen and under tail-coverts.

Tris, bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°60, culmen ‘60, tarsus -80.

Observations.—In autumn plumage the upper parts are greenish-brown,
and the underparts white, or whitish, with the sides of the throat and breast
heavily streaked with brown.

The Water-Pipit is not uncommon in Tunisia in winter, being
met with chiefly on the east coast, where Mr. Aplin observed it at
Sfax, and Baron v. Erlanger frequently met with it near Gabés and
Skirra. The species can no doubt only be looked upon as a winter
migrant in the Regency, although Loche says that examples of it
have been captured in Algeria in summer. Should any individuals of
the species really breed in North-west Africa, they would no doubt
resort to the higher valleys of the Atlas, where there is no lack of
suitable localities for nidification. Canon Tristram seems to have
met with the Water-Pipit in winter as far south as Laghouat in the
Algerian Sahara. The summer quarters of the species, however, are
the high mountain valleys and pastures, such as those of the Swiss
and Italian Alps, where these birds may be found in large numbers
during the warmer months. In autumn they descend to the plains,
and may there be found frequenting the mud-flats and marshy ground
at the mouths of the streams running into the Alpine lakes.

In its habits the Water-Pipit is said to resemble the Meadow-

ill

162 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Pipit to a great extent. It is, however, more shy and wary than
that bird and not so easily approached, although when disturbed it
rarely flies far. Its food is composed principally of water insects of
various kinds and worms.

Among the collection of Loche’s birds acquired by the late Count
Turati, and now preserved in the Museo Civico of Milan, there is an
example of the Rock-Pipit (A. obscwrus, No. 17,649) labelled Algeria.
Loche himself makes no mention of this species either in his
catalogue of Algerian birds, published in 1858, or in his work on the
Algerian Ornis, published in 1867, but the species evidently occurs in
North-west Africa, though probably more or less rare there. From
Tunisia I have as yet no note of its occurrence, but it appears to have
been met with in Marocco, though Favier's statement regarding it
should probably be referred to the Water-Pipit, as already observed
by Colonel Irby (Orn. Strs. Gib. p. 110).

Family PYCNONOTID/E.
PYCNONOTUS BARBATUS (Desfontaines).
DUSKY BULBUL.

Turdus barbatus, Desf. Mém. Acad. Roy. de Sciences, p. 500, pl. xiii.
(1787).

Pycnonotus barbatus, Gray, Hand-list Birds, i, p. 268, No. 3,926 (1869) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vi, p. 147; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 93 ;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 315.

Ixus obscurus, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de l'Alg. p. 18 (1855).

Ixos barbatus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 288 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, winter, from El Fedja, North Tunisia.

Above dark umber-brown, deeper on the forehead, crown and rump;
wings brown; tail blackish-brown; chin and throat dark umber-brown,
becoming lighter on the breast and flanks, and white on the abdomen,
crissum and under tail-coverts.

Tris dark brown ; bill and feet blackish.

Total length 8 inches, wing 4, culmen -70, tarsus -90.

Adult female, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Resembles the male, but is rather browner and duller in colouring.

In size it is also rather smaller, its wing measuring 3-85 inches, Soft
parts similar.

PYCNONOTUS BARBATUS 163

Observations.—Apparently the winter plumage of this species is darker
than that of spring, the colour of the head in the former season being
almost like that of P. arsinie. The difference in size, however, at once
distinguishes the two species.

The Dusky Bulbul is not an uncommon bird in some of the
wooded districts of North Tunisia, but its range in the Regency is
not an extensive one, and appears to be confined strictly to the Tell
country north of the Atlas.

In Algeria and Marocco, but particularly in the latter country,
the species seems to be more abundant than it is in Tunisia, and my
collection contains a large series of specimens obtained from various
districts of the Empire, some of them situated as far south as the
Haha country. Mr. Meade-Waldo says it ascends to at least 7,000
feet in the moist woods of the Atlas. Apparently the southern range
of this Bulbul extends considerably beyond Marocco, the species,
according to some authors, occurring along the West African coast
down to Senegambia, and even further south. Whether this
southern form is quite the same as the typical one is not yet clearly
established. According to Colonel Irby (Orn. Strs. Gib. p. 77) the
Dusky Bulbul is very plentiful in the vicinity of Tangier and Larache
in North Marocco, where it frequents fruit-gardens and orchards,
feasting largely upon ripe oranges. Its way of eating this fruit is
ingenious, for it makes a neat hole in one side of the orange, and
then completely clears out the juicy contents, leaving the rind intact,
except for the small aperture on one side. The same method is often
resorted to by Black Rats, and I have known orange-trees in Sicily
completely thus denuded of their fruit by these creatures.

In Tunisia, as above mentioned, the Dusky Bulbul occurs in the
Tell districts north of the Atlas, where it is resident and breeds.
In the valley of the Medjerdah it is fairly abundant, and to be met
with in most of the wild olive-groves, and among the higher ‘‘ maquis”’
thickets on the hill-slopes, but it seldom occurs in the more lofty
oak-forests. At Ain-Draham and Fernana, both thickly wooded
districts, it is also to be found, as well as in the neighbourhood of
Bizerta, in the extreme north-east of the Regency. The vegetation
in the last-named district is almost exclusively of the ‘‘ maquis ” des-
cription, but the Bulbul seems to be as much at home there as in
the better wooded country further west. Orange-groves, however,

164 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

which in Marocco appear to be the favourite resort of the species, are
few and far between in any part of Tunisia. At certain seasons,
particularly when several of these birds collect together, they are
very noisy and quarrelsome, and may be heard chattering at a con-
siderable distance; but owing to the fact of their frequenting, as
a rule, thickly foliaged trees and shrubs, they are not very often
seen. The song of the Bulbul is decidedly pleasing, beg composed
of some remarkably rich and clear notes like ‘‘ tit-wot-wot-tit-tit,”
which cannot fail to attract attention. The breeding season of this
species is rather late, bemg in May and June. The bird selects a
fork in a low tree or high bush as a site for its nest, which is gener-
ally composed of small roots and dry grass. The eggs, three or four
in number, are of a dull white, with grey shell markings and reddish-
brown surface spots. Average measurements 24 x 18 mm.

A male specimen of P. barbatus (No. 3,818), obtained at Nice
in December, 1899, is to be found in the Italian Collection of the
Royal Florence Museum.

Family ORIOLIDAL.
ORIOLUS GALBULA, Linneus.
GOLDEN ORIOLE.

Oriolus galbula, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 160 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. iii, p. 191; Malherbe, Cat. ais. a’ Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846) ;
Loche, Hxupl. Sct. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 54 (1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p.
171; id. J. f. O. 1892, p.370; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 96; Hrlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 488.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Entire plumage, with the exception of the lores, wings and tail, bright
golden-yellow ; lores and wings jet-black, but the primaries and secondaries
are tipped and fringed with yellowish-white, the primary coverts tipped
with pale yellow, forming an alar patch, and the edge of the wing is yellow ;
the central pair of rectrices jet-black, the remaining tail-feathers black at
the base and yellow on the terminal portion.

Tris reddish ; bill reddish-brown; feet lead-colour.

Total length, 9:50 inches, wing 5-90, culmen 1, tarsus -90.

Adult female, spring, from Tunis, North Tunisia,

ORIOLUS GALBULA 165

Upper parts, with the exception of the lores, wings and tail, yellowish-
green, becoming brighter on rump; lores and wings grey-brown, but
otherwise marked as in the male; the central pair of rectrices greenish,
lighter at the base, and darker at the tip, the remaining tail-feathers as
in male; underparts greyish-white, striated with dark grey stripes, and
becoming yellow on the flanks, crissum and under tail-coverts.

Soft parts and measurements as in the male.

Observations.—Young males in their first year’s plumage resemble the
adult female. In very old females the breast and underparts are almost
as brightly coloured as in the male, but always slightly striated.

This handsome bird is a common summer migrant in Tunisia,
arriving generally about the beginning or middle of April. The bulk
of the migrants pass on northwards, but a good many pairs remain
and breed in the north of the Regency, ascending into the mountain
forests and cool, wooded spots for that purpose. Apparently the
species also breeds in Marocco, for I have a specimen obtained in the
Maroccan Atlas on May 18th, and Mr. Meade-Waldo met with full-
grown young in July.

As in the case of several other species in Tunisia, the autumnal
passage of the Golden Oriole is far less noticeable than the spring one.
Whether this is due to the majority of the migrants returning south-
wards by some different route, or to the fact that the autumn passage
takes place during the night, is unknown. It is possible that the
majority of the birds, when travelling southwards in autumn, pass
onwards without halting to rest anywhere on the way. What is
certain, however, is that they duly reach their winter quarters, and
in the following spring follow their accustomed route northwards.
In Sicily and other Mediterranean islands the same marked disparity
is noticeable between the vernal and autumnal migrations of several
species, and the true explanation of this, and other important points
in the migration of birds, still remains to be discovered.

When on passage the Golden Oriole is generally to be met with
in small parties, but occasionally it is to be found singly or in pairs.
Oak-forests are much frequented by these birds, particularly those
of ilex, and it is a striking and pretty sight to see a brightly-coloured
male Golden Oriole dart out of one of these trees and fly off in full
view, its gorgeous golden plumage contrasting well with the dark green

166 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

foliage. The tender flowering shoots of the ilex seem to have a par-
ticular attraction for this species, and although no doubt insectivorous
to a great extent, it is also very partial to fruit, and may constantly
be found in cherry orchards and mulberry-groves.

The note or whistle of the Golden Oriole is melodious and flute-
like, and although not particularly loud, may be heard at a consider-
able distance. I have often listened to it with pleasure on a still
spring morning. The nest of this bird is quite a work of art, and
is nearly always to be found securely woven into and suspended
from the fork of a slender horizontal bough, generally at a consider-
able height from the ground, and inaccessible to any but its feathered
foes. Ihave one of these nests before me at the present moment,
which is composed chiefly of mosses and lichens, neatly bound
together with dry grass-blades, the whole being interwoven into
the fork of a small oak branch. The eggs, four in number, are of
a glossy white, with a few spots of deep purplish-brown. Their
measurements are 29 x 23 mm.

Although not often seen as a cage-bird, the Golden Oriole is
easily domesticated, and is capable of becoming a most delightful and
charming pet. One of these birds, belonging to a friend of mine
living near Florence, Miss Lina Duff-Gordon, now Mrs. Aubrey
Waterfield, although only recently captured when I saw it, would
take a piece of biscuit or fruit from one’s hand, and allow itself
to be petted and made much of. This bird, a fine male, lived through
a winter, in apparently excellent health, but died the following
spring.

Family LANIIDAE.

LANIUS ALGERIENSIS, Lesson.
ALGERIAN GREY SHRIKE.

Lanius algeriensis, Lesson, Rev. Zool, 1839, p. 134; Gadow, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. viii, p. 244; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Otis. ii, p. 47 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 178; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 376; Whitaker, Ibis,
1895, p. 96; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 497.

Lanius meridionalis, Maiherbe, Cat. Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846).

Description.—Adult male, spring, near Tunis, North Tunisia.
Entire upper parts dark slate-grey, the scapulars tipped with white; a

LANIUS ALGERIENSIS 167

narrow frontal line, lores, eye-region and ear-coverts jet-black; a faint
indication of a white superciliary stripe; wings black, the primaries having
the basal third white, and presenting a conspicuous alar patch, the secondaries
tipped with white, and having whitish margins to their inner webs; edge of
wing white; the four central rectrices black, the other tail-feathers black,
tipped with white, the amount of white increasing on each successive pair
as they approach the exterior feathers, the outer pair being quite white with
the exception of the basal half of the inner web; underparts pale slate-grey,
becoming whitish on the throat, middle of abdomen and under tail-coverts.

Tris dark-brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 9 inches, wing 4:25, culmen ‘63, tarsus 1°20.

Adult female similar to the male.

Observations.—Individuals vary amongst themselves to a certain extent.
Some examples show no sign whatever of any supercilium, others have it
fairly pronounced. The alar speculum also varies somewhat in size: as a
rule, however, it measures about half an inch in length, or half what it
usually does in L. elegans. The proportion of black and white on the tail
also varies to a certain extent in individuals. Specimens from the west of
North Tunisia are generally rather darker than those from the east of that
region.

Two species of Grey Shrike are commonly to be met with in
Tunisia, one the dark-coloured L. algeriensis, Less., which occurs in
its typical form in that part of the Regency lying to the north of the
Atlas; the other a pale form, apparently referable to L. elegans,
Swains., which inhabits the country south of that range.

Where the two species meet, however, Grey Shrikes occur, which
in the colour of their plumage and markings are intermediate between
the two. The first time I came across one of these intermediate
examples I imagined it to be L. fallax, Finsch, but on subsequently
meeting with similarly attired birds in that part of the Regency which
may be considered as the meeting ground of the two species,
L. algeriensis and L. elegans, I was induced to alter my opinion, and
look upon these individuals as being either hybrids between the two
species mentioned above, or intermediate forms modified by local
causes.

In the Ibis for 1898 (pp. 228-231) I went somewhat fully into this
question, and it may perhaps not be out of place for me here to give
the following extract of what I then wrote on the subject :—

“As stated in my ‘Notes’ (Ibis, 1896, p. 94), on comparing the

168 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

specimen of doubtful Grey Shrike obtained from South Tunisia with
examples of L. fallax in the British Museum, I found it agree so
closely with some of them that I determined to refer it to this species.
Having, however, now obtained similarly plumaged birds from a
district in Central Tunisia which may be considered the meeting
ground of the two, L. algeriensis and L. elegans, I am inclined to look
upon these birds as being either hybrids between the two species,
or else as belonging to intermediate forms, modified according to the
natural characteristics of the localities where they may occur; in any
case, I think it evident that they should not be referred to L. fallax,
admitting this to be a good species, which is perhaps open to doubt.

““Which of the two theories I have just mentioned may be the
correct one I am not prepared to say, although the balance of evidence
is perhaps somewhat in favour of the former. The theory of hybridism,
unentertainable as it might be in certain cases, is certainly not
improbable in a case like the present, where the two species in question
are so closely allied, and where no sufficient natural boundary or
division exists to keep them apart, for the Atlas Mountains in Tunisia
do not form the same unbroken barrier that they do further west.

“In favour of this theory, moreover, are the following facts : firstly,
that, so far at any rate as I have been able to ascertain, there does not
seem to be a gradual continuity of intermediate forms connecting
or uniting the two species; and secondly, that in the particular
district where these nondescript birds occur we do not find one
constant type, but individuals which vary in plumage among them-
selves, some resembling more L. algeriensis and some L. elegans, and
others, again, standing halfway between the two.

“On the other hand, in support of the alternatiye theory of
intermediate forms may be adduced the argument that the difference
between the two Shrikes, L. algeriensis and /L. elegans, although
sufficiently pronounced in typical examples, is|after all merely one of
plumage-colouring, or, to be more precise, I should say a difference
in the shade of plumage-colouring, and in the proportion of black and
white markings, this difference being subject to modification according
to the locality inhabited. Structurally there would appear to be
no difference whatever between the two species. In the case of
typically plumaged birds, besides the very marked difference in the
shade of the general grey colouring, both above and below, we have
that of the markings of the wings and tail-feathers, there being,

LANIUS ALGERIENSIS 169

roughly speaking, more black and less white in L. algeriensis, and vice
versd in L. elegans, and these points of difference seem to be fairly
constant so long as we confine ourselves to typical specimens. When,
however, we leave these, we find the difference between the two species
less marked and no longer constant; and when we come to birds like
those occurring in the particular Central Tunisian district I have
mentioned, it is absolutely impossible to decide to which of the two
species they may belong.”

Referring to what I have written above, I may merely add in con-
clusion that should the hypothesis of intermediate forms prove to be
the correct one, it would imply that there is but one distinct species
of Grey Shrike in Tunisia, which grades from one shade of colour to
another, according to its habitat. In that case L. elegans, Swains.
being the older name, would have the precedence of L. algeriensis,
Less. which would become merely subspecific. For the present,
however, there does not appear to be sufficient reason to depart
from the generally recognised acceptance of the two forms of Grey
Shrike in question as distinct species.

In both North Algeria and North Marocco L. algeriensis occurs
commonly, as it does in Tunisia, specimens from all three countries
being identical. In Central and Southern Marocco, however, a form
of Grey Shrike occurs which was described by me as a subspecies of
LL. algeriensis under the name of L. a. dodsoni (Ibis, 1898, p. 599). As
mentioned m my description, this bird differs from L. algeriensis in
being paler in colouring, both above and below, without, however,
approximating to typical examples of L. elegans, from which species it
also differs in the marking of its wings and tail, these being more as
in L. algeriensis. That this Marocco Grey Shrike is neither typical
L. algeriensis nor L. elegans is certain, neither can it, in my opinion,
be referred to any other previously described species. Under the
circumstances, therefore, and much as I would have wished to avoid
adding another name to the already long list of Grey Shrikes, I felt
I had no alternative but to act as I did.

In Tripoli L. algeriensis does not seem to occur, but this is not
surprising, considering the desert character of the country. There is a
specimen of L. algeriensis, No. 3,408, in the Royal Florence Museum,
captured on July 2nd, 1892, at Scandicci, near Florence, by Signor
Vincenzo Squilloni, and presented by him to the above Museum.
This appears to be the only recorded instance of the occurrence of the
species out of North-west Africa.

170 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In the Tunisian Regency, as already mentioned, L. algeriensis
inhabits that part of the country lying to the north of the Atlas
Mountains, where it is resident and to be met with at all seasons
of the year. The species, however, does not appear to be equally
distributed throughout all the northern districts, but is to be found
chiefly in the more open country, where cereals and a bush vegetation
flourish. In the higher mountain districts, indeed, these Shrikes
rarely occur. Within a short distance of the town of Tunis itself Grey
Shrikes may occasionally be met with, and throughout all the flat
country extending towards Souk-el-Arba and Mater, they are more or
less common. As already mentioned, specimens from the more western
districts of North Tunisia are generally rather darker than those from
the east of that region.

Owing to its rather conspicuous plumage, and to its habit of
perching on bush-tops, whence it obtains a clear view of the surround-
ing country, L. algeriensis may frequently be seen, but rarely allows
one to approach very near to it, and should the naturalist wish to
observe its movements more closely, it must be with the aid of glasses
of some sort.

Like most other Shrikes, the present species is generally to be
found singly, or, during the breeding season, in pairs. Its food
consists chiefly of insects, but small mammals and young birds are
also occasionally brought to the larder. Its note is rather harsh and
grating.

L. algeriensis breeds throughout the months of April and May,
and nests may sometimes be found in June. Its nest, which is usually
placed in the centre of a thick thorny bush, is roughly built of twigs
and coarse grasses, lined with wool and feathers. The eggs, four to
six In number, are generally greenish-white, marked and spotted,
chiefly at the larger end, with grey and brown. In size, however, as
well as in colour and marking, they vary not a little. Average
measurements 25 x 19 mm.

Instances of continuous laying on the part of Grey Shrikes are not
uncommon, and I am informed by an acquaintance living at Bizerta
that in one season he took three successive clutches of eggs of
L. algeriensis from the same bush, presumably belonging to the same
pair. A fourth clutch of eggs, which he left, was duly hatched, and
the young birds successfully reared.

Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, in a monograph on the genus Lanius,

LANIUS ELEGANS Al

recently published (Nov. Zool. ix, pp. 449-486), reviews its several
species with careful and systematic minuteness.

The scope of the present work will not allow of more than a
cursory notice of this review, but as criticism is very sensibly invited,
I may briefly observe that while concurring with Mr. Grant on many
points, I cannot agree with him entirely in his treatment of the Grey
Shrike group, several of the forms recognised by him being, in my
opinion, separated on insufficient grounds, while others, which have
distinctly more claim to separation, are denied even subspecific
distinction. Mr. Grant allows full specific rank to, and separates
under the names of L. hemileucurus, L. elegans, and L. dealbatus, the
Grey Shrikes inhabiting the very same tract of country in South
Tunisia. The differential characters, however, pointed out by him as
existing between these so-called species are extremely slight and not
constant, or, indeed, more than what may be observed between
individuals of the same form. The above three names, together
perhaps with that of L. assimilis, are probably all referable to one
form, which, as before mentioned, should bear the oldest available
name of L. elegans, Swains.

L. pallidirostris, Cassin, with which My. Grant unites L. fallax,
Finsch, and other forms, including Z. grimmi and L. algeriensis
dodsoni, although in some respects approximating to L. elegans,
resembles more closely L. algeriensis, Less., in the markings of its
wings and tail, and in the grey colouring of its underparts, as does
also, and still more so, L. wncinatus, Sel. and Hartl., which latter,
moreover, is somewhat smaller and has a differently shaped bill.
L. uncinatus is an insular form from the island of Socotra, and appears
to be a good species.

LANIUS ELEGANS, Swainson.
PALLID SHRIKE.

Lanius elegans, Swainson, Fauna Bor.-Amer. ii, p. 122 (1831); Gadow,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. viii, p. 251, pl. vii.

Lanius dealbatus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 49 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1892, p. 379; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 89; Hrlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 499.

Description—Adult male, spring, from Douz, South Tunisia.
Crown, nape and back delicate French-grey ; a narrow frontal line, lores,

172 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

eye-region and ear-coverts black; small superciliary stripes white ;
scapulars pale French-grey, very broadly tipped with white; rump pale
French-grey, shading into white on the upper tail-coverts; primaries
brownish-black on the terminal half and pure white on the basal half,
forming a conspicuous white alar patch; secondaries black, broadly tipped
with white, and having their inner webs also white; edge of the wing white ;
the two central rectrices black, the adjoining pair black, slightly tipped with
white, the next pair still more tipped with white, and so on to the exterior
rectrices, which are pure white ; entire underparts white.

Tris very dark brown ; bill and feet black.

Total length 9 inches, wing 4:25, culmen ‘65, tarsus 1:15.

Adult female similar to the male.

Observations.—As in the case of L. algeriensis, there is a certain amount
of variation in plumage coloration and marking in this species also, the
palest examples being met with in the more southern parts of the Regency,
the darkest in the central districts. Very pale specimens have a greater
proportion of white in the plumage, some even having the three outer pairs
of rectrices entirely white.

The Pale Grey Shrike of the southern and semi-desert regions of
North Africa seems to have been described and christened by various
authors under different names. Of these the oldest available name
would appear to be that of ZL. elegans, given by Swainson and
Richardson (Fauna Bor.-Am. 1, p. 122, 1831), with a description taken
from a specimen in the British Museum collection, which, although
purporting to come from America, appears to be identical with
examples from North Africa, and probably really comes from that
country.

The present species is the Grey Shrike commonly found through-
out Central and Southern Tunisia, occupying the place there that
L. algeriensis does in the north of the Regency, the latter not
occurring, so far as I am aware, in its typical form anywhere south of
the Atlas Mountains.

Roughly speaking, the habitat of LZ. elegans in Tunisia may be
called the entire country south of this range, and more particularly,
perhaps, the so-called Sahel region, where vast plains occur, dotted
with patches of cultivated land and clumps of thorny bushes. Here
the Pallid Shrike is common, and cannot fail to attract attention, as it
sits perched conspicuously on the topmost branch of a wild jujube
(Ziziphus lotus), or some sunilar plant. ‘he mimosa thickets of the

LANIUS ELEGANS te

Redirs Thalah, situated to the east of Gafsa, are much frequented by
Grey Shrikes, as well as by Magpies and Bush-Babblers. These
thickets are, in fact, exactly suited to the requirements of all these
three species, affording, as they do, ideal nesting sites and a sure
refuge, whether from the birds’ natural enemies or from the
inclemencies of the weather.

The species occurs commonly in Algeria, south of the Atlas, as also
in Tripoli and Cyrenaica, specimens from all these countries being
identical with Tunisian examples.

In Central and Southern Marocco, as mentioned in the preceding
article on L. algeriensis, another form of Grey Shrike, L. a. dodsoni,
occurs, but it is quite possible that L. elegans may also be found in the
more desert inland districts of the Empire.

In its habits LZ. elegans, like others of the family, seems to be
solitary and unsociable, being rarely found otherwise than singly or,
during the breeding season, in pairs. In the localities it frequents,
however, several individuals may be met with in comparatively a
limited area. Most wary and difficult to approach, the bird, if
followed, will often lead its pursuers a long chase, although rarely
making an extended flight, and owing to its conspicuous plumage is
easily observed as it flies from bush to bush. The diet of this Shrike
resembles that of its allies, being composed chiefly of coleoptera and
other insects, lizards, and occasionally small mammals and young
birds. Thanks to the remarkable abundance of coleoptera in most
of the southern districts of Tunisia, Shrikes and other hard-billed
insectivorous birds have no difficulty in finding a plentiful supply
of food, and during the locust invasions, so common in North Africa,
they must positively feast.

The notes of this species are rather grating and metallic, but
during the nesting season a fuller and more varied song is heard.
According to Mr. Aplin, the following syllables somewhat express the
bird’s notes: ‘‘chow, chow, chizzy” and ‘‘ chree-chree,”’ and some-
times “‘pchee-ar, chee, chee, chee,” quicker at the beginning, and then
slowing down, and uttered by the bird with quivering wings. Both
male and female also utter a cry like ‘‘chitteree,” probably a note of
alarm or distress, on their nest being approached, for they then end,
Mr. Aplin says, ‘‘ by crying out almost like a domestic hen in trouble.”

LL. elegans commences nesting operations towards the end of
March, the breeding season extending throughout the months of April

174 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

and May. A wild jujube, or mimosa bush is generally chosen as
a site for the nest, and a better or more inpenetrable stronghold could
scarcely be found. The nest, which as a rule is placed in the centre
and thickest part of the bush, at a height varying from six to twelve
feet from the ground, is rather a bulky structure, composed of small
twigs and coarse grasses, matted together with wool or hair, and often
with a plentiful admixture of the cottony flowers or seed-pods of some
composite plant. Pieces of rag or cotton stuff, picked up near some
Arab douar, are often introduced into the mass. The eggs, of which
four to six is the usual number laid, vary considerably in shape and
size, as well as in colouring and marking. Specimens in my collection
vary from almost white to a dull greenish or yellowish-white, with
grey shell marks and yellowish-brown surface spots. Average
measurements 25 x 19 mm.

LANIUS POMERANUDS, Sparrman.
WOODCHAT-SHRIKE.

Lanius pomeranus, Sparrm. Mus. Carls, pl. i. (1786); Whitaker, Ibis,
1895, p. 97.

Lanius auriculatus, Gadow, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. viii, p. 283.

Lanius rutilus, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois, Alg. p. 10 (1846).

Enneoctonus rufus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 52 (1867).

Lanius rufus, Koenig, J. 7. O. 1888, p. 180.

Lanius rutilans, Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 384.

Lanius senator rutilans, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 502.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Forehead, space round eye, ear-coverts and sides of neck black; lores,
and a small patch on each side of the bill, as well as a few feathers just
behind the eye, white; crown, nape and mantle rich rufous-chestnut ; upper
back black, slightly tinged with rufous, and joining the black on the sides
of the neck; lower back and upper tail-coverts grey; scapulars and rump
white ; primaries blackish-brown, with white bases, forming a distinct white
alar patch ; secondaries and wing-coverts blackish-brown, fringed with buffy-
white; the two central rectrices blackish, the adjoining tail-feathers with
white tips and bases, the exterior rectrices entirely white, with the exception
of a blackish patch on the centre of the inner web; entire underparts white,
tinged with pale buff,

LANIUS POMERANUS 1075}

Iris brown ; bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3°90, culmen ‘60, tarsus 1.

Adult female resembles the male in marking, but is much paler
and duller.

The Woodchat-Shrike occurs abundantly throughout Tunisia as a
summer migrant, the first arrivals being generally seen early in April.
Many pairs remain and breed in the Regency, chiefly north of the
Atlas, but these birds, together with their young broods, according to
Blanc, disappear early in the summer. In Algeria and Marocco the
Woodchat is common, and in the latter country it appears to nest in
districts as far south as 32° N. lat., from whence I have numerous
examples of young birds, obtained in May and June.

In Tripoli the species is also abundant as a summer migrant, and
it doubtless breeds in that country, being found there in May. In
many of its habits the Woodchat resembles other members of the
family, but it differs greatly from the Grey Shrikes in being far less
shy and wary. Owing to its fearlessness, and to its conspicuous
plumage, the poor bird often falls a victim to the gun of the young
collector, as it perches unsuspectingly in full view on some bare branch
or bush-top. Besides being bold and fearless, it seems also to be
rather an inquisitive bird, and this, too, is often the cause of its coming
to an untimely end. In some of the Tunisian oases numbers of these
Shrikes are snared, together with other birds, by the Arab boys when
the spring migration is at its height. The food of the Woodchat, like
that of other Shrikes, consists largely of coleoptera, grasshoppers
and other insects, although occasionally it no doubt preys also upon
the fledglings of small birds, and on very small mammals. Like its
allies, it keeps a larder, and is in the habit of impaling its spoil on
thorns. The note of this species is a harsh grating ‘‘ kra,”’ repeated
two or three times. ‘The Woodchat commences nesting operations
in Tunisia soon after its arrival, and eggs of the species may be found
shortly after the middle of April. An olive-tree is a favourite site for
its nest, but thorny bushes, or indeed any bush or low tree may be
chosen for the purpose. The nest is most artistically built, being a
compact cup-shaped structure, composed of root-fibres and grasses,
with a goodly proportion of vegetable down and wool, and frequently
beautifully studded all over with the small dry flowers of some
composite plant, such as Evax pygmea, Pers, The eggs, from four

176 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

to six as a rule, vary considerably in colour and marking, being
sometimes of a pale bluish-green, with lilac-grey shell marks and
olive-brown surface spots, at other times of a pale salmon or flesh-
colour, with grey shell marks and reddish-brown surface spots.
Average measurements 23 x 16 mm.

There do not appear to be any good grounds for the specific, or even
subspecific, separation of the Woodchat found breeding in Tunisia
from typical L. pomeranus as found in Europe.

The Red-backed Shrike (ZL. collwrio) has been once recorded as
occurring in Marocco, but with this exception I have no knowledge
of the species being found in North-west Africa. In Egypt, however,
according to Captain Shelley (Birds of Egypt, p. 117), it occurs in
spring and autumn as a regular migrant, though never plentifully.
In Southern Italy and some of the Mediterranean islands the species
is not uncommon as a summer migrant.

TELEPHONUS CUCULLATUS, Temminck.
HOODED SHRIKE,

Lanius cucullatus, Temm. Man. d’Orn. iy, p. 600 (1840); Malherbe,
Faune Orn. de l'Alg. p. 19 (1855).

Telephonus cucullatus, Bonap. Consp. Gen. Avium, i, p. 361 (1850).

Telophonus cucullatus, Gadow, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. viii, p. 126.

Lanius telephorus, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de I’ Alg. p. 19 (1855).

Telephonus tchagra, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 45 (1867).

Telephonus erythropterus, Koenig, J. F. O. 1892, p. 374.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from North Tunisia.

Forehead, crown, lores and a streak behind the eye jet-black; a
conspicuous white superciliary stripe becoming rufescent further back;
ear-coverts, nape, back, rump and upper tail-coverts brownish-grey ;
scapulars blackish, fringed with bright chestnut; wing-coverts and the
greater part of the outer webs of the quills bright chestnut, the inner webs
being dark brown, fringed with chestnut; the middle pair of rectrices
ash-brown, minutely barred with darker markings; the remaining tail-
feathers black, broadly tipped with white; underparts ash-grey, becoming
lighter on the chin and middle of the abdomen.

Tris brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 9:50 inches, wing 3°70, culmen °90, tarsus 1:25,

Adult female similar to the male.

TELEPHONUS CUCULLATUS iyie/

The Hooded Shrike of North-west Africa has been distinguished
under the above name from 7’. senegalus (L.) on account of its some-
what brighter coloration and other slight difference in its plumage.

The species, the T'schagra as it is usually styled by the Arabs, can
hardly be called common in the Regency, although it occurs, more or
less sparingly, throughout the greater part of the country north of the
Atlas, where it is resident and breeds. In some of the wooded districts
of the Atlas, and particularly on some of the ‘‘ maquis-’’ covered hill-
slopes, it is indeed fairly plentiful, and may constantly be seen,
and perhaps more often heard, its rich flute-like notes striking the ear
of the passer-by and at once attracting attention. I have no note of
the occurrence of the Hooded Shrike anywhere in South Tunisia, but
in South Marocco the species is not uncommon in the Atlas districts,
and I have specimens of it obtained there, as well as at Ras-el-Ain on
the South coast, in the months of May and June.

According to Dr. Koenig (J. f. O. 1892, p. 374), the Tschagra is by
no means uncommon in some of the Atlas districts adjoining the east
coast of Tunisia, where the wild olive, thuja, and pistacchio grow
luxuriantly at the foot of the lower hills and mountain-spurs. Like-
wise near Bizerta in the north it appears to be often met with, and
even near the town of Tunis itself the species is occasionally to be
seen, examples of it being now and then exposed for sale in the Tunis
market.

In its habits this species differs a good deal from other Shrikes,
being fond of hiding itself in thick foliage, and depending on conceal-
ment to escape detection, instead of perching on the outer branches or
tops of bushes and trusting to its keen sight for safety. It seems also
to be more or less of a ground bird, and will run from one bush to
another, instead of taking to flight. Its food does not seem to differ
from that of other Shrikes, consisting chiefly of coleopterous insects,
grubs and worms. I have never taken the nest and eggs of this
species myself, but according to various authors the nest, which is
generally to be found in the middle of a bush, is fairly large, and rather
roughly built of rootlets, ined with wool and hair. The eggs, three or
four in number, are white or whitish, spotted all over with russet-
brown and grey.

12

173 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Family MUSCICAPIDA.
MUSCICAPA GRISOLA, Linneus.
SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.

Muscicapa grisola, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 328 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. iv, p. 151; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 187; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 387; Whitaker, Ibis,
1895, p. 97; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 504.

Butalis grisola, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 61 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Djebel Semmama, Central
Tunisia.

Above hair-brown, the feathers of the crown with dark centres and pale
borders; wings and tail dark hair-brown, the secondaries and wing-coverts
fringed on their outer margins with whitish; underparts white, washed and
striped with pale hair-brown on the throat, cheeks, breast and flanks.

Tris, bill and feet dark brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3:50, culmen -50, tarsus ‘65.

Adult female similar to the male.

This species is chiefly noticeable in Tunisia during the spring
migration, but appears to be semi-resident in that country, being
found there in limited numbers throughout the year. According to
M. Blanc, it nests commonly north of the Atlas, but I cannot say
whether it also breeds in the south of the Regency. In Marocco,
however, the species apparently breeds as far south as 31° N.
lat., and I have examples of young birds obtained at Ras-el-Ain
and at Isseremont in the months of May and June. In Tripoli
the Spotted Flycatcher is not uncommon on passage in April and
May, and probably also nests in that country. During the month
of April, when the spring passage is at its height, these birds are
abundant in most parts of the Regency, and may constantly be seen
hawking for insects. They chiefly frequent gardens and the neighbour-
hood of human habitations, but numbers may also be found in the
woods and olive-groves when on passage. Their flight and movements
when engaged in pursuing flies or other small winged insects are
singularly light and graceful, and as the species is by no means shy it
may be observed at close quarters. A bare branch or fence is generally
selected as a point of vantage, and from this the bird will swoop down
swiftly upon its prey, returning immediately afterwards to the same

MUSCICAPA ATRICAPILLA 179

spot. Many hours of the day are thus spent, and the number of
insects devoured by a single bird must be considerable.

The notes of this species are faint and insignificant, the call note
being a low chirp.

The Spotted Flycatcher generally builds its nest in a shallow hole
in a wall or bank, and often on the knotted bole of a tree-trunk. The
nest is composed of moss and fine fibres, lined with wool and hair, and
the eggs, four or five in number, are pale greenish, spotted with
reddish-brown, chiefly at the larger end. Average measurements
17 x 14mm.

Loche includes the Red-breasted Flycatcher (M. parva) among the
birds of Algeria, as an accidental visitor, but I have never heard of
the species having been found in Tunisia.

MUSCICAPA ATRICAPILLA, Linnzus.
PIED FLYCATCHER.

Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 326 (1766); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. iv, p. 157; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 58 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 387; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 97.

Muscicapa speculigera Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 60 (1867).

Muscicapa luctuosa, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 187.

Muscicapa atricapilla speculigera, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 505.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above black, with the exception of a white frontal patch, and some
conspicuous white markings on the secondaries and greater wing-coverts,
as well as a small white alar patch on the base of the inner primaries ; rump
rather lighter, owing to an admixture of whitish feathers ; entire underparts
pure white.

Iris very dark hazel; bill and feet black.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3:20, culmen ‘35, tarsus °70.

Adult female resembles the male in the distribution of its markings,
but has the darker parts hair-brown instead of black, more white on the
exterior rectrices, and the underparts less pure white.

Observations—Immature males greatly resemble females and can
scarcely be distinguished from them. In autumn the male plumage
becomes lighter and browner. The white frontal patch varies considerably
in size, probably according to age or season,

180 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

A regular summer migrant, the Pied Flycatcher is of common
occurrence in Tunisia during the spring months, and many pairs
remain and breed in the Regency, particularly in districts north of
the Atlas. Probably a certain number also nest south of those
mountains, as they appear to do in South Marocco, whence I have
examples obtained during the month of May.

In its habits, as well as in the localities it frequents, the Pied
Flycatcher differs somewhat from M. grisola, being rather more shy,
and far less often found in the neighbourhood of human dwellings.
High leafy woods are much resorted to, as well as the lower growing
olive plantations. The species also seems fond of water, and may
frequently be met with in its vicinity, the banks of streams and
lake-sides being among its favourite haunts. Like its congeners, the
present species feeds upon flies and other small insects, and may
constantly be observed busily engaged in their pursuit. A favourite
resort of the bird when on the look-out for food is a bare bough or
projecting branch, where it will remain motionless for a considerable
length of time, with drooping wings, as if asleep, every now and then
suddenly darting off in pursuit of some insect, and then returning to
its post. Although an adept at capturing insects on the wing, the
bird often takes its prey on the ground, indeed, according to Mr.
Aplin, it takes most of its food on the ground.

M. atricapilla generally nests in the holes of trees, often using the
deserted habitation of some other bird. The eggs are four to six in
number, and are generally of a delicate bluish-white, sparsely spotted
with russet-brown. Average measurements 16 X 13 mm.

The Pied Flycatcher found in Algeria and Tunisia is by some
ornithologists considered distinct from typical MW. atricapilla, Linn.,
from Europe, and has been separated under the name of M.
speculigera, de Selys, the grounds for such separation being that the
frontal white patch is much larger in Algerian and Tunisian specimens,
the coloration of the upper plumage more intense, and the white on
the wings more pronounced, than in M. atricapilla.

Among the examples of this species in my Tunisian collection I
find considerable variation in the size of the white frontal patch. In
the adult male specimen described above the frontal patch measures
nearly half an inch in diameter; in some specimens, probably less
adult, the patch is only about half that size, and in others, apparently
still younger, it is only about one quarter, till finally, in very immature

MUSCICAPA COLLARIS 181

examples the patch is almost or entirely absent. It is evident
therefore, I think, that the amount of white on the forehead of this
species varies according to age, and possibly also in some measure
according to season. Whether the very adult males of M. atricapilla,
found in Europe ever attain the large-sized white patch of North-
west African birds I cannot say, as I have not examined sufficient
material to be able to form a decided opinion on the point. With
regard to the other differential characters mentioned as existing

between typical M. atricapilla and M. speculigera, I do not find that
they hold good.

MUSCICAPA COLLARIS, Bechstein.
WHITE-COLLARED FLYCATCHER

Muscicapa collaris, Bechst. Gemeinn. Naturg. Deutschl. iv, p. 495 (1795) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. iv, p. 160; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii,
p. 59 (1867) ; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 95; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p- 508.

Muscicapa albicollis, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 9 (1846) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 187; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 387.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Hamman-Lif, North Tunisia.
Resembles the adult male of MW. atricapilla, but differs in having a white

collar extending right round the neck, and in haying rather more white on
the rump.

Soft parts and measurements as in MW. atricapilla.
Adult female resembles the female of MW. atricapilla.

Like the preceding species, although perhaps rather less common,
the White-collared Flycatcher is a regular summer migrant in Tunisia,
and may frequently be observed during the spring months. Whether
it also breeds in the Regency I cannot say, having no information on
the point.

Loche says the species is to be found widely distributed in Algeria,
but later travellers in that country do not seem to have met with it,
nor have I any specimen of it from Marocco. In Tripoli, however, the
species is not uncommon, and I have examples of it from various parts
of that country, obtained in April and May.

182 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

It is perhaps worthy of observation here that the present species
appears to be commoner in Sicily than M. atricapilla, although in
Continental Italy the contrary is the case.

In its habits and general life W. collaris resembles its near relative
M. atricapilla, and there can be no doubt that the two species are
very closely allied, so much so, indeed, that some ornithologists do not
distinguish one from the other. The call note of the present species is
a sharp “¢tchip.” The bird is of a restless nature, and seems to be
constantly on the move. It feeds chiefly on flies and other small
insects, generally capturing its prey on the wing. Its movements
when thus occupied are particularly graceful and well worth watching.

Family HIRUNDINIDA:.
HIRUNDO RUSTICA, Linneus.
SWALLOW.

Hirundo rustica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 343 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. x, p. 128; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 17 (1846) ;
Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 64 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888,
p. 166; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 364; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 90;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 512.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kairouan, Central Tunisia.

Forehead and throat chestuut ; crown and upper parts generally, as well
as a pectoral band, metallic blue-black; quills and tail with a bluish-green
gloss, the latter with white patches on all the feathers except the central
pair, the outer pair extending generally two inches or more beyond the
others; lower breast and abdomen rufescent buffy-white, becoming darker
on the crissum.

Tris very dark brown; bill and feet black.

Total length 7-50 inches, wing 4°80, culmen -30, tarsus 40.

Adult female similar to the male, but slightly duller in colouring.

Although to be met with in Tunisia throughout a considerable
portion of the year, the Swallow can only be looked upon as a visitor
in that country, as elsewhere. It is true individuals of the species may
occasionally be found there even in the middle of winter, but these are

HIRUNDO RUSTICA 183

no doubt belated stragglers, possibly young birds of very late broods.
Canon Tristram (Ibis, 1859, p. 435) mentions having observed
Swallows in the oases of Southern Algeria during the winter, but their
presence was no doubt accidental. The naturalist Blanc also tells me
he has seen Swallows in Tunis and at Bizerta towards the end of
December, and Mr. Aplin met with the species near Gabés in South
Tunisia in the month of February; but similar instances are recorded
from time to time from countries further north than Tunis, and can
only be looked upon as accidental and exceptional cases. In Central
Tunisia I have noticed Swallows in considerable numbers at the end
of February, and the first arrivals there may probably be seen a few
days before that date, and still earlier in the far south of the Regency.
By the end of March the spring passage of these birds may be said to
be at its height, and continues in full swing until the middle or 20th
of April, when it commences to diminish, coming practically to a close
by the end of that month or beginning of May, although a few
stragglers arrive even after that date. The return migration in
Tunisia commences early in September, and continues throughout
that month and part of October. During both periods of migration
vast flocks of these birds may be observed of an evening, when
they descend from the higher latitudes at which they may have been
travelling, and congregate together, preparatory to roosting. This
they do generally under the eaves of buildings or outhouses, and
sometimes in trees, keeping close together, side by side, for warmth.
I remember on one occasion seeing a row of several hundreds of
Swallows perching on a horizontal bar or girder extending the whole
length of a long railway shed, and within a foot or two of a person’s
head.

Naturally fearless and confiding, the Swallow seems to court the
society of man and frequents human habitations in preference to the
open, uninhabited country. In some of the Tunisian villages I have
seen Swallows nesting, and evidently quite at home, in the smallest
and most crowded houses, circling round and round the interior of the
rooms in their chase after flies, and darting in and out through the
open doorways as unconcernedly as possible. I have myself slept in
one of these rooms, with a Swallow’s nest over the head of my bed,
my first thought on waking at daybreak, being to throw open the
door, the only aperture the room had, in order to release the owners of
the nest.

184 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subsisting as it does almost entirely on the smaller winged
insects, the Swallow naturally affects localities where such a supply of
food is most plentiful, and for this reason it is generally to be found
abundantly in the vicinity of water. The same reason, no doubt,
explains the fact of its presence in the busy streets of towns and
places teeming with life and traffic. To the greater or lesser abun-
dance of insect-life is also presumably due the Swallow’s occurrence in
large numbers in certain towns and villages, while it is totally wanting
in others situated comparatively not far distant. Of this we have
a very good illustration in the Sicilian towns, some of which, like
Trapani and Syracuse, swarm with Swallows during the summer
months, while others, like Palermo and Messina, have either none at
all or but very few during that season. It is, of course, possible that
there may be some other reason than that of a greater or lesser
abundance of food to account for the marked preference shown by
this species for certain localities, but I am unable to suggest any more
plausible explanation. It cannot, certainly, be due to the construction
of the buildings, this being the same throughout the island.

The note or twitter of this species is too well known to need
description.

The Swallow breeds abundantly throughout the Regency both
north and south of the Atlas, nesting operations being commenced
soon after the birds’ arrival in spring, and two broods are generally
reared in a season by the same pair. The well-known nest, built
of mud and lined with feathers, is usually attached to the wall of
a building—in Tunisia as often inside as outside—and sheltered by a
cornice or other projection. Nests, however, are sometimes to be
found in cliffs and high banks, and such sites were probably originally
the breeding homes of this and other allied species which now resort
principally to human habitations and artificial walls. The eggs of
the Swallow, generally four or five in number, and rather elongate
in shape, are white, speckled with reddish-brown and _ violet-grey.
Average measurements 20 X 14 mm.

As has often been proved by marking the birds, the same pair of
Swallows, if not parted by death, will continue to mate together, and
if undisturbed will return year after year to their old breeding home.
Apropos of this, I cannot refrain from repeating here the following
amusing, if not altogether credible, story mentioned in Prof. Giglioli’s
“ Avifauna Italica’’ (p. 184), as having appeared in the Times

HIRUNDO RUFULA 185

newspaper, and having afterwards been reproduced in Nature (June
18th, 1885, p. 161), to the effect that a bookseller of the name of
Meyer, living at Ronneburg, in the autumn of 1884 attached a label to
the wing of a Swallow which had nested in his house, writing on the
label the words: ‘‘ Where hast thou passed the winter?” ‘The
following spring the Swallow returned to Meyer's house, and under
its wing was found another label with the answer: “ At Ilorence, in
the house of Castellari; many greetings.’”’ No comment is here needed
except that made by Prof. Giglioli that ‘no Swallows are in the habit
of wintering in Florence.”

Loche includes H. cahirica, Licht. (1H. savignii, Steph.), in his
list of Algerian birds (Mxpl. Scient. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 67), as being of
accidental occurrence in that country. Blane also says he once saw
a Swallow in ‘l'unis, with very dark underparts, which he took to be
of that species, but, so far as I am aware, there is no well-authen-
ticated instance of the Chestnut-bellied Swallow, a resident and
non-migratory species peculiar to North-east Africa and Palestine,
having ever occurred so far west.

HIRUNDO RUFULA, T'emminck.
RED-RUMPED SWALLOW.

Hirundo rufula, Zemm. Man. iii, p. 298 (1835); Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. x, p. 156; Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 864; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 97.

Deseription.—Adult male, spring, from ‘Tunis, North Tunisia,

A very narrow frontal line, extending over and behind the eye, and a
broad band on the nape rufous-chestnut ; crown, back and scapulars metallic
blue-black, the back showing some white, owing to the feathers on this part
haying conspicuous white bases; the lower part of back and the rump
bright rufous-chestnut, becoming whitish towards the tail-coverts; quills
and tails black, with a slight bluish-green gloss; underparts buff, tinged
with pale chestnut, the dark shafts of the feathers giving a slightly striated
appearance.

Tris very dark brown; bill black; feet brown.

Total length 7 inches, wing 4°75, culmen ‘30, tarsus ‘50.

Adult female similar to the male.

186 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

I have a few examples of this Swallow from Tunis, obtained by
the naturalist Blanc, who informs me that the Arab bird-catchers
occasionally catch one or two of this species when netting the
common Swallow in spring; for unfortunately this bird is not
considered sacred in Tunisia, as it apparently is in some Mahomedan
countries. Although evidently not common in Tunisia, the Red-
rumped Swallow is probably less rare there than it is generally
supposed to be, but escapes notice, owing to the difficulty of dis-
tinguishing it from the Common Swallow when on the wing. In
South Marocco H.rufula is a resident and common species, and I
have adult and young examples of it from Marocco City in the
interior, as well as from Ras-el-Ain on the sea-coast.

In Sicily and in some parts of Continental Italy examples of this
Swallow are not unfrequently met with. North of the Alps, however,
the species rarely strays, although it is recorded as having once
occurred in Heligoland, and is said to have been occasionally met
with in France.

The eggs of the present species, unlike those of the Common
Swallow, are pure white. Measurements as in H. rustica.

CHELIDON URBICA (Linnzus).

HOUSE-MARTIN.

Hirundo urbica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 844 (1766); Malherbe, Cat. Rais.
d’Ois. Alg., p. 17 (1846).

Chelidon urbica, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 550; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. x, p. 87; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 71 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 166; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 365; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894,
p- 90; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 509.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kairouan, Central Tunisia.

Above metallic blue-black, excepting the rump and upper tail-coverts,
which are white; wings and tail brownish-black ; underparts entirely white ;
feet feathered down to the toes.

Tris dark brown; bill black.

Total length 5°50 inches, wing 4:30, culmen °30, gape ‘55, tarsus 45.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

a |

CHELIDON URBICA 187

Observations.—The white bases of the feathers on the nape are often
conspicuous and have the appearance of an ill-defined white collar.

Like the Common Swallow, the House-Martin arrives in Tunisia
early in the spring, and leaves again in the autumn. The bulk of the
birds pass on northwards for the summer, but many remain and breed
in the Regency: Blanc mentions an example of this species obtained
at Tatahouine in South Tunisia on February 2nd, but this must
doubtless have been an early straggler, as the winter quarters of the
House-Martin are probably considerably further south.

C. urbica arrives in the Regency both in spring and autumn in
large flocks, and may often be seen in company with H. rustica.
Like that species, it feeds on the smaller winged insects, and frequents
towns and villages in preference to the more open country. I have,
however, met with it breeding in colonies far away from any human
dwelling.

One of these bird-colonies remains most vividly impressed upon
my memory, partly from the savage grandeur of the site and its
surroundings, and partly from the fact of its being also the home of
a colony of Cypselus affinis galilejensis, the two species, indeed,
forming one colony, and apparently living together in the most perfect
harmony. The spot in question was situated in a deep gorge or pass
in the chain of mountains lying to the north of Metlaoui in South
Tunisia where the Oued Seldja, which flows through the pass, and in
times gone by must have been a more important river than it is at
the present day, had hollowed out a recess or cavern in the mountain
side. The sloping bank leading up to and forming the floor of the
cave was carpeted with a thick bed of most luxuriant Maiden-hair fern,
itself an unexpected and delightful surprise in this desert country, and
feathery creepers hung down from the vault, while the overhanging
cliffs and beetling crags on either side formed a fitting frame-work
for the picture, and enhanced still further its picturesque beauty.
Lining the top of the cave at the point where it commenced to arch
over, and forming, as it were, a frieze or cornice to its walls, were the
nests of both C. affinis galilejensis and C. urbica, placed side by side
and touching one another. The nests being at a height of about forty
feet from the ground were practically inaccessible without the aid of
a long ladder, an article which a travelling caravan does not usually
possess. I had therefore to content myself with an examination

188 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

of them through a pair of opera-glasses, and after obtaining a single
specimen of each species for identification, proceeded on my journey.
In towns and villages the House-Martin builds its nest under the
eaves of buildings or similar sheltered sites. The nest is composed
of mud and straw, with a lining of feathers, and the eggs, from three
to five in number, are pure white, measuring about 19 X 13 mm.
Two and even three broods are reared in a season by the same pair.

COTILE RIPARIA (Linneus).
SAND-MARTIN.

Hirundo riparia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 344 (1766); Malherbe, Faune
Orn. de V Alg. p. 10 (1855).

Cotile riparia, Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 550; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus.
x, p. 96; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 97.

Cotyle riparia, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 70 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 166; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 365; Hrlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 510.

Description. Adult male, spring, from Kairouan, Central Tunisia.

Above mouse-colour, slightly darker on the crown, wings and tail; chest
and sides also mouse-colour, rest of underparts white.

Tris dark hazel; bill dark brown; feet brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 4, culmen ‘25, gape ‘50, tarsus 40.

Adult female similar to the male.

The Sand-Martin, although appearing in far smaller numbers than
either of the two preceding species, is a common summer migrant in
Tunisia, arriving in spring and leaving again in the autumn, a certain
number of the birds remaining throughout the summer and breeding
in the Regency. The date of its arrival in Tunisia in spring seems
to be somewhat later than that of the Swallow and House-Martin,
and probably does not commence until about the middle of March.
Owing to the fact that it usually frequents the neighbourhood of
water, the Sand-Martin can scarcely be described as universally
distributed throughout the Regency, where so large a proportion of
the country is practically waterless, but in suitable localities it is not

BIBLIS RUPESTRIS 189

uncommon, and may generally be found wherever there are sand-cliffs
or clay-banks bordering rivers and ponds. Its food is the same as
that of other members of the family, and it may sometimes be seen
hawking for gnats and other flying insects in the company of the
Common Swallow and the House-Martin. The present species
breeds in clay-banks and sand-cliffs, placing its nest at the extremity
of a hole or tunnel. The nest is composed of a little dry grass or
straw, lined with feathers, and the eggs, four to six in number, are
pure white and measure about 19 x 12 mm.

Baron Erlanger met with the Sand-Martin breeding in company
with the House-Martin in the high sand-cliffs bordering the Oued
Kasrin (J. f. O. 1899, p. 510).

The description of a new species of Sand-Martin, Cottle mauri-
tanica, discovered by Mr. EK. G. B. Meade-Waldo in Central Marocco,
in June, 1901, will be found in the Bulletin of the British Ornitho-
logists’ Club, xii, p. 27. This new species appears to be nearest to
C. paludicola, Vieill., and C. minor, Cab., but is paler in coloration
and devoid of gloss.

BIBLIS RUPESTRIS (Scopoli).
CRAG-MARTIN.

Hirundo rupestris, Scop. Ann. i. p. 167 (1769); Malherbe, Cat. Rais.
d’Ois. Alg. p. 18 (1846).

Biblis rupestris, Lesson, Compl. Buffon, viii, p. 495 (1837).

Cotile rupestris, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x, p. 109; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1896, p. 95.

Cotyle rupestris, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 511.

Ptyonoprogne rupestris, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ots. ii, p. 68 (1867).

Description—Adult female, spring, from Source des Trois Palmiers,
Central Tunisia.

Above pale mouse-brown, darker on the crown wings and tail, and paler
on the rump; the inner web of all the tail-feathers, except the middle pair,
with a white oval patch, gradually decreasing in size, and smallest on the
outer pair; chin whitish, spotted with light brown; throat, sides of the
neck and breast dirty white; rest of the underparts dusky light brown,
becoming darker on the crissum.

Tris very dark brown; bill dark brown; feet pale brown.

190 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Total length 5:75, wing 5, culmen :30, tarsus -45.
Adult male similar to the female, but rather larger.

Observations.—The length of the wing in this species varies considerably
in individuals.

Although nowhere particularly abundant, the Crag-Martin is to
be met with in various parts of Tunisia, and, as in some other
Mediterranean countries, appears to be resident and found at all
seasons. I have specimens obtained in Central Tunisia in spring,
and notes of its occurrence in the north of the Regency in mid-winter,
but it is probably more or less local in its distribution, and is not to
be found throughout the country generally. In Algeria and Marocco
the Crag-Martin appears to be not uncommon in certain districts,
particularly in the latter country, and, according to Favier, it is nearly
as common as the House-Martin in the neighbourhood of Tangier.
In Spain Col. Irby says the species is plentiful about Gibraltar, and
though universally distributed in the rocky Sierras during the breeding
season, is to some extent migratory (Orn. Straits Gib. p. 104). In
Sicily the species is very local in its distribution, but in the districts
where it occurs appears to be resident. In the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the town of Syracuse I have found it most plentiful in
the middle of winter, and from the Madonian Mountains I have
specimens of it obtained in June.

From Tripoli I have no example of this species, but I have one
of C. obsoleta, Cab., which Mr. Dodson obtained at the small town of
Sebha, in the interior of the Vilayet, in the month of June. The name
of Crag-Martin is well bestowed, for the bird is eminently a rock-
loving species, its favourite haunts being among crags and rocky
caverns, in which it roosts at night and nests during the breeding
season. High sea-cliffs are much frequented by these birds, and I
have often watched them circling round about such spots in the
morning and evening. During the middle of the day, in winter-time,
the birds seem to forsake their home and go elsewhere, presumably
in search of food, returning, however, about an hour before sunset,
and going through their customary evolutions preparatory to retiring
to roost. The food of this species, like that of its allies, consists of
the smaller winged insects, and the birds may often be seen hawking
for flies in the company of others of their kind. Mr. Aplin saw the

CARDUELIS CARDUELIS 191

species thus engaged in company with the White-rumped Swift at
Source des Trois Palmiers.

The Crag-Martin breeds in quiet secluded spots, attaching its
nest to the roof of a cave, or in some rocky cleft, often quite inacces-
sible. Its eggs, four to six in number, somewhat resemble those of
the Common Swallow, being white, spotted with brown.

Count Arrigoni degli Oddi has recently described a new form of
Crag-Martin from Sardinia under the name of Cotile obsoleta sarda
(Avicula Luglio-Agosto, 1902).

Family FRINGILLUIDA.
Subfamily FRINGILLIN A.
CARDUELIS CARDUELIS (Linnzus).
GOLDFINCH.

Fringilla carduelis, Linn. Syst. Nat., i, p. 318 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 14 (1846).

Carduelis carduelis, Bote, Isis, 1822, p. 554; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. xii, p. 185.

Carduelis elegans, Loche, Hupl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 154 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 248; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 65; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894,
p. 90.

Carduelis carduelis meridionalis, Hylanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 465.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Feathers at the base of bill and surrounding the eyes, lores, hinder part
of crown and sides of neck black; forehead and upper throat glossy
crimson-red; a patch behind the eyes, ear-coverts, lower throat and a
small space on the nape white; back, scapulars and rump brown; upper
tail-coverts black at the base and whitish at the tip; middle pair of rectrices
black, slightly tipped with white, two outer pairs black, with long white
patches on inner webs, next adjoining pairs with only small white spots,
remaining tail-feathers black; wings black, conspicuously barred with bright
canary-yellow, secondaries slightly tipped with white; sides of the breast
and flanks brown; centre of breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts white.

Iris very dark brown; bill rosy-white, becoming brown at tip; feet
flesh-colour.

192 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Total length 5 inches, wing 3:10, culmen -50, tarsus -60.
Adult female rather duller in colouring than the male, and slightly
smaller.

The Goldfinch is one of the commonest birds in North Tunisia,
both as a resident and as a migrant, occurring in large flocks through-
out the winter months and periods of migration, and in pairs during
the breeding season. In the more southern districts of the Regency,
however, it is far less abundant, and is to be found chiefly during the
winter or on passage, but in some of the oases it appears to be
resident, and I have taken nests of the species in the Gafsa oasis in
April. The semi-cultivated plains of North Tunisia and extensive
olive-groves, with their undergrowth of thistles and other weeds, are
its favourite haunts, and vast numbers are to be found there during
the colder months. By the middle of April most of the migrants have
departed, and the resident birds are then generally to be met with in
gardens and orchards, or similar secluded spots, to which they have
retired for the breeding season.

The food of the Goldfinch in its natural state consists chiefly of
the seeds of the thistle and other wild plants, but in captivity it will
eat almost anything,

It is easily domesticated, and owing to its bright plumage and
lively, engaging ways, is much prized as a cage-bird. Its song, too,
although not particularly varied or melodious, is fairly pleasing, and
may be improved by placing the bird near a Canary or some other
good songster, whose superior notes are soon acquired. Its call note
is a sharp “tweet.” The Goldfinch mates readily with the Canary,
the offspring being a very handsome hybrid or “mule,” and it will
also mate with some other Finches. Albinism is of frequent
occurrence in the Goldfinch.

The nest of the present species is one of the most beautiful of all
birds’ nests. It is generally placed in the fork of a low tree, and is
a compact cup-shaped structure, composed of fine grasses, mosses, and
lichens, plentifully lined with thistle-down, or at times with a little
wool or hair. The eggs, four or five in number, are of a delicate
bluish-white, slightly streaked and spotted with lake and reddish-
brown. Average measurements 16 x 13 mm.

The resident Goldfinch of North-west Africa which breeds in that
country is considered by some ornithologists to differ from typical

CHRYSOMITRIS SPINUS 193

C. carduelis from North Europe in its smaller size, and has been
separated subspecifically under the name of Carduelis c. meridionalis
(Brehm). The Goldfinch of Madeira has also been distinguished
under the name of Carduelis c. parva, Tschusi. The latter, however,
appears to be identical with North-west African birds, so that if any
distinction from typical C. carduelis is really warranted, Brehm’s name
of meridionalis should no doubt be used for this small form, as well
as for birds from the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean sub-
region generally. I may here observe that Count Arrigoni has
recently described the resident Sardinian Goldfinch as distinct from
the ordinary Continental form under the name of Carduelis c. tschusii
(Avicula, 1902, p. 104).

CHRYSOMITRIS SPINUS (Linnzus).
SISKIN.

Fringilla spinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 322 (1766).

Chrysomitris spinus, Bote, Isis, 1828, p. 322; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. xii, p. 212; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 152 (1867) ; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1898, p. 126.

Description.—Male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Crown and lores black; superciliaries and nape yellowish-green; ear-
coverts dusky green; back and scapulars dark green, striped with dusky-
black ; rump yellow; upper tail-coverts dark green ; central pair of rectrices
blackish-green, remaining rectrices yellow, tipped with blackish, the exterior
pair with black outer webs; primary quills blackish, margined with yellow,
secondaries and wing-coverts blackish, broadly margined with yellow; throat
and breast greenish-yellow, the former showing an indication of the dark
patch of summer plumage ; abdomen and crissum whitish; flanks and under
tail-coverts heavily striped with blackish.

Tris dark brown; bill grey, darker at the tip ; feet greyish brown.

Total length 4:25 inches, wing 2:90, culmen °40, tarsus ‘50.

Adult female considerably duller in coloration than the male.

The Siskin is not at all common in Tunisia, and apparently only
occurs as a winter migrant in the north of the Regency, being more
plentiful in some years than in others. South of the Atlas the species
probably never strays. In Algeria, as in Tunisia, it only occurs as an

13

194 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

irregular winter migrant. When met with it is generally found in
small flocks, which frequent the vicinity of streams and marshy spots
where alders and similar plants flourish. Fir-woods are also favourite
resorts of the species. Its food consists to a great extent of aphides
and other small insects, as well as of seeds of various kinds. The
Siskin has a pleasant song, and being easily tamed, is very popular
as a cage-bird. The Tunis bird-catchers occasionally take it in their
nets together with Goldfinches and Linnets.

CHRYSOMITRIS CITRINELLA (Linnzus).
CITRIL FINCH.

Fringilla citrinella, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 320 (1766).

Chrysomitris citrinella, Bote, Isis, 1828, p. 322; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 230.

Citrinella alpina, Loche, Expl. Sct. Alg. Ois. i, p. 155 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1893, p. 54.

Description.—Adult male, from Italy.

Forehead and crown yellowish-green ; nape and sides of the neck slate-
grey; back green, slightly streaked with dusky-brown; rump green, quills
and tail-feathers blackish, slightly margined with greenish-yellow ; second-
aries and greater wing-coverts black, broadly margined with light green ;
lesser coverts bright green; underparts yellowish-green, becoming dusky on
the flanks.

Total length 4:50 inches, wing 3:10, culmen -40, tarsus ‘60.

According to Loche, the Citril Finch occasionally visits North-
west Africa, specimens of it having been obtained in the neighbour-
hood of La Calle on the borders of the Algerio-Tunisian frontier.
The species, however, is probably of rare and merely accidental winter
occurrence south of the Mediterranean. Malherbe has recorded it as
occurring in Sicily in winter, but even there it must be rare, as there
is no Sicilian specimen of it in the Palermo Museum.

In Corsica and Sardinia a brown-backed form of this Finch occurs,
which Dr. Koenig has named C. corsicana (Orn. Monatsber. vii, p.
120), and which is without doubt fairly separable. This form appears
to be resident and abundant in both the above islands, breeding even

SERINUS SERINUS 195

in the coast districts. It differs from C. citrinella not only in the
brown coloration of the back, but also in having the rump less brightly
coloured, and the forehead, cheeks, chin and eye-region more brilliant.
In size C. corsicana is slightly smaller than C. citrinella, its wing
length averaging in the case of males 2°90 inches, as against 3°10
inches in C. citrinella. In addition to the pair from Corsica figured
by Mr. Dresser in his ‘‘ Birds of Europe,” which are in the Lilford
collection, now in my possession, I have been enabled, through the
kindness of Professor Giglioli, to examine the fine series of both forms
of this Finch existing in the Florence Museum. Some specimens
in this collection from Villafranca, on the French Riviera, and from
Turin, appear to be intermediate between C. citrinella and C.corsicana
so far as the coloration of the back is concerned, but on the whole they
incline more to C. citrinella.

In its general habits the Citril Finch seems to differ but little from
the Siskin. Fir-woods and mountain-forests are its favourite haunts
during the breeding season, but during migration and throughout the
winter lower-lying localities and the vicinity of streams are much
resorted to, no doubt on account of the greater abundance of food
to be obtained there.

SERINUS SERINUS (Linneus).
SERIN-FINCH.

Fringilla serinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 320 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
fais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 15 (1846).

Serinus serinus, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 868; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 464.

S. meridionalis, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 157 (1867).

S. hortulanus, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 245; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 63;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 91.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Forehead, superciliary stripes, throat, breast and rump yellow; crown,
nape and sides of the neck yellow, thickly streaked with dark green; back
and scapulars dark green, streaked with blackish-brown; quills and tail
blackish-brown, with narrow yellow margins; flanks and abdomen whitish,
heavily streaked with blackish-brown ; crissum and under tail-coverts white.

196 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Tris very dark brown; bill greyish-brown above and lighter below; feet
greyish-brown.

Total length 4:25 inches, wing 2°75, culmen :20, tarsus ‘50.

Adult female much greyer and duller in coloration than the male.

Observations.—Young birds are browner, with but little yellow in their
plumage.

The Serin is one of the commonest birds in North and Central
Tunisia, both as a resident and as a migrant. It also occurs in South
Tunisia, although not quite so plentifully as further north. During
winter and early spring large flocks of these little Finches may be
seen ranging over the semi-cultivated plains of the Atlas districts,
feeding upon the seeds of thistles and other wild plants, often in the
company of Goldfinches and Linnets. By the end of March these
flocks disperse, most of the birds intending to nest in the Regency
having already paired before that date. The species appears to be
an early breeder, and I have found nests with well-grown young birds
in them as early as March 24th. In high mountainous districts,
however, the Serin may be found breeding late on in the summer,
and Mr. Meade-Waldo found nests containing eggs in the Maroccan
Atlas in the month of July. In both Marocco and Algeria this little
Finch is as abundant as it is in Tunisia. From Tripoli I have no
specimens of it.

Besides frequenting open plains and low mountain-sides, the Serin
is constantly to be found in gardens and orchards, particularly during
the nesting season, when it appears to be less shy than at other times
of the year. It feeds almost entirely on seeds. Its flight is rather
undulating and distinctly powerful for the size of the bird. The notes
of this little Finch are rather poor and by no means melodious, its
continuous and monotonous twitter at times resembling more the
sound made by the “ Cicala”’ cricket than the song of a bird. The
syllables ‘‘ zi-zi’’ repeated several times render the song fairly well.
Nevertheless, the bird may often be seen in a cage in most
Mediterranean towns, where the species is common.

The Serin does not seem to be very particular in its choice of a
site for its nest, at times selecting a low bush or hedgerow not more
than three feet in height, at others choosing the branch of a tree
over twenty feet from the ground. The nest, which is generally

LIGURINUS CHLORIS 197

placed in a fork of a tree or plant, is small and compactly built, but
the materials of which it is composed are often rather coarse for so
small a structure. They consist chiefly of rootlets and grass-bents,
plentifully lined with feathers and other soft materials. The eggs,
three or four in number, are of a delicate greenish-white, lightly
speckled with reddish-brown. Average measurements 15 X 12 mm.

LIGURINUS CHLORIS (Linnzus).
GREENFINCH.

Loxia chloris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 304 (1766).

Ligurinus chloris, Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. p. 230 (1816) ; Koenig, J. f. O.
1888, p. 244; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 63.

Chloris chloris, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 21.

Fringilla (Ligurinus) chloris, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. dOis. Alg. p. 14
(1846).

Chlorospiza chloris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Otis. i, p. 149 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Upper parts green-washed with brown, brighter and purer on the rump
and upper tail-coverts; lores grey-brown; primaries blackish, tipped with
light grey, and margined on the basal three-fourths of the outer web with
bright yellow; secondaries and wing-coverts broadly margined with light
grey; edge of wing yellow; central rectrices blackish, margined with pale
grey; the other tail-feathers yellow on the basal half and black on the
terminal half; underparts green, tinged with brown on the flanks, and
becoming yellow on the middle of the abdomen and on the crissum.

Tris hazel; bill purplish-brown; feet flesh-colour.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3°40, culmen °d0, tarsus -70.

Adult female much more soberly coloured, and with but little yellow
in its plumage, the upper parts being greyish-brown with darker striations,
the lower parts paler and tinged with greenish-yellow.

The common European Greenfinch I believe occurs in Tunisia
merely as a migrant in winter, and does not remain to breed in the
Regency, the resident Greenfinch of the country, as well as of the
whole of North-west Africa being the following subspecies.

In the town of Tunis I have occasionally seen examples of
L, chloris (L.) in cages, but I have never myself met with the species
in the Regency in a wild state. From both Algeria and Marocco I
have specimens of it obtained in winter.

198 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

LIGURINUS CHLORIS AURANTIIVENTRIS (Cabanis).
NORTH AFRICAN GREENFINCH.

Ligurinus aurantiiventris, Cabanis, Mus. Hein. Th. i, p. 158 (1850) ;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 90.

Chlorospiza aurantiiventris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 151 (1867).

Chloris chloris aurantiiventris, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 468.

Description—Adult male, spring, from Oglet-Zellés, South Tunisia.

Differs from LZ. chloris (L.) in being much more brightly coloured, the
upper parts being uniform and pure bright yellowish-green, without any
trace of brown, while the underparts are also much brighter, particularly
the abdomen, crissum and under tail-coverts. The bill is also rather larger,
stouter and more wedge-shaped than in typical L. chloris.

Soft parts and general measurements as in L. chloris.

Adult female greyer and paler in coloration than the female of L. chioris.

Although many ornithologists are opposed to the idea of separating
the North African Greenfinch from our European bird, there is no
doubt that there is a considerable and a constant difference between
the two, and one which appears quite sufficient to justify their sub-
specific separation. Admitting this, we come then to the question as
to whether the North African Greenfinch can rightly be referred to
L. aurantiiventris (Cab.), by which name it has of late years gener-
ally been known, or to some other described form of Greenfinch.
L. aurantiiventris was based by Dr. Cabanis (Mus. Hein. i, p. 158) on
a specimen from the south of France, the type being in the Berlin
Museum, but whether this, or any of the other names given, can
stand, or whether they do not merely, one and all, refer to brightly
coloured examples of ZL. chloris (U.), I am not in a position to say,
having never examined the type specimens. Under the circumstances,
therefore, I consider it advisable to retain the name of L. awrantii-
ventris (Cab.) for the North African Greenfinch, making a subspecies
of it. At the same time, however, I feel bound to remark that although
I have seen many brightly coloured examples of the Greenfinch from
South France, Spain and Italy, I have never yet seen one perfectly
identical with birds from North Africa. The latter are, moreover, so
far as my experience goes, perfectly constant in their colouring, and
in this respect differ from their European congeners, which vary
greatly amongst themselves.

“SLIQUSATIVUBING STLO[YO STULINS TT

VISINOL 40 SGUIG AHL

LIGURINUS CHLORIS AURANTIIVENTRIS 199

The North African Greenfinch differs from typical L. chloris (L.)
chiefly in the colouring of its plumage, which is brighter and more
uniform throughout, with a very marked absence on the upper parts
of the brown shade noticeable in most examples of L. chloris. This
difference, as already observed, appears to be perfectly constant and
not confined merely to individuals, for among the many specimens I
have examined I have never found a single bird in full plumage that
varied from the rule. The difference is also noticeable at all seasons,
and I have examples obtained in autumn and winter, which do not
differ materially from those obtained in spring, the brown shade being
invariably absent. Besides the difference in plumage coloration, the
bill of the North African bird is slightly larger, stouter and more
wedge-shaped than in the generality of European birds.

With regard to the relative size of the two forms of Greenfinch,
having compared a large series of both, I cannot say I find any
appreciable and constant difference between the two.

Throughout the greater part of North-west Africa L. c. awrantii-
ventris is more or less plentifully distributed. From both North and
South Marocco I have examples of it, and in Algeria it appears to be
abundant in the wooded districts. From Tripoli I have no specimens,
but the species may possibly occur near the coast where the country
is fertile and fairly well wooded in some parts. In North-east Africa
no Greenfinch appears to occur.

From South Spain I have several examples of the Greenfinch,
which, although not perfectly identical with North-west African birds,
resemble them very closely. Examples from Italy, however, and even
from Sicily, can only be referred to L. chloris (U.), although occa-
sionally bright coloured individuals may be met with, particularly
during the breeding season.

The present subspecies is common throughout the greater part of
the Tunisian Regency, and breeds in several districts north of the
Atlas. Whether it nests in South Tunisia I cannot say, but I have
met with the species in small flocks on passage about the middle of
March at Oglet-Zelles and Oglet-Alima in the Tunisian Sahara, and
at Feriana and other places in Central Tunisia I have found it as late
as April 20th. In the immediate neighbourhood of the town of
Tunis this Greenfinch is common all the year round and nests in
the gardens of the vicinity.

In its general habits L. c. aurantiiventris appears to differ in no

200 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

way from our Huropean bird, being generally found in small flocks
during the winter and early spring, frequenting the neighbourhood
of gardens, the outskirts of oases, and similar localities where bushes
are abundant, and feeding on seeds and berries of various kinds, as
well as on corn during the autumn months. Its song, a mere twitter,
is distinctly poor, although capable of development when the bird
is kept in captivity, as it often is in Tunis. When brought up from
the nest it becomes very tame, and I have a Greenfinch at the present
moment which will perch on my hand and take seed from my lips
with perfect fearlessness. The nest of L. c. aurantiiventris may be
found in orchards or olive-groves, as well as in the wild thuja and
juniper bushes, so plentiful on some of the Atlas slopes. It is rather
loosely built of bents and rootlets, lined with wool and hair, and its
eggs, four or five in number, are greenish-white, slightly streaked
and spotted, chiefly at the larger end, with violet and brown. Average
measurements 20 X 14 mm.

The accompanying plate shows an adult male and female of the
North-west African Greenfinch, obtained in the month of March in
South Tunisia.

COCCOTHRAUSTES COCCOTHRAUSTES (Linnzus).
HAWFINCH.

Loxia coccothraustes, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 299 (1766).

Coccothraustes coccothraustes, Bonap. Consp. Gen. Aviwm, i, p. 506
(1850) ; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 37.

Coccothraustes vulgaris, Loche, Hapl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 140 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 233; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 54; Whitaker, Ibis,
1896, p. 95.

Description. Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Forehead pale buff, becoming yellowish-brown on the crown and sides
of head; lores, narrow frontal line, circle of feathers round the eyes, chin
and upper throat jet-black; nape and sides of neck grey; back and scapulars
chocolate-brown, rump fawn-brown, becoming yellowish-brown on the upper
tail-coverts; quills black, with a large white spot on the inner web, and
tipped with metallic shades of blue, green and purple; the fifth and adjoining
inner quills with a peculiar hook-shaped tip; outer and greater wing-coverts

COCCOTHRAUSTES COCCOTHRAUSTES 201

whitish, inner ones yellowish-brown; middle pair of rectrices pale brown,
slightly tipped with white, remaining pairs black, broadly tipped on the
inner web with white; underparts vinous, except the middle of abdomen,
crissum and under tail-coverts, which are white.

Tris brown; bill bluish-black; feet flesh colour.

Total length 7 inches, wing 3:95, culmen -75, tarsus -90.

Adult female rather duller in colouring than the male.

Observations—In winter the bill of this species becomes a light flesh
colour and the plumage is rather duller.

The Hawfinch is not a very common bird in Tunisia, and its
range seems to be more or less restricted to the country north of
the Atlas, although it is occasionally to be met with in the southern
districts during the winter months. I have a note of its occurrence
as far south as Tatahouine, but have no knowledge of the species
breeding anywhere south of the Atlas. North of these mountains
I think there can be no doubt that it nests, although perhaps not in
any numbers, as I have a specimen obtained in the Medjerdah Valley
on May 14th, and notes of its occurrence in summer in that district.

In Algeria Dr. Koenig seems to have found this species remarkably
abundant at Batna, the birds actually coming into the town in large
numbers, presumably in order to feed upon the ripening seeds of some
elm-trees (J. f. O. 1896, p. 127). In Marocco Mr. Meade-Waldo
met with a few Hawfinches at Sould-Jedid in the Atlas, but the
species was evidently not common in those districts, as he never saw
any others (Ibis, 1903, p. 202). According to Colonel Irby (Orn. Strs.
Gib. p. 124), Favier found the Hawfinch “‘ very rare near Tangier,”
while on the Spanish side of the Straits it is ‘‘ very common and most
plentiful in winter.” This agrees with my experience in Sicily,
where the Hawfinch is abundant in autumn and winter. The Sicilian
vernacular name of scaccia-mennuli, a corruption of the Italian
Schiaccia-mandorla, or almond-cracker, has been given to the bird
on account of its supposed partiality for this fruit, which is plentiful
in the island. The Hawfinch’s powerful bill is certainly capable of
cracking any nut, no matter how hard it may be, and the bird
subsists largely upon the kernels of stone-fruit, but it also feeds on
softer seeds and berries, and occasionally upon insects and grubs.
In spite of its size and rather striking appearance the Hawfinch is

202 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

naturally so shy and wary that it often escapes notice. At times,
however, particularly when flocking together on migration, it becomes
bolder and approaches the neighbourhood of human habitations,
occasionally entering some small town or village in search of seeds
and other food.

Although as a rule a silent bird, its call-note, when uttered, may
be heard at a considerable distance. Its song, however, if such it
can be called, is distinctly poor, and is certainly not the reason
of its being kept as a cage-bird, as it so often is in many Mediter-
ranean towns.

The Hawfinch generally nests in low trees, building rather a
bulky structure composed chiefly of twigs, with a lining of grass and
hair or wool. Its eggs, three to five in number, are of a dull greenish
colour, spotted with grey and brown. Average measurements 24 x
18 mm.

PASSER DOMESTICUS (Linnzus).
HOUSE-SPARROW.

Fringilla domestica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 323 (1766).

Passer domesticus, Pall. Zoogr. Ross.-As. ii, p. 39 (1811); Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 307; Loche, Expl. Sev. Alg. Ois. i, p. 129
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 98;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 476.

Passer tingitanus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 182 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 232.

Description—Adult male, spring, from Feriana, Central Tunisia.

Crown, nape, lower back and upper tail-coverts grey; lores black ; narrow
line over the eyes white; superciliary stripes chestnut-red, becoming broader
on sides of nape and neck; back chesnut-red streaked with black, some of
the feathers being margined with rufescent-buff ; quills blackish, margined
with rufescent-buff on the outer webs ; secondaries and greater wing-coverts
broadly margined with rufescent-buff; lesser wing-coverts chestnut-red ;
median coverts barred with white; tail dark grey, slightly fringed with pale
buff; chin, throat and upper breast black; ear-coverts pale grey; sides of
neck white; rest of underparts whitish, washed with grey on the sides and
flanks.

Tris dark brown; bill blackish ; feet pale brown.

PASSER DOMESTICUS 203

Total length 5:70 inches, wing 3, culmen -d0, tarsus °75.

Adult female dull brown, without any rufous colour, and without any
black on the throat; underparts pale greyish-brown, becoming whiter on the
abdomen and crissum.

In winter the bill becomes pale yellowish horn colour.

As stated in my notes on Tunisian Birds (bis, 1898, p. 132), the
Sparrows in some parts of the Regency are puzzling, owing to the
cases of evident hybridism. I have, however, no hesitation in saying
that P. hispaniolensis is the common Sparrow of the country, being
found generally throughout the whole of the Regency from north to
south and east to west, while P. domesticus, so far as I have been able
to ascertain, occurs at present only in the more western districts of
Tunisia, whither it has probably spread from Algeria. The railway
has no doubt been instrumental in contributing towards this diffusion,
and it is not unlikely we shall, at no distant date, find P. domesticus
established and quite at home in the town of Tunis and in other places
in the east of the Regency, where at present it appears to be wanting.

Where the two species P. domesticus and P. hispaniolensis meet
they seem to interbreed freely, so much so that in some of the villages
of Western Tunisia a bastard race is found, partaking of the characters
of both species. Individuals vary greatly in colour, some showing the
grey crown of P. domesticus and the heavily striped breast and flanks
of P. hispaniolensis, while others have the red crown of the latter and
the under-marking of the former, and many are intermediate in
plumage.

With regard to P. italie, I am still unable to state positively that it
occurs in Tunisia. Some specimens in my collection from Tunisia
certainly resemble this species more than either of the other two, but
I cannot affirm that I have yet come across a typical example of
P. itali@ in any part of the Regency.

Baron v. Erlanger, in his work on the Tunisian Ornis (J. f. O. 1899,
p. 479), advocates the advisability of specifically uniting the two red-
headed species of Sparrow, P. italie and P. hispaniolensis, the latter
becoming a subspecies of the former under the name of P. italie
hispaniolensis. There is naturally considerable similarity between
the two, and in certain countries, such as Sicily for instance, forms
occur which seem to partake equally of the characters of both species,
so much so, indeed, that they cannot well be referred to one more

204 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

than the other. On the other hand, however, there is in many
respects more affinity between P. domesticus and P. italie than there
is between the latter and P. hispaniolensis, the colour of the crown
being, in fact, the only striking point of difference between the two.
Mr. Hartert (Nov. Zool. ix, pp. 331-333) also alludes to this, and
indeed unites P. domesticus and P. italie, making the latter a sub-
species of the former. In the same article Mr. Hartert makes a
subspecies of the Sparrow found in Malta, calling it P. hispaniolensis
malta.

Herr v. Tschusi has recently gone still further in the subdivision
of the Sparrows, making no less than seven different forms of P. his-
paniolensis and two of P. italie (Ornithol. Jahrbuch, Februar,
1903) !

P. domesticus is not uncommon in some parts of Algeria and
Marocco. In the former country I have obtained specimens at Biskra,
while from Marocco I have examples both from the north and south
of the empire. Specimens from Schafel-Akab in the north, and
from Glaoui in the Atlas Mountains, are fairly typical, while others
from the city of Marocco, Tameshlot and Ras-el-Ain show evident
signs of hybridism with P. hispaniolensis. Mr. Meade-Waldo also
appears to have found many of the Sparrows in the Maroccan Atlas
intermediate between P. domesticus and P. hispaniolensis (Ibis, 1908,
p. 210). Ihave no specimens of P. domesticus from Tripoli.

In the Tunisian Regency, as I have already said, P. domesticus
occurs at present only in the more western districts, in some of
which, such as the village of Feriana and its neighbourhood, the
species is abundant, and in its breeding and general habits differs
in no way from our European bird. The nests I found there were
placed in holes in the walls of houses and other buildings, and were
composed of the customary mass of straw and dry grasses, plentifully
lined with feathers, while the eggs, four to six in number, were of
the usual bluish-white colour, speckled with brown surface spots and
grey shell-marks. Average measurements 22 X 15 mm.

PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS 205

PASSER ITALIA (Vicillot).
ITALIAN SPARROW.

Fringilla italiz, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. xii, p. 199 (1817).

Passer italize, Bonap. Consp. i, p. 509 (1850) ; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. xii, p. 815; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 133 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 242; id. J. f. O. 1898, p. 61; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895,
p. 97; id. Ibis, 1898, p. 132.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Differs from P. domesticus chiefly in having the crown and nape of a
rich chestnut-red, and from P. hispaniolensis in having no black on the
sides and flanks, and in being more rufous on the back.

Soft parts and measurements as in P. domesticus.

Adult female resembles the female of P. domesticus.

I include this species among the birds of Tunisia, having obtained
in the south of the Regency examples of Sparrows which, although
not typical P. ztalig, resemble that species more than they do either
P. domesticus or P. hispaniolensis. As already stated in the preceding
article, however, I cannot say that I have ever met with a perfectly
typical example of P. italie anywhere in Tunisia, although from
Marocco I have specimens which are almost identical with typical
examples from Italy. Dr. Koenig mentions having met with P. italie
at Monastir on the east coast of Tunisia (J. f. O. 1893, p. 61). I have
not visited that place, but at Sousa, which is not far distant from
Monastir, the only Sparrows I came across were P. hispaniolensis.

PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS (Temminck).
SPANISH SPARROW.

Fringilla hispaniolensis, Temm. Man. d’Orn. i, p. 353 (1820).

Passer hispaniolensis, iipp, Syst. Uebers. p. 78 (1845); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 317; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 241; id. J. f. O.
1893, p. 62.

Fringilla (Passer) hispaniolensis, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg.
p. 14 (1846).

Passer salicicola, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 134 (1867); Whitaker,
Ibis, 1894, p. 29; id. Ibis, 1898, p. 182.

Passer italiz hispaniolensis, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 477.

206 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

Differs from P. domesticus in having the crown and nape rich chestnut-
red, the ear-coverts and sides of neck of a purer white, the back and upper
parts blacker, some of the feathers margined with white, the black on the
breast extending over a large expanse, and the sides and flanks thickly
streaked with black. It is also rather a larger bird than P. domesticus, with
a stouter bill and tarsus.

Soft parts as in P. domesticus.

Total length 5:75 inches, wing 3:10, culmen ‘55, tarsus -85.

Adult female resembles the female of P. domesticus.

Observations.—From the above description it will be seen that the adult
male of the present species differs from that of P. italie chiefly in having
the breast, sides and flanks thickly streaked with black, and the back darker
and less rufous ; otherwise the two species are much alike.

Like other Sparrows, the Spanish Sparrow often has an admixture of
rufous-brown in the black of the throat and breast.

This species is the common Sparrow of Tunisia, and is to be met
with generally throughout the Regency, in towns and villages as well
as in the open country. In the west of the Regency, where it meets
P. domesticus, it seems to interbreed freely with that species,
specimens obtained in those districts almost invariably showing
signs of hybridism. Vast flocks are to be met with in winter
and early spring in some of the central and southern districts
of Tunisia, frequenting the tamarisk clumps by the banks of streams
and oweds, and the noise the birds make when congregating together
of an evening, preparatory to roosting, is at times simply deafening.
In Sicily, where the present species is also the Sparrow of the country,
I have noticed the same thing, and in my garden at Palermo, during
the winter and early spring, vast numbers congregate of an evening
and roost in some high trees by the side of a small lake. When the
breeding season commences these flocks break up, and the birds are
then to be seen in pairs or very small parties. In some parts of
Tunisia, however, the Spanish Sparrow may be found breeding in
large colonies among the tamarisk and wild jujube bushes. At the
village of Feriana I found Sparrows breeding in considerable numbers
during the month of April, their nests being placed in buildings as
well as in trees, mostly poplars. At the town of Sousa on the east
coast of the Regency I also found the present species breeding at the

PASSER MONTANUS 207

beginning of April, the males and females taking an equal share in
the construction of the nest. The birds here seemed very fearless,
some of them actually building their nests under the eaves of a low
verandah attached to a crowded French café, at a height of only nine
or ten feet from the ground, and continuing their work apparently
regardless of the noisy throng just below them. It is, indeed, curious
that this Sparrow, so shy and suspicious in the open country, should
become so fearless and confiding when inhabiting a town.

In most of its habits the present species does not differ from the
two preceding, and its notes appear to be similar. The nests and
eggs I examined also resembled those of P. domesticus.

PASSER MONTANUS (Linnezus).
TREE-SPARROW.

Fringilla montana, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 324 (1766).

Passer montanus, Koch, Syst. baier. Zool. p. 219 (1816); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 301 ; Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 126; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 478.

Pyrgita montana, Loche, Expl. Sct. Alg. Otis. i, p. 136 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Carthage, North Tunisia.

Crown and nape dull chocolate ; back buff-brown, striped with black ;
lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts buff-brown ; tail grey-brown, with
lighter margins; wings grey-brown, fringed on the outer webs with buff-
brown, wing-coverts tipped with whitish, presenting a double alar bar;
narrow frontal line, lores, patch below the eye, hinder part of ear-coverts,
chin and throat black; remainder of ear-coverts, cheeks and sides of neck
dull white, this colour extending partly in a collar behind the nape; rest of
underparts greyish-white, washed with buff-brown on the flanks and under
tail-coverts.

Tris dark brown ; bill black ; feet pale brown.

Total length 5:25 inches, wing 2°85, culmen °40, tarsus ‘65.

Adult female similar to the male.

This is by no means acommon species in the Regency, and I have
only a solitary example of it, which was obtained in the neighbourhood
of Carthage. Blanc, the Tunis naturalist, tells me that the local bird-

208 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

catchers occasionally take this species in their nets during the winter
months. Loche says the Tree-Sparrow occurs in Algeria, but is
rather rare there. From Marocco I have no note of its occurrence.
According to von Heuglin (Orn. N. O. Afr. p. 633) the species visits
Egypt, probably on migration in winter.

In its habits the Tree-Sparrow bears a certain resemblance to
the common Sparrow, but differs from it in being more of a tree-
frequenting species, and in Europe, at least, is not often to be found
in the immediate neighbourhood of buildings, unless trees are also
present. In some Asiatic countries, however, this species is said to
take the place of the common House-Sparrow, often frequenting
human habitations, and nesting in holes in the walls and under the
eaves. In Europe, holes in trees are generally selected as nesting sites,
particularly those in pollard-elms and willows.

The food of the Tree-Sparrow consists chiefly of seeds of various
kinds, and corn when to be obtained, but its young are said to be
fed principally upon grubs and insects.

The call note of this species is a chirp, resembling that of the
House-Sparrow, but rather softer, and the male is said to have a
regular ana pleasing, though somewhat short, song. The bird may
not unfrequently be seen in a cage in Continental towns, and is said
to breed, in captivity, with the House-Sparrow.

PASSER SIMPLEX (Lichtenstein).
DESERT-SPARROW.

Fringilla simplex, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 24 (1823).

Passer simplex, Hartm. J. f. O. 1863, p. 313; Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. xii, p. 339; Erlanger, Orn. Monatsb. 1897, p. 188.

Corospiza simplex, Bonap. Consp. i, p. 511 (1850); Loche, Hapl. Sci.
Alg. Ois. i, p. 138 (1867).

Passer simplex sahara, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 472.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Hamman, Tripoli.

Upper parts pale silvery-grey, darker on the crown, and more sandy on
the back and scapulars; rump and upper tail-coverts creamy-white; tail-
feathers blackish-brown, fringed, particularly on the outer webs, with cream
colour; primaries brown, becoming blackish towards the tips, and fringed on

PASSER SIMPLEX 209

the outer webs and bases of the inner webs with cream colour; secondaries
similar, but with much broader cream-coloured margins ; lesser wing-coverts
white ; larger wing-coverts blackish, fringed with whitish ; lores, circle of
feathers round the eyes, chin and throat black; sides of the neck white;
rest of the underparts white, slightly tinged with cream-colour,

Tris brown; bill black; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3:10, culmen -40, tarsus -80.

Adult female, spring, from El-Hamman, Tripoli.

Upper parts yellowish-isabelline throughout; quills and tail-feathers
brown, fringed with yellowish-isabelline ; underparts white, tinged with
cream colour.

Tris brown ; bill light brown ; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Measurements slightly less than in the male.

Observations.—The colour of the bill appears to be yellowish during the
winter, as shown by a specimen in the British Museum, obtained in Algeria
at that season.

This bird is undoubtedly a true Sparrow, belonging to the genus
Passer, and the distinctive generic name of Corospiza bestowed on it
by Bonaparte appears to be uncalled for. The species was first
described by Lichtenstein from the White Nile, and the type
specimen, collected by Hemprich and Ehrenberg at Ambukohl, is in
the Berlin Museum.

P. simplex is eminently a desert species, occurring, so far as is at
present known, in the sandy districts of the Algerian and Tunisian
Sahara, the Province of Fezzan in Tripoli, and the desert regions
of Nubia and the White Nile. The species, however, will no doubt
eventually be found to occur in other desert districts of the African
continent.

Although not uncommon in the localities it frequents, the bird
appears to be somewhat local in its distribution, and is not found
everywhere in the sandy desert. In Tunisia it is only to be met with
in the inland desert districts lying to the south of the Chott Djerid.
I have never myself visited this bird’s home, nor had the good fortune
to meet with it. Baron v. Erlanger appears to have found it fairly
common in the neighbourhood of Timbain and Bir-Touil, districts
situated not far south of Douz, where he observed it in small flocks
and companies, but never in pairs. This was in winter-time, when
the breeding season had not yet commenced, but an old nest con-

14

210 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

taining two addled eggs was found near Timbain in the hollow of
an old desert tree.

Loche, Canon Tristram and Dr. Koenig all appear to have met
with the Desert-Sparrow in the Algerian Sahara, the last-named
gentleman having also been fortunate enough to find it breeding
in various localities in the Ouargla district. In Tripoli Mr. Dodson
met with the bird on various occasions in the Fezzan, where it was
not uncommon.

There seems to be some difference of opinion as to the description
of country and localities most frequented by the Desert-Sparrow, and
also regarding the situations selected by it for its nest. All the
evidence, however, points to the species being partial to sandy spots,
and it probably occurs both on the outskirts of the oases and in the
more open country, and nests in trees as well as in the holes of
well-sides, or similar sites. Mr. Dodson, alluding to the birds of
this species met with in Tripoli, says that he observed them only in
palm-trees, where, apparently, they were breeding. Baron v. Erlanger,
as already mentioned, found a nest in the hollow of an old desert
tree, and was informed by Herr Paul W. H. Spatz that these birds
nested among the sticks forming the nests of some of the larger
Raptores, built on similar desert trees. Dr. Koenig, on the other
hand, appears to have found the species nesting in the crevices of well-
sides.

In many of its habits, as well as in its note, the Desert-Sparrow
seems to resemble the Tree-Sparrow. It feeds chiefly on seeds, but
also to a large extent on insects. Its nest is a rather bulky structure
compactly built of dry Halfa grass, wool and feathers, and the eggs,
which are usually three in number, are said to closely resemble those
of the Tree-Sparrow.

Baron vy. Erlanger considers the Desert-Sparrow found in Tunisia
and Algeria to be somewhat different from typical P. simplex, and
has separated it subspecifically from that species under the name of
P. simplex sahare (J. f. O. 1899, p. 472). I fail, however, to see
sufficient grounds for this distinction.

|

PETRONIA PETRONIA 211

PETRONIA PETRONIA (Linneus).
ROCK-SPARROW.

Fringilla petronia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 322 (1766).

Petronia petronia, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 158 (1829); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 289.

Petronia rupestris, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 148 (1867).

Pyrgita petronia, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 243; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 62.

Petronia stulta, Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 92.

Petronia petronia barbara, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 481.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Above sandy-brown, streaked and spotted with darker brown, the
feathers of the back and wings with dark centres and pale butf margins; a
conspicuous pale buff superciliary stripe; tail-feathers dark brown, the two
middle pairs slightly and the remaining pairs largely tipped with white on the
inner webs ; underparts pale buff, with faint brown streaks, becoming darker
on the flanks, and with a distinct yellow patch on the throat.

Tris brown; bill brown, paler below ; feet light brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°80, culmen ‘55, tarsus 75.

Adult female resembles the male, but has the yellow throat patch much
less pronounced.

The Rock-Sparrow is resident and not uncommon in some dis-
tricts of Tunisia, but appears to be more or less locally distributed. I
have examples from various parts of the Regency, both north and
south of the Atlas, and some were procured in districts as far south as
Tatahouine and Douirat. From South Marocco I also have specimens
which were obtained in the neighbourhood of Glaoui, at 5,000 feet above
sea-level. Mr. Dodson, who was collecting for me in Marocco, said he
met with the species in no other part of the Empire, and apparently it
is not abundant in that country, nor is it at all common, I believe, in
Algeria, although Loche includes it among his Algerian birds.

As its name would imply, P. petronia is a rock-loving bird, being
generally found, either in small parties or in pairs, on hill-sides or
in the vicinity of rocky ground. Occasionally, however, it is to be
found on cultivated land, consorting with Sky-Larks, and I once shot
one out of a flock of Larks in the middle of a cornfield. The food of
the Rock-Sparrow consists chiefly of grain and various kinds of seeds,
but it is varied to a considerable extent by an insect diet. The note of
this bird is a harsh and monotonous chirp.

912 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The Rock-Sparrow breeds as a rule in holes in cliffs or old walls,
and the nest is composed of straw or dry grasses, with a little wool,
plentifully lined with feathers and hair. The eggs, four or five in
number, greatly resemble those of the common House-Sparrow.

Baron y. Erlanger considers the Rock-Sparrow of ‘Tunisia
sufficiently different from typical P. petronia (L.) to merit subspecific
distinction, and has separated it under the name of P. petronia
barbara (J. f. O. 1899, p. 481). After careful comparison of my
Tunisian specimens with a large series of Rock-Sparrows from different
parts of Europe, I cannot say I find sufficient grounds for this distinc-
tion. There is certainly a slight difference in colour between examples
from South Tunisia and those from Europe, but it is extremely slight,
while the measurements are about the same in both. Examples from
Northern and Central Tunisia are identical in every way with some
from South Europe.

P. puteicola (Festa), from Palestine, differs far more from typical
P. petronia (L.), and has perhaps rightly been separated from it,
although it is scarcely entitled to full specific rank. Prof. Arrigoni
degli Oddi has recently separated the Sardinian Rock-Sparrow from
typical P. petronia (L.) under the name of P. petronia helimayri. I
have not myself seen any examples of the Rock-Sparrow from Sardinia.

FRINGILLA CQ@LEBS, Linneus.
CHAFFINCH.

Fringilla celebs, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 318 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 171; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 143 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 233 ; id. J. f. O. 1892, p. 303 ; ad. J. f. O. 1893,
p. 55; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 91.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Forehead black ; crown, nape and sides of neck dull bluish-grey, slightly
washed with brown; back and scapulars chestnut-brown ; rump and upper
tail-coverts green; middle pair of rectrices dark grey, the two outer pairs
white, excepting the terminal portion of outer web and the basal portion
of inner web, which are black ; the next adjoining pair with only a white
patch on the terminal portion of inner web ; the remaining tail-feathers
black ; quills dark brown, slightly fringed on outer webs with light green ;

FRINGILLA CQ@LEBS 213

greater wing-coverts black, broadly tipped with yellowish-white; lesser
wing-coverts pure white; lores, ear-coverts and region round eye brown,
becoming paler and more vinous on the throat, breast and rest of under-
parts, and almost white on the crissum and under tail-coverts.

Tris hazel ; bill livid flesh-colour, darker at the tip; feet light brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°50, culmen ‘50, tarsus °75.

Adult female, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Above brown, with a slight greenish tinge ; rump and upper tail-coverts
green ; tail and wings as in the male; below grey-brown, lighter on the
abdomen and crissum.

Soft parts as in the male; measurements slightly less.

Observations—The summer plumage of both male and female is
brighter.

Our European Chaffinch undoubtedly occurs as a winter migrant
in North-west Africa, as well as in Egypt (Shelley, Birds of Egypt,
p. 151), and is to be met with in certain numbers in the Tunisian
Regency during the winter and early spring months. It is most
frequently found in the more northern districts, but ranges along the
sea-coast of the Regency to the Tripoli frontier; I have an example
of it from Tatahouine, which is not far from that .frontier.

Dr. Koenig (J. f. O. 1893, p. 56) met with the species near the
village of Schradou, on the east coast of Tunisia, towards the end of
March, and again on the Djebel Batteria in the same district as late
as April 15th. The birds he saw seemed to be on passage, and were
in small flocks, consisting chiefly of females, although on the latter
occasion he also saw two male birds. April 15th is certainly a late
date for this species to remain in Tunisia, and Dr. Koenig was no
doubt perfectly right in concluding that the birds he saw were on
passage. A still later date for the occurrence of F. celebs in North-
west Africa has, however, been recorded by Mr. C. Dixon, who states
that he found it rather common in the cork-woods in the neigh-
bourhood of Philippeville as late as the middle of May (Lbis, 1882,
p-. 574). It is to be regretted that Mr. Dixon was unable to ascer-
tain whether the birds he saw were nesting, or whether they were
merely on passage, as it is still doubtful whether our European
Chaffinch ever breeds south of the Mediterranean.

Loche and Malherbe both mention F. celebs as occurring in
Algeria, and from North Marocco I have specimens obtained during
the winter months.

914 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The Chaffinch is of bright, sociable habits, and by no means shy.
During the winter months it is gregarious and usually to be found
in small flocks, which in Tunisia frequent the olive-groves and similar
plantations, feeding on the seeds of various wild plants as well as on
insects. The Chaffinch has a particularly bright and cheerful song,
and for this reason is often kept in captivity. Its sharp “ pink-pink”’
also rings pleasantly on the ear and is considered by some ornitho-
logists to be clearer in tone than that of F. spodiogenys, the resident
Chaffinch of North-west Africa.

A curious instance of a hermaphrodite Chaffinch was recorded by
Herr F. E. Blaauw (Ibis, 1890, p. 464). The specimen in question,
besides having the genital organs of both sexes well developed, had
the plumage on the right half of its body coloured like that of a male,
and on the left like that of a female, the two different plumages being
sharply defined. The specimen was mounted and is preserved in the
Royal Zoological Museum at Amsterdam.

FRINGILLA SPODIOGENYS, Bonaparte.
ALGERIAN CHAFFINCH.

Fringilla spodiogenys, Bp. Rev. Zool. 1841, p. 146; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 177; Malherbe, Faune Orn. de Ul’ Alg. p. 20 (1855) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 235; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 57; Whitaker, Ibis,
1894, p. 91; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 470.

Fringilla spodiogena, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 146 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Forehead and lores black; remainder of head, nape, scapulars and upper
tail-coverts slate-blue; back and rump green; middle pair of rectrices dark
grey, fringed with whitish ; three outer pairs white, black on the terminal
portion of the outer web and on the basal portion of the inner web; next
adjoining pair black, with a white patch on the inner web; primary quills
black, fringed externally with greenish-white; secondaries similar, but more
broadly fringed ; wing-coverts as in F’, calebs ; throat and rest of underparts
a pale roseate-vinous, becoming whitish on the abdomen, crissum and under
tail-coverts.

Tris hazel; bill lead-colour; feet brown.

Total length 6°50 inches, wing 3°65, culmen °d0, tarsus 75.

Adult female, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

FRINGILLA SPODIOGENYS 215

Entire head brownish-grey, becoming bluish on nape and sides of the
neck; back brownish-green; rump greenish; upper tail-coverts bluish-
grey ; wings and tail as in male, but duller; underparts pale brownish-grey,
becoming lighter on the abdomen and vent.

Soft parts as in the male; measurements rather less.

Observations.—The female of F’. spodiogenys may be easily distinguished
from that of F. cwlebs by the far greater amount of white on the wings,
particularly on the bases of the secondaries. The general colour of the
upper parts is also greyer and less brown than in F. celebs. In size there is
also a difference, F’. celebs being rather smaller than £’. spodiogenys.

The winter plumage of both sexes is rather duller than the spring one,
and at that season the head and back show some brownish feathers.

In Tunisia this species is the representative Chaffinch of the
country, occurring abundantly in the Regency wherever the environ-
ment may be adapted to its requirements. In many parts of Northern
Tunisia, particularly where there are orchards and olive-groves, this
Chaffinch is remarkably plentiful, and by no means shuns the neigh-
bourhood of buildings, although it also frequents the open country
far from any human dwellings. In Central Tunisia it also occurs
plentifully in certain districts, especially in those situated near the east
coast, where extensive tracts of olive-groves abound. Further south
in the Regency the distribution of the species is somewhat peculiar, as
it apparently occurs in only a few of the oases, and not in all of them.
The Gafsa Oasis is one of the favoured few, probably owing to its
fine olive-groves and orchards. Mr. Aplin also met with this Chaffinch
in the Oasis of El Guettar, to the south-east of Gafsa, and M. Blanc
has found it at Tatahouine still further south.

In Algeria I’. spodiogenys is as abundant as it is in Tunisia, in
districts where the environment is suitable. In Marocco it is also
abundant, and my collection contains a large series of specimens
from different parts of the Empire. The Maroccan Chaffinch has
been separated by Messrs. Rothschild and Hartert from typical
F., spodiogenys as a subspecies, under the name Fringilla spodiogenys
koenigi, but scarcely, I think, on sufficient grounds. Comparing my
large series of Chaftinches in full breeding plumage from Marocco with
those from Tunisia, I find that they certainly differ slightly from the
latter in being a little darker and richer in colouring, but the difference
appears to me to be too slight to warrant separation. Birdsin Marocco
in general are rather darker than those obtained further east.

216 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The Algerian Chaffinch never appears to have strayed across
the Straits of Gibraltar, or to have been found in Spain, and the species
has every right to be considered as peculiar to North-west Africa.
I may, however, here mention that the Florence Natural History
Museum possesses an undoubted male specimen of F. spodiogenys,
which was taken by a local bird-catcher in a net at Santa Lucia, near
Prato in Tuscany, on December 2nd, 1895, and presented to the above
Museum by Dr. Enrico Azzolini. Its Museum number is 3,615. In
its habits generally F. spodiogenys resembles our European Chaffinch,
and I cannot say that I have noticed much difference in its song,
although its notes may perhaps be a little harsher and not so clear
as those of F. celebs. To be able to judge properly, however, one
should hear individuals of the two species singing together, or one
almost immediately after the other. In any case, however, the bright
call notes of the Algerian Chaffinch and its cheery short song fall
as pleasantly on the ear in the North African woodlands as do the
familiar notes of its European congener at home, and they form no
slight contribution to the wealth of bird music to be heard in some of
those districts during the spring and early summer months. This
Chaffinch thrives well in confinement, and examples of it may often be
seen in cages in Tunis and other towns of the Regency. Seeds of
various kinds seem to be the principal food of the species, but insects
also enter largely into its diet.

The nesting season of F. spodiogenys in Southern and Central
Tunisia commences soon after the middle of March and is continued
well into May. In the north of the Regency it is somewhat later.
In the olive-groves of the Gafsa oasis I have found many nests
during the first fortnight of April, some with fresh eggs, others with
fledglings in them. The nests are placed as a rule in the fork of a
bough, at a height of from eight to sixteen feet from the ground,
and resemble those of our European Chaffinch in being cup-shaped
and neatly and compactly built, but they are somewhat larger, and
composed externally of dry bents and grasses of a greyish colour,
which no doubt harmonises better with the grey boughs and foliage
of the olive-tree.

Interwoven into the nest are pieces of wool and cotton-threads,
and occasionally also a bit of blue cotton-stuff, probably picked up
near some Arab tent; the interior is neatly lined with hair and
feathers. The eggs, usually rather larger than those of the Common

FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA 917

Chaffinch, and generally four in number, are of a dull pale bluish or
greenish colour, sparsely clouded and spotted with vinous and russet
markings. They vary a good deal in size and shape, but their average
measurements are 21°50 X 15°50 mm.

FRINGILLA MONTIFRINGILLA, Linneus.
BRAMBLING.

Fringilla montifringilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 318 (1766) ; Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 178; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Otis. i, p. 142
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 233; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 54.

Description.—Adult male, autumn, from Italy.

Upper parts mottled black and buff, the feathers having dark centres,
light margins and white bases ; lower back and rump white, mottled with
black ; tail blackish-brown, the outer feathers with some white at their
bases; quills blackish-brown, margined with whitish; lesser wing-coverts
orange-yellow; greater wing-coverts blackish, margined with whitish;
throat and breast warm buff; rest of underparts whitish, the flanks spotted
with black.

Tris brown ; bill yellowish, with a dark tip; feet flesh-colour.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°50, culmen °50, tarsus °70.

Adult female is much duller and browner than the male.

Observations.—In full breeding plumage the head and upper back of the
male are of a rich blue-black colour, and the general coloration is brighter.

The Brambling occurs in Tunisia as an occasional winter visitor,
but it is probably only in exceptionally severe weather that it extends
its wanderings as far as the African coast. Blanc informs me that
he has met with the species once or twice in autumn near Tunis,
and that the bird-catchers of that town sometimes take it in their
nets. Judging from what Loche says (Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. 1,
p. 148), the species would appear to be a regular winter migrant in
Algeria, but possibly a succession of severe winters may have caused
these birds to be more frequently observed in that country about the
time Loche was there. In any case, I do not think the Brambling can
be looked upon otherwise than as an occasional visitor to North-west
Africa, although when it occurs there it may be found in considerable

218 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

numbers. In North Italy large flocks of the species are at times to
be met with in the autumn months, even as early as the end of
September. In the neighbourhood of Turin I have sometimes seen
flock after flock passing throughout the day during the month of
November.

In some parts of North Italy it is said that as many as a thousand
Bramblings are taken with nets in a single day.

According to Savi and other Italian ornithologists, the Brambling
breeds in some of the mountains of Italy.

In its habits this species is bright and active, being essentially
gregarious, and even breeding, it is said, in small communities. In
many ways it resembles the Common Chaffinch, but its notes are
altogether different, being more twittering, and in this respect resem-
bling those of the Greenfinch. Its food consists chiefly of seeds and
berries, but it also eats insects and their larve. In confinement the
bird thrives well, and it is said to breed in captivity.

ACANTHIS CANNABINA (Linnzus).
LINNET.

Fringilla cannabina, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 322 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 4 (1846).

Acanthis cannabina, Bechst. Orn. Tascheub., i, p. 125 (1802); Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 240; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 467.

Linota cannabina, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 166 (1867) ; Whitaker,
Ibis, 1894, p. 92.

Cannabina sanguinea, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 249; id. J. f. O. 1893,
pole

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

Forehead crimson ; crown, nape, ear-coverts and sides of neck greyish-
brown, striated on the nape with a darker brown; back, scapulars and
wing-coverts chestnut-brown; upper tail-coverts blackish, with broad white
margins; tail blackish, margined with white, both on the outer and inner
webs; chin and throat whitish, striped with grey; breast light crimson ;
rest of underparts whitish, becoming brown on the sides and flanks.

Tris dark brown; bill brown, lighter below; feet pale brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3, culmen -40, tarsus °70.

ACANTHIS CANNABINA 219

Adult female resembles the male to a certain extent, but has no crimson
on the head and breast, while the underparts are more spotted and striped.
Soft parts and measurements similar to those of the male.

Observations—In winter the crimson forehead and breast of the male
have an admixture of whitish feathers, and the general plumage of both
sexes is duller.

The Linnet is a common species throughout the Regency,
occurring as a resident and migrant north of the Atlas, but apparently
only as a winter migrant south of those mountains. In Algeria and
Marocco it also appears to be abundant. In the former country
Dr. Koenig found it nesting in the Aurés districts, while from the
latter country I have young birds obtained in the southern districts.
Mr. Meade-Waldo mentions having seen Linnets in the Maroccan
Atlas at an elevation of 9,500 feet.

During the colder months large flocks of Linnets may be seen on
most of the Tunisian plains and tracts of semi-cultivated land, but
these flocks disperse on the approach of spring, the bulk of the birds
migrating northwards.

In its habits the Linnet is very sociable, and may often be found
consorting with other Finches, as well as with birds of its own kind.
Its food consists chiefly of the seeds of various wild plants, but it
may often be found on stubble-fields feeding upon grain. The Linnet
has a soft and musical song, and being easily domesticated, is in
great request as a cage-bird.

The breeding season of this species in Tunisia commences about
the beginning of April and continues throughout that month and
May. The nest, which is generally placed in a low bush, is made
of fine rootlets and grasses, lined with wool and hair, and the eggs,
four or five in number, are bluish-white, sparsely spotted with reddish-
brown. Average measurements 17 X 14 mm.

The resident Linnet of North-west Africa is considered by some
ornithologists to differ from the ordinary European form and has
been separated from it subspecifically.

No Redpoll seems to occur in North-west Africa. In Sicily, how-
ever, I obtained a specimen of the Lesser Redpoll (L. rufescens) in
the autumn of 1903, the first example of the species recorded from
the island.

220 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subfamily LOXIIN As.

ERYTHROSPIZA GITHAGINEA (Lichtenstein).
DESERT BULLFINCH.

Fringilla githaginea, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 24 (1823).

Erythrospiza githaginea, Bp. Faun. Ital. Ucc. Pl. 35, fig. 3 (1832-41) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 284; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 249 ;
id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 68; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 91; Erlanger, J. f. O.
1899, p. 462.

Bucanetes githagineus, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 164 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Djebel Semama, Central Tunisia.

General colour above and below delicate pale rose, tinged with light
greyish-brown on the crown, nape and back, the rose tint being more pro-
nounced on the forehead, rump, upper tail-coverts and on the underparts
generally ; quills and tail-feathers brown, margined with pale rose.

Tris very dark hazel ; bill orange; feet yellowish-flesh colour.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3:40, culmen :40, tarsus -70.

Adult female, spring, from Djebel Semama, Central Tunisia.

Resembles the male, but rather duller in colour.

Soft parts and measurements almost the same as in the male.

This pretty little Desert Bullfinch, although nowhere particularly
plentiful in the Regency, is a resident species, and seems to be
generally distributed throughout the more hilly country south of the
Atlas Mountains, where arid mountains and stony plains are mostly to
be met with. I have found the species not uncommon at the foot
of the Djebel Semama near Kasrin, and on the slopes of the Djebel
Tfel and the Djebel Stah near Gafsa, as also on all the stony plains
lying to the south-west of that town, notably those near Metlaoui
and Tozer. My collection also contains specimens from districts
south of the Chott Djerid.

Erythrospiza githaginea occurs in Algeria in the same description
of country as it affects in Tunisia. The species probably also occurs
in some parts of Marocco and Tripoli, but I have seen no examples of
it from those countries.

Although strictly a desert or semi-desert species, EZ. githaginea has
not unfrequently been found far from its proper habitat, examples
having been obtained from time to time in South Spain, Malta,
Sicily and Continental Italy, and occasionally from countries still

ERYTHROSPIZA GITHAGINEA 221

further north. The Palermo Museum possesses a specimen of the
Trombettiere, as this bird is called in Italy, which was captured at
Mondello, not far from Palermo, on October 20th, 1891.

Eminently a rock-frequenting bird, the Desert Bullfinch is, as
a rule, only to be found in hilly, stony districts, and never apparently
in the true sandy desert. Its plumage, like that of many of the Larks
and other birds, harmonises admirably in colour with the warm reddish
tints of the southern rocks and soil, and affords a good example of
Nature’s protective colouring. The exquisite rose hue of this little
bird’s plumage, however, is unfortunately somewhat evanescent, and
fades considerably after death.

During the greater part of the year EZ. githaginea is to be found in
small parties, but during the breeding season single pairs are more
often met with. It is by no means a shy bird, and will often allow one
to approach within a few yards of it before taking to flight. Its food
consists chiefly of the seeds of wild plants, but also to a certain
extent of insects and grubs. In captivity the species thrives well,
and examples of it may occasionally be seen in aviaries.

The notes of the Desert Bullfinch have been likened to those of
a small trumpet, whence its trivial name in various languages.

Its flight is fairly swift, and at times very darting or jerky.

In the more southern districts of Tunisia H. githaginea com-
mences nesting in the beginning of March, or even before that date,
full-grown young of the species being found on the wing by the
beginning of April. I have myself met with many such young birds
in the neighbourhood of Metlaoui during the first fortmight of April.
Further north in the Regency the breeding season is rather later.
The nest of this species is usually placed under a tussock of grass or
other small plant on a hill-side, and is neatly built of fine bents, lined
with a little hair or wool. The eggs, usually four or five in number
—though I have found as many as six—are elongate in shape, and of
a delicate sea-green colour, slightly spotted and streaked at the larger
end with dark lake and reddish-brown. Average measurements
20 X 14 mm.

229 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

ERYTHROSPIZA SANGUINEA (Gould).
CRIMSON-WINGED FINCH.

Fringilla sanguinea, Gould, P. Z. S. 1837, p. 127.

Erythrospiza sanguinea, Blanford, East. Persia, ii, p. 252 (1876);
Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 68.

Rhodopechys sanguinea, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 280.

Rhodopechys Pheenicoptera, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 163 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Persia.

Forehead and crown blackish; sides of the crown, cheeks and nape light
brown; lores reddish; upper parts generally umber-brown, the feathers of
the back with darker centres; upper tail-coverts washed with rose; outer
rectrices white, the adjoining feather on each side white throughout its
greater part and tipped with blackish, the remaining tail-feathers blackish,
with white bases ; quills and greater wing-coverts dark brown, externally
margined with rose-red, the inner secondaries tipped with white; chin,
throat, upper breast and sides pale umber-brown; remainder of underparts
whitish, washed with rose.

Tris brown; bill yellowish-brown ; feet brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 4:20, culmen :50, tarsus °75.

Adult female similar to the male, but duller generally, and less tinged
with rose.

Soft parts and measurements as in male.

Loche includes this species in his list of Algerian birds under the
name of Rhodopechys phenicoptera (Bonap.) (Expl. Sci. Alg. Oils. i,
p. 163), and states that he saw a specimen which had been brought by
Dr. Buvry from the Tunisian frontier, and a second example obtained
in the neighbourhood of Zaatcha.

Dr. Koenig also (J. f. O. 1893, p. 68) mentions the fact of the
naturalist Alessi, of Gabés, having informed him that an Arab had
once brought him a beautiful bird of the genus Hrythrospiza, which
may perhaps have been Loche’s R. phenicoptera. Apparently this
specimen was too badly shot to be preserved.

Although recent travellers in Tunisia do not appear to have met
this species in the Regency, there is no reason to doubt the authenticity
of the occurrences recorded above, particularly, as either this or a very
closely allied species is to be found in the Maroccan Atlas. This latter
was discovered by Mr. E. Dodson, when collecting for me in that
country, at Glaoui, a valley in the Great Atlas, about 5,000 feet above

PYRRHULA EUROPA 993

sea-level, and was described by me as a new species under the name of
Rhodopechys aliena (Bull. B. O. C. vii, p. 18). This Maroccan form
of Crimson-winged Finch closely resembles EH. sanguinea (Gould),
but differs from it in certain respects, as pointed out in my original
description ; possibly the specimens seen by Loche and Alessi, as
mentioned above, are referable to it and not to typical E. sanguinea.

Mr. Dodson appears to have met with this Finch only at Glaoui,
and the bird is evidently not common in Marocco.

If any Crimson-winged Finch is to be found in Tunisia, it should
probably be looked for on the higher mountains of the west or south-
west of the Regency.

PYRRHULA EUROPASA, Vieillot.
BULLFINCH.

Pyrrhula europea, Vieill. Nowv. Dict. iv, p. 286 (1816); Sharpe Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 447.

Pyrrhula vulgaris, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 159 (1867); Koenig,
J. f. O. 1893, p. 54.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Italy.

Upper part of the head and chin glossy black ; mantle and back bluish-
grey ; rump white; wings, upper tail-coyerts and tail glossy purple-black ;
larger wing-coverts tipped with white, forming an alar bar; cheeks and
underparts bright red; crissum and under tail-coverts white.

Tris dark brown; bill black ; feet dark brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°50, culmen °45, tarsus °75.

Adult female has the head dull black, the upper parts greyish-brown,
and the underparts vinous-brown.

The Bullfinch is merely an occasional or accidental straggler
to Tunisia, and the naturalist Blanc has only once met with the
species in the course of twenty years’ residence in the country. This
occasion was in the early spring of 1886, but during that year there
must have been a considerable immigration of the birds, as no less
than fifteen examples were brought to him. These were presumably
obtained in the neighbourhood of the town of Tunis.

Loche states that the Bullfinch is of rare and accidental occurrence

224 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

in Algeria also, and records the capture of two examples in December
1859 (Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 160).

Even in Southern Italy and some of the Mediterranean Islands the
Bullfinch is seldom seen, and can only be regarded as an occasional
winter visitor. In Sicily I know of but two instances of its occurrence
during the past ten years. On the rare occasions when the species
strays as far as North-west Africa—no doubt in exceptionally severe
winters—the Bullfinch probably confines its wanderings to the wooded
country north of the Atlas, and never goes beyond those mountains.
It is eminently a bird of the wood or garden, and although not
particularly shy, is somewhat secretive in its habits, resorting to
localities where it is likely to escape notice. In captivity it is capable
of becoming remarkably tame and domesticated, and when brought
up from the nest forms a delightful pet. Its soft plaintive notes,
and the facility with which it acquires any tune taught it, cause the
species to be much sought after as a cage-bird, and a good piping
Bullfinch commands a high price. In its wild state, however, the
bird’s notes are not particularly fine or varied, although its soft call
note is always pleasing to the ear. Its food consists chiefly of seeds
and berries, insects and their larve forming the principal diet of the
young birds.

LOXIA CURVIROSTRA POLIOGYNA, Whitaker.
TUNISIAN CROSSBILL.

Loxia curvirostra poliogyna, Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 625; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 461.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El Oubira, West-central Tunisia.

Crown, nape and upper back brownish-grey, the head thickly streaked
and the back washed with bright brick-red; lower back, rump and upper
tail-coverts bright brick-red ; wings and tail dull brown; greater part of the
under surface bright brick-red, with a slight admixture of grey; flanks and
crissum brownish-grey; under tail-coverts brownish-grey, fringed with
white.

Tris brown ; bill blackish-brown ; feet dark brown.

Total length 6°50 inches, wing 3-80, culmen -75, tarsus -70.

Adult female, spring, from Bou Chebka, West-central Tunisia.

; 8
Loxia curvirostra poliogyna.

LOXIA CURVIROSTRA POLIOGYNA 995

Entire upper parts brownish-grey, with darker striations, and slightly
washed on the rump with a faint greenish tinge; entire underparts light
brownish-grey, paler on the throat and centre of the abdomen; under
tail-coverts fringed with white.

Soft parts as in male, measurements slightly less.

The young are spotted as in L. cwrvirostra, but much greyer.

Observations.—In some individuals the upper mandible curves over the
right side of the lower mandible, in others over the left side.

As stated in my original description of this bird (Ibis, 1898,
p- 625), the Tunisian Crossbill differs from typical ZL. cwrvirostra,
Linn., in being paler and greyer in colour, especially in the adult
female, which is almost entirely grey, and not green, or greenish,
like the female of the Common Crossbill. This is a perfectly constant
character, as shown by the large series of specimens in my collection,
all exactly alike, and is, I think, sufficient to justify subspecific
separation. Adult male birds, owing to the large proportion of red
colouring in their plumage, naturally show this difference less than
the females do, but immature males, as well as young birds in the
spotted stage of plumage, show it distinctly. The bill of the Tunisian
Crossbill is like that of L. curvirostra, and its measurements do not
differ appreciably from those of its European congener. This sub-
species affords a good instance of a geographical race, and illustrates
the tendency of all species to become paler in Tunisia.

When I first met with the Tunisian Crossbill I thought it might
be referable to von Homeyer’s L. c. balearica from the Balearic Isles
(J. f. O. 1862, p. 256), but this does not seem to be the case, and the
bird from the Balearic Isles is now regarded by good authorities
as identical with the ordinary ZL. curvirostra. Certainly the only
specimens I have seen from those islands are indistinguishable from
examples of the common European bird, and both Mr. Saunders and
Mr. Dresser, who have carefully examined specimens from Majorca,
agree in referring them to true L. cwrvirostra.

In Spain and Portugal, as also throughout the Western Mediter-
ranean generally, the Common Crossbill occurs more or less irregu-
larly. In Sicily the species appears from time to time as an irregular
migrant, generally in autumn, but it has also been known to occur

there in the middle of summer. The Sicilians say the Crossbill only
15

226 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

visits their island once in every six or seven years, and perhaps they
are not wrong, as I have only known it occur once near Palermo
during the past six years. On that occasion a small flock visited my
garden in the month of September and lingered there a few hours.

The Tunisian Crossbill is probably to be found throughout the
greater part of the Hastern Atlas. Mr. O. Salvin appears to have
met with it half a day’s journey to the west of Kef, and found young
birds just out of the nest on March 26th (Ibis, 1859, p. 315). Dr.
Koenig also met with Crossbills near Batna in Algeria (J. f. O. 1896,
p. 134), which presumably belonged to the present subspecies, and it
may also occur still further west. I have no specimens of the Crossbill
from Marocco, but if it occurs there, I should expect to find it darker
in colouring than the Tunisian bird, and very similar to, or even
identical with, typical L. curvirostra from Europe. I would here
observe that the fact of there being a resident race of Crossbill in
North-west Africa does not preclude the possibility of typical
L. curvirostra being found there also, on the contrary, I consider it
highly probable that the species occurs there from time to time, as
an irregular migrant, as it does in the adjacent islands of Sicily and
Malta.

The Tunisian Crossbill is to be found generally in the Aleppo pine-
woods of the mountainous districts of Central Tunisia, where it is
resident, and in some parts fairly abundant. It may also occur in
some of the more northern districts of the Regency, but I have no
knowledge of its doing so. I obtained several specimens of the bird,
both male and female, at the end of March, 1894, on the high
plateaux lying to the north of Feriana, where the Aleppo pine
(P. halepensis) flourishes at an altitude of between 3,000 and 4,000
feet above sea-level, and where this Crossbill without doubt breeds,
although I have never been successful in finding its nest and eggs. In
1897 and 1898 I obtained additional examples of the species from the
same locality, including young birds of the year. These latter, which
were obtained in the early part of May, seemed to be about two
months old. Other localities in which I have met with this Crossbill
are the Djebel Semama near Kasrin, and El Oubira on the frontier
between Kasrin and Tebessa. On the Djebel Semama I found it at
an elevation of over 4,000 feet above sea-level.

In its general habits the Tunisian Crossbill seems to differ in no
way from the common Crossbill, and probably its mode of nesting is

LOXIA CURVIROSTRA POLIOGYNA 227

similar to that of its congener. The bird is certainly an early breeder
in Tunisia, and judging from the young examples procured in May,
probably commences to nest in February. This would, no doubt,
account for my having failed to meet with its nest and eggs, my
visits to the Regency having been made somewhat later in the spring.
I have generally found the species in pairs, but several of these pairs
may sometimes be within a short distance of each other, busily
engaged in feeding upon the seeds of the Aleppo pine. The Crossbill
is naturally very tame and unsuspicious, and even in districts like
these Tunisian highlands, where man is seldom to be seen, it evinces
no sign of fear or alarm on the approach of human beings, but, on the
contrary, seems more or less indifferent to their presence. The hard
seeds of conifers no doubt form the chief food of the species, but
insects and their larve are also occasionally eaten. The Crossbill bears
captivity well, and in some countries may often be seen as a cage-bird.
In Bohemia a curious popular superstition exists among the lower
classes, the Crossbill being supposed to ward off illness from the house
in which it is kept in confinement. Moreover, should any member
of that household be taken ill, the poor bird is said to contract the
illness in the patient’s stead, and to die of it!

The Crossbill’s notes are soft and pleasing, but the bird can hardly
be said to have a regular song.

Nests of the common Crossbill found in Europe are generally
placed on the horizontal branches of firs, or other coniferous trees,
and are composed of twigs, moss and lichen, lined with wool and
hair. The eggs, generally four in number, are of a pale bluish-white,
slightly spotted and streaked, chiefly on the larger end, with reddish-
brown and lake. Average measurements 22 x 16 mm.

bo
bo
(o)

BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Subfamily EMBERIZIN AL.

FRINGILLARIA SAHARA (Levaillant, junr.).
HOUSE-BUNTING.

Emberiza sahare, Levaill. jr. Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. pl. 9 bis, fig. 2 (1850) ;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 92.

Fringillaria sahare, Tristr. Ibis, 1859, p. 295; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 563; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 182 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 53; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 459.

Emberiza sahari, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de l'Alg. p. 21 (1855) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Head, throat, upper breast and nape pale bluish-grey, striped with black,
more conspicuously on the crown and less so on the other parts; super-
ciliaries white; back and rump dull cinnamon, slightly striped on the back
with dark brown; wings and tail-feathers blackish-brown, the former
slightly and the latter broadly margined with cinnamon; the lesser wing-
coverts brighter cinnamon; breast and rest of underparts light cinnamon.

Tris very dark brown; upper mandible brown, lower one yellow; feet
light yellowish-brown.

Total length 5-50 inches, wing 3, culmen °40, tarsus ‘65.

Adult female resembles the male to a certain extent, but the head and
nape are pale sandy-brown instead of bluish-grey, and the rest of the
plumage is duller.

Soft parts and measurements almost the same as in the male.

This soberly attired, but highly interesting and attractive little
bird is one of a group which seems to form a connecting link between
the true Buntings and the Finches, partaking of the characters of
both genera, resembling more the former in some respects, and the
latter in others. I am therefore inclined to follow some other
ornithologists and refer this species to the genus Fringillaria (Swain-
son, Classification of Birds, ii, p. 290, 1837), which should no doubt
also include some of the other Buntings, such as F’. striolata and
F. cesia. These two last named species are both included by Loche
among the birds of Algeria, but there appears to be no record of the
occurrence of either within or near the borders of the Regency.

The present species is apparently peculiar to North-west Africa,
and has only been recorded from the more southern districts of
Tunisia, Algeria and Marocco. Somewhat to my surprise, Mr. Dodson
brought no specimens from Tripoli, when collecting for me in that

FRINGILLARIA SAHARA 229

country in 1901, but I cannot help thinking that the species must
occur there also in certain districts.

In Algeria, as in Tunisia, F. sahare is abundant in some of the
oases, but not in all of them. At BiskraI found it very plentiful
in the old part of the village, ‘“‘ Vieux Biskra”’ as it is called, which is
quite in the oasis, and where the mud-hovels of the Arabs, and the
surroundings generally, are more suited to the bird’s requirements than
the modern French town that has sprung up of late years.

From Marocco I have specimens of the House-Bunting obtained at
the city of Marocco, where the species appears to be abundant. These
examples are slightly darker in coloration than birds from Tunisia
and Algeria. Mr. Meade-Waldo found F. sahare locally common
throughout the Maroccan Atlas, and breeding in most of the Kasbahs,
or forts, up to about 4,000 feet. At one place (Djebel Bourzegan) it was
nesting in rocks far removed from any human dwellings.

In the Tunisian Regency F. sahare is somewhat local in its
distribution, being extremely abundant in certain places and entirely
wanting in others close by. At Gafsa the species is very common, and
I have notes of its occurrence at many places south of that town, such
as Bir-Mrabot, Kebilli, Douz, Bir-Abdullah, Tamerzed, Douirat, and
Tatahouine ; at the last-mentioned place, however, I am told it is
rather rare. Hminently a house-bird, the species is generally to be
found in the vicinity of buildings, but occasionally it occurs in the
open country at a considerable distance from human habitations. In
the spring of 1902 I found several of these birds in the cliffs bordering
the ravine through which the Oued Seldja flows when issuing from
the chain of mountains lying to the north of Metlaoui and Tozer.
Here a colony of the birds had evidently established itself, as I met
with both adults and young, the latter full-grown and on the wing by
the middle of April. I may here observe, however, that the breeding
season of that year was an exceptionally early one, owing probably to
the winter immediately preceding it having been an extremely mild
one, with little or no rain or inclement weather. It would be difficult to
find a wilder spot, or one in greater contrast to the neighbourhood of a
town or village, than this embouchwre of the Oued Seldja, where
the river leaves the savage mountain fastnesses and loses itself in
the expanse of sandy desert stretching away for miles southwards.
According to Baron Erlanger (J. /. O. 1899, p. 460), F. sahare also
occurs on the Djebel Tfel, and one or two other mountains near Gatfsa.

230 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

He also met with the species as far north as the village of Feriana.
In Marocco also, as already mentioned, the House-Bunting has occa-
sionally been found in the open country, and no doubt this was
the original home of the species, which, like some others, has con-
siderably modified its habits and mode of living, and now resorts to the
neighbourhood of human dwellings, presumably on account of the
greater abundance of food and shelter to be found there. Arab huts,
with their hard-baked mud and rubble walls, seem to be particularly
attractive to these birds, which no doubt find plentiful and suitable
nesting sites in such roughly constructed buildings. Mosques also are
greatly frequented by the House-Bunting, and those situated in towns
where these birds occur are sure to be the resort of several pairs.
There would, indeed, appear to be a certain association between
mosques and I’. sahare, so much so, that Mr. Aplin, when collecting
for me in Tunisia, used to say that he was never surprised on arriving
at a town or village without a mosque to find that there were no
House-Buntings, or vice versa! In the fine Mosque of Sidi-Yacoub at
Gafsa, to which I have always obtained access without difficulty, I
found #’. sahare particularly abundant, and took several nests of the
species there ; I also shot one or two specimens of the birds with an
air-gun in the Mosque courtyard, a proceeding which apparently in no
way offended the religious feelings of my Arab guide, who took part in
the proceedings with the greatest keenness. I confess to having felt
a certain degree of compunction when shooting these little birds, for
they are so extremely confiding and unsuspicious, and I abstained
from securing more specimens than were necessary for my collection.
I was glad to find that the Arabs of Gafsa and elsewhere do not trap
this species, as they do so many others, and they probably look upon the
bird with feelings of respect, although not considering it absolutely
sacred. In some parts of Tunisia this species, indeed, goes by the
name of the Marabout.

In the towns and villages where it occurs the House-Bunting
seems to be absolutely devoid of fear, and will enter the open door-way
of a house with the utmost self-assurrance and pick up any crumbs
of bread or other scraps of food that are to be found on the floor.
The birds I met with in the open country, however, were much wilder,
in fact, they seemed to be decidedly shy and suspicious. This species
feeds on insects and seeds of various kinds, but like our common
House-Sparrow, it subsists to a great extent upon any scraps which

EMBERIZA MILIARIA 231

it may pick up in and about houses. The song of the male bird is
low, soft and twittering, as a rule, but at times poured forth brightly
and con amore, and although not very varied it is distinctly pleasing.
I used often to stop and listen to one of these little songsters as it sat
perched on top of a mud wall, within a few feet of me, singing and
preening its feathers alternately, its mate probably being on her nest
close by. The call notes of the male bird may be fairly rendered by
the syllables “‘ zweet, zweet-a-twee,” to which the female replies
** zeewtt.”

The nesting season of this species, as a rule, commences about the
end of March and is continued throughout the months of April and
May, but in some years, after a fine dry winter, it begins eavlier.
During the first fortnight of April I have found numerous nests at
Gafsa, some with eggs and others with young birds in them, and, as
above mentioned, I have met with fully-grown young birds on the
wing, in the mountains near the Oued Seldja, even before the middle
of April. The nest, which is generally placed in a hole or crevice in
a wall, is small and very shallow, being composed of fine fibres and
dry grasses, lightly lined with horse and goat-hair, and occasionally
with a little wool. In the Gafsa mosque, above alluded to, I found
several nests placed in small indentures in the capitols of the columns
of the building. The eggs are usually three or four in number, and
resemble diminutive examples of those of the House-Sparrow, being
of a pale bluish-white colour, speckled with grey and brown, the
spots often forming a zone at the larger end. The eggs vary a good
deal both in size and shape, but their average measurements may be
given as 19 x 14mm

EMBERIZA MILIARIA, Linnzus.
CORN-BUNTING.

Emberiza miliaria, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 308 (1766) ; Malherbe, Faune
Orn. de VAlg. p. 20 (1855); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 233; id. J. f. O.
1893, p. 54; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 92; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899,
p. 458.

Miliaria miliaria, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Mus. xii, p. 55

Cynchramus miliaria, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i,

p. 168 (1867).

232 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tamerzed, South Tunisia.

Above greyish-brown, the plumage generally having a somewhat
striated appearance owing to the dark centres of the feathers ; rump more
uniform in colour; wings and tail dark brown, with light margins to the
feathers ; faint superciliary stripe creamy-white ; chin and throat creamy-
white, spotted on the sides; rest of underparts creamy-white, spotted on
the breast, and streaked on the sides and flanks with dark brown.

Iris very dark brown; bill yellowish-brown ; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Total length 7 inches, wing 4, culmen -50, tarsus 1.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

Observations.—Few species are more subject to variation in plumage than
the present one, and “‘ varieties,” including complete albinoes, are constantly
to be met with, my own collection possessing several such “sports.”

This is one of the commonest birds to be met with in Tunisia,
and occurs throughout the Regency generally, except in the higher
mountain districts and in the sandy desert. Owing to its fearless,
and somewhat obtrusive habits, it is constantly in evidence, even
to the most careless observer. Although distinctly a resident species
in Tunisia, this Bunting also appears to be migratory there to a certain
extent.

In Algeria and Marocco the species is abundant in districts corres-
ponding to those where it occurs in Tunisia, and it is also to be found
in the north of Tripoli.

The Corn-Bunting as a rule frequents cultivated plains and open
country, where bushes are plentiful, and is rarely to be met with on
mountains, or at any great elevation. Road-sides are much resorted
to, particularly if they are edged by hedgerows. This bird is by no
means shy, and may indeed be called rather stupid, for it seems
actually to court danger, perching conspicuously on bush-tops, or
on the roadside immediately in front of the passer-by.

During the autumn and winter months these Buntings collect in
small flocks, and may often be found on stubble fields, in the company
of other species, feeding on grain and seeds. During that season the
Tunis bird-catchers take numbers of the birds, as they roost at night
on the ground together with Larks.

Besides feeding on grain and seeds, this species devours numbers
of insects, particularly coleoptera, during the spring and summer.

EMBERIZA CITRINELLA 233

Its call note is rather harsh and monotonous, and its song, if such it
can be called, is distinctly poor.

The Corn-Bunting commences nesting operations in Tunisia
somewhat earlier than it does in Europe, and by the end of April
young birds on the wing may occasionally be met with. As a rule,
however, nests with eggs are not to be found until the beginning of
May, and in the extreme north of the Regency even a little later.
The nest is nearly always placed on the ground, among rough grass
or under a clod in the middle of a corn-field, and is loosely constructed
of rootlets and grasses, with a lining of finer grasses and hair. The
eggs, four or five in number, are of a pale lilac colour, streaked and
spotted with a darker shade of lilac and reddish-brown. Average
measurements 23 X 17 mm.

EMBERIZA CITRINELLA, Linnzus.
YELLOW BUNTING.

Emberiza citrinella, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 309 (1766); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 515; Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 170
(1867) ; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 53.

Description.— Adult male, winter, from Ain-Draham, North Tunisia.

Forehead lemon-yellow; crown dusky-green, with blackish streaks ;
nape greyish-green ; back and scapulars rufescent-brown, with black middles
to the feathers ; rump cinnamon-brown ; tail blackish, the two outer rectrices
with white at the tip and on the greater portion of the inner webs; quills
blackish-brown, margined with yellowish-green ; secondaries broadly margined
with cinnamon ; lores and a line behind the eyes lemon-yellow ; ear-coverts
blackish; chin, throat and sides of neck lemon-yellow, washed with dark
green; breast greenish-yellow; lower breast and abdomen lemon-yellow,
striped on sides and flanks with cinnamon.

Iris dark brown, bill blackish ; feet pale brown.

Total length 6:50 inches, wing 3°30, culmen °40, tarsus -70.

The Yellow Bunting or Yellow Hammer, does not seem to be at all
common in Tunisia, or indeed anywhere on the African Continent,
although Loche includes the species in his list of Algerian birds,
saying that he had met with it frequently in the province of Algiers,

234 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

and particularly on the Zaccar. This statement, however, is preceded
by another, to the effect that the species is not common in Algeria.
My Tunisian collection includes but one example of the Yellow
Bunting, obtained by the naturalist Blanc, who informs me that he
has occasionally met with it in the neighbourhood of Ain-Draham and
Fernana in the north of the Regency. He adds that although not
as arule abundant, the species is fairly numerous in some winters.
From Marocco I have no example of the bird, nor any note of its
occurrence, and on the whole, I think that the species can only be
looked on as an occasional winter visitor to North Africa.

Even in Southern Italy and the Mediterranean Islands this
Bunting is somewhat rare, although by no means uncommon in
autumn and winter in Northern Italy, and at times even in the
central districts of the Peninsula.

In some of its habits the present species resembles the Cirl
Bunting, but it is fonder of the open country than that bird.

In winter, when this species is found in Tunisia, its food consists
chiefly of grain and the seeds of various wild plants. Its notes, so
familiar to us in North Europe, are rarely to be heard during the
colder months.

EMBERIZA CIRLUS, Linnezus.
CIRL BUNTING.

Emberiza cirlus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 311 (1766) ; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 525; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Otis. i, p. 171 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 53; Whitaker, Ibis,
1896, p. 95.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Crown dusky-green, striped with blackish; nape dusky green ; back
cinnamon, sparsely striped with blackish; rump greyish-green ; tail brown,
with whitish margins to the feathers, the two outer pairs white on terminal
portion of inner webs; quills brown, margined with yellowish on the outer
webs ; secondaries and greater wing-coverts broadly margined with cinnamon,
lesser wing-coyerts olive-green; lores, moustachial stripe, feathers around
and behind the eyes dark dusky green; chin and upper throat black; super-

EMBERIZA CIRLUS 235

ciliary stripes, patch below the eyes and lower throat lemon-yellow; broad
pectoral band joining the nape yellowish-green ; sides of the lower breast
bright cinnamon; rest of underparts lemon-yellow, striped on the flanks
with brown.

Tris dark brown ; bill slate, paler below; feet pale flesh-colour.

Total length 6:25 inches, wing 3°20, culmen °40, tarsus *70.

Adult female, spring, from Ghardimaou, North Tunisia.

Above grey-brown, washed with cinnamon on the back and wings, and
streaked with dark brown; below pale yellow, with dark brown striations,
and slightly washed on the sides with cinnamon.

Soft parts as in the male, measurements slightly less.

Observations.—In the present species the bases of feathers on the crown
are dull green, differing in this respect from those of H. citrinella, which are
bright yellow.

The Cil Bunting occurs locally in North Tunisia, although no-
where very abundant, and the only specimens I have in my collection
are from the neighbourhood of Ghardimaou in the Medjerdah Valley
district. These were collected by Mr. Aplin in the month of May,
when the males were in full song, and the birds no doubt breeding,
although no nests of the species were actually found. The hill-sides
of the Medjerdah Valley are thickly clothed with high shrubs of a
“‘maquis”’ description and seem well suited to the tastes of this
Bunting.

The species, however, appears to be more numerous further west,
and is abundant in Algeria and Marocco. Dr. Koenig found it
common about Batna and throughout the wooded ranges of the Aures
Mountains generally. He also found the species as far south as
E]-Kantara, which is situated immediately south of the Atlas. In
Marocco this Bunting appears to be abundant throughout the Atlas
range up to about 5,000 feet above sea-level, and I also obtained a
large series of specimens, including young birds, from the neighbour-
hood of Marocco City, and from Ras-el-Ain on the coast. In some
parts of Southern Italy this Bunting is common and resident all the
year round, but seems to shun the coast districts during the breeding
season, retiring to the higher and more wooded mountains for the
purpose of nesting. From Sicily, where the species is abundant, I
have both nests and eggs, but all obtained in the higher districts of
the interior of the island. ‘he species no doubt prefers wooded

236 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

country to the more open plains and arable land, differing in this
respect from the two preceding species. In some of its habits, how-
ever, it greatly resembles EH. citrinella, and its song and notes also
are not unlike those of that species, although generally considered
to beless melodious. Its call note is a simple ‘‘ zib-zib.”” Although
not at all shy, H. cirlus is retiring in its habits, and would probably
often escape notice were it not for its notes, which may frequently
be heard, though the bird be hidden from view. Seeds and grain form
the principal food of this Bunting, varied to a certain extent by
insects and caterpillars.

According to Dr. Koenig, who found this species breeding near
Batna, its nest is generally to be met with in juniper or other low
bushes, and is neatly built of grass-bents and small twigs, with a
lining of finer grasses and a little hair or wool. The eggs, three to
five in number, apparently vary considerably ; the usual colour, how-
ever, is pale greenish-white, with dark brownish spots and streaks
and grey and pale violet shell-marks. Average measurements 21 x
16 mm.

EMBERIZA HORTULANA, Linneus.
ORTOLAN.

Emberiza hortulana, Linn. Syst. Nat. i,-p. 309 (1766); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 530; Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 55.
Hortulanus chlorocephalus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 178 (1867).

Description.—Adult male, spring, from North Tunisia.

Crown and nape greenish-grey; back, scapulars, wing-coverts and
secondaries fulvyous-brown, with dark centres to the feathers; rump rufous-
grey; tail dark brown, the outermost feathers with oblong white patches
on the lower portions ; quills dark brown, margined with buff; throat straw-
yellow; breast olive-grey ; rest of the underparts chestnut.

Iris brown; bill dull reddish ; feet reddish flesh-colour.

Total length 6:10 inches, wing 3:50, culmen ‘50, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female duller and greener than the male.

Although met with in certain numbers during the periods of
migration in spring and autumn, the Ortolan is not very abundant in

EMBERIZA PUSILLA 237

Tunisia, and I am not aware that it either nests or winters anywhere
in the Regency.

According to Loche, the species is not widely distributed in
Algeria, but in Marocco, fide Favier, it is, next to the Common
Bunting, the most abundant species of the genus near Tangier, and
some individuals remain to breed.

The Ortolan is of sociable habits, and when on passage is
generally to be found in small parties, frequenting hill-sides and the
outskirts of woods and gardens. Its food consists of seeds and
insects, and in autumn to a great extent of grain. It is considered
by some authorities to have a soft and pleasing song, and a good many
are snared by the Tunisian bird-catchers to be kept as cage-birds.
In Tunis they are apparently only kept in captivity for their song,
and not, as in Italy and France, to be fattened up for the table. As
the market-supply could not possibly satisfy the demand for these
delicate birds in most Continental towns, many other species of
Warblers are made to do duty for the Ortolan as an article of food.

EMBERIZA PUSILLA, Pallas.
LITTLE BUNTING.

Emberiza pusilla, Pall. Reis. Russ. Reichs. iii, p. 697 (1776) ; Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 487; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 174
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 299; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 53.

Emberiza lesbia, Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 14, (1846).

Description.—Adult male, from Asia.

Crown and sides of head rufous, a broad black superciliary streak
extending behind the eye; back and rump brown, striped with black ; tail
dark brown, the outer feathers obliquely tipped with white; quills dark
brown margined with dull white; chin and throat pale chestnut; rest
of underparts dull white, the breast and flanks streaked with black.

Tris dark brown; bill brown; feet pale brown.

Total length 5 inches, wing 2°75, culmen -35, tarsus °70.

Adult female duller in plumage than the male.

Malherbe and Loche have both recorded this Bunting as occurring
in Algeria, the former having obtained a specimen of it from the
neighbourhood of Bone, within a short distance of the Tunisian

938 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

frontier. The species, though no doubt a scarce visitor to North-west
Africa, is perhaps less rare than it appears to be, its inconspicuous
plumage causing it to be overlooked, particularly in a country little
explored by the ornithologist. In Italy the species occurs from time
to time, even in the south of the Peninsula, and is said to have been
found in Malta. As a rule the Little Bunting frequents wooded
country, and more particularly damp forests. It is said to be the
reverse of shy in its habits, and to possess a low sweet song. It
breeds in North Russia and Siberia.

There appears to be no record of the occurrence of the Rustic
Bunting (H. rustica) in North-west Africa. The Black-headed
Bunting (HZ. melanocephala) also seems to be unrecorded from that
country, but both species not improbably occur there accidentally
as stragglers.

EMBERIZA CIA, Linnzus.
MEADOW-BUNTING.

Emberiza cia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 310 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xii, p. 537; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 173 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 53; Whitaker, Ibis,
1896, p. 98; Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 457.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from North Tunisia.

Crown pale blue-grey, striated with black, and bordered on each side with
a broad stripe of black; lores, patch behind the eye and moustachial stripe
black; distinct superciliary stripe white; ear-coverts, throat and sides of
neck pale bluish-grey, becoming whitish near base of bill and just below the
moustache ; nape and back rufous-brown, striped with blackish-brown ; rump
and upper tail-coverts light cinnamon ; tail blackish-brown, two outer pairs of
feathers white on the terminal portion of inner web, two middle rectrices pale
brown, fringed with whitish ; quills brown, the primaries slightly fringed with
white, the secondaries and greater wing-coverts broadly fringed with pale
cinnamon, the least wing-coverts bluish-grey; underparts pale cinnamon,
becoming lighter on the middle of the abdomen and crissum.

Iris dark brown ; bill slate-colour; feet yellowish flesh-colour.

Total length 6:50 inches, wing 3:30, culmen -45, tarsus -80.

Adult female resembles the male, but is duller in colouring.

EMBERIZA CIA 939

This Bunting, far from being a denizen of the plain, as its English
' name would imply, is essentially a mountain or _hill-frequenting
species. It seems to be by no means common in Tunisia, and I have
but few examples of it from the Regency. It occurs there in winter
as a migrant, but may possibly nest on some of the higher mountains,
although I have no knowledge of its doing so. Baron y. Erlanger met
with the species on the Djebel Tfel near Gafsa at the beginning of
March, when it was doubtless on passage.

In Algeria this Bunting occurs more or less sparingly, as it does in
Tunisia. From Marocco I have examples of it obtained in the Atlas
districts towards the end of May, when presumably the birds were
nesting. The species ranges high in the Maroccan Atlas, being met
with at elevations over 5,000 feet above sea-level. In Sicily I have
also found this Bunting breeding at considerable altitudes, and there
can be no doubt that it is a mountain-loving species, though, when
actually on passage, it is naturally often to be met with in com-
paratively low-lying situations. In Piedmont I have frequently found
it, when on migration in October and November, roaming about the
lower spurs of the Grajan Alps.

In its habits Z. cia appears to be somewhat unsociable, and may
often be found singly, but when migrating it is generally seen in small
flocks, and is then more shy and wary than it is at other times. It is,
as a rule, rather a quiet, unobstrusive bird, and its tameness has
probably gained for it its French vernacular name of le Bruant fou,
which, although perhaps not altogether merited, is certainly more
appropriate than our English name of Meadow-Bunting. It is fond of
frequenting broken hilly country, where bushes and trees are abundant,
and when suddenly surprised on the ground will fly up into the nearest
tree and remain perched there till the intruder has passed by. Like
other Buntings, it feeds on the seeds of various wild plants, as well as
on insects and their larve. Its call note and song are said to be very
similar to those of the Yellow Bunting.

Nests of the species found in Europe are generally placed in bushes,
or among the rocks on a hill-side, and in their construction resemble
those of some other Buntings. The eggs, four or five in number,
are dull white or grey, vermiculated at the larger end with fine dark
brown or blackish lines. Average measurements 20 X 15 mm.

240 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

EMBERIZA SCHGNICLUS, Linneus.

REED-BUNTING.

Emberiza scheeniclus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 311 (1766); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xii, p. 480; Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 232.

Scheenicola arundinacea, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 176 (1867) ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 53.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Algeria.

Crown and nape black; superciliary stripes white, a white stripe extend-
ing from the base of the bill backwards and merging into the white collar;
cheeks black ; throat and fore-neck black, encircled with white; back and
scapulars black, the feathers margined with bright rufous; wing-coverts
bright rufous; quills brown, margined with whitish; rump ash-colour,
slightly striped with blackish; tail black, the two outer pairs of feathers
mostly white; underparts white, washed with grey, and striped on the
flanks with black and rufous.

Tris dark brown ; bill blackish; feet light brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3:25, culmen °40, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female duller than the male, with the crown and nape reddish-
brown, streaked with a darker shade; throat dull brownish, with scarcely
any collar.

In winter the plumage is duller, the black parts, especially in the male,
being less pure and haying a mixture of brown.

The Reed-Bunting, although perhaps only a winter migrant,
probably occurs in most of the Tunisian marshes and in similar wet
localities during the colder months. I have met with the species
in February in some marshes to the east of Tebessa, where it appeared
to be fairly numerous, frequenting the reed-beds and cane-brakes,
which were abundant there.

Loche includes this Bunting in his list of Algerian birds, saying
that it is common in all the marshy parts of Algeria and in the
vicinity of the lakes (Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. i, p. 176.)

In its habits this Bunting is active and a great climber, wending
its way in and out among the thick tangles of the aquatic plants it
frequents with the greatest facility. It is not particularly shy and
may easily be approached. Its food is no doubt composed chiefly of
insects, but the seeds of various plants are also eaten by it. The
notes of this species are rather loud, and its song during the
breeding season is fairly pleasing.

ALE MON ALAUDIPES 941

EMBERIZA SCH@NICLUS PYRRHULOIDES (Pallas).

THICK-BILLED REED-BUNTING.

Emberiza pyrrhuloides, Pall. Zoogr. Ross.-As. ii, p. 49 (1811).
Pyrrhulorhyncha pyrrhuloides, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii,
p. 475.

Description.—Adult male, autumn, from Tabarea, North Tunisia.
Differs from #. scheniclus in autumn plumage chiefly in having a much
thicker and stouter bill.

I have a specimen of Reed-Bunting from Tabarca in North
Tunisia, which from its stout thick bill would appear to be referable
to this form. It was obtained in the month of November. Like the
preceding species, the present form is perhaps only a winter visitor in
the Regency.

According to Doderlein, this Reed-Bunting is common and resident
in Sicily all the year round, and he found the species nesting at the
Pantano di Catania (Avif. Mod. Sic. p. 90).

In its general mode of life and habits the Thick-billed Reed-
Bunting does not appear to differ from EH. scheniclus.

Family ALAUDID AL.

ALAMON ALAUDIPES (Desfontaines).

BIFASCIATED LARK.

Upupa alaudipes, Desf. Mém. Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1787, p. 504,
pl. xvi.

Alemon alaudipes, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 518;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 92.

Certhilauda alaudipes, Koenig, J. f. O. 1895, p. 434; Erlanger, J. /. O.
1899, p. 449.

Certhilauda desertorum, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 43 (1867) ;
Koenig. J. f. O. 1893, p. 47.

Description.—Adult female, winter, from Oglet-Ouhamia, South Tunisia.
Lores and superciliaries creamy-white ; a line below the lores, extending
16

249, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

behind the eye and widening on the ear-coverts, greyish-black ; entire crown
and nape sandy-grey, shading into sandy-buff on the back and scapulars ;
rump and upper tail-coverts pale sandy-grey; primaries dark brown, with
the basal portion white ; secondaries white barred with a dark brown central
band ; the innermost secondaries, which are much elongated, greyish brown,
fringed with sandy-buff ; upper wing-coverts mostly grey, margined with
sandy-buff, and tipped with white; tail white at the base, the two median
rectrices sandy-buff, the remainder blackish, the outer pair margined with
white on their outer webs; chin and throat white, the latter slightly spotted
with dark grey; breast creamy-white, thickly spotted with dark grey;
rest of underparts white.

Tris brown ;_ bill brownish-grey ; feet whitish.

Total length 9 inches, wing 5:15, culmen 1°15, tarsus 1-25.

Adult female similar in plumage to the male, but rather smaller.

The range of the present species seems to extend throughout the
whole of the desert region of North Africa, from east to west. The
species also appears to occur in the Cape Verde Islands. On the
Abyssinian coast and further east in Asia a closely allied, but fairly
distinct, form, A. a. desertorwm (Stanley), is to be found, which has
rightly been separated subspecifically from the present species. This
form is distinctly greyer and more ashy in coloration, and the difference
in colour appears to be constant within the bird’s range.

Of the occurrence of Alemon alaudipes north of the Mediterranean
there seems to be no authentic record.

My Tunisian collection includes a large series of specimens of this
Lark, both adult and young, obtained at different seasons, and from
various parts of the Regency. Among the number may be found
individuals varying considerably in colour, some being much greyer,
particularly on the head and nape, while others are more sandy-
isabelline; but I look upon this difference as entirely a matter of age,
the grey plumage being assumed by the more adult birds, while less
adult and immature birds are of a sandy-isabelline colour. I am led
to this conclusion by the fact of very young birds in their first stage of
plumage being invariably of a sandy-isabelline colour, and even paler
than those which have already moulted once. he Alaudide, in
general, moult during the antumn, but acquire their full spring
plumage by shedding the edges of the feathers.

In point of size there is also a considerable variation between
individuals, and very small examples of this Lark are occasionally to be

ALMON ALAUDIPES 943

met with, but these are probably nothing more than weak or under-
sized birds. Canon Tristram’s Certhilauda salvini (Ibis, 1859, p. 428)
may perhaps have been founded on one of these sinall specimens.

In Algeria the present species appears to be of common occurrence
in districts corresponding to those in which it is found in Tunisia.

From Marocco I have no specimens of it, but the species probably
occurs in some of the more inland desert districts.

From Tripoli I have a large series of specimens of this Lark,
obtained from different parts of the country, both inland and coast
districts. Mr. Dodson met with it as far south as Mursuk, which
lies in 26° N. lat. and the species is probably distributed more or less
abundantly throughout the whole of the Vilayet.

A. alaudipes is eminently a desert bird, never, so far as I am
aware, occurring north of the Atlas. The most northerly point where
I have met with the species has been a few miles to the north of
Gafsa, where the high plateaux of Central Tunisia merge into the
more desert regions of the south. Here in a very sandy spot at the
junction of two “‘oueds,’”’ I found a few of these birds in 1893, and I
again met with the species in the very same spot the following year,
so that it was evidently not merely of accidental occurrence there.
On the western plains between Gafsa and Tozer I have also occasion-
ally encountered the species. South of the Chott Djerid A. alaudipes
is of more frequent occurrence, and my collection has specimens of
it from numerous districts, such as Oglet-Ouhamia, Zamas, Bir-
Sultane and Tamerzed.

This Lark evinces a marked partiality for sandy wastes, and is
fond of frequenting the dry beds of the “‘ oueds ” so plentiful in South
Tunisia. It is generally to be found in pairs, particularly during the
spring, but at other seasons may be met with in small parties. The
bird is a great runner and will often try and elude pursuit by taking
to its legs instead of using its wings. When flying it is rather a
conspicuous bird, owing to the very distinct marking of its wings,
the more noticeable as it flies low, skimming over the ground within
two or three feet of the surface. At times, and particularly during
the nesting season, the bird may often be seen to rise suddenly from
the ground, remain hovering for a short time in mid-air, singing the
while, and then descend again. Its song is clear and flute like, and
is composed of three or four somewhat plaintive notes. Although a
ground bird, it may sometimes be found perching on a bush or desert

944 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

plant, whence it will rise vertically upwards, emitting a long-drawn
whistle, and then return to the same bush.

Regarding this bird and its song the Arabs have a legend, which
is related by Dr. Koenig, to the effect that a ‘‘ Lefa’’—the dreaded
Horned Viper (Cerastes cornutus) of the Sahara—once offered its
friendship and love to this Lark, the union proving a happy and
peaceful one for some time. After a while, however, on the Lark one
day leaving its young ones in the charge of the “ Lefa,”’ the reptile,
true to its wicked instincts, fell upon the little ones and devoured
them! The grief of the poor mother on returning and discovering
what had happened was unbounded, and rising into the air, she
bitterly bewailed her sad loss, and to the present day continues to
mourn in the same pathetic strains! Apropos of this story it is
difficult to understand how the ground-nesting birds are able to hatch
their eggs and bring up their young broods safely in many of these
desert districts, where the ground is literally honeyeombed with the
holes of small mammals and reptiles. The mere knowledge of the
proximity of such neighbours, one might suppose, would be sufficient
to deter the birds from nesting in these spots, but such is not the case ;
on the contrary, the birds appear to be perfectly at their ease, and
without apprehension of any danger. Indeed, so far at any rate as
the small rodents are concerned, the birds seem to be quite capable
of holding their own, and I have seen immature Chats chase and
drive away desert rats considerably larger than themselves.

I have never taken the nest and eggs of the present species myself,
but the former is said to be rather a bulky, though compactly built
structure, composed of small twigs and grasses, lined with finer
materials, such as soft vegetable down and spiders’ webs, the latter
substance, indeed, being a characteristic of the nest of the species.
The eggs, of which the complement would appear to be three or four,
are of a delicate creamy-white, with grey or violet shell-marks and
brown surface spots, sometimes forming a zone round the larger end.
They are rather small for the size of the bird, their average measure-
ments being 21 X 16 mm.

The breeding season commences in March and extends throughout
April and May; nests are sometimes found placed on low desert
bushes, as well as on the ground.

i

CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI 945

CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI (Vieillot).

DUPONT’S LARK,

Alauda duponti, Vieill. Faun. Franc, p. 178, pl. 76, fig. 2 (1820).

Certhilauda duponti, Bp. Cat. Met. Ucc. Eur. p. 30 (1842).

Chersophilus duponti, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 526;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1898, p. 126.

Certhilauda dupontii, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 42 (1867).

Alzemon duponti, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 230.

Alzmon duponti duponti, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 368.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Garaar-el-Krechem, Central
Tunisia.

Upper parts brown, the feathers with darker centres and lighter margins,
giving the bird a mottled or scaly appearance; the nape and sides of the
neck rather lighter, owing to the wider white margins; the crown with a
median whitish stripe extending from the forehead backward; a whitish
stripe over the eye; primaries dark brown, slightly margined with a lighter
shade; secondaries the same, but with broader margins; middle pair of
rectrices rufous-brown, the rest dark brown except the outer pair of feathers,
which are almost entirely white, and the adjoining pair, which have their
outer webs white; chin and throat whitish, with a narrow dark streak from
the base of the bill downwards, and minute dark spots on the throat ; breast
whitish, thickly spotted with dark brown ; rest of underparts dull white, the
sides and flanks striped with rufous-brown.

Tris dark hazel; bill light brown; feet flesh-colour, hind claw almost
straight.

Total length 7:25 inches, wing 3:95, culmen -90, tarsus 1.

Adult female similar in plumage to the male, but rather smaller.

The range of the genus Chersophilus, so far as is at present known,
is confined to a portion of North-west Africa, Southern Spain,
Portugal, and the Balearic Islands. In North-west Africa it is to be
found in Algeria and Tunisia, and although not yet recorded from
Marocco and Tripoli, it probably occurs in certain parts of those
countries as well. Should it be met with in the latter country, the
form found will no doubt be the subspecies C. d. margarite.

Birds of this genus from Spain, Portugal and the Balearic Isles
do not appear to differ in any appreciable way from North-west African
examples. Those from Portugal have been separated subspecifically
under the name of C. lusitanicus (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 527), but

246 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

apparently on insufficient grounds, their measurements and colouring
differing in no way from those of many specimens from North-west
Africa.

Occasionally, no doubt, C. duponti may occur as a strageler or
accidental visitor in some country other than those above mentioned,
and there is a male specimen of the species, obtained at Piombino
near Pisa on December 20th, 1900, in the Royal Museum at Florence.
This is the first and, so far as I am aware, the only recorded instance
of the species having been obtained in Italy.

In the Jbis for 1898 (p. 126) I mentioned having met with
C. duponti in Tunisia, and pointed out how subject the species is to
variation in the colour of its plumage, according to the particular
locality it may inhabit. Examples from the more northern and high
plateaux districts are dark, and those from the southern and semi-
desert regions are paler and distinctly rufous, while those from
interlying localities are intermediate in colour.

In size there seems to be no difference between the various forms,
the wing measurement varying from 3:90 to 4°10 inches in the case
of males, and from 3°55 to 3°75 in that of females. My Tunisian
specimens of CO. duponti are slightly darker in colour than those I
have from Algeria, and from Loche’s specimens in the Turati Collec-
tion at Milan, but the difference is insignificant. On the other hand,
the Tunisian birds are not quite so dark as a specimen in my collection
from Malaga. Specimens from the Balearic Islands vary somewhat
inter se in their colouring, but like those from the high plateaux
districts of Tunisia are inclined to be dark. —

As I have already stated in the Ibis I found C. duponti not at
all uncommon on the plains between Feriana and Kasrin, and I also
met with it near El-Oubira on the Algerio-Tunisian frontier. At
Bou Chebka, to the north of Feriana, it is also comparatively abundant
at an elevation of over 3,000 feet above sea-level, in fact, it seems to
occur throughout the greater part of the high plateaux region of
Central Tunisia, and I can only repeat what I have already said, viz.,
that the species is not nearly so uncommon as it is generally supposed
to be, and that it is merely owing to the extraordinary capacity the
bird has of hiding itself that it escapes notice and is not more often
observed.

All the plains on which I met with C. duponti were covered with
wild thyme and other low-growing plants, affording ample cover for

Chersophilus duponti.

CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI Q47

hiding, and in no case did I ever meet with the species on bare spots ;
indeed, I generally had the greatest difficulty in catching sight of the
bird, although hearing its soft notes within a few yards of me. How
often, after having exactly located a bird, as I thought, have I advanced
cautiously to the spot where I expected to find it and been dis-
appointed. I remember one day spending some time drawing a rope
over a part of a plain where I had heard several of the birds calling
in the early morning, hoping by these means to discover a nest of the
species, or at any rate to flush one or two of the birds themselves,
but the attempt was a complete failure. Probably the surest way to
obtain a glimpse of this remarkably shy bird is to wait patiently,
and as quietly as possible, in some spot frequented by the species,
where the cover is rather thin and patchy, and one may then very
likely detect a bird crossing from one patch of herbage to another.

Although a great runner and perhaps more often to be seen on the
ground than on the wing, I have sometimes known the species, when
disturbed, take to flight at once, and on one occasion, when on the
march, I put up the same bird no less than three times. When first
flushed, the bird in question got up just in front of my horse, but after
that it seemed much wilder, and it was only eventually secured by a
long shot.

The flight of this species is, as a rule, rather low, and not prolonged
for any great distance, and on alighting, the bird at once runs off and
attempts to conceal itself in the thickest cover there may be near at
hand. During the breeding season, however, this Lark soars to a
great height, and may often be heard in the early morning singing
high up in the air.

Its call-notes, uttered by the bird when on the ground, are exceed-
ingly soft and melodious, and so far as it is possible to transcribe
them on to paper, may be rendered by a prolonged ‘“‘ twee,’ followed
by a soft “ tee-wit-war,” the last note in a lower key. No doubt the
notes vary somewhat according to the season, but those mentioned,
which are uttered in the spring, differ so greatly from the notes of
any other bird, that once heard they cannot be mistaken.

C. duponti does not seem to be at all a sociable bird and, as a rule,
is to be found singly or, when mated, in pairs. Strange to say, the
green plains so much frequented by this species do not appear to be
held in equal favour by other birds, an occasional pair of Crested
Larks being the only other species likely to be encountered in such

248 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

localities. Where, however, the vegetation is varied by patches of
Halfa-grass, or other plants, the Lesser Bustard may also be met
with, and occasionally even the Houbara Bustard.

The food of this species, like that of other Larks, consists of small
seeds and insects.

Judging from the size and plumage of young birds of this species
in my collection, I should imagine thatthe nesting season of C. duponti
commences about the beginning of April, and is continued throughout
May and into June. The nests and eggs which I possess were all
obtained between the end of April and the middle of May on the high
plateaux lying to the north of Feriana. The nests—placed at the
foot of tufts of wild thyme or other low-growing plants—are rather
loosely constructed of fine bents and grasses, with a plentiful admixture
of the soft filaceous particles of Anthemis mixta (L.) and other similar
plants, and with little or no real lining.

The eggs, generally three and occasionally four in number, vary
considerably in size and shape, as well as in their colouring and
marking. Even in the same clutch there is often a good deal of
individual variation, as may be seen by the following detailed descrip-
tion of a clutch of three eggs obtained on May 15th, 1897, at Bou
Chebka, Central Tunisia. This description was given by me in the
Ibis, but as eggs of this species are still rare in collections, I think
it worth while to repeat it here in full, as follows :-—

No. 1, glossy greyish-white ground; plentifully spotted and
blotched all over, but particularly at the larger end, with grey
shell-markings and yellow-brown surface-spots. Measurements 24
x 18 mm.

No. 2, glossy greyish-white ground; shell-marking grey and very
plentiful; surface-spots faint yellow-brown and few, rather more
numerous at the larger end; the shape of this egg is more pear-like
than the others. Measurements 25 x 17°5 mm.

No. 3, greyish-white ground, very evenly covered all over with
minute spots of a grey and faint yellow-brown colour; not a single
large spot or blotch, and at a little distance the colour of the egg seems
to be uniform greenish. Measurements 24 X 17°5 mm.

Other eggs of the species in my collection resemble, more or less,
one or other of those just described. I may also observe that the eggs
of this species are indistinguishable from some of those laid by the
Crested Larks.

CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI MARGARITA 249

CHERSOPHILUS DUPONTI MARGARITA (Koenig).
RUFOUS DUPONT’S LARK.

Alemon margarite, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 228; id. J. f. O. 1893,
p. 48.

Chersophilus margarite, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 98; id. Ibis, 1896,
p. 89.

Alemon duponti margaritz, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 370.

Description—Adult male, spring, from Zamas, South Tunisia.

Like C. duponti in the disposition of its plumage marking, but of a
distinct rufous coloration instead of dark brown.

Soft parts and measurements as in C. duponti.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

The present subspecies, first recognised and described by Dr.
Koenig (J. f. O. 1888, p. 228), differs from typical C. duponti (Vieill.)
in being much more rufous in colour. This difference is very pro-
nounced and constant within a certain zone, and although, as
mentioned in the preceding article, intermediate forms between C. d.
margarite and the typical dark-coloured C. duponti occur in certain
districts, there can be no doubt that the former has a fair claim to
rank as a geographical race or subspecies. Examples in my collection
from Oglet-Ouhamia, Zamas, Tamerzed, and other places in the south
of the Tunisian Regency, are exceedingly rufous in colour; others from
Mehamla and the neighbourhood of Gafsa are rather less rufous, but
are probably identical with Dr. Koenig’s type specimens, which were
procured from adjacent districts. Specimens which I have obtained
from the country lying between Gafsa and Feriana are only slightly
more rufous than typical C. duponti, some of them, indeed, being so
intermediate in their colouring, that it is impossible to refer them to
one form more than to the other.

The present subspecies probably occurs in Algeria in districts
corresponding to those where it is found in Tunisia, and should any
form of Chersophilus occur in Tripoli, it probably belongs to the
present subspecies, and not to the darker-coloured C. duponti.

The districts frequented by C. d. margarite being further south
and more or less arid and desert-like, are naturally clothed with a
somewhat different description of vegetation from those where

250 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

C. duponti occurs, and instead of the dark green wild thyme and
similar plants of the plains further north, one more often meets with
Halfa-grass and semi-desert scrub-plants.

What I have written in the preceding article regarding the song
and the habits generally of C. duponti will apply equally to the
present subspecies. The mode of nesting is also probably the same
in both forms, and although I have no nests or eggs of C. d. margarite
in my collection, judging from the description of them given by
Erlanger (J. f. O. 1899, p. 3873) and Alessi (J. f. O. 1892, p. 314), I
should conclude that neither differ appreciably, if at all, from those of
C. duponti. According to Alessi, who found the species breeding in
the neighbourhood of Gabés, nesting in that district commences
earlier than it does further north, as by the middle of March full
clutches of eggs may be found, and young birds on the wing are to
be met with in April.

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TUNISIAN CRESTED LARKS 251

ON THE TUNISIAN CRESTED LARKS IN GENERAL.

Before treating of the Tunisian Crested Larks in detail, I think it
advisable to make a few general remarks concerning the species and
subspecies, or forms, of the genus Galerida, Boie, to be noticed in this
work.

I may also observe with regard to the generic name for the Crested
Larks, that in consequence of the name Galerita being preoccupied
in entomology, Dr. Madarasz, in 1899, proposed in its place that of
Ptilocorys, and Mr. Dresser, in 1902, that of Corydus. Boie’s time-
honoured name, however, having a different, though no doubt an
incorrect, spelling, should perhaps be allowed to stand.

As I have already had occasion to remark, when writing on
Tunisian birds in the Ibis, the Crested Larks are extremely
puzzling and difficult to deal with, owing to the large number of local
forms which occur, and to the fact that these forms intergrade, which
renders a satisfactory subdivision of them by no means an easy task.
Their separation is, indeed, more or less a matter of opinion, and in
making any such subdivision one has to be guided by one’s own
judgment and discrimination.

This brings one face to face with the vexed question as to what
constitutes a genus, what a species, and what a subspecies? A satis-
factory answer to this question is not easy to give, and it would be out
of place to attempt to do so here. I may, however, briefly observe,
as regards the distinction between species and subspecies, that I
cannot agree with the opinion held by some zoologists of the present
day, that for the constitution of the former, strong or decided
characters are required, while for that of the latter slight or undecided
characters will suffice. This system makes the distinction between
species and subspecies merely one of degree, and offers no rule
whatever by which one may be guided. That strong and decided
characters are necessary for the constitution of a species is undoubt-
edly right, that is to say, characters which are clearly defined by hard
and fast lines, and which are, moreover, constant; but surely it is not
right that we should be content with merely undecided characters for
the constitution of a subspecies. Such characters, although they may
be slight, should also be decided as far as they go, and constant within
the range of the particular form or subspecies under consideration.

252 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In my opinion a better definition of a subspecies would be the
following: A local race or form of a species which, while possessing
the decided specific characters of that species, differs from it in having
one or more of those characters modified to a certain extent, without,
however, being completely changed, or over-stepping the hard and fast
lines above alluded to. This modification may be one of coloration
and marking, or it may even be structural. It is presumably due to
local and natural causes, such as climate and environment, and is
probably brought about by a gradual process of development, varying
according to the greater or lesser divergence in the natural conditions
of the habitat of the particular form under consideration from those
of that where the species occurs in its typical form.

Apologising for this digression, and returning to our subject, I
would say that the genus Galerida, owing to certain decided and well-
defined differential characters observable in its component members,
calls for subdivision into two distinct groups; one including the
common Crested Lark of HKurope, G. cristata (L.), and its allies, the
other, the small-billed Crested Lark of Southern Spain, G. thekle,
(first distinguished by C. L. Brehm [Nawm. 1858, pp. 210-213]), and
its allies. The principal distinctive characters between the two
groups are the following :—

G. cristata and allies. G. thekle and allies.

(1) Bill longer and finer. (1) Bill shorter and stouter.

(2) Wing and tarsus shorter in (2) Wing and tarsus longer in
proportion to the general size proportion to the general
of the body. size of the body.

(3) Bastard primary shorter or (3) Bastard primary longer or
not longer than the primary not shorter than the
coverts. primary coverts.

(4) Under wing-coverts rufescent. (4) Under wing-coverts grey.

Besides the above, there are other minor points of difference between
the two groups, both in their general coloration and marking, as well
as in their habits, but these are subject to more or less modification,
according to the particular districts inhabited by the various members
of the two groups.

Owing to the varied nature of its territory and climate, which
naturally produces a corresponding diversity in its fauna and flora,
the Regency of Tunis is particularly rich in forms of Crested Larks,
both of the above-mentioned groups being well represented in the
country. Of each group forms occur there which are fairly separable

GALERIDA CRISTATA MACRORHYNCHA 2538

as subspecies, and which, while differing from each other in certain
respects, still preserve the distinctive characters of the particular
group to which they belong. In their coloration and marking they
vary according to the particular district inhabited, thus, roughly
speaking, the birds frequenting the mountainous and more humid
region of the north are dark in colour, those found in the lower-lying
and drier central districts, paler, while those inhabiting the arid desert
country of the south are isabelline or sand-coloured. Owing, however,
to the fact of the modification in colour being, except where some
natural barrier, such as a range of mountains or a “ Chott,” exists,
more or less gradual and not defined by any hard and fast lines, the
subdivision of the species into forms or subspecies is extremely difti-
cult, and it is impossible, in some cases, to say where one form ends
and another begins, or to draw any precise line of demarcation as
regards the habitat of each form. That these forms exist, however,
is undoubted, and it would certainly not be right, or to the advance-
ment of science, to ignore them. Wishing, therefore, to distinguish
the various forms found in Tunisia as appears most advisable and
convenient, I would propose the following subdivision, viz. :—
Galerida cristata (L.) group.
(a) Galerida cristata macrorhyncha (Tristr.).
(b) Galerida cristata arenicola (Tristr.).
Galerida thekle (Brehm) group.

(a) Galerida thekle major (Brehm).

(b) Galerida thekle superflua (Hart.).

(c) Galerida thekle deichleri, Eyl.

(ad) Galerida thekle caroline, Evl.
Another form might perhaps be added to each group, but as I am not
quite convinced of the claim of either to distinction, I prefer, for the
present at any rate, not to separate them.

The reason of the greater variation in the small-billed group as
compared with the large-billed group is no doubt due to the fact of
the former haying a wider and more extended range in the Regency
than the latter. The small-billed Crested Larks are to be found
almost universally throughout the country, and frequent the hills and
high plateaux, as well as the lower ground, whereas the large-billed
birds are confined to certain districts and are, as a rule, only to be met
with on the plains.

254 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

GALERIDA CRISTATA MACRORHYNCHA (Tristram).
TRISTRAM’S LARK.

Galerida macrorhyncha, Tristram, Ibis, 1859, pp. 57 and 426 ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 217.

Galerita macrorhyncha, Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 35.

Alauda macrorhyncha, Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 93.

Galerida cristata macrorhyncha, Hartert, Nov. Zool. vol. iv. p. 147
(1897).

Galerita cristata macrorhyncha, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 346.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

Upper parts fulvous-brown, the centre of the feathers darker and the
margin paler; conspicuous and rather heavy crest blackish, margined with
buff; superciliary stripe, extending from the bill to behind the eye, buff-white ;
quills dark brown; upper tail-coverts, which are considerably elongated,
and the middle pair of rectrices rufescent-brown, the remainder of the tail-
feathers blackish, with the exception of the outermost pair, which are almost
entirely rufescent, and the pair adjoining them, which have their outer webs
rufescent; underparts whitish; a few small streaks extending downwards
from the base of the bill blackish; breast rather thickly marked with
blackish spots and streaks; sides and flanks dusky brown; under wing
coverts and axillaries rufescent.

Tris dark hazel; bill greyish-brown ; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Total length 7:50 inches, wing 4:45, culmen ‘80, tarsus -90.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

G.c. macrorhyncha was first described by Canon Tristram as a new
species under the name of Galerita macrorhyncha (Ibis, 1859, p. 58).
Apparently Loche had previously met with this Lark, and included
it in his Catalogue (Cat. Mam. et Ois. Alg. p. 85, 1858) under the name
of Galerida randonii, but as he gave no description his name cannot
be used. Subsequently Loche described this Lark, and also gave a
plate of it (Rev. et Mag. Zool. 1860, p. 150, pl. xi. fig. 2).

I have examined the type of G. randonii (named after Marshal
Randon, a former Governor-General of Algeria) which is in the
Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and find that it differs
in no appreciable way from Canon Tristram’s type of G. macrorhyncha.
The latter, a female, was obtained at EKl-Aghouat on November 12th,
1856, and is now in the Liverpool Museum.

G. ce. macrorhyncha distinctly belongs to the G. cristata group,
possessing the various characteristic features of that group. Like
other Crested Larks, which are sedentary birds, and confine their

VISINOL 40 SQ@YIG AHL

: eouAy 10.19 ew ees 11 i) pits] Ef)
———

GALERIDA CRISTATA MACRORHYNCHA 255

range to comparatively limited tracts of country, the present sub-
species shows considerable variation in its colouring, according to the
particular district it inhabits. To a certain extent it varies in other
ways as well, notably in the size and shape of its bill, the modification
of which is presumably brought about by the nature of the soil in
which the bird finds its sustenance, a soft sandy soil calling for a
long fine pointed bill, while a hard gravel or rocky soil requires a
stouter and blunter bill. With regard to the coloration of the plumage,
I may observe that although, taken as a whole, examples of the Lark
from the more northern districts of Tunisia are darker, and those from
the south paler, it is not so much the degree of latitude which
influences the coloration as the character of the birds’ environment,
thus we find darker birds occurring in certain districts of Southern
Tunisia, and paler birds in some parts of Central Tunisia. Dr. Koenig
seems to have noticed this apparent anomaly in Algeria also. In
some Tunisian districts, moreover, examples of this Lark occur
which have a very distinct rufous coloration, almost sufficient, perhaps,
to warrant subspecific separation. This shade of colour is no doubt
also due to the character of the soil.

In Algeria the forms of Crested Lark belonging to the G. cristata
group appear to be identical, or almost so, with those found in Tunisia.
In Marocco, however, they differ somewhat, as in the north of the
Empire a form occurs which approaches typical G. cristata so closely,
that when giving a list of the birds in my collection from Marocco
(Ibis, 1898, p. 602) I referred it to that species. This form, however,
differs from typical G. cristata in being rather darker in colour, with
a more clearly marked plumage, and in having a slightly longer and
more tapering bill. It has since been distinguished by Baron v.
Erlanger as a subspecies under the name of G. c. kleinschmidti (J. f. O.
1899, p. 345). Another form of G. cristata which occurs in the
neighbourhood of Mazagan, on the west coast of Marocco, and is
rather more rufous in colour than the last-named form, has been
named by Mr. Hartert G. c. riggenbachi (Nov. Zool. ix. p. 333). In
Central and South Marocco yet another form occurs, which in its
large size and long bill resembles some examples of G. ¢. macro-
rhyncha from Tunisia and Algeria, but is rather more rufous. I have
not, however, thought fit to separate this form from G. ¢. macro-
rhyncha, and have referred it thereto (bis, 1898, p. 604).

The fact is, throughout North-west Africa there is an endless

256 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

variety to be found in this genus, and almost every district may be
said to have its own form of long-billed and short-billed Crested Lark.
What Mr. Hartert says (op. cvt. p. 334) of our possibly having to deal
with three different species of Crested Lark in North Africa, viz.,
G. cristata, G. thekle, and G. macrorhyncha, each with its subspecies,
is worthy of consideration, although, seeing how the first and last
agree in their characteristic features, I hardly think they can be
separated specifically.

While on this subject I may observe that G. cristata (L.) in its
typical form, or even in the slightly modified Mediterranean form, does
not appear to occur in any part of North Africa, though examples
from some districts north of the Atlas approach it closely.

In Tripoli G. ¢. macrorhyncha seems to be less plentiful than it
is further west, and in my collection from that country I have but
a single specimen, obtained not far from the town of Tripoli. Further
south and east in the Vilayet Mr. Dodson does not appear to have
met with this Lark. The Tripoli specimen mentioned above is
rather rufous in its coloration, but cannot be separated from the
present form.

G. c. macrorhyncha is chiefly to be met with in Tunisia, in districts
where plains and large tracts of level country occur, and not, as a
rule, in the hilly and mountainous parts of the Regency, where the
small-billed Crested Larks abound. In certain localities, however,
where plains adjoin or are not far distant from mountains, both forms
are to be met with side by side, though they do not seem to intermingle,
or to consort with each other.

In their nature, and in some of their habits, the two forms differ
considerably one from the other. The present form is far more shy
and suspicious than its smaller congener; it seems, indeed, to be
constantly on the alert, and rarely allows one to approach it, whereas
the small-billed Crested Larks are trustful and confiding, permitting
one to walk up to within a few paces of them without showing signs
of alarm. Although more exclusively a ground bird than the latter,
G.c. macrorhyncha occasionally perches on low bushes, and I have
seen it doing so now and then, though not so often as its smaller
congeners.

Throughout the greater part of the year this Lark is to be found
in pairs. Its food consists of grain, small seeds, and insects of various
kinds. Its notes are less soft and agreeable than those of the small-
billed Crested Larks.

GALERIDA CRISTATA ARENICOLA Q57

It commences to pair early in March, and continues nesting
throughout the two following months. The nest is generally placed
at the foot of some low shrub or tussock of grass, but may at times
be found in an open field or plain bare of vegetation; it is composed
of grasses, loosely put together, with little or no lining. The eggs,
usually four in number, though as many as five or even six are some-
times found, are of a dull or greenish-white colour, plentifully spotted,
chiefly at the larger end, with greyish or pale lake shell-markings and
yellowish-brown surface-spots. Average measurements 23 X 16 mm.

Although, perhaps, no group of birds is more subject to local
variation in colour than the Crested Larks, abnormally coloured
examples, or ‘‘sports,’’ must be exceedingly rare among those occur-
ring in North-west Africa, as among the many hundreds of specimens
of these birds that have passed through my hands, I have never seen
a single one that could be considered as such. In the common
Crested Lark of Europe such “ sports,’ although not common, are
more frequent, the isabelline ‘‘ variety’ being, perhaps, the one most
often met with.

GALERIDA CRISTATA ARENICOLA (Tristram).
PALE LONG-BILLED CRESTED LARK.

Galerita arenicola, Tristram, Ibis, 1859, pp. 58, 426.
Galerida cristata arenicola, Hartert, Nov. Zool. vol. iv, p. 147 (1897).
Galerita cristata arenicola, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 347.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ras-el-Aioum, South Tunisia.

Upper parts pale sandy-isabelline, the feathers with darker centres and
lighter margins; the crest, which is considerably elongate and fine, dark
brown, margined with yellowish-isabelline; superciliary stripe extending
from the bill to behind the ear whitish; quills pale brown; upper tail-
coverts and the central pair of rectrices rufescent-isabelline, with darker
centres the rest of the tail-feathers blackish, with the exception of the
outermost pair and the outer webs of the adjoining pair, which are pale
rufescent; underparts white, a few spots or stripes extending downwards
from each side of the base of the bill light brown; breast sparingly spotted
with light-brown; flanks pale vinous-brown; axillaries and under wing-
coverts rufescent.

Tris hazel; bill pale brown; feet yellowish-flesh-colour.

Total length 7-50 inches, wing 4:35, culmen °75, tarsus ‘90.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller. .

17

258 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

The pale desert form of long-billed Crested Lark, which occurs
in Central and Southern Tunisia, appears to be referable to Canon
Tristram’s Galerita arenicola (Ibis, 1859, p. 58), agreeing with
the type, which is now in the Liverpool Museum. This specimen,
a male, obtained at Rhadma in Algeria on January 13th, 1857, is
rather a small example, but the species varies in size, and my Tunisian
collection contains both larger and smaller specimens than Canon
Tristram’s type. In point of ‘colour the plumage of G. c. arenicola
varies from a pale sandy-grey to a yellowish-isabelline, and birds of
both shades of colour are to be met with in the same district ; indeed,
it is by no means unusual to find the male and the female of a pair
somewhat different in colour. It must be noted, however, that this
difference in colour is more noticeable in living or freshly killed birds
than in dry skins.

Until I met with such pairs, with the sexes differently coloured,
I felt inclined to distinguish the isabelline from the sandy-grey birds
and make two separate forms of them. This difference in coloration
between the sexes is noticeable also in some pairs of the small-billed
Crested Larks, as well as in some pairs of the Lesser Short-toed Lark
(Calandrella minor), but it does not appear to be constant.

G. c. arenicola is not at all uncommon in the Algerian Sahara,
and some of my finest and most isabelline specimens come from the
neighbourhood of Biskra and the plains to the east of that place,
where I found the bird abundant.

From Marocco I have no specimens that can be referred to this
form, but it not improbably occurs in some of the inland districts
of the south of the Empire.

In Tripoli G. c. arenicola appears to be wanting, at any rate Mr.
Dodson obtained no examples of it from that country, and, as
mentioned in the preceding article, he obtained but a single example
of G.c. macrorhyncha. This seems strange, considering the physical
character of that region, and its apparent similarity to the Algerian
and Tunisian Sahara, but there is no doubt some good reason for it,
at present unknown to us.

The small-billed Crested Larks also, although occurring there,
appear to be less abundant in Tripoli than in Tunisia and Algeria,
their range, moreover, in the former country being restricted to certain
districts, and not widely extended, as in the two latter. On the other
hand, some of the other Larks, for instance the members of the

VISINOL 40 SCHIG AHL

epieren

GALERIDA THEKL2Z MAJOR 259

genera Ammomanes, Alemon, and Otocorys, abound throughout a
great portion of the Vilayet.

In Tunisia the range of the present subspecies seems to be con-
fined more or less to the inland semi-desert districts of the centre
and south of the Regency, not extending north of the Atlas, or even,
so far as I am aware, to the sea-coast. The bird, indeed, appears to
be essentially a denizen of the Saharan region. On all the plains
lying to the west of Gafsa I fouad this form of Lark abundant. Like
the preceding subspecies, it frequents open tracts of country and
may also be found on the dry salt-marshes of the Chott districts. In
its habits generally it resembles G. c. macrorhyncha, as also in its song,
food, mode of nesting, and in the colour and markings of its eggs.

GALERIDA THEKLAZ MAJOR (Brehm).
GREATER SMALL-BILLED CRESTED LARK.

Galerita thekla major, Brehm, Nawm. 1858, p. 213.

Galerida cristata, Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 217; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 31.
Alauda cristata, Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 93.

Alauda cristata theckle, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 99.

Galerida cristata thekle, Hartert, Nov. Zool. iv, p. 147 (1897).
Galerita theckle harterti, Hrianger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 332.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tabarka, North Tunisia.

Upper parts dark greyish-brown, the feathers with darker centres and
lighter borders; sides of neck rather lighter; crest blackish; quills dark
brown; rump and upper tail-coverts rufescent-brown; central pair of
rectrices greyish-brown, the remaining tail-feathers blackish, with the excep-
tion of the outermost pair, which are almost entirely pale rufous, and the
next adjoining pair, which have the outer web pale rufous; underparts
white, tinged with yellowish; a few minute blackish spots extending from
the base of the bill downwards on the sides of the throat; breast thickly
spotted with blackish-brown ; sides of body and flanks streaked with greyish-
brown; inside of wings and axillaries vinous-grey; inside of the shoulder
greyish- white.

Iris dark hazel; bill dark grey; feet flesh-colour.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

Observations.—In the coloration and marking of the present form there
is no little variation, even among individuals from the same district, some
examples being darker, others paler, and others, again, more rufous.

The yellow tinge on the underparts is not always present, indeed, as
often as not, it is totally absent.

260 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In the Ibis for 1895 (p. 99) I stated that I considered the small-
billed Crested Lark commonly found in North Tunisia referable to
G. thekle (Brehm), being almost identical with examples of that
species from South Spain.

I had not at that time read Brehm’s article on the genus Galerida
in “ Nawmannia,” 1858 (pp. 204-213), in which the author treats of the
various species and subspecies, or forms of Crested Larks recognised
by him. The conclusions at which he arrives regarding the specific
distinctness of his Galerida thekle from Galerida cristata (L.) are
undoubtedly quite correct, and I agree entirely with him therein,
indeed, one almost feels inclined to go still further, and to separate
G. thekle from G. cristata not only specifically, but even generically.

Dr. Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 633), very rightly recog-
nised the validity of Brehm’s species, according it full specific rank.
There is, indeed, not the shghtest doubt that G. thekle is a very good
species, differing structurally, as well as in other ways, from G. cristata
(L.) and its allies, and forming a group of its own, the members of
which, so far as is at present known, occur in the Iberian Peninsula,
the Balearic Islands, and North Africa, including Abyssinia and
Somaliland.

As Brehm has pointed out, and as already stated in my general
remarks on the genus Galerida, the Crested Larks of the short-billed,
or what may be called the Thekle group, differ from those of the long-
billed, or G. cristata, group in many respects. To the characters
already enumerated may be added, in the particular case of the present
form, that its plumage coloration generally is darker, and its marking
more clearly defined, especially that of the breast, which, moreover,
often has a yellow tinge, never noticeable in birds of the G. cristata
group. In its habits and in its habitat it also differs, being far less
shy than G. cristata, and frequenting hilly and broken country as much
or more than plains and open country, as is the case with the latter.

According to Brehm (Nawm. 1858, p. 213), two forms of this
small-billed and very distinct Crested Lark occur in Spain, and he
distinguished them by the names of Galerita thekle major and
Galerita thekle minor, one being larger and the other smaller in
size. Beyond mentioning this difference in size, Brehm tells us little
to help us to distinguish the two subspecies, but in any case it is
clear that he met with a larger and a smaller form of small-billed
Crested Lark, and named each separately as above.

‘gofeur eau} eplsslec

‘VISINOL 40 SCYIG FHL

GALERIDA THEKLA MAJOR 2961

In my collection of Spanish Crested Larks I have two forms
which appear, without doubt, to be referable to Brehm’s G. thekle
major and G. thekle minor. The examples of the former are a little
larger, greyer, and not quite so dark in coloration as those of the
latter, some, indeed, incline to be slightly rufous; but among the
specimens of the smaller form there are also variations in coloration
which are due no doubt to local causes. The following are the wing

measurements in a fair series of specimens in my collection of each
form, viz. :—

G. thekle major, males from 4°10 to 4:20 inches; females from
3°85 to 3°95 inches.

G. thekle minor, males from 3°95 to 4°05 inches; females from
3°80 to 3°85 inches.

Coming now to the Tunisian small-billed Crested Larks, I would
say that the species occurs in different forms or races throughout the
whole of the Regency, its colouring and marking varying according to
the character of the particular district it may inhabit, thus, as I
have already had occasion to remark in my notes on Tunisian Crested
Larks, we find the birds of the more humid and mountainous regions
of the north of a dark colour, those of the drier central districts paler,
and those of the arid desert districts of the south of an isabelline or
sand-colour. Owing, however, as stated in the above article, to the
fact of the modification in colouring being, except in certain cases,
gradual and not defined by any hard and fast lines, the subdivision of
the species into forms or subspecies becomes more or less a matter
of opinion, and in separating them one must use one’s own judgment
and discrimination.

As already stated, the small-billed Crested Larks of the Thekle
group found in Tunisia may be conveniently separated into four
forms or subspecies, viz.:—

(a) G. thekle major (Brehm), a darkish form, inhabiting North
Tunisia, and ranging as far as the southern slopes of the Atlas
Mountains.

(b) G. thekle superflua (Hart.), a pale sandy-brown form, inhabit-
ing the country between the above region and the semi-desert inland
districts of South Tunisia.

(c) G. thekle deichleri, Erl., an isabelline form inhabiting the semi-
desert inland country of South Tunisia.

262 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

(d) G. thekle carolina, Erl., a bright rufous form inhabiting the rocky
inland plains and broken country of the south-east of the Regency.

The first of these subspecies appears to be identical with Brehm’s
Galerida thekla major from Spain, and I have specimens of Tunisian
birds which are absolutely undistinguishable from some Spanish
examples.—I therefore refer this North Tunisian subspecies to G.
thekle major (Brehm).

Baron Erlanger (J. f. O. 1899, p. 332) has given the name of
G. t. harterti to the North Tunisian small-billed Crested Lark, but
seeing that Brehm’s name of G. t. major applies to this subspecies,
I fear the former cannot stand. So many names already exist, that
we ought to be only too thankful when we can avoid creating a
new one.

With regard to Brehm’s names for the small-billed Crested Larks,
it was apparently the smaller form which was first noticed by him
(Naum. 1858, p. 211), and this form might therefore bear the simple
binomial name of Galerida thekle, the larger form bearing the
trinomial subspecific name of Galerida thekle major.

G. thekle major is to be found, more or less plentifully distributed,
throughout the greater part of North Tunisia, its southern range,
as I have already mentioned, extending as far as the southern slopes
of the Atlas Mountains, where this subspecies meets the next. In the
more hilly and high plateaux regions, some of which are over 4,000
feet above sea-level, the birds have a darker plumage, while in the
lower districts they have a paler, and at times a rufescent or even
dark rufous shade of colour.

Occasionally, as exceptions to the rule, one meets with a very
dark coloured example in the south of the Regency, or a very pale
one in the north, thus for instance, from Metlaoui, which lies between
Gafsa and Tozer in the south, I have a specimen as dark as most
of the birds to be met with in the north; while from the neighbour-
hood of the town of Tunis I have a remarkably pale bird, similar
to specimens from the ‘ Chott” districts. These, however, are but
rare and exceptional cases.

The present subspecies apparently occurs in North Algeria more
or less as it does in Tunisia. In North Marocco, however, a darker
form of small-billed Crested Lark is to be found, which although
rather darker than the generality of specimens from Spain, I referred
to Galerida thekle (Ibis, 1898, p. 603). An examination of further

~_—

GALERIDA THEKLA MAJOR 263

material confirms me in my decision not to separate these Marocco
birds from typical G. thekle, for I have obtained specimens from
Seville and Gibraltar which are quite as dark as those from Marocco.
Baron vy. Erlanger has referred this Marocco Lark to G. t. miramare
(Hom.), and Mr. Hartert, seeing that the name of miramare is but
a synonym of thekle, has rechristened it G. ¢. erlangeri (Die Vogel
der Palaarktischen Fauna, p. 237).

From the Balearic Islands I have two specimens of a short-billed
Crested Lark which, while evidently belonging to the Thekle group,
differ from typical G. thekle and other forms of it, in being somewhat
smaller in size. Should this difference prove to be constant in a
fair series, these Balearic Larks may have to be distinguished sub-
specifically.

In Tripoli the present form of small-billed Crested Lark does not
seem to occur, but this is not to be wondered at, considering the
more or less desert character of that country.

G. t. major is abundant in localities where the environment is
suited to the requirements of the bird, and being by no means shy
or suspicious, it may easily be approached and observed at close
quarters.

In the immediate vicinity of the town of Tunis itself this Lark
is not at all uncommon, and it may frequently be seen in the fields
adjoining the high-roads near that city. At times it may even be
seen in farmyards and open spaces near wayside inns, in company
with Sparrows, feeding on scattered corn or horse-droppings. In
the open country the bird affects hill-slopes and broken ground as well
as more cultivated land. Unlike our European Crested Lark, which
is almost exclusively a ground-bird, the present form is fond of
perching, and it is quite a common sight to see one of these birds
on a bush, apparently perfectly at home there, and often singing at
the time. Its notes, though bearing some resemblance to those
of the common Crested Lark, are sweeter and altogether more
pleasing.

The flight of this Lark, like that of others of the genus, is heavy,
and rarely prolonged for any distance. Seeds, grain and insects form
its principal food.

Pairing commences early in March, and by the beginning of April
nests with eggs may be found. The nest is generally placed under a
tuft of grass or clod of earth in the middle of a field, or other open

264 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

space of ground, and is chiefly composed of grasses, coarser outside
and finer inside, often with some particles of vegetable down as a
lining. The usual number of eggs appears to be three or four, and
these vary a good deal in size and shape, as well as in their colouring
and marking. The ground colour, however, is generally a dull white,
aud the marking consists of grey or pale lilac shell spots, and yellowish-
brown surface-spots, sometimes distributed evenly over the entire egg,
but more often concentrated at the blunt end, in the form of a zone.
Some eggs, however, in my collection, have a distinct ring of spots at
the finer end. The measurements of a number of eggs vary from
23 to 25 mm. in length, by from 16 to 18 mm. in breadth.

GALERIDA THEKLA SUPERFLUA (Hartert).
PALE SMALL-BILLED CRESTED LARK

Galerida thekle superflua, Hartert, Nov. Zool. vol. iv, p. 144 (1897).
Alauda cristata pallida, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 100.
Galerita theckle superflua, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 335.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tamerza, South-west Tunisia.

Differs from G. thekle major in being a pale sandy-brown instead of dark
greyish-brown, and the markings on the breast, as well as the under wing-
coverts and axillaries, are also paler.

Soft parts and measurements almost as in G. ¢. major.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

Observations.—Although, as stated by me in the Jbis for 1898 (p. 603),
the present and following forms of small-billed Crested Lark intergrade to a
great extent, I find they differ so much from one another in their extremes
of variation that I have decided to keep them separate. Were the two to
be united, the darker northern form would have to follow suit, as it inter-
grades with the present form quite as much as the latter does with the
isabelline form.

This form of small-billed Crested Lark was first recognised and
described by me as a new species under the name of Alauda cristata
pallida (Ibis, 1895, p. 100, and 1896, p. 90). Owing, however, to this
name having been previously given by Brehm to some form of Crested
Lark from Spain, it was subsequently replaced by the name under
which it now stands.

As already observed in the preceding article, G. thekle superflua is
a pale sandy-brown form of Crested Lark belonging to the Thekle

GALERIDA THEKLA SUPERFLUA 265

group, and inhabiting Central Tunisia and some of the less desert
districts of the south of the Regency. In its coloration it varies
between G. thekle major and the isabelline form, G. thekle deichleri,
specimens from the north of its habitat resembling more the former,
and those from the south being more like the latter, while examples

* from interlying districts, which may be called typical, are of a greyish

or pale sandy-brown colour. As, however, I have before had occasion
to remark, the different forms intergrade, and where they meet can
hardly be separated.

The range of the present subspecies may be said to extend from
the southern slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the high central
plateaux to the more desert inland regions of the south of the Regency,
where it meets the isabelline form, G. t¢. deichleri. Further east in
Tunisia its range extends along the coast right down to the Tripoli
frontier, though further inland in that part the rufous form, G. ¢.
caroline, occurs.

In Algeria G. t. superflua is to be found in districts south of the
Atlas similar to those where it occurs in Tunisia.

In Marocco, apparently, the form does not exist, its place in that
country being occupied by another form of short-billed Crested Lark,
which, owing to its rufous coloration, I described as distinct under
the name of Galerida thekle ruficolor (Ibis, 1898, p. 603).

From Tripoli I have but two examples of G. ¢. swperflua, and
apparently it is not common there.

Further east, in the coast districts of Cyrenaica, another form of
short-billed Crested Lark is to be found, which I described as a new
subspecies under the name of Galerida thekle cyrenaice (Ibis, 1902,
p- 654). This form is of a light mealy-grey coloration, quite different
from that of any other short-billed Crested Lark with which I am
acquainted.

Like the other members of this group in Tunisia, G. ¢. superflua
evinces a preference for broken and hilly country, and seems to avoid
the more open, level plains where the long-billed Crested Larks are
commonly to be found. Certain districts, however, where stony plains
occur, varied by patches of fertile country, seem to attract both species
equally, and here I have frequently had the opportunity of observing
the two together, and of noticing the great difference between them,
both in their nature and in their habits. On such occasions I have
also been able to compare the respective notes of the two species,

266 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

which differ a good deal, those of G. t. superflua being much sweeter
and softer than those of its larger congener. During the spring,
when the birds are breeding, G. t. superflwa has some exceedingly soft
and plaintive notes, which are uttered by the bird when perching on a
rock or bush, and may be very fairly rendered by the syllables ‘‘ tweet
a tweet a twee,’ repeated two or three times, finally ending with
“ twee-twee.” Like other Crested Larks, the present subspecies often
sings when hovering in mid-air, and then drops suddenly to the
ground. It seems to be very fond of perching on bushes, and even on
bare and arid mountains, where vegetation is scanty, it generally
contrives to find some scrub plant sufficient to afford it a perch.

In spring-time this Lark is remarkably tame and confiding,
allowing one to approach within a few feet of it before taking to its
wings. In order to entice the intruder away from its nest it will
resort to the device, common to many other birds, of feigning dis-
ablement, and running away with drooping and outspread wings.

Its food consists of seeds and insects of various kinds. The pairing
of the present subspecies commences rather earlier than that of
G. t. major, and nests with eggs may be found in March. Between
the nests and eggs of the two forms, however, there appears to be no
appreciable difference.

GALERIDA THEKLZ DEICHLERI, Erlanger.

ISABELLINE SMALL-BILLED CRESTED LARK.

Galerida isabellina, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 40 (1867) ; Koenig,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 219; id., J. f. O. 1892, p. 37.

Galerita isabellina, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 635.

Alauda cristata isabellina, Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 102.

Galerita thekle deichleri, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 339.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Bir-Zouita, South Tunisia.

Differs from G. thekle superflua in being of a pale yellowish-isabelline
colour instead of pale sandy-brown; the underparts are pure white, and
the breast very faintly spotted.

Soft parts and measurements as in G. t. superflua.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

‘VISINOL 40 SCSI FHL

TIsTyolep Bpyeyy Bpluspey

ee

SESS

GALERIDA THEKL& DEICHLERI 267

To Baron v. Erlanger belongs the merit of having first pointed
out that the small-billed isabelline-coloured Crested Lark of Southern
Algeria and Tunisia cannot rightly be referred to Bonaparte’s
Galerida isabellina, by which name it has of recent years generally
been known.

The Lark described by Bonaparte (Conspectus, i, 1850, p. 245)
‘was stated to be a pale-coloured bird from Nubia, with a bill like
that of the Crested Larks, which presumably means like that of the
common Crested Lark of Kurope.

From Nubia, in fact, we have Crested Larks which agree with
Bonaparte’s description, being rather large pale-coloured birds, with
long bills, and with short bastard primaries, birds evidently belonging to
the G. cristata group, whereas the short-billed Crested Larks of South
Algeria and South Tunisia distinctly belong to the G. thekle group.

The fact that Bonaparte’s name of G. isabellina cannot apply
to these Algerian and Tunisian birds being clearly established, it
behoves us to look about and see if any other existing name be
applicable.

The only one which might perhaps be so appears to be that of
G. lutea (Brehm), which according to the description given applies to
a short-billed bird, with a long bastard primary, evidently a bird
belonging to the Thekle group.

Owing to the uncertainty, however, of what Brehm’s G. lutea
really was, and not having been able to see any examples of it,
I cannot, for the present at any rate, do otherwise than accept
Erlanger’s name of G. ¢. deichleri, and refer the isabelline small-billed
Crested Lark of Tunisia to it.

This pale isabelline form, as already stated, inhabits the inland
semi-desert districts of the south of the Regency. Its furthest
northern limit may be said to be the country lying to the west of
Gafsa, though examples from those parts are not quite so pale in
colour as those found further south. Specimens, indeed, from districts
south of the Chott Djerid are remarkably light-coloured, their pale
hues harmonising admirably with those of the sandy wastes which
form their home.

Further east or south-east, where the country is more rocky and
broken, the rufous form, G. t. caroline, takes the place of the present
one.

I have no specimens of G. ¢. deichleri from the Algerian Sahara,
but the form is said to occur there.

268 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

From Marocco I have a single specimen which may be referred
to it. In Tripoli it appears also to be met with sparingly, though
most of the examples mentioned in my list of birds from that country
(Ibis, 1902, p. 654) as belonging to the present subspecies should
be referred, instead, to the more rufous G. ¢. caroline.

In its general habits, as well as in its song, food and mode of
nesting, G. t. deichleri does not appear to differ much, if at all, from
the preceding form.

GALERIDA THEKLA CAROLINA, Erlanger.

RUFOUS SMALL-BILLED CRESTED LARK.

Galerida cristata caroline, Erlanger, Orn. Monatsh. 1897, p. 186.
Galerita theckle caroline, Hrlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 342.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Differs from G. thekle deichleri in being of a bright rufous colour instead
of pale isabelline; the underparts are not quite so white, and the breast
marking rather more pronounced.

Soft parts and measurements as in G. ¢. deichlert.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

This bright rufous form of short-billed Crested Lark, though no
doubt closely allied to the preceding one, may, I think, readily be
distinguished from it, and I therefore follow Baron v. Erlanger in
separating it as a subspecies.

My Tunisian collection possesses several examples of both forms,

and they appear to be fairly distinct and not to intergrade like some
of the other forms. This is no doubt due to the fact that the two

forms inhabit districts which differ considerably from one another
in their physical character, G. t. deichleri being found in the light-
coloured and more sandy country bordering the Chott Djerid, and
extending southward and westward of it, though how far in these
directions appears to be at present unknown, while G. ¢. caroline
occurs on the darker rocky plains and barren broken country further
east, and extending southward probably as far as the Tripoli frontier.
From the Vilayet,in fact, as mentioned in the preceding article,

ALAUDA ARVENSIS 269

I have several examples of this rufous form of small-billed Crested
Lark.

I have no knowledge of its occurrence in either Algeria or Marocco.

In its habits and life generally G. ¢. caroline apparently differs
in no way from the preceding subspecies.

Its nest and eggs also, presumably, are the same as those of that

bird.

ALAUDA ARVENSIS, Linneus.

SKY-LARK.

Alauda arvensis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 287 (1766); Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 567; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846);
Lioche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Otis. ii, p. 28 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888,
p. 219; zd. J. f. O. 1893, p. 37; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 102;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 353.

Description.mAdult male, winter, from Tunis, North Tunisia.

Upper parts brown, the feathers with blackish centres and fulvous-buff
margins, nape and mantle lighter than the rest of the upper plumage ; crown
with a short though full crest; lores and superciliaries buff-white; quills
dark-brown, narrowly bordered with whitish ; bastard primary very small ;
tail blackish-brown, the middle pair of rectrices bordered with buff, the
exterior pair almost entirely white, and the next pair with their outer webs
white; underparts buff-white; the throat with minute spots extending
from the base of the bill downwards; the breast streaked with dark brown ;
sides and flanks dusky brown, with a few dark brown streaks.

Tris dark brown ; bill dark brown, paler below; feet yellowish-brown.

Total length 7 inches, wing 4°50, culmen °50, tarsus 1.

Adult female resembles the male, but is rather smaller.

Observations.—Examples of this species exhibit a considerable amount
of individual variation, not only in coloration but also in size. One of
the smallest specimens I have seen is in the Florence Museum; it is a
female, and its wing measurement is only 3:40 inches; its bill is large for
the size of the bird, being about the normal length of that of d. arvensis.
This is the specimen alluded to by Professor Giglioli (Avif. Ital. p. 67),
and for which he suggested the name of Alauda nana, should further
examples of it be forthcoming, to establish its identity.

“« Sports,” or abnormally coloured examples, of the Sky-Lark are frequent,
cases of albinism, melanism, and isabellinism all occurring from time to

270 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

time. One of the most curious and interesting cases of melanism in this
species, or indeed in any species, occurs in the Roman Campagna, where
what might almost be looked upon as a distinct race is known. This form
is exceedingly dark in colour, even on the underparts, and its dark colora-
tion appears to be perfectly constant. In its measurements it does not
seem to differ from normal A. arvensis. These dark-coloured birds, of
which I have several examples in my collection, are ound from time to time
in the neighbourhood of Rome, but apparently nowhere else in Italy. The
case seems to be analogous to that of the so-called Sabine’s Snipe.

There appear to be three forms of the Sky-Lark occurring in
Tunisia, which are fairly distinguishable one from the other, viz.,
the ordinary European bird, A. arvensis, L., which is found as a
migrant in winter; another form, to be described in the next article,
which breeds in the Regency and is probably resident there through-
out the entire year; and lastly, a mealy-grey form, presumably
referable to A. a. cantarella (Bp.), which occurs in the south of the
Regency, but may perhaps also be found elsewhere in Tunisia.

Our common Sky-Lark is plentiful throughout the winter months
in all the more open and fertile districts of North Tunisia, arriving
in the autumn and leaving again in the spring. It is generally to
be found in large flocks, frequenting cornfields and cultivated land,
where food is abundant. On the high plateaux of Central Tunisia
the species may also be met with, and even in the south of the
Regency, in districts where patches of corn-land occur interspersed
among the more desert surroundings.

In Algeria and Marocco the Sky-Lark seems to be abundant in
winter. It no doubt also occurs as a winter migrant in Tripoli,
though I have no examples of it from that country.

Near the town of Tunis large numbers of Sky-Larks are netted
and brought to the market. The netting of Larks and other small
birds in the Regency, however, is fortunately not carried out on the
large scale that it is in some parts of Italy, where wholesale slaughter
with these “engines of destruction” is so common. According to
good authority it seems the proportion of birds taken by these means
in Italy is small in comparison with the vast numbers which pass
through the country. Taking the present species, Doderlein con-
siders by no means exaggerated Rafinesque’s computation that on
some days in the height of the autumnal migration as many as one

ALAUDA ARVENSIS HARTERTI 271

million Sky-Larks pass across the Bay of Palermo during the twenty-
four hours, and over ten millions during the entire season (Avif. Mod.
et Sic. p. 94).

Though there is comparatively little bird-netting carried on in
the neighbourhood of Palermo, lark-shooting is in great vogue among
the native sportsmen of the place, and on certain days in October,
when the passage of these birds is in full swing, the Bay of Palermo
presents an unusual and extraordinary spectacle; numbers of small
boats, each with one or two gunners in them, lining the roadstead,
their occupants keeping up a lively fusilade at the poor birds as they
arrive in small flocks. This may be carried on for several hours, and
any stranger arriving in Palermo by the daily postal steamer might
imagine that a miniature naval battle was being waged, or that a
revolution had broken out !

In its habits the Sky-Lark is sociable and essentially gregarious.
It frequents for the most part open fields and cultivated plains,
feeding chiefly on seeds and grain, and also, to a certain extent,
on insects.

Its well-known blithe and joyous song is generally uttered by
the bird when soaring high up in the air, often so high as to be out
of sight, but occasionally the Lark will sing when on the ground.

Its flight is easy and undulating, though by no means feeble, and
at times, particularly when suddenly flushed, it is rapid and darting.

Although it seems a pity to keep such a bird in a cage, the Sky-
Lark thrives well in captivity, and has actually been known to breed
in confinement.

ALAUDA ARVENSIS HARTERTI, Whitaker.

TUNISIAN SKY-LARK,
Alauda arvensis harterti, Whitaker, Bull, B. O. C. 1904, vol. xv, p. 20.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Oubira, Central Tunisia.

Differs from A. arvensis, Linn., in being paler and more rufescent in its
plumage coloration generally, and in having a rather longer and more
slender bill. Soft parts and measurements as is A. arvensis.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

272 BIRDS OF TUNISIA -

The present form of Sky-Lark is apparently a geographical or
local race which breeds in Tunisia and is probably resident there
throughout the entire year. It no doubt also occurs in Algeria, and
perhaps in Marocco.

In Tunisia the form is to be found in the northern and central
districts, from both of which I have specimens of it obtained in
spring. Whether it occurs in the south of the Regency I cannot say.

In its general life, habits and mode of nesting this Lark does not
seem to differ from A. arvensis. A nest of this form which I took in
the neighbourhood of Kasrin on April 26th, 1902, was rather small, and
composed entirely of grass-bents, without any lining. It contained four
eggs of a greenish-grey colour, thickly covered all over with minute
purplish-brown spots and blotches. The eggs measured 22 x 16 mm.

ALAUDA ARVENSIS CANTARELLA (Bonaparte).

MEALY SKY-LARK.

Alauda cantarella, Bp. Icon. Faun. Ital. Uce. p. 5 (1841).

Description —Adult male, winter, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Differs from A. arvensis, Linn., in being greyer and more mealy in the
coloration of its underparts, and of a purer white below. It is also rather
smaller, its measurements being as follows: Total length 6 inches, wing
4-25, culmen :45, tarsus ‘84. Soft parts as in A. arvenis.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller.

As mentioned in my article on A. arvensis, Linn., a pale mealy
form of Sky-Lark occurs in South Tunisia which must, I think, be
referred to the above subspecies.

So far as I am aware, this form occurs only in the south of the
Regency, the few specimens I possess of it having all been obtained
in the neighbourhood of Tatahouine, where this Lark appears to be
not uncommon in winter. It may possibly also occur further north
in Tunisia, but I have no knowledge of its doing so. I cannot say
whether the bird breeds and is resident in the country throughout

the year.

ALAUDA ARBOREA 273

Regarding its general life and habits I am unable to say anything,
having myself never met with it alive, but presumably they do not
differ much, if at all, from those of A. arvensis, Linn.

ALAUDA ARBOREA, Linnzus.
WOODLARK.

Alauda arborea, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 287 (1766); Malherbe, Cat.
Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 11 (1846); Loche, Haxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 31
(1867); Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 96.

Lullula arborea, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 636; Hrlanger,
J. f. 0. 1899, p. 352.

Description.—Adult male, winter, from Zarzis, South Tunisia.

Upper parts yellowish-brown, streaked with blackish-brown, particularly
on the crown and back; crest very full; a conspicuous buffy-white super-
ciliary streak extending from the base of the bill to the nape, where t meets
the corresponding streak on the other side; primaries dark brown; outer
greater wing-coverts dark brown, with their bases and tips white, forming
rather a conspicuous patch; rump, upper tail-coverts and central pair of
rectrices sandy-brown, remaining tail-feathers blackish, tipped with trian-
gular white spots, the outermost pair with more white and tipped with
grey on the outer webs; the tail short and square; throat and breast
yellowish-white, clearly spotted with dark brown; rest of underparts
yellowish-white.

Tris brown ; bill dark brown and grey below; feet pale yellowish-flesh-
colour.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3°75, culmen °45, tarsus ‘85.

Adult female similar to the male, but slightly smaller.

The Woodlark occurs in Tunisia, both north and south of the
Atlas Mountains, but is of somewhat local distribution, and can hardly
be considered a common bird in the Regency. I have an example
of the species obtained in the cork-woods near Ghardimaou, in North
Tunisia, on May 11th, 1895. This bird was evidently breeding, its
plumage being much worn and soiled. From the south of the Regency
I have an example obtained at Zarzis in the early winter, but
the species probably only occurs south of the Atlas as a winter
migrant, and even during that season is nowhere so plentiful in
Tunisia as it is i many parts of Southern Europe.

18

274. BIRDS OF TUNISIA

In Algeria the Woodlark is not uncommon im certain districts,
and I have specimens of it obtained on the slopes of ‘the Djebel
Mahmel in the month of May, when presumably the birds were
nesting.

Neither from Marocco, nor from Tripoli have I specimens of the
Woodlark, but it is stated to occur in the former country, and to be
not uncommon in the neighbourhood of Tangier and Larache.

The present species chiefly affects hill-slopes and bushy plains,
where trees are scattered about, or generally what may be called
semi-forest country. At times, however, it may be met with actually
inside woods. Though often seen on the ground, it is also arboreal to
a considerable extent and fond of perching on trees.

In its habits it is rather shy and timid. Its song, which may be
heard at all hours of the day and occasionally even late at night, is sweet
and plaintive. It is uttered by the bird either when on the wing, or
when perching. Insects and seeds of various kinds form the food of
this species. The Woodlark nests on the ground and lays four or
five eggs, which resemble small examples of those of the Crested
Larks, being of a greenitsh-white colour, with grey shell-marks and
yellow-brown surface spots. Two broods are usually reared during
the season.

AMMOMANES DESERTI ALGERIENSIS (Sharpe).
ALGERIAN DESERT LARK.

Ammomanes desertii, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 25 (1867).

Ammomanes isabellina, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 24 (1867).

Ammomanes deserti, Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 93.

Ammomanes algeriensis, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 6465 ;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 15; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 461.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Ras-el-Aioum, South Tunisia.

Upper plumage warm isabelline, rather brighter and more rufescent
on the rump, upper tail-coverts, scapulars, and upper wing-coverts ; super-
ciliary stripes very pale isabelline; primaries pale sandy-brown, their outer
webs rufescent on the basal portion; secondaries rather greyer; tail pale
sandy-brown, the outermost pair of feathers rufescent, and the adjoining pair
with a rufescent outer web; chin and throat whitish, faintly striped with

AMMOMANES DESERTI ALGERIENSIS 275

grey ; rest of underparts pale greyish isabelline, flanks and inside of wings
rufescent.

Iris very dark hazel; bill greenish-yellow above and yellowish below ;
feet light brown.

Total length 6:75 inches, wing 4, culmen ‘50, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female similar in plumage to the male, but rather smaller, the
wing measurement averaging about 3°75 inches.

The members of the genus Ammomanes occurring in the Western
Palearctic region form two distinct groups, which may be at once
distinguished from each other by their greater or lesser size, and by
the presence or absence of a black band at the tip-of the tail. A
representative of each group is to be found in the Tunisian Regency,
both being non-migratory, and inhabiting more or less desert regions,
although, not as a rule, the sandy desert, as the generic name of the
bird would lead one to suppose.

The larger of the two species, which is without the fone tail- can
occurs in suitable localities throughout North-west Africa generally,
and has no doubt rightly been distinguished from typical A. deserti
(Licht.) from North-east Africa, on account of its more rufous
coloration, but as the difference is merely one of tone or shade of
colouring, a subspecific distinction appears to be quite sufficient.

The difference in colour seems to be fairly constant, so far as
North-west African birds are concerned, though not entirely so as
regards North-east African birds, examples from some of the more
desert districts of the latter country being less grey than those from
other parts, and resembling specimens from North-west Africa in
colour.

Some examples of this Lark from Palestine are still greyer than
those from most parts of North-east Africa, and are, in fact, distinctly
mouse-coloured. ‘They seem also to be slightly smaller, and to have
smaller bills. Canon Tristram has separated the Palestine Desert
Larks into two species, referring one to A. deserti (Licht.), and calling
the other A. fraterculus, Tristr.

There is no doubt that the present species is subject to considerable
variation in its coloration, according to the locality it inhabits, and
besides this, there is a certain amount of individual variation, though
not to any great extent.

A. d. algeriensis is fairly widely distributed throughout South
Tunisia, but restricted to the stony desert plains and the rocky slopes

276 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

of the arid mountains, and not found in the sandy desert or in the
Chott districts. The most northerly point in the Regency where I
have found the species has been the neighbourhood of Feriana, where,
somewhat to my surprise, I one day met with two or three of these
birds on the banks of a Oued, or dry river-bed, just outside the village.
The ground here, I may observe, was very rugged and broken, and
just the sort of country this species delights in. On the spurs of all
the arid mountains and hills in the vicinity of Gafsa the species is
very abundant, and also apparently in the districts near Tatahouine.

From Marocco I have no specimens either of this or of the
following species of Desert Lark, but probably both are to be found
in some of the more inland desert districts of that country.

In Tripoli Mr. E. Dodson found 4. d. algeriensis not uncommon
in some parts, and in the Wed-Agarib district in Cyrenaica he
obtained numerous examples of it, all of the same rufous shade of
colour found in North-west African birds. In the Soda range of
hills, the so-called “‘ Black Mountains ” of the Fezzan, the present form
is apparently not to be found, its place being taken by a darker and
greyer bird, which, after some hesitation, I decided to refer to
A. phenicuroides (Horsf. and Moore), its plumage, though varying
somewhat in individuals, being on the whole like that of this Asiatic
form. Its measurements generally also agree with those of A. pheni-
curoides, though in some cases, particularly as regards the proportions
of the bill, slightly exceeding them. Mr. Dodson appears to have met
with these Larks only in the Soda Mountains, and nowhere else in
the course of his journey. In his diary he wrote as follows regarding
the species :

“The range of these birds seems to be confined exclusively to the
Soda Mountains; they are only to be seen in the morning and after-
noon, and during the heat of the day rest under the shade of the
black boulders, which everywhere abound. It is probably the absence
of shade that limits their range. Unlike A. algeriensis, I have never
seen these birds taking long flights.”’

During the spring, when my visits to South Tunisia have always
taken place, I have invariably found this Lark in pairs. At times it
is said to be found in small parties, but it is not, as a rule, a gregarious
species. The bird is by no means shy, and will allow one to approach
close to it, as it sits perched motionless on a rock or stone, for it
is eminently a rock-loving bird, and is nearly always to be found in

AMMOMANES CINCTURA ARENICOLOR 277

stony localities. Most of the districts frequented by the species are
rich in isabelline or pinkish-coloured rocks and pebbles, which
harmonise perfectly with the delicate tints of its plumage, so much
so, indeed, that one may easily pass by the bird without noticing it,
unless it should happen to move. This, as a rule, it seems loath to do,
a providential instinct probably prompting the bird to depend largely
on its protective colouring for safety.

Its flight is rather feeble and is rarely prolonged for any distance.
The song of this species, which is uttered by the bird when hovering
in the air, is fairly pleasing and melodious, though composed of but
few notes. Its fcod consists of insects and seeds.

The nesting of this Lark apparently commences in March, and
extends throughout the spring months and until the end of May.
The nest, which is generally to be found under a tuft of grass or at
the foot of a desert plant, is composed chiefly of grasses, coarser
outside and finer inside, while the eggs, three or four in number, are
of a delicate milk-white colour, covered all over, but principally at
the larger end, with minute shell-spots of a lilac-grey colour, and
surface spots of brown or reddish-brown. The spots often form
a zone at the larger end. Average measurements 21 x 16 mm.

Mr. Dresser’s objections to Gmelin’s name of lusitana for the
present species (Birds Eur. iv, p. 330) appear to me to be perfectly
sound, and sufficient to justify the rejection of that name, which
would otherwise have priority over any other.

AMMOMANES CINCTURA ARENICOLOR (Sundeyvall).

PALE LESSER DESERT LARK.

Alauda arenicolor, Swndevall, fv. K. Vet.-Akad. Férh. Stockholm,
1850, p. 128.

Ammomanes cinctura, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 644;
Koenig, J. f. O. 1893, p. 53; Whitaker, Ibis, 1895, p. 102; Erlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 454.

Annomanes egulus, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 27 (1867).

Annomanes elegans, Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 26 (1867).

Ammomanes cinctura arenicolor, Hartert, Nov. Zool. iv, p. 140 (1897).

278 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description —Adult male, spring, from Tatahouine, South Tunisia.

Upper plumage similar to that of A. deserti algeriensis, but rather
brighter; tail-feathers distinctly rufescent and terminating in a blackish
band; primaries also distinctly rufescent and tipped with blackish-brown,
secondaries rufescent; underparts white, the breast tinged with isabelline
and the flanks and inside of wings rufescent.

Tris dark hazel; bill yellowish ; feet flesh-colour.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3°55, culmen °35, tarsus -75.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather duller in coloration,
particularly in the dark tips of the tail and primaries.

The small Desert Lark of North-west Africa, with a dark tip
to the tail, differs from typical A. cinctwra (Gould), in its much paler
coloration, and the difference being apparently constant, the birds
should no doubt be separated subspecifically.

As pointed out by Mr. Hartert (Nov. Zool. iv, p. 140), Gould’s
name of A. cinctwra applies to the small Desert Lark of the Cape
Verde Islands; the next available name is A. arenicolor (Sundev.),
to which may be referred the small Desert Lark from North-west
Africa, as well as that from North-east Africa, there being no
appreciable difference between the two. Examples from Arabia also
seem to be referable to this form. :

The range of this pretty little Desert Lark in Tunisia is practically
the same as that of its larger congener, though, unlike that bird, the
present species does not appear to occur on hill-sides, but only~ on
the stony plains and on the borders of sandy desert districts.
Numerically, also, it seems to be less plentiful in the Regency than
A. d. algeriensis.

Though not to be found actually on hill-slopes, I have met with
the bird on stony plains at the foot of mountains, one of these plains
being that lying a little to the north of Gafsa, where I was somewhat
surprised to find the species, not expecting to meet with it so far
north. It must, however, be rare there, for I met with no other
example of it beyond the single one I secured. On the hard, arid
plains near Metlaoui, west of Gafsa, I also met with the species in
limited numbers.

From the country immediately south of the Chott Djerid, where
the soil is more or less sandy, I have specimens of this Lark, as also
from the neighbourhood of Tatahouine and Guermessa further south.
Throughout the Regency generally, south of Gafsa, the species may

AMMOMANES CINCTURA ARENICOLOR 279

be said to occur in greater or lesser numbers, although owing to the
fact of its plumage harmonising so wonderfully in colour with its
environment the bird may often escape notice.

In Algeria A. ¢. arenicolor appears to be not uncommon in the
southern districts which correspond with those where it occurs in
Tunisia. In Marocco it probably also occurs in some of the inland
desert-districts, although I have no positive information as to this.
From Tripoli I have numerous specimens of this Lark, obtained by
Mr. EH. Dodson in districts both in the east and the west of that
country. In coloration these are identical with specimens from
Tunisia. The species is recorded as having occurred in Malta, Mr.
C. A. Wright having obtained an example of it there in April, 1867.

In its habits the present species, though in some ways resembling
A. d. algeriensis, differs in being more shy and less confiding. It
is generally to be met with either singly or in pairs, but at times,
after the breeding season is over, it may be found in small flocks.
Mr. Dodson, writing of these Larks in Tripoli, says in his diary under
date of July 7th: ‘‘ They are all in flocks now, frequently combining
with the Horned Larks (0. bilopha).”

The flight of this Lark is rather feeble, but it will at times soar
up into the air and may be heard singing there, its song being rather
shrill, and unlike that of most other Larks.

I have no nest or eggs of the species in my collection, but
according to Dr. Koenig (J. f. O. 1895, p. 281), the former is a neat,
compactly built structure, composed of dry grasses and plant stems,
lined with wool, and surrounded by small stones. The eggs, usually
three in number, are pure white, with rose-brown spots and violet
shell-marks, forming a zone at the larger end. Average measurements
19 x 14 mm. St ph we

Mr. Hartert (Die Vogel der Paliarktischen Fauna, p. 224) has
united the Desert Larks of the genus Ammomanes with a dark-tipped
tail under the specific name of A. phenicura (Franklin), this being
the oldest name. I am inclined to think, however, that the small
Desert Larks of the Western Palearctic region form a group of
their own, and that they should be kept apart from A. phenicura,
which, although having a dark-tipped tail, appears to belong to a
totally different species. The mere fact of the dark-tipped tail being
a character common to all is not in itself sufficient to warrant their
being united specifically.

280 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

CALANDRELLA BRACHYDACTYLA (Leisler). >

SHORT-TOED LARK.

Alauda brachydactyla, Leisler, Wetteraw Gesellsch. Ann. iii., pp. 357-359
(1814) ; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d'Ois. Alg. p. 12 (1846).

Calandrella brachydactyla, Kauwp, Nat. Syst. p. 39 (1829); Sharpe,
Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 580; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 21
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888, p. 219; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 38;
Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 94.

Description.— Adult female, spring, Kairouan, Central Tunisia.

Entire upper plumage pale brown, streaked with dark brown, the rump
and upper tail-coverts unstreaked ; primaries dull brown, fringed with pale
yellowish-brown ; central rectrices dull brown, fringed with yellowish-brown,
rest of tail-feathers blackish-brown, the exterior pair with their outer webs
and part of their inner webs whitish ; under parts dull white, washed with
yellowish-brown, becoming darker on the flanks ; a conspicuous black patch
on each side of the lower neck.

Tris hazel; bill and feet light brown.

Total length 5:50 inches, wing 3-45, culmen -35, tarsus -70.

The form of Short-toed Lark usually found in Tunisia, as well as
in Algeria, Marocco and Tripoli, is the rufous-headed one which, as
stated in the following article, Iam inclined to consider sufficiently
distinct from typical C. brachydactyla (Leisler) to be separated from
it subspecifically.

The present or typical form, however, is to be met with occasion-
ally, though rarely, in North-west Africa, and my collection contains
specimens of it from Tunisia and Marocco. Cases of its occurrence in
these countries must be few and far between, as I have only a single
example from each.

CALANDRELLA BRACHYDACTYLA ITALA 281

CALANDRELLA BRACHYDACTYLA ITALA (Brehm).
RUFOUS-HEADED SHORT-TOED LARK.

Melanocorypha itala, Brehm, Vig. Deutschl. p. 311 (1831).
Calandrella brachydactyla itala, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 355.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Bir-Abdullah, South Tunisia.

Forehead and crown pale rufous, the feathers of the hinder part with
darker centres ; lores and superciliary stripe whitish ; rest of upper plumage
yellowish-sandy-brown, streaked with darker brown, excepting the rump
and upper tail-coverts, which are unstreaked ; central tail-feathers yellowish-
brown, with dark shaft-streaks, rest of tail-feathers dark brown, slightly
margined externally with whitish, except the outer pair, which are almost
entirely white; primaries dull brown, fringed with yellowish; underparts
white, slightly washed on the breast and flanks with yellowish; a con-
spicuous black patch on each side of lower neck.

Tris hazel; bill and feet pale brown.

Total length 5-60 inches, wing 3°80, culmen -45, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female, spring, from El-Hamra, Central Tunisia. Similar to the
male, but rather smaller, the wing measuring only 3:65 inches.

Most ornithologists are opposed to the idea of separating what may
be called the rufous-headed form of Short-toed Lark from the typical
brown-headed C. brachydactyla (Leisl.), and the advisability of doing
so is no doubt open to question. Considering, however, that the
character of the rufous crown appears to be constant in birds from
certain localities, and that in addition to possessing that character,
these birds differ also from the typical or brown-headed form in their
coloration generally, I am inclined to separate the two forms sub-
specifically. I have before me a large series of Short-toed Larks from
different parts of Europe and North Africa, as well as some from
Abyssinia. The Tunis birds (with the single exception referred to in
the preceding article), in addition to a clear rufous crown, have a
distinct yellowish tinge in their upper plumage, while their under-
parts are pure white. Birds from North-east Africa and most parts of
South-east Europe, besides lacking the rufous crown, are distinctly
greyer above and of a duller white below. The Abyssinian birds are
most like those from Tunis in their general colouring, but they lack
the rufous crown, In their respective measurements there is not

282, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

much difference between the forms. The bill, however, of the Tunis
birds is generally rather larger and stouter.

C. hermonensis, Tristr., is considered by some authorities to be
distinct from C. brachydactyla (Leisl.), on account of its larger size
and somewhat different coloration, and also, according to Canon
Tristram himself, by reason of its totally different habits, flight and
notes.

As Baron v. Erlanger has recently correctly pointed out (J. f. O.
1899, p. 355) Brehm was the first to recognise the distinctness of the
rufous-headed bird from typical C. brachydactyla (Leisl.) and to give
it the above name.

This rufous-crowned form appears to occur chiefly throughout the
western portion of the Mediterranean subregion, being found in
Spain, Italy and North-west Africa, while typical C. brachydactyla
occurs chiefly in South-east Europe and North-east Africa. In
Italy, which may be considered as about the centre of the Medi-
terranean subregion, both forms are to be found, although C. b.
itala seems to be the rarer of the two, and occasionally stragglers
of either form may be met with in countries outside their usual
_ range. From Tunis, for instance, I have an example of typical C.
brachydactyla and a second example from Marocco, but these are
exceptions to the rule, the rufous-headed form being undoubtedly the
Short-toed Lark of North-west Africa, and occurring abundantly
throughout that country as well as in Tripoli. I know of no instance
of the two forms being found together in the same flock.

This little Lark is abundant throughout the greater part of the
Tunisian Regency, being most plentiful perhaps in winter and during
the periods of migration, when large flocks may be observed ranging
over the country, on their way either north or south, according to the
time of year. During the winter months these Larks keep in small
flocks, which only break up on the approach of spring, and even as
late as the middle of April small companies of the birds may some-
times be seen together. It is, indeed, only for a short time during the
year that these Larks are not gregarious, for immediately the breeding
season is over, and as early as the beginning of June, they are once
more to be found in flocks.

The Short-toed Lark evinces a partiality for uncultivated sandy
wastes, where the vegetation is more or less scanty, and the vast semi-
desert plains of Central and Southern Tunisia are eminently suited

CALANDRELLA MINOR 283

to its requirements and afford the bird a congenial home. When
roosting as these Larks do on the bare ground, they scoop out little
hollows for the purpose, and hundreds of these slight depressions in
the soil may sometimes be found in spots where a large flock of the
birds have passed the night.

This small Lark has a rapid and undulating flight when moving
from spot to spot, but it often soars high into the air, and then
descends in a series of dips, finally dropping perpendicularly to the
ground like a stone. This I have repeatedly noticed in spring-time,
when the birds observed have probably had their nests near at hand.
During this soaring flight the birds sing very sweetly. When on
migration their note is a simple twitter, and they are then usually to
be seen flying close to the ground. In Italy I have met with the
Short-toed Lark, during the periods of migration, at considerable
altitudes, and on mountain-tops over 6,000 feet above sea-level.

The nesting season of this species probably commences towards
the end of March, as by the middle of April nests may be found with
their complement of eggs. The nests, which are placed on the-
ground, are chiefly composed of fine dry grasses, and as a rule have
little or no lining. The eggs are generally three in number, but I
have more than once found as many as four in a nest. At a first
glance they appear to be of an uniform pale dull green colour, but on
closer inspection they will be found to be of a dull white, covered
closely with minute pale greenish-brown spots, often somewhat
clouded, and generally more concentrated at the larger end. Average
measurements 20 X 14 mm.

CALANDRELLA MINOR (Cabanis).

LESSER SHORT-TOED LARK.

Calandritis minor, Cabanis, Mus. Hein. Th. i, p. 123 (1850); Koenzg,
J. f. O. 1888, p. 220; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 42.

Alaudula minor, Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 588.

Calandrella reboudia, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 23 (1867).

Calandrella pispoletta minor, Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 359.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from El-Hamra, Central Tunisia.
Lores and superciliary stripes whitish ; upper parts generally pale sandy-

284. BIRDS OF TUNISIA

brown, the feathers with dark centres, most marked on the crown and
mantle, but only faintly indicated on the rump and upper tail-coverts, which
have a slight rufescent tinge ;. the central pair of rectrices pale sandy-brown,
with darker median streaks, the remaining tail-feathers blackish-brown,
except the outermost pair, which are almost entirely pure white, and the
pair adjoining them, which are bordered with white on their outer webs;
primaries light brown; underparts mostly pure white, the breast spotted
with small longitudinal dark markings, and the flanks streaked with brown.

Tris hazel ; bill pale brown ; feet yellowish.

Total length 5 inches, wing 3:60, culmen -30, tarsus °75.

Adult female similar to the male, but rather smaller, the wing’measur-
ing only 3°30 inches.

Observations.— As in the case of the Crested Larks, pairs of the present
species may often be met with in which the sexes are somewhat differently
coloured, one being darker and the other paler, but this difference does not
seem to be constant.

The Lesser Short-toed Lark of North Africa differs from that
occurring in South Russia and the Transcaspian region in its paler
and more sandy coloration, and also in its somewhat smaller size.
The above eastern form of Lesser Short-toed Lark, which has long
been known by the name of C. pispoletta (Pall.), cannot, however,
as shown by Mr. Hartert (Die Vogel der Paliarktischen Fauna, p. 219),
continue to bear that name, and must be called instead C. minor
heinei (Hom.).

C. minor is abundant in many parts of Tunisia, being found in
flocks during the winter months, and indeed during the greater part
of the year, these flocks only breaking up on the approach of spring,
and forming again as soon as the breeding season is over.

This bird seems to be somewhat more local in its distribution
than the preceding species, and is not to be met with quite so often.
In certain districts, however, it is of common occurrence and to be
found throughout the year. One of its favourite breeding haunts,
T am informed, are the shores of the Lake of Tunis, where it is said
to be abundant in summer.

In Algeria, Marocco and Tripoli C. minor occurs more or less
abundantly. In South Spain the darker C. m. betica (Dresser),
discovered by Lord Lilford, is to be found. The plumage of this
form is certainly very dark in some individuals, although I may
observe that among the examples in the Lilford collection, now in
my possession, including the types, there is a good deal of variation

MELANOCORYPHA CALANDRA 285

in colour. Whether C. m. betica is migratory, as Lord Lilford seems
to have thought probable, I cannot say, but I have no specimens of
the form from Marocco. It may, however, be so to a certain extent
and within a limited range.

In many of its habits the present species resembles its congener,
C. brachydactyla, but seems to be less shy and wary, and will often
allow one to approach close to it before taking to flight. This is
more particularly noticeable in the spring when the birds are pairing,
or already paired.

At certain seasons, however, these little Larks are very restless
and seem to be constantly on the move, apparently without any
reason. Their flight is flitting and rather rapid. Their food consists
of small seeds and insects.

Their song, which is uttered by the birds either when on the wing
or on the ground, is short but not unpleasing.

In its mode of nesting the present species resembles C. brachydac-
tyla, and lays, as a rule, three eggs. I have, however, found as many
as four eggs in a nest. The usual site for the nest is at the foot of
a small plant or tuft of grass, and the materials composing the
structure are dry bents and bits of plant stems, with merely a finer
lining of the same materials.

Eggs in my collection are of a glossy white colour, thickly spotted
and blotched, chiefly at the larger end, with yellowish shell-marks
and grey-brown surface-spots. Average measurements 19 x 14 mm.

MELANOCORYPHA CALANDRA (Linnzus).
CALANDRA LARK.

Alauda calandra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 288 (1766).

Melanocorypha calandra, Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 322; Sharpe, Cat. Birds
Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 551; Malherbe, Cat. Rais. d’Ois. Alg. p. 12 (1846) ;
Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 37 (1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1888,
p. 223; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 45; Whitaker, Ibis, 1894, p. 94; Hrlanger,
J. f. O. 1899, p. 362.

Alauda (Melanocorypha) calandra, Malherbe, Cat. ais. d’Ois. Alg.
p- 12 (1846).

286 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Description.—Adult male, spring, from Kasrin, Central Tunisia.

Upper parts greyish-brown, most of the feathers with dark brown
middles, particularly on the crown, back and upper wing-coverts ; lores and
superciliary stripes dull white; primaries dark brown, narrowly margined
on outer webs with white; secondaries dark brown, broadly tipped with
white and margined with buff; rump and upper tail-coverts uniform grey-
brown ; central rectrices brown, the rest blackish-brown, tipped with white,
the outermost pair almost entirely white, and those next adjoining with
their outer webs white ; underparts white, except for a large black patch on
each side of the neck and a brownish tinge and a few brown spots on the
upper breast.

Tris dark brown ; bill brown; feet reddish-brown.

Total length 7:50 inches, wing 5:30, culmen -65, tarsus 1-10.

Adult female resembles the male in plumage, but has the black neck
patches less pronounced, and is smaller in size.

This large Lark is extremely common throughout the northern
and central districts of Tunisia and occurs, although less plentifully,
in some of the more southern parts of the Regency. In Algeria and
Marocco it is also a common species.

Like the Short-toed Larks, this species is both resident and migra-
tory in Tunisia, considerable numbers of Calandra Larks breeding in
certain districts. During the winter months vast flocks of these
Larks may be observed frequenting. the cultivated fields and open
country interspersed with patches of corn-land, where food is no doubt
abundant. Later on, when spring sets in, these flocks break up and
the birds pair for the breeding season, but like the Short-toed Larks
the present species is eminently gregarious, and as soon as nesting is
over the birds congregate together again.

During the breeding season the Calandra Lark sings sweetly, and
in spots where the birds are abundant the air is filled with their song.
This is remarkably joyous and pleasing, although spoilt to some
extent by one or two harsh and grating notes at the end. In Southern
Italy the Calandra is greatly prized for its song, and caged birds of
this species may frequently be seen. These often acquire the notes
of other birds, and I have heard them imitate the notes of the Canary
and of the Nightingale. In captivity the Calandra Lark frequently
assumes a very dark or melanic coloration, due perhaps to the food
given it. I know, however, of one of these birds, at present alive in
a cage, which when taken from the nest had the entire plumage black,

RHAMPHOCORYS CLOT-BEY 287

except the abdomen, which was white. Its fellow-nestlings were of
the normal colour.

The present species, like other Larks, feeds chiefly on seeds and
grain, but also to a certain extent on insects and worms.

Its breeding season commences towards the end of March and is
continued throughout the months of April and May. Its nest is
usually placed in a cornfield, or on similar level ground, and is com-
posed of grass-bents and other plant material, while its eggs, four or
five in number, as a rule, are a dull white or greenish-white colour, with
grey shell-spots and brown surface-markings and blotches, generally
more or less concentrated at the larger end. Average measurements
24 x 18 mm.

RHAMPHOCORYS CLOT-BEY, Bonaparte.
THICK-BILLED LARK.

Melanocorypha clot-bey, Bp. Consp. Aviwm, i, p. 242 (1850).

Rhamphocorys clot-bey, Bp. Comptes Rendus, xxi, p. 423 (1851) ;
Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 527 ; Whitaker, Ibis, 1896, p. 96;
Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 366.

Alauda clot-bey, Malherbe, Faune Orn. de VAlg. p. 21 (1855).

Rhamphocoris clot-bey, Loche, Hxpl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 32 (1867) ;
Koenig J. f. O. 1888, p. 225; id. J. f. O. 1893, p. 46.

Description.—Adult male, spring, from near Gafsa, South Tunisia.

Upper parts sandy-isabelline, the nape greyer, and the crown faintly
striped with grey; lores and indistinct superciliary stripes blackish ;
primaries dark brown, becoming darker at the tips; secondaries blackish,
tipped with white; central rectrices rufous-isabelline, becoming brown on
the tips, remaining rectrices white, tipped with blackish-brown, broadly on
the inner feathers and more narrowly on the outer ones; a white patch
immediately below the eye; ear-coverts and sides of the neck black, with
a white spot in the centre of the former; chin and centre of the throat
white; breast white, thickly spotted with black, this colour extending in
a broad median stripe downwards on the abdomen; lower abdomen and
erissum white; sides of body and flanks vinous-isabelline.

Tris very dark brown; bill bluish; feet white.

Total length 7 inches, wing 5, culmen ‘70, height of culmen at base °55,
tarsus ‘85.

288 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

Adult female paler than the male and more uniformly isabelline in its
coloration, with less black on the underparts, and slightly smaller in size.
Young: underparts uniform isabelline, the primaries and tail-feathers
broadly margined with that colour ; no black on sides of head or underparts ;
breast slightly spotted with greyish-brown; bill yellowish; feet flesh-colour.

The present species was first described by Bonaparte (ex Tem-
minck MS.) from a specimen purporting to have been obtained in
Egypt, but no ornithologist or traveller in recent times appears to
have met with the bird in that country.

According to Mr. Dresser (Birds Kur. iv, p. 3883), the type
specimen, which is now in the Leyden Museum, was sent from Egypt
by Clot-Bey, Physician-in-Ordinary to Mehemet-Ali, and von Henglin,
who himself never met with the species on the Nile, thinks that
it may have been procured in the western portion of Egypt bordering
the Libyan desert. This is not improbable, as Mr. KE. Dodson, when
collecting for me in Tripoli and Cyrenaica, met with the species
in districts situated not far west of the above desert, and its range
may very possibly extend right across that desert into Western
Egypt.

This Lark, a true desert species, occurs only in the more southern
districts of Tunisia, and eyen there is somewhat local in its distribu-
tion. I have, however, met with the species near Gafsa, and even
a few miles further north of that town, where some rocky undulating
country and sandy “oueds” are to be found in a dip between the
mountains, through which the main caravan route passes from
Feriana to Gafsa. This depression or valley, lying between fairly
high mountains on each side, seems to be used not only by man,
but also to a great extent by birds on migration, and during the
periods of their passage is a capital spot for observing their move-
ments and habits. In addition, however, to the migrants, this par-
ticular locality, no doubt owing to its varied physical character,
appears to attract some of the more southern sedentary species, for
besides Rhamphocorys clot-bey, I have there met with and obtained
specimens of Ammomanes c. arenicolor and Alemon alaudipes.

In the neighbourhood of Metlaoui, to the south-west of Gafsa,
IT also met with the Thick-billed Lark, but it was not at all abundant,
although evidently nesting in the vicinity, as I obtained a young bird
of the species apparently but a few weeks old.

RHAMPHOCORYS CLOT-BEY 289

South of the Chott Djerid this Lark is not wncommon in certain
districts, and Mr. Aplin came across it near Bir-Ghezen and Bir-
Abdallah, both districts lying to the south-east of that Chott. From
the neighbourhood of Tatahouine, still further south, I also have
specimens of it, though I am informed the species is not common
there.

Dr. Koenig met with the Thick-billed Lark in Tunisia as far north
as the Djebel-el-Meda, near Ouderef (J. f. O. 1892, p. 46), and Baron
yv. Erlanger found it at the foot of the Djebel Bahir, between Gabés
and Kebilli, as well as at the Oued Nachla and at Oum-el-Graf, south
of Douirat ; in the latter district the species would appear to be fairly
common (J. f. O. 1899, p. 367).

In Tripoli Mr. Dodson obtained specimens of R. clot-bey in several
localities, and found it particularly abundant in the vicinity of
Sofedjin, about 120 miles south-east of the town of Tripoli. He also
met with the species still further east, in the country lying south of
the Gulf of Syrtes.

In the Algerian Sahara this Lark has been met with by various
ornithologists, and' its occurrence there has been recorded by Canon
Tristram, Loche, Taczanowski, and Dr. Koenig; but in no part of
the country does the species seem to be at all abundant.

From Marocco I have no note of the bird’s occurrence, though
I cannot help thinking that it must be found there in the more inland
desert districts. 'The species certainly appears to be fairly common
in the Province of Oran, and in the year 1889 the Zoological Society
of London received living examples of it, which were supposed to have
been obtained in the neighbourhood of Ain-Sefra in that Province
(Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon. 1889, p. 26). From Ain-Sefra also came the
example of this Lark procured by General Cavaignac during the
French expedition to the interior of Oran in 1847, and on which
MM. Desmurs and Lucas in 1851 bestowed the name of Hierapterhina
cavaignacii, believing it to be a new species.

Peculiar in its appearance, this Lark is equally so in some of its
habits, and differs not a little from most other Larks. As a rule it
frequents rocky hillocks and broken, undulating country covered with
a scanty scrub vegetation, this being often so scanty as hardly to
afford shelter to the bird. In such localities the species is to be found
generally in limited numbers, though occasionally fairly plentifully.
In spring-time, when I have met with the species, it has been in pairs,

19

290 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

but during the autumn and winter it appears to congregate together,
and is then to be found in small flocks. On the few occasions when
it has been my good fortune to encounter the bird I have found it far
from shy, and instead of flying off on my approach it has allowed me to
walk close up to it before taking to flight. On one particular occasion
I remember observing one of these birds, which had evidently seen me
from a distance coming towards it, crouch down as closely as it could
to the bare ground, remaining there motionless, with its ‘head turned
towards me, watching me as I slowly walked up to it, and it was only
on my approaching within a yard of the spot where it was that it
finally took to its wings. The species evidently does not readily take
to flight, but seeks to escape detection by concealment and, according
to some observers, by running off on the approach of danger, like
some other lLarks, such as Chersophilus duponti and Alemon
alaudipes. When the present species does use its wings it rarely
takes a long flight, but skims over the surface of the ground for a
short distance and then settles down again. Its flight, however, is
by no means feeble, but the contrary, and should a strong wind
happen to be blowing, it is, indeed, rather swift and somewhat darting.
Though not shy, this Lark seems to be generally on the alert, and
I have seen it perching on a low rock or stone spying the country
round it, after the manner of a Chat.

The food of the species consists of small seeds and insects. In the
crop of one of these birds I found a locust almost entire, and in that
of another a good-sized beetle, minute seeds being also present in
both cases.

I have never heard this Lark’s note, but according to Dr. Koenig
the bird emits a lark-lke twitter when on the wing, though he never
heard it utter any real song. To the same author we are indebted for
some interesting notes regarding the breeding of this species, together
with an excellent plate of a brooding female, with its nest and eggs
(J. f. O. 1895, p. 263, pl. xiv). Judging from a specimen of a young
bird in my collection from South Tunisia, the species must commence
nesting operations early in the year, probably the end of February or
beginning of March, but the breeding season is no doubt continued
throughout March and April, and perhaps into May. The nest,
which seems always to be placed in a depression in the ground, hidden
by a tussock of Halfa-grass or some other desert plant, and sur-
rounded by small stones, is large and well-built, being composed of

OTOCORYS BILOPHA 291

grasses and plant stems, with a lining of a finer material. The eggs,
the complement of which is apparently three, are coloured with a
delicate apricot tinge, covered all over with rust-red and rose-violet
markings. Measurements about 24 x 18 mm.

The shell of the eggs is very fine and transparent and has a dull
gloss.

Dr. Koenig alludes to the habit the present species has in common
with some other Desert Larks, such as Ammomanes algeriensis,
Ammomanes cinctura, and Otocorys bilopha, of surrounding its nest
with small stones. The object of this is, I think, probably a double
one, being partly for the better consolidation and protection of the
nest against wind and weather, and partly to render it less con-
spicuous, and more in harmony with its surroundings. Naiure’s
providential dispositions are here clearly apparent, the delicate cream
and pink coloration of the eggs of the above species harmonising so
well with the warm tints of the desert stones, and forming another
good illustration of adaptative and protective colouring.

OTOCORYS BILOPHA (Temminck).
DESERT HORNED LARK.

Alauda bilopha, Temm. Pl. Col. iii, pl. 244, fig. 1 (1823).

Otocorys bilopha, Bp. Consp. Avium, i, p. 246 (1850); Sharpe, Cat.
Birds Brit. Mus. xiii, p. 587; Loche, Expl. Sci. Alg. Ois. ii, p. 20
(1867); Koenig, J. f. O. 1892, p. 389 ; Erlanger, J. f. O. 1899, p. 459.

Alauda (Otocorys) bilopha, Malherbe, Faune Orn. Alg. p. 21 (1855).

Description. Adult male, early spring, from Metlaoui, South Tunisia.

Forehead and broad superciliary stripe white; front part of crown and
two long tufts extending backward from it jet-black ; top of crown imme-
diately behind the black part whitish ; remainder of crown and upper parts
generally isabelline, rather more rufous on the upper wing-coverts and
secondaries; primaries blackish-brown, the outermost feather with its
outer web white, the rest with their outer webs rufescent ; central rectrices
rufescent, the rest black, the outermost pair with the outer web white ;
lores and forepart of ear-coverts jet-black ; hind part of ear-coverts white ;
chin, upper throat and sides of neck white; a pectoral gorget jet-black ;

292, BIRDS OF TUNISIA

remainder of underparts white, washed on the sides and flanks with
isabelline.

Tris dark hazel ; bill bluish, black at tip; feet purplish-brown.

Total length 6 inches, wing 3-90, culmen ‘55, tarsus ‘80.

Adult female resembles the male in general coloration, but has the
black or dark parts less intense, these, indeed, being sometimes brownish,
while the crown-tufts and pectoral band are smaller. In size it is also
smaller, its wing measuring about 3:60 inches.

The young are of a uniform pale yellowish-isabelline, without any
black.

The English name of Shore Lark does not seem to be at all
applicable to the members of this group, which, far from being
denizens of the sea-shore and coast districts, are to be found, as a rule,
in inland and often in mountainous regions. A better and more
appropriate name for them is no doubt that of Horned Lark, or Tufted
Lark.

The graceful little Desert Horned Lark, O. bilopha, first described
by Riippell from Arabia, occurs also throughout the desert region of
North-west Africa and Tripoli, though apparently not in North-east
Africa. It has been said to occur also in Southern Spain.

In Tunisia the range of the present species, like that of Rham-
phocorys clot-bey, is confined to the more southern parts of the
Regency, where, moreover, like that bird, it appears to be somewhat
local in its distribution, no doubt owing to its rather exclusive tastes
in the choice of the localities it affects. The most northern point
in Tunisia where I have met with the bird is the Metlaoui district,
lying to the south-west of Gafsa and between that town and Tozer.
Here I found the species by no means uncommon, and secured several
specimens of it. Baron y. Erlanger met with this Lark on the
Phoum-el-Ghadamsi and in the stony desert region further south,
where apparently the species is abundant.

In Tripoli O. bilopha is most plentiful in some districts, and Mr.
Dodson collected examples of it in various parts of the country. In
Algeria Dr. Koenig found the species not uncommon between
Ouaregla and Ghardaia, as also generally throughout the M’zab
districts, in some of which, indeed, it was often the commonest Lark
he met with. From Marocco I have no specimens of the bird, but
Mr. Drake states that it is found in that country near Rabat and
Dar-el-Baida (bis, 1869, p. 158).

OTOCORYS BILOPHA 293

Mr. Dodson, when collecting for me in the Maroccan Atlas,
discovered another species of Horned Lark, which I described as new,
under the name of Otocorys atlas (Bull B. O. C. vii, p. 47), and
subsequently figured in the Ibis, at the same time giving some
further particulars regarding the bird (bis, 1898, p. 604, pl. 13).
This Maroccan Horned Lark most nearly resembles O. elwesi, par-
taking of the characters of both O. alpestris and O. penicillata, though
like O. elwesi, inclining perhaps rather more to the latter.

Mr. Dodson found this rare species in the mountain-valley of
Glaoui, at an elevation of about 5,000 feet above sea-level, and
secured a pair of the birds, the only ones met with.

O. bilopha, like other Horned Larks, is exclusively a ground bird,
and is usually to be found frequenting stony plains, in preference
to the sandy desert or the salt marsh-country of the Sebkas.
Elevated rocky plateaux are favourite haunts of the bird, and of
these there is no lack in Southern Tunisia. The vegetation of
these districts is naturally of a desert or semi-desert description and
is limited to stunted dwarf shrubs and low-growing plants, which,
however, appear to afford shelter to the birds and convenient sites
for their nests. According to Dr. Koenig, one of the commonest of
these plants is Helianthemum hirtum, Pers, and where that shrub
grows one may be almost sure of meeting with O. bilopha. Halfa-
grass and other graminaceous plants also flourish in some of these
districts. In such localities the Desert Horned Lark is to be met
with chiefly in pairs during the early spring and in flocks during the
remainder of the year, when it is apparently more shy and not so
easily approached as it is in the spring. During the breeding season
the species is certainly anything but shy and allows one to approach
close to it.

In Tripoli Mr. Dodson found the species in small family parties
in the late spring, and in flocks, often of considerable size, during
the summer, when occasionally he noticed the Horned Larks con-
sorting with the small Desert Lark, Ammomanes c. arenicolor. He
observed a peculiar habit the present species has of flying in curves
when ascending, uttering a short, sharp note while doing so, and then
a more prolonged note when descending. The male bird has a rather
bright and pleasant though disconnected song. The food of the
species consists of small seeds and insects.

To Dr. Koenig, who was fortunate enough to meet with several

294 BIRDS OF TUNISIA

nests and eggs of this Lark in the Algerian Sahara, we are indebted
for some interesting notes concerning its breeding habits. The nests
he found were generally placed at the foot of a desert shrub, often
Helianthemum hirtuwm, and were carefully constructed of plant-stems
and grasses, lined with little wool and pieces of linen stuff, the whole
being surrounded by small stones. The eggs, of which two appear
to be the asual complement, although three are sometimes found,
vary considerably in tint, the ground-colour being at times cream-
colour, at others a pinkish-white, and occasionally bluish or greenish-
white ; the shell-spots are violet, and the surface-spots brick-brown.
Sometimes the entire surface of the egg has a clouded or marbled
appearance. The average measurements appear to be 21 x 15 mm.

END oF Vot. I.

The Birds of Tunisia

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The Birds of Tunisia

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