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TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9090 014 532 770

London Lon^ an* C and other Pi-tjprietors .

BLAINE'S OUTLINES

OF

THE VETERINARY ART;

OR,

A TREATISE

ON THE

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND CURATIVE TREATMENT

OF THE

DISEASES OF THE HORSE,

AND, SDBOEDINATELY, OF THOSE OF

NEAT CATTLE AND SHEEP.

TLLUSTBATED BY SUEGICAL AND ANATOMICAL PLATES,

SIXTH EDITION,

REVISED THROUGHOUT, AND CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED,

BY THE INTRODUCTION OF MANY IMPORTANT SUBJECTS BOTH IN THE FOREIGN AND

BRITISH PRACTICE OF THE ART,

BY

EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.CV.S.

AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE'S M3UTH," &c. Sec.

LONDON:

LONGMAN, BROWN, AND CO. ; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. ; HAMILTON, ADAMS,
AND CO. ; WHITTAKER AND CO. ; HOULSTON AND CO. ; H. RENSHAW ;
J- CHURCHILL ; H. G. BOHN ; R. GRIFFIN AND CO. ; AND S. HIGHLEY.
EDINBURGH : MACLACHLAN AND STEWAUT.

1854.

SF
7M5

l«5H

LONDON :
GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,

ST. John's square.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The Proprietors of Blaine's Veterinary Art, being desirous to
keep the Book even with the knowledge of the day, have
entrusted it to a gentleman of professional standing for re-
vision ; how much has been done to it the changed aspect
of the Work fully testifies. Sheets of antiquated opinions
have been removed, while several new articles have been
added ; the pages have been printed in a larger and a more
elegant type ; new copper-plates have taken the place of the
old ones ; and several wood-cuts have been distributed
through the text, to illustrate the anatomical division of
the treatise. The whole, they now trust, assumes so im-
proved a character as to render it deserving of the patronage
which the time, labour, and expense, devoted to the new
edition, entitles them to expect.

Paternoster Row,
May, 1854.

A 2

PREFACE.

The Editor of the new edition of Blaine's Veterinary Art
has small occasion to remind the public of his labom'S ; the
altered appearance of the Book will alone testify how much
has been done to it.

He, however, may with pride point to the copper-plates,
brilliantly executed by H. Adlard, Esq. ; while no one
acquainted with the nicety and firmness of pencil requisite
for anatomical delineations, but will at once recognize the
artistic handhng of W. Bagg, Esq., in the original drawings.

Now that his labours are finished, and the Book upon
the eve of publication, the Editor feels there is some reason
for pride ; though, at the same time, some cause for regret
at the omissions and defects which, on a close inspection,
he is conscious may be detected in it.

For any objection that may be taken to the punctuation
of the anatomy he is, of course, alone responsible ; semi-
colons being in this portion of the work introduced more
frequently than is calculated to please the general reader. Of
this he is fully aware. But having presided over an anato-
mical school he studied to suit the convenience of those to
whom this section especially appeals, so that they might re-
peatedly look from the book to the subject before them, and
still have some sHght license for such frequent interruptions.

7, London Street, Norfolk Square,
May, 1854.

INTEODUCTION.

If the animals domesticated by man be essentially necessary
to his comfort and convenience, no apology need be offered
for attempting to reduce into a system the art of preserving
them in health and removing their diseases ; which practice
must be founded on an intimate acquaintance with the
structure, functions, and economy of such creatures : these
acquirements, therefore, form the groundwork of what is
called the Vetermary Art.

The deplorable state of this art in Great Britain has,
until lately, been animadverted upon by every one who has
written on the subject ; the principal cause of which appears
to have been the total abandonment of every rule by per-
sons of proverbial ignorance. The value of animals, par-
ticularly of the horse, is a theme that has exercised the
attention of thousands; nevertheless the preservation of
their health has long been consigned to the groom, as the
treatment of their diseases has devolved on the maker of
their shoes. The study was regarded as beneath the station
of educated men, and the practice as derogatory to the cha-
racter of a gentleman.

But, at length, mankind becoming wdser are disposed to
receive this study among the liberal arts, and to regard the
profession of it as no longer incompatible with the pre-
tensions of the scholar. The establishment of a Veterinary

VI INTRODUCTION.

College has tended much to this change ; and the benefits
derived from the excellent practitioners who have emanated
from that institution, have further added to the dignity and
importance of the new art. There are, however, persons
desirous to obtain information on the subject who cannot
apply to this source ; and there also are others, who, having
enjoyed those advantages, still wish for a condensed treatise,
to revive in their memories the fleeting remembrances of
former instruction. Among the first are such farriers as are
sensible of their own defects, and anxious to repair them,
but who cannot leave their homes : for these persons former
publications have hardly been directing-posts.

Too many of the class colled farriers, however, even yet
are not willing to trouble themselves with learning, nor
to acknowledge that they need it ; hence they obstinately
maintain, that nothing is necessary but what is already
known ; that theirs is purely a mechanical art, learned by
imitation, and that it descends in perpetuity from father to
son. We even, to our regret, find one of their body boldly
combating against improvement in the following terms : —
" Whatever may be written by those newfangled farriers
of the advantages resulting from a minute knowledge of
anatomy, nothing in their practice has proved its utility."
Fortunately, however, for the horse, the well-informed now
think very differently ; they are fully aware that to the
study of anatomy and physiology we are indebted for our
improved methods of treating diseases. By dissections
many important errors have been detected. We now are
aware that the gangrenous state of the lungs, wdiich the
older farriers attributed to chronic disease, is the simple
effect of active congestion. The different diseases of the
bowels, notwithstanding their anomalous symptoms, are
likewise illustrated. We have been enabled to make the

INTRODUCTION. Vll

important distinction between spasmodic and flatulent colic.
It is also from the same sources, that we have been taught
many bowel complaints are the effect of strangulation,
introsusception, and hernial displacements. From these,
likewise, we now recognize the disease called molten grease
to be no mechanical melting of the animal fat, but a dysen-
teric attack on the mucous surface of the intestines.

To what but anatomy and physiology do we owe our
present acquaintance with the diseases of the feet ? And if
the services we require of the animal are such as to prevent
our conquering all of them, we yet have greatly miti-
gated the sufferings of the animal. We now avoid torturing
the shoulder, as the seat of almost every lameness which
occurs. We are also enabled to relieve the horse from the
agony consequent upon navicular disease by neurotomy.
To an acquaintance with the anatomy of the eye it is that
we no longer attribute ophthalmia to an enlargement of the
haw. This knowledge has prevented us from cruelly de-
priving the horse of a necessary organ, as a remedy for an
imaginary disease. Have anatomy and physiology, there-
fore, taught us nothing ?

The subject-matter of the Veterinary Outlines have
been divided into Four Natural Parts. The first of these
comprises what may be termed the collateral branches of
the art, as the history of the horse, &c, &c.

The second division of the work is occupied by an anato-
mical description of the several parts of the body.

The third division of the work is allotted to the practice
of the veterinary art, or to the curative treatment of each
disease.

T\\e fourth division is dedicated to the Veterinary Materia
Medica, or the chemical and pharmaceutical nature of drugs.

Viii INTRODUCTION.

To the whole is added a copious Index, by which means
subjects otherwise disjointed may be drawn together into
one point of view ; and by aid of which the reader will
be readily enabled to find any subject he wishes under the
term that is familiar to him.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

PAGE

Was first sown in Greece ; next nurtured in Rome— Languished during the

dark a^-es Revived in the sixteenth century — Aided by the translation

of the writings of Vegetius— The succeeding age still further cultivated

it The eighteenth century marked by veterinary writings of acknow-

ledo-ed merit, and by the establishment of the fii-st public school of the
art— The subsequent march of veterinary science may be legibly traced
in the works of the many eminent authors who have since written on it . I — 4

SECTION II.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Our first improvements were coupled with the arts of the menage borrowed
from France and Germany — The early writings on the subject were
mostly translations from the French — The English school was stimulated
by the works of Sollysel, towards the middle of the last century ; Great
Britain also began to furnish native writers and eminent practitioners-
History of the Veterinary College— A short sketch of the more promi-
nent English writers on the subject 4 — 6

SECTION III.

THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE.

St. Bel makes two attempts to found a Veterinary School— He is appointed
professor— Review of his deserts— Messrs. Coleman and Moorcroft ap-
pointed to succeed him — Medical Committee established — Review of
Coleman's character— Succeeding professors up to the present time— Her
Majesty grants a Charter to the Veterinary Profession . . 6—11

SECTION IV.

/ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

Whether Job had horses, discussed — Change of breed induced by altera-
tions in National customs — Comparison made between horse and dog —
The external conformation of the horse — The teeth as indications of the
age — Also to be depended upon in other animals — Exterior conforma-
tion continued — The Colours and Markings of Horses . . . 11 — 50

SECTION V.

THE CONDITION OF HORSES.

The Conventional Term of Condition, its real meaning — Morbid Condition
— System of getting a Horse into Condition— Injury of purgatives as
promoters of condition ........ 51 — 53

X CONTENTS.

SECTION VI.

STABLING OF HORSES.

PAGE

The Stable itself — Summerinof of Hunters — Summering at grass — Food of
Horses — Grooming — Exercise ....... 55 — 59

SECTION VII.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. THE BONES.

Description of Plate I. — The Composition of Bones — Bones of the Skull —
Of the Face — The Posterior Jaw — Anatomy of the Teeth — ^Bones of the
Trunk — The Vertebrae — Pelvic Bones — The Coccygeal Bones— Bones of
the Thorax : Costae or Ribs, Sternum — Bones of the Anterior Extremities —
Scapula or Shoulder-blade Bone — Humerus or Real Arm — Radius and Ulna
■ — Carpus or Knee — Metacarpus or Cannon — Small Metacarpals or Splint
Bones, Suff'raginis or Pdstern, Lesser Pastern and Foot Bones — Bones of
the Posterior Extremities — The Femur or true Thigh Bone — Patella or
Stifle — Tibia or Leg Bone, and the Fibula — Tarsus or Hock Bones —
Mechanical Structure of this latter assemblage — Metacarpal, Coronary,
and Coffin Bones — The Mechanism of the Skeleton considered . 59 — 90

SECTION VIII.

OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE,

Cartilages Articular — Non-articular, Attached and Unattached — Peri-
osteum, Medulla or Marrow, Connecting and Capsular Ligaments ; Syno-
via 90—92

SECTION IX.

OF MUSCLES.

Description of Plate II. — Muscles, their Structure and Functions —
Voluntary and Involuntary — Tendons, Aponeuroses, Fascias — Mus-
cles of the Head and Neck — Of the Trunk and Abdomen — Muscles
of the Anterior Extremity — Of the Posterior Extremity — Description of
Plate III. ..." 92—118

SECTION X.

OF BURS^ MUCOSA.

Organs of Anti-attrition, as Mucous Capsules and Mucous Sheaths to the
Extensor and Flexor Tendons . . . . . . . 118, 119

SECTION XL

OF ARTERIES AND VESSELS.

Description of Plate IV. — The Vessels of the Body — Arteries, their Struc-
ture and Function — Uses of Absorbents — The Pulse, and its vari-
ous indications — Mean Pulsations per minute — Differences under varied
circumstances — Where most conveniently felt in the Horse — Variations
a guide to our judgment in Disease — Distribution of the Arteries — An-
terior Aorta — Furnishes the Fore Extremity — Carotids — Supply the Head
— The Posterior Aorta — Distribution to the Trunk and Hind Extremity
— Pulmonary Arteries.

Veins. Structure and Functions — The Anterior Cava — The Posterior
Cava— The Vena Portse 119-149

CONTENTS. XI

SECTION XII.

OF THE NERVES.

PAGE

Description of Plate V. — The Brain — The Cerebral Nerves — The Spinal
Nerves — Distribution of the Spinal Nerves — Nerves of the Fore Extre-
mities— Of the Hinder Extremities — Physiology of the Nervous Sys-
tem 149—166

SECTION XIII.

OF GLANDULAR STRUCTURES.

The Structure, Functions, and Distribution of the Glands — Their Division
into Foliiculose, Glomerate and Conglomerate Masses . . 166 — 168

SECTION XIV.

OF THE VARIOUS VISCERA.

Teaches the Knowledge of the Viscera of the Body and its Coverings —
The Common Integfuments — The Hair — The Cuticle and Cutis — Sense
of Touch — Adipose Membrane and Fat — Subcutaneous Muscles — Panni-
culus Carnosus.

Of the Head Structurally — Description of Plate VI. — The Outer Ear
— The Inner Ear — Sense of Hearing — The Eye, Anatomj' of — Physio-
logy of Vision — The Nose — Physiology of Smelling — The Cavity of the
Mouth — Its Muscles, Lips, Gums, Bars, Palate, Palatine Arch, and
Tongue — Physiology of Tasting — The Cavities of the Pharynx and
Larynx — Functions of Mastication and Deglutition — Glands of the Head :
the Parotid, Submaxillary and Sublingual, as Salivary Glands — The Nock,
anatomically considered — Trachea and CEsophagus — Description of Plate
VII.

Anatomy of the Chest : Its Pleurae, costal, pulmonic, and mediastinal
— The Diaphragm — The Heart : its Auricular and Ventricular Cavities,
and Valvular Apparatus ; Physiology of its Agency in the Circulation of
the Blood — The Lungs; Physiology of Respiration — Nature and
Properties of the Blood ; Aeration of it in the Blood ; becomes the
source of Animal Heat — Description of Plate Vill.

Anatomy of the Abdomen: Abdominal Regions — The Stomach; Phy-
siology of Digestion — The Intestines — The Economy of the Intestines —
in continuing the Digestive Process — The Liver — The Pancreas and
Spleen, the Renal Capsules and Kidneys — Anatomy of the Pelvis — The
Bladder — Physiology of the Urinary Secretion — The Male Organs of
Generation — The Female Organs — Description of Plate IX. . 168 — 250

SECTION XV.

reproductive system.

Physiology of the Work of Generation — Qilstrum or Heat — Generative
Act — Conception and Pregnancy, Gestatory Period of the Mare, Par-
turition or Foaling — Lactation or Suckling — The Foetal Colt and his
Organization ; the Foetal Circulation ; Descent of his Testicles and Evo-
lution of his Form to the Adult Period — Anatomy and Physiology of the
Foot — Structure and Economy — External Parts — Internal Parts— De-
scription of Plate X 250—266

XU CONTENTS.

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE, &c. &c.

FAKE

Of Disease generally 2G9— 271

CHAPTER I.

OF PURE FEVER.

Simple Fever in Horses — Diffused or General Inflammation in Horses —
Epidemic Catarrhal Fever in the Horse — Symptomatic Fever — Pur-
pura Haemorrhag-ica — Fevers of Horned Cattle — Dropping: after Calving
— Garget or Inflammation of the Udder in Cows — Hoose, Cough or Cold
in Cattle — Influenza or Epidemic Catarrh in Cattle — The Vesicular Dis-
ease in Cattle, or the Epidemic of 1841-4-2 .... 271 — 299

CHAPTER II.

MADNESS, OR PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN IN HORSES.

Madness, Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain — Mad, Sleepy, and Sto-
mach Staggers — Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Luns-s — Pleurisy —
Pleuro-Pneumonia — Inflamed Lungs in Neat Cattle — In Sheep — Inflam-
mation of the Heart — Inflammation of the Muscular Coat of the Intes-
tines— Inflammation of their Mucous Surface, or Dysenter}- — Peritonitis,
or Inflammation of the Outer Coat of the Intestines — Inflamed Bowels
in Neat Cattle — Inflammation of the Ijver — In Neat Cattle — Inflamma-
tion of the Kidneys — Hoematuria in Cattle — Inflammation of the Bladder
— Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder — Inflammation of the Womb 299—341

CHAPTER III.

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES.

Simple Catarrh, or Common Cold — Sore Throat — Bronchitis — Roaring —
Chronic Cough — Thick Wind — Broken Wind — Glanders — Farcy — Dy-
sentery—In Cattle 341—374

CHAPTER IV.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.

General Considerations of the Nervous System — Phrenitis — Apoplexy —
Megrims — Paralysis, or Palsy — Spasm — Tetanus, or Locked Jaw —
Stringhalt 374—385

CHAPTER V.

DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.

Spasmodic Colic — Colic in Horned Cattle — Chronic Indigestion — Acute
Indigestion, or Stomach Staggers — Hove, or Blown in Cattle — Lampas
— Worms — Parasitic Animals in Cattle — Costiveness — Diarrhoea — Ditto
in Cattle — Scouring in Calves — Crihbiting — Morbid Displacements of the
Intestines — Hernia — Reduction of Strangulated Hernia— Hernia Con-
genital— Involutions, Strictures, and Invaginations of the Intestines 385 — 407

CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER VI.

DISEASES OF THE GLANDS.

PAGE

Jaundice — Yellows— In Cattle and Sheep — True Red Water in Cattle —
Haematuria, or Bloody Urine — Profuse Staling . . . 407 — 412

CHAPTER VII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN CIRCUMSCRIBED CAVITIES.

Hydrocephalus Internus, or Dropsy of the Head — Hydrothorax, or Dropsy
of the Chest — Operation of Paracentesis Thoracis — Hydrops Pericardii,
or Dropsy of the Pericardium — Ascites, or Dropsy of the Belly 412 — 417

CHAPTER VIII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE.

Anasarca — Water Farcy — CEdema of the Extremities, or Swelled Legs —
Ecchymosis, or Extravasation of Blood — Emphysema, or Extravasation of
Gas 417—422

CHAPTER IX.

CALCULUS, OR STONY CONCRETIONS.

Calculus Concretions — Intestinal Calculi, or Stones in the Intestines — Uri-
nary, or Stone in the Kidneys — Vesicular, or Stone in the Bladder 422 — 425

CHAPTER X.

ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL POISONS.

Rabies or Madness — The Bites of Venomous Reptiles — Vegetable Poisons
— Mineral Poisons.

Principles and Doctrine of Local Inflammation — Characters of Local
Inflammation — Adhesive Process — Suppurative Process — Gangrene 425 — 436

CHAPTER XL

WOUNDS.

Surgical Treatment of Wounds generally — Particular Wounds — Of the
Head — Of the Neck — Of the Chest — Rupture of the Diaphragm —
Wounds of the Abdomen— Wounds of Articular and Bursal Cavities,
or Wounds of the Joints generally — Wound into the Knee Joint particu-
larly— Knees Broken without penetrating the Joint— Wounds of the
Arteries — Of the Veins — Inflammation of the Veins . . 436 — 454

CHAPTER XIL

OF ABSCESS.

Acute Abscess — Strangles — Warbles 45.5 — 459

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIII.

OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCFKATION.

PAGE

Ulcerative Process — Individual Ulcerations : Poll Evil — Fistulous Withers
— Salivary Fistiilae — Of the Parotid Gland .... 4j9— 400

CHAPTER XIV.

SPRAINS, OR STRAINS.

Membranous and Ligamentary Injuries called Strains or Sprains, considered
generally — Shoulder Strain — Strain of the Flexor Tendons, or their liga-
mentous Connexions — Overreach — Rupture of the Suspensory Ligaments
• — Rupture of the Back Sinew — Strain of the Fetlock Joint — Sprain of
the Ligaments of the Femur — Of the Patellae or Stifle — Bruises — Rheu-
matism Acute and Chronic — In Cattle — Sitfast — Indurated Elbow-
Point 466—478

CHAPTER XV.

OF ENCYSTED SWELLINGS.

Varix, or Blood Spavin — Windgalls — Distended Bursa), called Bog
Spavin— Thorough-Pin— Capped Hock 478—481

CHAPTER XVI.

FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS.

Considerations of these Injuries generally — Particular Fractures: of the
Skull— Of the Face— Of the Jaw-Bone— Of the Ribs— Of the Pelvis—
Of the Vertebrae — Fractured Bones of the Extremities — Of the Scapula
—Of the Humerus— Of the Radius— Of the Femur- Of the Til)ia— Of
the Olecranon — Of the Cannon before and behind — Of the Pastern
Bones — Of the Navicular Bone — Of the Patella — Dislocations — Patella
or Stifle Bone 481—488

CHAPTER XVII.

DISEASES OF THE BONES.

Caries of Bones, commences b}' Inflammation — Exostosis — Particular Exos-
toses : Splint — Spavin — Curb — Ringbone — Exostosis of the Coffin Bone
—Anchylosis 488—497

CHAPTER XVIII.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

Simple or Common Ophthalmia, or Inflammation of the Eye — Specific or
Periodical Ophthalmia — Cataract — Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena — Ex-
crescences, &c. on the Eyes ....... 497 — 507

CHAPTER XIX.

. DISEASES OF THE SKIN.

Grease — Small-pox among Sheep — Swelled Legs — Mallenders and Sallen-
ders — Warts — Mange— Hidebound 507 — 522

CONTENTS, XV

CHAPTER XX.

DISEASES OF THE FEET

I'AGE

Founder or Inflammation of the Feet — Acute Founder — Chronic Founder
— Shoeing of Horses — The Pumiced Foot — Navicularthritis — Corns —
Thrush — Sandcrack — Foot pricked l)y a nail — Tread or Overreach —
Quittor — Canker — False Quarter 522 — 560

OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS.

The necessary Restraints employed on such occasions — The Trevis —
Casting — Slinging — Veterinary Obstetrics, or the necessary assistance
rendered in difficult Foaling — Embryotomy — Castration — By Cauteriza-
tion— The French method — By Ligature, &c. — Lithotomy — Tracheo-
tomy— Esophagotomy — Neurotomy — Periosteotomy — Division of the
Flexor Tendons — Amputations : Of the Penis — Docking — Firing — Blis-
tering— Rowelling — Setons — Blood-letting — By the Arteries — By the
Veins, or Phlebotomy — The Physicking of Horses — The Use and Abuse
of Purgatives — Diuretics 561 — 607

THE VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA . . . 009— 660

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

Plate I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.

to face page 60
Frontispiece
117
119
149
175
209
224
250
2G5

■x^.-

OUTLINES

OP

THE VETERINARY ART.

SECTION I.

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

Man, who is ever ready to change surrounding objects
to his advantage, would not, probably, be long without
subjecting to his use such animals as his reason led him to
suppose would prove most useful, or his experience had
noted were the most tractable. This is said, supposing
the horse ever existed in a state of perfect freedom — of
which fact there is no decided testimony. The herds of so-
called wild horses existing in Asia and America are tame
animals that have either broken loose, or are private pro-
perty turned out to breed and graze where pasturage is
plentiful and stabling expensive. It would appear probable
that the ass was first perfectly broken to the use of man ;
nor was it until, as we learn from Genesis, chap, xlvii.,
that, with the herds of asses, horses also were sent to
Pharaoh, which Sir Isaac Newton computes to have been
1034 years before Christ, about which time the renowned
Erictheusa appears to have been employed in taming and
breaking the horse to the use of man. But animals, when
forced to obey the desires of an exacting master, could not
long continue in perfect health ; hence their owners were
soon led to search for such remedies as their small stock
of information pointed out : thus veterinary medicine must,
in some degree, have been coeval with the possession of the
animals in question. The early practice of it was, how-
ever, without doubt, mingled with the general manage-

B

Z HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

ment, and what little was then known probably existed
among; those professing the art of human physic. When the
early Egyptians had trained the horse to the purposes of
war, his health may be supposed to have become an object
of solicitude. From the Egyptians the Grecians received
the knowledge of the management of the horse ; and with
them we know it flourished. Chiron, surnamed the Cen-
taur, pursued both human and brute medicine. Homer,
who flourished 900 years before Christ, celebrates the
training of the horse in the Greek courses ; and Xeno--
phon, the renowned warrior, poet, and philosopher, wrote
a treatise on equitation, which contains ample evidence
how much the study of this valuable animal vvas in repute
among the most distinguished characters of his day. Hip-
pocrates, also, the most celebrated physician of early times,
wrote a treatise on the curative treatment of horses ; nor
did he disdain, in common with the eminent human prac-
titioners of those times, to practise indiscriminately on the
horse and his rider.

When Rome had snatched from Greece her honours and
her arts, the horse also was taken with the rest ; and a
host of Latin authors on subjects connected with the
animal sprung up, the names of whom would swell our
pages. As a rustic writer, Columella deserves our mention ;
the rest we pass over till the age of Vegetius, who flou-
rished about 300 years after the birth of Christ, and whose
writings concentrated within themselves all that had been
collected by former veterinary authors of the empire.
A long night of darkness succeeded the irruptions of
the barbarous nations. During this time, however, iron
shoes, before but partially tried, became more generally
used ; and by an association only to be excused by the
state of the times, the treatment of the diseases of the
horse became the province of the shoeing-smith ; while the
medical assistance required for other beasts was gained
from goatherds, shepherds, &c.

The ancient and honourable name of Veterinarius (whence
veterinarian) sanctioned by the classics of the Augustan
age, became lost in the more humble appellative of farrier,
derived solely from the metal on which he worked ; and
for a long period (happily now on the decline) the igno-

HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 3

ranee of the shoer and the meanness of his title remained
indissoluble.

The sixteenth century, famed for the revival of learning
and the encouragement of art, fostered also the subject of
our present discourse : among its patrons may be noted
Francis the First, who ordered the Constantine collection
to be translated from the original Greek into Latin ; from
which it was soon afterwards rendered into Italian, German,
and French, and thence became dispersed over Europe,
About the same time, the works of Vegetius were translated
into the popular European languages ; and from this
period we may date the gradual improvement of the art.

During the seventeenth century, the veterinary art con-
tinued to advance, and numerous publications on the
subject w^ere contributed by various hands ; among which
we may notice Ceesar Fiarchi's Italian treatise on horse-
manship, in which is introduced the most rational mode
of shoeing then practised. Neither should we omit to
mention the Infermita, &; suoi remedii, del Signoi' Carlo
Ruini, published in Venice, 1618 ; from which Snape,
Gibson, as well as most of the early French authors, have
copied their anatomical plates. In 1654, the Grand
Mareschal Frangois, a meritorious work, said to be com-
posed by many hands, appeared. In the latter end of this
century, the art received a very great addition from the
elaborate work of Sollysel, whose attention was drawn to
the subject from his situation of riding master ; and as the
practices of this school were at this time in great repute,
it followed that the treatment of the diseases of horses
became very much confined to the professors of this art.
It will not, therefore, excite our wonder that almost all the
treatises on veterinary medicine of this time are found
united with systematic equitation ; and although, as regards
Sollysel, the cause was not injured, yet generally it may
be considered, that to this union of arts, practised by
persons not medically educated, may be attributed the
small progress made by veterinary medicine.

The eighteenth century produced numerous writers on
the subject, and was destined to w^itness important im-
provements in the art. In 1761, France set the notable
example of establishing, under royal patronage, a public

B 2

4 A CONCISE HISTORY

veterinary seminary at Lyons, having the celebrated Bour-
gelat for its professor : his medical and anatomical works
were numerous, and are well known. In 1766, a second
public school was opened at Alfort, near Charenton, in the
neighbourhood of Paris, and others subsequently at Stras-
burgh and Montpellier : establishments of the same kind
have likewise since been organized in almost every European
country, as Vienna, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dresden, Leipsic,
Prague, Munich, London, Hanover, Naples, &c. &c. In
Russia, also, a veterinary school was founded, over which
Mr. Blaine was invited to preside.

As a contemporary with Bourgelat lived the elder La
Fosse, a name that will ever be respected in the annals of
veterinary medicine. La Fosse made numerous improve-
ments and discoveries, which he usually comniunicated in
the form of memoirs to the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Paris. In 1754, he had collected these into one volume,
which w^as quickly translated into other languages, and
diffused over Europe.

The French revolution for some time disturbed the
course of veterinary improvement ; but the calm which
succeeded employed the talents of many eminent veteri-
narians ; and the names of Chabert, Flandrin, Gilbert,
Vicq-D'Azyr, and Huzard, stand conspicuous on this list.
From that time to the present, the writings on the vete-
rinary art have become numerous in every country, but
more particularly in France, and it follows that, in the
course of our labours, many of the most popular will be
quoted.

SECTION II.

A CONCISE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT

BRITAIN.

The healing art, as applied to a curative treatment of the
diseases of our domesticated animals, was, in England, even
longer buried in gross ignorance than either in France or
Germany ; and when, at length, emulation had excited us,
our early attempts were more the effects of an imitation of
our French and German neighbours, than native improve-
ments of our own. It, however, worked a favourable

OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN GREAT BRITAIN. 5

change among us ; for although the medical treatment of
horses particularly had not yet emerged from the hands of
those immediately about the animals, still, as the teachers
of equitation were much more enlightened than either
blacksmiths or grooms, the medical practitioner necessarily
became educated on better principles. The riding school
gave place, towards the close of the seventeenth century, to
horse-racing and hunting, which again threw the care of
the health of the horse back to the currier of his hide and
the shoer of his heels ; and this sera witnessed only feeble
and occasional efforts to rescue the valuable art of curing
his diseases from ignorance and barbarity.

Blundeville, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, appears
to have been one of our earliest veterinary writers. His
work, which was chiefly a compilation from ancient authors,
was fettered with his attachment to the ridins: school.
Subsequent to him appeared Mascal, Martin, Clifibrd, and
Burdon. About this time also lived the celebrated Gervase
Markham, whose Treatise on Farriery, though empirical
and absurd, went through numerous editions, and became
the guide of the practitioner of that time. The reign
of James I. produced little original writing, but several
translations from the Italian, German, and French. In
the time of Charles II. appeared The Anatomical Treatise
on the Horse, by Snape, farrier to his Majesty. The plates
are copies from Ruini and Saunier. His descriptions are
likewise taken from these authors ; and where he deviated
from them, he made the human body his guide and went
wrong. In the reign of George I. SoUysel's celebrated
work was translated by Sir William Hope from the
French, which tended to combat many of the errors at that
time prevalent. About the middle of the last century, the
art experienced still further improvement by the labours of
Gibson, wdio was originally surgeon to a regiment of
cavalry ; from which situation it is probable he was first
led to turn his attention to the diseases of the horse, and by
which he was, at length, enabled to present the best treatise
on farriery that had appeared in the English language.

As a contemporary with Gibson lived the celebrated and
eccentric physician Dr. Bracken, a man of considerable
erudition, a sportsman, and a wit of a peculiar cast ; his

b THE HISTORY OF

works have been as much admired and read for the pecuhar
style in which they are written, as for the real information
they contain.

Bartlet, who was a successor to the two former, was
hkewise a surgeon : he formed himself on the model of
Gibson and Bracken, and he gave the sum of their treat-
ment in a much more compendious and practical form. He
likewise benefited the art by translating La Fosse's im-
provements and discoveries : but Bartlet is to be noticed
principally as a copyist and compilator, for he brought
forward little of his own, except a cruel and absurd altera-
tion in the mode of nicking.

To him succeeded Osmer, who was also initiated a
human surgeon, but afterwards practised as a veterinarian in
Oxford Street. His Treatise on the Lamenesses of Horses,
with an improved mode of shoeing, is most deservedly
esteemed, and his practice was adopted with some slight
alterations, by the late Mr. Morecroft. He first commented
upon La Fosse's method, and pointed out the excellence of
his mode of treating the feet ; at the same time showing
that the short shoe was inadequate to the support and
protection of the foot in the present improved and hard
state of our roads. The practical part of this treatise on
lamenesses is likewise excellent, and will hand his name
down as one of the early contributors to the success of the
art. The next luminary in the veterinary horizon was Clarke,
of Edinburgh, the king's farrier for Scotland, whose excel-
lent Treatise on Shoeing and the Diseases of the Feet was after-
wards followed by a work on the Prevention of the Diseases
of the Horse generally ; these succeeded the publication of
the engravings of the Muscles of the Horse, by Mr. Stubbs,
the professional horse painter, who, to high excellence in
his art, added a very considerable knowledge of the general
anatomy of the animal.

SECTION HL

THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE.

The period of the establishment of a National School
will ever remain a memorable epoch to the veterinary

THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 7

amateur, as being that from which the principal improve-
ments in his art are to be dated. Charles Vial de St. Bel
first published proposals for founding a veterinary school in
the year 1788 ; but the plan meeting with no support, he
returned to France. This gentleman was professionally
educated at the Royal Veterinary College of Lyons, and, as
w^e are told, afterwards became junior assistant at Alfort. In
1790, he made a second visit to England, which proved
more successful ; for, on again renewing his proposals, they
were noticed by the Agricultural Society of Odiham, in
Hampshire, the members of which, convinced of the utility
of such a measure, proposed to form an institution, called
The Vetermary College of London, and to appoint St. Bel
to the professorship ; Mr. Blaine being engaged as his assist-
ant. It was in February 1791, that the first organized
meeting of the supporters of the society took place at the
Blenheim Coffee House, Bond Street, at which time many
new subscribers enrolled themselves. His Grace the Duke
of Northumberland condescended to become the president ;
and such Vvas the general opinion of the importance of the
subject to the country at large, that vice-presidents and
directors offered themselves from among the most dis-
tinguished characters for rank and talent. A house was
next taken for the purposes in view at St. Pancras. Pupils
were received to board with the professor ; and Mr. Blaine
was also located there as translator and anatomical demon-
strator. To him it was, however, a matter of surprise
that the concern succeeded to the extent it did ; so totally
inadequate to such an undertaking was St. Bel. That he
was enterprising and ingenious no one will deny ; he was
also indefatigable in promoting the interest of the establish-
ment, which indeed involved all his future prospects ; but
that by his knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and
pathology of the horse he was fitted to become the veterinary
professor, no one of those who most strongly supported
him can iDelieve. His writings and his practice bear out
this opinion ; his election to the chair could have alone
arisen from a wish that such a school might be established ;
and it could only have occurred because no other person
then in the kingdom was better able to undertake its
management.

8 THE HISTORY OF

In March 1792, it was resolved, that a temporary stabling
for fifty horses, and a forge for shoeing, should be built near
the house taken for the college ; but the completion of
which the Professor was hardly permitted to witness, for he
was attacked with an illness in August, 1793, which proved
fatal in about a fortnight.

On the death of St. Bel, the public attention w^as of
course engaged in considering on whom the vacant pro-
fessorship would devolve ^ some ej^es were directed towards
Mr. Blaine ; many more to Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, who,
however, refused it. Mr. Morecroft, then in practice as a
veterinary surgeon, was unquestionably the most eligible
person. Mr. M. was originally a student of human medi-
cine ; but he had lately studied veterinary practice in the
French schools, and was considered to possess extensive
information on the subject. Mr. Coleman, a medical pupil
of the Borough hospitals, who had much distinguished
himself by some physiological inquiries, and by some experi-
ments on the diseases of the eyes of the horse, was brought
forward likewise ; although his attention had never, I
believe, reached beyond that point. The fitness of Mr.
Morecroft was, however, so nicely balanced by the interest
of Mr. Coleman, that it was determined to unite them in
the professorship ; since, with the practical knowledge of the
one, and the investigations of the other, every thing was to
be hoped from the association. Unfortunately for the
institution, Mr. Morecroft, finding that he had quitted a
profitable concern for one which held out little prospect of
gain, soon seceded ; and Mr. Coleman, who now applied
himself to fill up by his own talents the loss of his colleague,
was appointed sole professor. The general establishment,
also, at this time received some important alterations ; in
proof, a theatre for the delivery of lectures, with a dissect-
ing-room and museum, were erected. A medical committee
of assistance was also appointed, consisting of the most
distinguished medical practitioners in London, by whom the
pupils were to be examined, and, if found to have acquired
a sufficient knowledge of the art, certificates were to be
granted them. Pupils were now admitted to the practice
of the institution, which, from the erection of a very exten-
sive infirmary, and the encouragement it had received from

THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. 9

the subscribers, had become a considerable field of medical
observation.

A regular course of lectures was delivered throughout
the season ; and dissections were also carried on, in which
the pupils had the benefit of the instruction of the pro-
fessor or his assistant. These advantages were received for
twenty guineas, paid by each pupil on his entrance. It also
shoiild not be omitted in this place to note, that, by the
liberality of the distinguished characters who composed the
medical committee, the pupils were admitted to their lec-
tures gratis, and this spirited example was afterwards
followed by several other professors of human medicine.
It would be inexcusable, also, if this description proceeded
without a tribute to that active promoter of every branch
of the healing art, Mr. J. Hunter. Veterinarians will ever
remember with gratitude how much they were indebted to
him for his zealous promotion of this establishment. The
country at large, in fact, fostered it as a rising plant ; in
proof of which, the British parliament annually voted a sum
for its support : and, as an inducement to young men of
education and respectability to become students, George
III. granted the rank of commissioned officers to such
veterinary surgeons as might be appointed to regiments.
Under such encouragement the increasing business of the
colleii;e soon required additional teachers. Mr. Sewell was
appointed assistant professor ; and, subsequently, Mr.
Morton has been added to the list of active and useful
instructors.

Since the above was written Mr. Coleman has been
gathered to his fathers, and in this place we may now fairly
consider his title to the reputation he has enjoyed. His
eloquence in the lecture-room captivated the young gentle-
men w^ho were his listeners ; and the views which he
expounded, they, for the most part, zealously adopted :
nor was the experience of a life aiterward suflicient to dis-
enthral them from their infatuation. Coleman's fame also
reached far beyond the theatre or the school at the head of
which he presided. He made an ample fortune in conse-
quence of the public estimation in which he was held. No
man enjoyed so many offices, or w-as so servilely consulted
on every occasion. Though surrounded by men of un-

10 THE HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE.

doubted, and even far greater ability, not one of them,
while he lived, rose to be his rival ; though, now that he is
dead, the meanest amongst them ranks as his superior.
The fact was, Coleman enjoyed great fluency, with much
cunning, and consummate worldly ability ; to these he
owed the position which he held, and the emoluments he
acquired. When viewed calmly as a professor and a veteri-
narian, he becomes small indeed. While yet Coleman lived,
the establishment over the welfare of which he presided,
fell from being held high in the public estimation into utter
insignificance and positive stagnation ; it lost a place which
it may be very long before it regains. He invented nothing
that did not prove an egregious failure ; he wrote nothing
that is now esteemed an authority ; he did nothing for the
art ; he accomplished every thing for himself, and the
nature of his ability is shown in nothing more than the firm
manner in which he managed to make not only the public,
but the profession believe in his imposture.

After Coleman's death, Mr. Sewell took the place of
head professor ; which post he, until a recent period, re-
tained, though he had long retired from the exercise of all
its active duties.

Mr. Spooner has now been appointed head professor of ana-
tomy, physiology, pathology, shoeing, surgery, and practice ;
Mr. Simonds has been added to the staff, and has been
instituted lecturer upon the anatomy, physiology, and
pathology of the ox, sheep, and dog, together with the
operations which the accidents and diseases of these animals
may require ; Mr. Morton retains his old post, for which
he is eminently qualified, as lecturer on general chemistry
and veterinary materia medica.

Any one looking at the Veterinary College, will perceive
it has not greatly improved since Coleman's death. One
professor (Mr. Simonds) has been added to the establish-
ment, but another (Mr. Sewell) has been snatched from all
participation in its active duties. Thus the medical stafi"
remains virtually the same, though nominally enlarged,
while the school has experienced the loss of Coleman's
dulcet notes, whicli had the power to gild the wrong.

To amend such a state of things, and introduce renewed
vitahty into the dormant profession, her present Majesty was

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 1 1

pleased to grant a charter to the veterinary body at large,
who were in it recognized as forming a Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons, in contradistinction to the Royal Vete-
rinary College or School which already existed in Camden
Town. The veterinary profession were, by this charter,
empowered to examine, and grant diplomas to, the future
members of their own body ; but this newly created autho-
rity deprived the established schools of privileges which
they had hitherto enjoyed ; and, therefore, on the enact-
ment being made known, the schools became the most
violent opponents to the chartered body. Mutual conces-
sions have, however, seemingly put an end to the inimical
feelings of the professors, and we now may hope for some of
those advantages from the charter which were originally
contemplated by the Messrs. Mayor, to whose exertions the
profession chiefly owe the obtainment of the grant.

We cannot conclude this sketch of the state of the vete-
rinary art among us, without adverting to the advantages
likely to accrue to it from the establishment of a Veterinary
School in Edinburgh, having at its head an able and zealous
teacher in the person of Mr. Dick. We heartily wish him
all the success which his apparently judicious method of
pursuing his course of instruction merits.

SECTION IV.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

The early history of the animal is so mingled with that
of man that we in vain endeavour to separate the two.
Whether the horse ever existed in a perfectly wild state
there is no fact to prove, though incontestable authority
establishes that the animal once was in far less jDcrfect sub-
jugation to its master than at present.

It has been assumed that the horse was reduced to a state
of domestication at a period comparatively late in the history
of the world. The proof of this is rashly conjectured to be
contained within the Holy Scriptures. No horse is men-
tioned as associated with the patriarchs, and therefore it is
held that none then lived under the dominion of man.
This is by no means a sequitor. The patriarchs were

12 THE NATURAL HISTORY

wholly pastoral. With their mode of life the horse might
not have been compatible. It can prove no more than that
the horse is not, in the earHest records, to be found together
with flocks and herds any more than the same animal is at
the present day. But it is argued that Job, who is described
as an earthly prince, " the richest man of all the East," did
not possess a single horse. This also is by no means proved.
Such ample property, in flocks and herds, would to one man
be rather a pest, without equal means to defend them. Had
Job one half the animals he is described as owning, he must
also have had a large tract of land on which to pasture them.
Flocks and land necessitated soldiers to defend them, yet
not a single soldier is mentioned among Job's retainers,
nor a single arm spoken of as among his property.

How is this omission to be accounted for ? Were those
days blessed with ignorance of armies ? This cannot be
believed, for the captains are spoken of, and in the same
passage the horse is mentioned. But the animal is alluded
to only in connexion with men trained to warfare. He was
evidently not then associated with the uses of peace. Those
who attentively peruse the description of the horse given in
the book of Job will at once perceive that it is a fierce,
half-broken creature, of which the poet speaks. The pas-
sage has been much admired, but no one could now long be
possessed of such an animal without deeply repenting when
he had acquired it. It was a semi-wild brute, employed
only in the deadliest strife ; and as Job is then described,
a man surrounded by the good things of this life, and
basking in the sunshine of peace, of course neither captain
nor horse are introduced as constituting part of his pos-
sessions.

The Romans are described to have exported horses from
England after Julius Caesar first invaded the country.
This, to people who assume the docility of the beast must be
represented by the refinement of the man, may appear pre-
posterous. But the two states are by no means co-existent.
A nation may be far advanced in civilization, as the Chinese,
and yet the animals in their possession be comparatively
mean or worthless. That the horses in Julius Caesar's
army were not possessed either of uncommon power or
dociUty, is proved by that general often gaining a battle

OF THE HORSE. 13

through dismounting his cavalry, and causing them to act
as infantry. That the British horse was better trained, and
even more highly domesticated, is shown by the description
Julius Ccesar gives of his services in battle, and it doubt-
less was to secure these that the breed was exported to
Rome.

With regard to what the English horse then was we
decline to conjecture, only ample evidence exists to demon-
strate that the creature which the Romans possessed was
not nigh to perfection. The sculptor's art could not reader
it near the point of modern requirements, and the sculptors
of Rome were not more than those of modern times fet-
tered by the facts with which they were surrounded.

Numerous changes are supposed to have taken place in
the English breed, but these will be best understood by
crediting the animal with a power of mutation equal almost
to the desire of its master. Differences might have been
induced, but no great improvement in the breed of horses
could have possibly taken place so long as men were cased
in armour. The weight of the rider then necessitated a
certain build in the horse, and the charger of chivalry was
as different from the charger of a modern crack regiment as
two animals possibly could be. In James the First's reign
the actual change, or substantial improvement in the national
breed of horses, commenced slowly to take place. Men
then first began to disuse armour, and with lighter weights
more attention could be paid to positive points, as they
are now esteemed. This alteration however was very gradual.
The introduction of a single horse, or even of a thousand
horses, cannot affect the breed of an entire kingdom without
time being allowed.

The change has been going forward even to the present
time. The squire of a few years back did not ride in a
carriage and four because of sheer pomposity, but because
a less number of horses could not pull his heavy vehicle
along the heavier roads at the rate which he desired to be
propelled. Most people of fifty years old can recollect the
old thick-legged, hairy-heeled coach-horse, which is now
no where to be found ; lighter vehicles and better roads
having created a nobler animal. So prints of even mode-
rate age portray a far heavier hunter than could now be

14 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

discovered present in any field. The cause is obvious.
Better drainage and higher cultivation has rendered the
country easier to cross, and, simultaneous with this im-
provement, a more agile description of hunter has been
adopted. It is not therefore any one man, or number of
men, who has directed or influenced the change, which
has been swayed chiefly by the customs of a nation.

The racecourse, as supplying the means of improvement,
has been of immense use in the national amelioration of the
breed of horses. It however begins to languish, showing
by this circumstance that its usefulness is nearly accom-
plished. Under its influence the sturdy breed of animals
appears to be departing. These were so useful, so gentle,
so sure, and so enduring, that we cannot lose them without
regret.

Many persons will speak of the intelligence of the horse
as superior to that of the dog; we see nothing in the
animals to warrant even the remotest comparison between
them ; the horse is the servant, the dog is the companion
of man. The position each holds is sundered, and all that
can be said is, that each is gifted with qualities which will
fit it for the situation it is destined to fill. It is well known
that horses reared by hand can rarely be thoroughly broken
in. The familiarity established in early life appears to be
remembered in after years, and the creature which has been
the pet refuses to become the patient drudge.

Gentlemen who lavish too much kindness on a horse they
ride or drive generally live to repent of their weakness.
Over the horse it is imperative to exercise what is termed a
"firm hand." Every necessary must be supplied; every
want anticipated ; but fondness must be indulged in a fashion
which convinces the animal that receives it there is a whip
near at hand. Many stories are told of the Arab in the
tent, but we must be excused if we treat all such as fables.
No horse is so vicious as the Arab. In the Indian army
their ferocity constitutes one of the difficulties of the march.
In England we have seldom looked upon an example of a
genuine gentle Arab. We wish it were otherwise. The
beauty of the animal, joined to its small figure, invites you
to caress it, but rarely have we been able to gratify the
feeling with perfect safety. And there are stories about

THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 15

the manner in which horses are managed in Arabia, which
account Mly for the evil disposition of the breed. Ill
treatment to the horse is always remembered. Its memory
is excellent, and an injury is never forgotten. A single act
of barbarity may change the disposition of the creature,
and knowing this circumstance, we can easily comprehend
why the Arab horse is generally an enemy to peace.

The dog, on the other hand, is a creature educated by
fondness. The animal of this species, a stranger to its
master's eye or hand, which passes away its life chained to
a kennel, soon becomes an untamed brute. But the dog
kindly treated is thereby improved ; he looks for, and he
answers to affection. He cannot be harmed by any amount
of judicious attention. He is the very opposite of the
horse ; the one animal is injured by the demonstration
which aids the development of the other.

THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE.

The horse's body, like that of the human form, when ana-
tomically considered, is divided into head, neck, trunk, and
extremities. The parts which enter into the formations of each
have different scientific designations ; and though experience
has proved that there is a form best adapted to the gene-
rality of horses, yet the same unerring monitor teaches that
by such rules no man can pick out the best animal from a
given number of horses. So much depends on nervous
excitement, or spirit and endurance, which is not to be
known by any exterior conformation ; the actual trial alone
can decide the point,

A good form seldom covers a bad horse, yet very good
animals are generally notoriously ugly creatures. Hark-
away was a peculiar example of this truth ; a more ungainly
beast never crossed a lady's path, but a better horse never
entered the racecourse. When, however, judging of exte-
rior conformation, the breed, age, and condition of the
animal has to be fairly considered. The horse of one year
old, or more correctly speaking the yearling, provided he
has height and bone which shall hold forth no promise to
the trainer's eye, may nevertheless pass all before him on
attaining his fourth year, or may turn out a regular clipper
upon gaining his sixth year.

16 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION

Horses are not fully furnished so as to develop to ad-
vantage every point until their youth has entirely passed,
or until the animal has reached his prime, or eighth year ;
then the animal that has been properly nurtured will be
ready to render its master a long train of willing service.
But most horses die before the attainment of eight years,
and all horses which have reached that point are condemned
as aged, or put on one side, as having performed their most
valuable services. The horse, doubtless, is more full of
spirit, grace, and beauty at his fourth year ; but this is no
excuse for cruelly torturing the animal, by putting it to the
extent of its powers at such an early period of its existence,
and thus rendering it a cripple for the remainder of its life.

To give any determinate figure for the horse would argue
folly. He who desires a good, useful, honest horse will do
well to buy the best looking of the group out of which he
makes his selection ; but he who wishes for an extraordinary
creature, and can afford to disregard spirit or temper, may
safely buy the ugliest brute he can clap his eyes upon. The
above directions, however, supposes the person thus directed
to be fully acquainted with that which constitutes beauty and
deformity in the horse.

The head is important. For the light horse some ap-
proach to the blood-head is desirable. The forehead high,
the eyes wide apart, the nostrils and the mouth large, the
muzzle small, and the cheek, or hinder part of the jawbone,
deep, and wide apart. But for long slow work, and heavy
draught, the very reverse of all this is even to be sought
for. The forehead low, the eyes close, the nostrils and
mouth small, the muzzle large, and the cheek shallow. Of
course these last are only to be judged by comparing them
with the more beautiful head of the blood-horse, and neither
are to be taken in an absolute sense.

The setting on, or putting on, of the head is next to be
considered ; and the difference between the good and bad
in this particular will best be understood by attentively
studying the w^ay in which the heads of the gentleman's
riding-horse, or, better still, of the thorough-bred racer, and
of the ordinary cart-horse, are joined to the neck of the
animal. The head of the heavy creature is fixed upon the
neck as though it were jobbed upon a stick ; the neck has

OF THE HORSE. 17

little or no bend, certainly less play, and the head is pro-
truded as though the unfortunate horse were afflicted with
a stiff neck. On the other hand, the head of the blood-
horse is full of play ; it requires small force in his rider to
draw the chin towards the chest. The motion is elastic ; it
has all the ease and grace of a lady's hand ; and the neck,
which joins the head, has all the freedom and beauty of line
to be detected in the most captivating woman's wrist.

The ears are not to be overlooked. One ear forward, and
the other carried backward, is a good sign of endurance,
when the liorse is on a journey, for it shows the animal is
attentive to every thing passing around him. Both ears
laid backward, in the stable or elsew^iere, upon the approach
of a stranger, is generally a sign of vice. This statement,
however, is not to be applied universally, as the action may
be the result of nervousness or timidity. Where it is
displayed, however, the stranger had better speak to the
groom before he ventures to approach. Any unnatural
degree of activity in the ears denotes blindness. If the
ears are altogether stationary the animal may be suspected
of deafness. After all, an easy motion, neither restless nor
sluggish, is to be wished for, and the ears should be rather
small than large ; and above all things they should not fall
down on one side, or be in any degree lopped.

The eyes should be very particularly attended to in an
exterior examination of a horse : the globe should be full and
prominent, wdth a thin surface of eyelid. When it is small,
or sunken within an orbit and surrounded by much mem-
branous substance, or a swollen lid, such an eye is found more
prone to inflammation than the former one. It is prudent,
however, to guard against too great a convexity of the globe,
which now and then does actually exist, and probably renders
the horse shortsighted. The eyes should always be ex-
amined in the shade: no better situation can be chosen
than that the head of the horse be pointed outwards, but
that his eyes remain half a foot within a stable door. The
light now falling directly on the eye, will enable every defect
to be readily seen. Viewed in front, the depths of the eye
should be first looked into : the position of the looker should
be then changed, and it should be viewed sideways, still
from within the stable, which will much assist to ascertain

c

18 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION

the critical clearness of the parts immediately on and within
the surface, and its freedom from central white specks.

The cornea, or transparent part of the eye, ought to be
perfectly clear throughout its whole extent of surface.
Sometimes it will appear so on a slight inspection, but,
when more attentively examined, opaque milky lines may
be seen crossing its surface. In other cases nearly the
whole may be clear, except the extreme limits, which will
be found surrounded by a well-defined opaque line : when
such an appearance exists, it bespeaks the remains of former
inflammation, and a great danger of recurrence. It might,
however, be proper to remark, that an accidental blow, as
the stroke of a whip, may leave an opaque speck or line
without any liability of recurring inflammation ; but then
the effect, in such cases, will seldom be found at the
circumference. Not only must this exterior glassy covering
of the eye be examined, but the attention should be likewise
directed to the deeper parts within the pupil, the appear-
ance of which, in a moderate light, should be perfectly
transparent. In a strong light it should exhibit a lively
bluishness ; but if, in a moderate light, it appears turbid or
milky, there has been inflammation, which will probably
again recur ; but if a speck or line of white more conspi-
cuous and deep-seated than the rest should appear, in such
case a cataract has already began to form. In other
instances, again, though the internal eye should not appear
opaque or milky, yet it may exhibit a glassy greenishness,
which is a proof of the existence of a most destructive
affection, called, by the farriers, glass eye : but, properly,
gntta serena. The existence of this may be proved by
observing whether the iris, or the curtain forming the
pupil, contracts and dilates ; that is, when the hand is
placed over a sound eye for a little time, the iris will dilate
so as to increase the size of the pupil to admit more rays ;
but, on the removal of the hand, will again contract and
lessen the pupil, to exclude them. This does well enough
for an off-hand or primary trial ; but before the aniuial is
purchased, or a decisive opinion delivered, the horse should
be placed in a darkened stable for some time, and then the
eyes be examined by means of a candle ; when it will be
easily observed whether the iris has dilated, and after a

OF THE HORSE. 19

minute or two the pupil may be observed to contract ; that
is, supposing the eye to be free from disease. A blind
horse, moreover, usually carries his ears as though alarmed,
in quick changes of direction, and hangs back on his bridle
or halter, lifting his legs up very high ; in fact, he presents
every indication that a person blindfold would do. When
the iris, or moving curtain that immediately surrounds the
pupil or opening into the eye, is of a lighter colour than
brown, such horses are said to be luall-eyed ; but, however
it may detract from beauty, it no farther affects the eye.
In some horses, the transparent cornea is small in its cir-
cumference, in which case the animal shows much of the
luhite of the eye. It is of consequence to distinguish such
instances from others, in which, though the opaque or lohite
coat may be of its natural dimensions, yet from the greater
contraction and dilatation of the eyelid, more of it is seen.
In the former case, it is evident that the white of the eye
shows itself in a greater degree, merely from a small super-
fices of transparent cornea. This is the natural form of the
organ, and can have nothing to do with the temper : but,
in the latter instance, a large appearance of white may be
viewed as an indication of a vicious disposition ; for extra-
ordinary motions of either the eyes or ears, and particu-
larly where they act in unison, are indications of the
passions of the animal. If a horse be suspicious, he
generally looks out for opportunities to revenge former
injuries, or to repel new imaginary attacks ; and the re-
tro verted direction of the eye, in which, of course, much of
the ivhite is seen, is merely intended to guide the blow he
meditates.

The face comprehends the part betw^een and below the
eyes : a spot of white or star in the forehead is deemed a
beauty, but much white is a blemish. If white extends
down the face, it is termed a Maze ; and, when continued
into the muzzle, it is called hlaze and snip. If, with a star,
white begins below the place of the star, and is then carried
downwards, it is called a race. Thus, when a stolen horse
is described, these distinctions become useful ; and, in regi-
mental accounts of the marks of horses, they are particu-
larly attended to. Such an advertised horse is said to have
star, race, and snip white, while another has a hlaze only.

c2

20 THE EXTERIOR CONFORMATION

All the lower part of the head, including the nostrils and
lips, is called the muzzle. The darker the colour of this
part, the more is the horse esteemed. Very dark brown
horses are, however, an exception to this, for, in them, the
muzzle is generally of a tan colour, which is also prized.
The general contour of the face in our best horses is either
that of a plane, or very slightly curved inward, but not
equal to that of the native barb : our worst breeds arch
outwards. The facial straight line is found on many, per-
haps on most, of our esteemed racers, and of our well-bred
hunters.

The lips themselves should be thin and compact, or firm ;
when hanging loose and pendulous, they bespeak age, slug-
gishness, debility, or bad health ; and it is of more conse-
quence than is usually supposed, that the mouth should be
of sufficient extent. If too small, it is unfavourable to
beauty ; but what is worse, it is inconvenient for the well
placing the bridle. A wide open nostril is not only requi-
site to form beauty in the lower part of the head, but it is
certainly conducive to free respiration or good wind.

The channel, among horsemen, is the hollow that is
formed between the two branches of the posterior jaw ;
internally it lodges the tongue, pharynx hyodeal bone, and
part of the larynx ; more exteriorly are placed glands, ves-
sels, and fat. It can hardly be too wide, as upon its
width depends much of the beauty of the head ; within it
are lodged organs of vital importance to respiration, and
with width of channel the head is nearly certain to be well
set on the neck : but, on the contrary, if it be too narrow,
it becomes a still greater defect, both in the riding and the
carriage horse ; for in this case it will prove painful for the
horse to bend his head inwards, or to rein in to the bridle,
either in riding or driving.

The neck should form from the head to the withers an
elegant curve, while its under surface ought to be but
gracefully incurvated near to the channel, and should join
the chest, by an easy flow of line, rather above the point of
the shoulders. In point of length, it is of consequence that
the neck be duly proportioned : a long neck is generally a
sign of weakness throughout the frame. When, on the
contrary, the neck is too short, the head is frequently ill-

OF THE HORSE. 21

placed. No neck can be too loaded with flesh, as flesh is
muscle of which no horse can have too much, provided
other parts have it in a like degree. It is evident that
short necks cannot be reined up without danger of suflbca-
tion ; and it is seldom that a short-necked horse is speedy,
though we have seen some excellent trotting-horses with
obvious short necks. In stalhons thickness of neck is to be
expected as ^distinctive sexual mark. Short-necks, when very
obvious, have one disadvantage. The horse of this confor-
mation cannot lower his head sufficiently to get a full meal
when turned out to grass. Now and then the neck is
arched downwards, which is called ewe-necked. When the
deformity is considerable, it prevents the head from being
carried in its true angle ; instead of which, the nose, from
being projected, upwards and forwards, has occasioned such
horses to be called star-gazers ; to remedy which, it is usual
to draw down the head by a martingale. It may not be amiss
to mention, that, in the purchase of a horse, it is prudent to
observe whether the upper part of the neck bears any marks
of a tight collar having been worn : when such an appear-
ance does exist, it commonly arises either from a strap
worn to prevent the action of cribbiting, or such a horse is
apt to unloose himself from the halter, which is almost an
equal defect. A large prominent wind-pipe is considered
desirable ; and a point which will seldom be found to dis-
appoint, though little noticed among horsemen, is a free
pendulous cord or fleshy band proceeding from the upper
part of the throat to the part of the channiel which joins the
neck.

The 7nane crowns the neck throughout its whole extent :
in front of the head it is called the foretop. Its intention
evidently is to act as a whisp to drive away the flies from
the forehead, which part is much exposed and has no muscle
wherewith to shake off" insects. In stallions, the mane is
generally thick and long ; a white one, exhibited some years
ago, was several feet long, and was carried in a bag. It is usual,
wdien it is wished to thin the mane and tail, to wrap a tuft
of the hair around the fingers, and pull it out by the roots ;
but this mode prevents its laying well, and disposes some
horses to resist. In my. own stable I have found that the

22 CONFORMATION OF

frequent use of a three-pronged angular Iron was the best
means of keeping the hair thin, and assisting it to lay well.

CONFORMATION OF THE BODY AND LIMBS.

In proceeding to a description of the external conforma-
tion of the trunk and members of the horse, are we to
regard him as the type of an important genus ? or are we
to examine his frame with a view to his adaptation for some
one of the numerous purposes to which mankind apply him ?
It is in this latter way that the purchaser of a horse would
most likely proceed ; but it is by general principles that the
author can best accomplish his purpose, being well aware
that it is by an extended view of the whole that the indi-
vidual purposes can be best exemplified. Whatever may
be the services required of the horse, strength and safety
are indispensables : the degrees of these qualities may re-
latively vary, according to the work he is employed in, but
each of them is, in every instance, requisite. Power is the
result of muscular contractions acting on organs adapted for
motion. The safety, generally, is connected with the degree
of perfection in the form and direction of the limbs, united
with a just proportion of their lengths.

The withers are formed from the long spinous processes
of the first dorsal vertebrae ; and as, conjointly with the
muscles originating from them, they act as levers in elevat-
ing the fore parts generally, it is evident that any increase
of their height is an addition to their power. It is thus
that horses with high withers usually elevate their legs con-
siderably in action, which is unquestionably favourable to
the safety of their progression : this form is also considered
as an agent in the quickness of motion ; for, as we usually
raise every part we wish to throw forward, so the elevation
of the fore quarters allows the hinder to act with greater
advantage. It is, however, evident, that to a just appre-
ciation of the form of the withers we should consider the
immediate services of the horse. In the hackney, the light-
ness of his carriage, the safety of his footing, and the readi-
ness with which his saddle remains in its proper situation,
render their height invaluable. To the hunter, in addition
to the above, we may add the advantages which result from

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 23

these lengthened levers in the action of leaping. The racer,
on the contrary, is found to perform his wonderful exertions
without any remarkable height in his withers : in Eclipse
they were very low, and they are so in the majority of our
racing fillies and mares. Reasoning on general principles,
which seldom lead us into error, we should not consider
great height in these parts as essentials to the speed of the
racer. The gallop of full speed is but a succession of
bounds, and all animals remarkable for their rapidity in
this motion are found low before and high behind ; that is,
they are furnished with long muscular hinder extremities
exhibiting angular proportions acting on fore extremities,
which are comparatively inert as to the propelling power.
To the draught horse, low withers are peculiarly advan-
tageous, and he can better apply his powers by approximat-
ing his fore quarters to the ground ; for as all drawing is
but throwing the w^eight of the body beyond its centre, or
into the collar, so, the greater the weight the animal carries
before, and the nearer he approximates this centre, the more
advantageously he acts.

The shoulder extends obliquely forward, from a little
below the withers to what are called among horsemen the
point of the shoulders ; but which point is formed by the
articulation of the shoulder-blade with the true arm-bone.
The shoulder is apt to be confounded with the withers,
which often leads to much error in justly appreciating the
power and operation of the fore quarters. The withers may
be high, at the same time that the shoulders may be narrow,
straight, and altogether badly formed. The shoulder, to be
perfect, should be muscular, but by no means heavy with
extraneous cellular matter, for it is by the muscles of the
shoulder that the action of the fore limbs is principally
effected : it is, therefore, of much consequence that the
muscular markings and prominences should be strong.
Immense muscular power is also necessary for the sus-
pension and connexion of these parts ; the shoulder in the
horse not being connected with the trunk by any liga-
mentous union, but wholly by a muscular fibre. Large
fleshy masses unite the broad expansive shoulder-blade by
its upper and inner surface to the ribs and withers, while
other powerful muscles below suspend it, as it were, from the

24 CONFORMATION OF

chest ; by which admirable contrivance perfect elasticity is
preserved. The uneasy seat we experience when riding on
or near the croup of the horse, where the hinder limbs are
connected with the body by a ligamentous and bony articu-
lation, will illustrate the difference between the elasticity
of the one connexion and the other. When the body is
propelled forward, its tendency to the centre of gravity is
counteracted by the fore extremities, which being the true
props or supports of the trunk then receive the mass : had
the shoulders, therefore, been articulated like the thighs,
the machine at every motion would have experienced a
powerful and hurtful shock, if not an absolute dislocation ;
but, formed as they are, the strong muscles of these parts
receive and sustain what the hind quarters have thrown
upon them. This connexion, it may likewise be observed,
is not rendered strong by the power of these muscular masses
alone, but also by the geometrical situation of the scapulae
or shoulder-blades themselves, which being approximated
above, form a kind of partial arch, receiving the trunk
within the entrance of its arms : consequently the greater
the force applied, either by gravitation or impulsion, the
nearer will these segmental portions be approximated, and
the more will their capability of supporting the weight
thrown on them be increased.

The motion the shoulder enjoys is confined by the nature
of its articulation to the perpendicular backwards, or to a
kind of swinging action, to as great an elevation as the
muscles will admit of forw^ards ; and these extensions being
commonly uniform, it will be at once evident that the more
oblique, long, or deep the shoulder is, the greater number
of degrees it will be able to run through. It is therefore
easy to comprehend why obliquity, breadth, and length of
shoulders are favourable to the safety of action by elevating
the limb, to the elasticity of action by increasing the spring,
and to the celerity of action by enlarging the angle.

Mares have very commonly low foreheads, both as regards
the height of their withers and the extent and obliquity of
their shoulders : to counteract this, and to regulate the
angles, an increased obliquity is very commonly observed in
the whole limb downwards ; or, as it is familiarly expressed,
they stand with their legs well under them, which is a merit

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 25

rather than a defect, if not carried to the extreme. This,
however, is ordained for wise purposes ; for by such a posi-
tion of their fore extremities the pelvis is raised higher, and
the foal thereby becomes more conveniently placed, and less
likely to be ejected. Few rules can be laid down for ob-
servance in the exterior conformation of the horse that are
of so general application, as that a short and upright
shoulder, particularly if united to an inclined direction of
the whole limb backward, is a sure mark of an unsafe pacer,
and commonly, though not so universally, of a slow one
also. Thus, by a slanting position of the shoulder-blade
in one direction, and of the true arm-bone in the other,
both elasticity and speed are gained ; while the perpendicu-
larity of the parts below, as of the arm, generally so called,
or upper part of the fore leg, and of the canon, give
columnar support.

The part between the points of the arras or shoulders is
called the breast, chest, or counter ; and our judgment of its
form must be regulated by the variety in the animal. In
the saddle-horse, it should be only moderately wide : when
very confined, the lungs have not sufficient room for
expansion, or otherwise they must press backwards and
interfere with the stomach ; and we do actually find that
narrows-chested horses have seldom a good digestion, and
consequently are seldom durable. On the contrary, when
the breast is too wide, particularly when it projects and
hangs over, the fore legs are apt to incline backwards : such
a horse must be weighty, and consequently unsafe as a
roadster in his mode of going. This form, however, is
peculiarly favourable to the draught horse, particularly for
those employed to move heavy loads.

The elboiv of the horse, like that of man, is formed of the
olecranon, but in the animal is applied to the chest ; conse-
quently the true arm of the horse, speaking comparatively
with the human anatomy, is contained in the space between
this and the shoulder points. The elbow should by no
means incline inwards, or it will confine the action, force
the toe outwards, and sometimes occasion cutting. If it
incline outward, which is less common, it is unsightly, and
gives the toes an inward determination, and a rolling
gait in the trot. It should, therefore, stand on a level

26 CONFORMATION OF

parallel ; as its Inclination backward is usually regu-
lated by the degree to which the shoulder-blade inclines
forward.

The fore -arm, usually called the arm of the horse, cannot
be too large, wide, and muscular ; a small fore-arm is an
indication of w^eakness. All animals intended for rapid
progression have this part long likewise : — the knee of the
greyhound is but three or four inches from the ground ; — but
though its length is favourable to speed, it is not found to
add to the ease of the rider ; and thus horses for cantering,
or for the paces of the riding-school generally, are preferred
with short fore-arms.

The knee of the horse corresponds with the human wrist.
Like the joints generally, it cannot well be too large, for by
means of its extent the muscular and ligamentous connexion
is increased, and the stability of the limbs in proportion
augmented : by this form also the tendinous insertions have
their power increased. The knee should be carefully ex-
amined, to see wdiether the skin has been broken by falls ;
and great caution is necessary in this, for the hair sometimes
grows so w^ell over the scar as to leave it hardly discernible.
Horse dealers likewise hide the blemish by blackening the
part. It does not, however, follow that a mark or scar
always indicates a stumbler ; and persons are too apt to
forget, that the safest horse may by an unavoidable accident
fall ; and the circumstance will not influence his future
manner of going, unless the cicatrix should be of such
extent as to interfere with the motion of the joint : if,
therefore, the arm and fore-arm be strong, the fore-hand
high, and the horse show good action, he should not be re-
jected wholly for an accidental blemish, which is no un-
soundness.

The canon or shank follows the knee, and the perfection
of its form throughout is important. As here are no fleshy
masses, but almost purely tendinous matter, and as the bone
itself is sufficiently solid, so it is not the circumference, but
the breadth of the part, that is requisite to form a good
shank. An attention to the osteology will show, that there
is an especial contrivance behind the knee to give an ad-
vantageous insertion to some of the flexor tendons. When
this bony projection behind the knees, called the trapezium.

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 27

stands well out, the advantages are greatly increased ; for
not only do the muscles act meclianically to greater advan-
tage, but the flexor tendons likewise have their powers much
augmented ; which explains why a horse tied in under the
knee, as it is called, soon becomes strained, the legs get
bowed or arched, and totter on the slightest exertion.
Dealers frequently assert that such a horse was foaled so ;
and it may be true that the colt was born badly formed, but
that circumstance does not render the consequences likely
to ensue the less awkward. It may be considered as a rule
admitting of few exceptions, that hardly one horse in fifty
reaches eight years old with straight legs and sound pasterns.
The tendons themselves, which are the back sineivs of horse-
men, should moreover be continued downwards, so as to
give a surface of great width to the leg, but which should
be thin posteriorly : the mass of sinew itself should, how-
ever, be considerable, and as hard to the feel as iron. In
blood-horses this form is particularly observed ; on the con-
trary, in the cart-horse the back sinews are seldom propor-
tionally so large, and more seldom are they so well placed.
These important tendons should stand wholly distinct and
clear from the knee to the fetlock : when any thickening is
observed in their course, some injury has been received.
If the swelling appear nearer to the bone than the tendon,
particularly if it be on the inner side, it betokens a splint.
When a splint is situated forward, and evidently distinct
from the tendons, it frequently occasions no future incon-
venience ; but when it appears to extend itself inwards and
backwards among the ligaments and tendons, it irritates
these parts, occasions inflammation, and ends in an enlarged
callous swelling. When the flexor tendons and their sheaths
are swelled, and rounded, as it were, into one mass with the
bone, leaving no distinctive marks between the one and the
other, still greater mischief, probably, has at some time hap-
pened. Either some of the ligaments have become rup-
tured, or such a relaxation has taken place from strain and
subsequent inflammation as will always keep the limb weak.
To detect lesser enlargements of the tendons and liga-
ments, the eye alone should not be trusted, particularly in
hairy-legged horses ; but the hand should be deliberately
passed down the shank before and behind. The inner and

28 CONFORMATION OF

under surface of the knee should also be examined in pur-
chasing a horse ; when, if either an enlargement or a scar
appear, it arises from what is called the speedy cut, or blow
giv^en to the part by the foot of the opposite side when it is
elevated high in fast trotting horses. A sore scabby erup-
tion within the bend of the knee sometimes exists, particu-
larly in cart or other low bred fleshy-legged horses. These
eruptive appearances are called mallenders, and render the
horse objectionable, inasmuch as they prove frequently ob-
stinate against healing.

The next part below the canon or shank is the past em.
Among horsemen, the articulation between the pastern and
shank is called the fetlock joint : but, properly speaking,
the fetlock is only the posterior part of the joint of the
pastern, from which grows the foot lock of hair. When
the pastern is very short and upright, the limb is deprived
of much of its elasticity, and such horses prove uneasy
movers : they are also unsafe, for the pastern being so
nearly in an upright position, requires but a small resistance,
or slight shock, to bring it forwards beyond the perpendi-
cular, in which case the weight of the machine, uniting with
the impetus, brings the animal down. Nor are these the
only attendant evils : this formation tends also to an early
deterioration of the parts ; for the ends of the bones being
opposed to each other in a more vertical direction, receive
such a jar or shock at each progressive movement, as
gradually deranges the part, producing an overshot joint,
absorption of the cartilages, and thickening of the liga-
ments. When, on the contrary, the pasterns are too long,
they are frequently too oblique likewise, and must then be
also proportionally weak ; though, from the increased elas-
ticity occasioned by this formation, such horses are com-
monly pleasant and easy in their paces ; and, by the exten-
sion given, they must also be more speedy, particularly in
the gallop. The soft swelling at the side of the canon,
called wind galls, need not here occupy any farther notice
than to remark, that although they bespeak undue exertion,
yet that, in themselves, unless they are so large as to prove
injurious by their pressure, they are not very important.
Cutting of the pastern joints, when dependent on a faulty
formation of the fore limbs, as when they naturally approxi-

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 29

mate too much inwards, or otherwise when the toes are
directed too much outwards, are either of them a serious
evil. Cutting is, however, frequently brought on by debiUty
and emaciation ; hence lean, jaded, and tired horses, will do
it at times, which under other circumstances will go free and
not "'interfere.'' For the same reasons, many horses cut
before they become strong and furnished that never do it
afterwards.

T\\efeet are next to be considered, and much more fuss
was formerly made about the foot than is thought necessary
at present. A foot, either too large or too small, is defec-
tive. The mule-footed blood-horse is in this respect as
faulty as the heavy animal reared on the fens of Lincoln-
shire. The horn of the large-footed horse is weak, and by
battering upon hard roads, or harder stones, generally be-
comes, before he has been long at work, what is called
pumiced. Small feet may be natural, but the horn is apt
to become too hard and unyielding. They are more Hable
to be found too small than too large ; though in horses bred
in low marshy situations, as Lincolnshire and Cambridge-
shire, the hoofs are often of a larger size than ordinary ;
and however convenient this may prove to the animal while
moving on the quaggy surface of these marshy districts,
they are very unfit for speedy and light movements in more
dry situations. Such horses go heavily, and stumble ; and
as the horn of which these enormous feet are formed is
always weak, so, by use on hard roads, the anterior or front
part falls in, and the sole, or under surface, projects out-
ward, reducing it, at last, from a concave to a convex figure :
such feet are then called pumiced. A foot should be of a
proper obliquity ; display a sufficient expansion at the heels,
and have a due quantity, not a superabundance, of horn,
with a healthy frog. When the foot shows a deficiency of
horn, the heels, quarters, and soles must, of necessity, be
weak, and tenderness in going prove the consequence.

The heels should be particularly attended to ; they must
be of a fair width, and the frog firm, yet pliable. Thrushes
are always strong objections to a horse, inasmuch as the
animal having them is not safe to ride, and the thrushes
themselves necessitate medical treatment. But when the
complaint accompanies a ibot already smaller than it was

30 CONFORMATION OF

originally, when the heels are, in the smith's language,
wi7-ed and drawn in, and the whole circumference of the
hoof is perhaps encircled with rings, reject such a horse,
let him go as he will, for he cannot long remain sound.
When a horse's foot is held up, the sole should present a
concave surface ; if it be less concave than natural, that
sole is weak, and will not bear much pressure ; and it is
more than probable it will continue lessening in concavity
until it becomes a plane, when every subsequent shoeing
will endanger the laming of the animal. White feet are by
some people thought to be objectionable on this account ;
they being considered particularly liable to become flat in
the sole. Corns are another evil to which horses' feet are
very liable ; and, unless the shoes are removed during the
examination of a horse, it is not easy to detect them : though,
when the foot is well picked out, if a corn has been of long
standing, some marks of former cuttings out will probably
appear under the heel of the shoe. Another very serious
complaint is a brittleness of hoof, which may be generally
detected by the marks of the fragile parts detaching them-
selves from every old nail-hole. This kind of foot, particu-
larly in hot weather, breaks away, till there is no room for
the nails to fasten, when the horse, of course, becomes useless.
In an examination of the foot, the eye should also be directed
to the wearing of the shoe: if it be unequally worn, particu-
larly if the toe be worn down, such a horse is probably a
stumbler, and does not set his foot evenly on the ground,
either from defective feet or some more serious reason to be
named hereafter.

On a review of the conformation of the fore extremities,
it may be remarked, that, although the hinder limbs appear
to be more particularly concerned in the quickness of the
progression, yet that upon a proper form and a true direction
of the various component parts of the fore limbs must de-
pend the elasticity, ease, and safety of the movements.
Viewed anteriorly, the legs should stand rather widest at
the upper part, inclining a little inwards as they approach
the ground. Viev.-ed laterally, they should be seen to stand
in a direct line downwards, neither forwards nor backwards ;
and the toe should naturally place itself under the point of
the arm or shoulder. If the foot stands beyond this, but

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 31

which is very seldom the case, the action will be confined ;
such a horse, however, generally treads fiat, even, and safe.
When the foot stands behind the vertical line, the defect is
more considerable ; for it makes the forehand heavy, and
inclines the animal to fall ; and as, in general, the conse-
quence of such formation is a want of extent and obliquity
in the shoulders, so it tends to detract from the speed.

The carcass or trunk comprises the ribs, belly, loins,
flank, and haunch. The ribs form the chest of the horse,
which should be wide upwards, and as much deepened
below as possible, affording what is popularly termed great
depth in the girth. The capacity of the chest is dependent
on its form more than its mere external measurement ; for
two horses shall be measured, and shall yield the same
apparent dimensions, yet one shall have much larger lungs
than the other. It is, therefore, not depth alone in the
chest that is required, but sufficient breadth also. This
form increases the surface of attachment for the muscles,
and very materially assists respiration. Posteriorly, the ribs
should form the body as much as possible into a circular
figure, that being of all others the most extended, and the
best surface for absorption ; thus barrelled horses, as they
are called, are justly preferred ; for a circle contains much
more than an ellipsis of the same circumference. But when
the chest is too straight and flat, the belly is also small ;
hence neither can the blood absorb its vital principle from
the air, nor the lacteals sufficiently extract the chyliferous
juices from the food which passes into the intestines.
Horses, therefore, with these defects, are neither long-
winded nor lasting in their exertions. As less nutriment is
taken up by the lacteals, so less is eaten ; thus also these
horses seldom are good feeders ; and as weakness is the result
of deficient nutriment, hence they are what is termed washy,
that is, easily purged, whereby an additional cause of ex-
haustion exists, from the too early passing off of the food.
Nevertheless, it must be remarked, that these sort of horses
sometimes prove better workers than one would expect,
and are conunonly spirited and lively. A knowledge of the
advantages gained by size in the belly is what constituted
Mr. Bakewell's grand secret in the breeding of cattle : he
always bred from such as would be most likely to produce

[V2 CONFORM A'lION OF

tliis fonn. well knowiuL:: no ollior wnnild fnttoii so advnn-
tapHMislv.

'V\\c hark coinnuMicrs iVoin the withers. It should not
he too loiiu', as such a form is unt'avourahle to streni;th :
U)n<;-haeki'(l horses are, however, jjlcwsaut to the rider,
because the action aod re-action are more considerable in a,
loni;- than a short hack, and conse(|iiently the sprint; greater
in the one than the othci'. I>ul what such hoi-ses i;ain in
ease they lose in strcMii;th; holh tlu' h:;aments and tissues
beint;- loni;cr, nuist act to -;reater disa(lvanlai;c\ WIumi the
back is too short, such horses, by havim;- their extrcMuitics
too much ai)i)ro\imated, usually oviMivach. i'hc hack
may be curved inwards or outwards ; when inwards, it is
termed holloir, or saddlc-hdckcd, and presents a formation
uo[ favomahle to strength ; but as tlie counterpoise is
Ivcpt up hv other curves, so the crest is generally uood :
such horses ride pleasantly, and connnonly carry consider-
able carcass, sometimes, indeed, too nuich. When the
cui-vc is outwards, the horse is said to he roach-backril,
which tbrm tenils to prevent liberty in action, lenders him
imeasy in his j)aces, and, from the approximation of his ex-
tremities, he will also otten ovcrri^ach ; and, as a niH-essary
consi'(iuence of' this form of the spine, the niH-k and head
ari> somctimc^s carried low. A sbort-backi^d hoise is in
consiik>rahle recjuest with manv jiiM'sons ; but when tlu> hack
is too short, theiv is seldom great speed, tor the hind legs
cannot he brought sutliciently undcM- llu> body to jiropel the
mass forwai'ds.

The loins oceui)v the attention ol" all good judgi^s in tlu'ir
consideration ol" a horse, and tor any jmrpose they can
bardl) be too broad. The hack (>xten(ls to the posterior rib,
and whci'e the hack ends, tin- loins ht^gin. Sometiujcs, this
junction ol ilu' hack and loins piesents an iiulnitation, as
though the union was incomplete. 'I'his may be ccMisidi-rcd,
in si)me degree, as a. defect, inasnuich as it dc^prives the
])art of powertul attachments, and such horses are said to
hv IhkIIi/ loinrd. The strength of the loins dc^pends on the
length of the transverse processes of the lund)ar vertchr;e,
which should be long, that there ma\ he an extensive
surface for the attachment of the musck's of tlu> hack : the
nuiscles tlRMuselvcs should also be powerful on eacdi side,

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 33

giving width to the loins, and seeming by their enlarge-
ment, as it were, to swallow the baek-bone. When the
protuberances of the haunch-bone are very prominent, the
horse is called ragged hipped, which is only injurious to
the appearance, except in cases where it seems to arise
from a paucity of muscle to fill up the intervening spaces.
From the loins to the setting on of the tail, the line should
be long and very slightly rounded ; bv which means, also,
the distance between the hip and the point of the buttock
will be considerable. This formation is pecuhar to the
improved or blood breed, and in every point of view appears
the most perfect ; for it affords a very increased surface for
the insertion of the most active and powerful muscles in
the horse. And though the large rounded buttocks of the
cart-horse would at first sight bespeak superior strength ;
yet, when he comes to be viewed attentively, it will be
found that the rounding of the sacral line or croup, the
low setting on of the tail, and the small space between the
hip and buttock, produce a decreased extent of surface,
compared with the broad croup, wide haunches, and deep-
spread thighs of the blood-horse.

The flank is the space between the ribs and the haunches,
which part, when too extensive, indicates, except in mares^
great weakness in the loins, and too great length in the
back. A hollow flank is the consequence of shortness in
the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra^ which
occasions a want of room for the attachment of the large
muscles of the loins. When the flank rises and falls in
respiration quicker than ordinary, particularly if the horse
be at rest, it betokens either present fever or defective
lungs. Should it arise from present fever other symptoms
will also be apparent, as heat, dulness, and disinclination
to feed : but when the horse appears otherwise in health,
and yet heaves at the flanks more than natural, particularly
if the weather be moderate, and the stable not hot, it is
probable that such a horse is thick winded. If the inspira-
tion of the air appear to be performed readily, but the
expiration with difficulty,— and the flank, in expelling it
seems to be much exerted, or as it were at two efforts,
such a horse is broken winded. His cough, which should
then be tried, will be found hollow, hard, and, as it is

D

34 CONFORMATION OF

termed, hacking. If no quickness in respiration appear, but
on trotting or galloping a sonorous noise be heard, it is
called roaring ; and though it constitutes no present disease,
yet it is the remains of a former affection ; for it even now
interferes with speedy action, and, in law, renders a horse
unsound or returnable.

The tail, in the improved breeds of horses, is set on
high, which is the natural consequence of length in the
hinder quarters. It should, however, neither seem to be
swallowed up by the buttocks, nor yet to start out ungrace-
fully from the end of the back-bone, but should form a
graceful curve with the croup.

As the fore extremities may be considered as especially
designed to receive and sustain the weight of the body,
so the hinder extremities may be regarded as the essential
propelling organs : since these last, having less to support,
are flexed into considerable angles, — which angles are ope-
rated on by masses of muscles of immense power. It is
also a curious but wise provision in the mechanism of the
limbs, that their angles should be reversed ; for, while the
scapula, or shoulderblade, inclines backward, the ilium,
or haunch-bone, is directed forward. (See Plate I. skel.)
The inclinations of the humerus or arm, and of the femur
or thigh are equally reversed ; and, in a slighter degree, the
same is observable in the corresponding bones immediately
below ; by which arrangement the trunk is suspended equally,
instead of falling backward or forward, as might have hap-
pened, had all the angles been in one direction. That the
hinder extremities are principally concerned in progression,
is again evident from the attention that nature pays to the
strength in all cases where great speed is required ; for let
the animal be ever so lightly framed in other respects,
yet great power will be always displayed in its hinder parts.
Thus, in blood-horses, which are derived in part from the
eastern breed, not only are the loins wide and the croup
long, but, viewed from behind, these horses will be found
wider in the thighs than even in the hips : and of all the
distinctive marks between the high and the low-bred horse,
this is the most striking and characteristic. A good judge,
under every disadvantage, immediately discovers a poi-tion
of breeding by this appearance of power in the muscles of

THE BODY AND LIMBS. 35

the thigh alone. The greyhound offers us also a corrobo-
rative instance of a similar form and intention.

The real thigh of the horse, like the true arm, is so con-
cealed by muscles, as not generally to be known by that
name ; but a view of the skeleton will readily point out
its true position. It will be found, as has been noticed,
reversed in its angle of inclination to that of the real arm,
to which it corresponds, but descending downward lower,
also with a greater inclination, by which elasticity is
gained, and the acuteness of the angle resulting there-
from rendered greatly favourable to the power of action.
This bone being able to pass beyond the perpendicular
backward, also assists these intentions, particularly when
the croup, hips, and thighs, are well furnished with muscle

The whirl-hone, among jockeys, is the articulation of the
thigh-bone with the pelvis, or bone of the haunch : it is a
very strong joint, and but rarely dislocated.

The stijie corresponds to the knee of the human being ;
consequently the part below it (with reference to human
anatomy) ought to be called the leg, but is usually known
by the name of the thigh. For the reasons before mentioned,
the true leg of the horse should be strong and muscular ;
it should likewise make a considerable angle with the thigh,
forming a direct line under the hip or haunch. Its length,
as is seen in all animals destined for much speed, should
be considerable, and its supply of muscle great : whenever
that portion of limb between the stifle and hock is thin,
seemingly long, and but indifferently furnished with muscles,
that limb cannot be strong.

The hock, as it is called by horsemen, forms the joint
between the true leg and the canon, and may be considered
as one of the most complex and important joints of the
body : its figure should be broad and wide ; for, in propor-
tion as the point of the hock extends itself beyond the
other bones, thereby increasing the depth of the joint, so
the tendons inserted into it act with a longer lever, and
thus with a great increase of power.

This joint is subject to several diseases, which are pre-
judicial in different degrees, and therefore require different
degrees of attention. When, on examining a horse, a soft

d2

36 OF THE TEETH.

puffy swelling is discovered within the bend, it is termed
a hog spavin ; which is the consequence of too large a
secretion of joint oil, thereby distending the sac of the
joint. A mucous capsule above and behind the hock also,
at times, becomes enlarged, and is then called thorougkpin.
At the back, likewise, of the joint the ligaments are liable
to extension or other violence, when the part, instead of
exhibiting a straight line from the point of the hock down-
wards, presents in this case a curved surface, accompanied
with heat and tenderness, which is called a curb. The
inner part of the joint at its bend or ply is subject also to
a similar scabby eruption to that of the fore legs, called
sellenders. To detect the existence of hone spavin, the
hocks should be attentively viewed from behind, when any
enlargement in the place of spavin, may be easily detected.
From this enumeration, it will be evident that a strict ex-
amination of the whole joint is very necessary in the pur-
chase of a horse. In the consideration of the parts below
the hock, what has been said of the fore extremities applies
equally to the hinder.

OF THE TEETH, AS CHARACTERIZING THE AGE.

As it is necessary to obtain some marks whereby w^e
can ascertain the age of the horse, the ingenuity of man
has employed itself in noticing those changes in the organs
which are most readily observed, and the least liable to
variation. The teeth, as a part of the bony structure,
have been happily seized on for this purpose. We shall
here consider the teeth as indices of age only ; reserving a
more general sketch of their anatomy and physiology, as
masticatory organs, for a future opportunity. It is well
known that the usual indications of the age of the horse
are commonly derived from certain marks in the incisor
teeth, and principally from those of the lower or posterior
jaw. These ynarks consist in a funnel-like cavity in each
of these teeth ; each is also covered over with two coats,
one, the outer one, of a brown tough substance called
crust a petrosa, and an inner one, which is very brittle and
hard, called enamel. As these coatings of the tooth reach
its nipping edge, they pass over the plane surface, and then

OF THE TEETH. 37

dip down to line the funnel-like cavity in its centre. This
central hollow thus formed, and thus lined, becomes very-
dark within by incrustation ; and, therefore, as long as this
oval cavity remains, so long a striking mark continues :
but when, by constant attrition, the cavity has been worn
away, such horse is said to have ' lost his mark.'

The duration of the mark, however, is in a great measure
determined by the thinness or thickness of the lining
membranes or outer coats : as in proportion as these are
of less substance, of course the cavity is deeper and endures
the longer. The wear of the teeth is also in some measure
influenced by the food ; and in cases where the enamel
and crusta petrosa are very thick, every mark or hole may
be lost by the sixth year, but then the rim of enamel, en-
closing a brown plug of the darker membrane, shows where
the mark should have been. The crusta petrosa and
enamel which, when the tooth is cut, are developed upon its
table or biting surface, soon by attrition become worn away,
and then the bone or ivory (which forms the great sub-
stance of the tooth) is laid bare between two layers of the
membranes, one covering the exterior, and the other lining
the small cavity in the centre of the table. The bone or
ivory being softer than the enamel, wears away faster, and
thus leaves two ridges on the table, biting or nipping
surface, one of which surrounds the central cavity, and
the other embraces the outer surface ; but both serve to
raise prominences for the double purpose of cropping the
food and holding it between the teeth when necessary ; and
by which also the teeth become a more terrible weapon of
offence.

The horse, as is wtII known, has two sets of nipping and
grinding teeth, a temporary and a permanent set. On the
outset we shall treat only of what are called the nippers
among horsemen, and incisors by naturalists. At birth, or
sometimes about a week or ten days after birth, the foal
has two front nippers above and below, which seem to fill
up almost the whole of the mouth. The little jaw enlarges,
however, so rapidly, that about the third or fourth week
the middle nippers also find room to appear, and, with this
complement of temporary or milk teeth, this sportive and
interesting animal frolics about, until towards his ninth

38 OF THE TEETH.

month, when he becomes furnished with two corner nippers
above and below. In very forward colts, the dentition
partakes also of the early evolution, and thus these corner
nippers, known among breeders as the shell teeth, will
sometimes appear as early as the eighth month ; but in cold
situations, with a spare supply of generous milk, they are
occasionally kept back mitil two or even three months
later. The animal has now its full ' colt's mouth ' of
nippers ; and the completion of the process occurs most
opportunely at a time when its wants, from increased
growth, become greater, and its maternal supplies less ;
the milk of the mare beginning about this time to de-
crease.

This early or temporary set of nippers, as might be ex-
pected, differ from the permanent or horse teeth by being
altogether smaller and whiter, and also by having a well-
marked neck to each, which ends in a more pointed and
slender fang ; and they also have several very fine grooves
or furrows on their outer surfaces. They are slightly
rounded in front, and hollowed towards the mouth : the
cutting surface of each of these also rises into a sharp edge
in front, which fits it for tearing up the grass. But these
earlv teeth being less durably framed than those which are
to follow, soon show the marks of even the early attrition
they meet with. Before twelve months the teeth, there-
fore, show considerable wear, and all closely meet on their
biting or nipping surfaces.

The molares, or grinders, although they do not yield
such definite characters of the age, may be usefully em-
ployed as auxiliaries. The foal is usually born with a
certain number of grinders already protruded above and
below. Two always appear together, and we believe the
third is not so frequently synchronous with the two former.
At a period varying between eleven and fourteen months
a fourth grinder is added, which is the first permanent,
and constitutes the fourth of the future row of permanent
grinders. It may, therefore, be considered, that a full
yearling colt or filly will have six nippers well up ; and
when twelve months old it will usually have four grinders on
each side, above and below. Before the completion of the
second year, the second permanent grinder is added, and

OF THE TEETH. 39

forms the fifth of the row. Between the second and thh'd
years, the first two milk grinders fall out, and are replaced
by the first two of the row of the permanent grinders ; and
between the third and fourth year, the third temporary
grinder is shed and the sixth permanent grinder cut, so
the colt has a full set of permanent molars when four
years old.

To pursue our dental characteristics of the age, we must
now take up the permanent or horse nippers, and which
are those most important to the purposes of the breeder,
the seller, and the buyer. We must first observe, that,
although constitutional peculiarities will occasionally in-
terfere with uniform dentition, and although the evolution
of the teeth may be hastened or retarded by an early or a
late foaling;, yet, by common consent among us. May is
presumed to be the birth-month of every horse ; and,
notwithstanding these circumstances, this understanding
answers all the usual purposes of commerce. Far other-
wise is it with the veterinarian, who must look much
closer, as on his judgment very weighty decisions will often
depend.

The appearance of the permanent set of nippers may, in
brevity, be thus stated : — The front, at from two years to
two years and a half. The middle, from three to three
years and a half. The corners, from four to four years and
a half; while the tushes may appear at any period after
the second or before the filth year. The colt, after the
attainment of five years, assumes the name of horse ; the
filly is also transformed into a mare at the like period :
both are now adults, and are, without hesitation, applied
to the purposes intended for them.

The horse's tusks, tushes, or canine teeth, are four, one
on either side of either jaw. When the tush is at its full
growth, it assumes a slightly incurved cone-hke form,
having internally furrows, which arising from the base,
extend upwards and meet, leaving a triangular eminence
between. The tush is not unfrequently examined as a
criterion of the age ; and some persons place much de-
pendence on the presence or absence of its point, and
the degree of its curvature, as well as the distinctness
of its furrows : although these appearances are liable to

40 OF THE TEETH.

variation, yet the veterinarian would do well to accustom
himself to an examination of the tushes, as it occasionally
happens that he can only take a very hasty glance at the
mouth of some animals ; but there are few that will not
allow the finger to be passed between the lips. In the
evening also, or in very dark stables, the tush will often
afford a useful, though not a positive indication as to the
sex of the animal, mares generally having no tushes.

Making the nippers our principal guides, we proceed to
remark that, during the period between the fifth and sixth
years, the cavity in the front nippers wears away; and thus
a horse is said to have lost his mark at six. The close
observer will, however, yet be able to discover a central
discoloured depression, and a prominent ridge of enamel
around it, with an intervening part occupied by what has
been already called the bone of the tooth.

At seven, similar appearances have taken place in the
middle nippers, which have now lost their mark also.

At eight, the mark, or rather the cavity, is obliterated
from the corner teeth likewise, and in jockey language the
horse is now aged.

The marks, however, are very uncertain guides, being
subject to numerous variations, hardly ever alike and never
to be absolutely trusted. The mouth, indeed, ceases to be
a certain guide after the fifth year, though the age may be
told with tolerable accuracy up to the sixth year, when all
the teeth are fully up or close together.

It must, however, never be lost sight of, that the de-
scriptions which have been given of dentition throughout
are best understood, — indeed, can only be justly appre-
hended, by considering that it is not by simple wearing
away of the upper surface, and consequent decrease of
the column of the tooth, that the indicatory changes
in their appearances take place, particularly in the pro-
tracted periods of life, but by a disposition in the teeth to
shoot upwards to meet the continual deterioration going
on ; by which a gradual exposure of their under surfaces is
made far heloiv the original depth of the central cavity pro-
ducing the ynarh. It must, also, not be forgotten, that as,
on a view of the figure of a tooth throughout its whole
extent, the fang will be found to vary much from the free

OF THE TEETH, 41

portion, so it is readily explained why the figures of senile
teetli are so unlike those of more early periods. The fangs,
as age advances, are actually protruded into the mouth,
and the tables, or biting or nipping surfaces of these, for
the most part, are nearly or quite square, while the teeth
themselves, at this advanced period, are projected forward
or presented almost horizontally from the gums.

It will also strike the reflecting mind, that attention to
the later character will become even more important than
om* yielding to old but erroneous impressions of age, as it
stands in the horseman's vocabulary ; as this gives place to
conviction, analogy, and experience, that which the jockey
calls age, as connected with the natural powers and dura-
tion of the animal, is removed by at least twelve years ; for
premature age in the generality of horses is brought on by
too hard and too early work.

Impressed with a conviction resulting from experience,
that what is called age in the mouth is often combined with
youth in the limbs, the practical judge, instead of refusing
such an offer when it occurs, hails it as a boon ; for
the reputed age has produced only the best effects, by
condensing the solid parts of the frame, and rendering them
capable of continued exertion. Such age is usually accom-
panied by a steadiness of temper and disposition that
teaches the horse to employ his powers judiciously, be-
cause the animal is certain to have been gently used in
his youth.

The truly senile horse will be seen with eyes sunken,
sometimes dim, and eye-pits hollow ; the lips will be thin
and pendulous, the under or posterior often extremely so.
The anus, not wedged up by interstitial matter as hereto-
fore, and not sufficiently retracted by its muscles, projects
much. The grey horse becomes white, and the darker
colours become intermixed with grey, particularly about
the head. The bony processes in every part of the body
stare out, and give a rigidity of appearance which well
accords with the actual state of the body. So much greater
is the absorption of parts now than their increase, that even
the diseased deposits of more youthful times, as windgalls
and bony exostoses, are lessened, or their outward indica-
tions disappear altogether. The mouth also will present

42 OF THE TEETH.

some appearances which deserve attention. The upper
corner nipper is frequently sawed, as it were, into two parts
by the action of the lower, which in turn loses its outer
edge also in the wear. The whole of them become yellow,
are covered with tartar, and stand wide apart from conden-
sation and approximation to their roots.

The cautious veterinarian, when called on to give a
professional opinion, must however not form his judgment
principally on the appearances afforded by the teeth.
Under this view, it is imperatively necessary for him to
take into his account all such circumstances as are likely to
mislead the judgment : the principal of these are, the
irregularities of dentition, and the arts of breeders, dealers,
&c. Although, as already observed, the age of all horses
is dated from the 1st of May, yet we know that they are
occasionally dropped in December even, and we have seen
others which were said to be foaled in July. These differ-
ences must, of course, influence the dentition much, and an
early foal will thus have what is called a forivard mouth.
When such a one is either reared by an expert breeder,
or falls into the hands of a professed jockey, he takes care
to make this circumstance turn to account, by converting
these few months of difference into a year. Neither is the
time of birth the only means of early or protracted dentition.
Warm sheltered situations, with a liberal supply of generous
milk, and a pasturage so luxuriant as to allow early
browsing in the foal, will hasten the evolution of the teeth,
as the absence of these will retard it. In some instances,
constitutional anomalies present themselves : the middle
and corner nippers have been delayed two, three, and even
four months beyond the usual time ; in which, and similar
cases, the judgment can only be directed by an inspection of
the grinders, which seldom participate in the irregularity.

The front nippers usually fall at two years old ; and the
veterinarian, in examining a colt in July, which had been
foaled December or January two years and three or four
months ago, and finding that the subject of his examination
had already two permanent nippers in front tolerably well
up, without examining further, would state the age as rising
four, instead of just two and a half; which would be the real
age according to all fair rules of reckoning. It is evident,

OF THE TEETH. 43

however, that a closer examination would detect this judg-
ment was not quite in accordance with established signs ;
for if the colt were really four years old, the age the
breeder intended to make him appear, the middle nippers
should have undergone considerable attrition ; the corner
temporary teeth would also show the effects of wear ;
neither of wdiich appearances would, in the present instance,
occur. Further examination into the mouth, in such case,
may likewise show, that although the colt or filly has already
five grinders, yet that the first of them are of the milk set,
and the posterior one only belongs to the permanent or
horse set. The difference however is not very easily told
between the temporary and permanent grinders, though the
size, supposing the animal submits to such an examination
as will permit of a careful comparison, is some guide.

A fraud, comparatively very common, is that of passing
off a four-year old for one of five years, particularly w^here
the colt is a promising and somewhat early one. This
however is only a fraud inasmuch as the seller passes off a
colt for that which it is not. When however the teeth say
five, other developments generally declare the same, and a
year of youth and actual service is a positive gain to the
purchaser. The idea that dealers can hasten the growth
of the permanent teeth by punching out or drawing the
temporary ones is now wholly disbelieved in. A man may
retard, but he cannot hasten growth by cruelty ; the more
any animal suffers the less it grows.

We now have to speak of positive deceptions practised
on the teeth of the horse : thus, wlien a dealer becomes
possessed of a horse whose teeth bear more actual marks
of age than either his limbs or spirit, it is an object worthy
his attention to give such teeth a more youthful appearance.
The principal part of this art consists in the operation
called bishoping (supposed to be derived from a man of
that name, one of its earliest or most expert practitioners),
which consists in the making an artificial cavity in the
upper surface of the nippers, by means of a sharp hard
tool, and rendering the cavity permanently black with a
heated pointed instrument : but the strokes of the graver
detect the imposition, and the two inner grooves of the

44 OF THE TEETH.

tushes cannot be restored by similar means ; nor can the
aged position and appearance of the tables of the teeth be
affected by this artifice.

The judgment formed from the teeth, though generally
to be depended on when these frauds have not been
practised, is yet liable to some error from other causes
than these. Some horses living wholly on grain, and very
early worked, will occasionally be found to have gained on
others which have fed principally on succulent matter. In
those which champ much on the bit, this variation may be
very considerable, and make a full year's difference between
them and others. It remains again to remark, that a too
strict adherence to the teeth-marks very frequently leads
those who are only moderate judges into very great error in
another way ; which is, that of frequently causing them to
reject the most useful and valuable horses without these,
marks, as being supposed past their work. Nothing is
more fallacious than this : the commonly received indices
of the age grant an assurance that the animal has not
passed a third of its natural life ; nor one half of the time
in which he is perfectly useful, and fully capable of answer-
ing all the purposes for which he was intended. It is
only in a country like our own, where these generous crea-
tures are so early put to labour, and so unremittingly
forced to pursue it, that this mark is so much attended to.
A subordinate attention only should be paid to the appear-
ance of the teeth, if a horse appear what is termed fresh
and sound ; that is, if all his organs be capable of their
several functions, the Timbs being firm, and exhibiting no
appearance of too early, too great, or too long continued
exertion. The early ruin of English horses is not only to
be attributed to the excellence of the roads and the calls of
business, which urge our horses onward, but it is equally
to be laid to the account of their being worked before the
maturity of the system is perfected, or the motar organs
completely evolved. The premature exertion forces nature
into artificial means of strengthening the debilitated organs ;
hence the cavities between the tendons and their sheaths are
destroyed : parts take on a bony structure, whose original
formation was cartilaginous, as the lateral cartilages of the

OF THE TEETH. 45

feet, and the articular processes of the vertebrcie ; a greater
quantity of ossific matter is deposited on tlie surface of
some bones than is natural, forming splints, spavins, ring-
bones, &c. : and to counteract the unnatural waste, other
secretions are likewise preternaturally augmented, producing
windgalls. But where horses are suffered to attain their
full growth, and the complete evolution of their stamina, if
they are afterwards put to full exercise, not altogether
inordinate, they become competent to the exertions expected
of them, and reach old age sound and vigorous. Many
good judges will not purchase a horse for hunting earlier
than eight years old, and regard him only in his prime at
ten or twelve. It is too little considered, that the period
of a horse's life, with moderate care and good usage, is
protracted to twenty-five, thirty-five, and forty-five years ;
and an instance lately occurred of a horse dying at fifty.
The accounts of their being vigorous and strong at thirty,
and thirty-five, are very numerous ; and nearly as frequent
as activity in men of eighty and ninety. A gentleman at
Dulwich, near London, has three monuments of three
horses, who severally died in his possession at the ages of
thirty-five, thirty-seven, and thirty-nine. The oldest, it is
to be remarked, was in a carriage the very day he died,
strong and vigorous ; but was carried off in a few hours by
spasmodic colic, to which he was subject. At Chesham,
in Buckinghamshire, there was a horse of thirty-six years
old, who exhibited no symptoms of debility, nor any ex-
ternal signs of age. It was remarkable, with regard to this
four-footed Nestor, that when an unusual hard day's work
was required, he was always chosen, as never failing in what
was expected from him. A horse named Wonder, belong-
ing to the riding-school at Woolwich, may be quoted as
living to forty years.

Mr. CuUey, in his Observations on Live Stock, mentions
a horse he knew which lived to the age of forty-seven
years, having during the greater part of that time a ball in
his neck, received in the battle of Preston, and which was
extracted at his death : for, judging him at four years at
the time he received the wound (and it is probable he was
more), he must, at his death, have been fortv-seven. But

46 OF THE TEETH.

even these venerables were mere babies to the barge-horse
of the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, who was well known
to have been in his sixty- second year when he died.

It is true, that these are not very common instances ;
yet it is not the natural economy of the animal which makes
them so rare, but their early application to full exertion,
and the unremitting continuance of it, whereby their race
has begun frequently before they are three years old ; before
five, their utmost speed is exerted after the hounds in
winter, and as hackneys against time in the summer ; at
seven, blind, foundered, and spavined, they gallantly shine
in the mail or stage ; at eight, they falter in the fish cart ;
and, before ten, worn out with disease and inanition, their
reputed old age gains them an honourable exit at the
slaughter-house.

Hence it must be at once evident how small a propor-
tion of a horse's natural life is eight years ; and yet this
past, the majority of persons begin to consider him as aged,
and unfit for service. The more we see and observe of
horses, the more we shall be astonished at the want of
attention and consideration this evinces. A long acquaint-
ance with these animals has induced us to draw the
following comparisons between their ages and that of man ;
that is, at these several periods of comparison, the consti-
tution of horses and man may be considered as in an equal
degree of perfection and capability for exertion. Thus,
the first five years of a horse may be considered as equiva-
lent to the first twenty years of a man ; or thus, that a
horse of five years may be comparatively considered as old
as a man of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man of
fort}'^ ; a horse of fifteen, as a man of fifty ; a horse of
twenty, as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five, as a man of
seventy ; of thirty, as a man of eighty ; and of thirty-
five, as a man of ninety. So far from this comparison
being too much in favour of the horse, we are disposed
to think it too little. Horses of thirty-five years of age
are as common as men of ninety, provided it be taken
into the account that there are twenty human subjects for
every horse ; and, unquestionably, a horse of forty-five is
less rare than a man of a hundred and ten.

OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE. 47

OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE.

In the ox, the age is most frequently judged of bj^ the
horns, as offering a more convenient point of observation
than the teeth. But as the horns are the subject of much
trickery, and as some breeds are now hornless, it is not im-
portant that we should be justly informed of the indications
of age by them. The dentition of horned cattle has been
more neglected than that of the horse ; and the scientific
breeders, who have learned to mould the form of these
animals at their will, have failed to inform themselves on
so simple a matter as the successional changes in the
bovine teeth. On the contrary, they have copied each
other's errors from Buffon downward ; until, in the present
day, some of our highest authorities are not within twelve
months of the correct periods of the displacement of the
one set and the appearance of the other.

A calf, either at birth, or very soon after, is found to
have two middle incisors in the lower or posterior jaw ;
neat cattle having, as is well known, none above. In a
fortnight, two others appear alongside of the first. The
third week usually produces two more ; and by the fourth
or fifth week from birth, there is an addition of two others,
making the complement of milk incisors (eight) complete.

These teeth will present a surface convex externally, and
somewhat concave within ; the portion above the gum will
be covered with enamel, and which will slant upward from
the internal to the external surface of the tooth, forming
an edge of considerable sharpness. The only indication
of advancing age will be the wearing down of these sharp
edges, and the appearance of the bony substance of the
tooth beneath. Even at a month the centre teeth are a
little worn. At two months the enamel will have been
slightly worn off the edge of the four centre teeth. At
three months, from the six centre ; and at four months,
the corner teeth will likewise be considerably worn. From
this period these teeth decrease in size in the order of their
appearance, until two years old, when the two middle ones
are pushed out by those of the permanent set ; and thus
a two-year old steer or heifer will have two large middle

48 OF THE AGE OF HORNED CATTLE.

incisors pushing up, and six dwindled ones remaining. At
three years old there are four of the old and four of the
new set ; but the older will seem to be almost hidden by
the others. When the beast is four years old, there will
be found six permanent broad incisors, and two shrunken
ones of the milk set, wdiich latter sometimes do not dis-
place themselves so readily, but, on the contrary, form a
species of wolves-teeth, and annoy the animal much, unless
they are extracted. It is at five years old that the animal
may be said to be full-mouthed ; for at this period, whether
it be steer or heifer, the eight incisors will be all up, though
they will not appear equally grown until six years old.

The horns of cattle also yield indications of age thus : —
At three years the horns are smooth, and by the fourth
year, two small circles extending round the bases appear.
The growth of the horn impels this circle forward, and
another horny cylinder, similarly terminated, appears
annually as long as the animal lives. The horny ac-
cretion converts these circular extremities into annular
joints or horny rings ; and thus, by allowing three years
for the point of the horn, and an additional year for
each ring, the age is obtained. To frustrate this judg-
ment, it is not uncommon to shave or rasp the horns :
but the mouth, by the foregoing rules, will yield a just
indication.

In sheep, also, the age is judged of by the teeth. The
second dentition commences between the first and second
year, but by the second year, the middle permanent incisors
of the under or posterior jaw (for they also have none
above) are up. At three years they have four of these
broad teeth, as they are called ; at four, six of them are
fully evolved ; and at five years, the two others are up,
which makes them full-moiithed. The sheep's teeth, as the
animal advances in years, becoming divested of their enamel,
blacken, shrink in volume, and, where circumstances occa-
sion these animals to be allowed to become very old, they
loosen, and prove almost useless. The teeth of goats
follow similar laws, and their age is indicated by the same
appearances.

The horns of sheep "and of goats are not changed, but

THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES. 49

appear the first year ; and as they also gain a horny ring
every year, so, by adding one year for the end and one for
each ring, the age is indicated in the horned breeds.

THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES.

The colour of horses, being derived from their hairy
covering, is necessarily very varied. Numerous conjec-
tures have been entertained as to what was the original
colour of this animal: but the inquiry has not been attended
with success ; for the horse is seen to perform all his
functions under any tint ; though fancy, and perhaps expe-
rience, has appropriated particular constitutional properties
and mental qualities to some hues more than others. The
various colours of horses would seem to be truly original and
inherent ; for such of them as have, from a state of domes-
tication, been suffered again to run wild, have retained the
colour they carried with them, although their form has
altered, and submitted to the agencies of climate. Neither
have the horses of different couniries, according to the
accounts of travellers, exhibited any individual characteristic
hue. The horses of the East are not darker than those
of the North ; on the contrary, we have white Arabians,
and we procure the darkest breeds from the north of
Europe ; while in Russia bright bay is as common a colour
as any other. Geographical distribution is not, however,
wholly without its influence on the hair ; for our heavy
breeds, drawn from the northern parts of Europe, are very
frequently black ; but a full blood black horse is seldom met
with. Age has hkewise a powerful effect on the tinting of
the hair ; that of the colt alters many shades ; in some
cases it becomes much lighter, and in others altogether
much darker, as the adult period arrives. But the altera-
tion in them which takes place between the time of full
growth and that of old age, is invariably from a darker to a
lighter hue.

The colours of the parents, among horses, appear to be
nearly divided in the offspring ; to which adherence in the
propagation of the external covering, we are indebted for
the endless variety of shades found among them. It was
probably to add to the personal beauty of this animal, that
in many the mane and tail are either much lighter or much

E

50 THE COLOURS AND MARKINGS OF HORSES.

darker than the short hair of the body ; which variation
tends greatly, in the painter's language, to reUeve and throw
up the body-hue. If nature, in these varied markings, had
personal beauty really in view, as from analogy we may
suppose, it would then be natural to conclude that the
original horses all had it ; as a contrasted tint of mane
and tail is common to some colours more than to others ;
but these varieties will not afford any conjecture to be
thence drawn as to the hue prevailing among the primo-
genitors of the genus. Besides these contrastings of colours,
we may add those markings frequently met with, such as
the dark dorsal stripe of some breeds, as well as the band-
ings or stripings common on the legs and arms of others,
of the duns particularly. The humeral cross stripe is
principally found on the ass ; faint traces of it, however,
are now and then seen on some horses, but which, like
some other anomalies, may be rather considered as minute
links of assimilation to other more remote members of the
genus. A still more usual marking is found on the joints,
which are in many horses several shades darker than the
rest of the body, and in some others altogether black. The
dappling in the grey, the bay, the brown, &c., may be
regarded as intended, like the spots of the tiger and pan-
ther, to add to the beauty of the animal, and cannot be
considered as arbitrary deviations from nature, gained by
domestication or crossings in breed.

On this subject it may be observed, that there is a sen-
sible difference between the markings imprinted by nature,
and those which are added by artificial agencies in opera-
tion since the subjugation of this animal. The former
please every eye, and they never offend : whereas such as
appear to be the consequence of cross alliances, or other
effects of domestication, however custom may have forced
on us the adoption, yet most of them are found to prove
unpleasant to the eye. Piebald horses are displeasing to
most; and few can ever become reconciled to the tiger-spotted.
Extensive markings of white on black horses offend all.

CONDITION OF HORSES. 51

SECTION V.

CONDITION OF HORSES.

Condition is a term generally understood, but hardly ever
applied in its strict signification. In the mouths of the
trainer, the gentleman, the stableman, the dealer, and the
carter, it is used with strict propriety when appealing to
the animal each in his own sphere has to deal with. But
taken beyond this sphere, each will pronounce the horse
the other prizes out of condition. Yet the word so often
used, and in the mouth of everybody, must have some
meaning. Condition implies the highest possible state of
positive health compatible with the purposes to which man
seeks to put a horse. It is a state of health so fine, that
it borders on disease, and animals kept in condition for any
length of time (unless admirably tended) are apt to be
attacked by disorders.

The trainer, to attain condition, endeavours to promote
the absorption of every particle of loose tissue or of fat ; to
have the muscles and tendons in their highest working
order ; and the nervous system in a state of energy which
too often disappoints the hopes of him who induces it.
This is, on the race-course, called perfect condition.

The gentleman likes to behold his hunter much in the
state of the lacer, only, as the animal has to endure every
vicissitude of weather, and is expected to carry its rider for
a day rather than for a few minutes, he can permit,
perhaps, a slight quantity of flesh which w^ould be deemed
superfluous in the racer. This, in the gentleman's opinion,
is excellent condition.

The stableman likes the horses under his care to carry
a fair quantity of flesh, to be gay, but not too sprightly, to
have glossy coats, and altogether to appear after a fashion
that may captivate his mistress' eye ; and this when
brought about is, to his mind, admirable condition.

The dealer loves to behold his stock so fat, as to be
unfit for long or even actual work, but fat enough to render
the body round, so as to conceal every defect. Fed up to
the point of excitement, but, like drunkards, unable to
maintain it long. Very fresh for the few minutes they are

e2

52 CONDITION OF HORSES.

taken out of the stable to be shown, but with lungs that
would hardly permit them to frolic for a longer period.
With their coats blooming, their manes and tails nicely
combed, and with their hoofs freshly oiled. This, in his
judgment, is absolute condition.

The carter wishes his horse to carry as much fat and
flesh as possible, thereby to increase his w^eight, and enable
the animal to pull heavy loads. To obtain the means of
doing this he employs various nostrums, and not unfre-
quently cribs from his master's granary. When he beholds
his teams fat to repletion, he, with pride, pronounces them
to be in beautiful condition.

Thus condition in horses, though applied in different
senses, yet, when properly considered, means always the
same thing. The horse is intended, by the word, to be in
an unnatural or forced state, up to the requirements of an
arbitrary master's will ; but, when carried to extremes, not
in such a condition as is altogether fairly compatible with
the creature's enjoyment of existence, or directly equal to a
state of health which promises prolonged life.

With so artificial a state, no matter to which sort of
condition the horse be subjected, any sudden change is
likely to interfere. There is no practice more foolish than
that of suddenly turning a horse into a field, in order that
he may support life upon grass. It is true herbage may be
the natural food of the animal, but the horse of our stables
is not in a state of nature. In his free state the animal
does no work, neither, it may be said, does he wdien turned
out to grass. This, at first, may appear very true, but the
hardest of all work is any exercise we are unused to. The
editor of this edition has seen a countryman sweat over a
letter for half a day, and at the end of the time the man
has only spoiled several sheets of paper. So also he has
witnessed a lawyer perspire, when positively doing nothing in
a garden. Then the horse turned into a field has to do that
which it is not used to perform. In the stable its food is
brought to it, in the field it has to walk for its living ; thus
there is a total change of habit by the day, and at night,
instead of a warm stable, with a good bed and plenty of
clothing, he has to lie dowai perhaps on the damp grass,
with the heavens above him, and nothing to cover his

CONDITION OF HORSES. 53

shivering bodj^ Then there are the flies to be taken into
the account ; yet, not to mention these pests, there is the
diet ; the horse in the stable eats only hay and oats ; a com-
paratively small portion of which suffice for his sustenance ;
when turned to grass he is taken away from such stimu-
lating diet, and compelled to march many a mile before he
can collect enough of watery herbage to satisfy the cravings
of nature.

Let no man who has an animal that is worth stable pro-
vender turn such a horse out to grass. It is an old and
unfounded notion that grass is the natural food of the horse.
We know nothing of the wild animal, and therefore cannot
say what it did or did not eat ; it is certain many horses
can exist upon the growth of the field, but then very many
cannot ; and how is the master to decide which will and
that which is unable.

The loss of a horse is a serious sacrifice, not to mention
the disappointment when the mind was fixed on its improve-
ment. Any change is inimical to condition ; an increase or
change of food ; mowburnt or musty hay ; kiln-dried or new
oats ; any alteration in the water the horse is accustomed
to drink ; scarcity of, or too much water ; excess of warmth
in the stable, and too much clothing : excessive exertion or
want of exercise ; cramming upon or after a journey ; too
hard a burst or too long a check ; in short, any thing what-
ever which -endangers the high state of excitability to which
the animal has been brought will throw the animal out of
condition, as it is termed. To keep up perfect condition is
a most difficult task : it requires all the master's and the
groom's utmost attention ; and when maintained for any
period, as a general rule, it certainly tends to shorten life.

MORBID CONDITION.

This simply means that the horse is suffering from some
immediate disease, or that he is the victim of the lingering
effects of a disorder, the active symptoms of which have
subsided. In such a case no rule of treatment can with
propriety be laid down, but the animal must be subjected to
those measures that apply to his peculiar state ; ample direc-
tions for which will be given hereafter.

54 CONDITION OF HORSES.

GETTING A HORSE INTO CONDITION.

Turning a horse out to grass is like taking an alderman
from his customary diet to place him on pauper food. All
the evil we should expect in the one case we see in the
other : the belly enlarged ; the body swells ; the skin be-
comes hard, coarse, or stares. All these signs announce
the lowering of the system, but, if any further proof be re-
quired, the weakness of the animal is shown when it is
either ridden or driven. It very soon becomes covered with
a lather, as it is termed, in contradistinction to a natural
sweat.

The straw-yard is not much better. If the horse be not
debilitated by innutritions food, in these places he usually
suffers from semi -starvation. The entire system is bad, and
requires to be changed.

But, when a horse is taken up from grass he ought to be
put into as cool a stable as possible ; no clothing at first is re-
quired ; a pail of water, kept constantly full, should be placed
in his manger ; his food should consist of oats mingled with
bran ; two bran-mashes daily for the first week ; then one for
the next week ; no hay should be allowed at first, but carrots,
cut small and mixed with bran, ought to be placed in the
manger. On the following week a portion of moistened
hay may be allowed, and some of the carrots withdrawn ;
more oats may be given, and a bran-mash withheld ; some
covering at night should also be allowed, minding, however,
that it is thin at first, and gradually increased. All the
while the grooming should be double the usual quantity :
the horse may, with advantage, be dressed night and morn-
ing ; at first gently, then with the utmost strength, using
the curry-comb as freely as the animal can endure it.
Plenty of exercise at the same time is essential, starting
with a walk, and as the horse improves, augmenting it into
a trot, and even a gallop ; but nothing like a sweat under a
pile of clothing should be admitted. The horse that cannot,
by the gentler means, be got into condition is not worthy of
the trouble which the process necessitates. Not a particle
of physic of any kind, unless the animal be really diseased,
should be given, under the notion of getting up the belly,
and reducing the flesh. It is not flesh it is desired to

STABLING OF HORSES. 55

remove, but a dropsical habit it is wished to amend. The
bowels do not contain too much nourisliment ; but dropsical
effusion, originatmg in weakness, has taken place. It is not
generally known, but it is perfectly true, that a horse can
be purged into the very state which the utmost want of
condition can represent. Perhaps, however, rather than
have all the trouble of getting an animal into condition,
after it has been turned to grass, it is the better and the
cheaper plan, though probably one which the groom who
loves idleness and excitement may not altogether approve,
to keep the horse at home, and never to allow him to sink
so low as to require so much labour to get him into condi-
tion again.

SECTION VI.

STABLING OF HORSES.
THE STABLE ITSELF.

Stabling of every description is an evil. It is impossible a
stable should be so built that it will allow the animal one
half the freedom he enjoys when loose out of doors. Most
stables are built so as to aggravate their inseparable cruelty.
The flooring slants from the manger to a gutter, which runs
at the horse's heels. Now, if horses be in a field, and at
rest, they will always be seen standing upon a piece of
ground that declines in precisely the opposite direction.
The fact is, our modern stables throw the stress upon the
back sinews or flexor tendons, and thus prepare many an
animal for the injury he afterwards unexpectedly experiences.
Nor is this all : the stall is perfectly at variance with the
habits of the horse; he is evidently gregarious, or lives
among crowds of his fellow-creatures ; the stall dooms him
to solitude, and the groom sits behind to see he does not
put his nose over the divisions, only to look at a comrade.
In many stables the stall is so small that the horse cannot
turn round ; he can lie down perfectly at ease in very few ;
yet, there he stands, looking at a bare wall, with the stress
upon his back sinews, for a period varying from twenty to
twenty-three hours during the day. The horse, in any
condition beyond the dominion of man, is necessitated to

56 STABLING OF HORSES.

walk, in order to crop the heritage on which he exists ;
when under human protection, he changes a hfe of cease-
less activity for one of all but continuous stagnation. Is
it to be wondered then that the sinews often fail ? Or is
it a cause of complaint against nature, that the feet and
legs so often oblige man to allow his wretched servant to
remain idle ? The foot is the most valuable part of the
horse ; but, to preserve the foot, continued motion is im-
perative. This is denied ; a condition the very contrary is
enforced ; and then man, in his presumption, blames nature
because the foot of the horse is so often the seat of disease.

Loose boxes are better than stalls. But in these the
injury is only lessened, not removed. The horse has a
loving heart bestowed upon him. He must love something.
Lambs, dogs, cats, goats, fowls, &c., every creature he is
permitted to see, by turns have become the object of his
affections. Mr. Blaine records, that horses have defeated
the utmost efforts of man to get them into condition when
a companion has been taken away from the next stall, or
when the animal has been stabled alone. Bales, after the
fashion of military stables, are to be preferred to wooden
partitions, unless they be made much lower than at present.
The stall should be made a few feet wider than is the custom
to build it. The floor should slant from behind towards
the middle, where the gutter may be placed, and then be
gently raised and afterwards incline towards the manger.
A notion is abroad, that the present flooring carries off the
urine of the mare, but were stables paved in the manner
we advocate, they would equally carry off the urine of
geldings. The point in dispute is surely, then, in our
favour.

Most stables, moreover, are kept much too warm. Not
that any are heated by means of a stove or fire, but the
animals doomed to reside within them are made to breathe
the same air over and over again, until it becomes hot, and
smells so strongly of ammonia, as to sting the eyes and take
away the breath of the stranger who unexpectedly enters
them. This is not warmth ; but foulness, filth, and abomi-
nation, which should immediately be abjured. Let a stable
be freely ventilated ; it cannot have too nmch air at any
period of the year ; its inhabitants and the shelter of the

STABLING OF HORSES. 57

walls will always make sufficient difference, especially when
the mode of ventilation is considered. The air must never
blow directly upon the horses, but the ventilation should be
above their heads, for foul air always has a tendency to
ascend. If this plan were followed, the stable would range
from 40° to 50° in winter, and from 60° to 70° in the
summer ; but the most violent draughts are better than
foulness. If the proprietor therefore, on entering his stable,
detects any stench, he had better order the horses out to
exercise, and while they are absent have every door and
window thrown wide open. After this has been done once
or twice, the groom will take care the stable is always
sweet, let the master enter when he may.

Every stable should be thoroughly drained, not into a
neighbouring cesspool, but to such a distance as will preclude
any effluvia escaping into the building. Likewise all dung and
litter ought to be carried far aw^ay from the place twice a day.
This of course imposes extra work on those who are not
very fond of employment, but our business here is to point
out that wdiich ought to be done, and not to please idlers.

The manger and hay-rack are best low, as the last
especially, being in this position, enables the horse to reach
his food without raising his head and thereby injuring the
vessels by maintaining an unnatural position, and likewise
prevents any hay-seed from falling into the animal's eyes.
For the last reason the place ought to be thoroughly ceiled,
lest any dust or litter fall down from the loft above, the hay in
which is likewise kept free from contamination arising from
ammoniacal fumes, which always have a tendency to ascend.

The loose boxes ought to have their sides smooth, no
nail or projection of any kind should be permitted, as the
animal is apt to tear itself against such substances. When
designed as substitutes for stalls, it is sufficient to have the
partition close halfway up, and the remainder formed of open
rails, whereby the horses are enabled to see one another,
and much of the dulness of their lives is removed. Every
box ought to be drained by means of a centre grating.

It is a question much disputed whether the litter should
be removed or not during the day-time. In the great
majority it is entirely taken from the fore, and but a small
portion left under the hind feet ; and this method seems to

58 STABLING OF HORSES.

be so good as to admit of no improvement as a general
rule, though of course individual cases will require varieties
in treatment.

While in this place it may be as well to mention sum-
mering hunters. Mr. Blaine thus speaks of the effects
of turning out : " But a more critical examination of
the subject, and the collation of facts, will perhaps set the
matter in rather a different point of view. It has long been
observed that a horse that has been stabled for many years,
and then turned out to grass, seldom thrives ; on the con-
trary, he usually loses flesh and condition, although the
pasture in which he is placed may be of the most luxuriant
kind. It has been noticed also, by intelligent trainers, that
race-horses, after being turned out, never again fully recover
that speed they had previously exhibited. It is likewise
equally remarked on, that in hunters which have been com-
pletely summered abroad, it has been found very difficult,
and often impossible, to restore them to their full condition
until much of the hunting season has passed by."

There are gentlemen, however, who imagine they are
acting with great generosity towards the animal which has
carried them w^ell through the hunting season, when they
determine their dumb servant, after the fatigues of the field,
shall enjoy a long rest in a loose box during the summer.
Can there be any greater folly than this? Let any man try
it upon himself. A rest of six months or more is an
impossibility. It is positive stagnation, and the poor horse
which is forced to undergo it must feel rejoiced when the
hunting season even once more commences.

A better plan is to stable the horse ; to endeavour to
maintain as far as possible the condition at which he has
arrived ; to hack him gently, taking him for a slow ride
daily, and choosing shady lanes with grass on either side
for the exercise ; never to remove the shoes under the idea
of freeing the feet, but to keep on that which the animal
has become accustomed to. Mr. Blaine bears evidence to
the advantage of some such plan in the following words ;
and he is a writer whose veracity has never been questioned.

" It is said that the Earl of Plymouth first tried the plan of
summering his hunters altogether within the stable, with
little variation in their treatment ; by which it is asserted

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 59

their condition was fully preserved, and that, by this means,
his horses entered on their hunting season in full ' wind,
speed, and bottom.^ Others, to avoid this extreme, have
soiled their hunters in the stable, or have given carrots ;
and some have gone a step further, and have pursued the
in-door summering, not in stables, but in loose boxes.
Still, in all these cases, regular exercise is required, or the
feet must suffer, or the horses are apt to become pursive,
thick-winded, roarers, or broken-winded ; but be it remem-
bered that, if such exercise is too severe, then the wear on
the limbs continues the deterioration which the hunting
season had brought on."

SECTION VII.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. THE BONES.

Bones are the hardest, and in a state of health the most
insensible, substances in the entire body ; they sustain the
soft parts, and form the base of the frame. They are com-
posed of earth, gelatine, nerves, vessels, and membrane.
The membrane appears first formed, into which a gelatinous
fluid, that afterwards becomes cartilage, is deposited ; it
next becomes vascular, and gradually the arteries pour out
within the centre of each bone the earthy matter, until the
whole is completely consolidated. This consolidation does
not take place in all the bones until the full growth of the
animal ; neither are the stages of osseous evolution alike in
each bone ; those becoming soonest ossified whose use could
be least dispensed with. The bones of the horse are much
harder than those of man, and consequently stronger. The
deposit of earthy matter, and the consequent consolidation
of their substance, appears to be hastened by any thing that
permanently quickens the circulation, thus occasioning a
more speedy separation of the earthy parts from the blood :
it is thus that the inhabitants of warm climates come to
perfection sooner than those of the northern regions. But
by preternaturally hastening the earthy deposit in the bones
we check their growth ; thus, horses early and severely
worked, never arrive at their full size.

The earthy matter of bones is continually changing by

60 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

means of the absorbents, which remove it, and the arteries
which replace it. Its quantity also depends on the wants
of the animal and the stimulus applied : in the full -bred
horse, therefore, the bones will be found more solid than in
the bulky lower-bred varieties. Most cylindrical bones are
hollow, and are lined by a membrane, called the medullary,
or membrane of the marrow : the bones have also an exter-
nal periosteum, or outer covering. The medullary cavities
have the effect of diminishing the weight of bones without
weakening them, and at the same time are of service in sup-
plying cavities where nature can store away her superabun-
dant fat for a time of need. Bones, though furnished with
blood-vessels and nerves, have in health little sensibility, but
during disease they inflame, and then become acutely sensi-
tive. The varieties in the form of bones have occasioned
their division into cylindrical, fiat, short or long, and irre-
gular. They are furnished with cavities and eminences :
the cavities, in all excepting long bones, are small, and
lined with a medullary membrane, which secretes only in
these places a reddish fluid ; they have, also, pits, furrows,
notches, holes, sinuses, &c. ; the eminences are long and
short, to which tendons are attached through which the
muscles move the bones as by means of levers. Bones arti-
culate with each other by joints ; either like to a cup and
ball ; held loosely together by ligaments as a hinge ; bound
together more tightly by cartilage and ligament ; inter-
mingled, or fixed closely together by notches.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.— THE SKELETON.

THE HEAD.

A, The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one piece ; B, the
lower jaw ; a, the incisor teeth ; b, the tushes ; c, the
molares, or grinders ; d, the peak formed by the extremities
of the nasal bones ; e, the zygomatic spine, to the bottom
of which the masseter esternus takes its origin; /, the orbit;
g, the cavity above the orbital arch ; h, the pole ; i, the
zygomatic arch ; j, j, the styloid processes for the attach-
ment of the muscles ; k, the joint formed by the upper and
lower jaws ; /, the meatus auditorius, or opening to the
internal ear.

THE HEAD NECK THORAX LOINS, &C. 61

THE NECK.

C, C, marks the extent of the cervical vertebrse ; D, the
dentata ; m, the atlas; n, the wing* of the atlas; o, the
large superior spine of the dentata ; p, the body of the
dentata ; q, the inferior spine of the dentata ; s, s, s, s, s,
the superior spines of the five remaining cervical vertebrae ;
r, r, r, r, r, the oblique processes of the five last cervical
vertebrae ; u, u, u, u, u, the transverse processes of the same
bones ; t, t, t, t, t, the inferior spines of the five last cervical
vertebrae.

THE THORAX.

V, V, the cariniform process of the sternum ; w, iv, w, iv,
w, w, w, the costae or true ribs ; y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y, y,
the ribs as distinguished from the costse ; x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x,
the cartilages by means of which the ribs are attached to the
sternum ; z, 2, z, z, z, z, z, the heads of the ribs ; 1,1,1,1,1,
the superior spines of the first five dorsal vertebrae, the
fifth being generally the longest spine in the body ; 2, 2, 2,

2, 2, 2, 2, 2, the superior spines from the sixth to the thir-
teenth, towards which they slope downwards; the thirteenth
is generally the most upright spine in the dorsal region ;

3, 3, 3, 3, 3, the last five of the superior of the back spines,
w^hich have an inclination forwards.

THE LOINS, OR LUMBAR REGION.

4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, the superior spines of the lumbar region,
thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided inclina-
tion forwards ; 5, 5, 5, 5, the projecting transverse pro-
cesses of the loins.

THE SACRUM.

6, 6, 6, 6, 6, the superior spines of the sacrum leaning
decidedly backward, thus leaving a large space between the
points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spine, at which
place occurs the great hinge of the back ; 8, 8, 8, 8, the
bodies of the sacral vertebrae.

THE TAIL.

7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, the cocygeal bones.

62 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

THE PELVIS.

E, the ossa innominata, consisting of three bones upon
each side ; a, the iUum ; b, the pubis ; c, the ischium : the
three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of
the thigh bone ; 9, 9, the inferior spines of the ihum ; 10,
the superior spine, which partly covers the first sacral spine ;
c, c, the ischiatic spines,

THE THIGH AND STIFLE JOINT.

F, F, the femurs ; d, the round head of the bone ; e, the
short neck of the femur ; /, the great trochanter ; g, the
small external trochanter ; h, the small internal trochanter ;
i, i, the sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate ;
J, J, the posterior condyles of the femur ; k, k, the anterior
trochlea over which the patella glides ; G, G, the patellas :
the interarticular cartilages of the stifle joint, as well as the
cartilages tipping the dorsal lumbar sacral spines, and the
superior margin of the blade bone or scapula, are necessarily
omitted in this delineation, which is admirably drawn from
a macerated skeleton.

THE TIBIA AND FIBULA, OR LEG BONES, AND THE HOCK JOINT.

H, H, the tibias ; I, I, the heads of the bones ; m, m, the
fibulas ; n, n, the inferior head of the tibia ; /, /, the hock
joint ; 0, 0, the astragalus ; p, p, the calcis forming the
point of the hock.

THE POSTERIOR SHANK BONES.

K, K, the canons, metatarsals, or shank bones ; L, L,
the splint bones.

THE BONES OF THE PASTERNS, AND FEET, OF THE POSTERIOR

LIMBS.

M, M, the sessamoids ; N, N, the large pastern bone ;
0, 0, the smaller pastern bone ; p, p, the pedal bones.

BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY.

Q, the scapula or blade bone ; a, the superior margin
whence the cartilage has been removed ; b, the spine of the
scapula ; c, the anterior fossa of the scapula ; d, the poste-
rior fossa ; e, the shallow cup which receives the head of
the humerus : the cartilage, which is situated around the

THE SKULL. 63

margin of this cup, and which serves to deepen it, has been
destroyed by maceration ; /, the tuberosity terminating the
spine of the scapula, whence the flexor brachii originates.

R, the humerus or arm bone ; g, the head of the bone ;
h, the smooth cartilaginous and synovial pulley over
which the tendon of the flexor brachii plays ; i, the external
trochanter of the humerus ; j, the inferior head of the
humerus ; k, the pit into which the ulna is received ; S, S,
the ulna, the top of which is termed the olecranon.

T, T, the radius ; I, the head of the bone ; m, the inferior
head of the bone.

U, U, the carpus or knee joint, consisting of two rows of
bones ; n, the trapezium, which give security to the great
flexors, and attachment to several of the lesser flexors of
the fore leg.

V, V, the canon or shank bone ; o, o, the head of the
bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee ;
W, W, the splint bones ; p, the inferior head of the canon
bone.

X, X, the sessamoid bones ; Y, Y, the large pastern bone ;
Z, Z, the small pastern bones ; P, the pedal or coffin bone.

BONES OF THE HEAD.

The head consists of two portions : one is simple, and is
merely the lower jaw {skel. B), which, in a prepared skeleton
of the head, is loose, and freely separates from the other
part. The top portion is more complex, and consists of
many pieces. At the back part of the skull {skel. h) is
the pole ; towards the sides are the cavities for the eyes
{skel. f) ; more forward are the openings, with long pas-
sages, for the nostrils {skel. d) ; and below is the roof of the
mouth, with half of the teeth {skel. a, b, c).

THE SKULL.

Several bones enter into the formation of this last-men-
tioned part, each of which have distinct anatomical names,
but, as all of them speedily become one mass, it will be
better if we consider this portion of the framew^ork as a
whole. The bones, however, are not united at the time
of birth ; w hence it is assumed that nature formed the skull
of several bits, to assist the expulsion of the foal from the

64 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

womb. As these separate portions are originally soft, and
upon even slight pressure can be made to overlap. Within
the skull is contained the brain, and to hold this important
organ safely, seems to be its principal use. The hair and
skin covers the outside of the head ; next a layer, deep and
broad, of muscle laps over the sides of the skull, the bones
of which there are double, each consisting of two layers ; an
outer layer, which is soft and spongy, like common bone,
and an inner layer, which is hard and smooth, like ivory or
glass. There is an imperfect cavity between these two
layers, termed diploe, and then, internally, come three
membranes and some fluid before the brain is reached ; so
the reader will perceive how thoroughly this organ (the
brain) is protected within the skull.

Behind the skull will be observed a large opening {Plate
VI. n), which is for the passage of the medulla oblongata, or
substance which unites the spinal marrow and the brain. On
every side of the skull will be perceived openings, some very
small and others of considerable size ; the larger are to admit
of the passage of veins, which carry blood from the brain ;
the smaller ones are for the entrance of arteries, which carry
blood to the brain, and to give egress to the nerves, which
bestow sense or motion on the whole head, and also upon
some other parts of the body.

Yet, as the division of the skull gives attachment to vari-
ous muscles, it may be as well to mention the more promi-
nent of their peculiarities, for the sake of a better under-
standing hereafter.

The cranium is said to be composed of twelve bones, four
pairs, which make eight bones, and four single bones, which
complete the twelve. The pairs are the squamous and the
petrous temporal, the parietal, and the frontal. The single
bones are the os triquatrum, the ethmoid, the sphenoid, and
the occipital.

The OCCIPITAL BONE (single) is situated partly at the
bottom, and directly at the back of the skull. It has two
surfaces, an external and an internal. The external we will
consider first. Right at the back of the head is the large
hole of the skull, called the foramen magnum {Plate VI. n).
Projecting from the bottom of the foramen magnum, so as
to form part of the base of the cranium, is the basilar

THE SKULL. 65

process of the bone ; and upon each side of this is a ragged
hole, called the foramen lacerum basis cranii. Upon either
side of the foramen magnum are a couple of proiectino-
smooth bodies, termed the condyles, which fit into and
articulate with the atlas. A little before, but on either side
thf e condyles, are two small holes, known as the
condyloid foramina, out of which come the lingual nerves.
Near to these are two downward projecting knife-shaped
pieces of bone, spoken of as the styloid processes {Skel j j)
Above the foramen magnum is a high and sharp continuation
ol bone, which forms the pole {Skel h), and from which a
sharp line, spoken of as the ridge of the occiput, descends
upon either side.

The internal surface presents the upper part of the
basilar process, upon which reposes the medulla oblon2;ata
and the pons varoH.

The PETROUS TEMPORAL (a pair) are the hardest bones in the
whole body, owing to their closer texture. Upon the ex-
terior is a canal, seeming to lead to the interior of the skull
Ihis IS the meatus auditorius or opening to the internal ear
{^kel. /), and along the bottom of this canal is stretched,
during life, a fine membrane. At the anterior portion
of Its interior surface is another styloid process for
the attachment of muscles; and behind this is a bulbous
projection for the mastoid cells of the internal ear ; upon
the internal side of this mastoid process, is a small flat sur-
face to which the large horn of the os hyoides is attached.

rhe SPHENOID BONE (single) is not very unhke a bird.
We have two wings, a body, and two legs, looking forward,
but not a head. It has two surfaces, an external and an
internal. External surface. The body is convex, and receives
several muscles. To the legs, also, muscles are attached.
1 he wings are flat and smooth ; upon them are two fora-
mina, the sphenoidal and the pathetic. With regard to
the internal surface. Upon the body rests the cruca cereri
and pituitary gland, together with the cavernus sinuses ;
its wmgs form imperfect foramina for the superior maxillary
nerve, the optic nerve, and the third pair of nerves, to-
gether with the orbital, the internal maxillary, and the
supra orbital arteries.

The ETHMOID BONE (single) consists of a body, two

F

66 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

wings, neck, and appendages. The body, which is some-
what concealed, being hollow because of the ethmoid
sinuses {Plate Yll. f) , which are cavities within it; upon
the wings are parts of the optic, and the lateral nasal fora-
mina. Towards the nose are two fine flat pieces of bone,
pierced by numerous holes ; these are the cribriform plates,
that give passage to the Olfactory nerves. In front of these
grow, within the nasal cavities, a spongy formation, termed
the ethmoid cells {Plate VII. e) . The internal surface is
smooth, and between the two cribriform plates is a slight
projection of bone, termed the crista galli, which gives
attachment to the falx cerebri.

Os TRiQUATRUM (single) is an angular-shaped bone ;
smooth upon its outer surface. It joins the occipital bone,
and lies before it ; being in the middle or upon the top of
the skull ; its inner surface is indented for various sinuses,
and from it proceeds a projecting piece of bone, called the
tentorium {Plate VII. h), which divides the cerebrum from
the cerebellum.

Parietal bones (a pair) are situated upon the sides of the
skull. Externally they are smooth and convex, being
covered by the temporal muscles to which they give origin ;
internally they are concave, and indented by the convo-
lutions and the arteries of the brain.

Squamous temporal (a pair) are in front of the petrous
temporal. External surface. Projecting pieces of bone upon
the outer sides are called the zygomatic processes. The
orbital arches rest upon part of these processes ; upon the
inferior borders are the glenoid cavities for articulating with
the lower jaw, near to which are the mastoid processes.
The internal surface is smaller than the outer, being trenched
upon by the parietal bones.

Frontal bones (a pair). External surface. These bones
form the arches of the orbit ; the arch is pierced by the
supra orbital foramen, and the under part of the arch is
hollow for the lacrymal gland ; the frontal also forms half of
the lateral nasal foramen ; it enters into the composition of
the top of the nose. The internal surface is divided into
two parts ; one belongs to the nose, the other to the cra-
nium. The external and internal plates of the bone sepa-
rate, and thus form the frontal sinuses {Plate VI. and

THE ORBITS ^THE FACE. Q7

VII. d), which are strengthened by several minute pillars
running from one plate to the other.

THE ORBITS

Are in the horse merely bony rings, one on each side ; not
osseous cups, as in man. The reader, however, at a glance
will perceive the place in which the eye should be situated,
and he will also discover numerous holes which serve the
purposes we have already alluded to ; save one placed near
the lower edge of the orbit, which allows of the secure loca-
tion of an important vessel called the lacrymal duct. The
bones of the face and of the skull unite to form the orbit,
which has no distinct bone allotted to it.

The orbit is composed of eight bones, yet the two orbits
are formed by only fourteen bones ; because the ethmoid and
sphenoid, which are both single bones, enter into the forma-
tion of each orbit.

The bones which enter into the composition of the orbits
are the sphenoid, squamous temporals, ethmoid, and frontals;
the lacrymal, malar, palatine, and superior maxillaries ; thus
four come from the face, and a like number from the cra-
nium. The cup of the orbit is chiefly made up by the
ethmoid, sphenoid, palatine and squamous temporals. The
rim of the orbit consists of the frontals, the lacrymals, the
malars, and the superior maxillaries.

THE FACE.

The face is principally formed by the protrusion of the
nose, which in this animal is carried so far as to form by
far the largest portion of the head. It has two large open-
ings (the nostrils), divided by a cartilaginous wall {Plate
VI. a), the septum; within the nasal passages are two
bones rolled round, and composed of very fine osseous net-
work ; upon these lie the vascular and highly sensitive
membrane of the nose, within which resides the sense of
smell (Plate VII. a, h). The nose, however, does not extend
from the skull to the most forward point of the head ;
behind the passages of the nostrils are situated several
comparatively large, vacant spaces, termed the frontal facial
(Plates W. and\\l. d), and maxillary sinuses. The use
of these spaces is not very well understood. Two things,

f2

68 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

however, are cei-tain ; that they aid the voice and add to
the characteristic beauty of the countenance. Of the latter
fact every body can judge, and with regard to the first it
may be proper to state that the foal in whom these spaces
are absent squeaks when he attempts to neigh.

The face consists of nine pairs of, and two single bones ;
the pairs being the inter-maxillary 1, superior maxillary 2,
nasal 3, lacrymal 4, malar 5, palatine 6, pterygoid 7, infe-
rior turbinated 8, superior turbinated 9 pairs, or 18 bones;
the single bones being the vomer 1 , and the inferior maxillary
2, making 20 bones in all.

1 . These bones will demand but brief notice. The inter-
maxillary contains the superior incisor teeth, and is pierced
by a hole, through which runs the terminations of the
palatine artery ; this hole is called the foramen incisivum.

2. The SUPERIOR maxillary bone is the largest bone of
the face ; it forms the largest portion of the palate, has a
division of its plates posteriorly, by which division the
maxillary sinuses are formed, holds the molar teeth of the
upper jaw, and is externally marked with a prominence
called the zygomatic spine {Plate I. e), from which the
external masseter muscle has its origin.

3. The NASAL BONES compose the most forward and
uppermost portion of the nostrils ; they both come to a
sharp peak in front {Skel. d), and behind their plates divide,
forming sinuses which are continuous with those of the
frontal bone.

4. The MALARS form a portion of the rim of the orbits,
and give rise to the levator labii superioris muscles.

5. The LACRYxMALS also enter into the rim of the orbits,
and have a small spine upon their facial surface for the tendon
of the orbicularis muscle to originate from. Upon its
orbital surface there is a slight depression near to the outer
side, for the origin of the inferior oblique muscle, and a
hole for the commencement of the lacrymal duct.

6. The PALATINES form the most posterior border or ter-
minating arch of the palate, and their wings enter into the
composition of the orbit.

7. 8. The SUPERIOR and inferior turbinated {Plate
VII. a and h), are situated within the nasal cavity, in the
situations which their names imply.

THE LOWER JAW. 69

9. The PTERYGOID are two thin plates of bone, placed
behind the palate bone, and at the base of the cranium.

1. The LOWER JAW {SkeL B), or inferior maxillary, is
sufficiently described in other parts of this work.

2. The VOMER lies upon a groove upon the upper surface
of the palatine portion of the superior maxillaries, and is itself
deeply grooved for the reception of the cartilaginous nasal
septum {Plate VI. a), the entire bone being within the nose.

THE LOWER JAW.

The mouth is formed by the two jaws conjointly (Plate
VII. c), and in each is fixed an equal number of teeth, viz.
six grinders on either side, or twelve in each jaw {Skel. c) ;
two tushes in each jaw, or four in both {Skel. b) ; six nippers
or incisors in each jaw, or twelve in the two {Skel. a), making
altogether forty teeth. The lower jaw constitutes the base
of the mouth, and on the outer side of it are placed several
glands which pour forth a large quantity of saliva during
the time the animal is eating. The use of this fluid thus
emptied upon the food which is being masticated between
the teeth is to render it moist, so that it may ultimately
become a soft mass, and be in a state fit to be swallowed.
Within the large branches of the lower jaw are contained
the tongue, the fauces, the pharynx, the hyoidal bone or bone
of the tongue, part of the larynx, and some glands, the use
of all and each of which, for none are useless, we shall have
to point out in their proper places hereafter.

The upper jaw, beside containing half of the teeth, forms
the top of the mouth, on which are formed certain indenta-
tions running from side to side, the projecting parts being
termed the bars {Plate VII. i). From the middle of the
upper jaw hangs down the soft palate {Plate VI. /, and Plate
VII. I), which constitutes the back of the mouth. The soft
palate rests upon the posterior part of the tongue {Plate
VI. e). Being attached to the upper jaw shghtly forward, as
w^el] as in a crescentic form, it slopes backward to its resting
place ; thus situated it forms a barrier to any substance
passing into the mouth which is ejected by the stomach ;
but allows any thing to pass W'ith perfect ease which may
be propelled from the mouth towards the stomach. The
sides of th^ movith consist of flesh which, on its inner surface,

70 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

is lined with a very rough skin, having its points facing back-
ward ; thus serving to aid the palate in retaining whatever
substance may have entered the mouth to be masticated.

The front of the mouth is formed partly by the teeth and
partly by the lips, the upper of which is the prehensile organ
in the horse, as by means of this he is able, when feeding
off the ground, to gather the grass together in sufficient
quantities for a bite ; to turn over the hay in his rack ; and
even nicely to select certain portions as well as to reject
others. The lips also are the principal seat of feeling in the
animal, a fact apparently wtII known to man, as he selects
this part on which to apply that torturing instrument — the
twitch.

On the side of the upper part of the head, behind the
place where it is connected by a joint with the lower jaw, is
a small projecting canal, which is the opening to the internal
ear (Skel. l) ; but as this organ, as well as its outward ap-
pendage, belongs to another part of our subject, we must
at present do no more than allude to them.

THE TEETH.

The substances which enter into the formation of tooth are
bone, enamel, and crusta petrosa. These three are perfect
when the tooth enters the mouth, and lay one under the
other. The crusta petrosa is the outer covering, of a dark
colour and tolerable thickness. It was formerly mistaken for
tartar, covering and dirtying the teeth ; but that it is not
tartar is shown by its always covering young teeth, and
being absent from the fi*ont of old horses when the attrition
consequent upon gathering the food has worn it off; there-
fore whiteness in teeth is no sign of youth in the horse.
The crusta petrosa is a dark, tough, and highly organized
substance, covering the whole of the fang, and following
the enamel wherever it bends or dips into the windings upon
the table of the tooth.

The enamel lies next under the crusta petrosa, and con-
sists of a thin layer of very brittle unorganized and crys-
talline substance ; it principally coats the crown of the
tooth, being very thin up the fang, which it only partially
envelops.

The main bulk of the tooth consists of bone, which is

THE TEETH. 71

tough, and of a yellowish colour, not so dark as the crusta
petrosa, but much darker than the enamel, which last is
perfectly white. It has an opening at the point, or bottom
of the fang, which leads to a cavity that contains the vessels
and nerves that nurture the substance of the tooth, as well
as endow it with feeling.

Now, when we properly consider the services to which
the horse's teeth are put, viz. to nipping off and grinding
up the food, the use of these three substances is perceived.
The enamel, which is brittle as glass, yet being firmly en-
closed between two tough substances, is preserved from
chipping or breaking ; but being protected acts with the
efficiency of steel. It is usually the least worn of the
three materials that enter into the composition of the tooth,
projecting comparatively far beyond them,

A tooth is divided into fang, neck, and crown. The fang-
is placed in the jaws, and fixed firm into certain cavities in
the bones of each jaw ; whence it is propelled upward into
the mouth as age advances, the lower part of the cavity
closing up as the fang enters the mouth. The fangs then
form the teeth of very old horses ; upon this the enamel
being in parts deficient, and where it exists very thin, we
can easily see a reason why the teeth of old horses, com-
posed almost entirely of crusta petrosa and bone, should
appear yellow or discoloured.

The neck is that part of the tooth which narrows as it
meets the gum, the point of narrowing being termed " the
neck.'" There is no neck to be discovered in the perma-
nent, but it is well marked in the temporary teeth.

The crown is that part of a tooth which can be seen by
a spectator upon opening the mouth. Thus, as age pro-
gresses, and part of the fangs are pushed into the mouth,
every portion of a fang so projecting from the gum becomes
the crown of a tooth.

The teeth of the horse have been thought to be endowed
with growth to meet the wear of years ; so undoubtedly
they are, but not to the extent that has been imagined.
The chief loss of substance is supplied by the cavity in
which the fang is situated becoming more shallow, and thus
pushing down, or lifting up, the tooth into the mouth.

The double teeth of the horse perform the office of

72 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

grinding, and are placed on either side of the jaws, rather
to the back of the mcuth. The same substances enter into
their composition as form the nippers. Thus the bone, being-
yielding, gives way under the grinding process, and by its
action becomes indented. The crusta petrosa, being soft,
also is carried off, save where it clings to the side, as a pro-
tector. The enamel being very hard, and between both,
projects above either, and thus keeps the surface sharp, or
admirably adapted to perform its office.

Six molars are placed close together, on either side of
each jaw ; then there is a vacant space, then a tush on
either side of each jaw ; then another space, and then six
incisors ; thus the teeth of the horse do not, like the
teeth of man, form a continuous line, but occur as it were
in patches, and in this manner the teeth of the great
majority of the brute creation are placed in their heads.

The use of the tushes Mr. Percivall, in our opinion,
rightly conjectures to be as weapons of offence. Mr. Per-
civall's judgment is, however, much contested by some
writers, who appeal to the worn state of the tushes in age
as proof conclusive of the unsoundness of that author's
decision. But the wear is consequent on the bit introduced
into the horse's mouth, which the animal could hardly be
supposed to possess, in any state of nature they may please
to imagine. Did these gentleman objectors ever observe
the tushes in a stallion kept for service ? If so, they must
at once relinquish their ideas of these teeth not being long
enough to be used as weapons of offence. The horses kept
for this purpose scarcely ever have a bit put into their
mouths, and the tushes become of exceeding length. The
animal, as it at present comes into our possession, may not
use the tushes as weapons of offence, but then it has been
so domesticated, that we need not wonder if very many of its
habits are entirely forgotten or abandoned.

It now becomes our duty to speak of the manner in
which the temporary teeth are removed, and the permanent
projected into the mouth. This takes place by absorption.
The harder substance, in the living body, seems to yield and
be governed by the softer : thus the bones of the skull are
regulated, as to their size and dimensions, by the magnitude
of the brain ; the extent of the ribs is subservient to the

THE BONY TRUNK. 73

size of the lungs ; and the very tooth itself, in spite of its
hardness, gives way before the pressure of the newly formed
organ, which as yet is incapable of doing any work, never
having seen the light. As the new tooth shoots up the
fang of the incisor is absorbed, and when it is entirely re-
moved of course the crown falls out of the mouth, leaving
a vacant space, which the new organ is destined to fill.
It is otherwise with the molars. When the fang of the
molar is absorbed, the temporary tooth does not fall
out, but the absorption is continued to the crown, a
great portion of which also is removed, leaving the grinding
surface as a protection to the new tooth. When this
grinding surface is, by the process of absorption, reduced
to great thinness, and the permanent molar is well up, or
into the mouth, the covering of the old tooth falls off, and
there is a new member fully formed and ready to supply
its loss.

The reason of this is very apparent. A horse with four
nippers can gather enough food to support life ; but serious
ills would occur if a molar were absent, even for a single
day. The continued presence of the more important teeth
is thus provided for.

The horse has been said to cut his teeth with ease, but
Mr. Percivall, in his lately finished work, entitled " Hippo-
pathology," records cases where the animal has been seri-
ously affected during the process of dentition. Nothing is
easier than to conclude those who are dumb undergo no pain ;
but any man, with proper feeling, has only to look into the
horse's mouth, at the time of shedding the teeth, and to
behold the swollen, inflamed, and bleeding condition of the
gums, to be convinced that Mr. Percivall's is the truer
statement.

THE BONY TRUNK.

The osseous structure of the trunk comprises the neck,
the back, the haunch, the ribs, and the breast bones.

The neck consists of seven, the back of eighteen, the
loins of six, the top of the pelvis, or sacrum, of five, and
the tail, generally, of from thirteen to eighteen vertebrae,
or distinct bones ; the whole forming what is termed
the spine. The spinal bones are divided into different

74 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

parts, on account of the varieties they possess ; but thej'-
have some characteristics in common, each being composed
of a spongy body, and parts protruded therefrom, called joro-
cesses. These processes often unite to form a hollow, through
which the spinal marrow is transmitted : they also furnish
surfaces of articulation with each other, as well as by their
bodies anteriorly and posteriorly ; by their means the sur-
faces of attachment are increased, and the strength of the
spinal chain is thereby rendered very great. Though but
little motion is allowed between any two of these bones ; yet
the flexibility of the whole spine is considerable ; by which
wise contrivance the spinal marrow, nerves, and blood-
vessels, are not liable to compression.

The neck bones, or cervical vertebrae (see Skel. C, C) are
the largest of the spinal chain. Their spinous, or upward
projecting processes {Skel. s, s, s, s, s) are indistinct ; but on
each side of the body a considerable prominence branches
out into two transverse processes (Skel. u, u, u, u, u) : at the
common base of these is seen a foramen for the passage of
the vertebral arteries and veins. Each vertebra likewise is
indented posteriorly, into which hollow, the most forward
part of the body, the next vertebra fits ; and from the sides of
each bone, before and behind, a piece is wanting, which defi-
ciency is termed the notch; and when the bones are together
these notches in one, meet those of another bone, and thus
is formed a circular hole, or foramen, through which the spinal
nerves emerge. The bones are united together by articular
cartilages, dense capsular ligaments, and all the appendages
of a joint. Above the arch, where the spinal marrow is
protected, are several oblique articulating processes {Skel.
r, r, r, r, r). It will be evident, from the strong means
employed for the articulation of the bones of the neck, not
only by the round head and corresponding cavity, but more
particularly by their oblique processes, that no dislocation
can easily take place between any of these vertebrae ; for
when such an accident does occur the animal inevitably dies
from the compression of the spinal marrow, which accident
is usually called breaking the neck.

The back, or dorsal vcrtehrre, are eighteen {Skel. I to the
last 3). These bones do not essentially differ from each
other except in the length of their spinous processes, which

THE BONY TRUNK. 75

in the first twelve is considerable, for the purpose of giving
a long lever to the shoulder muscles. It is these processes
that give height to the withers ; and as they are covered
with muscles that act powerfully, so their length is
of great consequence to progi'ession. Their four oblique
processes are small, as well as their transverse. They arti-
culate with each other by their anterior and posterior sur-
faces, and by their oblique processes : each also articulates
with two ribs, one upon either side. As they advance they
increase in size, and are pierced by the spinal canal equally
enlarged. Between each is interposed a substance of the
mixed nature of cartilage and ligament, which is most com-
pressible at its sides, permitting the motion of the spine,
and forming, by the solidity of its centre, a fulcrum, or pivot,
for the bones to move on. This interposed substance loses
its elasticity in the old horse, and becomes nearly converted
into bone ; to which we may attribute that stiffness in old
horses when attempting to rise after lying down ; and the
want of that springy gait which is felt when upon the back of
the young horse.

The bones of the loins, or lumbar vertebras (Skel. 4, 4, 4,
4, 4, 4), have somewhat larger bodies than the bones of the
back, and broader spinous processes. Their transverse pro-
cesses bear no comparison to those of any other vertebrae ;
being extended out to supply the place of the ribs, and to
afford attachment to the muscles of the back : the last
unites with the sacrum (Skel. 5, 5, 5, 5, 5).

With the loins, the true vertebrae end ; and here it may
be as well to speak of the peculiarities appertaining to them.
The head and first bone of the neck have very free motion,
principally upwards and downwards, as when the horse
tosses his head. The joint formed by the next bone of the
neck with the first has likewise a very easy movement, but
it is chiefly towards either side, or rotatory, as when the
animal shakes his head or looks round about it. The re-
maining neck bones move very freely altogether, though
but slightly upon one another ; they come into play whenever
the horse turns his head to one side or to the other, as
likewise when he raises the head upward, or bends it
downward.

The bones of the back have the least motion of all ; their

76 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

function being to confer strength (for which purpose they
are very short, and very closely locked together), and to
permit of the motion of the ribs.

The bones of the loins have more motion, particularly
the last, which is rather loosely articulated with the first
bone of the sacrum. This gives to the horse a facility of
rearing up ; an act which he could never perform, were the
last lumbar vertebrae as firmly fixed as most of the other
bones of the spinal column.

The spinal column serves to hold and to safely lodge the
spinal marrow, there being holes in the sides of the bones
which admit of the passage of the spinal nerves. The bones
already referred to are termed true vertebrae, because they
have all the processes and uses belonging to the most perfect
of these bones. The rest, to be mentioned hereafter, are
termed false, because one or more of the processes are
wanted, and their functions are limited.

The top of the pelvis, or the sacrum {Skel. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6),
is in the very young foal composed of five pieces of bone ;
but long before the animal becomes an adult the bones are
united, and the whole then consists of one piece. In this
latter view we choose here to regard it as one bone ; for
there are other bones in the body, the pieces of which are
not united till after the sacrum, and yet by anatomists these
last are considered to form one bone. The sacrum, then,
which constitutes a continuation of the spine, is composed
of irregular vertebree, because the spinal marrow does not
descend so far as this bone, but only nerves travel along its
internal canal ; because it is gifted with less motion than
true vertebrae, and because also it is deficient in some of
the processes and articulations.

We said it had less motion. It has no lateral motion,
though it is able to be elevated at its front part consider-
ably ; and for this reason forms a true synovial joint with
the haunch bone.

The haunch bone, or rump bone, or basin, or pelvis,
named ossa innominata (Skel. E), is said to be formed of
six bones, for the like cause as the sacrum is said to con-
sist of five. We here, however, choose to regard it as one.
It is one solid piece, of almost a circular form ; but open
before and behind, and at the top, into which last place the

THE BONY TRUNK. 77

sacrum fits. Before articulating with the forward part of
the sacrum its most anterior portion constitutes the pro-
jecting hip of the Iiorse (Skel. 9, 9). A Httle lower, and
more backward than the joint of the spine {Skel. 10) , lies the
cup for the reception of the head of the femur, or the round
bone, as it is termed by jockeys {Skel. d) ; and its hinder-
most part projects backwards, forming the points of the
rump {Skel. c, c). The interior of this bone contains im-
portant organs ; within it are held the rectum ; the urethra
of the male, and the vagina of the female ; a portion of the
bladders of each, with the womb of the mare. All of these
are vital organs ; for on the proper performance of the
functions of each life itself depends.

It is as well, having stated our own views, to describe
those entertained by most anatomists. The ilium is the
most forward, broadest, and highest portion of the innomi-
nata {Skel. a). It has two spines ; a superior, which lies
close to the sacral spine, and an inferior, somewhat more
forward than the last {Skel. 9, 9). The ilium, and all the
other bones composing the haunch, are supposed to meet
about the cup of the round bone {Skel. d). The pubis {Skel.
h) forms the floor of the pelvis, and the ischium is the most
posterior portion {Skel. c, c). Its two projecting promi-
nences being designated the spines of the ischium.

To complete the spine there remain the tail bones to be
enumerated {Skel. 7, 7, 7, &c.). These at first bear some
resemblance to vertebrse, but ultimately dwindle to very
thin and short round pieces of bone, like to little pieces of
hollow stick. They, however, possess one peculiarity ; the
two bones in apposition do not fit one into the other by means
of a shallow cup and ball joint, but each meets the next by
a rounded kind of projection, and nothing can be imagined
better calculated to facilitate perfect freedom and play of
action than two balls meeting together. Hence, we can
easily comprehend how the tail is enabled to be switched
about in every direction without fear of dislocation.

The neck always consists of seven bones. In animals
with the longest and the shortest necks this holds good ;
the number of bones forming the neck of any animal is
never more than seven. Creatures of the sloth species used

78 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

to be thought to have eight neck bones, but that which was
once considered the eighth bone of the neck is now re-
garded as the first bone of the back, only varied in forma-
tion, to enable the animal, which passes its life hanging
pendulous from trees, to freely turn its head so as to see
what takes place below it, or upon the earth. The number
of bones which form the other compartments of the spine
are not fixed ; indeed bones, as a general rule, are subject
to constant variations, as the instances of born-deformities
sufficiently testify.

The chest is composed of part of the spine, of the back,
of the ribs, and the breast bone.

The breast bone is composed of sev^eral pieces of bone
embedded in the cartilage ; the latter material, however,
preponderating. To it the lowermost parts of most of the
ribs are attached, and in form it is something like the keel
of a slftp, being rounded in front, or turned upwards, and
having a ridge projecting along its centre the entire length
{Skel. V, v). Its posterior portion is flattened and expanded
like to the tail of a fish. This expanded portion serves to
receive several of the abdominal muscles, and is well shown
in (Plate y III. I).

The ribs are narrow and semicircular pieces of bone, at-
tached above to the spine of the back, and below to the breast
bone. They are, however, not composed of bone through-
out ; but the lower portion is formed of cartilage. The eight
first ribs are termed costse or " true ribs " {Skel. w), because
each has a distinct insertion into the breast bone ; the re-
mainder are called false ribs {Skel. y), because they only are
connected with the breast bone through one another. The
central rib is the longest, but the last is gifted with the
freest motion. The posterior edge on the inner surface of
each has a groove within which the vessels and nerves are
protected. The bottoms of the ribs are attached to the
breast bone by means of ligament, excepting the first rib,
which on account of its possessing more motion than
any other of the true ribs has a synovial articulation.
All the ribs form synovial joints with the spine of the back
{Skel. z, z, z, z) , and each is gifted with motion which takes
place forward and outward ; the true ribs being more imme-

THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 79

diately moved forward, and the false ribs more directly-
urged outward ; but both moving in both directions during
respiration.

THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES.

These extremities bear but little resemblance to the
human arm, particularly in those quadrupeds, as the horse,
who have a limb ending in a single hoof, toe, or phalange :
in those with several toes, the resemblance is much nearer,
till in the fore extremities of the ape they differ little but in
the thumb, which forms a bad antagonist to the fingers. It
appears a very wise provision of nature, to have given a
colt very long limbs at birth, that the form of parts might
not be afterwards much altered ; but, at the same time the
hinder ones are by much the longest ; because, were the fore
equal to the hind, the young animal would have been too
much elevated from the ground, and rendered incajDable of
grazing, or even of sucking conveniently.

The shoulder-blade or scapula (Skel. Q) is a broad and
rather triangular bone, applied to the outside of the ribs, so
that its apex reaches downward between the first and second
ribs, and a portion of its base as far back as the seventh.
It is, therefore, situated obliquely, with its broadest extremity
above, and its narrowest extremity below. Its internal
surface is slightly hollowed and smooth ; its external is
divided into two unequal portions by a projecting ridge or
spine (Skel. h). Its anterior edge, as it continues down,
contracts inwards, and ends in a blunt rounded extremity
(Skel.f). Its superior surface is furnished with a consider-
able cartilage, covered with strong ligamentous fibres ; by
means of which the surface of muscular attachment is much
increased : yet with little addition to either weight or bulk,
and without the liability to fracture which would have been
incurred had the cartilage been bone. The posterior edge
of the scapula inclines inwards, and ends in its neck, the
bulging part immediately below the neck presenting a
shallow cup to receive the head of the arm bone {Skel. g).
The projecting ridge or spine divides the outer surface into
two unequal portions, of which the hindermost is the largest
{Skel. d and c).

The arm hone or humerus {Skel. R) is strong, short, and

80 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

very unlike the same bone in man. It extends from what
is called the point of the shoulder to the elbow, forming an
angle with the scapula. At the anterior part of the upper
extremity it stretches out into a round head ; having about
it a circular indentation for the insertion of the capsular
ligament of the joint, which it forms with the apex of the
shoulder bone. The most forward part of the extremity is
usually termed the point of the shoulder, and over this
part there plays a very strong tendon which aids in the
motion of the lower limb. This tendon, almost of a carti-
laginous hardness, is flattened out, effectually preventing
any dislocation of this joint. The body of the humerus
presents an external tuberosity, for the insertion of muscles :
proceeding downwards, it terminates in two rounded bodies
that are termed condyles {Skel.j), which are received into
articular cavities in the superior extremity of the radius {Skel.
I) , and allow of the limb being bent and straightened. In the
front of this extremity is a cavity to receive the protube-
rances of the radius, in the greatest flexions of the fore arm;
and behind there is a very deep depression for the recep-
tion of the bone of the elbow {Skel. k), when it is again ex-
tended.

The fore arm is composed of two bones, the most forward
of which is called the radius {Skel. T, T), and the most
backward the uhia {Skel. S, S). These are separate in the
young subject, but become so intimately united in the old
horse, as to be by some, and without any great impropriety,
described as one bone. In common parlance, the site of
these bones is known by the terms arm and the elbow. The
radius is the long cylindrical bone giving the chief support
to the body, and having two nearly equal extremities {Skel.
I, m). The superior end is flat, and receives into its arti-
cular depressions the condyles of the humerus : it presents
anteriorly tuberosities for the attachment of muscles, and
posteriorly a surface for the ulna. Its body is slightly
bent anteriorly {Skel. T), and its inferior extremity (see
Skel. m) is furnished with eminences, covered with cartilage,
which articulate with the first bones of the knee or carpus
{Skel U).

The knee or carpus {Skel. V) must be the same with the
wrist in man. In most of the articulated skeletons there

THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 81

are seven principal carpal bones; in the recent subject, when
the horse is carefully dissected, there is always found an
osselet of the shape and size of a pea, situated behind
the trapezoid, with which it is articulated. With this,
the knee consists of eight bones : the upper articulates
with the inferior extremity of the radius ; and the low-er with
the superior of the cannon and the two small splent bones.
Six of the eight bones are to be seen from the front ; ranged
in two row^s ; of which the top one is the thicker ; each row
being composed of three bones. Tlie three upon three, how-
ever, do not join both in the same place ; but have articula-
tions similar to bricks in a wall ; that is, the two uppermost
are joined upon the middle of a solid bone beneath. Each
of these row'S have free articular surfaces, both above and
below ; as though they composed but one bone, being smooth
and plentifully lubricated by synovia. Their motion, also,
is greater in one direction ; the rows being capable of such
separation as allows the heel to touch the fore arm. Turn-
ing to the hind part of the knee, we can see two additional
bones. The very small pea-like one, situated against the
lower row ; and a large rounded square bone {Skel. n), arti-
culating with both rows ; and projecting out a considerable
distance from the other bones of the knee. The reason of
this projection is to afford leverage for the hold of tendons
through which muscles exert their power ; and likewise to
afford a shield or protection to the back sinews or flexor
tendons, which pass between this bone and the others of
the knee.

The reason for forming the knee of so many distinct
bones is very apparent. Concussion is lessened by a divi-
sion of parts ; a fact well known to man, who hangs out
sand and cotton-bags to break the force of cannon balls, or
take off the concussion of the blow. This result is mate-
rially aided by the synovia, or fluid between the different
rows ; and hence we find the effects of concussion below
rather than above the knee. The bones, moreover, though
bound closely together by means of ligaments, and each
individually fixed, nevertheless, as a whole, admit of con-
siderable lateral motion. Thus a powerful wrench, to which
the foot in progression is exposed, may take place without
dislocation.

82 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The shank, or metacarpal region, consists of one large
and two small bones, which last are known by the name
of splents. The cannon is a plain cylindrical bone {Shel.
V and K), having its two extremities rather enlarged, the
superior of which articulates with the second row of the
knee {Skel. U) : posteriorly its head is indented into two
surfaces, receiving the two splents, one upon either side. Its
inferior surface is formed into two condyles {Skel.p) ; divided
by an eminence, with which it articulates with the great pas-
tern {Skel. Y) and the sessamoid bones {Skel. X), in a manner
that preserves the utmost freedom of flexion and extension ;
yet denies any lateral motion which would have detracted
from the necessary strength of the joint. The splents are
placed one on each side of the posterior part of the cannon ;
each having a superior articulating surface uniting it with
the carpal bones, and likewise a synovial articulation with
the upper extremity of the cannon. As they proceed
downwards they taper ; and are less closely bound by a fibro-
cartilaginous union (that is, by a union composed partly of
cartilage, partly of ligament) ; terminating at about two-
thirds the length of the cannon bone, by an unattached
button-like extremity.

The purpose of this mixed union of fibro-cartilage, is to
allow of motion ; though, at the same time, to hmit it. It,
however, gives such play as renders the rider conscious of
elasticity in the animal's motions upon wdiich he is mounted.
Any extra weight, is very apt to put this connecting
substance to the stretch ; when it inflames ; becomes vas-
cular ; hot, and painful ; and is ultimately converted into
bone, which gives the name to the part ; the bony forma-
tion being called a splent, and the small bones being like-
wise so termed. The inner splent bone is more liable to
the disease than the outer ; and for two supposed reasons, —
firstly, as is said with much plausibility, because it is more
under the centre of gravity; and, secondly, because it
receives the entire weight of one of the lower row of the
bones of the knee ; and hence is more likely to be driven
downwards, or put upon the stretch.

The large pastern hone {Skel. Y) is the first of an oblique
pile, which terminates the extremities of the horse. The
great pastern bone is cylindrical, and inclined obliquely for-

THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 83

■\Yard (see Skel.) . Upon its length and obliquity the ease and
elasticity of the motion of the animal greatly depend : never-
theless, when these properties are very considerable, it must
require a corresponding effort in the tendinous and liga-
mentous parts to preserve it in its situation ; hence very long-
jointed horses are weaker, and more liable to become strained
than others. Its superior surface receives the greater part
of the inferior surface of the cannon : posteriorly it articulates
with the sessamoids ; and interiorly with the small pastern.
The body of the bone is much smaller than its extremities.

The sessainoids {Skel. X) are two small w^edge-shaped
bones, situated at the point of the fetlock, exactly behind
the inferior head of the cannon ; and also articulating wdth
the back of the upper part of the great pastern bone ; to
both of which they unite very closely, fitting into depres-
sions suited to their prominences. With the cannon the
connexion is very close ; by means of a ligament, through
which, and by the nature of their situation, they support a
portion of the stress and weight of the body imposed upon
these bones. They are placed side by side ; with their
thinner portion pointed upwards, and their thicker and
more obtuse part downward ; by which latter they are firmly
attached to the pastern bone by strong fibres, as well as by
the suspensory ligament. Between and behind them a
hollow is left, through which the flexor tendons slide with
freedom and partial security.

The use of these bones is more important than, from
their size, a casual observer might be disposed to think.
Their strongest attachment is to the great pastern bone ;
their w^eakest to the suspensory ligament. But then they
are very closely united to the cannon bone, and the liga-
ment before named ; pressure from behind, from the flexor
tendons, also serves to force them into, and to keep them
in their right places. They can move downward, because
their connexions admit of motion in that direction ; but only
to a certain distance ; because the connexion to the sus-
pensory ligament prevents it ; and because the flexor tendons
pressing on them behind hinder them from descending very
low. The force which displaces them, or causes them to
descend, is the cannon bone ; when in progression it is
thrown backward. In horses, with very oblique pasterns,

g2

84 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

part of the cannon bone always rests upon the sessamoids ;
and we can readily understand how such a formation must
contribute to weakness ; as well as to the grace of the
animal's paces, and the ease of the rider. Horses, with
very erect pasterns, hardly ever have the sessamoids de-
pressed by the cannon bone ; hence we can account for
their want of elasticity, as well as danger to themselves,
when put beyond a walk.

The lesser pastern, or coronet hone (Shel. Z), receives the
great pastern ; its largest extremity being placed below.
The eminence on the top of this bone is received into the
depression at the bottom of the large pastern. Upon its
sides are two projections ; which are intended to receive the
ends of the perforatus tendon. Its lower articulating sur-
face is very large ; showing it has a vast extent of motion.
It rests upon the coflfin and navicular bones ; and as the last
is another moveable bone, yielding to weight ; and as the
coronet bones in horses with long pasterns have neces-
sarily greater motion than those with short ; we can further
understand the reason for those quahties which such a con-
formation would bestow.

The coffin bone {Skel. P) is a very peculiar one. In shape
it corresponds with the hoof; which, with its appendages, it
almost fills : in structure it is very porous ; having its bony
fibres perpendicularly placed so as to give it a rough linear
appearance. When viewed in front, an eminence is seen at
the upper part ; to which the tendon of the extensor pedis
is attached : its lateral parts are not so high, but pro-
ject farther back ; and form two lateral processes, which are
always distinct, and are called its wings. Upon the inner
surface of these wings is a groove for an artery, which
forms a semicircle within the substance of the bone, and
sends off branches to the internal and external parts.
Above the wings are concavities which receive the two side
cartilages of the foot. Around the outer surface of the
coffin bone are placed the sensible laminse ; w'hich are very
firmly attached to the roughened exterior. The inferior
surface of the coffin bone is concave, for the reception of
the sensible sole ; and though this part is far from smooth,
yet it is by no means so rough as the other parts of the
same bone. The porous nature of the coffin bone answers

THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 85

three intentions : First, it gives lightness as well as solidity
to the foot. Secondly, it affords protection to the nerves
and vessels which ramify within its interior ; and which could
not travel on the outer surface without suffering serious
pressure from the great weight of the horse. Thirdly, it
gives ample hold to the various structures covering its
exterior ; and thus bestows strength and durability to the
entire machine.

The nut, the shuttle, the quiltor, or the navicular bone, is
situated behind the coffin bone, between the two wings. Its
upper surface is continuous with the articulatory surface of
the coffin bone. Its lower surface rests on the perforans
flexor tendon ; which tendon also rests upon the insensible
frog ; which again has the sensible frog and the tough and
flexible horn of the external fi'og on its lower side. Its
motion is downward ; and in this direction it would appear
to be amply protected. By its upper surface it helps to
sustain the vast weight of the animal ; yet between it and
the coronet bone there is only synovia to break the force.
Nor does it require any thing more ; however much to the
contrary it may appear to the inexperienced reader ; for to
the force from above it is yielding. The upper surface of
the bone is never injured ; but the lower surface driven
further downward whenever the coronet bone travels back-
ward,— the inferior surface though, as it would seem, amply
protected by the synovial capsule ; by the perforans tendon ;
by the sensible frog ; by the insensible frog ; and by the
tough horny frog, — is the situation of one of the most
terrible and fatal scourges that horse-flesh is heir to, viz.
navicular disease ; because, in this direction, the bone is
propelled against and bruised by any inequality of the
ground.

THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES.

These differ much from the anterior ; not only in the
strength of the parts generally, but in the length and direc-
tion of the bones entering their formation.

The femur, or thigh hone {Skel. F), is the largest, thickest,
and strongest in the body. It is, however, short in the
horse, as compared with that of most other animals : its
surface exhibits eminences, and indentations for the attach-

86 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

ment of the most powerful muscles. From its upper ex-
tremity extends the neck {Skel. e), supporting the rounded
head {Skel. d), by which it is articulated with the pelvis.
Within the head is a cavity, giving origin to -djlat ligament,
which retains the hcEid of the bone in its situation : below
the head is inserted the capsular ligament. Upon the
middle of the inner side of the bone is a small eminence,
called the internal trochanter {Skel. h). Immediately in
front, and slightly behind the head of the bone, is a large
eminence, known as the great trochanter {Skel.f) ; below it
is a small projection, named the small external trochanter
{Skel. g). The use of each and of all these projections is
to give greater surface for attachment, and thus aid the
action of muscles. The lower end of the bone has two
large round surfaces or condyles {Skel. j). The stijle hone
{Skel. G) glides over the front of two prominences, called
trochlea {Skel. k). Behind the bone, above the condyles
previously mentioned, there is an indentation that affords
origin to the gastrocnemei muscles {Skel. i) which form the
calf of man.

The stifle hone, ov patella {Skel. G), belongs to the class
of sessamoid bones, and is the largest in the body. This
order of bones are of a loose cellular structure ; having a
quantity of ligamentous fibre running through their interiors,
or mixed up with their bony material. They are of much
utility ; as they serve to aid motion ; and in the horse are,
save the patella, always found favouring the flexion of the
limbs. The stifle bone is of an irregular shape ; its outer
surface is roughened, for the insertion of numerous liga-
ments and tendons ; its inner surface articulates, or glides
over the front of the lower part of the femur ; its upper
border is connected with a powerful tendon, given off by a
muscle called the rectus ; and from its lower surface, which
is narrow or pointed, arises a muscle which serves to extend
the limb, — the flexor metacarpi magnus. So, on every side
that can bear attachment of a tendon, the patella, which is
not of more than the size of a man's palm, is connected
with muscles, or the organs of motion. Indeed the hind
leg cannot be moved in any direction without the stifle
changing its position.

The tibia {Skel. H) is a large bone, situated within that

THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES. 87

part which is properly the leg. It is of a long and triangular
shape ; connected on the outer side with a mere representa-
tive of a bone, which in the horse is not altogether absent,
called the fibula {Skel. m) . Of course the tibia has two ends.
The top, or upper surface (Skel. I), has two slightly hollow
places, divided by a ridge ; upon which hollows the two semi-
lunar cartilages of the stifle joint repose. Its bottom, or
lower surface {Skel. n), presents three eminences; between
which the two projecting parts of one of the bones of the
hock exactly fit. The parts thus fitting present rather
more than one-third of a circle; and of course admit of
extensive motion. The projecting portions on the lower
surface, upon the inner and outer parts, present two pro-
minences ; which are perfectly natural, though by the igno-
rant often mistaken for bone spavin. The most forward
part, just above the low^r surface of this bone, lies imme-
diately under the skin ; hence it is very liable to be
fractured. In situ it will be found placed obliquely back-
ward, as the femur is obliquely forward ; forming with that
bone an obtuse angle. The superior extremity presents an
anterior flat protuberant surface, for receiving the patella.

The Jibula {Skel. m) appears more designed to keep up
that beautiful connexion which we observe throughout ani-
mated nature, than for any great use in the machine. It
is attached by a synovial surface to the superior part of
the tibia ; being placed with its base upwards and its
point directed below ; reaching a third of the length of the
tibia, to which its lower point is attached.

The tarsus, or hock {Skel. /), is a most complex and im-
portant joint ; and though it consists of several bones,
these are so intimately united as to appear a solid mass.
The astragalus, or knuckle bone, presents a very irregular
figure {Skel. o). Its upper and anterior surface is pulley-
like ; having two remarkable partially circular risings, sepa-
rated by an intermediate depression ; which risings arti-
culate with tlie lower end of the tibia. Posteriorly it has
several surfaces of attachment with the calcis {Skel. p) ;
receiving the eminences of that bone into considerable de-
pressions : and in other places it is closely connected to
other bones articulating with the great cuneiform, the
cuboid, and others.

88 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The OS calcis is placed nearly behind the joint ; into
the point of which bone the tendon of the gastrocnemius
internus muscle is inserted : the longer therefore this pro-
cess is, the longer is the lever this muscle has to act upon ;
and a very slight increase or diminution in the length of
this bone must enlarge or lessen the power by which the
motion of the joint is effected. It is by tendons that the
lower part of the limb is moved ; having been bent by the
muscles misnamed extensors, by such means the angle be-
tween the cannon and the tibia is enabled again to open.
The calcis is placed so as to rise from the joint, rather
externally ; and this formation leaves a space on the inner
side for the flexor tendons of the foot to pass protected from
pressure ; the calcis anteriorly articulates with the depres-
sions of the astragalus.

The remaining bones are more wedge-like ; and principally
serve to increase the surface of attachment. The large
cuneiform, or great wedge-like bone, is placed under the
astragalus, and articulates withtt: posteriorly its internal,
as well as part of its inferior surface, articulates with the
cuboid : it has likewise, posteriorly and inferiorly, a small
surface of attachment with the little cuneiform. Imme-
diately behind this, on the outer side, appears the cuboid,
resting inferiorly on the external small splent, or metatarsal
bone {Skel. L), and part of the cannon {Skel. K) : it has
likewise a surface of attachment with the great cuneiform.
The lesser, or inner cuneiform, is situated more posteriorly
on the inner side ; its principal portions articulate with the
great cuneiform superiorly ; and with the cannon as well as
the internal small splent, or metatarsal bone, inferiorly.
The cuneiform medium is seen in front of the hock, articu-
lating by its superior cartilaginous surface with the great
cuneiform, and inferiorly with the head of the cannon, or
great metatarsal.

The bones of the hock are not so nicely placed for
description as those of the knee ; the entire joint appears
more irregularly bound together. A student would con-
clude it possessed but little motion. Such, however, is not
the fact ; in truth, it is endowed with more movement than
the more symmetrical knee. The motion between the astra-
galus and tibia is alone equal if not superior to that of the

THE POSTERIOR METATARSALS, &C. 89

whole knee. Then between the inferior bones, of which
there are two imperfect rows, there is a kind of rotatory
grinding movement, that allows the animal to move the
limb to a certain degree outward ; for if horses swung their
hoofs in very quick action, nearly as close as they are
placed, they would then be sadly in danger of cutting ; and
from the superior power of the hind muscles, of cutting very
severely ; especially as the speed prevented any great care
being taken in directing the foot. The lower part of the
hock, for the same reason as was alluded to when discussing
the knee, receives the principal shock when the foot reaches
the ground ; in consequence of this it is often the seat of
incurable lameness ; and even more often is united by bony
junction to the great cannon bone.

THE POSTERIOR METATARSALS, CORONARY, AND COFFIN BONES.

These bones have so much general resemblance to those
of the fore extremities, that I shall only point out the par-
ticular variations which occur in them. The large meta-
tarsal, or cannon bone {Skel. K), is longer, and altogether
larger than that of the anterior extremity ; it is articulated
above with the lower part of the hock, and below with the
great pastern and sessamoids {Skel. Mand N). The external
small 7netatarsal {Skel. L) is considerably larger than the
internal ; articulating superiorly with the cuboid, and late-
rally with the cannon. The great pastern bone is longer ;
and its situation is less oblique, which constitute its prin-
cipal differences. The sessamoids of this limb are two ; and
do not differ from those already described. The coronary
hone (Skel. 0), resting more on the coffin, and less on the
navicular bones here than in the anterior limb, shows that
the leg has a more extended movement than the fore limb ;
the hind, especially in the gallop, being brought far under,
as well as propelled a great distance behind the animal.
In the coffin bone {Skel. P) the articulation is deeper ; the
reason of which appears to be, that, as a horse has fre-
quently to support his whole weight on his hinder extremi-
ties, so it was necessary that these bones should be opposed
to each other in a more direct line, whereby they acquire

90 OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE.

strength ; the loss of elasticity thus occasioned is, however,
amply made up by the formation of the hock.

SECTION VIII.

OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE.

The appendages to bone consist of cartilages, periosteum,
medulla, ligaments, and synovia.

Cartilages may be divided into four kinds : articular, inter-
articular, non-articular, and temporary. Considered gene-
rally, cartilage (familiarly called gristle) is a smooth, minutely
fibrous, white, elastic substance ; less hard than bone ;
and when in health having no vascularity.

Articular cartilages furnish the extremity of every bone in
which there is much motion ; being in form of a layer, which
is thickest at the point of extreme pressure. By these
means the bones slide easil}?^ on one another ; and the elas-
ticity of the interposed cartilage prevents the effects of that
concussion which must otherwise take place between two
such inelastic bodies as bones, being driven forcibly to-
gether.

The non-articular cartilages may be divided into the at-
tached and unattached. Attached cartilages are such as are
placed on the ends of bones not articulated ; as the point of
the hip ; sides of the foot ; edges of the orbits, &c. They
are likewise interposed between bones immoveably joined
together. The cartilages of the ribs are of this kind ; and
afford flexibility to parts that would otherwise have but
little. The division of the nostrils is an attached cartilage ;
serving the purpose of bone. The unattached cartilages
serve to sustain parts without adhering to any bone ; those
of the ears and larynx are familiar instances, A variety
exists, which may be named fibro-cartilaginous, from its
partaking of the properties of both cartilage and ligament ;
such are those between the splent bones, &c. The tem-
porary cartilages are those of which the ends of bones are
formed in young animals ; they become very vascular ; that
they may be the more easily converted into bone as the
other organs become fully ossified. There are but six

OF THE APPENDAGES TO BONE. 91

inter-articular cartilages in the horse's body ; two between
the articulations of the lower jaw ; and two within each of
the stifle joints. They are peculiar only for their situation ;
and in no way differ from other substances of the same
description. The powers of life in cartilages, though small,
yet are fully evinced by their liability to take on inflam-
mation ; and to ossify, which disposition appears more com-
mon and universal in those of the horse species than of any
other known animal ; there being very few cartilaginous
parts in him that have not been found partially converted
into bone ; either by age, or the stimulus of great exertion,
&c. ; from which we readily perceive why stiffness and
want of elasticity are the consequences of these states ; from
the elasticity of the cartilages decreasing. The ulceration
of cartilage, from its slight vascularity, is necessarily very
slow ; as we witness in its attack on the navicular bone ;
and in the lower bones of the hock ; but from the stimu-
lating effects of the atmosphere this ulceration proceeds
much quicker at the ends of bones, where an opening into
the joint has been made. It is not ascertained that true
cartilage is ever reproduced ; but a cartilago-Hgamentous
substance is substituted sometimes by healthy granulations.

The periosteum is a general investing fibrous membrane to
bones ; receiving different names as it covers different parts ;
that investing the skull being called pericranium, &c. The
uses of the periosteum appear to be to act as the medium
whereby vessels are assisted in the ingress and egress to
part of the bone ; and also to afford attachment to tendons.
Periosteum, in a healthy state, has no sensation ; but, like
some other parts, wlien diseased it becomes very sensitive.

The medulla or marrow is a soft fatty matter, deposited in
the interior of bones ; particularly of the long ones, by means
of little membranous sacs, which do not communicate, or
the marrow would gravitate ; and which, as keeping the
unctuous matter distinct fi'om the bones, convinces us that
the use of this oil is not that of preventing brittleness in
them. The medullary vessels secrete the marrow within
these cells ; which secretion, being in itself wholly in-
organic, confutes the foolish notion of the exquisite sensi-
bility of the marrow.

92 OF THE MUSCLES.

Ligaments are dense, white, fibrous substances, of gi'eat
tenacity ; either cord-hke as tendons, or expanded into
more flat layers. Under still greater tenuity, ligament
becomes a common membrane in every part of the body,
under the name of fascia ; but it is more particularly appro-
priate to bones ; hence it is generally described with them.
Ligaments have usually but little inelasticity ; when however
they are of a yellow colour they are highly elastic ; as witness
the ligament of the neck ; the ligamentous substance cover-
ing the abdominal muscles, &c. Some of them partake of
the nature of cartilage, and are hence called cartilaginous
ligaments ; being hard and little vascular.

The synovia is a fluid popularly, but erroneously, termed
joint-oil; for it is not unlike the white of an egg, and is
secreted by the fine membrane lining the interior of joints.
Its lubricating use is very great ; for without it, the attrition
between the articulated ends of bones would painfully inter-
fere with motion : but by this slippery medium they readily
slide over each other, without pain or difficulty. This fluid
may be secreted in undue quantities ; and then forms dropsy
of the joint ; which is not, however, frequent in the horse,
excepting in the hock-joint, when it is called bog spavin.
Bursal dropsy, under the name of wind-gall, is sufficiently
common.

SECTION IX.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE ; SHOWN BY DEPRIVING THE
ANIMAL OF HIS SKIN, AND THE GREATER PART OF THE
PANNICULUS CARNOSUS.

1, Levator anglioris ; 2, levator labii superioris ; 3, re-
tractor labii superioris ; 4, zygomaticus ; 5, caninus ; 6,
buccinator ; 7, retractor labii inferioris ; 8,8, the tracheal
portion of the panniculus carnosus, which, reflected over the
masseter externus muscle, ultimately extends to the mouth,
and there forms the retractor anglioris ; the portions turned
back in the engraving denote whence the thin muscle has

OF THE MUSCLES. 93

been dissected; 9, the orbicularis occuli ; 10, the tempo-
ralis; 11, II, the orbicularis oris; 12, 12, 12, the levator
humeri, showing the manner it is associated with and acts
upon i, the fascia covering the fore leg; 13, the splenius,
covered by fascia ; 14, the parotid gland and the abductor
conchse ; a, the trapezius ; b, the latissimus dorsi ; c, the
postea spinatus ; d, the antea spinatus ; e, the teres ex-
ternus ; /, the scapula ulnarius ; g, the caput magnum of
the triceps extensor brachii ; h, the caput medium of the
triceps extensor brachii ; j, the pectoralis magnus ; k, k, k,
k, k, the serratus magnus ; /, /, the obliquius externus abdo-
minis and its yellow elastic fascia ; m, the gluteus maximus ;
n, the gluteus externus, deprived of its fascia, which braces
the gluteus maximus ; o, o, o, the three heads of the triceps
abductor tibialis ; p, the biceps retractor tibialis ; q, the
tensor vagina ; r, the fascia of the hind leg ; showing how
it is acted upon by the muscles of the haunch.

OF THE MUSCLES.

Muscle is that part in an animal we term flesh, in dis-
tinction from skin, cartilage, bone, membrane or fat, &c. ;
and the phenomena it exhibits are so universal, that it pro-
bably exists in every living creature ; though we are not able
to detect it in some animals. Muscles appear composed
generally of reddish bundles of fibres laid alongside of each
other ; divisible into lesser fibres of the same figure. When
a mass of these bundles is connected together into a deter-
minate form, it is then called a muscle : and as the motions
of an animal are very various ; and the circumstances under
which they are brought about equally so ; the peculiar shape
these motive masses take on is very different. Muscular
fibre not only exists in determinate masses, but it appears
to be spread over almost the whole of the body ; and it has
been very judiciously remarked that our ideas of it are pro-
bably much too limited.

We have said muscles are red ; so the external and part of
the internal, forming the vast majority of the body, decidedly
are of this colour ; but there exists within the abdomen
another kind of muscle, which is not only without colour,
but wholly removed from the influence of the will. These
muscles are found forming the middle coat of the sto-

94 OF THE MUSCLES.

mach, intestines, bladder, uterus, &c. They are purely of
a white hue ; and are put in motion entirely by mechani-
cal means, that is by the amount or condition of their con-
tents. Of this last description of muscle we shall have to
speak more at length when discussing the various organs to
W'hich it appertains.

That which is, however, generally understood by a muscle,
is a distinct body, having- a determinate action. The vascu-
larity of muscles is extreme ; and their power is connected
with the blood which circulates w^ithin them ; for when de-
prived of a part of it, they become weak ; and if it be
wholly lost, they will die, or lose all their force. On the
contrary, by exertion, which is but another term for increased
vascularity, since motion forces more blood into them, they
enlarge in size, in strength, and colour. Thus a limb which
has lost its feeling, and is freed from the control of the will,
may by continued artificial motion be made to retain its
original hue and bulk. From the extreme vascularity of
muscles, their powers are very great ; they are also plenti-
fully supplied with nerves and absorbents. They sympathize
greatly with other parts ; and other parts with them ; thus
if a muscle be greatly injured, the head, stomach, heart,
bowels, &c. are disordered ; and if another important struc-
ture be hurt the muscles assume a disordered condition :
few persons, during severe illness, being disposed to move
W'ith alacrity. Nevertheless muscles possess their peculiar
faculty ; which is to contract or shorten, and thereby pull
closer any loose part into which they or their tendons may
be inserted. During contraction, they become thicker and
harder ; and alter their shapes, but do not increase in bulk.
This power is dependent on the will in muscles, which are
termed voluntary ; and in the involuntary on appropriate
stimulus, as light to the iris. This obedience to the action of
stimuli has been called their irritability ; and exists for some
time after death. If, however, the nerves going to voluntary
muscles are pressed upon or tied, they lose their power
of motion, or become incapable of obeying the commands
of the will : hence it w^ould appear, that nervous influence
is the proper stitmilus, for the performance of their inherent
functions, to voluntary muscles. Neither can the will force
the muscles to contract beyond the capacity of their physical

OF THE MUSCLES. 95

powers ; and hence, after exertion, they become fatigued,
and at last powerless.

Voluntary muscles are to be found composing the chief
substance of the arms, legs, back, mouth, &c. They have
points which are called their origin, or from which they are
anatomically said to take their rise ; also other points with
which their substance, or the tendons springing from them,
are connected ; which are called their points of insertion.
The point of origin is generally some bone of somewhat a
fixed character ; and that of insertion also a bone, but one
that can be moved with more or less ease. It is by moving
this last that their power or utility is displayed ; sometimes,
however, both insertion and origin are equally moveable ;
and then they cannot draw one towards the other, but force
the two closer together, by contracting or lessening the
space between them. Voluntary muscles have usually
antagonists ; whereby the perpetual tendency to contraction
is counterbalanced. The muscular masses are commonly
invested by a cellular or membranous covering ; which in
some instances is very dense, called /«5cm ; whereby they are
bound down and assisted in their action.

There is another kind of muscles denominated mixed ;
that is, such as the muscles of respiration ; over which we
can exercise a certain, but not an absolute control. Thus
we can hold our breath for a limited time ; but by no effort
of which he is capable can man prevent his breathing
altogether.

Tendons. — These hang from or form continuations of
muscles ; they are almost all of them fixed into the
periosteum of bones, which they help to pull ; thus serving to
lengthen the muscle, and allowing its action to be asserted
at a distant point, without necessitating an increase in
either the bulk or weight ; which would have been impera-
tive, had the muscle been in substance extended to the
point that a comparative small tendon can reach with ease.
They are of a firm glossy nature ; and of an almost metallic
lustre ; perfectly insensible when in health ; but causing the
most intense pain when inflamed. They possess great
strength. During life, however, the tendons snap before
the nmscles ; after death the muscles always yield the first.

96 OF THE MUSCLES.

They have but little vascularity, and hence are not readily
absorbed ; consequently the necessity of releasing pus when
beneath fascia, which is nothing but expanded tendon with
another name. A certain degree of pulling is necessary
for their well being ; but any tension beyond this creates
pain, and tendons, when distended or sprained, are accom-
panied with exquisite torture ; therefore we are assured
tendons are possessed of vitality ; as their granulating and
ultimately joining when divided further convinces us. They
are of various forms ; and the substance of which they are
composed is called cellular tissue, which is largely distri-
buted throughout the body.

Levator humeri {Plate II. 12). 'Arises from the mastoid
process of the petrous temporal bone ; from the wing of the
atlas; from the posterior of the dentator; from the transverse
processes of the third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae ;
and the lower portion of the ligamentum nuchse. Is inserted
into the humerus ; to gain which it passes between the flexor
brachii and humeralis muscles, being also connected with the
brachial fascia. Action : we have named the origins and
insertion, but this muscle has no fixed point. When the
head is fixed it will draw the anterior extremity forward ;
when the legs are fixed one muscle contracting will pull the
head to that side, or both muscles acting will curve the neck
downward.

Latissimus dorsi {Plate II. h). Origin : by fine tendons
from the fascia lumborum, and the ligamentum supra spi-
nalis ; and as far forward as the third dorsal spine. In-
sertion : into the inner side of the humerus, by tendon,
which joins that of the teres internus muscle. Action : to
retract the humerus, and aid in bracing the muscles of
the back.

Trapezius {Plate II. a). Arises partly by tendon, partly by
fibre, from the summit of the second, extending as far back
as the fourteenth dorsal spine. Insertion : by tendon into
the spine of the scapula. Action : this muscle is very
useful in drawing the scapula upwards and backwards ; and,
therefore, must be a powerful assistant in progression.

Rhomboideus is one muscle, though generally described
as two, a longus and a brevis. Arises from the ligamentum

OF THE MUSCLES. 97

supra spinalis, as far forward as the third cervical vertebrae ;
and as far backward as the fifth dorsal ; and is inserted into
the inner surface of the cartilage of the scapula. Action.
It aids the serratus magnus, as well as keeps the cartilage of
the scapula close to the trunk.

Serratus magnus {Plate II. k). Origin. From the trans-
verse processes of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
cervical vertebrae ; from the entire length of the first, second,
third, and fourth ribs ; and into diminishing surfaces of the
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs. Insertion. Into the
cartilage and venter of the scapula. It is that portion only
of this muscle which goes to the eighth, seventh, sixth, and
fifth ribs and digitates with the external oblique. Action.
To move the scapula in progression ; and also to enlarge the
chest, by drawing the true ribs forward and outward when
standing still.

OF the anterior extremity.

SuBSCAPULo-HYOiDEUs (Plate III. /i). Originates: ante-
riorly, by fibre from the spur process of the os hyoides.
Inserted : posteriorly by fine tendon to the inner side of
the shoulder. Action : to draw the os hyoides dowmwards ;
and to a slight extent to aid in pulling the shoulder forward.
The muscle passes between and over important parts, divid-
ing the jugular vein from the carotid artery ; and covering
the par vagum, sympathetic, recurrent, and phrenic nerves,
besides lymphatics and conglomerate glands.

ScAPULO-ULXARius {Plate III. 1. Plate 11./. Fig 1.5).
Originates : by tendon from the olecranon ; and is inserted
into the posterior angle of the scapula. There is another
muscle inferioiiy situated, which usually is cut off with the
scapulo-ulnarius ; though it is distinct. Action. To flex the
scapula upon the humerus.

Teres externus {Plate II. e) . Arises: from the spine of the
scapula ; and is inserted into the small trochanter, upon the
humerus. There is likewise an additional muscle, usually
separated with the teres externus. Action. This muscle
acts with the teres internus serving to flex the scapula
upon the humerus.

Teres internus {Fig 1.3). Originates : from the poste-
rior angle of the scapula ; to be inserted into the body of

H

98

OF TIIR MUSCLES.

the humerus, upon the inner side. Action. It is described
with the foregoing rnuscle.

Antea spinatus (Plate 11. d. Fig 1.1). Origin. From
the anterior fossa of the scapula ; a small portion of the
cartilage of the scapula ; and the neck of the coracoid pro-
cess of the bone. To be inserted into the head of the
liumerus ; the capsular ligament ; and the bursal mem-
brane of the flexor brachii. Action. To draw the scapula
forward upon the humerus ; and also to extend the humerus,
when it is flexed upon the scapula.

PosTEA SPINATUS (P/«^e II. c) . Originates: from the car-
tilages and the posterior fossa of the scapula ; and is inserted
into the capsular ligament ; and outer tubercle of the
humerus, by tendon — undeiiieath which there is a bursa ;
— it gains the ridge extending from the trochanter of the
humerus. Action. To oppose the foregoing muscle.

FIG 1.

INSIDE OF THE SCAPULA.

1, 1, The antea spinatus.

2, Subscapularis.

3, Teres iuternus.

4, Caput magnum of ti'iceps ex-

tensor pedis.

5, Seapulo-ulnarius.

G, A distinct muscle, without a

name.
7, A portion of the caput medium.
8, 8, Humeralis.
9, Caput parvum.

10, Coraco humeralis.

1 1 , Flexor bi'achii.

SuB-scAPULARis (Fig 1.2). Origin. From the venter
of the scapula to the neck of the bone ; and to the cora-

OF THE MUSCLES.

99

coid process of the scapula. Insertion. Into the capsular
ligament ; and into the inner tubercle of the humerus.
Action. To prevent the abducting power of the antea mus-
cles. Acting' singly it would slightly adduct the humerus.

These last three muscles are copiously intersected by fascia,
which endows them wdth endurance ; as well as enables them
to act in the place of ligaments to the shoulder-joint.

Triceps extensor brachii (has three heads) : — Caput
MAGNUM {Plate II. g. Plate III. 2. Fig 1.4). Arises: from
the posterior margin of the scapula ; from a ridge extending
along the neck of the bone, upon the outer side ; and from
the capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. Insertion.
Into the posterior of the olecranon.

Caput medium {Plate II. k. Plate III. 3. Fig 1.7).

FIG 2.

deep-seated muscles in-
side OF the HUMERUS.

1, The coraco humeralis.

2, Humeralis.

3, Flexor brachii.

4, Caput parvum of the triceps ex-

tensor brachii.

5, Minimus.

Origin. From a ridge upon the outer side of the humerus.
Insertion. Into the outer part of the olecranon.

Caput parvum {Fig 2.4). Arises : from the body of
the humerus. Inserted : into the inner side of the olecranon

H 2

100 OF THE MUSCLES.

by tendon common to the three heads. Action of the three
heads. These muscles are much used in draught, in pushing
the body against the collar ; or in forcing the fore leg under
the body. Between the point of the olecranon and the
tendon common to the three heads there is a bursa mucosa.

HuMERALis {Fig \ . 8 ; Jig 2 . 2; Jig S . 2). Origin.
From the inner and upper side to the radius ; whence it takes
a spiral course, to be inserted into the posterior part of the
head of the humerus. Action. To pull down the humerus ;
to raise the radius ; and to co-operate with the flexor brachii.

Anconeus {Fig 3.3), Origin. From the inner side of
the ulna. Insertion. To the sulcus behind the inferior head
of the humerus ; and to the capsular ligament. Action. To
co-operate with the triceps extensor brachii ; and to guard
the capsular ligament.

CoRACO HUMERALIS {Fig \ . 10 ; ^'^ 2 . 1). Origin. By
tw^o heads from the body of the humerus ; and by the tendon
common to the teres internus and latissimi dorsi. Insertion.
Into a small bulb, upon the inner side of the coracoid pro-
cess of the scapula. Action. To pull the scapula erect ;
or to extend the humerus.

ScAPULO HUMERALIS MAJOR {Fig 3 . 1). Origin. From
the upper part of the body of the humerus. Inserted. Into
the neck and posterior margin of the scapula. Action. To
flex the humerus or scapula.

ScAPULO HUMERALIS MINOR. Origin. From the neck of the
scapula, by tendon. Inserted. Into the head of the humerus
upon the outer side ; and to the capsular ligament. Action.
To aid the major ; and to guard the capsular ligament.

Minimus {Fig 2 . 5). The smallest muscle in the body of
the horse. Origin. From the posterior of the neck of the
scapula, hisertion. Through the substance of the humeralis,
into the posterior of the humerus, near the neck of the bone.
Action. To protect the posterior of the capsular ligament.

Flexor brachii {Plate III. 5. Fig \ . 11; Jig 2 . 3).
Origin. From the coracoid process of the scapula, by strong
tendon. Insertion. By flattened tendon, to the inner side of
the upper head of the radius, underneath the lateral ligament.

This muscle forms a cartilaginous joint with the trochlea
of the humerus ; and has a synovial membrane to facihtate
its movements. Near to the insertion of the flexor brachii

OF THE MUSCLES.

101

it sends off an auxiliary tendon to the extensor raetacarpi
magnus. Action. To draw the scapula forward ; and through
its auxihary tendon to raise the fore arm.

The muscles of the arm, which remain to be dissected,
are characterized by having fleshy belhes, terminating in
long tendons ; most of them having distinct fascial sheaths ;
all the more important originating from the lower head
of the humerus. They are divided into extensors and
flexors : four extensors and seven flexors. An eighth
flexor, answering to the pronator teres, has been described
by Dr. Knox of Edinburgh ; but, never having been able
to find that muscle, I conclude it is sometimes encountered,
yet is not invariably present.

FIGS.

DEEPEST-SEATED MUSCLES AT
THE BACK OF THE HUMERUS.

1, The scapulo-humeralis major.

2, Humeral is.

3, Anconeus.

Extensor metacarpi magnus {Plate III. 0. 16). Origin.
From the ridge extending from the outer condyle of the
humerus, by tendon, which is likewise common to the ex-
tensor pedis. Insertion. To the anterior of the upper head
of the cannon bone, by strong tendon.

102 OF THE MUSCLES.

This muscle receives a tendon from the flexor brachii ;
which ultimately joins the Extensor Pedis ; and runs to its
insertion. Near to the extremity of the radius, the tendon
of this muscle is crossed by that of the Extensor metacarpi
obliquius.

Extensor pedis {Plate III. 7) . Originates : from the outer
side of the humerus. Insertion. Into the os suffraginis ;
the OS corona; and the coronal process of the os pedis.
Action. To co-operate with the extensor metacarpi magnus ;
to extend the leg and foot ; and to counteract the influence of
the flexor pedis perforans and perforatus.

Extensor suffraginis {Plate III. 9) . Arises: from the head
of the radius ; and from the junction of that bone with the
ulna. Inserted: into the head of os sufli'aginis by long
tendon. Action. To co-operate with the pedis in the ex-
tension of the leg ; and also to incline the pastern joint
outwards.

Extensor metacarpi obliquus {Plate III. 8). Origin.
From the middle of the posterior margin of the radius.
Insertion. To the posterior of the knee, by tendon, which
can be traced to the pisiform bone. Action. To brace down-
ward the other extensors ; and to aid in extending the meta-
carpal bone.

Flexor metacarpi internus {Plate III. 13). Origin.
From the condyle of the humerus. Insertion. To the back
of the head of the inner splent bone.

Flexor metacarpi medius {Plate III. 14). Origin. From
the inner condyle of the humerus ; and by a slip of fibre
from the side of the ulna. Insertion. Into the trapezium.

Flexor metacarpi externus {Plate III. 10). Origin.
From the external condyle of the humerus by tendon. In-
sertion. To the trapezium, by half its tendon ; and by the
other half to the outer splent bone.

Action of the flexor metacarpi: the three contract in
unison, and serve to flex the radius ; helping to bend the
knee.

Flexor pedis perforans et perforatus {Plate 111. 11.
15) arise: by tendon, fi'om behind the inner condyle of the
humerus. The fleshy belly, however, soon divides into two
halves ; from each of which proceeds a separate tendon.
These tendons, for distinction, are called the perforans and
the perforatus.

OF THE MUSCLES, 103

Insertion of the perforatus tendon : which below the knee
is the posterior of the two. Into the sides of the os corona,
by a division of its substance.

Insertion of the perforans tendon. Into the inferior and
posterior of the os pedis. These tendons, in their pro-
gress, receive two bands or accessory ligaments ; which
prevent them, when put on the stretch, distressing the
muscular fibre. The superior originates from the posterior
and inferior of the radius ; and goes to both the tendons.
The inferior comes from the bottom row of the knee bones,
and the head of the large metacarpal bones ; and goes almost
entirely to the perforans.

There may also be seen above the knee ligamentous
bands, uniting the perforans to the perforatus.

The perforans and perforatus tendons. The perforans
originates from the smallest muscular belly. After the two
have received the superior accessory ligament, they pass
through the synovial space at the back of the knee ; the
perforans here being grooved for the reception of the per-
foratus. Above the knee the perforans also receives the
tendons of the accessory flexors ; and thus, increased in
bulk, comes forth below the knee the most anterior of the
two ; the perforatus being semicircular for the protection of
the perforans. About the upper third of the large meta-
carpal bone the perforans receives the inferior ligament.
In this position the tendons journey to the fetlock joint ;
where the perforatus expands, and embraces the perforans
all round. The sheath thus formed is synovial within and
without. Without for gliding upon the sessamoid bones; and
within for the free passage of the perforans. This sheath is
continued a short distance, when the perforatus divides,
going to either side of the os corona. The perforans, after
it emerges from the sheath, proceeds above the elastic frog
to below the navicular bone, to be inserted into the sole of
the OS pedis. There is a synovial capsule between the
lower surface of the navicular bone and the upper surface
of the tendon ; the joint so formed being the seat of navicular
disease.

Flexor ulnarius accessorius {Plate III. 12). Origin.
From the inner side and lower border of the ulna. Inserted.
Close to the trapezium, into the perforans, by long tendon.

104 OF THE MUSCLES.

Flexor radialis accessorius. Origin. From the middle
of the hind surface of the radius. Inserted. Into the per-
forans by long thin tendon, on a level with the os trape-
zium.

Action of the perforans and perforatus with the tivo acces-
sory muscles. They flex the cannon ; bend the pastern ;
and curve backwards the foot, which they assist in raising
from the ground.

NECK AND BREAST.

Pectoralis transversus. Origin. From the fascia upon
the inside of the arm. Insertion. Over the cariniform pro-
cess of the sternum ; where it joins its fellow, and has a
certain degree of motion. Action. To adduct and to retract
the limb.

Pectoralis anticus. Origin. From the anterior half of
the cariniform process of the sternum ; and from the body
of the sternum ; and cartilages of the first four ribs. In-
sertion. Into both sides of the scapulo-humeral joint ; and
into the tendon covering the antea spinatus. Action. To
draw the shoulder back ; or, the leg being fixed, to pull the
body forward.

Pectoralis magnus {Plate II. J). Origin. From the
yellow aponeurosis of the external oblique ; from the ensiform
cartilage ; from the cariniform process ; and from the fifth,
sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs. Insertion. Into the inner
tubercle of the humerus ; and by tendon, which unites wath
that of the coraco-humeralis, into the coracoid process of
the scapula. Action. To co-operate with, but to act with
more activity than, the pectoralis anticus.

The great use of the pectoral muscles is to aid the mus-
cles of the haunch in the propulsion of the trunk. Their
blood is supplied by the external pectoral artery, and by
branches coming from the internal artery. The nerves are
twigs originating from the intercostals. The veins empty
into the axillary root.

Splenius {Fig 4 . 1. Plate II. 13). Origin. By fine
tendon, common also to the complexus major, from the
anterior six dorsal spines. Insertion. Into the ligamentum
colli ; into the occipital ridge, by tendon, common also to
the trachelo mastoideus ; into the petrous temporal bone ;

OF THE MUSCLES.

105

and wing of the atlas ; as well as into the second, third,
fourth, and fifth cervical transverse processes. Action. One
muscle contracting would draw the head to that side ; both
would curve the neck, and operate in the rapid movements
to raise the head.

FIG 4.

THE NECK, WITH THE LEVA-
TOR HUMERI REMOVED,

1, The splenius.

Trachelo mastoideus (Plate III. 3). Origin. From the
transverse processes of the first two dorsal vertebrae ; and
the oblique process of the last cervical vertebrae. Insertion.
Into the temporal bone and wing of the atlas; by tendon,
which is common also to the splenius. Action. — Separate
action. To turn the head, or bring it to one side. Combined
action. These muscles might be regarded as continuations
of the longissimus dorsi. They will fix the neck in rearing
and leaping ; or assist in raising and keeping steady the
head.

CoMPLEXUS MAJOR (Plate III. 2). Origin. By tendon,
common also to the splenius, from the anterior six dorsal
spines ; and by tendon, likewise shared by the longissimus
dorsi, into the transverse processes of the same dorsal ver-
tebrae. Insertion. Into the occiput ; and into the last six
cervical vertebrce. Action. To aid the ligamentum colh in
supporting the head. Its thick short, intersected, muscular

106

OF THE MUSCLES.

fibre endowing it with strength and endurance for that pur-
pose. One acting would co-operate witli tlie splenius, and
draw the head to one side.

Erector capitis major (Fig 5.1). Oriyin. From tlie
superior spine of the dentator. Insertion. Into the posterior
of the occiput. Action. To toss the liead into the air ; or to
move tiie occiput upon the atlas.

Erector capitis minor (Fig 5.1). Origin. From the
rudimental spine of the atlas. Insertion. Into the occiput,
immediately above the condyle ; and to the capsular liga-
ment. Action. To elevate the head ; and to guard the cap-
sular ligament.

FIG 5.

DEEPER-SEATED MUSCLES OF
THE NECK.

1, Erectores capitis.

Ty J Small muscles of the vertebrte.

4, Scalenus.

5, Sterno-thyro-hyoideiis.
G, Rotator capitis posterior.

7, Rotator capitis anterior.

8, Stylo maxillaris.

9, Depressor capitis major.

The substance running along the back
of the neck, and having waving lines
proceeding from it, is the liga-
meutum nuchse.

Rotator capitis anterior (Fig 5.7).

the anterior margin of the wing of the atlas

Origin. From
Insertion.
Into the occiput ; and also into the petrous temporal bone.
Action. To incline the head, to a limited extent, upon one
side.

Rotator capitis posterior (F/^ 5 . 6). Origin. From the
spine and arch of the dentata. Insertion. Into the upper

OF THE MUSCLES. 107

surface of the wing of the atlas ; and to the capsular liga-
ment of the odontoid process. Action. To rotate the head ;
and to guard the capsular ligament.

Sterno maxillaris (Plate III. 5). Origin. From the
cariniform process of the sternum. Insertion. Into the
angle of the lower jaw. Action. To bend down the head ;
and to curve the neck ; it also may aid in opening the
mouth, though, from its position, it cannot do so with
much activity.

Sterno-thyro-hyoideus (Plate III. 6. Fig 5.5).
Origin. From the cariniform process of the sternum ; about
the middle of the trachea the muscle becomes tendinous ;
from this tendon it divides into two heads. Insertion. Into
the spur process of the os hyoides by one head ; and by the
other head, into the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. Ac-
tion. To regulate the downward motions of the larynx ; and
to pull downward the os hyoides.

Scalenus (Plate III. 10. Fig ^^ . 4). Origin. From the
middle of the first rib. Insertion. Into the transverse pro-
cesses of the fourtli, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical ver-
tebrae. Action. To depress the neck ; or to draw the first
rib forward.

LoNGUs COLLI. Origin. From the transverse processes,
bodies, and inferior spines of the first six dorsal, and last six
cervical vertebrae. Insertion. Into the inferior spines of all
the cei'vical vertebrtie, by tendinous cords. Action. To bend
downward the neck.

Depressor capitis major (Fig 5.9). Origin. From the
transverse processes of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth cervical vertebras. Insertion. Into the base of the
cranium, by tendon. Action. To depress the head, both
powerfully and rapidly.

Depressor capitis minor. Origin. From the inferior of
the atlas. Insertion. Behind the former muscle, into the
base of the cranium. Action. To aid the major.

Rotator capitis internus. Origin. From the inferior
surface of the wing of the atlas. Insertion. Into the styloid
process of the occiput, upon the inner side. Action. To
rotate the head upon the atlas ; and to antagonize the rotator
capitis anterior.

There are also several minute muscles around the cervical
vertebrae, which serve to move one bone upon another ; and

108 OF THE MUSCLES.

also answer the purpose of ligaments, holding the bones
firmly together. These, however, are only sought by the
matured student — and even by him are seldom made out.
They may be considered as altogether unfitted for those into
whose hands the present work is intended to pass.

THE POSTERIOR EXTREMITY.

Tensor VAGINA (PZa^e II. g-). Origin. From the anterior
spine of the ilium. Insertion. Into the small external tro-
chanter of the femur ; into the fascia of the haunch ; and
into the patella. Action. To advance the leg ; by drawing
forw^ards the femur, and upwards the patella ; as w^ell as to
render tense the fascia of the haunch.

Gluteus externus {Plate II. 7i). Origin. From the
second spine of the sacrum, and from the anterior spine of
the ilium. Insertion. Into the small external trochanter of
the femur; and into the fascia covering the gluteus maximus.
Action. To draw^ the femur forw^ard ; and to brace the fascia
covering the gluteus maximus.

Triceps abductor femoris (Plate II. o). Originates
from the second and third sacral spines. Insertions. Ante-
rior head. Into the outer side of the patella. Middle head.
Into the aponeurosis, wdiich connects it with the other two
heads ; into the tibial fascia ; and into the superior of the
tibia. Posterior head. Into the outer side of the gastrocne-
mius tendon ; and into the fascia of the tibial region.

By releasing from the point of origin, the following
additional attachments to this muscle wall be discovered : —

Additional origins. From the second, third, fourth, and
fifth transverse processes of the sacrum ; from the transverse
process of the first coccygis ; from the sacro sciatic liga-
ment ; from the great trochanter ; from the tuberosity of
the ischium ; and from the posterior of the small external
trochanter of the femur. A bursa will be found between
the tendon of this muscle and the great trochanter.

Action. To steady the body ; and raise the anterior of
the sacrum ; when the feet are firmly fixed, as in leaping.
The three heads do not simultaneously contract ; but
this powerful muscle is in motion, abducting and retracting
the limb the whole time during progression. It is also
energetically used in kicking.

Gluteus maximus {Plate II. m) . Origins. From the sur-

OF THE MUSCLES.

109

face of the longissimus dorsi ; from the last two lumbar
vertebrce ; from the dorsum of the ilium ; and from the sacro
sciatic ligament. Insertion. Into the great trochanter ; and
by a slip of muscle into the body of the femur, as low down
as the small external trochanter. Action. When the legs are
fixed, it aids in raising the anterior of the body ; also, in pro-
gressing, it serves to abduct and to retract the femur ; and
is actively employed in kicking.

Biceps rotator tibialis {Plate 11. p. Fig 6 . 5). Ori-
gins. Superior head. From the last two sacral spines ; and
from the first coccygis. Inferior head. By tendon, which is
common also to the posterior head of the triceps abductor
tibialis.

Insertion. Into a roughened tubercle, upon the inner
surface of the tibia, by long tendon ; — beneath this tendon
will be discovered two bursee.

Action. To co-operate in rearing and leaping ; also to
flex and rotate the tibia.

FIG 6.

THE INSIDE OF THE THIGH.

1 , The vastus internus.

2, The sartorlus.

3, The gracilis.

4, The caput magnum of the triceps

adductor temoris.

5, The biceps I'otator tibialis.

6, The rectus.

7, Tlie femoral artery.

Sartorius (Fig 6.2). Origin. Partially bifid supe-
riorly ; from the psoas fascia ; from the transverse process
of the last lumbar vertebr?e ; and from the brim of the
pelvis. Insertion. Into the inner side of the body of the

110 OF THE MUSCLES.

tibia ; and connected with the fascia that passes over the
vasti internus muscle. Action. To brace the vasti and rectus
fascia ; to extend the leg co-operating with the gracilis.

Gracilis {Fig 6 . 3). Arises. From the symphysis pubis,
a portion of its tendon arising from the head of the pec-
toneus muscle. Inserted. Into the inner and superior part
of the body of the tibia. Action. To flex and adduct the
limb.

Triceps adductor femoris {Plate III. 5), Almost three
distinct muscles ; which, under the name of heads, share one
common name. Large head. Origin. Bifid superiorly ;
from the last sacral spine ; from the first os coccygis ; from
the sacro sciatic ligament ; and from the inferior of the
tuberosity of the ischium. Insertion. Into the inner con-
dyle of the femur ; the patella ; and the head of the tibia.

Middle head. Origin. From the tendon derived from the
symphysis pubis, ofi:' which the gracilis was dissected. In-
sertion. Into the inferior, and inner side of the femur.

FIG 7.

INSIDE OF THE THIGH (deejy-

1, Iliacus.

2, Pectoneus.

3, Caput parvum of the triceps ab-

ductor femoris.

4, Ischio femoi'alis.

5, Obturator externus.

Small head {Fig 7 . 3) — origin. From the tendon derived
fi'om the symphysis pubis. Insertion. Into the inner side
of the femur.

Action of the three heads. In rearing or leaping they

OF THE MUSCLES. Ill

would raise the fore part of the trunk ; in progression,
they retract and rotate the femur ; also they adduct the
limb.

Isciiio FEMORALis {Fig 7.4). Origin. From the inferior
surface of the ischium. Insertion. Into the inner side of
the body of the femur, just above the small head of the
tricep adductor. Action. To complete the retraction of the
hind extremity, when the inherent contractility of the more
powerful muscles has been exhausted.

Pectoneus (Fig 7.2). Origin. By tendon, which meets
that of the muscle from the opposite side, from the brim of
the pelvis. Insertion. Into a ridge upon the inner side of
the femur. Action. To raise the femur, as well as to
adduct the bone.

Vasti tnternus, exteknus, and rectus {Plate III. 6, 7)
cannot be distinctly separated into three fair muscles. The
RECTUS arises by two tendons ; the superior of which springs
from the dorsum of the ilium, and has a bursa between it
and the bone. The inferior comes from the venter of the
ilium. The two tendons unite near the border of the bone.
Insertion. Into the superior angle of the patella, by a mass
of tendon.

Vastus externus (Plate III. 6). Origin. From the lower
tubercle of the great trochanter ; and from the outer sm-face
of tlie femur. Insertion. Into the superior of the patella ;
and the inferior of the rectus muscle.

Vastus internus {Fig 6 .1). Origin. From the neck of
the femur ; and the entire inner surface of the bone. In-
sertion. Into the upper surface of the patella ; and into
the inner surface of the rectus ; but to a less extent than
the vastus externus. Action of the three heads. To bend
the femur ; but more particularly to raise the patella, and
so advance the limb.

Ilio FEMORALIS. Origin. From the dorsum of the ilium,
by tendon, between which and the bone there exists a small
bursa. Insertion. By tendon, into the antero-superior of
the femur. Action. To assist in the flexions of the femur ;
and to guard the capsular ligament.

Psoas parvus. Origin. From the necks of the last three
ribs ; from the last three dorsal ; and from all the lumbar

112

OF THE MUSCLES.

vertebrae. Insertion. Into the tubercle on the brim of the
pelvis.

Psoas magnus. Origin. From the angles of the last
three ribs ; and from the transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae. Insertion. By a tendon, which is common also
to the next muscle, into the internal trochanter of the femur.

Iliacus {Fig 7. I). Bifid superiorly. Origin. By the
larger head: from the anterior spinous process, and the
venter of the ilium. By the small head : which lies between
the two psoas muscles ; from the venter of the ilium. In-
sertion. By tendon, common also to the psoas magnus,
from which the iliacus cannot be fairly separated ; into the
internal trochanter of the femur. Action of the three heads.
To roach the lumbar vertebrae; and in galloping, con-
jointly with the abdominal muscles, to draw the pelvis
forward ; and to place the hind leg well under the body
during violent motion. The three are also in use in
more moderate action ; but then their power is less
marked. They are likewise of great service during copu-
lation.

Gluteus internus {Plate III. 9). Origin. From the
sacro sciatic ligament ; and the roughened elevation above
the acetabulum. Insertion. Into the inferior tubercle of the
great trochanter ; and into the capsular ligament of the hip
joint. Action. To protect the capsular ligament; and to
keep close the head of the femur.

Obturator externus {Fig 7.5). Origin. From the
brim of the obturator foramen ; from the membrane cover-
ing the opening ; and a small portion also from the tendon
common to the gracihs and abdominal muscles. Insertion.
Into the sulcus behind the great trochanter ; and into the
ridge extending from it by tendon. Action. To flex the
femur.

Pyriformis. Origin. From the first transverse process
of the sacrum ; and the venter of the ilium. Insertion. The
tendon of the muscle leaves the pelvis, and winds over a
synovial groove upon the border of the innominata. Having
gained the exterior of the pelvis the tendon is joined by that
of the obturator internus ; and into this common tendon are
inserted some of the fibres of the gemini. The tendon is

OF THE MUSCLES. 1 13

ultimately fixed into the sulcus, behind the great tro-
chanter.

Obturator internus. Origin. From the floor of the
pelvis, covering the obturator foramen. Insertion. Winds
over the bursal sacro ischiatic notch, by tendon, which joins
that of the pyriformis ; to be inserted into the sulcus, behind
the great trochanter.

Gemini. Origins. By tendon, from the sacro sciatic notch ;
and from the tendon common to the pyriformis and the ob-
turator internus. Insertion. Into the sulcus, behind the
great trochanter ; and into the capsular ligament. Action.
The gemini would guard the capsular ligament ; the three
muscles last named would rotate the head of the femur,
pointing the toe of the foot outwards.

Extensor pedis posterior (Plate 111. 10. 13). Origin.
From the outer side of the inferior head of the femur, by
tendon ; also by slips of fibre, from the head of the tibia.

Insertion. Into the coronal process of the os pedis, by
long tendon.

The tendon by which this muscle originates is combined
with one which passes to the flexor metatarsi magnus.
The tendon by which this muscle is inserted into the os
pedis begins about the inferior third of the tibia ; and
passes through three annular ligaments ; one above the
hock, which is common also to the flexor metatarsi magnus ;
another at the inferior of the astragalus ; and a third inferior
to the hock, which also binds down the extensor pedis acces-
sorius. The accessory tendon joins that of the extensor pedis,
about one third down the cannon ; where they meet, some
muscular fibres from the last annular ligament become in-
serted into them.

Action. To extend the foot ; aiding also in the flexion of
the hock.

Extensor pedis accessorius, or peroneus {Plate III. 11).
Origin. From the head of the fibula ; from the fascial sheath
of the flexor pedis ; and the sheath of the extensor pedis.

Insertion. Into that of the extensor pedis, one third
down the cannon. The fibres of its tendon can be traced
as low down as the os suffraginis.

Action. To aid the extensor pedis.

Flexor metatarsi magnus {Fig 8. 3). Origin. From

I

114

OF THE MUSCLES,

the inferior of the femur, by tendon ; which also passes over
the entire length of the muscle, and is common also to the
extensor pedis ; and by fibre, from the head of the tibia.
Insertion. By the numerous divisions of its tendon into all
the bones of the hock joint ; excepting the tibia ; astragalus ;
magnum ; and outer splent.
Action. To flex the hock.

FIG 8.

OUTSIDE OF THE LEG, NEARLY
DEPRIVED OF MUSCLES.

1, Popliteus.

2, Flexor pedis accessorius.

3, Flexor metatarsi magnus.

4, The tendon common both to the
flexor metatarsi and extensor pedis.

5, The groove in which the extensor
pedis played.

Plantarius (Plate III. 9). A small loose band of muscular
fibre. Origin. From the head of the fibula. Insertion. Into
the calcis, by a long tendon, concealed within the tendon of
the gastrocnemius externus. Action. To brace, or keep in its
proper place, the tendon of the gastrocnemius externus.

Gastrocnemius externus {Plate III. 8. 14). Bijid ante-
riorly. Origin. Outer head. From a ridge extending upwards
from the outer condyle of the femur. Inner head. From the
inner edge of the sulcus ; above the outer condyle of the
femur. Insertion. Into the point of the calcis, by tendon,
common to both heads.

OF THE MUSCLES, 115

Gastrocnemius internus. Origin. From the sulcus,
above the outer condyle of the femur. Insertion. Into the
OS calcis ; and becoming the perforatus tendon, after it has
passed the point of the hock, resembles that of the fore leg ;
being inserted into the sides of the os corona.

Action. The external is the principal motor agent ; the
internal possesses scarcely more power than is necessary to
adapt its tendon to the motion of the limb ; but this want is
supplied by the connexion between the tendons. They are
the chief retractors of the lower part of the leg ; and upon
their power the propulsive energy of the horse mainly de-
pends. Much of the beauty of the animal depends also
upon their endurance ; as the horse that has the gastrocnemii
tendons cut through instantly falls to the ground. A bursa
will be found between the two tendons ; and another between
the external tendon and the skin.

Flexor pedis perforans [Plate III. 12). Posterior
origin. From the hind and outer part of the head of the
tibia ; from underneath the fibula ; also from the posterior
border of the same bone ; and from the strong ligament
extending from it.

Insertion. Its tendon resembles the perforans of the fore
leg ; excepting that it extends obliquely across the back
of the tibia, passing from the outer to the inner side ; its
tendon passing over the calcis, through the theca, at the
back of the hock. Immediately below the hock it is joined
by its accessory tendon ; and lower down receives the liga-
mentous band, which originates from the lower bones of the
joint, and the head of the great metatarsal bone. From
this point it resembles the same tendon in the fore leg;
being inserted into the os pedis, under the navicular bone.

Action. To co-operate with the gastrocnemii tendons, in
retracting the metatarsal bones; but also to flex the pastern.

Flexor pedis accessorius (Plate III. 15. Fig 8. 2).
Origin. From the outer and posterior part of the tibia ; and
from the fascial sheath of the perforans. It soon becomes
tendinous ; its tendon passing through the synovial sheath
at the back of the hock, to gain its insertion into the tendon
of the perforans.

Action. To assist the flexor pedis perforans.

PoPLiTEUs {Plate III. 18. Fig8 .1). Origin. From the

i2

116 OF THE MUSCLES.

posterior of the upper head of the tibia. Insertion. Into
the capsular ligament ; and by tendon into the outer con-
dyle of the femur.

Action. To guard the capsular ligament ; and to rotate the
femur.

LuMBRici. A pair of these poorly developed muscles
belong to each leg ; and are the only muscles below the knee
or hock. Their pale fleshy heads are not always found ;
but when they are present they terminate in long tendons,
which run to the pad at the back of the fetlock,

MUSCLES OF THE ANUS.

Sphinctor ani {Plate III. 2). Encircles the opening to
the anus ; and enters within it for the depth of four or five
inches. It has neither origin nor insertion. Action. To close
the anus ; it being a very bad symptom when, during disease,
this muscle relaxes.

Retractor ani inferior. Bijid posteriorly. Origin. Os
innominata, above the origin of the gluteus internus. In-
sertion. Into the rectum ; both heads mingling with the
fibres of the sphinctor ani, upon the lower surface. Action.
To retract the anus ; puUing it downwards, after the passage
of the dung.

Retractor ani superior. Origin. From the inferior of
the sacrum. Insertion. Mingles with fibres of the sphinctor
ani, upon their upper surface. Action. To co-operate with
the inferior retractor ; pulling the anus upwards.

Levator ani consists of two slips of red muscular fibres.

muscles of the tail {Plate III. 4).

Compressor coccygis. This muscle can be divided into
three distinct layers. Origin. From the superior border of
the OS innominata. Insertion. Into the inferior of the first
coccygeal bone ; and into the next three bones of the tail.

Besides this, the tail is generally described as consisting
of four muscles : a levator, which elevates the tail ; a pair
of curvators, which turns the tail to either side ; and a de-
pressor, which lowers the tail. But the firmness with which
the tail can be held down by the horse is owing to the de-
pressor, assisted by the compressor and other muscles.

The four muscles of the tail originate in a tendinous

IiQndoii;I,o,agman d-C? sjid otl^^r :>oprietOT'3

OF THE MUSCLES, 117

sheath, as far forward as the last lumbar veitebrse ; and are
inserted into all subsequent bones, even to the last coccygis.
Other muscles, belonging to particular parts, will be found
mingled with the description of such structures.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

THE SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES, TAKEN FROM THE BODY
OF THE HORSE, SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE MUSCLES WHICH ARE
MORE DEEPLY SEATED.

THE HEAD AND NECK.

a, the buccinator ; b, the caninus ; c, the retractor labii
inferioris.

1, 1, the orbicularis oris; 2, 2, 2, the complexus major;
3, 3, the trachelo mastoideus ; 4, 4, the subscapulo hyoi-
deus ; 5, the sterno maxillaris ; 6, 6, the sterno thyro
hyoideus ; 7, the jugular vein ; 8, the carotid artery, with
the eighth pair, and sympathetic nerves ; 9, the trachea ;
10, the scalenus.

THE FORE LIMBS.

1, the scapulo ulnarius ; 2, the caput magnum of the
triceps extensor brachii ; 3, the caput medium of the same
muscle ; 4, the anconeus ; 5, the flexor brachii ; 6, the ex-
tensor metacarpi ; 7, the extensor pedis ; 8, the extensor
metacarpi obliquus ; 9, the extensor suffraginis ; 10, the
flexor metacarpi externus ; 1 1 , the perforans and perforatus ;
12, the ulnarius accessorius ; 13, the flexor metacarpi in-
ternus ; 14, the flexor metacarpi medius ; 15, the perforans
and perforatus ; 16, the extensor metacarpi.

THE TRUNK AND BACK.

A, the scapula ; F, F, the longissimus dorsi ; G, the
spinalis dorsi ; a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, the intercostals ;
b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b, b, the superficialis costarum ; c, c, c, c, c,
the rectus abdominis ; d, d, d, d, the transversalis abdominis ;
e, e, e, the obliquus internus abdominis ; /, the hollow in
the longissimus dorsi, which part of the gluteus maximus
once filled.

HAUNCH AND HIND EXTREMITY.

C, the ilium ; D, the ischium ; E, the tibia ; 1 , the sacro

118 OF BURSiE MUCOSAE.

sciatic ligament ; 2, spliinctor ani ; 3, depressor coccy-
gis ; 4, the muscles of the tail ; 5, 5, the triceps abductor
tibialis ; 6, the vastus externus ; 7, the rectus ; 8, the
gastrocnemius muscles ; 9, the plantarius ; 10, the extensor
pedis; 11, the peroneus ; 12, the flexor pedis perforans ;
13, the insertion of the gracilis; 14, the gastrocnemii
muscles; 15, the flexor pedis accessorius ; 16, the course
of the perforans tendon, inside the os calcis of the hock
joint ; 17, the insertion of the gastrocnemius externus into
the point of the hock ; 18, 18, the popliteus muscles ; 19,
the extensor pedis.

SECTION X.

OF BURS^ MUCOSA,

Tendons of great length are usually furnished with sheaths,
within which is secreted a glairy, slippery fluid, of a similar
nature with synovia ; by means of this they are enabled to
slide over the bones, or other structures, with great ease.
At the extremities of the tendons ; also between them and
at the points of bone ; wherever the parts are liable to
pressure or friction, these little bladders or sacs, filled with
synovia, form distinct structures ; they are called ynucous
capsules or hurs(S mucosa;, being composed of dense cellular
tissue, whose internal vascular surface is lined by a synovial
membrane. From injury, or other causes, this membrane
becomes at times inflamed ; and, when resolution of such
inflammation is not effected, coagulable lymph is thrown
out; which not being always again absorbed, remains between
the tendons and its sheath ; occasioning distention and
often lameness, from the obstruction it offers to the freedom
of motion ; therefore, we are at no loss to account for the
gorged sinews in hard-worked horses ; nor for the stiffness
they occasion. The mucous capsules, at the extremities of
the tendons, also are extremely liable to become distended ;
and bursal disease receives very different names according
to its situation ; as ivindgalls at the fetlock ; thoroughpin be-
hind the hock ; and capped hock at the point of the joint.
These diseased accumulations appear to be brought on by
undue exertion of the parts : after which, any motion appears

OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 119

to act as a stimulus to increase their size, and to disease the
synovial secretion within.

SECTION XI.

OF THE VESSELS ; OR OF ARTERIES, VEINS, AND ABSORBENTS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.

THE ABDOMEN, DEPRIVED OF THE INTESTINES.

A, The posterior aorta, near its termination ; B, the posterior
cava ; C, C, the ureters ; £>, D, the kidneys ; E, the renal
artery ; F, the renal vein ; G, the stomach ; H, the duo-
denum tied ; /, the splenic artery ; J, the liver ; K, the ante-
rior mesenteric artery.

OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY.

The arteries are canals originating from the ventricles of
the heart by two trunks, the aorta and the pulmonic ;
whose subdivisions are destined to supply the whole body
with blood. Considered generally, arteries are long tubes ;
which by reason of their numerous bifurcations become
smaller as they proceed to the extreme parts. However,
the extremities of the arteries, though so much smaller
than the original trunk, nevertheless, if put all together,
w^ould contain ten times as much as the parent vessels. In
their course an especial regard is observed towards their
safety ; hence they are mostly deep seated ; and invariably
pass on the inner sides of the limbs, or on the side that is
flexed. They appear equally guarded against accidental
pressure or tension, by passing over the bending surface of
a joint ; and where they are situated in soft parts, liable to
extension, as in the tongue, the arteries pursue a serpentine
or very crooked course. Their being thus convoluted,
however, answers another end than saving them from being
stretched ; as the arteries, before entering the brain and the
testicles, are to be seen winding about in various directions ;
the intention of which construction is to prevent the blood
from being urged too violently upon such important organs.
All arteries are composed of three different coats or cover-

120

OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY.

ings, united to form one elastic tube : the external coat is of
condensed cellular tissue ; whose elastic powers are so con-
siderable, as to preserve the cylindrical form of the principal
canals when empty. The middle coat consists chiefly of yellow
elastic tissue; and the internal coat is serous tissue, or
similar to synovial membrane. By their elastic power' the
arteries are capable of being distended : by this likewise
they can adapt themselves to a smaller quantity of fluid
than usual. It is by this elasticity, which operates longi-
tudinally as well as circularly, that, in cases of injury, the
divided ends of an artery retreat within the cellular sub-
stance around, and thus close its orifices. When this con-
traction is prevented byapartial division only, the hajmorrhage
continues ; but even the entire division of the punctured
vessel is not generally effective in arteries of the first, second,
or third magnitude. The elastic powers appear in dissimilar
proportions in difierent horses, as in different men ; from
which arises some constitutional phenomena in the indi-
viduals of each species ; giving to some a greater disposition to
haemorrhage and inflammation, which is called a sanguineous
temperament. The elastic coat appears to exist in greater
proportion in the horse than in the human being. To this
cause it is probably owing, that acute inflammations of the
vital organs, in the horse, run through their stages so much
quicker, than similar affections in our own race. To this
power it is to be attributed, that a horse can bear the divi-
sion of a much larger artery without danger than a man.

Arteries, in their different courses, send out branches,
which freely join with other branches sent out by other
arteries ; in consequence of this circumstance we are able
to deprive the horse of large and essential vessels; the
small arteries which have united with others then enlarging,
and thus carrying on the circulation. Most arteries termi-
nate by means of their capillary branches in veins ; we
know this, because we can empty the arteries, by drawing
the blood from the venal trunks ; and because injection
forced into the arteries, in many instances enters the veins ;
but is prevented from so doing if the fluid used be of a
coarse description. A more scarce termination of arteries
is in cells; from which veins arise to take it up again, as
m the spleen, &c. Difl'erent parts ai'e more or less plenti-

OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY, 121

fully supplied with arteries according to their nature :
secreting organs have usually large trunks, as the kidneys,
spleen, &c. Arteries are likewise themselves furnished with
arterial and venal branches ; for the nourishment of their
tubes. They are chiefly supplied with nervous energy by
the sympathetic system of nerves ; which accounts for their
being little endowed with feeling. It also renders easy of
explanation their being possessed of eccentric powers ; such
as directing more blood to the face, as in blushing ; and
driving more blood to a part, as in local inflammation ; while
their action in neither case can be controlled by the will.

The evident use of the arteries is to convey the blood
from the heart to the different parts of the body ; thus
keeping up the vital principle in these parts, by being the
bearers of nutriment and heat. An intimate knowledge of
their functions, and a w^ell -grounded acquaintance with their
situation, is therefore essentially necessary to the veterinary
surgeon.

As the use of the arteries is to convey the blood from
the lieart ; so the heart itself appears to be the first, but not
the only agent exerted in its propulsion through the vessels.
And as the force of the heart decreases with distance ; so
there is, at last, a column pressed on in almost a continuous
stream, by the force from behind : thus when a very small
artery is divided, there is a regular flow, with scarcely any
jet : this, however, only takes place in their minutest
branches. We thus see why there is no pulsation in the
veins ; they receive the blood from the arteries in one equa-
ble stream. Pulsation is a certain sensation caused by the
artery ; which, from various experiments, is found to arise
from its being alternately in a state of distention and relaxa-
tion. It appears that, when the ventricles contract, and
force the blood into the arteries, the pressure of the fluid
occasions a distention of their coats : when the ventricles
cease to act, and become contracted, the impetus against
the sides of the vessels ceases ; and now the coats of the
arteiy contract also, and lessen its size.

Absorbents are distributed to every part of the body ; it
is true we cannot see them, neither are they to be traced,
save by the very finest of liquid injections ; but their

122 OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY.

existence is known with certainty, because their effects are
perceived. Thus the hardest part of bone is removed by a
natural process, or absorbed. Inorganized cartilage is like-
wise taken away ; to allow the arteries and veins to enter,
and bone to be deposited when ossification ensues.

Absorbents are very minute, thin-coated, transparent
vessels, having numerous valves, like to veins ; they are
spoken of as deep-seated and superficial ; but as the differ-
ence of position is accompanied by no difference of struc-
ture, we shall here regard them as of one kind. Every
absorbent conveys the materials it takes away from various
parts into the blood ; with which their contents mingle, and
ultimately become blood ; or they are emitted with the excre-
tions. In starvation it is by means of the absorbents that
the marrow is carried out of bones ; and the fatty matter
from other places in the body, and emptied into the blood ;
which in this manner helps to support, or keep alive, the
subject starved. It is thus that it is accounted for why a
fat animal is longer dying from starvation than one that
is thin.

Certain absorbents, which take up the nutritive portion
from the food within the intestines, are called lacteals ; be-
cause the substance they abstract is at first white, like to
milk ; otherwise they are the same as common absorbents ;
all of which enter and pass through one or more of the
little reddish bodies, called absorbent glands. Of what use
these glands are remains to be discovered ; but they doubt-
less promote some change in the fluid contents of the ab-
sorbent vessels ; they also serve to mingle what the vessels
contain ; for if two or three absorbent branches enter a
gland, only one is seen to leave it ; which one must convey
away the materials the others brought ; as the glands them-
selves do not appropriate, or enlarge, or fatten, upon the
contents of these vessels.

The functional effects of this system are abundantly active
in the constitution at large ; we are certain that the various
organs of the body are continually changing, wholly or
partially. It appears to be the office of the arteries to
build up new parts, and to repair the waste of others ; but
the old ones must be first of all pulled down and removed

OF THE ARTERIES GENERALLY. 123

by absorption ; which is least active at youth ; equal with the
arteries in middle life ; and predominates in age. By this
wonderful power the roots of the temporary teeth are ab-
sorbed ; that their crowns may give way : by this also the
gubernaculum testis, having fulfilled its office, is absorbed ;
and the thymus gland is likewise removed : it is thus car-
tilage is taken up, to make room for a bony deposit when
the animal approaches maturity. By the absorbents the
fluids as well as solids are continually changing ; being taken
up and carried back, but always in a fluid state, into the
mass of blood. It is by them that the dead parts are
separated from the living in sloughing and ulceration. By
the superficial absorbents, even gases are received from
without ; the water held in suspension by the atmosphere
is thus taken in ; hence grazing horses require little or
no water ; more especially if not exposed to the heat of
the sun, whereby evaporation or exhalation is promoted.
The functional office of the absorbents is most important
also in the preservation of life under casualties. Long fast-
ing is thus borne ; their capability of displacing the animal
oil or marrow from the bones, and the fat from the body
generally, is here employed to make up the want. Hyber-
nating animals live during their torpidity by a slow absorp-
tion of the adipose matter ; thus it is found in the instance
of the torpid bear, that, however fat he may enter his
seclusion, he returns lean and emaciated.

To our acquaintance with the power of the absorbents
the practice of medicine is greatly indebted ; and although
we own few means of lessening absorption, we fortunately
have many of increasing it. Mechanical friction is the
most active and universal agent in stimulating the absorb-
ents ; as the hand-rubbing of horses sufficiently proves.
Pressure also increases their action ; thus we bandage
the swollen legs ; we girth the bodies of our horses, to
promote absorption of the interstitial fluid. Exercise, by
swelling the muscles, produces pressure ; and thus exercise
will remove swelled legs, and promote absorption generally.
Blisters likewise exercise an influence over absorption.
A still stronger stimulant is iodine ; which is especially
useful in enlargement of the glands. Purgatives and diu-
retics, and whatever tends to lower the pulse, promotes

124 OF THE PULSE.

internal absorption ; for by offering an impediment to the
circulation ; removing the contents of the intestinal canal ;
and increasing the urinary secretion ; an absence is caused
in the materials for building up, which the absorbents
endeavour to repair by removing other parts.

OF THE PULSE. *

The momentary increase of capacity in the artery,
whereby its diameter is enlarged, is called its pulse ; and
the more or less frequent are these dilatations, so is the pulse
quicker or slower. The circulation of the blood in animals
being usually in the contrary ratio to their bulk, i. e. it is
tardy in the large, and quick in the small, has given to
every kind of standard pulse. Thus, between the largest
horse and the smallest pony, there is a difference of from
six to eight beats in a minute ; the greater number of course
being in the more diminutive animal. In the adult horse it
may be stated to range between thirty-six and forty ; in the
colt it will be found sixty at birth ; but it gradually decreases
as the animal attains the adult standard. This variation
between the young and adult pulse is, however, less de-
pendent on their relative sizes, than on w^eakness of the
system, and the greater irritability at the early period.

There are also other causes of individual variation in the
pulse of horses of the same size. The constitutional pecu-
liarities of some animals occasion a departure from the usual
standard pulse : in the irritable horse it is commonly five
or six more per minute than in the mild one : and in some
blood animals this is peculiarly the case. A low bred
sluggish horse is commonly below the standard of his size.
In stabled horses the pulsations are always more frequent
than in those abroad ; and it is accelerated in a degree
corresponding with the heat of their dwelling ; the nature of
their clothing ; and the stimulating properties of their food.
Desire, impatience, and fear, all raise the pulse.

The pulse is important, as it affords us our best criterion
of the state of the system. The pulse affords us a ready
indication of a quickened or a tardy state of the circulation ;
but w^ere our information to stop here, it would be limited
indeed ; and the pulse w^ould then prove but an indifferent
guide. There are various conditions of the pulse besides

OF THE PULSE. 125

its number to which we should attend : these may be cha-
racterized by the familiar terms of strong, hard, soft, wiry,
oppressed, small, quick, frequent, slow, regular, and irre-
gular ; to become familiar with which requires nice discri-
mination and habits of close attention.

The arteries being universally diffused ; and their action
being uniform throughout ; it follows that the pulse may be
examined on any part of the body ; but it can certainly be
no where so conveniently, nor perhaps no where so advan-
tageously, felt, as in the submaxillary artery (see Fig 9 . c),
when that vessel crosses the lower jaw. Having detected
this artery ; enclose it within the fore and middle fingers,
the thumb resting without ; while the index and median
fingers, between them, pursue the inquiry into the state of
the circulation ; now by one, now by the other, pressing the
tube with various degrees of force against the bone.

A strong and full pulse, indicating forcible contractions
in the heart ; with a proportionate quantity of blood forced
into, and propelled onwards, by the arteries, is present in
the horse under temporary excitement ; but is seldom found
to accompany any morbid state into which he falls. The
full pulse which accompanies disease in the horse has always
some confined vibratory hardness ; though, occasionally, it
may be encountered without hardness in the first stages of
influenza. A hard pulse vfith. incYeased frequency is charac-
terized by its feeling to the fingers like a cord vibrating
under them ; and not like the full undulations of an over-
charged vessel. This hard pulse accompanies most exten-
sive membranous inflammations ; and is the usual attendant
on the early periods of most abdominal diseases. It forms
the best characteristic between incipient peritoneal inflam-
mation and spasmodic colic or gripes ; for in gripes, although
after a few hours' continuance there is often a hardness in
the pulse ; it is always accompanied, when purely spasmodic,
with a degree of fulness also, unknown in peritoneal inflam-
mation. A hard and fidl pulse is common to extensive
disease of parts not immediately essential to life ; as of the
cellular membranes; muscles; skin; &c., when they are suffi-
cient to affect the constitution. It accompanies the early
stages of bad catarrhal affections ; and occasionally of pneu-

126 OF THE PULSE.

monia also ; but in catarrh it usually exhibits more frequency
than in pneumonia. The wiry pulse is a very important
modification of the hard ; in which last the sensation is con-
tracted from that of a vibrating cord to that of a jarred
wire ; whence its name of wiry, thready, &c. It is com-
monly accompanied by increased frequency ; and is often
present in the protracted stages of abdominal inflammation ;
and in some few it accompanies them from their outset.
It appears to be the common consequence of the hard and
full pulse ; and frequently succeeds to it in the secondary
stages of inflammatory aflections. The oppressed pulse is
also a modification of the hard pulse ; and is common to
the active stages of inflammation of the lungs.

A small pulse is usually present in all cases of great de-
bility ; and is invariably attended with increased frequency.
When it is Yevy quick, small, and thread-like, it shows that
the debility is extreme ; and prognosticates a fatal termina-
tion of the existing disease : when this pulse varies in its
regularity, and intermits, it is even more certainly a fatal
prognostic.

A quick pidse may denote irritability of the system ; but
more commonly is attendant upon weakness. When pro-
duced by irritability, it seldom exceeds twenty beats more
than the natural standard ; and it likewise has a strength
proportioned to its speed : when it is caused by weakness,
it is usually from seventy to more than the most patient
observer can count. It is a bad sign when it reaches the
last-mentioned height ; and the utmost skill and perse-
verance are then required to prevent a fatal termination.

A slow pulse may be occasioned by pressure on the brain ;
from the eflfect of accidents ; or from congestion, &c. It
may also be brought on through the medium of the stomach ;
by various substances taken in. White and black hellebore ;
aloes ; digitalis ; and whatever creates nausea, decreases the
frequency of the pulse. But, unfortunately, in the horse
our means of exciting this sensation are usually limited to
such matters as are in themselves sources of great irritation.
The pulse may be also diminished in its frequency by cold ;
but at the same time it is apt to be increased in strength.
We must likewise bear in mind that a simple alteration in

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 127

the frequency is not all that is necessary to a beneficial
end ; we should render the pulse soft also, without which a
slow pulse may retain its fatal character.

A soft pulse opposes little resistance to the fingers ; but
seems to allow a due volume of blood to flow through it
without labour or interruption. This pulse is frequent at the
decline of inflammatory affections ; and usually shows the
cessation of the disease. Suppuration, as a termination of
inflammation, produces it ; and when pus forms, a soft
pulse is generally the consequence.

A regular pulse is occasionally found when disease is pre-
sent ; but it is usually under such circumstances of an altered
character. A regular pulse, with a proportionate fulness, is
one of the strongest marks of health ; as an irregular one
usually betokens acute disease : irregularity in it may, how-
ever, exist without acute symptoms ; and may depend on
organic affections or peculiarities in the system. Irregularity
in the pulse, in most cases, is a mark of irritability ; and it
may characterize debility. In inflammation of the heart
there is usually a peculiar irregularity in the pulse, with
extreme oppression and smallness. An irregular pulse in
fever shows great danger ; it also accompanies the fatal ter-
minations of all inflammations. The worst cases of pleu-
ritis and pneumonia commonly present it before the close ;
and in certain cases a very singular irregularity is present,
from a large quantity of serous fluid formed within the
chest ; in which, besides its intermission, the pulse appears
as though undulating through a bladder of water. This
pulse should be particularly noticed ; as, when once it be-
comes familiar, along with other signs, it affords an unerring
guide to the state of the patient.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

The aorta {Fig 13 . 1), the principal vessel of the arterial
system, rises perpendicularly from the top of the left ven-
tricle of the heart : having proceeded about two inches, it
divides into two branches, opposite the fifth dorsal vertebra ;
one of which is carried forwards to furnish the head and
fore extremities ; the other proceeds backwards, to be dis-
tributed to the body and the hinder limbs. These divisions
form the anterior {Fig 9.1) and posterior aorta (Fig 13 . 4) ;

128

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

but previous to this division, the original trunk has given
off a pair of small arteries immediately at its origin, called
the coronaries ; which supply the heart itself with blood
{Fig 13 . 3).

FIG 9.

THE THORAX, DIVIDED TO DISPLAY THE BRANCHING OF
THE ANTERIOR AORTA.

a, The left carotid.

b, The riglit carotid.

c. The submaxillary.

d. The inferior labial.

1, The anterior aorta.
2, 2, The arteria innominata.

3, The anterior intercostal.

4, The dorsal.
6, The posterior cervical.

6, The vertebral.

7, The axillary.

8, The common carotid.

9, The inferior cervical.

10, The external pectoral.

1 1, The internal pectoral.

e, The coronarj' labial.
/, The superior labial.
(7, The buccLuator.
h, The facial.
i, The false nostril.
j. The posterior masseter.
k, The temporal.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 129

The anterior aorta is continued single unto between the
second and third rib ; where it divides into its right and left
branches, called arteri(B mnominatfE (Fig 9.2). The left
division supplies the dorsal to the back ; and (Fig 9 . 4)
one branch, which penetrates between the first and second
ribs, under the name of posterior cervical, to afford nur-
ture to the neck {Fig 9.5): afterwards, passing towards
the first rib, it gives off the left vertebral. The vertehrals
(Fig 9 . 6) are two important arteries : they are given off
opposite the first ribs ; and pass under the transverse process
of the last cervical vertebra ; and are continued upwards
through the foramina at the base of the transverse processes
of the remaining six of these vertebrae. As they pass, they
send off small branches through the lateral notches in the
vertebrae to the spinal marrow ; likewise to the muscles
of the neck. Approaching the head, they give a branch,
wdiich usually passes through a foramen in the wing of the
atlas to communicate with the external carotid {Fig 11 . 4) .
After they have made a number of inflections, apparently
to retard the circulation, they join branches, and form
the basillary artery, that runs along the base of the medulla
oblongata {Plate V. Fig 2).

After the vertebrals the innominatae, give off the internal
and external pectorals, which go to the breast {Fig 9 . 10, 11):
w^hen, bending its course over this rib, it takes the name
of axillary {Fig 9.7). The right division of the anterior
aorta is much larger, as well as longer, than the left. In
its course, having furnished some considerable branches
w^hich mainly correspond with those given off to the left
side, it becomes the common carotid {Fig 9.8); which
directing itself forwards divides into the right and left caro-
tids {Fig 9 . a, b. Plate VIII. h).

The axillary artery {Fig 10 . a), as furnishing the whole
of the fore extremities with blood, must be deemed very
important. The trunk of the vessel curves over the first rib,
to reach the innermost side of the fore limb. After having
pursued its course for a short distance it gives branches to
the scapula, and becomes the humeral. The humeral artery
descending along the internal surface of the humerus, gives a
considerable branch to the flexor brachii ; as well as others to
the scapula {Fig \0 . b,c, d, e, g, i, i, i) : here also it often

K

130

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

parts with a branch, the external thoracic, which ramifies over
the ribs ; behind the fore leg, in the seat of the spur vein.
The humeral artery having arrived at the anterior part of the

FIG 10.

THE INSIDE OF THE FORE LEG.

a, The axillai'y.

b, The humeral thoracic.

c, The internal thoracic.
d) The dorsalis scapulae.
e. The subscapularis.

/, The external thoracic.
g, The humeral.

h, Branches to the triceps extensor
brachii.

i, Branches to the flexor brachii.
j, The spiral.
k, The ulnars.
I, The radial.
m, The radial medullary.
n, The small metacarpal.
0, The large metacarpal.

bone, near to the inferior articulation of the humerus, makes
a fresh division, giving off considerable branches; one of which

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 131

passes between the ulna and radius (Fig 10 . k). The radial
artery (Fig 10 . /, I), which proceeds downwards, to nurture
the flexor muscles ; sends off a branch to nourish the
medullar of the radius (Fig 10 . m) ; and another near the
knee, called the small metacarpal artery (Fig 10 . n). The
main trunk is then continued downwards under the mus-
cles, behind the radius ; then passes within the arch of the
trapezium; and becomes the metacarpal artery (Fig 10 . o, o) ;
which continues down under the nerve upon the inner
side of the leg. At the lower part of the cannon it divides
just above the fetlock into the two plantar vessels. The
ulnar arteries (Fig 10 . k, k) go to the joint and muscles
about the bone ; while the spiral, sent off a little above the
ulnars (Fig 10 . j), is mainly distributed to the extensors of
the limb.

The two arteries, which are formed by the ultimate
division of the metacarpals, are called the plantar arteries ;
and each of them passes upon the side of the pastern bone.
When they reach the foot they are at the back of it ; and
each sends a branch to the fatty frog ; while the main trunks
pursue their course along the inner surface of the wings of
the coftin bone ; to unite with each other, and form an arte-
rial circle within the substance of the bone of the foot. From
the arterial circle thus formed are sent off various small
twigs ; which penetrate the porous coffin bone, and then bend-
ing downward unite and form the circumflex artery ; which
runs round the margin of the bony sole, to which blood from
the circumflex artery is transmitted. Of course there are
small branches also sent to nourish every part through which,
or near to which, the arteries run ; but from the fear of ren-
dering our description too complex, we have omitted very
much, which the reader, probably with justice, would con-
sider mere dry detail.

The carotid, common trunk (Fig Q . 8), arises from the
right arteria innominata, and even this vessel sometimes
divides into two portions. Each carotid is a very long
vessel, whereby the strong action of the heart is counter-
acted ; and the head of the horse is less liable to congestion
than man's, in whom these vessels are so much shorter.
As it approaches the head, it divides into what are termed
the external (Fig 11.7) and internal carotids (Fig 11 . 6),

k2 •

132

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

and ramus anastomoticus (Fig \\ .5). As the internal
carotid enters the skull : on account of the tortuosities which
the vessel makes before the entrance is gained, its contents
cannot be too much accelerated ; nor by this contrivance can
rarely accidental pressure deprive the brain of its functions.

FIG 11

THE HEAD, WITH A PORTION OF THE LOWER JAW REMOVED, SO
AS TO EXPOSE THE ARTERIES BENEATH.

1, The left carotid.

2, The thyroideal.

3, The laryngeal.

4, The vertebral.

5, The ramus anastomoticus.

6, The internal cai'otid.

7, External carotid.

8, The submaxillary divided.

9, 9, A branch sent to the cheek of
the horse.

10, 10, The ranine.

11, The mental.

12, The internal massetei'.

13, The ascending pharyngeal.

a, The posterior maseeter divided.

b, The posterior auricular.

c, The anterior auricular.

d, The temporal.

The external carotid artery {Fig 11 . 7 ; Jig 12 . 1, 1) first
bends downwards behind the angle of the jaw {Fig 12) ;
then, crossing the large membranous opening of the fauces,
it is directed under the parotid gland towards the hindmost
part of the branch of the jaw. The branchings of the ex-
ternal carotid are : the parotideal ; the posterior and anterior
auricular s {Fig 11 . b, c) ; which last give off a branch to the
internal ear ; the temporal {Fig 9 . k ; Jig II . d); the poste-

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 133

rior masseter {Fig 9 . j) ; the submaxillary {Fig 9 - c ; fig
11 . 8) ; beside which it sends off a large and important
trunk, called the internal maxillary {Fig 12 . a) ; which, in
its turn, sends off deep temporal twigs {Fig 12 . h) ; then the
artery dispenses fine branches to the eye {Fig 12 ./) ; the
soft palate {Fig 1 2 . c) ; the ear, and the articulation between
the lower and upper jaw ; as well as giving rise to a large
trunk called the inferior maxillary {Fig 12 . d). This last
vessel enters the bone of the lower jaw, together with the
nerve, and nourishes the teeth ; and emerges through the an-
terior maxillary foramen, to unite with the inferior labial
artery {Fig 9 . d).

Tlie terminating branches of the internal maxillary are : —

The supra orbital {Fig 12 . e) ; which passes through the
foramen, upon the bony arch of the eye, and disperses upon
the forehead.

The ocular {Fig \2 . f) are a bunch of arteries which,
springing from the base of the orbit, are expended upon the
appendages of the eye.

The lateral nasal {Fig 12 . /?), which enter the brain ; and
having joined the anterior cerebral leave the cranium with
the olfactory nerves, and disperse upon the nasal membrane.

The infra orbital {Fig 12 . g), which enter the canal of that
name, to nourish the bone and the upper molar teeth ; and
appears again upon the side of the face ; through the ex-
ternal infra orbital foramen, to unite with the facial artery
{Fig^.h).

The palato-maxillary {Fig 12 . i) ; which is the largest
division of the internal maxillary, enters the palatine
foramen ; appears upon the bony palate, along which it runs ;
ultimately uniting with its fellow ; and passing through
the foramen incisivum, at the back of the superior incisor
teeth ; having emerged from which, it once more divides
{Fig 12 . j), being expended upon the lips. It supplies all
the parts along which, or near to which, it passes.

The submaxillary artery {Fig 9 . c ; fig \2 . 3, 3) proceeds
forward ; passes over the inferior border of the lower jaw ;
where it is merely covered by the skin and panniculus, as it
runs along to the anterior margin of the external masseter
muscle ; and close to the molar teeth becomes the facial {Fig
9 . h) ; and also sends off the inferior labial {Fig 9 . d).

134

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

Previous to this division are given off the ascending
pharyngeal {Fig 11 . 13); which often sends ofT twigs to
the soft palate, and to the larynx.

The submaxillary also gives off small branches to the in-
ternal masseter, and to the parotid gland.

The lingual, almost equal to the parent trunk in size, but
is very short. And gives rise to

The ranine {Fig 11 . 10); and a branch to the cheek of
the horse (F?'^ll . 9, 9, 9).

The ranine is much the largest of the above two ; and
takes a serpentine course among the muscles of the tongue.

FIG 12.

THE HEAD, WITH THE LOWER JAW, THE ARCH OF THE ORBIT, AND
THE ZYGOMATIC PROCESS, REMOVED TO LAY BARE THE DEEPER
SEATED ARTERIES.

1, The external carotid.

2, The temporal divided.

3, Tlie submaxillary divided.

4, The internal masseter divided.

5, The posterior masseter divided.

6, The anterior auricular divided.

7, The posterior auricular divided.

8, The ramus anastoraoticus.

9, The occipital.

10, The internal carotid.

a, Tiie internal maxillary.

b, The deep temporal.

c, Twigs to the soft palate.

d, Inferior maxillary, divided where it enters

the foi'amen maxillary infers.
c, The supra orbitaiium.
/, The ocular,
r/. The iufra orbital, partly concealed by tiie

eye.
h, The lateral nasal.
i. The palato-maxillary.
j, The branches fi-om the palato-maxillaries,

after they have anastomosed, and passed

through the foramen incisivum.

The mental {Fig 11 . 11) runs between the branches
of the lower jaw; nourishing the mylo hyoideus; the internal
masseter ; and the gums of the lower jaw.

To the anterior of the masseter branches, one large, and
two or three small ones, are also supplied from the mental.

Inferior labial runs near the lower border upon the outer

ARTERIES OF THE BRAIN. 135

side of the inferior maxillary, close with the retractor labii
inferioris muscle. It also supplies the under lip ; within
which it unites with its fellow of the opposite side.

It gives rise to

The buccinator arteries.

A branch, which runs to the angle of the mouth ; and
there divides into the superior and inferior coronary arteries,
which nourish the upper and the under lips {Fig 9 . e) .

The facial artery (Fig 9 . h) ascends in front of the mas-
seter ; having reached the termination of which, it divides
and expends itself on the front of the face.

It generally sends blood to the external masseter muscle ;
buccal twigs; and the superior labial {Fig 9 .f,f); and a
branch which runs to the false nostril, and to the upper hp
{Fig 9 . i) ; all its branches freely join those of neighbouring
arteries.

The ramus anastomoticus {Fig 12.8) proceeds upwards,
underneath the parotid gland ; below the styloid process it
turns and gets under the wing of the atlas ; where it unites
with the vertebral. It gives off

The occipital {Fig 12 . 9), which ascends to the crest of
the occiput. This last sends off a long twig, which goes
through the foramen lacerum basis cranii to the dura mater,
as w^ell as nurtures other parts.

The i7iter7ial carotid {Fig 12 . 10, 10 ; /(/. 1 1. 6) crosses
the extremity of the os hyoides, and by a tortuous course
reaches the cranium, through the foramen lacerum basis
cranii.

ARTERIES OF THE BRAIN.

The vertebrals, upon entering the cranium {Plate V. Fig
2 . 1,1), unite with the inferior spinal artery {Plate V. Fig
2.2); and ultimately form one trunk, called the basilar
{Plate Y. Fig 3) ; which, when formed, gives off branches
right and left to the cerebellum (PZ«ie V. Fig 2. 4). Having
then proceeded to the front of the pons varoli the basilar is
divided into three trunks, by giving off the right and left com-
municating arteries of the basilar {Plate V. Fig 2 . 6, 6) ;
which join the transverse posterior {Plate V. Fig 2 . a),
within the cranium ; where for the present we must leave
them. The middle communicating artery {Plate V. Fig

136 THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

2 . 7) also connects the basilar with the posterior transverse
{Plate V. Fig 2 . a) ; which, beside giving off several branches,
transmits two large trunks, called the right and left laterals
{Plate V. Fig 2 . c, d) ; and these, uniting with the ante-
rior transverse artery, form the circulus arteriosis, at the
very base of the brain {Plate V. Fig 2 . a, b, c, d).

The internal carotids, having entered the cranium, unite
with the circulus arteriosis, at the base of the crura cerebri ;
which gives off, just afterwards, the ophthalmus, or central
artery of the retina {Plate V. Fig 2.9,9). These last, how-
ever, do not in any two subjects appear to originate exactly in
the same place. The circuhis arteriosis sends off two large
trunks; named the middle cerebrals (Plate \. Fig 2 .11,
11) ; after which, directly in front, it dispatches one trunk,
called the anterior cerebral {Plate V. Fig 2 . 12) ; and this
subsequently dividing, forms the right and left anterior cere-
bral {Plate V. Fig 2 . 13, 13). Thus the brain is amply
supplied with blood ; but whoever inspects the plate so often
referred to, must be struck with the very tortuous or crooked
course which one and all of these vessels take. The reason
of this is obviously to check the impetuosity of the arterial
current ; but, notwithstanding all the care nature takes to
prevent it, cases of congestion do occur.

THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

This large and important vessel {Fig 13.4. Plate IV. A)
furnishes blood to all the parts of the body, save the head,
neck, and fore limbs. It curves upwards and backwards,
inclining in its course to the left side of the vertebrae ; and
supplies all but the first four or five ribs. In the thoracic
passage of the aorta it gives off the bronchial {Fig 13.5);
the oesophageal {Fig 13 . 6, 6) ; and the intercostals {Fig
13.7); and as it enters the abdomen between the crura of the
diaphragm, it leaves the phrenic {Fig 13 . 8). The coeliac
{Fig 13 . 9) is often the first true abdominal branch of the
aorta, and, in most instances, is the common trunk of the
splenic {Fig 13 . a); gastric {Fig 13 . b) ; and hepatic {Fig
13 . d) arteries. The gastric divides into two branches; one
of which spreads its ramifications over the lesser curvatures
of the stomach, upon the upper surface ; and the other joins
the splenic, and becomes the left gastric. The hepatic

THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

137

artery forms a considerable branch of the coeliac : in its course
to the liver it gives a branch to the duodenum ; as well as one
which supplies the pyloric extremity of the stomach. The
splenic in its course sends blood to the pancreas ; and then
runs between tlie spleen, and the great curvature of the
stomach ; being in this place called the left gastric, which
unites with the gastric, enclosing the stomach as in a sling.

FIG 13.

THE LENGTH OF THE POSTERIOR AORTA EXPOSED.

1, Tlie aorta.

2, The pulmonary arteiy.

3, The left coronary.

4, The posterior aorta.

5, The left bronchial.
(i, The oesophageal.

7, The intercostals.

8, The left phreuic.

9, The coeliac.

a, The splenic.

b, The gastric.

c, Arteries derived from the gastric.

d, The hepatic.

e, The anterior mesenteric.
/, The renal.

g, g. The spermatics.

h. The posterior mesenteric.
i. The lumbar arteries.
j. The left external iliac.
k, The left internal iliac.
I, The right external iliac.
»B, The circumflex artery of the ilium.
n, The profunda femoris.
0, The epigastric.

The mesenteries , anterior and posterior {Fig 13 . e, A), are two
considerable branches given off from the aorta : the posterior
being generally the last vessel emerging from the aorta; the first
leaves the parent trunk, directly after the cceliac. The anterior
is distributed to the mesentery and small intestines ; giving a
small branch to the pancreas. The posterior furnishes most
of the large intestines ; excepting a portion of the rectum.
The mesenteries anastomose freely with each other by a
particular branch ; and surround the intestines, so as to
form a network of vessels. The emulgents, or renals, are

138 THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

given ofF between the two mesenteries (Fig \S ./. Plate
IV. E) ; and are very considerable trunks. Arising at
right angles from the aorta, they at once reach their appro-
priate kidneys; giving off in their passage branches to supply
the renal capsules. The spermatics {Fig 13 . g, g) follow
next in order ; parting from the main trunk, about midway
between the origin of the renals and the division of the
aorta. These are peculiar for being the longest arteries, in
proportion to their diameters, in the body ; and also for
travelling a greater distance in a straight line ; as well as for
giving off no branches ; the generality of arteries being
much convoluted, and sending off numerous twigs. These
vessels, in the male, pass down the abdominal rings, to join
the spermatic chords ; and in the female, go to the ovaries
and Fallopian tubes. The lumbar arteries (Fig 13 . i) are
usually five or six pairs ; which arise from the superior
part of the aorta ; being distributed to the spinal canal
and lumbar muscles.

The iliac arteries. — When the aorta has arrived to about
the fifth lumbar vertebra, it first gives off the two external
ihacs ; and in about three quarters of an inch more, the
trunk divides finally into two larger divisions.— The internal
iliacs are so called from their pelvic situation and distribu-
tion {Fig 14 . i). The first to notice is the artery of the
bulb {Fig 14 . j) ; sometimes given off before the iliac divi-
sion, but always near it. It bends itself within the pelvis,
furnishing the prostatic gland in the male ; and vagina in
the female ; after which it proceeds to the bulb of the penis ;
or to the vagina. The gluteal {Fig 14 . 7i) is also a branch
from the internal iliacs ; and going through the sacro-sciatic
notch, supplies the gluteal, and some of the neighbouring
muscles. The lateral sacral {Fig 14 . o), likewise originating
from the same trunk ; sends off the peroneal {Fig 14 . p) ;
which supplies a gluteal branch ; the flexors of the thigh ;
and the anal muscles with part of their blood. The middle
sacral {Fig 14 . ^) is like the lateral, given off by the internal
iliac ; and both commonly travel to the end of the tail ; the
middle however being the smaller within the pelvis. The
obturator {Fig 14 . Z) often follows next ; the main trunk
of which traversing the pelvis, ultimately passes through
the obturator foramen to the muscles of the haunch ; before

THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

139

it quits the pelvis it gives off the innominata {Fig 14 . m) ;
which goes to the extensor muscles of the thigh ; then divides
into the pubic, ischiatic, and internal piidic {Fig \5 . n,o,p) ;
by which last the organs of generation in both sexes are
furnished.

FIG 14.

THE TERMINATION OF THE AORTA IN THE TWO ILIACS, WITH THE
NUMEROUS BRANCHES THAT SPRING FROM THOSE VESSELS
WITHIN THE TRUNK.

h. The remains of the foetal umbiUcal arteries.
I, The obturator.
m, The arteria innominata.
n, The gluteal.
0, The lateral sacx'al.
p, The peroneal.

q, A brancli to the back of the thigh.
r, A gluteal branch.
s, Continuation of the lateral sacral.
t. The middle sacral.

a, The abdominal aorta.

b, The spei-matics.

c, The posterior mesenteric.

d, The external iliac.

e, The circumflex of the iUura.

f, The profunda femoris.

g, The epigastric.
h, The femoi-al.

i. The internal iliac.

/, The arteries of the bulb.

140

THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

The external iliacs (Fig 14 . ^) travel more externally ;
but having gamed the brim of the pelvis, they proceed one
on each side down the iliac muscles ; in which course each

FIG 15.

INSIDE OF THE HIND LEG.

a, The external iliac.

b, The profunda femoris.

c, The epigastric.

d, The femoral.
e, The inguinal.

/, Large branch to the stifle.

q, Branch to the ti-iceps abductor femoris,

i, Popliteal branches.
j, Anterior tibial.
k, Posterior tibial.
I, The obdurator.
m, The ai'teria iunominata.
«, The pubic.
0, The ischiatic.

h. Branch to the posterior border of the p, The iutei-nal pudic.
gastrocnemii.

gives off twigs to the psoas and abdominal muscles ; the cir-
cumflex artery of the ilium {Fig 14 . e) being the first large
branch of the external iliac. It advances across the loins, and

THE POSTERIOR AORTA.

141

gives off a tube to the traversalis abdominis ; and another
that proceeds forwards, chiefly to supply the other abdominal
muscles. The arteria profunda femoris {Fig 14 .f; fig 15 . b)
also comes from the external iliac, at the termination of the
main trunk ; and dives amongst the thickest of the thigh ;
before which, however, it gives off the epigastric artery {Fig
14 . g ; fig 15 . c) ; which runs along the border of the
rectus muscle, to unite with the internal pectoral artery.

FIG 16.

THE OUTSIDE OF THE HIND LEG.

a, Gluteal branches.

b, The arteria inuomiiiata.

c, The anterior tibial.

d, The metacarpal.

The femoral artery {Fig 15 . d), passing out of the abdomen,
descends along the internal side of the femur, to about the

142 THE PULMONARY VESSELS.

middle of the bone ; where proceeding obliquely, it gains the
centre of the thigh ; and is continued down behind that bone.
Pursuing its course, the femoral artery at length reaches
the sulcus at the back of the stifle ; to which last it
sends numerous small arteries, called the pophteals (Fig
15 . i). In its course the femoral dispatches the inguinal
{Fig 15 . e) ; which last proceeds to get between the vastus
internus and rectus ; giving off branches to all the parts
through which it passes. The femoral artery subsequently
sends blood to all parts of the thigh ; the twigs by means
of which it does so having no name ; and upon reach-
ing the stifle divides into the anterior {Fig 15 . j) and
posterior tibial {Fig \5 . k) arteries. The j^osterior tibial
artery is continued down the posterior of the tibia. The
anterior tibial {Fig 16 . c) forms the other division of the
femoral ; and runs obliquely to the external inferior part of
the tibia; passing between that bone and the fibula, the
artery then takes its course between the extensor muscles.
It here winds round the outer side of the hock ; and de-
scending along the cannon bone changes its name to the
metatarsal artery {Fig 16 . d) ; which is continued down
between the large and the small metacarpal bones. It thus
gains the superior part of the sessamoid bones; when it bifur-
cates into the two pastern or plantar arteries ; following a
similar distribution with those of the fore extremities.

THE PULMONARY VESSELS.

The pulmonary artery {Fig 13 . 2) unlike the generality of
similar tubes conveys venous blood from the right side of the
heart ; and the pulmonary veins carry arterial blood back to
the left auricle. This is their striking peculiarity or chief cha-
racteristic. The passage of the blood through these vessels
is termed the minor circulation. The pulmonary artery is a
trunk of five or six inches in length ; given ofl' from the right
ventricle of the heart : immediately after which it divides into
the right and left branches ; the right being more consider-
able than the left, in conformity with the additional lobe of
the right lung. Each of these branches is divided upon
its entering the lungs into others ; which being subdivided
ramify throughout the substance of the lungs. From the
minute distributions of the artery, the blood is received into

THE VEINS GENERALLY. 143

capillaries ; by which minute tubes it is conveyed to the pul-
monary veins ; when the recipient branches increasing ulti-
mately unite into four, five, and occasionally six principal
trunks ; which all terminate in the left auricle of the heart.

THE VEINS GENERALLY.

Veins correspond wdth arteries in their common office of
caiTying the blood ; but with this difference ; that the arte-
ries distribute their blood from the heart to every part of
the body : whereas the veins bring back the blood from the
parts the arteries had carried it to, and restore it to the heart.
The veins may, therefore, be considered as canals arising
from minute tubes, called capillaries ; distributed over every
part of the body ; veins becoming larger, terminate in the
heart. Their coats are thin ; but tenacious and elastic.
Their number and calibre are greatly superior to that of the
arteries. We find them distributed in two orders ; a super-
ficial and a deep-seated, which communicate freely with each
other. The superficial order run immediately under the
skin ; the deep-seated accompany the arteries. As a guard
against obstruction, as in the jaws, their coats sometimes
enlarge into reservoirs {Fig 17 ./). The want of solidity
and resisting power in veins is compensated by internal
membranous projections, which form valves. A valve
appears to be a duplicature of the lining coat of the vein ;
raised into two and sometimes three folds : of these, one
edge adheres to the inner side of the vein ; the other is
free. By this formation the blood passing towards the
heart, keeps the valves continually open ; but when, by
pressure, the fluid is stopped in its course, the valves being
pressed backward, expand, and prevent its return. Valves
are not distributed equally throughout the venous trunks :
in some vessels, where the blood has to traverse upward, or
against gravity, they are numerous ; in others they are
entirely wanting. They are found in veins of the extremi-
ties, excepting the feet ; there are but few in the viscera ;
nor are there any in parts w^here the blood has to drop as it
w^ere into the heart. A good example of this is the jugu-
lars {Fig 17 . a) ; in which the valves are placed looking
towards the heart ; so that when the horse stands with
his head elevated, the blood only has to fall through the

144

OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA.

vessel, the valves not acting ; but when the animal feeds
from the ground, and the blood has to ascend against
gravity, the valves are of service, and come into full ope-
ration.

FIG 17.

THE VEINS OF THE HEAD AND FACE.

a, The jugular.

b, The submaxillary.

c, The labial.

d, The facial.

e, The tempoi'al.

/, The sinus, or pouch, within the masseter

muscle.
g, The posterior masseter.
h. The parotideal.
i. The auricular.
j, The occipital.

Of the origins of veins, one is from arteries, which
have previously terminated in capillaries ; and likewise
from large cavities or sinuses. Veins are furnished with
arterial blood from the vasa vasorum, given off by the
nearest arteries ; which blood is returned by minute venae
venarum into the nearest veins. The blood within the
veins is returned' to the heart in a regular flow ; at least no
pulsation has ever been satisfactorily detected within them.

OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA.

All venous trunks eventually terminate in the anterior
and posterior cavce {Fig 1 8 . «, k) ; in both of which, other
veins also terminate. In this detail we shall commence a

OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA.

145

description of the veins as vessels terminating in the heart ;
and bringing the blood to the centre of circulation, to be
thence purified.

FIG 18.

//"'/fl'/l"

THE TERMINATIONS OF THE CAVAS IN THE HEART ; RIGHT SIDE.

a. The anterior cava. h. The anterior intercostal.

h. The jugular. i, The inferior cervical,

c, The vertebral. j, The vena azygos.

</, The axillary. h. The posterior vena cava, divested of its

e, The internal pectoral. covering of pleura.

/, The external pectoral. I, The phrenic sinuses.
(7, The dorso cervical.

The anterior cava empties its contents into the right
auricle : opposite to the first rib it receives four principal
trunks ; two of which are the axillaries, and two of which
are the jugulars ; besides these the internal and external
pectorals empty themselves also into the anterior cava,
opposite to the first rib {Fig \S . d, e,f). Subsequent to
this it receives the dorso cervical and vertebral veins with
the anterior intercostal ; then the vena azygos {Fig 18 . j) ;
which passes on the right side of the dorsal vertebice,
and receives the blood from all the posterior intercostals ;
all pour their blood into its channel {Fig 18^. h, g,j, c).

The axillary is a principal trunk, which, having passed
over the first rib, assumes the name of the humeral ; and is
joined by the external thoracic or spur vein ; as well as
vessels from the scapula and its muscles.

The humeral descends towards the posterior part of the
humerus, where it takes the name of radial ; previous to its

L

146 OF THE ANTERIOR CAVA.

doing which it is joined, near to its upper extremity, by a
large trunk, called the ulnar. It is also united with a large
vein, towards its low^er extremity, termed the spiral ; and
these accessions increase the bulk of the humeral. Just at
the point where the vessel loses the name of humeral, a
large vein unites with the radial, to swell the bulk of the
lower end of the humeral ; and this additional vein is called
the superficial brachial. All those vessels pass by the title
of superficial brachial, wdiich may be seen v/ith the naked eye,
from above the knee to the point of the shoulder, swelling over
the bodies of the extensor muscles. Just behind the knee the
superficial brachial unites with the radial ; which last, exactly
posterior to the joint, forms a venous circle ; ultimately be-
coming the internal metacarpal, to divide above the fetlocks,
into the two plantars ; which are immediately concerned in
bringing the blood from the fore feet.

These vessels originate from the capillaries, in which
arteries terminate ; and bring back the blood to, or end in,
the heart.

The jugulars, one of the principal divisions of the anterior
cava, run down one on each side of the trachea. The main
trunk arises from the foramen lacerum basis cranii ; w^hence
it soon after appears at the back of the jaw. In this situation
it receives several branches ; the most remarkable of which
are three vessels from the ear {Fig 17) ; a large trunk (the
temporal) {Fig 17 . e), originating in front of the masseter
muscle ; where it springs from a junction with the facial
{Fig ]7 . d) ; wdiich chiefly follows the course of the artery ;
receiving the blood of the labial {Fig 17 . c). From the
junction of the facial and the temporal grows the submaxil-
lary {Fig 17 . b) ; which takes the course of the artery in
the first instance ; and ultimately joins the jugular, at what
is generally termed its division into two parts. The sub-
maxillary is that portion which proceeds toward the channel
of the lower jaw^ ; and between it and the temporal are
numerous communicating trunks. These are necessary,
lest the blood should either be stayed in its course, or the
vessels containing it be burst, through the strong contrac-
tions of the powerful masseter muscle, which is employed
during mastication. As a further protection against such
an accident, within the substance of the masseter muscle, a

VEINS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 147

vein dilates, becomes varicose or more properly speaking,
forms a sinus {Fig 17 ./) ; capable of containing a large
quantity of blood.

VEINS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY.

The blood from the hind foot is returned by the plantar
veins ; which at the fetlock become the metatarsals. The in-
ternal metatarsal upon approaching the joint gets in front of
the hock ; though afterwards it curves upward and takes a
course above the tibia, under the name of the vena saphena
minor. This last vessel joins the femoral above the stifle
joint. In front of the hock numerous venous twigs origi-
nate ; which, increased by branches sent by the external
and internal metatarsal veins, become the anterior tibial
upon the outside of the leg ; which curves upward to the
top of the fibula; when, after passing under the head of
that bone, it becomes the femoral.

The internal metatarsal sends a branch to the front of
the hock ; the main trunk, under the name of the vena
saphena major, proceeds over the inner side of the calcis ;
to be continued upon the upper side of the tibia, near to
the bone ; when, having passed at the back of the stifle, it
proceeds directly to the flank ; after which it curves back-
wards, being increased by several fine twigs, and empties
itself into the femoral. The vena saphena major, on its
approach to the gastrocnemius muscle, gives off a trunk
termed the posterior tibial ; which pours its contents into
the femoral, just above the stifle ; shortly after this the
femoral obtains another branch, the vena saphena minor ;
which, however, a little way prior to its junction sends off
a trunk, that ascends through the muscles of the thigh
to pass through the obturator foramen, and join the femoral
within the pelvis, under the name of the obturator vein.
The femoral terminates in the external iliac ; which, after
receiving the abdominal veins, runs close to the spine into
the common iliac ; a very short but thick trunk.

The pudic veins ultimately end in one trunk, which
empties into the ischiatic ; and this last vessel pours its blood
into the internal iliac ; which being so very short soon ends
in the common iliac. The lateral sacral, which receives the
sacro spinal, also ends in the internal iliac. The common

l2

148 THE VENA PORTtE.

iliac receives the circumflex veins, and then blends with
the posterior vena cava.

THE POSTERIOR CAVA,

The posterior cava runs along the lumbar region, in-
clining to the right side {Plate IV. B) of the spine ; when
about to leave the loins it receives the two spermatic veins ;
and immediately after the lumbar veins by one trunk pour
their contents into the larger vessel ; close to these last the
right {Plate IV. F) and left renal vessels, of a large size,
empty their blood into the parent receptacle ; which shortly
afterwards passes through the top of the liver. The vena
cava, as it passes through the liver, is pierced by numerous
holes upon its lower surface ; which holes permit the re-
turn of the blood from the hepatic veins. Having quitted
the liver the vena cava passes through the right fora-
men of the diaphragm ; and while going through this, the
blood from the venous sinuses of the diaphragm is poured
into it. These are the last vessels that communicate with
the posterior cava ; which afterwards runs within its own
investiture of pleura to the right auricle {Fig 18 . k), where
it is joined by the anterior cava ; which travels above the
heart {Fig 18 . a), till having reached its hindermost part,
it bends or dips downward to gain the right auricle.

THE VENA PORT/E.

This vessel arises from the stomach, the pancreas and
intestines, &c. by capillaries ; when having ended in one
common trunk, it enters the liver as such a little above the
hepatic duct. Within the substance of the liver it again
divides and subdivides, and thus once more terminates in
capillaries ; from which last originate the hepatic veins that
empty their blood into the posterior vena cava. The vena
portte then is peculiar for originating by capillaries, running
by branches to one common trunk, and then dividing to
terminate in capillaries. It is the only vein that has
capillaries at both extremities; other veins originate by
capillaries, but terminating by means of a large trunk
within the heart. Besides this, the vena portae has another
peculiarity; it goes to the liver for secretion. All other
veins carry away blood only after the secretion has been

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if.

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THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 149

extracted from it. That the vena portie does go for secre-
tion, the distribution of its capillaries, twining around the
minute ends of the biliary ducts, sufficiently proves. More-
over, the hepatic artery is not large enough to furnish all
the bile. This artery is not in communication with the
parts which would enable it to secrete : it nourishes the
substance of the liver ; the coats of the vena portee ; and
the tunics of the hepatic ducts ; but when it has done this,
the blood it contained is expended ; and its venous blood is
brought back by hepatic veins, and mingles with that of
the vena portse. It is the mouths of these veins, which,
penetrating the posterior cava as it passes along the top of
the liver, give the coats of the vessel the appearance of
being pierced by numerous holes.

SECTION XII.

NEUROLOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.

THE BASE OF THE BRAIN, SHOWING ITS NERVES AND ARTERIES.

Fig 1 . — The brain, shoicing the origin of the nerves :
A, A, the hemispheres of the cerebrum ; 1, 1, the first pair,
or olfactory nerves, which confer the faculty of smell ; a, the
sinus, or cavity within the olfactory nerve, exposed ; 2, the
second pair, or optic nerves, upon the healthy state of which
vision is dependent ; b, the decussation, or rather, junction
of the optic nerves ; c, the corpus albicantium, or pituitary
gland ; d, the infundibulum, leading to and joining the
corpus albicantium at the base of the brain ; e, e, the crura
cerebri ; 3, the third pair, or motores oculorum, which go
exclusively to the eye for motion ; 4, the fourth pair, or
pathetic nerves, which chiefly proceed to the superior
oblique of the eye for motion ; /, the pons varolii ; 5, 5, 5, 5,
the flfth pair of nerves, or the first pair of mixed nerves,
being distributed principally about the head for motion and
sensation ; although from these spring the gustatory nerv^es,
or nerves of special sense. The subject from which this
brain w^as taken had the fifth pair of nerves unusually de-
veloped; 6, 6, the sixth pair, or abducens, proceeding prin-
cipally to the abductor muscle of the eye for motion ; 7, 7,

150 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES.

7, 7, the seventh pair, or auditory nerves ; being the second
nerves of a mixed character which have originated from the
base of the brain. This pair, however, are only motor and
special; and do not include the sentient, as did the fifth
pair. They consist of two distinct branches. The portio
mollis goes to the internal ear, for the special sense of
hearing ; the portio dura supplies the muscles of the face
with motion ; and hence is spoken of as the facial nerve.

8, 8, a third nerve of mixed character, named the pneumo-
gastric, principally connecting the brain with the functions
of organic life, presided over by a distinct set of nerves,
called the sympathetic. It divides into three branches : — (1)
the glosso-pharyngeus, proceeding to the tongue and pha-
rynx; (2) the pneumogastric, distributed to the larynx,
thorax, and abdomen ; and (3) the spinal accessory (the
small nerve seen to join it coming from the spinal marrow),
which ramifies upon the neck ; 9, 9, the lingual, conferring
motion upon the tongue; 10, 10, those which are called
the tenth pair do not belong to the cranial nerves, but
really are the first spinal ; g, the medulla oblongata ; h, h,
the anterior lobes of the cerebrum ; i, i, the posterior lobes
of the cerebrum ; j, j, the small middle lobes of the cere-
brum ; k, k, the cerebellum.

Fig 2. — The arteries of the hrain : 1, 1, the vertebrals ;
2, the inferior spinal, about to become a single vessel ; 3, 3,
the basilar, giving off" transverse branches on either side ;
4, 4, the posterior cerebellar ; 5, 5, the anterior cerebellar ;
6, 6, right and left communicating arteries, connecting the
basilar with the circulus arteriosis ; 7, the middle communi-
cating artery, connecting the basilar with the posterior trans-
verse artery ; 8, 8, internal carotids ; 9, 9, the ophthalmics ;
10, 10, the posterior cerebral ; 11,11, the middle cerebral ;
12, the anterior cerebral, dividing into, 13, 13, the right
and left anterior cerebral ; a, b, c, d, represents the circulus
arteriosis, or circle of Willis ; formed by the carotids, which
divide into, a, the posterior transverse ; &, the anterior
transverse ; c, the left lateral ; and d, the right lateral com-
municating arteries.

THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES.

At the head of the nervous system stands the soft white
and reddish mass contained within the cavity of the skull,

THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 151

called the brain. Of its membranes or meninges, the dura
mater is the most external ; performing the double office of
a support to the brain, and an internal pericranium to the
bones, unto which it strongly adheres by numerous filaments.
It forms several folds or prolongations ; such as the falx
which divides the cerebral lobes : other expansions form
sinuses to receive the blood returned from the interior of the
brain ; and it is prolonged to line the orbits, and likewise
cover the spinal marrow. The memhrana arachnoidea ap-
pears a very fine serous membrane, in connexion with the
internal surface of the dura mater ; and after investing every
vein or artery that runs to or from the organ, it is reflected
over the free surface of the brain itself. The arachnoid is in
contact with nothing but itself; and here, as in every other
case, a serous membrane forms a closed sac, and facilitates
motion. With regard to its forming a closed sac ; the arach-
noid accompanies the spinal marrow out of the cranium ; but
is not reflected over the nerves which emerge from that canal,
or are given off by the brain. With respect to its faciU-
tating motion ; the brain, during life, constantly moves, and
may be seen to pulsate in the forehead of an infant.

The arachnoid is held close to the surface of the brain,
over the convolutions of which it is reflected.

The pia mater is nothing more than cellular tissue ; which,
entering into the substance of the brain, holds its convolu-
tions together ; as well as forms the sheath of every nerve
that emerges from the organ.

The substance of the hrain, by a natural division, divides
itself into two portions (see Plate V. Fig 1 . a,k). The
cerebrum is the first and largest portion (see Plate V. Fig
1 . a, a) ; its external or cortical part is of a pale dull red
colour; and is indented by convolutions. The interior and
larger portion, called the medullary, is white ; and is after
death more tenacious than the cortical substance. On
separating the hemispheres {Plate V. Fig 1 . a, a) the
corpus callosum appears of a glistening white tint. The
centrum ovale is nothing more than the greatest quantity
of medullary matter which can be exposed at a single cut ;
w^hich must be made just above the corpus callosum, re-
moving the top of the hemispheres. Two cavities of an
oblong form, one upon either side of the corpus callosum,
are called the lateral ventricles ; and extend throughout the

152 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES.

length of the cerebrum. These ventricles contain a very-
small quantity of fluid ; which is perfectly clear.

The cavities communicate with each other by a canal situ-
ated behind the foi'nix ; which is no more than another name
given to a portion of the corpus callosum, which projects
within the lateral ventricles. Upon laying open the ventricles,
the vascular web, or plexus choroides, is seen. The lateral
ventricles are prolonged anteriorly by curved projecting
hollows, communicating with the olfactory sinuses. Under
the more forward portion of the corpus callosum is a semi-
transparent substance ; being composed chiefly of two layers
of the serous membrane of the ventricles ; it is called the
septum lucidum. By the sides of the septum are two bulging
bodies ; which when divided present a streaked appearance ;
and are therefore termed the corpora striata. Behind these
are other and lighter coloured substances ; whose edge,
waving or forming a curved line, is named the tenia
semicircularis. The wdiite substances themselves are called
the hippocampi majores ; and are very thin. Upon lifting
up the fornix, or white arch which connects the hippocampi
wdth the anterior wall of the ventricles, will be seen a com-
munication between the two ventricles ; it being perhaps
better discovered directly between the two choroid plexuses ;
spoken of as the foramen of Munro. The plexus choroides
are enveloped in a fold of the serous membrane of the ven-
tricles ; within this, and connecting the two, is a certain
portion of cellular tissue or pia mater.

By cutting directly down the centre of the brain the
student will gain the third ventricle ; and will behind it
behold a small dark coloured body called the pineal gland.
In front of the third ventricle is a small hole leadinir down-
wards, spoken of as the foramen commune : by gently in-
serting a probe in the direction of, but under the pineal
gland, a communication will be discovered leading to the
fourth ventricle under the cerebellum ; which is termed the
iter a tertio ad quartum ventriculum. Raise the cere-
bellum ; and directly behind the cerebrum lies the fourth
ventricle : just above the opening which leads to it are four
small bodies called the nates and testes, or corpora quadri-
gemini ; and guarding the opening from the third to the
fourth ventricle is a portion of pendulous membrane, spoken
of as the velum interpositum.

THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES. 153

These are the main particulars of the interior of the brain ;
the anatomy of which consists only of a quantity of hard
words, to which it is hoped future investigations may attach
a meaning and a use.

Turn up the brain now to its base. The soft masses ex-
tending anteriorly and looking like a prolongation of each
hemisphere, are the first pair of nerves or olfactories {Plate
V, Fig 1.1) going to the nose, and conferring the sense
of smell. They are peculiar for having sinuses within them
{Plate V. Fig 1 . a), and also for not taking on the cha-
racter of nerves till they reach the sieve-like plate of the
ethnoid bones ; when they divide into a vast number of
very fine nerves. The next pair are the optic, and go to
the eye for sight {Plate V. Fig 1.2). They are behind
the olfactory, and come from each hemisphere to meet in
the middle, and there unite {Plate V. Fig 1 . &). They
are peculiar for taking out of the cranium a layer of dura
mater, also for having an artery within their centres — the
ophthalmic {Plate V. Fig 2 . 9) ; as well as for their decus-
sation ; for if the right eye goes blind the optic nerve
withers, and in that state can be distinctly traced to the
left hemisphere.

The cerebellum, or little hrain, rests upon the tentorium
or bony process given off towards the interior of the cra-
nium by the os triquatrum. The tentorium, however, is only
partly formed of bone ; and partly of reflections of the dura
mater. It is placed immediately behind the cerebrum, which
it divides from the cerebellum. It is supposed to be of use
to prevent the brain being shaken in animals that leap much.
The cerebellum when divided displays the white matter ar-
ranged in an arborescent manner ; which is called the arbor
vitce. The dura mater, beside forming processes, also enters
into the composition of sinuses. The sinuses at the top
and back of the brain are first one above, and another at the
bottom of the falx, called the superior and inferior longitu-
dinal sinuses. These two are connected at the bottom by
the straight sinuses ; into which the veins from the interior
of the brain empty themselves. These sinuses discharge
their contents into the two lateral sinuses, which empty
themselves into the jugular veins.

The ophthalmic veins empty themselves into the ophthal-

154 THE BRAIN AND ITS MENINGES.

mic sinuses ; between which from side to side there are two
channels of communication running around the corpus
albicantium, called the circular sinuses. Continuous with
the ophthalmic sinuses are the inferior sinuses ; between the
two of which a branch of communication is named the
transverse sinus. The inferior sinuses discharge into the
lateral, which empty into the jugular vein.

Besides these there are other sinuses at the base of the
brain. A large reddish body lies behind the optic nerves ;
which is known as the pituitary gland or corpus albicantium ;
and the white substance that connects it to the brain is
spoken of as the infundibulum {Plate V. Fig I . d), being
nothing more than a hollow portion of the very white
matter forming the fornix. At the back of the corpus
albicantium is seen a broad white band ; crossing the very
commencement of what should be the spinal cord, if it
were continued so far, and forming the crus or legs of the
cerebellum {Plate V. Fig 1 . e, e). The broad white band
is the pons varoli {Plate V. Fig 1 . /) . From this two white
streams (the crura cerebri), which seem to flow from the
before-mentioned white band, come two strings. These are
the third pair of nerves, the motores oculorum {Plate V. Fig
1 . 3, 3) ; which go entirely to the eyes for motion. Look now
a little higher up, and more backward than the root of the
third pair ; there will be seen a white thread, which existing
upon either side of the front of the pons varoli, forms
the fourth pair, motor nerves ; the pathetic going to the
superior oblique of the eye {Plate V. Fig 1 . 4, 4). From
the sides of the pons varoli, but not very high up or far
backward, are seen a couple of large roots, the par tri-
gemini ; the fifth a very mixed nerve {Plate V. Fig 1 . 5, 5).
The sixth pair of nerves are situated just behind ; and a little
below the fifth pair, and go principally to the abductor
muscles of the eye, being hence called the abducens {Plate
V. Fig 1 . 6, 6). Upon the posterior part of the brain,
behind the pons varoli, is placed a seventh pair of nerves ;
consisting of two parts, a portio mollis and a portio dura
{Plate V. Fig 1 . 7,7). The portio mollis being a nerve of
special sense, and going to the internal ear for hearing ;
and the portio dura being a motor nerve ; and as such dis-
tributed over the face. The eighth pair arise posterior to

THE NERVES. 155

the seventh by numerous filaments ; being increased by an
accessory nerve from the spine {Plate V. Fig 1 .8,8); and
are of a very compound description ; consisting of three
separate nerves : the glosso pharyngeus going to the tongue
and pharynx; the pneumogastric distributed to the chest
and abdomen ; and the spinal accessory, bestowing its chief
action upon the neck before and behind. The ninth pair are
like distinct numerous white strings ; which ultimately unite
to form one nerve, and run to the tongue for motion {Plate
V. Fig 1 . 9, 9). These are all the nerves giving off within
the cranium. That which is mentioned as the tenth pair,
being in fact the first spinal nerves.

The medulla oblongata {Plate V. Fig 1 . ^) is formed by
the continuation of the substances of the brain, and by two
pillars from each side ; each pillar being composed of three
bands : proceeding backward to the edge of the foramen
magnum of the occipital bone, it takes the name of spinal
marrow, and runs onward ; as will be shown presently.

The arterial trunks enter the skull in a very con-
voluted manner; and anastomose freely with each other
within the substance of the brain. The blood is returned
by small veins ; which pour it into the sinuses, and these
empty their contents into the jugulars.

The structure of the brain is fibrous. It is not in
itself an organ of great sensibihty ; on the contrary, some
portions of it, as of the cerebrum, are nearly insensible :
nor is the destruction of a small quantity of it neces-
sarily fatal. It can bear gradual pressure even to the
absorption of half its bulk ; as is seen in hydatids on
the brains of sheep ; but a slight sudden pressure, as of
apoplexy, destroys its life. Nothing is known of its
functions ; excepting that the cerebrum confers volition; that
the cerebelkira bestows command over muscular motion ;
and that the corpora quadrigemina are the roots of the
optic nerves.

THE NERVES.

The nerves are white fibrous cords, sent off either from
the cranium or spinal canal ; the ramifications of which nerves
are distributed to all parts of the body ; being enveloped in a
resistant membranous sheath called neurilema, to give them

156 THE NERVES.

firmness. Thirty-six pairs of spinal nerves are given off
from the medulla spinalis by appropriate vertebral fora-
mina.

The cerebral nerves. — The first pair, or olfactory nerves,
are very large continuations of the substance of the cere-
brum ; and have a vacancy or sinus within their interior.
They appear to be formed of both the cortical and medul-
lary portions of the brain ; and take their origin from the
anterior of the organ {Plate V. Fig 1 . 1, 1), to be passed
out of the cranium by the very numerous foraminpe in the
cribriform portion of the ethmoid bone ; after which they
divide into filamentary twigs ; which traversing the ethmoi-
dal holes, are finally ramified over the surface of the pitu-
itary membrane ; by which its exquisite sensibility of smell
is furnished. However moisture is essential to this sense,
which departs when the nostrils are perfectly dry. There
is a connexion between this nerve and the muscles of respi-
ration ; as sneezing after taking snuff sufficiently proves.
This sympathy, which has been long known, has lately
been very aptly termed reflex action ; because the irritation
of a sentient nerve is carried to the brain or to a ganglion,
and thence reflected to a motor branch.

The second pair, or optic {Plate V. Fig 1.2), arise from
four eminences proper to them, called corpora quadrigemina ;
which are situated behind the lateral ventricles. In their
progress forwards they issue posteriorly to the third pair of
nerves ; and unite anterior to the pituitary gland ; as that
body was formerly called, from its being imagined to be of
glandular structure (which it decidedly is not) ; in order to
supply the nose with moisture. Having joined together
they subsequently separate ; and leave the skull by their
proper holes in the cranium, each being enclosed in a
sheath furnished by the dura mater ; proceeding with the
ophthalmic artery to enter the orbit; when, penetrating the
globe of the eye, the nerve is expanded into fine network ;
and is called the retina, to which we are indebted for the
special sense of vision (see the Eye) .

The third pair, or motores oculorum {Plate V. Fig I . 3, 3),
are small, and arise from the crura cerebri ; being behind the
second pair : they accompany a branch of the fifth pair
out of the skull into the orbit; and, dividing into various

THE NERVES. 157

branches, are distributed to the muscles of the eye for motion
only.

The pathetici, or fourth pair {Plate V. Fig 1.4), are
nerves which take their origin near to the junction of the
cerebrum with the cerebellum : they are chiefly sent to
the superior obhque muscles of the eyes ; and are called the
pathetic, from their supposed power of turning the eyes
upwards ; which these muscles cannot do. They are the
smallest of all the nerves of the brain.

The pars trigemini, ov fifth pair {Plate V. Fig 1.5), are
large and very important nerves ; having extensive com-
munications. They escape by numerous filamentary twigs
from the pons varoli ; and pass over a ganglion immediately
afterwards. The sentient fibres travel over the top of the
ganglion ; and the motor filaments pass beneath it. Having
done this they unite as a compound nerve having both
feeling and motion ; and in one large cord, speedily sepa-
rate, forming three principal branches. First, the ophthal-
mic ; which divides into the supra-orhitar ; the lachrymal ;
and a lateral nasal branch ; whose destinations we need
not follow, seeing their names already signify them. The
second, or anterior maxillary branch ; which is the largest
of the three divisions of the nerve, proceeds to the face by
the infra-orbital foramen ; where it gives off branches ; first
parting with a twig to the inner canthus of the eye ; another
along the tuberosity of the upper jaw bone ; and two or
three more which ramify within the palate ; posterior parts
of the mouth ; and among the upper teeth. — The larger
division, communicating wdth the portio dura, proceeds in
a straight course ; and divides into small and numerous
branches upon the upper lip. The third division of the
pars trigemini is the posterior maxillary, or the nerve of
mastication. It sends ofl' pterygoid branches as soon as it
emerges from the cranium ; after this it gives the gustatory
for taste to the tongue (a nerve of special sense) ; numerous
twigs to the throat ; after which it parts with a buccal
nerve to the membrane of the mouth ; and then enters the
posterior foramen of the lower jaw, distributing a dental
nerve to the lower teeth ; and a medullary nerve to the
bone itself; going to the under lip, when it comes forth
upon the outer side of the jaw near the symphysis. Of the

158 THE NERVES.

three branches of the fifth nerve the ophthalmic is the most
motor ; and the superior maxillary the most sentient. The
inferior maxillary is of a mixed character ; presiding over a
particular function (mastication) ; and giving off a nerve of
special sense (the gustatory for taste) .

The sixth, or abducent pair {Plate V. Fig 1 .6,6), arise
filamentary, to be chiefly given to the abductor muscle of
the eye, being purely motor.

The seventh pair, or auditory {Plate V. Fig 1 .7, 7),
nerves, consist of two portions : that called the portio
mollis, enters the auditory foramen in a soft pulpy form, and
is distributed to the internal ear. The portio dura, which
composes the other branch, detaches a considerable twig
to the corda tympani : leaving the internal ear by the spiral
canal in a firm cord, it parts with branches to the inner
and outer parts of the ear : the main trunk then having
first furnished the parotid gland, and, being enlarged by
uniting with a branch from the maxillary of the fifth, next
passes over the hindermost part of the posterior jaw, con-
tiguous to the temporal artery ; and divides, its branches
diverging into the pes anserinus ; distributing muscular tw^igs
for motion about the face ; and joining the superior maxil-
lary upon the upper lip.

The nervus vagus, or pneumogastric or eighth pair {Plate V.
Fig 1 . 8, 8), arise from the edge of the medulla oblon-
gata, in disgregated fibres ; and speedily divides into three
nerves. The first of these is the glosso pharyngeus ; which
is principally distributed to the tongue and pharynx. The
nervus vagus then proceeds down the neck in the sheath of
the carotid artery. Having reached the anterior aorta it
gives off the two recurrent nerves. The left recurrent
winds round the posterior aorta; and then changes its course,
going back again to become the inferior laryngeal nerve.
The right recurrent leaves the nervus vagus as it passes the
first ribs ; and without encircling any vessel, proceeds at
once to the larynx. The nervus vagus, now left alone, pro-
ceeds to supply the viscera of the chest and abdomen wdth
sensation ; blending with the various ganglia of the sym-
pathetic system. The nervus vagus is a mixed nerve ; but its
sentient branches predominate. It supplies the larynx with
motion- and it also gives it its exquisite sensation. It is

THE SPINAL NERVES. 159

the nerve which conveys to the brain the sense of pain,
which accompanies complaints of the chest and abdomen.
It is joined by another nerve called the spinal accessory ;
which not being a true cranial nerve we have put in a
paragraph by itself.

The spinal accessory nerves (Plate V. Fig 1 . 8, 8) derive
their origin from filaments given off by the fourth and fifth
spinal nerves. As they enter the skull, they join the eighth ;
when emerging thence each divides into two branches ;
one of which pierces the sterno maxillaris, and can be
traced within the interior of the muscle as low as the
sternum : the other slants off across the neck, and can be
ibllowed as low down as the trapezius muscle.

The ninth, or lingual pair {Plate V. Fig 1.9), take their
origin from the corpus pyramidale ; and both pass along the
branch of the posterior jaw to gain the root of the tongue ;
and seem thus to be peculiarly appropriate to its locomo-
tion, as the gustatory are to the function of taste.

The tenth pair, or suboccipitals (Plate V. Fig 1 . 10, 10),
are a pair of the spinal nerves. They arise from the com-
mencement of the spinal marrow ; and are distributed to the
muscles of the head and neck.

THE SPINAL NERVES.

The spinal marrow gives off the spinal nerves in pairs :
the names and number of each spinal nerve corresponding
with the vertebrse themselves. Hence there are seven cer-
vical, eighteen dorsal, six lumbar, and Jive sacral nerves.
Each spinal nerve owns a double origin by filamentary
bundles ; one coming from the upper, and the other proceed-
ing from the under, division of the spinal cord. The fila-
ments of the upper origin are sentient ; that is, they convey
sensation only to the brain ; and the filaments of the lower
origin are entirely motor ; that is, they carry from the brain
to the muscles the influence which enables them to contract
upon the mere wish of the individual. The two filaments,
each originate separately ; and each being gifted with such
opposite powers, are upon the point of leaving the spinal
canal when they encounter a ganglion. The superior fila-
ments, as might be supposed, pass over this ganglion ; and

160 THE SPINAL NERVES.

the inferior go underneath it ; both being adherent to the
gangUon as they pass it. Having got by the ganghon, the
character of the nerves has been changed ; the sentient have
become partly motor ; and the motor partly sentient. There
is no longer a nerve of a pure character to be found ; bat
each travels hereafter as a sentient and a motar nerve, or
one of a mixed nature. Therefore, if we want to look for
pure sentient or pure motor nerves, we must seek them near
to their origin, from the spinal marrow ; and before they
have passed the adjacent ganglion.

The cervical nerves are seven upon each side ; and are
chiefly distributed to the muscles of the neck.

The phrenic nerve is formed of filaments from the fourth,
fifth, sixth, and seventh cervicals ; and from general gan-
glionic twigs of communication from the sympathetic : it
passes into the chest near the axillary artery ; when, having
gained the tendinous portion of the diaphragm, it is spread
over the whole substance of that organ.

The eighteen dorsal pairs are given off by the notches at
the extremities of each dorsal vertebra ; in the same manner
as the cervical pairs, but these last are less considerable.
They furnish the intercostal and dorsal muscles with con-
tractility, and with sensation. Besides this the first four
are larger than the others, and unite with the last few cer-
vical, to supply the fore extremity with nervous energy.

The lumhar nerves are given ofiT from the loins, in the
same manner as the former ; they, however, are larger ;
having more to do. They give feeling and motion to the
sides of the abdomen ; and it is some of these, together
with several of the last dorsal, which are seen dividing the
transversalis abdominis into sections ; after having done
which, and having pierced the other abdominal muscles, they
enter the panniculus and expend themselves upon the skin.
They also give strength and sensation to the lumbar mus-
cles. They also supply the psoas muscles ; the iliacus
muscle ; send off the spermatic nerve ; as well as the crural,
which sends twigs to the psoas and iliacus ; to the vasti and
rectus ; and a large quantity of filaments to the gracilis ;
beside twigs to all the muscles inside of the thigh beyond all
this.

THE NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 161

The spinal marrow does not more than touch the ante-
rior of the sacrum ; consequently the lumbar portion has to
supply the sacral nerves, and this necessity we shall here-
after see is amply provided for.

The sacral nerves are numerous and large ; they form
plexuses, which are derived chiefly from the lumbar, partly
from the sacral nerves ; from one of these comes forth
the gluteal, which, accompanying the artery, goes to the
muscles of that name. The lumbo-sacral nerves likewise
send off a nerve called the obturator, as well as supply all
the surrounding parts with motion and sensation. The
sciatic nerve, which is by very far the largest nervous cord
in the body, arises from a lumbar plexus, and pierces the
sacro-sciatic ligament, to get at the back of the femur.
We must, how^ever, here for the present leave off, to give
attention to the nerves of the anterior limb.

THE NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES.

The humeral plexus is formed by the last five cervical,
and the first four dorsal nerves. By the union of their
twigs a considerable bunch is formed, to which the name
is given of the humeral plexus. From this bunch com-
pound filaments are sent to all the neighbouring parts.
The only nerves that we shall here notice, are firstly the
spiral which winds round the humerus, and devotes itself
to the extensor muscles of the fore limb.

The radial nerve proceeds to the inner side of the ulna,
supplies the flexor muscles, and below the knee becomes
the internal metacarpal nerves. The ulna runs downwards
also to the flexor muscles, along the course of which it
travels, and below the knee assumes the name of the ex-
ternal metacarpal nerve.

The metacarpal nerves journey down the leg upon the
edges of the tendon perforatus, giving off a communicating
branch with one another when about two-thirds the length
of the bone. At the pastern they become the plantar
nerves.

The plantar nerves, situated to the rear of the plantar
arteries, penetrate the back of the foot : each in its pas-
sage detaches a branch immediately to the lateral cartilages ;
a more posterior branch to the elastic frog; and one to

M

162 ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA,

furnish the laminae. The main trunk then penetrates the
coffin bone posteriorly with the principal division of the
plantar artery, to be, like that, distributed over the sensi-
tive surfaces of the pedal bone.

THE NERVES OF THE HINDER EXTREMITIES.

We have seen that some of the muscles of the haunch
and thigh are supplied with feeling and motion by the
sacro-sciatic nerve ; which nerve principally divides into the
anterior, the posterior tibial, and into popliteal twigs : the
posterior tibial and principal branch, passing between the
fleshy portions of the gastrocnemii, gains the hock, where
it travels to one side of the perforans tendon, and sepa-
rating, forms the two metatarsal nerves. The popliteal,
which consist of a great number of fine twigs, go princi-
pally to the muscles at the back of the stifle joint, and to
the joint itself. The anterior tibial proceeds towards the
extensor muscles in front of the thigh ; when, having reached
the artery bearing the same name, it travels with it to the
middle of the cannon ; when leaving it, and passing over the
fetlock joint, it spends itself on the surface of the pastern.

The internal and external metatarsal nerves pursue a course
similar in the hind to those of the fore extremities, so that
it is unnecessary to proceed with them further.

ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA, AND OF
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE.

The spinal marrow has its length decided by the length
of the tail. Thus, in baboons, it only just emerges from
the dorsal region ; in the horse it advances to the begin-
ning of the sacrum ; and in the kangaroo, and some monkeys
with prehensile tails, it extends even to the coccygeal bones.
The order of the red and white matter is opposite in the
spinal marrow to that which is displayed in the brain ; that
is, in the brain, the red substance is the exterior of the two,
whereas, in the spinal marrow, the white is externally, and
the red substance is internally situated. Though the spinal
marrow is anatomically said to travel along the spinal canal :
neither the marrow nor the canal are of one size throughout,
but the cavity enlarges as its contents become more bulky.
This it does in proportion to that which it has to supply,

AND OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 163

and the activity of the parts by which it is surrounded. The
head and neck being in constant motion, the spinal marrow
within the cervical region is of the medium size ; however,
as it approaches the fore extremity, that is, about the last
three cervical and the first four dorsal vertebrse, it gradually
and considerably enlarges. Then within the dorsal region it
becomes the smallest of all ; but, gaining the lumbar, from
which the huge hind limbs are supplied, it grows larger than
ever, and there it terminates in the horse. Animals with a
short spinal marrow have a w^ell-marked cordae equinee, or
hanging bunch of nerves, from the extremity of the spinal
marrow, supposed to resemble a horse's tail. In those with
a longer spinal marrow the similitude is less marked ; and
in those with this part longer still, the most distant likeness
is hard to detect.

The spinal marrow receives the same coverings as the
brain ; or the first having three membranes, these are also
continuous over the last organ. There is no difference
in their position. In each the dura mater is external ; the
pia mater internal; and the arachnoid, or a serous membrane,
holds the middle place ; and in each their structure is the
same. There is, however, this difterence : the dura mater
is not, in the spinal, fixed to the canal, or to the bone ; but
upon its outer surface is found a quantity of fat. Then the
arachnoid does not lie close upon the spinal marrow ; but is
raised far from it by a limpid fluid, as clear as distilled
water, which is situated within the cells of the pia mater.
Besides this, however, the spinal marrow is peculiar for
having several fine ligaments, which run obliquely from the
bone ; and a straight ligament, which is continuous through
its entire course. They are situated — the straight ligament,
W'hich is termed the membrana dentata — within the sheath,
and between the true motor and sentient nerves ; and the
oblique (which have received no name) are external, and
belong particularly to the dura mater. Their use will be
referred to hereafter.

The ganglia. — Wherever there is found the red and white
nervous matter mingled, there is a ganglion. The brain is
only a large ganglion ; with this difterence however, that,
unlike the rest, it is able to take cognizance of the sensation
conveyed by the nerves with which it is in connexion.

m2

164 ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL MARROW, OF GANGLIA,

Ganglia feel like hard knots, of a minute size upon nerves ;
but their substance is in fact as soft and pulpy as that of
the brain itself. The feeUng of hardness is owing to a very
dense covering of neurilema, which acts to each as a tiny
cranium. The ganglia are the centres of reflex motion :
that is, a sentient nerve is tickled, say of the bottom of the
foot, and the feeling is carried to a ganglion ; thence it is
transmitted to the nerves that set us laughing. The feeling
may be painful, but nevertheless we cannot help ourselves
but laugh. This is called reflex action, when a motor or
sentient nerve is excited ; and in consequence of this a dif-
ferent nerve, or opposite set of nerves, are called into action.
The gangha likewise presides over the sympathetic nerve ; a
nerve which is independent of the brain ; and by the con-
tinued health of which we may live long and yet exist quite
unconsciously.

The sympathetic nerve. — This nerve presides over secre-
tion ; and is the centre of those functions which are necessary
to life ; as the brain is the centre of all acts under the con-
trol of volition. Thus, a man may will he shall not feel
hungry, and the will may in some degree master the sensa-
tion ; but at length the sympathetic nerve exerts its power,
the abstinence becomes painful, and the sense of pain is
conveyed to the brain by the eighth pair of nerves. The
sympathetic is most obvious in the abdomen, where it forms
numerous plexuses ; of which the solar is the largest. From
these plexuses it twists round the arteries ; and by these is
conveyed all over the body, or wherever the blood travels ;
and where does it not ? Wherever the vital fluid exists the
sympathetic is known also to be. Beside this, the numerous
ganglia from which it derives independence of action,
answer the end of little brains, and are distributed through-
out the body. They are discerned even within the brain
itself; and fresh discoveries render us uncertain where they
do not exist. The sympathetic is essentially the nerve of
organic life; that is, it presides over secretion, excretion,
nutrition ; and all those functions which, independent of the
brain, are imperative for the preservation of existence. It
is well seen along the neck, where it travels within the
sheath of the carotid artery ; better within the chest and
abdomen, as a well defined line below the ribs, upon the

AND OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 165

bodies of the vertebree. It is in constant communication
with the spinal nerves, consequently, when other nerves are
potent, the sympathetic may be present.

Of nerves. — Nerves are white glistening threads, every
where to be found throughout the body. Nerves are of
three kinds, motor, sentient, and special. A motor nerve
conveys motion only, and is incapable of feeling. A sen-
tient nerve transmits sensation to the brain, and is incapa-
ble of conveying motion from it. A special nerve endows a
part with one sense, and one sense only. It may go to the
eye for sight, as the optics do, but, if compressed or pinched,
they feel no pain, and are incapable of motion ; the organ
then appears to emit a flash of light ; thus, people speak of
their eyes flashing fire, when they run against any thing in
the dark. The four orders of nerves rule the body. The
sentient render us cognizant of pain ; the motor make the
limbs move in obedience to the will ; and the special endow
certain parts with particular faculties ; while the sympathetic
nerve, over which the brain can exercise no control, regu-
lates all the functions which go on continually without our
knowledge, but are essential to the prolongation of life.

Structure of nerves. — Nerves are composed of very minute
filaments, bound up in a sheath of pia mater, or cellular
tissue, called neurilema. They receive nmch blood in pro-
portion to their size ; though they never become red. Hence
we may infer the importance of the blood, since it is sent
to nerves ; but no nerves are sent to the blood, though
many may be distributed to the tubes by which the blood
is conveyed. A nerve never terminates ; it passes around a
part, and joins another sheath, but it does not appear to
end. When cut, nerves have the power of reunion ; even
though a piece be taken away. It is disputed whether true
nervous filaments are reproduced ; but something is formed
which answers their purpose, since by it is carried on all
their functions. There is no immediate physiology attached
to the brain, or to nerves, worthy of being inserted in this
place. Books are written on such subjects ; but all they
assert beyond first principles is open to objection, if not to
decided refutation. Special nerves terminate in fine bulbous
extremities ; and though we have spoken of pure motor and

1G6 OF GLANDS,

sentient nerves, such however are only to be fonnd within
the cranium, or spinal canal. All those distributed over
the body are of a mixed character ; that is, the sentient
and motor are mingled together.

SECTION XIII.

OF GLANDS.

Glands are vascular secretory bodies distributed over the
animal frame. They are of various sizes ; some being very
large, as the liver, and others small, as those whose secre-
tions lubricate certain portions of the skin, and are called
sebaceous. Their figures are varied, and their situation un-
determined ; some being deep-seated, or within cavities,
while others are altogether superficial. Glands are divided
into glohate, and conglomerate ; they likewise receive indi-
vidual names, according to their office, as ladwymal, sali-
vary, &c. The follicular are but small glandular bodies,
larger glands being composed of a number of follicles ; and
are variously disposed, appearing either as sebaceous or
mucous. The sebaceous are situated near the surface of
the body, and produce a semi-solid substance resembling
suet ; which serves to facilitate motion, or to prevent friction.
Mucous glands are usually situated in cavities and canals ;
as those of the nostrils, fauces, and urethra ; but in many
instances they are not very evident, and the perspiratory
may be viewed as a kind of altered mucous gland. Both
sebaceous and mucous glands are very small, often con-
sisting of a blind sac, with a duct.

Globate glands are oval vascular bodies, receiving lym-
phatic vessels at one side, and permitting the exit of the
same lymphatics, though less in number, at the other ;
but these glands are destitute of any excretory trunk, and
are peculiar to the lymphatic system.

A conglomerate gland is a body composed of several dis-
tinct parts, or lobuli, having numerous excretory ducts ;
which may unite to form one trunk common to the whole :
instances occur in the parotid and pancreas, the liver and the
kidneys. The glands of young subjects are larger than

OF GLANDS. 167

those of older ; and from the alteration which takes place
in the kidney and thymus gland, we see that some change
really does take place in their size during life. The
nerves of glands are small, and their sensibility is not con-
siderable.

Glands have absorbents, which in some instances, as
those of the liver, are very large. Their bloodvessels,
both arteries and veins, are usually of a proportionate size ;
but the magnitude of the vessels is increased when the
amount of secretion is considerable, as in the kidneys. In
its passage through glandular bodies, the blood is found to
be retarded by means of the capillaries being convoluted
around the minute ends of the ducts. All glands secrete
from the arterial blood, except the liver, which separates the
bile from venous blood. Among the phenomena that these
bodies present, a sympathetic property is a marked one.
The sight of food stimulates the salivary glands. The
sympathy of the kidneys with the skin is very considerable ;
and, when either becomes greatly excited, the secretion of
the other diminishes. In summer, when the skin is in full
action, and the blood pours out its aqueous particles
in great plenty, little urine is made ; but in winter the
reverse takes place. As the circulation through a gland is
increased, so is the secretion enlarged likewise ; hence under
the first stages of inflammation glands secrete more, because
the circulation is quickened ; but in the latter stages of it,
and when the circulation becomes almost stagnant, the
secretion is lessened, or totally stopped. The individual
glands will be described with the parts to which they more
immediately belong.

The physiology of secretion is but little known. Those
procured from one liquid (the blood) are so different ; as
urine, semen, bile, saliva, &c., that their evident distinctions
cannot fail to excite our wonder and stimulate our inquiries.
Glandular secretion has been supposed to depend on the
previous existence of the secreted matter within the blood,
and the glands only to separate these component par-
ticles. But the blood, it has been answered, possesses
the same chemical properties throughout the body ; and
drawn from whatever secreting organ it may be, it is the
same. Nevertheless, the elementary principles of all these

168 THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS.

may exist in the blood in a latent state ; for to secrete
does appear to be a living act of the glands themselves.
The sap of trees owns the same chemical properties, yet
forms, by medium through which it passes, either wood,
bark, leaves, blossoms, or fruits.

SECTION XIV.

OF THE COVERING OF THE BODY, AND OF THE VISCERA.
THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS.

Under the name of skin, exterior parts are bestowed on
animals to secure them from injury, and to protect them
from cold. These components are the cuticle, or insensible
skin, and the cutis, or sensible skin ; and connected with
these, are the adipose, cellular membranes, and the panni-
culus carnosus. Wliile outside of all are seen hair and
hoofs ; the former of which we shall first notice.

The hair. — Each hair is a little tube, whose bulbous end
arises within the cellular web immediately attached beneath
the cutis, or true skin : it penetrates the cuticle, and ap-
pears exteriorly of indeterminate lengths, figures, and sizes.
Thus those of the mane and tail are large and long ; those
above the eyes and around the muzzle are stronger, but of
diminished length ; while those which extend over the body
generally are very short and fine. Each hairy tube is formed
of an external coat, derived from the cuticle, within which
the horny substance is enclosed. The horny portion is so
disposed as to form each hair into an elongated cone. Age
is accompanied by a change in the colour of the hair, from
a darker to a lighter tint ; the hair which arises after a
wound is usually white ; which can be accounted for only
by considering the part to be in a state of debility, and to
have lost the power of secreting the colouring matter.
The inclined position of the hair admirably adapts it to the
purposes of protection for which it is designed. This posi-
tion sometimes becomes disturbed, partly by a derangement
in the vascular bulb of the hair ; and in a greater degree
from a derangement in the skin itself; originating in a sym-

THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 169

pathetic communication between the outer covering of an
animal and the internal parts. The hair is kindly allowed
to sympathize with the wants of the body generally, and it
grows even thick and curled in some very cold countries.
In the Orkneys, the horses retain theii' long hair all the
year, and English horses taken there do the same. But
with us, as the coat falls off (the mane, tail, and fetlocks,
being permanent), so the animal presents a fine short coat
in the spring ; which is succeeded by the ample shelter
of the winter covering. We have proof there is a sympa-
thetic effect between the skin and constitution, from w^hat
takes place in horses that are constantly immured in hot
stables : in them, the body not needing any increase to
the covering, the summer coat either remains ; or, if it be
changed, it is for one with the same length of hair. Most
stimulating substances have the effect of promoting the
change of coat, whether it be heat or physic ; and, aware of
this, idle grooms give their horses spice and other stimulants
to quicken their moulting. The general growth of hair ap-
pears to require considerable powers of the constitution ;
thus horses at the time of moulting usually have an increase
of pulse, dry mouth, and other shght febrile symptoms. As
the hair appears to be a production of the true skin, so, if
by any means the skin itself becomes destroyed, the hair is
not reproduced ; thus in blisters, when properly applied, the
cuticle only is raised : but if the blistering matter act very
strongly, and the cutis be destroyed, a permanent baldness
is the consequence.

Hair is a long protruding substance, in structure not un-
like to a cane ; being covered externally with a glistening
dense material, and being of a spongy interior, having a canal
through its centre. It withers as it projects. It is of itself
not sensitive, yet it conveys feeling very speedily. The horse
has hairs that appear to be of three different kinds, but all
are of the same structure. Those that cover the body ;
those that hang down fi-om the mane or tail ; and those that
are placed about the nose and eyes, all are alike ; all have
the same structure externally, and all originate by bulbous
vascular extremities, situated beneath the cutis.

The cuticle is a firm insensible covering to the true skin.
The substance of the cuticle is by no means equally thick

170 THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS.

in every part : on some its quantity is considerable, as on
the back and extremities ; and on otliers it is very thin, as
over the hps, &c. It is much increased by pressure. Over
the knees, the points of the elbows, and hocks, it becomes
likewise much increased from this cause, or by the animal
constantly rising and lying down. Within the fore arm,
and on the inner side, behind the cannon, it produces a
substance not unlike horn, which grows to a considerable
length, and falls away in scales. The cuticle is a secre-
tion of the cutis, and adheres firmly to the numerous papillae
of its matrix. The cuticle may be separated by maceration
and by boiling in the dead subject ; in the living, by frictions
and stimulants, as blisters. It covers the skin throughout
its whole extent, except at the hoofs, which it is probable
are themselves only a species of cuticle, and hair assuming
another form. The cuticle is also continuous with the epi-
thelium, or outer covering of mucous membrane, with
which it blends at the eyes, nose, mouth, and anus. The
cuticle is perforated by the perspiratory ducts ; and by
sebaceous glands, opening within the tubes that shelter the
bulbous extremities of the hairs. Through the perspiratory
orifices, the insensible perspiration passes off; and through
the sebaceous glands, the cuticle is furnished with an unc-
tuous substance which keeps it soft and pliant. Blisters ap-
plied, irritate and inflame the true skin, and occasion so
great a deposit of serum underneath, that, the cuticle being
impervious, the external covering is raised by its pressure
in bladders. The insensible skin is speedy in its repro-
duction, forming itself anew in a very short time after its
removal from a healthy surface.

The rete mucosum is nothing more than the first secretion
of the cuticle. The cuticle is secreted in minute ovoid
bodies, that in their new state contain a certain quantity of
pigment. This pigment is lost as the secreted cuticle is
pushed upwards ; while the particles, from being ovoid, be-
come more and more flattened, till, upon reaching the sur-
face, they have become quite flat, quite colourless, and fall
off, as scales, or scurf.

The cutis, or true skin, is a very highly organized mem-
brane, whether we regard its vascularity, sensibility, or the
intimate reticulation of its fibres. Its density of structure

SENSE OF TOUCH. 171

will be apparent when we view it as leather. It is not
equally thick in every part of the body ; but, like the cuticle,
is most dense in the parts most exposed ; as may be seen in
the extremities, particularly over the fetlocks, knees, and
hocks ; as well as over the back, belly, and some parts of
the head : it is also much more loose and flexible in some
parts than in others, to admit of motion. It is connected
internally, with the cellular and adipose membranes beneath
it ; and wherever it is so connected it is more loose, in pro-
portion to the amount of cellular tissue dividing it from the
muscular substance : in some parts it is thrown into folds, to
admit of instant action, as behind the fore legs. Its outer
surface is garnished with numerous papill?e, which are small
eminences extremely sensitive, lying under the cuticle, which
they secrete in a fluid state ; and wherever the skin is most
sensitive, these papillae are found most extensive. The cutis,
like the cuticle, is perforated by numerous openings, which
are the mouths of ducts. The cutis is elastic, as we know
by the effects of pregnancy, in wdiich it becomes greatly
distended ; yet soon recovers its former dimensions. The
bloodvessels, nerves, and absorbents of the cutis are most
abundant.

SENSE OF TOUCH.

This sense principally resides in the skin, which is uni-
versally affected by many external circumstances, as those
of heat and cold, dryness and moisture. But it is by some
particular parts, as the lips, that horses attempt particularly
to distinguish objects ; and in these it is observed, that
the cutaneous nerves are more numerous, and the cuticle
much thinner. The irritabihty of the skin is frequently
very great : that mixed sensation between pain and pleasure
called tickling is an instance of its susceptibility.

Adipose membrane, or fat, forms a considerable portion of
the body of most animals ; but it cannot in the horse be
regarded as a complete investment, since many parts are
without it, as the eyelids, ears, sheath, and some parts of
the extremities. It appears composed of a membrane, so
disposed as to form cells, neither the number nor the size
of which are the same in all parts of the body. In the
mesentery, omentum, and about the kidneys, they are large

172 SENSE OF TOUCH.

and numerous, and their contained matter is of rather a
solid consistency : on the surface of the body these cells are
smaller ; and in some of the bones, where the medullary
juice is nearly fluid, they are veiy small. The adipose cells
do not appear to communicate ; which forms a very essential
difference between this tissue and the general connecting
cellular membrane.

The fat is an unctuous juice that is secreted or poured
into the cells of the adipose membrane ; at first in a fluid
form, from which, in particular places, it gradually becomes
of a firmer consistence. It appears in greater quantity in
some parts of the body than in others ; forming in the ab-
domen suet, while that over the surface of the body, and
within the bones, it is semi-oleaginous, and in some almost
approaches to oil. Fat is wholly unorganized, having
neither nerves, arteries, veins, nor absorbents ; and however
much it may be involved by general acute disease it cannot
itself originate any disorder.

The uses of this substance appear to be several : it may
be considered as a guard to parts, and its distribution
strengthens this opinion : hence it is found covering the
nerves and bloodvessels, especially such as are in the neigh-
bourhood of hard parts, and liable to pressure. It fills up
most depressions, and thus adds much to beauty : this is
instanced in the eye- pits, which in young horses are filled
up with this substance : it is useful also in lessening
that irritability of the cutaneous nerves so remarkable
in young animals ; and for which reason we find most
of the adeps in early life distributed exteriorly ; while that
of older subjects is placed mostly within the cavities of
the body. In quadrupeds of all ages, the omentum is very
plentifully supplied with it ; but in some more than in others ;
in the horse it is proportionally small, and the quantity of
abdominal fat generally is in him very limited, as it is in
most animals destined for extraordinary speed. Even the
kidneys of the horse are but sparingly furnished with adeps.
In well fed oxen the fat fills up the interstices of the muscles,
and is placed in the cancelli of bones, where it is generally
termed marrow. The most important of the uses of the fat
to animals, however, is to form a depot for the support of
the constitution under the accidental want of nourishment :

SENSE OF TOUCH. 173

hence much fatigue produces a rapid absorption of it. It is
from this cause that animals who fast long, from the highest
state of obesity become wholly lean and impoverished :
thus the hybernating bear, who enters his wintry habitation
surrounded with an immense quantity of adeps, leaves it in
the spring greatly emaciated ; having been supported during
his torpidity by the absorption of animal oil, and not, as is
^oilgarly supposed, by sucking his paws ; which probably are
only wrapped around his nose, but never enter his mouth.
Animals living a life of rest appear to have a tendency to
form fat, but not in an equal degree ; for, in addition to in-
action, there must also be a certain disposition to lay
on fat. A particular form of body is favourable to its
accumulation, of which the circular carcass is the best
example.

Cellular membrane forms the innermost layer of almost
every part of the body. Its cells freely communicate with
each other throughout the whole body ; a fact well known
to butchers, who blow up the newly killed calf from anyone
point, until not only the surface, but even the viscera, be-
come distended by the air. This cellular structure is exem-
plified, likewise, by the emphysematous distention which
follows wounds of the lungs ; from which particular injuries
these cells have a disposition to inflate. Cellular membrane
is a more general substance than is supposed, for even liga-
ments are but a modification of it ; nor are aponeuroses, or
tendons, in any way dissimilar. We already know that it
exists in different quantities, in various structures, but enters
into all parts. It is the general connecting medium between
distinct parts ; it unites the skin to the body ; it enters into
the interstices of muscles ; it connects filamentary sub-
stances, and holds together the granulated : it is also
vascular and elastic. Anasarca has its seat within its cells ;
and its uses are various. Feeble as it seems, cellular tissue
holds the various structures together. By it nerves are
retained in cords ; by it arteries are confined ; by it muscles
are bound up ; and by it freedom and independence of
motion is secured. It is always most loose and abundant
where the action is most extensive or most frequent.

174 OF THE PANNICULUS CARNOSUS.

OF THE PANNICULUS CARNOSUS, OR SUBCUTANEOUS MUSCLE.

Providence having denied hands to horses, has given
them, instead thereof, a cutaneous muscle ; which having an
intimate attachment to the integument, and being extended
nearly over the whole body, enables them to corrugate the
skin ; thus to shake off dust, and perform other purposes
necessary for their convenience. In the mammalia with
short hair, it is, by the extent of its attachments, capable
of very powerful and diffused operations. Its centres are
usually muscular, and its terminal attachments often apo-
neurotic ; by which, as either or any of these become the
fixed point, the action of the whole may be changed at
pleasure. On the head and face this muscular expan-
sion wall be found thin, but strong ; being there called the
retractor anglioris, it extends over the cheek, stretches
itself downwards to the lips, and loses itself in the labial
investments. It is entirely wanting upon the forehead,
which is in a measure protected by the forelock. On the
inferior portion of the neck it is evidently muscular ; being
strongly developed over the windpipe, but deficient in
those parts to which the mane might, in a state of nature,
be thought a protection.

The panniculus carnosus of the body extends from the
anterior edge of the scapula, and downwards to the upper
part of the arm ; but is continued lower by the union of
its aponeurotic expansion, which carries the corrugating
action along the leg. In proceeding over the sides of
the trunk, it may be said to be truly fleshy ; but the
attachments it sends upwards to the spine are most of
them semi-tendinous ; as those it sends downwards to the
median line of- the abdomen are principally aponeurotic.
In the region of the flank it radiates, but is continued by a
strong aponeurotic expansion into the groin, partly covering
the penis ; and is then continued inwards, to unite with the
fascia of the inside of the thigh. Posteriorly it becomes
much stronger, ultimately blending with the fascia lata.
It is almost wanting upon the haunches, a part which the
tail was obviously designed to protect. The fleshy pannicle
is very plentifully supplied throughout with nerves ; dis-
tributed to it in very considerable branches, and many of

ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 175

which penetrate it to cuter the skin. A very large nervous
bundle enters it from under the shoulder, and it receives
one or more twigs from between each rib : it is likewise as
well supplied with bloodvessels fi'om the intercostals and
neighbouring parts. Therefore its general living powers
are very considerable ; and these are further aided by the
length of its muscular fibre, which enables it to act instan-
taneously, and with irresistible effect. A horse, by the
spasmodic power of this muscle alone, can sometimes shake
off the harness, which the ingenuity of man has been
exerted to fix upon him.

ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. OF THE HEAD GENERALLY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.

THE RIGHT DIVISION OF THE HEAD A LITTLE TO THE LEFT OF
THE MEDIAN LINE.

a. The septum nasi, or cartilaginous wall which sepa-
rates the nostrils. The Schneiderian membrane is still
upon the cartilage, consequently the ramification of the
vessels are faithfully delineated ; &, the cerebrum ; c, the
cerebellum ; d, the frontal and facial sinuses ; e, the tongue ;
/, the soft palate, showing its pendulous condition as well
as its inclination backwards ; g, the fauces. The lines
crossing this part denote the courses taken by the food and
air as they enter the stomach or lungs to nourish the
body ; showing, likewise, that these cross each other ; h,
the bag of the pharynx ; A, the opening of the nostrils ;
i, the epiglottis ; j, the larynx ; /c, the oesophagus or gullet ;
/, the trachea ; m, the spinal marrow, covered by the arach-
noid : part of the dura mater or outer covering of the
spinal cord may be seen immediately above, in a line which
weaves anteriorly ; n, the spinal marrowy in its passage
through the foramen magnum, divested of its coverings ;
0, the tooth-like process, whence the second cervical ver-
tebrtc is called the dentata ; p, the cup of the atlas, into
which the process of the dentata fits.

176 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

THE EAR.

The ears are formed of an inner and outer part. The
form of the outer ear is very wisely adapted to the various
habits and manners of the animal. The external ear in the
horse presents a most advantageous form for catching the
slightest sound ; it is moveable ; and hearing appears to be
the only double sense that is equally true when the organ of
one side alone is used ; for the horse is commonly seen with
one ear directed forward and the other backward. The
hair, within the tube, is long and fine, and guards it from
the attack of insects, and the entrance of dust or dirt ;
hence the clipping of this hair may prove very prejudicial :
the inside of the ear is also furnished with a peculiar kind
of gland, which secretes a whitish substance.

The cartilages of the ear are three. The concha is that
conical body which gives to the ear its figure ; it is covered
by the skin and muscles. This cartilage is attached to the
cranium, through the annular cartilage, with which last it is
connected through ligamentous union. Within, and at the
base of the concha, is the annular cartilage ; a small move-
able body, whereby the external cavity, around which the
cartilage is placed, is rendered more tortuous. The angular
cartilage is situated upon the forehead ; upon which it is
moved, and with it the other cartilages are connected.

Muscles of the ear. The cartilages are moved by
muscles, of which there are several, as the following descrip-
tion will sufficiently prove.

Attollens maximus. Origin. From a central line upon
the forehead ; from the frontal fascia ; and from the frontal
arch. Insertions. Into the triangular and conchal cartilages.
Action. To adduct the concha, and draw the triangular
cartilage upward and forward. This muscle may be sepa-
rated into several layers.

Attollens medius. Origin. By two heads from the zygo-
matic arch. Insertion. Into the angular cartilage, its dor-
sum, border, venter, and anterior angle. Action. Acting by
itself to draw the triangular cartilage downward and for-
ward ; acting with the maximus to render the angular
cartilage firm.

Attollens inferior. Origin. From the centre of the

THE EAR. 177

forehead. Insertion. Into the hind and lov/er part of the
concha. Action. To adduct the ears.

Anterior conch/e. Origin. From the top of the angu-
lar cartilage and the temporal fascia. Insertion. Into the
interior of tl^e concha. Action. To assist in rotating the
ear, and to hold its opening forward.

REcru.s coNCH/E. Origin. From the top of the angular
cartilage. Insertion. Into the inner side of the concha.
Action. To adduct the ear, and incline its opening back-
ward.

Internus conchte. a pair of decussating muscles.
Origin. From the bottom of the angular cartilage. Inser-
tion. Into the lower and hind part of the concha. Action.
To rotate the ear, and incline the fissure backward.

Abductor concha. Origin. From the surface of the
parotid gland. Insertion. Below the fissure into the concha.
Action. To abduct the ear.

Profundus conchte. Origin. Back of the meatus audi-
torius. Insertion. Near the root of the concha into its
inner border. Action. To slant the ear forward.

Connectores conchve. Two small slips of fibre upon
the concha, passing from one border to another, near to
the termination of the fissure. Action. To diminish the
size of the opening to the ear.

Circulatores conch.e. a circle of fibres also passes
round the surface of the concha, near to the middle. Action.
To keep the point of the cartilage erect, and with the con-
nectores to diminish its opening.

Retrahens superior. Origin, From a white line at
the back of the pole. Insertion. Into the back of the
concha. Action. To draw the ear backward ; both acting-
would incline the ears outward.

Retrahens medius. Origin. From the back of the pole.
Insertions of the outer head. Into the outer and lower part
of the concha. Of the inner layer. Into the lower border
and inner surface of the concha. This might be well
divided into two muscles. Action. To rotate the ear, and
also to incline it backward.

The meatus auditorius is in part bony, and in part carti-
laginous ; the outward extremity being furnished with car-
tilage. The inside of the ear is said to be lined with

N

178 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

common skin ; which, however, in this part assumes an
altered appearance, and becomes still more fine and attenu-
ated as it lines the meatus auditorius, across the bottom of
which it is stretched. This skin has upon it several fol-
licles, to secrete the w^ax of the ear. The membrana
tympani is the covering of a cavity called the tympanum
of the ear; over which this delicate membrane is expanded,
and by which the inner is separated from the outer ear.
The tympanum is a portion of the internal cavity, being
irregularly spherical. It contains four small bones, which
are named, according to their supposed resemblances,
incus, malleus, stapes, and orbicularis ; by whose move-
ments it is conjectured the impressions received by the
membrana tympani are regulated ; and which impressions
receive further modifications within the more interior parts.
These bones are moved by muscles, which it w^ould here be
a waste of time to describe, as the ear of the horse is beyond
those delicate remedies by which deafness is relieved. The
internal ear presents several openings ; as those of the
mastoid cells, the Eustachian tubes, and the communication
between the cavity and the labyrinth. The mastoid cells
are small irregular cavities in the substance of the mastoid
processes, of the petrous temporal bone ; fined by a fine
membrane, and communicating with each other, having a
common entrance near the Eustachian canal. The Eusta-
chian tube is an opening at the upper and anterior edge of
the hollow of the tympanum, forming a duct wdiich is in
part bony, and in part cartilaginous ; extending from the
tympanum to the guttural pouches {Plate Yll. j), at the
posterior part of the nasal cavity.

The guttural pouches {Plate VII. j) are large and empty
sacs, whose use is not known ; and whose size is by no
means equalled in other quadrupeds : but in the horse they
are opposed to each other, being connected only by trans-
parent cellular tissue. Each is closed by a valvular open-
ing, which separates it from the nose ; and each seems
to be nothing more than a bladder of mucous membrane
placed within the centre of the horse's head. They may
have some influence upon the voice ; but the principal ser-
vice to us at present appears to be to fill up a space wdiich
else would be left vacant, and thus to keep up that beauty

THE EYE. 179

which nature preserves throughout the higher order of her
creatures.

The fenestra ovalis is an opening between the tympanum
and the vestibule. The fenestra rotunda is situated in-
feriorly to this, and is the entrance to the mastoid cells.
The vestibule is a cavity immediately beyond the tympanum.
The semicircular canals are three bony canals, which com-
municate with the vestibule ; and the cochlea is a partially
double spiral canal, within the opening into the vestibule
and into the tympanum. These spiral convoluted canals,
partially divided from each other by a fine membrane, are
filled with a thin fluid, to perfect the undulations com-
municated by the tympanum. The nerves of the inner and
outer ear are furnished by the portio mollis of the seventh
pair. Blood is furnished to the organ, both internal and
external, by means of the carotids ; which blood is returned
by the jugulars.

SENSE OF HEARING,

The collision of elastic bodies produces phenomena which
are called sounds ; thus a tremulous motion communi-
cated to the surrounding medium extends in all directions,
and at length reaches the external ear whose form is
admirably adapted to receive a large portion of these sono-
rous waves ; which are then reflected from the cartilaginous
sides of the concha, till they reach the bottom of the outer
ear. Impinging upon the ear-drum, they force it into similar
oscillations ; which being communicated to the fluids in
the spiral channels of the inner ear, finally act on the
acutely sensitive expansion of the auditory nerve, and pro-
duce those sensations we call hearing.

THE EYE.

The eyes of the horse are not situated, as in the human,
directly in front of the face ; but have a more lateral aspect,
to increase the field of view. Each eye may be divided into
eye and appendages.

The eye, which we shall first describe, is situated in a
cavity formed by several bones, and called the orbit. Within
this cavity, the globe, surrounded by its moving agents or
muscles, rests on a quantity of fatty matter, serving to give

n2

180

ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

prominence and beauty to the orb ; while the orbits them-
selves are lined by a periosteum furnished by the dura
mater.

FIG 19.

DIAGRAM OF THE EYE.

9, The retina.
a, The tunica vorticosa.
h, The secreting membrane of the cho-
roid.
c, The pigmentum nigrum.
e, The tunica Jacobi.
/, The expansion of the optic nerve.
g. The arterial tunic of the retina.

The black spots upon either side of the

pupil, at the corpora nigra.
The thin lines denote the course of a

ray of light.
The large lighter space is the tapidum
lucidum.

0, The optic nerve.
/, The ophthalmic artery.

1, The aqueous humour.

2, The crystalline humour and lens.

3, The vitreous humour.

4, The hyaloid membrane, which secretes

the vitreous humour.

5, The capsule of the lens, kept in its situa-

tion by the hyaloid and aqueous
membranes.

6, The aqueous membrane, which secretes

the aqueous humour behind the
cornea.

7, The sclerotic coat.

8, The choroid coat.

The humour of the eye, upon which the round shape
of the globe mainly depends, are three in number ; the
aqueous, which is most forwardly situated (Fig 19 . 1).
The crystalline, which occupies the middle place {Fig 19 .
2) ; and the vitreous, holds the most backward or deep-
seated position {Fig 19.3). Of the three, the vitreous
is by very far the largest. The aqueous is the next in
amount, though able to bear no comparison with the
vitreous ; and the crystalline is the least in quantity. In
density, the crystalline is by very far the most dense. The
aqueous and vitreous being equal in this respect, and in
the physical qualities resembling the clearest water. But
why then is one called the vitreous ? Because some of the

THE RYE. 181

old observers imagined it resembled molten glass ; which at
first sight it does appear to be somewhat like. When the
sclerotic, the choroid, and the retina are cat through, the
vitreous humour does not flow out like water, which we
have asserted it to be ; but hangs as a thick clear jelly from
the incision. And why is this '? Because the cavity of the
vitreous humour is lined with a fine, clear, and perfectly
transparent membrane, which is formed into cells {Fig 19).
Each of these cells, which is rather minute, constitutes a
closed sac ; and in this little bag, without an opening, the
water is contained. The reader can now understand why
the vitreous humour would appear dense, without actually in
this particular exceeding the aqueous humour.

The use of the humours is to distend the globe of the
eye ; or to keep the sac formed by the sclerotica and the
cornea continually on the stretch, or always of a globular
form.

The aqueous humour fills a cavity, bounded anteriorly
by the cornea, and posteriorly by the crystalline lens (see
Fig 19). This limited space is divided into two chambers.
The anterior chamber is by far the largest, and consists of
all that space between the posterior of the cornea and the
anterior of the iris. There is, however, a small dark space
between the back of the iris and the front of the crystalline
lens, which is termed the posterior chamber. When a
puncture is made through the cornea so as to let out the
aqueous humour, the cornea is corrugated, or thrown into
various minute and irregular folds. Yet this cornea, the
shape of which appears to depend upon the pressure of the
aqueous humour from behind, is a very compound sub-
stance. If it be cut out from its situation, and taken
between the points of the finger and thumb, it w^ili be dis-
covered to be laminated ; because one part will be felt to
slide upon another. It consists of several minute layers,
as many as fifteen ; though it is not thicker than a sixpence.
It is also composed of two distinct parts. The most for-
ward of which is fibrous, and the most posterior elastic.
This last part is so elastic, that if freed it will maintain its
original form, and assume no other.

The crystalline lens (Fig 19 . 2), or humour, is retained

182 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

in its capsule (Fig 19 . 5), which encircles it. A certain
water, or liquid, is said to surround the crystalline lens ;
hut this is found only some time after life has departed,
and is not present immediately after death. The lens itself,
when considered independent of its capsule, is organized.
We know this, because it undergoes change ; because ves-
sels are seen entering into its substance in disease ; also
because the crystalline lens itself can be absorbed, and bone
deposited in the space a crystalUne lens once occupied. It
is convex both before and behind, or on each of its sides ;
though more convex on one side than the other. Tlie
crystalline lens is lamellated in structure, and is more dense
as the centre is approached. Its use is to refract the rays
of light still more than the cornea and the aqueous humour
have done ; and to transmit them thus refracted to the
vitreous humour, which likewise brings them closer to-
gether (see Fig 19).

The vitreous humour {Fig 19 .3) is all that w^e have
said ; but besides this it has an artery which runs along its
centre to the crystalline lens, which it nurtures (Fig 19 . /).
This artery likewise supplies the membrane of the vitreous
humour with blood for secretion. Besides the parts we
have spoken of, there are others named the canal of Petit,
&c., which do not exist in a perfectly fresh eye, but require
maceration, &c. for their development. Of such fanciful
structures, therefore, we shall take no notice.

The coats of the eye. — The conjunctiva is a fine, delicate,
transparent and mucous membrane which lines the internal
surface of each eyelid, and is reflected from thence over
the anterior part of the globe of the eye : being thus
reflected, freedom of motion is allowed, yet the eye is amply
secured within the orbit ; and the entrance of any foreign
substance beyond the point where the membrane folds is
completely prevented. The conjunctive coat, where it is
opposed to the pupil, is transparent ; too fine to allow of
demonstration, so that it may unchanged admit of the
visual rays ; and here, therefore, although it be not entirely
deprived of vascularity, it does not allow, when the organ
is in health, of vessels circulating, sufficiently large to be seen.
That portion which lines the eyelids, on the contrary, is

THE EYE. 183

more highly vascular ; does receive red blood, and forms a
secreting surface to defend these parts from the irritation
of the tears.

The sclerotica {Fig 19 . 7) is the outermost of the more
complete investments of the globe ; and is likewise the
thickest and strongest ; forming all the posterior and larger
part of the globe ; the smaller and the more forward por-
tion of the sphere consisting of the cornea. The cornea
{Fig 19 . 6) , as part of a tunic, it extends over the anterior
portion of the bulb of the eye ; being distinct from that
portion of which the larger and posterior part of the globe
is composed. The cornea, in fact, is that transparent por-
tion which the spectator looks through when he observes
the eye of a living horse. The convexity varies much in
different subjects ; by which the focal distance is adapted to
the viewing of near or more distant objects. In man, the
focal distance of the eye is less than a foot ; thus his
cornea is considerably more convex. But the horse has to
see objects from the ground ; in him, therefore, the con-
vexity is less, and the focal distance of his eye is probably
some feet. The cornea in every animal is organized ; not
highly sensitive ; but capable of repairing injuries of a size
and importance almost exceeding belief. Its reparative
powers are very active ; and though less organized than
most parts, yet in the speed of restoration it comparatively
exceeds all others.

The iris. — This moveable curtain is situated within the
eye, near to the cornea ; to which it corresponds in outward
shape, being attached to the ciliary ligament, that helps to
unite the cornea to the sclerotica. The colour of the eye
depends on the iris ; being wholly governed by a black pig-
ment, secreted at the back of the iris, and called the uvea :
the office of this pigment is to absorb all rays of light
turned upon it. Wall-eyed horses have none of this pig-
ment ; therefore their vision must be deficient ; the human
eye is commonly grey, black, or blue : in the horse it is
usually brown ; from the deep colour of the pigment being
partially visible through the iris. The space between the
inner circumference of the iris is usually termed the pupil ;
the size of which necessarily increases or decreases as the

184 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

iris contracts or dilates. The colour oi' the pupil is de-
pendent upon the quantity of light admitted to the bottom
of the eye ; being blue or green in a good light ; and per-
fectly black in a bad one. At the margin of the iris are
seen some little globular bodies or bags containing a
black pigment {Fig 19) ; the largest of which are attached
to its upper margin. These bodies are called the corpora
nigra, and appear designed to stifle a portion of the rays
when the sun is too powerful ; which, in a contracted
state of the iris, they are able to do by almost filling up the
remaining opening, so as to admit but little light ; though a
crevice may serve for sight. The iris, therefore, it is
evident, is a very important part, for by its actions vision
is in a great degree regulated. It is stimulated to contract
by the excess of light ; and consist of two orders of muscu-
lar fibre. One is circular, and serves to render the pupil
small. The other radiates from the margin of the iris
towards the centre, and answers the purpose of enlarging
the pupillary opening. Light is the stimulus which causes
the circular order to contract ; also relaxes the straight
order of fibres to which darkness supplies energy, as light
stimulates the circular ones.

The choroid coat {Fig 19 . 8) is a secreting membrane,
spread over the internal surface of the sclerotic; and the ciliary
processes are plaits or folds of it attached to the ciliary liga-
ment. The pigment {Fig 19 . c) is distributed over the greater
portion of the internal surface of the choroid coat ; but is
deficient on a part named tapidum lucidum. The tapiduni
lucidum is of a green appearance, and has a metallic lustre ;
it occupies rather the upper portion of the internal membrane
of the choroid {Fig 1 9) . Its use is to collect the stray rays of
light, and by reflecting them to the opposite retina, to enable
the horse to see when feeding off the ground during the night ;
as the use of the pigment is to absorb all rays of light that
touch it, and thus render vision single, distinct, and clear.
The pigment and the tapidum lucidum, therefore, form one
coat. The secreting membrane constitutes another ; but
besides these two, there is a third called the vena vorti-
cosa {Fig 19 . a), which is placed most outward, being
immediately underneath the sclerotic. This last of the

THE EYE. 185

three coats of the choroid merely consists of a number of
veins, which take a very tortuous course ; and are therefore
imagined to represent an aqueous vortex.

The retina {Fig 19 . 9). — The last and most important
expansion of the eye is the retina ; so called from the net-
like structure of its nervous layer : it consists of three coats.
The first is membraneous, being designed to keep the pigment
from falling upon the nerve (Fig 19 . e). The second
tunic is composed of a net- like expansion of the optic nerve ;
which enters the eye at its most backward part ; and upon
the healthy condition of this nerve that vision depends
{Fig 19 ./). The optic nerve does not enter the sclerotic
coat directly in its centre ; but rather to one side ; and its
expansion extends almost to the attachment of the iris.
The root of the optic nerve can be well seen with the naked
eye when the horse stands in a good reflected light ; and it
has been mistaken for a cataract. The third is arterial ;
the small vessels, which form it, being supplied by the
central artery of the retina {Fig 19 . I).

The muscles of the globe of the eye are seven : four of these
are termed recti, or straight, and perform the offices of
elevation, depression, abduction, and adduction; and are in-
dividually named elevators, depressors, abductors, and ad-
ductors accordingly. The four arise from the bottom of the
orbit, and are inserted into the anterior part of the sclero-
tica ; the elevator being on the top ; the depressor at the
bottom ; the abductor to the outside ; and the adductor on
the inside of the eye. They are all inserted by tendons, and
these tendons run to the edge of the cornea, forming the
white of the horse's eye, and constituting the tunica albu-
genia. Two others of the seven muscles are termed the
obliquus major and minor. The first of these arises from
the inner and posterior portion of the orbit ; and passes ob-
liquely through a cartilaginous ring, which is lubricated with
synovia, at the anterior and outer side of the supra-orbital
foramen : then returning, its tendon passes under the ab-
ductor tendon, to insert itself into the side of the globe ;
this, therefore, can partially rotate the eye. The obliquus
minor arises from a little posterior to the nasal duct, and
inserts itself beneath the abductor muscle. Use. To rotate
the eye partially downward. The retractor oculi forms the

186 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

seventh muscle ; and is peculiar to quadrupeds ; being a
large and powerful bundle of fibres, which arising from the
bottom of the orbit, envelop the optic nerve ; and insert
themselves around the posterior middle of the sphere. This
muscle acts on the globe of the eye by very forcibly drawing
it within the bottom of the orbit ; by which means it
partially protects it from injury. The cartilago nictitans is
situated at the inner or inferior corner of the eye ; having
a distinct fasciculi of muscular fibres running to it from
the depressor oculi. It is familiarly called the haw ; and
has been excised under the idea of thereby curing spe-
cific ophthalmia. It is protruded by the pressure forward
of the fat behind the eye, whenever the action of the
retractor muscle draws the organ within the orbit ; and
is replaced partly by the pressure of the eye ; partly by
the fat ceasing to act as a propeller ; and partly by the con-
traction of the bundle of fibres before mentioned. From
this description, it will be readily seen that this organ
acts as a third eyelid. When any foreign substance gets
into the eye, the irritation thereby occasioned causes a
copious flow of tears ; which wash the body to within the
reach of the cartilago nictitans, and at the same time loosens
its hold upon the conjunctival membrane, covering the cornea.
Then pain occasions the retractor muscle to act repeatedly
and forcibly ; which propels the little shovel of a cartilago
nictitans suddenly and frequently over the eye ; by which
motion it effectually takes up and removes any particle that
may be within the reach of its action.

The eyelids. — The lids are a species of curtain placed
before the eye, and exist as an upper and a lower, formed so
as to adapt themselves to the globe. The superior is the
most considerable ; the lower, in the horse, has but little
motion : the corners where they unite are termed canthi ;
one of which is the external ; and the larger the internal is
also less angular, and furnishes an attachment to the muscle
of the orbicularis oculi. The thin cartilaginous rims which
form the edges of the eyelids, are each pierced by some little
holes ; which pour out a sebaceous matter from the meibo-
mian glands : the upper lid is most furnished with hairs,
which are not placed in one, but in several small rows ;
most abundant on the outer angle, in which direction the

THE EYE. 187

eye most requires a shield : the under has a few long hairs,
placed below its marginal edge. The horse has no eye-
brows ; unless we reckon as such the few straggling long
hairs above the eyes. The muscles of the lids are three ;
one surrounding the whole orbit, a sphincter, termed 07'bi-
cularis, which shuts the eyelids ; the others are termed
levator palpehrce superioris, internus and externus. The
externus arises from the frontal bone and fascia, and is in-
serted into the upper lid, blending with the fibres of the
orbicularis. The internus arises from the bottom of the
orbit, to be inserted into the upper lid, by a tendon, which
becomes very tine and much expanded, as it proceeds for-
ward, to be fixed into the margin of the upper eyelid. These
muscles, in all their diversified movements, are much assisted
by other fascial muscles. The lachrymal gland is a conglo-
merate body, lodged within the conjunctiva at the upper and
outer part of the orbit ; in a fossa above the external angle,
and in immediate connexion with the frontal arch ; its several
lobuli, together, send out eleven to thirteen little ducts,
which penetrate the conjunctiva, and pour out the saline fluid
known as the tears. The lachrymal gland can be stimulated
by brutality to a more than an ordinary supply of the tears,
which then flow over the cheek : the ordinary supply passes
off by an opening termed puncta lachrymalia ; being guided
there by a groove formed by the junction of the eyelids, with
a protuberant dark-coloured body, situated between the in-
ternal angle of the palpebrse, termed caruncula lachrymalia ;
which is covered with an intermediate structure, between
mucous membrane and true skin. Thus directed, the tears
are carried into the lachrymal duct ; and so pass into the
nose by the ductus ad nasum. It has been much disputed
whether the horse has a lachrymal sac or not. If by a sac
is meant a dilatation of the nasal duct, as large in proportion
as the human lachrymal sac, then decidedly the horse has
none; but if, by the horse having no lachrymal sac, it is
meant that the nasal duct in the horse is of one size through-
out, then those who make such an assertion are assuredly
WTong. The horse has a well-marked enlargement of the
duct, where the sac should be ; and this we presume to view
as the horse's lachrymal sac. The vessels of the eye are
arteries, from the external and internal carotids : the external

188 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

parts being furnished from the maxillary ; and the internal by
the ophthalmic, and some branches that penetrate the scle-
rotic coat ; and the veins return their blood to the sinuses
within the cranium, so to the jugulars. The optic nerve
enters the orbit, and, piercing the globe, forms the retina,
having the arteria centralis retina given off from the brain
within its centre : the eye receives nervous influence also
from the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth nerves ; of
which the fifth alone endows it with sensation. The second
is a special nerve of vision ; all the rest are for motion.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE, OR THE FUNCTION OF VISION.

Light is the appropriate stimulus to the functional pur-
poses of the eye ; enabling it to take cognizance of the
figure, colour, and distance of bodies. The visual rays, in
this climate, shoot rectilinearly through space : but when
they pass through denser media, they do not preserve this
rectilinear course ; but are bent in a degree equal to the
density of the medium through which they pass. This
bending of the rays is called their refraction : the tendency
of which is to bring them to ti focus ov focal point ; to which
point all luminous rays reach, sooner or later, according to
the increased or diminished density of the medium they
have to pass through ; upon which property most of the
phenomena of vision depend. This premised, it will become
evident that the visual rays meet with several different re-
fractions, or bendings, in passing through the eye. Their
course through the cornea and aqueous humour must form
their first refraction ; that through the crystalline lens will
be the next, the powers of which, as a refracting medium,
must be great ; and in their further course through the
vitreous humour, and the repeated folds of its membrane,
they must undergo a still farther bending ; till they meet in
a point on the retina : thus forming a cone, the basis of
which will be the surface of the cornea, and the apex the
retina. The rays of light fall upon an object, or upon
several objects. They are thence reflected in such a form
as conveys to the spectator a sense of colour upon entering
the eye ; they are so refracted that a perfect image, though
infinitely small, is painted upon the retina.

Amidst the wonderful number of objects that present

THE NOSE. 189

themselves to the eyes of the animal, it appears as thou2;Ii
care was taken, that he should have the means of principally
collecting such only as are connected with his views or pur-
suits. The form of the visual organ is such that no con-
fusion exists from an indiscriminate admission of rays ; thus
only such enter as are suited to this convergency ; or, if
any others do penetrate, they become lost in the pigmen-
tum nigrum. It is therefore to be understood that the rays
which the refracting power of the humours is able to con-
centrate, meet upon the retina in a point ; or in a very small
circle, within which the object is painted ; and that the mind
takes cognizance of it through the medium of the optic
nerves. As the eye must necessarily require to have avast
variety of objects painted upon it, whose distances are
widely different ; so there must be some optical adjustment
of the powers of the part, to enable it to effect a distinct
vision of all objects remote or near. On this subject we have
first to consider that the outer coat of the eye is formed of
a yielding material ; such as is disposed to be moulded into
a variety of shapes, by the pressure of the muscles which sur-
round it. The eye likewise, not being fixed in its place, is
likely to be retracted, or drawn back, by the muscle specially
formed for this purpose ; as well as to be urged forward by
the pressure of the fat behind the organ. Were it not for
some adjustment of the optical organs, the rays reflected
from objects very near the eye would fall behind it ; and
those from very distant ones would, from being almost
parallel, meet together before the retina. The mechanical
adjustment of the focus, it must be observed, is also assisted
by the iris ; which lessening the opening of the pupil when
we look at minute objects, only permits such rays to pass
as penetrate towards the centre of the lens ; by which they
will be very much refracted ; but when the eye regards dis-
tant objects, the iris becomes dilated ; and the rays are then
received through the edges of the lens, whereby their refrac-
tion is diminished.

THE NOSE.

In brute animals, the organ of smelling is most essential ;
as it forms one of the means by which they judge of good
or evil : consequently we cannot be surprised that the nose

190 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

of quadrupeds is very differently formed from our own. In
the horse, the nose constitutes a very considerable portion
of the head ; having two exterior communications with the
air, called nostrils, and an interior opening to the fauces.
The openings of the nostrils are limited anteriorly by the
nasal and intermaxillary bones. Immediately above the
arch of the palate, which is situated interiorly, the nose
communicates with the frontal sinuses, by a species of flap
or valve ; through which a probe can be easily thrust, but
which must admit but little air into the sinuses. The nose
is divided in the middle by the septum narium {Plate VI. a) ;
which is cartilaginous ; and rests in a bone named the vomer,
that is grooved for its reception.

The frontal sinuses {Plate VI. ; Plate VII. d, d) are
formed by the separation of the two tables of the frontal
bones. There is usually a bony partition which forms them
into two equal portions, and other bony prolongations are
seen still further subdividing these spaces : these sinuses
communicate superiorly with the nasal cavities, and are lined
by a continuation of the same membrane. The frontal
sinuses freely communicate with the nasal and the maxillary ;
each of which are thus named because formed by divisions
of those bones.

The highly vascular and sensitive expansion called the
pituitary memhrane lines the whole nasal fossae throughout
all their compartments. It is a portion of the great mucous
track, which begins at the eyes, nose, and mouth ; extends
to the lungs, stomach, and intestines, and terminates at the
anus. It is furnished with a mucus secreted throughout
the whole extent of its surface; whereby the surface is always
kept pliant, soft, and susceptible ; and it is reflected over the
superior and inferior turbinated bones {Plate VII. a, h),
as well as the cartilaginous septum {Plate VI. a) ; by this
mucus likewise insects are prevented from penetrating into
the lungs. The evident use of the pituitary membrane ap-
pears to be a medium for the expansion of the olfactory
nerves, whereby the effluvia of different substances are
ascertained.

Ductus ad nasum. — The puncta lachrymalia are the open-
ings to a canal within the lachrymal bone, called the nasal
duct; which is continued from the eye, between the turbinated

THE NOSE. 191

bones, and terminates by an opening within the nostril, where
it may be easily seen. This duct carries off the superfluous
saline fluid, secreted by the lachrymal gland ; but being
lined with the pituitary membrane, in glanders it often be-
comes obstructed ; by which the lachrymal fluid is forced
over the face ; and, as the ulceration proceeds, purulent
matter at length flows out at the puncta lachrymalia. In
inflammations of the eye, the puncta likewise becomes so
inflamed as to be impervious for a time ; hence a horse in
this aftection is commonly observed weeping.

The common integuments are spread over the upper lip,
but without its usual accompaniment, viz. adipose mem-
brane ; it is likewise furnished with fine hair to the edges of
the nostrils. The integument also is turned for a slight
distance up the nostril ; being, where it exists, distinctly
marked by its colour, which is very different from that of
mucous membrane. By an inflection of the integument, a
well known pouch is formed upon the external side of each
nasal cavity, called the false nostril. The purpose of these
blind pouches, called false nostrils, is to allow the true nostril
to contract or enlarge, without disfiguring the face ; thus
serving to guard that beauty of form which, throughout crea-
tion, nature so jealously protects. The openings of the nos-
trils are guarded by cartilages on each side ; two being a conti-
nuation of the inferior turbinated bones {PlateYll. 6) , besides
central ones are attached to the peaks of the nasal bones.
These cartilages are directly acted upon by the dilatator
narium ; the dilatator nari lateralis ; the dilatator nari infe-
rior ; and the contractor nari, which last is a triangular
bundle of fibre, first pointed out by Dr. Knox of Edinburgh,
arising from the inside of the intermaxillary bone. Beside
the muscles just named, the nose is further influenced by
fibres sent from the levator anglioris, and the retractor labii
superioris. The muscles of the nose usually act synchro-
nously ; and are in a great degree of an involuntary character.
The dilatator narium, by its power over the nasal cartilages
being attached to each, approximates the nostrils, and
elevates the superior borders of both. The inferior dilatator
enlarges the opening by contracting inferiorly ; the opening
at the same time being forced laterally, by the retractor
labii superioris, and centrally by the contractor nari. Thus,

192 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

simultaneousl}^ is the edge of the nostrils drawn in opposite
directions; and of course the opening is enlarged ; while the
lateralis and the accessories serve to dilate the anterior of
the nasal cavity. The blood to the nostrils is principally
supplied by branches derived from the facial and the lateral
nasal. The nerves being derived from the first, fifth, and
seventh pairs.

MUSCLES OF THE NOSE.

The DILATATOR NARi LATERALIS. Arises. From the external
surface of the upper part of the intermaxillary bone : and is
inserted into the cartilaginous continuation of the inferior
turbinated bone.

Dilatator nari inferior. Arises. From the inferior
border of the intermaxillary bone. Inserted. Into the upper
surface of the nasal cornu.

Contractor nari. Origin. From the inner side of the
intermaxillary bone. Insertion. Into the cartilaginous con-
tinuation of the inferior turbinated bone.

Dilatator narium. A bundle of fibres, stretching from
cartilage to cartilage of the nose.

the physiology of the nasal organs.

Comparative anatomy shows that the sense of smell
is in most animals placed at the entrance of the respira-
tory organs ; by wdiich they are made subservient to both
purposes of breathing and smelling ; and by the same means
are rendered as w^ell voluntary as involuntary agents ; for
the action of respiration will carry all the effluvia from bodies,
whether sought for or not, against the sensitive pituitary
membrane. The herbivorous tribes smell vegetable mat-
ters, and have an abhorrence of all fleshy odours. In all
the vertebrated animals, the parts connected with the organ
of smell are, like the parts composing the other organs of
sense, double. The cognizance taken of the volatile portions
of bodies continually flying off from them, and impressed
on the sensitive surface of the internal nostrils, is trans-
mitted by the nervous expansion of the olfactory nerves to
the brain ; where it produces the sensation we understand
by the name of smell.

CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 193

THE CAVITY OF THE MOUTH.

This cavity in the horse forms all that extensive opening
from the level of the e^^e to the incisor teeth. The mouth
is composed of external and internal parts ; the external
are the lips and cheeks ; the internal are the gums, the
bars, the teeth, the alveolary edges, the palate, and the
tongue. The lips form parts of the mouth, and are two in
number ; an upper and lower ; each being composed of
fleshy masses which extend around the opening to the
mouth ; but principally a circular one is apparent, forming
the orbicularis oris : the rest are composed of the nume-
rous muscles that influence the various movements of the
mouth and lips.

The RETRACTOR ANGLiORis (Plate II. where it is shown
turned back) is a portion of the panniculus, and as such has
a general action, but no special power over the mouth. The
ZYGOMATicus (Plate II. 4) runs from the zygomatic process
to, and is the true retractor of, the angle of the mouth.
The LEVATOR ANGLIORIS (Plate II. 1) which draws the
mouth upward and backward, pulls the upper lip also in
the same direction ; and at the same time partially expands
the nostril ; arises from near the inner canthus of the eye ;
and is inserted into the angle of the mouth, and into the
cornua of the nasal cartilages ; forming a loop anteriorly,
through which passes the retractor labii superioris.

Retractor labii superioris (Plate II. 3) pulls back-
ward the side of the upper lip ; and also dilates the false
nostril. Originates. From the upper jaw upon the outer
side, and just before the termination of the zygomatic spine.
Inserted. Into the false nostril, and blends with the muscu-
lar fibre of the upper lip.

Levator labii superioris (Plate II. 2), a pair of well-
defined muscles, one on either side of the face ; joining in
a common tendon, which at length expands and goes to
the upper lip ; originating from the junction of the supe-
rior maxillar and molar bones. The two would obviously
elevate the upper lip ; or one would pull the lip to one
side. To the lower lip there are the retractor labii
iNFERioRis (Plate II. 7), a well-marked muscle, originating
near to the margin of the lower jaw ; and going by tendons

o

194 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

to the substance of the under lip. This muscle would pull
backward the under lip. Orbicularis oris (Plate 11. 11),
a sphinctor, of use to close the lips. Its fibres encircle the
opening of the mouth. Levator labii inferioris serves
to draw upward, and to render firm the under lip. Origi-
nates. From the incisor alveolars of the lower jaw. Inserted.
Into the rudimental chin of the horse.

Whoever studies the forementioned muscles will find
ample cause for the varied movements of the lips ; more
especially when he considers that the anatomist deals only
with a dead body, and thus makes an entire muscle act at
once to determine its action ; whereas it is not unnatural to
imagine that in a living state muscular fibres do not all act
at once, but each has a separate and distinct movement ;
whereby the motions of the lips would be varied and mul-
tiplied almost beyond the power of human calculation.

The lips of the horse are to that animal the prehensile
organ, as any one may ascertain who observes a horse feed
at grass. The food is then collected with the lips ; and so
accurate is the sense of touch which resides in them, aided
by the smell, that all poisonous plants are rejected, and
only the nicest morsel chosen. The most sensitive part in
the body of the horse is the upper lip ; a fact unfortunately
too well known to grooms and farriers, who on every
occasion place a twitch on the tender part, and by screwing
it tight render the animal afraid to move.

The arteries which supply the internal parts of the mouth
are the inferior and superior maxillaries, after they pass
through the foramina in the upper and lower jaws. The
facial artery, — a portion by the lateral nasal, — the infra
orbital, &c., so that they are amply supplied with blood.
Their nervous sensibility and sense of touch is imparted by
the superior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve. The
motion is derived from the portio dura or facial nerve.

Now let us investigate the interior of the mouth. The
gu7ns are formed of a very vascular compact and elastic
substance completely surrounding the neck of each tooth ;
and, as this substance is also adherent to the periosteum,
so it supports the teeth firmly in their situations {Plate
VII. c). They are far more vascular than sensitive, and
appear to be formed by cellular tissue amply supplied with

CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 195

blood vessels. Over this the outer membrane (called the
buccal), covering the other parts within the mouth, is re-
flected ; only to protect the gums, during the mastication of
hard substances, it is here furnished with a cuticle of con-
siderable thickness. The membrane just alluded to (the
buccal) is reflected all over the interior of the mouth ; being
continuous with that which enters the lungs and abdomen,
and is part of the great mucous track. When we say the
gums are deficient in sensibility, those parts are alluded to
only as in a healthy state. When diseased they become
highly sensitive.

The palate of the horse is spoken of as hard and soft.
The hard palate {Plate VII. i) is that part touched and
felt by the tongue. The soft palate {Plate W.f; Plate
VII. I) falls down behind the tongue, and divides the
mouth from the fauces.

The hard palate is highly vascular, and is principally
formed of condensed cellular tissue. It is covered by a
portion of that thick insensitive buccal membrane which
envelops the gums. It is marked across from side to
side by curved projecting lines, whicli are called the bars
{Plate VII. i). The convexity of these curves point for-
ward ; but the projecting edge of rather more than the
anterior half looks backward, and that of the remainder
faces forward. The use of these formations {the bars) is to
keep the food within the mouth ; as but for their existence,
from the pendent position of the horse's head, it would be
very likely to fall out, an accident which now rarely hap-
pens.

The tongue {Plate VI. e) is that large fleshy body, for
the residence of which the cavity of the mouth appears to
be formed. It is covered by (the buccal) mucous mem-
brane, the same as shields the gums and envelops the
palate. The very top of the tongue has papillic, or emi-
nences upon it ; which indeed are upon the whole of the
superior surface of the organ, only of smaller size, ante-
riorly and laterally. It is free at its foremost end ; but
only for a small distance, being then bound down to the
bottom of the mouth by a fold of the lining membrane,
which is termed the frenum. It is principally composed of
muscular fibre and glandular substance, with which, how-

o 2

196 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

ever, some fat is generally intermixed. The tongue is fixed
at its base to the most forward portion of the os hyoides,
to which many of its muscles are attached. The muscles
of the tongue will not account for all the motions of that
organ ; that is, if we give to muscles no other property
than that accorded to them by the generality of anatomists,
viz. contraction. How are we, according to this version,
to account for an organ formed almost wholly of muscular
fibre, being propelled out of the mouth, or elongated and
turned in various directions. We know by feeling the arms
of men, but more so by feeling the limbs of animals when
spasmodically affected, that muscle, when contracted, can
become almost of the firmness of metal or of bone. May
not a texture, which has the powder of assuming this pro-
perty of rigidity, be also capable of dispensing wdth bone ;
and be gifted with a faculty of extension as well as contrac-
tion ? Grant this, which assumption the tongue appears to
necessitate, for its rightful interpretation, and the entire
difficulty is conquered.

This subject of the protrusion of the tongue is little
understood. Muscular fibre, however, must act upon every
substance, whether it be bone or not, with which it is in
contact. Thus much glandular matter and some fat inter-
mingling with the muscles of the tongue ; and such sub-
stances being pliable, but not compressible it is easily
understood how pressure might make them assume another
form, and become long, wdiereas they were originally broad.
The HYO GLOSsus BREVis, wliicli appears always to act with
its fellow^ at the back of the tongue, has no lateral motion.

The LONGUS is the main agent in retracting it ; when one
muscle alone acts the tongue w^ould be drawn to one side.
The LONGUS is likewise the means by which the tongue is
curved downwards. The muscle which twines the tongue
upwards is the genio hyo glossus, whose fibres run from
the front of the os hyoides to the point of the low^er jaw.

The BREVIS, aided by its accessories and the lingualis,
pulls downward the back of the tongue ; thus forming a
vacuum which draws water wuthin the mouth, or performs
the office of suction. The reason of so many muscles being
crowded together for the motion of the tongue, is the
extent of surface to be moved ; the power required to move

CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. 197

it ; the singular movements to be performed ; and the small
space left for the development of muscular fibre. When
all the muscles simultaneously contract the tongue is pro-
truded, as we cannot put out our own tongues without
being conscious of an effort. When the brevis alone con-
tracts, the tongue is drawn partially backward, though pro-
bably other muscles aid this action.

The tongue is a double organ, and all of its muscles
except one exist in pairs. If the fibres of these muscles be
traced to their destination, they will be found to decussate ;
those of the right, terminating upon the left side of the
tongue. The muscles of the tongue consist of five pairs,
and a small single one. The genio hyo glossus (a pair)
lie immediately between the branches of the lower jaw
from the junction of which it proceeds in a direct line
to the spur process of the os hyoides. The insertion of its
fibres is into the top of the tongue. Hyo glossus longus
{a pair) arise by fine tendon from near the joint, formed
between the two horns of the os hyoides ; and extend to
the tip of the tongue, their muscular fibres being inserted
into the sides of the tongue. Hyo glossus brevis {a pair)
arise from the body of, and the spur process of the os hyoides ;
into the top of the tongue, extending from the velum
palati as far forward as the last molar tooth. Accessories
{two pairs) . The anterior springs from the large horn of the
OS hyoides, and blends with the anterior fibres of the brevis.
The posterior originates from the membrane upon the side
of the tongue, near its base ; and is inserted into the upper
and internal part of the brevis. The lingualis (single), a
small band of muscular fibre, originating from the most
forward part of the body of the os hyoides ; and is inserted
into the upper part of the tongue close to its root.

The nerves which go to the tongue are the lingual, or
ninth pair for motion. The gustatory, or branch of the
fifth pair, which confers the sense of taste ; and the glosso
pharyngeus, of which the glossal branch goes to the tongue ;
but its precise service is not yet accurately determined.
We ask, may it not go to confer sensation?

The arteries are derived from the submaxillary branch of
the carotids, and the blood is returned into the jugular.

198 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH AND THE SENSE OF TASTE.

Taste appears to be derived from contact with the large
papillae at the back of the tongue. Taste does not exist
there is every reason to conclude, when the mouth and
food are perfectly dry ; but then it is difficult to have the
mouth in such a state as to preclude the possibility of
saliva being secreted ; and with regard to food, even the
captain's biscuit contains much moisture. Yet liquids are
tasted much sooner than solids ; which last are not gene-
rally relished, until by the process of mastication they have
been thoroughly moistened with sahva. Thus moisture
can either be taken in with the food, or be contributed by
the glands proper to the mouth after the food has been
taken in ; for in one way or the other fluid must be mingled
with the substance eaten before taste can exist. The
tongue, which is the organ of taste in most vertebrated
animals, possesses an exquisitely modified sensibility, and
in brutes is endowed also with a salutary instinct. In man,
civilization, by heightening the intellectual, has weakened
the instinctive powers, if they ever existed. Taste w^as
given to brutes to regulate their other senses ; thus there
are few plants or substances whose application to the
tongue produces an agreeable effect but are proper
for food. It must, however, be confessed, that the dis-
criminating quality in brutes, with regard to food, is greatly
assisted by their sense of smelling : the horse will not touch
water from a greasy bucket ; and his refusal takes place
before he has had time to ascertain the true cause. Nature
stimulates her creatures to take food by a double motive,
— the pleasure of taste and the pain of hunger.

The soft palate, or velum palati {Plate W. f ; Plate VII.
Z), is nothing m^ore than an expanded uvula, which adheres
to both sides at the back of the mouth. The fixed point
whence it originates is the arch of the palate bone, which
terminates the hard palate. From this arch it inclines
backward till its free edge rests upon the epiglottis, one of
the parts of the larynx. Slanting in this direction it is
easily raised by any substance coming from the mouth ; but
is only the firmer closed by any thing attempting to egress
from an opposite direction. The air has not body sufficient

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH. 199

to raise the velum palati ; whence the horse expires and
inspires through the nostrils, save in coughing. That act
being a spasmodic effort, the muscles, independent of the
will, simultaneously contract when those situated within
the soft palate are exerted, lift the velum palati, and the
breath is sent through the mouth.

The soft palate is formed by much glandular substance
with a small quantity of muscular fibre, which is rather
pale in colour. The muscles moving the soft palate are
two. The LEVATOR PALATI {single), situated in the middle
of its substance ; and the depressors of the soft palate {a
pair), each consisting of a disgregated bundle of fibres de-
veloped upon the lateral and internal portion of the mem-
brane. The action of the last named pair of muscles is to
depress the soft palate, or hold it in its place, resting upon
the epiglottis. The levator palati is the much more power-
ful muscle ; hence we can understand why, when a horse
is much pushed, or approaching to the final termination
of life, and nature, striving to prolong existence, causes all
the muscles to be spasmodically contracted, the velum
palati is frequently raised, and the animal breathes through
his mouth.

The sides of the mouth (for as to cheeks the horse can-
not be said to possess any) are composed of two muscles,
with gland, integuments, &c. The caninus, which is the
exterior of the two. Origin. From a glistening tendon,
arising from the inferior maxillar, near to the coronoid
process. Insertion. Into the inferior border of the superior
maxillar as forward as between the molar teeth and the tushes,
and into the same part of the upper margin of the lower jaw.

Buccinator. Origin. By tendon, from the superior
border of the lower jaw, near the joint ; and from the tube-
rosity of the superior maxillar, near to the velum palati.
Insertion. Into the inferior border of the upper, and the
superior border of the lower jaw, and by tendon into the
angle of the mouth.

The fauces {Plate VI. g) are a part at which several
structures meet. They have no distinct anatomical exist-
ence ; yet it is found convenient to apply this name to a
kind of neutral ground, formed by many different parts
joining one another, but properly belonging to none in par-

200 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

ticular. Thus behind the velum palati, prior to the com-
mencement of the pharynx, there is a space which is usually
the seat of" sore throat. From this place it can easily affect
the mouth ; whence dry mouth is one of the symptoms. It
likewise can readily affect the lining membrane of the nos-
trils ; hence copious nasal defluxions are always witnessed.
It is situated immediately above the larynx ; wherefore
cough is generally heard when sore throat is present ; and it
directly communicates with tlie pharynx, and thus a diffi-
culty in swallowing is experienced. Further, heaviness and
pain in the head are accompanying symptoms during sore
throat ; and as the fauces lead to the Eustachian tubes and
guttural pouches, the affection of either one or the other is
sufficient to account for this indication.

There are eight distinct parts open from or into the
fauces. The guttural pouches {Plate VII. k) are two. The
Eustachian tubes are two also, and two with two make four.
Then there are the pharynx {Plate VI. h), the larynx
{Plate VI. j), the mouth {Plate VII. I), and the nasal cham-
bers {Plate VII. n), both of which have but one common
opening, making altogether eight. The reader, however,
may be inclined to say. You told us there were two
nasal chambers ; how comes it, therefore, there are not two
openings into the fauces ? Because the septum nasi, or
cartilaginous division (see Plate VI. a), does not extend so
far posteriorly as to reach the fauces, whence the two cham-
bers enter the fauces by a single opening.

The larynx {Plate VI. j), w^hich is the commencement of
the windpipe, opens within the fauces, and forms a kind of
cartilaginous box ; which is composed principally of five
pieces, so connected wdth the branches of the os hyoides as
to have very small lateral motion ; but an extensive one
above and downw^ards. The os hyoides was purposely
omitted in the Osteology, that its relative situation might
unite with its description. It consists of five bony portions
articulated together. The body very much resembles a
common spur ; the short prong being inserted into the root
of the tongue ; and the semicircular portion or body of the
bone embracing the larynx. From the posterior ends of its
body spring two other short pieces of bone running upward ;
and joined to these but also proceeding upward are two

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOUTH. 201

longer pieces of bone ; there being a synovial joint between
each of the different parts, which always describe angles
one upon another.

The laryngeal cartilages are, the thyroid, cricoid, the two
arytenoid, and the epiglottis. The cricoid cartilage is the
lowest in position, and in form resembles a thick ring.
Part of it is inserted within the thyroid cartilage, and the
two arytenoids rest upon its uppermost and most backward
portion. The thyroid cartilage, the most considerable of
the five, being thought to resemble a shield, has a promi-
nence running downward over its front. The epiglottis is
connected with its highest and most forward point. The
arytenoid are two small tibro-cartilages, uniting together at
the back of the opening to the larynx : their inferior sur-
face rests upon the superior surface of the cricoid cartilage,
and their superior extremities form a kind of point, which is
curved backwards. The epiglottis is a very elastic body,
composed principally of yellow fibrous tissue, attached to
the anterior portion of the thyroid cartilage by a strong
ligament. In shape it somewhat resembles a leaf which
has been bent downward, and its termination thus forms a
point which is curved, in the direction we have stated.

The larynx gives insertion to a great number of muscles,
being covered by them both within and without ; its
motions are consequently much more varied than man can
satisfactorily account for. The epiglottideus is a single
muscle connected wuth the hyoides ; and is inserted into
the inferior portion of the epiglottis, which it pulls back or
stretches open. The other laryngeal muscles act in pairs :
the crico-thyroid(Bi draw the larynx downwards, after it has
been raised in deglutition, by the action of the hyo-thyroidcci.
The crico-arytenoidcei lateralis and posticus arytenoidceus
are muscles appropriated to their specified cartilages ; by
means of which the cavity of the larynx is altered in its
figure and dimensions. In consequence of the effect pro-
duced upon its internal ligaments, the sounds of the voice
thereby become variously modulated. The thyroid bodies
are situated one on each side of the cricoid cartilage, and
are larger in the young than the old subject ; but their
functional purpose is unknown. The membrane lining the

202 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

larynx is the most sensitive of any throughout the body.
A grain of salt, or even a drop of water, getting upon it,
causes the most sudden and violent spasmodic coughing.
The reason for its being made thus sensitive is that it may
serve as a guard to the lungs. It is placed on the top of
the windpipe ; therefore no foreign body can enter with-
out our being immediately informed of the danger. This
membrane is thrown into folds, thus forming sacs, spoken
of as the ventricles of the larynx ; and it also covers liga-
ments, extended across the cavity, for the purposes of voice,
and named the cordse vocales. The arteries of the larynx
are derived from the carotids, and the veins empty them-
selves into the jugulars. Their nerves are furnished by the
recurrents and the superior laryngeal, both of which are
derived from the par vagum, or eighth pair.

Uses of the Larynx. — The variations of sound emitted
by the voice of quadrupeds appear to be governed principally
in the number and form of the laryngeal sacs. There
are usually three of these ; one of them is seen under the
vault formed by the anterior boundary of the thyroid carti-
lage, having its aperture near the root of the epiglottis.
The other two are oblong sinuses contained between the
lateral parietes of the glottis and the thyroid cartilage ; and
are covered in a great measure by the arytenoidei muscles.
In the horse these lateral sacs are very long and wide, and
are not unlike the usual ventricles of the glottis. The aper-
ture of the outer cavity is very large in the horse ; in the
ass the opening into each of the three sacs is a small hole,
and the anterior sac forms a bag-like cavity. In the mule
these organs differ, but their anatomical formation is in
general blended between the horse and ass. Neighing ap-
pears produced by expirations, as are most of the vocal
tones from the horse. The vibrations produced by the
resonance of different sized cavities, assisted by the tremors
of the cartilages of the nostrils, produce the compound
sounds which are emitted. Knuckering, as it is termed, is
only a lesser neigh, with shorter, deeper, and less forcible
tones, expressive of affection and joy. The horse has one
acute sound, produced by the act of inspiration, which
usually expresses either play or lust ; but in most other

THE GLANDS OF THE HEAD. 203

instances, sound in the horse is produced from expirations ;
nor does it appear that the tongue or teeth are much con-
cerned in the modulations of his voice.

The pharynx is a funnel-shaped bag, having the large end
forward. This bag is lined with mucous membrane, upon
the outer side of which are well-marked muscular fibres ;
and is held fast against the superior and the posterior of the
larynx by three pairs of constricting muscles, named the
anterior, middle, and posterior. The first arises from the
OS hyoides ; the second from the thyroid cartilage ; and the
last from the cricoid cartilage ; and all meet their fellows
upon a tendinous line at the back of the pharynx. The
dilators of the pharynx are numerous. The hyo pharyngeus
SUPERIOR arises from the inner side of the large horn of the
OS hyoides ; and goes to the posterior of the bag. Hyo pha-
ryngeus INFERIOR springs from the lower part of the large
horn of the os hyoides ; and goes to the posterior of the bag.
One of these muscles pulls upw^ard the others, sideways and
downward. The tensor palati arises from the styloid pro-
cess of the petrous temporal bone ; and, passing over a syno-
vial pulley on the pterygoid bone, is inserted, by expanded
tendon, into the anterior of the bag of the pharynx. Stylo
pharyngeus. From the styloid process of the petrous tem-
poral bone. To the most anterior part of the pharyngeal bag.
This last is a single muscle.

The dilators are excited into immediate action by the
pressure of the morsel against the velum palati ; and then
pulling all at the same time, and in different directions, they
hold the bag of the pharynx open ; and when the food has
entered these muscles relax, and the constrictors one after
the other come into action, thus compelling the morsel into
the cesophagus.

the glands of the head.

These are mucous and salivary, with the glandular sub-
stance that secretes the w^ax of the ears. The salivary
glands secrete the fluid we call saliva ; and are three upon
each side of the head, the parotid, the submaxillary, and
the sublingual. The parotid {Plate 11. 14) is a considerable
body ; situated upon each side, in the hollow formed by the
articulation of the head with the neck, stretching around

204 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

from the root of the ear to the throat. It is distinctly
lobular, its lobes being connected by cellular membrane ;
and from each of its lobes ramifies an infinity of minute
tubes, which finally unite into one common trunk, and
thus empty the secretion of the gland into the mouth.
The parotid duct thus finally formed quits the gland,
passing along the inner surface of the jaw ; crosses the bone,
in company with the submaxillary artery, and pierces the
side of the mouth, near to the third molar tooth ; forming
a bulbous rising at its termination.

The submaxillary^ though much smaller than the parotid,
are still considerable glands, occupying the lower part of the
spac^, termed the channel; a great portion of them being
under the parotid gland. The ducts penetrate the buccal
membrane, a little anterior to the lingual frenum, by orifices
proper to each, which project up in nipple-like risings.

The sublingual glands are smaller, but far more numerous,
than the submaxillary ; and are placed along the under part
of the tongue, where, from their lobular form, they become
easily detected. They pour out their secretion by little
orifices, which may be traced on each side of the mouth.
The labial glands are placed under the common membrane
of the mouth, on the inner surface of the lips, and are small
secreting bodies. The buccal glands are found on each side
of the mouth. Follicidose and mucous glands are distributed
over the interior of the mouth, the surface of the tongue,
and soft palate. There are also the lymphatic glands common
to the head, the principal of which are the maxillary. These
are situated in the channel towards the superior part.

The uses of the salivary secretion appear to be to moisten
the food, thereby enabling such as is dry to be more readily
swallowed. It has, however, functional properties of other
kinds, and contains, without doubt, living principles of
action, as well as mechanical : by changing the matters
taken into the mouth, it commences the work of diges-
tion. At all times it is useful, likewise, by moistening the
mouth and fauces, thereby keeping them in a constant state
of susceptibility. From some experiments made, it would
appear that the quantity of saliva furnished by the parotid
ducts alone, during the process of eating, is more than a
quart per hour. The saliva is also of use in entangling air

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION. 205

within its bubbles, and thus conveying a certain portion of
the atmosphere, or of oxygen and nitrogen gases, to the
stomach. Salivary glands, moreover, to maintain their
health, require to be pressed by the adjacent muscles ;
pressure being as necessary to the health of a gland of this
description, as food is to the support of the body.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION.

When a horse grazes, he first places with his lips a tuft
between the teeth ; when, elevating his chin, the sharp
edges of the under incisors become applied to the grass,
and cut it through, while at the same time the upper in-
cisors help to nip it off. Oxen and sheep, wanting upper
nippers, wrap a tuft of grass round with their tongue, and
then apply it to the under incisors, by which it is held fast,
while a movement of the head tears the grass up ; and thus
we find that they are obliged always to carry the chin for-
ward in collecting their grass. When a quantity of herbage
is thus gained, it is carried by the tongue and muscles of
the cheeks to the upper part of the mouth, to encounter
the action of the molars : the matter being conveyed from
side to side, to be placed in the most favourable direction
for perfect mastication, by means of the tongue. During
this process, it continues to be mixed with the salivary
tluid, from the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublin-
gual glands, which pour out their secretions, excited by the
pressure of the surrounding muscles.

The vegetable mass having been thus completely masti-
cated, is placed at the back of the tongue ; when by the
pressure of that organ towards the palate it is squeezed
against the velum palati. The soft palate readily yields to
force coming from the mouth. The morsel is at the same
time driven against the epiglottis, which by its own elas-
ticity released from the downward pressure of the velum
palati, is raised, and covers the opening to the larynx.
The food is thus propelled into the fauces. Then the
larynx, protected by the epiglottis, rises and urges the
mass into the pharynx ; the contractors of which transmit it
to the oesophagus ; the muscular coats of which, contracting
as it descends, ultimately lodge it within the stomach. The
mouth remains closed during the act of swallowing, that

206 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

these muscles may find a fixed point. The deglutition of
liquids is not very different. The biievis and other muscles
of the tongue draw it downward, whereby a tendency
towards a vacuum is formed : to counteract this, the water
is by atmospheric pressure forced into the mouth ; when the
entire agency which operated in the case of a solid is called
into action, the raised velum palati closing the opening to
the nostrils, and thus preventing the liquid from returning
by that passage.

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION.

Stylo maxillaris {Fig 14 . 8). Orujin. From the styloid
process of the occiput. Insertion. Into the angle of the
lower jaw. Action. To assist in gaping, and widely opening
the mouth.

JVIasseter externus {Plate II. 8). Origin. From the
inferior of the zygomatic arch and spine. Insertion. Into
the external surface and inferior border of the lower jaw.
Action. To powerfully close the mouth.

Temporalis {Plate II. 10). Origin. From the superior
sides of the cranium and interior of the zygomatic arch.
Insertion. Into the coronary process and border of the
lower jaw. This muscle cannot be fairly separated from
the masseter externus. Action. To firmly close the mouth.

Masseter internus. Origin. From the superior maxil-
lary and sphenoid bone. Insertion. Into the inner surface
and inferior border of the lower jaw. Action. To firmly
close the mouth,

Pterygoideus. Origin. From the pterygoid process,
and from the sphenoid bone. Insertion. Into the lower
jaw below the joint. Action. To rotate the jaw, or give to
it that circular motion which is observed when the horse is
masticating.

Mylo-hyoideus. Origin. From the alveolar edges of
the lower jaw. Insertion. By a central tendon into the
spur process of the os hyoides. Action. To draw the bone
forwards, and to raise the tongue.

DiGASTRicus. Origin. From the substance of the stylo-
maxillaris. Insertion. To the inner side of the lower jaw,
as forward as the third molar tooth. Action. To open the
mouth, aided by the stylo-maxillaris and the weight of the

OF THE HEAD AND NECK GENERALLY. 207

lower jaw. There are two fleshy belUes to this muscle, one
at either end, divided by an intervening tendon ; which
plays through a synovial loop upon the sides of the body of
the OS hyoides.

Genio hyoideus. Origin. By tendon from the symphy-
sis of the lower jaw. Insertion. Into the spur process of
the OS hyoides by tendon. Action. To draw forward the
OS hyoides.

Hyoideus magnus. Origin. From behind the large horn
of the OS hyoides. Insertion Into the side of the body of
the OS hyoides by tendon, which forms the loop the digas-
tricus plays through. Action. To raise the body of the os
hyoides, and with it the larynx.

Hyoideus parvus. Origin. From the border of the
large horn of the os hyoides, near to its lower articulation.
Insertion. Into the body of the lesser cornu, and into the
body of the os hyoides. Action. To raise the lower cornu
of the OS hyoides.

Stylo hyoideus. Origin. From the styloid process of
the occiput. Insertion. Into the large horn of the os
hyoides. Action. To pull the large horn backward, down-
ward, and outward.

No one can have attentively read the description of the
foregoing muscles, or have any idea concerning them, but
must have seen the much greater power of those wdiich
close, than those which lower, the jaw. The difference
is such as to admit of no comparison ; hence during
tetanus, when all the muscles are spasmodically affected,
the mouth is locked, not because the feebler muscles that
lower the jaw escape from morbid contraction, but because
these can offer no opposition to the powerful and enduring
masses which shut fast the cavity.

Another fact must strike every one ; that is, the large
number of muscles which go to the os hyoides, and there-
fore indirectly to the larynx. Yet the last organ is spoken
of by most teachers as though it were fixed ; while its situa-
tion is as loosely pendent, and its motor power as multi-
farious, as that of any part in the entire body.

OF the head and neck generally.
The common integuments of the neck and face are similar

208 ANATOMY OF THE HEAD.

to those of the other parts of the body. Upon the crest, or
upper margin of the neck, is a line of flowing hair, called
the mane ; and on the top of the forehead is a tuft of hair
termed the forelock.

The cervical ligament, or ligamentum nuch(B (see Fig 14),
is a very strong, partly ropelike and partly an expanded or
a clothlike substance ; which is principally placed be-
tween the head and the body, as a support to the head ;
but extends all along the dorsal spines, even to the com-
mencement of the tail. The muscles of the neck are very
strong : but muscles, if constantly kept in action, tire ;
Nature has, therefore, given a yellow elastic fibrous sub-
stance, to support the weight of the head, and take the
stress from the muscular fibre, but permit of the freest
motions of the head. It is strongly attached, by its anterior
extremity ; to the posterior part of the occipital bone ;
passing over the first cervical vertebra, without attaching
itself to it, but being intimately connected with the spinous
processes of all the rest. The muscles of the neck operate
on the head ; and many of the fleshy masses moving the
neck, originate on the shoulders.

The trachea, or windpipe {Plate VI. /), is a large canal
which arises from the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and
extends down the anterior part of the neck into the thorax :
it is composed of upwards of fifty annular cartilages, which
taper from their front, terminating in mere slips ; having
at their extremities a strong muscular band, which unites
their substance in the form of numerous circles, but does
not fix tlieir form or position. This muscle extends the
whole length of the trachea, and is present on every part of
the cartilages ; only it becomes very thin, and somewhat
difficult to detect upon the anterior portion of the tube.
The numerous cartilaginous rings forming the trachea are
connected at their edges to each other by strong elastic
ligaments : thus rendering the trachea perfectly flexible.
Externally it is united to the surrounding parts by cellular
substance ; internally it is lined by a mucous membrane,
the secretion of which defends it against the irritating effects
of varieties in the temperature. About the third or fourth
dorsal vertebra, it divides into two branches or bronchiee ;
the principal di\'isions of which again divide, before they

\

THE LEFT DIVISION OF THE HEAD. 209

have proceeded far ; and these divisions separate again and
again, until the tubes become very numerous, but very
minute, ending in very small cavities, termed the air-cells
of the lungs.

The oesophagus {Plate VI. k) is the continuation of the
funnel-like cavity of the pharynx. It is a muscular mem-
braneous tube, leading from the pharynx to the stomach ;
it takes a course, inclining a little to the left side, and
to the posterior of the trachea, which it surmounts near
the head. It then penetrates the chest, and passes along
the dorsal vertebrae within the layers of pleurae ; and ulti-
mately pierces an opening in the diaphragm, to terminate
in the stomach. Its coats are, first, a copious cellular one.
Its second coat is muscular, and made up of two strata of
fibres, an external longitudinal and an internal circular.
The inner coat is cuticular and wrinkled into folds ; but
has upon it a distinct layer of longitudinal muscular
fibres, that it may adapt itself to the expansion or contrac-
tion of the tube : this cuticular portion extends over one-
half of the stomach.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII.

THE LEFT DIVISION OF THE HEAD, SEPARATED BEFORE THE
MESIAN LINE IS ATTAINED.

a, The superior turbinated bone, covered with the
Schneiderian membrane and its ramifying vessels ; b, the
inferior turbinated bone in the like condition ; c, the mouth
and gums of the lower jaw ; d, the facial and frontal
sinuses ; e, the ethmoid cells ; /, the ethmoid sinuses ; g, the
cavity of the skull, deprived of the brain and its mem-
branes ; h, the portion of the bony triquatrum which sepa-
rates the cerebrum and the cerebellum (see Plate VI.) ; i,
the bars upon the roof of the mouth ; j, the guttural pouch,
formed of merely mucous membrane, which shows the
various adjacent structures through its sides ; k, the open-
ing into the fauces of the guttural pouches ; I, the soft
palate (see/, also Plate VI.) ; m, a portion of the lacerated
submaxillary gland ; n, the opening of the nostril into the
fauces ; 0, the spinal canal ; p, a mass of confusion,

p

210

VISCERA OF THE CHEST.

Owing to the division of the muscles, the pharynx has
fallen down and concealed the larynx.

FIG 20.

A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX, SHOWING THE THREE
SEROUS SACS WITHIN THE CAVITY.

The dark substance surrounding the outside indicates the flesh, and the ichlte body at the top

is the Tcrtebrce.

B, B, The ribs. P, The pericardium.

E, The sternum, and the cartilages of F, The fibrous layer of the pericardium.

the ribs. By tracing the finer white line the reader

PC, The pleura costalis. will discover there are three sacs in

PL, The pleura pulmonaris. this figure. A mediastinum is formed

L, L, The lungs. in the centre, where they meet.

H, The heart.

VISCERA OF THE CHEST.

The pleurcB (Fi rj 20 . PL . PC).— When the chest is
opened, a smooth polished membrane is seen, covering its
internal surface, and investing its contents. Each side of
the chest has its particular pleura, or serous membrane,
which is distinct from that of the other. There is, besides,
a third serous membrane within the chest, which covers
the heart, and lines the pericardium or heart bag (Fig 20 .

VISCEPx-A OF THE CHEST. 211

P). The junction of two pleiirre by means of cellular tis-
sue constitutes a mediastinum (see Fig 20) . Each side of
the chest has its distinct pleura, and the third for the heart
lies between the two. The third, however, is but very
small when compared with the other two ; consequently
there are spaces between the two pleurae where they meet,
and each such place is called a mediastinum. The medias-
tinum is of use in affording egress and ingress to various
tubes running to the viscera of the chest, or to that of the
abdomen, as well as to various glands necessary to nutri-
tion. The pleuree are serous membranes ; and as such
secrete a halitus or fluid, and it is their purpose to favour
motion. The pleura on each side of the chest being soft
and smooth can take various forms, just as a bladder when
fresh will cover the hand, and insert itself between the
fingers if pressed upon. The serous membrane on each
side of the chest is reflected over the insides of the ribs ;
thence on to the anterior of the diaphragm ; upon the ver-
tebrae and sternum ; hence ascending and descending they
form mediastinums, or are connected to one another by
cellular tissue. Then the lungs bulge out, and force the
inner side of the serous bag against the opposite side of the
sac, the two surfaces being in apposition ; for a serous mem-
brane, in its nature can only bear the touch of itself or its
secretion. The pleura reflected over the ribs is called the
costal pleura {Fig 20 . PC) ; that over the lungs the pul-
monary pleura {Fig 20 . PL) ; that which covers the front
of the diaphragm the phrenic pleura. The mediastinums
are four in number. The anterior and the superior ; the
middle and the inferior. The anterior contains veins, arte-
ries, nerve, and absorbents, going to and from the heart,
the trachea or windpipe, and the thymus gland or the
remains of it. The superior mediastinum contains the
vena azygos and the thoracic duct ; the posterior aorta and
the oesophagus ; the par vagum and sympathetic nerves.
The middle mediastinum contains only the heart and peri-
cardiac sac, or heart bag and its fluid. The inferior me -
diastinum holds nothing ; as the posterior vena cava is said
to pass through no division of this sort, but to have a fold
of jDleurato itself: a fact which anatomy corroborates. Of
the three serous sacs, that which holds the heart is very

p2

212 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST.

much the smallest. Of the two remaming pleurae, the left
is the smaller ; because there is an extra lobe to the right
lung, and the right pleura having consequently to make room
for the largest contents.

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST.

Lateralis sterni. Origin. From the body of the ster-
num, and the cartilages of the fourth and fifth ribs. In-
sertion. Into the first rib.

Superficialis costarum {Plate III. b), by fine aponeu-
rosis from the ligamentum supra spinalis of the back and
loins. Insertion. Into the anterior margin of the fifth to
the twelfth ribs ; and into the posterior borders of from the
twelfth to the eighteenth ribs.

Transversalis costarum. Origin of the superficial ten-
dons. From the first lumbar vertebrae. Origin of the deep-
seated tendons. From the transverse process of the seventh
cervical vertebrae. Insertion of the superficial tendons.
Passing over the last three ribs into the posterior borders
of the fifteenth and all anterior ribs, reaching to the trans-
verse process of the seventh cervical. Insertion of the deep-
seated tendons. Passing over the first two ribs into the
inferior margin of the third and all posterior fibs, reaching
to the transverse process of the first lumbar vertebrae.

LoNGissiMus DORSi {Plate III. F). Bifid posteriorly.
Origin. From the transverse processes and ligamentum
supra spinalis of the sacral and lumbar regions, and as far
forward in the dorsal as the eleventh vertebrae. From the
transverse processes of all the remaining vertebrae ; and to
the tendon of the complexus major. Inserted. Into the
bottom and margin of both spines of the ilium ; into the
transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae ; and into the
ribs, as well as into the last four, but sometimes five cer-
vical vertebrae.

Spinalis DORSi {Plate 111. G). Origin. From the tendon
covering the longissimus dorsi ; and from the anterior twelve
dorsal spines. Inserted. Into the last four cervical vertebral
spines.

Intercostals (PZa^e III. «). Internal and external. Ori-
gin. External, from the posterior border of each rib. In-
ternal, from the anterior border of each rib. Insertion.

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 213

External, into the anterior border of each succeeding rib.
Internal, into the posterior border of each rib before. ^

Sterno cost ales. Origin. From the hgament in the
centre of the superior surface of the sternum. Insertion.
Into the bone and cartilage of the second to the seventh
ribs. The muscles are within the chest, and covered by
the pleurse.

All these muscles are so blended that it is unsatisfactory
to speak of them separately, therefore we prefer to allude
to their actions in another place.

First, to speak about the diaphragm and intercostals,
which are more especially muscles of respiration, and to
which all the others are accessories, used on particular
occasions ; though some, as the longissimus dorsi, are only
used in cases of extreme distress.

The diaphragm or 77iidriff {see Fig 21), is a most im-
portant muscle, and, like the heart, is, during life, in con-^
stant action. It is a broad, thin, and tendinous expansion
in the middle, having fleshy or muscular sides ; it is so
situated as to form a complete division between the thorax
and abdomen; its upper part, opposed to the back, ex-
tends posteriorly till its crurae are under the loins, and
even reach the sacrum ; while the anterior part is attached
to the hindmost part of the sternum. In a state of rest, it
is anteriorly convex, and posteriorly concave ; the surface
opposed to the thorax being covered by the pleurse, and
that towards the abdomen by the peritoneum. From some
pecuharities in the disposition of its fibres, it is sometimes
described as two muscles ; the great and little diaphragm.
The anterior or larger portion arises by distinct fleshy fibres
from the ensiform cartilage of the sternum ; from the in-
ternal surface of the cartilages of the eighth, and all the
remaining ribs, excepting the last two. From these ori-
gins, the fibres are directed like radii from the circum-
ference {Fig 21 . 2, 2, 2) to the tendinous centre of a cir-
cle ; which is perforated by a hole, a Uttle inclined to the
right side, called the foramen dextrum {Fig2\ . 7), and
furnishing a passage for the vena cava. — The lesser portion
of the diaphragm fills up the space close to the spine {Fig
21 . 3, 4) ; arising by two different portions from the six-
teenth dorsal, and from all the lumbar vertebrae, and are called

214

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST.

crura ; between which an interval is left for a transit of the
aorta {Fig 2\ . 5), the vena azygos, the thoracic duct, and
sympathetic nerve. Between the two, and rather to the left
and centre, is situated a third opening, formed by the decus-
sation of the fibres of the crura, through which pass the
oesophagus and the par vagum nerve {Fig 21 . 6) .

FIG 21.

THE DIAPHRAGM.

1, 1, 1, The cordiform, or tendinous

portion.

2, 2, 2, Tlie great muscle.

3, The left crus.

4, The right crus.

5, The aorta, piercing the left or

superior opening.

6, The oesophagus, coming through

the middle opening.

7, The inferior, or right foramen,

for the vena cava to pass
through.

8, The sacro-lumbalis muscle.

Vessels and nerves of the diaphragm. — The aorta, in its
passage between the crura, gives a branch or tw^o to this
muscle; besides which, it receives other rami from the
arteries of the ribs and the pectorals. Its veins, or sinuses,
are much larger than its arteries ; to obviate the effects
of pressure during its motions, being formed flat without
valves ; and finally pour their contents into the vena
cava, being the last veins that empty into that trunk.
The phrenic nerves arise from filaments given from the
fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervicals : other small
branches are likewise given off from the surrounding gan-
glia, which, uniting with it, tend to make it an organ of

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND CHEST. 215

extensive visceral sympathy, as well as an important agent
in respiration. It is indeed a muscle of the chest, there
being but two occasions when its action favours the abdo-
men, and then the other muscles of the chest do the
same ; that is, daring straining, to expel the foeces or
foetus. In cattle, during the propulsion of the morsel into
the mouth, which takes place in rumination, a very gentle
effort is perceptible when respiration is suspended, and the
diaphragm is inactive. The diaphragm is only partially a
muscle of voluntary motion.

Action of the intercostals and diaphragm. The inter-
costals, internal and external, cross one another, their fibres
running in opposite directions, and being mingled with
much tendinous structure, whereby they gain endurance.
Each would draw the ribs more closely together, conse-
quently the whole acting simultaneously could but perform
that action more energetically. The contraction of the
intercostals enlarges the cavity of the thorax ; and nature,
to prevent a vacuum, sends the air through the nostrils
into the lungs. But the air thus received is not sufficient
for the perfect expansion of the lungs ; wherefore the ribs
stop when they have gained their full extent, become fixed
points, and the diaphragm begins to operate. This last
muscle, which was relaxed, and bulging into the thorax,
now contracts ; becomes more level, or pushes the abdominal
viscera back, and bulges less into the chest. By the
retraction of the diaphragm the thorax is still further
enlarged, and the quantity of atmosphere now received
perfectly expands the lungs. When the lungs are thus
inflated, the air within them renders the pressure of the
atmosphere without the chest inoperative ; but in a
short space the breath taken in becomes unequal to this
purpose, and the pressure from without is severely felt.
The abdominal muscles contract, draw downward the ribs,
push forward the viscera, driving back the diaphragm, and
thus lessen the cavity of the thorax ; they expel from the
lungs the inspired air, which by this time is highly car-
bonized.

Action of the iviuscles of the back. These are spoken
of in connexion with the muscles of respiration, because
the two are found to be connected. It is impossible to

216 THE HEART.

leap with empty lungs. The inspiration is full, being neces-
sary, not only to fill a large cavity with gas, and thus
lighten the body, but to render the ribs fixed ; so enabhng
the muscles connected with them to act with more enere;y.
In this the gluteus maximus operates {Plate II. in). The
muscles proper to the thigh contract, and by this means
render firm the pelvis, though at the same time the hind-
most part of the sacrum is drawn slightly downward.
Upon these fixed points the longissimus dorsi {Plate III. F),
the spinahs dorsi {Plate III. G), the superficialis costa-
rum {Plate III. b), the transversalis costarum, &c. contract ;
and acting together with the gluteus maximus, in the first
plac^e draw close the upper part of the ribs and the spines
of the dorsal vertebr?e, rendering the horse hollow backed ;
then raise the trunk upon the natural hinge of the ver-
tebrse, or the back upon the sacrum (see Skel.) ; between
the which there is an obvious space, and the spines of
which abruptly incline different ways. The whole mass of
contractile power now comes into play ; the forward mus-
cles of the back drawing up the neck at the same time, and
the body is raised. The hinder feet then give a spring,
and the leap is made ; after which the muscles thus vio-
lently used as suddenly relax, and expiration takes place.

The nerves which supply the pleurae are derived from
the intercostals and phrenic, the par vagum and sympa-
thetic. The pleurae have no sensation when in health, but
like most parts w^e are unconscious of when they are well,
they become acutely sensitive in disease. The aiteries are
very small, and are given off" from any of the neighbouring
trunks ; and the veins, which are also extremely minute, •
empty themselves into the adjacent veins.

THE HEART.

The heart is covered by a double fold of a serous sac,
which secretes about an ounce of clear liquid. Like all
serous membranes it is closed, touching nothing but its
secretion or itself, being favourable to motion. To un-
derstand this, let us again suppose we hold in our hand
a soft, flexible bladder, twice as large as the heart itself,
w^hich has no opening ; we then take the heart, and for-
cibly indent the bladder with it. The bladder adheres to

THE HEART. 217

the heart, from the point to the root of the vessels. But
this occupies only a part of the bladder. The rest is brought
down towards the sternum, and then up again to join the
point whence it started. This serous sac is externally covered
by a white fibrous membrane, which is continuous with
the cellular investment of the vessels, and is reflected over
the serous layer down to the sternum ; the whole being
within the pleurae, and called the pericardium.

The heart. — This important organ is a hollow involun-
tary muscle, or pulsating sac, divided into four principal
cavities. Invested by its sac, it is situated obliquely; its
base being on a line with the dorsal vertebrae, and its point
directed to the left of the sternum between the eighth and
ninth ribs {Plate VIII. D). It presents four cavities, two
inferior or ventricles, and two superior or auricles. Each
ventricle opens by two spacious orifices : one of which com-
municates with the auricle or upper cavity ; the other forms
the mouth of a large artery. There are an auricle and a
ventricle upon each side of the heart ; or one lower and
one upper cavity upon the left, and the same upon the
right ; or, more properly, one anteriorly and one posteriorly
situated. The cavities are separated by a fleshy division,
like to the party wall between two houses, called a sep-
tum. The light ventricle has within it fleshy pillars, called
carnea columiKS, from which proceed tendinous cords, or
the cortina tendinea, attached to the three valves between
the right auricle and ventricle, which answer the purpose
of keeping each cavity distinct ; the left or posterior ven-
tricle, although altogether longer than the right, reaching to
the very apex of the organ, is, notwithstanding, less capa-
cious, but altogether of much greater substance. The
auricles are separated from each other by a septum, though
externally they appear altogether one cavity, with indented
edges. The right auricle is irregularly rounded, and has
two large openings for blood, which are the entrances of
the vena cavas. The left auricle is considerably more
muscular, though its size is less : it receives the pulmonary
veins, usually from three to five in number, and it has also a
common opening with the ventricle. The substance of the
auricles is both membranous and muscular, and they are
also furnished with a few tendinous and fleshy cords to

218 THE ACTION OF THE HEART.

strengthen them, which are spoken of as the muscuh pec-
tonati. The valves are strong membranous appendages ;
and there are valves also to the commencement of each
artery, as well as between the auricles and ventricles on
each side. The valves to the pulmonary artery and the
aorta are called semilunar ; the arterial trunk being indented
behind each of the three flaps. The indentations are named
the sinus valsalvae. Upon the central portion of each flap
may be felt a little rounded body, known as the corpuscula
arantii. The use of these valves is to prevent the regurgi-
tation of the blood. The aorta never being quite empty,
when the ventricle dilates, there is a tendency to suck back
the amount of blood retained within the vessel ; but the
attempt to enter the ventricle pushes down the semilunar
valves, and shuts out its ingress, the corpusculi arantii
securing the middle space, which would be naturally left
between three semicircles essaying to close a circle. The
valves upon the right and left auriculo ventricular openings
have different names. That on the right consisting of three
flaps, being termed the tricuspid, and that of the left formed
by two flaps, being called the mitral. The heart is fur-
nished wdth blood for its own individual support by the
coronary arteries {Plate VIII. n. Fig 13 . 3), which is re-
turned by the coronary veins. Its nerves are gained from
the cardiac plexus, principally formed by the par vagum
and sympathetic nerves.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACTION OF THE HEART, AS THE
GRAND AGENT IN THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.

The circulatory round of the blood is a vital action per-
formed by the heart. The round of the blood is divided
into the pulmonic and the general circulation.

The pulmonic circulation. — The blood of the two cavas is
poured into the right auricle when that cavity dilates. It
is sent into the right ventricle wJien the right auricle con-
tracts. The right ventricle urges it into the pulmonary
artery [Fig 13 . 2), from w4iich tube it is prevented return-
ing by the valves at the origin of the vessel. By the divi-
sions of the pulmonary artery within the lungs the blood is
carried to the air cells ; and in the capillaries of the vessel
it is changed from venous into arterial blood, or becomes

THE LUNGS. 219

oxygenated. After the blood has been revivified, or made
arterial, it is brought back to the left auricle by the pul-
monary veins. Thus much of the motion of the blood is
termed the pulmonic circulation. The peculiarity of the
pulmonic circulation is that arteries carry venous blood, and
veins are the means of conveyance for arterial blood.

The greater, or general circulation. — We have traced the
blood into the left auricle, into which it is poured upon
the dilatation of that cavity. The left ventricle dilating,
and the left auricle contracting the blood, is urged into the
lower cavity upon the left side. From the left ventricle it
is driven into the aorta ; thence into the right and left
aorta ; so into the various vessels and their capillaries, to
nourish the different parts of the body. Having performed
this office, it is returned from the capillaries by the veins,
and ultimately by the two cavas into the right ventricle of
the heart. It appears that the contraction and dilatation
of the two ventricles take place at the same instant ; and
that at the same time that the blood is driven fi^om the left
ventricle into the aorta, the right ventricle impels it into
the pulmonary artery : and as the period at which the left
auricle receives the pulmonary blood is the same with that
in which the right auricle receives the blood of the cavas ;
so it will be evident that the relaxation of the ventricles
and the contraction of the auricles are simultaneous. These
alternate contractions and dilatations of the heart are called
its systole and diastole. The contraction of the ventricles,
or its systole, pressing the blood into the pulmonary artery
and the aorta ; it follows, therefore, that when the heart
is in a state of contraction, or systole, it is at this period
we feel what is termed their pulsation. Thus it will appear,
that the two nominal circulations form but one direct round
of transmission through the body. The nerves of the heart
are principally the parvagum and sympathetic.

THE LUNGS.

The cavity of the chest is occupied by two soft and
slightly elastic masses, called lungs {Plate VIII. B, C). In
a state of distention they completely fill the parieties of the
thorax, to which their figure is exactly adapted (see Plate
VIII.). The lungs have a distinct division into a right and

220 THE LUNGS.

left mass ; each of which presents deep fissures, partially
dividing its substance into what are called its lobes {Plate
VIII. /, g) . The right and largest lung presents four lobuli
{Plate VIII. h), the left three only. As already described,
the pleura first lines the thoracic cavity, and is then re-
flected over the lungs ; the lungs during life are in constant
motion, enlarging as the air is inspired, and diminishing as
it is expired ; whence we perceive the use of a serous mem-
brane within the chest : a second reflection from each lung
by a union of the membrane, forms an imperfect septum or
incomplete division ; the two lungs towards their centre
partially meeting, and being there only separated by a cel-
lular division. The colour of the lungs varies : in the
colt they present a pink hue ; in the adult horse they are
darker ; and in very old subjects they have a greyish cast
and granulated appearance. Internally they are always
dark in colour and spongy in texture ; being formed from
the ramifications of the bronchiee, which terminate in air-
cells ; and the bloodvessels which accompany them, all being
held together by an intervening cellular substance.

The hronchicB are formed from the bifurcations of the
trachea (Plate VIII. A). They are composed of many
pieces of cartilage, connected together by fine ligament
{Plate VIII.) ; the cartilages becoming almost imperceptible
as the tubes grow more fine, or approach the air-cells. The
right and larger branch of the bronchiee given to the right
lung, quickly divides into three trunks. The left, which is
the longer, from the necessity it has to stretch itself under
the posterior aorta, divides into two principal trunks. The
bronchiae are lined throughout by the mucous membrane
continued from the larynx and trachea, furnishing a moisture
that loads the expired air or breath. The extreme ramifi-
cations of the bronchiae, as has been previously stated, end
in minute air-cells ; over whose surfaces are spread, in ex-
quisite minuteness, the capillary ramifications of the pulmo-
nary arteries, whose trunks accompany the bronchipe to the
lungs side by side. The pulmonic veins receive the blood
from the surface of the cells, whence it is by these last
vessels returned. The lungs are themselves nourished by
their appropriate arteries {FigVd . 5), whose blood is re-
turned by bronchial veins. Their nerves are furnished from

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS. 221

the cervical ganglions, consisting of branches from the sym-
pathetic and the par vagum ; but, except under inflamma-
tion, these organs are not endowed with sensibility. Lym-
phatics are very plentifully distributed over them, and have
been successfully injected.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LUNGS IN RESPIRATION, AND
AERATION OF THE BLOOD.

Respiration. — The foetal colt subsists by juxta-position
between its own organs and the maternal, through the
medium of the placenta ; and it is by these secondary
means that its blood becomes partially aerated, for its
quiescent state would render perfect aeration injurious ; but
as soon as separated from the mother, an awful change
ensues. The foetus has hitherto reposed upon the softest
of all couches, which has been rendered more luxurious by
a temperature of a hundred degrees. Here it has slumbered
into life, when it is all at once awakened by the withdrawal
of the fluid within which it has rested. It is then squeezed,
and punched, and thumped by the violent contractions of
the uterus. It is next forced suddenly into a temperature
of say fifty degrees, or one half of that which it has been
used to ; when all at once the umbilical cord, which has
hitherto supplied it with breath, or enabled it to perform a
function similar to breathing, snaps, and the pains of suffo-
cation are undergone. It is under such circumstances the
little being makes a spasmodic struggle for life ; and the
lungs, hitherto passive, by a natural impulse are roused
into action : the muscles of the chest enlarge the cavity ;
the air rushes in, and the animal now breathes. The dis-
tention of the chest is a very important feature in respira-
tion, and is effected by an increase of several diameters ;
by the elevation of the ribs, and by the agency of the dia-
phragm. This last-named muscle in a state of rest is
convex towards the breast, and concave towards the abdo-
men ; but when its muscular fibres contract, it becomes
plane-like, which forcing backwards the abdominal viscera,
necessarily enlarges the thoracic cavity. The air re-
ceived into the lungs expands their cells, by which also the
blood finds a ready passage through their capillaries. The
lungs thus filled, an uneasy sensation stimulates them to

222 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NATURE

expel their contents ; the diaphragm relaxes, and the ab-
dominal muscles contract, and the contents of the abdomen
are forced forward : the intercostal muscles also cease their
expanding action, and the capacity of the chest is diminished,
by which the air is forced out of it. The necessity there
exists for air or breath to support life causes the muscles to
act once more ; the lungs again expand, and in this manner
respiration is carried on ; both these actions, under ordinary
circumstances, being repeated about eight times per minute.
There is, indeed, a certain proportion, between the action
of the heart and that of respiration ; the pulse throbbing
about 4^ times to every breath inhaled and exhaled. If
more blood be sent to the heart by the stimulus of exercise,
&c., the respiration will be also accelerated : thus, in quick
motion, or great exertion, there is panting or quick breath-
ing ; the air being suddenly expelled, and as quickly in-
spired, that no obstacle may be offered to the passage of the
blood.

We have spoken of the intercostals, the diaphragm, and
abdominal muscles, as the respiratory muscles, and un-
doubtedly they are the chief agents in breathing. There
are, however, auxiliary muscles, w^hich, if they were here
recounted, would be but seldom read ; as the mere list of
names would necessarily be without interest. Suffice it
then to state, that ev^ery muscle, going to or arising from
the ribs, is more or less concerned in respiration.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF THE

BLOOD.

In essential characters, blood is the same in all animals :
it is invariably red in the higher orders, though the intensity
of its hue varies with circumstances ; the principal instance
of which is that afforded betw^een the venous and arterial ;
while it is, in the former, almost purple, it becomes, in the
latter, of a bright scarlet colour. — The specific gravity of the
blood is very differently estimated, it being subject to in-
crease and decrease at different times. Disease and emacia-
tion make it lighter, while in the contrary states, it is found
to be heavier. If water be estimated at 1000, the specific
gravity of blood may be reckoned at 1050; from which it
may, however, be increased to 1120. Venous blood is

AND PROPERTIES OF THE BLOOD. 223

heavier than arterial, as 1052 is to 1049 ; but, as before
observed, these data vary. — The temperature of the blood in
the horse is about 100; and in the ox, 102; but various
circumstances tend to increase or decrease it. Arterial
blood is usually one or two degrees warmer than venous.
Some diseases reduce the heat of the blood, and inflam-
mations are also supposed capable of augmenting it. The
quantity an animal contains, in proportion to his bulk, has
been endeavoured to be ascertained : but the results have
been various. Very fat animals are found usually to have
proportionably less than lean ones ; and in those in a state
of close confinement, the quantity is found to be smaller
than in the wild. A medium sized horse has lost forty-four
pounds. — The chemical property of the blood is an im-
portant subject to the medical student. It appears to be
variously compounded, but is most distinctly separable into
two parts ; the one solid and red, called the clot ; the other
fluid and slightly tinged with yellow, termed the serum ; or,
it is divisible into serum and crassamentum. The process
which separates them is termed coagulation. The coagulum,
or crassamentum, is found to be composed of two parts :
that to which it owes its colour is called its red globules ;
the other component, or that which gives consistence and
adherence to the red particles, is known by the names of
coagulable lymph, or fibrin. The red particles are con-
nected with the strength of organs ; and parts subjected to
the greatest exertions, as muscles, are fullest of them ; for
as muscles are more or less highly coloured, so have they
proved stronger or weaker. From known facts, one would
infer that the red globules are longer in forming than the
other parts. The ^'&rm forms the other portion of the clot,
and appears to be the most important part of the vital fluid.
After the perfect abstraction of the serum and red particles by
maceration, the fibrin will be left white, tough, and fibrous ;
bearing in general aspect, as w^ell as chemical characters,
a close resemblance to muscular fibre when deprived of its
connecting membranes and colouring matter. It appears to
be that part of which all the solids of the body are imme-
diately framed : it forms the callus of bones, and can become
organized whenever extravasated. It spontaneously coagu-
lates, is soluble in alkalies, but insoluble in water, oils, or

224 THE CONTENTS OF THE THORAX.

ardent spirits ; it yields salts by incineration. . Spontaneous
coagulation is not so rapid in the horse as in man, in whom
it is completed in seven or eight minutes ; whereas it com-
monly requires more than twenty hours to set the blood of
the horse.

The fluid basis of the blood is serum : it serves to dilute
it, and it forms about four-sevenths of the whole. It is
slightly saline, and less putrefactive than the coagulum.
It remains fluid in those degrees of heat between 30 and
1 60 degrees Fahrenheit : with a less heat it freezes ; in a
greater it partially coagulates. It appears chemically com-
posed of albumen, gelatin, saline matter, and a considerable
quantity of fluid which drains from it, called the serosity.
Serum appears not only the fluid base of the blood, but it
also dilutes all the secretions : when morbidly increased,
it gives rise to dropsy. The blood, therefore, is con-
sidered as a compounded fluid made up of these several
parts, and which, considered as an aggregate, is the most
essential component of an animal. All parts of the body
are formed of it ; and all parts of the body can be resolved
again into it, by means of the absorbents ; hence we must
conclude that there is a very intimate connexion between
the solids and the fluids ; whence Mr. Hunter, and many
subsequent physiologists, have been led to consider both
as governed by the same laws, and as identified with each
other in living properties.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII.

THE CONTENTS OF THE THORAX.

A, the trachea ; B B, the right lung ; C C, the left lung,
both lungs being deprived of their mediastinums ; D, the
heart ; a, the oesophagus, or gullet ; b, the common carotid
artery, dividing into the right and left carotids ; c, the
right vertebral artery ; d, the recurrent nerve of the right
side ; e, the par vagum and sympathetic nerves of the right
side, journeying in company down the neck. The enlarge-
ment perceptible upon the nerves, marks the situation of
the cervical ganglion on the sympathetic ; ff, the anterior
lobes of the right and left lung ; g g, the posterior lobes of
the right and left lung ; h, the small extra lobe of the right

J

^tf«

ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN. 225

lung. The portion of lung occupies the space between the
inferior mediastinum and the posterior cava ; i i, &c. the first
seven of the costse, or true ribs, divided ; jj, the remaining
ribs ; where the letters are placed would be the posterior
lobes of the lungs ; A:, the cartilages of a few of the ribs, and
of the sternum sawn through to expose the contents of the
chest ; /, the ensiform cartilage of the sternum ; m, the
skin dissected back ; n, the coronary artery of the heart,
which has been deprived of the outer layer of pericardium.

ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

OF THE ABDOMEN GENERALLY.

The external parts of the abdomen are the common
integuments ; the abdominal muscles ; the parts of genera-
tion in the horse, and the mammae in the mare. The
internal parts are the various viscera and their appendages.
The abdominal cavity, when its contents are removed
{Plate IV.), presents an extensive oval vault, bounded
anteriorly by the diaphragm ; posteriorly by the bones of
the pelvis ; superiorly by the vertebrae ; laterally by the ribs
and muscles of the belly ; and interiorly by the abdominal
muscles. This cavity, for the convenience of anatomical
and surgical description, is divided into imaginary compart-
ments or regions.

The epigastric region (centre, right and left) includes the
anterior third of the abdomen. Minor divisions have dis-
tinct names ; and the two sides of the epigastric region are
set down as the right and left hypochondriacs. The central
third of the belly forms the umbilical region : the lateral
parts of the umbilical region are also termed the lumbar
regions. The hypogastric region extends behind an imagi-
nary line, drawn from the anterior spinous process of the
ilium upon one side, to the same bone upon the opposite
side of the animal ; and admits of lateral divisions into the
right and left iliac regions, intersected by a middle portion,
known as the pubic region; consequently the term hypo-
gastric is only general, and the subdivisions are in it entirely
forgotten. The central portion of these regions is divided
by a white line called the linea alba.

The relative situation of the viscera within the regions

Q

226 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

may be thus stated : — the large intestines occupy the in-
ferior of the abdomen, as well as a considerable part of its
sides. The caecum {Plate XL A) rests its large blind
end within the right hypochondriac, behind the origin of the
colon (Plate XL B), lying upon the linea alba. The point
of the ceecuni being curved forward until it reaches the
region mentioned ; and it is usually the first of the intes-
tines to protrude, upon opening the abdomen of the horse.
When the large intestines are removed from the abdomen,
the small intestines {Plate XL D), which in a natural state
lie above and behind the large, come entirely into view ; their
situation is within the two last regions, and partly within
the first division of the abdomen. The stomach {Plate IV.
G) will be found to occupy the left hypochondriac, and
partly the epigastric regions. The liver {Plate IV. J) is
attached to the diaphragm in the epigastric, and two hypo-
chondriac regions, though but a small portion of it is within
the left hypochondriac. The renal capsules and kidneys
{Plate IV. D) occupy the lumbar regions : and the bladder,
with the parts of generation, occupy the pubic and hypo-
gastric regions in the mare and horse.

The peritoneum is a strong dense serous membranous
lining to the abdomen, as well as an investiture and support
to its contents, facilitating their movements as they glide
upon or over one another. It also secretes a vapour, and
thus, like the pleura, favours motion and prevents friction ;
the vapour vanishing, and dryness being present at the com-
mencement of inflammation, then the motion of its contents
is accompanied with intense agony. It may be traced from
its anterior connexion with the diaphragm, whose posterior
or abdominal surface it partially covers, on to the liver.
Without being over minute, it is sufficient to say it passes
over all the contents of the abdomen, from the diaphragm to
the pelvis, covering only a portion of the uterus, the bladder,
and the rectum. In the male it penetrates down the abdo-
minal rings ; invests the spermatic chords and the testicles,
as well as lines the scrotum. Its folds also form ligaments,
as those of the liver ; and act as supports to particular parts,
as the mesentery to the intestines ; within the duplicature
of which run arteries, veins, nerves, absorbents, as well as
are located numerous small glands, through one or more of

OF THE ABDOMEN GENERALLY.

227

which each lacteal passes. Besides the mesentery which
supports the small intestines, there is a mesocolon. Which
latter fulfil the same offices as the mesentery. The omen-
tum consists of a delicate duplicature of peritoneum, de-
rived from its reflections, between which fat is deposited.
Its use is to favour the motion of the various abdominal
contents one upon another ; and it is possessed of very
low vitality, bearing to be cut or torn with impunity. It
arises from the stomach, and is the caul of the butcher.
The peritoneum is possessed of great strength as well as elas-
ticity ; facts well authenticated by the different shapes which
the abdomen assumes when tucked up, and when distended
by flatulent colic.

FIG 22.

THE REFLECTIONS OF PERITONEUM.

LP, The lai'ger cavity of the perito-
neum.
SP, The smaller cavity of the perito-
neum.
D, The diaphragm.
L, The liver.
SS, The stomach and spleen.
C, The colon, supported by MC, the

mesocolon.
/, The ilium, supported by the me-
sentery, formed of two layers of
peritoneum.

R, The rectum, supported by the meso-
colon.

Q, That portion of the rectum which is
covered only by condensed cellular
tissue.

B, The bladder.

0, The omentum, formed by th« union of
the two peritoneums.

P, The oesophagus indicated. The lower
P re])resents the investiture of the
hepatic duct, which goes to the duo-
denum.

By tracing the white lines the student may learn the reflections of pei-itoneum, and
ascertain the existence and precise situations of the lesser and larger cavity.

q2

228 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

THE OMENTUM,

The omentum consists of folds of the peritoneum. One
cavity is spoken of as the large peritoneal sac {Fig 22 . LP) ;
the other as the lesser peritoneal sac {Fig 22 . SP) . The
larger peritoneum floats over part of the anterior surface
of the liver {Fig 22 . L) ; thence upon the posterior surface
of the diaphragm {Fig 22 . D). From this over the abdo-
minal muscles. Afterward upon the anterior portion of
the bladder {Fig 22 . B). Hence to the spine, whence it
descends to form the mesocolon {Fig 22. MC), and to
encircle part of the rectum {Fig 22 . R). Having done
this it proceeds forward, constitutes the mesentery, and
supports the small intestines {Fig 22 . I). After which it
covers part of the colon {Fig 22 . C) ; and then floating
loose in the abdomen constitutes one layer of the omentum
{Fig 22 . 0) which joins the stomach, over a portion of
which this peritoneal layer is reflected {Fig 22 . SS) ; and
then goes to the posterior part of the liver, from which
place it winds round to unite with the peritoneum upon
the anterior portion of the liver, from which point we
first set out. The lesser peritoneal sac is reflected
from the top of the liver {Fig 22 . L) to the crura of the
diaphragm {Fig 22 . D) over the pancreas ; it then descends,
constituting one side of the mesocolon (Fig 22 . MC) , and
covering part of the intestine, floats loose, forming the
inner layer of omentum {Fig 22 . 0) ; whence it joins the
stomach, a part of which, together wdth the spleen, it over-
lays {Fig 22 . SS) ; to be thence reflected to the top of the
liver, the point at which this description commenced.
"Within these duplicatures, adipose nodules are dispersed.
In the ox and in the sheep also, the folds inclose the four
stomachs and part of the duodenum : but in the horse their
extent is small ; besides it has attachments to the great cur-
vature of the stomach, which it does little more than cover,
as well as to a portion of the colon, to which it is also ap-
pended. The horse, therefore, is not subject to epiplocele.
The uses of the omentum are to facilitate the peristaltic
action, or to allow the abdominal viscera to glide over each
other without friction : it likewise serves as a store-house
for fat, against a period of starvation, during which the
adipose matter would be absorbed.

THE STOMACH.. 229

THE STOMACH.

This important alimentary bag is remarkably small in
the horse. Its situation may be described as being imme-
diately behind the liver, its principal portion occupying the
left hypochondrium ; and a smaller part the epigastrium,
with its pyloric (Fig 23 , P) orifice stretched n cross the
spine to the right side. It has two surfaces ; one is pos-
terior, and the other anterior. It has also two openings
(Fig 23 . P.K). The smallest, within the left hypochondriac,
is the termination of the oesophagus, and is called the car-
diac opening (Fig 23 . K) : the larger, toward the right,
is termed the pyloric opening (Fig 23 . P) , and marks the
commencement of the duodenum. Its curvatures are, a
large one, to which the spleen is attached ; which curvature
extends from opening to opening (Fig 23 . from /l to P) ; and

FIG 23.

THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE, LAID OPEN.

CC, Tlie cuticular portion of the lining IC, The cardiac opening to the stomach,
mucous membrane. with the ojsophagus.

W, The villous portion of the mera- P, The pyloric opening from the sto-
brane. mach.

a smaller, formed directly between its openings. The stomach
is formed of three general investing coats. The first or
outer coat is elastic, and of much strength, being formed of
a reflection of peritoneum. The second, or middle coat, is
composed of white muscular tibre, which exists in two
distinct and separate layers. The longitudinal and most

230 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

external appears to be a continuation of the outer one
of the oesophagus, strengthened by additional fibres ;
which, spreading over the lesser curvature, carry them-
selves obliquely around the stomach ; where they conspi-
cuously form themselves into a kind of vortex encircling the
central part of the fundus. The inner layer, and the more
abundant, is not quite circular in its direction, but slightly
oblique, intersecting the course of the longitudinal fibres ;
it is very thick and strong around the oesophageal extre-
mity ; it altogether exhibits so much structural speciality,
as to warrant a conclusion that it was purposely placed
there to prevent the return of the food.

The inner surface of the stomach is composed of mucous
membrane. This membrane, as it extends over the interior
of the viscus, assumes two characters ; the one being hard,
and called cuticular {Fig 23 . C) ; the other, being soft,
having numerous fine projections like the pile of velvet,
and is termed villous {Fig 23 . F) .

The cuticular coat is a prolongation of that which, com-
mencing with the mouth, extends down the oesophagus, is
continued over nearly the first half of the stomach, and
ends abruptly by a sort of sudden termination, which sepa-
rates it very distinctly from the villous coat. From the
pharynx to its termination, the mucous lining membrane is
phcated, to admit of distention : thus the plicse of the
oesophagus are continued into the cardiac orifice, and in a
less regular manner also over the cuticular surface of the
stomach. The cuticular covering is whitish in colour, and
is perforated with secretory mucous openings ; whence a
mucous secretion, necessary to perfect digestion, is poured
out. It is to this coat of the stomach that hots are so fre-
quently found adhering, and which they sometimes pene-
trate ; though these parasites also attack the other parts.

The villous portion commences from the termination of
the cuticular part. It is at once soft, vascular, and ex-
ceedingly fine in its texture : and, when attentively examined,
presents innumerable villi, or projections, which probably are
the minute ramifications of the bloodvessels, by which the
solvent gastric fluid is secreted. The surface of the villous
coat is likewise furnished with waving folds, by which it
suffers no injurious pressure when the stomach is filled ; but

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 231

can easily accommodate itself to the elasticity of the other
investitures. The villous rugee diminish towards the duo-
denum ; and at the pylorus they unite with some muscular
fibres to form a valvular apparatus, which prevents the
return of the food. The villous portion of the stomach
secretes the gastric juice, and within it chymification is
performed ; a fact which is proved by ruminants, having
stomachs wholly cuticular, in which the digestive process
does not go forward ; and by many animals having entirely
villous stomachs, in all of which perfect digestion is accom-
plished.

The stomach, as a secreting organ, is very plentifully
supplied with blood from gastric, splenic, and hepatic
trunks ; which, with the exception of their main branches,
proceed in a tortuous direction, to avoid distending the
organ ; and, in accordance with the same end, the gastric
veins w^hich return the blood possess no valves to impede
its progress towards the vena portse. The nerves are sup-
plied by means of the par vagum, or eighth pair, and like-
wise from the sympathetic nerve, or ganglionic system.
The par vagum endowing it with the necessary feeling, the
sympathetic giving to it organic life.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION.

Digestion may be characterized as that power whereby
substances wdiich are received into an animal body lose their
own properties, and become endowed with those necessary
to support the constitution of the creature that imbibes
them. To restore the tone of parts, rest is required ; and
to repair waste, food becomes necessary ; while hunger
and thirst stimulate animals to take in solid and fluid
aliments. That the stomach is influenced by the blind
longings of inorganic life is proved by the fact, that the
mere mechanical distention of a draught of w^ater w^ill, for a
time, satisfy the sensation of hunger ; but simple distention,
not satisfying an instinctive desire, instead of affording relief,
it only adds to the general prostration : it is probably by its
distending properties that food taken partly invigorates long
before perfect chylification has taken place. This fact is how-
ever better established by no man having absolute power to
quicken or delay his desire for nourishment. The mere

232 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

want of food does not dissipate immediately the strength ;
but the body can for some space support itself, and desire,
though felt before, be actually forgotten ; thus the inani-
tion of a hunter long employed in reaching a distant
cover is no bar to his after-exertions in the chase. The
moment he hears the well-known sound, he receives a
temporary supply of nervous energy ; which acting on his
irritability, produces renewed muscular exertions : but the
chase over, a double prostration is the consequence ; for the
nervous impulse being expended, it often happens that the
stomach is sympathetic with the general frame, and the
horse becomes " too tired to eat."

Thirst differs from hunger principally by its impelling us
to receive liquids instead of solids. The instinct, which is
independent of reason and superior to the will, calls for
fluids often not required for repair : it is true perspiration
will produce thirst ; and that diuretics will do the same,
but these are artiflcial not natural causes. Drink is also
instinctively sought for no cause save that of fickle appetite,
induced by long indulgence, which cannot be reckoned
among life's necessities. Stimulated, therefore, by the
sensations of hunger and thirst, animals seek for matters to
which they are instinctively directed by their senses of smell
and taste.

The mastication, insalivation, and deglutition of the food
have already been noticed. To the saliva, however, by no
means is usually given its full merit as an important agent
in the digestive process. When we consider the quantity
secreted, the chemical nature of the fluid, its remarkable
affinity for oxygen, and that a complete mastication inva-
riably produces a direct change in the qualities of the food,
it would be most unphilosophical to regard it as a mere
diluent. The masticated aliments received into the stomach
become subjected to the further action of the gastric fluid,
the produce of the secreting surface of the villous division
of the stomach. The true gastric juice is possessed of a
solvent power, which is shown in a remarkable manner by
the food being dissolved by its action.

The ordinary process is after this fashion with the horse.
The masticated vegetable matter is first deposited in the
cuticular cavity of the stomach ; whence it is propelled for-

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 233

ward by muscular contractions of the organ, from left to
right, towards the pylorus ; being, however, so turned and
contorted in its passage, that every portion of the insali-
vated mass becomes first macerated with the cuticular
secretion, and then receive the solvent gastric juice. It is
thus that a mass of matter undergoes the chymifying pro-
cess within the stomach, after which it is hurried onward
to be converted into chyle, within the intestines.

Vomition. — A structural peculiarity in the stomach of
the horse remains to be noticed ; by which, in all ordinary
cases, the animal is denied the power of vomition. The
whole of the alimentary canal in that animal exhibits
uniformity of intention, unfavourable to vomition. The
soft palate closes all return of the contents of the stomach
by the mouth ; and consequently if vomition were to occur,
the rejected mass must come out by the nostrils. The next
structural impediment may be observed in the oesophagus ;
which, by having a different arrangement of its muscular
fibres, to that of ruminants, evidently proves that regurgita-
tion forms no part of the natural economy of the horse. The
obliquity of its insertion, the number, strength, and direc-
tion of its fleshy layers, must form a sufficient bar to all
ordinary tendency of the aliments to return. And the
superior resistance offered by the greater volume of mus-
cular fibre around the cardiac extremity, must, in all cases,
effectually prevent it. The dog and cat, which vomit
rather freely, have the muscular fibre much the thickest at
the pyloric orifice. Were the equine and the canine sto-
machs handed to a person perfectly ignorant of anatomy
or physiological discussion, his sense of touch would be
sufficient to decide the matter, so very marked and obvious
is the difference. Added to the above reasons, though not
of much force, is the circumstance of the horse's stomach
being situated far from the abdominal muscles ; this pre-
vents these last from directly acting upon the digestive
bag in that animal, but certainly cannot prevent their action
being felt through the pressure of surrounding parts.

234 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

THE INTESTINES.

The remainder of the ahmentary canal is continued from
the pyloric orifice of the stomach to the anus ; forming a
long tube, whose varying dimensions have occasioned it to
be divided into the large and small intestines, botli of which
are very well marked in the horse (see Plate IX. ; compare
A, B, C with jD). The length of the tract ranges between
twenty-seven and thirty yards ; of which proportions the
small intestines occupy from twenty to twenty- two yards,
and the large from seven to eight. It is not easy to give a
determinate place to the intestines, either individually or
generally ; the large, however, may be said to occupy all
the anterior and inferior portions of the abdomen ; and the
small to range above in the space not already occupied ;
both occasionally shifting their positions by reason of the
peristaltic motion. They are, however, greatly prevented
from an unnatural displacement, by membranous produc-
tions of the peritoneum ; which forms bands, that at dif-
ferent parts serve to fix portions of the intestines. The
first intestinal coat is derived from the peritoneum, which
receives the tube between its layers ; at once protecting it,
and affording a medium for the transmission of its vessels,
and a moistened surface whereupon to move. The second,
or muscular coat, presents organic muscular fibres ; by
the contraction of which the peristaltic action is per-
formed, the longitudinal slightly shortening them, and the
circular diminishing their diameter. Of these two coats of
muscular fibre, the circular is much the most powerful, as
is proved by the intestines always being found contracted
in cases of violent death. The inner tunic of the intestinal
canal is mucous or villous, and is very vascular and sensi-
tive ; its villi presenting an increased surface for the mucous
secretion, as well as more space for the ramification of the
terminations of the capillaries and lacteals : but it presents
no valvulpe conniventes, as in the human, their place being
supplied by the increased length of the tract.

The duodenum {Plate IV. H), the first portion of the
small intestines, commences from the pyloric orifice of the
stomach. It hangs loose and pendulous upon the right
side, being attached to the concave surface of the liver ;

THE INTESTINES.

235

from which making a turn, it becomes fixed to the ver-
tebree, and then takes the name of jejunum; but as in this
course its length is nearer twenty inches than twelve, it is
evident that duodenum is an improper term for it in the
horse. It is larger in circumference than the other small
intestines, and more vascular ; but it is peculiarly remark-
able for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts obliquely
penetrating it, which they sometimes do by one common
orifice, but often by distinct ones, about five inches from the
commencement of the intestine. The jejunum gains its name
from being commonly found empty, and is attached :o the
mesentery, which follows its circumvolutions ; the line of
division between it and the ihum is only imaginar/. A
portion of the ilium occupies part of the ihac region, whence
it derives its name : it presents no peculiarities of structure ;
but its circumvolutions are all connected by the fclds of
the mesentery : it terminates in the csecum.

The large intestines differ widely from the small in struc-
ture and appearance as well as in size ; having thei? large
volume puckered up by muscular bands into distinct com-
partments which lodge the alimentary contents, and pre-
vent their too hasty egress. The caecum, or bUnd gut as it
is called, is the first of them. In this the ilium terminates,
protruding itself some way within the cavity, which pre-
vents the return of the contents of the csecum. From ihis
locality part of the csecum projects forward nearly tlree
feet, and chiefly reposes upon the umbilical portion of the
linea alba. It usually approximates to the right side of the
abdomen, and appears immediately on opening the perto-
neum. It interposes between the ilium and the coon,
dividing one intestine from the other. The head, or part
of tlie gut, within wdiich the ilium terminates, and the cdon
takes its rise, is commonly near to the diaphragm md
liver. The horse has no appendix vermiformis. Throigh
the peritoneal covering, we observe three or four muscilar
longitudinal bands, reaching from its extremity along the
outer side of the intestine ; between these bands the c«ats
of the intestine are plaited up, and form cavities caled
cells. From this gut being frequently found with a an-
siderable quantity of water in it, it has been conjecturec to
be a receptacle for fluid, and fluid only; but it is lot

236 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

always furnished with water, for soHd ingesta as well as
fluid is found within it.

The colon originates from the csecum in the right hypo-
chondriac, whence it reaches across the abdomen into the
left iliac ; though this end floating free has no absolutely
fixed position. Having reached the left side it makes its
sigmoid flexure, or bends upon itself to proceed back again,
and so terminate in the right hypochondriac, where the
continuation of the intestine assumes the name of the rec-
tum. It is connected one part to the other, that is, from
the csecum to the sigmoid flexure ; but it is perfectly free
at its other side, so that without destroying the integrity of
the pai'ts, the colon might trail upon the ground. It is of
different dimensions; thus after it has commenced it
enlargss, and towards its termination it takes on its greatest
magnitude, and at this place commonly loses its muscular
bands.

The rectum is the continuation of the colon, and passes
backwards under the lumbar region to the anus. Its sub-
stance is thicker than that of the other intestines ; and
has a longitudinal muscular band upon its either side ; by
these it is puckered into cell-like depressions, to prevent a
too frequent expulsion of the faeces. The rectum is rather
loosely suspended from the spine and sacrum by a detachment
of :he peritoneum, which is here called mesocolon: yet
the peritoneum does not invest the whole of the rectum, but
lea\es it as it approaches its termination ; the place of the
pertoneum being supplied by cellular membrane. The
anu\ is opened by the force of the peristaltic motion, and is
shul by a muscular band around the extremity of the gut,
calhd the sphincter ani.

%e mesentery and mesocolon. — These great folds of
menbrane are simply prolongations of the peritoneum,
witlin the turn of which the intestines are enclosed : these
inveting folds, uniting at the superior part, form appa-
rently a single membrane, called mesentery, and which con-
seqiently has two smooth surfaces. Such peritoneal pro-
longations are very useful ; for they not only invest the
intetines, and give them their outer covering, but they in
some measure keep them within their situations, and fur-
nisl a medium through which they receive their blood-

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTESTINES. 237

vessels and nerves : the lacteals and numerous globate
glands are also situated within these membranous folds.
The origin of these folds of peritoneum is from the spme,
and is of small extent ; but it is so fi-amed, that, as it pro-
ceeds, it expands, and is enabled to follow the whole of the
intestines through their course ; branching out like a fan,
from its small beginning at the duodenum to its ample
termination at the small intestines.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTESTINES AND SOME OF THE

VISCERA.

The intestinal canal receives the pulpy mass of the chyme
in a partial state of digestion ; but this becoming mixed in
the duodenum with the pancreatic and the biUary fluids ;
further changes take place in it : chyhfication is by these
accessions more perfectly advanced, and the chyle more
completely animalized. The mass is continually propelled
onward by the creeping muscular contractions of the intes-
tinal tract, called their peristaltic motion. This motion is
not altogether uniform, either in direction or duration ; on
the contrary, it sometimes acts inversely ; occasionally it
halts altogether, and often is irregularly agitated. That
this propelling force may not huriy the contents too fast, a
cellular arrangement exists, evidently intended to delay the
chylous mass within the intestines till the whole of its nutri-
tive parts are taken up. The powers of the horse requiring
a very complete chyhfication, he is furnished with a long
and large alimentary tract. The chyle is separated from
the mass by the agency of the lacteals ; which vessels
directing their course through the mesentery, deposit their
contents in the chylous receptacle, by which it is conveyed
to the jugular or axillary vein, and mingled with the blood.
The intestines own a high degree of irritability, which in
their natural state produces vital phenomena ; and in their
deranged state causes some of the most fatal diseases. The
stimuli of the intestines are various ; food is the most ordi-
nary, and it is generally supposed to have its activity in-
creased by the biliary secretion. Exercise is also a natural
stimulus. The apphcation of particular substances u'ritates
them greatly, and are thence called purges.

238 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

THE LIVER.

The liver (Plate IV. J) is so bulky and ponderous a mass,
that there seems great wisdom in placing it in the centre of
the body. Anatomically its larger part is situated in the
right hypochondrium ; a smaller portion in the left (see Plate
ly.), and its centre in the epigastrium; in circumference
it is between two and two and a half feet ; thick towards the
middle, but thinner at the edges. It is divided into two
large and several smaller lobes ; which are again further sub-
divided by indentations, the principal of which separates the
two large lobes, and is called the great fissure : within this
may be seen the remains of the foetal umbilical vein ; while
a smaller indentation, seen about the centre of the concave
surface, forms an opening for the portse. By its convex
surface the liver is attached to the diaphragm by cellular
tissue and peritoneum, which last being reflected over it,
sustains it. Numerous lymphatics run over its surface ; and
the bloodvessels pass within its sheath called Glisson's
capsule. Ghsson's capsule is a thin membrane, formed of
white fibrous tissue, and situated immediately beneath the
peritoneum. The principal bloodvessels of the hver are the
vena portee, which carries to the gland the venous blood
fi'om the intestines; vena hepatica, and arteria hepatica,
which last is concerned directly in the nourishment of the
liver. Its nerves are derived from the hepatic ganglion,
which is principally composed by branches derived from
the sympathetic and par vagum.

Vena porta hepaticce .—The circulation of the venous
blood in the liver presents a remarkable speciality, as may
be gained by what follows. The numerous veins of the in-
testines all terminate in one common trunk, which enters
the liver as the vena portse. This venous trunk, after it
has pierced the liver, branches ofl" once more in every direc-
tion to be ramified throughout the substance of the gland ;
it necessarily performs the office of an artery, being dis-
tributed to the liver for secretion. The blood being circu-
lated through the substance of this viscus, and acted on
within it, is poured from the terminations of the vena portce
and hepatic artery, into the hepatic veins, which empty their
contents into the posterior cava by numerous branches.

THE PANCREAS. 239

Hepatic duct. — In the glandular capillaries some great
change goes on, by which a fluid substance is separated
from the blood. The biliary pores appear to end in small
tubes, which unite to form the hepatic duct ; or, in anato-
mical language, the pori biliari end in the tubuli biliari,
which, by their union, form the ductus hepaticus. As it
parts from the liver, it accompanies the hepatic artery, and
passing below the vena portarum, it terminates in the duo-
denum, about five inches from the pylorus. The liver of
the horse, has no gall-bladder ; whence the bile has been
thought to be constantly flowing into the small intestines ;
when the animal lives off" grass, and is feeding the major
portion of his time, it may be all very well to suppose the
constant supply of food requires a constant supply of the
hepatic juice ; but what becomes of this theory of a con-
tinuous flow with the horse that is manger-fed, with whom
eating is a very brief affair ; may not the bile be stimulated
by the motion of the stomach and intestines, as the saliva
is by that of the jaws ; and when food is not present either
not be secreted or stored up within the biliary ducts, and
within the dilatation commonly observed near to the termi-
nation of the main duct ? The foregoing is merely suggested,
not by any means insisted upon.

THE PANCREAS.

The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, of a very irregular
figure, lengthened out into three processes, which extend it
across the spine, between the stomach and left kidney. Its
superior surface is applied to the roof of the abdomen, and
its inferior to the great curvature of the stomach ; it is also
connected with the omentum, liver, spleen, and duodenum.
From its substance small tubuli collect into one common
duct, which penetrates the duodenum, sometimes imme-
diately wath, and sometimes distinct from, the biliary duct.
Its use has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but it is
very like a salivary gland in structure ; in which particular
it also resembles the thymus gland, butchers being in the
habit of selling this last-named gland and the pancreas, in-
discriminately, as sweetbreads.

240 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

THE SPLEEN.

The spleen, or milt, is a viscus of a soft structure, but
without an excretory duct ; its colour is a reddish brown,
but both its hue and its size are variable. In shape it
resembles an acute triangle. Its texture is spongy, and
consists of erectile tissue ; it is so tender, that were it not
for its peritoneal covering, it would be liable to be torn by
the slightest cause. By its upper convex surface it is at-
tached to the left extremity of the stomach : inferiorly it
rests on the abdominal viscera. It is plentifully supplied
with bloodvessels, absorbents, and nerves ; particularly the
two former : but its use is altogether conjectural. It is
seldom idiopathically inflamed, although so eminently vas-
cular ; but its erectile tissue has subjected it to rupture, and
to a species of scirrhous enlargement : it has also been
found ossified to a considerable extent.

THE RENAL CAPSULES.

These are two irregularly-shaped bodies, situated each
in front of a kidney. Their size in the young subject is
very considerable, but lessens remarkably as age advances ;
internally they seem composed of two substances, one a
dirty yellow-coloured compact vascular part ; another more
pallid, less in quantity and more spongy in texture, from
which in the young colt a fluid may be pressed out. They
derive their blood generally from the emulgents, and occa-
sionally from the aorta ; their nerves are gained from the
renal plexus, but their functional purpose is wholly un-
known.

THE KIDNEYS.

The kidneys are two glandular bodies, situated in the
dorsal and the lumbar regions, at the superior part of the
abdomen ; the right being generally the most anterior ; the
left being pressed backward by the spleen. The kidney
bean, so named after these parts, serves to give a pretty
exact idea of their shape ; but which is by no means uni-
form in every horse. The central notch offers an entrance
to their vessels, and an outlet to their veins and ducts. They
are sustained in their situation by cellular investiture by their

THE KIDNEYS. 241

vessels, and by the peritoneum, which passes over their in-
ferior surface, or over the fat which may cover them. Tiie
kidneys lay upon the top of the peritoneum, and conse-
quently are without the abdominal sac ; they are conglome-
rate glands ; and when cut into present two distinct portions.
The cortical or outer part is of a dull dark red, of a granular
structure, which dips into the other substance ; the cortical
mass may be regarded as the convolutions of the emulgent
capillaries, around the minute terminations of the urinary
ducts. The second substance, called the medullary part, is
lighter in colour than the last, and presents a vast number
of radiating tubes, which collect into minute cones or
papillfE. These papillee are clothed by a mucous membrane,
which is cup-shaped, and continuous with the lining mem-
brane of the tubes ; each is called a calyx. The calices point
into canals, or grooves, continuous with the pelvis of the
kidney, and named the infundibula. The pelvis, into which
the infundibula lead, is nothing more than an enlargement
at the beginning of the ureters, situated without the kidney.
The urine then is secreted from the capillaries of the emul-
gent arteries, coiled round the minute ends of the renal
ducts ; whence it passes into the tubuli uriniferi, or tubular
portion of the kidneys, to flow towards the calices ; from
which it falls into the infundibula. By the infundibula it is
passed to the pelvis, thus into the ureters, and so into the
bladder. The arteries of the kidneys are so large as to be
supposed to carry one-eighth of the whole blood of the body
(see Plate IV. E) to these comparatively small organs.
The large trunks of the arteries emerge from the aorta,
immediately behind the anterior mesenteric artery {Fig
13 ./) ; the left is much shorter than the right, from the
inclination of the aorta to that side (Plate YV . A) ; each
trunk penetrating its kidney by two or three divisions (Fig
13 ./). The emulgent veins {Plate IV. F) arise from the
capillaries of the artery, and follow the direction of that
vessel. The nerves of the kidney are furnished from the renal
plexus, formed by the par vagum and sympathetic nerves ;
its lymphatics are to be seen accompanying the veins.

The ureter {Plate IV. C) passes out at the posterior
part of its appropriate kidney, is continued backwards,
inclining towards the bladder ; when, becoming connected

R

242 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

with the hgamentum latum, it travels with it to the
upper part of the bladder ; and finally inserts itself at
some distance from the other within that viscus, piercing
the coats obliquely, and running between them for a short
distance ; this mode of entrance performing the office of a
genuine valve.

THE BLADDER.

This is a membranous and muscular sac of a pyriform
shape under distention, in which state it stretches beyond
the pubis, and may be then felt in the belly. It will con-
tain several quarts of urine, but is usually stimulated to
an early evacuation. It is surmounted by the rectum in
the horse, and the vagina in the mare. The bladder is
attached to the parietes of the pelvis by the peritoneum,
which forms its lateral ligaments ; the peritoneum being
superiorly reflected from the bladder over a part of male
rectum and female vagina. The bladder has three tunics :
the outer consists partly of peritoneum, which is to be seen
only over its fundus and part of its body ; the other portion
being covered by dense cellular tissue. The middle is the
muscular coat, whose fibres, longitudinal and oblique, adapt
it for uniform and complete contraction. The internal
lining membrane is villous, from the vascular surface of
which a mucus is secreted, to defend the organ from the
irritation of the urine. At its posterior part the bladder is
obliquely pierced by the ureters in the manner stated.
The neck of the bladder, which is surrounded by yellow
elastic tissue, terminates in the urethra. The arteries of
the bladder are derived from the minute branches given off"
by the internal iliacs ; its venal trunks return their blood
into the internal iliac veins ; and the nerves are given from
the sacral and abdominal plexuses.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

Urine may be considered as a separation from the blood
of its fluid part ; the separating office being effected by
the agency of the kidneys ; which organs therefore appear
united in function with the skin, and with the exhalant
bronchial surface, in aflfording outlets to the superfluity of
the vascular system. But of these three excretions, that

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 243

of the urine is the most compound, holding in suspension,
in addition to its other chemical constituents, a remark-
able one, termed urea. Urine in colour is yellow, of a
lighter or deeper tint ; at times it is transparent ; at
others turbid in the extreme ; its odour is peculiar, some-
times offensive : and its specific gravity is somewhat greater
than that of water. The phenomena attending the forma-
tion and ejection of urine are numerous and important:
one of the most interesting of these is the rapidity of its
formation after liquid aliments have been received; and
the very early detection in the urine of matters taken into
the stomach. The regularity of the urinary secretion is a
notable phenomenon ; it is always going on, as well when
sleeping as when waking. The complete distention of the
bladder occasions an instinctive attempt at evacuation ; but
the act remains partly under the influence of the will, and
is much regulated by habit. The expulsion of the urine
from the bladder is thus accounted for —

The neck of the bladder is composed of yellow elastic
tissue. To this the long order of muscular fibres are attached.
Distention excites the muscular fibres, which are of the white
or organic kind, into action; the bladder having urine
within it, more or less, according to its irritability, when
the muscular fibres contract. The obUque diminish the
diameter of the organ; while the longitudinal muscle,
attached to the neck, pulls up the fundus near to the open-
ing ; and at the same time drags the elastic tissue, which is
the natural cork to the organ and would of itself remain
firmly closed, violently apart. The urine thus released, and
forced out by the energetic contraction of its muscles,
enters the urethra, and thence is discharged upon the
ground.

The oblique entrance of the ureters into the bladder,
these ducts passing for some distance between the layers of
muscular fibre before they enter into the organ, acts in both
directions as a perfect valve. When the bladder is relaxed
there can be no pressure upon its sides, therefore the urine
enters freely, and has no disposition to return ; but so soon
as the bladder is full, or becomes distended, pressure is
made upon its sides, and thus the further entrance of urine
is prevented ; while the perfect closure of the orifice effec-

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244 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

tually stays the fluid from returning upon the kidneys.
Less urine is formed in summer than winter; for when
perspiration has robbed the blood of its watery particles so
little urine is passed, as to have led to a supposition that a
dangerous obstruction existed. It is also to be observed,
that, in our present state of veterinary knowledge, we are
not able to obtain many pathognomonic hints from the
various modifications of urine. It is true that, when puru-
lent, we are aware that ulceration is present in some of the
passages ; and when ropy, that mucous abrasion exists in
the same. When the urine is tinged with blood, w^e attri-
bute it to lesion of the minute vascular texture of the kid-
neys ; and that this does not more often happen is much
to be w^ondered at ; recollecting that these organs are situated
immediately within the sphere of action of the psoee muscles,
whose contractions, under heavy weights, must be con-
tinually exposing them to pressure. No observations will
be made on the components of sequine urine; but little
wonder will be felt on learning that the animal is occa-
sionally the subject of urinary calculi.

THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.

The parts in the male are most of them external; on
the contrary, in the female, they are principally internal ;
but in both they are connected with the urinary organs, by
which one structure is made to answer two purposes. —
The scrotum, containing the testicles, is formed by the
integuments of the abdomen : outwardly it is smooth, thin,
and scantily supplied with hairs; it is next to the skin
enveloped by cellular substance, and then by a muscular
layer, called dartos, while its substance is divided by a
septum, marked by a raplie or external Hne of division
that completely separates the scrotal cavities.

The testicles occupy the scrotum, and are two glan-
dular bodies, which are first formed within the abdomen.
Internally it is lined by a reflection of peritoneum derived
from the abdomen, and called the tunica vaginalis reflexa,
which as life progresses is drawn into the scrotum. The
coverings of the testicle are, first, a complete external one
of peritoneum, which is continued up the cord, and is
called the tunica vaginahs; then a partial one from the

THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 245

cremaster, which is no more than a shp given off by the
internal obUque abdominal muscle. The tunica albu-
ginea is the first true testicular coat, being of a white
fibrous or tendinous nature, and enclosing the gland as
Ghsson's capsule does the liver. In the centre is situated,
like to the middle pith of an orange, a portion of fibrous
texture called the mediastinum testes ; from which proceed
certain layers dividing the gland into separate portions, like
to the quarters of the fruit just alluded to. These divisions
run from the centre towards the internal surface of the
tunica albuginea. The third coat of the testes is a tunica
vasculorum, being the nutrient tunic of the gland from which
vessels run into each of the divisions. Within the divisions
the contents are the same, so that the description of one
will serve for all. These spaces are filled with the convo-
lutions of the extreme ends of the duct, within which the
semen is secreted, and which are called lobules. The
upper portions of these convolutions become imperfectly
straight, and are spoken of as the vasa recta. The vasa
recta communicate with tubes which run at right angles,
but are still very minute. These last tubes are known as
the rete testes, which ultimately become external, and
then assume the name of the vasa efferentia. The vasa
efferentia end in numerous convolutions ; and in that
form constitute the epididymis, which at length leads to
the vas deferens. The testicle is white, firm, and externally
smooth.

The vasa deferens, or excretory duct of the testes, joins the
spermatic cord, and proceeding with it into the pelvis, by
means of the abdominal rings, finally gains the lateral and
superior surface of the bladder, to terminate in the urethra,
either alongside or within the opening of the seminal vesicle.
The vesicula seminales are situated one on each side of the
neck of the bladder, immediately behind and contiguous to
the termination of the vas deferens : these membranous
sacs, which contain a peculiar mucous secretion, have large
excretory ducts, that terminate also in the urethra, close to
the opening of the vas deferens. The prostate glands are
irregular in their number: comparative anatomists quote,
sonfe two, some three, and others four prostatse, so inde-
terminate are their appearances. The lesser prostates,
or Cowper's glands, are two smaller glandular bodies,

246 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

of the size and shape of a chestnut, situated near
the greater, and almost lying upon the spines of the
ischium. Both the larger and lesser prostates open by
numerous outlets into the urethra. There is no doubt
whatever that the secretions of all the parts we have just
named are assistants to the seminal fluid, but in what
degree or in what manner is not known.

The spermatic cord consists of a covering of peritoneum,
the vas deferens, the cremaster muscle, arteries, veins,
nerves, absorbents, cellular tissue, and a slight fibrous coat
beneath the peritoneum, continuous with the tunica albu-
ginea testes. It begins at the internal abdominal ring,
passes through the inguinal canal, emerges through the
external abdominal ring, and is inserted into the posterior
part of the testicle.

The penis is a firm body, two feet in length. The sheath,
which incloses it from view, is formed of the common in-
teguments, continued loosely from the scrotum to the
umbilicus, and marked in the middle during this course
by a raphe ; forming altogether a very extended envelope.
The outer fold of the sheath owes its bulk to a ring of
ligamentous substance, which is useful in keeping the
orifice open and firm : from this the reflected integuments
become thinner and more vascular, and are again reflected
over the glans penis, forming its prepuce. The sub-
stance of the penis is chiefly composed of two portions :
each of which are alike in structure, both being formed of
erectile tissue. The last tissue is flaccid, and occupies little
space when not erected ; but when the animal is under
sexual excitement, it becomes distended with venous
blood, and is then much increased in bulk, and very firm.
One of these bodies occupies the inferior portion of the
penis, or is situated beneath the urethra ; the other fills a
place superior to the urethra, or on the top of the organ.
At the extremity there is a bulb which appears distinct, but
which anatomy proves to be continuous with the lower
portion of erectile tissue, and which altogether is called the
corpus spungiosum. The upper division is named the
corpus cavernosum.

The urethra is the canal, which is continued through the
body of the penis from the bladder to the point of the
organ. That portion encircled by the two prostate glands

THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 247

is termed the prostatic part of the urethra ; after leaving the
prostates, till it reaches the corpus spungiosum and caver-
nosum, it is known as the membranous portion of the
urethra ; all the remaining part being called the muscular
urethra. The reason of this last name is, because under
this last division of the duct runs a well-marked muscle,
attached to the corpus cavernosum upon either side, and
passing beneath, and in close connexion with, the urethra.
The name of this muscle is the " accelerator urin<^ ;" its use
being to speed the passage of any fluid through the duct.
The most posterior parts of the corpus cavernosum are
spoken of as its crura, to which, proceeding from the lower
surface of the points of the ischium, come two muscles to be
inserted, called the erectores, and their purpose is obvious,
being implied in their name. The urethra, underneath the
crura, is sometimes termed the bulbous portion, because in
this particular place it is largest.

The urethra throughout its course is highly sensitive and
vascular. It is a mucous membrane, and by its plentiful
secretion is protected from the effects of the urine ; along
its course are several slight prominences, which lead to small
mucous glands ; these prominences are called lacunae, being
the mouths to ducts. The external orifice of the urethra
is known as the meatus urinarius. The arteries of the penis
spring chiefly from the pudic, the artery of bulb, and the
pudendal ; the veins seem to have no settled name. The
nerves arise from the lumbar, and from the sacral plexuses.

THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.

The perceptible parts of generation in the mare consist of
the labia majora or labia ; the labia minora or vulva : the
clitoris and the meatus urinarius, to which some add the
beginning of the vagina ; but as we prefer to describe parts
as a whole, we omit the last structure.

The genital opening of the mare is surrounded by two full
folds of projecting substance, without hairs, but covered by
a dark coloured skin. These are the labia, or labia majora,
and they are principally composed of fat and loose cellular
tissue ; within these are situated another fold, but of a
much more moist and vascular appearance. The last are
the labia minora, or vulva, and are much thinner and more

R 4 -*-

248 ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.

delicate than the former. They are joined together, that
is, the vulva of one side of the hody is united to the vulva
of the other hy what are termed commissures, the interior
of which changes its appearance after repeated foldings.
The vulva extend downwards, and surround the clitoris ;
and within the vulva, and the part last named, is to be dis-
covered another fold of membrane called the nymphse.
The two last are studded W'ith mucous glands.

The clitoris is a small projecting body at the bottom of
the vulva, surrounded by the nymphee. The clitoris con-
sists of erectile tissue, a thin layer of which also extends
through the vulva and the nymphse, being prolonged up the
posterior chamber of the vagina. The clitoris is likewise
provided with muscles attached to the points of the ischium,
and called the erectores clitoris. A sphincter muscle is also
to be found within tlie substance of the labia, wdiich muscle
is known by the title of the sphincter vagiuce.

The vagina is a canal running from the vulva to the neck
of the uterus : it lies between the bladder and the rectum.
Near to the middle of the canal the internal lining mem-
brane is constringed ; and thus the vagina is divided into
two chambers. A posterior or external, which is the most
vascular, and the sides of which are covered by erectile
tissue ; and an anterior or internal, wdiich leads to the neck
of the uterus. Within the vagina, upon the floor of the
canal, and just past the vulva, is to be felt by the inserted
finger a small projecting fold of membrane, w^iich marks
the entrance to the short urethra of the female. The
erectile tissue of the vagina is covered externally by a sub-
stance resembling the dartos in the male. The mucous
lining membrane is thrown into various folds, which seem
in some subjects to proceed in no positive direction.

The uterus is a rounded body, having two horns or
wings ; one projecting forwards and upwards from either
side ; they are lined internally with mucous membrane, which
is thrown into various folds. Next to this is a thick layer
of white muscular fibre ; and beyond this is a cellular layer,
which is thin, and connects the organ to the peritoneum,
which forms its last covering.

At the extremity of the horns, or wrings, are two ducts
called the Fallopian tubes. They are small when they spring

THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 249

from the uterus, but much larger at their free extremities ;
being there somewhat after the resemblance of the end of
a French horn, which they still further resemble from being
convoluted. The horn-like extremity is furnished with a-
fringe called the morsus diaboli, one portion of which is
attached to the ovaries, the rest being free. The other
pieces of this fringe are in violent motion during the act,
and therefore catch the ovum as it falls from the ovaries,
and convey it to the tubes. The internal lining membrane
of the tubes is continuous with the mucous membrane of
the uterus, and is thrown into longitudinal folds, wdiich
suggests it is liable to distention. The next coat of the
tubes is continuous with the muscular coat of the uterus,
which invites inquiry as to why a muscle was placed into this
position if not to force something downward ? They are
situated within the folds of peritoneum which form the
broad ligaments of the uterus, and wherefore we are prompted
to ask is the outer investiture elastic, if not to permit the
passage of some substance ? The opening of the free end
of the Fallopian tubes into the cavity of the abdomen, is the
only known instance of a mucous membrane leading into a
serous sac.

The ovaries, like the testes, have three coats ; an outer
one of peritoneum ; a middle one of white fibrous tissue ; and
an internal one which is vascular. They also somewhat
resemble the testes in shape, but here all similitude ceases.
Their interior is cellular. Within the cells are numerous
seeds of future eggs, which as they approach the surface
become matured ; and when the act is being performed burst
the coats of the ovary, and are carried down the Fallopian
tubes. Wherever an ovum has escaped a corpus luteum
is established, wdiich consists of a yellow spongy mass,
filling an empty space where once existed the ovum. The
arteries of the female parts lately described are those named
the spermatic, the uterine, the pudic, and the bulb. The
veins are the pudendal, the spermatic, and the uterine.

The nerves are derived from the lumbar and the sacral
plexuses.

Tlie mammary gland. — This is placed in front of, and
inclining to between, the hind legs. It consists of two
quarters in the mare, each of which are composed of a bag

250 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

and teat. The teat has a coating of muscular substance
resembling the dartos in its nature ; while the main sub-
stance of the bag is made up of vessels for supplying blood,
and carrying it away again ; or of tubes or ducts for
carrying off the secretion. The ducts are lined by mucous
membrane reflected inward, and continuous with the integu-
ment ; the mammary gland being essentially a conglomerate
one. The milk is secreted into the minute glands, which
unite and unite again, till by an uncertain number of
branches they empty into ampulae, or dilatations ; whence the
milk is carried away by other ducts which communicate with
the tubuli lactiferi, which terminate at the point of the teat,
but whose number appears not to be fixed in the mare.

The arteries are derived from the epigastric and the
femoral. The veins principally empty into the vena saphena
major and femoral trunks. The nerves are given off from
various adjacent sources.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.

THE ABDOMEN LAID OPEN.

An incision has been made through the linea alba and the
w^alls of the cavity reflected back ; thereby affording a full
view of the intestines. Of course this proceeding has slightly
changed their exact relative situations ; but they are still
sufficiently true to enable the reader to form a tolerably
accurate idea of their positions when undisturbed.

A, The coecum, having its blind extremity pointing down-
ward ; B, the colon originating and terminating in the right
hypochondriac region ; C, the rectum, showing one of its
two muscular bands, and the cell-like structure of this in-
testine also being prominently exhibited ; D, the small intes-
tines occupying the upper and posterior portion of the
cavity. Only a few of these last come into this view.

SECTION XV.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY.

That the great work of propagation might not be left to
chance, all animals are irresistibly impelled to it by the

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 251

sensation of lust, called, in quadrupeds, heat. The desire of
the mare is vulgarly called horsing, and is known by vascular
changes in the generative organs, and by some nervous ex-
citement in the system generally : the vulva swell, and are
highly reddened ; staling is excited more frequently, and is
followed by the ejection of a whitish mucous matter from
the vagina, in stable language called the heats : sometimes
it is slightly bloody. The usual period of the heat in the
mare is between April and July ; it occasionally appears in
the former month, but in healthy subjects is seldom pro-
tracted until the latter. It is sometimes scarcely marked in
aged, hard-worked, or emaciated mares ; and it often con-
tinues the whole summer in barren mares, who will, some
of them, admit the horse whenever he is put to them.

The male appetite is constant, but not uniform : low feed-
ing, cold weather, and absence from the effluvia of mares,
greatly mitigates it ; but during the season of female oestrum
it rages with uncontrolled force. The irritability of the
stallion at this time is well known, and his impatience of
restraint bespeaks the ungovernable nature of his desires :
even the ass, which proverbially dislikes to touch water, will
swim wide rivers to prosecute his amours. These effects
are, without doubt, produced by the absorption of the semen,
which produces its peculiar influence on the sensorium, and
thence is transmitted to the sexual organs. The generative
functions of the horse, therefore, consist in elaborating a
fecundating fluid, called semen. The generative functions
of the mare impose on her the necessity of receiving the
generating male secretion.

Copulation is the immediate act by wiiich the generative
functions are mutually accomphshed. By a peculiar sym-
pathy present in the male system, the erectile substances
of the penis become distended with blood poured in from
the pudic vessels, and retained there by spasmodic con-
striction, aided probably by pressure of the excited muscles.
In this state it enters the vagina ; the testicles, drawn up by
the crem asters ; the acceleratores and levatores are alike
spasmodically and sympathetically convulsed ; and an emis-
sion of semen follows. The mare is also affected by a
venereal orgasm, but of less manifest intensity : and although
her frame is agitated, her actions are rather passive than

252 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

active ; and it is, perhaps, to stimulate her into increased
energy, that he is seen to seize her by the neck with his
teeth, while he powerfully embraces her with his fore
extremities.

The cupidity of dealers often tempts them to administer
to their stallions stimulants, in order to force the per-
formance of an act which is in its nature exhaustive and
emaciative. Farcy and glanders are too frequently the con-
sequences of this foolish system.

Conception and pregnancy. — Conception follows, and most
mares require copulation but once in order that they may
conceive ; which being accomplished the heats, as they are
termed, cease, and the animal will afterwards refuse the
horse. As the heat recurs at intervals of eight or nine days ;
it is usual at those periods to try the mare, by showing her
the stallion.

Impregnation is brought about by means of the semen
acting upon the ovum ; but whether the effect is produced
by actual contact or by sympathetic influence, has not yet
been ascertained ; although the balance is much in favour
of the actual transmission of the impregnating fluid through
the uterus and oviducts to the ovarium ; which is rendered
more probable by the circumstance that the ova of the
multiparous animals never reach the uterus, but are retained
in the cornua. One of the turgid ovarial vesicles bursts its
outer coat, which is received within one of the Fallopian
tubes, and conveyed into the uterus, to which it is after-
wards found to be universally adherent. A layer of effused
lymph is thrown out over the entire surface of the uterus
and its connexions : this effusion becomes organized, and is
separable into two layers : that layer which is attached to
the surface of the womb is called the tunica decidua uteri ;
the other, and which becomes reflected over the ovum, was
thence named tunica decidua reflexa. When the ovum
gradually develops the lineaments of the foetal colt, it will
be found surrounded by the reflected portions of the cho-
rion ; within which is an inner and finer expansion, called
the amnion. Between the amnion and the chorion, in the
latter periods of pregnancy, there becomes developed a third
membrane, named the allantoid.

The placenta. — From the attachment of the outer mem-

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 253

brane originates an indirect influence between the parent
and offspring. In this the uterine arterial branches termi-
nate ; hence the nutrient branches which nourish the ovum
originate. The foetal vessels do not communicate with,
or even touch, those of the mother. The finest injection
cannot pass from one to the other ; but those of the foetus
run close to those of the mother, extract oxygen from them,
w^hich partially oxygenates the blood of the fcetus ; perfect
oxygenation not being required to support its dormant life.
The vessels pass from the foetus near to the uterine arteries
of the mother ; through the agency of two umbilical arte-
ries and a vein, that occupy a membranous rope, which,
when full grown, is nearly three feet in length, an inch in
diameter, and is called the umbilical cord ; this, in addition
to these vessels, gives passage also to the wachus, the whole
being enveloped in a reflection of the chorion. In the early
periods of gestation the investing foetal membranes are by
far the larger portion of the uterine contents ; towards the
middle period the foetus and membranes are nearly equal,
but in the latter months the weight of the young animal
greatly preponderates. The liquor amnii, in which the
foetus floats, maintains the same proportion to the placenta.
It remains to remark on the increase of the uterus ; which,
from being completely hidden W'ithin the pelvis, advances
its fundus beyond its cornua, nearly to the epigastrium ;
when at length, becoming painfully distended, it essays to
rid itself of its burthen by powerful contractions.

Description of memhranes forming the placenta. — The mem-
branes forming the placenta are three, which, beginning the
description from the outside, consist of the chorion, the
allantoid, and the amnion. The amnion must be a mucous
membrane, though it is very like a serous one ; it imme-
diately incloses the foetus, and contains a fluid, its secretion,
called the liquor amnii, within which the unborn animal
floats. The allantoid lies between the amnion and the cho-
rion ; it is pecuHar for containing sacs, with which the
urachus communicates. These sacs are filled with the con-
tents of the foetal bladder, and the young one's bowels are
at birth always full of a yellow pultaceous mass, called
meconium. These things suggest that the arterialization
of the blood, no more in foetal than in extra uterine existence,

254 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

is the sole support of life. The urachus, which leads
from the fundus of the unborn's bladder to the allantoid
cells or sacs, snaps at birth, and that part which is retained
by the foal dries up, and becomes the long ligament of the
bladder. The chorion, which is the most vascular of the
three membranes, as well as the most outward, in the mare
is intimately connected with the inner mucous lining of the
uterus of the mother. This connexion is formed by nume-
rous minute vascular projections upon each, which exactly
fit into one another ; those developed upon the chorion of
the foetus precisely suiting little spaces left upon the much
thickened, and very much more vascular, lining of the gravid
uterus of the parent.

Fcetal circulation. — It has been shown that the placenta
owns a maternal and a foetal portion, in which distinct cir-
culations are carried on. In both the arteries terminate in
capillaries which end in veins. It is evident, therefore, that
the blood received, after having circulated through the foetal
body, and having given out its nutritive principles, must
return venoiis to the placenta, through the umbilical arte-
ries ; which, in this case, carry venous blood, as the umbi-
lical veins bear blood of a more arterial character. Thus,
therefore, the placenta forms the true foetal lungs ; and
the likeness is further heightened by the arteries carrying
venous blood, and the vein bringing back arterial blood,
as in the true pulmonic circulation. The umbilical vein,
it w^as just now stated, carries arterial blood, w^hich it de-
rives from the placenta: having travelled up the um-
bilicus, it leaves the umbilical cord, and proceeds to the
vena portse, there to deposit its contents. From the liver
the blood, mingled with the venous blood from the in-
testines, is passed into the vena cava, and thence to the
right auricle ; but it does not wholly enter the right ven-
tricle, as in the adult horse ; a part of it escapes through
an opening in the septum of the heart, called the foramen
ovale, which hes between the right and left auricles ; the
blood brought by the posterior cavse is consequently partly
poured into the left auricle, whence it is prevented from
returning by the Eustachian valve : this opening begins to
close up as soon as birth takes place, and respiration is
estabUshed. The remaining and smaller portion of the

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 255

blood is suffered to proceed, as in the adult, into the right
ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary artery ; where
occurs another structural impediment to the passage of the
foetal blood. The pulmonary artery communicates with
the posterior aorta, by means of a lateral branch, which
looks, as it were, a continuation of the arterial trunk. This
branch of free communication takes the greater portion of
the blood, sent by the right ventricle up the pulmonic
artery, into the posterior aorta. The small portion of blood
which passes through the collapsed lungs is returned by the
pulmonic veins into the left auricle ; where, uniting wdth
that which had escaped through the foramen ovale, both
enter the left ventricle, and pass into the aorta ; the major
part being sent up the anterior aorta, and the rest in the
posterior aorta, uniting with that received by the ductus
arteriosus, the whole becomes distributed over the body in
the usual manner. The umbiHcal arteries (Fig 14 . /c) of the
foetal colt are very considerable vessels, derived from the
internal ihacs, immediately after their origin : in their pas-
sage, each towards its appropriate side of the bladder, they
approximate and join the urachus, proceeding togetlier
as a part of the umbilical cord. The umbilical vein, after
birth, dries up, and is converted into a ligament of the
liver.

Descent of the testicles. — It is necessary, before we describe
this interesting process in the foetal economy, that we say
something of the construction of the track by which these
organs reach the scrotum. The abdominal rings, for there
are an outer and an inner, as there are two ends to the
straight and limited inguinal canal, are situated within the
fleshy walls of the abdomen. The walls of the abdomen
are mainly formed of four pairs of large muscles, whose
central line of union forms the linea alba, which is seen
about its middle, perforated by the umbilicus or navel.
The obliquus externus is the most external of these, and
arises from the anterior spine of the ilium, and from the
fascia lumborura, to be inserted into the posterior border
of the fourteenth hindermost ribs. It is externally covered
by a yellow elastic ligament of some substance, and in-
feriorly meets its fellow at the linea alba. From its inser-
tion (see Plate II. 1 1) its fibres are directed obliquely down-

256 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

wards and backwards. One portion of the tendon, or
aponeurosis, by which it terminates, goes to the pubis,
while the stronger part proceeds to the inside of the
thigh. The separation here pointed out in mares shelters
the round ligament ; but in horses allows the passage of
part of the inguinal canal, and helps to form the outer
abdominal ring. The internal abdominal ring, and a por-
tion of the canal, intersects the transversalis abdominis, as
well as the internal oblique muscles.

The foetal situation of the testicles is immediately behind
the kidneys, whence they eventually make their way
into the scrotum. When situated within the cavity of the
abdomen they are enveloped by peritoneum, and are each
of them attached to a ligamentous substance of a pyramidal
shape ; whose base adheres to the testicle, while its apex is
continued through the abdominal rings, to be fixed to the
bottom of the scrotum. This ligament, which is termed
gubernaculum testis, attains its full growth before birth ;
after which period, it begins to contract and shorten itself;
but, as it cannot draw the scrotum within the rings, nor free
itself from the testicle, it therefore draws downward the
gland, surrounded by its peritoneal covering. This progress
is carried on gi^adually ; but when the testicles have been
drawn to the abdominal ring, it is evident they must there
meet with some obstruction ; for the peritoneum, afterwards
brought down by the testicle at this period, lines the entrance
to the ring. The testicle having, by the contraction of the
ligament, been forced down the canal, lines it with peri-
toneum, and forms the internal coat to the scrotum. This
lining of peritoneum has nothing to do with that which
covers the testicles ; that remains upon the gland ; but the
extension of the peritoneum also brings with it a covering
for the cord. The gubernaculum having fulfilled its office
becomes absorbed. Nature, in her economy, refusing to
keep any thing which is of no service. By this means an
open communication is formed with the scrotal cavity, and
which remains free during life ; the horizontal situation of
the horse's body preventing frequent protrusion of the
abdominal contents through the ring.

The gestatory term is generally considered to range be-
tween eleven and twelve months ; these periods forming the

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM GENERALLY. 257

extreme limits ; but, according to other observations, in
582 mares, the shortest being 78 days before the expiration
of 12 months, the longest 58 days after the full term had
passed, making the extraordinary difference between the
two extremes of 13G days, or 4 months and 16 days be-
tween the births of two animals of the same species.

Parturition or foaling. — The premonitory symptoms of
foaling are a sudden enlargement of the udder ; sometimes
milk may be expressed from the teats ; and when such is
the case, provided it does not alarm the mare, she should
always be milked ; the vulva protrude, and become vascu-
lar ; and when the act has commenced, the tail is erected ;
a shyness, a restless shifting and change of place, with
some heaving of the flanks and some acceleration of the
pulse, are also usually present. The painful contractions
of the uterus now call in the aid of the abdominal muscles ;
deep inspirations are made, to enable the diaphragm to
assist in forcing the uterine contents backwards, by which
the mouth of the womb is dilated, and the attachment
of the chorion is separated. As the propelhng efforts be-
come more violent, the hind legs are set wide apart : the
membranes now protrude in the form of a bladder ; which
bursting, the liquor amnii floods down, and often brings
with it the young one, particularly in large roomy mares,
who have had several foalings. At other times the act is
more protracted, and the head, \vith the fore legs, are more
gradually protruded into the vagina ; when, after several
severe efforts, more or less protracted, the foal is born, and
its descent to the ground commonly ruptures the umbilical
cord ; the afterbirth occasionally accompanies the foal ;
and when this is not the case, the whole often comes away
very soon after, or may be long and dangerously delayed.

Lactation. — As soon as the foal comes into the world, it
is interesting to observe how soon it begins to suck ; which,
however, with a weakly foal, it may occasionally be prudent
to assist it in doing, by supporting it to the teats. The
first milk, instead of being prejudicial, is beneficial ; as by
its purgative qualities it brings away the contents of the
foetal alimentary canal. Sometimes the mammae refuse their
office, or do not yield sufficient milk ; or a mother may die :

s

258 THE COLT.

it is consolatory to know that under such circumstances
foals have been successfully brought up by hand. Cade
and Milksop, both excellent racers, were thus reared ; and
either cows' milk, or that of asses, may be employed for
the purpose. Should that of cows be found to become
sour, it should be boiled ; or it may be medicated by having
sugar and starch added to it. The udder of the mare does
not generally become distended with milk until the fourth
day ; in which state it continues to yield its secretion until
the nippers of the young one enable it to browse the more
tender grass ; when its secretory store dries up, and the bag
resumes its ordinary dimensions,

THE COLT, AND THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HLS ORGANIZATION.

Unlike the young of many other animals, the colt is not
born helpless ; but, on the contrary, its aptitude and its
organs for locomotion are already developed, and it is
capable of performing many of the common phenomena of
life with dexterity and ease ; to enable it to do which, its
organization exhibits some specialities worthy of notice.

At what time do the testicles first appear in the colt? —
There are great anomalies in the scrotal lodgement of the
testicles. However, they are seldom, if ever, found at the
bottom of the scrotum, until eleven or twelve months have
expired ; but yet high-breeding, and particularly high-feed-
ing, will hasten the descent five or six weeks, in the same
manner that it produces other marks of early development.
But it is equally certain that they do make a partial appear-
ance in the upper portions of the scrotal bag within a few days
after foaling, and in some cases the animal is even foaled with
them already there. From that position they are, by the in-
creasing strength of the cremaster muscle, again drawn up,
sometimes only to the edge of the ring, but more often to
lodge themselves between the inner and outer rings, where
they remain three or four months.

The effect which the presence of the testicles has on the
masculine character is, evidently, a portion of our present
physiological inquiry. The permanent descent of the tes-
ticles has a great effect on the exterior form ; it has a cor-
responding one also on the character : it is, however, prin-

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 259

cipally in reference to the latter that we castrate ; and as
we inchne to regulate the form between the masculine or
the feminine character, so we castrate early or late.

Puberty in both horses and mares takes place, if they have
been well fed and housed, as early as the fifth year : neither
does it appear that the mare is more early in this respect
than the horse. Before that period, the change of the tem-
porary for the permanent set of teeth is confirmed ; but all
those characters commence in the male which are to dis-
tinguish him from the female after this period.

The adult period in both sexes may be considered as the
sixth year, when the height of the animal is complete ; and
it is between the fourth and fifth year that the colt andjilly
are translated into horse and mare in the breeders' vocabu-
lary.

Temperament is not confined to man, but is extended to
all our domestic animals, and to none more than the horse.

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

FOOT.

The foot of the horse presents a mechanism admirably
adapted to the habits of the animal ; for in the horse that
complexity of structure, exhibited in the numerous pha-
langes of other quadrupeds, is found united in one (see
Skel.). From the various circumstances to which we sub-
ject this creature, such as keeping him in stables, riding
him upon hard roads, and the attachment of iron shoes,
the feet become peculiarly susceptible of disease. At birth,
the horny parts of the feet are found less evolved than
most other of the external organs ; were they more per-
fected, their hard surfaces might injure the mother: at this
early period the pasterns are long and upright, and instead
of the extremities ending, as in the adult, in a broad ex-
tended base, they are pointed in front, and present only
the rudiments of a frog. The bones immediately belonging
to the foot are two, the coffin and the navicular (see Plate X.
Fig 1 . d and e) : the little pastern, or coronary bone,
which articulates with both, is also partly hidden within
the hoof. The coffin hone {Plate X. Fig 1 . d) corre-
sponds in shape to the anterior part of the hoof : in front it

s2

260 THE ANATOMY AND

presents an eminence, to which the extensor pedis tendon is
attached {Plate X. ; see Fig 1 . /) ; its sides stretch back
into two lateral processes or wings, to the upper surface of
which are fixed the lateral cartilages {Plate X. ; see Fig 2
. b and c) : its superior surface presents two articular cavi-
ties, and its lower is vaulted, and to it is attached the per-
forans tendon {Plate X. ; see Fig \ . g) ; while its exterior is
covered by the sensitive laminae. It wall be seen to be of a
loose texture, with small bony ridges extending from above
downwards, favouring the attachment of the sensitive
laminae. The navicular bone {Plate X. Fig \ . e ; Fig 2
, e) , which in shape is supposed to resemble a boat or shuttle,
embeds itself between the wings of the coffin bone, to which
it is attached.

The small pastern bone {Plate X.. Fig I . c), articulates
with the coffin and with the navicular bones, to both of
which it is united by the capsular and other ligaments.
The lateral cartilages are externally convex, and internally
slightly concave, their upper surface stretching superiorly
beyond the confines of the hoof {Plate X. Fig 2 . b and
c) . The lamincB are vascular, and sensitive productions ;
possessed of that elasticity which belong to all living matter ;
situated round the surface of the coffin bone, and between
every two lies their secretion in the shape of a horny lamina,
which constitutes part of the inner wall of the hoof {Plate
X. Fig 2 . h; Fig 4 . b). The extensor j^edis tendon
passes in front of the os corona into the anterior eminence
of the coffin {Plate X. Fig 1 ./), and the flexor perfo-
rans tendon affixes itself to the posterior of the bony sole
{Plate X. Fig I . g). The elastic frog is situated next to
this {Plate X. Fig 1 . h ; Fig 2 . a), on which, and on the
flexor tendon, the navicular bone rests. The sensitive frog
and sole lie under the coffin bone and elastic frog, the horny
sole and frog covering them interiorly : while the hoof
generally covers the whole of the sensitive parts of the foot
{Plate X. Fig 2 . i).

The hoof is a horny envelopment, secreted from a con-
tinuation, although altered state of the cutis (see the con-
tinuous white line in Plate X. Fig 1), exactly as the
human nail is formed from that which is termed the quick :
it is distinctly composed of fibres parallel with each other,

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 261

and held together by a glutinous horny exudation which is
removed, and the fibres separated by maceration. Inordi-
nate heat and dryness will partially do the same in the
living hoof, as we know by what are called sandcracks.
The wall of the hoof is divided into two layers, an external
and an internal. Taking up a black hoof which has been
freed from all its adherent parts, it will be found to be white
within ; and this white part will hkewise be found to be much
less hard than, and about a quarter the thickness of, the
coloured portion (see Plate X. Fig 2 . h). The hard black
external layer of horn is secreted by the coronet (see
Plate X. Fig I . k; Fig 4 . a) ; the internal white and soft
layer is secreted by the sensitive laminse, and it is thrown
into projections which exactly fitted into the folds of the
secreting surface (see Plate X. Fig 4 . b). The wall is
also divided into toe, heel, and quarters (see Plate X.
Fig 4 . €,f, g). The quarters are the lateral parts of the
walls ; the more forward and thickest portion of horn is
called the toe ; the more backward and thinnest, the heels
(Plate X. Fig^ . d). In the usual formation of feet,
the inner side of the hoof is observed to be weaker than
the outer ; and, as the inner side receives most weight,
this proves the care taken to secure elasticity in the horse's
movements. The horn yields to pressure, and the thinnest,
of course, yields most. The density of the hoof materially
decreases as it approaches the heels, evidently to favour
the descent of the elastic frog, which likewise favours elas-
ticity of motion. The superior marginal part of the hoof
is softer and thinner than the rest ; and if our eyes be
directed inward, we shall perceive an indentation called the
coronary ring, within which the coronary ligament once
reposed ; the thin and soft part is horn just secreted, and
in a single layer; whereas where the horn is thicker, the
coronary ligament is more bulky, for the horn is secreted
in several layers.

To finish our description of the hoof, we must turn our
attention posteriorly ; where we shall find the laminse in-
flecting themselves abruptly inwards and downwards, form-
ing what are termed the bars ; which are nothing more than
continuations of the horn of the heels, stimulated and
thickened by pressure (see Plate X. Fig 3 . /) . So also

262 THE ANATOMY AND

the frog is little else than an adaptation of the coronet
turned downward, and forced to bear a certain amount of
weight {Plate X. Fig S . g; Fig 4 . c) .

The horny sole is not so brittle as the crust ; it is thicker
at the circumference, where it unites with the outer wall of
the hoof, than it is towards its centre. Its concavity enables
the foot to retain its situation upon the ground ; while it
forms an arch which yields by its elasticity, thus affording
an admirable spring. The horny frog is the triangular
portion that fills up the natural excavation of the sole (see
Plate X. Fig 3 . a). This horny fi'og swells out, but not so
much in general cases as to extend beyond the level of the
outer surface of the crust ; it however is sufficiently promi-
nent in every healthy foot as to receive secondary pressure.
An inferior view of the foot will show that the frog (see
Plate X. Fig 3 . white line between a and h) presents a
distinct mark of separation between it and the other part,
which is called its commissure; wherefore connexion is
principally kept up by an internal prolongation of the
secretive substance of the coronet (see Plate X. Fig
S . g). The horny frog is intimately connected to the
sensitive frog, of which last it is indeed the secretion.
The frog is divided, or indented with a deep fissure, which
is called its cleft (see Plate X. Fig 3 . e), within which
are numerous sebaceous glands. It is these glands, when
diseased, which pour forth a stinking fluid which rots
the horn, and is known by the name of thrush. The
sensitive part of the secretive frog is covered by the elastic

Horn is enthely unorganized, and when once divided
can never again unite like flesh. It does not bleed when
cut. It has no feeling when a knife is drawn across it.
It has none of the properties of living substance, and con-
sequently cannot be expected to possess the reparative
function that appertains to hving matter. Horn, although
a secretion, and as such pretty much the same, is not all
of the like hardness. The horny frog is the least hard,
and the most pliable ; the horny sole ranks the next in
these qualities. Then come the horny heels ; afterwards
the quarters and bars ; and lastly, as the most hard, the
toe. The inner crust is throughout softer than the outer,

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 263

but both crusts are originally secreted in a fluid state, and
subsequently become of the requisite consistency.

If we take an extended view of the matter, and call in
the aid of comparative anatomy, we shall be led to con-
sider the uses of the frog as of a mixed nature. Eminently
simple in form and structure, it combines even more than
the qualities possessed by the tendo-cartilaginous balls at
the posterior part of the feet of the digitated tribes, as
dogs, cats, &c. It is more dense in structure, to resist the
weight imposed on it ; yet more truly elastic, to enable it
to preserve its own integrity under the increased pressure
of so large an animal; and to transfer the shock of motion
more uniformly over the limb. It is peculiar also in being
united at its apex ; but it is wisely disunited by its cleft at
its posterior portion, where it can best act on the yielding
walls of the hoof. This union, or separation indeed, arises
from the frog being formed of a continuation of the coronet
(see Plate X. Fig Z . g ; Fig 4: . c). The frog claims,
likewise, importance as a natural wedge, to prevent slipping
and sliding on smooth surfaces. It is reasonable also to
suppose, that it forms a valuable antagonist to the down-
ward and backward direction of the internal parts of the
foot ; and in this way it may offer a point of solid support
to the flexor tendon, and an important protection to the
navicular bone ; it also most unquestionably acts very
favourably in promoting the expansion of the hoof.

The bars (see Plate X. Fig 3 . b b). — We have already
fully explained that the crust of the hoof does not termi-
nate at the heels, as a superficial observation might lead
one to conclude ; but that having gained the heels, it turns
inwards and forwards {Plate X. Fig 3 . h b), decreasing
in extent, and laying itself on each side of the frog.

THE INTERIOR OF THE FOOT.

The part that presents itself when the hoof is removed,
is the sensitive or fleshy sole (see Plate IX. Fig 3 . c) ;
which is a vascular expansion covering a considerable
portion of the under surface of the coffin bone, and ex-
tending beyond its posterior part, but leaving a triangular
space for the vascular expansion of the sensitive frog
(see Plate X. Fig 3 . a). As the sensitive sole passes

264 THE ANATOMY AND

behind the coffin bone it becomes thicker, and attaches
itself to the inferior cartilages. The sensitive sole upon
its upper surface is of a ligamentous nature, but the
underneath is vascular ; and from it is secreted the horny
sole. The vascularity of this part renders it very suscepti-
ble of inflammation. The sensitive frog presents a very
curious structure of ligamentous and tendinous expansions
above ; but covered underneath by a horny coating,
corresponding in shape to the sensitive frog, and secreted
from it. It lies in an interval within the sensitive sole,
attached by its point to the inferior surface of the coffin
bone, with its heels expanding posteriorly ; being a con-
tinuation of the secretive coronet, and attached to the
cartilaginous substance, imited with cellular and fluid mat-
ter. The lateral cartilages (see Plate X. Fig 2.6, c) ,
one to each side, are fixed into a groove, upon the upper
surface of each wing of the coffin bone. Independent of
their bony attachment, they are also retained in their situa-
tion by means of ligamentous fibres, and by lateral con-
nexions. They are externally convex, internally they are
concave ; highest in the centre, but thinner and smaller
towards the extremities : their inferior portions pass under
the wings of the coffin bone, and unite with the semi-car-
tilaginous substance of the elastic frog. The lateral car-
tilages are partly within and partly without the hoof;
are covered at their lower portion by the coronary liga-
ment, which, by being extended over them, prevents their
too great dilatation. To the low^er part of their external
surface the laminae gain an attachment ; and within their
internal portion is lodged the substance forming the upper
and posterior part of the elastic frog (see Plate X.
Fig 2 . «, h). The uses of these cartilages, as before ob-
served, are considerable, and divested of them the coffin
bone appears but small, compared to the hoof that en-
closes it ; but, increased by the attachment of the car-
tilages, the whole is made more proportionate, equally
useful for support as though they were altogether bony, yet
yielding and elastic. The cartilages themselves appear
particularly intended to operate in expanding the upper
horny portions of the hoof; and they also assist in the
preservation of the cavity of the coffin joint.

WSagg. ainat.del.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT. 265

Tlie sensitive lamin/c (see Plate X. Fig 4 . h). — In de-
scribing the hoof, I observed that its internal surface was
Hned with numerous horny lamellae. The subjects of our
present inquiry are, on the contrary, highly sensitive and
vascular. The whole circumference of the coffin bone is
covered with these sensitive leaves, each of which is received
between and firmly attached to two of the horny laminae of
the hoof (see Plate X. Fig 2 .h). It is, therefore, evident
that the surface of attachment between the hoof and the
internal parts must be in an extraordinary degree strong.
A partial observer of the foot of the horse would be led to
suppose that the sole endured the weight of the animal ;
which opinion would be erroneous ; on the contrary, we
find the sensitive sole can bear httle continued pressure,
though its elasticity and form enable it to bear a momentary
force.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X.

FOUR VIEWS EXEMPLIFYING THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF

THE "Foot.

Fig. 1 . The pastern and foot divided through the centre. —
a, The cannon bone ; h, the large pastern bone ; c, the small
pastern bone ; d, the pedal bone ; e, the navicular bone ;
/, the insertion of the extensor pedis tendon into the coro-
nary process of the pedal bone ; g, the insertion of the flexor
pedis perforans, passing under the navicular bone, to gain
insertion into the sole of the pedal bone ; h, the elastic frog ;
i, the horny frog ; j, the hoof; U, the coronet.

Fig. 2. The hoof sawn offhelow the coronet. — a, The elastic
frog ; & 6, the posterior portion of the lateral cartilages ; c c,
the anterior portion of the lateral cartilages cut through ; d,
the flexor pedis perforans tendon, running under the navi-
cular bone, but above the elastic frog ; e, the navicular bone,
the anterior portion of which has been divided ; /, the supe-
rior surface of the pedal bone, showing the indentations for
the reception of the prominences at the inferior extremity of
the small pastern bone ; ^, in the separation of the hoof a
removal has taken place of the coronary process, which con-
sequently projects above the horny box in the living subject ;
h, the interweaving of the sensitive and of the horny or in-

266 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FOOT.

sensitive laminae ; the dark lines representing the sensitive
laminae, and the white the homy laminse, which form the
inner wall of the crust ; i, the outer wall of the crust, con-
sisting of dark horn.

Fig. 3. The sensitive parts exposed — the sole of the foot
shown after the horn has been removed. — a, The sensitive
frog ; b, the sensitive bars ; the white line between the bars
and frog representing the part of the foot which secretes the
horny commissure that unites the bars and frog; c, the
sensitive sole ; d, the heels ; e, the fissure of the frog'; //,
the reflection of the sensitive laminee forming the bars ; g,
the reflection of the coronet forming the frog. The spo'no-y
substance, represented to the left of the spectator, be-
tween '„ and b, show that the subject whence this drawing
was taken was only saved by death from an attack of
canker.

Fig. 4. The sensitive lamina exposed by removal of the
horny box. — a, The secreting coronet; b, the sensitive
laminee ; c, the reflection of the coronet going to form the
sensitive frog; d, the reflection of the sensitive laminae
going to form the sensitive bars ; e, the toe ; /, the quarters ;
g, the heels.

THE

PRACTICE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE ;

A DESCRIPTION

CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND MEDICAL TREATMENT

DISEASES OF THE HORSE;

TO WHICH IS ADDED,

A MORE CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THOSE OF NEAT CATTLE
AND SHEEP.

OF DISEASE GENERALLY.

Disease is a morbid affection of a part or of the whole of
the body, whereby the exercise of some of its functions is
altered or suspended. The causes of disease are various ;
some of them are evident, others are obscure. We call the
cause remote when it can only be guessed at or surmised.
It is termed predisposing when inherited, or the conse-
quence of a particular formation ; thus small carcassed horses
are prone to constitutional diarrhcea, and those with oddly
formed hind legs are said to be predisposed to curb. There
are also proximate or exciting causes constantly acting in
the production of disease ; thus a horse, violently heated
during hunting, plunges into a river, and inflammation of
the lungs follows. Here the violent action of the lungs
had predisposed them to become diseased ; but the cold
bath was the exciting cause of the disorder. A nipping
wind, with sleet, blows on cattle purposely fed high for
sale ; they take a cold, for they had been hitherto not ex-
posed to so frigid a temperature. Here the excessive feed-
ing predisposes, and the cold excites the malady.

Diseases for many centuries were principally attributed to
an affection of the fluids or humours of the body, and this
theory was termed the humoral pathology. The blood then
was the favourite agent which diseased the entire body ; but
by advanced knowledge we now comprehend that the blood,
though apparently a fluid, contains no inconsiderable portion
of solid particles, and also that gas, fluid, and solid are but
names for diflerent states which any form of matter may
under favourable circumstances assume. There are now
living physiologists who reject entirely the fluids, and attri-
bute every thing to the solids, and these, for the reasons
stated above, are as far wrong as their predecessors. The
bone, which is the most solid substance in the body, is
deposited and absorbed in a fluid state ; which instance may
serve to show how both systems are united by nature, since

270 OF DISEASE GENERALLY.

the framework of the whole carcass is known to exist in
two separate conditions. Diseases, however, vary in ap-
pearance according to the part attacked : thus phrenitis is
the consequence of morbid vascular action of the brain, and
enteritis depends upon the like state within the substance of
the intestines ; but phrenitis and enteritis are diseases very
dissimilar in their symptoms. Each disease, moreover, is
liable to individual peculiarities dependent on the immediate
state, age, and temperament of the object attacked.

The systematic division of diseases is termed nosology,
the simplest arrangement of which is the alphabetical.
Anciently, diseases w^ere divided according to their dura-
tion, and this laid the foundation for the acute and the
chrome ; but which subjected the founders to call in the aid
of the subacute, for those which ranged in the intermediate
spaces. It has also been attempted to arrange diseases
simply according to the parts of the animal frame ; which
suits well with the plan of uniting the anatomical, physio-
logical, and pathological considerations together. At the
present time there is an evident disposition to disregard all
systematic or arbitrary arrangement of natural causes and
effects. Men are now rather inclined to view each disease
as a perfect whole in itself, which, though connected with
the affections of other structures, is not necessarily joined
to one more than to another. Any system, however, which
may serve to smooth the path of the student is so far of
service but no further.

The division of diseases into epidemic, endemic, sporadic,
and specific, is still acknowledged. Epidemic diseases are
such as prevail generally at a particular time among all ages
and kinds of our domestic breeds of animals, spreading as
though they were imbibed with the air. Of this form of
disease the affection so lately fatal among cows is an in-
stance ; as the foot lameness which attacks our cows, sheep,
and pigs is also an example. Endem ic diseases are those which
confine their attacks to a certain locality ; as the glanders,
which was confined to certain badly ventilated stables, sadly
illustrates. Sporadic diseases stand in opposition to the
two former, and are a very extensive class, comprehending
all such as affect particular constitutions or ages : thus
strangles becomes a sporadic disease. Specific diseases are

OF PURE FEVER. 271

snch as are peculiar to a particular class of animals : thus
the majority of diseases are specific ; as being peculiar to one
description of animal does not prevent something of the
same kind being common to another.

To a proper knowledge of the management of diseases
we consider the cause, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and
cure. The cause is frequently involved in obscurity ; at
other times a moderate portion of attention will discover
it ; while in some instances it is evident at once. The
symptoms of a disease are the effects which it produces ;
thus an inflamed brain, being productive of delirium and
redness of the eyes, makes delirium and redness of the eyes
a symptom of inflamed brain : but this does not hold good
with regard to results caused by disease ; for death is fre-
quently a result of this disease ; only death is not a symptom
of, but a termination to, an inflamed brain. From the
symptoms we form our diagnostic of the disease, that is, we
judge of its present state; being masters of which, we are
enabled to form a prognosis, or opinion of its probable ter-
mination. The cure forms the most important part, and
frequently consists in attempts to assist Nature in her
efforts to produce a natural remission of the disease. If
these efforts are wanting, we endeavour to promote artificial
ones, or we attempt to resist the effects of the disease, or
tendency to die.

CHAPTER I.

FEBRILE DISEASES IN QUADRUPEDS,
OF PURE FEVER.

The existence of pure fever was by Coleman and his disci-
ples denied to ever occur to the horse. This opinion was
formed without due observation, though both in man and
in animals fever far more frequently is witnessed as a
symptom of disease than alone. To have fever it is
necessary to endure a cold stage, followed by a hot one.
The cold stage with horses creates the difficulty. The
animal's skin being covered wdth hair, the temperature of
its body is not easily ascertained. However, a staring coat,

272 OF PURE FEVER.

without other signs, usually begins most disorders ; and
this staring coat alone would justify us in concluding that
the cold stage were present. The peculiar mode of stand-
ing, and the blowing kind of breathing, are moreover each
characteristic of the sensation of cold. When the heat
commences, or the warm stage supervenes, other symptoms,
with equal force, declare the change which has taken place.
The horse appears in a state of dejection, and sweats on
every exertion, however trivial. His extremities, in all
probability, are cold at the onset. The pulse, before slow,
and its stroke feeble, becomes quick and at length throb-
bing. Breathing is quickened, and the dejected animal
looks around as though he implored relief, yet is watchful
and sleepless. His thirst is in most cases urgent, but his
appetite is diminished. He stales little, his urine is high-
coloured, and the dung he voids is hard and in small balls.
Fever, when first observed, is often promptly treated by the
abstraction of blood. But this method, though often suc-
cessful, is no less imprudent. It leaves the animal weak,
and retards his perfect recovery. A better plan is to give,
when the staring coat alone is witnessed, the following-
drink : —

Nitrated spirits of ether (sweet nitre) four ounces.

Acetate of ammonia eight ounces.

Water one pint.

If this does not succeed in a quarter of an hour, the drink
may be repeated, and thus continued till the coat is smooth,
or other symptoms are exhibited.

Supposing the fever to have gone on to the warm fit, a
quickened pulse is generally imagined to demand immediate
venesection. But a quick action of the heart portrays
bodily v/eakness, and the following drench will answer the
end desired much better : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Water one pint.

And this may be repeated at intervals of a quarter of an
hour, till the recovery is confirmed.

DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 273

DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION IN HORSES, &C.

Inflammation is a diseased state of the capillaries. Some
authors have regarded these vessels as in a condition of
excitability, but if contractility be a sign of life, the re-
verse must argue a loss of vitality. During inflammation
the dimensions of the capillary vessels are enlarged ; in con-
sequence more blood passes through them ; to make up the
demand for more blood the heart's action is increased, and
more is propelled through the body. The blood passing-
through the capillaries gives forth caloric, and hence the
inflamed part is hot. The increased quantity of the fluid
distends the capillaries, and causes them to press with force
upon the nerves, hence the part is enlarged and tender ; the
quantity of red blood traversing an inflamed part causes it
to be red, hence redness is one of the symptoms of inflam-
mation. However, the horse being a thick-skinned animal,
and its skin being covered with hair, the last sign is not
usually perceptible in him ; but when it is situated in a thin
and naked membrane, as that of the nostrils or of the eyes,
we are then made sensible that colour is not wanting to
characterize inflammation in the horse.

Inflammation is divided into diftused and local. Diffused
inflammation is aggravated fever. Local inflammation is
beheld when a part is injured, and inflammation, confined to
the spot which has been hurt, ensues.

Inflammation is further characterized as acute and chronic.
The acute kind is best illustrated by abdominal inflamma-
tion ; which is sometimes so acute, or quick and active, as to
run its course and terminate in death within nine hours
from the commencement of its attack. Chronic inflamma-
tion is aptly shown in the diseases to which bones and liga-
ments are subjected ; which, though painful, are usually a long
time before they either yield to medicine or destroy the life.

Inflammation is further spoken of as healthy and un-
healthy. It is of the healthy kind when a horse receives a
gash upon any part of the body, and the lips of the wound,
upon being brought nicely together adhere, and through
inflammation repair the injury ; or when the wound granu-
lates, and throws out pus, and by this kind of inflammatory
process restores the loss of substance. It is witnessed, of

T

274 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION.

the unhealthy description, in the majority of tumors, as well
as in all sinuses or pipes ; which last throw out a sticky glary
fluid, very unlike healthy pus.

When the inflammation has lasted a longer or shorter time
it terminates ; and the terminations to inflammation are six :
namely, resolution, adhesion, suppuration, eff*usion, gangrene,
and mortiflcation or death ; omitting all mention of ulceration
and sloughing, neither of which can terminate inflammation,
though both are recorded as performing such an office.

Resolution occurs after diffused or general inflammation,
and means when the diseased condition is resolved, or cleared
away or ended. This, of all terminations, is the one most
to be desired, as it restores the body to a state of health.

Adhesion is when a wound has been inflicted, and the
bleeding having ceased, the divided surfaces is then sticky.
If brought together in this state they adhere, or are glued
firmly together. This adhesion takes place through the
fibrine thrown out by the divided vessels. This fibrine is
glutinous in its nature, and will hold the parts together
until the vessels penetrate its substance, and it becomes a
part of the living body, or is converted into cellular tissue.
There are also internal adhesions, which are by no means
so desirable as that just referred to.

Suppuration ensues upon all torn wounds, or when the
flesh is bruised as well as cut. Suppuration may throw oflf
a portion, the integrity of which is perfectly destroyed ; or
it may proceed, and gradually fill up a cavity by means of
granulations, which are little bodies of a highly sensitive
and vascular nature secreting pus. The suppuration may
take place into a kind of bag, or closed sac, when an abscess
results. The commencement of suppuration is attended
with much pain, and pus appears to he sent forth after
much labour, or at vast expense to the system.

Effusion is when the inflamed part takes on the process
of throwing out fluid, and is seen in dropsy, within internal
cavities.

Gangrene occurs when the vitality is nearly conquered
in a part; and this termination affords the latest, though it is
a very desperate chance to the veterinary surgeon ; for if it
goes on but one stage further, the structure is broken up,
vitality is lost, and mortification with death ensues.

DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION. 275

There is another termination classed among the endings
of inflammation, but which we cannot view as lawfully
belonging to the list. It is named metastasis, and means
the change of place, or removal of inflammation from one
part to another. This evidently is not a termination, but a
change in situation. It is well seen in inflamed lungs.
The practitioner leaves his patient very bad at night ; he
comes next morning expecting to find the animal dead, but
is surprised to discover him apparently quite well. He is
rejoiced, but his eye accidentally rests upon the feet; the
horse stands oddly. An examination takes place, which
shows the animal has inflammation of the feet. The disease
has left the lungs to settle in the feet, and this change of
locality is called metastasis.

The liability to these various terminations of inflamma-
tion is not the same in all parts of the body ; on the con-
trary, some are more prone to one, and others to a different
kind. Deep-seated parts, and the gi^eat serous cavities of
the body, appear peculiarly liable either to the adhesive
effects of inflammation, or to that modification of it which
produces effusion. The adhesion here implied entirely
differs from that already alluded to. It is seen when a
lung adheres to the walls of the chest, or one intestine to
another, and is always the result of inflammation. Effusion
really means dropsy, or w^ater poured forth upon the cessa-
tion of inflammation within the cavities of the abdomen or
chest.

Ulceration used to be reckoned among the termination
of inflammation, but it, like sinuses, is the consequence of
a chronic kind of inflammation which is not now under con-
sideration : it is the result of unhealthy or imperfect in-
flammation, and its cure chiefly depends upon our being
able to excite active inflammation in the part affected.

The causes of inflammation are said to be predisposing
and exciting, remote and proximate ; the points, however,
where one ends and the other begins, are by no means easy
to define. Such occasional causes which act by their out-
ward effects as stimulants, we can readily comprehend : but
the more remote agencies we are at a loss to explain. In-
flammations, and febrile affections generally, were wont to
be attributed to the effect of cold. Modern pathologists

T 2

276 DIFFUSED OR GENERAL INFLAMMATION.

have been led to consider this as erroneous. But it is pro-
bable that in attempting to prove too much, jas is usually
the case, they prove too little ; for daily observation of
plain facts convince us tliat the application of cold, under
various forms and circumstances, is an active agent in the
production of inflammation. The predisposing cause is,
however, of the most consequence, and to this the gene-
rality of people pay little attention. Few persons think at
all about an agency, which though fatal in its ultimate
result, is followed by no immediate effect. The predispo-
sition, however, once established, any circumstance may
become the exciting cause ; but because this last is nearer
to the effect, it attracts the attention, and fixes the observa-
tion of the great majority of horse-owners.

The treatment of general or diffused inflammation. — In
attempting the reduction of diffused inflammation, whether
existing in the form of inflammatory fever, or in the inflam-
mation of some vital and important organ, the first remedy
formerly employed was bleeding. The practitioner was so
confident in this resort, that he drew blood with the
same complacency he would extract beer from a barrel, and
quite as often, even supposing him to be very fond of the
exhilarating beverage. In the present day, however, either
the character of disease has changed, or it is perceived the
practice alluded to was founded upon a mistaken basis.
Horses could not now bear the loss of half that quantity of
vital fluid, which is on good authority believed to have
been formerly taken from them. Many an animal now,
having influenza has been bled into hydrothorax. Many
an animal has been so reduced by repeated bleedings, that
he has ultimately sank, not from the disease, but in conse-
quence of the measures pursued for its reduction. Bleeding
had better now be entirely put out of the means of cure ;
for any disturbance of the circulation is easier and more
safely equallized by the administration of a stimulant, than
only apparently tranquillized by the abstraction of a fluid,
of which the animal very rarely has a drop too much.

Purgatives, in the human subject, form the next active
agent in combating arterial excitement ; but there are some
peculiarities in the structure and functions of the horse,
which render these medicines less eligible than in man. To

INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 277

produce active purgation in the horse is to cause great
irritation, and to destroy much more of the powers of the
constitution than under some circumstances can he spared.
It also requires so great time to effect it, that our de-
pendence on it is lessened.

Diaphoretics and nauseants are by some veterinary sur-
geons thrust down the animal's throat, as though a horse
w^hich was seriously ill was determined, if it w^ere not pre-
vented by physic, to devour all before it. Of this we may
be certain, that in every inflammatory state the appetite is
lost. The return of a desire to feed is to be looked for
and hailed as a symptom of recovery, not prevented as
though it were an actual danger, and demanded physic to
delay its return. Diaphoretic are all nauseants, and w^ere
they not, are very weakening. The quantity of tartar
emetic administered to an animal in disease is often suffi-
cient to injure the texture of the stomach. These medi-
cines are given without rhyme or reason, simply because
something must be done. The inflammation may by such
means be reduced, but so Is the animal at the same time,
and a long loss of services with a long course of tonics is
the consequence, even if the life be not destroyed.

Diuretics also affect the strength, which is always weakened
in disease, and therefore these agents are to be avoided.

Diluents are of no use to the horse, as the animal in
sickness will partake of no form of sustenance. A pail of
chilled, or rather warmed water, should however be placed
in the manger, and changed several times during the day.

Every horse, in almost every state of disease, should be
placed in a loose box, the air of w^hich should be free and
cool. Draughts are to be avoided, neither should the wind
blow upon the animal, but the current of air ought to be
constant, and the clothing hght. Rugs are improper, and
a sheet is at such a time sufficient. All noise or excite-
ment should be suppressed, and the sick horse be made as
comfortable, and kept as quiet as though a Christian, and
not an animal, w^re suffering.

EPIDEMIC CATARRHAL FEVER, OR INFLUENZA, IN HORSES.

This fever purposely heads the description of diseases,
as being one of the most frequent which attacks horses.

278 INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES,

With regard to its cause, it is more honest to confess our
ignorance, than to talk largely about atmospheric influence,
of which we know nothing : though excessive fatigue, par-
ticularly on young horses, and more so during a variable
spring, when heat and cold, drought and moisture, quickly
alternate, may have something to do in generating the dis-
order. It is decidedly epidemic in its nature ; is more fre-
quently encountered in spring than in autumn ; more often
in autumn than in summer ; and in winter more rarely than
in either of the other quarters of the year.

The influenza or distemper, as it is occasionally called,
is singularly prevalent in some seasons ; and although
it exhibits general characters in common, yet the epi-
demic of one year will be marked with some particular
symptoms wdiich will not appear in the epidemic of the
next. Horses of large cities and crowded towns are more
obnoxious to it than those of the country ; and in the
country, those are most liable to be attacked which are
most confined. It has been disputed, whether it be con-
tagious or not, and both thd negative and affirmative
may be maintained with some show of reason. In some
seasons it exhibits little or no contagious characters ; in
others it is apparently infectious, particularly among young
horses.

It is of great consequence to distinguish this complaint
from pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs; for, if bleed-
ing and other parts of the depletive system, which are
usual in pneumonia, be carried too far in this, the conse-
quences nearly always are dropsy of the chest. To an
attentive observer even, such a mistake is likely to hap-
pen ; even the defluxion from the nose, and its tendency
to become purulent, is exhibited too late to prevent the
mischief; the tenderness and swelling of the submaxillary
glands, with the early prostration of strength which gene-
rally accompanies the disorder, rarely sufficiently early
characterize influenza ; the pulse is by no means to be
depended upon ; and although often small and frequent, yet
it often has the wiry, oppressed, and indistinct feel usual in
pneumonia.

Catarrhal symptoms. — The disease occasionally com-
mences with a rigor, or shivering fit, which is frequently

INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 279

not observed ; to this succeeds increased lieat, with hurried
respiration. At the period, however, when the veterinary
surgeon is generally called in, the true nature of the symp-
toms few can venture to determine. There is, however,
one sign which will justify caution ; this is a yellowness of
the membrane of the eye ; and in a day or so a serous
defluxion from one or both nostrils ensues, which become
quickly heightened in colour ; the eyes themselves appear-
ing at the same time heavy and moist. The serous exuda-
tion from the nose, however, soon loses its thin character,
for cough comes on, and the discharge becomes purulent.
All mucous surfaces have a tendency to sympathise with
one another ; therefore in influenza, not only may the dis-
ease extend to the interior of the air cells of the lungs, but
it almost invariably affects the lining membranes of the
great digestive canal and generative organs. Sore throat
is a very frequent accompaniment to the complaint, which
shows itself by a difficulty in swallowing. The hay which
is taken is chewed, or ' quidded,' as it is termed ; then
falls out of the mouth. The disease extending itself makes
the cough more harsh, dry, and frequent. From the
tumefaction about the rima giottidis, the cough is often
almost incessant, as well as deep and sonorous ; it is fre-
quently so painful as to occasion much impatience and
violent stamping in the horse during the eftbrt. In its
progress throughout the extent of the nasal membrane it
often affects the frontal sinuses, in which case the head is
pendant, the eyelids are nearly closed, and even shght
appearances of coma present themselves. The general
affection makes it very common for the submaxillary glands
to become much tumefied, extremely tender, and on rare
occasions to suppurate. The same tendency likewise pro-
duces tumours in various parts of the head, which greatly
protract the disease. In some instances also pendulous
swellings appear on the chest, belly, or legs ; but which
often prove critical, and announce the termination of the
disease in dropsy of the chest. The pulse varies in dif-
ferent subjects and under different modifications of the
disorder : it is, however, quickened in all instances, and the
breathing is usually accelerated in the same proportion;
but it is only occasionally that the pulse is full or hard.

280 INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES.

A remarkable prostration of strength soon follows the sup-
purative process. Thus about the third or fourth day,
after pus has exuded from the nose, the horse, on being
moved from his stall or box, will usually be found much
weaker than the violence of the acconipanying symptoms
would give reason to expect.

As the purulent discharge becomes confirmed and in-
creases in quantity, the disease grows milder, and all the
symptoms may be expected to abate. The cough and
soreness of throat will lessen, the pulse moderate, the heat
of the body will become equable, the countenance more
lively, and the horse will now probably be disposed to eat
some favourite food. The dung, which has been before
dry and in small quantities, and the urine, which has been
also spare and high coloured, return to their natural states,
and the horse recovers gradually, but seldom rapidly. The
disease, how^ever, does not always take this favourable
turn ; on the contrary, by injudicious treatment, or by the
violence of the attack, or by a translation of the inflauima-
tory action, the respiration sometimes becomes greatly dis-
turbed, occasioning much heaving at the flanks ; the legs,
ears, and muzzle become cold, the pulss is found greatly
quickened, and the weakness excessive. The nasal mem-
branes now often look in some parts livid, and in others of
a fiery red : the discharge from them also is tinged with
streaks of blood. In these cases, unless relief be speedily
obtained, the pulse will proceed to falter, cold sweats ap-
pear, and the animal often sinks on the fifth, sixth, or
seventh day. In other cases, these fatal symptoms are not
so rapid ; but, eventually, the horse becomes emaciated,
and dies after ten, twelve, or fourteen days. Very fre-
quently, also, wdien the inflammation has extended to the
lungs, serous effusion pours forth, as in pleurisy, and
suffocation closes the scene. In some instances a partial
recovery takes place ; but the horse remains thick winded,
or he proves a roarer, or he becomes altogether broken
winded ; which several terminations are more fully detailed
in Pneumonia.

Causes. — It is better to confess these are unknow^n,
rather than by a laboured and pretended explanation to
endeavour to conceal our ignorance.

INFLUENZA OR CATARRHAL FEVER IN HORSES. 281

Prognosis. — This will altogether depend upon the stage
at which we are called in, and the measures w'e intend to
pursue. If before the nasal discharge appears, and w'e
mean to adopt mild remedies, our opinion may be favour-
able. Even if the discharge has appeared, and the horse
has not been tampered with, we may promise a desirable
issue. But if the animal has a forlorn aspect, a quick and
feeble pulse, and numerous swellings about the body, at
once declare an adverse judgment ; or if you mean to use
energetic measures, you may safely prognosticate the horse
will die, no matter at what stage your services may be
required.

Treatment of the Influenza or Catarrhal Fever. — This
complaint was formerly very destructive, as all the accounts
left us by old practitioners sufficiently testify. It has,
however, under modern treatment, been stripped of very
much of its terrors. The chief thing to be remembered by
the veterinary surgeon is, that influenza is a simulating
disease, and that the animal labouring under it w^ould be
killed by one half of the means lawfully pursued to eradi-
cate other disorders. Old writers mention a mahgnant
catarrhal fever, in which the body was edematous, the
breath foetid, and all secretions and excretions offensive ;
but it may be doubted whether the malignant catarrh they
speak of w^as not simple influenza, made to assume a
typhoid or putrid type, by the bleedings, purgings, blister-
ings, sweatings, diuretics, nauseants, &c. &c. in which they
indulged.

If the pulse be quick and feeble, the membrane of the
nose deeper than usual, the mouth clammy, and the lining
of the eye of a yellow tint, the practitioner must be cau-
tious. The other symptoms may declare pneumonia, lami-
nitis, laryngitis, bronchitis, enteritis, or any other form of
disease, but he must entirely disregard them. He must
run every risk, upon the hazard that influenza may be
lurking beneath the obvious symptoms. Let him give the
drink composed of sulphuric ether, laudanum, and cold
water, and leave the horse for an hour : at the expiration
of the period he will return, and if the disease be influenza
the horse may be a little better, or at all events no worse.
He will then retire, leaving another drink of the same kind,

282 SYiMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES.

and directing it to be administered at night. The next
day, and the next, he will repeat this drench, administering
with it a scruple of calomel. The powder he will shake
upon the tongue, and then wash it down with the drink ;
and this he will persevere wdth till the character of the
pulse changes, becoming more quick, and so weak as hardly
to be felt. Thereupon he w^ill discontinue all medicine,
and order the horse a quart of the best London stout, night
and morning. The cure altogether seldom lasts a week
under this mode of treatment, and the recovery is not only
soon accomplished but perfect.

With regard to stabling during the height of this com-
plaint, a stall is every bit as good as a loose box, for the
horse that has influenza will take no kind of exercise. He
should not be moved from the stable where he stands, as
loss of a companion has aggravated the complaint. The
stable doors and windows should be left open, and the
animal have light summer clothing put upon him. A good
bed should be under him, and a pail of good whitened
water, or thin gruel, placed in his manger : this last should
be changed twice every day, although it be not touched.
Silence should be maintained as much as possible, near to
and about the animal prostrated by this disorder. Influenza
renders horses extremely nervous, and the slightest noises
seriously affect them. So soon as the strength of the com-
plaint has subsided, a loose box may then be of advantage.
His drink may be made rather thicker ; carrots chopped
fine, and fresh grasses should compose his only food for the
few first days, then a few crushed and scalded oats may be
allowed ; and at any time give any kind of provender, rather
than the horse should consume his bed. Good wholesome
stimulating food is, after all, the best tonic ; and plenty of
this, with a quart of the best London stout morning and
evening, will soon leave the horse none the worse for having
had influenza.

SYMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES.

By this is to be understood those general febrile appear-
ances which often accompany local inflammations ; that is,
when any one or more organs are extensively deranged,
and the vascular system is violently disturbed by the injury.

SYMPTOMATIC FEVER OF HORSES. 283

It is evident, therefore, that fever, in this instance, is not
to be regarded so much a disease as a s^^mptom ; and such
it is to be considered in practice ; nevertheless, it sometimes
runs so high as to supersede all other symptoms, wearing
away the strength of the animal, so as to render him unable
to struggle with the real injury. It is the most frequent
fever of horses ; because it is attendant upon all serious
hurts and attacks.

When the veterinary surgeon is visiting an animal suf-
fering from any disease or injury, it is always a bad symp-
tom when defluxions or excretions suddenly stop ; the eye
brightens ; the pulse becomes much stronger, but not much
quicker ; the nasal and visible membranes grow red and
dry ; the mouth gets hot, and the horse exhibits excitability,
which is shown by bis being attentive to every shadow,
and starting at every sound. This is symptomatic fever,
and a little blood may then be taken. This is best done by
an assistant, the principal standing apart to note the effect
produced by the abstraction ; and so soon as he remarks
the animal display any change, such as gaping, or becoming
evidently less excited, to command the operation to cease.
All food must be removed except a bran mash and chilled
water, both of which may remain in the manger. Either
of the following may be given immediately : —

Linseed oil one pint.

Cliloriform one drachm.

Powdered Barbadoes aloes three drachms.

Extract of gentian three drachms.

All noise must be suppressed, all strangers forbidden to
enter the stable ; none must approach the animal but the
groom it is accustomed to, and he must move as quietly as
possible. If in twenty-four hours the bowels have not
acted, six ounces of the solution of aloes, with one ounce
of sulphuric ether, and a pint of cold water may be given,
and ten grains of aconite (Wolfsbane) in powder be shaken
on the tongue, four times a day. These measures must
be continued ; for symptomatic fever is the first step in the
horse towards tetanus. All disturbance by backracking, &c.
must be strictly avoided ; and whatever is resolved upon
must be accomplished as quickly and as quietly as under
the circumstances is possible.

284 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.

This is generally a very fatal disorder in the horse.
There is only one known case of cure upon record, and
that one occurred in the practice of Mr. Gowing, of
1, Stucley-terrace, Camden Town; which, by the kind per-
mission of that gentleman, we are enabled to give in the
words of him by whom the treatment was conducted.

"On Saturday, March 12, nine o'clock a.m., 1 was re-
quested to visit a brown cart mare, the property of —
Gladdish, Esq., at his wharf, Camden Town.

" The history I received upon my arrival was, that they
supposed she must have been cast in the night, as there
were some enlargements upon the face and lips, also under
the jaw. Serum was oozing through the skin of a straw
colour in places, and also in other parts of a bloody cha-
racter : the near fore, and hind leg, were enlarged, or swol-
len to some extent. The case is evidently one of purpura.
I now informed the proprietor that it was a disease which
might end in death, and I had no doubt the mare's suffer-
ings would considerably increase ; that the depositions or
enlargements would become more extensive ; that there
would probably be hccmorrhage, which might take place in
other parts, and speedily prostrate the animal. I requested
that she should be removed to my infirmary, which was
acceded to, the distance being about half a mile, which she
accomplished with difficulty ; her pulse was seventy-eight,
and feeble ; I ordered her sp : tether nit : 5ij., with liq : ammo :
acce : 5viij., and to be repeated in an hour. The enlarge-
ments about the head and legs to be douched with cold

water, by the means of a double action pump, which was
constantly kept playing upon the swollen parts, for an
hour. I thought this produced a beneficial result, as the
swellings seemed to diminish. She was now rubbed dry
and placed in her box, but in less than thirty minutes the
depositions became larger than before. I ordered her a
ball composed of aloes Barb : Siijfs., hyd. chloridi 9j. : crot :
ol:gt:j.

" Three o'clock, p.m., repeat the pumping as before.

" Six o'clock, P.M., the sweUings are considerably in-
creased.

PURPURA HiEMORRHAGICA. 285

"Nine o'clock, p.m., the pulse 110; head and legs still
becoming larger, and she presents in reality a most pitiable
appearance. White water was offered her, and sloppy mash
placed before her.

" Sunday, March 13. The depositions about the nose
have become slightly reduced : the mare appears thirsty.
Ordered whatever fluids she will drink should be given to
her ; Ibss. carbonate of iron, in two pails of water ; and
allow her what she will take in the shape of diet ; pulse
100 to 105.

" Second visit. The head and face swollen more, and the
difficulty of breathing greater.

" Monday, March 14. Legs more enlarged ; head, chest,
and face, about the same as yesterday ; will eat a mouthful
of hay, but with difficulty, as the effusion about the head
prevents the masticatory process. She has purged twice ;
order her four ounces more of the ferri carb : in water, of
which she partook freely. The pulse taken at the temporal
artery is very feeble and quick.

"Tuesday, March 15. The fseces have become again
firm ; the cathartic ball as before ; pulse, as near as I can
take it, about 100; the mare still takes a little hay. The
head has become somewhat reduced ; she consequently can
feed a little better ; but the enlargements are increased about
the chest and legs, more particularly inside of the thighs,
the effusion extending up to the mammae ; still the mare
appears cheerful ; she turns in her box, although with diffi-
culty ; blood still oozing through the skin.

" I am now determined to try the effects of turpentine ^iv.,
to be beaten up with the yolk of an egg, and to be given in
gruel. The conjunctival membranes are injected, and have
a scarlet appearance, approaching the colour of vermillion.
Diet continued as before.

" Wednesday, March 16. The tongue has become con-
siderably enlarged, so as to prevent the mare from feeding ;
she has bitten the end, and there appears such a loss of
vitality, that I am fearful it will take on a sphacelated
condition ; deep scarifications to the tongue, and order 5iv.
of turpentine to be given in gruel, as before ; she has
passed her faeces during the night ; urinates freely, the
kidneys being acted upon by the agent. The turpentine
was also repeated the last thing at night.

286 PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.

"Thursday, March 17. The tongue much more en-
larged, so that she cannot feed ; she is continually laying
hold of the manger, and then resting her lips and tongue
upon it, which apparently seems to afford relief to her
sufferings ; she cannot get the tongue within the mouth ;
the kidneys acting freely, the turpentine perceptible in the
odour upon entering the box ; scarifications, and fomenta-
tions ; the tongue to be slightly manipulated, at intervals,
and placed if possible within the mouth ; she cannot take
any thing ; will make the attempt, but has not the power
of deglutating, in consequence of the enlarged state of the
tongue,

" Six o'clock, P.M. There is now a perceptible difference,
the legs being reduced, also the chest and face ; but she
cannot yet retain the tongue in the mouth. I once more
scarified the tongue, gently manipulated it, and steamed the
head with bran in a bag.

" Friday, March 18. The tongue can be used more
freely, appears lively ; picks a little hay, which evidently
gives her pain, as the tongue is very sore ; she retains the
hay in her mouth for a second or two, and then drops it ;
eats a few moudifuls of mash ; the swellings have become
larger under the abdomen, and there is a ditticulty of giving
any fluids by the mouth ; order 5iv. of turpentine in gruel,
as an enema ; the mouth and tongue to be gargled fre-
quently, with a weak solution of the chloride of lime ; she
has dunged, and urinated, but not so freely as before.

"Ten o'clock, p.m. The mare has eaten some mash,
and drank three parts of a pail of water ; order the mouth
and tongue to be gargled ; some mash, and whitened water
to be placed before her. She urinated while I w^as present ;
very high-coloured, and also some coagulated blood in it.

"Saturday, March 19. The tongue is in an improved
condition ; feeding better ; but clots of blood still passing
from the bladder, and the urine of a dark coffee-like ap-
pearance. It is evident that some of the renal vessels have
yielded. Omit the turpentine, and order one ounce of the
ferri sulph : in water ; this she took voluntarily ; the en-
largement under the belly not reduced ; the parts again are
scarified.

"Sunday, March 20. Still improving. Order the ferri
sulph : in w^ater as before ; her taste is now returning, as,

PURPURA HyEMORRIIAGICA. 287

after emptying half the pail, it was evident that she knew
there was something in it besides water ; but it was again
offered to her when thirsty, and she took the remainder.

" Monday, March 21, Improving. No medicine ; there
is foetor from the tongue and mouth. Order the gargle as
before, and to be used two or three times a day. There is
some appearance of sloughing of the integument in several
parts, such as under the jaw, legs, and belly.

" Tuesday, March 22. The separation of the skin has
taken place. The integument has fallen off, leaving sur-
faces of a pale unhealthy character. Ordered the parts to
be dressed with chloride of lime in solution. Liberal feeding
with malt mashes, and medicine to be discontinued.

" Wednesday, March 23. She is not improving so fast
as I should wish. There is evidence of gi'eat debility ; reels
in her walk ; also the depositions under the chest and belly
not wholly absorbed ; the granulating surfaces of the wounds
still bear a pale appearance, denoting a want of power in the
system. A malt mash to be given ; also an additional feed
of corn allowed ; and a ball composed of ferri sulph : 5iij.,
ex : gent : 5ij., pulv : zingibi 5j., pulv : capsisi gr : x., to be
continued daily. This treatment was continued until April 3,
when the wounds were filling up with new matter, and as-
suming a healthy character ; allow her four feeds a day, and
all further medicinal treatment discontinued.

''Remarks. — I think the recovery of the mare depended
principally upon the action of the turpentine. It is an
agent, in such a disease, that I in future shall place my
principal dependence upon ; but, if given at all, it must be
administered in large and repeated doses, as its action and
the state of the patient requires. The enlargements about
the nose and hps were so extensive as to give those parts
the appearance of being the largest portion of the head.
In consequence it assumed a curious aspect, and a person
sent by the owner compared her head to that of the hippo-
potamus, only larger in comparison with the animal. The
hind extremities were of enormous size ; the inner part of
the thighs were of such magnitude that they touched each
other, so as entirely to exclude the sight of the mammse."

288 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE.

FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE.

The fevers of neat cattle have many absurd, though,
under some points of view, expressive names, as Hoose,
Distemper, Black quarter, Joint felon, Quarter evil, Quarter
ill, Shewt of Blood, Joint murrain. Striking in of the blood,
Black leg, Blain of the tongue, S)C. S)C. In some years these
febrile affections rage as epidemics, either from too luxu-
rious pasturage, or it seems sometimes through a sudden
removal from a meagre to a more nutritious feed ; hence
they are very common among the droves brought from
the north into the luxurious southern, midland, and western
districts. Fever is sudden in its attack, and rapid in its
progress, in its early state presenting highly inflammatory
appearances, which are very apt to degenerate into a low
and putrid type. The first symptoms usually betrayed are
general stiffness of the limbs ; a dull heavy countenance ;
red eylids and nostrils ; pulse sometimes quick and hard, at
others not much altered in number ; breathing accelerated
and sometimes difficult, evinced by the open mouth and
outstretched head ; stools either in balls or slimy, and
usually of a drier consistence than natural. It is often
attended with great stupidity and disinclination to move,
but occasionally there is much restlessness ; debility comes
on early, particularly in the hinder quarters ; and by the
second day the animal can only remain standing for a short
time. Rumination and inclination for food cease ; the
breath emits a foetid exhalation, and frequently on the
second day a critical deposit takes place, which terminates
the inflammatory action. This deposit, in some animals,
proves to be an universal diffusion of bloody serum tlu'ough-
out the cellular membrane ; in others, tumours form on the
joints, or on the back or belly. From the putrid tendency
in some instances, a quantity of gas is likewise let loose
within the cellular membrane, which produces a crackling
under the skin when pressed upon by the hand. The secre-
tions are stopped, and the mouth, &c. emit a horrible foctor.
Under which symptoms, unless speedily relieved, the animal
sinks.

Wood-evil, pantas, and moor-ill, may with propriety suc-
ceed the above. Variable symptoms, however, will, without

FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE. 289

doubt, mark each of these diseases ; but their grand febrile
characteristics will bear similar features, and the diseases
will require a treatment based on their degree of morbid
malignancy, the ages and strength of the animals attacked,
and the organs principally affected. It is not the local
names that should be attended to by the practitioner ; nor
can the localities themselves, as woody districts or the open
moors, have such decided power over these disorders as are
stated. The herbage of the lowlands, particularly in wet
seasons, may somewhat vary the symptoms ; but the more
important indications will remain, and similar treatment
must for every case be persisted in. A cold wet season has
much influence in engendering these diseases : nor, from
what we have seen of them, is marsh miasmata without a
powerful influence thereon. Thus it is, that in the lofty
moorlands of the north they prevail equally as in the lower
and moister grounds of the south.

The Treatment. — This disease has so great a tendency to
run into the typhoid stage, or to assume the putrid cha-
racter, that though it be detected at the very earliest period,
yet blood must be withdrawn with extreme caution ;
perhaps the venesection had better be let alone, as all the
blood in the animal's body will be wanted hereafter. A mild
purge, consisting of two ounces of gentian, ten ounces of
Epsom salts, one ounce of sulphuric ether, one ounce of
the solution of chloride of lime, and one ounce of ginger,
or rather the tincture of ginger (if it can be procured) , with
a pint of cold water, may be horned down the beast's throat
immediately.

For sheep, one-tenth of the above may be administered.

If this does not answer to open the bowels in four hours,
or at furthest six — for animals in this condition, if they are
going to do so, will respond to medicine quicker than in
health — give a cow half a pint of linseed oil and half a drachm
of chloriform, or to a sheep one-sixth the quantity ; con-
tinue to repeat this last dose so often as the period recurs.

When the disease first shows itself in the mouth slit up
the bladders upon the tongue, extract the glutinous con-
tents, and rub the sore place left with borax and honey ; or,
if nothing else be at hand, a little tar and salt, or yeast and
salt, may be put upon the exposed surfaces.

290 FEVERS OF HORNED CATTLE.

The murrain, or pest, is but the latter stage of the above
disorder, probably aggravated by wrong treatment. The
person who undertakes to master a case of this kind must
therefore not be idle. The body must be protected, and the
skin kept warm by the best means ready to the hand ; but
the beast must not be loaded with clothing. This is more
essential if any pustules should appear upon the surface of
the body. These last should be freely opened, and well
rubbed with the application hereafter to be mentioned. If
there is any crackling under the skin, or any part of the
body appear to have lost its power of contraction, and to
feel cold, let it be slit up, and the wounds, as well as the
skin, freely rubbed with the wash named below.

WASH FOR FEVER IN CATTLE.

Chloride of zinc two drachms, two scruples.

Strong solution of oak b.ark one pint.

Tepid water three pints.

This is to be applied to all raw surfaces ; the borax and
honey, tar or yeast and salt, being only named in case the
wash has to be brought from a distance, as time is valuable
in this disorder.

When swellings appear about the joints these may be
well and repeatedly rubbed with the following embroca-
tion : —

Tincture of cantharides four ounces.

Liquor ammonia half a pint.

Tincture of capsicums four ounces.

Soap lees, or solution of soap two quarts.

With the above external applications, which are to be
almost constantly employed, the following injection is to be
thrown up at least once every two hours, or better still
every hour : —

Yeast half a pint.

Solution of chloride of lime a qnarter of a pint.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Cold linseed tea a pint and a half.

If expense be a consideration the sulphuric ether may be
omitted from the above ; but of course the medicine is im-
proved by its addition. While the above is being tried the
following may be given by the mouth every hour : —

{

Solution of chloride of zinc one ounce.

Solution of oak bark one ounce.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Or, chloriforni one drachm.

Linseed oil half a pint.

DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE. 291

After the first dose the oil and chloriform may be with-
drawn, and its place supplied by good linseed tea ; the oil
being again added as needed, at intervals of six hours each.

By an energetic pursuit of these measures the proprietor
may hope to save some of his stock ; but no earthly skill
will probably be able to snatch from death every animal
that is attacked. The disease, when mastered, will however
leave the beast very weak. Boiled food, linseed tea, and
tonic medicine twice a day, will all be required for its ulti-
mate recovery.

It will be necessary, during the ravage, to remove the
diseased cattle from the healthy ; these last should have their
pasture changed so often that at length one may be found
on which the stock are exempt. If none such is to be
found on the farmer's own land, he will act prudently to
hire a portion at a distance, and of an opposite character
to his own. To this last the healthy cattle may be very care-
fully driven ; the diseased animals being taken to the home-
stead, and there placed in a dry shelter. Here they must
remain until they are perfectly recovered ; the house in
which they have been located, and every thing they have
used, be washed with a liquid formed of a scruple of chloride
of zinc to a pint of water.

One-sixth of the above quantities is proper for sheep of
the full size, and less in proportion to their diminutive
stature.

DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE.

This name, which represents the disorder, is given to an
affection which cows are subject to. Short horns, good
milkers, and animals in high condition, or stuffed just about
the calving time, are the most exposed to its attacks. Young
cattle escape from it ; the fourth calf being usually the
earliest time when it commences.

Symptoms. — The animal is quiet in his house and feeding,
when it suddenly leaves off, stares about, and the respiration
is hurried for a few minutes. This over, the animal appears
to regain its consciousness, and falls to feeding again. It
again stops, and again commences eating, which may take
place an indefinite number of times. At length the beast
drops, attempts to rise, and then remains quiet ; or has the

u2

292 DROPPING AFTER CALVING IN CATTLE.

head thrust out or turned round to the shoulder, or raised
quickly up, and then dashed violently down again. After a
time hoven commences ; the entire abdomen swells, and the
animal dies without any dung having passed.

Prognosis. — It is unfavourable if the head be dashed
about, the milk lost, and sensation even to pressure upon
the eye quite gone. It is good if the purgative medicine
acts speedily ; if the milk is still in the udder ; if sensation is
retained ; if the animal moves, but keeps her head still, and
if the beast appears to be at all conscious of what is passing
around her.

Treatment. — First order the calf to be removed ; then, if
the cow be still up, extract so much blood from the milk
vein as makes an obvious impression, and then give a strong
drench ; if down, order the animal to be well trussed-up on
either side with straw, and have a man constantly watching,
and the shed kept moderately warm.

DRINK FOR DROPPING AFTER CALVING.

Epsom salts one pound.

Powdered gentian four ounces.

Tincture of capsicums one ounce.

Warm water a quart.

Repeat half of this every six hours, till a copious motion
is obtained, when very often the cow will rise and walk.
If the medicine, however, does not act, repeat the half
doses at the periods stated ; or change it for half pints of
linseed oil, to which half a drachm of chloriform is added.
At the same time be attentive to the drawing of the udder
thoroughly thrice a day ; if no fluid be obtained, have
the teats gently stroked six times daily, as the return of the
milk is one of the best symptoms. Rub in a stimulating
oil, to which one-fourth its quantity of liquid ammonia
is added, all over the spine, from the pole to the root of the
tail ; and, watching the effect of the application, cover the
whole with warm sheep skins, which must be changed every
twenty-four hours, or oftener as they demand it, supposing
the blister not to rise. See that the animal be carefully
propped up with clean straw, and be raised rather higher
forward, so that the urine and dung may not pollute her.
Whenever hoven appears insert the flexible probang, to
withdraw the gas, and use the same instrument to inject

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS. 293

some thick gruel, made warm with ginger, if all appetite be
lost. Withdraw the m'ine by means of a catheter, and do
all in yom' power to ameliorate the condition of your unfor-
tunate patient.

There are two forms of this disease : one is simple para-
lysis of the hind extremities, and is attended wdth small
danger ; the other consists of an effusion of blood upon the
brain, or spinal marrow, and calls for the most active mea-
sures, which however are rarely successful. When the
bowels are fully emptied, the following may be given thrice
daily : —

Sulpliuric ether one ounce.

Acetate of ammonia four ounces.

Solution of chloride of zinc two ounces.

Cold water a quart.

This disease might in a great measure be anticipated,
would the proprietor draw the udder so soon as it fills.
To this milkmen are very averse ; it is true the cow, in
a state of nature, could not have the udder drawn until the
calf is born, but the domesticated cow is not in a state of
nature. Man has made her a mere milking machine, and
it is but fair that man should relieve her of that which is
the consequence of his act. To purging and blood-letting
before calving we shall say nothing, having had proof
of their inefiicacy, and being violently opposed to such
measures.

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER, OR GARGET, IN COWS.

This subject may with much propriety follow dropping
after calving in cattle. It is certainly not a very uncommon
complaint, but as it usually attacks cows with the largest
udders, and the best milkers, so it deserves our notice. It
is also frequently met wdth after calving, when the evil
practice is followed of allowing the milk to accumulate
for several days before the time of parturition. There is a
disease called weeds in Scotland, which greatly resembles
true garget, only it is not so much to be dreaded in its
results.

Both require the same measures for their relief Garget
is likewise very annoying in attacking fatted cows, or animals
nearly fit for the butcher, if such, as is frequently the case,

294 INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS.

yield a little milk. The inflammation in this case is almost
entirely to be traced to the excessive feeding, and the same
cause is most probably at work when the disease comes on
immediately after calving.

The first symptom to be remarked is loss of appetite and
rumination, — standing apart, — dry muzzle, — hot root of
horns, &c. These signs, however, only denote the constitu-
tional disturbance, but attention is soon directed to the part
inflamed by the very peculiar walk and mode of standing, or
of lying down ; all of which are so effected as to allow the hind
legs to press in the least possible degree upon the diseased
gland. In whatever attitude the cow may be found she gene-
rally changes it with reluctance, and sometimes blows even
will not induce her to alter it. If she have a calf by her side
the little one must be removed. In all cases a small quan-
tity of blood should be taken from the milk vein ; then a
brisk purge administered, composed of Epsom salts l^ib, and
half doses afterwards to be given every six hours until it
acts freely. A canvas, made to pass under the udder having
holes cut for the teats, should be fastened on the loins, in
order to take off part of the weight of the diseased glands.
Within this canvas hay steeped in hot water, or chaff or
bran likewise made hot, may be placed, and they will
answer better than any fomentation. Or if the cow be a
favourite, and situated near to a town, a piece of spungeo-
piline may be procured, soaked in warm water, and applied
to the part. If, in a day or so, fomentations appear to do
no good, those applications must be discontinued, and the
following liniment should be rubbed at least six times a day
into the udder.

Soap lees, or solution of soaj) half a gallon.

Strongly camphorated spirits one pint.

Liquor ammonia (fortis) one pint.

Tincture of capsicums a quarter of a pint.

In the mean time the animal itself must not be neglected.
After the physic has acted, the following may be given in
good gruel : —

Aconite (wolfsbane) half a scruple.

Nitre one drachm.

These should be rubbed well together, and may be shaken
dry upon the cow's tongue. If the milk (for the glands must

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER IN COWS. 295

all this time be assiduously drawn) prove mingled with blood
and matter, the liniment should be discontinued, and the
foUowmg ointment rubbed in instead : —

Iodide of lead a quarter of a pound.

Good lard two pounds.

If, how^ever, all our efforts should fail, and the milk
should entirely cease, and a thin watery exudation drop
from the teat ; the veins upon the diseased quarter become
small and hard ; the part changing to a white or blueish
aspect, and at the same time feeling cold, a free incision,
the whole length of the udder, immediately over the place
thus affected should be made, and the mortified quarter
allowed to drop out. The wound, and the vacancy left,
may be dressed w^ith chloride of zinc and water, of the
strength of two scruples of the salt to the pint, and it will
heal speedier than would be imagined.

Sometimes the gland suppurates ; abscesses are formed ;
when these point or come with a slight protuberance to the
surface, and are soft to the touch, when such is the case,
the abscesses should be opened by plunging a sharp pointed
lancet into the centre of the forward point, and cutting-
outward.

After the cow has lost a quarter she requires supporting
with nourishing food and tonics. She will afterwards tax
the best care that can be given.

One means of preventing garget is to thoroughly draw
the udder every night and morning, no matter whether the
cow give much milk or little, whether she be fattening, on
the eve of parturition, or in any other condition.

Another preventive is, never to allow a stranger to at-
tempt the milking. Cows have a strange power of with-
holding the greater portion of the meal of milk, when one,
to whose presence they are unaccustomed, attempts to draw
them. At all events, observe the dispositions of the animals
in your shed, and never permit a stranger to attempt the
milking of a cow which has a nervous, excitable, or easily
alarmed constitution.

296 EPIDEMIC CATARRH IN CATTLE.

HOOSE, COLD, COUGH, INFLUENZA, OR EPIDEMIC CATARRH,

IN CATTLE.

There is one cause given in most books which treat of
cattle, to account for all their diseases, and accordingly we
find it in many set down as the reason for influenza. Fat
cattle, certainly, are not exempt from the disorder, but the
editor has found poor, exposed beasts, the most liable to be
attacked. There is no known cause for the disease. We
do not know how to check it, or how to encourage the
spread of it. It is, therefore, entitled an epidemic, and
supposed to consist in something peculiar in the air. This
is a very convenient explanation under which to conceal
our ignorance.

Lean cattle, much exposed, are the most liable to be
attacked by, though no description of beast is altogether
free from, the ravage of this complaint. The animal is first
seen to neglect its feed ; to look dejected, and altogether to
present a very rugged appearance. Shortly afterwards,
some part or parts of the body begin to swell. It may be
one, or all four legs. The eyes, the glands under the jaw\
&c. &c., in short any one of these, or all together, may
begin to enlarge. They are seldom very tender, though of
course the animal does not relish to have them handled.
The weakness is excessive. The cow can hardly stand
or crawl, and a sense of uneasiness forbids it to be quiet.
The nose takes to running at first a clear fluid, which
shortly grows thicker, because of white bodies floating
about in it, and then takes on the purulent stage.

Such, with the signs of general constitutional disorder,
is a description of the influenza. Much force has been
laid upon the cough, but though usually, it is not always
present ; and when it is, being loud at first, it quickly
becomes suppressed and sore, the pain it occasions causing
the poor beast to stamp with the fore foot.

The practitioner called into such a case first feels the
pulse, which he finds weak and quickened, indicating the
presence of debility. He next looks up the nostrils, which
he 6nds inflamed if he be called in early, or clogged with a
copious purulent discharge, if his patient have suffered long.
Ropy saliva may be hanging from each side of the mouth,

VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42, 297

and the lips and inside may be ulcerated. He then obliges
the cow to move a pace or two, and she will stagger in her
efforts to progress. His mind is made up. It is a case of
influenza, and he therefore proceeds with caution.

Treatment. — The terrible accounts left us of this disease
were most likely either produced by utter neglect, or caused
by wrong measures pursued for its relief. The modern
practitioner refuses to bleed; the strength cannot bear it ;
and likewise to purge, for excessive purgation and death
are commonly the result of exciting the bowels into action.
If the beast be out in a field, he gently gets her under
shelter, which he renders warm, placing a good bed of straw
under the animal, and a pail full of thin gruel in her man-
ger, with a hot bran mash before her. These, though she
has touched neither, he orders to be changed thrice daily ;
viz., morning, noon, and night. He shakes half a drachm
of calomel powder upon the tongue, and gives the following
drink night and morning : —

Sulphuric ether an ounce.

Acetate of ammonia eight ounces.

Tincture of ginger two ounces.

Cold water a P'^t.

This is the only medicine he ventures to give during the
violence of the disorder ; so soon as it has abated, and the
pulse become faster and very weak, he leaves it off, and
gives in its stead a quart of warm, not hot, ale into which
has been stirred half an ounce of tincture of capsicums.

In this disease the practitioner will do well to inform the
proprietor that every thing depends on attention and good
nursing. These two things are even more essential than
medicine, for many an animal will survive that has not been
taking a particle of physic, but has been assiduously tended
during its sickness.

VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42.

This disease attacks cattle, sheep, and swine. It was
formerly regarded with much terror, which has of late
years considerably abated. Its characteristic symptoms,
besides those of general constitutional disturbance, which
are always first exhibited, are vesicles appearing upon the
mouth, teats, and feet of cattle ; and upon the feet of sheep,

298 VESICULAR EPIDEMIC OF 1841-42.

or the teats of ewes. The animal first appears strongly
averse to feed or walk much ; and, if a cow, she is resist-
ful during milking. Then follows smacking, loud and un-
mistakable smacking, of the lips : taking up of the fore foot
and shaking it. If the udder about this time be observed,
little bladders will be seen upon it, and the same vesi-
cles will be upon the outside and inside of the mouth,
and larger ones upon the tongue. The horn between the
claws will also appear sapped, and bulging out. These
bladders or vesicles, and swollen horn, will ultimately
burst, and a highly vascular, or very irritable surface will
be exposed. Recent authors mention complications of
this complaint ; but either the treatment has improved, or
the disease has of late abandoned much of its virulence,
for none are now to be met wath.

Treatment. — As part of this disease affects the feet, in
the first place get the animal under shelter, with plenty of
clean straw beneath it. Then cut off the cuticle from those
places where the vesicles have burst, and also pare away
the horn wherever it is detached ; but be careful to remove
too little' rather than too much. With regard to medical
measures, so much debility quickly follows this disease,
that both bleeding and purging are out of the question.
Moderately thick gruel may be placed before the beast,
which will sometimes drink freely. Boiled carrots or tur-
nips may likewise be put in the manger. Both of these
must be repeatedly changed, although neither are touched.
The sore places upon the feet, mouth, and teats, may be
gently dabbed several times in the course of the day, with
a piece of soft rag wetted with the following lotion : —

Chloride of zinc one draclim.

Pure water a pint and a half.

Nothing by the mouth is to be given, excepting a stimu-
lating and soothing drink, which may thus be formed, and
administered once every day : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Water a pint.

Nothing more is necessary for a perfect cure in most
instances ; when complications do appear, they must be
treated as directed in other parts of this work. Every

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 299

possible means must be tried by gentleness and frequent
attempts, with an enduring- patience, to drain the udder
thoroughly. The cow will resist much, but all depends
upon this act being well performed.

CHAPTER II.

MADNESS, OR PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN

IN HORSES.

When this springs from blows, causing inflammation or
abscess of the brain, all medical measures are useless. It
is better to order the horse which is thus injured to be
immediately shot, than to hazard any kind of hopeless
treatment. If, however, this advice be rejected, the medi-
cines should be such as are calculated to check most violent
and speedy inflammation ; and further than this, we have
no recommendation to submit to the reader. The time for
adopting measures intended to relieve the injured animal,
is during the comatose stage, that usually precedes the
violent one, which last, when it has once commenced, sets
all remedial treatment at defiance.

MAD STAGGERS, SLEEPY STAGGERS, STOMACH STAGGERS.

It was common to consider these as distinct diseases ;
but morbid anatomy and a more extended field of observa-
tion have taught us that they are only modifications of one
aflection. The sleepy staggers of farriers is usually but the
first stage of mad staggers. It is true it does occasionally
run its course, either fatal or otherwise, under the first
form, but it is much more frequently the precursor to the
last.

The symptoms will vary as the attack is more or less
acute, or as its approaches are slow or sudden. When slow,
it is ushered in by a loss of the usual attention to objects
around, and an accompanying drowsiness, which increases
into lethargy; the appetite at first is rather interrupted
than lost. When the attack is sudden, the horse is at once
found with his head hanging between his legs, or rested in
the manger, or forced against that or the walls of the stable ;
or if it occurs at grass, he is often found thus resting his

300 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

head against a tree, or pacing around it ; his eyeHds are
hkewise partially closed, and when elevated, the pupil is
seen dilated, and around it increased redness and vascu-
larity of the conjunctival coat ; likewise of the nasal mem-
branes. Stubborn costiveness is also present, and almost
invariably the pulse is below its natural standard. The
breathing is slow, laboured, and evidently sleepy in the
early stage ; stertorous breathing only occurs in extreme
cases. These lethargic appearances sometimes increase
rapidly ; the horse occasionally falling down, sleeping with
food in his mouth ; and when roused, relapsing into stupor
until nervous excitement is totally suspended ; and the
animal dies in two, three, or four days, or may live to the
sixth or seventh ; or the disease may give way to a natural
or to an artificial cure. The post-mortem appearances of
such as die in this state or stage of the disease show the
cerebral membranes, usually turgid with blood throughout
all their envelopments ; the plexus choroides more particu-
larly so ; and the stomach greatly distended with undigested
food, and partially inflamed.

The 7nad staggers occasionally makes its appearance
without the former stage being prominent or observable ; but
in the majority of cases the lethargic state is followed by
phrenitic symptoms of more intensity : the pulse rises ;
there is much watchfulness and irritability of manner ; occa-
sionally stamping of the feet, and a delirious look. The
mouth is hot and dry ; the nasal and conjunctival mem-
branes are much heightened in colour, and the breathing is
greatly quickened : as the disease advances the pulse is
full and frequent ; sometimes it is peculiarly hard and
irregular, scarcely remaining the same for an hour to-
gether : the horse bounds from side to side ; delirious fits
occur, which make it dangerous to approach him ; the
violent convulsions wdiich suddenly seize him rendering it
not uncommon for him to rear and strike out his fore feet
with great violence ; or he will sometimes in so doing fall
backwards, in which state he will lie sweating at every
pore, apparently with the intensity of the pain he suffers :
small hard dung-balls are forced out at such times, or a
small quantity of highly coloured and sometimes offensive
urine is expelled ; from which he may experience slight

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

301

relief, and he will rise again to renew the same scenes,
until exhausted by the irritation.

Phrenitis may he mistaken for the phrensied symptoms
apparent in the rabid malady : but the following observa-
tions will sufficiently indicate the difference between the
two. In the rabid phrenitis the symptoms evidently be-
token, not only a frantic, but a decidedly mischievous dis-
position, which prompts him purposely to attack every
thing living and dead : all around him suffers ; rack, stall,
and manger, are all laid prostrate. In the true staggers
nothing of this kind appears ; the horse is wild, and beats
himself about, and endangers every thing around him, but
not by premeditated design: on the contrary, he simply
labours under spasmodic contraction of his muscles, which
force him into violent efforts ; he rears, plunges, falls pros-
trate, or kicks, from mere excess of pain.

Post-mortem examination will not unfrequently present
an altered structure in the cerebral mass itself. Mr. Per-
civall notices his having seen a remarkable yellowness of
the substance of the cerebellum. In some instances, par-
ticularly where death has early succeeded to a very violent
attack, the cerebral pulp has been tinted with an inflamma-
tory blush; the membranes, but particularly the plexus
choroides, have also been intensely vascular.^ In protracted
cases, and especially where serous effusion has taken
place, the whole cerebral mass has been found more pale
than natural, as well as soaked and tender with serosity.
It is remarkable that in all instances which have been
examined, there has been abdominal affection also. The
stomach either being distended with food, or violently in-
flamed; the inflammation extending down the intestines.
Sometimes the stomach is found ruptured, and a portion of
its contents within the abdominal cavity.

The cause is, in every instance, the allowance of an
undue quantity of food, or the too tempting quality of the
pasture, which induces the horse to eat too much. This
disease was frequent in the agricultural districts formerly,
but since the introduction of the nose-bag it has now be-
come, happily, very rare. It is now not unusual among
the horses which draw the London night cabs, a long absti-
nence in them creating an uncontrollable appetite.

302 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

No prognosis can be pronounced upon merely seeing the
horse. The condition is one of extreme danger, and every
thing depends upon the susceptibiUty of the animal to the
action of medicine.

The cure of stomach staggers. — This is far easier talked
about than accomplished. The sluggish stage, however,
affords the only hope of doing good. From the known
congestion of the brain, it would seem indicated, to the
general notion, to abstract blood largely ; but after such a
bleeding, as in this case alone could be of service, the horse
very probably would never afterwards be of any use to his
master, even though its life were saved. The veterinary
surgeon is wanted to restore active health, and not to save
life ; and he, therefore, does wisely, who lets the fleam or
lancet rest in his pocket. The blood in the body, more-
over, if all of it were drained, would leave a congested
brain behind it, as animals bled to death sufficiently show ;
and the blood is required to restore that vital activity, on the
return of which the only hope of cure depends ; while its
sudden abstraction might remove present pressure, and
enable the brain to act without restoring it to tranquiUity.

The medical attendant, therefore, does not bleed. He
places his main hope in counter-irritants and in purgatives.
He administers six ounces, or even eight, if the horse be
large and in working condition, of solution of aloes, blended
with an ounce of extract of gentian. Next, he applies a
cloth, saturated wnth liquor ammonia, diluted with only
half its quantity of w ater, to the abdominal surface ; and
obtains four men, w^ith rather dull noses, to hold a blanket
or blankets, several times doubled, over the cloth whereby
it is kept close to the part. Warm sheep skins, as soon
as they can be procured, are to be placed all along the
spine. A pint of turpentine, in strong soap and water
(about a gallon), is to be thrown up as an enema. The
feet are to be well rubbed with oil of cantharides, rendered
more mild by the admixture of thrice its quantity of sim-
ple oil, and then to be closely bandaged up as high as
possible. In four hours, one-third of the former quantity
of the physic may be given by the mouth, or if the
horse should be likely to fall when the head is raised, the
tube of a human stomach pump may be passed through

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 303

the nostril into the pharynx or oesophagus, and thus the
physic be administered. However, sulphuric ether one ounce
should be added to the physic. In four hours afterwards, a
pint of Unseed oil, in which a drachm of chloriform has been
mixed, may be tried. If that produces no change in another
four hours,' it may be repeated. The next four hours having
expired, a scruple of croton seed may be placed upon the
tongue, followed by an ounce of sulphuric ether, in a pint
of cold water. Then the various substances may be tried
over again.

The ammonia, used as a blister, is to be repeatedly
observed, to mark its action; otherwise, it may dissolve
the skin, instead of blistering the belly. It must, on no
account, be retained longer than a quarter of an hour ; but
re-applied, as well as the feet again stimulated, and the
enema administered with every dose of physic.

This treatment is to be pursued till the physic seems
to have worked some good. But how is this to be ascer-
tained, as it is impossible to purge a horse in less time
than sixteen hours ? Why, by the countenance : when
that brightens ; when the blister rises ; when all the symp-
toms abate, and the general aspect appears improved, then
we are justified in doubling the periods between the doses,
and reducing the strength of the physic by one-half ; also
to discontinue the bUster to the abdomen, and liniment to
the feet ; and to let the glysters consist of mere soap and
water. Hopes may then be entertained, but to confirm
them the bowels require to act, and the purgation that
ensues to be regulated ; directions for doing which will be
given hereafter.

Oxen and sheep are occasionally objects of a phrenitic
attack, which is called by graziers, farmers, &c., as in
horses, fever of the brain, frenzy, staggers, &c. ; in which
there is little difference in appearance, consequence, or
necessary treatment.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

Inflammation of the lungs was long a great stumbling-
block to the practitioners of the old school ; the devastating
effects on these organs, seen in such as had died of it, being
usually mistaken for the effects of some chronic affection

304 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

of a rotting tendency. A more extended acquaintance with
the art has taught us the true nature and progress of
the disease ; but it appears also to have produced a con-
viction in the minds of many veterinarians who wavered on
the subject, that pleurisy, independent and distinct from
inflammation of the lungs, may and occasionally does exist
in the horse ; and that therefore, in a systematic point of
view, it is proper to consider the various chest affections
under distinct heads ; to which also may be added that of
pleuro-pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs and pleura
existing at one and the same time ; as no one will deny that
this is by far the most usual form of disease.

INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE LUNGS, OR
PNEUMONIA.

When we consider how totally we have removed the horse
from a life of nature to one of art, in which the lungs, more
vascular than any other organs, are subjected in an extra-
ordinary degree to the extremes of exertion and temperature,
we cannot be surprised that they should in a great measure
form the seat of acute inflammation.

Causes. — The predisposition may be looked for in consti-
tutional plethora, occasioned by high feeding, hot clothing,
stabling with high temperatures, and by accelerated exercise ;
all which render the lungs more susceptible to congestion,
and less able to resist the effects of it. Among the various
causes alternations between heat and cold are probably the
most common ; and we have the more reason to believe
that it is the alternations themselves which provoke the
disorder, as we find that horses bear the extremes of both
heat and cold, in different countries, with seeming im-
punity. Heat suddenly applied may be supposed to
heighten the circulation generally, and produce conges-
tion immediately within the lungs. Cold suddenly applied
may act instantly also by driving the blood from the skin
to the deeper-seated organs. A very fertile source of it is
also occasioned by inordinate exercise, as regards quick-
ness of progression, which wears out the vital activity of
the lungs ; thus it frequently follows severe runs in hunt-
ing ; and thus also horned cattle, which are unused to any
motion, are liable to it, when they, in a high state of con-

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 305

dition, travel great distances to markets or fairs. A cause
is observed to particularly operate in some seasons : cold
moist spring seasons are often marked with pneumonic
attacks, which rage in an epidemic form.

Symptoms. — This disease sometimes attacks the horse
very suddenly, and he exhibits, with one or two shivering
fits, the excited breathing which is symptomatic of the
complaint ; at others, it steals on, and is almost unobserved
for two or three days ; but whether the approach be sudden
or retarded, the general functions will appear disturbed.
One that first shows itself is the unequal distribution of
heat ; the legs and ears being much colder than the other
parts of the body. The coat stares ; the horse loses his
appetite ; is evidently uneasy, and occasionally looks gently
round towards his chest. In the early stages the nasal
linings look paler than usual ; but as it advances they be-
come of a leaden hue ; and although the general surface of
the trunk may vary in its temperature, the extremities,
as the legs, ears, and tail, and sometimes the muzzle,
are found uniformly cold. Cough is by no means a
pathognomonic symptom ; many cases are without it ;
but when it does exist, it is at first short, dry, and
frequent, and becomes eventually heavy, thick, and painful ;
occasionally some mucus with bloody striae is thrown up in
coughing, particularly when the bronchii participate in the
affection. The respiration becomes disturbed as soon as
the disease is formed ; the first febrile attack will hurry it,
but, the exacerbation of that over, it becomes simply
laboured. The local inflammation having pervaded the sub-
stance of the lungs, thickened the lining membrane of the
tubes, and lessened the calibre of the air cells, respiration
now becomes permanently quickened ; the flanks are found
to heave, and the breathing is carried on with labour and
irregularity ; the inspirations being delayed to retard the
pain produced by the distention of the chest, while the
expirations are more hurried to relieve it from distress.
The cavity is, however, no sooner emptied, than a new
source of distress, in the stagnant condition of the heart,
forces the horse to renew the breathing. The state of the
pulse is variable in this disease, according as the lungs or
the pleura bear the greatest share in the complaint. It is,

X

306 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

however, almost always quickened, sometimes to 100 even,
from the irritative state of the aortic system ; it is also in
most well-marked cases small and oppressed, the pulmo-
nary congestion preventing the free passage of blood through
the lungs. We have, however, occasionally found it mode-
rately full and bounding, dependent probably on the mem-
brane being more diseased than the substance of the
lungs. The horse is now seen to look more anxiously
round to his trunk ; the whole body also seems stiff and
sore : partially elevating the head occasions great pain,
and he is altogether disinclined to move ; on the contrary,
he stands fixed with his head extended forwards ; his nos-
trils outstretched ; his fore legs somewhat apart but forward ;
and he seldom if ever lies down, or if he does, he rises
again quickly. The chest, if tapped with the hand, emits
a dead sound ; while the ear applied to the side of the chest
will detect a dull but more urgent murmuring. As the
complaint increases, the pulse becomes still more oppressed
and irregular, so as to present, at the region of the heart,
nothing but the faintest flutter ; the legs, ears, and muzzle,
feel still more intensely cold, although partial sweats may
visit the carcass. The nostrils change to a still more livid
hue, and the air they expire is chill. The mouth now
becomes cold and pale ; convulsive twitchings affect the
breast, neck, and face ; the teeth grate, and death ensues
earlier or later, as the disease has been more or less rapid ;
occurring sometimes as early as the second or third day,
but more often between the third and seventh, being also
sometimes prolonged to the fourteenth or fifteenth.

The terminations of pneumonia are more varied than in
most other complaints : I'esolution is that most to be de-
sired ; in which the symptoms gradually subside, either
spontaneously, or aided by the curative treatment. Con-
gestion is the termination to be dreaded ; which sometimes
suffocates the patient on the fourth or fifth day, by filling
up the air cells with grumous blood. In the epidemic
pneumonia, w^here a considerable degree of malignance is
occasionally present, instead of blood, the air cells often
become choked with serosity.

Gangrene is not a frequent termination of true pneu-
monia; the irritation or the congestion usually destroys

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 307

the animal before the tissues are completely broken up.
The grumous black blood effused into the air cells has
been mistaken for a gangrenous state; but which state
rather belongs to those cases which are marked with
typhoid symptoms. It must here be observed, that,
although rare, a gangrenous state of a portion of the lungs
is occasionally present in pneumonia. Suppuration is
sometimes one of the sequelse to pneumonia ; in cases of
which there is also a deceitful remission of the symptoms,
but not so great as in hydrothorax ; it is further marked
by an irritating cough, a purulent discharge from the nose,
with a hard, hurried, and an irregular pulse. In these cases
a speedy termination follows by suffocation, or a more
protracted one, in which the animal dies emaciated. Hepa-
tization is also not an uncommon termination ; in which
the substance of the lungs becomes so blocked up and
solidified as to make them, contrary to the usual state,
sink in water. When the condensation is only partial, the
affections called thick wind and broken wind are the con-
sequence ; or an increased irritability of the lungs them-
selves, or of the mucous membranes of the bronchii and
trachea, may be left, which subjects the horse to a long-
continued or permanent cough. It is also the parent of
the tuberculated condition, which ends in phthisis pulmonalis
or glanders.

On the subject of symptoms, it remains to guard the
practitioner against mistaking pneumonia or inflammation
of the lungs for such other affections as it may be con-
founded w^ith ; as with influenza, bronchitis, or other dis-
eases of the mucous membranes. In influenza, the extre-
mities do not continue invariably cold ; the distress of
countenance is not so great ; sore throat is commonly pre-
sent; the breathing, though quickened, is less laborious,
and the pulse seldom oppressed. The cough in influenza
is generally deep, sonorous, and very painful : a weakness,
not corresponding with the violence of the symptoms, is
very early seen in influenza ; and though the lining of the
nostrils may be inflamed in influenza, it is seldom so much
so, as to present a purple hue. The principal necessity
which exists for making a careful distinction between the
two diseases, arises from its not being found prudent to

x2

308 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

push the treatment so far in influenza as in pneumonia ;
for if the two should be confounded, and the milder be
treated as the severer case ought to be, then it is a thousand
to one but disease of the chest supervenes, hydrothorax
sets in and brings the mistaken disorder to a termination.
Inflammation of the lungs has also been mistaken for colic,
from the horse sometimes expressing considerable uneasi-
ness, and often looking round to his sides ; but in colic the
horse evinces acute pain, by stamping with his fore feet, or
kicking at his belly with his hinder legs : by turns, he lies
down and rolls, and then suddenly rises, appearing quite
well for a certain space, during which he will fall to eating ;
while, on the contrary, in pneumonia, he never lies down,
but stands stupidly quiet, except now and then, when he
may look at his trunk, but without any of the impatient
indications of pain, or intervals of perfect ease : it may
also be added, that in inflammation of the lungs the pulse
announces danger from the beginning, while in colic it is
at the commencement of the healthy character. From
pleurisy it will be more difficult to distinguish pneumonia ;
but true pleurisy is seldom if ever marked with the op-
pressed pulse ; but, on the contrary, with one hard, full,
and less increased in frequency, at least in the early stages.
Further distinctions may also be drawn from the greater
pain manifested in pleurisy, by the twitchings in the fleshy
panicle which covers the muscles, and by the sharp man-
ner in which the breath is exhaled ; as also by the absence
of the inflammatory tinge of the pituitary membranes,
they not being a continuous portion of the affected organ,
as in pneumonia.

Post-mortem appearances. — These, like the symptoms and
terminations, vary, being, like them, dependent on circum-
stances connected with the nature and duration of the
attack. When the disease is severe, it destroys within the
first three days. The cellular texture of the organ will be
then found choked with dark venous blood, and irregular
spots or patches of inflammatory colouring on the surface :
if protracted longer, other parts may have been involved in
the disease ; there will then be superadded adhesions to the
pleurae, with increased interstitial fluid mixed wath masses
of coagulable lymph ; the substance of the lungs, when cut

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 309

into, ejects a sero-sanguineous frothy fluid ; or it sometimes
pours out a purulent matter. In the fatal cases of hepati-
zation, lymph appears diffused through the cellular texture,
solidifies and glues up the bronchial ramifications, and gives
to the lungs the granulated aspect of the liver, with its
weight, consistence, and incapacity to float in water.

The prognosis must be formed from the progress the
disease has made, and the intensity or mildness of its symp-
toms ; when some warmth can be restored to the extremi-
ties by friction ; when the nasal linings do not approach a
livid tint, and the horse can bear to be turned, or does not
obstinately maintain a standing posture, but on the contrary
shows an inclination to lie down ; if his blisters rise or his
rowels maturate, we are warranted in oftering hope to the
owner, and more particularly if the disease does not increase
in intensity by the fourth day. But if the breathing con-
tinues very laborious, if rattling in the throat comes on,
with partial cold sweats, and an intermitting or irregular
pulse, a fatal termination may be expected. It is always a
most unfavourable sign when the blisters and rowels remain
inert ; and we hardly remember to have seen a horse recover
where such has been the case : it bespeaks at once the
intensity of the inflammation, and the diminution of vital
power.

The treatment of pneumonia must be prompt. The old
practice was to extract blood immediately upon entering
the stable. The first blood-letting was to the amount of
two gallons at least ; the second of one gallon, and two, or
even more, subsequent withdrawals of half or three quarters
of a gallon each ; thus, at all events, four gallons of blood,
or more, were taken away. A full-sized horse has but
eight gallons of blood in his body, and one moderately
fat has not that amount. Here, however, the veterinary
surgeon withdraws half the blood from the poor horse's
body, under the impression that the animal's disease an-
nounced it had too much of that fluid, to regulate the quan-
tity of which is the care of the whole system. After this,
he used to look upon the subsequent signs of excessive
debility as natural results.

The antiquated notion about a horse having too much
blood is now in a great measure exploded ; many excellent

310 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

practitioners do not bleed at all ; but if you resolve to take
any, watch the animal ; never mind the pulse at this time ;
and at the first sign of change, though it be ever so slight,
pin up the vein, and on no account repeat the experi-
ment.

The next point to be considered is counter irritation,
and most practitioners blister both the sides largely, choos-
ing for their agent cantharides, which is uncertain and slow
in its action. Against blistering it is urged that it acts as
a stimulant ; for that is the very thing we avoid, in order
to enable the horse to throw off the disease. But then as
to the sides being the place. This is getting very close to
the seat of the complaint, and appears to be quite as likely
to extend its action as to prove a derivative. Besides, one
of the signs of improvement in inflammation of the lungs
is the animal lying down, which during health it always does
upon its sides. The rendering of these parts sore seems
to be opposing an obstacle to the animal resuming the
recumbent attitude. The better plan would be to reject
cantharides, and spare the sides. A more active vesi-
catory, and a safer place for its action can be found. We
proceed to have the hair clipped from off the entire length
of the back ; then we take liquor ammonia, diluted with four
times its amount of cold water ; and witli this we thoroughly
saturate the place from which the hair has been cut. We
next cover the part with cloths several times folded, to pre-
vent the ammonia from evaporating. This needs to be
watched, but will often raise a blister in ten minutes,
whereas cantharides rarely has any effect before the next
day : the ammonia is likewise more certain than the Spanish
fly, and is altogether to be preferred, as in inflammation of
the lungs in the horse there is no time to be lost before
remedial measures are adopted.

While this is doing, we procure four men if possible, and
place one at each leg, to rub the part with their hands as
hard and as long as they can. Four thick woollen band-
ages are then produced, and one wound gently, not tightly,
round each leg. A hood is then put upon the animal's
head, but the whole of the body left uncovered.

The next thing is to procure a cool loose box, not a cold
one, but a cool loose box, and to have the horse gently led

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 311

into it ; and then to look about and observe that no draughts
blow directly upon his body ; this being ascertained, pro-
vided the weather be favourable, the door and windows may
be left open throughout the day.

All this accomphshed, you may order the following drink
to be prepared and administered : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Ext. of belladonna a drachm.

Tincture of aconite two drachms.

Cold water a pint and a half.

Rub down the belladonna in a little of the water. Then
mix with the other ingredients. The aconite (Wolfsbane)
should be of the strength of a drachm to an ounce. If
stronger or weaker, make the due allowance, so as to have
but the virtue of the fourth of a drachm in the drink.

The above drench, to those who allow their minds to be
controlled by names, will appear a strange mixture. Sul-
phuric ether is called a powerful stimulant, yet it has not
been proved to have any influence over the pulse, to
which, however, it certainly communicates character or
tone. Laudanum is a decided sedative ; but as the brain
is here unaffected, it certainly does lose that property
when blended with sulphuric ether. Its action is in some
mysterious manner rendered more mild. Belladonna is
also called a sedative, but it has a wonderful influence over
the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, and over
the lungs themselves. Aconite is almost the only drug we
know of which can, in a decided manner, lessen and im-
prove the pulse. Yet, according to the general practitioner,
here we have blended four powerful sedatives with one
powerful stimulant. So much harm is done by christening
or arranging medicaments.

Should the foregoing be rejected, either of the following
may be employed : —

Tartar emetic (in the form of the antimonial

wine of the Dublin Phar.) one drachm.

Digitalis, made into a decoction one drachm.

Nitre two drachms.

Cream of tartar three drachms.

Mingle with a pint of warm water and give ; or the an-
nexed may be tried : —

Powdered wliite hellebore ten grains.

Powdered ipecacuanha half a drachm.

312 INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

Make the last prescription into a drink, with half a pint of
thick gruel. Either of the above drinks is to be given four
times daily at the commencement, and to be gradually
lessened as the disease abates.

Great caution is required, in giving a horse with inflam-
mation of the lungs any thing in the shape of a drink.
Time and patience accomplish wonders. Lower the horse's
head the moment it begins to cough. This last direction
is most important, and should not be neglected ; or the
horse may fall dead from the fluid having fallen upon the
lungs, which the examination after death is certain to dis-
close. The best plan is to proceed with firmness, and yet
gentleness, dividing the drink into four portions if neces-
sary, and allowing the animal to take its time over each.

All food should be removed. No trouble should be ex-
pressed because the horse does not eat. The animal, with
inflammation of the lungs, generally has no disposition to
feed, or if the inclination remain, it should not be gratified.
Starvation is one of the most active means of cure, and
one of the surest agents in cutting short the complaint.
The horse will lose more flesh in one day from the wasting
effects of the disorder, than he can in seven days from
actual abstinence. Warm mashes, not hot, however, may
be placed in the manger, because in inflammation of the
lungs it is dangerous to give any physic, lest the bowels
sympathize, and the animal perish. Two ounces of Epsom
salts may be dissolved in every pail of water, which should
be repeatedly changed, and placed continually before the
horse. Enemas of simple soap and water, in conjunction
with backracking, may also be tried, in order to excite the
bowels into action.

If debility should appear, all tartar emetic should be
withheld. If, in spite of this, the weakness increase, the
horse may have linseed tea made thick, placed before it, with
two quarts of stout per day. The aconite, likewise, should
be withdrawn, and attention paid to the legs, rubbing them
whenever they are cold. In extreme cases, brandy and
ammonia are admissible.

When the disease abates, which it generally does in
forty-eight hours, the care must not lessen ; for the disease
is likely to recur, or remain in a chron'c stage as thick or

PLEURISY. 313

broken wind, or even to degenerate into glanders. It is
apt to involve other structures in its progress, as the
pleurae, when the symptoms will be somewhat confused,
being between pleurisy and pneumonia. In such a case,
the terminations may be either those of inflammation of
the lungs, or of the pleura.

It is a bad sign when the flanks heave, and the horse's
head is put out of the window ; and a much worse one, when
the head is withdrawn and the eye becomes amaurotic ;
when the animal keeps walking round and round his box ;
and breaking into partial sweats, sometimes raises its head
and neighs, proving he is delirious, and in imagination an-
swering the call of his species. In this last case be certain
death is not far off".

PLEURISY.

Pleuritis, as a distinct disease, will not occupy very
much of our attention, as the treatise on pneumonia em-
bodies most that is practically necessary to note in it.
Speaking of the causes of pleuritis, one is external violence,
particularly of punctured wounds, which injure the costal
pleurte without disturbing the integrity of the lungs ; as is
not unfrequent when the injury is inflicted by a blunt in-
strument entering in a slanting direction, as a goad or a
cow's horn. In such a case, the aflection may continue
confined to one side only, but in most others it extends to
both sides, though not always in an equal degree. It may
be occasioned also by any of the causes which produce
pneumonia : exposure to wind, rain, or snow, we believe to
be one of the most common among these ; and it occurs
far oftener from this last cause, than from those which
have been dwelt upon at greater length.

The symptoms, like those of pneumonia, make a rapid
attack, or they do not arrive at their intensity for three,
four, or five days. The respiration is generally sharper
and quicker, but not more full. The breath makes a saw-
ing noise. The exhalation is sudden, the ribs being allowed
to fly back with a sort of jerk. Cough is here more in-
variably present than in simple pneumonia, which, a priori,
might not be expected ; but it is short, suppressed, and
painful : sometimes the horse stamps, as in the cough of

314 PLEURISY.

influenza or bronchitis. The skin also has a con'iigated
appearance after the cough. The nostrils are dilated, as
in pneumonia, to aid the diflicult respiration ; but the nasal
membranes are but little tinged. It is particularly charac-
terized by the pain which pressure on the sides produces.
The pulse is usually hard, full, and but slightly accelerated,
until the constant pain has weakened the system. From
this detail of symptoms, as well as from what has already
appeared in the account of pneumonia, the distinguishing
marks between pleurisy and inflammation of the substance
of the lungs may be gained. If the symptoms quoted do
not become aggravated by the fifth or sixth day, a favour-
able termination may be expected ; but if, on the contrary,
the pulse becomes much quickened, small or wiry, and in-
distinct, and great restlessness with irregular sweating come
on, it wuU prove fatal, and the post-mortem examination
will detect indications of severe hydrothorax.

Hydrothorax, or serous effusion within the cavities of
the pleura, is either acute and rapid, or rather gradual.
In the former it occurs from the third to the fourteenth
day ; the pleurae secrete a serous fluid, and pour this forth
in a diseased quantity, until it fill one or both cavities,
the animal dying from suffocation. This termination is
usually betokened before death by a yellow serous discharge
from the nose, without foetor, and may always be detected
by placing the ear to the side : the pulse in these cases is
irregular, but the general symptoms are so little intense as
frequently to deceive the practitioner. The less acute kydro-
thorax frequently does not occur until the third or fourth
week, and sometimes even a longer period from the pleu-
ritic attack, and is even more deceptive than the other ;
for it seldom commences until there has been for a con-
siderable time, perhaps two or three weeks, an apparent
remission of all the inflammatory symptoms ; and it is
only by an aural examination, aided by the eye and touch
of the experienced observer, that any remaining disease
can be detected. To such a one the disposition to eff'usion
will manifest itself; the pulse will give a peculiar vibratory
stroke, with some hurried irregularity ; and as soon as only
a moderate portion of fluid is collected, it may be felt by
means of the hand applied to the region of the heart, which

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 315

will then evidently convey the sensation of a pulsatory
stroke through a watery medium. A smart rap also given
by an assistant on one side of the chest will produce to a
hand, held on the other, an undulation similar to that
received from a tap given to a bladder filled with water ;
and if the like experiment be at the same time made on
the sides of a healthy subject, a still more satisfactory proof
may be obtained. The hydrothoracic state of the chest
may be also suspected from the staring look and harsh feel
of the hair, as well as fi^om a yellow serous discharge from
the nostrils usually present, at first thin, but afterwards
thicker and glutinous. Any sudden exertion also alarms
such a horse ; he avoids turning, and resists holding his
head up from fear of strangulation, by altering the direct
course of the trachea. In this state he will continue, with-
out much variation, to eat, and will thereby deceive his
attendants : at length, however, he will be suddenly seized
with aggravated symptoms, which though seldom so acute
as at first, yet hurry the poor brute out of the world very
suddenly, he falling down dead.

The treatment does not differ from that of pneumonia in
any other particular, than that we may here call in the aids
of mild purgatives and diuretics, with the addition of full
sedatives.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, THE LATE COMPLAINT AMONG CATTLE.

Pleuro-pneumonia has destroyed its hundreds of thou-
sands. At first it was much misunderstood ; and formerly
was treated by bleeding, blistering, sedatives, purging, and
setoning. The remedies were very energetic. But between
the force of the disease and the power of the cure the
animal died. The means of restoration became quite as
fearful as the complaint, till the owners grew desperate,
and resolved to have no doctor at all within their sheds.
By this resolution they were considerable gainers. Fewer
animals were lost. Deaths, though still frequent, were not
half that number they were at first ; and those that did die
cost nothing for being killed by physic. Thus all ways the
proprietors gained by getting rid of veterinary surgeons.
But, upon his dismissal, the true mode of treatment was
discovered by the veterinary surgeon, which in the bustle

316 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

of administering medicine, with the symptoms under his
eyes, he had never found out. Gentlemen then began to
consider whether heaving flanks, panting and painful cough,
were really the commencement of the disorder. They now
had time to review their former proceedings, and to find
out they had been quite wrong. In the quiet of their
studies they found leisure to recal, and to ponder over the
symptoms ; and when the cattle were absent, they found
out that they had attempted to relieve the disorder, only
after it had become confirmed. The first stage during
which the complaint was easiest to attack, and most readily
to be conquered, they had entirely neglected ; and this led
them to reflect upon the nature of the disorder which, though
they still regarded as febrile, they now were content to view
as typhoid, and even putrescent in its later stages.

Pleuro-pneumonia is a disease, in the first stages of a
remarkably active character, but soon becoming virulently
typhoid. It has no set beginning. There is no first chord
struck, like to the overture of a Christmas pantomime, in-
variably the same, and always forcible, but the first stage
steals upon us, and can come from every possible point.
With young stock at grass, it is frequently announced by
constant battles or by precocious desires. Bulling out of
season is no unusual sign with cows in the shed. The ani-
mal, from being remarkably quiet, may in the first stage of
pleuro-pneumonia become restless and excitable, striking
at her neighbours with her horns, or jumping about at the
slightest sound. Often the owner is surprised by an un-
common yield of milk, but more often he is disappointed
by an evident falling off in the quantity given, especially in
the morning. Heat of the skin, and warmth at the base of
one of the horns, is no unusual commencement ; neither is
coldness of the parts about the tail, and particularly of one
or more teats, with heat, or even tenderness, of the bag.
A refusal to eat commonly is the first symptom, but not
usually a ravenous and unscrupulous appetite is the same.
Some cows suddenly grow very picky or nice in their feed-
ing ; others become quite the reverse, and they will gobble
up filth : in short, any change in the customary habits
or ordinary behaviour of an animal, when pleuro-pneumonia
is known to be abroad, should be immediately attended to.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 317

If the beast be excited, let a vein be opened, and blood
taken till a change is produced. The pulse here is no
guide. The animal itself must tell us when to stop.
When its excitability is lost ; when from being furious, it
has become tame ; when there is a marked alteration from
that which was, to something else, then, though only the
first spurt has been taken, enough has been abstracted ; pin
up immediately ; the animal cannot bear the loss of much
of the vital fluid ; she is in no condition to stand a drain
upon the system, and the less blood produces the effect we
desire the better. Let the veterinary surgeon, therefore,
keep his eye upon the beast, while any bungler may strike
a vein, which if the abstraction of blood is warranted at all,
will swell up as large as a cart rope. It is of a size then
rather to throw stones at, than to poke at with a fleam.

In the second, or inflammatory stage, all excitement
vanishes. The strength rapidly fails. The cough is now
certain to be constant. We did not mention the cough
among the first symptoms, because it is not invariably pre-
sent, and if present, it has no character during the early
stage. But now every thing becomes characteristic, so that
a child, or even a blind man, could accurately point to the
beast having the disease. The cough is short and distress-
ing ; evidently painful ; but often against the will of the
animal, emitted four or five times in succession, after which
the poor cow is ready to fall. The eyes are protruded and
glassy ; often suffiised with tears. The conjunctiva is red-
dened, attesting the state of the other mucous membranes.
The nostril looks inflamed. The muzzle is moist, and
often water, as clear as any drawn from a well, drops oflf its
surface. The appetite is fickle. The beast will repeatedly
pick the nicest morsel of hay, but after its having been
chewed, the quid drops from the mouth. Green meat is
invariably refused ; hay is preferred. There is no thirst.
The breath is hot, short, quick, and catching. The flanks
heave, and the appearance is marked by evident signs of
acute distress. If the hand be now run along the back,
the wretched creature grunts ; so she often does between
each breath, and always upon being turned in the stall.
Now the pulse can be felt quick ; a grating sensation is
imparted to the hand, if placed against the side ; and the

318 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

ear, even more readily than the hand, can detect the symp-
tom. In certain places the bellows' murmur of health is
entirely lost, and in its place there may be no sound per-
ceptible, or an unhealthy crepitation may be audible. If
both lungs be effected the animal endeavours to lay down,
being well-nigh incapable of longer standing ; but her en-
deavours to rest, though frequent, are of very brief dura-
tion. Should the beast, however, remain down for any
time, be certain then that only one lung is affected, and
the diseased side of the chest is low^ermost. The duration
of this stage is uncertain, but in longer or shorter space the
symptoms change. The tears cease. The eye brightens.
The visible mucous membranes assume a leaden tinge.
The breath is drawn with difficulty. Often respiration is
stopped for a short period, and then suddenly commenced
with energy, but almost immediately subdued into its former
quick, but short, and comparatively quiet method. The
coat now is very unthrifty. If it be tried along the margin
of the neck, or at the end of the tail, it will sometimes
come out by handfuls. Food, as before, is taken, but
rarely swallowed. Hoven may in this, or in the preceding
stage, have appeared. Water is declined, although from
the symptoms thirst must prevail; but probably liquids
are refused from their being the cause, when imbibed in
large quantities, of difficulty in breathing. From the mouth,
constantly a thick ropy mucous hangs. The tongue is
seldom retained within the lips ; and in this state the
animal may remain for a week, or only a few days, or for a
month.

The last stage to the non-medical man is very deceptive.
The eyes, to a superficial observer, become more cheerful.
The breathing evidently less painful. The cough not so
frequent ; but blood and various substances are brought up
with the cough at times. The animal is inclined to feed,
but she may show a marked preference for dung and urine,
though sometimes she will take a mouthful of hay. The
hay is masticated with a relish almost too violent to be
perfectly natural ; but upon attempting to swallow, it sticks
in the gullet, and if not speedily removed with the probang,
the beast w^ould die hoven. The breath now stinks. The
action may be wild, but during it the animal may fall.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 319

The tongue ultimately swells. Light is lost. The cow
obstinately stands in one place, and in one position, and
ultimately sinks to die suddenly.

Such are the main features of this fearful disorder, which,
since it has been better understood, has appeared as though
it became of a milder character. A beast might, however,
during the severest times have two, or even three attacks,
and ultimately survive and do well. There is one marked
peculiarity about the disease. The cow never entirely loses
her milk ; it may be reduced to half a pint, but the half
pint is to the last to be obtained. The bowels are always
irregular ; but if the disease begin with purging, the case
generally terminates the sooner. If the cow be in calf,
abortion is a very bad sign ; but should the foetus be re-
tained, the youngster will be born with the disease from
which his mother has recovered, and he will assuredly die,
almost in his birth.

If the disease be detected in the first stage, should the
animal be abroad, let it be brought home, but with the
utmost care ; and if at home, let the shed in which it stands
be made scrupulously clean. Remove every thing of a
dirty, foul, or putrid kind. Scrape and wash the walls.
Damp in this disease is not desirable, but it is infinitely less
to be dreaded than tainted air. Having made clear the
place in which the beast is to reside, let her enter it;
though, if the animal be already in the shed, do not remove
her ; as the one that stands next to her is not more likely
to be taken, although she should die of the complaint ; and
cows are proved to pine, and thus aggravate the disorder,
when placed by themselves. Withhold all food, even
though the animal be inclined to feed, w^hich generally they
are not disposed to do. It is not that which goes down
the throat that does good, but that which is converted into
chyle alone nourishes the system. We should be very glad
could food be appropriated, but in this disorder nothing is
digested, and whatever is swallowed remains in the rumen
to decay. Decaying vegetable matter sets free much gas,
and hoven is one of the worst symptoms, especially in the
latter stages. Unfortunately, the appetite is often ex-
traordinary towards the commencement of this affection,
and the consequence is (nothing being digested) a loaded

320 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

stomach ; which makes the breathing still more distressing.
After death, the rumen is mostly found crammed with
stinking, undigested food, and the effect even upon this
almost insensible compartment of the stomach, is shown by
its lining membrane peeling off as the mass is emptied out.

The examination made after death generally displays
both sides of the chest, and the heart bag, full of fluid of a
bloody tinge. Loose flocks of lymph, about two inches in
length, adhere to the inside of the ribs, the outside of the
lungs, and the anterior surface of the diaphragm. The
lymph is of a dirty straw colour ; it likewise lines the
heart bag, and sticks to the outside of the heart itself.
The blood within the body is darker than usual ; and occa-
sionally the cellular tissue is injected, especially upon the
surface of the frame. The characteristic appearance which
marks the complaint is, however, found within the lungs.
These, when cut into, are of various tints, from the palest
pink to the darkest modena. Their variegated aspect
pleases the surgeon as well as surprises him, especially
when he first cuts into the lungs, for then the colours are
very bright, and the distinction between them very marked.
Between these hues travel eccentric whitish lines, taking
no definite course, or being of no definite thickness ; but
running here and there, and being of all imaginable breadths.
It is this difference of hues, divided by numberless whitish
lines, which has gained for the lungs the term of marbled ;
a word that very well prepares the imaginative spectator for
the sight which he will behold. Added to all which, we
have said the air tubes and cells are plugged up with a thick
frothy mucus ; and whoever sees the organs of respiration
in such a state requires nothing further to make him com-
prehend the cause of death.

With regard to medicinal measures, these must be very
gentle. Every caution is necessary to husband the strength ;
and active measures will not always check the disorder.
During the first stage the symptoms merely denote general
irritability, and the treatment required is merely such as
will check that which the symptoms suggest. If the loss
of a very small quantity of blood will produce an effect
upon the disposition, something may be suspected as lurk-
ing behind the irritability ; but if the animal endures a full

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 321

bleeding before the symptoms succumb, we may hope they
portend nothing but what they at the first glance suggest.
Nevertheless, if pleuro-pneumonia be in the locality, do
not depend too much upon this sign ; neither is that which
is termed a full blood-letting prudent, wherefore proceed
with the greater caution. Shake a drachm of calomel,
blended with two drachms of opium, upon the tongue of
the animal, and leave it to be licked down at leisure, as
the beast has no power to spit it out again. Three hours
after this give the following drink : —

Epsom salts half a pound.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Liquor ammonia acetatis six ounces.

Aconite (in powder) one scruple.

Cold water one pint.

If this has not operated in six hours, repeat the physic ;
and after the lapse of another six hours give another dose,
only this last time administering half the quantity of Epsom
salts, and add one ounce of powdered gentian root ; in
another six hours, once more repeat this last drink.

Let nothing more but repeated drinks, composed of
sulphuric ether one ounce, laudanum one ounce, cold water
one pint, be given, till the pulse become stronger, till the
cough appears, and the entire symptoms change. With
the earliest indication of this alteration, new medicine must
be administered ; then exhibit the following mixture thrice
a day, which must be persevered with during the con-
tinuance of the active stage : —

Extract of belladonna half a drachm.

Aconite (in powder) one scruple.

Emetic tartar one scrujtle.

Nitre one drachm.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Cold water one pint.

Rub down the belladonna with a little of the water ; dis-
solve the emetic tartar and the nitre in a little more of the
same liquid ; then mix, add the other ingredients, and give.

Should the disease continue, and the pulse grow weak,
with the other signs of the third stage having supervened
become evident, withdraw the nitre and tartar emetic. A
pint of good ale, blended with half an ounce of extract of
gentian, may now be added to the other components, in-
stead of the former weakening agents. The ale, it is

Y

322 FLEURO-PNEUMONIA.

true, we would rather dispense with, but every thing now
depends upon keeping up the strength, which we must endea-
vour to accomphsh even at some risk. Should the bowels
have continued costive, repeated half pints of linseed oil,
with each of which half a drachm of chloroform is blended,
and in each of which a scruple of camphor must also be
dissolved, should be administered at intervals.

Every thing now depends upon cleanliness. A dung-
heap near the cowhouse ; putrid matter or stagnant water
near the building ; a foul drain, or even a rotten thatch,
will defeat the very best of medicinal remedies. The farmer
is too apt to terminate all his own exertions, when he
whom the tiller of land calls a doctor is in attendance ;
whereas this is the precise period when he should most
bestir himself, as without the proprietor's supervision the
veterinary surgeon only leaves directions to find they have
been neglected ; and only sends " physic" to discover it has
been put upon one side or thrown away. In pleuro-pneu-
monia, the owner's inspection, or that of his wife — if he
have a kind, open-hearted partner, who will freely of her
own accord undertake the nursing — is of every import ;
since the veterinary surgeon has often been reproached
with the loss of an animal, for the death of which, could
facts be ascertained, the farmer would be condemned as
the rightful culprit. The attendance upon the animal
must now be constant, but should be so given as not to
disturb or excite her. Every thing must be done gently ;
with feeling for the really distressing situation of the beast,
but with the utmost caution and perfect silence.

The better appearance of the creature ; her altered and
even cheerful aspect ; her readiness for exertion, which on
narrowly watching her, will, however, demonstrate her
greater weakness ; the entire absence of any thing like
pulse at the jaw ; the strange smells that are perceptible
about the beast ; the cessation of cough, and a bloody, foul
exudation from the nostrils, with a partial inclination for
food, will bespeak the gradual starting up of the fourth
and last stage of the disorder. Solids, probably, would be
retained within the rumen, therefore fluids alone are worthy
of reliance. Now withdraw the belladonna, and the aco-
nite as well as the emetic tartar, and the nitre from the

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 323

drink ; to which add one quart, instead of one pint, of
sound ale ; half an ounce of laudanum, and six ounces of
the liquor ammonia acetatis, and give the whole as a
drink. Let there be no hay or straw near or under the
animal : notwithstanding her weak state and desire to feed,
she must lie even upon the bare stones. Were there any
substance she could attempt to eat at hand, she would
seize it perhaps with avidity ; masticate it with eagerness ;
but in her attempt to swallow it, her strength would sud-
denly fail ; the morsel would probably stick in the gullet,
produce hoven, occasion confusion, frighten the cow, and
do all the injury we are careful to avoid. She may be
anxious to get loose, but keep her tied up ; her efforts to
free herself will soon subside. Should she become hoven
in this disorder, you must pass the probang ; and down the
tube, when it has entered the stomach, pour a dose of
chlorate of potash, dissolved in water (see Hoven). If the
foetor prove offensive, give a scruple of the chloride of
zinc, dissolved in a pint of water, which may be repeated
as often as it is required. Double the quantity may also
be mixed with some flour and water, to be used as injec-
tions, if any stinking diarrhoea accompany the later stage ;
and cloths, saturated with the solution of the chloride of
zinc, should be hung about in various parts of the house.
The same liquid may be of service to sprinkle any part of
the cow's body upon which any soil may have fallen, the
dirt being first cleanly washed off.

The return of the cough. The re-appearance of pain, as
denoting a return to consciousness ; the revival of the
pulse ; in short, the restoration of the symptoms of the
third stage, though in a softened form, will denote amend-
ment. After this, every thing will depend upon the farmer
himself. For a short period the last drink, with the addi-
tion of half an ounce of extract of gentian, must be con-
tinued, and then mineral tonics gradually substituted.
Nothing must be done suddenly ; nor if the symptoms that
have been recorded are properly observed, will any violent
change be necessary, however much so these directions,
compressed for the sake of brevity, may seem to direct.
Of the mineral tonics, the sulphate of iron in two drachm
doses is the best. It may be dissolved in water, with

Y 2

324 INFLAMED LUNGS IN SHEEP.

which half an ounce of the extract of gentian has been
rubbed down, and thus compose a drink. No ginger,
though that stimulant is justly a favourite, must be given,
for fear of recalling the inflammation, which we have too
much reason to dread has not been entirely subdued. The
food must not be too large in quantity, but of the most
digestible kind.

INFLAMED LUNGS IN NEAT CATTLE.

Horned cattle are also subject to pneumonia, but not by
any means in an equal degree with horses. Cowleeches
and graziers call the complaint rising of the lights, and it
has also other provincial names unnecessary to be noticed
here. Various causes may occasion it ; as exposure to in-
clement weather, over- driving from fairs, &c., in which the
vicissitudes of temperature they undergo, acting on their
plethoric state, distend the pulmonary tissues. We have
also seen it in calves. The symptoms are the same as in
the pneumonia of horses : we know of no difference, but
that the mouth is moistened by a discharge, and held con-
stantly open to assist the breathing. It must also be
observed, that the low type is apt to prevail in all their
diseases ; and that, from the increased volume of their
aortic system, their inflammations hurry to their termina-
tion, be it bad or good, sooner than those of the horse.
Hence it is more common for pneumonia to end in gan-
grene in cattle than in horses. The treatment differs in no
respect. It may also be remarked, that structural pecu-
liarity in the alimentary track makes it proper to give all
cattle medicines in a liquid form.

INFLAMED LUNGS IN SHEEP.

Few of the writers about cattle notice this disorder
as a disease affecting sheep ; but it may be seen well
marked, and in these animals also its origin could be clearly
traced to exposure to inclement weather. The first ap-
pearance is loss of appetite, which is soon succeeded by a
fixed stare ; the head is elevated in the air ; the mouth
opened ; the flanks heave violently ; the conjunctival and
nasal membranes are much injected, and a fluid distilled
from the nostrils, mucous in some, and purulent in others.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART. 325

They are occasionally seized with fits, will fall backward,
and when recovering from it the teeth may be heard to
grate together. The post-mortem exhibits the substance of
the lungs highly inflamed ; in some the w^iole of the lobes,
in others those of one side only, are affected ; but wherever
the inflammation reaches, that part is condensed almost
into a solid mass by the congestion ; some of the air cells
also contain pus : the costal and mediastinal pleurae were
little affected. The liver is also sometimes slightly in-
flamed. If seen early, bleed the sheep to a small extent ;
and, as soon as it can be procured, a drink may be given,
composed of nitre one drachm, and tartar emetic one
scruple.

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART.

This disease is very rare in the horse : but combined
wuth pneumonia and pleuritis, particularly with the latter,
it is not so uncommon, Mr. Blaine saw two cases, which
were both of them uncombined with pericarditis or inflam-
mation of the heart-bag and with pleurisy ; both termi-
nated by serous effusion into the pericardiac bag. Mr,
Percivall has also met with cases of carditis, but all of them
combined ; and he notices that he found the pericardium
coated with lymph, and in one instance thickened into a
semi-cartilaginous substance. The symptoms in the cases
which fell under our own notice differed so little from those
present in pneumonia, that we considered them as such, and
treated them accordingly. There is, however, one symptom
characteristic of inflammation of the heart : the throb or
beat of the organ is very loud, and there is also a pecu-
liarity in the pulse. It is marked by oppression, as in
pneumonia ; but superadded to that, a peculiar wiry yet
fluttering feel is observable, totally distinct from any other ;
and, above all, it is markedly intermittent, or the continua-
tion of the beats is every now and then stopped for a short
time. The countenance and manner were also marked by
an expression of anxiety and alarm ; but acute pain did not
appear present. The treatment of carditis, thus combined,
would in no respect differ from that of pneumonia, except-
ing that digitalis is to supply the place of belladonna ; but
were we assured of its true character, we should blister and

326 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

rowel the under surfaces of the chest ; we might push the
nauseants to their full extent, and purge the bowels. But
no treatment is likely to do more than to prolong life and
increase the owner's cost. Medicine has yet to discover a
cure for inflammation of the heart, or to tell us how a
being thus afflicted can be restored to working health.

INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH.

If by the above term we are to understand an inflamma-
tory attack on the mucous surface of the stomach, wholly
exclusive of inflammations produced by poisons or acrid
substances admitted within it, or of that consequent on
mechanical distention, called stomach staggers, it may be
regarded as an unheard-of disease in the horse. However,
it is sufficiently common from the exempted causes, and
every case is attended with great danger, though unmarked
by any characteristic symptom. It cannot be easily dis-
tinguished in its severe stage from twist of the intestines,
stone in the bowels, &c. The symptoms of distention, and
the mode of treating it, have already been detailed. The
symptoms from poisons are, so far as they are noted, ex-
treme distress and restlessness, a loathing of food ; for if
any thing be given by the mouth it creates increased pain
a long time afterwards. The animal breaks out into cold
sweats, lies down and quickly rises again, as in inflam-
mation of the bowels ; becomes early and greatly prostrated
in strength, and has a pulse usually quick and much op-
pressed. There may be purging, and generally is, though
the opposite state may also exist. The signs are also mate-
rially shaped by the nature of the substance swallowed.
The treatment will depend on timely detection of the
true cause. Our tests, however, are of more use to find
out the reason of death, than to save life. The general
treatment consists in a rejection of blood-letting, the admi-
nistration of plenty of gruel, starch water, chalk and water,
and abundance of opium.

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

Inflammation of the bowels, or the red colic of farriers,
involves either the peritoneal or muscular portion of the
intestines ; or it has its seat in both these portions, but is

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 327

more frequently located in the latter than in the former.
Observations on a great number of cases will also show
that the villous coat is not unfrequently a participator in
the affection : in fact, the abdominal inflammations in the
horse, as well as the thoracic, seldom exhibit exact lines of
demarcation ; but are very liable to stray by continuity,
and even by contiguity ; hence we have some characteristic
symptoms or signs ; many more which are mixed and in-
definite; and some altogether irregular in all acute visceral
affections. There are, however, sufficient grounds for a
general division of the inflammations of the bowels into
enteritis, or that which principally affects their middle coat,
and is generally accompanied by costiveness ; and that
which primarily attacks their villous surface, and is pro-
ductive of diarrhoea or dysentery. Between these states
there is a sufficient mark ; but between inflammation and
spasmodic colic the distinctive lines are familiar only to the
experienced observer. When the gripes, or fret, as spas-
modic colic is called among farriers, attacks a horse, it is
usual and useful to give him powerful stimulants, active
motion, and strong friction, all which would be extremely
baneful in the red colic. A careful distinction should
therefore be made between the two diseases, which may be
readily done by attending to the characteristic marks of
each, as particularly detailed in spasmodic colic.

The causes are various : the application of cold is cer-
tainly among the number ; as washing when hot, or plung-
ing into a river ; the drinking of cold water has likewise
produced it, though more frequently this occasions spas-
modic colic. Neglected costiveness, or retention of im-
pacted faeces ; improper feeding, dry food, and little water, are
also causes : worms likewise may, now and then, bring it
on ; or it may be produced by neglect after clipping for the
winter season ; or by metastasis, or the translation of the
inflammatory state of one set of parts to another. Spas-
modic colic neglected or improperly treated is not an
unfrequent cause, and calcareous concretions always occasion
it before they produce death.

The Sijmptoms. — It is known sometimes to commence by
a shivering fit, to which succeeds heat of skin, restlessness,
loss of appetite ; the mouth being particularly hot, and dry ;

328 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

the inner membranes of the eyelids, and the hnings of the
nostrils, being rather redder than natural. As the inflamma-
tion advances the pain increases, so as to force the horse to
lie down and get up again frequently ; yet, unless the pain
be very acute, he seldom rolls on his back or remains sta-
tionary there ; but, as he will occasionally do so in particular
cases, this should not be considered as a criterion between
this disorder and gripes. He will kick at his belly, stamp
with his feet, scrape his litter or stall with his hoofs, and
look wistfully round towards his sides. The pulse in most
cases is frequent, as 90 or 100, and invariably very hard,
small, and wiry. The breathing is accelerated : the belly is
sometimes painful to the touch, which never occurs in colic :
it is also hot to the feel, and the pain, instead of remitting
as in colic, is constant ; the extremities being cold, while the
surface of the body is often warm. The bowels are usually
constipated, and if any dung be evacuated, it is small, hard,
and in dry masses. The anus, if examined, will be found
very hot ; and if the hand be obtruded up, it will be felt
sometimes even internally inflamed ; it also, in many
cases, quivers with the intensity of the general aflfection.
Frequently, towards the later stage, there is some tympa-
nitis or distention of the belly, which much aggravates the
general tenderness evinced on examination. The urine is
painfully evacuated in small quantities, and very highly
coloured ; sometimes it has much mucus suspended in it.
In the progress of the disease these symptoms increase in
intensity : the distress of the horse is expressed by his
groans, his violent eflforts to change his position, as if to fly
from his malady ; while perspiration, partial or general,
breaks out, and is then succeeded by a chilly state, with
muscular twitchings ; the pulse becomes more and more
hurried, intermittent, and at last nearly imperceptible : the
respiration is as quick and irregular as the pulse, and
occasionally interrupted by a convulsive sigh. The vital
powers are now fast ebbing, and the animal sinks after a few
feeble struggles, or he parts with life with more violent con-
vulsive movements.

Post-mortem examination of these cases presents inflam-
matory marks, sometimes confined, sometimes general. In
most cases the. large, but in a few the small, intestines are

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 329

the principal victims ; the external surface of the affected
parts is generally heightened in colour : sometimes the red-
ness is intense, at others it assumes a purple hue, as the
approach to gangrene is nearer or farther off; and occa-
sionally it is black or nearly dissolved, when fully esta-
blished : in some cases an internal hsemorrhage from the
inflamed vessels has filled the tube, particularly of the smaller
intestines, with blood, and all the diseased bowels will be
much increased in weight.

The Prognosis. — If the costiveness be early removed ; if
the pulse become softer, more full, and less frequent ; if the
pain remit ; if the heat of the body and extremities appear
equal, it will terminate favourably. But if the costiveness
remain obstinate, or otherwise a voiding a black fcetid
matter appear ; or should the costiveness readily yield, but
violent purgations of watery, slimy offensive ejections ensue ;
if the pulse become more quick, and wavers also ; if the
extremities continue invariably cold, the danger is great.
And when added to these, if there be a peculiar earthy,
cadaverous smell from the mouth, with cold sweats, delirium,
and extreme debility, and particularly if the belly become
more and more tense, the termination will almost to a cer-
tainty be unfavourable ; and as soon as the pain ceases in
such a case, gangrene may be known to have commenced.

The treatment in enteritis should be singularly prompt
and active, as inflammation of the intestines has run its
course and terminated fatally in eight hours. Bleeding
must be the first remedy adopted, but no quantity can be
stated to which amount blood may be taken. The vein
must remain open till the animal evinces that some effect
has been produced, and then pinned up. The bleeding may
be known to have a salutary effect by the pulse becoming
softer and fuller. As soon as the bleeding is over, proceed
to back-rake, to remove any hardened dung that may
obstruct the passage, which, if suffered to remain, would
infallibly aggravate the complaint, and which indeed in
many instances is the cause of it : the distressing strangury
that sometimes accompanies the red colic is also frequently
produced by the pressure of hardened excrement, as by
a renal participation in the inflammatory affection. It
is not the dropping a few balls of hardened dung, nor

330 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

the passage of some thin glairy matter, which shows that
no obstruction exists : on the contrary, when these are pre-
sent, a most obstinate costiveness may yet remain farther
up in the canal; and a flow of thin fseces may escape bv
a groove formed by the side of the obstructing portion Jf
dung, as has happened when very large feecal accumulation
has taken place within one of the pouches of the colon
Unless there be evidently a free passage throughout the
whole canal, it is always proper to back-rake ; for it must
not be lost sight of, that costiveness in true enteritis is
always present, and when not its cause, is always its most
aggravating symptom ; and until it be removed, a resolution
of the inflammation cannot take place. It is also necessary
to bear in mind, that the state of the bowels being such as
not to render it prudent to give strong purgatives, the
case IS beset with difficulties. Injections of thin gruel
or of warm water, may be afterwards occasionally exhibited'
Ihe quantities composing the clysters should be very con-
siderable, so as to penetrate beyond the rectum, and to enter
It possible, the colon and caecum, which intention can be
best fulfilled by the injecting syringe. Tobacco clysters
liave likewise proved beneficial.

_ The next indication is to raise a brisk external inflamma-
tion over the belly, to lessen thereby the internal affection •
and in this case the cantharides are not quick enough in
their action : but a more speedy determination to the skin
may be gained by applying— firstly, a cloth saturated with
hquor ammonia, diluted by four times its amount of water
and retaining it in its situation by means of a blanket several
times doubled, and held by four men with not very fasti-
dious noses. This form of blister, however, requires to be
constantly watched, as else it may dissolve the skin After
wards a fresh sheep skin may be laid upon the back and
Joins. With regard to medicine by the mouth, in the first
place give three ounces of solution of aloes, and an ounce of
extract of gentian, with a pint of cold water. At the same
time admmister half a drachm of calomel, with a drachm of
opium, made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle
Ihe ball may be repeated every hour, till the symptoms
abate, when the calomel may be diminished to a scruple • and
shortly afterwards given at wider intervals, till it is gradually

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 331

discontinued. If the symptoms do not amend in three
hours and a half after the first drink, give a pint of linseed
oil, blended with a drachm of chloroform, and continue the
enemas. The calomel and opium is to be persevered in
throughout the disorder, till the horse either gets better and
the case terminates. After the attack has ended, the bowels
will be closed for some time, and they must be allowed to
remain in that state, rather than resort to mashes or to
physic, which at this time are too apt to start up undue
purgation. The diet should be spare. It should consist of
grasses, roots, boiled potatoes, good gruel, but nothing hard,
like oats, hay, or chaff, &c. The temperature of the stable
should also be moderate ; the same care should be bestowed
on equalizing the circulation as prescribed under pneumonia,
bv rubbing the extremities, proper clothing, and a loose
wTll-httered box ; and as it leaves, like inflammation of the
lungs, a hability to recurrence, let not the animal be worked
or exposed. The horse, after some time, may be as capable
of work as ever he was, if not put to it too early.

DYSENTERY, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS SURFACE OF
THE INTESTINES.

As the former affection consists of an inflammatory at-
tack on the middle coat of the intestines, this latter is
usually an affection of their internal surface ; having for its
cause irritations applied in various ways ; as by translations
of obstructed perspiration; the continued use of certain
aliments ; but more particularly the administration of hu-
proper purging medicines, either as to quantity or quality,
by which such irritation is brought on as ends in inflam-
mation. It is commonly accompanied with purging,
whereas the former is almost always associated with cos-
tiveness ; neither is the pain so acute in dysentery, con-
sequently the horse seldom expresses his uneasiness by
rolling or stamping ; the pulse is also quick and small, but
is seldom very hard, even from the beginning. However
uro-ent may be the symptoms, and whatever the pulse may
denote, no blood must be withdrawn in this disorder ; for it
is inflammation of the mucous membrane, and after all we
can do to support the horse, he will hardly have strength
to get through the attack. Stimulants should, however.

332 INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.

be applied to the bowels, as in inflammation of the intes-
tines, properly so called ; the stable and the clothing also
should be warm, and means should be taken to keep up
the circulation in the extremities by hand-rubbing and ban-
daging. The following drink may be given every two
hours : —

Prepared chalk one ounce.

Laudanum two ounces.

Liquor potasspe one ounce.

Tincture of catecliu lialf an ounce.

Tincture of ginger one ounce.

Tincture of capsicums two drachms.

Water one pint.

Throw up frequent injections of rice water, and have a
pail of thin cold gruel in the manger, which, however,
should be repeatedly changed, though most likely the
poor animal will drain it almost as fast as it can be pre-
pared.

PERITONITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE OUTER COAT OF
THE INTESTINES.

This disease is very similar to enteritis. The distinguish-
ing characteristics are : the horse is more full of pain from
the commencement of the attack. He suffers almost as
much as during an acute fit of spasmodic colic. The paw-
ing, rolling, kicking at the belly, is more continual than in
enteritis. The breath is sharper. The eye more wild, the
mouth more clammy, and altogether the symptoms more
aggravated. The pulse is full, and more throbbing. The
fgeces are passed in small hard lumps, mingled with much
slime of a thickish consistence, which covers the dung.
Violent purgation does not generally appear when the cos-
tiveness gives way. Towards the end the horse experiences
a remission of pain. He becomes more tranquil, and alto-
gether seems better. The belly then begins to swell, but it
is not pushed out evenly from all parts. The enlargement
takes place at the inferior part only, the extra weight of
which appears to hang heavily upon the loins. Gradually
the enlargement increases. If it be smartly hit on one
side, and the practitioner place his hand upon the other,
water may be detected, and the animal dies ultimately suf-
focated by the weight of the fluid forcing the diaphragm

INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES. 333

into the chest, thus preventing that cavity from expanding.
The period for the duration of the disorder is, however,
generally longer than in enteritis.

The treatment is much the same as for enteritis. The
only difference is, that the animal will lose more blood
before he displays any symptom of uneasiness. We may
also be more bold with purgatives. The three ounces of
solution of aloes may be increased to five, the pint of oil
enlarged to a pint and a half, and if this produces no signs
of its having acted on the bowels, it may even be repeated
when another three hours and a half has elapsed : all the
other measures are alike in both cases.

INFLAMED BOWELS IN NEAT CATTLE.

This disease is not unfrequent among kine. The enteritis
of horned cattle presents symptoms which do not materially
differ from those displayed by horses ; neither in all essen-
tial particulars is any variation in the proper treatment
necessary. There is, however, one material distinction, the
bowels are never wholly costive, but small portions of liquid
fseces are ejected with much straining. Opening the bowels
freely, however, is essential. The disease mainly depends
on the clogged or hardened state of the ingesta in the
many-plus, and this must be got rid of The drink pre-
scribed for horses may be given, only substituting a pound
of Epsom salts for the aloes. This may even be repeated.
If the double dose does not act, give half a pound of sul-
phur, and half an ounce of cream of tartar, with an ounce
of sulphuric ether. If that, after being again tried, has no
effect, next try linseed oil one pint and a half, with a
drachm of chloroform ; and this likewise may be repeated ;
for the bowels, at all expense, must be forced open. In
the mean time, give half a drachm of calomel, and a drachm
of opium, every hour ; stimulate the belly, &c. ; in fact, the
other directions may be taken from those which have already
been given for the horse, under the head of Enteritis.

The injiamed purging state is likewise not unfrequent
among cattle ; and derives its origin less from any exteiyial
irritant than from a diseased condition of the natural ex-
citer of the bowels — the bile ; to which disease they are
found pecuharly liable. The curative plan must be the

334 INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

same as just detailed, with this exception, that the external
stimulants need not be so hurried on, or so general. More-
over, one dose of purgative medicine is ample. The opium
and calomel need only be administered thrice per day, and
then carefully watched, for salivation is to be much feared
when created in cattle. If the purgation continues after
this purgative, and two or three doses of calomel, try some
of the astringent drinks, one of which will be found at the
end of the article of Dysentery in the horse, and others
under the heads of Rot in cattle.

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

Acute hepatitis is not a frequent occurrence in veterinary
practice, for the liver of the horse is but seldom primarily
affected with inflammation ; though, w^hen other great
abdominal inflammations take place, then this gland often
participates ; in which cases the only difference shown by
the symptoms is a yellow tinge in the conjunctival, nasal,
and buccal membranes.

The chronic or torpid state of the disease which is very
common among high-fed, and slightly-worked carriage and
brewers' horses, may be unsuspected till the animal is sud-
denly seized with gripes, or otherwise shows signs of
being seriously ill. These symptoms are caused by the
rupture of the fibrous case of the liver, called Glisson's
capsule, and the escape of blood into the peritoneum or
serous covering of the huge gland. It is then almost too
late to try calomel. A few days' quiet, and a dose to open
the bowels, will be all that can be ventured ; and the horse
is returned to its owner, with a caution to work him gently
and feed him sparingly for the future. Such cautions,
how^ever, are rarely long attended to. Nevertheless, the
peritoneum stretches, and at the same time thickens in
substance, containing, and at the same time restraining, the
fluid that is poured into it. Another rupture in time takes
place, and the same measures are repeated ; however, the
peritoneum at last gives way. If the rent should be large,
the animal may suddenly fall dead. If small, he is sent to
us apparently labouring under a severe fit of colic, but the
dilated pupil, the inabiUty to bear the head lifted up, and
the tinge of all the visible membranes declare the truth ; for

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 335

the examination after death exhibits the true cavity of the
abdomen, full of thin black and unhealthy blood,

INFLAMED LIVER IN NEAT CATTLE.

Store cattle and young stock, turned upon rich pastures,
are most subject to this disorder, though occasionally it
will attack milch cows, kept much within the shed of a
London dairy. It however always comes in the chronic
form, and usually combined with other diseases. The
animal seems dull, stupid, staggers, or falls about as it
walks ; while the secretion of a milch cow is discoloured,
and of a ropy consistence ; the visible membranes and skin
being markedly yellow. Give a mild purge if the bowels
are loose, and a strong one if the bowels are costive. Then
give a scruple of calomel, with twice its amount of opium,
each day. But be careful of salivation. When the gums
seem tender, give a purgative and tonics, with good food.
The following tonic will serve the purpose : —

Iodide of potassium a scruple.

Quassse one ounce.

Ginger half an ounce.

Oak bark one ounce.

Grains of Paradise, in powder two drachms.

Form into balls, with a sufficiency of treacle and linseed
meal, and give morning and night.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS IN THE HORSE.

This, as a primary disease, is not a very common complaint
among horses ; but by its fatal tendency, it becomes an
important subject. Small as these organs are, they are
very essential to life, and the quantity of blood passing
through them is very great ; therefore, we cannot wonder
at their aptitude to inflame, nor the great derangement
that inflammation occasions the machine.

The causes are exposure to cold ; standing in the rain ;
water dripping on the loins we have known bring it on ;
a heavy awkward rider by his motions, or even the action
of the psoee muscles in great exertion, may bruise the
kidneys ; and occasionally it may be caused by metastasis
of inflammation. Mow-burnt hay, musty or even kiln-
dried oats, in common with other diuretic substances, which
under the name of staling or urine balls, are such favour-

336 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

ites with every groom, may produce it. It may terminate
in resolution, suppuration, or gangrene.

Symptoms. — Dull appearance ; pain expressed by looking
at the flanks ; urine made frequent and in small quantities,
with much effort or groaning ; often red or bloody, and as
the inflammation increases almost wholly suppressed : still
attempts are made by the bladder to evacuate, and the
mucous secretion from the organ and urethra only are
pressed out with much pain. Pulse at first rather hard,
frequent, and somewhat full ; but, as the disease advances,
it becomes smaller, oppressed, and intensely quick. The
animal stands with his legs wide apart, as though going
to stale, and shrinks when the loins are pressed. If it ba
an entire horse, the spermatic glands are alternately drawn
close to the belly, and pendulous or relaxed. To dis-
tinguish it from inflammation of the body of the bladder, or
from spasm of the neck of that organ, the horse should be
examined by passing the hand up the rectum ; when, if the
inflammation exists in the kidneys, the bladder, whether it
contain any thing or not, will not be hotter than the sur-
rounding parts, or more tender : but should the affection
be confined to the body of the bladder, it will be surely
found empty, but very hot and painful to the touch : if
again spasm of the neck of the bladder, as sometimes hap-
pens, should be the seat of the disease, no heat or tender-
ness will be felt, but the bladder will be found distended with
urine. The horse shows much disinclination to move, and
when forced out straddles as he progresses.

The treatment must be directed to the equalization of
the arterial action. Back-rake ; throw^ up frequent clysters,
consisting of cold water, in every gallon of which one ounce
of sulphuric ether, and one ounce of crude opium, are dis-
solved ; both with a view to promote a soluble state of
bowels, and to act as a fomentation to the inflamed organs ;
and if any costiveness be present, give a purgative without
any diuretic substance intermixed. It should, because aloes
contain resin, consist of linseed oil a pint and a half, in
which a drachm of chloroform is mingled, and one half of
this may be repeated in six hours, if the animal display no
improvement. It will be prudent also to endeavour at
exciting an external inflammation on the loins. The use of

HGEMATURIA IN NEAT CATTLE. 337

Spanish flies are here questionable, from an alleged disposi-
tion in them to stimulate the kidneys. Turpentine, for the
same reason, should not be applied ; but no such fear pre-
vents the use of liquor ammonia, in the manner before
directed, when treating of enteritis : neither can any objec-
tion be formed to the application of a simple mustard poul-
tice, which may be renewed every two hours ; and, if a
newly-stripped sheepskin be laid upon the place the liquor
ammonia or mustard poultice has occupied, the activity of
each will be increased. Without any attempts at actual
diaphoresis, which would increase the action of the heart
and arteries, we should attempt to moderately determine
the blood to the skin and the limbs by clothing, friction,
and bandaging up the extremities ; as well also by consi-
derately nauseating the stomach with white hellebore. Dilu-
ting liquors are among the best means of lessening inflam-
mation, for which reason a pail of tepid gruel should be
kept constantly in the manger. These cases, however, gene-
rally last some time, during the whole of which the efforts
should be continued, and exertion only relax as death, from
known and well-marked signs, appears certain.

HEMATURIA, OR SO-CALLED RED WATER, IN NEAT CATTLE.

Red water, which is the cowleech's and grazier's name
for what is now usually considered as the consequence
of inflammation of the kidneys, is much more common
among horned cattle than it is among horses : while, in
some cases, it has been observed to be accompanied by an
aft'ection of the bowels also. Graziers attribute it to low
damp situations. Or the eating of particular herbage is
very generally assigned as a cause, which by the acrid quali-
ties are supposed to injure the secreting structure of the
kidneys. It is also known to follow great alternations of
temperature in a marked manner : in some instances it has
been attributed to drinking impure water, particularly that
which is found in peat mosses.

The symptoms and treatment of inflamed kidneys do
not differ from those observed in the horse : the urine, at
first almost suppressed, soon in cattle becomes bloody,
whence its name of red water : and as the disease advances,
particularly if it terminates fatally, the urine becomes

z

338 INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

darker, almost of the colour of venous blood. The treat-
ment consists in giving sugar of lead, or acet. plumbi, two
drachms twice a day. Should this fail, the sulphates of
zinc, of copper, or of iron, may be tried, and at the same
time a seton applied over each loin. Balls made of cam-
phor one drachm, opium two drachms, are said to have
been beneficial.

If the disease is produced from over-driving, and blows
over the loins, or follows calving, some hopes may be held
out to the proprietor. But in cases of all kinds the food
should be changed, and the animal may have water, in
which sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, one drachm to the
gallon, has been mixed ; but in chronic or mysterious cases,
it is safer to introduce the owner to some neighbouring
butcher.

Sheep now and then have red water also, both of the
acute and the more chronic kind : housing, and feeding on
any sweet root, as carrots, parsneps, or in default of these
upon turnips, form the best means of cure, with the occa-
sional use of one-sixth of the medicine recommended for
cattle.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, OR CYSTITIS.

Inflammation of the bladder is said to be, but not proved,
to be more common among mares than horses ; but of all
the causes of this affection, none can compare with the
powerful diuretics in general use with every stable man or
groom. The symptoms are frequent, nay, continual, emis-
sions of small quantities of urine, voided with much strain-
ing, during which the dung commonly is passed. The
bladder will be felt by the greased hand passed gently up
the rectum, hot, tender, and contracted into a firm sub-
stance of about the size of a cricket ball.

The treatment is the same as for nephritis, and equally
as urgent ; every precaution pointed out, when treating of
inflammation of the kidneys, should be rigidly adopted ; in
addition to which, warm water, in every gallon of which a
quarter of a pound of gum arable, and an ounce of crude
opium having been dissolved, may be injected into the blad-

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 339

der, by means of Reid's pump, with the elastic catheter
attached to it.

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER.

Sometimes the neck of the bladder is spasmodically
affected, and this is said to occur more fi^equently to horses
than to mares. It is to be distinguished from inflammation
of the kidneys and the bladder, by the urine being for the
most part retained, and the horse making frequent ineffec-
tual efforts to stale ; while the true character of the affection
is discovered by passing the hand up the rectum ; the blad-
der will be found distended : often the distention may be
felt in the front of the pubes. The retention of urine,
however, is the principal symptom, although in spasm of
the neck of the bladder, there may be a small quantity of
urine evacuated at different times : for after the bladder is
distended, there will be, by the force of the accumulation, a
few drops now and then squeezed out. But in this disease
the frequent or copious staling will not take place, whereas
in the previous disease it will be continual. The causes of
this complaint we are in the dark about ; but it may be
reasonably supposed that the spasm of the part is occa-
sioned by morbid irritation, and our opinion of the probable
termination must depend on our capability of emptying the
distended bladder, and recovering the lost tone of the organ.
Every effort must be made to accomplish this, or the animal
may perish under irritation ; he may sink through gangrene
of the distended bladder supervening, or he may, as he
usually does, die of the rupture of the bladder, in conse-
quence of the kidneys continuing to secrete urine, but the
spasm offering an obstacle to its emission. Attempt there-
fore to accomplish the ejection, by introducing the hand up
the rectum, and gently pressing the fundus of the bladder for-
wards, which may force open the neck. If this fail, the
urethra must be opened by a catheter. In a mare, the
catheter may be easily passed up, and the water drawn off;
but, in the horse, to effect this, a flexible catheter must be
introduced, and gently guided forward. When a horse is
aftected with spasm the penis is generally much retracted ;
but with a little patience, aided by a handkerchief wrapped
round the hand, inserted up the sheath, this may be over-

z2

340 INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.

come. The part is then given to an assistant to hold
firmly, while the practitioner inserts the point of the cathe-
ter, which he pushes forward with his right hand, while he
places his left beneath the anus, in order to turn the tube
by manipulation when it shall have reached the perineieum.
The rest is straightforward work, only be careful to make
steady continued, rather than sudden or violent pressure.
After the urine has been evacuated, inject a gallon of cold
spring water, with which an ounce of tincture of gall nuts .
has been mixed ; and if this last is, at the time, or shortly
afterwards ejected, no fears need be entertained about the
lost tone. If it is not cast forth, draw it oft\ and inject an-
other gallon, and continue till the bladder freely contracts.
At the same time you may give a clyster, composed of two
quarts of cold water, with two ounces of sulphuric ether,
and the same quantity of laudanum, which may be repeated
for three times. Mild food and good water, both procured
from a new source, is all that is required to perfect the
cure, excepting it may be thought proper to give a dose of
physic upon recovery.

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB.

We know that the womb is liable to become inflamed
by participation with extensive abdominal inflammations.
When the disease is so universal as to involve this part,
the case must be hopeless ; and we therefore shall abstain
from giving any directions as to treatment. We know,
however, that inflammation occasionally attacks mares
after abortion ; after difficult foaling also, when injudicious
eftbrts have been made to produce delivery ; in which cases
the animal never recovers from the prostration into which
the act of labour has cast her. The general signs of
intense fever are exhibited. The animal appears wild or
delirious. She blows much ; and the young one by her
side is entirely neglected. A dark fluid, having a strong
smell, drains from the vulva. These are most dangerous
cases, nor are we able from the exhausted state of the
patient, to adopt all the measures we might think of. A
mustard poultice, however, followed by a sheepskin, may
be placed upon the loins, and an ammoniacal blister applied
to the belly. A gallon of tepid water, in which half an

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES. 341

ounce of crude opium, and half an ounce of tincture of
arnica is mingled, may be injected into the womb every
two hours ; and if the stench is very offensive, five grains
of chloride of zinc may be added, while warm clysters are
thrown up the rectum, that they may act as fomentations
to the part. If the bowels are at all costive, a laxative ball
may be administered, after which two drachms of calomel,
and one drachm of opium ; to be followed every hour
with half a drachm of calomel, and a drachm of opium.
Wolfsbane or aconite is the best sedative, and may be
given in ten-grain doses four times a day. The practi-
tioner need not fear the activity of the measures recom-
mended. The case speedily terminates, or the animal
becomes better, when the severity of the treatment can of
course be ameliorated.

CHAPTER III.

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANES.
COMMON COLD.

Influenza, or catarrhal fever, as an epidemic, has already
occupied our attention at p. 277. The direct cause of com-
mon cold is some accidental alternation between cold and
heat, when it finds the constitution partially or generally,
from certain causes, incapable of resisting its effects. In
very young horses it frequently ends in strangles, and when
its symptoms assume a more than ordinary intensity, it
becomes influenza. A simple attack on the Schneide-
rian membranes, known as a common cold, first shows
itself by a thin watery secretion from the nose, and from
the eyes also in some cases. The lymphatic glands become
inflamed, tumefied, and tender ; symptomatic fever follows
the inflammatory action ; and the tendency observed in
mucous surfaces to take on the formation of pus without
ulceration begins, after two or three days, to show itself;
first by a coagulable deposit of lymph in a flaky form, and
next by a regular flow of yellow muco-purulent matter
from the nose : some cough is also usually present. In a
few days these appearances vanish, and the horse is con-

342 BRONCHITIS.

valescent. The treatment is veiy simple. Extra clothing,
and a warmer house, will in general effect a cure. Occa-
sionally a cathartic ball, with mild, soft food, may be neces-
sary. In more severe cases, balls composed of common
tar and linseed meal, or a drink of linseed tea, in which has
been stirred an ounce of ipecacuanha wine, may be given
twice a day when the cough is annoying.

SORE THROAT.

To the above symptoms of common cold there are often
added those which betoken sore throat ; in which cases the
inflammation has extended itself to, or perhaps primarily
attacked, the mucous surfaces of the pharynx and the
upper part of the larynx. The mouth is hot, but at
first dry : there is an evident disinclination to eat, or to
swallow what is masticated : he therefore ' quids' his hay,
i.e. lets fall the masticated bolus; he sips his water, and
moves it about with his lips rather than drinks it ; or he
utterly refuses it. The region of the gullet and fauces is
exceedingly tender and hot ; the salivary glands throughout
become swollen and tender ; and from the laryngeal con-
nexions the cough becomes frequent and painful. The
treatment must here be more active, as the pain and symp-
toms are more severe. The nostrils may be fumigated by
means of a hot bran mash placed beneath the nose, the
steam from which is inhaled. A blister, or a mustard poul-
tice, should be applied to the throat. A fever ball, con-
taining half a drachm of tartar emetic, and a drachm of
nitre, should be given night and morning. Cathartics had
better be omitted ; but the food should be soft, and the
water chilled.

BRONCHITIS.

When the catarrhal attack extends into the bronchii or
divisions of the trachea, it is called by the above name. There
will be hurried and embarrassed breathing, and, in a great
degree, the sense of pulmonary obstruction ; it will be accom-
panied by a rattling sound or wheezing noise during the
respirative acts ; with a muco-purulent discharge from the
nose ; a pulse at first harder and quicker than natural, but
gradually becoming still more increased in frequency, but

ROARING. 343

decreased in volume. Cough is present which is very
severe, though so far as may be possible suppressed.

Treatment. — Apply a blister under the throat, over the
course of the windpipe, and along the chest. Clothe well,
and let the stable be rather warm than cold, though by no
means hot. Foment the nostrils with hot bran in a nose-
bag. Give the animal a drink composed of sulphuric ether
one ounce, laudanum one ounce, liquor ammonia acetatis
six ounces, solution of aloes four ounces, tincture of gen-
tian two ounces, and cold water one pint. Then three times
daily administer the adjoined, in the shape of drink, also
being careful to lower the horse's head that instant he
coughs : —

Extract of belladonna one drachm.

Liquor potassa; one ounce.

Liquor ammimia acetatis six ounces.

Tincture of cantiiarides a scruple.

Give thrice a day till the appetite is lost. Then discontinue.

Every night the drink composed of sulphuric ether and
laudanum and water may be administered, omitting, how-
ever, the liq. amm. acet. and the solution of aloes. Should
the cough be distressing, let the horse take a tar ball night
and morning.

During the progress of such a complaint we need not
wonder if some diseased alterations of structure in the air-
passages should be the immediate consequences ; or other-
wise, that such an irritable state of them may remain after
the more active symptoms have ceased, as to give rise to
ruinous chronic affections. The inflammation may thus
leave roaring, w^heezing or whistling, as a sequel ; and thick
wind may result.

CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE PULMONARY AERATING PASSAGES.

ROARING.

The artificial habits of life to which we subject the horse
occasion numerous morbid changes in his organs, yet in
none more than those connected with his respiration : and
not only do the grand masses of the lungs suffer, but the
very passages to them are altered in structure, and rendered
incapable of transmitting the air with its proper freedom.
The obstructing matter, on the principle of wind instru-

344 ROARING.

ments, produces sounds modulated according to its figure,
extent, and the precise locality where the opposition
is situated, which horsemen call wheezing, whistliny, roar-
ing, S)'c. ; terms sufficiently expressive. A horse wheezes
w^hen any obstruction is offered to the passage of air within
the nostrils ; he whistles when the foreign body is situated
in the hind part of the nostrils, or is but slight, and is
located near to the opening of the larynx ; but he roars
when the larynx is malformed, or hindrance is offered to
the free current of air within the windpipe.

The causes of roaring are remote and proximate. The
chronic causes are mostly inflammation in the tracheal tube
itself. Occasionally it is brought on by the effects of in-
flammation on other parts ; as by the swelling and conse-
quent pressure of the salivary glands in strangles, or of those
abscesses which not unfrequently occur in violent catarrh in
the vicinage of" the pharynx. Obstructions accidentally
formed by exostoses, cicatrizations, &c., or extraneous sub-
stances lodged in the interior of the trachea, may any of
them occasion it. The acute causes might, with propriety,
include these accidental obstructions, but they are mainly
to be looked for in an extravasation, partial or extensive, of
coagulable lymph ; which, becoming organized, forms a per-
manent obstruction. When it is extensively spread over
the larynx, it produces whistling ; when it constringes the
rima glottidis, a whistling sound is the consequence, and is
often heard in our own respirations under catarrh ; or in the
ordinary respirations of some asthmatic persons. Whoever
has handled the throats of many old horses, must have ob-
served a hardened state of the larynx, which almost resisted
all attempts to what is termed " cough them." This ossi-
fication of the laryngeal cartilages is not an uncommon
cause ; and a similar state in the cartilages of the trachea is
productive of it also. A cause also of roaring is a band of
lymph stretched across the tracheal tube ; at others, an
internal ring of the same matter simply diminishes its
diameter. The obstruction is sometimes so considerable
as to excite the sound upon the slightest exertion ; in
general cases, however, roaring is only exerted when forcible
inspirations and expirations are made ; for it is, we believe,
equally produced by the one as by the other. Mechanical

CHRONIC COUGH. 345

obstructions to free respiration may eventually be produc-
tive of roaring : the custom of tightly reining in our car-
riage-horses, especially such as run in pairs or double har-
ness, there is reason to think produces it ; the practice of
using tight throat-lashes or neck-straps may likewise have
induced it. In furtherance of which last opinion it may
be recollected, that horsemen have a very general suppo-
sition that cribbiting ends in roaring, in thick wind, or in
broken wind : may not the tight collar, strapped around the
throat, here tend to the former of these afiections? The
custom of ' coughing ' horses, and so frequently as it is
practised in fairs, may be readily supposed as a cause. A
horse passes from fair to fair, having his unfortunate throat
brutally pinched thirty or forty times each day. Is it to be
wondered at if inflammation takes place, and adhesive de-
posit follow ?

The treatment must be regulated by circumstances. When
it is acute, and depends upon the diseased state of neigh-
bouring parts, the inflammation of those parts must be
relieved. When it can be discovered to be the consequence
of recent inflammation of the laryngeal or tracheal carti-
lages, a physic ball may be given, and the seat of the disease
blistered, while, from day to day, some sedative medicine is
administered. Every case of roaring, however, excepting
the very acute, is undertaken with fear and trembling, and
the cure depends quite as much upon chance as upon skill.

CHRONIC COUGH.

Coughing is a spasmodic effort of the diaphragm, inter-
costal, and abdominal muscles, producing a forcible expira-
tion of the air from the chest, with such violence as is
calculated to remove any extraneous body that may intercept
the free passage of the air. Whenever it accompanies a
general affection of the constitution, it is regarded as simply
symptomatic, and the original disease is attended to for its
removal. Thus catarrh is accompanied by a cough, but
we attend principally to the general affection, as the best
means of subduing it. A chronic cough is often symptomatic
of some affection of the air-passages ; it is also an attendant
upon the state called broken wind : it likewise accompanies
glanders ; and appears when worms are in the stomach and

346 CHRONIC COUGIT.

bowels. But besides these cases, there exists at times, with-
out any attendant difficulty of breathing (the horse at the
same time eating well and thriving), a permanent cough,
usually more considerable in the morning and evening, after
meals, particularly after drinking, or on first going out to
exercise. A cough of this description is very common, and
it will remain in this state, without otherwise affecting the
horse, for years ; sometimes it will even be continued with
no obvious injury for his whole life. Young horses, when
first brought into stable, are generally found coughing,
which, however, subsides,' leaving behind it no perceptible
evil effect. In other instances it does not end in so harm-
less a manner, but upon any occasional cold being caught is
aggravated ; and each cold makes it worse and worse, until
at length, by repeated attacks, the respiration, or 'wind,'
is permanently affected. An irritable state of the bronchial
passages often remains after catarrh and bronchitis, and
coughing occurs whenever the horse moves out of or into
the stable ; for the inspired air is colder or warmer than
what was before breathed, hence becomes a source of irri-
tation : drinking cold water produces the same effect, for a
similar reason ; as does any hurry or irregularity of motion.
In some cases the irritability of the bronchial membrane
itself does not seem so much increased, as the mucus
secreted from it appears altered, either in quantity or quality.
It may become inordinate in quantity, as is often observed ;
such horses, when they cough, throw off much mucus by
the nostrils : or it may be more acrid in quality, and hence
by these means prove a source of continual irritation ; or
the secretion of mucus may be lessened to the injury of the
passages.

The treatment of chronic cough must depend on our view
of its causes and consequences. When it appears to arise
from a want of mucous secretion, expectorants which excite
such secretion are premised, as No. 1. When a redundancy
of the mucous secretion is apparent, tonics are required.
When the secretion is acrid, give No. 2. The cough, which
is the effect of an irritable state of the parts, is sometimes
relieved by stimulating the throat externally, and by giving
internally opium with bitter tonics. In horses naturally of
a full habit, and grossly fed, without sufficient exercise, our

THICK WIND. 347

attempts must be directed to lower their general plethora,
by moderate feeding, and exertion enough. If at grass, a
less luxuriant pasture should be chosen. In the stable, the
bloated horse should be muzzled at night, to prevent him
eating his litter, and his water should be given in moderate
quantities only : all sudden exertions likewise ought to be as
much as possible avoided.

When worms in any large numbers are present in the
stomach, or intestines, a continued cough generally exists,
with irregular appetite and unthrifty coat, stools foetid and
slimy, at one time loose and another hard and dry ; for which
turn to the head under which those parasites are specially
treated of. In all chronic coughs the best effect sometimes
follow from feeding with carrots. Turnips, parsneps, beet,
and potatoes, may be beneficially used where carrots cannot
be got ; and a mash with bran and linseed, or malt, may be
occasionally given.

No. ) . — Calomel one scruple.

Gum aramouiac two draclims.

Balsam of Peru one draclim.

Powdered squill one drachm.

Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning fasting.
In some cases the following has been found efficacious : —

No. 2. — Tar one drachm.

Powdered squill (Uie drachm.

Linseed meal a sufficiency.

Make into a ball and give every morning, or try the fol-
lowing : —

No. 3. — Powdered ipecacuanha , half a drachm.

Camphor two drachms.

Extract of belladonna one scruple.

Make into a ball with honey, and give every morning.

THICK WIND

Is also a common consequence of either acute or chronic
pulmonary inflammations. In some instances, it is the
immediate consequence of violent or long-continued exer-
cise, and particularly if the exercise be taken upon a dis-
tended stomach and bowels, or after full drinking ; or it may
be brought on by the application of cold. It is often con-
nected with a plethoric state, and is therefore very common
among pampered animals and gross feeders ; and more
particularly in low-bred and thick-set horses. The post-

348 BROKEN WIND.

mortem examinations of such cases exhibit, in some in-
stances, a sHght hepatization of lung, the consequence of
repeated congestions ; in others, the minute bronchial cells
are filled with adhesive matter, or the general substance
may be pervaded with minute granulations of a blueish
colour.

The symptoms of thick wind are sufficiently known to any
one at all conversant with horses. The capacity of the air-
cells being diminished, renders it necessary for the air to be
more frequently taken in, because, being acted on by a less
surface, the blood is not sufficiently oxygenated ; and a suf-
ficient number of air-cells not being expanded, the animal
makes hasty inspirations to remedy the default : the force
with which these are effected, occasions the sound so well
known as the distinguishing mark of thick wind. In this
affection, the obstruction to both being equal, the inspira-
tions and expirations are ahke, which serves to distinguish
it from broken wind. Thick wind is, however, very apt to
degenerate into broken wind ; and the post-mortem appear-
ances of such horses as have been examined for thick wind
would readily, by an increase of the disorganization, account
for the symptoms which are characteristic of broken wind ;
but these can only spring from a hepatized lung which is in
the emphysematous state.

The treatment of thick wind can seldom be more than
palliative, for once established, it remains permanent. The
remedial means are more in the hands of the proprietor
than of the veterinary surgeon. The food must be moderate
in quantity, and of such a kind as will occupy the least possi-
ble space. No hay should be allowed ; and as thick winded
horses are gross feeders, the muzzle ought to be put on as
soon as the manger has been emptied.

BROKEN WIND.

This peculiar affection has long excited the attention not
only of veterinarians, but of the curious in general : and as a
cure for it holds out the certainty of a plentiful harvest, both
of credit and emolument, it has been a subject of much ex-
periment and more conjecture. The older writers indulged
in the most absurd and extravagant notions respecting it ;
into the detail of which I shall not follow them. On the

BROKEN WIND. 349

Continent it long occupied, in later times, the research of
many eminent veterinarians, but with little satisfactory-
issue. It has been attributed to external and internal
causes ; to a defect, and to a superabundance, of vital
energy ; to altered structure of the heart, of the lungs, of
the diaphragm, the stomach, the liver, &c. It is lesion
with some, nervous with others, and simple distention with
a third. Among our own writers the discrepancy is equally
great : Gibson attributed it to an enlargement of the pulmo-
nary mass generally ; Dr. Lower to a rupture of the phrenic
nerve ; but in later times it has been mostly attributed by
our writers to structural change. Yet to proceed somewhat
methodically, we will cursorily inquire into its more proba-
ble causes.

The cause of broken wind is hereditary or constitutional
predisposition. A certain form of body is unquestionably
favourable to its production, and it is from this circum-
stance that it proves hereditary. The narrow confined
chest, and the pendant belly, which mark low-bred horses
and gross feeders, predispose towards the affection. It
must be the subjecting horses to a long-continued un-
healthy course of feeding on dry food, as chaff, bran, bar-
ley meal, &c. &c. that brings it on ; as also working in
mills, where much dust is necessarily inhaled. It is seldom
the immediate consequence of pneumonia ; but frequently
it results from those states of disordered respiration which
succeed to it, as thick wind, chronic cough, &c. We are
much in the dark about its origin : we see that it gradually
steals on a horse, occupying months, and even years, with
a slight occasional cough, which ripening into a state of
impeded respiration, at last ends in broken wind. We see
it also follow one hard gallop ; and we can leave a horse
well one day, and find him broken-winded the next. With
these facts in our every-day experience, can we readily
name any universal cause ?

A post-mortem examination, in most of the subjects, has
brought forward an emphysematous state of lungs, and we
need not to have looked further for the cause ; but, on the
contrary, it is not by any means uncommon to meet with
broken-winded horses whose lungs after death are neither
emphysematous or otherwise structurally deranged ; and

350 BROKEN WIND.

which, with the exception of their lighter colour, and
greater bulk than natural, cannot well be distinguished
from the sound lung, although they crepitate or crackle
when pressed by the hand. It must, however, be acknow-
ledged, that it is seldom they are seen even thus free from
disease ; for if not emphysematous, they are hepatized, or
congested; sometimes tubercular. From two cases cited
by Mr. Percivall, emphysema of the lungs can also exist
without broken wind. It appears likely that rupture of
the air-cells is the cause of broken wind, because it is not
always sudden, but gives some years of a warning cough,
or of thick-winded wheeze. Although an emphysematous
state of the lungs is common, it is by no means' constant,
and consequently will not afford a structural solution of
this difficulty.

There is another view of the cause of this disease, namely,
that it depends upon derangement of the digestive canal ;
and if the irritability of the larynx favours the opinion
advanced with respect to the lungs, the constant passing of
flatus supports the other conjecture. Horses with broken
wind will eat almost any thing, which again is opposed to
the conclusion that the lungs are the sole seat of the dis-
order. The belly is enlarged, the stomach distended, and
its coats much thinned, which last-named facts would seem
to decide the question. But the truth is, broken wind
appears to be a universal derangem.ent, and it is not one
structure that suffers, but the entire body undergoes more
or less alteration.

The symptoms of this complaint are well marked : the
cough and the manner of respiration may be considered as
conclusive. The sound emitted by the cough is peculiar,
and is often forced out with a kind of grunt, in a short but
vibrating feeble tone compared with the usual cough of
sound-winded horses. The respiration is conducted with a
remarkable difference between the inspirations and expira-
tions. Inspiration is effected quickly ; and the lengthened
laborious strain of expiration, which is performed by two
distinct efforts, in one of which the usual muscles operate ;
and in the other the abdominal muscles come into violent
action, to complete the expulsion ; after which the flanks
fall with peculiar force, and the air is again inspired as by

BROKEN WIND. 351

a spasm. An auxiliary symptom is the peculiar flatulence
of every broken-winded horse ; which is strikingly charac-
teristic of that disordered state of digestion so common in
these cases, and of that constant thirst also which is inva-
riably present.

The treatment of broken wind can seldom be more than
palliative. Whatever increases the distention of the stomach
and bowels, aggravates the complaint by increasing the diffi-
culty of expanding the lungs. Therefore, avoid stimulants,
and promote regular evacuations ; abstain from over- dis-
tention of the lungs by too violent and too sudden exer-
tions, particularly after eating. By carefully attending to
these principal indications, a broken-winded horse may be
rendered comfortable to himself and useful to his owner.
The food should be regularly given in moderate quantities
only ; but most particularly it should be of such a nature
as will contain much nutriment in a small space : hence
corn is more proper than hay, and, above all, a manger
food composed of one part bran, one part bruised beans,
and two parts bruised oats, agree particularly well, if given
somewhat moistened. On a quantity of this food no horse
will need hay. When they can be got, give also carrots,
mangel wurzel, Swedish turnips, parsneps, or cooked pota-
toes, which feeding will be found to combine both medicine
and nutriment, and render little water necessary. Turning
out to grass commonly aggravates the symptoms of broken
wind ; and a neglect of moderate exercise also aggravates
the complaint : water should be sparingly given, particu-
larly in the working hours ; at night, a moderate quantity
should be allowed, but on no account let the broken- winded
horse drink his fill at a pond or trough. Medicinally,
benefit has been received from daily small doses of foxglove ;
under these circumstances it has been given to the amount
of a scruple of the drug ; and a piece of rock-salt placed in
the manger, has seemed to do some good.

MODES OF DISTINGUISHING SOUNDNESS AND UNSOUNDNESS
OF THE WIND.

These various affections of the loind are very important
to the veterinarian, nor can he be too well informed of the
appearances that characterize each distinctly; because, as

352 BROKEN WIND.

their existence affects the legal soundness of horses, so he
will be very often forced to decide peremptorily on very
slight appearances. To detect thick wind it is' generally
necessary that some time be spent with the horse ; and it
is often requisite that he should be examined under various
circumstances. Does he bear moderate exercise imme-
diately after eating or drinking without blowing high?
Does he cough in so doing, or is he observed to do it on
every change of position, or temperature ; particularly after
drinking? And does he when in the stable, field, or when
completely at rest, occasionally cough short, hollow, and
not followed by that firm effort we call clearing ? In such
a case the horse has chronic cough ; and as his breathing is
more or less accelerated beyond the ordinary standard, he
is more or less thick winded also. Roaring may be imme-
diately detected by a brisk gallop ; but the person who is
to judge of its existence should be on the ground. We have
seen horses whipped into a momentary cessation of the
roaring, therefore they should pass him several times, but
without restraint ; and the veterinary surgeon should place
his ear against the trachea as soon as the animal is pulled
up.

Broken wind can hardly be mistaken ; the cough accom-
panying it conveys a peculiar sound ; it is short, vibrates
within. The breathing is hurried in the extreme by exer-
tion, and is remarkable by being made up of three efforts
instead of two. In the first, the air is drawn in natu-
rally, and the flanks fill up as usual; but in the next,
after the ribs have acted, the rising of the flanks to
expel the air is most unusual ; for it is not done with a
gradual contraction of the muscles, but takes place at once
by a momentary effort, and then a third action ensues,
which is a slow but strong drawing up of the muscles of
the belly, as though to force out remaining air. Broken-
winded horses are also observed to be pecuharly greedy
after water : and a little hurried motion distends the nos-
trils, and produces evident distress. Rogues at country fairs
have a method of setting broken wind ; and of giving the
horse affected something, which for a time shall render the
animal superior to his symptoms, or cause him to conceal
them. Fat, shot, opium, and in short any substance that

GLANDERS.

353

will act as a sedative is used; but these agents are not
always harmless, as they frequently result in the death of
the horse which takes them. However, all these arts are
set at nought if the horse be taken to a pond, and there
allowed to swill at his pleasure. The characteristic cough
returns. The sedative is overpowered for a short time by
the refreshing draught, and broken wind is detected as the
natural state predominates.

GLANDERS.

This fatal and loathsome disease has long been the scourge
of a noble race of animals — horses.

The editor's account of the nature of glanders and farcy
will be short : we have every reason to believe that glanders
and farcy are but modifications of each other, and that both
originate in one common poison : innumerable facts and
well-conducted experiments have set this matter beyond
doubt ; for horses have been inoculated with the matter of
farcy, and the glanders has been the result : glanders has
also been produced by inoculating with the matter of glan-
ders : farcy has been brought on likewise by inserting the
matter of farcy : and, lastly, the artificial introduction of
the matter of glanders has occasioned a true appearance of
the farcy. Some authorities, however, deny that any weight
is to be attached to such results, and assert that these dis-
eases can even be produced artificially, by means foreign to
contagion or to individual poison. In answer, we would
remark, that it is the very essence of all poisons to be
governed by their own laws, and to own only certain modes
of operation. Small-pox, syphilis, and the rabid poison
have remained the same in their symptoms, mode of propa-
gation, and terminations for ages. We have alw^ays, therefore,
ourselves, felt convinced of the specific nature of this affec-
tion, w^hich for variety in its mode of production, continua-
tioni and termination, has no parallel ; and to which only
we can attribute the unsettled state of the opinions con-
cerning it ; but which do nothing to uproot its claim to the
character of a direct and peculiar poison, that can always
beget its like, and its like only. It is quite true glanders
can be produced by great debility, induced by any cause,
as abortive strangles, influenza, or even by the injection of

A a

354 GLANDERS.

acrid substances into the veins. But glanders once induced
by any cause that undermines the constitution, can then by
inoculation generate nothing but glanders or farcy, and this
is all and every thing the opposed party contend about.

The forms of glanders have been called acute and chronic.
A very ingenious veterinarian, Mr. James Turner, has pro-
posed a third kind, which he calls the insidious. This last
kind ensues upon the clearing off of catarrh, influenza, &c. ;
a protracted gleet remains from one or both nostrils,
watery, mingled with small particles of mucus, invariably in
very small quantities, but the discharge of which is constant ;
and instead of an enlarged submaxillary gland, the size of a
walnut, which leads to suspicion, in these cases it is dimi-
nished to the size of a pea or horse-bean, but is indurated,
and is frequently loose, not being adherent to the jaw-bone.
Another deceptive circumstance is the general state of the
animal, which is that of good health, in coat, flesh, and
spirits. In this state no one suspects glanders, and yet at
any time inoculation with the effusion will produce glanders
in another horse. Mr. Turner deserves the thanks of the
profession at large for putting them on their guard against
this treacherous disease, whose Protean shapes require all
our vigilance ; but, as he candidly observes, it is not a new
species of glanders, but the true chronic form in one of its
most occult shapes, of which we have too many instances.
The disease is, however, marked with different degrees of
malignancy ; in some cases running its fatal course in a
week, and in others continuing for years with little altera-
tion, and perhaps spontaneously disappearing at last ; and
under this view there is room for a systematic division into
acute and chronic : that which Mr. Turner calls the in-
sidious, is, as he justly states, but a slight modification of
the latter. Acute glanders are seldom clearly marked ; but
when they are the effect of some extraordinary circum-
stances, acting on a number of horses at the same time, as in
a state of unusual deprivation of pure air, their consequences
are appalling. Asses and mules afford the most complete
instances of acute glanders ; they seldom have any other
kind.

The causes of glanders and farcy have occasioned as
much diversity of opinion as the nature of the complaints.

GLANDERS. 355

Both glanders and farcy originate in contagion. An here-
ditary defect in the structural capacity of the aerating
organs, there is great reason to suppose, is a remote cause
of much importance in glanders. Whatever acts noxiously
on the air-passages for a considerable time by its irritation,
fits them to develop it also ; and thus either acute or
chronic glanders may arise, as the cause is active or in-
sidious. In this way it is that the impure air of close con-
fined situations probably acts, by wasting the strength and
destroying the constitution. In populous towns and cities,
in crowded unventilated stables, we therefore meet with
this disease in the greatest numbers and worst forms. The
debilitating effects of common inflammations of the mucous
surfaces of the air-passages and their dependencies, is a
general source : even wounds of these parts have brought
on glanders. A remote cause is a cold humid state of
atmosphere, acting upon a debilitated frame ; and thus it
is more frequent in winter than summer.

The contagious nature of glanders has been altogether
disputed by some. Bracken was among the number : but
many more think it only contagious in a slight degree ;
none suppose it is contagious to the extent that was once
imagined. All horses, however, are not equally susceptible
to take the disease. It must be remembered, that there is
a non -susceptibility in some constitutions, and also in the
same constitution at particular periods to receive it, when
at other times, the fatal disorder would be readily im-
bibed ; to which facts much of this discrepancy of state-
ment is owing. The generation of glanders has been
alleged and denied ; but the question seems to be at once
set at rest by the breaking out of acute glanders among
the horses on board the transports bound for Quiberon, in
consequence of the necessity of fastening down the hatches
for three days during a storm ; of these horses none were
known to be affected with the disease at the time of em-
barkation. Whence then could the infection be derived ?
All were exposed to the impure air, or all imbibed the
same cause, which none but the very strong and robust
could withstand. But it is not possible for a single horse
to infect the air around, so as to give the disease to a
healthy one near him : horses have lived thus together for

Aa2

356 GLANDERS.

months without Injury : on the other hand, we would not
venture to deny, that a sound horse, shut up in an unven-
tilated stable, where the air became contaminated, might not
himself generate the disorder. In its general character, how-
ever, it is contagious ; and its contagious nature is exerted
by the actual application of the morbid virus to some part
of the body, and that generally an abraded surface.

The Symptoms of Glanders are, an increased secretion
from the membranes of one or both nostrils, which con-
tinually flows in small or large quantities. This discharge
is seldom at first perfectly purulent, but is more glairy,
thick, and not unlike the white of an egg ; it sometimes
continues thus for a long time ; at others it hastens to
become muco-purulent, and then purulent ; but there
always remains a peculiar degree of viscidity and glueyness
in it that sticks the nostrils together, as it were, from its
tenacity, differing from all other mucous or purulent secre-
tions, the very nature of which strongly characterizes the
complaint. The general colour of the Schneiderian mem-
brane becomes changed ; first to a violet colour, often a
dingy yellow, and afterwards to a leaden hue. As ulcera-
tion ensues, the discharge becomes tinged with shades
of green and yellow, intermixed with blood, and is often
sanious and offensive, which is alv,'ays the case when the
bones become diseased. From absorption of the morbid
matter by the lymphatics, near to the part, the maxillary
glands under the jaws become swollen and tender ; when
one side of the head only is affected, the absorbent glands
of that side, and that side only, grow tumefied. The
enlargement of these bodies is too much relied on as
an absolute criterion of the existence of glanders ; for
though, when the disease has existed some time, they are
very generally tumefied, yet, in mild cases of some standing,
they are not invariably so : and again, there are other com-
plaints besides this that will tumefy them ; whatever in-
flames the Schneiderian membrane, as catarrh, strangles,
&c. may cause the glands to enlarge. Neither can a certain
criterion be drawn from their attachment to, or detachment
from, the bone: occasionally they will remain unaffected,
or the whole will form a tumid mass, tender, but not ad-
herent to the maxillar on either side. They are, how^ever,

GLANDERS. 357

seldom found in this condition ; for after the disease has at-
tained any virulence, a distinct lymphatic glandular knob or
two will generally be found in contact with the branch of the
jaw-bone upon the affected side. The disease sometimes re-
mains long without producing ulceration in chronic glan-
ders, and cases of this kind prove very puzzling to the
practitioner : at other times, on the contrary, an ulcerating
process is speedily exhibited ; which in acute glanders inva-
riably appears. The ulcers of glanders have a very pecu-
liar character, and their appearance cannot be too atten-
tively studied : they usually commence by minute bladders,
which at first may contain pus or a clear fluid, but which
soon form small cavities, internally deep with abrupt promi-
nent edges ; and they are seen in greatest numbers upon
the septum nasi, and sometimes uniting into broad con-
tinuous patches, which spread and deepen until the carti-
lages are absorbed, and the purulent secretion fills the
frontal sinuses and the ethmoidal cells. Sometimes the
ulceration exists so high up the nostril, that it is very
difficult to discover ; yet, with the head held up to a full
light, more particularly towards the sun when shining, it
may be detected if within any moderate distance ; and when
it cannot, the varied appearance of the discharge will lead
to a suspicion of its existence. The junior practitioner
must not allow portions of the secreted matter which may
adhere to the membrane to mislead him into a belief of exist-
ing ulceration ; he should, when in doubt, pass up a probe
armed with tow, and wipe away such glutinous deposit ; and
had not the error actually occurred in the practice of more
than one veterinarian, we should be almost ashamed to insert
a caution, that the opening of the nasal duct ought not to be
mistaken for a chancre. The situation of this opening is
found a little way up the nostril upon the reflected skin,
and not upon the mucous secreting surface. At an uncer-
tain period of this form of the disease, occurring sometimes
much sooner than at others, the lungs become tubercular,
and hectic symptoms follow the bursting of abscesses within
them : large abscesses commonly form within the lungs ;
and now the health is evidently impairing fast : there is
cough, increased and most offensive discharge by the nose,
loss of appetite, emaciation, and weakness in the loins ; the

358 GLANDERS.

hair feels dry, and falls off on being handled ; the matter
from the nose increases in quantity, becomes sanious,
stinking, or bloody, and is coughed up by the mouth also ;
the animal has a bloated aspect ; the cellular tissue pits ;
the conjunctiva is infiltrated ; the caruncula lachrymalis
grows discoloured ; the eye has the expression of a sheep
suffering from the rot, and the gums are pallid. If put to
hard work, such horses rapidly decline in condition ; and
yet, should they be destroyed, fat is found in abundance
upon their bellies and about their hearts.

From the very serious effects which follow the spreading
of this disease, the veterinary practitioner is often called
upon to give a prompt and definite opinion relative to it.
The principal intricacy that will present itself, arises from
the similarity of appearance that frequently exists between
the true disease and a diseased and increased muco-puru-
lent secretion which sometimes remains after a severe cold,
or is the consequence of repeated catarrhal attacks. Local
inflammations also, from various causes, occasionally take
place within the nasal sinuses ; which although by no means
glanderous, yet are accompanied by such a regular and
continued flow of pus as to mislead the practitioner. In
such cases, however, the matter secreted is distinct from
the glairy pus of glanders ; and we may further be led
into a suspicion of the cause by the quantity of the dis-
charge, if the horse be allowed to feed from the ground, as
well as by the absence of visible ulceration. In present
colds the difficulty cannot be great, for then the general
health is commonly affected ; there is some fever, loss of
appetite, thirst, and cough, which are seldom so well
marked during the early stages of glanders ; and those
wbich are more advanced require but little to distinguish
them ; for although in catarrh the submaxillary glands are
sometimes sw^elled, yet they are in these cases hot also and
moveable. But when colds have been severe, or often re-
peated, there occasionally remains in the mucous mem-
branes of the air-passages, particularly in that of the nasal
cavities, a disposition to a morbidly increased secretion of
a muco-purulent nature, which will continue to flow from
one or both nostrils. We have seen cases of this kind which
have existed one or two years, and in one instance it had

GLANDERS. 359

lasted three years, but eventually disappeared. In these
instances, however, our principal reliance was upon the
nature of the discharge, which presented distinguishing
characteristics, that, attended to, proved tolerable guides.
The matter of glanders is tenacious and sticky, like glue ;
semi-transparent, and hangs about the rim of the nostrils
in a peculiar manner ; but more particularly it is continu-
ally flowing : whereas in that state resulting from catarrh
there is not a regular discharge, but the flow appears now
and then, as when the horse coughs, or when after trotting
he clears himself by snorting, or when he stoops the head
to feed ofl' the earth ; at which times a large quantity fre-
quently comes away, and then perhaps no more appears for
some hours after. And though the matter of glanders
may flow some weeks even, without apparent ulceration,
yet in general cases there will occur a more early appear-
ance of chancres, and commonly a swelling and fixture of
the lymphatic gland also ; to all these considerations should
be added, an examination of the general health of the horse,
and particularly of the state of his coat or hair, which we
have always observed unthrifty and disposed to fall off in
confirmed glanders.

The practitioner need hardly be cautioned on the score
of the common tricks practised in horse fairs and markets
to conceal the appearance of glanders. It is common with
the lowest orders of the salesmen to gallop a glandered
horse in some private situation, which forces him by accele-
rated respiration and cough to throw off the collected secre-
tion immediately formed : some powerful astringent, as
alum, vitriol, &c. is then blown up the nostrils, or in some
cases the discharge is temporarily stopped by a plug or
pledget of tow, cloth, &c. &c. thrust up the nose. But in
all these cases the enlarged lymphatics still remain, and
the coat will in all probability come off on handling ;
but particularly there is a constant uneasiness in the manner
of the horse, for he attempts to cough or sneeze to rid
himself of the plug.

TJie Treatment of Glanders. — The philosopher's stone
was scarcely sought for more earnestly by the ancients, than
a cure for glanders by recent veterinarians. The great
reward held out has stimulated many practitioners into

3G0 GLANDERS.

unnumbered experiments, and occasional success still gives
a spur to the energies of new experimentalists.

Glanders, however, is something more than a mere dis-
ease ; it is the termination of all other diseases. Supposing
the discharge from the nostrils could be stopped, the glan-
ders would not be cured. The discharge is but a symptom,
glanders being a general break-up of the constitution. The
pulmonary disease would remain untouched. The tubercles
and abscesses in the lungs would continue, and when this
is considered, we cannot wonder that glanders in horses,
like consumption in the human being, has defeated the best
efforts of science.

We will, however, cursorily run over the most reputed
remedies which have been or continue to be tried, dwelling
longest on those which offer most hope. Injections and
nasal applications, on a view of its being a purely local
affection, have been too long and too fully tried to mis-
lead ; and had not a spontaneous cure every now and then
occurred, and had not nasal gleets been mistaken for
glanders, no one would have depended on the cure of
the disorder. Our neighbours, the French, have been
equally, perhaps even more, unfortunate than ourselves
in their curative attempts. Internally, mercurials in all
their forms have failed ; nor have they succeeded better
externally, though M. Bollestra, of Turin, professes to have
witnessed benefit from ungt. hydrarg. ^i rubbed into the
inside of the thigh daily until five or six pounds have been
used. Huzard and Biron were employed by the French
authorities to try both the muriate and carbonate of barytes,
and the exhibition of both drugs produced, in most in-
stances, a remission of symptoms ; but when pushed to
what was deemed a necessary extent, the animals usually
died from the effects of the medicine. Similar results have
followed in the practice of many other veterinarians. M.
Moiroud, veterinary professor at Alfort, has given 5ij of
chloride of soda in a liquid form, w^hich he has gradually
increased to a very large quantity, and with very flattering
appearances of amendment ; but the future cases did not
correspond. Camphor in daily doses of an ounce seemed
to benefit a horse much. Mr. Coleman has given ' the
various preparations of arsenic, antimony, copper, zinc,

GLANDERS, 361

mercury, &c. ; hellebore, aconitum, digitalis, hyoscyamus,
cicuta, belladonna, &c. &c., but all without any specific or
curative effect.' The late Mr. Sewell appears to have been
more successful with the sulphate of copper {blue vitriol) ;
but as the benefits were generally confined to cases not
marked with much constitutional affection, so the value of
the remedy is necessarily much limited. To increase our
remedial means, Mr. Vines also has lately revived the sti-
mulating plan of treatment, and given it new publicity by
his reasoning and experiments. He observes, the remedies
which are to be employed in those cases that are likely to
run into, or have already become, what is usually termed
glanders or farcy, are those which possess stimulating and
tonic properties, separately or united. Of these a reference
to Mr. Vines' work will show that he places his principal
dependence on cantharides ; which have long been before
the public as a remedy for nasal gleets, but have never re-
ceived such ample elucidation as by this author. He gives
them every or each other day, in the form of a ball ; either
morning or evening (he, however, prefers the evening),
with ginger, gentian, and caraway seeds. He commences
with four or five grains of the cantharides, in fine powder,
according to size, age, condition, &c. ; and, if well borne,
the dose, after ten days or a fortnight, is increased to
eight grains, according to the circumstances alluded to.
When this larger dose has been in use some time he desists
altogether from the medicine for four or five days, and then
recommences, but with the smaller dose.

Mr. Bracy Clarke's formula of administration of cantha-
rides, in conjunction with mineral tonics to be given daily,
is as follows : —

Sulphate of zinc (jwhite Titriol) fifteen grains.

Powdered cantharides seven grains.

Powdered allspice fifteen grains.

We cannot conclude without recommending the reader
to turn to the encouraging account of the effects of barytes
in glanders, administered by Mr. W. Percivall, which will
be found fully detailed in his most excellent work entitled
' Hippo-pathology.'

Glanders is communicable to the human subject. — Ample
experience will demonstrate the necessity there is that the

362 FARCY.

human attendant on diseased horses should be very careful
to avoid any contact with the matter of glanders ; which if
by any means it should reach an abraded part, or the sur-
face of any mucous membrane, will fatally inoculate the
individual. After all, from the numerous remedies which
have been tried to cure glanders, we may learn that
none have been very successful ; all may warrant hope,
but not one justifies confidence. If, however, we have not
learnt to cure glanders, modern science has found out
means to prevent the disease. By perfect drainage and free
ventilation the glanders is, in a great measure, to be set at
defiance. The other part of the remedy is never to pursue
the depletive mode of cure too far ; but to stay before our
measures intended to master a complaint undermine tbe
constitution : by following these two rules, we may keep the
glanders in subjection.

FARCY.

From what has preceded, it will appear that glanders and
farcy are fully proved to be modifications only of each
other. Farcy was long considered to be a disease of the
veins ; which error was natural enough, seeing the absorbent
vessels, in which the virus travels, were then considered as
a species of veins. We are now, however, aware that tbis
disease, in its local or early state, is a specific inflammation
of the superficial absorbents: experience has also taught us,
that as long as its attack remains thus confined to the
surface, it is not difficult to cure ; but when it has en-
tered the constitution it generally proves fatal, and inva-
riably ends in glanders : and then, in return, acute glanders
is very apt to end in, and almost invariably does, in farcy.
Farcy is, however, not confined to the superficial parts of
the body alone, for it may be occasionally met with in every
part of the frame ; but the head, neck, and extremities, par-
ticularly the hinder ones, are the parts most generally
affected ; by which it would seem to choose those situa-
tions in wbich absorbent glands are most numerous, or are
furthest from the heart, and therefore most active in absorb-
ing. It is usual to feel for farcy buds, in a suspicious
case, upon the inside of the thighs, where, though none
shall be found, the hard corded absorbent vessels may gene-

FARCY.

363

rally be detected. When the virus of farcy is absorbed it some-
times occasions inflammation in the immediate lymphatic
vessel, which it first tumefies and then ulcerates. In other
instances, its progress seems to be arrested, the vessel be-
comes inflamed, hardened, and then forms the lump which
is called a farcy bud. At length, however, if nothing be
done, these tumours increase, become hot, then burst,
sending forth healthy pus ; after which they ulcerate, and
discharge a thin sanies; from one bud it passes on to
another; inflaming the lymphatic vessels in its progress,
and giving them a hardened feel like a cord under the skin.
Sometimes the larger lymphatic trunks proceed to suppu-
rate, when they form extensive sinuses, which the farriers
call 'farcy pipes.'

Farcy is subject to varieties in form and character. It
has assumed an epidemic feature ; and it often appears com-
pounded with, and modified by, other complaints. Two
distinct varieties of farcy are very common ; one of which
is entirely superficial, and confined to the lymphatics of the
skin, and is often called the button farcy. The other com-
mences usually in the extremities, and generally the hinder
ones : the lymphatic tubes throughout become inflamed,
being incapable of their usual office, and hence engorgement
of the whole hmb takes place. This farcied enlargement
of a limb is not, to a partial observer, unlike the ligamen-
tary thickening of a gorged leg ; neither is it much unlike
the swelUng from oedema or effusion. But swellings, when
they arise from farcy, will present an uneven surface ; in-
creasing and decreasing suddenly ; they are further charac-
terized by much pain and exquisite tenderness. The lym-
phatic glands of the skin will here and there point them-
selves into small buds ; and it is further worthy of remark,
that such swellings are more likely to exist in definite
masses, and between the joints, than on them or near them ;
which is not the case in hgamentary enlargements arising
from over-exertion or strain. To distinguish farcy from
surfeit, which likewise covers the body with small tumours,
in the' last affection the swellings are broader, flatter, and
generally more diffused over the trunk than the extremities ;
besides never being tender ; and when found on the extre-
mities, they are usually situated on the outer side, whereas

364

FARCY.

the farcy buds are more frequently on the inner side of the
hmb. In some cases, however, oedema or actual dropsy of
the Hmb does occur, dependent on the obstruction offered
to the passing of the absorbed serum : a horse thus affected
is often said to have water farcy, which is treated of in
another place as a distinct disease from true farcy.

The infected lymphatic glands or luds will sometimes
also, instead of suppurating, take on a scirrhous induration,
and remain thus hardened for a long time ; but eventually
it happens that they either, by absorption, produce tuber-
cles and pulmonary vomicae ; or are translated to the nose ;
or end in a diseased thickening of large masses of the skin'
neck, withers, and croup.

A variety of farcy remains to be noticed, which is usually
passed over by authors, and which is also one wherein the
poison is self- generated probably. It often puts on a chronic
protracted form, and shows itself by the affected horse be-
coming suddenly lame in one hmb, the tumefaction and heat
of which will recede and attack the other limb in the same
manner. In this way he may remain for months, with his
health very slightly affected ; at length, however, the disease
assumes a more marked character, some of the swellings
ulcerate, and glanders eventually closes the scene. Old
horses are more frequently the subject of farcy than younger
ones, which does not appear to be the case with sponta-
neous glanders.

The causes of farcy, with the exception of contagion, are
of the same complexion with those of glanders, but are
more varied, and numerous. It is necessary, for the pro-
duction of farcy, that there be an actual application of
the matter at least to a bare surface; probably also it
requires either a mucous or an abraded surface. Long
continued grease will sometimes degenerate into it ; thus
showing us that the morbid poison is dependent on any
thing that weakens the constitution, for the filth and im-
purities that generate grease are likely in the end to pro-
duce glanders. Long continued canker will do the same :
in fact, whatever debilitates may occasion it, particularly
when combined with neglect in cleanliness and by living in
contaminated stables, which last is supposed to be capable
of producing farc}^ as it produces glanders.

FARCY. 365

The Treatment of Farcy. — In the very early stages of
this complaint, when it has been taken by inoculation, or
has originated in diseased extremities, — in such cases it
is not invariably found difficult of cure ; but when farcy
has suddenly broken forth without cause or warning the
virulence and obstinacy of the affection is hard to subdue.
It is almost equally difficult of cure when it enters by
means of the mucous membranes of the head, for in these
cases the stage between farcy and glanders is so short as
to admit of little being attempted. There is, however,
a pause in some cases between the taking on of the full
character of glanders, during which pause a treatment
of it judiciously exerted sometimes proves beneficial :
but having once assumed the full glanderous characters,
the case becomes hopeless. Nevertheless, we are not
prepared to say that it is never removed after it has
tainted the constitution ; but when it has propagated its
morbid effects to the lungs, whatever may become of
the farcy, the horse invariably dies of glanders. Unless
it be accompanied with confirmed glanders, many prac-
titioners consider every case of farcy as purely a local
affection, and their treatment is accordant with that
idea. It was once hoped that it might be effectually ar-
rested in the first instance, by simply employing topical
means, and that nothing more than the destruction of
these vessels was necessary to effect all that was desired ;
but, unfortunately, it is very usual in these cases for the
disease to reappear, and commonly in a more malignant
form. We would therefore recommend the student always
to treat it as a constitutional affection. In the acute
form of farcy attend first to symptoms and obviate their
effects ; which done, proceed to attack the disease itself.
Do the same by that tumefied state into which the limbs
sometimes fall. In the true chronic form of the disease,
where the superficial lymphatic vessels and glands are the
seat of the affection, the cure should be commenced by
opening every one of the farcy buds, and dressing the ex-
posed surface first with a solution of chloride of zinc four
grains to the ounce, and after the first three days further
diluting it to the strength of two grains to the ounce. The
quickest mode is to divide them with a sharp pointed knife,
particularly such as are directly superficial : if deeper seated,

366 FARCY.

an opening may be made into each with the same, and
afterwards dressed as directed. The internal remedies used
are various. Nearly all the mineral acids have been found
useful and some of the vegetable ones. All the different
forms of mercury have been tried with some success : but
corrosive sublimate appears to have answered best ; and,
when determined on, should be given to the full extent the
stomach and bowels will bear, without salivation, or symp-
toms of inflammation being brought on. Ten or fifteen
grains may be commenced with, ground very finely with
sugar, and given night and morning in gruel as a drench.
If this occasion no distress, it may be increased to a scru-
ple, and from this to half a drachm, if it be borne with
ease ; but the utmost care and watchfulness should be
exerted when the dose is considerable. When the weak-
ness and irritability of the horse are too great for the exhi-
bition of the corrosive sublimate, give half a drachm of
calomel twice a day, or the blue pill, or the sulphuret of
mercury may be substituted, still carefully watching the sali-
vating process. Should the stomach suffer much under the
use of these active agents, either join with them bitter tonics,
or alternate them with each other. We would also recom-
mend that they be in these cases given in solution, and further
sheathed by some ingredient of a mucilaginous nature.

After the trial of mercurials, arsenic ought next to claim
the attention, as that has also proved efficacious in farcy,
and it may be given in the form of liquor arsenicalis, or
Fowler's tasteless solution Verdigris was for some time
a favourite remedy at the Veterinary College, in doses of a
scruple three times a day, increased to a drachm. We have
witnessed also good effects from this preparation ; but we
have found it most efficacious when given in a ball in con-
junction with the blue vitriol, half a drachm at a dose.
Some practitioners choose to employ several articles in con-
junction, and they assert the cure is speedier from the com-
bination than fi'om any one article separately. In this case,
give the following : —

Corrosive sublimate five gi-aiiis.

Arsenic five grains.

Verdigris five grains.

Blue vitriol half a scruple.

Mix into a ball with palm oil and linseed meal ; give every
morning.

FARCY. 367

Should the subject be sUght or weakly, begin with a
smaller dose of each of the articles : but in any case, when
the quantity is found to sit well on the stomach increase the
dose of each article, daily, one or two grains, carefully watch-
ing the effects produced, occasionally resting a day or two ;
and however well the ball may seem to agree, do not increase
the agents beyond fifteen or twenty grains each. It has been
thought prudent by some to divide the dose, and to give the
half, night and morning. It may be also remarked, that
some horses can take three or four times more than others ;
and therefore, although great caution be necessary in pro-
ceeding with the use of the mineral agents, it is equally
necessary that the dose should be augmented, in all cases, to
as much as the constitution can bear. During their exhi-
bition it is also absolutely imperative that the patient should
be supported liberally ; nor should the stomach and bowels
ever be suffered to remain empty for any great length of
time.

In addition also to the use of the mineral acids, much
benefit has been experienced from the following drink given
in conjunction with the ball before mentioned every day,
but not at the same time of the day ; the ball in the morn-
ing, for instance, and the drink in the evening : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Tinctui'e of quassse one ounce.

Tiucture of oak bark one ounce.

Tincture of capsicums two drachms.

Water one pint.

Mix.

Green meat should be particularly sought after ; but if it
gripe, add hyoscyamus, one ounce of the tincture, to the
drink, and to the food a quantity of bean meal or split
beans. When green meat cannot be got, feed on carrots,
mangel wurzel, boiled potatoes, turnips or parsneps : and
even spear the corn, or give malt. It remains to add, that
we have received benefit in two or three instances, from the
use of molasses to the amount of four pounds per day ; but
it has in other instances altogether failed. Sea bathing, with
daily doses of sea water, we have also experienced beneficial
effects from in the long protracted cases of farcy, with en-
larged limbs and oedema.

368 DYSENTERY.

DYSENTERY.

Dysentery in the horse is not recognised by some vete-
rinarians, both among the French and Enghsh : but if a
catarrhal inflammation of the mucous surfaces of the in-
testines, which under certain circumstances, seasons, and
situations assumes epidemical and also endemical characters,
can lay claim to the appellation, then has the horse dysen-
tery. Others consider it in the light of a diarrhoea ; but its
characters are distinct from a simple increase of the peri-
staltic motion. It consists in an inflammation of the
mucous linings of the intestines, attended with a thicken-
ing of this coat, and an increased quantity of their natural
mucous secretions ; and as the disease advances, of a morbid
alteration of that secretion. This increased secretion being
frequently discharged, was mistaken for adeps, and was re-
garded as a further proof that the fat of the body was at
these times in a state of general solution, hence its name of
moulten grease.

The symptoms that characterise dysentery as a primary
affection, are the frequent voiding of faecal discharges in
stringy portions, excessively shmy or loose, and foetid, with
considerable uneasiness from constant inclination to stool,
and perpetual straining after the motion has passed. The
mucus is mixed in general with the faeces, which are not
retained, but voided involuntarily. If the disease increase in
violence, membranous films, like sodden leather, are thrown
out ; while in very aggravated cases, the ruptured vessels
eject blood ; and now and then the intestines become
ulcerated. The pulse is variously affected : as, when the
inflammation is not intense, it is quickened, corded, and
hard, but weak and not wiry ; yet, when the case is very
intense, or it is about to degenerate into peritoneal inflam-
mation, as it sometimes does, the pulse becomes wdry and
oppressed. The mouth is always dry, the appetite lost,
the flanks heave, and there is usually much thirst.

Causes. — It is usually dependent on an inflammatory
habit, acted upon by some immediate excitement ; and, as
such, it is more often observed in the young and robust,
from a sudden check to the perspiration, a change of food,
cold, fatigue, &c. : acrid substances, as mineral poisons,

DYSENTERY. 369

may occasion it ; and, not unfrequently it is the effect of
drastic and improper purgatives, in which cases it com-
mences in diarrhoea. One other cause also remains to be
noticed, but which is seldom taken into the account, and
that is metastasis, or the translation of the virus of fever
to the intestines ; and which is, we are disposed to believe,
i'ar more frequent than is generally imagined. It also has
been brought on by eating improper herbage ; and appears
now and then the produce of some low marshy situations,
particularly in cold rainy seasons ; in which cases it par-
takes of a typhoid type.

Treatment. — There will be liquid or mixed evacuations of
the natural faeces and the intestinal mucus. It will, in
such cases, be the practitioner's duty to form a true dis-
tinction between inordinate diarrhoea and dysentery ; and it
is from the mucus quality of the stools, mingled with
membranous masses, that he must assure himself of the
dysenteric character : in which case, notwithstanding the
odium which castor oil has lately obtained, it will here
prove his sheet anchor, with the following accompani-
ments: —

Castor oil eight ounces.

Chloroform one drachm.

Powdered ipecacuanha one drachm.

Powdered opium two drachms.

Powdered chalk one ounce.

Rice water half a pint.

Mix, and repeat once or twice, after intervals of six
hours. After which, should the discharge continue un-
checked, for the castor oil substitute thick boiled starch,
and continue to give night and morning, till the discharges
have returned to their usual state. Should this not suc-
ceed, calomel a scruple, with opium a drachm, may be
given every hour, and the following drink at night time : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Chalk one ounce.

Tincture of catechu one ounce.

Liquor potass£e one ounce.

Tincture of capsicums two drachms.

Cold water one pint.

If green meat can be procured, it should be tried, but with
some caution. It has proved the best remedy ; and the
same has been observed of carrots in the winter season :
but succulent food has done harm ; in which cases sub-

Bb

370 DYSENTERY,

stitute malt mashes. AVhen the inflammatory symptoms
run very high, the belly may be fomented with hot water,
and a new sheepskin, if at hand, may be applied to the
loins. Or the mustard poultice is by no means an improper
application to the belly, when the inflammation of the bowels
appears considerable. Warm clothing is proper, with a
moderate temperature ; and when convalescence approaches,
every care must be taken to give easily digested food.

ROT, OR DYSENTERY, IN CATTLE.

In oxen and cows this is called scouring rot, scouring cow,
hraxy, bloody ray, and slimy flux. Some of these names
are peculiar to this complaint. The dysentery is charac-
terised by a peculiar discharge from the bowels of a frothy
slimy nature, of an olive colour, and with much bad smell :
sometimes it looks red or brown, and sometimes more
yellow, with stringy patches of mucus in it ; and if ob-
served when voided, it is very hot, and smokes. These
appearances of the matter discharged should be particularly
attended to, as well as the evident straining both before and
after passing the dung, as they will serve readily to charac-
terise the disease ; also to distinguish it from simple diarrhoea,
in which there is nothing more than a liquid discharge of
dung, composed of nutrient matter, in a state of solu-
tion, expelled by the stomach. Dysentery in cattle seems
to hold the place of glanders in the horse ; to be the wind-
ing up of every thing that impairs the constitution, and
of every hopeless disease. The disorder needs every atten-
tion from the attendant, • whose industry must not be in-
fluenced by what he thinks about the animal getting well.
He must have a good stomach, not an over-sensitive nose,
and he must be content to labour continuously. " The
disease," we are told by Mr. T. W. Mayer, V.S., of New-
castle, Staffordshire, " was ushered in by a dull anxious
appearance ; the eyelids and dewlap w^ere of a yellow tinge,
and in dairy cows there was a total suspension of the secre-
tion of milk ; a slight muco-purulent discharge from the
nostrils was also observed ; the appetite was indifferent ; the
bow^els costive ; the dung of a dark colour, having portions
of blood diff"used through it ; but the urine was not much
affected. The pulse for the first twenty-four or forty hours,

DYSENTERY. 37 1

when the disease came on more gradually, was not much
affected ; but afterwards it became frequent, small, and
hard, beating at the rate of seventy or eighty pulsations per
minute. In extreme cases the febrile action set in from the
first, accompanied with violent dysentery and tenesmus ; the
faecal discharge being intolerably offensive, and consisting of
a thin, watery, dirty, green-coloured fluid, full of shreds of
coagulable lymph, mucus, and grumous blood. In some, it
consisted of a blackish green mucous discharge ; in others,
it was principally mucus, coagulable, lymph, and blood, with,
comparatively speaking, no portion of faeces along with it.
The extremities were alternately hot and cold ; the surface
of the nose sometimes dry, at others having a dew upon it ;
occasionally during the cold fit the eyes would become sunk
in their orbits, the features collapsed, the nose, inner part
of the lips, and tongue were of a deadly pallidness, which
would be followed up by reaction, and a consequent hot fit
again. The bow^els were affected, in some of the extreme
cases, with colicky pains ; and in every case there w^as ob-
stinate constipation and obstruction in the second and third
stomachs. If relief was not afforded, the disease terminated
fatally on the third or fourth day."

Treatment. — If the disease is discovered while costiveness
and a hard pulse exists, a little blood may be taken, but
the animal w^ere better left alone : a drink administered,
consisting of Epsom salts half a pound, sulphur a quarter
of a pound, nitrous ether two ounces, tincture of aconite
half an ounce, cold water a pint, will do good. After this,
medicines which act upon the liver are to be given, viz. a
scruple of calomel and a drachm of opium twice a day.
The beast must be housed, and the food partially digested
by boiling ; while the drink must consist of warm water, in
w hich starch has been dissolved or flour stirred. The shed
must be kept scrupulously clean. If none of the above
medicines act, the following astringent may be tried, which
when it fails, may be changed for any other scattered
throughout this work : —

Ipecacuanha (powdered) half an ounce.

Colchiciim (powdered) one ounce.

Tincture of galls one ounce.

Tincture of capsicums half an ounce.

Water one pint.

Bb2

372 ROT IN SHEEP.

Patience throughout the disease must be exerted, and the
animal by no means neglected until it dies.

DYSENTERY IN SHEEP.

Sheep are also troubled with a dysenteric affection called
hraxy, in which there is a frequent stooling of soft dung,
mixed with blood and mucus. When it terminates fatally,
these motions become dark and foetid. If the inner surface
of the eye be very red, and the animal easily excited, take
two ounces of blood away ; give two or three ounces of
castor oil, with thirty drops of laudanum, and two drachms
of tincture of ginger : or one ounce of salts, with the same
quantity of opiate as before : after which administer night
and morning, the following : —

« Powdered ipecacuanha fifteen grains.

Prepared chalk one drachm.

Powdered opium one scruple.

Boiled starch four ounces.

House the sheep, give gruel or starch in case the cud is
lost, and tend the animal with the greatest care ; also pay
every attention to cleanliness, even to chpping the wool
away from the poor creature's anus, that the purging may
not soil it.

ROT IN SHEEP.

Rot in sheep is a disease the public in general, and the
agriculturist in particular, are deeply interested in. Poor
clayey and moist lands are most liable to beget the rot ; for
on such lands the water which falls not being able to soak
through, nor yet evaporate, remains upon the earth stagnant,
and begets miasm as it exhales ; it likewise generates, as
some suppose, the germs of insects, viz. flukes, &c. &c.
which are received with the food. As sheep affected with
rot present flukes, it is not an unnatural conclusion that
they have much to do with the diseased symptoms, and
the fatal issue which succeeds to them. It appears this
disease is known throughout every part of the world where
this valuable animal is cultivated. In Egypt it is very
common, and is not there confined to sheep, but it also
attacks horses, cattle, and most of the lesser animals ; it
particularly is common upon the whole of the borderings of

ROT IN SHEEP. 373

the Nile; the immense annual floods of which spread a
frightful mortality among the numerous grazing tribes which
browse on the plants affected by this overflow. The Arabs
are reported to affirm, that this pest annually destroys not
less than sixteen thousand sheep. These shepherds, we are
told, readily distinguish the sheep affected by rot from
others, by the presence of a bagful of water found under
the jaw. This is no great performance, for every carter in
England could point it out when the dropsy had gained so
great a head, as to appear in so marked, and visible a shape.
As the disease progresses, the affected animals become
debile in the extreme, and are mostly found lying down ;
their wool falls off* in patches ; a sanious matter of varied
colour issues from the nose. When dead, the body is
found cedematous throughout, and the liver is usually
choked with flukes ; a cough, accompanied with diarrhoea,
are premonitory symptoms of an early mortality.

All recognize one common cause of this disease, which is
low marshy pasturage. Indeed, although in every country
it is agreed that the eating of vegetable matter growing in
low marshy situations, particularly in such as are only
occasionally flooded, is an active agent in producing the
rot, yet but few hint at any certain curative practice. Pre-
vention is, however, in our power, by a removal of the
animals from the localities specified to others which are
diy. A farm well sheltered is an excellent situation, and
dry food their best sustenance. Hay is good, and when it
is alternated with a few carrots, turnips, and parsneps, such
food often proves restorative. Should the owner reside
within a reasonable distance of salt marshes, let him by all
means remove his flock there. Common salt has also been
given as a remedy, and as it is stated has been found ser-
viceable. Iron filings should likewise be put in the water
from which the animals drink, in the proportion of a pound
to a gallon. The iron should be left exposed to the air
when the buckets are empty, which should be filled again
an hour before the vA-atering time arrives. On every
third day there should be given, morning and night, about
ten pounds of dry bran, mixed with half a pound of culi-
nary salt; six ounces of aromatic plants cut small, as
thyme, sage, juniper, rosemary, lavender, or orange leaves,

374 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.

may also be mingled with the bran ; to which must be
added five ounces of anise, of fennel, and of coriander seed.
This quantity will be sufficient for thirty sheep. Every
animal attacked, which is to be discovered by turning up
the eyelid, when the conjunctival membrane will be seen of
a yellow colour, should have the following drench daily : —

Oil of turpentine two draclims.

Carbonate of soda one drachm.

Water four ounces.

CHAPTER IV.

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.

We shall commence a consideration of the individual dis-
eases of this class by some general observations on the
origin of affections of the nervous system generally. In
the horse, the nervous mass is greatly superior to the cere-
bral ; and we find that affections of the spinal cord are
in this generous animal more numerous. An apoplectic
termination to human life is by no means uncommon ;
in the horse it is little known ; but the frequency with
which spinal affections occur, bear little proportion be-
tween the two ; and taking all the circumstances into con-
sideration, are more than equal to the nervous affections
of mankind. Dissections of morbid subjects have also
shown that the causes are various, but are usually referrible
either to pressure on the spinal cord, or otherwise are
attributable to a morbid alteration of structure in the cord
itself.

Pressure on the spinal marrow may be the consequence
of either wounds or over exertion ; or it may originate in
the existence of parasites within the canal. Lesions, occa-
sioning wounds, are very common from fractures of some
of the vertebrae, or from dislocation of the same bones : an
aneurism of the aorta has produced it ; exostosis and poll-
evil have also done the same ; the one by ulceration through
the articular membranes, and the other by an osseous de-
posit within the canal. Debility, resulting from over
exertion, causes either sanguineous congestion, or other-
wise it is accompanied with an increased effusion of inter-

APOPLEXY. 375

stitial fluid within the spinal sheath. It is said that the
sanguineous congestion of the membranes often precedes
inflammation of the spinal cord itself, in which cases a
rapid paralysis follows. We are led to believe, the mem-
branes can inflame independently, and the same with regard
to the spinal cord ; also that each may be productive of a
series of symptoms of greater or less intensity. When the
substance both superiorly and inferiorhj is inflamed, then it
is usually found that both sensation and voluntary motion
are destroyed ; but "when the inflammation is limited to the
superior portion, the sensation is principally impaired ; and
when, on the contrary, the inferior half of the cord is
affected, then motion is prevented. A morbid alteration in
structure also takes place in the spinal cord ; this change
has been found in most domestic animals, as in rabies
in dogs, stomach staggers in horses, &c. The spinal cord
in these cases becomes soft, and converted into a gi-eyish
pulpy mass, losing its original fibrous structure, where
paralysis has been present. But we must not be misled by
this observ^ation to attribute all the affections of this class to
the spinal marrow : we attribute many of the most important
to morbid states of the cranial brain, as apoplexy, which is
attended with comp/e/e paralysis. Nor must we lose sight of
the retrograde march of some nervous irritations, which
spring from neither the cranium or spinal marrow ; but
originate in the extremities of the nerves, and are trans-
mitted to one or other, or to both the sources ; which
then become secondarily affected, as in the case of lock-
jaw, produced by wounds, &c. &c.

APOPLEXY.

Apoplexy does not very often occur in the horse ; but as
it does take place, although usually irremediable, it merits
a place in this treatise. It appears to consist in a lesion
of some of the vessels of the brain, which, by pouring out
their contents, produce pressure and irritation. Foreign
veterinarians have divided it, after the human, into san-
guineous and serous ; but as far as we have learned, it is the
former which has been principally met among horses. The
usual causes are such as, were it not for the length of the
neck, must operate more frequently than they do : these

376

MEGRIMS.

are cerebral congestions, commencing in the chest from
mordmate exertions; occasionally, but less frequently it
may have other sources.

The only case of this affection which happened in the
practice of the editor of the present edition, was attended
with no premonitory symptoms. The horse was of the
Flanders' breed, and was slowly recovering an attack of in-
fluenza. No change was observed in the animal, when it
threw up Its head, stiffened its legs, died, and fell down.
After death, examination being made, one of the middle
cerebral arteries was found ruptured, and a considerable
quantity of blood eflrised.

MEGRIMS

May be considered as a minor apoplexy from interrupted
circulation ; and is known among farriers and horse-men
by the additional names of sturdy, or turnsick. It fre-
quently attacks horses during their work, particularly in
harness : it is, however, now and then seen, in hot weather
m the stable or at grass. When it seizes a horse in exer-
cise he stops short, shakes his head, looks irresolute and
wandering; in this state he remains for a few minutes
and then proceeds as before. In more violent cases he falls
at once to the ground ; or first runs round, and then sinks
senseless ; or the limbs may continue to move after con
sciousness is lost, when the animal thus affected becomes
very dangerous : in either case, the whole system appears
agitated by strong convulsions ; the horse may dung and
stale insensibly ; he sometimes is violent, at others more
passive, but is equally unconscious to everv thing around •
after remaining so a longer or shorter period, his faculties
return, and he rises. It is frequently brought on by me-
chanical causes, which produce a momentary congestion of
the brain ; as tight reining up, or the pressure of the collar
in ascending a hill, which obstructs the return of blood
from the head. It may also be occasioned by a morbid
pressure produced by constitutional causes. Such are
found in the plethoric, over-fed horse ; particularly when
subjected to long confinement.

The treatment must be regulated by the cause : if it be
mechanical, remove it, or the afl:ection may become habi-

PARALYSIS. 377

tual. If plethora or full habit be the apparent cause, purge ;
or give a course of mercurial alteratives, followed by, or
alternated with, purging medicines. It is said that this
affection may be prevented, by covering the skull of the
affected horse with a wet cloth.

PARALYSIS.

Palsy of the whole muscular frame is very unusual in the
horse, except some actual pressure or irritation be made on
the sensorium by blows on the skull, by portions of bone
forced in, or by cerebral tumours : sometimes it is consti-
tutionally brought on by agencies unknown to us. Palsy
of one side is even of more rare occurrence. Palsy of half
the body, most fi'cquently of the hinder parts, is sufficiently
common, and is either primitive or secondary. The causes
are often involved in much obscurity ; in some cases they are
sufficiently obvious : mechanical injuries are of this kind,
as casting in the stable, turning round in a confined stall,
blows on the spine, sudden falls or slips may, any of them,
luxate, or more likely fracture, the vertebrae, and by occa-
sioning pressure upon the spinal cord, produce paralysis :
ulcerations of these bones, or exostoses, abscesses, or tu-
mours within them, may be the cause of the affection. It
may be altogether secondary, as being derived from accidental
lesions of other organs, or from inflammations in them : it
may and does occur from a diseased state of the stomach,
bowels, liver, and more particularly from those of the kid-
neys, bladder, and womb. The symptoms are total or par-
tial loss of either the mobility or the sensibility, or both, of
some part of the body, usually of the hinder quarters and
limbs. The secretions are sometimes lessened or almost
stopped, or the urine flows involuntarily ; convulsive twitch-
ings affect the skin, partial sweats present themselves, and
the animal remains utterly helpless, although he may fatigue
himself with fruitless eftbrts to rise. These are, however,
extreme cases.

The treatment of paralysis must, in a great degree, follow
the cause. If mechanical injury have occasioned fracture
in any part of the spinal column, the case is hopeless. If
the injury be less severe, it is possible that extravasated
blood only, or serous deposit, or coagulable lymph, are

378 SPASM.

effused into the spinal canal, and disturb the functions of
the part ; in which case, topical applications are requisite,
to encourage an absorption of the obstructing deposit.
When the paralysis can be traced to some visceral atlec-
tion, or to disease of the stomach, kidneys, bladder, the
result is not necessarily unfavourable, although our hopes
of a recovery are lessened. We should, in these cases,
primarily attend to the exciting cause, if it can be dis-
covered. But when there is loss of sensation without loss
of motion, the limbs being cold and the horse insensible
that he is in possession of such parts, and moving them
only when absolutely forced ; or otherwise, when they are
entirely paralytic, and yet sensitive, it is probable that the
nervous irritation originates within the spinal canal ; and
though we may with propriety use external stimulants, yet
there will be but small prospect of success. Of internal
remedies, strychnia has been found sometimes useful, in
one grain, gradually increased to three grain doses ; and it
may be united with other tonics, as gentian, or aromatics.
This, with purgatives as required, blisters, sheepskins, or a
charge over the loins, has often effected a cure, when the
paralysis has been confined to the hinder limbs only.

SPASM

Appears to be a morbid interruption of the ordinary
movements of the general muscular fibre, w^hether it be
local or diffused ; and as these movements are effected by
influence derived from the nervous system, so we look to
these sources for the acting cause of all spasmodic affec-
tions. Of spasm we have instances in gripes. We witness
the violence of the muscular contractions under the mental
influence in vicious and in terrified horses ; we see also
the same under an inflammatory state of the brain in
phrenitis, rabies, &c. ; and we know that mechanical imta-
tion can produce it.

In the treatment of spasm two indications present them-
selves : either to allay the nervous excitement, or to render
the part attacked above or helow the disposition to be ex-
cited. The first indication takes in such remedies as are
direct sedatives to nervous excitability, as opium, hyo-
scyamus, belladonna, tobacco, &c. The second indica-

LOCK- JAW, OR TETANUS. 379

tion is fulfilled by using such remedies as act by altering
the susceptibility of the part, which are purges, and other
evacuants, whose action diminishes the excess of power ;
these last therefore are proper in plethoric subjects, or
when the spasm is united with vascular action. When, on
the contrary, the spasmodic affection attacks a debile part,
we use stimulants, to bring the part to a state to resist the
impressions.

LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS.

Tetanic spasm differs from all the affections we have
lately noticed, inasmuch as the muscular contractions are
not alternated, with periods of relaxation ; on the contrary,
here they remain permanent, or with very little, and never
entire, remission. Lock-jaiv, so called from the rigid clo-
sure of the mouth, may be considered as a morbid irritation
of the whole or a part of the nervous system.

Idiopathic tetanus is the most frequent in the horse, and
its causes are all of them, more or less, conjectural, never
self-evident. One of the most common is that of cold ;
particularly when the heat of the body is abstracted by
evaporation, or when moisture is applied to a relaxed
system : thus it has followed plunging into a river during
a run in the hunting season, or injudiciously allow-
ing a horse to stand still during a check after a severe
burst ; and more particularly it has been brought on by
a partial but continued application of water, as when it
makes its way through the roof of a building and falls in a
continued drip on the body ; even the drippings from the
eaves of a hay-rick, standing in the field in which a horse
was grazing, has produced it. It has succeeded visceral
affections, and is supposed to be occasionally the effect of
worms within the alimentary canal. Traumatic or sympto-
matic tetanus is the consequence of some external injury,
and it follows all kinds of lesions. Castration, nicking,
docking, punctures, particularly of the feet ; lacerations,
and even contusions, will bring it on. The size of the
wound is of no consequence : it may ensue upon the
smallest abrasion ; and it may not follow the largest possible
lesion. Cuts or bruises upon the orbital arch, where the
nerve emerges from the bony ring, immediately above the

380 LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS.

eye, are more likely in this country than any other injury to
cause it. In America, it is not an unfrequent result of
castration ; and in some tropical climates compression of
the cord in the operation must always be avoided, so apt is
any irritation to produce it. It is by many considered as
most apt to follow wounds of tendinous and ligamentous
structures, but a wound on any part may start it up.

The symptoms. — If a good physiologist were told that
tetanus was a spasmodic contraction of all the voluntary
muscles, he would describe the following symptoms without
having seen the disease, so exactly are they characteristic
of such a state. It may originate from no perceptible
cause, or it may be produced by a wound, in which case
the part injured has healed kindly, and the opening is nearly
closed before this terrible complaint makes its appearance.
It commences usually by a certain stiffness about the head,
and a peculiar mode of standing. Upon raising the head
the haws of both eyes are pushed out, giving to the coun-
tenance of the animal a strange expression ; but sooner or
later it extends all over the body. By the tetanic action
the haw is drawn partly over the globe, at the same time
that the tension of other muscles gives the eyes a vivid
appearance, which ill accords with the more placid effect of
a protruded haw. The jaws are not invariably fixed, though
from their being generally closed springs the popular name
of the disorder. As the disease extends over the volun-
tary muscles of the trunk and extremities, the appearances
are distressing in the extreme. The head is raised, the
ears pointed forwards, the nostrils dilated, and the nose is
protruded. The legs straddle wide, the tail is cocked, and
quivers ; and the abdominal muscles are drawn tight over
the belly, giving to the horse an appearance of having just
completed some extraordinary exertion. The complaint
presents a few moments of imperfect relaxation sometimes,
from the extreme contractions of over-strained muscles ;
while profuse sweats mark the distress of continued con-
vulsion. The circulation is, in most instances, at first
not much affected ; but as the disease increases, the pulse
quickens, and becomes tremulous and irregular. The
respiration also gradually becomes hurried and intermittent ;
costiveness is usually present, and the urine is sparingly

LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 381

voided. In this state the suffering animal may remain from
six to ten days, when, worn out by inanition and irritation,
he expires in convulsions. At others, either remedially or
spontaneously, the contractions give way slightly ; feeble
attempts are made to eat, the limbs become more supple,
and a very slow recovery ensues.

Post-mortem appearances have often exhibited no change
from a healthy state throughout the nervous system at
large. In some cases, however, there have been marks of
cerebral inflammation, and in others the spinal marrow has
presented similar features ; this last has been found soft in
structure, and with its vaginal coats injected. We have seen
the lungs and stomach both highly inflamed ; and a slaugh-
terer of horses told us that he seldom if ever cut up a
horse which had died of lock-jaw, without finding inflamed
lungs. The intestines also usually present inflammatory
marks about them ; and, the veins throughout the body,
particularly the superficial set, are turgid with blood.

Treatment. — Although the greater number of instances
prove fatal, yet still a sufficient number recover to warrant
our utmost endeavours ; and the more so, as most of those
who do survive appear to do so from the beneficial effects
of the treatment adopted. The very different means which
have been successfully tried might stagger the sceptic, and
make him attribute the recoveries under these discordant
medical agencies to the constitutional strength of the ani-
mal. This, however, is not the only instance wherein very
opposite means are beneficially employed for the cure of
the same disease. Every practitioner is aware of the benefit
derived from cold applications in some inflammatory cases ;
and every one is equally aware how salutary hot fomenta-
tions prove, apparently, in similar inflammations. A cura-
tive end is equally produced by both ; the modus operandi
to us is not evident. This circumstance should make the
veterinary practitioner not absolutely wed himself to any
one plan of treatment. When one has been pursued with-
out appearance of success, let another be adopted. If a
lacerated wound be the cause of the disease, it may be
prudent to excise the part, removing not only the injured
surface, but a portion of the flesh beyond, and making sure
of taking away a piece of the irritated nerve, which is the

382 LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS.

cause of the disorder. In the case of a punctured wound,
particularly in the foot, if there be a confined sinus, have
the horn thinned, and slit it up with a knife. When
tetanus follows docking, it is advisable to dock anew : if
nicking be the cause, deepen the sections, and actively
stimulate the old wounded edges. Where castration has
preceded it, remove all ligature, if any remain, and foment
incessantly. Having pursued this intention, it next follows
to attend to the constitutional part of the complaint : or if
it be a case of true idiopathic tetanus, that, of course, must
at once engage the attention. It was some years ago very
usual to employ cold as a medical agent in the disease ;
this was done by removing the horse into the open air,
and dashing him with the coldest water for twenty minutes,
repeating the same every two or three hours, and in the
interim suffering him to remain uncovered, and in the open
air. In every instance this was found to mitigate the seve-
rity of the symptoms. Ice also has been applied ; the
relief obtained being usually in the exact degree of heat
abstracted, it was no wonder that it continued a favourite,
though generally a delusive practice ; for as warmth re-
turned, almost invariably the convulsive contractions returned
also ; therefore this method has very properly given place
to others which have proved more useful ; though the
former need not be lost sight of, as instances have occurred
of permanent benefit having been derived from it. It may,
therefore, be still tried, when the means which follow are
not attended with success ; but in that case, with the cold
bath or application of ice should be united some of the other
means pointed out.

The general curative practice in tetanic cases among
veterinarians, leans to opening of the bowels, and to a
liberal administration of opiates, as being every one of
them powerful antispasmodics, but in this painful affection
proving doubly so conjointly ; to which are added, blister-
ing the spine. Tetanus, at first, not materially affecting
the vascular system, there is no necessity for bloodletting,
but by all means commence the treatment with a purgative.
The croton nut, acting more speedily, offers itself first to
notice ; it is also small in compass, and may therefore be
administered in substance, under circumstances of almost

LOCK-JAW, OR TETANUS. 383

entire closure of the jaws. Twenty-five or even thirty-
grains of the farina of the nut may be given at first, and
one-third of the quantity first administered should be re-
peated every ten or twelve hours, until full purgation
occurs. If aloes be preferred, it will be not only more
convenient, but they will operate more quickly, if they be
given in solution. If a prejudice exists in favour of a
mercurial purgative, calomel may be given previously, to
the amount of two drachms. The powder being blown
into the mouth by means of a proper tube for the purpose ;
and in this case six or seven drachms of aloes will suffice ;
but without calomel ten or twelve drachms in substance
will not be too much for a strong, full-sized horse ; and it
will probably require three drachms more, repeated two or
three times at intervals of five or six hours, ere a complete
emptying of the bowels is made, such is the usually con-
stringed state of the intestines at these times ; laxative
clysters (after the back has been properly raked) must also
assist the attempts, and should be thrown up in large quan-
tities frequently repeated. We know it to be a practice
with some veterinarians to unite digitalis and camphor with
aloes, but it does not appear that any marked benefit has
resulted therefrom. With others, extensive vesication over
the spine from the poll to the tail has succeeded.

It is certainly desirable that the bowels should be first
opened ; but if the irritation be extreme, and the back has
been raked, clysters thrown up, and an active purgative have
entered the stomach, we should recommend not to wait the
operation of purging, but to give the sedative, and then
renew the attempts at unlocking the bowels.

No. 1. — Powdered opium half an ounce.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Camphor two drachms.

Tincture of aconite •. . . . one ounce.

Spirit of turpentine two ounces.

Strong ale a pint.

Mix the turpentine with the other ingredients by means
of yolks of eggs, and repeat either the half or the whole of
a similar dose, as the urgency of the symptoms may require,
every two, three hours, or longer.

If the case is far advanced, and the animal is neither a

384 STRINGHALT.

plethoric nor a young one, it might be well to try the full
effect of the tonic plan. The tetanic irritation being confined
to the motor organs, so the digestive faculties usually re-
main undisturbed ; and if the horse could eat, it is probable
that, in many cases, he might become so nourished as even-
tually to wear out the disease w^ithout medicine. Liquid
nutriment should, therefore, be artificially and liberally sup-
plied by means of the human stomach pump, the tube beina:
inserted through the nostril : now and then quantities of
the mash itself, if offered, will be sucked in by the hungry
animal. We have also given gruel as clysters, in which way
much nutriment may be thrown into the constitution. But
in pursuing the tonic plan, the necessity of avoiding costive-
ness throughout must not be lost sight of ; on the contrary,
the moment it appears it must be again combated, as it
immediately aggravates the tetanic rigors. The directions
here given are very well, but horses have recovered under
all kinds of treatment. They have been packed in dung-
hills, driven over cliffs, into rivers and made to swim,
knocked on the head by the knacker's poleaxe, and all
have yet survived. The favourite treatment at present is
to give the animal a fearful purgative, and then leave him
with food before him in perfect solitude, not even looking
at him for a week, or longer. More cures are reported to
have taken place under the last mode of treatment than
any other. However, there are new agents, which certainly
demand a scientific trial — we allude to sulphuric ether,
chloroform, and aconite.

STRINGHALT.

Mr. Feron informs us, that this singular spasmodic affec-
tion is esteemed graceful in some continental countries ; at
least when it exists in both hinder legs, as it frequently
does, being however usually confined to one side : very
seldom indeed is it found in the fore, of which we have seen
but one or two instances at the most. It is evidently a
spasmodic contraction of some one or more of the flexors of
the leg, which usually ceases after the animal has been some
time in motion ; it is the consequence of local irritation or
of pressure on some nervous fibrila, which the excitement of

SPASMODIC COLIC. 385

exercise renders less acute ; and generally restores the action
of the legs to its natural condition. It is not hereditary or
congenital, and seldom appears until the approach to the
adult age. It is injurious inasmuch as it unfits the horse
for certain purposes, as racing, delaying the start so long,
as to give away every advantage. It is considered incurable ;
and therefore any and all treatment is useless, save for ex-
periment.

CHAPTER V.

DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
SPASMODIC COLIC.

Spasmodic colic is the disease known to farriers by the
terms gripes, cramp, and fret. The muscular tunic of the
intestines renders them very susceptible to the action of
spasm, and the vascularity of their villous surface also
makes them very liable to become primary agents in the
production of this irritation. Spasmodic colic appears more
apt to affect the small intestines than the large ; but in-
stances are not wanting to prove that the large intestines
have also become occasionally affected ; and when the spasm
extends to the posterior part of the caecum and rectum, the
bladder also sometimes participates in the convulsion, and
frequent ejections of urine occur. That colic is dependent
on a spasm of the muscular structure of the intestines, we
have proofs from the appearances which present themselves
after death, in fatal cases, when different portions of the
alimentary track will . be found forcibly contracted ; and in
the instances where much flatus has been present (although
it is improperly in the horse called flatulent colic) , the post-
mortem appearances have proved that the caecum and colon
were the principal sufferers ; arising apparently from the dis-
engagement of an injurious gas from undigested herbage.

The causes are various : the sudden application of cold
either to the surface of the skin when hot ; or to the in-
testines under similar circumstances in the shape of cold
water drunk hastily, and when the horse has been warm ;
in which latter case the attack often soon follows. Costive-

c c

388 SPASMODIC COLIC.

ness will bring it on. Tumours in the mesentery, and stric-
tures in the bowels, are also the sources of occasional colic.
When a horse is found to be subject to repeated attacks,
something of this kind, or abdominal concretions, may
aptly be suspected ; and we have known many instances
where habitual colic was dependent on this last cause.
Horses long confined to dry food will sometimes get out
and suddenly gorge themselves with green meat ; and with
others, a constitutional tendency fi'om some occult cause
gives them a predisposition to colic.

The symptoms of spasmodic colic are usually sudden in
their appearance, and not marked, as in inflammation of the
bowels, by previous indisposition ; but the horse is observed
to be at once attacked with considerable uneasiness, shifting
his position from side to side, pawing his litter, and stamp-
ing with his feet impatiently. After a few minutes thus
passed, the pain remits, and leaves the horse perfectly easy ;
he then resumes his eating. In enteritis no perfect re-
missions occur, but all is one scene of nearly equable pain
and distress, though never actually amounting to the agony
of spasmodic colic. As the colic advances, the remissions
are less perfect, and less fi'equent : the horse now lies down
occasionally, and on rising shakes himself, looking round to
his sides, at which sometimes, in desperate cases, he snaps
with his teeth ; but more frequently he is seen to strike with
his hind feet at his belly, as though determined to remove
by force the cause of his pain. In enteritis this acuteness
of sensation or violence of temper is seldom seen. When
on the ground, it is not uncommon for the horse to roll on
his back. In colic the pulse is seldom much altered from
its natural state, unless the colic has existed some time,
when it occasionally presents marks of general irritation,
and is not only quickened, but also somewhat hardened. If
it can be felt also during the intensity of the paroxysms, it
will likewise be often found to be disturbed even in the early
stage ; but this is momentary only, and ceases on the re-
mission of the pain. Under the immediate influence of
the existing spasm, it will in some instances present a
full bounding accelerated stroke ; but more often a wiry
thready though quickened beat, both of which may be mis-
taken for inflammation. The extremities, as the legs and

SPASMODIC COLIC. 387

ears, in colic are not often much affected, and they never
remain intensely cold for a considerable period, as in ente-
ritis ; but the coat stares, and the horse breaks out fre-
quently into cold sweats. Sometimes he is seen to at-
tempt to stale without effect, at others he stales frequently,
with momentary relief. In colic, also, relief is obtained
by friction and motion, but both aggravate the distress in
enteritis.

Treatment. — Having reason to believe that the patient is
labouring under simple spasm of the intestines, unmixed
with inflammatory tendency or symptomatic irritation from
inversion, involution, invagination, or introsusception of
the intestinal track ; proceed at once to administer such
one or more of the numberless antispasmodic remedies as
custom and experience have warranted. Numerous as they
are, there is not one that has not its advocate ; and perhaps
not one that does not deserve to be commended, so simple
are the means sometimes required ; and so much is the
constitution prone, in some cases, to assist itself or our
efforts. While, at the same time, other cases occur fre-
quently obstinate and sufficiently fatal to require all our
energies and all our discrimination in the choice of our
remedies. Upon an animal being seized with spasmodic
colic, immediately prepare and administer the following : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Cold water a pint.

If this has no eflfect, repeat the drink in twenty minutes.
If the second dose has no effect, give a third at the expira-
tion of an hour ; but with the third drench administer the
ether and opium in the quantities named, along with six
ounces of solution of aloes, and only three quarters of a
pint of water. Should this have no effect, try the draught
again at the expiration of forty minutes ; and if no result
be obtained by all this medicine, mischief behind the out-
ward symptoms may be anticipated.

Copious clysters having been thrown up previously, and
the rectum emptied, the ammoniacal blister may now
be applied ; the liquor ammonia being mingled with six
times its amount of water, and carefully watched (see En-
teritis) . Then, at the expiration of another hour, a drachm

cc2

388 CHRONIC INDIGESTION.

of calomel may be shaken upon the tongue, and the drench
first-named persevered in immediately afterwards. If still
no abatement of the pain be observed, and the general
symptoms and appearance indicate nothing but colic, at the
expiration of another term repeat the physic last advised,
and place sheepskins along the back.

By this time the pain, if it has throughout the period
been acute, must have changed the symptoms into those of
enteritis ; and we accordingly proceed as in that disorder,
only every hour not forgetting to give the ether and the
laudanum, together with the other medicines pointed out
as fit for inflammation of the bowels.

Other things have also to be attended to. In the first
place when the horse is attacked, he ought as quickly as
possible to be got into a loose box, well littered down, and
the sides of it amply guarded by trusses of straw placed
upright against the walls. The patient is then to be back-
raked ; and after the medicine has been administered, a
simple enema of soap and water is to be thrown up. All
exercise, friction, pepper, and spice, is to be avoided, be-
cause we can never reckon accurately as to what colic is
going to become ; by the by, we knew a case in Mr. Gow-
ing's practice, in which a prolonged fit was cut short by
the administration of a pint of turpentine as a clyster.

COLIC IN HORNED CATTLE.

This complaint occurs in cattle, but on account of the
intestines of those animals being bound down by the peri-
toneum, is of no consequence ; as is aptly illustrated by a
question put by the grinder, when preparing the pupils of
the Royal Veterinary College for their examination.

Q. What would you do if you were called to an ox
having the colic ?

A. Make haste, lest the animal should get well before I
reached the place.

CHRONIC INDIGESTION.

Horses are subject to dyspepsia, or loss of appetite, either
from some morbid change in the stomach, being induced by
some disease in its secretions, or some extraneous matter.
We have had many occasions to advert to the sympathy

ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. 389

existing between various parts, and the present is a promi-
nent instance of the kind ; for in every case of stomach
affection the skin is found to sympathize ; and these states
are therefore always accompanied with staring hair, dry,
and but Httle unctuous : it also presents that inelasticity of
cuticle termed hide-bound. The horse continues to eat
without appetite, or with one irregular in its desires ; and
what is taken in is frequently passed away in the state in
wdiich it was swallowed, viz. undigested.

Causes. — In spring and autumn, when a renewal of hair
takes place, the sympathy between the skin and stomach
produces the phenomena of weakness so usually observed,
viz. faintness, perspiration, and irregular appetite. It is
sometimes occasioned by the presence of worms, when the
number is great : more often, however, it may be attributed
to improper food, as musty hay and corn ; or to injudicious
lodging, as unventilated or over-heated stables ; or improper
management, as too great a quantity of clothing, the inju-
dicious use of spicy stimulants, &c. &c.

Cure. — Its removal must, in a great measure, depend on
becoming acquainted with its cause. In spring, feed suc-
culently ; and in autumn, feed liberally ; while, in both
cases, encourage that particular growth of hair which the
season requires.

ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE, CALLED HOVE, OR BLOWN.

When cattle have become fatigued by driving or by long
fasting, and suddenly find themselves with plenty of food
before them, particularly of such as requires little mastica-
tion, as chaff, bran, grains, &c. &c. ; and also at all times
when they meet with food they have long been deprived of,
as various artificial gi'asses, particularly red clover, they
are apt to eat greedily, and omit to stop for the purposes
of rumination ; by which means the rumen or paunch be-
comes so distended as to be incapable of expelling its con-
ents. From this, fermentation begins to take place, and a
argequantity of gas escapes, which increases the distention,
until the stomach, by its pressure on the diaphragm, suffo-
cates the animal.

The symptoms are uneasiness and distress, with quickened
respiration ; sometimes there is a degree of phrensy pre-

390 ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE.

sent. When it is occasioned by green food, the evolu-
tion of gas is enormous, and the tympanitis gives a drum-
like distention to the belly ; but when dry food, as chaff,
bran, &c. &c. has been taken, the impacted matter does not
distend so quickly, and the symptoms are less acute ; they
resemble those of constipation ; and sounding the side,
gives back a response as though a solid matter were hit
against. It is thought to be more likely to occur in warm
and wet weather than in any other ; and if such be the case,
it must arise from the state of the vegetable matter and the
surrounding warmth both being favourable to fermenta-
tion.

The treatment will consist in attempting to lessen the
distention by evacuating the distending gas, or otherwise
try to neutralize it. Purgatives have little or no effect.
The evacuation of the gases is caused by the introduction
of a probang, which is passed down the oesophagus ; or it
is brought about by puncturing the side, when the distention
is urgent, or the want of assistance, renders it imperative
to evacuate the gas immediately, to prevent suffocation ; a
puncture is therefore at once made into it, which, among
graziers, is called paunching. When nothing better is at
hand, this may be performed with a lancet,''or even a pen-
knife ; the wound made being kept open by the introduc-
tion of a piece of hollow elder or common wood ; the
place of puncture being midway between the ileum or
haunchbone and the last rib, a span below the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebrae on the left side, to which
the first stomach or paunch inclines. A cattle trochar
will, however, permit the gas to escape with certainty and
speed, and should always be used to make the puncture, in
preference to any other instrument. As soon as the air is
perfectly evacuated, and the paunch is observed to resume
its office, the trochar may be removed ; the wound being care-
fully closed by a pitch plaister, or other adhesive matter.
It is necessary to observe, that this operation is so simple
and safe, that, whenever a medical assistant cannot be ob-
tained, no person should hesitate a moment about doing it
himself The domestic remedies for lessening the disten-
tion, b)'' condensing the gas, have been various ; as oil of
turpentine, and particularly ammonia, a strong solution of

LAMPAS. 391

which in water has been found serviceable. The alkalies
generally have long been used with variable success. Vine-
gar, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, is strongly
recommended ; but as it is observed that the elastic fluids
developed are not always alike, so the effects resulting from
the most reputed agents have too often failed. Mr. Youatt
recommends the introduction of the chlorinated lime given
in doses of from 5ij to 5iv suspended in water.

But it is to a foreign veterinarian we are indebted for the
best agent for neutralizing the gases given off when the
rumen is distended. M. Charlet has recommended the
chloride of potash, which substance has a gi'cat affinity for
the compounds of hydrogen, that usually form the major
portion of those which exist in the stomach. This sub-
stance is to be given in doses of an ounce to a horse,
half an ounce to a cow, and three drachms to a sheep.
Occasionally, however, from the contents of the stomach
being in a state of fermentation, no gas will escape, upon the
probang or trochar being introduced. The chloride of potash
is then to be poured down the probang or trochar, which-
ever may be used, and this substance must not be mixed
with either mucilage or aromatic bitters, but sulphuric
ether and cold water may be joined to it without injuring
its effects.

LAMPAS.

The symptoms of this imaginary disease are, the horse
quids his hay, or refuses his food. It is most common in
young horses ; and the groom looks into the mouth of the
animal, when perceiving the bars to be almost on a level
with the incisor teeth, he pronounces his charge to have
the lampas, and takes the poor creature to be burnt within
its mouth accordingly. It is true the animal has recovered
its appetite by the time the effects of the burn have passed
away, but so it would have done had no hot iron been
cruelly employed. The fact is, the young animal is then
cutting a molar tooth, and a day or two having elapsed, all
the fever and pain occasioned by the process would have
been over. No man should allow his horse to be burnt for
the lampas. It is a torturing, an idle, and a wanton ope-
ration, and tends rather to do harm than good. If an old

392 WORMS.

horse be reported as having the lampas, examine his mouth,
and something may be found wrong with his giinders, or, to
a certainty, the cause is to be sought in another part of the
body than the roof of the mouth.

WORMS.

Every part of animated existence appears subservient to
the purposes of other portions of" it ; and therefore every
thing hving may be considered as parasitic, chnging around
other hving matter for support. Insects, in an especial
manner, appear to deserve this character ; for many of
them actually entomb themselves within other animals,
even as if the bowels were their constant habitation, or
their temporary residence during particular states. Such,
however, is the case with worms, whose lives are passed
within the intestines of most animals. These parasites,
annoying the horse, are of several kinds. The Lumbiici,
which resemble the earth-worm, and are not uncommon in
the small intestines, where they occasionally do mischief by
their irritation. Ascaris, or thread-worms, so called from
their filamentary figure, are darker and larger in the horse
than in man, and reside in the rectum and ceecum occa-
sionally ; when they exist in large numbers they may prove
prejudicial. The late Mr. Percivall attributed the death of
two horses to their presence. Tania, or tape-worm, is but
seldom found, and its effects therefore have been little
noticed. Bots are the larvae or grubs of the oestrus or
gad-fly : and our knowledge of the natural history of this
genus has been much extended by that able naturalist and
veterinarian, Mr. Bracy Clark. He is, however, mistaken,
when he asserts that they are always innocuous : on the
contrary, they have even brought on fatal terminations.
Mr. Coleman relates an instance which, nevertheless, has
no equal to support it, where they had eroded the stomach,
and thence had penetrated the diaphragm also. Mr. Cart-
wright, of Whitchurch, also describes a case illustrative
of their injurious consequences.

Horses, however, which are turned out during the sum-
mer months, are alone subject to bots. Upon a fine day,
a fly may be seen buzzing about the lower portion of the
liorse's body which is at pasture. AU at once the insect

WORMS. 393

steadies itself by a very rapid flutter of its tiny wings ; then it
darts at the horse, generally touching his knee, and is away
again in a moment ; but in that brief space the little crea-
ture has found time enough to deposit an egg, and to glue
it to the animal's hair. The horse, either stung by the
parent fly, or annoyed by the fastening down of his hair,
licks the knee to ease the part, and thus conveys the egg
into the stomach. The greater number of the eggs swal-
lowed must be lost, but some are hatched by the heat of
the horse's stomach, and these become hots ; and are often
found, when making examinations after death, in vast num-
bers clinging to the stomach, from which, until their time
of change arrives, they have no power to release them-
selves.

Symptoms of worms. — The most popular is a dry yellow
matter under the tail ; but it is not invariably present even
when worms are known to exist. When worms are hurt-
ful, there is unequal appetite, and an irregular state of
bowels ; at one time costive, and at another loose, with
glair or mucus around the dung-balls. When ascarides
prevail, the horse is much disposed to rub the tail, to ease
the itching of the fundament. The presence of bots is sel-
dom detected by any distinct signs, except in the spring,
when one or more may be detected half protruded through
the anus ; the reason of its appearance being, that the time
has arrived for it to quit the state of a grub for that of a
fly. The lumbrici, or round worm, is probably the most
generally hurtful ; but it is only when it exists in great
numbers, or itself becomes morbidly irritated, to seek a
change of situation ; this symptom applies to ascarides, in
which cases both may interfere with digestion and the regular
alvine discharges ; the provender of the horse, although he
eats heartily, does not digest healthily. The skin also,
sympathising with the stomach and intestines, occasions a
staring coat and harsh feel of the hair. There are frequent
attacks of slight gripes ; the horse stands with his legs wide
apart, and his belly hangs low. The breath is often hot
and foetid, and it is not unusual for a short dry cough to be
present. Worms, however, do exist without any of these
symptoms. Whoever will take the trouble to visit a
knacker's, and to turn over the dunghill in his yard, will

394 WORMS.

find it to be composed quite as much of worms as of excre-
ment. This dung is taken from the aged horses sent to be
slaughtered, and is sufficient proof that worms are much
more common than is generally supposed.

Treatment of worms. — Nature has endowed these animals
with such tenacity of life, that no matters known to us will
effect their destruction, though a few may answer the pur-
pose of their expulsion, Bots are so hardy as apparently
to survive immersion in oil, in alcohol, spirits of turpen-
tine, and even powerful solutions of mineral acids. The
continued use of salt mixed with the food appears, however,
obnoxious to them, for sometimes under its use their hold
gives way, and they are ejected. Bitters, purgatives, and
the mechanical irritation of pointed bodies, as pewter, tin,
&c., have no effect whatever upon bots : but with regard to
the other parasites, rather more success may be expected
from medical aid, in the form of vermifuges. It has been
attempted to effect the removal of worms mechanically, by
dissolving the mucus they are supposed to be imbedded in,
for which purpose lime-water, oil, solutions of aloes, &c.
have been injected by clyster up the rectum, and which
practice is most to be depended on for the ejection of asca-
rides when in the rectum. This practice of washing away
the mucus of the intestine, and thus to deprive the intes-
tine of the secretion given for its protection, is not to be
recommended, though oil for this end would be harmless.
Strong purges are given with the same intent, which may
remove them also from the whole alimentary track. Re-
medies have likewise been exhibited to destroy them within
the body, by the mechanical irritation of their spiculi ;
under which view, tin, brass, iron, pewter, are thought
remedial. The Indian caustic barley, and Indian pink, are
reputed vermifuges against the teres and ascaris. The oil
of turpentine has also been strongly recommended as an
excellent general vermifuge ; but, except for the destruc-
tion of the taenia, or tape-worm, it certainly does not
appear to deserve that character.

The mode most in favour with modern practitioners, is
to give the horse having worms a drachm, or two drachms
of tartar emetic, for six mornings running. The tartar
emetic is to be administered in the form of ball, and to a

PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE. 395

fasting stomach. Upon the seventh morning, administer to
the animal a strong dose of aloes, which drives out the
parasites that the previous medicine has enfeebled.

Of other worms and parasitic animals which are found in
the horse, the Filaria may be noticed, from the peculiarity
of its being in India occasionally found within the globe of
the eye. It has also been discovered inside the cellular
tissues, and within the cerebral, abdominal, and thoracic
cavities. A variety of the Strongylus has been found in
the coeliac artery, and FasciolcB have also been met with in
the iliacs. Hydatids likewise, though not very common,
are also occasionally observed in the horse, presenting all
the characters of the acephalocystes ; and to their presence
within the spinal canal we are to attribute some of the para-
lytic affections of the animal.

PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE.

Of these we shall give a very condensed account. The
oestris bovis, one of the gad-fly species, to produce what are
called wornulls or wormuls, punctures the skin of cows
and calves, and occasionally the hides of horses ; it deposits
its eggs beneath the integument, between that and the cel-
lular membrane ; the hatching of the eggs matures ; the
abscess formed by the grub is called puckeridge ; this is
ignorantly attributed to a wound inflicted by the goat-
sucker, or night hawk. When arrived at their full size,
the larvae make their way out at the external opening, and
fall on the ground. From the mischief which they do to
the hides, their destruction should be attempted ; this
may be effected by introducing a penknife to enlarge the
openings, and by pressing the insect out. The oestrus ovis
lays its eggs on the margin of the nose of sheep, which be-
coming larvae, creep into the frontal and maxillary sinuses,
occasioning great irritation. The continental shepherds
trepan their sheep, and remove them ; but our shepherds
have not been successful with this method. Sheep are
also obnoxious to a worm called the pallisade, which locates
itself within the trachea and bronchii. The fasciola
hepatica, or fluke- worm, is also a parasitic insect, whose
ravages are supposed to be most injurious, but they are to
be discovered in most healthy sheep. Horses, asses, and

390 PARASITIC ANIMALS IN CATTLE.

mules, are occasionally found with them also, as well as
rats, mice, &c. ; but in sheep, goats, and deer, they are
common. Yet what connexion the animal has with dis-
ease is involved in much obscurity : certain it is, however,
that both rot, and the vast increase of the fluke, are con-
nected with a moist state of the pasturage. Salt marshes
never produce it ; and salt is supposed to be a remedy in
the early stages. It seldom attacks sheep on high grounds ;
but the sheep having once received the infection, of what-
ever nature it may be, removal to another pasture is then
almost too late.

Hydatids, as producing what is known as staggers, or
turnsick, in sheep, are less common but sufficiently fatal.
This vesicular animal, which is found within the cerebral
cavities, produces effects which have received various pro-
vincial but characteristic names, being called gid, starers,
goggles, sturdy, &c. They are universal throughout Europe,
and, indeed, infest the flocks of most quarters of the globe.
Hydatids also make their way, now and then, into the
spinal canal, when they occasion paralysis. The vitality of
the tanius globuleux or ccenurus cerehralis is fully evinced on
being put into water, which, if it be warm, excites lively
motions in the animal, whose size varies from that of a
pigeon's egg to the minutest vesicle. They are found
sometimes solitary, and at others two or three are placed
together wuthin the ventricles of the brain ; occasionally
they are discovered within the substance of the cerebellum ;
but more frequently immediately on the surface of the
cerebral hemispheres : and it is said they are more common
to the right lobe than to the left ; their effects are gene-
rally produced on the opposite side to that on which the
parasitic animal is situated ; it is usual to find the hy-
datid on that side of the head towards which the sheep
inclines in his revolutionary gait. When this disease has
existed some time, the ravages it occasions are very great :
one of the cerebral lobes has been found almost destroyed ;
one of the ventricles has been distended to ten times its
original magnitude : while in other instances, one of the
parietal bones has become so absorbed by the pressure of
the hydatid, when situated on the cerebral suiface, as
scarcely to offer the smallest resistance to the touch. It is

COSTIVENESS. 397

more frequent in sheep under two years old than at a later
period ; and is known by the staggering gait of the affected
animal, and its separation from the rest of the flock ; the
head is held unnaturally low or high, and is carried more
to one side than the other, inclining also the general move-
ments of the body to the same side. As the pressure of
the hydatid increases, the functions become still more
deranged : the sheep staggers about almost unconscious,
with dilated pupils, and loss of cud ; until coma or convul-
sions close the scene. Of the cure we would remark, that,
notwithstanding the hopes held out, it is not often obtained ;
for the situation of the hydatid is so diversified and so
obscure, that it is only when it directly points itself out by
its effects on the cerebral parietes, that we are able to detect
it with any degree of certainty. In such cases it may be
attempted to puncture the vesicle by means of any instru-
ment that will penetrate the bone with safety, after a slight
opening has been made through the integuments by a
scalpel. A rude instrument is a fine sharp gimlet, which
will effect a sufficient opening if passed as far as its screw,
or until the hydatid fluid flows, and will prove effective, by
evacuating the vesicle without danger of wounding the
brain. After the operation, in whatever way performed,
should the symptoms not mitigate, there will be reason to
suspect that a second or third hydatid remains, in which case
the trephine must be resorted to. Subsequent to its use,
stitch up the integuments, and secure the head from the
effects of cold, violence, or insects. Continental shepherds
attempt a rude cure by introducing a long pointed instru-
ment up the nose, through the frontal sinuses, and into
the cerebral cavity, by which means the hydatid is often
effectually destroyed, and ill consequences less frequently
result than would be supposed likely from such treatment.

COSTIVENESS.

Some horses are habitually costive, which arises either
from a defective secretion of the fluid of the bowels ; or,
that the absorbents act too strongly, and take up too much
of the liquid contents, by which the faecal mass becomes
dry, hard, and difficult to pass ; or it may, and frequently
does, arise from a defect in the formation of the bile, either

398 DIARRH(EA.

as to quantity or quality. This we know from what occurs
in jaundice, in which, from a loss of the bile by extravasa-
tion, there is always present a strong disposition to a costive
habit. Some food is prone to occasion constipation, as
whatever is stimulating or heating. Corn of all kinds,
therefore, has this tendency, but beans more than all.
Habitual costiveness should not be counteracted by purga-
tives, as they generally increase the evil ; but attention
should be paid to the habit itself, and the peculiar tenden-
cies of that should be counteracted. Dry food should be
remedied by occasional bran mashes. Green meat is par-
ticularly useful in these cases in summer, and carrots in
winter. A costive state of bowels may sometimes be reme-
died by placing a lump of rock salt within the manger.
When costiveness arises from defective bile, treat as directed
under jaundice.

Occasional or accidental costiveness must be treated dif-
ferently. First, back-rake, next throw up a large laxative
clyster ; and then proceed to give a mild purgative by the
mouth. ^

DIARRHOEA.

This complaint is, when properly considered, an increased
power of the peristaltic action, with a greater secretion
of a watery fluid within the intestines ; or, otherwise it may
arise from a want of a proper absorption of the fluid part of
the intestinal contents ; whereby there follows a frequent
evacuation of the dung in a very liquid form ; or it may
also spring from the irritability or slight inflammation of the
mucous membrane. It is distinguished from dysentery by
the purging being incomplete from the very first ; by its
being less copious, having all the faeces in solution without
any glairy mucous matter ; and, also, by being seldom ac-
companied with fever, or any gi'eat aflection of the general
health. Some horses are very liable to purging on every
exertion, and such are termed, by grooms, washy, having
usually narrow chests and lank bellies, by which the intes-
tines have not sufficient room for their natural processes ;
but are pressed on, and thus forced to a hasty expulsion of
the imassimilated contents.

Causes. — Diarrhoea may arise from mechanical pressure,

DIARRHOEA. 399

resulting from the last cause ; thus a light belly is often
found with occasional diarrhoea ; or it may arise from a de-
bility in the intestines themselves. A weakened state of the
bowels, inclining to this affection, is often brought on by
drastic purges. It may likewise spring from the intestines
containing some offensive matter, which nature is striving
to cast out ; little dung being emitted at a time.

It may also be occasioned by the sudden application of
cold, whereby the exhalent vessels of the skin becoming
checked, more fluid is necessarily thrown on the intestines ;
and which operates not only by increasing their quantity,
but likewise by the addition of something foreign, hence
irritating to them. In these cases, which are marked with
thirst and increased pulse, the restoration of the healthy
action of the skin is necessary to a cure ; and as the balance
of power has been in favour of the intestines, it would be
desirable now to turn it in favour of the skin, by making
use of the few horse diaphoretics we know of, as antimony,
warm clothing, &c. &c. ; and by avoiding the use of outward
astringents.

The treatment. — In general cases, when the motion is
copious, little need be done. Nature is then relieving her-
self, and requires little more than warmth and a change of
diet. If constitutional, we must palliate by a mild but con-
stant check on the existing causes : a light-bellied horse
should not be worked severely several days together ; avoid
too much water, or too early labour directly after meals.
Let the feeces be examined : if the food passes away un-
digested, the stomach requires tonics to restore its tone ; but
if it be a recent attack, examine well for the probable cause.
Has it followed any undue exposure, any violent exertion,
any change of food, m\y great difference in the warmth of
the stable ? Is the water good in quality ; are the oats, or is
the hay new ? If none of these causes operate, we must first
make ourselves aware that it is the faecal discharge which
passes, for such appearances have concealed an obstinate
constipation. Being convinced of the diarrhoea, commence
the cure by mild astringents. It sometimes happens, when
diarrhoea has been long continued, it seems to pervade the
whole alimentary track, so that, at the last, the caecum and
rectum become equally affected; then dysentery is esta-

400 DIARRHOEA IN CATTLE.

blished, and a distressing tenesmus prevails. In such cases
give astringents by the mouth, as well as by injections.
Commence, however, the cure of general cases of diarrhoea
by giving the following drink once or twice a day, according
to the violence of the complaint : —

Prepared opium half an ounce.

Powdered catechu one drachm.

Prepared chalk one ounce.

Sulphate of iron {green vitriol) half a drachm.

Starch, boiled thin . a pint.

Mix.

Should the horse be weak, boiled starch, or arrow root,
or boiled bean meal, may be horned down the throat fre-
quently. Give no cold water to drink, but, instead, give
thin gruel or rice-water, tepid. Clothe warmly, encourage
a fine temperature also, and carefully avoid exposure to
sudden currents of cold air. Green meat has been known
to check diarrhoea which had resisted every other attempt.
To the more intimately understanding of this complaint,
under its several varieties, see the subject of Dysentery.

DIARRHOEA IN CATTLE.

Looseness, scantering, scouring, is much more frequent
in kine than in horses. It is occasioned by intemperate
and long-continued travel in hot weather, or by cold super-
vening on heat, damp and wet, lying out, &c. &c. Some-
times, however, it springs up without any obvious cause,
and while the cow is apparently doing well, milking well,
feeding well, and laying on flesh within the shed. The
conditions under which the disease makes its appearance
must always be ascertained. If the animal be weakly, as
the generality are when they exhibit diarrhoea, a tonic every
day, with a change of food, and an occasional walk about
the yard for exercise, will be beneficial. If strong and
healthy, give the following : —

Sulphate of magnesia {Epsom salts) half a pound.

Powdered ipecacuanha a drachm.

Sulphate of iron {green ritriol) a drachm.

Feed liberally, and give bean meal in a mash or otherwise :
the prepared rust of iron has been given in doses of half an
ounce in a ball, with advantage in these cases. If the
colour of the external membranes declare the liver to be

CRIBBITING. 401

affected, the case must be treated as one of a mild hepatic
affection, cautiously guarding, however, against any ap-
proach to salivation.

SCOURING IN CALVES.

From a morbid stomach secretion, calves are very prone
to diarrhoea. The chief cause, however, is irregularity in
the feeding, both as to quantity and quality ; the slightest
inattention to these points soon brings on this disorder.
To remedy diarrhoea, graziers give the calves chalk to lick.
When looseness has appeared they also give chalk in milk
(which is a good domestic remedy), as well as starch or bean
flour boiled in their food. But when these fail, give the
following, which is almost certain in its good effects : —

Prepared chalk half an ounce.

Powdered opium half a scruple.

Powdered catechu a scruple.

Ginger a scruple.

Sheep are subject to scouring ; and lambs are also liable
to a similar looseness with calves. In either case, the rules
already laid down exactly apply, making one-sixth of the
quantities of the previous dose.

CRIBBITING.

This peculiar action is very generally, but is erroneously
supposed to arise from a small quantity of air drawn into
the stomach : and is hence called sucking the wind. On
the contrary, it consists in the simple eructation or forcing
out of a small quantity of gas, let loose from morbid
combinations within the stomach ; which gas, as it proves
a source of irritation, the horse, to aid its expulsion, applies
his teeth to a fixed point, whereby to help the effort he is
about to make. To prevent the action, it is common to
place a tight strap around the throat ; this, by compressing
the oesophagus, effectually hinders the animal from indulg-
ing the habit.

It is considered a vice, an action acquired, &c. ; but we
believe it always commences in dyspepsia. We never
knew an instance of its being contracted at' grass ; but
turning out in a straw-yard is a very common cause. It

D d

402 RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNI^E.

may certainly be traced to idleness ; but then it cannot be
supposed that the mere action of cribbiting, were it either
a vice or an amusement, could tend to deprive a horse of
flesh. The faulty digestion at once keeps them thin, and
makes them prone to assume this dyspeptic symptom,
which, once acquired, is lasting from habit, even although
we could remove the original cause. To prevent the crib-
biting, nothing more is necessary than to place a strap of
two and a half inches broad around the throat, tightened
only to the degree necessary to prevent the action ; this it
does by rendering it painful to distend the oesophagus.
The first symptom of cribbiting is usually the licking of the
manger, which habit the horse about to crib will indulge for
hours together. If taken at this point, and a piece of rock
salt placed before him, the animal will apply his tongue to
it ; this usually prevents him from becoming a cribber,
by giving him employment and strengthening his stomach.
Most persons imagine that cribbing rounds the teeth, which
is an unfounded prejudice, though horses of a nervous
temperament, which snap and bite much while being dressed,
generally have the incisors very much rounded. Some
horses, notwithstanding they are inveterate cribbers, get fat,
and perform the work briskly, even to the end of prolonged
lives.

MORBID DISPLACEMENTS OF THE INTESTINES, &C.
RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIyE,

Hernia, in its strict sense, is a protrusion of any viscus
out of its natural cavity ; hence we have hernia of the
brain, of the lungs, and of the various viscera of the ab-
dominal regions. Hernia, as we propose to consider it, is a
displacement of the intestines from the abdominal cavity,
either through some of the natural openings or through
artificial ones, the effects of accident. When such protru-
sion takes place through a moderate opening, and the
portion of gut can be readily returned, it is called a re-
ducible hernia ; but when it occurs through a small open-
ing, and the intestine cannot be replaced, it is termed an
irreducible hernia. If the mouth of the opening, round the

RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA. 403

intestine, constringe, and prevent the return of the bowel,
it then forms a strangulated hernia, and usually proves fatal,
unless relief be promptly obtained.

The hernia by far the most common in the horse is the
inguinal, of which the scrotal, or when the bowel descends into
the scrotum, is most frequently observed in the stallion.
Bubonocele, or that of the groin, is a very rare form of dis-
ease, but is occasionally witnessed in geldings. In the former,
the intestine accompanies the spermatic cord by the ingui-
nal canal through the abdominal rings into the scrotum : in
the latter the bowel alone lodges in the groin. The rup-
tures we have named may be considered as the only ones
common to the horse. Some of them are very rarely seen :
hernia is more frequently on the right than on the left side ;
and scarcely ever appears in mares. However, ventral her-
nia or rupture of the muscles of the abdominal sides, and
protrusion beneath the skin of a portion of intestine, is
sometimes beheld in either sex, and perhaps of the two, is
more frequently witnessed in the female.

The causes which produce hernice are various, but all
arise from violence of exertion, or the effects consequent
upon external injuries. With us the efforts used in racing,
and the leaps taken in hunting, are causes, as we may
readily suppose ; when we consider that the dilatation of
the abdomen, restrained as it is by weight and tight girth-
ings, must press backwards the intestinal mass. Rearing
and kicking also, and being cast for operations, particu-
larly the rising up after castration, have all brought it on.
Blows with a thick stick, or from the horn of a cow, may
likewise induce it.

The symptoms of strangulated hernia are very similar to
those of an acute enteritis : there are the same uneasiness,
shifting of position, getting up and lying down again. The
horse rolls in the same manner, and in turning on his back
sometimes seems to get a momentary respite from pain ;
yet it is but momentary, for the suffering is not one of
remission ; it is constant ; this will serve as one distin-
guishing mark between it and spasmodic cohc, with which
it has been confounded. In stallions, a pathognomonic
symptom is, that the testicle on the hernial side is drawn
up to the abdomen, and is retained there, with only mo-

Dd2

404 RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA.

mentary fits of relaxation ; towards the last the pulse is
quick and wiry ; the horse paws, looks at his flanks, but
seldom kicks at his belly. We assure ourselves of hernia
by an oblong tumour in the groin, of larger or smaller
bulk ; hard or soft, as it may contain either feeces or gas, in
which latter case it will also be elastic. When the tumour
is raised by the hand, or pressed, a gurgling sound is
emitted ; or if the horse be coughed, it will be sensibly
increased in dimensions.

The treatment of strangulated hernia. — The horse suffering
under the affection we will suppose to be a stallion, and then
describe the various manipulations for his relief: firstly,
the examination into the state of the hernia ; secondly, the
application of means preparatory to the application of pres-
sure ; thirdly, the application of pressure itself ; also, the
operation of removing the stricture ; and, likewise, the ap-
plication of the various processes to hernia in the horse.

The treatment of hernia in a stallion. — First, the examina-
tion of the hernial sac. In this manipulation both hands
are employed ; one is introduced into the rectum, the other
into the sheath. The one within the rectum must seek
the internal ring ; while the other, pursuing the course of
the cord on the side affected, is to be pushed up to the
external ring ; and thus, in the natural state, the opposed
fingers may be made nearly to meet, and so estimate the
size of the opening. However small the protruded portion
of gut, the practitioner will be able to detect, and even to
reduce it. This exploration may he made in the standing
posture ; hut it will he conducted with more facility and cer-
tainty if the animal he cast, which is the preferahle mode of
proceeding .

Secondly, the application of means preparatory to the
taxis : these are said to be bleeding, and partially paralysing
the parts by administration of chloroform ; or lessening the
volume of distention by dashing the part with cold water ; or,
if the horse be already cast, by spreading ice over the belly.

Thirdly, the manual efforts to return the displaced gut.
To fulfil this indication, we are, with the same hope,
at once to proceed thus. The horse is to be thrown upon
the opposite side to that disordered ; and after one hind leg
has been drawn and fixed forward, as for castration, he is to

RUPTURE, OR INTESTINAL HERNIA. 405

be turned upon his back, and in that position maintained by
trusses of straw, while other trusses are placed under him to
raise the croup. With both arms well oiled, or covered with
some mucilaginous decoction, the operator will now com-
mence his exploration, taking the precaution of emptying
the rectum as he proceeds. As soon as he shall have ascer-
tained that it is a case of hernia ; have assured himself
the gut protruded through the ring is undergoing neither
stricture nor strangulation ; he may endeavour to disengage
the hernial part, by softly drawing it inward within the
cavity, at the same time pushing it in the like direction
with the hand within the sheath. Should he experience
much difficulty in these attempts, he is to desist ; violence
being too often the forerunner of strangulation and gan-
grene. He must bear in mind, also, that although the re-
duction is effected, unless it be followed by immediate cas-
tration, it does not always prove to be a cure : the protru-
sion recurs after a time, and occasionally even the moment
the animal has risen. If the taxis should be fortunate
enough to reduce the hernia, and it be not intended to
castrate the horse, apply a well-wadded pledget, or folded
cloth, to the part ; this may be retained with a bandage
crossed between the legs from side to side, and fastened by
one part under the belly to a girth ; and also passing be-
tween the legs, it may be again made fast to the back por-
tion of the same girth ; the intention of this is, to prevent
the protrusion of the gut by the exertion of rising, and
consequently it should be removed as soon as that danger
is over. If a radical cure were attempted, of course the
clams would supersede this, either in the stallion or gelding.
And, concerning the treatment of strangulated hernias in
geldings. Inguinal hernia taking the same course, is suscep-
tible of the same terminations, and requires the same treat-
ment, as in stallions. The taxis is to be employed, and
will be used with most effect, the operator (the horse
lying upon his back) extending the hernial sheath with one
hand, while he manipulates with the other ; or, should this
fail, by instructing his assistant to hold up the hernial
mass from the belly, so as to take its pressure off the ring,
and thus give him an opportunity to renew his efforts with
more effect. In some cases, the introduction of one hand

406 STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES.

into the rectum becomes necessary. The reduction of the
hernia should be followed up immediately by the applica-
tion of the clams, if we unite with the reduction an attempt
at permanent cure of the hernia ; taking care, at the time,
to draw out the part of the scrotum to which the vaginal
sheath is adherent, and to push up the clams as close as
possible to the belly ; they are then to be closed, as for
castration.

Of congenital hernia, our limits allow of little more than
the mention ; nor need more be detailed, as its conse-
quences are seldom injurious. It appears that inguinal
hernia commonly exists in the foetus in utero. M. Line-
guard, V. S., of Normandy, where breeding is very exten-
sively pursued, has ascertained that enterocele is invariably
present at birth ; even in abortions, and in subjects still
born. The congenital enterocele is an attendant on birth,
increasing up to the third or sixth month, but afterwards
diminishing, and ultimately vanishing. Should it continue
beyond a year or eighteen months, it is to be regarded as a
chronic or permanent hernia. Chronic or permanent hernia,
it may be remarked, our observations being so much limited
to geldings, we see little of. Castration, however, with the
armed clams, is the evident cure.

STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES, OR MORBID DISPLACE-
MENT OF THE INTESTINES.

The intestines, in consequence of their peristaltic motion,
become sometimes entangled together, and a fatal strangu-
lation takes place ; this happens, occasionally, from some
of the mesenteric folds entwining them ; sometimes by their
rupturing the mesentery, and becoming strangulated by
passing through the opening they have made : but it is
much oftener the consequence of spasmodic action, and
during colic these inversions, involutions, invaginations, and
introsusceptions occur. When thus affected, it is not un-
usual for the ileum to become reversed in its usual course ;
in which case a portion, then contracted by spasm, becomes
forced into a part less constringed, and an impenetrable
obstruction thence is formed. We may draw a practical
inference from these cases — that in spasm we should attempt
an early relief; and likewise that we should endeavour, in

JAUNDICE. 407

all cases of failure in bowel affections, invariably to make a
post-mortem examination : and tbis we may do on the ground
that repeated cases may enable us accurately to inter-
pret symptoms ; then, although we cannot relieve, we may
offer such an opinion as will convince our employers it is
not our ignorance of the signs, but our circumscribed
means, which is the cause of our incapability to afford
assistance.

CHAPTER VI.

DISEASES OF THE GLANDS.
JAUNDICE.

Jaundice, by farriers called the yellows, as a distinct affec-
tion, is unfrequent in the horse, from his hepatic system
being without a gall-bladder. As a symptomatic affection,
it is, however, more common ; for whenever any great ab-
dominal inflammations occurs, the liver is very liable to
participate ; bile then passes into the bloodvessels, which
thence is thrown on to the skin. Occasionally also a
more slow and primary affection of this organ occurs, and
the biliary secretion appears either increased in quantity,
altered in quality, or obstructed ; when the consequence is,
that the evacuations are irregular either in quantity or
quality. This state is betokened by listlessness, dyspepsia,
irregular appetite, and early fatigue under exercise : there
is some biliary suffusion in the membranes of the eyes, nose,
and mouth. Most liver affections in the horse, however,
excite no attention until they terminate fatally.

In our treatment of such a case, it is perceived, that we
must attempt to produce a healthy action in the liver. To
promote this intention (as in the greater number of cases
costiveness is present), begin by giving the following: —

No. 1 . — Calomel half a drachm.

Aloes two flrachins.

Powdered gentian two draclims.

Castile soap two drachms.

Form into a ball, and give night and morning until
the bowels are actively purged ; then continue only so
much of the same, for a week or ten days, as will keep

408 JAUNDICE.

the bowels lax, not in a purging state. If the symptoms be
such as bespeak chronic inflammation, or incipient consoli-
dation, blister the right side. In cases where costiveness is
not present, but, on the contrary, a relaxed state of the
bowels appears, give the following : —

No. 2. — Calomel a scmple.

Blue vitriol half a drachm.

Gentian, in powder three drachms.

Oak bark, in powder three drachms.

Make into a ball, and give night and morning, unless the
calomel should aflfect the mouth, in which case give only
once a day. Should the looseness increase on this plan,
add powdered opium, a drachm to each ball. In all cases
of yellows, a change of food is proper, and generally neces-
sary. In winter, spear the corn, or give carrots ; in sum-
mer, soil, or give green grasses ; but, in such case, avoid
exposure to the night air, making use of moderate cloth-
ing so long as the calqjnel is continued.

THE YELLOWS, OR JAUNDICE, IN OXEN AND SHEEP.

These animals having a gall-bladder and cystic duct, are
more liable to biliary obstructions than horses ; hence
this complaint is more frequent among them. It is very
common in some of the cold provinces on the Continent,
where these animals are stall-fed in winter ; from which,
numbers of them are attacked with it in the spring. In
England, it is less often the consequence of confinement
than of a slow inflammation of the liver.

The symptoms are standing apart from the herd, looking
ragged, with signs of constitutional disturbance, and a
peculiar yellowness of the skin, as well as sometimes of
the hair also. Cows are more liable than oxen to the
disorder ; and when cows are attacked, the milk often be-
comes discoloured, as well as occasionally ropy.

Treatment. — The remedy in this disease depends upon
the administration of tonic bitters, purgatives, and alkalies,
in order so far as possible to supply the loss of the natural
secretion. With these agents are blended, in case any
enlargement can be detected upon the right side, a blister
over the swollen part, and the exhibition of iodide of
potassium night and morning, in half drachm doses.

TRUE RED WATER IN CATTLE. 409

TRUE RED WATER IN CATTLE.

Red water appears to be a disease of the digestive organs,
and is justly attributed to derangement of the hver and
stomachs. Unhealthy bile renders the chyme also un-
healthy. The chyme, of course, affects the chyle ; and the
chyle likewise affects the blood, the quantity of which it
supports. Thus the consequence of the bile being im-
properly secreted, is an altered state of the vital fluid ; the
red particles of which are imperfectly formed, and it then
becomes the office of the kidneys to remove them as foreign
bodies. Red particles, therefore, are voided with the urine,
but not sound or entire. On the contrary, the microscope
shows them to be broken down, as though they had been
ground up in a mortar ; and it is upon the presence of
these imperfect foreign bodies, that the colour of the urine
depends. The disease is ushered in by diarrhoea, to which
constipation succeeds. When it has taken deep hold of
the digestive system, the liver is affected, and its secre-
tions are unhealthy, and morbidly stimulate the intestines ;
the secondary costiveness often complained of gives place
to an obstinate diarrhoea.

Causes. — This disease prevails in some parts of England,
and is unknown in others. It is associated with feeding on
particular pastures, upon which cows can scarcely be allowed
to run without their displaying the disorder. It is also
connected with the performance of certain natural func-
tions ; thus, in some places, red water is common after
calving, and in those places dropping after calving is un-
known. In other localities, dropping generally happens,
and in those places red water is a very rare occurrence.

Symptoms. — Those of general constitutional disturbance
in cattle, united with a pulse bounding at the heart, and
scarcely to be felt at the jaw. The beat of the heart is
even loud ; but the symptom peculiar to this disease is the
discoloured state of the urine, which assumes all the inter-
mediate tints between the palest ale and the deepest
porter.

Treatment. — Those who advocate bleeding say the vein
is to be pinned up the instant the pulse falters, or the
delay of a few seconds may lose the life of the animal.

410 H/EMATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE IN HORSES.

Bleeding, however, is not imperative for the perfection of a
cure, and being dangerous, it is better, therefore, not attempted.
In red water, whether constipation or costiveness exist,
administer a strong purge, in which, if the beast is purging
at the time, it is usual to mix half a pound of currants ; the
appearance of the currants in the fseces being supposed to
be proof positive that the medicine has had its effect. Such
evidence is more than delusive ; however farmers insist on
seeking it, and the veterinary surgeon must obey. In this
disorder, however, give the following drink : —

Epsom salts a pound.

Flowers of sulphur half a pound.

Ginger one ounce.

Powdered gentian two ounces.

Gruel one pint.

If the symptoms do not evidence that the virulence of the
disorder has abated in six hours, give half the above ; and if
in eight hours it has no effect, give calomel two drachms,
in half a pint of thick gruel, or else shake the powder upon
the tongue. This may be repeated ; and at the expiration
of another eight hours after the two doses of mercury, a
pint of oil, with a drachm of chloroform, may be given ;
for at every risk the bowels must be opened, which in the
great majority of cases the first drink will accomplish.
After the purgative has acted, administer mild stimulants,
as a quart of sound ale twice a day, with tonics, but no
astringent medicine.

HiEMATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE IN HORSES.

Farriers term this passing of blood : and it arises some-
times from pure topical inflammation of the kidneys, in
which case it must be treated as under that head : it may
accompany a stone in the pelvis of a kidney, or be caused
by an ulceration of any of the urinary passages ; but these
are unusual origins. Violent exercise, by rupturing the
small vessels of the kidneys, produces it most often, and
therefore it frequently follows hard riding.

The cure must consist in restoring the healthy action of
the parts, and promoting a healing of the vessels ; more
particularly, in avoiding violent exercise and heavy weights.
Diuretics are always hurtful. Mild astringents are proper,
as bark, catechu, dragon's blood, logwood, &c. Of all

PROFUSE STALING. 411

medicine, however, the greatest confidence is to be placed
in sugar of lead, or a long course of sulphuric acid,
mingled with the water which the animal drinks. Great
benefit has been known to be derived from a large strength-
ening plaister across the loins. In one instance, the fol-
lowing, given twice a day, produced excellent effects, after
many other means had failed : —

Acetate of lead two drachms.

Common mass a sufficiency.

Make into a ball.

The sulphuric acid is to commence when the administra-
tion of the sugar of lead ceases.

PROFUSE STALING.

The above is not an uncommon disease in the horse. In
its worst form, it is attended with an immense flow of urine,
insatiable thirst, and rapid emaciation ; with an increase of
appetite at first, but a sickly one as the disease proceeds.
In its usual type it appears as an immoderate flow of the
urinary secretion, sometimes limpid, at others turbid, and
lastly of a whey-like appearance. It usually originates in
some extraordinary stimulus applied to the kidneys, com-
mencing sometimes with the digestive organs ; but more
generally the effect appears confined to the kidneys, which
become locally affected from powerful diuretics taken into
the stomach, either in the form of food, as mow-burnt hay,
kihi-dried oats, some vegetable matters browsed from hedges
and fields, or otherwise from medicines too active, and igno-
rantly forced down the horse's throat. Ship-oats when
heated, and some particular plants in hay, are also sup-
posed to occasion it : hard brackish water is likewise thought
to produce it.

Treatment. — As the cause, in general cases, is not very
occult, it would be a prudent precursor to review the cir-
cumstances connected with the general management of our
patient. Have the whole of the animal's food changed.
Order him different water. Caution the groom against the
use of diuretics, but place no dependence upon his strongest
assertion, that he never gives the horse any physic. If
there be merely a superabundance of urine over the liquids
taken, moderate doses of catechu, kino, or oak bark, will

412 HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE .HEAD,

be sufficient to check the flow ; and the same remedies
may be appUed in cases where violent diuretics have been
the cause. It will also be prudent to apply a warm strength-
ening charge over the region of the loins ; this we have
found very serviceable in the urinary fluxes in old horses.
If the urine be very turbid, if there is evident wasting of the
body and loss of appetite, giving reason to suspect much
derangement of the digestive and assimilating powers, try
the following drink every day : —

Uva ursi, in powder four drachms.

Oak bark, in powder one ounce.

Catechu, in powder two drachms.

Opium, in powder half a drachm.

Support liberally on wheat or barley, or ground beans ; but
more particularly the former given in lieu of oats, or mixed
with the corn ; feeding with grasses, carrots, or beet, &c.
If this, after a sufficient trial, does not benefit, try the fol-
lowing night and morning, clothing the body warmly. Or
if the above measures produce no evident change in a day
or two, administer the ensuing daily, in the form of a
ball:—

Iodide of potassium one drachm.

Common mass a sufiiciency.

CHAPTER VII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN CIRCUMSCRIBED

CAVITIES.

HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE HEAD.

Hydrocephalus internus is a rare disease in the adult horse ;
but it sometimes appears as a congenital affection. It
seems, when it does occur, to be the effect of some mor-
bid irritation of the brain or its membranes, terminating in
serous effusion within the ventricles, or between the arach-
noid membrane. Such irritation may be acute or chronic ;
it may be sufficiently violent to produce the active symp-
toms of mad staggers ; or it may be the consequence of only
a slow pouring out of the interstitial fluid, which shall
occasion sleepy staggers, or the megrims ; it may, how-

HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST. 413

ever, show itself in paralysis, when the fluid penetrates into,
or communicates with, the spinal canal. In the examina-
tions made after death, there has been very often found
marks of both thoracic and abdominal inflammation : the
lateral ventricles have been distended with serosity ; the
plexus choroides usually pale, sometimes studded with small
tubercular spots ; occasionally they have been much in-
jected : the medullary matter has been pale, sometimes less
cohesive than natural, as though softened by the fluid. All
treatment, hitherto adopted, has proved entirely useless to
render the horse of any future service to his master.

HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST.

Hydrothorax consists in a collection of serous fluid within
the cavity of one or both pleur8e. It forms a very common
termination of pleurisy, and appears to arise in these cases
from a peculiar disposition on the part of the arteries of
the pleurae to secrete an inordinate quantity of serous in-
terstitial fluid, towards the close of the disorder. Many
gallons of fluid have been found so formed within a very
short space of time. In some instances the fluid has been
discovered mixed with pus ; and in others, coagulable
masses are found floating in it.

The prevailing symptoms are, breathing diflicult, and that
in the proportion to the water effused in the chest ; the horse
is seldom found lying, and if he does recline, it is but for
a very short time. A few days of suffering reduces the
pulse very much ; while sweUings, almost universal, are
seen over the abdomen, the sheath, the thighs, and legs.
Moreover, if during the attack the hair of the tail, or of
the mane, be pulled, it will generally come out with ease,
and by handfuls.

Treatment. — Mr. Percivall very justly observes, that this
is almost an affair of desperation ; and therefore we must
the earlier attack our enemy, by supporting the horse with
every means at our disposal. To detect water of the chest,
apply the ear to the sides, beginning at the bottom, and
moving it upwards towards the spine. Where no murmur
whatever, nor any sound of any kind can be heard, con-
clude that up to the point where silence prevails, water has
been effused. But where a murmur, occasioned by the

414 HYDROTHORAX, OR DROPSY OF THE CHEST.

atmospheric air mashing into the lungs, can be detected, set
it down that the fluid has not readied so high. As soon
as the judgment is determined, perform an operation in
the manner detailed below.

The operation of paracentesis thoracis, or of tapping the
chest, consists in first making a slight opening through the
integuments ; when the skin is to be pulled on one side,
and the trochar inserted. The situation for making the
opening is near to the anterior edge of the ninth rib, but
not too low down, for fear of harming important structures.
The skin being drawn aside the canula armed is to be
thrust in, and gently pushed forward, till all opposition is
mastered ; then withdraw the stillet, and push the blunt
tube onward. Sometimes the sides of the chest are covered
with pus and coagulated fibrine, which prevent the fluid
from rushing forth. A probe, therefore, may be introduced,
and moved quietly about to remove the obstruction. Fluid is
thus drawn off'; but supposing it to be present upon both
sides, there is some dispute as to how much, or the manner
in which it ought to be abstracted. If all be taken at once,
nature sinks under the operation ; therefore it is best to
take a third from each side, using care that the amount
draw^i from both sides renders them equal as to what re-
mains. " Then giving the horse the best of provender, and
the animal having perfectly recovered its tranquillity, repeat
the operation at the expiration of eight hours ; this time
inserting the trochar lower down, and in another eight hours
draw off' the remainder of the water. The trochar, in this
last operation, must be inserted very gently, and care be
taken that the stillet be withdrawn immediately upon the
sides being pierced.

No fear need be entertained about making these nume-
rous holes in the horse's sides. No damage will be done,
even though the practitioner should encounter a dry tap,
or though no fluid should be found within the chest. The
subsequent treatment is to give the most powerful tonic
medicines, and the most decidedly nourishing food. Car-
rots and roots may be allowed, but all grasses must be
strictly prohibited. Linseed may be mixed with the food,
and ground beans are especially beneficial. Medicine, how^-
ever, must not be forgotten. All astringent substances

ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY. 415

must be denied, and there are simple bitters in the hst of
tonics. Drugs, hkewise, that promote absorption, are to be
chosen, and there is one agent which is powerful in this
direction : —

Powdered opium a draelim.

Quassse, powdered six drachms.

Iodide of potassium one draclim.

Carbonate of ammonia one draclim.

Mix with honey or treacle, and give every night and morn-

If treated in the above fashion, half a diuretic ball being
given once every week, and the bowels kept laxative with
bran mashes, the horse may, in three months, regain all his
powers ; but, of course, the animal, as he must be stabled
all the time, should be valuable to cover the expenses,

HYDROPS PERICARDII, OR DROPSY OF THE HEART.

Inflammation of the heart is apt to terminate by an inor-
dinate effusion of serum within the membranous sac, called
the pericardium. If it admit of a natural cure, or of one
founded on promoting absorption, is very doubtful ; and an
operation in this case requires considerable skill, holding
forth small hopes of benefit.

ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY.

Ascites is a morbid increase of the serous fluids w^hich, in
small quantity, naturally pervades the cavity of the abdomen.
As a sequel of other affections, it is by no means uncommon.
The serous membranes of the horse appear very prone to
inflammation ; and effusion into the cavities, which they
render smooth for motion, is the common consequence,
-Equine ascites may be brought on by the connexion which
the serous membranes have both with the skin and the
kidneys, as secreting organs. Whatever, therefore, seriously
interferes with the functions of either, may prove a source
of serous effusion.

The symptoms usually tirst noticed are oedema of the ex-
ternal parts of the belly, chest, and sometimes of the
extremities ; which often bring to the recollection some
lassitude and disinclination for exertion. The urine is made
in smaller quantities than natural, and some costiveness is

416 ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE BELLY.

present. As the serous accumulation proceeds, the belly
becomes more pendulous, and, upon striking, emits a dull
sound : the pulse and breathing both now grow somewhat
hurried ; the former being small and but little developed.
The early constipation gives place sometimes to diarrhoea of
fcetid stools, and that particularly where the liver is much
affected or the disease is much advanced ; at which stage
the pulse is often found to be hardly perceptible by the
artery, but to vibrate with a peculiar thrill at the heart.
The appetite now fails ; peritoneal irritation frequently pro-
duces colicky symptoms ; and a few active pangs carry off
the poor beast.

The post-mortem examination, as may be supposed, very
frequently shows the kidneys pale within ; the liver some-
times much diseased, occasionally but little so. The mesen-
teric folds are often thickened, adherent, and show coagula-
ble deposit on them ; and the peritoneum is also seen
frequently thickened either by original inflammation, or by
subsequent irritation and maceration. The fluid thrown out
is serous, occasionally (though seldom) muco-purulent ;
sometimes uniform, but more frequently, like other serous
•accumulations in the horse, at least like those of the chest,
it is mixed with coagulable masses or flocculent portions.
The quantity varies, but is very seldom enormous ; this
may be accounted for by the horse being generally destroyed
ere the quantity becomes great.

The treatment of ascites promises little ; because it is
rather a symptom of visceral disorganization than of simple
irritation : we are warranted, however, in attempting the
removal of the fluid by exciting the absorbents, as detailed
in Hydrothorax ; and by strengthening the system generally
by tonics. We must, however, use no depletion : it may
also be observed, that purgatives are not admissible here :
on the contrary, they may be expected to occasion much
constitutional disturbance. External frictions, frequent and
long continued, are best ; with gentle, repeated exercise,
aided by warm clothing. But as soon as fluctuation is dis-
tinctly perceived, at once proceed to the operation of tap-
ping, because it will ofler the only reasonable chance in the
complaint when performed early.

Paracentesis abdominis is a simple operation. The spot

ANASARCA, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN. 417

chosen for the opening should be upon the hnea alba, mid-
way between the umbilicus and the sheath : in the mare,
between the umbiHcus and pubes. This point should be
chosen for the puncture, which ought to be made directly
upwards ; and both this and the former operation must be
conducted and treated upon similar principles, with the ex-
ception, that in ascites the whole of the fluid may be evacu-
ated at once, and allowed further to drain off, by the simple
application of a linen bandage. Should any prospect of
benefit be derived, endeavour to prevent a recurrence by
strengthening the general habit.

CHAPTER VIII.

DISEASED COLLECTIONS OF FLUID WITHIN THE CELLULAR
MEMBRANE.

ANASARCA, OR DROPSY OF THE SKIN.

Anasarca^ (Edema, and Water Farcy. — We need make no
distinction between these terms, particularly the two first.
As generally accepted, oedema carries probably rather a
more local definition with it ; thus we say an oedema-
tous swelling : but anasarca is more frequently used to
designate an extensive dropsy of the cellular membrane.
Both, however, have the same origin, and are accompanied
by the same symptoms. It differs from ascites principally
in its external seat, which is sometimes partial and some-
times general. It also appears under different forms, as it
has different origins ; and its terminations are also under the
influence of these circumstances. A debility of the ab-
sorbent system is usually observed in the spring and autumn.
There is, however, some general atony of the whole system,
and the oedema disappears as the constitution establishes
itself. At other times anasarca and oedema appear as ac-
companiments or sequelae to acute diseases that have dis-
turbed the functions generally, in the which case the
absorbents become irritated ; or to the oedema is added
tumefied lymphatics.

E e

418 WATER FARCY.

WATER FARCY.

This Protean complaint defies definition. At the close of
long febrile afi'ections the oedema is such as not only to
tumefy the lymphatics, but sometimes to make its way
externally by ulceration or by rupture of the vessels of the
skin. The aflfection, by a very easy transition, can degene-
rate into cracks or grease. Its treatment involves all we
have already detailed on hydrothorax and ascites : — internal
tonics ; but more potent external stimulants, by punctures,
by blisters, by friction, and by sustaining bandages ; liberal
feeding ; mild but continued exercise. The free use of green
food, however, as being at once diuretic yet laxative, is in-
dicated ; or in winter spear the corn, or give carrots, &c.
&c. ; for succulent vegetable matter is of much conse-
quence.

Water farcy, therefore, has as much to do with anasarca
as with either true farcy or glanders. Gibson is not very
wide of the mark when he describes it as of two kinds ; one
resulting from febrile attacks, the other partaking of the
nature of dropsy. A limb in these cases is often suddenly
seen to be gorged, and sometimes so, as to press out
the diseased accumulations, which hang around it like
dew drops. One singularity of it, w^hich is noticed by
Mr. Percivall, and must have been also observed by others,
is, that it often confines its attack to one limb only. It
will sometimes break out in a state of grease ; and some-
times it will extend itself to the opposite limb also.

The treatment of water farcy should be prompt, or true
farcy may follow. The limb is hot and tender, and four
quarts of blood in this case may be taken from the sephena
vein, to increase the absorption ; a mild purgative warmed
with carminatives may likewise be administered. Should
these not produce the effect, mildly blister the limb, and
give tonics, mixed with the iodide of potassium, in the form
recommended for hydrothorax. If the swelling does not
after all return to its healthy size, the appearance of farcy
at some distant period may be expected.

SWELLED LEGS. 419

SWELLED LEGS.

Partial wdema of the extremities, more often of the hinder,
is too well known to need much description. What has
been said already will apply here : debility, partial or general,
is the cause. At the close of long continued diseases, which
are weakening, the legs always swell ; and it is reasonable to
expect they should do so, when we consider how far they
are removed from the centre of circulation. The absorbents
may also be themselves affected ; but it is more than proba-
ble they are the least part of the cause, for we find them, in
these cases, fully equal to taking up the fluids ; as a little
exercise often removes the whole swelling. Sudden changes
in the temperature of the atmosphere that horses are used
to, or in the degree of clothing they wear, or hasty altera-
tions in the nature of their food, may any of them occasion
swelled legs. Thus it is, that when horses removed from
grass, or from a straw yard, are brought at once into a hot
stable, and fed highly, their extremities swell immediately ;
for the powers of life are unduly pushed before the tran-
sporting vessels are able to act on the increased secre-
tion : therefore arises a necessity for the administration of
tonics, or medicines, to strengthen the system, which, how-
ever, will be found less necessary when the changes are
gi*adually induced. Standing in the stable acts in the same
way, by weakening the constitution ; and hence exercise is
doubly useful; first, by assisting the circulation, secondly,
by the increased action it excites in the absorbents, and
in reviving the drooping health. On the contrary, turning
horses out to a straw yard from full feeding, warm clothing,
and a hot stable, may likewise bring on swelled legs, by
occasioning a general debility : and when they do sufter
from this cause, it is, in general, very acutely. It is thus
that standing in snow% or in long-continued wet, produces
sw^elled legs, by weakening the parts, and by being un-
favourable to absorption. It is very usual also for horses
to have oedematous extremities in autumn, at which period
the powers of life are unequal ; there being an increased
action in the skin to produce new hair rapidly, and those
parts most remote from the centre of circulation are conse-
quently unequally supplied with vital energy.

E e 2

420 EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD.

Cure. — This will not be difficult, when we make ourselves
master of the cause In removing horses from grass to the
stable, with the precautions mentioned, it may be prevented ;
but when it has occurred, it must be combated by hand-
rubbing, bandages, tonics, and gentle exercise. When
swelled legs occur in a horse that is thin and impoverished,
the general debility must be counteracted to promote a
cure, by feeding somewhat liberally, particularly with a
mixture of the edible roots, as carrots, parsneps, mangel-
wurzel, &c. &c. ; it is aided also by giving tonics, and by
the measures already referred to. The weakened vessels
having been long distended, will perhaps not readily regain
their tone ; they may therefore, in this case, be assisted by
bandages moistened in astringent solutions. When it occurs
among cart horses, haybands may be used for this purpose,
dipped in cold w^ater ; at twisting which, round the animal's
legs, some carters are very expert. In other instances,
strong woollen of any kind may be made use of; but flannel
forms the best bandage, when evenly and firmly applied, by
means of a roller of four yards in length and four inches in
breadth. Occasionally we meet with cases wherein the legs
appear to become habitually enlarged, or where the recur-
rence of the swelling is so frequent as to occasion continual
trouble : in these cases it is best to study the constitution
of the animal, and to endeavour so to adapt the means at
your disposal as to restore to the horse that power w^iich
its body has lost. If the animal should be very fat, from
staying much in the stable, do not all at once order full
exercise, or imagine such a horse can bear bloodletting. No
creature can endure that which he is unused to, and a fat
body has far less blood to spare than a lean one. Begin
gently ; and by degrees you may do all you wish, only
remember the horse is prized because of his strength, and
it ill becomes the veterinary surgeon to permanently destroy
that, the possession of which is the animal's chief recom-
mendation.

EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD, OR ECCHYMOSIS.

Ecchymosis is a pouring out of blood into the cellular
membrane, either the consequence of spontaneous or of
accidental lesion. In the former case, it is usually symp-

EXTRAVASATION OF GAS. 421

tomatic of inflammation, and as such must be attended to
in common with its cause. In the latter, it usually results
from external violence, and comes under the popular term
of a bruise, to which the reader is invited to turn. An
injury of this kind may so aflect the organization as to
render it impossible for the extravasated blood to be re-
absorbed ; in which case both the extravasation and disor-
ganized parts become involved in one common sphacelus,
and either a healthy suppuration and granulation closes the
wound, or the constitution sinks under the process, and life
is destroyed. In lesser injuries, the extravasated fluid is
absorbed ; or, if it remains, it continues as a fully organized
hardened tumour, its aqueous portion disappearing.

EXTRAVASATION OF GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA.

Emphysema is the escape of gas into the cellular mem-
brane, from deep-seated morbid combinations ; therefore
it is seen in the pestilential epidemics. Emphysema is
also brought on by the entrance of the atmospheric air
into a wound, from which it makes its way more or less
extensively throughout the cellular tissue. When it happens
within the cavity of a joint, it often confines itself to that
only : but in other, and fortunately very rare, cases, it per-
meates through the whole cellular surface, from the head to
the tail, rendering the unfortunate animal one bloated mass,
wdiich soon destroys him by its irritation, unless he be killed
by shorter means. It was formerly a custom to make a
slight puncture into the integuments of the elbow or arm,
and by means of a quill to blow a quantity of air into it
until the whole shoulder became distended, as a cure for a
shoulder strain. It is also still a custom to make veal em-
physematous, by blowing air from the mouth of a butcher
into any point of the carcass of the dead calf; which plumps
up the cellular tissue, and takes ofl" that flaccidity common
to the young animal. The most common origin of emphy-
sema, however, arises from lesion of the aerating organs, as
wounds of the trachea, bronchia, or substance of the lungs :
a broken rib, by being forced inwards and puncturing the
pleura, is a common cause. The presence of air within the
cellular membrane is always a source of irritation : when,
therefore, it is very extensively diftused, it may so irritate

422 INTESTINAL CALCULI.

as to affect the powers of life ; it does so by producing
the symptoms of debihtating disease. Two indications,
therefore, present themselves, — to remove the air by small
punctm'es, and to support the constitution by stimulants
and tonics. If a re-accumulation takes place, force it out
by moderate pressure with gentle frictions ; and endeavour
then to keep it out by bandages to every part where they
can be applied : if possible, cut off the communication also
with the inlet by establishing adhesive inflammation in the
part.

CHAPTER IX.

CALCULUS, OR STONY CONCRETIONS.

Stony concretions have long been noted in some parts of
the body of the horse ; and a more intimate acquaintance
with gequine anatomy and that of other domestic animals
will probably show us that they are almost as universally
formed within the various organs of their bodies as in man.
Cerebral calculi are occasionally detected as well in the horse
as most other domestic animals. Salivary calculi are more
common, and are now and then met with in the ducts, but
principally of the parotid, where they occasion tumefaction,
and whence these bodies should be dexterously extracted :
avoiding as much as possible wounding the larger salivary
duct, and uniting the parts as quickly as possible afterwards
by establishing a healthy inflammation. Biliary calculi,
fi'om structural peculiarity in the hepatic system of the
horse and his congeners, are not frequent ; but in horned
cattle they are more often found. Gastric calculi, are now
and then met with in the horse, but much more frequently
in the ruminants.

INTESTINAL CALCULI, OR STONES IN THE INTESTINES.

Stones in the intestines are sufficiently common in the
horse, being of enormous size ; while they often occasion
dangerous colics, by accidentally altering their situations.
Whenever, therefore, colics occur frequently without any
apparent cause, they may be often proved after death to be
referrible to irritation from these displacements.

STONES IN THE KIDNEYS. 423

It is evident that this is an evil we have little power to
combat : if a horse by passing a stone with his fa?ces indi-
cated a constitutional disposition to separate sabulous matter
from his food, and afterwards to concrete it by the mucus
of his bowels, the removal of a stone actually formed is
hopeless. The abdominal calculus generally has a nucleus,
or centre, consisting of a nail or stone. It is composed of
the triple phosphates, is generally round, and is easily
recognised, by its external surface bearing a polish so bright
as to seem the creation of art. Others are composed of the
fine hairs which cover the substance of the oat, and some,
called dung-balls, are formed by the feeces becoming com-
l^act. The first is usually found within the small intestines,
the two last invariably in the posterior bowels.

STONES IN THE KIDNEYS, OR URINARY CALCULI.

Urinary calculi are rather common in the horse; and
as we know these animals are much subject to disturbances
in their urinary secretion, we might think it very probable
that the silicious matter which is separated from the blood
should aggregate within the kidneys, as well as collect in
the bladder. We have better evidence than mere supposi-
tion, for urinary calculi have been found in horses who
have died under symptoms which might have been mistaken
for very acute enteritis. We may also suppose, that the
early accumulation would occasion irregular and diminished
secretion of urine ; followed, at length, by a bloody puru-
lent mixture with the water, until more active symptoms
should arise, and carry ofi^ the horse. Concretions within
the kidneys might be removed in their early state by reme-
dies tending to decompose them in the urinary pelvis. For
this purpose we have the mineral acids, of which the hydro-
chloric, as holding the silicious matter in solution, is to be
preferred. The mineral acids pass through the body un-
changed, being emitted with the urine in a state of purity.
Their power, therefore, is unimpaired, and they are ready
to act upon a calculus encountered within the kidney, with
all that energy which they would display were the substance
outside the animal. The action of the acid may, likewise,
be promoted, by injecting a drachm in a gallon of water
into the bladder daily. Two drachms of the hydrochloric

424 STONES IN THE BLADDER.

acid may be mingled with every pail of water, and of the
mingled fluids the horse will drink with pleasure in a little
time, if other diluents be withheld.

STONES IN THE BLADDER, OR VESICAL CALCULI.

The presence of stone in the bladder has long been ac-
knowledged as a disease that has occurred in the horse ;
but it was always considered as a rare one. Our more
extended knowledge has brought many cases to light ; it
also exists in horned cattle ; and swine are not exempt
from it. It is by no means improbable that it occurs far
more frequently than we are aware of, as would appear
when we recollect how many horses are parted with on
account of being subject to what is considered habitual
strangury, the supposed consequence of a strain. Here-
after, therefore, all cases of this kind which have resisted
the ordinary treatment, and are not based on a known
cause, should be subjected to examination by the rectum.

The symptoms which denote a stone in the bladder are
various. Generally speaking, a stone may exist for a length
of time, and acquire considerable magnitude, before it is
productive of any perceptible disorder. The sedimentous
depositions are indicated by the urine gradually becoming
thicker and whiter ; by frequent desire to stale ; by the
difficulty and pain with which these desires are executed.
Sometimes the urine is bloody, and voided with distressing
and painful efforts. The irritation may run so high as to
give rise to colic. It is not always easy to distinguish
between these fits of colic and common intestinal gripes.
So long as the pain is not very acute, the subject of cystic
colic paws ; makes efforts to strike the sheath with his hind
feet ; looks back at his flanks, even reaches them wuth his
teeth, and every now and then shakes his head. Should
the pains increase, the animal will lie down and roll, ex-
periencing occasional relief, and, in fact, will display the
symptoms of common gripes. The sweat the animal breaks
into diff"uses a strong urinous odour. In this paroxysm of
pain, mares have been known to expel the calculus, and
thereby obtain instantaneous relief, and from that time to
recover.

The treatment of stone in the bladder may either be

RABIES. 425

founded on attempts to dissolve the mass, or to promote its
expulsion by pressure, or to extract it by operation. The
manner in which solution is to be accomplished, has been
described in the previous article. An attempt may be
made to force it out of the bladder through the urethra,
to which we should be more particularly led when we find
it already lodged within, or near to, the neck of the
organ. The left hand should be introduced into the rec-
tum, and be assisted by the right, in the line of the urethra :
if the stone be small, it may be brought forward, until a
forceps, introduced from the point of the penis, may reach
it. If it can be passed no farther than the curvature, it
must be cut down upon. When a larger stone is found
within the bladder, and the animal be a male, we must
proceed as detailed under lithotomy, among the operations.
In the female, the method of extracting the stone by litho-
tomy need not be practised. A dilitator is to be purchased
of the instrument makers ; this being introduced into the
short urethra of the mare, and afterwards expanded, enables
the calculus to be gi'asped with the forceps and with-
drawn.

CHAPTER X.

ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL POISONS.
RABIES.

The rabid malady, or madness, is never spontaneous, but
always acquired from the application of the virus, by a
member of the canine or feline tribe.

The symptoms of rabies in the horse are various ; it
usually, however, commences rather suddenly, by some
signs of uneasiness ; by sudden falling down, or break-
ing out into profuse sweats : in a few hours, however, the
animal becomes completely unruly : he stamps and paws
violently, and attempts to disengage himself from his halter.
Within twelve hours from the attack he is commonly fran-
tic : and we have seen one that levelled with the ground the
whole of the fittings of a six-stall stable, himself sweating,

42G RABIES.

snorting, and foaming amidst the ruins. The disease fol-
lows the inoculation, at the same periods as in other
animals, that is, from five weeks to three months : but its
attack is always quickest when the bite is received upon
the head. On examination of the morbid appearances
after death, there was in two cases great inflammatory
marks in the lungs, as well as in all the thoracic viscera ;
the stomach and bowels also, particularly the latter, parti-
cipated in the affection. The meninges of the brain were
likewise suffused with blood. In another case, to this last
symptomatic appearance was added a softening of the spinal
cord, while the medullary mass resembled a thin caseous
matter. The salivary glands, and particularly the parotids,
were exceedingly red and infiltrated with yellow serosity.
All the parts of the head would be rendered highly vascu-
lar from exertions, such as it is impossible that any one can
conceive without witnessing them : but no engorgement of
the salivary organs, beyond the surrounding parts, existed in
the two cases first alluded to, nor have they appeared in
those detailed by others. The whole muscular system is
discoloured and softened, the cellular texture being studded
with ecchymosis. Inflammation at the back part of the
mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, has likewise been
observed.

Rabies in the ox, sheep, and swine, produces also phrenitic
symptoms ; the harmless sheep is changed into so ferocious
an animal, that he has been known to butt at his own
shadow reflected by the sun on a door. In sheep, the
general appearances after death also resemble those usually
present in the horse : it must, however, be remembered,
that in no two cases of any animal whatever are they exactly
similar ; but in all, marks of violent and almost universal
vascukir action predominate. However, inflammation of
the glottis, epiglottis, and usually of the trachea, are almost
constant rabid post-mortem appearances. Inflammation of
the stomachs is not always present in the ruminants, though
seldom absent in the horse.

Treatment. — Our efforts must be principally directed to
a preventive plan ; for nothing we yet know of will arrest
the disease when it has actually appeared. When a bite

THE BITE OF VENOMOUS REPTILES. 427

has been received, first well wash the parts around the
wound with soap and water ; next wash the wound itself
with the same made strong, and well rubbed in. It would
be proper to shave the hair, that any other lesser punc-
ture might be detected. If the wound or wounds be deep
or penetrating, dissect it or them wholly out ; and if in the
neighbourhood of important parts, as the eye, &c., apply
afterwards the nitrate of silver. If it be where no danger is
to be apprehended, use the actual cautery, which, in one
only small puncture, may be found sufficient ; taking care to
force the cautery to the bottom of the wound in either case.
In a lacerated lesion dissect the whole superficies out, if
possible, and then apply caustic to the whole surface of the
excavation. If the complete destruction of the inoculated
part be effected, no fear need be entertained for the safety
of the animal ; but it is very difficult often to decide that
no other bite has been received. Under such circumstances,
any antidote at all, possessing but questionable efficacy,
should be also given. The following may be prepared, not
in the hope of its effecting a cure, but with the expectation
of its acting as a preventative : —

Box leaves (if possible, the tree box) eiglit ounces.

Rue eight ounces ,

Cut very fine, and boil in three pints of milk in a close
vessel for one hour ; then remove and strain off. Again
boil the ingredients another hour in three pints of water ;
when again strain off, and mix the liquors. Of this mix-
ture give a third every morning fasting. A coiv may take
the same quantity, and a sheep one-sixth of it.

THE BITE OF VENOMOUS REPTILES.

Many of these, in warmer climates, inflict fatal wounds
both on man and beast. In the East Indies, the cobra di
capello will occasion death in the largest animal in a few
minutes : fortunately we know none of the serpent tribe
whose bite or sting is poisonous, excepting the adder ;
which now and then wounds horses and oxen while grazing.
This accident is not often attended with fatal consequences ;
and country persons, as a remedial treatment, merely rub
the part with an onion, and force another, mashed, down

428 VEGETABLE POISONS.

the throat. In more serious cases the following will give
relief: —

Si)irit of hartshorn one ounce.

Olive oil a pint.

Mix.

— To a horse, or ox, give the whole ; to a sheep a third
may be given, and some of the same may be well rubbed
into the bitten place.

In case hartshorn cannot be procured, substitute carbo-
nate of soda two ounces, or a double or treble quantity of
any of the spirits, as brandy, rum, or gin. The stings of
hornets, wasps, and bees, may be successfully washed with
ammonia, or rubbed with the blue used by washerwomen,
which is often found to be beneficial.

VEGETABLE POISONS.

The stomach of the horse is sensible to the deleterious
effects of many narcotic and acrid stimulating vegetable
matters. Of some of these, however, it takes an immode-
rate dose to seriously disturb the functions ; of which opium
is an instance among others : while a moderate dose of the
prussic acid in the form of lauro cerasus kills him in a
short time. The taxus baccata, or yew tree, is poisonous
to horses when they feed upon them, stealing away life
speedily, without raising convulsion or commotion. Digi-
talis purpurea, or foxglove ; oenanthe crocata, or dropwort ;
phellandrium aquaticum, or water parsley ; nicotiana, or
tobacco, are deadly ; while conium maculatum, or hem-
lock, and cicuta viroso, or water hemlock, are reckoned
poisonous by some, and innocuous by others. Vegetable
narcotics appear to produce their effect, through the medium
of the stomach, on the sensorium : the stomach, however,
is found after death to bear small marks of being affected,
nor are more to be perceived in the head : the lungs are
seen in many cases very highly inflamed. The more acrid
vegetables leave very powerful marks of their ravages, by
deep inflammatory spots over the villous surfaces of the
stomach and intestines. In such cases we cannot hope to
effect the removal of the noxious matter by vomits in the
horse. We must therefore, in that animal, oppose the

MINERAL POISONS. 429

effects of such as are fatal by active purgatives, as the
croton nut ; and also by a liberal use of stimulants and
demulcents, as oil, butter, ammonia, brandy, and any
mineral or vegetable acid : but in such cases a caution is
necessary with regard to vinegar, which in doses of a pint
has destroyed ; half a pint may, however, in urgent cases,
be safely given, or two drachms of vitriol may be infused in
two quarts of water, and poured down the animal's throat.

MINERAL POISONS.

These act usually by tiieir caustic quality on the coats of
the stomach and bowels ; but the horse is an animal whose
power of resisting the effects of the more active mineral
agents is remarkable. There must be an inherent structural
capability in the alimentary canal of the animal to repel
their potency ; or how comes it, the mineral acids do not
exert their baneful influence, except in quantities which
bear no proportion to his general constitutional powers,
compared either with man or other animals ? Emetic
tartar to the amount of four ounces, creates no disturbance
in the horse ; and proportionate doses of crude antimony are
equally innocuous. The acetate of lead can also be borne
by the horse without distress in very large quantities :
and although arsenic, corrosive sublimate, and verdigris,
cannot be endured in any thing like equal doses, yet amounts
large enough to astonish the inexperienced are given every
day medicinally.

The symptoms which arise from the malicious adminis-
tration of the more common mineral acids do not materially
differ. The horse is first observed to be uneasy and impa-
tient, which ends in his lying down and rolling, or stamping
with his feet, as in gripes : he also looks round at his sides
in the same manner ; so that these cases might be readily
mistaken for colic, were it not for an appearance which
is almost constant, and is very rarely seen in spasmodic
colic. This is the presence of a viscid, ropy, or frothy
mucus, which continually escapes from the mouth, which is
singularly hot ; and the breath becomes foetid to the smell.
In some instances there are frequent attempts to stale and
dung : now and then bloody evacuations pass. Profuse
cold sweats break out ; the weakness becomes extreme ; the

430 LOCAL INFLAMMATION.

pulse is from the first quick and small ; then intermits, and
the animal sinks to rise no more.

Dissections of these cases do not always present appear-
ances commensurate with the violence of the symptoms.
In some, the whole alimentary canal has presented gan-
grenous appearances of great extent, when the sufferings
were not apparently intense, and when even hopes were
entertained of amendment. In others, spots of an inflam-
matory hue have been dispersed over the villous surfaces of
the stomach and intestines, at considerable distances from
each other ; and yet the sufferings during the disease were
extreme.

No treatment we can offer promises much, for a veil is
commonly drawn over the case ; and when otherwise, the
time usually lost before assistance is sought precludes much
hope. If an early application be made, our efforts should
be first directed to dilute the poisonous matter, and at the
same time to weaken its potency. Alkalies have been sup-
posed the best means to fulfil the second intention ; as an
ounce of the bicarbonate of potash, mixed with a quart of
gruel, frequently repeated ; that is, so fast as the animal
can be made to swallow it. Orfila, however, recommends
in these cases, particularly such as arise from corrosive
sublimate, entangling the poisonous matter in the white of
eggs. Back-rake, administer clysters, and with whatever
is meant for the stomach mingle large quantities of lauda-
num, one ounce to every quart.

LOCAL INFLAMMATION.

The principles and doctrine of inflammation have been so
fully treated of at the commencement, under the head of
General Inflammation, that we shall only now introduce the
practical inferences to be drawn therefrom, with such par-
ticular observations as immediately connect it with the
surgical part of our subject. A very attentive consideration
of these principles is necessary to a successful practice, as
many of the local diseases of the animal have their founda-
tion in inflammation.

Local inflammation is characterized by heat, redness,
tension, or swelling, and by tenderness in the part affected.
According as such inflammation is considerable or incon-

LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 431

siderable, the circulating system universally participates, or
it is not excited. The general circulation is also increased,
according to the circumstances connected with the struc-
ture and functions of the injury.

When the general circulation is increased, the horse is
said to have symptomatic fever ; but in every instance the
vessels of the inflamed part are in a state of distention.
The tumid state of the part in inflammation is a well known
symptom, and is dependent on the distended state of the
vessels themselves ; to which is sometimes superadded, an
effusion or pouring out of the contents of these vessels ; in
which, either the serous parts of the blood, or coagulable
lymph, are eff'used into the cellular tissues ; andwhich further
increases the tension, and embarrasses the recovery. Thus
the effects and terminations of local inflammation are varied
according to the nature of the part, the state of the patient,
and the violence of the attack. If the inflamed vessels be
enabled to reinstate themselves, and of recovering their
contractility, resolution takes place. But when this does
not occur, a more protracted process is usually necessary
to the cure. But the effusion, in healthy inflammation,
consequent upon incision, is formed of coagulable lymph,
which is the cement by whose means the breaches are
to be repaired. This joining together is called adhesion.
It' extensive injury has been done to the surrounding parts
by laceration, &c., then the same vessels, having organized
the layer of coagulable lymph, secrete a homogeneous fluid
called pus, which process is called suppuration. Sometimes,
however, the inflammation is torpid, when, instead of pus,
a substance like to white of egg is secreted. This may, or
may not, have an offensive smell. Absorption likewise
ensues ; and whereas suppuration repairs the loss of sub-
stance, a further diminution of it now takes place. Small
holes are formed upon the surface, generally having ragged
edges ; these holes are termed ulcers, and the process
by which they are established ulceration. Occasions will,
however, occur, when the inflammatory action is inordi-
nately violent, and the reparative agency very dormant : in
which states, the inflammatory congestion may rupture the
vessels, and destroy them, and the effused blood putrifying

432 LOCAL INFLAMMATION.

in and around them, sphacelus, or mortification, is said to
have come on.

The treatment of local inflammation must be varied ac-
cording as the tendency to these different kinds of termina-
tion exists ; when it Hes in our choice, there are but few
instances in w^hich we would not prefer it to adhere.
When any injury, attended with inflammation, occurs, the
first thing to be done is to quiet the system, and not to
imagine the rest of an hour or two, or even of a day or two,
can remove the shock which has excited all the animal
fear by endangering life. This end is far better accom-
plished by a cheering and sustaining drink, than by the
bleeding, purging, &c. formerly in fashion ; which, by fur-
ther lowering the body, increased or deepened the effect it
was desired to remove. In these cases, therefore, give
sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each one ounce, cold
water one pint, and repeated at intervals of an hour, until
the horse is perfectly restored. Bleeding, when imperative,
is better performed locally, as we thereby create a greater
effect, with less cost to the system. When blood cannot
be drawn from the immediate part, still it is often practi-
cable to open a vein in the neighbourhood of it, which
does return the blood to the heart, from the individual
part involved. Topical applications are among our most
active agents in dispelling local inflammations. In inflam-
mations, accompanied with much heat, the application of
cold promotes resolution. With the coldest water mix
spirits of wine, by which means constant evaporation will
still lower decrease the temperature ; or a more cold
application may be formed from the muriate of ammonia
w^ith vinegar. As cold proves itself an active agent in
some local inflammations, so also heat, or rather warmth,
in many other cases, proves no less so. It is in vain to
theorize on the seeming incongruity of curing the same
disease by two such opposites : the facts are so, and all the
theoretic arguments in the w^orld cannot overturn them.
In many cases, therefore, we reap the most decided advan-
tages from the use of warmth, in the form of poultices or
fomentations ; which appear to act by unloading the ves-
sels of the part ; but as actual heat increases inflammatory

LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 433

action, and therefore promotes other termination than reso-
lution, we should be careful to avoid applying either of
these means too hot. On the other hand, as in these im-
mediate instances cold would prove injurious, so we should
be careful in the use of fomentations, that we do not leave
the part afterwards wet and exposed, otherwise cold will be
generated by evaporation. Fo'r these reasons a moderately
warm poultice frequently applied becomes, in many cases,
one of the best applications in promoting resolution ; and
perhaps it is peculiarly eligible when the inflammation is
some way removed from the surface, as it tends to unload
the vessels near the part. When the inflammation is
situated still deeper, we frequently use rubefacients or
actual blisters, vv'hich create an artificial metastasis. But
when, notwithstanding all our efforts, the tension, heat,
and tenderness of the part increase, suppuration generally
takes place.

When suppuration becomes unavoidable, we should pro-
mote it. If the inflammation has been confined to a mucous
surface, we may expect suppuration to take place without
trouble ; these surfaces soon throwing out pus, but with
great expense to the constitution, as the consequent debility
too surely proves. If the inflammation be situated within
the cellular membrane, under the integuments, or near the
muscles, &c. &c., the symptoms will run higher before pus
is emitted, but they will also sooner subside. It must be
our care then to avoid depleting the system, when we desire
suppuration ; on the contrary, we must feed high, and
nourish the body by every means in our power ; a mode-
rate heat should be constantly applied to the part by
means of warm poultices. Should the suppuration be deep
seated, or when it becomes prudent to hasten the matura-
tion, turpentine may be added to the poultices, which
applications should be frequently renewed ; or even blisters
may be applied. Almost constant fomentation might pos-
sibly be better, as renewing the heat oftener : but in these
cases the fomentation is, however, too frequently discon-
tinued, the part being left wet, and suffered to grow cold.

Abscess. — An abscess differs from suppuration, inasmuch
as the pus secreted is all poured into a closed sac, and there
retained till the bag is either opened with a knife, or bursts

Ff

434 LOCAL INFLAMMATION.

of itself. In some cases, neither of the before-mentioned
terminations ensue , and then the pus from being confined,
and exposed to the internal heat of the body, becomes in-
spissated, being more or less hard, varying from the density
of a stone to that of cream cheese. When an abscess is
forming, it occasions great constitutional disturbance. The
pulse throbs ; the pain is shooting ; the spirits are dejected ;
the head aches ; and the whole appearance is expressive of
extreme wretchedness. Give the horse, then, all the corn
he will eat, beans, linseed, roots, or any thing he may pre-
fer. Horn down a couple of pots of porter daily ; and
give every night and morning one of the sulphuric ether
drinks previously alluded to. So soon as the abscess
comes to the surface, and one part feels softer, or is more
prominent than another, open the place with a sharp
pointed knife : insert it gently into the soft or prominent
part, and when all resistance is overcome, we may be cer-
tain the sides of the sac are cut through ; then, with a bold
sweep of the knife, make a long or short incision from
within outwards, as you may have before resolved upon.
Occasionally the abscess is deep-seated, and we are asked
to look at a tumour, all the active stages of which have
subsided. It then requires much consideration, very great
nicety of touch, and a sharp eye, to determine whether the
swelling contain pus or not. Perhaps an exploring needle
is, in these cases, the best ; and if this should after
being inserted, be drawn forth coated with pus, the operator
need no longer hesitate about opening it. Sometimes,
when the pus is released from these deep-seated tumours,
the stench declares it has been confined so long as to
become absolutely putrid.

Ploughing. — This is the process, by means of which
nature casts off parts whose vitality, in consequence of
bruises, gangrene, &c. is lost. It takes place similar to
suppuration. The healthy part inflames, casts out a thin
layer of lymph between the living and the dead portions of
the body. Vessels penetrate this lymph. They raise its
surface into little pimples called granulations ; which are very
vascular, bleeding on the slightest touch, and highly sen-
sitive, scarcely bearing to be looked at. The granulations
secrete pus, and by this means the dead part is cast off; or

LOCAL INFLAMMATION. 435

the connexion between the body and the substance to be
sloughed away is destroyed, through the interposition of a
liquid. This process is one of extreme suffering. It is
effected at a great expenditure of nervous energy ; but the
tranquillity which ensues is great, and enables the animal
to recover from the exhaustion.

Gangrene. — When debility to a great degree takes place,
inflammation falls into gangrene. If the parts near to
the seat of inflammation likewise are weak, they usu-
ally become gangrenous also ; but if they are strong, the
edges assume a deep-red appearance, pus is secreted, and
by this means a separation of the dead from the living
takes place. It is, therefore, our duty to prevent this ex-
tension of gangrene to the sound part, and to promote the
removal of all dead portions from the living body. To
effect this, we must attend to the system generally ; for upon
a salutary effect on the constitution at large we are to
depend upon preventing its extension ; particularly if the
inflammation be extensive or deep-seated. Constitutional
remedies are peculiarly available, because the mortified parts
are already dead, and no topical applications can restore
them : the constitutional means of this nature are such as
tend to strengthen arterial action, as it yet remains exhausted
or disturbed. These ends are best fulfilled by drinks com-
posed of sulphuric ether and laudanum, an ounce of each,
the liquor ammonite acetatis six ounces, and cold water one
pint, frequently repeated. If the debility be already ex-
treme, we must employ more active tonics, as bark, the
chlorides, camphor ; in conjunction with the foregoing, and
porter, ale, or gruel, as beverages. With regard to medici-
nal tonics and cordials, they should be frequently adminis-
tered, that their action may be uniform and permanent.
Local applications are to be made use of also ; not with a
view to restore the parts already dead, but to prevent the
spreading of the evil, and to assist the separation of the
sound from the unsound. The fermenting poultice, here-
after to be explained, is a useful application ; and occasion-
ally the parts may be washed with the chloride of zinc.
Scarifications over structures, in a state of gangrene, may be
freely made, but they must be circumscribed by the extent
of the diseased surface ; and they may be more than skm

Ff2

436 WOUNDS.

deep. We shall now proceed to apply these doctrines to a
consideration of the several subjects of wounds, ulcers,
tumours, inflammatory, indurated, and encysted ; and to that
inflammation, both healthy and diseased, which affects the
bones.

CHAPTER XI.

' WOUNDS.

A WOUND is a division of some of the parts of the body ;
and as wounds frequently occur to all the animals, it be-
comes a matter of great importance for the veterinarian to
be equal to the management of them. A wound in any of
the animals subject to our care, should be treated accord-
ing to the nature of the injury, and the constitution of the
creature. When a body is hurt, it undergoes several states
before the part is again made whole : hemorrhage first
takes place, which if very considerable must be immediately
attended to. It is, however, to be remembered, that the
vital resources are so much greater in the horse, that the
division of an artery which in the human being would re-
quire pressure to arrest it, in the horse may be allowed to
remain unattended ; and that when nothing but taking up
a huQian artery can secure life, moderate pressure will be
sufficient in veterinary practice. When, however, a very
large artery is divided, a ligature of fine strong silk, or
small twine, should be passed around it. The next circum-
stance to attend to is, the removal of any extraneous matter
which may have got into the w^ound ; and if this can be
done without washing the cavity, the chances of early union
will be increased. But when dirt, dust, &c. render cleansing
of the injury absolutely necessary, tepid water is all that
is requisite. Powerfully stimulating applications are hurt-
ful, and always prevent an immediate union. We, on
the contrary, hope to gain a prompt junction by the
medium of the coagulable part of the serum which is poured
out in these cases ; and which junction is called union hy
the first intention. Modern surgery defines it to be brought
about by the vessels of both sides of the wound inosculating
with each other : the divided vessels, having first poured

WOUNDS. 437

forth their adhesive coagula, prolong themselves through
the extravasated matter by their own vitality ; the adhesive
fluid gluing the surfaces, as the inosculating vessels unite.
Some veterinarians deny that this union ever takes place in
the horse ; which opinion is certainly erroneous. Although
the force of the arterial circulation in the horse usually
hurries on the suppurative process, yet it is more owing to
the difficulty arising from his restlessness, than to any con-
stitutional peculiarity, that primary union does not oftener
happen. It is, therefore, the duty of every veterinary prac-
titioner to endeavour to promote the adhesive union by a
perfect adaptation of the sides of the wound together, and
by a careful retention of them in this situation.

Sutures are stitches made in a wound with needles, armed
with either silk, cotton, thread, worsted, fine tape, or zinc
wire ; the silk, cotton, or thread, are usually many times
doubled, that they may not cut the parts, and are also waxed
to increase their tenacity. There used to be many kinds of
sutures, but modern surgery has reduced the number to
three ; at least, the interrupted, the twisted, and the con-
tinued, are those principally in use. The interrupted suture
is nothing more than an indefinite number of distinct loops,
the ends of the thread being tied, or of the wire twisted,
together. For deep wounds, where the substance of the
integuments is to be brought into apposition, the needles
used are curved, with their bodies somewhat flattened ;
which form best adapts itself to penetrating the depth of
the divided edges in injuries of this kind. The lips of
the wound having been cleansed from clots of blood, or any
extraneous matter, should be carefully brought together in
exact apposition : but unless there be danger of dirt, or
other extraneous substance intervening, much washing or
wetting the part had better be avoided. The wound, more-
over, had better be allowed to remain open until all bleeding
has ceased, and the sides have become sticky. The needle
properly armed, is now to be carried from without inward,
to a sufficient depth to prevent the ligature tearing away the
flesh ; when having penetrated one lip carry the needle
through the other, from within outward. Cut it away and
leave it untied ; again thread or arm the needle, and if
required, repeat the operation in the same manner for

438 WOUNDS.

each stitch ; the distances of which from one another must be
regulated by circumstances, as the depth of the wound, its
being exposed to much or httle motion, &c. It is, however,
seldom advisable to put them nearer than an inch to each
other ; but oftener an inch and a half or two inches is left
between them. Having inserted as many as are requisite to
sustain the parts in their just position, begin to tie each
ligature, an assistant carefully holding the edges of the wound
together ; bearing in mind that, if the wound be considera-
ble, it is prudent to fasten the centre stitches first. The
disposition that is observed to ulceration in the horse and
other quadrupeds, greatly lessens the advantages which are
often derived from sutures. It is very seldom that the
veterinarian can depend on any suture remaining beyond the
third or fourth day, after which time it ulcerates out ;
more particularly where it has been drawn too tight.

Wherever the uniformity of the part will allow of it a
bandage may be applied, and the bandage called the uniting
is the best; this consists of a long roller having two heads,
by which means the central part can be first applied to the
portion of the body opposite to the wound ; by then draw-
ing each roll forward, the divided edges arc brought into
contact by the pressure, which will retain them there. The
conical form of some parts of the extremities will prevent
the permanent application of any bandage, unless retained
in its situation by supporting ends passed over the neck in
the fore, and over the loins for the hinder legs. The
twisted suture is not frequently applicable to the horse. It
is conceived, however, that in wounds of the eyelids, lips,
nostrils, &c., it may be advantageously employed. The
continued suture, though still used by many older surgeons,
is certainly superseded by the interrupted, which is fully
equal to producing adhesion in the intestines and other thin
membranous cavities. All straight surgical needles are
made with triangular cutting edges, which greatly assist
their entrance into the substance of a wound, particularly of
membranous parts. It still, however, remains a doubt,
whether the irritation occasioned by the stitches does not
sometimes rather retard than promote the adhesive union :
and yet it is principally as a promoter of this union that
they are advisable; they being seldom, on account of the

WOUNDS. 439

ulcerative process, retained beyond the fifth day ; at which
time the inosculation of vessels not being firm, the part
usually again divides, and must then be filled up by granu-
lations : neither is it unusual for the irritation of the wound
to occasion the horse to bite them out even before their fair
time has expired, unless both horse and wound be very care-
fully secured. It is also necessary to remark, that where
any foreign body has been incautiously allowed to remain
within a wound, the irritation becomes so great that it is
prudent to divide the stitches, which will sometimes give
immediate relief; and the same also takes place when the
mere inflammation of the part runs high. Here, therefore,
are evils and benefits mixed up, the selection of which
must depend on the nature of the case.

The adhesive injiammation certainly does in some cases
appear to be promoted by the judicious use of sutures : in
all wounds it is clearly our duty to attempt the union, by an
approximation of the divided parts ; we must then be
guided by circumstances as to the best method of retaining
them so applied. It is, however, proper to remark, that
until this union be despaired of, no moist applications should
be employed.

Suppurative process. — When the adhesive union cannot
be brought about, the injured part tumefies, becomes hard,
painful, -and tender. Lymph is thrown out ; into this
lymph vessels shoot ; the lymph and the vessels assume
the form of nipples, being very minute, and studded all
over the surface : these nipples are called granulations ; the
vessels within them secrete pus ; the pus being a bland
fluid covers and protects the granulations, which gradually
grow until the parts are united, or any cavity the wound
may have formed is filled up ; the growth of the granula-
tions having reached the surface, cicatrization of the part
takes place. Cicatrization is the process of joining divided
parts. True skin is never reproduced ; but after the granu-
lations have united they lose their vascularity, and are con-
verted into cellular tissue. All scars are nothing more
than skin united by cellular tissue ; and when the skin sur-
rounding a wound is puckered, it is because the cellular
tissue contracting draws up the surrounding integuments.

440 WOUNDS.

The cicatrix also becomes hard and Hgamentous when fully-
formed, though at first it is thin, very vascular, and highly
sensitive. The skin, however, once destroyed, hair is never
reproduced ; although the scar contracting with time, may
draw the separated parts close together, and thus conceal
the injury. In the process of forming granulations, the
wound should be kept from exposure. Many applications
are supposed to promote a formation of granulations ; but
all of these are quite unnecessary. In other cases luxuriant
granulations, as they are termed, shoot up ; when these little
bodies rise above the surface, they demand the use of some
substance which can reduce their exuberant height. The
wound will never heal while they remain so high ; on the
contrary, it frequently enlarges : for the pressure the luxu-
riant granulations make on the edges produces an absorption
of the healthy parts, and thus increases the surface of the
sore. This luxuriance must, therefore, be kept down by
mild escharotics. The firing-iron is often applied. By the
constant use, however, of chloride of zinc and water, of the
strength of one grain to the ounce, healthy growth is pro-
moted, and all luxuriant granulations effectually checked.
The above simple and costless application is all the lotion
that every form of wound requires.

It is the practice of many farriers to plug every wound
with something of the nature of a tent, under an idea of
keeping it properly open ; by which the healthy processes of
nature are frustrated, and simple wounds are rendered com-
plicated and tedious, by this introduction of tow, sponge,
candle, &c. &c. In this way pus, being confined, becomes
unhealthy, and burrows ; sinuses form, and the edges of the
wound, l3y being in constant contact with foreign bodies,
become hardened, callous, and are rendered incapable of
union until they are removed by the knife. The only cir-
cumstances that can justify the use of tents are, where a very
deep wound exists, with a very small orifice ; in which case
it is certainly not prudent to permit the external opening to
heal until the granulations have filled the cavity from the
bottom ; likewise when any extraneous body is suspected to
be within a wound, as thorns, splinters, gravel, &c. ; or when
bone has been injured ; in which last case exfoliation being

WOUNDS. 441

slow, if the muscular parts healed up, the cast- off bone
would become a foreign body, and occasion continued irri-
tation, with a succession of abscesses.

WOUNDS OF PARTICULAR PARTS.

Wounds of the head should be treated according to the
part they happen in : the first step is to ascertain whether
any injury has been done to the bones underneath ; which, if
found to be broken, must be treated according to the direc-
tions given under the head of Fractures. When any part of
the ear is much lacerated, it may be advisable to draw the
divided edges together with fine sutures, and to support the
tube internally by means of pasteboard moulded to the shape.
When, from accident, either the parotid or other salivary
glands become wounded, every attempt should be made to
produce a speedy union, or the continued flow of saliva will
occasion a fistulous sore. — (See Salivary Fistula, chapter
XIII.) In wounds of the eye, or of the eyelids, the parts
should be replaced as nicely as possible, so that their
motions may not be impeded : in such cases, it is evident
no irritating application ought to be used. In divisions of
the eyelid, neat small stitches of the interrupted suture may
be inserted near together, and the horse secured from rub-
bing, by placing him in a box or barn, with his head tied to
a beam in the ceiling, at the usual height ; by which means
he cannot rub the wound with his knee or his hind leg, nor
will there be any rack or manger to rub against : he should
also have a cradle constantly on his neck. We have, in one
or two instances of wounded eyelids, used the twisted suture
with success. In wounds of the nose, care should be taken
to remove the bones, if any be broken quite off, or entirely
separated from the adjacent structures ; to retain the parts
in their situations, there may be put any firm substance up
the nostril well guarded with soft tow or rag.

Wounds of the neck. — When the ligamentum nuchae be-
comes wounded, a depending orifice should be immediately
made, and the wound dressed with the lotion of chloride of
zinc previously recommended, by which sinuses may be pre-
vented forming. The integuments of the neck are not
unfavourably situated for the insertion of interrupted sutures ;

442 WOUNDS.

but to prevent their being rubbed out, a neck cradle should
be worn, and the horse's head should be racked up to the
manger day and night. When it is necessary to perform
operations on the neck, by dilating an already existing
wound, the longitudinal direction of the muscular ' fibres
should direct the section, and due regard should also be paid
to the surrounding nerves and bloodvessels.

Wounds of the chest, when they take place in the muscular
and integumental parts of the chest, must be treated like
other external wounds. When the lungs are punctured,
life will, in the majority of instances, be sacrificed ; for
should the hsemorrhage not destroy, fatal inflammation will
follow. These wounds are distinguished by the air rushing
out at the orifice, and by the scarlet hue of the haemor-
rhage.

Ruptured diaphragm. — A lesion of this important mus-
cular septum is a more frequent termination of the life of
many horses than is supposed. Death, of course, is a
speedy and inevitable consequence.

Wounds of the abdomen. — These, when external, must be
treated after the manner of wounds in general ; observing
whether the injury be a puncture of the cavity ; that
none of the viscera are wounded, and no protrusion occurs ;
when no means are more likely to shut up the opening
effectually than the twisted suture. But when the cavity
has been more deeply penetrated, and there is reason to
fear that some viscus is injured, the treatment must conse-
quently be rendered more complex, and the danger propor-
tionate : when such a wound has happened, the extent of it
should be carefully examined, that we may learn what
viscera are likely to be injured ; in which examination we
shall be aided much by a previous knowledge of the dif-
ferent regions, and the viscera that occupy them. If any
of these be protruded, carefully replace them ; unless they
should have become mortified, in which case the animal
had better be slain. It has been recommended, in case the
external wound be large, to stitch the intestine to it, in
preference to letting it float loose in the abdomen, which,
as will be again noticed, particular circumstances may ren-
der eligible. The external wound may be drawn together

WOUNDS. 443

by sutures ; but if it should be large, more dependence is to
be placed on a firm supporting bandage. For forty-eight
hours offer neither food nor drink ; then only thick gruel
in small quantities ; and if the wound be in the small
intestines, apply wet cloths around the body instead of
drink, and nutritious clysters instead of food by the mouth.
Sometimes, from very large openings made in the abdomen
by staking, or from the gores of oxen, there follows an ex-
tensive protrusion of parts, which will often require much
force and more dexterity to return. There has been placed
close to the wound a very firm bandage already drawn
moderately tight ; then the parts have been replaced with
the fingers under it, gradually drawing the bandage on-
wards as they were returned : the integuments should, in
such case, be carefully and firmly sewn up ; an adhesive
plaister placed over all, and permanent pressure kept up
by means of a strong bandage. It sometimes happens, that
with all the efforts we can make, the parts cannot be
returned ; in which case, what is to be done ? If the
bowels protrude, and the return is totally impracticable
from flatus, is it prudent to minutely puncture them ? Many
prefer this to any attempts at enlarging a very small abdo-
minal opening, as is too frequently done ; but which almost
always gives passage to a still larger quantity of intestines,
and which no future efforts can replace. The return must
be attempted by means of the puncture ; or by the fingers
of one hand gently introducing portions of the intestines
within one side of the opening, while the other hand is
employed in restraining the parts forced inward ; an assistant
supporting and gently pressing on the remainder : all this
is best done with the animal cast and placed on his back.
Having returned it, if the opening be a defined one, it
should be stitched up with the continued suture. If omen-
tum has protruded, by all means excise it if discoloured
from strangulation ; and do the same when it is too tumid
to return. In all such cases it is evident that a well-
informed practitioner is left greatly to his own resources :
but the knowledge that the animal must die without assist-
ance, will embolden his practice ; and the recollection that
greater liberties may be taken in brute than in human

444 WOUNDS.

surgery, will give a wider field to his exertions, and increase
his chances of success.

WOUNDS OF ARTICULAR AND BURSAL CAVITIES,

The ruinous effects of these wounds to horses render a
due knowledge of the nature of the parts, the consequences
that ensue from injuries, and the curative means most
likely to obviate their effects, imperative on every veterina-
rian. Neither, in the whole round of the art, is there a
subject that will afford a more striking display between the
well-informed practitioner and the ignorant pretender ;
which has been well exemplified by a comparison between
the recovery accomplished by mild treatment, compared
with those sad results which often accompany the oppo-
site sort of measures. The anatomical detail is replete with
notices of vascular secreting membranes which pour fluids
on surfaces, or into sacs, appropriate to receive them. The
membranes which line the cavities of joints and of the
bursse mucosae thus secrete an albuminous liquid or glair,
which is admirably formed to resist the effects of friction.
To secrete this liquid in constant and due quantities, is the
function of these membranes, which are not formed to
endure the contact of atmosphere ; we cannot, therefore, be
surprised at the great irritation which occurs, on so sensi-
tive a vascular surface being exposed to the action of the
external air ; and when to this we add the effects of attri-
tion between the ends of the bones, or between the sides of
the tendons and their sheaths, we recognize in the divi-
sion sufficient cause for those violent symptoms which
are seen to accompany open joints, punctured hocks, or
even the accidental or purposed opening of a bursal capsule,
or wind-gall as it is termed. If the simple effects of attri-
tion, and the exposure of the secreting surface which
lines these cavities, is of itself sufficient to create a sympto-
matic fever that will endanger life, or to engender an irrita-
tion sufficient to produce tetanus, how much more are these
consequences to be dreaded, when to the effects of the acci-
dent are added the injection of the most acrid substances
within a cavity already inflamed by exposure ; and yet this
was the practice formerly, and the event was usually accom-

WOUNDS. 445

panied either by a train of fatal consequences, or at best
there followed a complete anchylosed joint.

The articular cavities most subject to exposure are those
of the scapula with the humerus or shoulder joint ; of the
knee ; of the pasterns, before and behind ; of the stifle ;
and of the hock ; of all which the knee is the most liable to
this injury. Of the hursce mucosa;, poll-evil sometimes
opens important ones ; the semi-cartilaginous cap of the
flexor brachii, which runs over the point of the shoulder,
furnishes a bursae mucosae, which, when exposed, is apt to be
mistaken for an opening into the shoulder joint. The elbow
presents others also : a considerable one is situated behind
the knee, and lesser ones are found belonging to the various
ligaments and tendons which surround the joint ; an open-
ing into these is sometimes mistaken for one made into
the great articular cavity. The thecal sheaths of the flexor
tendons or back sinews are bursal sacs ; large ones furnish
the pasterns before and behind, whose dilatations are called
windgalls. We likewise find bursse in the stifle : the point
of the hock presents one sufliciently known, as being the
seat of a dilatation called capped-hock, and around this
joint, as around the knee, individual bursal cavities exist,
through which the tendons run.

The symptoms, progress; and the consequences of open-
ings into these cavities as regards all of them are nearly the
same ; they difler only in degree : the course and the
eflfects are likely to vary according to circumstances, A
general view shall be taken of the whole, and then parti-
cular cases will be separately noticed. An opening is made
into one of these cavities by a fall, by a blow, or stab, or
puncture ; and the injury appears in the form of an incised
or lacerated wound, then inflammation taking place at first
increases the synovial secretion. Its presence is detected
by the glairy white-of-egg-like fluid, mingled with the ex-
uding moisture. The synovia will continue to flow, until
the adhesive inflammation starts up, which will form a
lasting plug to the orifice. Or otherwise, the intensity of
the inflammatory process will convert the synovial secretion
into one, first thinner, next bloody and partly purulent ; '
until the synovial surface is destroyed, or the articular

446 WOUNDS.

cartilages ai^e absorbed ; the denuded bones inflame, and
ossific deposit forms a complete anchylosis ; or the horse
sinks previously by the symptomatic disturbance in the
system generally.

Treatment. — When an accident has laid open an articular
or a bursal cavity, the grand indication of cure is to close
the opening made, which by stopping the synovial discharge,
will arrest the morbid inflammatory action. We learn,
therefore, that in these cases we may regard inflammation
as our most dreaded foe ; but it is equally certain, that we
must view it also in the light of our best friend, and most
active agent ; and that if it constitutes the disease, it is
equally necessary to the cure. It frequently happens that
we are not called in until several days after these accidents ;
and we find the part excessively tumefied, hot, hard, and
painful in the extreme ; accompanied, probably, with a
high degree of sympathetic fever. In such a case we de-
spair of success. If the swelling of the surrounding parts
be great, we may at all times decline to undertake the treat-
ment, for such a sign denotes that other neighbouring
structures are involved, and we no longer have a simple
open joint to deal with.

When open joints occurred, the treatment was to employ
the heated iron, various burning substances, or diflerent
obstructions, as repeated folds of brown paper, several plais-
ters, and Indian rubber. The pain occasioned by these
measures was such as no man ought to inflict for double
the price of any horse ; since if his humanity were purchase-
able at such an amount only, the poor animal would escape.
All these abominations the following recommendations dis-
pense with. Let us suppose a very bad case. A horse
falls on a rough road, with a very heavy rider. The animal
not only opens the joint, but extremely bruises the knee.
This is a very serious injury. What is to be done ? Lead
the horse to some stable as quickly, but as gently as pos-
sible. When he is there, procure a pailful of clean tepid,
or warm water, and a soft sponge. With these carefully
dab the knees. Do not stroke them down, or try to wipe
them dry, but be content to dab a pailful over the knees,
and leave the drying to nature. Then take two ounces of

WOUNDS. 447

tincture of arnica, and mix it with a quart of water. Order
the horse's head to be tied up for the entire time previous
to the application of the shngs, and a groom to set up all
night. The groom is to pour out a portion of the diluted
tincture, to soak it up with the sponge, and to squeeze out
the sponge above the knee, allowing the liquid by the force
of gravity to find its way to the injured surface. This he
is to repeat every half hour, night and day. The horse, on
the evening of the injury, is to take half a drachm of calo-
mel, shaken upon the tongue, followed by a drink com-
posed of sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each one ounce,
with one pint of water. This draught is to be repeated
night and morning, so long as the constitution exhibits any
disturbance.

About the fourth day the slings are to be applied. The
poor horse with open joints will be heartily tired of sup-
porting his body so long upon legs, the knees of which are
exposed to the air. He will, therefore, take very kindly to
the slings, and throw his weight into them almost so soon
as they are securely hung. With the slings, the lotion is
to be changed for one composed of chloride of zinc two
scruples, water a quart, which is to be appHed exactly in
the same manner as the diluted tincture of arnica, only
there is no longer any necessity for the groom to sit up
with the animal.

The bruised parts fall out, or slough out, from the fourth
to the sixth day, and the solution of chloride of zinc effec-
tually stays the stench which accompanies that process.
As the lotion flows down it mingles with the synovia, which
begins to pour out in earnest as the inflammation mounts
upward. When the slough is removed, the chloride of zinc
causes the albuminous particles of the synovia to coagulate.
The coagulum effectually prevents the lotion entering the
joint, and excludes the atmospheric air. The coagulated
synovia sometimes accumulates to the size of a large apple ;
but to whatever magnitude it attains, it must not be re-
moved. It must be protected by every means in the
power of the surgeon, for the longer it continues to cover
the joint the better. Beneath it the healing process actively
goes forward, and by the end of a month or six weeks the

448 WOUNDS.

wound will be closed. The joint will also be of the natural
size, and if no skin has been destroyed the injury will be
difficult to detect.

The clothing must be suited to the weather, so as to
keep the horse warm, without making the animal hot.
The food is to consist of the most supporting or nutritive
kind. The water is to be whitened, and to be likewise
chilled. The main obstacle, however, consists in getting
the lotion applied so often as is directed. It should, never-
theless, be remembered, that every thing depends upon the
wound being kept continually wet. The proprietor, or some
one on whom he can depend, should look into the stable
frequently, to ascertain that the groom does his duty. No
inattention to this point can be displayed without the
wound itself indicating the circumstance. If the part should
remain stationary for two or three days in succession, if
luxuriant granulations should at any time sprout, or if
the knee should enlarge during treatment, be certain of
neglect.

It is as well in these cases to fasten the horse so far away
from the manger, that he cannot hurt his knee by knocking
the part against the w^ooden trough. The food can be put
in a basket, supported upon a light framework, which can
be placed before the horse at feeding time, and withdrawn
afterwards. A pail of w^ater can be always ready upon one
side, towards which the animal can turn his head, but
against which he cannot hit the open joint. The slings
may be removed in about a month, but no exercise must
be permitted until the wound be perfectly closed.

If the skin be injured, a large scar may show, denuded
of hair. However, let it alone. As time progi^esses, the
cicatrix will contract. This will draw the divided edges
closer together ; and many a bare place upon the knees,
which has appeared large when the surgeon left the animal,
has, after the expiration of a few weeks, become almost
imperceptible.

THE PENETRATED KNEE JOINT PARTICULARLY.

There are some practical remarks connected with this
subject which require to be noticed, independently of the

WOUNDS. 449

same accident to other articular cavities. The knee joint is
peculiarly liable to very extensive laceration, from the hard
state of our roads, and the exertions we put the horse to ;
whose tired limbs, making often a feeble effort to recover
the effects of a trip, bring him on one or both knees with
a violence proportioned to the impetus of the speed he was
moving at, the weight of the rider, and the nature of the
ground he comes in contact with. Whenever a practitioner
is called to a horse with a broken knee or knees, it is a
natural supposition he is applied to for one of two pur-
poses,— either to ascertain the state of the case, or other-
wise at once to set about a cure.

If called in soon after the accident, we must commence
the treatment by very carefully dabbing away any grit, dirt,
or other matter which would occasion future irritation. If
no synovia appears on the surface, it is more prudent to
avoid probing : indeed, in our own opinion, it is better to
do this under every circumstance. The synovia being de-
tected, no probing can be necessary, as the important fact
of a serious injury having happened is ascertained. With
regard to curiosity, a surgeon has no business with any
such meddling impulse. The welfare of his patient should
be his single thought, and experience should tell him the
dimensions, depth, or magnitude of the wound, are not at
first to be ascertained. Such knowledge is not to be ac-
quired until the slough has taken place. For the present,
he sees synovia, and that should be sufficient. The result
of his practice ought to have apprised him, that it is of
little consequence to the termination, whether the knee, or
one of the bursal sheaths, proper to the tendons crossing
the joint itself, be opened. The one case is as difficult to
cure, and will as probably end in death as the other. The
irritation which ensues upon both injuries is the same in
these cases. The wound is as like to involve neighbouring
structures, and the consequences are in every respect simi-
lar. Therefore, save for the gratification of curiosity, it
does not matter whence the syno^na issues ; and all probing
can therefore do no good, ascertain no material fact, and
often does vast harm, by starting up irritation ; also breaking
down delicate parts, which, if left to themselves, might still
further unite.

450 WOUNDS.

With respect to concealing the after blemish, no power
of earth can make the hair grow on a scar. It is not skin,
and it cannot be covered with the appendage only to be
seen upon true skin. But the cicatrix will with time be-
come less. Often the wound, which on first healing ap-
pears rather large, in the course of three months will be all
but imperceptible. Any application of blisters, be they
mild or strong, can but increase the blemish it is their
intention to remove. Let the scar alone. If you have
thrown down a horse, no veterinary surgeon can assure he
shall afterwards stand upon perfect limbs. You must,
therefore, take the consequences without complaint, and be
grateful that you have, in the eflfects of time, some hope
left, when science has abandoned you.

BROKEN KNEES WITHOUT PENETRATION OF THE ARTICULAR

CAVITY.

Occasionally we find that what, in popular language, has
been called broken knees, turns out to be a simple contu-
sion ; in which case tumefaction, heat, and tenderness
ensue, and which inattention, undue exercise, or heating
applications, may force into permanent thickening of the
part, with blemish and injury to the motion ; whereas a
little rest, with fomentation, will complete the cure. When
laceration has taken place without injury to the cavity of
the joint, the wound having been washed, bring the edges of
the integument as closely together as possible by strips of
adhesive plaister, as already directed ; or if the w^ound be
extensive, it would be well to sling the horse. A cure
by the first intention or adhesive process can only be hoped
for in this way. If heat and tumefaction come on, use the
lotion composed of arnica and water, of the strength di-
rected in the previous case ; and, after applying the arnica
and water night and day for forty-eight hours, if the
skin be broken, exchange the lotion for one composed of
chloride of zinc and water, which will be found in the suc-
ceeding paragraph to that which contains the fomentation
just referred to ; in this way a cure may often be esta-
blished, without injury to motion or blemish to the animal.

WOUNDS. 451

WOUNDS OF THE ARTERIES.

An acquaintance with the course of the large arteries is
essentially necessary to every veterinary practitioner, by
having which he may avoid them in operations ; or, when
an accident has occurred, this sort of knowledge will enable
him to stop the divided trunk. By the elasticity of the
external tunic, the excised ends of moderate arteries, are in
the horse attended with no danger ; the extremities re-
tract within the cellular tissue, and close their orifices.
We make use of this knowledge in our surgery, by treating
many haemorrhages, that have occurred from a partial
division of a vessel, by separating the whole, which stops
the flow. Hcemorrhages are, therefore, stopped by a com-
plete division of a moderate vessel ; by the application of
cold ; by styptics ; by compression ; by the firing iron ; or
by ligature. Styptics, in their usual acceptation, are seldom
applicable in the horse ; they act by mixing with the blood,
and with it either form a fine paste, or they coagulate the
blood within the vessels. Compression is proper when the
vessels cannot be easily got at, and may be made with a
piece of sponge, or a pledget of any other kind, pressed im-
mediately on the vessel. In docking, nicking, and some-
times in wounds of the legs, compression may be occasion-
ally applied with advantage. Firing was once a favourite
practice ; but is now almost in disuse. The budding iron is
only of material service in staying the blood from small
vessels, and is principally applied in veterinary practice
after docking, and during castration. In deep-seated wounds
the hot iron cannot be of any utility ; bat the vessel must
be sought for with a tenaculum or hook-like instrument,
which being applied to the end of an artery, draws it out
sufficiently to permit a double thread to be passed round
it : or when it cannot be got at in this way, some of the
surrounding substance should be included within the scoop
of a curved needle, and a ligature should then be made to
enclose all. In taking up very large arteries, it is prudent
to secure both ends, or the anastomosing branches may
furnish the end remote from the heart with blood. The
ligatures with which bloodvessels are now tied, are not

Gg2

4^2 WOUNDS.

thick, as formerly, but are found to act best when rather
thin.

WOUNDS OF THE VEINS.

When a large vein is divided, it should be secured by a
ligature above and below, or the anastomosing branches
may continue the bleeding : when smaller veins are divided,
the haemorrhage soon ceases spontaneously,

INFLAMMATION OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS.

Inflammation of the veins is often a very serious affection.
In the horse, the course of the disease always rises above
the opening made into the vessels, thus in the neck it
mounts towards the head, in the limbs it extends towards
the heart. Previously, however, to entering on the subject,
it must be premised that occasionally plebotomy is followed
by simple inflammation of the divided integuments and cel-
lular substance ; and which is apparently brought on by
the mere effusion of blood during the act : or by some
escape of it afterwards ; or, perhaps, from spontaneous in-
flammation and serous effusion in the divided integuments
and membranes themselves. The swelling thus produced
is frequently occasioned by drawing the skin, in pinning up
the orifice. It has also been observed to occur when the
lancet has been employed by operators not long used to
that instrument, which has occasioned the integumental
and venous opening to be not exactly opposed to each
other. Whenever, therefore, an early extravasation of
blood follows bleeding, first having removed the pin, care-
fully press out the effused blood with the fingers ; and,
if there appear no likelihood of more haemorrhage, do not
again insert the pin, but tie the horse's head up that
day and night. Should the swelling not be observed im-
mediately, or when it happens that inflammation has already
taken place within the cellular membrane, first treat by
rest, and frequent bathing with a cold solution of muriate of
ammonia and vinegar : or apply a mild blister. If the
tumour suppurate, as soon as fluctuation is felt, make a
depending opening, or introduce a seton through it. We

WOUNDS. 453

will now consider something further than the mere integu-
mental inflammation, and come at once to the point we
set out at — the inflammation of the substance of the vein
itself, which is either communicated from the integuments,
or originates within the vessel from the puncture, that is
supposed to occasion a peculiar inflammation of the inner
coat of a wounded vein. It is prohable that a predisposi-
tion to a certain form of inflammatory action is inherent in
the veins so afi'ected, and that this is called forth by some
state in the parts themselves ; which at one time confines
inflammation to the integuments, and at another carries it
upward within the interior of the vessel.

The symptoms of the injury appear about the third or
fourth day usually, when the lips of the cut begin to gape,
and a little lymph is thrown out ; the next day the edges
are more cast back, as well as more red and expanded ; a
sanious discharge issues, or perhaps heemorrhage occurs :
the tumefied vein now feels corded, hot, and tender ; and
if the progress of the inflammation be not stopped, the
tumefaction extends along the course of the vein : if in
the jugular, it proceeds towards the head ; and if it occur
in any of the other veins of the body, as the saphena and
plate vein, it extends towards the heart, hardening the
vessel into a cord-like substance ; this appears to be the
consequence of the inflammatory action, by forming the
contained blood of the venous trunk into a firm coagulum,
and therefore all attempts to save it afterwards fail. Sup-
puration of the tumour now often appears ; though some-
times the immediate punctured part will present little more
than a spongy mass, from which a grumous liquid distils,
while abscesses form in various situations around the course
of the vessel. As the morbid action extends upwards, it
frequently involves the whole neck, and often affects the
side of the head, from which results hinderance to motion ;
and often some difficulty is experienced in eating and drink-
ing likewise. There is commonly constitutional disturbance
also : in some cases the symptomatic fever runs very high.
The pulse has been above ninety ; and the excess of irrita-
bility brought on has destroyed even life.

Treatment. — The course to be pursued will much depend
on the state of the disease. It is of importance to keep

454 WOUNDS.

the horse as quiet as possible, and to restrain the neck
from movement ; which latter is best effected by tying up
the head, and giving him gruel for food. It is also re-
commended to apply a mild blister, in the course of the
tumefied vein, which seems to assist by lessening the gene-
ral inflammation : this, in fact, is an indication never to be
lost sight of.

When, however, we have no hopes of saving the vein
from obliteration, but, on the contrary, a disposition mani-
fests itself to form abscesses in various situations, we must
proceed to more active measures. The abscesses must be
opened freely with a knife, or, if one appears to communi-
cate with another, setons may be passed through the sinuses
by which they are joined. The head must be tied up, and
blister follow blister ; another being reapplied before the
action of the first has ceased. In this fashion the life will
be saved, although the vein will be lost ; the horse sub-
sequently may become equal to the severest service, though
immediately after the loss of a jugular he may require some
care. He must not be fed from the ground, or ridden hard
for twelve months succeeding his recover}^ His manger
ought to be elevated, and his water even lifted up, so as to
prevent him from stooping his head. At first, his food
ought to be such as requires little mastication, but in three
months he may return gradually to hay and oats. At the
termination of a year, he may feed off the ground, or from
a common manger ; he will by that time be equal to the
greatest exertion, and may be sold as sound, though in
such instances a guarded warranty is generally demanded,
and usually given.

A marked morbid consequence of bloodletting arises from
bleeding in the plate or in the thigh vein ; in which the
phleme often passes through the vein into the fascia that
lies between the vessel and the muscles. In these cases
the fascia inflames, and a formation of pus takes place
within it, which, as it cannot escape, insinuates itself to
some depending situation : an opening should, therefore, be
made to evacuate the matter, or a seton may be inserted
for this purpose, and the part be repeatedly blistered ; the
animal being taken good care of, and not put to liard work
too soon afterwards.

OF ABSCESS. 455

CHAPTER XII.

OF ABSCESS.

By abscess, in its most extensive sense, we include every
collection of fluid which interposes between parts in a kind
of sac : but in its limited sense, as we now propose to em-
ploy it, the word represents a collection of pus formed by
a quick process of suppuration, and contained within a
closed sac. When an abscess forms, the following process
takes place : — an injury, generally a bruise, is received :
part of the vital body is crushed or dies, and nature is
desirous to repair the loss, and to cast off the dead sub-
stance. The minute vessels of the part are stimulated to
effuse coagulable lymph within the cellular tissue ; the con-
sequence of which is distention or swelling, that here, as
elsewhere, produces tenderness and heat, and, when the hair
allows us to detect it, a reddened blush. The effusion
around the immediate part which is dead thickens, grows
vascular, and ultimately forms a closed sac. Arrived at this
state, the tumour may take on various changes by peculiar
processes within it : the suppurative one is supposed to
ensue all over the internal sides of the sac, where, by
a change in the action of the inflamed vessels, pus begins
to be secreted. It then presses against the adjacent mus-
cles, causing these structures to be absorbed : and it is for-
tunate that, by an apparent conservative law of animal
life, such absorption is most active towards the surface of
the body, thus aiding the evacuation of its contents, which
can be effected without prejudice to the constitution. There
are many difficulties to combat in veterinary practice which
almost vanish in human pathology : thus, in the formation
of human abscess, universal rigors mark almost the com-
mencement of the suppurative process. Neither is fluc-
tuation or direct prominence in the suppurating abscess so
clear in our subjects, from the thickness and tenacity of
the integuments ; though some little pointing, and softening,
as well as denudation of hair, may be observed : it therefore
becomes us to make our examinations the more closely,

456 OF ABSCESS.

that we may inform ourselves, by less obvious signs, of the
actual state of the part.

The treatment of abscess. — In the early stages of such
tumours, endeavour to forward them, through the applica-
tion of warmth and moisture, both of which are gained by
a poultice. A blister may likewise be applied to the sur-
face, and a poultice over that, when it is very important to
draw the abscess forward. Horse poultices, on account of
their magnitude, are generally formed of bran, upon which
boiling water is poured, and the whole well stirred together ;
or a very good poultice may be formed of hay, soaked in
hot water, any excess of moisture being squeezed out after-
wards. About a gallon of substance is sufficient for one
application. Being assured that maturation is completed,
the thickness of the integuments, and the fear of the exten-
sion of the suppurative process inwards, make it always
prudent to form an artificial opening in the more dependent
as well as prominent part of the tumour. This may be
done by direct section. Incision is eflfected by the abscess
knife : but in every case the opening should be sufficient to
give a ready exit to the matter which has formed, and that
which may subsequently^ be secreted. In some situations,
as where the natural outlet has appeared on a place we do
not desire it should point in, or where the abscess does not
point upon the precise spot we could have wished, it may be
prudent to make an incision in the natural prominence,
and insert a seton through the place we could desire the
fulness should have occupied. It is, however, necessary to
be careful in making the incision when it dips downwards,
that it is made in the course of the muscular fibres, and
not in the direction of considerable branches of nerves or
bloodvessels.

Nothing further need be done for the eradication of an
abscess than the establishment of a free depending orifice.
All putting the finger into the opening and stirring it round
is unnecessary, to say the least of it. All injections are
objectionable, to speak of them in the mildest terms.
Should, however, the sac of an abscess display an indisposi-
tion to contract after its contents have been evacuated,
apply a blister over it, and when the effects have some-

STRANGLES. 457

what abated, support the pendant parts by means of band-
ages.

STRANGLES

Are evidently of febrile origin. The late Mr. Castley thus
notices this singular equine affection : " Often when a
young horse is looking sickly, delicate, or thriftless, farmers
or breeders will say, ' he is breeding the strangles,' or that
' strangles hang about him,' and that he will not get better
until he gets over that complaint." There is much truth
in this observation, and some breeders are particularly ex-
pert at catching the first premonitory symptoms. The
affection has been divided into true and bastard strangles.
There is, moreover, no reason to suppose the strangles in-
herently infectious A number of horses having it together
is not a proof of its contagious properties ; any more than
some escaping, and others having, it is a proof it has none.
The strangles, in many instances produces so little inter-
ruption to the health, particularly in mild weather, and at
grass, as to inflame, maturate, and heal, without the affair
being hardly noticed by the owner. In some cases, how-
ever, it reduces young horses to a state of considerable
emaciation ; it is said, when very long protracted, to de-
generate into glanders ; and the transition from the one to
the other does occasionally take place. The exciting causes
appear to be those which are productive of catarrh ; thus it
is most prevalent in the spring and in damp cold weather.

Symptoms. — The disease usually commences with the
common appearance of mild catarrh, or, as popularly ex-
pressed, of slight cold and fever. The horse is somewhat
dull, has often cough, some soreness of throat, a slight dis-
inclination to food, but still more to water. The under
surface of the throat between the jaws swells ; it is hot
and tender : sometimes the tumefaction extends to the ear
of one or of both sides. On the second or third day it is
not unfrequent for the nostrils to throw out a muco- puru-
lent discharge ; and if the affection be considerable, the
mouth is suffused with a mucous secretion also, or the
saliva is slabbered out in great quantities. Now and then
the lungs become slightly inflamed, and heaving at the

458 STRANGLES.

flanks, with oppressed pulse, are present. In most in-
stances the pulse is somewhat hurried.

Treatment. — When the inflammatory symptoms are con-
siderable, treat gently ; nurse rather than physic, and on no
account be tempted under any circumstances to extract
blood. The entire strength is required to cast oflp the
disease, and the animal can ill afford to part with the
smallest portion of its vital energy. No matter what the
pulse may suggest, in strangles it is a rule never to bleed.
Put a hood upon the horse, and fasten a nose-bag on to his
head, and in the bottom of it place a scalding hot bran
mash, the steam from which he may inhale. Put the
animal in a well ventilated loose box, and rub a blister
under his jaws ; and if the breathing should be bad, carry
the bhster down the length of the windpipe. Then take an
eight-tailed bandage, which is nothing more than a piece of
strong canvas, of sufficient length and requisite breadth,
with three slits torn a short way at each end, so as to leave
four strings at both extremities. The day after the applica-
tion of the blister place some hot mash in the centre of this
bandage, and tie the canvas, by means of the ends, over
the horse's poll, so that the mash may rest against the
swelling on his throat. Give no physic, neither purgative,
sedative, or febrifuge. Let the animal take gentle exercise,
but not such as to distress him, daily.

Should nasal gleet remain, after the more urgent symp-
toms have subsided, feed liberally, and give tonics. If these
do not arrest the symptoms in two or three weeks, open one
of the frontal sinuses without delay, and inject warm water,
for we may then conclude the membrane of the sinuses has
taken on the suppurative process, and the sooner this is
combated the better for our success.

Bastard strangles are those in which the tumour, after
having come partly forward retires, or in which the abscess
bursts internally, and the pus becomes absorbed. This is a
very bad matter. The glands generally swell, more espe-
cially the lymphatic glands of the mesentery. The symp-
toms are, ragged and unthrifty appearance, with very
irregular bowels. The treatment must be tonic, with
alkalies, a very small portion of aloes, and simple bitters.

OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION. 459

But perhaps it is better to turn the animal over to the
knacker, as these cases, which chiefly occur in poor washy
colts, are not likely to terminate to the proprietor's satis-
faction or our credit.

WARBLES.

These are enlarged bursae, inflamed by the pressure of the
saddle. When they first occur it is best to take a sharp-
pointed knife, and thrusting it through them, then to cut
outwards, so as to lay the sac open from end to end, by a
thrust and cut. The sac, if left in this state, would set up
inordinate inflammation, and produce intense irritation to
the system. To prevent this, take a piece of lunar caustic,
and freely apply it to the surface of the sac, which will
eftectually destroy it ; the wound may be afterwards treated
with chloride of zinc and water, — a scruple of the former
to a pint of the latter, — and be kept clean, by having a piece
of rag wetted with the lotion laid over the incision.

CHAPTER XIII.

OF CHRONIC ABSCESS AND ULCERATION.

The process of healthy inflammation is verified in acute
abscess ; in chronic abscess it wants life, either from the
nature of the constitution generally, or the nature of the
part individually. Muscle suppurates most healthily, being
most freely supplied with blood. Healthy suppuration is
hardly ever witnessed in cartilage or tendinous structures.
In such parts the lymph eff'used is imperfectly formed, and
the after changes are naturally slow. After the lymph has
been eflused, it remains in a state of induration, and when
an outlet, natural or artificial, is made, it then happens, that,
instead of a healthy granulating process, unhealthy ulcera-
tion follows.

Ulceration is a process attended with imperfect granula-
tion. The imperfect granulations secrete an impure pus,
which is mixed with a thin irritating liquor. The imper-
fect granulations, moreover, cannot fulfil their purpose of
building up, whereas absorption continues active, and thus
a loss, instead of an increase, of substance is the conse-

460 rOLL EVIL.

quence. Granulation builds up regularly. Absorption re-
moves irregularly, carrying away any part that is fit for
removal ; and an irregular abraded surface, more or less of a
hole, sending forth a thin unhealthy pus, is called an ulcer ;
for the cure of which we must endeavour to remedy the
morbid action by exciting one more healthy, so that the
part being brought to the condition of a simple wound,
will heal. When ulcers have continued for a long time, it
is often necessary to employ constitutional remedies to esta-
blish a cure. In the generality of cases the ulcer occasions
great irritability of system, which must be combated by
opium ; tonics likewise must be given, together with a
liberal diet. In some cases, stable soiling, a course of car-
rots, or other total change of food, assists the healing and
restorative process greatly. The general treatment of an
ulcer is first to cleanse it by means of a poultice, and then
to stimulate it by all the means in our power, keeping up
the system by a very liberal, nutritious diet.

Ulcers are often found of a greater extent internally
than externally ; when the fluid which is secreted by them
absorbs in different directions, forming narrow pipes, the
sides of w^hich are scirrhous, from which issues a glairy
discharge. These pipes are called sinuses by the surgeon.
In general cases, the longer an ulcer has lasted, the more
difficulty there will be to bring it back to a healthy state.
The external means employed for this purpose are usually
stimulating injections, or incision. Ulcers are apt to be
treated by farriers erroneously, by plugging up the sinuses ;
when the caustic penetrates farther than was intended,
sloughing away the diseased, and the healthy parts. The
true remedy is equally simple and effective, namely, to slit
them up, and then to lay within the divided pipe a piece of
tow, saturated with some caustic solution. By this means
the scirrhous lining wdll be cast forth, and that wdiich was a
sinus will be converted into a simple wound.

POLL EVIL.

This is the consequence of an abscess forming within the
bursse mucosae of the poll, and extending downwards : some-
times these may run underneath the cellular attachments of
the cervical ligament. In either case they usually, unless

POLL EVIL. 461

they are early checked, extend to the ligamentous arti-
culations which connect the neck with the head. It
is most common in large coarse horses. It is sometimes
occasioned by hanging back in the stall, and thus forcibly
pinching the poll between the collar rein, or halter, and the
bones of the neck : blows, also act in the same manner, given
either by the horse himself in rising, or received by knock-
ing his head against a low door-way, when leaving the
stable, or inflicted by brutal chastisement with the butt-end
of the carter's whip. Inflammation results, in a degree
proportioned to the extent of the injury : if moderate,
resolution may occur ; but if it has been great, and the
ligamentous parts have become injured, resolution never
takes place : on the contrary, from the living powers of
these parts being comparatively small, an unhealthy inflam-
mation follows ; from which circumstance it is that we never
meet with healthy pus from poll evil ; but, rather its
opposite — a thin sanious discharge, or sometimes a more
glairy one.

Treatment of poll evil. — This regards its nature and its
extent. If it be the early state of abscess, whether it is
deep or superficial, we must first open it freely, and then
endeavour to promote the healing process. Should the ab-
scess not be fully formed, we should use our best endeavours
to make it maturate ; which end will be best attained by a
mild blister rubbed in as often as required, till the fluctuation
is felt either on one side or the other ; when the next indica-
tion is to procure a speedy evacuation to the contents, and
a depending orifice for its future passage, that no sinuses
may form ; this may be done by the introduction of a seton,
first inserting the needle in the middle of the tumour, and
passing it out at the most depending part. In case the
tumour is a central one, and its limits extend equally over
the neck, do exactly the same by the other side. But when,
from improper management, matter has not only formed,
but has been suffered to remain ; or has only evacuated itself
by a superficial opening, either natural or artificial, and not
from one in a depending situation ; in such cases, the healthy
secretion of pus always ceases, and instead of it, a thin
ichorous or a glairy discharge succeeds ; the ulceration also
extends still further ; sinuses form in every direction ; and

462 POLL EVIL.

not unfrequently the cervical vertebrae become absorbed. The
ravages which this disease makes are sometimes extreme ; it
has been known to disease the occipital and parietal bones,
burrowing around the ear, and has insinuated pus into the
parotid gland, as well as into the spinal canal, or the brain
itself. Under any appearance, a very strict examination
must be made, which is best done when the horse is cast,
having his head elevated by a bundle of straw- , and turned
towards the light. Enlarge the lateral opening so as to
admit of a free examination, by means of a finger, of every
part liable to be injured. Carious bones must be laid bare,
scraped, and then exposed to the escharotic effect of a strong
solution of chloride of zinc. Hardened callous edges must
be removed, and the smaller sinuses laid open, so as to form
one continuous cavity. If all this be not thoroughly done,
it will happen, that, when the whole seems on the point of
healing, a new tumour will suddenly appear, and frustrate
all our hopes. In this way the expert operator, well
acquainted with the anatomy of the parts, will combat the
worst cases. We must, however, avoid an injudicious use
of the knife, by which much mischief has been done. We
have seen a direct incision at the summit of the neck which
divided the cervical ligament, and allowed the skin and
muscles to recede beyond the power of surgery to unite
them : and although it has been said that this may be done
with perfect safety, for its principal attachment being to the
dentata or second vertebra, so the head can be supported
without it. Such, however, is a dangerous doctrine, and the
division can only be w^arranted as a last resource ; for a
close examination of the head will show, that this ligament
does most directly extend itself to the occipital bone also,
where it evidently acts as a suspending agent, and cannot
therefore be cut away without some injury to the mobility
and support: we would, therefore, recommend the practitioner
particularly to avoid so wide a range, and first to try two
moderate counter- openings, created by means of setons.
The injection of the internal cavity should be made, if pos-
sible, twice a day. One full examination and operation
ought to be sufficient for all ordinary cases, but desperate
diseases require extraordinary measures. A very mild case
is often sufficiently stimulated into healthy action by fully

FISTULOUS WITHERS. ^ 463

injecting into it the lotion composed of chloride of zinc and
water. A more active escharotic than this will be found in
the following : —

Chloride of zinc a scruple.

Water four ounces.

When the slough, which the above mixture will occasion,
has been cast off, dress with the milder lotion, formed of
the same ingredients ; and if, after this, healthy matter
shows itself, and granulations arise, the cure will progress.
If the discharge again becomes ichorous, and the sore looks
unhealthy, at the end of a week or ten days from the first,
repeat the operation as before.

FISTULOUS WITHERS.

When a saddle has continued to press on the withers,
either by its ill fitting, or the improper management of an
incautious rider for a whole day, and the evil has, perhaps,
been repeated the next, the consequence is frequently an
inflamed tumour, which is produced by the enlargement of
one of the bursse in connexion with the dorsal spines.
This should be immediately laid open, and subsequently
treated after the manner explained under the head of
Warbles. When this is not done, the whole hardens. Sup-
puration generally takes place within the part. The
strong fascia on the back prevents the pus escaping. It
becomes unhealthy, being confined : it absorbs, thus creat-
ing numerous pipes, and a case of fistulous withers is esta-
blished. Should the attention be called to a case that has
proceeded to a fistulous state, treat exactly in the same
manner as with poll evil. Instances have occurred where
the matter has penetrated under the scapula, and made its
way to the point of the elbow or the front of the breast : in
these cases a depending orifice should be made, and a seton
introduced through the whole extent of the sinus ; for which
purpose seton-needles of sufficient length, with their points
guarded to prevent them injuring important vessels, are
manufactured. Occasionally the disease extends and in-
volves the dorsal spines. The stench will speak aloud
when the bones are affected. When the bones are diseased,
slit up the fistula, and scrape them, until a healthy surface
is exposed ; after which, the milder lotion of chloride of

464 FISTULOUS PAROTID DUCT.

zinc and water may be used. But when the cartilage that
tops the spines is affected, without delay saw it off, leaving
a healthy surface of bone. When the sinuses, hkewise, are
slit open, to cut from within outwards produces less pain,
which in surgery is a consideration. After the incision
has been made, lay into the opened sinus some tow, satu-
rated in the strong solution of chloride of zinc, the which
after twenty-four hours may be removed, and the wound
subsequently dressed with the milder lotion.

Fistulous sternum. — Occasionally the point of the ster-
num also becomes so much tumefied by blows or pressure,
as to proceed to suppuration ; when here, likewise, a fistu-
lous state of the wound is not uncommon. The treatment
of this must be regulated by circumstances, but, on surgical
principles, must follow the rules laid down for sinuses in
general.

FISTULOUS PAROTID DUCT.

A fistulous parotid duct presents an unnatural salivary
outlet in some parts of its passage. A recent wound of
the duct itself will show Uttle more, at first, than the mere
opening bedewed with Hmpid moisture, excepting the saliva,
which during feeding will pour from the aperture like blood
from an artery: the appearance of the opening soon
changes, first to ulcerous edges, and at length into the
true fistulous ulcer: an old orifice attains an almost car-
tilaginous hardness. The salivary fistula may alw^ays be
distinguished from any other by the nature and circum-
stances of the discharge, which is particularly plentiful after
fasting, and will then be forced out in a jetting stream ; at
other times it runs down the face. The fluid itself is semi-
transparent ; but, not unfrequently, from ulceration in the
gland, it becomes tinged with pus, and occasionally stained
by a little blood. These cases are usually the conse-
quence of either accidental injury, or of abscesses resulting
from strangles. The cure was formerly attempted by means
of the budding-iron, which fearful agent became a favourite
with veterinarians, under the fallacious teaching of Mr.
Coleman. The iron was applied at a dull heat, and was
tried over and over again, with increased severity. The
iron was thought to create an eschar, which acted as a

SALIVARY FISTULA.

465

plug to the orifice, while the heat started up reparative
inflammation beneath it, which was to effectually close the
opening by the time the roasted living flesh was cast ofF.
Did it always succeed ? No ! Then, did it never occur to
those who used it, that its application was painful, and
that the operation of sloughing was hkewise painful ? More-
over, the iron necessitated a destruction of ^ the immediate
part,' and any loss of substance in a duct is certain to be
followed by stricture. All ways, then, this boasted remedy
was bad. It was bad surgery to speculate with suffering,
nay, especially so, when success could only efface an evil by
the establishment of another and a worse injury ; and espe-
cially is it the worst of surgery, to repeat so faulty a process
an indefinite number of times.

There are, likewise, other modes of pretended cure, all
equally barbarous, all derived from the same school. We
shall with indignation pass by each of these, to notice a
plan of proceeding adopted by Mr. Gowing, of Camden
Town. A firm, agglutinating hquid is formed, by dis-
solving gun cotton in sulphuric ether, which is called col-
lodiun. Upon applying this liquid to the surface of the
body, the vital warmth occasions the ether rapidly to
evaporate, leaving the cotton in an altered form, sticking
firmly to the part.

Mr. Gowing first applied some mild caustic to the
wound, till the orifice presented the reddened appearance
he desired it should assume. He then placed above the
opening a bulky pledget, sufficiently large to thoroughly
close the wound, and sufliciently solid to resist the solvent
powers of the saliva. A piece of cork, cut to the required
shape, answers the purpose admirably. Over this, to bind
it to the part he wished it should close, he passed some
cotton thread, the ends of which he fixed to the hair of either
side, by a liberal allowance of the Uquid we before alluded
to. ' This he repeated several times, till the plug was held
firmly to the place by the cross bands of cotton. He
repaired this dressing from day to day as it was neces-
sary, having the horse's head tied up, and supporting the
animal entirely by fluids. After a few days had elapsed
the horse was allowed to lie down, and a short time subse-
quently the bandage was removed, when the orifice was effec-
^ H h

466 SPRAINS, OR STRAINS.

tually stopped. This is a far better, and a far more
effectual plan than any of the old measures once fashionable,
but now, we trust, on account of their barbarity, discarded.
Treated after the above method, should the first trial not
succeed, a second can be made ; and even this plan be
repeated an indefinite number of times, without inflicting
suffering amounting to positive torture.

CHAPTER, XIV.

SPRAINS, OR STRAINS.

Unless we were allowed to destroy a vast number of horses
with sprains in every stage, we could never define this in-
jury so accurately as to defy criticism. It is said to be not
an unnatural distention of parts, but a rupture or division
of the cellular membrane which connects these parts : it is
at the same time held by some that the injury which tears
through this, does not put these tendinous and ligamentous
parts on the stretch, because we are told that they are not
capable of either distention or contractility. Wood, iron,
stone, and even glass, are capable of contraction and disten-
tion, yet ligament and tendon are incapable of it ; so we
are told at least. But, with great submission, we do firmly
believe that these organs can and do suffer extension ; and
that, during the violence committed in putting their struc-
ture on the stretch, both the internal cellular tissue, and
that which connects them with other parts, is ruptured ;
and, with it, an infinity of minute vascular, nervous and
absorbent vessels are likewise torn asunder ; whence we are
at no loss to account for the distention which follows this
kind of injury ; the pain and exquisite tenderness conse-
quent upon the lesion ; nor the difficulty of promoting
immediate absorption, when the absorbents have suffered
in common with the other parts. Such we believe to be the
rationale of ordinary sprains or strains ; but there are ex-
traordinary, or rather more severe effects which follow
sudden exertions ; as violent efforts of the muscles to re-
store the equilibrium endangered by a slip. Here it is
supposed that the tendinous structure itself, thecas, and all
surrounding parts, may be unnaturally distended, and their
minute connexions broken through.

SPRAINS, OR STRAINS. 467

We shall now proceed to trace the symptoms and treat-
ment, under these kinds of injury. It is probable that
the slightest sprain produces some lesion, however minute :
and this, of necessity, causes inflammation to repair the
hurt ; w^e therefore always find heat, tenderness, and lame-
ness as accompaniments of the slightest affection of this
sort, but which a few days, or even a few hours, of rest
is often sufficient to repair : rest is the remedy, and Nature
has then time to w^ork her own cure ; but work the animal,
and much more time, with artificial aids, will be required.
If greater violence has been committed, greater re-action
will take place ; the effusion will be considerable, conse-
quently the tumefaction great ; the heat, pain, and tender-
ness excessive ; and the animal will lose his appetite, fall
away, and present every indication of symptomatic fever.
If judicious means are, however, adopted, these symptoms
gradually disappear, and, after a considerable interval, the
parts are reinstated in their original integrity by absorption
of the extravasation. If injudicious means are adopted, the
engorgement remains, and becomes organized into a perma-
nent induration, rendering the future action of the horse
imperfect and painful. When laceration has extended itself
into the sheaths, all these evils will, of course, be aggra-
vated.

The treatment of sprain or strain, in whatever part it
occurs, must be essentially the same, and the differences
required are rather mechanical than medical. There are
two indications that present themselves ; these are, to over-
come the inflammation ; and, to restore the disintegration
wdiich may remain. A mere muscular extension will be
followed by considerable inflammation, the removal of which
will often leave the limb sound. But it is otherwise w^hen
the ligamentous structures are the principal sufferers : the
vascular excitement will less easily give way ; and when it
does, will leave much enlargement and much weakness.
There is one rule in surgery which cannot be too deeply
impressed. After every injury the vital fluid is required
for reparation, and therefore never bleed when an option
upon the subject is left to you ; and, in the great majority
of cases, it is not whether the animal really requires blood-
letting, but whether the veterinary surgeon shall perform

Hh2

468 SHOULDER sprain.

an act which will put money in his pocket. Absolute rest,
however, is indispensable ; and constitutional adjuncts, as
cooling diet, and pure cool air, will assist the other means
adopted. If the injury be recent, bathe the part with the
coldest water that can be procured ; but if the sprain has
been done some time, apply fomentations and warm poul-
tices. Should the tumefaction be great, puncture the part
all over, and encourage bleeding with hot water. If it is
a flexor muscle that has suffered, put on a high-heeled
shoe. These first measures being over, apply pressure to
the part, and keep it constantly there, unless the aggrava-
tion of the symptoms suggest its removal. This is now
readily done by means of the vulcanized India rubber, be-
neath which, and over the place of injury, may be put a
piece of spongeo-piline that has been soaked in warm
water. Frequent blisters have sometimes done good, but
not nearly so often as is generally imagined. It is a com-
mon practice to fire the horse that has a chronic indura-
tion springing from an old sprain ; but there must be magic
in the iron which is to remove an already organized sub-
stance. That end, however, is sometimes the consequence
of continued pressure, which can produce absorption of
bone or muscle ; and that is best attained through one of
the vulcanized India rubber bandages before alluded to.

SHOULDER SPRAIN.

What is now generally known by the term shoulder
sprain, appears to consist in an unnatural extension of the
muscular or hgamentous parts which connect the scapula
and humerus to the trunk ; and which parts, it must be
evident, are very liable to this kind of injury, from the
great extent of motion the shoulder-blade enjoys. A
shoulder strain is, therefore, the consequence of a side
wrench, which, by separating the fore legs too widely, puts
these parts suddenly upon the stretch. The adductor
muscles are frequently the sufferers : sometimes, however,
the ligaments of the articulations, both scapular and hume-
ral, are affected. As Mr. Percivall, however, justly ob-
serves, in the last part of his Hippo-pathology, which is the
best and most compendious work upon the diseases of the
horse that has hitherto appeared in the English language.

SHOULDER SPRAIN. 469

there are no known symptoms by which we can be in-
formed, whether the muscular or fibrous texture is affected.
Shoulder sprains are, however, not of such frequent occur-
rence as they were once supposed to be ; and when, on
viewing a horse in front, the muscles of one or of both
shoulders appear wasted, it requires more than usual exer-
tion to make people believe that the evil did not originate
where its effects are evident. Such appearance, however,
is no decisive proof; for in all affections of the feet, where
there is much pain, the animal indulges in rest, and not
only the external, but the internal muscles of the shoulders
waste : this draws the fore legs closer together, and the
whole substance seems lessened. It is very necessary,
therefore, to be able accurately to distinguish a sprain of
the shoulder from the numerous affections with which it
may be confounded. Every case of true shoulder sprain,
however, appears to occasion extreme pain to the horse
when extending or advancing the leg ; for which reason he
drags the toe along the ground, and having rested the limb,
drops considerably, and again catches the foot up quickly.
These cases are especially characterized by the extreme
difficulty with which a horse moves down the slightest
declivity, from the weight being thrown on the shoulders ;
and also by the strange kind of movement with which he
accomplishes the rotation of the body, in which the horse
swings the leg round in a remarkable manner : in fact, he
evidently attempts to move the limb in any direction but
that in which elevation of the shoulder must take place.
When the injury is principally in the shoulder, if pressure
be made between the fore leg and chest, in the direction of
the serratus muscle, the horse will flinch ; and as a further
mode of distinguishing this affection, if the foot be elevated,
and the whole limb at the same time brought in a straight
line, it will give intense pain should the shoulder be the
seat of lameness. The immediate seat of the affection itself
is in recent cases sufficiently well marked by the heat and
tenderness of the immediate part ; there is, however, not
always much tumefaction present.

Treatment. — When by the heat, tenderness, and lame-
ness, there is reason to consider the inflammation great,
bathe frequently and copiously with a lotion composed of

470 SHOULDER SPRAIN.

half a pint of tincture of arnica to a gallon of water ; under
the supposition that the violence of the symptoms spring
from the muscular structure being hurt. Should the case
be recent, and the inflammation or external symptom less,
bathe with cold water alone ; and, in either case, so soon as
the inflammation has abated, change the cold water for hot.
In this manner, keep the shoulder wet for a week or longer,
when every sign of active disease having departed, a blister
may be appHed. With regard to the manner of applying
the blisters in these cases, the late Mr. Blaine speaks very
confidently, and he says ; " I would recommend the follow-
ing practice, which I have long pursued in these cases with
invariable success. As soon as the more active inflamma-
tory symptoms are abated, I proceed to raise an artificial
inflammation by the free use of stimulants, generally of the
liquid blister, in the following manner : Mix six ounces of
common oil with two or three ounces of liquid blister (see
Mat. Med.), and with this rub the whole affected part twice
a day, until the swelling and inflammation it will bring on
prevent the use of more. In two or three days these will
subside, when it should be repeated, until the same effects
again prevent the application. In this way keep up a mild
inflammation for a week or ten days, according to the origi-
nal violence of the affection : in general cases, the subsiding
of the second swelling will leave the horse sound. This
w^ill be found a much more efficacious mode of practice
than the common blister ; but it must be particularly re-
membered, that I know of no affection so liable to return
as this ; consequently, although the horse may appear
sound, it will be very dangerous to put him to immediate
work."

Blows on the point of the shoulder. — These injuries occur
more frequently than strains ; they are often productive of
more present lameness, and eventually of consequences
more serious. Turning suddenly in a narrow stall, running
against a hard body, or being kicked, or violently struck,
may occasion this injury. There will be great tender-
ness and heat at the point of the shoulder ; some swelling,
and the lameness will be extreme. In such cases the treat-
ment will be the same as in sprain of the shoulder.

SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS, &C. 4/1

SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS, THEIR SHEATHS, AND
LIGAMENTOUS CONNEXIONS.

A sprain or strain of the flexor tendons is a very grave
and serious evil. It is probably often accompanied by
laceration of some of the ligamentous fibres ; there is, how-
ever, no doubt but that it may be occasioned by a simple
distention of the synovial sheaths, and even of the tendons
themselves. It is more frequent in the lore than the hind
legs ; but it may and does occur in both. It is the result
of some violence which acts suddenly on the limbs, as
downward leaps, attempts to recover a false step, &c. It
is also occasioned sometimes by lowering the heels too
much and too suddenly ; by which they are put unnaturally
on the stretch. The injury received brings on inflamma-
tion, with an incapabihty of extending the hmb. If the
inflammation continue, or exercise or improper applications
be made use of, the eff'usion then not being readily absorbed
may eventually form adhesions between the tendons and
their sheaths. It is these eff'ects of adhesive inflammation
which form the permanent callosities around the back
sinews ; and which, by obstructing the freedom of motion,
occasion a lameness much felt after very hard work, as well
as at first starting to exercise ; but this decreases as the
journey proceeds. It being therefore observed that he is
not only less lame when exerted, but also less swollen, an
opinion is very general that horses with old strains may be
ivorked sound. It would be as reasonable to drive the
soldier with one leg until the other grew.

The treatment of thecal and ligamentous distention or
sprain should follow the general rules already laid down.
Put the horse where he may be quiet, and have a high-
heeled shoe placed on the foot of the affected leg. Cold
applications, in the very early stages, particularly when the
tumefaction is considerable, will much tend to unload the
vessels • and the same indications will be followed by im-
mersing the whole limb in spring water. In two or three
days change this plan for fomentations or embrocations.
Any treatment more stimulating than this in the early stages
tends to increase the deposit of lymph, and to orgamze
it into a permanent tumour. But when the active stage ot

472 RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS.

the inflammation has subsided, then mildly stimulatino-
applications are proper ; and they should be accompanied
here with due friction and bandaging. The recovery from
a severe case is usually very slow : the parts being liga-
mentous, do not readily reinstate themselves; the after-
treatment must, therefore, fully accord with this view, which
IS that of giving sufficient time ; and in most cases it ought
to be some weeks after the horse may seem sound before
he is put to full work. Excepting in trivial cases, it is
not often that the parts are really so reinstated as to be
equal to continued exertion. Therefore it is better, in the
most favourable lesion, to give a few weeks' rest, using a
vulcanized india rubber bandage, having underneath it a
piece of spongeo-piline, saturated with water. Where the
induration remains obstinate, repeated blisters, applied after
the method recommended by Mr. Blaine, in shoulder lame-
ness, are the best means of promoting a removal of it; but
firing is a disfigurement, without the slightest benefit. '

OVERREACH

^ Is a Uow inflicted on some part of the fore leg by the
hind foot; frequently it strikes the flexor tendon, and 'pro-
duces inflammation and tumour. The treatment must be
similar to that just described : to prevent a repetition of
the accident, have the toe of the hind shoe shortened, and
the shoe itself put upon the foot so far back as may be
convenient.

. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS.

Breaking down is the name given by farriers to this acci-
dent, the which now and then happens to young horses
while being broken in, or in training. It occasionally hap-
pens to older animals, while undergoing violent exertion of
any kind. It has been often mistaken for a rupture of the
flexor tendons themselves ; but it is hardly ever or never
that this injury takes place in the horse: the immense
strength of these organs very seldom indeed admits of their
rupture from the efforts of the animal; but their con-
necting and suspending ligaments, being weaker, are occa-
sionally broken through. The fimb, in these cases, betrays its
loss of support by the fetlock being brought almost to the

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT. 473

ground ; but the horse can flex his foot after he has raised
it, which is not the case when the flexor tendons or back
sinews themselves are torn through. A perfect cure is
very seldom obtained, but, as the horse may be made suffi-
ciently useful for some purposes, so it should always be
attempted, first by reducing the inflammation by the means
already indicated ; and this beginning to abate, the toe
should be somewhat flexed by the application of a high-
heeled shoe, to prevent the laceration of that intermediate
substance which will be thrown out to unite the ruptured
ligaments. A vulcanized india rubber bandage should also
be kept on afterwards, until all is firm and some strength
be gained. In other respects, the treatment is such as is
suited for sprains generally, which will be found fully
detailed under the head of Shoulder Sprain, &c.

RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR TENDON, OR BACK SINEW.

This, as observed, is a very rare occurrence : it has,
however, happened from great violences committed : the
general treatment will be that which has been already
detailed, excepting that here it would be essential to flex
the whole limb from the stifle downward, and to keep it
constantly in that state for some long period ; which could
alone be effected by the use of proper splint apparatus. To
effect this harmlessly, the animal should have the splints
put on at the commencement of the injury, before pain and
inflammation has time to set it. The head should then be
tied up, until the horse is quite tired, when he will gene-
rally allow slings to be placed under him. In these he
must remain till the treatment is concluded.

Crooked limb from this rupture, and sometimes also from
the former injuries, has taken place. To prevent this, in a
month, if all goes on well, the apparatus mentioned may
be removed, and a straight piece of iron gradually brought
forward from the toe ; this should be by degrees increased,
and worn till the cure is as perfect as the nature of the case
permits it to be made.

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK JOINT.

A Sprain of the Fetlock Joint arises from some injury
done to the ligamentous and tendinous connexion of this

474 LIGAMENTARY SPRAI^'S.

part, either from long-continued exertion or from violent
efforts. The effect immediately produced is, heat and
swelling of the part, accompanied with great lameness
in the injured leg. When it occurs behind, it is often
mistaken for common enlargement arising from oedema,
particularly when the accompanying lameness be not con-
siderable. Such cases have happened, where horses have
continued to be more actively exercised to take down the
enlargement, until the increased inflammation thus occa-
sioned has forced the vessels to deposit coagulable lymph,
which, becoming organized, could never be removed. The
remedial treatment must be the same as that of other
sprains.

STRAIN OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE FEMUR, WHIRL, OR
ROUND BONE,

As chestfounder covered all the defects of the fore limbs,
so lamenesses behind are all referred, by the older far-
riers, to either a strain of the round bone, or of the
stifle. Violence may, however, and certainly does, occa-
sionally injure the Hgaments of the articulation of the thigh.
Here the treatment, from the deep situation of the part,
must necessarily be attended with some difficulty. It will
be proper to use cold applications to the part, if the pain
and tenderness are considerable ; then resort to stimulants,
and after a brief time lay on a blister, which should be fre-
quently repeated. As a last resource, fire over the joint.

SPRAIN OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE PATELLA, OR STIFLE JOINT.

The ligaments of the patella, or of the stifie, may be
injured by over-exertions, or by accidental violence, as
blows, &c. This may be known by the circular direction
in which the leg is carried, during motion, purposely to
avoid flexing the joint. The heat and tenderness are, how-
ever, of themselves suflicient to guide the judgment. Some-
times the muscles of the thigh, and not those of the joint,
are the seat of the injury ; in which case, the tenderness
will be found within, towards the groin, and not around
the patella or stifle. In treatment, however, this affection
in no wise differs from the former. Repeated blisterings
and absolute rest in both cases are the best remedies.

BRUISES. 475

CURB, OR EXTENSION OF THE LIGAMENTS OF THE HOCK.

This is usually brought on by some violence offered to
the sheath of the perforans tendon, passing downwards at
the back of the hock. It is often the effect of leaping,
rearing, kicking, &c., and as such is usually sudden in its
appearance. A kind of predisposition to curbs from con-
formation is apparent in horses with sickle hocks. For the
confirmation of this fact the public are indebted to the dis-
sections and observations of Mr. W. Percivall, a writer whose
various works cannot be too highly commended. The lame-
ness arising from curbs is not, in general, severe: occa-
sionally, however, it may and does prove considerable. The
treatment must accord with the general rules estabhshed for
the cure of other ligamentary extensions or strains ; by first
allaying the inflammatory symptoms, and then by counter-
irritants, as blisters, &c., promoting an absorption of the
deposit ; using iodine ointment and ung. cantharides, mixed
in equal parts, wuth a high-heeled shoe.

BRUISES.

These are tumours formed by some injury, when a rup-
ture of the smaller vessels occasions an extravasation of
blood within. If the lesion be moderate, the parts will
reinstate themselves ; the effused blood will either become
absorbed and the tumour removed, or otherwise it will
become organized, and, with some increase of dimension,
will form an integral portion of the surrounding mass : but
when the injury is violent, the parts may be unequal to
either of these processes, when the extravasated blood will
become a source of irritation, and suppuration will follow.
Should a still higher degree of injury have been sustained,
the entire tone of the substances around becomes destroyed,
and sloughing must take place ; when the living parts will
make an effort to remove the dead, and an extensive sore
will be formed.

The treatment of bruises will therefore vary according to
these several circumstances. We should always endeavour
to fully reinstate the part, by promoting absorption of the
effusion; which may be done by giving local strength by

476 RHEUMATISM.

external stimulating applications, as warm fomentations,
diluted tincture of arnica, spirits of wine and camphor, soap
liniment, &c. If the blood remain fluid, promote its escape
by making a small depending orifice : if it suppurate, treat
as a common abscess. When sloughing occurs, treat as
directed under the head of gangrene. Should the tumour
remain indurated, stimulate with iodine ointment, mixed
with that of Spanish flies, and by friction.

RHEUMATISM

In the horse is doubted by some, who nevertheless cannot
account for many anomalous symptoms on any other patho-
logical view. It is acknowledged in cattle ; and no one con-
versant with dogs but is aware rheumatism is one of the
most prevalent diseases with those animals. The horse,
then, is the subject of a disease essentially rheumatic ; that
is, he is liable to an attack on the membranous and tendi-
nous aponeuroses of the muscles, more particularly of the
fore extremities. It appears also to be occasioned by cold
and moisture, though it may also spring from high feeding ;
and it is seen both in an acute and a chronic form.

Of acute rheumatism well-marked cases are occasionally
encountered, which were traceable to the effects of cold or
moisture. The leading characters were alike in all ; the
attack being ushered in by universal stifl'ness, but more par-
ticularly of the fore extremities. Sometimes the case is
attended with considerable tumefaction in front of the
breast. The treatment consists in first decreasing the food
to so much only as will support life and diminish fat. Then
give the following ball night and morning, until the bowels
are freely opened, when it is to be withheld till purgation
has ceased, and then recommenced : —

Powdered colchicum two drachms.

Calomel one scruple.

Opium one drachm.

Aloes , one drachm.

Powdered capsicums half a drachm.

In the mean time the swollen parts may be freely fomented
with very hot water, and afterwards well rubbed with soap
liniment, to every pint of which a quarter of a pint of liquor
ammonia fort, has been added.

RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE. 477

Should the above ball not succeed, try the following
drink, which, in some cases, is even more effective : —

Iodide of potassium one drachm.

Sulpliurie ether one ounce.

Cream of tartar four drachms.

Give night and morning in a pint of gruel.

Chronic rheumatism may be the sequel of the acute ; in some
cases it appears as the immediate consequence of exposure to
cutting winds, humid atmosphere, &c. ; and is betokened by
stiffness and tenderness of the parts it attacks. When the
extremities suffer, it is not unusual to observe some tume-
faction, but always great disinclination to move. It occa-
sionally visits the loins, but is most common in the fore
quarters. Sometimes one fore extremity and occasionally
both are affected : when sudden, metastasis will often re-
move it to the other parts ; which cases were well charac-
terized by the old term of flying lamenesses.

The treatment of chronic rheumatism does not materially
differ from that recommended to be followed in cases of the
acute description, excepting that strychnia, in doses of a
grain, gradually increased to three grains, has occasionally
been attended with benefit.

RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE.

This disease is even more common among cattle than
among horses. It is often observed by the graziers and
breeders, who call it a chill. If it affects the extremities,
there is heat, tenderness, and enlargement ; when the loins
are the seat, the whole vertebral column is stiffened. En-
cysted tumours are apt to appear between the gastrocne-
mii tendons and the tarsus when general inflammation
passes into a chronic form. The causes are attributed to
the variable state of the atmosphere, and to the low and ill-
ventilated stables in which stall-fed cattle are immured.
The treatment is, restricted diet, and the soap liniment, as be-
fore directed, only further strengthened by the addition of four
ounces of the tincture of cantharides, and the like amount
of the tincture of capsicums. The encysted tumours are
to be freely opened, and afterwards to be dressed with the

478 VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN.

solution of chloride of zinc, two scruples to the pint of
water.

EXTERNAL TUMOURS.

Sitfast is a thickening of the cuticle, produced by the
friction of the saddle. It is best removed by the application
of blistering ointment, rubbed in upon the excrescence, and
an inch all round it. This is to be repeated daily till the
sitfast falls off, which it will do after a few applications.
The sore left is to be dabbed thrice daily with the weaker
solution of chloride of zinc.

Induration of the elbow is sometimes observed, and of car-
tilaginous hardness, occasioned by the horse lying with his
fore legs doubled under him, so that his elbow rests on the
heel of the shoe, particularly when worn long or with
calkens. It would be useless to attempt a cure without
removing the cause : that removed, by taking down the
calkens and shortening the heels, the enlargement might be
dissected out.

CHAPTER XV.

OF ENCYSTED SWELLINGS.
VARIX, OR BLOOD SPAVIN.

A DISEASED enlargement of the coats of the veins is termed
varix, but which is not a common affection of the horse, as
his superficial order is comparatively small, and not sub-
jected to such artificial pressure as our own. The only
instance usual in veterinary surgery is that termed blood
spavin ; which presents certainly something like a varicosed
enlargement of the superficial vein passing over the hock ;
this is the consequence of the pressure of a distended cap-
sule, which is called bog spavin. The dilatation, being
situated immediately below the bog spavin, is caused by
obstruction to the passage of the blood, and a consequent
extension of the coats of the vein. Usually, therefore, the
dilated capsule is the part to be attended to ; but when the
vein itself becomes so much enlarged as, by its own pressure,

WINDGALLS. 479

to occasion mischief, it can only be remedied effectually by
removal. This may be effected by carefully including the
vein, and the vein alone, above and below the enlargement,
within ligatures, by means of curved needles. The opera-
tion is performed without dividing the skin, and the ligatures
are left to slough out. After which the tumefied vein may
be opened, and the contents evacuated. But it should be
remarked that, in five hundred cases of what is called blood
spavin, it would not, perhaps, be actually necessary to take
up the vein in but one of them.

DISEASED ENLARGEMENT OF THE BURS^E MUCOSAE, OR
WINDGALLS.

The tendons of those muscles connected with or passing
over joints are furnished with membranous bags, called
hiirscB mucos(E. These capsules are distributed about all the
joints ; but, in a practical point of view, some are more im-
portant than others. The morbid enlargement of these
constitutes windgalls. Violent and long-continued exer-
tions determine more blood to the extremities, and, from its
greater supply, the synovial secretion is augmented ; thus it
is that windgalls are almost the invariable attendant on hard
work. While the swellings remain small, they can do little
mischief, and had much better be let alone : but when they
become enormously enlarged, they may produce injurious
effects fi'om the unequal pressure they occasion ; and, also,
by a sympathetic effect on themselves, their contents become
not only increased, but diseased, proving frequently inspis-
sated or thick.

In the treatment of windgalls we must attend to three
particulars ; the removal of any diseased alteration they may
have occasioned in the neighbouring parts ; the removal of
their own distention ; and the prevention of its recurrence.
Stimulating applications are the most likely to produce a
removal of any coagulating deposit ; these are likewise still
more proper, as they will tend to effect a removal of the
contents of the windgall itself. The liquid blister will be
very proper for this purpose. But simply to promote
absorption of the contents of the windgall, continued pres-
sure will be found the most convenient and efficacious
remedy. A calico or a flannel roller may be prepared, of

480 BOG SPAVIN.

two, three, or four yards long, according to the part affected :
four inches is a proper width, and, from its superior elasticity,
flannel is preferable to calico or linen. In addition to this,
be furnished with one or two pads, staffed with horse-hair
or other elastic matter. Begin to apply the roller, and after
having made a turn or two below the swelling, place the pad
exactly upon the windgall ; if in the pasterns, one should of
course be placed over each side : continue the roller firmly
and evenly over all, and fasten off. It however must not be
forgotten, that but little benefit can be expected unless this
be continued as a constant application for a considerable
time, during day and night, when not in exercise ; also, it
must be remembered, that upon a repetition of the original
cause {hard work), they are apt to return ; the dilated cap-
sule seldom regaining, with its original size, its original
strength. It may be necessary here to warn the practi-
tioner never to puncture a windgall. Most of those of great
bulk and long continuance actually communicate with the
cavity of the joints they surround ; and the others of them-
selves excite similar effects with open joints, when they are
laid open ; and even if no mischief followed, no good could
result ; the cyst would be only momentarily emptied ; for
its capacity would commonly remain the same, and would
almost immediately fill it up again. Such an operation is,
therefore, not only useless, but usually produces such in-
flammation as either destroys the horse, or ends in anchy-
losis of the joint.

BOG SPAVIN.

Blood spavin cannot exist without bog spavin, for it is
the swelling of bog spavin that causes the passage of blood
within the vein to be stopped ; but bog spavin can, and
most frequently does, exist alone. This disease is synovitis,
or inflammation of the great synovial capsule of the hock,
i. e. that between the astragalus and tibia. The only mea-
sure which can benefit this disease is an india rubber
bandage, so formed as to allow the top of the calcis to
protrude, which will aid the elasticity ; besides, the bandage
would answer no further purpose so far as bog spavin is
concerned, if the point of the hock were included.

FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 481

THOROUGH-PIN

Is the farriers' term for the bursal enlargement situated
in the upper and back part of the hock, beneath the ten-
dons of the great flexors of the foot ; and, as after some
time it necessarily shows itself on each side, so it is a
thorough-pin. From the peculiarity of situation it seldom
occasions lameness, unless it be very large. Continued
pressure is the only remedy.

CAPPED HOCK.

This arises from a swelling of the bursa mucosa, that
assists the motions of the point of the calcis under the skin.
It is very unsightly, and sometimes becomes of a great size,
particularly when it is occasioned by the practice of kicking ;
in which case not only is there an immense increase of the
secretion, but the integuments also thicken, and accumula-
tions take place about the capsule, which become of semi-
cartilaginous consistency. It has been punctured occa-
sionally with partial success, and the contents have been
drawn off by setons, but the inflammation raised has endan-
gered life ; it has also been opened, and its contents, which
in the enlarged state are partly fluid and partly semi-solid,
evacuated, but after-irritation has endangered life ; and no
great advantage has been gained, for the incision made
has united, and the sac has filled again. Hand -rubbing,
almost continuously applied, has done more good with
regard to diminishing the size, than all the puncturing,
blistering, and firing put together. The hand is also as-
sisted by an india rubber bandage made to fit the part,
and worn at such times as the friction is stayed. When,
however, opening the sac is insisted upon, it is best to
dissect away the lining membrane, or to destroy it by the
application of caustic.

CHAPTER XVI.

FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS.

When any important bone is fractured in the horse, from
the trouble of managing him, the expenses attending his

I i

482 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS.

keep, and the risk of his future usefulness, attempts are
seldom made to reunite it. We destroy, however, many
horses with fractured bones that might be saved ; and it
was formerly much more the custom than at present to
attempt their cure. An old writer, of the name of Blount,
has given a very good figure, with directions for the treat-
ment of fractures of the extremities. If this were then
practicable, under the present improved state of the art,
probably broken bones might again be perfectly consoli-
dated. Even in fractures of the large and important bones,
if the horse was either carefully slung, or partly slung and
partly supported, a cure would often follow. When a bone
is broken, and there is no external wound, it is called a
simple fracture, to distinguish it from that producing a
wound externally, which is termed a compound fracture.
In simple fracture the divided bone after a time inflames ;
coagulable lymph is thrown out from the ends of the broken
portions ; within this lymph vessels first form ; the lymph
then becomes cartilage, and then the arteries deposit ossific
matter, which consolidates, and the bone is united. In
addition to this, there is another formation which occurs,
called callus. When a bone is fractured the surrounding
soft parts are injured, and they effuse lymph, which accu-
mulates about or around the ends of the bone. This effu-
sion is blended with that of the bones, and forms a tempo-
rary bandage about the parts. It undergoes similar changes
with the other lymph, and thus it becomes firm, binding
the parts together, and filling up any space that may be
left between them. This callus diminishes with time, but
always to a greater or less extent exists. When a fracture
is compound, in addition to the union of the bone, the lace-
rated soft structures have to be brought together by the
suppurative process, which, of course, will generally delay
the cure. Fractures are sometimes accompanied with dis-
location also ; in which case it is evident all attempts at a
cure will utterly fail. In the treatment of fractures, it is
necessary that our aim be directed to assist nature : first,
by replacing the divided ends as nearly as possible in their
original situation ; and, next, by proper applications, to re-
tain them there, until union be effected. In addition to
the foregoing fractures, there is another in which the bone

FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS. 483

is fractured, or rather smashed into several little pieces.
Such a case is obviously hopeless with our patients. We
shall therefore proceed to notice the fractures indivi-
dually ; premising, however, that it would not be prudent
in the medical attendant to give too early a favourable
opinion in these cases. The impatience of the animal, and
his great powers of resistance, all act against a successful
issue. But if it is determined to attempt the union of the
bony portions, commence by replacing the fractured parts
of bone as nearly as possible in their original position ; and
next apply such aids as will so retain them until the union
is consolidated. Carefully, however, watch your patient,
that his own irritability do not frustrate your attempts. A
steady attendant should remain with him night and day,
alternating, however, his watch with some other equally
trustworthy stable-man. If the fracture is in the bones of
the extremities, then suspension of the animal may be re-
sorted to, which will, in a great measure, prevent the neces-
sity of a constant watch.

Fractured Skull. — This is quite unfit for treatment, the
result generally being phrenitis of the most acute kind.
The horse with a fractured skull should be immediately
destroyed.

Fractured Face. — Horses have had all the fore part of
the head smashed in, and yet have survived ; and even done
good service in the hunting field afterwards. The skin, if
not sufficiently divided, should be separated ; each per-
fectly detached piece of bone removed, and the other por-
tions supported by every means in our power. Pasteboard,
or thin leather, should be passed up the nostrils if neces-
sary. The skin should then be brought together, and the
horse fed on slops, if imperative. His head should be tied
up, to prevent his rubbing the wound against any thing,
and the animal placed, as soon as he will bear them, in the
slings. If, after all, any opening into the nostrils, or else-
where, should remain, it may be covered with leather. One
eye has, in a case treated by Mr. W. Percivall, been forced
out upon the cheek. But this gentleman cleansed and
restored the part. The horse subsequently perfectly re-
covered the use of the organ. This is the only comminuted
fracture wiiich, in the horse, can be treated with success.

ii2

484 FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES.

Fracture of the Louder Jaw-hone. — It is fortunate if one
branch only be broken ; should, however, the injury hap-
pen to both, there is still no need to despair. Make a
strong leathern case to support the broken bone, and nou-
rish the horse with thick gruel. This is one of the easiest
remedied cases of fracture that can be encountered. It
generally does well, sufficient time being allowed.

Fractured Ribs. — Blacksmiths are apt, from the effect of
passion, to strike a horse with the shoeing hammer. We
have more than once seen a fractured rib from this cruelty.
In other ways, also, the ribs may become fractured. If the
fractured portion of the rib penetrate the cavity of the chest
and wound the lungs, the case is hopeless. Should it,
however, be a simple fracture, apply a bandage round the
body, and bring the divided ends of the rib together.

Fractured vertehrce or pelvis are both hopeless.

FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES.

In fractures of the larger bones of the limbs, the horse is
almost always killed, as being supposed incurable, or that,
if cured, he would be utterly useless : but not only are
many of these cases curable, as has been occasionally
proved, but a horse frequently becomes very useful after-
wards ; and it is evident that the breed of such an animal,
at all events, provided it be a mare or stallion, may be
made subservient to our purposes.

Fractured Scapula, or Shoulder-blade, is rare, but does
occasionally occur. In fractured scapula the toe trails
along the gi'ound ; but as it does the same whether the arm
or fore arm be broken, so we must look for other evidences ;
and these are gained by attempts at elevating the foot,
which not only give excessive pain, but usually produce a
crepitus sufficiently distinct ; particularly if the hand is placed
on the part. A cure may be effected by suspending or
supporting the animal, united with the application of some
adhesive matter, which can give solidity to the limb without
excoriating it ; further strengthened by bandages judiciously
applied, so as to have an equal and extensive bearing.

The Humerus is not often fractured. It is very short
and thick, and so strong as to be little in danger ; but when

FRACTURED BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES. 485

it does happen, the plan recommended for the cure of the
scapula would be here also proper.

The Arm-bone is rather more frequently broken, and
may be successfully treated as follows : — Having first slung
the horse, reduce the fracture ; that is, replace the divided
ends of the bone in correct apposition to each other. The
animal might be partially slung, so that the feet might rest
on the ground, while they supported little of the weight
of the body. When all is safe, encase the fractured limb
accurately, by making a bandage embrace every part, and
strengthen the whole with proper splints.

The Femur is likewise occasionally fractured : when this
accident has happened to a valuable stallion or brood mare,
whose future usefulness in propagation would not be mate-
rially affected by the shortening of the bone, we might
apply sustaining bandages and solidifying applications, after
the same manner as directed for the scapula, with the addi-
tion of suspension, which here could probably not be dis-
pensed with.

Fracture of the Tibia is more common than that of the
femur, to which it is mostly exposed at its inferior part,
w^here the resistance of the muscles, and its obliquity, ren-
der efforts at reduction generally unavailable. Union, how-
ever, will take place between the bones, and the deformity
will be lessened, as well as a more favourable position of the
callus around the bone will be gained by bandaging and
by splints ; and also by support to the body from the ceil-
ing, either wholly or partially. By these means the animal
may be rendered useful for slow draught-work, or for breed-
ing.

The Olecranon, or Elbow, has been fractured by violent
efforts of the muscles ; but the tendinous attachments ren-
der it extremely difficult to apply means to retain it in its
situation. It is only by preserving a state of absolute re-
laxation of the limb that any attempt can have a chance of
succeeding.

Fractured Cannon. — The muscular action which resists
the reduction in the former cases, serves here to keep the
bones steadily applied ; and we have seen such a case treated
successfully without slinging, by a stiff frame of leather,
resembling splints for human fractures, only more exten-

486 DISLOCATION OF BONES.

sively applied. In Blount's Farriery there is a plate repre-
senting some ingenious machinery for the cure of these
lesions. Mr. Bass, near Barnet, is said to have had several
of such cases, which have terminated successfully, by the
application of proper splints with bandages ; of which in-
stances are now so common, that no practitioner would be
warranted in condemning a horse with a simple fracture of
one of these bones.

Fi'actures of the large and lesser Pastern and Coffin Bones.
— These bones have never been successfully united. The
animal may afterwards, however, be fit for breeding, but
never again, or so rarely that the exception proves the
rule, can be fit for fast work. When it is determined to
try chances, it is better to sling the horse, and allow nature
to do the rest.

Fractured Navicular Bone. — This accident, though rare,
never happens unless the bone be much absorbed, and very
hollo Wj in consequence of pre-existing navicularthritis. It
is impossible to suggest any remedy, or if any measure
likely to benefit the part could be thought of, we do not
see in what way it is to be applied.

A Fracture of the prominent portion of the Ilium, or
Haunch Bone, sometimes occurs ; when it is of the simple
kind, the adhesive inflammation which follows readily unites
the parts ; but from the action of the muscular fibres im-
planted into the disunited portion, it is drawn aside, and
no surgical efforts can retain it in just opposition with its
fellow portion. These cases are called hipped, or let down
on the hip.

The Patella is likewise occasionally fractured by violent
kicks ; when the action of the tendons inserted into its sur-
faces disunites the fractured portions, beyond the power of
veterinary surgery to bring them together ; the limb is use-
less, having lost the antagonism to undue flexion : it will be
therefore of no avail to attempt a fruitless course of hope-
less treatment.

DISLOCATION OF BONES.

The articular surfaces of bones are sometimes displaced
from their proper situation, when they are said to be dis-
located or luxated. In human surgery this forms a very

DISLOCATION OF BONES. 487

important branch of practice, but is less so in the horse :
not that these separations do not sometimes occur, but the
immensity of the muscular resistance is such, and our sur-
gical machinery at present is so little calculated to make
any resistance to the power thus exerted, that few reduc-
tions have been attempted.

Dislocated Patella. — This accident is of rather common
occurrence. The bone, however, is always dislocated out-
wards ; the form of the lower end of the femur, the strength
of the ligaments, and the power of the muscles on the out-
ward side, all prevent the bone from being dislocated in-
wards. It sometimes happens from weakness, when mere
motion will be sufficient to reduce it. Nevertheless, in
other instances, surgical aid is needed. In such cases proceed
as follows : — in the first place, have the leg drawn forward,
if necessary, by means of a rope passed over a beam or
rafter, and around the fetlock ; then push violently against
the dislocated bone, the position of which will be accurately
told by the swelling it produces. It will generally fly back
with some noise ; and having got it in its proper situation,
partially release the drawn-up leg, and have an assistant
to hold the bone justly, by pushing against it for several
hours ; afterwards blister the part, to render the animal
averse to using it.

The Signs of a Dislocated Patella are the rigid deter-
mination of the limb backwards ; exactly as might be ex-
pected from the loss of the moving pulley into which the
extensor muscles of the thigh are implanted. The flexor
muscles, moreover, having no antagonists, the limb is
drawn downwards, and remains firmly flexed, the toe drag-
ging on the ground. The displacement of the patella itself
is less a guide than might be imagined ; but the complete
determination of the limb backwards, and the flexion of the
pasterns and foot, will serve to distinguish it ; it can at
once be detected by grasping the condyles of the femur.
An examination of both limbs will make clear the loss of
the protuberant patella in its natural situation, and enable
us to see the bone towards the outer edge of the thigh ; but
sometimes so deeply imbedded within the muscles of the
part, particularly in coarse fleshy horses, as to almost
escape cursory observation. This occurs from the powerful

488 EXOSTOSIS.

actions of the extensor tendons implanted within it ; to
which cause we must also attribute the pain that is some-
times observed in these cases.

CHAPTER XVIl.

DISEASES OF THE BONES.
CARIES.

Bones are subject to chronic inflammation, which termi-
nates, as in soft structures, in resolution, suppuration, or in
mortification. The living powers of parts being generally-
proportioned to their vascularity, bones, as having less blood
than other structures, are weaker, and their diseased actions
are slower : consequently they do not readily inflame, but,
having so done, the process frequently produces death of
them. Thus bone will die : it is however necessary to
observe that the restorative powers here, as in other in-
stances, are more active than in man.

Exfoliation. — When death has taken place in a bone, the
process of its removal is called exfoliation, and such process
is conducted by the absorbents. This is effected partly by
the suppurative and partly by the ulcerative actions ; or by
sloughing, though in a very slow mode, which removes so
much of the hving as forms the union with the dead ; by
which means the decayed portion, losing its attachment,
comes away. In caries, therefore, it must be our endea-
vour to assist this exfoliation. Sometimes, from an actual
want of power to accomplish this, the caries spreads ; in
which case we must rouse the living bone into greater
action by liberal diet, and a free allowance of ale or stout,
or even spirits ; while chloride of zinc, from its disinfecting
power, is freely injected, to destroy the fcetor that accom-
panies the sloughing of bone.

EXOSTOSIS.

Bones being organized like the soft parts of the body, we
might therefore suppose that they were also susceptible
of disease ; the most prominent instance of which is exostosis
or bony tumour. This is the consequence of a morbid

EXOSTOSIS. 489

increase of the secretion of bony matter. It is to the peri-
osteal exostosis, or cartilaginous exostosis of the perios-
teum, that those bony swelhngs we call splints, spavins, &c.,
owe their origin. Yet these exostoses are not limited to
any individual parts, but can be as numerous as the bones
themselves : the spine exhibits them throughout ; the ex-
tremities have them from the semi-ossified cartilage of the
senile scapula to that of the lateral cartilages of the coffin
bone. The causes of sequine exostosis may be characterized
as predisposing and proximate. Pressure is the predisposing
cause, and inflammation the proximate. If the exertions
are pushed greatly beyond an ordinate degree, the neigh-
bouring muscles press unduly against the bone, irritation
springs up ; commencing occasionally within the periosteal
covering, but oftener within the ligamentous connexions
around. After a time, and with repetitions of the original
cause, inflammation sets in, and communicates itself to the
periosteum, which is in contact with the bone. But there
are, as already hinted at, injuries productive of exostosis
where the stimulus is one violent effort of over straining
the bodily machine : here we have reason to suppose that
the foundations of the most ruinous exostoses are laid within
the ligaments, which inflaming, extend the affection to the
periosteum, and from thence to the bone under it : the
result is, that osseous union takes place between the liga-
ments and the contiguous bone, of which spavin is an in-
stance. The articular cartilages are particularly exposed
to the effects of pressure ; as those of the spinous processes
of the vertebrae also are ; those of the lateral parts of the
feet, and some others are likewise the centres for osseous
deposits : during which the cartilage may become absorbed,
leaving the bony matter. A morbid disposition to ossific
deposit likewise appears to pervade other parts than those
immediately connected with the bony base ; as within the
coats of the large arteries, the cartilaginous parts of the
larynx and the internal portions of some glands. In horses
the order of science is so far destroyed, that it is not un-
usual to see ulceration and deposition going forward side
by side, on the same part of the same bone ; as in the arti-
cular surfaces, where disease generally ends in anchylosis.
The cure of exostosis must consist in whatever stops the

490 SPLINT.

disposition to farther deposit, and removes what has been
already produced. These effects have been attempted by
constitutional means, intended to act on the absorbents
generally ; such, however, have not been found to answer
any end : local means only are therefore resorted to, and
are principally of a stimulating nature, variously modified,
as will be seen under individual cases of exostoses.

SPLINT.

Splint, or as some call it splent, is the name given to a
very common exostosis situated upon the cannon bones,
usually commencing in the fibro-cartilaginous substance.
In the fore limb it generally occurs upon the inner, and
in the hind upon the outer side of the leg. This species
of exostosis most commonly lames the young horse, from
the greater plasticity of his fi-ame, and from his organization
being not yet inured to continued exertion. It is usual to
consider the consequences of a splint as principally de-
pendent on its situation, and this is generally correct ; but
a splint may prove painful, and otherwise injurious, al-
though it should not interfere with any tendon or ligament ;
for the periosteum becomes exquisitely sensitive under in-
flammation and distention. This inflammation, fortunately
for the animal, is seldom very acute ; and the increase is
generally slow, which enables the periosteum to accommo-
date itself to the distention : generally, therefore, when a
sphnt is not situated immediately under a tendon, or con-
tiguous to ligamentary matter, it occasions no lameness.
The veterinary practitioner should, therefore, in his con-
sideration of the consequences in these cases, be guided, in a
great measure, by the situation of the splint. If placed
anteriorly, it is productive of much less injury than when
placed posteriorly^ for, as already pointed out, in this latter
case, the swelling may press on the ligaments, or interfere
with the flexor tendons. For the same reason also, a splint
placed at the lower end of the cannon is still more preju-
dicial than when situated higher up the leg. It is not un-
common to attribute that lameness to a splint which is
dependent on other causes. A fully developed splint never
lames, unless it interferes with a tendon or ligament. A
spUnt, in the course of formation, however, may produce

SPLINT. 491

the most acute lameness ; and it does so generally in young
horses. But a splint may, by its situation, excite also in-
flammation in the ligaments and tendons themselves ; it
then loses its harmless character, and becomes a source
of great evil. As the general nature of splint is that of a
conversion of what was fibro-cartilage into bone, so it is
evident, in this point of view, that a splint once formed can
never be removed : but from the absorption going forward
during the later periods of life, it happens that the bulk of
the spUnt is diminished, oi', as grooms express it, they
' wear away.'

Treatment of Splints. — Although, as before stated, we
cannot restore the fibro-cartilaginous union, yet we can
endeavour to promote an absorption of the hurtful and
prominent portion of the exostosis ; or, rather, we can
hasten the consolidation, when tenderness and pain will
cease, and all further increase be prevented. The appear-
ance of splints, as much as their hurtful consequences, has
occasioned such varied attempts to remove them. In the
olden time very rough means were used for this purpose,
which sometimes succeeded, but oftener left matters much
worse than before. Such were thumping the swelling with
a hammer ; rubbing it violently with a stick ; piercing it
with a gimlet, &c. An attempt at removal was also made,
and is still occasionally practised, by dissecting away the
coverings, when, with a sharp knife, the bony or cartila-
ginous swelling was removed. There is no doubt that,
when a splint is very prominent, it may be laid bare and
extirpated by this means. Pressure, by means of lead, &c.
&c., is an invention also of ancient date. Blistering and
firing are also very old remedies ; while ' sweating' with oil
of origanum, and other essential oils, is of patriarchal ex-
traction, and, if not superseded by mechanical removal, will
probably last to the end of time. It has lately been the
practice to substitute setons for blisters ; but these do but
half the work of blisters in twice the time, and are apt to
leave a blemish into the bargain : it does, however, appear,
that this last method has succeeded in some cases, and after
other means had failed. At the Veterinary College, it has
likewise been common to divide the periosteum over the
splint, by which much relief has been obtained. It has

492 SPAVIN.

also been treated by applying escharotics to tbe denuded
bone after the periosteum had been divided : the budding-
iron has even been applied ; occasionally much inflamma-
tion has succeeded ; and in one instance it extended itself
among the tendons, and did irreparable mischief: in all,
the blemish is very considerable. It is, however, seldom
necessary to have recourse to other means than vesication,
which, if persisted in by first actively blistering, and then
keeping up an irritation by means of the oil of cantharides,
diluted with three additional parts of oil, for four or even
more weeks, will generally complete all that can be effected.
Or one active blister may be followed up by another, with
intervals of a week between.

SPAVIN.

Spavin is a very serious sequine affection : its destructive
attack on the utility of the most valuable of our domestic
animals has made it a subject of much importance. There
is some peculiarity in the degree the fore and hind legs
are disposed to take on disease. In the fore leg, for in-
stance, splint occurs upon the inner side of the limb ; in
the hind leg, it is seen upon the outer side of the shank-
bone. Why is this difference beheld in the same disease ?
In the fore leg, we attribute splint to the weight cast
upon one of the bones of the knee being entirely transferred
to the inner small metacarpal. In the hock something
of this sort occurs also upon the outer side, yet the small
metacarpal bone there is not nearly so often affected ;
while the outer splint-bone, which takes little more than its
share of weight, is the actual seat of the affection. Why
is this distinction? Does not its existence show us we
have not yet hit upon the right cause. The artery, never-
theless, passes along the inner side of the fore leg, close to
the seat of splint ; and it likewise does the same upon the
outer side of the hind leg, near to the place where splint in
that member begins. Splint originates in inflammation.
Inflammation is a disease of excessive vascularity. Can,
therefore, the neighbourhood of the artery have any thing
to do with its production ? It is not for us to answer the
question.

All this, however, is foreign, it may be said, to our pre-

spAvix. 493

sent subject — which is spavin. Coleman was possessed of
far more cunning than wisdom ; and he used to teach his
pupils, when a lameness occurred in the fore leg, to swear
it was in the foot ; and when in the hind, to vow it was in
the hock. So far as the mere fact of liability of the parts
to be affected is concerned, the late professor was in the
right. But whence spring this disposition in different parts
to assume disease ? Let us illustrate this by a kind of every-
day example. A gentleman has two walking sticks ; the
one is straight, the other is bent at an angle in the middle.
He uses this one day, and the other the next. They both
consequently get the same wear. The straight one will
become useless, because of its being battered at the point ;
and so the foot of the fore leg generally gives way in the
limb which is straight. The other will yield at the part
where the two lines meet, or at which the stick is bent ;
and so in the hind leg, the hock most feels and sustains the
shock of motion. The artery crosses from the inside of
the hock to the outer side of the hind leg, close to the
inner and lower part of the joint, which Mr. W. Percivall
defines accurately enough to be the seat of spavin. May
not vascularity be the predisposing, and jar the exciting
cause ? In the formation of the fore leg can also be dis-
covered a reason, for attributing to the foot greater vascu-
larity than that of the hind Hmb. In the fore leg, the
blood has only to pursue its natural course, or to fall from a
height downwards, to make no mention of its being nearer
to the heart. In the hind limb, the stream is impeded by
making several bends in its course to the foot, placing
entirely on one side the circumstance of its being further
removed from the centre of supply. Can any inference be
drawn from the foregoing statements ? The reader is left
to reply.

Spavin may be characterized as exostosis of some one or
more of the tarsal bones, or ossific inflammation of the
ligaments which connect them with each other. It may
also be considered, that it has no determinate seat, but is
much more often found on the inner, than the outer side of
the hock. It is also true, that its effects are not to be
measured by the dimensions of the exostosis, as these are
sometimes great without coiTesponding lameness ; and that

494 SPAVIN.

it is a character of the affection founded on the lessened
irritabihty and increased deposition which warmth, friction,
and mental excitement occasion, to render the horse less
lame as lie progresses ; which symptom will assist to dis-
tinguish it from other affections. A spavin of the cuneiform
bones usually lames more than that which is lower down
and joins them to the metatarsals. Neither do spavins, when
arrived at a certain state, usually increase ; consequently
spavined horses for some purposes may prove useful. In
moderate and slow work they are even frequently amended ;
but in bad cases the fear of lying down prevents their
thriving. Thus post-masters and stage-coach drivers were
not often willing to purchase badly spavined horses, or any
others with permanent lamenesses behind, although they did
not reject the foundered or groggy horse. Lamenesses be-
fore force the horse to lie down ; those behind often hinder
him doing so, owing to an instinctive dread, that when once
down he cannot rise again ; and the persons alluded to were
well aware that the horse who lies most can work best.

Treatment of Bone Spavin. — This does not differ from
that of splint, except that it is much oftener a cause of
serious lameness ; occurring, however, as it commonly does
in older horses, it also proves more obstinate ; and the
treatment required, therefore, should be more active. Among
the older farriers, who, like some of the moderns, thought
nothing too strong for a horse, \dolent mechanical operations
were resorted to ; as the mallet and chisel to chip it off,
boring the exostosis with a gimlet, punching it with a hot
iron, or applying caustics ; the first removing it mechani-
cally, and the three latter methods destroying its vitality
promoted its exfoliation. As might be expected, for
one case which succeeded (and in some it certainly did suc-
ceed), in many it increased the lameness, or ended in anchy-
losis, and sometimes in death. It is not improbable that
instruments may yet be devised which will operate on these
bony enlargements without risk ; though the chances are
fewer in the hock, from its connexion with capsular and
bursal ligaments, than in other parts. The treatment pur-
sued by veterinarians of the present day varies somewhat ;
those bordering on the old school still rub them with some
violence, and then stimulate them with ol : origanum, ol :

RING-BONE. 495

terebinth : &c. &c. Those of later date bUster and fire. At
the Veterinary College setons are used, by nipping up the
integument and pushing a needle armed with tape through it,
so that the seton within the skin exactly opposes itself to the
spavin. If the skin be tender or tumefied, it is more proper
to make an opening above and below the exostosis, and to
push a blunt seton-needle, or eyed probe, from one opening
to the other, armed with a tape, smeared with mild blister-
ing ointment, or common turpentine. In this way, report
says, the College practice has proved very successful. Blis-
tering we have, however, found, when repeated over and over,
commonly proved equal to all the benefit these obstinate
cases can receive ; for when the bony deposit is fully formed,
it is in vain to expect its entire absorption : even its partial
absorption is often frustrated ; the removal of acute lame-
ness is generally the only benefit that can be anticipated.
Our principal hope lies in preventing the increase of the
bony deposit, and likewise in removing that inflammation
which is the existing cause of much of the pain, stiffness, and
tumefaction in the surrounding hgaments. Our hopes of
success must also greatly depend on the time the evil has
existed. When it is early attended to, that is, before the
bony deposit has gained its full solidity, stimulants act more
favourably, and lessen it more materially. It remains to
add, that, when repeated blistering fails, the firing-iron
generally concludes the business, but commonly answers no
further purpose than being a publication of the animal's in-
firmity, and a w^arning to practitioners as regards the pre-
vious treatment.

RING-BONE.

This is an exostosis surrounding the whole, or part, of
the circle of the coronet, or involving the junction of the
large and small pastern bones. But, although the situation
is no further varied than this in the different cases which
occur, yet the parts affected are very dissimilar, and the de-
gree of lameness greater in the lower disease. In upright
pasterns, either formed thus originally, or having grown thus
from ligamentary contractions, the articulary surfaces of the
bones become so opposed, that great jar is sustained during

496 ANCHYLOSIS.

motion, inflammation is excited, and an osseous deposit
ensues. Ring-bones are, however, not uncommon among
colts at the time of being backed, from the ruinous weight
of a heavy rider over rough or ploughed ground ; or from
their being thrown on their haunches during their training,
which eftbrt is, perhaps, the chief reason that they are
more common to the hind than to the fore feet. This
disease is likewise to be met with among yearlings that have
never been backed.

The treatment of a ring-bone resolves itself into attempts
to reduce any considerable inflammation which may exist ;
poulticing around the foot, until it be abated. After this,
blister the coronet, and keep up the action of the blister for
a month. If the ring-bone be still in the same state after
this period, again blister it.

Exostoses of the Coffin Bone is still more common ; in-
deed the coffin bones of old horses are seldom seen without
them : it is equally common to see the lateral cartilages
more or less absorbed, and their place supplied by bone.
It is curious to observe the vast varieties in these deposits ;
in some, the coffin is increased to a grotesque form, totally
distinct from the original. In a few, the absorption is
greater than the deposit, but this is not frequent. Can we,
therefore, wonder at the stiffness and disinclination to
unusual exertion in old horses ? or can we be surprised that
these affections are so irremediable in them ?

ANCHYLOSIS.

When ossific matter is deposited within or upon the car-
tilaginous extremities of bones, or upon the capsular and
investing ligaments, so as totally to destroy the motion of a
joint, it is called anchylosis. This tendency is manifested in
a very great degree in the horse. Few of the joints of the
animal escape anchylosis, as none of his bones are out of
the ordinary reach of exostosis. The joints of the spinal
column, particularly of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, are
very frequently the seat of this affection, which seems to be
occasioned by heavy weights. It is anchylosis which renders
old horses stiff', and in some instances unwilling to lie down,
or when down averse to rising up again.

SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA. 497

Anchylosis of the Knee and Hock are not frequent ; but
when seen, they usually have their source in punctures of
the cavities of the joints.

From what has already been said, it will be evident that
no treatment will effect a perfect cure in any instance ; w^e
can only palliate the symptoms by the means before de-
tailed at length ; such as adapting the shoe to the peculiarity
of the tread, and soothing the irritation natural to a part in
such a state by wet bandages.

CHAPTER XVIII.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.
SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA.

This common or accidental inflammation must be dis-
tinguished from that known as the specific or periodical
ophthalmia : this usually yields readily to medical treat-
ment : in most instances it would be cured by nature. The
diseases of the eye have a consequence on the horse un-
known to man, wdio, having one affected, is still able to
perceive objects distinctly with the other : the horse, on the
contrary, has his axis of vision so directed that he sees
different objects with each eye ; consequently, when blind of
one eye, all things on that side are shut out from his sight.
It is said to be a fact, that a blind horse has a smooth coat
in winter and a rough one in summer. Nimrod says it
happens to nine out of ten. We relate it as we have re-
ceived it. There is also another evil connected with an
inflammatory affection of the eye in the horse ; which is,
the animal is rendered startlish and timid by objects
presenting themselves indistinctly upon the diseased side :
when both eyes are affected, he is made more so. It is but
seldom that this inflammation has other than a mechanical
origin : blows, lesion of the conjunctival coat from the lash
of the whip, hay-seeds, or other matters falhng within the
eyelids, and not being removed by the action of the nicti-
tating membrane, are among the common causes. It now
and then, in a mild degree, is an accompaniment of in-
fluenza ; likewise it occasionally appears as the consequence

K k

498 SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA.

of a direct attack of cold ; such cases, however, are rare, and
should always be looked on with extreme suspicion.

The appearances of simple inflammation of the eye are
principally to be distinguished by the circumstance, that,
except in cases of unusual intensity, they are such as cha-
racterise an affection of the conjunctiva only ; whereas, in
an attack of specific ophthalmia, the internal parts of the
globe are always involved, and it is probable they are the parts
primarily attacked. Another assistant guide in distinguish-
ing between the two is, that, in specific ophthalmia, there is
always constitutional disturbance, as symptomatic fever,
impaired appetite, and harsh, dry skin. There is, generally,
in both cases, the same impatience of light denoted by
closed eyelids ; the same distention of the vessels, reddened
hue of the conjunctival coat, and there may be an inflamed
and protruded haw : moreover, in the generality of cases
arising from simple ophthalmia, the cornea is opaque.
From that sympathy which is found to exist between double
organs, even when the affection has been entirely brought
on by violence done to one eye, the other will by sympathy
become affected also, but in a minor degree. Of such
liability the practitioner should be aware, as a mistake in
this particular might lead him into several important errors.

The treatment must commence by a careful eversion of
the eyelids, in case the cause is not otherwise apparent, and
due examination to detect any extraneous substance which
may have intruded itself; if any such be found it should
immediately be removed, when the animal, if not very bad,
will get well. If the evil has existed for some days foment
the eye with an ounce of laudanum, mixed in a gallon of
warm water, or a drachm to a pint. Lay a piece of wetted
cloth also over the eye. If the inflammation, from delay
or wrong treatment, runs high, take blood from the eye
branch of the angular vein, and give the horse some food
of which he is fond upon the floor. The pendant head,
and motion of the jaw, will cause the blood to flow freely ;
and, should any application be further required, use some of
those recommended in the next article.

SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 499

SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA.

This ruinous affection of the eyes is distinguished from
the simple disease by the constitutional disturbance which
accompanies it ; it is also characteiised by affecting the more
deeply-seated humours. The attack is made on the inner
structures of the eye, the external covering being only
sympathetically involved.

The appearances which accompany the affection are not
always the same : those more commonly present are swelled
eyelids, which appear nearly closed, and when separated
exhibit a sunken retracted eyeball, giving the eye the ap-
pearance of being diminished. This arises from the re-
tractor muscles acting to withdraw the eye from the stimulus
of light, and the horse resists every effort to force open the
lids, if the attempt be made in front of a strong light ; but
turn the head away, and the animal will unclose the eye.
This retraction of the eye at the same time forces the haw
over a portion of its globe, where it is seen swelled and
preternaturally red, from its participation in the disease.
The inner lining membrane of the lids will be found highly
vascular and hot, pouring forth, in most instances, a flood
of tears, which continually trickle down the face ; and the
whole conjunctiva will present a network of turgid red
vessels over its opaque white surface. If the cornea be not
too opaque or too much inflamed, we shall discover the
aqueous humour thick and muddy also ; the iris and choroid
will likewise be found altered from their natural colour.
From this state it follows sometimes, that a central yellow
patch is discovered at the bottom of the eye ; in which case
matter has formed, from the usual suppurative inflamma-
tion, but it most commonly becomes absorbed again, and
sometimes very speedily. In very acute cases, however,
there is a large deposit of fluid, which disorganizes the eye.
The rapidity of the changes in the state of the eye is a very
marked feature of specific ophthalmia ; and the transition
from a most opaque to almost a clear state of the cornea,
and from a simple dimness in the appearance to a perfect
opacity, sometimes occurs in a remarkable short space of
time. We have seen an eye opaque within and without,
which was merely dim the night before ; and perhaps, within

Kk 2

500 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA.

twelve hours, it would again have almost become transpa-
rent, without any apparent medical agency.

In the above detail of symptoms, it is the active inflam-
matory state which has been described, and is frequently so
sudden in its attack as to gain almost its "topmost height "
in a few hours. It is not, however, in every instance, thus
violent, nor thus sudden ; on the contrary, it sometimes
approaches more slowly, when the impatience of light is
not remarkable, and amounts only to a winking of the lids,
and moisture from tears, when brought into the full glare :
the globe of the eye looks rather yellow than red, and
within, it is only slightly disturbed by a discoloured muddi-
ness. The haw is then hardly apparent, the eyelids are less
swollen or gorged, and the tears pass in their natural
channel ; the eye or eyes remain without much variation
many days, and sometimes even weeks. This apparent
mildness of symptoms is not, however, a prognostic of a
less formidable disease, for this proves usually an obstinate
case, and may be eventually fatal to vision.

Specific ophthalmia commonly attacks only one eye in the
horse, leaving the other totally unaffected, orat most only sym-
pathetically involved. Worthy of remark, is the complete
and sudden metastasis which often takes place in this disease.
From being in a very aggravated state of inflammation in
one eye, it will suddenly shift its seat to the other, leaving
the original much amended or nearly well ; and it will not
only thus change about from eye to eye, but may likewise
either spring from, or be transferred to, other organs.

The periodical nature of the complaint is such, that,
having once made its appearance, there is almost a cer-
tainty of a recurrence of its attacks ; its appearance, how-
ever, cannot be anticipated : it may be absent for months,
or it may return in a week or two. It is always observed,
that the first of these inflammatory attacks, however violent,
having arrived at its height, usually gives way to medical
treatment ; or the disease leaves the horse of its own accord,
and the eyes recover nearly their former appearance : upon
a narrow inspection, there may be observed either some
small opaque spots within the lens, or the general cornea
will not be so distinctly clear as it was before the appearance
of the disease ; or even should the centre of the cornea be

SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 501

perfectly transparent, yet there will commonly remain some
cloudy lines around its circumference. This latter appear-
ance should always be particularly attended to, for this is
the very last part the opacity quits ; and, w-e believe, this
hardly ever wholly leaves the edges of an eye once affected.
The eye or eyes, however, thus far recovered, seldom re-
main very long sound ; but often are again subject to the
diseased action, and the complaint recurs with all its pristine
violence. As these attacks are repeated, they leave the eye
less and less transparent. The remaining opacity forms a
nucleus for future and rapid accretion : sometimes, however,
it will remain stationary for a long time, and now and then
it never enlarges. But, usually, repeated inflammatory at-
tacks succeed each other ; and the whole crystalline lens at
last becomes opaque, when the disease takes the name of
cataract, in which almost all these inflammations terminate.
It is remarkable, likewise, when the process of forming cata-
ract has become fixed and regular within the crystalline lens,
active inflammation usually leaves the eye, and seldom again
returns. Occasionally it terminates more destructively ; the
crystalline lens may be pushed from its capsule against the
membrane of the aqueous humour ; sometimes the pupil is
torn, and the iris hangs ragged, or adheres to neighbouring
structures; and more rarely the eye is thoroughly disorganized.
Causes. — It has been conjectured, that the remote cause
of this disease arises from the plethora which takes place in
horses at the adult period ; that is, when they have just
attained their growth, at which time it is observed they
are more frequently attacked by it ; for until this age the
blood has not only to nourish the body, but to increase
it also by the addition of parts ; but after maturity, having
only to support the organs it has already formed, there
must be a superabundant quantity thrown on the system : at
this period, therefore, the vascular action is strong, and
much subject to distention. This theory, however inge-
nious, is by no means sufficient to account for the consti-
tutional predisposition so evident to this disease ; it is by
no means confined to the adult period ; it has been wit-
nessed in colts far from the adult state ; and even barring
this objection to its corr-ectness, it yet remains to be ac-
counted for, why the eye should be, of all the organs, the

502 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA,

only one attacked ; and why also the complaint should be
confined to the horse, and not equally take place in the
mule and ass. It is, however, in the native countries of
the last mentioned animals, more frequent than in our
colder clime. We have, moreover, by a source of extensive
observations, pretty clearly estabhshed its hereditary nature :
the constitutional disposition does descend from the parents
of both sexes to the offspring ; and this knowledge may be
hereafter turned to account by our breeding only from such
horses as have not a tendency towards specific ophthalmia.
The wall-eyed horse, by general consent, is said to be
exempt ; yet Mr. Castley met with two cases of this kind
in one regiment. Size of body is thought to have some
connexion with it, seeing that blindness is much more rare
among ponies than among larger horses ; and it is the
general opinion, that small retracted eyes, particularly in
the heads of coarse fleshy horses, are more predisposed to
disease than others.

The occasional causes are probably various. A determi-
nation to the head must be the consequence of the exertion
which a horse is exposed to when he is first put to active
and laborious exercise, particularly that of drawing ; and
this, as he is unused to it, must act considerably in distend-
ing the vessels of these organs. Hurtrel d'Arboval lays
much stress on dentition as an occasional cause ; and in
this process it is certain much blood must centre about the
eyes. Early breaking horses into harness by collar pres-
sure must also hinder the free return of blood from the
head, and produce congestion. There is great reason to
think, that disturbances in the digestive functions are pre-
disponents. The acrimonious fumes of a hot foul stable, to
a young animal that has been only used to a barn and pad-
dock, may call it into action. Of all causes, foul stables, and
improper food, serve to keep alive the disorder. Formerly,
when animals were little cared for, specific ophthalmia was
a frequent disease. Now, when horses are better under-
stood, and more carefully tended, a man may be in practice
ten years without encountering a single instance of its
ravages. Cart-horses are most subject, because they are
of all animals worst stabled. Ponies are all but exempt ;
these diminutive creatures being sufiered to go at large.

SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA. 503

In England, where stabling and fodder are much studied,
the disease is rare. In Ireland, where horses are thought
to be well housed, so they can stand and feed on what
they can get, specific ophthalmia, and its effects, are still
an every-day occurrence.

Treatment. ~Jt is not in general found difficult to remove
the immediate attack ; but from the specific nature of,
and the connexion the disease has with the constitution at
large, as before insisted on, it proves extremely difficult to
prevent the recurrence. In this particular it resembles
scrofula in the human being ; and it is only a proof of the
fatal blindness of practitioners, that after all their endea-
vours have rather aggravated than ameliorated the dis-
order, a total change of practice never occurred to them.
Many recommend four large blood-lettings, purgatives, diu-
retics, sedatives, setons, and blisters ; and have even not
scrupled to propose the putting out of an eye, to stay the
ravage which they had no art to stop. When the animal
is first attacked, fasten a piece of tape to the head stall,
that it may slant across the face ; but above the eye, and
on this line, hang a portion of soft rag several times dou-
bled, so that it may fall over the affected organ, which it
ought entirely to cover. Have the rag kept wet with
hot or cold applications, according as either seems to
be agreeable to the animal. If hot, break up some poppy
heads, and boil one dozen in two quarts of water for four
hours, repeatedly filling up the saucepan as the liquor is
reduced. Afterwards, press and strain. Then add water
to make up the quantity, if any be deficient. Let it stand
till the sediment has settled, when decant with care, and
warm as required. Should cold be preferred, add one ounce
of laudanum to a quart of spring water, and keep the rag
wet with the mixture.

The food should all be boiled, and of the most supporting
kind. Roots of all kinds, malt, oats, ground beans, clover
hay, linseed, &c. &c. This will probably sufficiently open
the bowels, but should it not, avoid giving more than one
drachm of aloes night and morning ; and even continue
this quantity no further than is imperative to render the
bowels soft, yet by no means to induce watery stools.

With regard to physic, any thing administered must be

504 SPECIFIC OR PERIODICAL OPHTHALMIA.

of a soothing and supporting description, therefore give
night and morning, during the violence of the attack, the
following drink : —

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Powdered colchicum half an ounce.

Stout one quart.

Should the inflammation run very high, the superior
branch of the angular or facial, called the eye vein, may
be opened, and the horse have some food, to which he is
partial, given him to eat off the ground. If the animal
refuses to feed, the opening made with the lancet may be
bathed with warm water ; and even by this last process, no
inconsiderable quantity of blood may be abstracted, yet oc-
casionally the blood refuses to flow. In that case, open
the opposite vein ; and after this last has lost a small quan-
tity, the original will generally pour forth freely.

This is every thing that should be done ; and when the
horse recovers he will be fit for service, without a long rest,
and an expensive course of tonics. To perfect the cure,
however, and to prevent a recurrence of the disorder, mind
and have your stable's drains overlooked : do this, even
though your nose can detect nothing. The most unhealthy
gases are not always those which smell the worst. This
being accomplished, next attend to the ventilation. See
that the roof of the stable be, at least, nine feet high. That
the air may be sweet it should never exceed 52° degrees of
warmth in winter, and 65° in summer. Should the tem-
perature of the atmosphere be higher than the figures re-
corded, throw every door and window in the place wide
open, and let them remain thus till the heat declines to the
required standard.

Place a pail of water in the horse's manger, so that he
may drink when he pleases. Observe that the water be
repeatedly changed, and not the quantity merely filled
up, a portion of the stagnant fluid remaining each time.
Good water is as necessary for horses as for Christians. It
is true, these animals will generally endeavour to drink
at every dirty puddle they cross ; but this does not prove
that dirty water is good for horses, any more than it is
established that green gooseberries are good for children,
because little boys and girls are fond of eating them, Man,

CATARACT. 505

with all his reason, has partaken of very injurious drinks ;
and it is hardly fair for him to insist his dumb servant
should be over choice in the matter of fluids.

No matter in what condition the eye, which has lately
suffered from ophthalmia, may be in, do nothing to it.
Trust entirely to nature, and shut your ears to the quacks
about you, though each should swear he has in his posses-
sion an infallible remedy. Formerly all kinds of stuffs
were put into the sore and sensitive eye of the sick horse ;
but if you are determined to do something, the following
probably may do as little harm as any thing else, though
they are far more appropriate to the former disease : —

No. 1 . — Sugar of lead half a drachm.

Sulphate of zinc one scruple.

Distilled water one pint.

Mix. When the sediment has settled, decant gently, then
filter through blotting paper, and bottle for use.

No. 2. — Crude sal ammoniac one drachm.

Infusion of red rose leaves one pint.

No. 3. — Laudanum half an ounce.

Rose water one pint.

CATARACT.

The specific ophthalmia just described has too common
a tendency to end in total cataract ; the lens, in the majority
of cases that have terminated, is fully involved, and quite
white. In other cases that have happily stopped short in
their career, spots only of an uncertain size are visible on
the lens or upon its capsule ; for a white opaque spot on
either is called a cataract. Cataracts, however, can and do
exist in eyes that have never been subjected to ophthalmia ;
and as they make their appearance without any apparent
cause, so they occasionally will depart without any treat-
ment. Blows sometimes produce them, and when caused
in this manner, they are for the most part stationary.
However, in cataract following ophthalmia, there is gene-
rally much derangement of the other internal parts of the
eye ; particularly of the iris, which sometimes adheres to the
lens, at others to the cornea ; and in some cases its pupil-
lary opening is so reduced by contraction as to render the
cataract hardly perceptible. This internal derangement

506 GLASS EYES.

greatly prevents any benefit being derived from the opera-
tion of couching ; added to which, a horse so operated upon,
to have perfect vision, would require to wear spectacles. It
has, however, been suggested that, even without glasses, so
much benefit might be gained from it as to prevent acci-
dents, like running against posts, falling in pits, &c. This,
nevertheless, would be greatly overbalanced by the imper-
fect vision, which would render the horse so operated on
very dangerous from his liability to shy.

Treatment. — Cataracts of all sizes and shapes are best let
alone. Should they cause the horse to shy, blind the eye
or eyes in which they may exist. The measures generally
pursued, with very doubtful success indeed, are the blowing
of mercurial preparations into the eye, the application of
caustics, either in powerful solutions, or in substance, to
the organ ; and, in short, all kinds of cruelties, more likely
to favour the formation, than to cause the dispersion of
cataract.

GLASS EYES, AMAUROSIS, OR GUTTA SERENA.

This disease, known by the term glass eyes, from the
peculiar glassy appearance the organs assume, is generally
considered as dependent on a paralytic state of the optic
nerves, or of their expansions, the retinae. By others
it is, however, thought to arise from the effects of inflam-
mation, by which coagulable lymph is placed over the optic
nerve, rendering the retina inaccessible to the stimulus of
light ; this can hardly be an occasional, and is certainly
not the usual cause. The disease, however, is likely to
arise from any irritation of the brain ; thus it is found to
follow staggers and the loss of large quantities of blood ;
which last mentioned cause specially affects the nervous
system. The veterinarian should make himself familiar
with the appearances of this complaint, otherwise he may
lie open to serious imposition. In amaurosis, a horse pre-
sents indications of blindness in his manner, though but
little in his eyes ; he seems cautious in stepping ; lifts his
legs high, and moves his ears quickly, as though endeavour-
ing to make up by sound the intelligence lost by the depri-
vation of sight : but, above all, a hand moved close to the
eye occasions no winking, unless held near enough for the

GREASE. 507

motion to influence the air around, which an artful person
might manage with ease. When this kind of eye is ex-
amined closely, the pupil will be found of one invariahle
size and unvarying hue ; it will not enlarge and diminish as
in a healthy horse, when removed farther from, or nearer
to, the light ; for the retina, ceasing to be influenced by the
luminous ray, no longer controls the movements of the
iris. It is, therefore, from the peculiarities in the manner
of the horse, the invariable size of the pupil, and a greenish
glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases may be distin-
guished. As it has hitherto proved incurable, we shall
waste no time on its treatment.

EXCRESCENCES, &C. ON THE EYES.

It remains to observe, that small polypous excrescences
sometimes form on the globe of the eye, or on the eyelids.
Fungoid projections on the transparent cornea likewise
sometimes follow accidental abrasions, or may be they are
spontaneous productions. When they are of the nature of
polypi, cut them off. When of the fungoid kind, the chlo-
ride of zinc in solution, or a minute quantity of the ung :
precip : rub : softened with oil and painted over it every
day, or second day, will effect a removal.

CHAPTER XIX.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
GREASE.

This disease appears to be dependent on a morbid altera-
tion in the quantity and quality of the sebaceous matter
secreted by the glands of the extremities. The inflamma-
tion which first brings about this effect exhibits some singu-
larities not observable in the inflammations of other parts ;
and had the assertion of Jenner been true, that matter from
it was capable of raising a disease again communicable,
its character as a specific disease would stand on equal
grounds with syphihs or small-pox. But that capability is
now questionable, although not decidedly proved to be erro-
neous ; and as on this it rests its main support to the

508 GREASE.

character of a specific disease, the assertion must be left
undecided. The secretion of the sebaceous glands varies
according to the necessities of the part within which they
are situated. It cannot be denied, therefore, as probable,
that their diseases may exhibit corresponding peculiarities,
which we find to be the case in grease. Mr. Percivall
notices in this disease its simple form, its ulcerative, and its
grapy form. In the simple form there is merely swelling of
the skin of the hind legs, which becomes hot, inflamed, and
tumefied ; greasy in appearance, moist with exudation, and
offensive to smell. It soon assumes the ulcerative cha-
racter, and cracks, raw, deep, and excessively tender, mark
the next stage of the affection. Unless the further progress
of the disease can be arrested, these wide and deep ulcerated
cracks throw up loathsome excrescences called grapes:
renewed fungoid deposits continue to be added, and the
heels become enormously swollen.

The inflammation productive of grease appears to origi-
nate in debility, general or local. It originates in general
debility, when the system at large is weakened by long-con-
tinued disease ; or from want of proper nutriment ; or from
long-continued exertion : in which cases these parts being
farther removed from the source of circulation, which itself
labours under additional languor, they are thought to suffer
proportionally in a greater degree than those nearer to
the action of the heart ; hence it is said accumulations
take place, which, if not removed, terminate in an inflamma-
tion, and in an increase of the secretions peculiar to the leg.
This species of general debility appears in spring and
autumn, from the efforts nature employs to generate a new
clothing of hair.

Grease may be said to have local weakness for a cause.
As fluids press, not in proportion to their diameter, but to
the height of their column, the venous blood must find some
difficulty to its ascent. Debility is therefore more felt in
the distended vessels remote from the influence of the
heart, under which circumstance the effects productive of
grease necessarily ensue.

Over-feeding is one of the causes of grease ; and if to this
plethoric state the want of exercise be added, the legs will
be the parts most hkely to suffer. An inflammatory re-

GREASE. 509

action will follow the distention, and the sebaceous glands
will be stimulated both to an increased and an unhealthy
deposit : and they being here very numerous and large,
and requiring to secrete in proportion, it follows that in-
stead of the natural unctuous secretion of the skin of the
heels, they will now pour forth a serous fluid through
ulcerated cracks, or a general purulent one under the real
term of grease. Cold is unfavourable to absorption ; it like-
wise weakens the general energy of the parts, and it often
suspends the circulation ; and, when this has happened, on
the return of warmth the impetus of the blood is always
preternaturally increased ; and the distended vessels, being
previously weakened, are rendered incapable of contracting
on their contents ; and it is perhaps principally to the pre-
sence of cold, and its effects on the constitution, that swelled
legs, cracks, and grease, are so much more common in
winter. Grease has even been called a winter disease, and
the chilblain of horses. Moisture is likewise favourable to
the complaint, for it first produces a determination to the
parts, and then, as a parent of cold, it weakens the already
distended vessels. It is stated by an officer of a dragoon
regiment, that, when stationed in America, another officer
being favourable to the custom of washing the heels of
horses, was permitted to exercise it on his own troop ; the
result was, that this individual troop in three months fur-
nished more than twenty horses with grease, the remainder
of the regiment not more than two or three. The acclivity
of the stalls in our stables has been considered as aiding the
other causes of grease, and with some apparent propriety ;
for it tends to throw considerable weight on the hinder ex-
tremities ; this, by the unnatural position of the heels, puts
the parts on the stretch, and hence weakens them. Grease
will often follow injuries ; as halter casting, or indeed any
accidental abrasion, may bring it on. The disease may
become serious when it occurs under other circumstances
favourable to its production, as in moist, cold, and par-
ticularly frosty or snowy weather ; or when, from previous
illness, a horse has been thrown out of condition ; and,
more than all, when such a case has been maltreated by the
idleness or ignorance of those around, who, finding a swelled
heel, immediately fly to urine balls, or purging balls, whereas

510 . GREASE.

a little local attention would cure the injured surfaces at
once. Vast numbers of horses are greased by want of
attention : it is too much to say, under good grooming,
horses would never have swelled legs or even cracked heels ;
but perhaps few, if any, would ever run into that stage of
ulceration, distinguished from milder abrasions by the term
grease, as expressive of its oily discharge. It is to extreme
cleanliness, to free ventilation, to hand-rubbing the legs
when wet until they are perfectly dry ; and to immediate
local attention to any accidental abrasion, or to any slight
swelling of the heels, that grease is now banished from
among our cavalry, and so seldom met with in any well-
regulated stable. Grease is, in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred, the consequence of improper treatment of some
kind. The attendant is apt to slight the hind legs, because
they are less clean from soil and moisture ; from fear also
the hinder extremities get neglected, as many grooms dare
not trust themselves on their knees, or even employ both
hands at once to the heels of the hind legs ; and we need
not say, that, from one hand being a resisting point to
the other, friction can only be thus obtained. Colour, like-
wise, as it marks debility, so it influences grease ; thus,
it has been remarked that white-legged and light -coloured
horses generally are more liable to cracks, to grease, and
to diseases of the feet, than others which are darker, or
whose legs are black. In the foregoing summary of the
causes of grease, which in the present edition is greatly
compressed, every possible reason is assigned for the origin
of the disease, save the right one, upon which the author is
rather forced, than reaches by his own efforts. The truth
is, grease arises from bad stable management. No matter
of what breed, or how old the horse may be, the groom is
to blame if the animal becomes greasy. In all well-regu-
lated stables, the appearance of this loathsome disorder is a
signal for a change of attendants therein ; for as the affec-
tion is now banished from the army, what earthly reason
can be urged why it should be found in private stables ?

TREATMENT OF GREASE.

This complaint takes on different states or stages, which
being known by different terms, as swelled legs, cracks,

GREASE. 511

grease, graped heels, &c., are apt to be considered as dis-
tinct diseases : but the causes producing any one of them,
may produce the others, and the treatment of all must be
grounded on the same principles : nevertheless, for sim-
plicity of reference we shall consider these several states
separately, still blending the character of the specific afTec-
tion and the treatment. Swelled legs without discharge
have been already fully considered.

Of Cracks. — At first there will be simply heat and itching
in the part ; the horse will be observed to rub one leg
against the other, and sometimes to stamp with his foot,
the whole surface appearing more red than before. If this
state be not attended to, there succeeds an oozing out of
an ichorous discharge from a kind of crack, of which there
are sometimes several. Occasionally the suppurative pro-
cess follows the inflammatory action, so that purulent
matter appears to flow from the first; but, if suffered to
proceed, pus always makes its appearance. In this early
state of tumid, itching, scurfy heels, frequently little more
is necessary than the application of the chloride of zinc
lotion, a scruple to the pint of liquid ; having first well
cleansed the legs with soap and water, and well dried them
afterwards, removing as much of the cuticular eruption as
possible. When the case has proceeded to form cracks, it
will be advisable to attempt the stoppage of the discharge
by frequent washings of the same solutions before recom-
mended ; how^ever, taking care that all the hair be clipped
from the heels, so that the lotion may reach the skin. If
with an inflammatory state there is an ichorous discharge,
and an ulcerative process fully established, the part showing
much virulence and tenderness, the cracks must be carefully
washed with warm water, and thoroughly dried, whenever
the horse returns from exercise ; after which, bathe with
any mild astringent lotion, as the following : —

Chloride of zinc two scruples.

Laudanum two ounces.

Water a pint.

This should be well applied, at least three times daily, at
most six times in tw^enty-four hours.

Sometimes the irritability of the parts requires the appli-
cation of a poultice previously to the use of the wash.

512 GREASE.

One formed of the following ingredients will be found to
act admirably in cleansing, and at the same time soothing
the parts : —

Powdered charcoal two pounds.

Fresli ale yeast one pint.

Bran one quart.

Barley-meal one quart.

Add a sufficiency of blood-warm water, then sprinkle the
surface with powdered opium, and over that strew pul-
verized camphor. Apply it at night, and remove in the
morning.

Swelled Legs, with Discharge. — In some instances with a
general want of condition, the result of disease, there is a
great tumefaction of all the extremities, which is apt to be
followed by serous discharge from several outlets. The
curative plan in this case is more complicated ; for we have
to combat the general debility by generous diet in the form
of speared corn, malt mashes, with carrots, &c. in winter ;
and also to lessen the watery deposit by very mild remedies.
Mild tonics may be administered, but every thing of a
draining or depletive description strictly withheld. No
matter what shall be urged to recommend diuretics or pur-
gatives, let the proprietor firmly resist all such poison.
The following is a mild tonic drink : —

Sound ale one pint.

Carbonate of ammonia half a drachm.

Extract of gentian half an ounce.

Tincture of capsicums half a drachm.

Rub down the extract and the carbonate in some of the ale,
and give night and morning. It was before hinted that
cases occur of discharge from the heels, where astringents,
immediately applied, only irritate : every practitioner must
have met with such instances, as they are sufficiently com-
mon. Without cavilling about the term, we know that in
this form of the complaint it must be patiently soothed,
before the parts will suffer themselves to be even gently
stimulated by the mildest astringent applications. In these
cases the heels, in addition to the tumefaction, and the
pouring out of ichorous or semi-purulent discharge in con-
siderable quantities, are stiff, tender, and painful in the
extreme ; the horse evinces the greatest reluctance to have
any thing done to them, and when he is moved snatches up

GREASE.

513

his leg convulsively, while the extent of vascular action is
such that the heels smoke when exposed. This highly irri-
table state can only be reduced by poultices. In these cases
apply the poultice before recommended, only the bran may
be changed for linseed, or for carrots or turnips, boiled and
mashed. By these means the heat, tenderness, swelling,
and redness, will abate : the discharge also from a thin
ichorous one will become white, bland, and truly purulent.
Now there may be mingled with the mild tonic drink, which
is to be given at the times before stated, one ounce of the
liquor arsenicahs ; and, instead of the former lotion, either
of the following prescriptions may be used for once or
twice : —
Powder : —

Chloride of lime one ounce.

Chalk , a quarter of a pound.

Powdered gall nuts two ounces.

Or the subjoined lotion : —

Chloride of zinc three drachms.

Laudanum four ounces.

Oak bark (solution of) four ounces.

Water one quart.

Neither of the foregoing are to be used, unless the state of
the case imperatively demands them, as they are at all times
far better withheld than exhibited. When, also, much
tumefaction takes place, a linen bandage is often beneficial ;
beginning at tlife coronet, and rolling it more than half way
up the leg ; being careful that it is only done with a very
moderate degree of tightness at first, and that the same
bandage is never used twice without being well washed.
As amendment proceeds, great care is requisite to prevent
relapse, by avoiding the original exciting causes. The
general disposition to swelling will be best counteracted by
long- continued walking exercise, with moderate but nutri-
tive feeding, particularly by the use of green meat in sum-
mer, and of carrots in winter. Bran mashes, as tending to
open the body, should not be lost sight of ; and w^hen it
can be conveniently managed, place the horse in a loose
box. But if the complaint occurs in an emaciated animal
the plan already detailed should be pursued with more
moderation as regards exercise, or with such only as a
loose box may aftbrd. We have, in all those cases, where

l1

514 GREASE.

green meat could not be got, experienced great benefit from
spearing the corn, particularly where the horse was low in
flesh or poor in condition. Any change of food, almost, is
proper ; at least, any not manifestly injudicious. The best
effects have been known to follow the substituting of beans
for oats, and this in a horse not particularly emaciated.
Before w^e quit the subject it may not be improper again to
remark, that this species of grease is frequently the result
of blisters injudiciously applied when the legs are in a state
of swelling and debility.

Confirmed Grease.- — This is to be considered only as a
more aggravated stage or state of the former ; in which the
matter issuing has the foetid peculiar smell, that strongly
characterises the disease ; so powerful is this, a person
can at once recognise whether a greasy horse be in a stable
or not. The inflammation, that was before principally con-
fined to the sebaceous glandular structure, now affects the
integuments generally, producing extensive ulceration, with
intermediate dry hardened scabs : the hair stands erect ;
the whole surface becomes exquisitely sensible and vascular,
bleeding on the slightest touch ; and the vessels of the heels
not only secrete a peculiar fluid, but some of them take
on a singular action, and form a semi-corneous substance ;
so that, in the advanced stages and violent degrees of this
complaint, hardened horny knobs form over the fetlock,
intermixed with others more vascular, uniting the proper-
ties of pus, mucus, and oil : these protuberant portions are
called grapes, from their figure. The constitution usually
sympathises much with this extreme state of grease, and
the horse, unless very well fed, becomes weak, lean, and
irritable.

Treatment. — It becomes a question, whether, in a case of
confirmed grease, even if it were in our power, it would be
prudent to stop the discharge at once ; for when secreting
vessels have been long habituated to any action, they can
seldom be suddenly checked with impunity. But it is to
be first remembered, that the diseased exudation cannot
be a natural one ; therefore, the heels should be subjected
to a treatment that may produce a more healthy secretion.
The best means for effecting this is the poultice composed
of charcoal, yeast, bran, and barley meal. This should be

SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 515

applied every day and night, as soon as mixed, it being
suffered to perform its fermentative process upon the leg ;
and, by the action of the carbonic acid gas, it is remark-
able what a change is produced on the part, generating a
mild, bland, pus-like fluid, with a decrease of irritability.
Should the expense be objected to, a carrot or turnip poul=
tice may be tried instead, though no vast saving is effected,
as these last are much longer and more uncertain in their
action. It is, moreover, essentially necessary to the cure,
that all sprouting luxurious gi'anulations should be reduced
to the level of the surrounding integuments. Caustics only
render these grapes, as they are termed, of greater size ;
but the mode best adapted for their removal is by the knife ;
having a flat piece of heated iron also ready to pass over
the surfaces, in case the haemorrhage is profuse ; as the horse
having grease can but ill afford the loss of blood. The
operations being finished, apply the poultice as directed.
In two or three days leave off the poultice, and employ the
strongest lotion into which chloride of zinc enters, and
sprinkle the legs with either of the powders before men-
tioned, only rendering each weaker as the symptoms abate.
In this manner a cure may be accomplished. The disease,
however, is apt to return. Should it display this disposi-
tion, discharge the groom, and procure one that is less
sparing of his labour. Do not have the horse's heels
washed when he comes in dirty from w^ork. Make the
groom take a hay-band, and go upon both knees, to rub
them with both hands, until they are thoroughly dry.
Wash them the following morning, and be careful to dry
them well afterwards. The thin linen bandage may also be
dried ; and the way to the stable, and the straw under the
animal inspected, to see they are all free from dirt. A
Liverpool dealer, when he has a horse that displays a dis-
position for grease, claps a blister upon the heels, and
gives the horse a few old beans, with a quart of ale daily.
This treatment has so highly pleased the dealer, that he ex-
pressed a determination to pursue it for the future.

SMALL POX IN SHEEP.

When this disorder first appeared in England, the editor
then declared his opinion, that it was but as a fugitive

l12

516 SLMALL POX IN SHEEP.

visitation ; that it would obtain no hold of the native
flocks, and however virulent it might be abroad, it would
be unable to establish a footing at home. This conclusion
was based upon the intimate communication, which had
long existed between this country and foreign parts ; upon
the known contagiousness of the disorder ; and upon some-
thing very like to it, having from time to time broken out
in this country, but always having ultimately disappeared.
These facts enabled an encouraging opinion to be published,
at a time when all was terror and dismay ; and it is just
ground for self-gratulation, that subsequent events have
proved the opinion then declared to be well founded.
Nevertheless, as sheep-pox may, in consequence of the now
frequent importation of live stock, break out at any mo-
ment, it will be proper to include a description of its symp-
toms and treatment, in the new edition of the present com-
pendious treatise. The first stage of this affection is im-
perceptible, but during it nothing is to be foretold. The
sheep appear perfectly healthy. They feed well, and are as
lively as any members of the flock ; but, during all this time,
the taint has been received, and the animals are breeding the
disorder. The period, from the reception of the contagion
to the development of the complaint is, during the summer
months, from six to twelve days ; but, during the colder
half of the year, from twelve to twenty-four days.

At the expiration of one or the other of these periods,
the disease exhibits its characteristic symptoms. The ani-
mal becomes dull ; is off its feed ; stands apart from the
rest ; and ceases to ruminate. The head and ears are pen-
dant ; the membrane, lining the eyes and nostrils, in-
flamed ; the pulse increases ; the attitude is unnatural ;
while a watery secretion overflows the eyes, and a thick
mucus is discharged from the nose. If the animal be now^
caught, and thrown upon its back, there will, upon the
hindmost part of the belly, and inner side of the thighs,
where the wool is very thin, or altogether wanting, be seen
a reddish blush, the colour of which will disappear upon
pressure. Upon passing the palm of the hand over the
skin, a number of inequalities, like to pimples beneath the
integument, will be plainly felt. In from two to four days,
these pimples pierce the skin, and the fever increases. The

SMALL POX IN SHEEP. 517

lumps may be in large or small patches ; they may run
together, or be at a distance from each other : there is no
limit to the eruption, or bounds to its ravages. At the first
appearance of the swellings, however, they are of a weak red
hue. The animal's sufferings increase. A light clear liquid,
in a very small bladder, next appears on the top of each
swelling, in from tw^o to four days. After this last symp-
tom is fairly exhibited, the sheep becomes more lively ; but
in three days, or in six, he becomes worse than ever. There
then appears an inflamed circle round each head of the
pimples. The bladder no longer contains a clear liquid,
but pus now occupies the place of the original fluid. The
fever is then at its height, and many a sheep who has past
the first virulence of the disorder, sinks beneath this second
aggravation. After a while, the pustules burst, and scabs
are formed, which, when they are cast off, leave behind
them small pits or ulcers, that are very difficult to eradi-
cate, because of the weakness attending the complaint.

The attack generally lasts a month. The after conse-
quences are hardly less fearful than the disease. In some
cases, when the patches run together, the symptoms are
very fearful ; the breath quickens ; the lips and tongue
ulcerate ; the head swells ; the breath stinks ; thick
saliva runs from the mouth ; the wool tumbles off in
flakes ; large sloughs occur, and the animal sinks under
the violence of the disorder, diarrhoea generally concluding
every thing. The signs by which the disease is recognised
are redness of the skin ; the felling of a rash underneath it.
Also the appearance of the pimples ; their getting white and
clear heads ; a ring showing itself round each swelling,
when the transparency becomes opaque. The pimples
burst ; the dried matter accumulates about the orifice. Black
scabs are formed ; these last drop off, and leave ulcers
behind. There are several forms of this disorder, or, rather,
the same disease can assume various degrees of violence.

Treatment. — When sheep-pox is abroad, the master's eye
ought to be daily cast upon the flock. The food should be
nutritive, the pens open, and sufficient space allowed, as all
crowding is injurious. It is better to give the animals a
little shelter, than force them together to keep one another
warm. Any sheep that seems dull should be carried home,

518 SMALL POX IN SHEEP.

and put by itself. The following mild laxative ought to
be given : —

Epsnm salts half an ounce.

Sulphuric ether two drachms.

Nitre half a drachm.

Dissolve the salts and the nitre in a pint of cold water, and
having added the ether, give the drink to the animal.

This may be repeated the next day, if costiveness be still
present ; but must not be continued after the bowels are
relieved, however gently. When the disease declares itself,
we must give further medicine ; and the following drink is
as good as any : —

Belladonna a scruple.

Liquor ammonia acetatis one ounce.

Rub the belladonna in a little thin gruel, and give in half a
pint quite cold.

While this is administered, all solid food must be with-
drawn ; the appetite is almost or quite lost, but the desire
for drink is great ; advantage may be taken of this last
circumstance to throw some support into the body if
water be denied, but plenty of sweet thin gruel (constantly
renewed) kept before the animal. CleanHness must, in
every particular, be scrupulously attended to. Thus the
measures recommended must be pursued, the drink last
proposed being given night and morning. When the pim-
ples have heads, boiled roots or malt mashes may be
allowed ; and, after the scabs are turned black, discontinue
the last drink, and give the subjoined : —

Extract of gentian one drachm.

Sulphate of copper ten grains.

Sound ale half a pint.

Dissolve the copper in a little ale ; rub down the extract in
a little more, and give daily. All should after this go well ;
but occasionally the disease assumes a typhoid character,
when the drink above must then be persevered in, and in
addition, a quart of gruel be horned down three times each
twenty-four hours.

When the scabs fall off, bathe the ulcers with a solution
composed of a drachm of the chloride of zinc to a quart of
water ; keep the parts perfectly clean, and apply the liquid
mentioned night and day.

WARTS. 519

The after consequences of this disorder are, by continental
writers, recorded as loss of sight, lameness, affections of
the lungs, colic, weak intestines, emaciation, abortion, loss
of the fleece ; any one of which is hardly less fearful than
the disease itself. Wherefore it is better for the farmer to
have such animals slaughtered as do not speedily recover,
rather than nurse them upon a chance of restoration.
Foreign authors speak of inoculation as a certain pre-
ventative, or at most, the loss is but one in a thousand
lambs, when it is done properly ; but people in this country,
where the disease is rare, are not advised to have resort to
this last measure,

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS.

When a scurfy or scabby eruption at the posterior part
of the bending of the knee appears, it is termed mallenders :
and when a similar one appears at the bend of the hock,
it is called sallenders. Neither of them lame or do much
harm ; but sometimes, when neglected, they degenerate
into a foul ichorous discharge, a little more troublesome,
and always unsightly. Both of them are very easily re-
moved by washing with soap and water, and by applying
the following : —

Camphor one di-achm.

Subacetate of lead {sugar of lead) half a drachm.

Mercurial ointment one ounce.

Mix.

WARTS

Are best removed by tying a ligature round them ; or,
with scarcely any pain, by applying every day, with a camel's
hair pencil, a small portion of strong acetic acid ; or they
may be cut off with a knife or scissors, and the root touched
with any caustic body. There is sometimes seen a sprout-
ing luxurious species, whose roots are larger than their
heads, so that a ligature is not easily passed around them ;
these are best removed by touching their surface daily with
the following paste. The following application will seldom
fail to remove such as cannot be conveniently got at by the
knife or ligature, dressing with it once a day : —

Sulphuric acid 1 rt. ■ n ,

r. 11 ;■ a sumciency oi each.

buli)liur J •'

Make into a paste, and apply a little to the wart.

520 MANGE.

MANGE.

This is sufficiently known as an eruptive affection of the
skin, very highly contagious, and accompanied with almost
incessant itching. It is found in all our domestic quadru-
peds. In the various animals it presents some distinctive
marks. Our principal difficulty was, to account for the readi-
ness with which mange was taken or propagated. This
difficulty is now surmounted, since Mr. Erasmus Wilson
has shown the veterinary profession the disease is caused by
the presence of minute insects of the spider tribe, called
acari. Mange often commences at the roots of the hair of
the mane and tail ; where a scurfy state of the skin appears,
and which it gives the horse pleasure to have examined.
A few days will extend this beyond the simple line of the
mane and tail : spots denuded of hair will appear, and
will eventually make their way over the body to the
face. A close examination will detect under the branny
scurf small vesicular eminences, watery above and red be-
neath ; distinct in the moderate state, but running into
continuous scabby patches in inveterate mange. Mr. Per-
civall has, with his characteristic accuracy, remarked on the
stubborn adherence of some few hairs in the very middle of
the otherwise bare mangy patches. If the observer is in-
clined to examine these individual hairs, he will find that it
requires a very powerfiil pull with a pair of tweezers to
dislodge one of them from its cell within the cutis ; and
when done, he will find not only that the hair itself is
enlarged, but that its bulb is singularly tumid and vascular.
As the disease advances, it thickens and puckers the skin,
particularly that of the neck, withers, and loins ; and it is
throughout marked by its incessant and intolerable irrita-
tion, which forces the horse often to rub himself raw.

The cure of mange. — The disease is more often to be con-
sidered as a local affection ; but there are cases also where
it may have a constitutional connexion ; as when brought on
by emaciation, close confinement, and habitual filth. In
cases either generated or caught, where emaciation is pre-
sent, feed liberally with malt mashes and green food of the
most nutritive kind. If in winter, allow carrots, beet,
potatoes, &c. ; and if these are not to be had, spear the
corn, and give with bran : for, although not generally taken

MANGE. 521

into the account, a change of food will materially assist and
expedite the cure.

The external applications resorted to for the cure are
various ; but sulphur is, of all other remedies uncombined,
the article most to be relied on. The first three of the
following receipts are washes, and are calculated for very
mild cases, and where the filth of rubbing with unguents is
wished to be avoided ; but they should be abandoned if
they do not benefit in a week. They may be applied with
a sponge, carefully wetting every affected part. The two
latter are ointments, sufficiently efficacious, particularly
No. 4 ; but of course are not so cleanly as the former :
these are also to be applied every morning, accurately rub-
bing all affected places.

No. 1. — White hellebore two ounces.

Lime water, fresh made one pint.

Water three pints.

Boil the hellebore in the three pints of water till reduced
to a quart ; when cold, add the lime water. Put the whole
into a bottle, and cork it well, pouring it out as w^anted.

No. 2. — Corrosive sublimate one drachm.

Spirit of wine, or brandy one ounce.

Tobacco quarter of an ounce.

Water a pint and a half.

Dissolve the sublimated mercury in the spirit, by rubbing in
a mortar, after which boil the tobacco and mix.

No. 3. — Sulphur two ounces.

White hellebore five drachms.

W^ater one pint.

Either of these, though more cleanly, are not so safe as the
following ointments, which, besides being safer, will like-
wise be more efficacious : —

No. 4. — Sulphur one pound.

Oil of juniper quarter of a pound.

Yellow basilicon one pound.

Where a stronger remedy is desired the following may
be used : —

No. 5. — ^lui'curial ointment half a pound.

Soft soap two pounds.

Corrosive sublimate half an ounce.

At the Veterinary College a liniment is in general use —

Oil of nuts "1

Oil of tar of each equal pai'ts.

Oil of turpentine J

522 ACUTE FOUNDER.

Previously to the application of any unguent, all excre-
mentitious matter should be removed from the skin, as
scurf or scab, by scraping, brushing, rubbing, or washing,
which will enable the ointment to reach the parts more
effectually. The method of applying the ointment may be
left to the discretion of the rubber. We used to direct it to
be done by means of a thick pair of leathern gloves ; which
will enable the operator to work it into the skin, or to
spread it well over every part, and to the bottom of any
sinuosities. The rubbing for the exposed parts should be
repeated every day, and a general dressing should be made
every other day. Where the skin is very stubborn, apply
the ointment by means of a hard brush.

HIDEBOUND.

It is very seldom that hidebound exists as a primary
disease of the skin, but as a symptomatic affection it is
sufficiently common. It is unnecessary to enlarge farther
on it ; the introduction of it here is merely intended to keep
the systematic order of diseases complete. Liberal food
and proper grooming will generally cure this imaginary dis-
order.

CHAPTER XX.

DISEASES OF THE FEET.

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET.

ACUTE LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER.

This may be characterized as an acute inflammatory attack
on the vascular parts of the foot generally, but on the
sensitive laminee more particularly ; when we consider the
extent of secreting surface engaged in the formation of horn,
we cannot be surprised that these organs should become
the subjects of extensive inflammation. Primary inflam-
mation takes place in them from different causes, as from
the alternation of heat with cold, exactly in the same
manner as it occasions other great inflammations ; but more
particularly here, when extraordinary exertions have already
distended the vessels. It is, therefore, not unfrequently
seen consequent upon any great exertion, as hard driving or

ACUTE FOUNDER. 523

riding for many hours in succession ; and it is found still
more likely to occur in snowy weather, particularly where
the removal into a hot stable has immediately followed.
Another cause of primary inflammation may be regarded as
dependent on the unceasing strain of the laminse which the
erect position occasions ; particularly in sea voyages, where
it is united with very great stress alternately laid on one or
other of the feet in attempting to preserve the perpendicular
position during the rolling of the ship. Acute founder is
sometimes not a primary affection, but is too frequently the
effect of metastasis. We have seen the feet receive this
morbid state from a translation of inflammation from many
of the organs, but it is most frequent in pneumonia and
enteritis : there is no acute attack but what may be
translated to the feet. Founder may be confined to one
foot, to two, or it may attack the whole four ; but it is
most common to the fore feet.

Symptoms of Acute Founder. — When a horse labours
under this complaint, the attendants are usually uncon-
scious of the real nature of the disease ; and it is not un-
frequent that even the medical practitioner, when called in,
does not immediately detect it, unless much used to these
cases : for he finds the horse heaving at his flanks, with a
quick, labouring pulse ; and, on inquiry, he hears that the
attack commenced with a rigor or shivering fit ; that the
suffering animal has been lying down and getting up fre-
quently; gi'oaning with excess of pain, and occasionally
breaking out into cold and profuse sweats. In such a case,
unless he be informed that the horse has been ridden or
driven with violence, and afterwards exposed to cold ; or,
unless his eye catches the particular disinclination to remain
on the feet, or his hand detects their extreme heat, he is at
a loss, frequently, whether to consider it an attack on the
bowels, kidneys, or lungs, or an inflammatory or rheu-
matic fever. An experienced practitioner will, however,
even when called in at first, observe, that though the horse
appears to suffer much pain, and to lie down and rise fre-
quently, yet that he neither attempts to roll or paw with his
feet, nor look at his flanks, or kick his belly ; and that even
early in the complaint he betrays a peculiar manner of shifl-
ing and lifting up his legs, or of placing them so as to re-

524 ACUTE FOUNDER.

lieve the superincumbent pressure ; either drawing his hinder
much under him to ease the fore feet, or placing the front
under the chest to reheve the hind, according as one or
the other are the principal seat of inflammation ; or, by a
marked disinclination to remain long up, when the whole of
them are affected. When the inflammation exists in all
four of them, the horse usually lies almost wholly on the
ground ; this disposition is, however, not quite invariable.
We need hardly give any signs to prevent it from being
considered as an affection of the loins, rheumatic or acci-
dental ; for as soon as the complaint has fully seized on the
feet, they will become intensely hot, and the plantar arteries
will be found pulsating very strongly. There is sometimes
some little tumefaction around the fetlocks, and, when one
foot is held up for examination, it gives so much pain to
the other, that the horse is in danger of falling ; at which
times the slightest tap on the feet with any thing hard gives
evidently extreme pain, and is flinched from most sensitively.
If the horse be attempted to be taken out of the stable, his
disinclination for motion at once shows the feet to be
the seat of evil : in his taking each limb up and setting it
down, there is something so truly characteristic of the in-
tensity of the anguish felt in them as will not easily be for-
gotten. He appears to walk as it were upon his heels, and
to allow no other part of the foot to touch the ground.
The course of the disease is various : it may end in resolu-
tion, in which case the symptoms all relax, the remains of
the congestion become absorbed, and the parts reinstate
themselves perfectly. In other cases, the laminae, throwing
out an impure pus, the coffin-bone parts from its attach-
ments, and by the weight is forced down ; the pressure of
the fallen coffin-bone partly destroys the concavity of the
sole, which becomes partially convex ; or is forced outward,
and leaves a large space, between the coffin-bone and the
horny toe, filled with a semi-cartilaginous mass. When the
inflammation proceeds to copious sujipuration, the symptoms
having raged with much intensity for six or fewer days, a
slight separation of the hoof from the soft parts may be ob-
served commencing around the coronet : the purulent secre-
tion soon becomes established, and, totally dissolving the
union between the soft masses of the feet and the hoofs,

ACUTE FOUNDER. 525

they fall off, when, of course, the animal is of necessity-
destroyed, as a perfect hoof will never be renewed.

Treatment. — As soon a„s the disease is discovered, if you
are able so to do, proceed to remove the shoes ; and, while
the horse can yet stand, thin the sole and crust around,
allowing him a momentary respite, or he may fall on the
operator. If his state utterly precludes his standing up so
long, support him by every means at hand ; for thinning
the hoof is so necessary to relieve the internal pressure,
that it cannot be dispensed with. The next point is, by
arteriotomy, to abstract blood from the toe of each affected
foot to the amount of two quarts from each, if the founder
extends to all four of the feet ; but take three quarts from
each, if the disease is confined to the fore feet only, as is
most common. To encourage the bleeding when it does
not flow sufficiently free, the hoofs may be immersed in
warm water, or surrounded with cloths, and warm water
poured on them. As soon as the disposition to suppura-
tion has commenced, which is usually about the fourth or
fifth day in very acute cases, then topical bleeding might be
productive of mortification. The next indication is the
continued application of moisture to the feet, either by wet
cloths, or by cold poultices ; or by the cold bath, if the
horse can be made to stand. In a horse that lies almost
incessantly, coarse cloths are wrapped around the feet, these
being moistened with the coldest water, and covered with
thin gutta percha. Although the inflammation runs so high
as totally to prevent the horse rising, and his pulse be at
90°, he nevertheless may recover. We should also, in all
very acute cases where there was much plethora, prefer
cold applications ; and a shallow bath, in which the horse
if he will stand may be allowed to remain night and day,
is an excellent addition to a veterinary establishment. Where
the bath is absent, the horse ought to be placed in a loose
box, the flooring of which should be strewn with wet tan,
that ought to be further watered every second hour.

The Constitutional Treatment should be that prescribed
for diffused inflammation ; except that, while we unload the
bowels by back-raking, clysters, and laxatives by the mouth,
we should avoid active purgation, which would distress the
horse, and might increase the fever ; besides, in this dis-

52G CHRONIC FOUNDER.

ease, we should always guard against a transfer of inflam-
mation to the bowels : but mild nauseants, diaphoretics, or
other febrifuges may be usefully employed, as the following,
four times a day, in a pint of warm water : —

Tincture of aconite half an ounce, of the strength

of a drachm to an ounce.

Infusion of Indian tobacco four drachms.

Nitre two drachms.

Allow plenty of tepid water to drink, feed very sparingly
indeed, and never force the horse to rise : the recumbent
position is the best, as that which favours the return of
blood from the feet ; and, to encourage it, bed him up well,
and have his body comfortably clothed. There is much
difference of opinion with regard to the propriety of blister-
ing in this affection, and it is most prudent to avoid it in
the early stage ; but it is beneficial when the active symp-
toms have decidedly abated, avoiding, however, the coronet.
Apply a cradle, and also wrap tow around the blistered part
in sufficient quantities to prevent injury to other parts ; and
should amendment occur, give a caution as to the liability
of recurrence on extraordinary exertions for some months.
Horses with acute founder have had frog setons inserted,
and these animals are said to have done well.

CHRONIC FOUNDER.

There are several states which might pass by this name ;
one is, when the coffin bone drops, as alluded to in the
previous disease ; it then rests with its toe, or point upon
the sole, which is soon cut through. Horses in this con-
dition are forced to work, but they never can recover the
use of their limbs. Every step is taken in agony. They
are lame for life, and no art which man possesses can render
them otherwise. Another is, when a horse has survived,
but imperfectly recovered from an acute attack. In this
case, also, the animal's existence is rendered miserable.
His affection is subject to increase by fits, and again to
abate. He is usually comparatively happy during very wet
weather. The last and best form of this lamentable dis-
order is, when it comes on gradually, never entirely vanish-
ing, but never assuming the acute type. Many such horses
are now at fast work ; they, however, perform slow motion
with comparative ease. The last two cases alone admit of

SHOEING. 527

treatment, and that, in the great majority of such cases, is
perfectly useless, leaving the horse in a worse state than he
was before. The measures commonly resorted to, consist
in violent purgatives, and setons through the frogs. A
cure is not to be expected from these. The most that can
be anticipated, is a temporary relief; but the question
arises, whether such relief be not dearly bought, both by
the horse and his master ?

SHOEING.

A great fuss was formerly made about this process. All
the evils resulting from the custom were attributed to the
mal-practice of the smith. A very great deal was said
about his prejudices, his barbarity, and his ignorance.
Every lameness was thought to be traceable to one or the
other of these causes. Smiths were changed, and veteri-
nary surgeons employed, but nevertheless lameness was as
frequent as ever. Then it was discovered, that the evil
arose from the smith's having no knowledge of the internal
structure of the foot. How, it w^as confidently asked, could
men presume to touch feet, who were thoroughly igno-
rant of the various parts which composed them — their ana-
tomy, their physiology, and their pathology ? Upon this
some few, and very few smiths, learnt anatomy, and became
very knowing about the horse's foot. But the men thus
accomplished were, upon trial, found to be none the better
workmen. Horses became lame while under their hands,
as frequently as before. It should have been asked, Why
should not a person, who knows only the thickness of a
piece of horn, be able to drive a nail through it? Many
men apparently rude, and entirely ignorant, will, upon
taking up a horse's foot, pronounce the thickness of the
horn with surprising accuracy. Constant practice gives
them a facility of thus judging, by external signs, of the
probable depth of a secretion.

And that is all the men require to know. Had they all
the knowledge of the schools, this would be of no use to
those who have exclusively to deal with horn. It is of no
service to cast needless blame upon a laborious class ; the
fact being, that with regard to horse-flesh, the proprietor
has a choice of evils ; either to ride the horse unshod over

528 SHOEING. .

our hard roads, or to protect the foot by means of a cir-
cular piece of iron. This truth was ultimately suspected
by the owners of horses, and some persons began to turn
their attention to the form of a shoe. Certain people took
out patents for particular shoes, which were to cure all
diseases ; but which in the end were found to aggravate the
evils they were designed to remedy. The little piece of
iron was beat and battered into an endless variety of shapes :
it was pierced in this place, and punched in that, hoping to
make it change its nature. But, nevertheless, it was found
to remain iron ; and so long as it is esteemed imperative to
have horses shod, we must put up with the evils attendant
upon the metal, for the sake of enjoying those advantages
which it can bestow.

Among those evils inseparable from every kind of metallic
shoe, is the severe battering upon hard roads, rendered yet
more severe, by the interposition of an unyielding sub-
stance, like to iron. Every step the horse now takes is
made upon iron, and the wonder should be, not that a foot
occasionally gives way, but that any part of a living frame
should be able to withstand such treatment. Then, not
only are the roads hard, and the pace at wdiich the horse is
driven along killing, but we have also to weigh properly
the treatment the horse receives within the stable. Here
he stands often for days together, crimped up in a stall
where he can only stand, frequently he cannot turn round,
and very seldom can he lie upon his side and stretch out
his limbs. It is infinitely worse than a sentry-box is com-
paratively with a man. He stands here generally for twenty
hours out of the four-and-twenty. Here he stands with
iron upon his feet, resting upon wet stones or damp bricks.
No wonder if the feet should become cold ; and those who
are accustomed to bleed horses from the foot, can tell how
unnaturally cold the first drop or two of blood flows from
the part.

Nor is this all. Blood for its circulation requires mus-
cular action. It ascends with difficulty against gravity.
But what assistance can the circulation receive, when the
wretched animal must stand motionless throughout the
day. If the creature hangs back a little to relieve its flexor
tendons, the groom sits behind to bid him "come up."

SHOEING. . 529

By thus placing the animal alone in a stall, we not only
compel him to remain inactive, but do violence to the
nature of the beast. Horses when free always roam in
herds. They are naturally fond of one another's society.
But if a horse within a stable endeavours to put his nose
over the division, just to have a nibble, a lick, or a smell at
his next door neighbour, he commits an egregious fault in*
the eyes of the groom, and receives the whip accordingly.
Thus he must stand alone in utter solitude, and remain
thus standing, perhaps, days together ; for when the owner
does not always ride out, the groom is not invariably regu-
lar with regard to the hours of exercise. The poor animal
stands upon metal, which rests upon wet stones or bricks.
It is denied to him to look to the ri^ht or the left. To q:o
much forward is impossible, and to hang back the length
of his halter is visited as an offence against decency. He
must not, to break the monotony of his existence, even
raise his eye to look at, or to invite the acquaintance of his
neighbour. In the stall he must be content to breathe and
feed, but in all other respects, the nearer he approaches to
the inanimate the better. And all this must be done,
despite the teaching of physiology, which instructs us that
the horse was intended for constant motion. Beneath the
horny box which covers the foot, is a mesh-work of veins
which, unlike the majority of vessels in the living frame,
have no valves. The blood within these veins has to as-
cend against gravity, but it has no machinery to assist it in
its course.

Now, if the horse were free, he would walk about ; or if
he stood still beneath the shadow of some wide-spreading
tree, he would select uneven ground, upon the highest part
of which he could place his hind feet. Yet he would sel-
dom be quite tranquil : he must walk to nip the grass upon
which he existed. His feet in this state would be alternately
lifted from the earth, and then placed again upon the
ground. By this simple motion a kind of pumping action
would be established, which would effectually empty the
external vessels beneath the horn of the foot. When the
hoof was raised, the blood would gush into the veins be-
neath it; but when it was again placed down, and the
immense weight of the horse's body rested upon the foot,

M m

530 SHOEING.

the blood would be driven from the vessels under the hoof
into those above it, with a force which, of itself, would
render assistance needless ; and it is these alternate states,
leading to this result, which proves to us that the horse
was designed to be in constant motion. If further argu-
ment be wanting, surely it might be found in the frolics
and gambols of these animals. When they are happiest,
then they are most active, for there is not a surer symptom
of disease than inactivity. The horse that is very ill will
stand quiet enough ; but the animal that is in health requires
space to run about in and to enjoy himself.

After knowing this, and also perceiving the manner in
which man treats his servant, can it be wondered at that
the foot gives way, when thrown out of use and totally
perverted ? Does it require we should blame the smith, or
reproach the shoe, as the primary or even the ex.citing
cause of the injury ? In the country, horses are treated less
systematically, and there, although they may be roughly
shod, they rarely become lame. It is in the stables of the
gentleman, of him who has education to teach him better,
and wealth to enable him to build proper lodgings for his
beast, that the great majority of horses are injured.

The shoes we do not pretend to say are no evil ; but
they are one which cannot be got rid of, and for which all
has probably been done that the necessary shape admits of.
The iron which composes a shoe may be twisted this way,
and turned that. It may be puffed as a new invention, and
recommended as a patent, but after all it will be a semi-
circular piece of iron nailed to the bottom of a horse's foot ;
there it will continue, and man can make nothing more of
it. As to all newfangled shapes, or additions, or abstrac-
tions, he who cares for his horse had better have nothing
whatever to do with them. They are generally expensive,
and though meant to do good, they mostly do harm. Let
the man who values the animals Providence has entrusted
to his care, know the shoe is, and must be under any pos-
sible form, an injury. Let him accept it as a necessary
evil, and seek not to improve what appears to have reached
very near to perfection ; but let him yield a slight portion of
his notions with regard to propriety. Let him cast off
some of his prejudices concerning a glossy coat. Let him

SHOEING. 531

free his mind fi'om a portion of his predilection for a neat
turn-out, and have the creatures under his charge kept in
greater accordance with the fixed rules of nature.

GENERAL REMARKS.

Our advice to all persons not intimately acquainted with
the process of shoeing, is not to dictate, but to clearly point
out what defect they wish remedied, and leave the choice of
the shoe to the smith : nor must we blame the man if the
first shoe does not altogether succeed. There appears to
be much of chance in these matters. Two horses shall cut ;
the defect here is obvious, and it would be thought the
remedy was certain ; but there are five different shoes for
this defect, and no man can tell the precise one which will
suit a particular case. One horse will go well in one,
another in the second, and so on ; but all must be tried, to
know that which will exactly answer any special horse :
this is even the case, although the first veterinarian that
ever lived stands at the horse's heels ; and the proprietor
need not complain, if he is no worse off in the hands of a
smith. Therefore, do not blame the man if he should not
hit upon the precise shoe which is to make your nag fault-
less : he will ultimately stumble against it if you do but
give him time ; and no doctor can do more, only people
yield more w^illingly to a httle outward respectability, joined
to the most delicate assertion of superior judgment.

Then, with regard to a horse being pricked. Do not,
when this accident happens — and that it does not more
frequently occur is a subject for legitimate wonder — do not
fly into a passion, and abuse the unlucky smith. It, ten to
one, was no fault of the man's ; but let the subject be fairly
investigated, and your horse will probably be found the
sinner. The best smith may prick any horse at any time ;
but the worst or the best is seriously culpable if he attempt
to conceal the occurrence, and the horse be laid up in con-
sequence of his silence. Then let loose upon him the ven-
geance of the law, and you will be sure of a verdict, for no
one can defend the culprit.

If your horse has a thick wall, a high hard sole, and a
small inelastic frog, affected with a running thrush which
never dries up, have the soles pared out till they are quite

M m 2

532 SHOEING.

springy under the pressure of your thumb. Try it your-
self, for the hard thumb of the smith is no certain test.
The sole should be pared out till a gentleman's child can
make it yield ; and never mind although a little blood do
ooze through, and hang upon the surface like drops of
sweat upon a reaper's brow. Then have the frog cut away
till it is smooth, and all the exposed horn be perfectly
healthy : cut away, even until all the horn is removed, so
long as any whitish powder remains. Do not have the wall
touched, farther than to lower the margin of the crust that
rested upon the shoe. With regard to the bars, give no
directions about such folly. Allow the shoeing smith to
use his will, whether they shallbe left prominent or cut
away : then have a stopping of tow and tar applied ; over
this see there be placed a leathern sole, which is nothing
more than a piece of thick leather fixed between the foot
and the shoe ; but mind the leather is sound and new, as
smiths are apt to buy old stuff, which they assure us
answers very well for this purpose : however, where the
horse's huge weight has to be sustained, we imagine the
leather cannot well be either too new or too strong. Then
have the shoe applied, and mind it is made after the fashion
recommended by Mr. Turner, of Regent-street ; that is, let
it have the full number of holes upon the outer quarter,
but only one, or at most two, upon the inner quarter. This
freedom allowed to the inner quarter does not prevent the
horn from expanding, but it permits a certain amount of
play which keeps the internal parts healthy, and hinders
their secretion (the horn) from diminishing.

Into the space left at the heels, between the frog and bars
and the leather, at least once a week, have poured in a mix-
ture of tar, and whale, seal, nut, or rape oil, in equal pro-
portions ; and when the tow is saturated, enough has
been used for one occasion. Most nag horses, not much
worked, will require their shoes removed every third week,
and to be reshod every sixth week. But with regard to
those whose work is both fast, heavy, and constant, not-
withstanding the smith may load on the iron, and tip with
steel, they will only endure from four days to three weeks ;
when either at the longer or the shorter period a change
will be demanded. Such is the difference of tread in

SHOEING. 533

some horses, that a shoe which will serve one horse more
than three weeks, shall not last his companion that runs
beside him longer than seven days ; consequently no rule can
be laid down where there are such evident variations.

Let no man be seduced into patronising any new invented
shoe, under the pretence that they will prevent the horn
from contracting. Horn is unorganized ; it has within
itself no power of dilatation, of contraction or of reparation
or of union : it is without arteries, veins, nerves, or ab-
sorbents ; it is wholly devoid of life or sensibihty. Then
how can such a substance contract ? It is to talk evident
nonsense, to mention horn as having any such capacity. It
is secreted like to human nail ; it can be cut away, but the
horse does not flinch ; it can be even burnt, and the animal
remain unconscious ; it is purely a secretion ; it is shaped
by the fleshy parts within, which secrete the substance.
The chest and cranium are formed of hard and resisting
bone ; but if even this unyielding substance is bent, swelled
out, drawn in, formed and regulated by so compressible a
part as the lungs, and by so pulpy a part as the brain, how
much more is a pliable material, like to horn, capable of
being moulded by a fleshy membrane, backed by a stubborn
bone. The gradual dilatation of the horn may give room
for the vascular current of the internal parts ; and this
is exactly that which Mr. Turner's one-sided nailing accom-
plishes. Therefore, where diminution has to be remedied,
Mr. Turner's shoe is to be adopted, and it will be some
years before this admirable invention is superseded. Be-
sides, Mr. Turner has taken out no patent. This novel
shoe is as cheap as any other, and with the addition of
leathern soles, especially to the fore feet of light horses, is
the very best for general use which we can point out to the
reader.

There is another prejudice shoeing smiths are apt to
appeal to ; this is the dislike which horsemen have taken to
wood pavement. Every man who shoes a horse has some
particular form of iron, which costs only a trifle more, but
which will eflectually prevent all slipping. If it does not
perform every thing which is prophesied of its virtues,
another is produced which never fails. This is put on, but
by this time the horse has gained experience in consequence

534 SHOEING.

of two falls, and the driver or rider grown some\vhat timid
by twice being cast upon the earth. The one treads more
carefully, and the other is content to pass the dangerous
locality at a slower rate. The new shoe, therefore, this
time perfectly succeeds ; and so the old one w^ould have
done had it been permitted to remain upon the foot. The
amendment in the manner of going arises from other causes
than the shoe ; but the dupe attributes the change to the
last addition, and, in his prejudice, cannot be induced to sit
behind a horse wearing any other.

There is another prejudice the forge is apt to appeal to,
and this is avarice. A shoe is recommended, because it
will w^ear so much longer. Many horses could go in their
shoes perhaps a fortnight longer ; but then a remove, that
is, taking off the shoe and paring out the foot, would be
necessary. Even, however, with the remove, some hazard
would be incurred ; and with a horse under the best of cir-
cumstances there is alway sufficient risk. This, therefore,
is a subterfuge to push off an inferior article, under the
pretence of its possessing extraordinary qualities. This
trick can only be practised upon certain owners ; for some
horses, shoe them how you may, and put what amount of
iron and steel you will, wear through the metal far more
quickly than the horn is reproduced, so as to afford hold
for the nails. But upon gentlemen w^io have horses that
do not work much, the fraud is very frequent, and it is
really astonishing how many persons it imposes on. When
a smith tells you he has a better article in reserve, refuse to
listen to him. You pay him for the best his shop contains ;
and the fellow w^ould not confess he was cheating you,
unless he thought to gain by the admission : repel all such
appeals. Shut your mind against all such advances. Close
your ears against all suggestions intended to tickle your
avarice ; and you will in the end be a gainer in pocket, for
you may be very certain no tradesman has so very honest a
spirit that he abhors to finger your money, or can afford to
be candid in business at his own expense.

If your horse has weak spreading feet, the smith then
cannot remove too little horn. Tell the man to draw a
heated iron over the sole at each shoeing. When the first
effects of the fire have subsided, the secretion will be hard-

SHOEING. 535

ened, and the secreting parts stimulated towards a new
l^roduction. These kind of feet, however, mostly have
large prominent frogs, and at them the smith usually cuts at
freely ; but the sole and frog should have nothing but the
ragged portions removed ; and the wall only be pared away
to the extent which the old horn has been pushed down-
ward. This, however, is pretty well understood, and you
may trust the horse within any respectable forge without
fear ; only these kind of feet, more than any others, require
to be shod wdth leathern soles, which protects them against
those injuries from stones, &c., to which they are too much
exposed.

Another prejudice you must be careful from indulging,
is that of insisting that your horses be sent home looking
smart about the feet. This is usually accomplished by the
rasp, and where this instrument is much used, the best
judge cannot tell at a glance whether the shoe be fitted to
the foot, or the foot has been rasped away to make it fit the
shoe. Rather forbid the use of the rasp, save to remove
the projecting ends of the clenches ; and have the feet sent
home moderately in the rough, rather than they should be
too much reduced, and polished up with a coating of lamp-
black, tar, and train oil. In conclusion, when your groom
or coachman makes any remarks prejudicial to the smith,
listen with patience to all that is said. Should the man be
moved by malice, or a desire to remove the shoeing (from
which the servant mostly has a consideration), he will
betray it if left to himself. If you detect any such lurking
bad feeling, rather change your servant than your smith ;
as it is better for your interest that you should be mode-
rately treated by a stranger, than that those who are in
your confidence, and immediately about your person, should
plunder you. Besides, a man wdio would play tricks with
the horses' shoes, is not a person to be trusted with their
corn ; and he who would cheat you to the horses' injury,
would not mind profiting by putting your animals upon a
full allowance of hay.

The various kinds of shoes required for particular cases
will be hereafter specified ; and we have preferred penning
these few pages of advice, rather than repeating that which
has been often said.

536 THE PUMICED FOOT.

THE PUMICED FOOT.

Pumiced feet are produced by a slow chronic inflamma-
tion : the front of the hoof always enlarges, and the sole
therefore becomes more than flat ; the horse begins to falter,
and is sometimes very lame ; at others he can move mode-
rately well. The foot, when shod, presents no acquisition
of horn; on the contrary, the sole becomes thinner and
thinner, and at last bulges out into a surface more or less
convex as the internal derangement is greater or less. The
large wide feet of the native horses of moist counties are
most prone to this evil ; not being able to resist the weaken-
ing and irritating effect of battering on stony roads, and
least of all on the paved streets of London and other cities.

The treatment of these feet can be only palliative, as a
removal of the deformity has never taken place. Some
benefit has been experienced from blistering the coronets in
early cases ; this has stimulated the part to an increased
secretion of horn. Every means must be taken to avoid
pressure on the sole, which is not only painful, but actually
aggravates the disease. Pumiced feet should not be kept
too moist, nor can they ever be cured by turning out with-
out shoes ; but they may be very properly dressed every
day, both sole and walls, with a mixture of tar and oil,
which proves extremely beneficial to them. The shoe in
use for these feet is sufiiciently known ; being formed with a
very wide web, and being made so thick as to allow of
being bevelled away on the inner surface, to receive the con-
vexity of the sole without pressing on it ; this is called a dish
shoe. From the outer crust of the foot being thin and
brittle, no rule can be laid down as to the particular part
through which the nails should be driven, but the smith, in
these cases, must get a hold where he can. This is often a
very trying matter. It requires no little judgment and
patience to shoe a pumiced foot. The sole, however, should,
every time the shoe is taken off", have a red-hot iron passed
over it, which stimulates the growth of horn, and hardens
the part. There is no cure for a foot so diseased ; neither
can any one palliate the disorder except the shoeing smith.
Standing upon a level pavement, when the shoes are ofl', has
been recommended ; but this invention of a mechanical mind

DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT. 537

has done more harm than good. The measure which has
been attended with the greatest advantage is shoeing with a
wide-webbed dish shoe, having a leathern sole, for the pur-
pose of protecting the seat of the disease, and being rather
higher at the toe than at the heel ; because a prominent
healthy frog is found an accompaniment to a pumiced foot,
and the horse can bear upon the frog when he dreads to let
the sole touch the ground. Formerly a different mode was
practised by some persons, which was to apply a shoe so
narrow in the web as to cover the crust only, but of suffi-
cient thickness to elevate the sole above the chance of
pressure from the ground. This invention is said to obviate
the effects of stones, gravel, &c., getting under the wide
webbed shoe, which sometimes lamed the horse ; and it is
said that pumiced horses even go best in these kind of
shoes. In some cases, however, no shoe answers so well as
a strong bar shoe.

DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT, OR NAVICULARTHRITIS.

Groggy lameness is the term by which this affection has
been principally known to horsemen, and which, hke many
other names, served to characterize many of its evils. It
is but due to Mr. J. Turner to state, that, by his ample and
scientific investigations, the navicular joint disease is now
ranked among the recognized afflictions of the horse : and
if, unfortunately, we have little hope of finding an efficient
remedy for it, we at least do not grope in the dark, and
torment sound parts, to the anguish of the animal, and the
demonstration of our own ignorance.

The causes of the affection may be strictly called here-
ditary or predisposing: the tendency may exist from birth.
Pressure and concussion are, in general, the remote
causes; the proximate is found in inflammation, leading
to ulceration, or some ossific deposit. Mr. Turner lays
much stress on contraction with the hollowed arch of the
sole as a cause, which acts by drawing the frog upwards :
other writers, without denying that some displacement is
occasionally found, are not wiUing to acknowledge this as a
cause. The perforans tendon is inserted into the most
backward portion of the sole belonging to the coffin bone.
To gain this point it has to pass underneath the navicular

538 DISEASE OF THE NAVICULAR JOINT.

bone. In progression no inconsiderable portion of the
weight is cast upon the navicular bone, and by it transferred
to the perforans tendon ; which, however, is protected, and
in some measure supported, by the frog beneath. However,
when we consider the immense weight of the horse, in-
creased by motion as well as by the burden of a rider, it
cannot be wondered at if the protection and support some-
times prove weaker than is required. The tendon receives,
in all cases, the first injury. Often the occasion is marked
by instantaneous lameness ; at other times it is slow in
coming on, and often repeated before the disease is con-
firmed. Between the bone and the tendon is situated a
synovial capsule, which facilitates the independent motions
of each upon the other. The first consequence of injury is
inflammation. Inflammation of the tendon is readily com-
municated to the synovial capsule ; the secretion of the
lubricating fluid is thereupon stopped ; friction takes place
as a consequence ; the navicular bone is denuded of its arti-
cular cartilage ; ulceration is ultimately established ; this may
end in the absorption of the synovial sac, and the junction
of the bone to the tendon ; it may terminate in the fracture
of the bone, and it may also conclude with the rupture of
the tendon. In case of the first termination the horse is
groggy ever after, and when either of the two last termina-
tions occur it is better to order the animal to be imme-
diately destroyed, for his service in this world is at an end.
The symptoms are various, according to the progress made
by the disease. At first the horse is lame, and the cause
can be discovered in no other part than the foot. If the
animal be now narrowly observed, when at rest, and within
the stable, he will be seen to favour one foot, and to have
the diseased one slightly in advance of the other ; should
the animal now be taken out and ridden he goes forth lame
and returns home sound, for the warmth of exertion forces
back the absent synovia. Should the disease progress to
the ulcerative stage, the lameness has, like toothache,
moments of uncertain ease, but more or less it keeps on.
The foot is now generally advanced or pointed ; the frog
narrows, hardens, becomes elevated, and is continually
emitting a loathsome thrush ; the sole likewise grows
more thick and more high, the quarters become considera-

CORNS. 539

bly heightened, and of much greater substance ; while the
horse either cannot put a foot to the ground, or he patters
along with pecuharly short steps, going up hill far better
than he descends from an acclivity.

The treatment, unfortunately, must begin very early, and
be followed by a very long rest, to be successful ; and it is
seldom that the practitioner is called in until disorganiza-
tion has proceeded too far for permanent benefit. If con-
traction is apparent, thin the sole and outer crust ; provided
inflammation of an active kind be present, as may be known
by the heat of the part and the shifting of position, bleed
by the toe, and put the foot into poultices ; otherwise blister
the pastern and coronet. Insert a frog seton through the
elastic, or, as it is called, the " fatty frog." Neurotomy, or
division of the nerve, as a last resort, will somewhat stay
the ulcerative process, and always ease the suffering animal
during progress, as well as give liberty in action. The opera-
tion, however, should not be attempted while any active
symptoms of inflammation remain, or when the crust or
horn of the foot is scanty and weak.

CORNS.

Corns, both in man and horse, certainly arise from
pressure, but farther than this the analogy fails : in our-
selves, the cuticle is usually increased. A corn however in
the horse is mostly the consequence of pressure applied to
that part of the horny sole which is between the inner
quarter and the bars. When violent pressure is en-
dured, even for a short time, it produces inflammation
and extravasation from the vascular secreting sole, whose
vessels becoming ruptured, make a fresh corn present a
bloody spot. This vascular secreting portion of sensitive
sole, when 'once injured in this way, unless immediately
relieved and not again subjected to any pressure whatever,
until it be perfectly reinstated, takes on a permanently
diseased state ; ever after, instead of perfect horn, a morbid
secretion is deposited, and in some cases a semi-purulent
matter, or pure pus, fills up the place, the inflamed vessels
retaining an exquisite sensibility. It is to this that the
incurable nature and the great tenderness of corns when
pressed on is owing. We can imagine why corns are

540 CORNS.

usually found upon the inside of the foot, when we learn
that tlie inner wall and heel are weaker, and also as they
bear a greater portion of superincumbent weight than the
outer parts endure. The coffin bone, not reaching to the
heels, is the reason why these structures are the seats of
corn, for the coffin bone is the active agent in its production.
This bone is moved upwards and downwards at either end,
as the weight rests upon one extremity or the other of its
articular surface. It is the wings of the coffin bone which
causes corns. The descent of its wings squeezes the
vascular sensitive sole between it and the shoe in open feet,
the shoe in this case being the passive agent ; but in the con-
tracted foot, the high, thick, hard and unyielding sole
becomes the passive agent, and between that and the wing of
the coffin bone the sensitive sole is bruised. These corns
may occur in the stable, in the field, or on the road, in short,
on any spot where the slightest motion is possible. Too
little horn also subjects the feet to corns, because a slight
pressure will indent weak feet, which are notoriously sub-
ject to them. The best shoe, suffered to remain on a foot
too long, will produce a corn or corns. Neglecting to
prepare the foot for the shoe is also a fruitful source of
corns ; for in preparing a foot, this angular portion should be
so pared as to remove it from contact with the iron, without
weakening the horny covering of the sensible sole. Another
common cause is the neglect of removing or renewing the
shoes at proper intervals : when a shoe has been long worn,
the growth of the hoof carries it forwards, by which the
parts originally opposed to the heels are carried beyond
them, and now press on the sole, often becoming indented
within the line of the crust, and producing a most injurious
pressure. Sometimes, also, either from the original form
of the shoes, or by long wear, they become loose or
' springy ' at the heels, as smiths call it ; in which cases
gravel is apt to make its way between the shoe and foot,
which, by the pressure of the heels during action, is indented
into the substance of the horn ; other gravel becomes re-
ceived in the same manner, which presses still onward,
until at last it harms the sensitive part of the sole : extrava-
sation of pure blood ensues, and forms a corn, or it may
proceed to suppuration.

CORNS. 541

Corns when new are deeply seated, and of a bright
crimson colour, requiring much digging with the drawing
knife to be found. When old they are black and near to
the lower surface of the sole, which has then only to be
scraped clean to perceive them. A corn, however, should
be followed with the paring knife to its source in the sensitive
part ; for horses with old corns only go well when fresh
shod and newly pared ; and as soon as the portion of sole
between the bars grows to a level with the surrounding horn,
the sensible sole receives a fresh bruise, and lameness again
appears.

Treatment of Corns. — When a corn of moderate extent
tirst appears, it is not difficult by proper means to remove
it completely : but when it has existed some time, the
injured part becomes weakened, and the diseased action
established. As soon, therefore, as it is discovered, the
cure should be immediately attempted ; first, by removing
the shoe, then with a fine drawing-knife cutting away every
portion of horn around ; avoiding, however, wounding the
sensitive sole underneath. If any contraction of the heels
be present, the sole should be thinned till it yields to the
pressure of the thumb, and the blood appears like dew upon
the surface. A unilateral shoe should be then applied,
chambered opposite the weak part. Every third week re-
move the shoes, and pare the horn away from the seat of corn.
In this way corns may be cured at their outset. But having
become habitual and permanent, a palliative treatment only
can be pursued. In the first place, the pressure of the
horn must be guarded against by a regular and frequent
paring out of the sole ; and if the hoof be very strong, and
at all disposed to contract, the quarters also should be
attended to, and not allowed to become too thick. We
have also in very strong feet found the short shoe or tips
sometimes of the greatest possible service : to a weak foot,
a chambered shoe is preferable : when the weakness is very
considerable, or the corn a very bad one, a bar shoe, with
plenty of bearing upon the frog, is the most proper support ;
more particularly remembering, in these very aggravated
cases, to remove occasionally all the surrounding horn
likely to press on the injured part. Animals that could
not wear tips or bear a bar shoe upon the foot, have gone

542 THRUSH.

well when shod with leather, and with a shoe shortened at
the quarter, which is the seat of corn. By regularly attend-
ing to this, horses, before useless, have been able to per-
form work with comfort to themselves and satisfaction to
their owner. In slight cases of corn, the shoe proper to
be used is one of rather more substance than common,
with the web a little wider than usual, and its width equal
throughout, that is, as wide at the heels as the toe ; it should
also extend rather farther back than it generally does, and
present a perfectly level surface to the sole. This affords
ease and protection : future pressure must be avoided by
keeping the seat of corns clear from offending horn.

THRUSH.

This complaint consists in a diseased action of the seba-
ceous follicles of the sensitive frog, whereby they produce
a thin foetid discharge, which escapes out between the cleft
of the horny frog. It is very improperly considered by
many as a matter of trifling import ; but a little experience
only in the diseases of the feet will show that it is by no
means so harmless as supposed. Still more erroneous is
it to assert that in all cases thrushes do good by cooling
the feet. On the contrary, there probably never was
a perfectly harmless thrush, or one that could exist long
without doing some injury. Various causes produce
thrush ; the immediate one is always inflammation of the
sensitive frog. In very many instances their origin is to
be traced to the application of moisture, particularly of
acrid moisture, as that of dung, urine, &c. ; which, soaking
the horny frog, at last penetrates it, and then becomes a
source of irritation to the sensitive frog underneath. This
effect of moisture accounts for the increased tendency of
thrushes to af!ect the hinder feet, while the fore feet remain
perfectly free from them. Navicularthritis is notoriously
a common cause of thrushes ; when the disease has termi-
nated the thrush ends, but the narrow small hardened frog
remains. While navicularthritis exists, however, thrush
is constantly present, though in the latter stages it may
send forth so slight a discharge as almost to escape
detection.

As navicularthritis is a very common cause of thrush, so

THRUSH. 543

it is equally certain that a long continued thrush is apt to
end in navicularthritis, by lessening the horny frog which
acts as the chief defence of the perforans tendon. Neither
can any horse be considered safe that has a thrush, for
there is always some degree of tenderness felt ; and in
these cases, if the point of a sharp stone at any time should
penetrate the cleft, or any of the sinuses occasioned by the
complaint, the animal will come to the ground from
excess of pain : but it is not often that this complaint
produces any lameness in the general gait. The appear-
ances of thrush are sufficiently known : at first a moist
exudation only appears from the natural cleft of the frog ;
when it has existed some time the frog scales away, and is
but partially renewed : the ulceration extends to the sensitive
sole throughout its whole surface ; the horny frog now
produces a dark coloured discharge of a peculiar foetid
smell ; and such cases, if unattended to, particularly in the
hinder feet, may degenerate into canker, A horse with
one thrush, especially if it be in a fore foot, should on no
account be purchased ; but a horse with three or four
thrushes may be safely bought ; because in the first case, it
denotes internal disease, and is surely the symptom of
something more fearful going forward within ; and because
in the last instance, there is every reason to believe they
arise from standing in dirt, and will yield to a little mild
treatment.

Treatment. — Thrushes in the hind feet, caused by dirt,
ought to be immediately stopped ; but when a thrush appears
in one fore foot, do not meddle with it, as it is an outlet to the
inflammation raging within. In that kind of thrush we notice,
sometimes taking place in the open feet of young horses,
it will remove all danger, if the treatment should be at
once applied to the affection. When thrushes are connected
with a diminished state of the feet, it is evident that the
fi'og cannot afford to lose much horn. All however that is
diseased, rugged, or detached, should be cut away; how-
ever small the frog may be made, the smith should be told
to pare until he comes to healthy horn, or reaches the flesh
beneath. When moisture has been the exciting cause, it
should, of course, be carefully removed, and its occurrence
again prevented ; particularly that produced by decomposing

544 SANDCRACK.

clung and litter. In cases of thrush, never have the foot
permanently stopped, but leave the frog free, so that it may
be readily dressed. The latest and by far the most effective
dressing for the disease is, two drachms of chloride of zinc,
added to a quart of water. Friars' balsam, tincture of
myrrh, solution of vitriol, alum, lead, &c., all have their
advocates. Tar and salt mixed is a favourite application,
or tar and bole armenian blended : a solution of nitrate of
silver is also recommended ; but perhaps the following,
should all the foregoing fail, may deserve a trial : —

Prepared calamine lialf an ounce.

Verdigris half an ounce.

White vitriol one drachra.

Tar three ounces.

Mix.

Before the introduction of the dressing, the frog should be
inspected, so that the introduction of the remedy may be faci-
litated, and the disposition to harbour tilth and moisture
prevented. The whole frog may then very properly be well
rubbed over with the application ; but, more particularly, a
small piece of tow should be charged with it, and by means of
a skewer, or other similar instrument^ pressed to the bottom
of the cleft. Care should be taken, when introducing the tow,
to do it neatly, so that no part hangs out ; by which means
the dressing will remain secure two or three days ; but no
application simply poured in, without the aid of some other
substance, as tow, soft sponge, wool, or rag, which retains
the agent and guards against moisture, generally answers
so well. In bad cases the dressing should be repeated
every day, in others every second day, or twice a week.

SANDCRACK,

This is a solution of continuity between some of the
horny fibres of the hoof, generally in the direction of their
growth ; that is, from above dow^nwards. Now and then,
though but very seldom, the cracks exist in an horizontal
position. This affection is called sandcrack, because it was
formerly supposed peculiar to hot sandy districts, the heat
of which, applied to the feet, gave them a disposition to
crack. This opinion has however been proved correct.
English horses when in Egypt had fearful sandcracks, and
frequently more than one or two upon the same foot.

SANDCRACK. 545

These fissures are more common to the fore than to the
hind feet ; not but tlie latter are sometimes affected, particu-
larly of cart and other heavy draught horses ; in which
last animals they are generally observed in front of the hoof,
and arise from the violent strain put on this part in drawing
loads : in the fore feet they are more usually situated upon
the inner side of the foot : here, also, the weakness of the
quarter, and the increased weight thrown on it, acts pecu-
liarly disadvantageously : sandcracks are, however, seen
occasionally in the front of the fore feet. In every instance,
where it is not occasioned by some outward injury to the
hoof, it is, we believe, brought on by a brittle state of the
horny fibres ; sometimes it is constitutional. When the
hoof is completely penetrated, it becomes a most painful
affection, and productive of extreme lameness ; for the
divided edges of the horn are apt, during exercise, to admit
the protrusion of the soft parts underneath ; which be-
coming suddenly pressed on by the approximation of the
horny edges, exquisite momentary pain is produced. From
the injury done to the sensitive laminated expansion, there
is often a sprouting of fungus between the divided edges,
which greatly aggravates the symptoms.

Treatment. — A very different curative plan is proper to
be pursued, according to the state in which the complaint
may be found. The grand object must be, to interrupt the
communication between the crack and the sound horn.
Much difference of opinion has arisen as to the best mode
of destroying the connexion between the divided and the
entire hoof. Some prefer the firing-iron, others the rasp,
and others the drawing-knife. In the usual cases of sand-
crack, the state of the opening must be first carefully
attended to. When, either from pressure, or from dirt
getting into the wound, suppuration has taken place, were
an attempt made at once to close and bind up the opening,
very extensive mischief would be the consequence. Instead
of this, the hard edges of the horn should be first removed
with a very sharp knife, and the surrounding portions
thinned considerably ; after which, the opening should be
dressed with any mild stimulant likely to encourage the
adhesive inflammation, as a pledget of tow, saturated with
the mild solution of chloride of zinc ; and over this another

N n

546 SANDCRACK.

thick pledget, spread with tar, may be placed ; and if the
irritation and inflammation are considerable, apply a poul-
tice over all. In case of underrunnings and detachments
of horn, the separated portions must be removed ; but as
this will seldom happen, the leveUing of more than the
horny edges is not often necessary. In a few^ days, by
repeating a similar mode of dressing, the dirt will be
evacuated, and the parts will heal, harden, and become
dry ; when the process about to be recommended for com-
mon cases, without suppuration, may be proceeded with.

When a sandcrack has occurred, which shows no signs
of active suppuration, although it have completely pene-
trated the horn, and a little blood or serous moisture shows
itself at the edges, but only under the effects of motion,
proceed to pare away the horn around it ; and next, by
means of a camel's-hair pencil, introduce within the edges a
small quantity of the solution of chloride of zinc, recom-
mended for thrush. Bandage the hoof up moderately tight
for two days, then again examine the fissure ; when, if the
oozing be altogether stopped, and no inflammation appear,
proceed to draw lines of a moderate depth with a sharp
firing-iron ; one very little above the upper limit of the
crack, another just beyond the lower limit also, and after-
wards bandage as directed below. If preferred, these lines
of separation may be made with a rasp, or fine drawing-
knife ; but we have commonly chosen the iron, as we think
the seared line of distinction stronger or more perfect, while
the melted horn binds the edges together. But in case no
moisture at all has appeared at the crack, then the in-
sertion of any caustic matter is unnecessary, and the
treatment for this kind of fissure is very simple. The
measures necessary for such an injury will be as fol-
low^s : —

The horse being shod with a bar shoe, and the hoof
either pared away in a line with the crack ; or otherwise the
shoe chambered, so that the horn immediately under the
fissure may not be pressed on : proceed to bandage up the
foot, so as to fulfil the following intentions: — bring the
divided edges of the fissure together, and completely retain
them there, in such a manner as totally to exclude mois-
ture from entering tlie opening. Whatever mode will

PUNCTURED FOOT. Oil PRICK. 547

answer these purposes best should be adopted ; perhaps
the following-, though a common one, is equal to any : —
melt some shoemakers' wax, and smear all over the hoof;
and, before it is quite cold, bind upon the wax firmly about
three yards of tape, so as to include as much of the hoof as
may be within the turns ; fasten off with a hard knot, and
again over the whole smear more wax ; and, lastly, smooth
it into an even surface. This done, rub over a little lard or
other greasy substance, to prevent the pitchy matter from
sticking. In all cases of simple fissure, not very long or
deep, pare away the divided edges so as to cut out the
crack, and then with a hot iron draw a line above and
below the place where the division had been.

PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK.

The foot is unavoidably exposed to numberless injuries
from sharp bodies penetrating its substance : this may hap-
pen in various ways, from nails, pointed flints, glass, &c.
The shoe being partly torn off, and then stepped upon,
may produce it ; but the accidental puncture by a nail
during shoeing is one of the most frequent causes of these
accidents. Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their
effects according to the parts punctured, and not entirely
to the depth of the wound : a knowledge, therefore, of the
anatomical structure of the foot is necessary to enable us to
ibrm an opinion of the extent of the harm done. A punc-
ture through the fleshy frog, even to the vascular portion,
is not productive usually of such serious consequences as
an apparently more superficial opening made through the
centre of the sole ; both may penetrate the capsular liga-
ment of the perforans tendon and navicular bone, and either
produce anchylosis or destroy the animal. Whenever a
puncture takes place of sufficient depth to produce the
above-mentioned injury, and synovia escapes, the external
opening should be enlarged ; but it should be attempted to
close the internal opening, by the continual application of a
pledget of tow, soaked in the weaker solution of the chlo-
ride of zinc, not to the immediate surface of the capsular
ligament, but to the flesh directly over it. This should be
renewed three times a day, and the horse should wear a
boot, having the foot slightly stopped by means of an old

N n 2

548 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK.

shoe tacked on. No matter whether suppuration has com-
menced or not, the above solution should be emploj^ed
till the opening has healed. A very deep posterior punc-
ture may extend itself into the flexor tendon, and is always
productive of very great irritation and inflammation. In
such cases enlarge the opening, and treat in a similar way
with the boot and the weaker solution of chloride of zinc ;
observing, that if prior to suppuration the inflammation run
very high, or the pain be excessive, a little blood may be
taken from the toe and the foot, without removing the
previous dressing placed in a poultice : examine the w-ound
to see it contains no foreign body, and enlarge the opening
whether it does or not. A puncture of the sensitive sole
may be treated by cutting away the horn below and imme-
diately near to the injury, and then dressing the wound
with a pledget of tow smeared wnth tar, and kept close by
means of splints and stopping. Should, however, suppura-
tion start up, remove the above, put the foot in a poultice,
and afterwards dress with the solution of chloride of zinc in
the previous mentioned manner ; when, there being a de-
pending orifice, the wound will do well.

But the most usual cases of punctures are those which
arise from a w rong direction of a nail in shoeing, and which
either presses on, or actually wounds, the sensitive laminae.
This is commonly known to the workman at the time by
a peculiar sensation arising from the diflerent resistance
occasioned, or by the flinching of the horse. The best smith
that ever lived may meet with this accident ; the slightest
movement of the horse may occasion it. The w^onder is, the
men perform a hazardous and delicate office so frequently with
so few mishaps. Many horse proprietors, however, think
differently, and by venting their ignorance and bad temper,
make the smith unwilling to acknowledge when a nail is
driven the wrong way. Concealment, in this case, is all
that is to be feared. Hide the fact the puncture may sup-
purate, and the most fearful destruction to the foot ensue :
make it known, and with proper treatment there is an end
of the aflkir. Nineteen horses out of twenty that are pricked
do well ; but the smith, rather than face the bad temper or
abuse of the owner, conceals the circumstance, and runs
the chance of ultimate discovery. To prevent the worst, and

PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK. 549

spare the animal, say to the men labouring at the forge
where the horse is shod, you know no man can help prick-
ing an animal, and you shall think nothing of it provided
you are told ; but you will put the law in force should the
circumstance occur and be concealed. Were the nail imme-
diately redrawn, the opening enlarged, and a small quantity
of tow with tar put upon the wound, it would commonly
heal ; and even should it proceed to suppuration, still a
depending orifice would exist for the evacuation of the
matter, and the extensive detachment of horn be prevented.
When a smith, in shoeing, drives the nail into the inner
horny wall, or too fine, he is apt, from fear or shame, to let it
remain ; but he ought to be aware a slight bulge takes place
during progression : pressure on the vascular parts ensues,
and inflammation surely follows if it is not withdrawn. It
happens, even when he is aware that the nail has pene-
trated the inner surface of the horn, and wounded the vas-
cular parts, he is often then hopeful to conceal that which
not avowed becomes his fault. The offending nail being
allowed to remain, the inflammation is considerable the
same night, or perhaps not till one or two days afterwards.
In such cases, as suppuration proceeds, the confined matter
spreads around, detaching a portion of the fleshy from the
horny sole, more or less considerable ; at last extending
upward, it finds itself an exit by an opening at the coronet,
and a quittor is established. In proceeding, the inflamma-
tion does not always confine itself to the punctured portion
of the sensitive laminae ; but often, when not assisted by an
artificial opening, it extends to parts less vascular ; sinuses
form inwardly. Fortunately, however, the vital action
of the sensitive sole and laminse being extreme, the mat-
ter usually proceeds outward, and finds an exit at the
coronet.

It may, therefore, in pursuing this subject, be stated, that
at any time when a horse becomes lame within a week after
he has been shod, if the origin of it be hid in any obscurity,
the shoe should be always removed, and the foot gently
struck all over with the hammer. If the lameness springs
from this source, and any part be injured by one nail in
particular, at that part the stroke will occasion the horse to

550 PUNCTURED FOOT, OR PRICK,

flinch. If this fail to detect the evil, pinch the sole and
the wall round with the pincers ; which, if the mischief arise
from a prick, will readily point out the affected part by the
pain felt there ; and under this spot matter will have surely
formed. Proceed in such case immediately to pare away
the horny sole, if necessary, till the blood be upon the point
of starting ; when on inspection a dark-coloured fluid may
ooze from one of the nail holes, yet, if a longer period has
elapsed, a purulent one will appear. But should considerable
time have passed, and there be an appearance of extensive
suppuration, we must carefully examine the extent of the
injury, to ascertain how far the horny sole has become
separated from the fleshy one ; for to this extent must the
horn be removed ; ever keeping in mind, that, as the fleshy
sole will never form over the dead or detached sole, so, to
gain a new horny secretion, every portion of loose horn
must be removed. No greasy matter should be applied to
the fleshy sole, but a pledget of tow or lint moistened with
tar may be laid on. If the case has been a neglected one,
and there has been extensive separation of horn, with con-
siderable suppurative process, take away at once every por-
tion of the separated horn. There must here be an imme-
diate exposure of the entire underrun fleshy surface ; and a
mild stimulant application, such as tar, made to the sensitive
sole, to change the purulent into a horny secretion. If
on the next day the secretion of new horn, though very
thin, is yet moderately complete, continue to dress it as
before ; but if fungus appears to be forming, touch such
part with the butyr of antimony : and after the luxuriant
granulation have disappeared, change the dressing to the
solution of chloride of zinc, two grains to the ounce of
water. Apply such cover as will defend the part as well
from moisture as unequal pressure ; but general and healthy
pressure, in a moderate degree,* will be salutary : tack on a
shoe lightly over all, and fasten on the dressing with splints.
When matter has proceeded to evacuate itself by the coro-
net, treat as for a quittor. And in all these cases, when
the symptomatic fever rages high, give physic. Perfect
quiet is absolutely necessary in every instance of puncture ;
the slightest exercise irritates, and should be avoided. The

QUITTOR. 551

hoof should either be cut away, or a shoe should be made
to ' lie off' the injured parts, and be very lightly tacked on
with three or four nails, not fully clenched up ; this will
allow of a ready removal and re-application.

TREAD, OR OVERREACH.

A wound about the coronet or heels is a very common
accident to horses, from one foot being set on the other ;
when the outer quarter, or toe of the shoe upon the
hind foot, will wound the integuments, together with the
vascular coronary rim of the fore foot. Or it may occur
from a blow inflicted by the heel of the fore shoe upon the
front of the coronet, in consequence of the hinder one over-
reaching it. In the first instance, all these cases are to be
considered as simple wounds, or rather as bruises, which,
if extensive, have produced death in the surface and adjacent
parts of the hurt; in which some inflammation must occur
and be followed by slough of the edges thus injured. And
sometimes the injury is so great as to cause sloughing of the
extensor pedis tendon and opening of the coffin joint. In
no instance, therefore, should an early application of irritat-
ing or caustic matters be made, by which more extensive
inflammation and an increase of sloughing are produced.
On the contrary, wash with water to remove dirt, &c., and
if the wound be considerable, wrap up the foot in a poultice ;
if not, apply over it simply the mild lotion of chloride of
zinc. Should the injury be slight, it may heal at once ;
but if not, sloughing and suppuration will occur. Under
some circumstances, however, more extensive mischief will
follow, when the case must be considered as quittor, or open
joint.

QUITTOR.

The various accidental lesions just described sometimes
suppurate ; and in consequence of the thick covering
of horn, cannot follow the usual course of inflammation
by proceeding outward, but directs its confined secretion
inward, attacking all the internal parts of the foot : this
state IS called quittor, which is a diseased state supple-
mentary to many other lesions of the foot. Now when it
is considered of what different materials this organ is
composed ; some vascular and sensitive ; some in which the

552 QUITTOR.

powers of life are very feeble, and their organization low ;
W'bile other parts exist which are varied in their shades
between the two ; when this is considered, we need not
wonder that any morbid action of the foot, having a pre-
disposition to extend inward, should in its course present
different symptoms, arising from the different structures
which it attacks.

Symptoms. — The probability of a quittor is shown by an
enlargement of the coronet. This may be followed by an
exudation between hair and hoof, or the tumour on the
coronet may burst in its centre. Let whichever may take
place, an open sore is speedily set up from which does not
issue healthy pus ; but a mixture of pus and a fluid re-
sembling white of egg, in which white particles are often
seen to float, and which often has a most offensive smell.
On searching the w^ound, it is found to proceed by little
narrow channels various ways. The channels are often so
small and tortuous as to defy the entrance of more than
the point of a probe ; and it is from these that the liquid
resembling white of egg issues. To find out their extent,
cut a small twig of a broom, and, having rounded its point,
use it as a flexible probe. It wull bend with the winding
of the sinus, and will enter where the silver wire w*ould not
penetrate. It must be used for some time and with some
force upon the first occasion, and its application should be
rejDeated upon the three following dressings. It should be
made to enter wherever any glairy exudation is perceived ;
for often several large sinuses will communicate with a very
small opening.

A quittor seems to occasion intense pain, producing acute
lameness. The horse having a quittor fears to put the
diseased foot to the ground ; wherefore it is better to turn
him into a loose box, and to dress him with as little
disturbance as may be possible. Nevertheless as he suffers
from an injury which demands the reparative process to be
established before it can be healed, feed him fully with as
much liberality as may be compatible with a life of idleness.
Attention paid to this last direction will materially shorten
the duration of the cure.

Treatment of Quittor. — This, like most matters of opinion,
has varied with the theories and the customs of the day.
Formerly all quittors were attempted to be cured either by

QUITTOR. 553

caustics or by the actual cautery, or by both together. La
Fosse, the elder, who was rather fond of novelty, in some
measure overturned this practice in France, and introduced
a new method, founded on an idea that the obstinacy and de-
rangement that accompanied the complaint originated in the
lateral cartilages becoming carious ; these he affirmed were
capable of being thus affected, but incapable either of ex-
foliating like bone, or sloughing like ligament ; and there-
fore, to promote a cure, the whole cartilage must be re-
moved. This practice became universal in France, and ex-
tended itself here also, particularly after M. St. Bel assumed
the professorship of our Veterinary College. Here it
reigned a little time only ; but in France it continued until
the writings of M. Girard on the subject checked its
career, and brought its practice into some disrepute. This
celebrated professor showed the superiority of the old
method of employing corrosives ; and the success of the
practice at the Alfort School, over which he presided,
tended further to bring these into use. Perhaps also our own
success with them might have hastened the re-adoption.

The practical part of the treatment of qiiittor should be
commenced by acquainting ourselves with the actual state
of the parts ; and this is the more necessary, as it will often
prevent us from being involved in a fruitless attempt, which
will probably bring disgrace on our practice, torture on an
innocent beast, and ensure trouble and useless expense on
our employer. When, by the use of a pliable probe, we
meet with a firm hard body, a bone, the case cannot be said
to be a favourable one : but unless the cartilages be also
carious, such horses frequently become sound, therefore
our opinion should be to that effect. If, in addition to
caries of the bone and cartilages, we observe a flow of
synovia also, a perfect cure is hardly to be expected ;
although even here the powers of the constitution have
occasionally restored the foot to a degree of utility ; and as
these cases happen principally to the hind feet, and very
frequently to our large and valuable draught-horses, the
attempted cure might be worth the trial. When we detect
caries of the anterior or lower parts of the lateral cartilages,
we must then be aware that the process of exfoliation is a
very difficult one to promote, in consequence of the small

554 QUITTOR.

powers of life in the parts : if our efforts succeed, the
process will probably be a lengthened one ; but as these
cartilages extend themselves posteriori}^, they become more
and more of a cartilago-fibrous texture ; this as being more
highly organized, is more capable of the sloughing and re-
productive processes ; so, when caries of the cartilage is
detected, if it have a backward direction, and not burrowing
deep towards the articulation, we are warranted in expect-
ing to succeed. In no part of the treatment is judgment
more displayed than this : we must spare, and yet spare
not ; we must expose every particle of the internal part of
the' foot, be it walls, heels, or sole, that obstruct our
proceeding; but we must most carefully avoid removing one
particle unnecessarily : and it must be kept in mind, that,
unless dictated by the circumstances w^e have pointed out,
we must content ourselves with keeping the hoof well
thinned, and pliant by moisture, &c. And, notwithstand-
ing the prejudices against firing in quittor, we would, when-
ever a circumscribed spot of carious bone could be got at,
without endangering articular or bursal cavities, apply a
pointed cautery ; neither should we be deterred from touch-
ing such a spot in the centre of the lateral cartilages ; but w^e
would lightly apply it only, and not at all when it was
carious tow^ards the base of the cartilage. This will often
save much time, even in the worst cases, and equall}^ in
those which are destined to an after treatment : occasion-
ally it will do more ; for it sometimes happens that this alone
will bring about a new action, when the cartilages and
ligaments do not v^ery extensively participate, as frequently
happens if a nail have penetrated the anterior part of
the sole, and wounded the bone. The general end we
have in view is to promote a removal of the dead parts ;
our further attempts must therefore be directed to alter the
diseased ravage going on. Our surgical principles now
teach us to make use of so much stimulus, and only so
much, as shall alter the diseased action. If it can be done
by mild means, it is by far the most humane and eligible
method. But if the sinuses are extensive, and the dis-
organization has extended to the cartilages and ligaments,
we must proceed further : indeed, it is seldom that we can
stop short from ' coring out the quittor ' by a forcible slough-

QUITTOR. 555

ing, brought about by the introduction of some caustic
substance, after this fashion. When the opening is very
small, and the sinuses deep, but contracted, make a paste
with equal parts of resin and corrosive subHmate, softened
and held together with tar. Impregnate small pieces of
wool or tow fully with this paste, which place around the
end of a probe, and introduce one by one to the bottom of
each sinus, filling also each up to the orifice with the same,
but not jamming them in with force. When, on the con-
trary, the orifice of the wound is sufficiently large, and one
or two straight sinuses only exist, a bougie may be made
with paper, dipped in the paste, and introduced ; or in case
the diseased action be extreme, and the quittor is very foul,
the powder may be rolled within thin paper, so as to make
also a bougie, which being greased or rubbed with tar to
render it slippery, should be introduced to the bottom of
the sinuses ; but it must be remembered, that, when these
are numerous and irregular in their direction, the first is by
far the best mode. The hoof should, as soon as the caustic
is introduced, be put into a poultice. In two or three days
after the introduction of the caustic, there will follow great
heat and tumefaction of the foot ; and, at last, the orifice
will burst out, expelling the slough, together with the
application that occasioned it ; after which it may be ex-
pected that the wound will go on healthily to heal. If, how-
ever, unfortunately, this should not be the case, recourse must
be again had to another introduction of escharotics, and in
every case remove so much of the horny sole as may be
beneath the pipes. The foregoing is severe treatment,
necessitated by long standing cases. However, when the
quittor is recent, and the sinuses are superficial, have the horn
thinned over the seat of the disease, but not to that extent
which lets forth blood. Then have the horse cast. Next take
a small director and insert it into a sinus. A sharp knife may
then be slid along the director, and a cut made outward, slit-
ting the sinus open. This is to be repeated as often as shall
be necessary. Some tow saturated with solution of blue vitriol
is then introduced into each sinus, and the horse allowed to
rise, when he frequently gets up sound. The wounds are to
be treated in the ordinary manner. Even when the severe
treatment is imperative, it simplifies the case if all super-

556 CANKER.

ficial sinuses be got rid of at once, in the manner just
proposed ; so that the caustic, whose action we cannot
watch or control, may be inserted into as few places
as may be possible ; besides, while the horse is down, the
practitioner has an excellent opportunity of making a
perfect examination of the quittor.

CANKER.

This afiection has some peculiarities of character ; spread-
ing over the surface of the soft parts, particularly of the
sensitive frog and sole, and having a fungoid excrescence,
somewhat of a hardened texture, and exuding a thin and an
offensive discharge ; which inoculates the soft parts within
its reach, particularly the sensitive frog and sole, and destroys
their connexions with the horny covering. Canker can
be safely said to have much constitutional origin ; it is
frequently local ; seldom if ever spontaneous ; but either
constitutional, or secondary to some affection, as grease,
thrush, &c. It appears oftener in hot weather than in cold,
and is more frequently seen in crowded and filthy stables than
in well-regulated ones. It is now unknown in the army, and,
were the same preventive means applied, would be equally
unknown elsewhere. The disease originates in various ways :
one source, as supposed, but supposed only, is the high
heels or calkins of the heavy draught-horse, which remove
the frog from that pressure that seems so necessary to its
healthy state. The state of wet and filth these horses stand
in is a more likely source : moisture applied to the frogs is
a most active agent ; it disorganizes the frog itself, and in-
creases the growth of the horn on the heels, which aggravates
the evil. Another common origin is neglected thrush,
wdiich extending beyond the sensitive frog, inflames the
vascular sole, and extensive ulceration succeeds. Virulent
and neglected grease will often occasion it, and it is no un-
common circumstance for quittor to degenerate into canker.
When a canker is the consequence of a wound of the sole
which extends to the flexor tendon, it is commonly of the
worst kind. Treads, bruises, suppurating corns, or what-
ever produces inflammation, may occasion canker.

Treatment of Canker. — The principal indications appear
to be, first, to reduce the inordinate increase of parts to

CANKER. 557

a level with the surrounding surface ; and, next, to re-
store the healthy secretions. To lessen the disposition to
produce an inordinate quantity of the wall at the ex-
pense of a sufficient development of the sole, the plantar
arteries were taken up by Mr. Coleman, but without
benefit. When, however, he divided the immediate
branches furnishing the coronary ring which cut off the
secreting supplies from the wall of the foot, the horn of
the sole began to form in larger quantities ; and the
experiment has been repeated by others with the same re-
sult. The division of the plantar nerves has been employed
for the same purpose, but with equivocal benefit ; yet it has
acted beneficially in another way, by removing much pain,
and enabling the animal to bear on the foot, which, by the
pressure thus obtained, is improved. When neurotomy is
performed in canker, it is principally confined to those cases
where the disease has its seat in the sole, bars, and frog :
it would never be prudent to do more than simply divide
the nerve, because the object here is to destroy sensation
temporarily only. When the fungus extends itself con-
siderably beyond the edges of the horn, it is prudent at once
to remove it to a level with the horny covering by the
knife. This will occasion a considerable h?emorrhage, which
may be checked by touching it lightly with muriate of
antimony ; after this, the edges of the horny sole that
surround the opening whence the fungus arises may be
better got at. Proceed carefully and accurately to examine
what extent of sensitive sole is separated from the horn, or,
how much is ^ underrun.' Exactly to this extent must the
sole of the hoof be removed with a drawing-knife ; for it
must never be lost sight of, that the horn once separated
never again reunites ; but becomes a foreign body, and
as such, occasions the same effects that occur from the
presence of other substances in all parts. Not only must
this be done in the first instance, but at every future
dressing the same attention should be paid to examine if
any further separation has occurred, that this last portion
may also be removed.

Having thus fulfilled the first indication, by reducing the
diseased fungus, and having lessened the irritation that
occasioned it, the next process is to promote a more healthy

558 CANKER.

action in the diseased surface : two plans tend to this end
— the first by stimulants apphed to the surface ; the second,
by pressure, which strengthens the parts generally. As
long as there is a profuse secretion of a curd-like matter ;
and as long as the fungus grows beyond the surround-
ing parts, so long the cankered action is going on ; and,
during this time, no secretion of firm horn will take
place. An unhealthy formation of thin half-solid horn
may be observed over many portions of the surface ; but
this will prove an imperfect secretion, and must not be
allowed to remain ; on the contrary, it must be carefully
removed at each dressing, until, by the application of stimu-
lants, and the benefit of pressure, a healthy granulating
surface appears, that will produce only an ordinate and
proper quantity of good pus, and finally end in the forma-
tion of sound horn. After the exposure of the whole can-
kered surface, therefore, and of its treatment as before
directed, let it be sprinkled with either of the following
powders : —

Chloride of zinc one draclim.

Resin four ounces.

Cliloritle of lime one ounce.

Alum one ounce.

Resin two ounces.

Mix.

Make only sufficient for one dressing, as neither of the
above powders will keep, in consequence of the great
attraction for water. The cankered surface being lightly
sprinkled with either of these, or any other stimulant judged
proper, let it be covered as dry as possible ; first by a layer
of lint, over which place pledgets of tow thickly upon the
bottom of the foot ; this should be done very judiciously,
so as to fulfil the remainder of the indication, that is, to
keep up a firm and equal pressure ; and to insure a pro-
longation of it, introduce over the whole thin strips of iron
or steel, slid under the shoe and crossing each other, which
will retain the dressing and keep a continual compression.
This being done, keep the foot perfectly dry, which is of
the utmost importance : nor does any thing so strongly
prevent its future increase, and restore the healthy action
as dryness, united with pressure. A very great fault is

CANKER. 559

often committed by dressing cankered feet too often.
We would, however, except the first dressing, where it has
been severe : here it is usual to let it remain two or three
days, until sloughing may be supposed to have commenced
and matter to be formed ; but afterwards, no bad case
ought to be dressed more frequently than every fourth day.
From a feverish impatience, this is often overdone, and a
cure that might be quickly performed is needlessly pro-
tracted ; also, in the end, proves less complete than it
might otherwise have been : for when the dressing is too
frequent, every thing done is rendered nearly useless by the
diseased action extending itself under other portions of the
sole, and the growth of fungus increasing. The destruction
of the fungus, when very high and luxuriant, may be
effected, as before mentioned, most conveniently by the
knife ; but, when not so prominent, it may be done by the
application of any of the caustic matter in general use.
Muriate of antimony is very commonly applied for this
purpose ; as it can be laid on every part by means of a
small paint-brush. It has also another advantage, which is,
that, by turning the surface immediately white it shows
what parts it has been applied to, and what are left undone.
The lapis infernalis, or caustic potash, fi'om its quick action,
is also a convenient application. We have likewise used a
solution of lunar- caustic, but the application of the same
in substance is not sufficiently quick to be useful. The
caustic dressing, be it what it may, should be continued no
longer than there is a diseased surface .remaining ; nor
should the escharotic process ever be pushed to the extent
of corroding deeply into the substance of the vascular
parts. Such conduct betrays the grossest ignorance, and
therefore can hardly be expected in the veterinarian ; but it
has happened in the practice of smiths and farriers, to the
utter destruction of the foot. Yet, on the other hand, until
the cankered matter, from being profuse, thin, and clotted
with white masses, change to a thicker, less fetid, and more
healthy discharge, as well as lessens in quantity, the sore
is still a cankered one ; also until the cauliflowered white
fungus change to a healthy red granulated appearance, the
unhealthy discharge must continue •. and, in all such cases,
a due degree of pressure, united with the application of

560 FALSE QUARTER.

some escharotic, milder or stronger, according to circum-
stances, may be considered requisite. But so soon as
the fungus is completely reduced, the discharge is lessened
in quantity, and improved in quality, accompanied with a
secretion of healthy horn ; then nothing more is necessa y
than to watch the parts, to dress dry, and not too often ;
still keeping up a moderate degree of pressure till the sore
be completely hoofed over. Horses are often turned out
during the cure of inveterate canker ; as the foot becomes
unavoidably exposed to moisture, it is an improper course
to pursue ; but mill-work under cover offers an excellent
method of combining pressure with benefit to the general
health ; observing, if the horse has been subjected to neu-
rotomy, that his insensibihty does not cause him to injure
his foot.

FALSE QUARTER.

This can hardly be considered as a distinct complaint,
but, more properly, as a consequence resulting from some
one of the former diseases; in W'hich, from the injury done
to the coronary vascular ligament, it can never afterwards
secrete horn ; but the break or interruption produced by
the interposition of a portion of non-secreting substance,
causes a part of the outer crust of the wall to be absent.
Such a blemish is called a false quarter ; and it is evident
that it must greatly tend to weaken the hoof. It likewise
sometimes produces the same unpleasant effects as a sand-
crack, by the separation of the under layer of the wall
admitting the vascular laminse between the opening. The
treatment can be only palliative. Keep the neighbouring
horn always thin : use a bar shoe, and ' lay off' (as a smith
calls it) the deficient quarter. This may be done either by
paring the crust, or by an indentation in the shoe ; the
choice of which is left to the prudence of the operator, with
this exception, that, in a weak thin foot, the alteration
should always be made in the shoe, and in a strong one
in the crust.

RESTRAINTS, &C. 561

OF SURGICAL OPERATIONS,

AND THE VARIOUS RESTRAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY TO
PLACE THE HORSE UNDER FOR THEIR PERFORMANCE.

When it is necessary to perform any painful operation on
SO powerful an animal as the horse, it is of consequence to
subject him to a restraint equal to the occasion. Horses
are very dissimilar in their tempers, and bear pain very
differently ; but it is always prudent to prepare for the
worst, and few important operations should be attempted
without casting. Humanity should be the fundamental
principle of every proceeding, and we ought always to sub-
ject this noble animal to pain with reluctance ; but when
circumstances absolutely call for it, w^e should joyfully close
our hearts to all necessary suffering. The resistance of
the horse is terrible, and it is but common prudence to
guard against the effects of it. The lesser restraints are
various : among them may be first noticed the twitch. The
tivitch is a very necessary instrument in a stable, though,
when frequently and officiously used, it may have the ill
effect of rendering some horses violent to resist its applica-
tion. In many instances blindfolding will do more than
the tw^itch ; and some horses may be quieted, when the
pain is not excessive, by holding the ear in one hand, and
rubbing the point of the nose with the other. A sooth-
ing manner will often engage the attention and prevent
violence ; but it is seldom that either threats or punish-
ment render an unruly horse more calm. Inexperienced
l^ersons guard themselves only against the hind legs ; but
they should be aware that some horses strike terribly with
their fore feet : it is prudent, therefore, in all operations, to
blindfold the animal, as by this he becomes particularly in-
timidated, and if he strikes he cannot aim. When one
of the fore extremities requires a very minute examination,
it is prudent to have the opposite leg held up ; it may, in
some cases, be tied : and when one of the hinder feet is
the object of attention, the fore one of the same side should
be held up, as by this means the animal is commonly pre-
vented from striking. If this precaution be not taken, still

o o

562 CASTING.

observe to keep one hand on the hock, while the other is
employed in what is necessary ; by which means, if the foot
become elevated to kick, sufficient warning is given, and
the very action of the horse throws the operator away from
the stroke. Without the use of these arts the practitioner
will expose himself to much risk. The ti-evis is the very
utmost limit of restraint, and is seldom used save by smiths,
to shoe very violent and powerful horses : whenever re-
course is had to it, the greatest caution is necessary to bed
and bolster all the parts that are likely to come in contact
with the body. On the Continent we have seen horses shod
in this machine, and apparently put into it from no neces-
sity greater, than to prevent the clothes of the smith from
being dirtied. Horses have been destroyed by the trevis,
as w^ell as by casting ; or their aversion to the restraint has
been such, they have died from the consequences of their
own resistance. The side-line is now very generally used,
not only in minor operations, but also in those more im-
portant. Many veterinarians do not use any other re-
straint than this, in which they consider there is safety both
to the horse and to the operator. It is applicable to such
horses as are disposed to strike behind ; and consists in
placing a hobble strap around the pastern of one hind leg,
and then carrying from a web collar passed over the head
the end of a rope through the D of the hobble, and back
again under the webbing round the neck. A man is then
set to pull at the free end of the rope, by which the hinder
leg is drawn forward without elevating it from the ground.
By this displacement of one leg the horse is effectually
secured from kicking with either. Occasionally it is thus
applied : — hobbles are put on both hind legs, and the rope
is passed through each of the rings. According to this
last method, the horse is actually cast, as he must fall w^hen
the ropes are pulled. Take a long rope, and tie a loop in
the middle, which is to be of such a size as it may serve for
a collar ; pass the loop over the head, letting the knot rest
upon the withers ; then take the free ends, pass them
through the hobbles, and bring it under the loop. Let two
men pull at the ropes, and the hind legs will be drawn
forward.

Casting. — The objections to this practice arise from the

CASTING. 563

dangers incurred by forcing the horse to the ground. Mr.
Bracy Clark simphfied casting, by inventing some patent
hobbles, having a running chain instead of rope, and which,
by a shifting D, made the loosening of all the hobbles, for
the purpose of getting at a particular leg, unnecessary.
These were still further improved by Mr. Budd, so as to
render a release from all the hobbles at once practicable.
Hobble leathers and ropes should be kept supple and pliant
with oil, and ought to be always examined previous to
using ; nor should the D or ring of the strap be of any
other metal than iron. Brass, however thick, is brittle,
and not to be depended on. To the D or ring of one pas-
tern hobble, a chain of about four feet long is attached ; to
this a strong rope is well fastened, and, according to the
way the horse is to be thrown, this hobble is to be fixed
on the fore foot of the contrary side : the rope is then
passed from the hobble on the fore foot to the D of the
hind foot of that side, then to the other hind foot, and,
lastly, through the D of the other fore foot. After this,
much of the ease and safety of the throw depend on bring-
ing the legs as near together as possible. This should be
done by gradually moving them nearer to each other, with-
out alarming the horse ; which will very much facilitate the
business, and is really of more moment than is generally
imagined. A space sufficiently large should be chosen for
the purpose of casting, as some horses struggle much, and
throw themselves with great violence a considerable way to
one side or the other ; and they are able to do this if the
feet have not been brought near together previous to attempt-
ing the cast. The place should be also very well littered
down. The legs having been brought together, the as-
sistants must act in concert ; one particularly should be
placed at the head, which must be carefully held through-
out by means of a strong snaffle bridle ; another should be
at the hind part to direct the fall, and to force the body of
the horse to the side which is requisite. Pursuing these
instructions, the animal may be at once rather let down
than thrown, by a dexterous and quick drawing of the rope ;
the whole assistants acting in concert. The moment the
horse is down, the person at the head must throw himself
upon that member, and keep it secure ; for all the efforts of

o o2

564 SLINGING.

the animal to disengage himself are begun by elevating the
head and fore parts. The rope is tightened. The chain
is fixed by inserting a hook through one of the links, of
sufficient size not to pass the hobbles. When the opera-
tion is over, the screw which fastens to chain to the hobble,
first put upon one fore leg, is withdrawn. The chain then
flies through the D's of the other hobbles, and all the legs
are free, save the fore leg first alluded to ; the strap of this
has to be afterwards unbuckled. There are also other appa-
ratus used in casting, as a strong leathern case to pass over
the head, serving as a blind when the animal is being
thrown ; and as a protection against his rubbing the skin off
his eyes when down. Then a circingle is also used. This is
fastened round the horse's body, and from the back hangs
a broad strap and a rope : the strap is fastened to the fore
leg of that side which it is desired should be uppermost ;
the line is given to a man who stands on the opposite side
to the generality of the pullers. On the signal being given,
the men having hold of the hobble rope pull the legs one
way, while, he who has hold of the rope attached to the
circingle pulls the back in a contrary direction, and the
horse is immediately cast.

Slinging is a restraint which horses did submit to with
great impatience, and not without much inconvenience,
from the violent excoriations occasioned by the friction and
pressure of the bandaging around his body. Graver evils
are also brought about by the abdominal pressure : some
horses stale and dung with difficulty when suspended ; and
inflammation of the bowels has not unfrequently come on
during slinging. The slings are, however, forced on us in
some cases, as in fractured bones, the treatment of open
joints, and some other wounds where motion would be most
unfavourable to the curative treatment. Suspension may be
partial or complete. Suspension of any kind will require
the application of pulleys and ropes affixed to the beams,
that the whole body of the horse may be supported. A
sling may be formed of a piece of strong sacking, which is
to pass under the belly, the two ends being fastened firmly
to pieces of wood ; each of about three feet long, and which
are to reach a little higher than the horse's back : to the
pieces of wood cords and pulleys are to be firmly attached,

VETERINARY OBSTETRICS. 565

by which means the sacking can he lowered or raised at
pleasure. To the sacking, also, are to be sewn strong
straps, both before and behind, to prevent the horse sliding
in either direction, without carrying the sacking with him.
Upon this so formed cradle he is to recline. If horses
when they are fresh should be placed in this machine, most
of them would either injure themselves, or break through
all restraint. However, by tying up their heads for three
or four nights, their spirit is destroyed. The slings may
then be applied without the fear of resistance : it is the
best method not to pull the canvas firm up, but to leave
about an inch between the horse's belly and the cloth, so
that the animal may stand free, or throw his weight into
the slings when he pleases. In this fashion a horse may
remain for months in the slings, and at the end of the time
display none of the wear and tear so feelingly described by
old authors.

VETERINARY OBSTETRICS,

Protracted and difficult parturition does occur in the
mare, when it becomes the veterinary practitioner to be au
fait at rendering assistance, or he will be completely under
the lash of the farriers around him. The principal cases
that occur arise either from weakness in the mare, or from a
disproportion between the foetus and mother. False pre-
sentations are also to be witnessed, but chiefly of the back
and croup : that of the back requires much labour, but the
foal is to be delivered, the hind legs being presented, without
turning in the womb being necessary. When either from
debility of the mare, or disproportion in the size of the
foal, a natural birth is despaired of, the practitioner having
introduced his arm, and having ascertained that the pre-
sentation is a natural one, should draw the feet gently for-
ward, and then endeavour to place the head between them.
If the head only is met with, seize it by the muzzle and
draw it gently onward, searching for the feet, and drawing
them one after the other in the line of the head ; which
manipulations are, of course, only to be attempted during
the throes of the mother. So soon as the head and legs
are got near the external orifice, enclose each foot within
the loop of a rope ; then holding both the ends so attached,

566 EMBRYOTOMY.

endeavour to liberate the foal, which must be done by
steady, but not brutal, pulling at the time of each throe ;
unless by protracted labour or excess of debility they have
altogether ceased ; when strive to revive them by the ad-
ministration of stimulants, especially the infusion of the
ergot of rye, in two drachm doses every twenty minutes.
Should this not succeed in one hour, proceed to extract
without : to delay it, would be to lose both mother and
offspring. The blunt hook is sometimes used on those
occasions, when the hand cannot be introduced ; it is a
powerful aid with those that can direct it. When the obstruc-
tion arises from an unnatural presentation of parts, that is,
of other parts than the head and fore feet, as of the loins,
the croup, and one single extremity, the other being dou-
bled backward ; it is evident here our endeavours must be
directed to change the position to the natural one, if prac-
ticable ; if not, to bring the hinder extremities forwards,
and endeavour to make the extraction by this method.
Lastly, if all these means fail, we must proceed to lessen
the foetal mass by embryotomy.

EMBRYOTOMY.

When, from weakness, a very narrow pelvic opening
on the part of the mother, or monstrosity on the part of the
foal, no efforts can bring the fcetal mass away entire, it
must be dismembered. A knife made for the purpose,
having the blade concealed, with the haft lying within the
hollow of the hand, is to be taken up into the vagina. We
are told that, occasionally, hydrocephalus in the colt pre-
vents the head from passing. Such a case will detect itself
by the volume that will be felt on examination, and which
will be easily lessened by plunging the point of the knife in
the forehead, and evacuating the contents by pressing the
skull in ; when, laying hold of the muzzle, the head may be
brought through the pelvic opening. But it is usually the
natural size of the head which forms the obstruction ; in
which case the head itself must be removed. When the
head has been dissected off and brought away, it will be
necessary probably to contract the volume of the chest ;
which will not be difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous por-
tions of the ribs ; detaching the thoracic viscera, and then

CASTRATION. 567

crushing, or rather moulding, the empty thorax together ;
after which the rest of the hody will offer Uttle obstruction.
When the head cannot be got at, the Unibs must, one by
one, be detached : after which the body, and at last the
head, may be drawn out either entire, or lessened con-
siderably.

CASTRATION.

This practice is of very ancient origin ; and is as exten-
sive as ancient. It is founded on the superior placidity of
temper it gives. The castrated horse no longer evinces the
superiorities of his masculine character, but approaches the
softer form and milder character of the mare. Losing his
ungovernable desires, he submits to discipline and confine-
ment without resistance ; and if he be less worthy of the
painter's delineation and the poet's song, he is valuable to
his possessor in a tenfold degi'ce. In England, where length
in the arms and of the wide-spread angles of the limbs is
absolutely necessary in the horse to accomplish the rapid
travelling so much in vogue among us, the exchange of the
lofty carriage and high action of the stallion is absolutely
necessary ; and when we have added the lessened tendency
of the gelding to some diseases, as hernia, founder, cuta-
neous affections, &c., we may be content to leave the sexual
type with the racer for his breed ; also with the drayhorse
for his weight, and the fancy of his owner. Supposing it,
therefore, eligible to castrate our horses, what is the proper
age for the operation? What are the relative advantages
and disadvantages of the different methods of performing it ?
The proper age to castrate the young horse must depend on
circumstances ; as on his present appearance, his growth,
and the future purposes we intend him for ; observing, gene-
rally, that the more early it is done, the safer is the opera-
tion : for until these organs begin to secrete, they are purely
structural parts, and as such are not so intimately connected
with the sympathies of the constitution. It is otherwise
wdien they take on their functional office ; their vascularity
and volume is then greatly increased, and the system largely
sympathises with them. On the other hand, a removal
before the adult age has so much effect on the external

568 CASTRATION.

form, that it has occasioned, in some countries, a legal
enactment to prevent it.

A reference to our anatomical detail will show that a
partial descent of the spermatic glands takes place soon
after birth ; and that in most cases, therefore, they may be
found without the external abdominal ring, until the fourth,
fifth, or sixth month ; but occasionally even later. After
this they are drawn up within the interior of the inguinal
canal : here they remain until the tenth or eleventh month.
Colts, therefore, can be castrated any time between the
first and fourth month ; and this period is preferred by
some persons, from the little disturbance it occasions to the
constitution. Some breeders of horses castrate at twelve
months ; others object to this period, because they think
the animal has not sufficiently recovered the check ex-
perienced from weaning, before this new shock to the
system occurs. In the more common sort of horses used
for agricultural purposes, it is probably indifferent at what
time the operation is performed ; this consideration being
kept in view, that the earlier it is done the lighter will the
horse be in his fore-hand ; and the longer it is protracted
the heavier will be his crest, and the greater his weight
before, which in heavy draught work is desirable. For
carriage horses it would be less so, and the period of two
years is not a bad one for their castration. The better sort
of saddle horses should be well examined every three or
four months ; particularly at the ages of twelve, eighteen,
and twenty-four months ; at either of which times, according
to circumstances or to fancy, provided the fore-hand be
sufficiently developed, it may be proceeded with. Waiting
longer may make the horse heavy : but if his neck appear
too long and thin, and his shoulders spare, he will assuredly
be improved by being allowed to remain entire for six or
eight months later. Many of the Yorkshire breeders
never cut till two years, and think their horses stronger and
handsomer for it : some wait even longer, but the fear in
this case is, that the stallion form will be too predominant,
and a heavy crest and weighty fore-hand be the consequence ;
perhaps also the temper may sutler. Young colts require
little preparation, provided they are healthy and not too

CASTRATION. 569

full from high living ; if so, they must be kept somewhat
short for a few days ; and in all, the choice of a mild season
and moderate temperature is proper. When a full-grown
horse is operated on, some further preparation is necessary.
He should not be in a state of debility, and certainly not
in one of plethora : in the latter case, lower his diet, and it
would be prudent to give him a purgative. It is also
advisable that it be done when no influenza or strangles
rage, as we have found the effects of castration render a
horse very obnoxious to any prevalent disease. The
advanced spring season, previous however to the flies
becoming troublesome, is the proper time for the perform-
ance of the operation upon all valuable horses ; and be
careful that it be not done until after the winter coat has
been shed, which will have a favourable effect on the future
coating of the horse, independent of the circumstance, that
at a period of change the constitution is not favourable to
any unusual excitement.

Castration is performed in various ways, but in all it
expresses the removal of the testicles : there are methods
of rendering the animal impotent without the actual de-
struction of these organs ; for if by any other method the
secretion of the spermatic glands is prevented, our end is
answered.

Castration by cauterization is the method which has been
principally practised among us. But this by no means
proves it the best ; on the contrary, many of our most
expert veterinarians do not castrate by this method. Mr.
Goodwin, and many other practitioners of eminence, never
castrate by cautery.

A preliminary observation should be made prevdously to
casting, to see that the horse is not suffering from a
rupture : such cases have happened ; and as in our method
we open a direct communication with the abdomen, when
the horse rises it is not improbable that his bowels protrude
until they trail on the ground. Hernia as a consequence of
castration may easily occur by the uncovered operation, for,
as already observed, it makes the scrotal sac and abdominal
cavity one continuous opening. It is not to be wondered
at, therefore, if the violent struggles of the animal should
force a quantity of intestine through the rings into the

570

CASTRATION,

scrotal bag. Should we be called on to operate on a horse
which already had hernia, it is evident we ought not to
proceed with it, unless the owner be apprised ot^ the risk,
and willing to abide by it. In such case we would recom-
mend that the method of Girard be practised, i. e. to in-
close the tunica vaginalis within the clams (sufficiently
tight to retain them, but not to produce death in the part)
pushed high up against the abdominal ring, and then to
remove the testicle, being very careful to avoid injuring
any portion of intestine in the operation. When a discovery
is made of the existence of hernia after cm opening has been
already lyiade for the common purpose of castration, should
the operator continue his process, and castrate ? We should
say, by no means ; but on the contrary, we would greatly
prefer the method recommended by Mr. Percivall ; firmly to
unite the lips of the external wound by suture, allowing the
testicle itself to assist in blocking up the passage ; with a hope
also that the inflammation caused by the excision might
altogether stop up the scrotal communication with the
abdomen. But in the appalling case of immense protrusion
of intestine, what is to be done ? Mr. Coleman, in such a
case, proposes to make an opening near the umbilicus,
large enough to introduce the hand, and thus draw in the
bowels. Mr. Percivall would prefer dilating the external
ring: but the testicle must be very firmly retained, and
even permanently fixed against the dilated ring, or the
bowels would again descend. The intestines probably
would become inflated in any such case.

As unbroken young horses are the most usual subjects of
this operation, and as such often have not yet been bridled,
if a colt cannot be enticed with oats, &c., he must be driven
into a corner between two steady horses ; where, if a halter
cannot be put on, at least a running hempen noose can be
got round his neck ; but whichever is used, it should be
flat, or the struggles, which are often long and violent, may
bruise the neck, and produce abscess or injury. When
his exertions have tired him, he may be then led to the
operating spot : here his attention should be engaged while
the hobbles are put on, if possible ; if not, a long and strong
cart-rope, having its middle portion formed into a noose
sufficiently laige to take in the head and neck, is to be slipped

CASTRATION. 571

on, with the knotted part appUed to the counter or breast ;
the long pendant ends are passed backwards between the
fore legs, then, carried round the hind fetlocks ; brought
forward again on the outside, run under the collar-rope ;
a second time carried backward on the outer side of
all, and extended to the full length in a direct line behind
the animal. Thus fettered, Mr. Percivall says his hind feet
may be drawn under him towards the elbows ; it has been,
however, often found that, at the moment the rope touches
the legs, the colt either kicks and displaces the rope, or
altogether displaces himself ; but his attention can generally
be engaged by one fore leg being held up, or by having his
ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch : if not, the
rope may be carried actually round each fetlock, which then
acts like a hobble ; and this rope may be gradually tight-
ened : this last however is a very questionable method, and
the others therefore ought to be long tried before it is resorted
to ; in this way people have succeeded with very refractory
colts ; but it requires very able assistants, and, if possible,
the man who has been used to the individual colt should be
present. In either way, as soon as the rope is fixed, with
a man to each end of it behind the colt, let them, by a
sudden and forcible effort in concert, approximate his hind
legs to his fore, and thus throw him. Before the colt is
cast, however, it should be endeavoured to ascertain that he
is free from strangles and hernia.

Being satisfied that no hernia exists on either side, pro-
ceed to cast the colt, turning him, not directly on the left
side, but principally inclining that way ; and if possible let
the croup be very slightly elevated : it is usual to place him
directly flat on the left side, but the above is more con-
venient. Next secure the near hind leg with a piece of
hempen tackle, having a running noose ; or, in default of
this not being at hand, make use of the flat part of a hempen
halter, which should for safety be put on before the hobble
of that leg is removed ; as may be readily done if the hobbles
having shifting or screw D's, as described in casting, are
made use of. Every requisite being at hand, the operator,
having his scalpel ready, should place himself behind the
horse, as the most convenient way to perform his manipu-
lations ; and firmly grasping the left testicle with his left

572 CASTRATION.

hand, and drawing it out so as to render tlie scrotum tense,
he should make an incision lengthways, from the anterior to
the posterior part of the bag. The resistance of the cremaster
muscle has to be overcome before the testicle can be forced
to the bottom of the scrotum ; and this is the more readily ac-
complished if the animal's attention be engaged. The incision
may be carried at once through the integuments, the thin
dartos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the testicles, with
a sweep of the scalpel : but wdth one less dexterous at the
operation, it will be more prudent to make the first incision
through the scrotum and dartus only, to the required
extent ; and then to do the same by the vaginal coat, thus
avoiding to wound the testicle, which would produce vio-
lent resistance, and give unnecessary pain. We however
take this opportunity of noting, that cases have occurred,
when the tunica vaginalis was divided no testicle followed ;
firm adhesions between this tunic and the tunica albuginea
having retained it fast. In such cases the scalpel must be
employed to free the testicle, by dissecting it away from
the vaginal sac. When no such obstruction occurs, the
testicle, if the opening be sufficiently large, wall slip out ;
but the operator must be prepared at the moment of so
doing to expect some violent struggles, more particularly
if he attempt to restrain the contractions of the cremaster,
and by main force to draw out the testicle. Preparatory to
this, therefore, the twitch should be tightened ; the attend-
ants, especially the man at the head, must be on the alert ;
and the testicle itself, at the time of this violent retraction
of the cremaster, should be merely held but not dragged in
opposition to the contraction. If the clams have been put
on over the whole, according to Mr. Percivall's method,
they will assist in retaining the retracting parts ; but they
must not be used with too much pressure. The resistance
having subsided, the clams must now be removed ; or, if
they have not been previously in use, they must now be
taken in hand, and having been prepared by some tow
being w^ound round them, should be placed easily on the
cord, while time is found to free from the grip of the
pincers the vas deferens, or spermatic tube, which is seen
continued from the epididymis. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin
informs us, cut it through wiien they operate. Humanity is

CASTRATION. 573

much concerned in its removal from pressure, because of the
excess of pain felt when it is included. It is necessary,
before the final fixing of the clams, to determine on the part
where the division of the cord is to take place. To use
Mr. Percivall's words, 'If it be left too long, it is apt to
hang out of the wound afterwards, and retard the process of
union ;' on the other hand, if it be cut very short, and the
arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has been released
from the clams, the operator will find it no easy task to re-
cover it. The natural length of the cord, which will mainly
depend on the degree of the descent of the gland, will be
our best g-uide in this particular. The place of section
determined on and marked, close the clams sufficiently
tight to retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectually stop
the circulation within it. There are now two modes of
making the division : the one is to sever it with a scalpel,
and then to sufficiently sear the end of it as to prevent a
flow of blood. The other, and in some respects the prefer-
able method, is to employ a blunt-edged iron, which is to
divide by little crucial sawings, so that, when the cord is
separated, it shall not present a uniform surface, but ragged
edges, which will perfectly close the mouths of the vessels . This
done, loosen the clams sufficiently to observe whether there
be any flow of blood ; gently wipe the end of the cord also
with the finger, as sometimes an accidental small plug gets
within the vessel ; this had better be removed at the time.
Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes longer ; and
while loosening them gradually, observing to have an iron
in readiness again to touch the end of the cord, if any blood
makes its appearance. Satisfied on this point, sponge the parts
with cold water ; no sort of external application is necessary,
still less any resin seared on the end of the cord, which can
only irritate and will never adhere. On the after-treat-
ment much difference of opinion has existed, and even yet
exists. The powerful evidence of accumulated facts has
now convinced us of the necessity and propriety of some
motion for the newly castrated horse, as a preventive of
local congestion ; such practice is common in most countries,
and seems salutary in all. Hurtrcl d'Arboval, thus im-
pressed, recommends the horse, immediately after the
operation, to be led out to walk for an hour ; and it is

574 CASTRATION.

a general plan in France to walk such horses in hand an
hour night and morning. Mr. Goodwin, in proof of its not
being hurtful, informs us that whole studs of horses brought
to St. Petersburgh to be operated on, are immediately
travelled back a certain portion of the distance, night and
morning, until they arrive at home. We have, therefore, no
hesitation in recommending a moderate degree of motion in
preference to absolute rest.

The French method of casti'ation is advocated by Mr. Good-
win ; and it is sufficient that it receives his recommendation
to entitle it to attention ; it is rendered the more so, as he
observes on the method in general use among us, " that the
operation performed by the actual cautery always induces,
more or less, symptoms that often become alarming ; and
that it cannot be performed on the adult without incurring
more swelling and severer consequences than attend other
methods of operation. If I ever use the actual cautery, it
is for the sake of expedition, and then only on a yearling,
or a two-year old ; but I am resolved never to employ it
again on an adult." These observations, as emanating from
such a source, must be deemed important. Mr. Goodwin
then offers the description of the French method of operat-
ing from Hurtrel d'Arboval. ' Castration by means of the
clams is the method in general use, if not the only one now
employed ; it is the most ancient, since it was recommended
by Hieroclius among the Greeks. It is performed in two
ways, the testicle being covered or uncovered. In the former,
the exterior of the scrotum, formed by the skin and dartos
muscle, is cut through, and the testicle is brought out by dis-
secting away the laminated tissue, the gland being covered
by the tunica vaginalis ; the clam is then placed above
the epididymis, outside the external peritoneal covering, of
the cord. In the uncovered operation, the incision is made
through the serous capsule of the testicle ; the tunica vagi-
nalis being divided, the testicle presents itself, and the
clam is placed well above the epididymis, on the cord. The
operation, performed in either way, requires us to provide
ourselves with a scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of long
pincers, made purposely to bring the ends of the clams
together, and some waxed string. The clams may be formed
of different kinds of wood ; but the elder is considered the

CASTRATION. 0/D

best, and generally made use of. To make a clam, we pro-
cure a branch of old and dry elder, whose diameter should
be about an inch, and whose length should be from five to
six inches : of course, the dimensions must at all times be
proportioned to the size of the cord we have to operate
on. At the distance of half an inch from each end, a small
niche, sufficiently deep to hold the string, must be made,
and then the wood should be sawed through the middle
lengthways. Each divided surface should be planed, so as
to facilitate the opening of the clams, either when about
to place them on or take them off. The pith of the wood
is then to be taken out, and the hollow should be filled with
corrosive sublimate and flour, mixed with sufficient water to
form it into a paste. Some persons are not in the habit of
using any caustic whatever ; then, of course, scooping out
of the inside of the clam is not necessary : notwithstanding,
the caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier dissolution
of the parts, must be useful, and ought not to be neglected.'
The addition of the caustic, however, Mr. Goodwin objects
to with great reason, remarking, that unless it be a very
strong one, and therefore dangerous to employ, it cannot be
of any use to parts compressed and deprived of circulation
and life. He further informs us that he has operated in six
cases in succession with the same effect, without any escha-
rotic matter w^iatever. An experimental case of Mr. Per-
civall's terminated fatally : by the use of caustic the cord
w^as greatly inflamed, as high as the ring, and which un-
questionably produced the unfortunate result. ' The covered
operation,' continues Mr. Goodwin, ' is the one that I am
about to advocate, and which differs only inasmuch, that
the scrotum and dartos muscle must be cautiously cut
through, w^ithout dividing the tunica vaginalis. It was
Monsieur Berger who w^as accidentally at my house when I
w^as about to castrate a horse, and who, on my saying that
I should probably do it with the cautery, expressed his sur-
prise that 1 should perform the operation in any other w^ay
than on the plan generally approved of in France. Being a
stranger to it, he kindly consented to preside at the opera-
tion, and, after seeing him perform on the near testicle, I
did the same on the right, but of course not with the same
facility. After opening the scrotum, and dissecting through

576 CASTRATION.

the dartos, which is very readily done by passing the knife
lightly over its fibres ; the testicle, and its covering, the
tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the right hand, while the
left should be employed in pushing back the scrotum from
its attachments ; and, having your assistant ready, as before,
with the clam, it must be placed well above the epididymis,
and greater pressure is, of course, necessary, as the vaginal
covering is included in the clam.

Mr. Goodwin further observes, that in Russia he has seen
hundreds of horses operated on, even after the human
fashion, with safety ; and he remarks it certainly produces
less pain, the animal loses less flesh and condition, and is
sooner recovered than when operated on by the actual
cautery.

Castration by ligature is a painful, barbarous, and very
dangerous practice : and consists in enclosing the testicles
and scrotum within ligatures until mortification occurs and
they drop off. It is practised by some breeders on their
young colts, but it is always hazardous, and disgracefully
cruel. The substance of the testicle in some countries is
also broken down either by rubbing, or otherwise by pres-
sure between two hard bodies : this is practised in Algiers
instead of excision, and tetanus is a frequent consequence
of it. In Portugal they twist round the testicle, and thus
stop the circulation of the gland. Division of the vas
deferens has been performed, it is said, with success on many
animals ; and is proposed as a safe and less painful process
than the emasculation of the horse. It consists in a longi-
tudinal section through the scrotum, dartos, and vaginal
sheath, so as to expose the cord, from which the vas de-
ferens is to be separated and severed from the artery vein.
There is a certain consent of parts by which the sympathy
of an organ remains after its functional offices are apparently
destroyed. There can be little doubt but the nervous ex-
citement would continue, the vein and artery remaining
entire. There are certain nice conditions of the organ
necessary for propagation ; thus the horse who retains his
testicles within his abdomen, possesses all the riggish quali-
ties of him with one perfectly evolved : he is lustful, and
can cover, but is seldom fruitful. Of the morbid conse-
quences of castration we have little to say : by early evacua-

LITHOTOMY. 577

tions, green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate clothing,
but ^particularly by walking exercise, swellings of the parts
may be prevented : if not, bleed and foment ; should sup-
puration follow, and sinuses form, treat as directed under
those heads ; and if tetanic symptoms start up, refer to that
article. There has been lately practised in India a novel
mode of castration, which is said to be the invention of a
Boer settled at the Cape of Good Hope. The cord is ex-
posed in the usual manner ; from the cord the artery is
singled out ; this vessel is scraped through with a coarse-
edged blunt knife, when the other constituents of the cord
are cut away, and the operation is finished. This method
is much praised by those who have adopted it, and is said
to be always attended with success.

LITHOTOMY.

Hurtrel d'Arboval's account of the progress of lithotomy
in veterinary practice commences in 1774. The second case
was successfully operated on in 1794 ; and at later periods
other veterinary surgeons have also performed it. ' In
monodactyles there are two methods of operating for the
stone ; one through the rectum, the other through the
bladder. The first, which consists in laying open the
bladder by a longitudinal incision made through the parietes
of the part of the rectum adherent to it, by means of a
straight bistoury, is easily practised ; but in its consequences
is dangerous in the extreme : in fact, it is an operation never
to be adopted but in a case where the magnitude of the
stone precludes its extraction through the neck of the
bladder. In all other cases, lithotomy by the urethra is to
be pursued. For its performance are required, a straight
probe-pointed bistoury, a whalebone fluted staff, and a pair of
forceps curved at the extremities. The animal should, if
practicable, be maintained in the erect posture. The tail
plaited and carried round on the right quarter, the operator
feels for the end of the staff introduced up the urethra, and
makes an incision directly upon it, from above downwards,
an inch and a half or two inches in length. Next, he in-
troduces the sound, and passes it onward into the bladder.
Now, placing the back of the bistoury within the groove of
the sound, by gliding the knife forwards, the pelvic portion

pp

578 LITHOTOMY.

of the urethra, and also the neck of the bladder, become
slit open ; the latter in two places, in consequence of a
second cut being made in withdrawing the bistoury. The
opening made being considered of sufficient dimensions, the
operator introduces the forceps into the bladder, and seizes
the calculus, one hand being up the rectum, to aid him in
so doing. The forceps clasping the stone are now to be
withdrawn, but with gentleness ; and with a vacillating sort
of movement of the hand from side to side, in order more
easily to surmount any difficulties in the passage, and the
more effectually to avoid contusion or laceration. M.
Girard tells us, ' That the cut through the pelvic portion of
the urethra ought always to be made obliquely to one side ;
the operator should hold his bistoury in such a direction,
that its cutting edge be turned towards the angle of the
thigh. By this procedure we shall gain easier access to the
bladder ; and not only avoid wounding the rectum, but also
the artery of the bulb, as well as the bulb itself, and sus-
pensory ligaments of the penis.' The parts cut through in
the operation are, 1st, the fine thin skin of the perineum,
smooth externally, and marked with a raphe ; densely cel-
lular internally: 2ndly, adhering to the tissue, the faschial
covering, derived from the faschia superficialis abdominis,
which has here become fibrous : it forms the common en-
velope to the parts underneath, and is closely connected
with the corpus musculosum urethree : 3rdly, the corpus mus-
culosum urethra, that penniform band of fleshy fibres which
springs by two branches from the ischiatic tuberosities em-
bracing the sphincter ani, and concealing the arteries of the
bulb ; whence they unite, and proceed to envelope the
urethra : 4thly, the corpus spongiosum urethra!, the part
immediately covered by the muscular envelope, and which
here is bulbous. It is more particularly worthy our remark,
from two arteries penetrating the bulb, which come from
without the pelvis, ascending obliquely outward to reach
the part : 5thly, the suspensory ligaments of the penis, pur-
suing the course of, and adhering to, the tendinous union
of the erectores. An attention to the relative position of
these parts will demonstrate the advantages of the lateral
oblique incision over one made directly along the raphe : by
pursuing the latter, we necessarily cut through the sus-

ESOPHAGOTOMY. 579

pensory ligaments and into the bulb, wounding thereby the
arteries ; whereas, by the former, all this danger is avoided,
besides that it renders the operation more simple and
facile.

TRACHEOTOMY.

Cases occur when this operation is required ; as in stran-
gles, when the tumours threaten suffocation, or when any
substance has remained unswallowed in the oesophagus, the
pressure of which obstructs respiration. In a distressing
case of gunpowder bursting immediately under a horse's
nose, the effects of which tumefied his mouth and nos-
trils, so as to prevent free inspiration, the animal owed
his life entirely to our excising a portion from the tracheal
rings, about ten inches below the angle of the throat. The
operation is a very simple one, and may consist either in a
longitudinal section made through two or three of the rings,
or a portion, occupying about an inch round, may be ex-
cised from the anterior cartilaginous substance. The proper
mode, when it can be done, however, is to make a circular
opening with a very narrow knife, removing a portion of
two cartilages, or taking a semicircular piece from each ;
and this last, although it is seldom performed, is by far the
best method : the integuments should be first divided in the
exact centre of the neck, three or four inches below the ob-
struction ; then the skin and tissues should be sufficiently
separated to allow a tube adapted to the size of the trachea
to be introduced ; the tube having an acute turn and a rim,
which must be furnished with holes for the adaptation of tapes
to secure it around the neck. There are several instruments
of this sort in use, of which that adopted by the French,
or the one invented by Mr. Gowing of Camden Town, is to
be preferred. The operation has been also performed in
cases of roaring, under an idea of dividing the stricture
which impeded respiration ; but unless the exact situation
of this were discovered, it would be but an experimental
attempt.

ESOPHAGOTOMY.

It was long thought that a wound in the oesophagus must
be necessarily fatal, but we have now sufficient proofs to the

p p 2

580 ESOPHAGOTOMY.

contrary on record ; so that we are not deterred from cut-
ting into the esophageal tube when it is necessary ; but it
is an operation requiring skill and anatomical knowledge ;
and its future results are sometimes very serious. The
cases that call for esophagotomy are the lodgement of acci-
dental substances within the tube. An apple once so lodged
was removed by incision by a veterinary surgeon at Windsor,
Carrots, parsneps, beet, &c., are liable to produce such ob-
struction when not sliced. Too large a medicinal mass also
has lodged there ; and a voracious eater has, by attempting
to swallow too large a quantity of not salivated bran or chaff,
produced an obstruction which pressed on the trachea
and threatened suifocation. In all cases of obstruction of
this kind we will suppose that a probang well oiled has been
previously attempted to be passed, and has completely
failed. The probang for the horse, however, differs mate-
rially from that used for the cow. It is formed after the
fashion of the one adopted by the human practitioner, con-
sisting of a pliable piece of whalebone, having a sponge
tied to one end. The operation being determined on may
be practised standing ; if the swelling be large no fear
need be entertained about cutting important organs, as the
enlargement will push them on one side. Cut down, there-
fore, directly upon the centre of the impacted substance.
If the horse be cast, which is quite unnecessary, have him
of course thrown with his left side uppermost. It will also
be necessary to command a good light. The part of the
neck chosen for the opening must of course be governed by
the obstructing mass. A section should be made through
the integuments and cellular tissue beneath them, right
into the oesophagus, if possible with one cut, and into the
centre of the pipe. If this be not done at once, and it
requires some dexterity so to effect it, mind to make all
future incisions in a line with the first opening ; as it is im-
portant that the cellular tissue should be little interfered
with. The oesophagus, fairly cut into the impactment,
should jump forth ; should it not do so, do not manipulate,
or attempt to force it out, but enlarge the opening, and the
substance will come through when that is long enough ; but
no fingering could compel its exit while the opening is too
small. The end gained for which the incision was made in

NEUROTOMY. 581

the oesophagus, the wound may be then closed by the
interrupted sutures, each holding a small piece of tow
above the orifice, and having their ends hanging out of the
external opening, which should also be brought together by
sutures. The after-treatment should be, to interdict all dry
food ; the animal ought to subsist on very thick gruel for
three, four, or five days. If the condition appears to suffer
much, allow malt mashes, and when so doing watch the
wound ; and if the matters taken in are seen to ooze out,
w^ash them away frequently with warm water, to prevent
lodgement, which might encourage sinuses to form ; and
after each washing syringe with some very mild stimulant,
as a very weak solution of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) ,
&c. &c.

NEUROTOMY.

DIVISION OF THE SENTIENT NERVES OF THE FOOT.

Neurotomy has now stood the test of very extensive appli-
cation : our writers offer innumerable proofs of its restoring
almost useless animals to a state of much utility. And if
there are chances that it may occasion such injury as to
hasten the end of some horses, it is usually in such as the
disease would have done the same for at no distant period.
Having stated thus much in its favour, it must not be sup-
posed that we recommend it as an unqualified benefit, even
where it succeeds best. No neurotomized horse ever after
goes with the same freedom, nor with equal safety, as he did
before the operation was performed : indifference to the na-
ture of the ground gone over, is said to have fractured legs ;
it is quite common to batter the feet to pieces ; and although
horses have hunted afterwards, and hacknies have carried
their riders long distances, yet it is more calculated to prove
beneficial to carriage than to saddle horses. This we believe
to be a just statement of its merits ; but there are benefits
which it ofters to the animal of a more extensive and con-
stitutional kind. Those gained by the bodily system gene-
rally have been in some cases very marked : thus, an aged
and crippled stallion, from the irritation constantly kept up,
became so emaciated as to be unable to fecundate ; but

582 NEUROTOMY.

being relieved from a constant state of suffering by neu-
rotomy, improved in health and condition, and was again
used to cover. It happened, also, that a mare similarly
circumstanced ceased to feel oestrum ; but after neurotomy
it again returned, and she resumed her character of a brood
mare. It appears to act with most certainty when a portion
of the irritated nerve is excised. One case has actually
occurred where the tetanus, occasioned by a wound in the
foot, was arrested and removed by neurotomy. It also
promises much in the painful state of some cankers, where
the irritation has rendered the application of dressings
almost impossible : here, by depriving the foot of sensi-
bility, we deprive the horse of that which is injurious to
him : the sore itself is often amended by it ; but in every
instance the dressings can be effectively applied, and the
healthy processes cannot be at all suspended.

With respect to whether the lower or upper incision
ought to have the preference, the decision should be guided
by the circumstances, as regards the intensity and the seat
of the disease. The operation commonly leaves, for a con-
siderable time, some enlargement around the spot, the
effects of the adhesive matter interposed between the se-
vered portions of nerve ; and which can be remedied by no
application of bandages. This bulging remains so long
as hfe continues; and, however cunningly the incision
be concealed, this can be felt with ease, and tells the
truth ever after the operation has been performed. Such a
circumstance has, however, led some practitioners, when it
has been wished to make the upper section, and yet to
avoid the chance of detection, to operate on the meta-
carpal nerve on the outside, and on the pastern or plantar
nerve on the inside.

MODE OF PERFORMING THE OPERATION.

The situation of the section through the skin being de-
termined on, a guide to which may be gained from the per-
foratus tendon, and having firmly secured the leg to be first
operated on, cut the hair from the part. This being done,
and the exact course of the artery being ascertained by its
pulsation, make a section close to the edge of the flexor
tendon. Let the cut be near, but rather behind, the artery.

PERIOSTEOTOMY. 583

if below the fetlock joint. The cellular substance being
cleared away will bring the vessels into view, and the nerve
will be readily distinguished from them by its whiteness.
Elevating it from the vessels, and its membranous attach-
ments, by means of a crooked needle armed with thread,
pass a bistoury under it, as near to the upper angle of
the section as possible. The violent spasm the division
of the nerve produces may be somewhat lessened by press-
ing the nerve between the finger and the thumb ; when
an opportunity may be taken, either with the scalpel or
scissors, of dividing it ; then, taking hold of the lowermost
portion between a pair of forceps, excise about three-fourths
of an inch of its trunk. Having finished, if both feet
are affected, proceed to operate upon the contrary side of
the other leg ; after which turn the horse, and repeat the
operations on the like parts of each leg as they come in
succession. The integuments may be now drawn neatly
together, and secured by a twisted suture, the whole
being properly covered by a light compress. Tie up the
head for a day or two, after which put on a cradle ; keep
the horse very quiet and low : give mashes to open the
bowels ; but we should avoid physicking, from the fear that
griping might occur, which would make him restless, or
probably require exercise.

PERIOSTEOTOMY.

This operation consists in having the horse thrown upon
his side, and the leg to be operated upon released from the
hobble, and extended upon a sack filled with refuse hay or
straw : this is done by means of a piece of webbing passed
round the hoof, and the end given to a man to hold, who
pulls rather violently at the member. The operator then
kneels down and feels for the exostosis he intends to per-
form periosteotomy upon. This may be a splint or a
node, and commonly exists upon the metacarpal portion of
the fore limb. The operator having found the excrescence,
snips just below it with a pair of rowelling scissors. He
then takes a blunt seton needle and drives it through the
cellular tissue, and immediately over the enlargement. Next,
another slit in the skin, above the exostosis, is made with
the rowelling scissors, and through this last opening the

584 PERIOSTEOTOMY.

point of the seton needle is forced and then withdrawn.
Into the free space thus made a curved knife is introduced :
the point of this knife is blunt, and the blade curves upward,
the cutting part being below. Some persons use a very-
diminutive blade, but the editor prefers rather a large instru-
ment, as being more under the command of the hand.
Having introduced this knife, he turns the cutting edge
downwards, and wdth it incises the enlargement, sending
the blade right through the periosteum, and also through
the substance of the exostosis, if it be not too solid for
the knife to penetrate. This latter fact is only to be as-
certained by actual experience, and no opinion formed after
an external examination can be of any value ; such being
much more the guess of a pretender than the judgment of
a surgeon. The age of the animal may be some guide, but
even this it is better not to depend upon too entirely. It
is true that young horses freely cast forth exostoses,
which aged animals mostly absorb ; but this rule, though
very general, has exceptions, and by no means is to be
absolutely depended upon.

The enlargement being cut through, next take a seton
needle armed with a tape, and draw it through the channel
already made : tie a knot at either end of the tape, large
enough to prevent its being pulled through the opening at
either end, and the business is over. The affair is very
simple, and the horse may be at once let up. It is, how-
ever, in some cases, and only in some, of so much benefit,
that the horse being thrown " dead lame," gets up and
trots off quite sound. However, ere you adopt the ope-
ration, apprise the owner of the risk incurred, and that
it is by no means a certain cure. Leave the choice with
him, but be sure and tell him the openings made for the
entrance and exit of the seton commonly leave a blemish
behind them ; and where the seton travelled, often there
remains a thickening, which it may require months to
obliterate.

The after part of the treatment consists in merely having
the seton daily moved to and fro : though some persons
apply an active blister all over the parts immediately in the
neighbourhood of the seton ; under the idea that the vesica-
tory renders the operation of greater efficacy, which how-

AMPUTATIONS. 585

ever is very questionable. When periosteotomy acts at
all, it mostly does so at once ; and when its benefits are not
immediate, it is better to withdraw the seton to prevent
after blemish, rather than hazard further and useless treat-
ment by the application of a stimulant to skin already
deprived of any connexion w^ith the deeper-seated struc-
tures.

DIVISION OF THE FLEXOR TENDON.

There are so many accidents and diseases that may pro-
duce contraction of the flexor tendons, that we only won-
der we do not more often meet with them ; which we
should certainly do, but that the attendants, despairing of
being able to aflbrd reHef, advise their destruction. The
operation consists in making a longitudinal incision of about
three inches in length along the inner lateral edge of the
tendon ; dissecting each portion from its cellular attach-
ments, so as to expose the nerve, artery, and tendons.
This opening will allow the perforans to be freed from the
perforatus, w^hen a division should be made by a scalpel
applied to its surface. It is evident that this should take
place below any thickening, or adhesions which may have
permanently connected the tendon with the neighbouring
parts : any lesser attachments will be broken through,
by forcing back the foot to the just position. By Mr.
Dick this was done ' by placing his knee against the
front or projecting part of the pastern, at the same time
laying hold of the foot with one hand and the upper part of
the leg with the other, and using considerable force : and
this appears to be necessary, in order to break any adhe-
sions that may have formed.' The limb should now be
placed in a poultice ; and if any fear of future contraction
should arise during the cure, lengthen the toe of the shoe
proper to the foot operated on. Some slow exercise after
the first week may be allowed, but previously to that the
horse should be confined to a stall, during which the bowels
must be kept open with mashes.

AMPUTATIONS.

These have been hitherto confined principally to the tail,
the ears, and other parts of minor importance in the animal

586 AMPUTATIONS.

frame ; but veterinary surgery now takes a wider field, and
the extremities are amputated with a certainty of making
horned cattle still serviceable for the purposes of yielding
milk ; and without doubt the same might be done with the
brood mare, or stallion, particularly in fractures of the fore
extremities. Professor Dick, of the Edinburgh Veterinary
College, furnishes a case sent to him by one of his pupils to
the following effect : ' I performed amputation upon the
cow on the 7th of July ; after having properly secured the
animal, and applied a tourniquet above the carpus, I made
a circular incision through the integuments round the leg,
a little below the carpus ; and having separated the skin so
as to allow of its being pushed up a little, I cut through
the sinews, and lastly sawed off the stump : the parts are
now completely whole, although she has been going at grass
ail the time ; and, now that she has got the advantage of a
cork stump, makes a wonderful shift for herself, and yields
a good supply of milk to her owner.' Mr. Dick also notices
another case of amputation of the fore leg of a two-year
old heifer ; and of a third, where the hind leg was removed
above the tarsus. Such operations have occasionally oc-
curred from time immemorial, with a few enterprising cha-
racters. We have heard of them, but they were mostly
regarded as mere matters of curiosity or wonder ; and there-
fore were not imitated. We shall, however, probably ere
long have them more common, in cows at least ; for, oc-
curring below the carpus and tarsus, they are as easily
performed as nicking or docking : and there is no doubt
bat were a hollow padded stump applied, such low opera-
tions might be prudent in many cases. Fractures, with
great comminution of bone, considerable ravages of disease
within the foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases which
might call for amputation. Of the method of amputation
little need be added to the above. The principal practical
points are, the fixing of a tourniquet of sufficient force,
which should be padded to make its principal pressure on
the leading arterial trunks, while its general circumference
will act on the smaller vessels : a ring should be cut lightly
below the intended place of operation ; only through the
integuments ; which, when separated from their cellular ad-
hesions for about six inches, should be turned back ; and a

NICKING.

587

circular incision may then be made through the muscles
&c taking up by hgature such vessels, both venous and
arterial, as display a disposition for much hsemorrhage.
The section thus made, free the bone from the soft parts by
the scalpel, where the adherences are very mtimate ; and
having by means of a crucial bandage retracted the sott
parts altogether above the bone, saw it through. Fmally,
effectually secure the principal vessels, when, bringing the
soft parts and skin over the bone, retain them there by
proper bandaging, which suffer to remain without disturbance
until the third or fourth day.

AMPUTATION OF THE PENIS.

Amputation of the penis is not unknown among us : it
has been performed several times, and it is found that no
canula is necessary to keep open the urethra ; the force ot
the urinary flow breaking down any incipient cicatrization
of its orifice. The sheath is first forced back, and the penis
brought forward to its greatest possible extent : whatever
portion it is intended to remove is now cut through by
means of an amputating knife; when the remainder is re-
tracted within the sheath, and little hsemorrhage has after-
wards occurred, except at the time of passing the urine ;
but there appears to have been no alarming quantity ot
blood lost.

AMPUTATION OF THE TAIL, OR DOCKING.

We are most happy to state this filthy and unnecessary
operation is now discarded. It never consisted of more than
the cutting off a portion of the stump with brute force, and
the cruel appUcation afterwards of a hot iron to the small
artery of the tail.

NICKING.

We should be grateful that this barbarous and dangerous
process is no longer numbered among the necessary ope-
rations. It is so beset with accidents which no skill or
prudence can prevent, that no one who has a free will ought
to mutilate a horse by nicking.

588 FIRING.

FIRING.

The practice of firing was not always confined to quadru-
peds ; on the contrary, it probably was first used on
man ; and to this day in many countries it is a very
popular remedy among human surgeons. In India it is
applied over the abdomen for the cure of scirrhosity of the
liver. Firing in veterinary practice has, by Mr. Coleman's
pupils, been justified as only men will justify a favourite
operation, the virtues of which have been impressed upon
their minds by an eloquent teacher. When Coleman was
the chief of the veterinary profession, firing under his
rule was used for any and every occasion. It was ridi-
culously supposed to act as a permanent bandage ; as if a
few strokes with a heated iron could destroy the elastic
property inherent in the skin. It was the favourite styptic
of these practitioners, and was applied to arteries (as of the
tail), as though it possessed within itself some medicinal
virtue. It was used to promote absorption, as in callus ;
and was likewise resorted to to check absorption, as in
ulceration. It was called into action to promote granulation,
in broken knees ; and was also a favourite agent to check
granulations, when they were too luxuriant. In short,
there was no folly which a hot iron did not cover. It has
now happily fallen into disuse. Most modern practitioners
will now confess that their chief reason for exercising the
iron is to satisfy the proprietor, not to benefit the animal.
After such an acknowledgment, who would submit to have
his patient servant's skin scored and burnt with red hot
metal ?

The mode of cauterization differs according to circum-
stances. As a general rule it ought, of course, to be applied
in the direction of the hair, by which the blemish is lessened ;
but this rule cannot be arbitrarily followed, although it
ought to do away with all the false pride of displaying the
taste in the figures scored upon a prostrate beast. The
Veterinary College recommends that the limbs be always
fired in perpendicular lines ; others advocate all manner of
fanciful marks. Some cast the horse ; many surgeons perform
standing. The irons used are of various shapes and dimen-
sions. Some recommend the firing of all things to be very

BLISTERING. 589

light ; others persist there is no virtue in hot iron unless it
burns very deep. The operation consists in having irons of
some substance made red hot, and then drawing them
mechanically along, or twisting them about upon the skin.
The figures are various, so is the depth of the incision. Both
must be decided by the taste, judgment, or heartlessness of
the operator.

BLISTERING.

This is"^n operation of very great utility, and is, perhaps,
compared with its benefits and importance, the safest that
is performed. When a vesicatory becomes absorbed through
the pores of the skin, it inflames the sensible cutis under-
neath ; the consequence of which is an effusion of serum
through the part, which, in the human, elevates the cuticle
into a bladder equal to the surface inflamed ; but in the
horse, from the greater tenacity of the cuticular connexions,
it becomes separated in the form of small distinct vesicles
only. If the irritating cause be quickly removed, the serum
may be reabsorbed, and the surface restored by a slight
effort of adhesive inflammation. If the irritant act in a still
minor degree, it simply irritates the vessels of the cutis to
an infiltration of fluid through the sensible pores, but pro-
duces no desquamation of cuticle : such has been called,
a sweating blister. But wdien by continued irritation, the
cutis is exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the part is fully
blistered. The salutary action of blisters is exerted in
several w^ays ; in promoting absorption ; in combating deep-
seated inflammations, and in aiding others. As a stitimlus
to the absorbents, they act beneficially in the removal of
injurious deposits, as the coagula remaining after inflam-
matory lesions. But it is to be remarked, that when any
existing deposit is of long continuance, or is osseous,
it requires that the action of the vesicatory be kept up.
Mercurial blisters have been thought to have a superior
influence in accelerating absorption. Mercurials, 7'ubhed in
some weeks or days previously to blistering, are certainly great
assistants, and should always be employed in the treatment
of obstinate osseous or ligamentary enlargements. Blisters
are very important aids, in inflammatory affections, as
counter-irritants, derived from a law in the animal economy,

590 BLISTERING.

that two inflammations seldom exist in the vicinity of each
other ; therefore, when such an affection has taken place
in any part, and we wish to remove it, we attempt to raise
an artificial inflammation in the neighbourhood by means of
blisters ; which, if persevered in, destroy, or at least lessen,
the original one. Occasionally also we blister the imme-
diate inflamed part, with an intention to hasten the suppu-
rative process by increasing the activity of the vessels ; as in
deep-seated abscesses, and also in those which attack
glandular parts. We, therefore, employ blisters*to hasten
the maturation of the tumours in strangles. When the
flagging powers vacillate between resolution and suppu-
ration ; as they often do in the phlegmonous inflammations of
glandular or of deep-seated parts ; blisters may either hasten
the resolution, or they may add their influence to the
attempted suppuration, and thus bring it to maturity. But we
carefully avoid, in other cases, applying a vesicant to apart
immediately in a state of active inflammation : particularly
we should avoid what is too often done, that of blistering
over the tendons, ligaments, and articulatory surfaces of
a tumid limb, labouring under a congested state of the
parts from excess of vascular action. Here we should do
great injury were we to blister, by causing a greater de-
posit of lymph, and by hastening its organization into an
injurious bond of union between the inflamed parts. The
vesicatory or blister, for general use in veterinary medicine,
as a simple stimulant, should be principally composed of
Spanish flies. Cheaper substitutes are used, but they
irritate violently : in extensive inflammatory affections,
they are on this account perfectly inadmissible ; and
wherever a case requires any thing more it will be noted.
The mode of blistering with the Spanish fly, is sufficiently
known. The hair should be cut or shorn as close
as possible from around the part ; the blistering matter
should then be well rubbed in for ten or fifteen minutes.
If the pasterns and fetlocks are the parts to be blistered,
previous to rubbing in the ointment, smear some lard,
tallow, or melted suet, over the heels, and within the hollow
at the back of the small pastern. This will often prevent
some troublesome sores forming, from the blistering oint-
ment falling on these sensitive parts. While a blister is

BLISTERING.

591

acting, the litter should be removed from under the feet, or
it will'tickle the legs, and irritate ; but, above all, the head
ought to be most carefully secured, for two days and niglits,
to oppose lying down, more especially to prevent the horse
biting the bhstered part. On the third evening he may be
permitted to repose ; but a prevention should even then
be continued, by means of what is called a cradle. This
apparatus may be bought at every turning shop ; or may
be made of eight or ten pieces of round wood, an mch and
a half in diameter, and two feet long : these are strung at
each end on a rope, and fastened around the neck. When
it is intended to blister repeatedly, the effects of the first
should have subsided before the second is apphed ; the
scurf and scabs also be cleared away, and the part well
washed with soap and water. In all cases, the third or
fourth day after the application the part should be thoroughly
painted over by means of along haired brush (such as are m
use with pastry cooks to glaze their crusts) with lead
liniment, which should be repeated every day ; and when it
is proposed to turn a horse out, it should never be done
until the whole blistered surface be quite healed ; otherwise
dirt, flies, &c. may prove hurtful. It remains to observe,
that, instead of repeated active blistering, it is in some cases
preferable to keep up a continual slight irritation on the
original blister by means of stimulants, as iodine oint-
ment, mild bhstering applications, &c. : caution is however
necessary to avoid forming an eschar, and thereby a perma-
nent blemish ; but when a blemish is not of consequence,
this plan will be found often more efficacious than firing, as
in sphnts, spavins, &c. Some practitioners blister mildly
one day, and on the next wash off the bhstering matter,
thereby saving loss of hair. But there is more of apparent
than real good in this plan. If a blister be necessary, it

requires all its activity. , rn - i

Ammoniacal blister.— Sipmiish flies are only efficacious when
the animal can afford to wait their action, which is rather
slow. In most of the acute diseases the horse w^ould perish
before the blister began to rise, wherefore resort has been
had to boiling water and red hot iron. The action of these
last coarse and brutal measures, was alone controlled by
the violence of the internal inflammation ; and if the practi-

592

ROWELLING.

tioner was mistaken in his estimate of the immediate clanger,
extensive and lasting blemish was the consequence. We
have in the liquor ammonia an agent quite as formidable
as boihng water or heated iron, but it is rather longer in
displaying its force ; wherefore it allows time for watching
its action, and of checking it the instant it has sufficiently
blistered the skin. It is true the Uquor ammonia upon the
skin cannot be removed, neither need it be counteracted.
Ammonia is like steam, only powerful when confined. The
ordinary soap liniment if covered over, would, because of
the ammonia it contains, produce a lasting blemish ; but
every veterinary surgeon knows how very harmless a pre-
paration that is when simply rubbed upon the surface. So
when we desire the active effects of Uquor ammonia, we
double a blanket or rug four or five times and hold it over
the liquid. It takes from ten to twenty minutes to raise a
bhster, and it consequently can from time to time be observed ;
and when its action has reached the wished-for point, all
we have to do effectually to stop it is, to take away the
rug or blanket. That removed, the free surface and the
heat of the body occasions the ammoniacal vapour to be
dispersed, and the animal is safe.

ROWELLING.

Rowels act as foreign substances within the body ; they
cause irritation and suppuration, whereby more deep-
seated inflammations are supposed to be removed : they
are, however, often very convenient, because they stand as
signboards to show the proprietor that something has been
done. The common mode of making a rowel is after the
following manner. A slit is first made by means of the
rowel scissors, on any part of the integuments held between
the finger and thumb ; with the handle of the scissors sepa-
rate from its cellular connexions a circle of two or three
inches in diameter, into which introduce something to pre-
vent the reunion of the skin. A piece of circular leather,
tolerably stiff, with a central hole, is a very common sub-
stance used ; but is objected to by some, on account of the
difficulty of changing it without injuring tlie skin : tow, as
more pliant, is frequently introduced into this cavity. If
the rowel runs freely, it should be dressed every day, by

SETONS.

593

changing the ping, if of tow ; and by cleansing it, if of
leather : no rowel should go undressed beyond the second
day, for the comfort of the horse. They are very favourite
applications with farriers, and therefore are frequently
abused, by being employed in all cases indiscriminately ;
they are now, however, falling into disuse, setons having
almost superseded them.

SETONS

In their action resemble a very mild form of rowel, but
are more convenient in their application. There is hardly
a part of the body where a seton may not be conveniently
placed : they have been put around the eye. They have
also been entered at the withers, and brought out between
the humerus and the sternum ; so extensive or so dimi-
nutive can they be made. In sinuous ulcers of the withers
and of the neck, they may be placed ; through the heels
in foot diseases, they have been inserted. In cavernous
sores they are entered at the superior part, and are brought
out at an inferior, so as to form a depending orifice. The
formation of a seton is very simple : a skein of thread, or a
piece of tape of a convenient size, may be used : at the one
end place a large knot : arm the eye of a corresponding-
sized seton needle with the free end of the tape ; introduce
this into any proposed part ; and, bringing it out at some
other, either make a second knot, or tie the two ends of the
tape together ; which last method of fastening is, however,
often objected to, from the danger of its catching in some-
thing, and being torn out, to the disfigurement of the
horse. When a seton is placed in a sinuous track for the
purpose of inflaming, it is moved twice a day frequently,
and moistened each time with some stimulant, as oil of
turpentine, tincture of aloes and of benjamin. All setons
require daily cleaning and moving. When they are re-
quired to act more quickly, the tape is infused in terebinthi-
nate of cantharides, or small pieces of black hellebore are
sewn within it. An old material composed of woollen, flax,
or cotton, and hair, is also used instead of tape. Setons,
however, are of small service in acute cases. They are
chiefly in use for disturbances of a chronic description.

594 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING.

ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING.

Arteriotomy. — Blood is abstracted by opening the con-
ducting vessels, arterial and venous. When taken from
arteries, the process is called arteriotomy ; when by the
latter, phlebotomy. Some bleedings include both these
operations ; as general scarifications of the soft parts ; bleed-
ing at the toe point ; divisions of the vessels of the cornea,
&c. &c. Blood-letting is called Zoca/ when it is practised on
or very near the affected part ; and it is supposed to act more
immediately than general bleeding, because it produces more
effect with the loss of less blood. Local bleeding is there-
fore usually practised on the minor branches of the arteries
and veins, as on the temporal artery, the plate vein, the
vena saphena, &c. — Leeches are a means of local bleeding
not often used by us in veterinary practice ; but there is no
reason whatever why they should not be employed ; when
applied to the eye, and occasionally to other parts also,
they adhere readily, abstracting blood rapidly ; and there-
fore might be valuable aids in violent local inflammation. —
Cupping is also practised in France and other parts of the
Continent wdth very large glasses, and it is there supposed
to act remedially in many local inflammations. By general
bleeding we understand the depletion of the system at large ;
and this we practise in extensive inflammations.

Division of the temporal artery. — The proper spot for
either its puncture or division is directly where the vessel
leaves the parotid gland, to curve upwards and forwards
around the jaw, a little below its condyle. When it is
punctured it usually affords much blood, and in such case,
enough having been obtained, divide the trunk ; when the
receding portions becoming pressed by the integuments,
and lessening by their own contractility, the haemorrhage is
stopped. It should be punctured by a lancet ; a fleam may
fix itself in the bone : its division can be readily made also
either by a lancet or scalpel.

Bleeding by the palate is also a species of arterio-phle-
botomy ; and is a very favourite spot for abstracting blood
with most ignorant persons, who vehemently recommend it
in spasmodic colic or gripes, and in megrims. In such
cases, however, a want of knowledge of the anatomy of the

ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING. 595

parts has occasioned a serious haemorrhage to occur : it
may prove a fatal one if the artery proper to the part be
divided incompletely. The palatine artery and nerve run
near each other, on each side of the roof of the mouth,
so as to divide the inner surface of the hard palate into
three nearly equal portions. No other than a direct divi-
sion of the vein should ever be made ; therefore, when
bleeding is determined on at this place, do it by plunging
a lancet or even a penknife in a direct line across the
rugae, one inch tvithin the mouth, exactly between the middle
and second nippers ; there these vessels form a curve, which
curve will then be divided, and will then yield three or
four pints of blood. If the instrument enter too much on
one side, as about the middle of the second nipper, then a
partial and longitudinal division of the artery may be made,
and an alarming haemorrhage may follow. In this case the
section must be enlarged and deepened inwardly, that is,
away from the teeth ; which completely severs the vessel,
and its retraction will stop the haemorrhage. A moderate
or slight flow of blood from the palate may be obtained by
light scarifications of the rugae : but all bleedings here,
except under circumstances of the most urgent necessity,
had better be avoided.

Bleeding by the toe is also arterio-phlebotomy. By no
means cut out a portion of the sole at the point of the frog,
which frequently occasions abscess ; but with a very fine
drawing-knife cut down exactly in the line of union between
the crust and the sole ; then, by puncturing the part with a
lancet, a vast flow of blood may be obtained, the benefits of
which in some cases are very marked, particularly in acute
founder. If the blood should not flow with sufficient free-
dom, place the foot in warm water : the bleeding finished,
cover the puncture with some tow and a little tar, and
lightly tack on the shoe. There are, however, other
methods of bleeding from the toe. Mr. Maver uses a draw-
ing-knife with a long curve, so that one sweep of the blade
may cut a piece out of the foot. This appears to us bad
practice, as it leaves nature a space to fill up, instead of a
simple incised wound to heal. Others take away none of
the horn, but merely make a slit through the outer cover-
ing on to the vascular portion of the foot. The flap of horn

Q q 2

596 ABSTRACTION OF BLOOD, OR BLEEDING.

they hold up so long as they desire blood, by the insertion
of a piece of wood ; and when they have obtained blood
enough, they take out the wood so as to let the horny flap
down. This last method, of all others, appears to us the
easiest and the best:

Sometimes the plantar vein is opened as a substitute. —
Scarijications are also occasionally practised, which, of
course, divide both venous and arterial branches. In France
extensive scarifications used to be made into indurations
before the suppurative process had commenced, which
in some cases prevented that from going on ; and the reme-
dial wounds made were healed by adhesive inflammation, or
by healthy granulation : the same method has also been
occasionally practised here, but it is not now often at-
tempted.

Phlebotomy, or the puncture of a venous branch, is the
most usual mode of drawing blood in veterinary practice,
and may be employed on any point of the body ; but some
vessels are much more frequently opened than others, and
most of all the jugular. — Bleeding by the thigh vein. The
saphena is a prominent vein, continued from the inner part
of the hock, and may be opened by the fleam ; but with
much greater safety and propriety by a lancet. The oppo-
site leg being held up, the operator placing himself in front
of the thigh, and steadying himself and the horse by placing
one hand on the hock, may fix the vein with the little
finger of the other ; while the lancet held between the thumb
and fore finger punctures it. This vein should never be
opened, save upon absolute necessity, as it is often trouble-
some to pin up. A horse has been cast for the trivial
matter of stopping the heemorrhage. — Bleeding from the
plate vein. This vein is frequently opened to abstract blood
after injuries of the fore extremities. — The superficial bra-
chial vein is a continuation of the superficial division of the
metacarpal veins, and in the passage upwards receives more
than one branch ; its principal trunk ascends along the
inner side of the radius. It may also be well to remark,
that, when taking blood from the superficial veins of the
arm or fore-arm, if any difficulty is experienced in obtain-
ing a sufficient flow, the lifting up of the other leg, by
throwing the muscles of the punctured one into action, will

BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN. 597

force the blood from the inner to the outer set ; and an in-
creased quantity may be obtained. The plate vein, or ex-
ternal thoracic,' is often opened, as it emerges from behind
the arm, and is pinned up without any difficulty.

BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN.

The situation of this important vessel is well known, but
its internal connexions are not so famihar, though such
knowledge is essential to the uniform safety of the opera-
tion. The horse has only external jugular veins, a right
and a left one : as each emerges from the chest, it is found
deep-seated, and approaching the trachea ; it then passes
forwards in company with the external carotid artery : to-
wards the middle of the neck it becomes more superficial,
and is now distinctly seen progressing rather above and without
the carotid artery and trachea, or windpipe. The carotid,
therefore, in the future course of the jugular, is situated a
little below and more deep-seated than the vein. The jugu-
lar is also separated from the carotid by a slight muscular
band, derived from the levator humeri. Its further track
is marked in the hollow formed by the inferior edge of the
levator humeri, where it is covered by the panniculus car-
nosus and integuments only ; when, having nearly reached
the jaw, it makes its well-known division into two portions.
Bleeding by the jugular is usually practised with a lancet,
or with a fleam. The proper spot for the puncture may be
found any where between two inches and six from the divi-
sion of the vein : this latitude is here mentioned, because it
is prudent to avoid puncturing directly over a former bleed-
ing place, known by the scar and enlargement : it should
also be avoided where a Uttle knot in the course of the
vein will sometimes denote the existence of one of the
venous valves. But in all ordinary cases, where these hin-
derances do not appear, operate at two or three inches from
the division of the vein ; which will be sufficiently evident
when it is pressed on below the place punctured. Avoid
operating low down in the neck, as there the vessel is
deeper seated, and near to important parts.

First moisten the hair and smooth it down ; then, steady-
ing and enlarging the vessel with one hand, with the other
plunge the point of the lancet into the integuments, so as

598 BLEEDING BY THE JUGULAR VEIN.

just to puncture them and the vein ; then, by a sUght turn
of the wrist, cany the instrument obhquely forward to finish
the cut. For opening the smaller veins, the lancet should
always be used. In all but the practised hand, the fleam
is the safest for bleeding from the jugular ; it is always
prudent to have the eye of the horse covered : unless the
eye be covered, the horse will be likely to flinch at the
moment of the stroke, and the puncture may be made in
any place but where we wish. The hair being first wetted
and smoothed, and the fleam being retained in the left
hand, the unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so as to
fix and swell the vessel ; let the point rest exactly in the
middle of the swelling ; strike the fieam sufficiently hard to
penetrate the skin and vein. A blood-stick is prelerable
for the purpose of striking the fleam : there is a vibration
between two hard bodies when they meet, which, in this
mstance, is favourable to a quick and moderate puncture of
the vein. After the vein has been opened, moderate pres-
sure with the edge of the can which catches the blood is
sufficient to keep up the flow : it may also be encouraged
by putting a finger within the horse's mouth. The requi-
site quantity of blood being drawn, remove the can. The
remaining process of securing the vessel is of equal import-
ance. The sides of the orifice are first to be brought in
apposition, without pinching them, and without drawing
them from the vein : the same cautions should also be
observed when the pin is introduced : let it be small, with
an irregular point, and when inserted wrap round it a few
hairs or a little tow.

Common, however, as this operation is, and qualified as
every one thinks himself to perform it, yet there are very
serious accidents which do arise occasionally. It has
occurred that the carotid artery has become penetrated.
When the puncture has been made through the vein, the
accident is known immediately by the forcible and pulsatory
gush of florid arterial and dark venous blood together.
In one instance of this kind, which occurred to a French
practitioner, he immediately thrust his finger into the open-
ing through the vein, and thus plugged up the artery, in-
tending to wait for assistance. In this state he remained,
we believe, an hour or more ; when, removing his finger, to

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 599

his surprise, he found the haemorrhage had ceased, and did
not again return. In another case, where an Enghsh prac-
titioner accidentally opened the carotid, he placed a compress
on the orifice, and had relays of men to hold it there tor
eio-ht-and-forty hours ; when it was found the bleeding had
stopped The admission of air is also another serious acci-
dent that now and then attends bleeding: it sometimes
happens from the sudden removal of the fingers or blood-
can or whatever was used to distend the vessel by ob-
structing the return of the blood : this being suddenly taken
away allows the escape of the blood towards the heart, and
occasions a momentary vacuum, the air being heard to rush
with a gurgling noise into the vein through the orihce ;
it then mixes with the blood, and occasions, in some in-
stances, almost immediate death. The animal begins to
tremble ; he next staggers, and finally falls in a state of con-
vulsion • if the quantity of air taken in has been consider-
able, death ensues. The remedy must, therefore be in-
stantaneous, and consists in again opening the orifice, or
making a new one, to gain an immediate renewed How ot
blood, which will, in most cases, renovate the horse, who
has been found afterwards to be tormented with an intoler-
able itching.

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

Theory and effects of purgation.— The principles of purga-
tion are the same in man and the horse ; but the products
vary thus it commonly requires twenty-four hours to
produce complete catharsis in the horse, whereas two or
three hours, and often less, will effect it in man. Speciality
of structure produces this difference. The alimentary track
is of immense length in the horse, and the surface to be
stimulated into action is consequently of great extent ; add
to which, that the erect position of man is favourable to a
p;ravitation, particularly of the hquid abdominal contents,
which the horizontal posture of the horse tends to retain.
Cathartics act by stimulating the intestines to a more fre-
quent evacuation, and they also increase the quantity of the
matter expelled : under some circumstances they alter the
quality of it also. A simple increase of the peristaltic
motion of the bowels will hasten the expulsion of the excre-

GOO OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

mentitious parts of the aliments. A farther stimulus will
not only so hasten them, that the fluid contents of the
bowels cease to be absorbed, but the secreting surface of
the intestines themselves will furnish fluid matter. Stimu-
late them still more, the biliary and pancreatic fluids are
poured forth in greater quantities. This being the simple
operation of purging, it is evident how many erroneous
notions are entertained relative to it.

The abuse and dangers of purgatives.- — In most inflamma-
tory affections of the stomach and bowels, cathartics require
to be judiciously administered. They are almost equal to
poison in inflammation of the lungs ; and in all great
visceral inflammations active purges should be admitted
with caution. In farcy and glanders, purgatives never do
other than harm ; and in no chronic affections attended
with great debility are they admissible. Physic is rendered
yet more hurtful, from the frequency of its administration,
and quantities which are sometimes given. Grooms suppose
that every ordinary case requires three doses of physic, the
reasons for which Mr. Peall has humorously given, ' The
first being intended to stir up the humours,' ' the second to
set them afloat,' and ' the third to carry them off.' To very
young horses, and to delicate feeders, the exhibition of three
strong doses of physic must be attended with most inju-
rious consequences, and such as they cannot recover from for
months. It is an unfortunate prejudice, engendered by
ignorance and kept alive by obstinacy, that to do much good
with physic it should be very strong. We were once told
by a groom, that the dose dispensed was not strong enough,
for it had not purged the horse more than fourteen or fifteen
times ; and we have also heard that two ounces of aloes was
but a moderate dose. In many cases, however, these sapient
grooms are not satisfied unless a horse have twenty or thirty
evacuations. Super-purgation has destroyed hundreds of
horses, and it has irreparably injured thousands : it certainly
very much debilitates the horse. It is hardly possible to
conceive a more deplorable object than a horse under the
action of an enormous purgative : the liquid aliments escap-
ing almost involuntarily, the adjacent parts being excoriated,
with the violence and frequency of the dejections ; the belly
is drawn to the flank ; cold sweats bedew the frame ; appetite

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. GO I

is totally lost, and the strength so lessened as to leave
the animal hardly power of tottering from one stall to
another ; and yet to this state does obstinacy and igno-
rance condemn horses to be reduced. The number and
strength of the purgative doses are not the only evils also
to which the horse is liable, from improper purgation ; the
articles used are likewise often of an injurious nature.
Frequently the coarsest aloes are a component part of
the favourite prescription, and other drastics are added to
increase the strength. No horse should have a strong dose
of physic put into him without two or three days previous
mashing ; and if this be done, a mild dose will be sufficient.
When good physic has been properly given, still it is often
rendered injurious, and even destructive, by carelessness
or ignorance. Even cold water at these times will injure ;
a sudden chill from a door left carelessly open may bring on
enteritis ; and active exercise, to promote a ' stirring up of
the humours,' has destroyed many a valuable animal.

Of the articles used in purging horses. — There are nume-
rous articles which simply relax the bowels, i.e. shghtly
increase their peristaltic motion ; but very few which pro-
duce active purgation. Of the former, bran, calomel, and
neutral salts, are the common instances ; but it must be
confessed that, with the exception of bran, all the others
occasionally fail. Rhubarb, jalap, colocynth, and elaterium,
are inert ; except in such doses as derange the bowels dan-
gerously, and, therefore, it is evident how uselessly these
enter into the purgative physic for horses. Gamboge,
which is occasionally added to a horse purge, is a still more
dangerous addition ; for it sometimes proves a most drastic
purgative. The purgative of the horse, therefore, in almost
every instance, is aloes blended with gentian. Opinions
differ with regard to the various kinds of aloes imported ; nor
can W3 ever arrive at a just conclusion on this head, until
we unite a conclave of honest druggists, both wholesale and
retail, from whom alone might be procured something like
a knowledge of the various sorts in an unadulterated state ;
for they are all said to be mixed and remixed to suit the
convenience of the dealer ; and are named and renamed, to
supply the wants of the purchaser ; to which circumstances
we are indebted for the contradictory accounts we read rela-

G02 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

tive to them. Of the aloe varieties two are principally in
use ; the Barbadoes and the Cape. The Barbadoes are
somewhat quicker and stronger in their action, and conse-
quently rather more drastic in their operation than the Cape ;
therefore in some cases they are not to be preferred. Bat
they are in general more certain in their action than the
Cape. Cape aloes are commonly thought to be milder and
weaker ; it is usual, therefore, to consider, that a dose of
physic, which requires six drachms of Barbadoes, should
necessitate seven drachms of Cape aloes. The quantity
requisite to produce purging is dependent on so many cir-
cumstances, that it is no wonder it should be so often mis-
managed. Horses do certainly vary greatly in their in-
trinsic capability of being acted on by purgatives, but much
more in the circumstances under which they are given.
Mr. Coleman, in his lectures, mentions a horse of his own
that would purge by taking three drachms only of Cape
aloes : while Mr. Percivall quotes a horse which belonged
to Mr. O 'Conner, which at three years old required fourteen
drachms to purge its bowels. These facts serve to show
the propriety of prescribing a very moderate quantity only
as the first dose for a horse with whose constitutional pecu-
liarities we are unacquainted. The requisite quantity is also
greatly dependent on various other circumstances ; old
horses, and such as are constantly fed on hard meat, require
more than others ; while horses eating green meat purge
with a very mild dose ; and in all, by mashing three times
a day for several days, we may make four drachms do the
work of eight. This, we repeat, shows the extreme im-
portance of previous preparation for all horses ; but more
particularly for weakly horses, and also such as have been
previously accustomed to much home diet. Form also
influences the quantity requisite ; a thin, narrow-chested
horse, will purge more readily than a circular deep-carcassed
one. It may be considered, therefore, that the quantities
required to purge horses range between four and eight
drachms ; the extent of which range will serve to show that
something more is requisite than a blind acquiescence in
any invariable form.

The croton tiglium is a purgative of new discovery. In
its action it is certain only in producing motions much more

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 603

liquid than those produced by aloes, consequently we sup-
pose it is also much more weakening. The capsule of the
croton seed, we believe, has been found, if our informa-
tion be correct, unworthy of much dependence. Mr.
Youatt tried it with variable effect ; but altogether he did
not appear prepossessed in its favour. Several others, we
know, have also tried it, without being able to come to a
direct conclusion relative to its properties. Mr. Field has
however found, that two drachms of the capsule have pro-
duced the same effects as forty grains of the farina ; which
last is the remains of the kernel of the seed, after it has
had the croton oil expressed from it. This farina, when
genuine, appears to possess more certainty of action. Mr.
Field estimates that thirty grains of it are equivalent to six
drachms of Barbadoes aloes. The croton oil is equally
certain in its action with the farina. Mr. Percivall suggests,
that from twenty drops to half a drachm might be found
the quantity necessary to fully purge. There is, however,
one objection to the use of croton nut or oil. It has the pro-
perty of sadly blistering the mouth, unless made into a ball.
The nut, divested of its envelope, maybe given in doses from
ten to twenty grains. The oil, in doses from eight to six-
teen drops ; and the farina, which is sold in cakes, may be
administered in doses of from sixteen to thirty grains.
Therefore when we read of such or such doses being recom-
mended, it is necessary to learn which of the preparations the
writer refers to. It appears consequently, at present, aloes
is likely to remain the base of the purgative ; and we
proceed by offering the formulae of the several strengths
formed of Barbadoes aloes.

No. 1. — Barbadoes aloes (finely powdered) two drachms.

Oil of caraways one scruple.

Extract of gentian a sufficiency.

No. 2. — Barbadoes aloes (finely powdered) three drachms.

Oil of caraways a scruple.

Extract of gentian a sufficiency.

No. 3. — Barbadoes aloes four drachms, with extract

of gentian, a sufficiency.

Mix.

No. 4. — Barbadoes aloes five drachms, -with extract

of gentian, a sufficiency.

Mix.

When it is thought proper to give mercurial physic, one

G04 OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES.

drachm of calomel may be given the evening previous, by
sprinkling the powder on the tongue. This, by lying all
night in the horse, may, perhaps, assist the efficacv, if the
aloetic ball be given the next morning ; keeping in mind
it should be less strong on account of the calomel ad-
ministered. However calomel is best exhibited blended
with the aloes, when for every scruple of the first it will be
necessary to abstract a drachm of the last.

Treatment connected with physicking. — The intestines
should always be prepared for this operation bv bran
mashes, and which should be given the three previous days.
The first dose given to every horse, with which we are not
well acquainted, should be a very mild one ; for some horses
are much more easily purged than others, and if the dose
does not operate, it can do no harm. Exercise is of particular
importance in physicking ; but w^e would earnestly caution
the attendants against active trotting or galloping : brisk
and continued walking is all that ought to be allowed.
Cold water should never be allowed, but, if the horse will
not drink it warm, it may be given cool, but never cold :
on this particular it is also necessary to observe, that ample
dilution of the bowels is of the utmost consequence to
insure physic working freely. During the working of the
physic the horse should be kept warm within the stable,
and by the clothing ; and he must be exercised (if in winter)
in clothes proportioned to the cold. When a purge is to be
given, proceed as follows : — the horse having fasted an hour
or tw^o in the morning, give him the ball, after which he
should be offered some warm water ; or it will not be im-
proper to let him have his ball a quarter of an hour after
he has had about half his usual quantity of water ; for it
sometimes happens that the ball disgusts, and then he will
not drink for some hours. After it is taken, he should
fast another hour, when a bran mash may be given, with
a very few oats sprinkled on it, to make it palatable : he
should, at noon, be walked for an hour, with mash feeding
afterwards ; and exercised again an hour in the evening,
being allowed w-arm or tepid water at intervals during the
day, with hay and a bran mash again tow^ards night. Early
on the following morning the physic will probably begin to
work, which, if it does freely, no more exercise need be

OF PURGATIVES, AND PHYSICKING OF HORSES. 605

given ; but if not, half an hour's walking should be allowed,
when the horse may have a mash and warm water. After
this, another half hour's exercise should be given (walking
only), and which is to be repeated every other hour or two,
till the physic acts ; allowing mashes and a little clean hay
occasionally, and warm water as often as he will take it.
Should the horse appear griped and uneasy, a warm clyster
may be given, which will generally relieve ; and in the event
of its still continuing, then the following drink may be given,
hand-rubbing the belly well at the same time.

Sulphuric ether one ounce.

Laudanum one ounce.

Pejipermint water one pint.

Mix, and give quite cold.

It occasionally happens that, notwithstanding every atten-
tion, physic will not work on the second day ; in which case
let nothing tempt the practitioner to give another dose
immediately ; for it sometimes happens that purgatives will
not act until the third day. But when a case occurs of
non-purgation, always wait until the third day ; when, if no
symptoms of purging appear, either let the horse rest
altogether for two days longer, and then give him another
dose ; or commence by giving him a quarter of the original
dose every six hours till it purge, mashing, giving exercise
and warm water as before. Let it also be remembered, that
it is erroneous to encourage liquid purging to twenty, thirty,
or more dejections. No good attends this practice. In
the usual course of physic, on the day after the operation of
the purgative, the fseces will resume nearly their former
consistency and shape, when the physic is said to be set. If
it, however, continue to operate with nearly the same
violence as on the day before, it must be regarded as a case
oi super -purgation, and recourse must be immediately had
to the following drink, which is to be administered every
second hour.

Powdered chalk two ounces.

Laudanum two ounces.

Tincture of catechu one ounce.

Tincture of gulls half an ounce.

Nitrous ether three ounces.

Mild ale one pint.

Mix.

COG DIURETICS.

DIURETICS.

As we have but little power over the skin of the horse,
so we have correspondently a greater one over the kidneys.
Diuretics in the horse appear to stimulate the kidneys,
whereby they separate a larger quantity of water from the
blood. The blood, losing an unusual proportion of its
watery part, must be supplied from other sources : this is
done by the absorbing vessels, which take up any super-
fluous fluids ; the heightened vascularity of the kidneys
detracting, like a blister, from the force of the circulation.
Like purgatives, they however are nmch abused, and irre-
parable injury is done to horses by their too frequent
administration. In all accumulations connected with de-
bility, it is evident that diuretics may do harm : we may, it
is true, remove some extravasation and swelling to-day, but
still more will return to-morrow. In these cases we must,
on the contrary, strengthen the system by tonics, proper
feeding, and mild exercise : the local debility we must treat
by friction and bandages.

The principal strong diuretic substances in general use for
the horse are juniper, nitre, turpentine, and potash. The
milder ones are cream of tartar, neutral salts, resin, &c.
Many other substances act on the kidneys of the horse, but
in a less degree. Resin is, perhaps, the least active diu-
retic in veterinary practice, and a dose of three to six
drachms is not certain in its operation. Nitre, in similar
doses, is perfectly certain, likewise more active. In inflam-
matory diseases, and in urinary obstructions from gravel,
nitre is much to be preferred to resin. Turpentine, both liquid
and solid, is a certain diuretic ; as also is potash, half an
ounce or an ounce being diluted in two or three quarts of
water, and given fasting. Cream of tartar must be given in
doses of four to six ounces. All the neutral salts, in similar
doses, act in the same way ; but not always with uniform
certainty. When they prove aperient, the flow of urine is
in general inconsiderable, but it lasts some time. The un-
observant are but little aware how very seriously too power-
ful and too often repeated diuretics injure the horse ; for
great debility and emaciation usually follow upon their abuse.
Whenever a diuretic is given, the same cautions should be

DIURETICS. 607

observed as with a purgative : to keep warm, but not hot ;
sweating would impede the process of the diuretic ; to
avoid over-exertion ; but, above all, to allow a large quan-
tity of tepid water, which greatly increases the effect, and
renders the action less hurtful : indeed, a large quantity of
water will of itself prove a diuretic, particularly if the horse
have previously abstained from drinking. When a horse
has long fasted from water, his other secretions must have
lessened the watery parts of the blood so much that it
would seem to occasion an imperative call for dilution ; and
in such case it would be supposed, that whatever fluid
aliment was taken, however large the quantity, would be
received into the system to repair the waste. But it is
not so ; on the contrary, whatever may be the wants of the
constitution by long deprivation from liquid aliments, a full
dilution, instead of being at once taken up to repair the
waste, greatly increases the urinary flow by constitutional
sympathy not absorption. It is, therefore, clear, that when-
ever we deprive horses of water during the action of diu-
retics, under a supposition that we thereby increase the
absorption of the extravasated fluids, we err greatly. Diu-
retics are given in the form of balls or of powders, a formula
of each of which is added : —

DIURETIC BALLS.

Resin, yellow four pounds.

Nitre, in powder two pounds.

Horse turpentine two pounds.

Yellow soap one pound.

Melt the resin, soap, and turpentine over a slow fire ; and
when cooling add the nitre. Strong dose, one ounce to
ten drachms. Mild dose, five or six drachms.

DIURETIC POWDERS.

Yellow resin, powdered two pounds.

Nitre, powdered four pounds.

Cream of tartar, powdered two pounds.

Dose, six to eight or ten drachms.

THE

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA;

OR,

AN ALPHABETICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE LIST

OF THE VARIOUS

MEDICINAL ARTICLES AT PRESENT EMPLOYED
IN VETERINARY PRACTICE.

R r

THE

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA, &c.

A WELL-GROUNDED knowledge of chemistry is necessary to
the proper construction of the formulee used among veteri-
nary surgeons ; and without it we are apt, by injudicious
combinations to destroy the effect of our remedies, or other-
wise to beget new compounds of totally different qualities
to those intended. An intimate acquaintance with chemical
affinities of substances enables a practitioner, from articles
apparently dissonant in properties and action, to form a
new compound with particular influences suited to his
purpose.

The veterinarian should have a neat and well-regulated
dispensary : except that the matters need not be quite so
numerous, it should be a fac-simile of a well-arranged
apothecary's shop. The various articles should be inclosed
in drawers, pots, or bottles, according to their forms or
natures : each should be separate, and each should be
distinctly marked. Above all, it behoves him, if he wish
either to satisfy himself, or to do justice to the cases under
his care, to be most particular as to the quality of the sim-
ples and compounds he uses. The prudent veterinarian will
find it his interest to deal with a druggist of established
reputation, and to order only high-priced drugs, and of the
best quality. The only means to avoid deception is to
compound for himself; and to do it with genuine drugs.
In the formulae, and doses, the apothecaries' weights and
measures are always meant.

Rr 2

612

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

A TABLE OF THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES GENERALLY USED IN
THE COMPOUNDING OF MEDICINES.

The Pound .

— Ounce .

— Dr;iclim

— Scruple .

— Grain . .

, contiuns .

Twelve onncep.
Eight drachms.
Three scruples.
Twenty grains.

MEASURE OF FLUIDS:

The Gallon

— Pint

— Fluid ounce. .

— Fluid drachm

Gut. or Min.

Gr

9

contains

Eight pints.
Sixteen fluid ounces.
Eight fluid drachms.
Sixty minims or drops.

abbreviations;

for

Drop.

Grain.

Scruple.

Di-aclim.

Ounce.

Pound.

Absorbents. — The efficacy of this class of remedies consists
in their tendency to correct a diseased acidity in the
stomach. In horned cattle, complaints apparently origi-
nating from this course are rather common ; hence cows,
calves, and sheep, are sometimes benefited by chalk.

Acetated Liquor of Ammonia. — ^This has been long known
by the popular term of Mindererus's spirit, and is made
by pouring any quantity of acetic acid, diluted with seven
times its amount of water, upon carbonate of ammonia,
until all fermentation ceases, or until a neutral solution
has been formed. It is useful in horse practice ; it gently
invigorates, is diaphoretic, and sometimes it proves mildly
diuretic. It principally shows its salutary effects on the
commencement of the debile stage, or at the close of
lingering febrile diseases, particularly of influenza. In
the more early stages of epidemic catarrh, it may also be
exhibited : the dose is from four ounces to an almost
unlimited quantity.

Acetate of Copper, or Verdigris. — See Copper.

Acids. — Such as are in use in veterinary medicine are de-
scribed under their proper names throughout the Materia
Medica.

Acetic Acid. — Made from the destructive distillation of
wood. A good application to warts. Diluted with seven

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 613

times its amount of water it forms vinegar, and a good
lotion for several forms of prurigo.

-^RUGo. — See Copper.

^THER, Sulphuric. — A valuable medicine, and the best
anti-spasmodic we possess. Blended with its own
amount of laudanum, and more than ten times its
amount of cold water, sulphuric ether forms one of the
best and safest drinks we know of The nitrous spirit of
(sther, or sweet spirit of nitre, as it is called, is a more
general remedy, only because of its greater cheapness.
As a febrifuge, it is at once, though in a less degree than
the sulphuric sether, refrigerating without being lowering.

^THiops Mineral. — See Mercury, Black Sulphuret of.

Aloes. — These form a very important article in the veteri-
narian's list of medicines, and therefore too much care
cannot be taken to procure them genuine. Every prac-
titioner, however, should purchase them in the gross ;
and have them reduced to powder under his own inspec-
tion, as the surest preventive against adulteration. The
aloes in use among veterinarians are principally of two
kinds ; Barbadoes and Cape. Barbadoes are in most
request, as being the most certain in their action ; be-
cause they are less adulterated. Barbadoes aloes are of
a deep tint, slightly brittle, fragrant, and intensely bitter.
Cape aloes are altogether an inferior drug. The action
of each kind as a purgative is detailed under the head
Purgatives. As an alterative, aloes are sometimes given
in doses of one drachm to two daily ; they are also some-
times used in similar doses as a nauseant in inflamma-
tions, but are not uniform in their action, and are apt to
irritate. As an external stimulant, they are used in the
compound tinctures of myrrh and of benjamin. Aloes
form a remarkable instance of the different properties of
the same article over difl"erent animals. A horse requires
less than an ounce, an ox two ounces or more, to
purge him ; it will make a dog vomit rather than purge
the animal ; a man can bear only a small quantity ;
and the largest hog not even so much : while, according
to the experiments of M. Gilbert, a sheep which took
two ounces was not purged, although it died seventeen
days afterwards. Aloes, particularly the Barbadoes, will

614 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

not pulverise readily except in frosty weather ; at which
time a sufficient quantity should be powdered to last the
year through ; and as they are apt again to unite into
a solid mass, so, soon as powdered, they should he
mingled with half their weight of lard or palm oil : mixed
in this manner they keep well, and form a uniform mass
of a proper consistence to make balls ; which dissolve
readily in the stomach, never harden, and are less apt to
gripe than any other form ; particularly if half drachms
of powdered ginger be added. — Aloes are now boiled by
some practitioners, to render them more mild. The
great difficulty of keeping aloes in an equal state of con-
sistence, as a purging mass, induced Mr. B. Clark to
adopt the following method, by which, he informs us,
these inconveniences are obviated. He places one vessel
within another, exactly as carpenters melt glue, having
water in the outer vessel, and aloes with one-fifth of
their weight of treacle in the inner one, which is carefully
covered with a lid. The apparatus being put on the fire,
is suffered to remain, the aloes and treacle being now
and then, but not too often, stirred to combine them, for
an hour or more, or until perfectly melted. The inner
vessel being now taken from the outer, the contents are
expeditiously cast in paper moulds or tubes, of the usual
diameter of a horse ball. When cold, Mr. C. finds these
balls flexible, yet solid, and says they remain so. He
gives an ounce to a saddle or carriage horse, and six
drachms to a cart horse : but there is reason to fear that
they do not prove so soluble in the stomach as when
their particles are divided by oil, lard, or even syrup ; but
the last is a more objectionable ingredient than either of
the others.

A watery solution of aloes should be kept by every
veterinarian, and which will be found, in many instances,
a very convenient form, on account of its quicker
action.

A spirituous tincture of aloes, made by digesting four
ounces of the powder in a quart of proof spirit, forms a
common stimulating application to recent wounds, &c.
Half an ounce of powdered myrrh is a good addition to
this vulnerary.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

615

Alteratives are articles that are supposed to act medici-
nally on the body, in a slow and nearly imperceptible
manner. The usual alteratives among farriers are nitre,
antimony, sulphur, resin, and spices ; but a better ac-
quaintance with the art teaches us to add to the list
every drug in the Pharmacy. It is easy to make a ball,
and call it an alterative. But a good medicine of this
description should be adapted to some particular case.
It should change something into something else ; where-
fore it requires more skill to manage properly this class
of medicines than any other.
Alum {Alumen) .—This compound body is in very general
use in veterinary practice, both externally and internally.
In doses of one or two drachms, it is employed as an
astringent in diarrhoea, diabetes, and other fluxes. Ex-
ternally it is by some used as a styptic to stop haemor-
rhage, by sprinkhng it on the bleeding orifice, when its
coagulating properties plug up the mouth of the vessel.
It fs also esteemed to be a useful escharotic to destroy
fungus, and a valuable detergent for foul ulcers.
Ammonia crude {Ammonia murias). — It is called crude, to
distinguish it from the volatile or prepared ammonia
which follows. It is, in general opinion, when diluted,
one of our very best discutients ; and, when in mixture
with acetic acid or vinegar, to which camphor is added,
it forms the favourite discutient lotion of general prac-
titioners. From it are prepared

Ammonia volatile (ammonia subcarbonas) . The gaseous
ammonia, fixed into a sohd form by combination with
carbonic acid, forms the volatile ammomacal salt of the
druggists. It is a good stimulant in the latter stages of
fever : united with vinegar, it forms the spirit of Mm-
dererus, an excellent preparation.

Ammonia acetatis, see acetated liquor of ammonia.
Carbonate of Ammonia is called salt ot hartshorn ; car-
bonated water of ammonia is the spirit of hartshorn of
the shops. It is convenient in veterinary practice, Irom
its peculiar property of uniting oil and water. Inter-
nally, it is an antispasmodic, in doses of six to eight
drachms. Externally it is a very quick bhstermg agent.

616

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

Ammoniacum. — This gum is sometimes given in old obsti-
nate coughs, and in farcy.
Anise Seed. — The powder of these seeds was formerly
much used by farriers ; and the druggists who make horse
powders find it a profitable article ; for it is adulterated
to one-third only of the genuine powder. It may be
very properly united with other warm aromatics when
cordials are admissible. It is also thought to possess
some pectoral properties ; but they are very trifling. The
essential oil is the most active preparation of it ; which
see.
Anodynes. — These are medicines that quiet pain. In the
human, they procure sleep also; but no article with
which we are acquainted is absolutely capable of pro-
ducing this effect on the horse. As mitigators of pain,
opium and hyoscyamus must be tried. Camphor and
sether will also act as antispasmodics ; but in all painful
affections, where relief is essential, opium in doses of
one or two ounces, is chiefly to be depended on ; and if
pain be mitigated, sleep follows of course, from the
fatigue of irritation.
Anthelmintics. — See Vermifuges.

Antimony.— There are several medicinal preparations made
from the crude metal, as

Black sulphuret of antimony (Sulphuretum antimonii) ;
the metal itself, being ground and levigated, in this state
is always compounded with sulphur; but when it is
to be given as an alterative, more sulphur is often added
to it, with nitre or other articles, according to the plea-
sure of the compounder : in doses of two, three, or as
far as four drachms, it is a good and safe alterative, daily
administered. It should be bought and powdered by
the practitioner, or he may purchase manganese and
forge-dust as a part of the mass. It holds within itself
often a portion of arsenic, to which we attribute its occa-
sional violence of action, particularly when given to
dogs : the presence of arsenic may be tried by burning
a little on a red-hot iron plate, when a smell of garhc
detects the arsenic.

Tartarized antimony (Antimonium tartarizatum).

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 617

Emetic tartar, or the tartrate of potash and antimony, is
a very valuable medicine m veterinary practice, although
its merits are not allowed by some practitioners : but
whoever will try it without prejudice, will have reason to
be satisfied that it is both a febrifuge and expectorant ;
and, as most of*the fevers of horses are connected with
some pneumonic affection, so a remedy that combines
the properties of diminishing action of the lungs and
increasing expectoration, is invaluable. In inflammation
of the lungs it is commonly exhibited. In other cases,
it may be given with nitre and supertartrate of potash
(^cream of tartar) in similar doses, once a day, in a mash.
It is also an excellent alterative. In full doses it occa-
sions determination to the skin, and ultimately lessens
the action of the heart and arteries : sometimes it in-
creases the flow of urine. In our opinion it certainly
lessens the febrile action of the vascular system more
effectually than any other medicament. It is also in use
as a vermifuge, and highly praised.

AntimonioJ 'powder (Pulvis antimoniahs) . This well-
known preparation, supposed to be the same with
Dr. James's powder, is a compound of oxide of anti-
mony with phosphate of Hme. It has some febrifuge
qualities ; but it is not so efficacious in the horse as the
tartarized antimony. As an alterative it is useful in
doses of one to two drachms ; and as a promoter of con-
dition it is often preferable to tartarized antimony.

Antimony, chloride of (Murias antimonii), or hutter or
hutijr of antimony, is a very useful escharotic.

Antiseptics are remedies supposed to possess a power of
resisting a putrefactive process in the body ; but this in-
fluence is questioned, and all medicines of this class are
now considered as acting only by their stimulating quali-
ties.

Antispasmodics. — Tlie horse is subject to many spasmodic
affections, and the class of remedies that applies to
those he is troubled with is small. Ethers stand first
on the list. Opium holds the second place. Cam-
phor, hyoscyamus, belladonna, oil of turpentine, and
asafoetida, have all of them likewise proved useful. Cold

618 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

also, in an intense degree, is a powerful antispasmodic,
for which reason it is applied in tetanus.

Aperients. — See Laxatives.

Arsenic, oxide {Arsenicum oxydum) . This powerful mine-
ral is somewhat uncertain in its action, and not always
safe : were it not for this, it might- be called a good
tonic, in doses of five to ten grains daily, in a very
fine powder : more has been given ; but it sometimes
appears to remain innocuous until the constitution is
fully saturated with it ; and then commences its noxious
effects suddenly and irreparably : this destroys much of
its usefulness, and makes it necessary to exhibit it with
great caution : nor should it ever be given on an empty
stomach. The best form in which it can be adminis-
tered is, as the liquor arsenicalis, made by boiling its own
weight of potash with arsenic and water (one ounce of
water to every four grains of arsenic), in some glass
vessel. It has the power of staying the progress of
glanders ; and it ultimately cures farcy when watched and
continued : it also appears to have some vermifuge pro-
perties ; and it certainly retards the march of the rabid
disease, but is not ultimately successful.

Astringents. — These are supposed to act on the living
fibres by producing increased contraction in them, in
which point of view they form a very numerous and im-
portant class ; but in a more limited sense, they are
considered as substances that restrain immoderate fluxes,
^s of the intestines and kidneys. Those that act by
constringing the divided ends of bloodvessels are called
styi")tics. Opium, chalk, alum, starch, and catechu, act
favourably in restraining intestinal fluxes. Catechu,
alum, and acetate of lead, operate as astringents on the
urinary passages.

Balls. — There are some circumstances, in the preparation
of this form of medicines, not in general sufficiently
attended to by veterinarians. Substances that are vola-
tile do not keep well in balls, and therefore should only
be made when used. The same caution is also requisite
with such as liquefy by the absorption of air. All hard
substances entering into balls should be finely powdered.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 619

and the moist matter that is to form them into an adhe-
. sive mass should he of a nature that will neither lerment
nor become mouldy. A mass for balls not intended for
immediate use should be pressed down into a jar, and
tied over with a bladder. As the giving of a ball is a
forcible operation, when it is requisite to exhibit medi-
cines more than once a day, it is more prudent to give
them in the form of drinks. A horse ball should not
be so large as a pullet's egg; nor should it be too
hard : the weight between an ounce and an ounce and
a half, in form resembling a short sausage. A very
ingenious instrument is now made for giving balls,
which may be used in many cases, but is ^ particu-
larly apphcable to colts, ponies, or horses with small
mouths. The m.ost convenient mode of ' delivering a balV
is, to back the horse in his stall, when the operator
should gently draw the tongue out of the mouth ; but it
should not be held apart or by itself, as in that case the
struggles of the horse may injure it ; it should be re-
tained firmly by the fingers of the left hand pressed
against the jaw. The ball must now be taken between
the tips of the fingers of the right hand, lengthwise,
when it should be passed up the mouth close to the roof:
having placed the ball on the root of the tongue, the
hand may be withdrawn, and the tongue liberated, when,
unless the horse should cough, the ball will be swallowed.
The head should, during the whole, not be elevated:
when it is held up, there is some danger of choking the

horse.
Balsams are a kind of resinous juice, united with some of
the extractive matter of the various plants they are
obtained fi-om, in combination with an essential oil. All
the balsams are occasionally in use in veterinary medi-
cine, and were formerly in very high estimation, for their
supposed salutary action in chronic diseases. They were
also considered as a sovereign vulnerary for abraded
urinary passages. It is the modern doctrine to thmk
their efficacy overrated, and which is probably in some
respects true, particularly as regards their expectorant
qualities: nevertheless they are far fi'om being inert;
they appear to act very favourably in some instances, as

620 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

a warm terebinthinated stimulant. There are balsams of
Canada ; of Copaiva ; of Gilead ; of Peru ; and of Tolu.
What is called balsam of sulphur is merely a compound
preparation of sulphur in oil.
Barbadoes Tar. — See Tar.

Bark. — Several of the barks enter into the veterinarian's
list of medicaments, and all act by an astringent property
on the animal fibre. Peruvian bark stands foremost in
reputation ; but as horses are little subject to intermit-
tent fevers, we can therefore dispense with it. The elm
and the oak barks, particularly the last, may be used in
cases of debility, with advantage. Cascarilla bark proves
also a valuable stomachic tonic.
Barytes {Murias Barytas) has been tried with some benefit
in glanders. It is, however, a very powerful medica-
ment, and few glandered horses are able to bear the
quantity requisite for the cure.
Basilicon {Ceratum resincB) . A useful digestive ointment.
Beans, in a medical point of view, are sometimes used as a

tonic, and the flour of them as an astringent.
Belladonna {nightshade) . An excellent sedative. Its spe-
cific action, however, appears to be expended upon the
throat. It is largely used in affections of the lungs, and
in all diseases where sore throat is a prominent symp-
tom. Its full effect is shown by loss of appetite.
Blisters. — The action of blisters, and the cases in which
they are properly applied, are detailed under opera-
tions. The substances used for this purpose are various ;
the most important is the cantharides, or Spanish fly'
whose action is so certain and mild, that, as a simple
vesicatory, every other article is very inferior. In acute
inflammatory disease it is, however, too slow in its effects
to be of any benefit ; wherefore the application of liquor
ammonia is recommended. Euphorbium, which is the
general substance introduced as a substitute for a portion
of these flies, is sufficiently active ; but it irritates, and
therefore ought never to be employed in these cases.
However, in common blistering for strains, &c., where
the expense of cantharides is objected to, auxiliary vesi-
catories may be admitted, among which the tincture of
croton is now used.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 621

No. 1. — BUster for general Use.

Powdered cantharides f^ne pnund.

Lard eight pounds.

The liquid blister is made by substituting eight pints of
oil for the eight pounds of lard, and allowing the flies to
digest for a fortnight, or boiling them in a water bath.
A^pound of camphor is a good addition ; it does not
lessen the action of the bhster, but diminishes its irrita-
tion.

No. 2. — A powerful Blister.

Spanish flies o»e pound-

Lard tl'^'e^' pounds.

j^ggin two pounds.

Oil of turpentine one pound.

Melt the resin with the lard, after which add the tur-
pentine. When beginning to cool, throw in the pow-
dered flies.

No 3 —A Mercurial Blister for Splints, Sjjarins, and Pdnghones, which may he used
irhere dependence is placed on the action of Mercurials and Blisters, but which there is
reason to think are of but little assistance in the reduction oj these exostoses, paHicularhj ij
of long standing.

Of either of the former four ounces.

Corrosive sublimate, powdered finely a scruple.

No. 4.— Liquid BUster, weak ; sometimes called Sweating Blister.

Spanish flies, in gross powder half a pound.

Olive oil . .- t'""ee quarts.

Steep the flies in the oil three weeks; strain off, and
bottle for use.

No. 5. — Liquid Blister, very mild.

Of the above one pint.

Olive oil ^ Pi"*^ '^^^ ^ "^'*-

The farriers' sweating Ulster is only a strong stimulant :
it occasions heat and swelling, without excoriation or
loss of hair ; consequently it is a very convenient appli-
cation, when it is an object to avoid a temporary blemish,
and when the case is not of a very desperate description.
But there are also instances in which it is to be preferred
to an actual bhster, as in strains, where some remains of
heat and inflammation are present, but without activity :
in such cases the sw^eating blister is very often efficacious.
The mode of application is to rub it in of sufficient
strength to irritate in a mild degree only ; repeating it
every day, until considerable swelling is occasioned, when

622 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

the application should be desisted from, and the enlarge-
ment suffered to subside.

Blue Vitriol (Cupri sulphas). See Sulphate of Copper.

Bole ArxMenian {Bolus ArmenicB), vulgarly called bole
armenic, is an argillaceous earth impregnated with iron ;
and was formerly extolled for its astringent, strengthening
qualities, both externally and internally ; but, although
it has some claim to attention, it is seldom now used.

Borax. — See Soda.

Bran. — Independently of the use of this as an article of
food, it may be here introduced as a medicine also, being
without nourishment, but mechanically aperient. In
the latter point of view, it is perhaps the most certain
laxative with which we are acquainted, and at the same
time the most mild also.

Burgundy Pitch differs so little from resin in its qualities,
as to need no particular comment.

Butter or Butyr of Antimony {Antimonium Muriatum).
See EscHAROTics.

Calamine, prepared {Lapis calaminaris) , is an ore of zinc,
which, when reduced to a fine powder, may be very
usefully sprinkled on excoriations, and on cracks of the
heels, to dry them. It is, however, most frequently
used in the form of the unguent called calamine cerate,
and formerly Turner's cerate, and is an excellent appli-
cation.

Calomel (see Submuriate of Quicksilver) . This is a very
useful medicine in horse yjractice, but is liable to some
uncertainty in its action : therefore it should never be
continued by veterinarians, unless united to twice its
weight of opium ; even then, the moment tbe gums look
red, the mouth feels hot, and a tenderness is observed in
chewing, it should be discontinued. Calomel has not
much effect as a vermifuge beyond its purgative proper-
ties ; but it is an excellent alterative in skin affections,
as hidebound, surfeits, &c. It has proved useful also
in farcy, grease, and oedema. It is often united with
purges, but is not to be depended on alone as a purga-
tive : it acts well when shaken upon the tongue or
strewed upon a mash, the evening preceding the morn-
ing the purge is to be given. A scruple to two drachms

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 623

is a proper quantity ; but it must not be forgotten to
subtract something from the strength of the purge.
During the use of calomel as an alterative, the horse
should not be exposed to wet or cold, nor should its use
be persisted in more than a week without a pause. It
remains to add, that, unless this article be purchased
from a druggist of reputation, it is very apt to be adul-
terated.
Camphor is an Indian produce, chiefly extracted from the
laurus camphor a. It is a substance whose action it is
very difficult to define ; but as it is active in its proper-
ties on the horse, it well deserves a full trial. In large
doses it produces convulsions and delirium : half an
ounce has done this. In moderate doses, as a drachm,
it proves sedative and antispasmodic, and therefore maybe
usefully employed in flatulent colic, in conjunction with
other remedies. United with opium, it has acted bene-
ficially in spasmodic constrictions of the neck of the
bladder not dependent on inflammation. It has also
been highly spoken of as a powerful remedy in locked
jaw : on very respectable authority it has been also
warmly praised for its virtues in fever ; and as in small
repeated doses it is at once a gentle stimulant and soother
of irritation, so in the latter stages of febrile complaints,
where the irritability is considerable, it may be very pro-
perly given. But in the more early stages its beneficial
action is questionable : nor are its powers as a permanent
stimulant sufficient to be depended on at any time with-
out other auxiharies. Externally it proves a mild dis-
cutient in indurations and rheumatic affections ; and it is
with advantage blended with the ordinary blister.
Cantharides, or Spanish Flies. — These are, or ought to
be, the principal stimulating ingredient in the making of
ordinary blisters ; and every veterinarian should purchase
them whole and powder them himself, otherwise he will
be very apt to buy them adulterated. Previously to
being powdered, they should be moderately dried, and
then leisurely pounded, or rather ground into a powder ;
the operator guarding his face with a close muslin hand-
kerchief, so as not to receive the fine particles into his
nose and throat, otherwise an unpleasant soreness will

624 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

arise. If they are very dry, and the powder flies much,
add a few drops of sweet oil, which will prevent this.
Of all the vesicating articles in use, none equal cantha-
rides. They likewise make a very useful stimulating
tincture for injecting into sinuous sores. Cantharides
are found also to have a very salutary effect in those
relaxations of mucous membranes w^hich produce a mor-
bid purulent secretion ; and which is apparently done by
stimulating the system generally, axid these parts particu-
larly, into, a new and healthy action. It is thus they
have been applied to the treatment of glanders : in nasal
gleets they have been extremely beneficial.

Capsicum. — In Indian horse practice, an infusion of
Cayenne pepper is often given as a cure of flatulent
colic, and as a vermifuge also ; it is likewise used ex-
ternally as a stimulant. We have ourselves tried it in
colic with some advantage, but not with sufiicient
benefit to prefer it to the more established means.
As a stomachic, it is decidedly more potent than most
other peppers.

Caraways. — Both the seeds and essential oil are used as
warm stomachic cordials. — See Cordials.

Carbon. — The chemical name of charcoal: it is useful in
stopping the ulcerative process. — See Poultices.

Carbonate of Ammonia, or Salt of Hartshorn of the
shops. — See Ammonia.

Carbonated Water of Ammonia, or Spirit of Harts-
horn.— See Ammonia.

Carbonate of Iron. — See Iron.

Carrots. — These become, under many circumstances, a
medicine, as well as an article of diet. Even for the
latter purpose they are not sufficiently known ; for they
fatten without heating ; but, on the contrary, they keep
the body cool by keeping it open, and greatly promote a
healthy coat. As a medicine they often remove cough,
cure incipient grease, are good in farcy, and beneficial in
surfeits and mange ; but in these latter cases they must
be wholly substituted for corn. A poultice formed of
the scraped root is an excellent application in cases of
ichorous discharge from the heels. — See Poultices.

Castor Oil {Oleum Ricini). — See Oils.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 625

Cataplasms. — See Poultices.

Cathartics. — Whatever excites the intestines to a more
early, a more frequent, and a more copious discharge of
their contents, may be termed a cathartic, or purge. If
this effect be intended to be produced in a shght degree
only, the article effecting it is termed a laxative ; which
see. The principal cathartic in veterinary practice is
aloes. Linseed oil, calomel, and neutral salts may be
considered as laxatives.

Catechu. — By universal suffrage this has long been called
japan earth ; although it is an extract from a species of
Indian acacia. It is a very mild but tolerably certain
astringent ; and its effects are even more obvious on
brutes than on the human subject. It acts favourably in
relaxations of the urinary passages, and also in alvine
fluxes or diarrhoea ; in which latter cases it should be
given with chalk and opium, in doses of an ounce cJf each.
It ought not to be united with any metallic salt, particularly
in a diluted form ; to avoid the affinity which its tannin
or gaUic acid has for all metals, which such blending
reduces to almost inertness. Even the chalk with which
it is so commonly given, being an alkali, Mr. Youatt
thought weakened its action ; but the loss is compensated
by the chalk's antacid properties. By Indian practice, it
would appear catechu is a sedative ; for in that country
it is given in daily doses of two ounces, to tame
vicious horses. It is an astringent in the diarrhoea of
cattle, and appears in these animals to be more active
than in the horse.

Caustics. — See Escharotics.

Cerates are ointments of a drying, healing nature ; the
principal of which is calamine, or Turner's cerate.

Chalk {Creta). — This is a carbonate of lime, commonly
used in a prepared state under the name oi prepared chalk.
It is an excellent antacid and astringent, in diarrhoea ; it
also proves beneficial in the scouring of calves. The dose
is from half an ounce to two ounces. It is occasionally
sprinkled over cracks also.

Chamomile. — This vegetable is supposed to unite in an
admirable degree the qualities of a stomachic and febri-
fuge. In debility of the stomach and bowels it is a tonic,

s s

626 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

in doses of an ounce and half an ounce twice a day,
particularly in conjunction with carbonate of iron. In
fevers, but more especially in the debile stage of influenza,
when the purulent discharge has appeared, it is assistant
to the other medicines, though inferior to good stout.

Charcoal {Charbo licjni) has a peculiar property of amend-
ing the ichorous discharge from ill-conditioned ulcers,
either sprinkled over them in powder or mixed with a
poultice.

Charges are not much used by modern veterinarians ; for
a more extensive acquaintance with the animal economy
teaches us that there is but little activity in what are
considered as external bracers. Nevertheless, there are
some other points of view in which we may place this
matter, to prove that charges may be of very much
service in some cases, if it is merely to act as a bandage,
or to protect from cold. In this way a c/mr^e becomes a
useful application to the loins in rheumatism ; not only as
it protects the affected part from cold, but also because
of the resin proving a useful stimulant. Any strong
adhesive, as resin, pitch, &c., melted with wax or oil
sufficient to keep it from being too brittle, may be formed
into a charge, and applied warm on the part ; and as it
cools, it should be covered with flocks of wool or short
tow. Another favourite, and, if we are to believe the
accounts given, a very eftective charge in ligamentary lame-
nesses, consists of common salt with the white of egg.

Chloride of Zinc is valuable as a disinfectant, and also as
promoting healing in suppurating or sloughing wounds.
It has the peculiar property of suppressing all luxuriant
granulations. It acts admirably also in the closing of
open joints : preventing all fetor, coagulating the synovia,
and at the same time promoting the healing beneath or
the stopping of the orifice. It is beneficial in thrush and
canker. It isusedas a solutionof various strengths, a scruple
to the pint, and a drachm to a pint and a half of water,
in grease, in thrushes or cracked heels with exudation.

Chloroform is an excellent medicine if administered inter-
nally. In spasmodic colic it may be administered in
doses of one drachm, or two drachms blended with a pint
of oil. It is serviceable also in guarding oil wherever a

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 627

laxative effect is desired without the possibihty of the
physic griping.
Clysters. — These often form very important medicaments
in veterinary practice, and have the valuable properties of
being always safe to the animal, and commonly easy to give.
From the length of time it requires to open the bowels
by purgatives given by the mouth, clysters are often our
principal dependence ; and when aperients cannot be
used they are our only real means of dependence.
Nutriment may be administered in this way, when circum-
stances prevent its being received in the usual manner.
When clysters are given to remove costiveness, it is always
proper to back-rake first (see Raking), as it removes any
hardened dung that might obstruct the passage of the
Hquid. The apparatus for administering a clyster may
be a large hog's or ox's bladder, capable of holding
five or six quarts, attached to a smooth wooden pipe an
inch in diameter, and fourteen or sixteen inches long ; but
a much more efficient apparatus is Reid's patent syringe, by
which almost any quantity may be forced up to the required
distance in the intestines. The liquor should not be too
warm ; but the pipe oiled, the process must be con-
ducted gently, so that the horse may not be surprised,
by the clyster being suddenly thrown up. This is a better
instrument for giving injections than the pewter syringe
sold for this purpose by the instrument-makers.

A laxative Clyster.

No. 1. — Thin gruel, or broth five quarts.

Epsom or common salt one pound and a half.

A Clyster for Gripes.

No. 2. — Oil of turpentine half a pint.

Thin gruel four quarts.

Mr. Gowing once relieved a lingering case of spasmodic
colic by administering a pint of turpentine in two quarts
of soap and water, as an injection.

A nourishing Clyster.

No. 3. — Thick gruel three quarts.

Strong ale one quart.

Mix.— Or,

Strong ale one quart.

Thick milk two quarts.

Mix.

s s2

628 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Astringent Clysters.

No, 4.— Boiled milk three pints.

Thin starch two pints.

Laudanum an ounce.

No. 5. — Alum whey one quart.

Bdiled starch one quart.

CoLCHicuM (Meadow saffron root) is a diuretic medicine
to the horse. It also acts upon the liver, and can be
administered in cases where the exhibition of calomel is
inadvisable. In very large and dangerous doses it is a
purgative. It is a favourite agent for the cure of rheuma-
tism, as likewise for circumscribed affections of a painful
nature as periodic ophthalmia. The powder or tincture
are the two preparations in use among veterinarians.
The extract is too expensive.

CoLLYRiuMs are washes commonly in use for the eyes. — See
Washes.

Conserves. — The conserve of red roses is a most convenient
medium for forming balls, as it is adhesive, and, when
properly made, keeps well.

Cordials are matters that invigorate by their stimulating
property, usually through the medium of the stomach.
Cordials have been so long the very strong hold of the
ignorant and presuming, that the very term sounds ill
in the ear of the well-informed veterinarian. The groom
requires a cordial, because his daily and perhaps hourly
habits tend to derange his stomach, which can only be
brought to feel appetite when re-st:mulated by the cor-
dials that are fast hastening him to his end. But his horse
indulging in no such habits, does not require a cordial ball
twice a week ; or on every evening after hunting ; or on
every morning his coat stares with the altered tempe-
rature : to the animal, a cordial, as being unnatural,
must be hurtful, unless required by some very extra-
ordinary exertion ; which, by calling forth too much of
the constitutional powers, has expended the vital re-
sources whence the stomach draws its tone. Thus
after a very hard run with hounds ; after thirty, forty, or
fifty miles' rapid carrying, this may happen ; and then a
gentle stimulant may excite the digestive sympathy arti-
ficially. Here a cordial may be proper and even neces-
sary : but a very good one can under such circumstances

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 629

be administered ; it is not a ball, but a drink, being
composed of an ounce each of sulphuric ether and of
laudanum, in a pint of cold water. It is given so soon
as it is thoroughly mixed.

Copper {Cuprum) yields two articles used in veterinary
practice.

Verdigris (^rugo). This subacetate of copper has
been given internally in daily doses of two or three
drachms, and sometimes with success ; but it does not
appear to merit the exclusion of other remedies. It has
however some power as a tonic, and, in this point of
view, may be properly administered. Externally, its
benefits are more apparent, as it proves one of the best
detergents and mild escharotics with which we are
acquainted. Mixed with honey, it forms segyptiacum,
and is used in ulcers of the mouth, and likewise as a
paste to other ulcerated parts. Mixed with tar, it forms
a good application for thrushes, grease, and cracks.

Blue Vitriol (Cupri sulphas). — This has been at one
time lauded to the skies ; at another abused to the
shades; and, like most of the matters thus treated, its
merits lie between the two. It is, unfortunately, not a
cure for glanders ; but it certainly does, in some cases,
flatter much. It has been justly observed of it, that in
lingering chronic cases, the result of influenza, it proves
a most excellent tonic ; and here often it exerts its best
influence, and puts a stop to the discharge. It is also a
good detergent application in the proportion of half an
ounce to a pint of water ; or when injected into sinuous
sores in dilution, or sprinkled dry on unhealthy surfaces,
as canker, &c., its action is mild but effective.

Coriander. — The seeds of the coriander are a w^arm
aromatic stimulant.

Corrosive Sublimate {Hydrargyri oxymurias) . — See Mer-
cury.

Cowhage. — This has been described as a valuable vermifuge
in doses of half a drachm to a drachm ; but it does not
appear to possess much medicinal activity on the horse.

Cream of Tartar {Potasses supertartras) . — See Potash.

Croton Tiglii. — In India this has long been used both as
a human and brute purgative, and lately it has entered

630 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

into the veterinary practice of this country : the expressed
oil is of extraordinary power as a cathartic. In veterinarv
pharmacy the meal which possesses similar properties is
often used ; but, unfortunately, by the arts of the druggist,
it is often so adulterated as to deceive the expectations
of the practitioner. When it is pure, it may be given in
doses from a scruple to half a drachm, with linseed meal,
in the form of a ball, to shield its acrid nature. It is
equally, indeed somewhat more, drastic than aloes,
producing profuse liquid watery stools, often much
griping, and it occasionally takes as much time to excite
purgation. It is also somewhat uncertain in its action,
but, under a favourable operation, it is quicker than
aloes, although our first accounts of it denied this. It
may, therefore, when immediate purgation is necessary,
be very properly applied to ; and also in tetanus its
diminished bulk and great activity make it valuable.
Dissolved in turpentine, it forms a blister, only inferior
to cantharides. For cattle, Mr. Morton observes, that
its union with the sulphate of magnesia in doses of from
twenty to thirty grains is now commonly had recourse
to ; and that it has been found effectual in overcoming
obstinate constipations, as well as in those cases which
require the bowels to be quickly acted upon.

Demulcents are medicines that act mechanically, by sur-
rounding acrid matter, and thus sheathing it from hurting
sensitive and irritable parts. In this way oily prepara-
tions act ; likewise, honey, gums, mucilages, &c. Di-
luents, as warm fluids, mashes, &c., are also demulcents,
because they dilute acrimonious matter, and render it
less active.

Diaphoretics are supposed moderatelv to increase the
natural exhalations of the skin. Sudorifics are intended
to do it more actively, and to occasion actual sweating.
Vinegar will often produce a violent perspiration, but it
is not a salutary one ; yet the same liquid, neutralized by
ammoniacal salts into Alindererus's spirit, will often ex-
cite a favourable but mild diaphoretic effect. Antimo-
nials in repeated doses, assisted by diluting liquors and
warm clothing, will likewise commonly produce some
diaphoresis. Camphor, in considerable doses, will also

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 631

uniformly occasion determination to the skin. The prin-
cipal diaphoretic action is, however, gained from nau-
seants, as aloes, white hellebore, &c.

Digestives are stimulant applications that produce or in-
crease the tendency to suppuration : they are mostly of
the warm terebinthinated kind, or the gum resins. Of
the former, are turpentine, resin, pitch, and tar : of the
latter, are myrrh, aloes, balsams, &c.

Digitalis. — Foxglove, or, as the Germans have it, Jinger-
hut. Mr. Morton very justly forbids its use after it is
a twelvemonth old; and when it is considered how
universally it is diffused, the use of it is unpardonable
when its virtue has evaporated. It has been most erro-
neously stated to be inert in veterinary practice, except
in very large doses ; and even then its salutary action
was denied : but this opinion is losing ground. In mode-
rate and repeated doses it seldom fails to lessen arterial
action, and excite mild diaphoresis. It is, however,
somewhat irregular in its action, and appears to act best
when the constitution is already excited. In some cases
it commences its operations by increasing the pulse ; but
it almost invariably, when sufficiently continued (in
drachm doses every four hours), reduces the heart's
action, and that in a particular manner : not altogether
by diminishing the number of pulsations regularly, but
by intermissions or lapses of pulsation between the beats.
Thus a momentary pause is detected, and then the
systole and diastole follow each other in uniform tenses
until a new interruption. The tyro is apt to be alarmed
at this ; but it is the effect the established practitioner
expects and even wishes to produce : he has arrested the
impetuosity of the circulation, and in general cases has
cut short the disease. In all great visceral inflammations
this happens with the use of digitalis ; but it is in pneu-
monia more distinctly visible : it is, therefore, a most
valuable agent, but, like all active agents, requires
much watching : without care it may be pushed too far,
if, after the alteration of pulse just described, it is con-
tinued to be given in equal doses. To prevent this, it
should be diminished in strength and frequency ; in-
stead of emetic tartar and nitre as accompaniments, it

632 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

should now be given with some tonic ; when, in turn, it
may give place to laudanum and sether. In this way
digitalis will bear an equal palm with the white hellebore,
and leave a horse convalescent sooner : they are, how-
ever, both valuable medicines in judicious hands ; but
we think the foxglove the safest. The infusion is made
by pouring a quart of boiling water on an ounce of the
powder. The tincture, by digesting three ounces of it
in a quart of spirit. Foxglove should be gathered about
its flowering time, and dried in the dark, which greatly
increases its strength. A French apothecary is said to
have been able to condense the active principle of digi-
talis, which he names digitaline. For cattle and sheep
also, Mr. Morton tells us, digitalis appears an excellent
febrifuge in combination with nitrate of potash, and the
potassio-tartrate of antimony.

DiscuTiENTs are remedies which dissolve impacted matter,
as old enlargements formed by vascular deposits or ex-
travasations.

Disinfectants have until lately been little more than a
name ; or the process of the decomposition of effluvium
has been expensive, troublesome, and offensive in the
extreme ; out we have now a means, not only of com-
pletely disinfecting our houses and stables, but of instan-
taneously removing the foetor of the most putrid
substances. The chloride of lime does this by the use of
a concentrated powder ; this is cheap, and when it is
mixed with ten times its quantity of water, and sprinkled
around objects known to carry about them, or to
throw off, unwholesome odours, as in malignant epi-
demics, glanders, &c., completely removes all the offence
to smell. By washing the walls, standings, racks, man-
gers, head-stalls, brushes, curry-combs, &c., with this
liquor, all risk is avoided, even where the most tainted
horse has been placed. The chloride of zinc, however,
accomplishes all this much more rapidly and more effec-
tively. When an unpleasant smell exists, hang cloths
saturated with the solution about the room. An ounce
of chloride of zinc is sufficient to medicate two gallons
of water.

Diuretics are such articles as stimulate the kidneys to a

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 633

greater separation of urine from the blood; as resin,
turpentine, oxymuriate of mercury, soda, nitre, &c.
Drinks, or Drenches, are the liquid remedies given to
brutes. It is not so safe to give them by means of a
bottle as by a horn ; for instances have occurred of the
neck of the bottle breaking. Mr. Bracy Clark recom-
mends to reverse the drinking horn, closing up the large
end, forming a moderate opening at the smaller end, and
to introduce that into the mouth. In tetanus such a
horn would be useful, and at all times it prevents the
waste of the liquid ; but in tetanus a patent syringe is a
better means, and the tube can be introduced into the
pharynx through the nostril. The usual method of giving
a drink is, we presume, famihar to most persons, but can-
not be practised without assistance. Insert the noose of a
halter into the mouth, and by means of a stable-fork let
the assistant raise the head high. The operator must
now mount a stool or a reversed pail, &c. &c., on the
off side of the horse, there steadying himself with his
left hand ; with the right he should introduce the horn
gently into the mouth, and completely over the root of
the tongue, when, by overturning the horn, the whole of
the drink will escape into the back part of the mouth -.
withdraw the horn often or seldom until the fluid
shall be swallowed. It will be prudent, however, to still
keep up the head some time longer, as many horses
obstinately retain much of it in the mouth ; and while so
held it is common to give the muzzle an unexpected tap,
which takes off the attention from the resistance, and
the remainder is then swallowed. Much of the success
of giving a drink depends on not filling the horn too full ;
at once introducing it thoroughly into the mouth, turning
the drink quickly out of it, and as quickly lowering the
head and withdrawing the horn. A tin bottle with a
strong neck is a good substitute for the common horn.

Electricity is seldom used in veterinary practice with us.
On the Continent, powerful machines are found at the
Veterinary Colleges of Alfort and Berlin for the treatment
of cataract, gutta serena, paralysis, &c.

Embrocations are external remedies applied by rubbing
them on the part with the hand, a sponge, flannel, or

634 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

brush, as occasion suits. The formulee for them are very
numerous, and it would extend beyond our Umits to par-
ticularize any here.

Emetic Tartar {Antimonii tartarizatum) . — See Antimony.

Epsom Salts {MagnesicB sulphas) . — See Sulphate of Mag-
nesia.

EscHAROTics, known among farriers by the more familiar
term of caustics, are substances which destroy the texture
of the parts they are applied to in the degree of their
intensity, and therefore are often divided into erodants
and caustic. The mineral acids are active caustics. Sul-
phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is now seldom used. Nitrous
acid {aquafortis) may be applied by means of a camel's-
hair pencil to fungus on the foot. The chloride or
muriate of antimony, commonly called the butter of anti-
mony, is an escharotic or caustic in very general use in
veterinary practice. Applied to a raw surface it instantly
changes it white, destroying a thin layer of substance ;
hence it is a very convenient application in cankered feet,
as, by means of a small camel's-hair brush, it can be
spread over as much or as little a portion of parts as is
necessary. In sandcrack, when the sensitive substance
protrudes, it may be applied in a similar way. In obsti-
nate cases of grease, the buds are sometimes beneficially
touched with it : but in quittor, poll-evil, and other
sinuses, it is not so proper as some other escharotics. —
Nitrated silver (Argenti nitras) , or, as it is popularly called.
Lunar caustic, is a preparation from silver, which renders
it expensive : it is, however, essentially necessary to the
veterinarian's dispensary, from its being so completely
under command in its action ; not extending its effects
beyond the immediate part it is applied to. It proves
the most convenient caustic for destroying the edges of a
contaminated wound, when not too extensive, as the bite
of a rabid animal. Dissolved in five, six, or eight times
its own weight of water, it forms an excellent liquid
caustic, peculiarly useful as a dressing for the foot rot in
sheep, and also to touch the protruded portions in sand-
crack. Dissolved in twenty times its weight of water, it
makes a useful detergent wash for foul ulcers, and to
keep down too luxuriant surfaces. — Caustic potash {po-

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

635

tassa fusa), called lapis infernalis, formed into a^ solid
body, is also another powerful caustic, quicker in its
action than the lunar, and therefore more convenient for
extensive use ; but its ready liquefaction renders it unfit
for tedious operations or deep-seated parts. Made into
a paste with soap, it forms a useful escharotic to insert
into the pipes of a quittor.— Oxymuriate of mercury
{hydrargyri oxymurias), known by the term corrosive
sublimate, is a very usual caustic employed, and is, per-
haps, one of the best, for 'coring out' quittors. In
strong solution it is an excellent appUcation for grease,
often ^curing when every other means have failed.— The
nitrous oxyde of quicksilver, called red precipitate, is also
another preparation from mercury, and in very general
use as an escharotic in horse practice. Sprinkled over
very foul surfaces, it changes them quickly into a better
state ; and it acts equally beneficially on luxuriant sores,
by destroying fungus, for which purpose its form of a
powder renders it very convenient. — The sulphate of
copper, called blue vitriol, is a much milder escharotic
than most others, and much used in powder, to destroy
fungus. A solution, of a drachm to six ounces of
water, makes a detergent lotion for ulcers, as grease, &c.
—The sulphate of zinc, or ivhite vitriol, is also a good
escharotic, and forms, in a saturate solution, the remedy
for quittor, which it is said has been adopted by Mr.
Newport.— Qwic/c lime is sometimes used as an escharotic
substance, for sprinkling over ulcerated surfaces, as can-
kered feet, &c. ; for which purpose it is convenient, from
its property of absorbing the moisture.
EuPHORBiuM.— This most acrid substance is sometimes used
as a substitute for cantharides. It irritates extremely,
and therefore should never be used. See Blisters.
Expectorants.— These are remedies that promote the re-
moval of the irritating mucus formed in the bronchn
and trachea. The principal of these are oxymel, and
probably squills : nauseants likewise act in this way.
The critic might say that the horse does not expectorate ;
but his bronchial secretion can be increased, and he can
cough out the produce : thus this class of remedies is
not ^without its value in veterinary medicine.

636 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Extract of Lead. — See Lead preparations.

FoxMENTATioNs are warm fluid applications to an injured
part, generally by means of cloths wrung out of hot
w^ater, and re-applied as it cools. Infusions of various
herbs have been employed for fomentations ; but as the
good effect is principally dependent on the warmth and
moisture, so warm water alone is sufficient. Fomenta-
tions allay irritation, and are useful to stimulate the
flagging powers in gangrene : by tending to unload the
vessels, they also promote resolution ; but they are sel-
dom used sufficiently long, and attendants are very apt,
when they are removed, to leave the part wet or
uncovered, by which more harm than good is done, as
the evaporation thus occasioned is a source of cold. We
have in some cases fomented, and had a poultice afterward
applied as far as we know, the practice is singular, but it
is beneficial.

Gentian is a useful stomachic bitter : it has now somewhat
given place to articles more in fashion ; but I doubt
much whether more effective. Mr. Youatt considers
gentian as a valuable animal tonic, so much so, as to
supersede most others. Its dose may vary by circum-
stances from one to five drachms ; but it should be
always given with ginger. It is a useful adjunct to aloes.

Ginger is perhaps the best spice in the veterinary materia
medica; but even this should not be wantonly used.
As a warm cordial, it may be occasionally given in doses
of two or three drachms ; and in flatulent colic, in doses
of four to six drachms : it will also form a valuable
assistant to safine and other cold remedies, given to
tender stomachs and bowels. For horses, for cattle, and
sheep, it is an excellent carminative, and should be
always employed when a warm stimulant is wanting. It
is indeed one of the most valuable cordials to invigorate
the stomachic and intestinal surfaces we know of. The
dose for cattle is from two to four drachms ; and half a
drachm to a drachm for sheep.

Glauber's Salt {Sod(S sulphas).

Glysters. — See Clysters.

Goulard's Extract, ) ^ t i t^ • /•

Goulard's Wash, | ^^^ ^^^^' ^^^ Preparations of.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. • 637

Grains of Paradise are warm spicy seeds ; and are given
by gi'ooms to promote a fine coat. In this way they
often do mischief; but as an addition to other stomachics,
when necessary, they may be still properly made use of.^
Gruel is an article of no small consequence in the veteri-
nary materia medica, inasmuch as it is bland, mild, and
diluting. In making it, care should be had to its inten-
tion : if as a cordial or for nutriment, it ought to be
thick ; if as a diluent, it cannot be too thin : it should
likewise, when made, be perfectly clean, and free from
smoke. Ignorant servants are apt to think any thing
sufficiently clean for a brute, without being aware that
the most delicate female is not half so susceptible to
unpleasant sensations from dirt as is the horse ; and if
he once has gruel offered to him that has been smoked,
it is only by force that he will ever after take any. A
useful diluent is also made from bran, by pouring boiling
water on it, when it is called bran tea ; but it should be
strained when cold, particularly when offered to horses
in catarrh.
Gum Resins are compounded of gum and resin. Gum
ammoniacum is sometimes used in chronic cough. Gum
guaiacum is now employed in farcy. Gum myrrh has
outlived the reputation of all others ; but it is question-
able whether its virtue as a cordial, in the usual accepta-
tion or meaning of the word, is not ideal; but as a per-
manent tonic it ranks higher.
Hartshorn, Spirit of {Aqua carhonatis ammonia). See

Carbonate of Ammonia.
Hellebore, white {Veratrum album). This active vege-
table is variously estimated : Mr. Percivall cherishes it
as a valuable sedative and active nauseant, given in doses
of a scruple or half a drachm, every four, six, or eight
hours. Mr. Youatt also praised it much for moderating
active internal inflammation. We also have used it with
very beneficial effects; but in verification of the old
proverb, that doctors will differ, we are told that Mr.
Sewell held it in slight estimation ; it has, however, crept
into pretty general practice. As the horse was not in-
tended to vomit, so it is exceedingly difficult to excite
nausea in him. Aloes have been used for that purpose,

638 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

but they are uncertain, and in many cases cannot be
prudently administered, from fear of drawing the neigh-
bouring affections to the bowels. We are, therefore,
forced to trust to the powdered root of the white helle-
bore, which is, perhaps, the most certain nauseant with
which we are acquainted ; but it is only safe under very
watchful eyes and quick perceptions. It may be given
to a certain point, and nothing but moderate nausea is
observed : if pushed beyond this, the head droops in the
manger, the mouth slavers, the pulse sinks, the horse
reels too and fro, and purging comes on, which com-
monly proves a fatal symptom. It may be given in
doses of a scruple every six hours, which may be
increased to half a drachm ; but the horse must be care-
fully looked to, and as soon as the pulse sinks and the
mouth slavers, or any trembhng appears, desist from its
further exhibition, directly combating its debilitating
and sedative effects by active stimulants. Hellebore
lowers the system more speedily than digitalis, but digi-
talis more safely when there is time for its operation ; at
least so we have found : it is for the observant veterinarian
to select the proper cases for both. It ranks high also
with some veterinarians when used with setons by smear-
ing them with the powder, but black hellebore is superior.

Hellebore, black.— We understand that this root has
lately been employed with much success as a local appli-
cation in fistulous affections of the poll and withers.
When the tumour has burst and been allowed to dis-
charge two or three days, being dressed with an ordinary
digestive, and the discharge being of the nature termed
laudable ; then take a few portions of the fibrous part of
the root, sew in the seton passed into the sinuses, and allow^
them to remain a fortnight or more. Under this treat-
ment Mr. Morton assures us he has observed its salutary
action in several cases.

Honey is an article of importance in the veterinary pharma-
copoeia, as it is a medium for making balls with.

Hyoscyamus (Henbane) appears to act as a sedative, with-
out the constipating qualities of opium.

Infusions are only different from decoctions by the article
employed being steeped in boihng water instead of boiled.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

G39

Iodine.— Among horses this substance has not long made
its appearance; but as a remedy for bronchocele it has
been some years employed on dogs. It is now given to
horses to promote a solution of the glandular swellings
which frequently remain after catarrh. In daily doses of
half a drachm to a drachm, it seems to have much re-
solving power, not over these only, but also over all
other glandular enlargements. It appears also to possess
tonic and alterative properties combined. It is almost
a specific for profuse stahng. Its purity may be tested
by its becoming soluble in alcohol, and by evapo-
rating entirely by heat. In Mr. Morton's Manual of
Pharmacy, several preparations of it are given, with
valuable notices thereon, which we recommend to con-
sideration. It is by some veterinarians very highly
thought of; we particularly allude to the iodine of potas-
sium, which may be administered to the horse in doses
from one to two drachms : to cattle it may be given m
the same quantities. An ointment, ung. potassi iodidi,
is also an active dispeller of glandular enlargements. Its
effects, we may add, are often slow, but seldom unavail-
ing. The iodide of lead is an excellent appUcation
rubbed upon swellings ; so also is the iodide of sulphur for
obstinate skin diseases.
Iron.— Almost all the preparations from this metal prove
excellent tonics to the horse. Iron filings may be given
in the corn or a mash, in doses of two or three ounces
once or twice a day. The rust, or carbonate (ferri
carbonas) , is another form, and proves useful when given
as the former, in doses of one ounce to two. _ Green
vitriol, or copperas, as the sulphate of iron is called
{ferri sulphas), is also given as a tonic, and some think
it a prefefiable preparation, on account of its saline
admixture. It is usually given in a daily dose of one
drachm or two drachms : it has more lately been given
with some success in that form of glanders which has
been termed " insidious." All the preparations of iron
appear to produce most effect when combined with
aromatic bitters: they should not be united with any
alkah, consequently ought not, in chemical strictness, to

640 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

be made up with soap ; nor should any astringent vege-
table enter the composition with them.

Jalap, though so strong a human purgative, is totally
inactive in the horse.

Japan Earth. — See Catechu.

Juniper. — The essential oil is used as a warm stomachic
and slight diuretic ; it also can with advantage enter
into mange ointments.

Kali. — See Potash.

Lard. — Many practitioners are at a loss for a substitute
for lard, which forms the basis of most of their unctuous
matters. When, however, lard cannot be procured, or
is extravagantly dear, the fatty matter, called i)alm oil,
may be always obtained : as a medium for balls, it may,
as a vegetable oil, be supposed much less disgusting to
the stomach of the horse than an animal oil, as lard.

Laudanum. — A liquid preparation or tincture of opium.
— See Opium.

Laxatives may be denominated milder purgatives, and, as
acting with less irritation, are much to be preferred to
purgatives in inflammatory affections. In some chronic
cases, also, they are eligible, because they can be more
frequently repeated. Of this latter kind are calomel with
small doses of aloes. The laxatives proper in febrile
cases are Epsom, Glauber's, or, in default of these,
common salts, eight to twelve ounces, dissolved in thin
gruel, and repeated every six to ten hours till effect is
produced. In some cases, as bowel affections, from six
to eight or ten ounces of castor or linseed oil, w^ith a few
ounces of watery tincture of aloes, form the best laxative,
especially when guarded with half a drachm of chloro-
form. It must, however, be allowed, that most of these
articles are uncertain in their action ; hw^ their uncer-
tainty is by no means equal to that which it is the fashion
to represent. The action of laxatives is much assisted
by diluting drinks, bran mashes, raking, and clysters :
indeed, both bran mashes and clysters are of themselves

, in many cases sufficiently laxative. Grass, particularly
that of the salt marshes, forms an excellent laxative out
of the stable ; so does soiling in it.

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 641

Lead. — Several preparations of this metal enter into vete-
rinary practice. The principal of these is the

Lead, Acetate of {Superacetas plumhi). — This is still
familiarly known by the old term of sugar of lead ; origi-
nally so called from its sweet taste. It is of much im-
portance in veterinary practice, forming a more conve-
nient, and we think a more efficacious, mode of making
Goulard water, as the solution of it is popularly called ;
but which liquor has been usually made from a prepara-
tion of litharge, called extract of saturn, or Goulard's
extract. When this celebrated liquor is to be made from
the acetate, do it as follows :

Goulard luater. — Take acetate of lead, one drachm to
two, proof spirit an ounce, soft water a pint : when the
extract is preferred, it is thus made : — Liquid acetate of
lead {liquor plumbi acetatis) , one drachm to tw^o ; proof
spirit an ounce ; soft water a pint. Either of these pre-
parations of the acetate of lead are excellent, and justly
appreciated applications, in superficial inflammations ;
but, to produce the full effect, the part affected should
be kept constantly wet with one or the other of them.
Liternally, this preparation is inert: even four ounces
have been given without producing any visible effect.

Lead, Carbonate of {Plumbi carbonas). — White lead is
sometimes used as a desiccative, being sprinkled over a
sore.
Lime is, in some cases, when quick, a useful caustic ; and,
when pulverized, is found good to sprinkle over cankered
feet, greasy heels, or any foul surface, where an absorp-
tion of moisture, as well as an escharotic process are de-
sirable.

Lime Water. — Six pounds of lime, infused in two gal-
lons of water, may, after standing three or four hours, be
strained off, and kept in a closely stopped bottle for use,
without which care it will be useless. Lime water is a
good application for mange ; and is also sometimes recom-
mended internally for obstinate coughs and nephritic
complaints.

Chloride of Lime is a most valuable disinfectant : it
is used as an external appUcation to wounds having a
putrid tendency ; in the latter use it is inferior to the

T t

642 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

chloride of soda, and more especially of zinc. In a
retention of the placenta, called 7Wt having cleansed, in a
cow, where the putridity had become so great as to pro-
duce larvtie or maggots ^nd intolerable foetor, there was
injected a wine-glass of chloride of lime, diluted with a
pint of warm water, into the vagina ; which itself brought
away, in two hours' time, several quarts of putrid matter,
by which the cow was greatly relieved ; but some foetor
returning, a second injection was passed the next day,
which again sweetened the cleansing, and prevented
further putrefaction. But as the placenta was not yet
ejected, two ounces of the chloride of soda was now given
in a pint of gruel every hour ; the consequence of which
was, that after the sixth dose the placenta came away,
much decomposed, but without foetor ; and the cow was
evidently saved by these means, though apparently before
in a dying condition.

Liniment is a fluid preparation of oil and other matters.

Linseed. — The seeds boiled form a thick mucilaginous
drink, used in catarrh, sore throat, and all chest affec-
tions. Linseed meal makes a convenient poultice, parti-
cularly where a close application of the poulticing medium
is required.

Liquid Blister. — See Blister.

Liquor Ammonia Acetatis. — See Acetated Liquor of Am-
monia.

Lotions. — See Washes.

Malt. — This forms an excellent cordial in cases of debility,
and, when continued, it becomes a permanent tonic : it
has also some pectoral qualities ; but in active inflamma-
tions of the chest it is too stimulating for use. Malt is
also an excellent alterative : in farcy, in grease, and in
mange also, when accompanied with emaciation, it has
been used with extreme efficacy : but, in such cases, it
should be given in considerable quantities without other
corn, and even with as little hay as possible, so that
almost all the nutriment received by the constitution may
be malt. This practice is not generally known, but it has
proved, in some cases, singularly efficacious : the best
mode of giving malt is by mashes. — See Mashes.

Mashes are much in request in stable management, and are

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 643

made fi'om oats, barley, bran, malt, linseed, and some-
times chaff: they are also given cold or warm; but, in
either case, should always be made hot. In making
them, care is necessary to avoid smoking the water, and
not to stir them with any thing dirty, or the horse will
refuse them. The mode of mashing is sufficiently known :
boiling water is poured on the bran, corn, or whatever
is the subject of the mash, sufficient to render it of the
consistence of a poultice ; it should be covered over, and
suffered to remain an hour or two, unless it is to be used
hot to steam the head, as in catarrh ; but even here it
should not be hung round the neck immediately, or it
would alarm the horse. Some horses will not readily eat
bran mashes without a handful of corn to make it pala-
table : when horses are weakly and much emaciated, it is
prudent often to mash all their corn. The quantity in-
tended for them the ensuing day may be put into a vessel
the over-night, and boiling water poured on it : in this
way it is rendered more easy of digestion, and hence
more nutritive. Speared corn has been sometimes recom-
mended ; which is nothing more than malting a quantity,
by soaking it in cold water for twenty-four hours, and
then spreading it two inches thick on a floor ; this will
make it soon sprout, when it may be given. In this way,
it must be made from day to day, or it will become musty
or mouldy.
Mercury (Hydrargyrus) , or Quicksilver. — This singular
mineral yields us some of our most active medicinal
agents.

Corrosive mercury {Hydrargyrus oxymurias), popularly
called corrosive sublimate, forms an excellent medical
agent in judicious hands. As an alterative, it may be
given in doses of ten to twenty grains daily : in glanders
and farcy this quantity may be gradually increased to as
much as the horse will bear without inconvenience ; but
as its noxious effects are often sudden, so it must be
most carefully watched. Externally, also, its effects are
considerable. As a caustic, it has already been noticed
among Escharotics. It formed a discarded wash for mange ;
and was often employed as an auxiliary to the stimulant
properties of blisters, when used for exostosis. It appears

T t 2

644 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

to have a very peculiar effect on cattle : received by the
stomach, a considerable quantity may be given with im-
punity : but sprinkled on a wound, comparatively a small
quantity destroys.

Red precipitated mercury [Hydrargyri oxydum ruhrum) ,
or red precipitate, is a useful, active, and convenient
caustic, by the ease with which it may be sprinkled over
sores. (See Escharotics.)

Black sulphuret of mercury {Hydrargyri sulphur etum
nigrum) , or jEthiops Mineral, is less frequently given in
horse practice than it deserves. There is too much
fashion in our pharmacy, and too little experiment. In
all skin affections we have found this a valuable alterative,
and also vermifuge, in daily doses of two or three
drachms.

Mint and Peppermint. — See Oils.

Muriate of Antimony. — See Antimony.

Muriate of Barytes. — See Barytes.

Muriate of Soda, or Common Salt. — See Salts.

Myrrh. — This excellent gum resin is a valuable tonic to
the horse, in doses of an ounce, particularly if united with
a salt of iron, and any warm bitter. There are two tinc-
tures of it ; one simple, and one compounded with aloes :
both of which are much used externally, as warm diges-
tives, in wounds and sinuous sores, and the application
is frequently attended with striking benefit : the aloetic
tincture is by much the most stimulant. To cattle also
it proves a stimulating tonic and valuable antiseptic in
doses from one ounce to two ounces.

Naphtha. — See Tar.

Narcotics. — In the present instance, it is not necessary to
separate the consideration of these from what lessens
irritation and eases pain. — See Antispasmodics and
Anodynes.

Natron. — See Soda.

Nitrate of Silver {Argenti nitras). This is popularly
called lunar caustic, and is in veterinary practice a valu-
able external application. — See Escharotics.

Nitre [PotasscB nitras) is a very general mineral product,
and is as useful as it is general : it is compounded of
nitric acid, and vegetable alkali, whence its chemical

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 645

name nitrate of potash. It is the most useful, powerful
refrigerant : it greatly diminishes febrile action, and
determines its depleting action more certainly to the
kidneys than any of the saline articles we use. It is also
antiseptic and diaphoretic, and therefore of great con-
sequence in active fever, given two or three times a day,
in doses of three or four drachms. As an alterative it
is also well known ; but it is not a good plan, as practised
by some grooms, to infuse it into the water which horses
are to drink ; it is apt to disgust them with all liquids.
Nitre is sometimes used as a cooling lotion for inflam-
matory swellings arising from sprains.

Nitre, Sweet SjArit of {Spiritus cBtheris nitrici). — This
is a valuable preparation of nitre, inasmuch as it is a
refrigerant, and yet, in some measure, a cordial, from its
rethereal composition ; therefore it is a useful medicine
in the more advanced stages of fever, in doses of four
ounces two or three times a day. It is also a useful
article to give in the immediate approach of the first
cold tit of fever, in a dose of two ounces.

Nitrous Acid {Acidum nitrosum dilutum), or aquafortis, —
See Caustics.

Oak Bark. — See Barks.

Oils. — These are either fixed or volatile. The fixed oils
are so called because they are not liable to be changed
into vapour under any high degree of temperature, and
are also generally gained in quantities by expression.
The volatile oils, on the contrary, are produced by distil-
lation, and evaporate by a moderate heat. The fixed
kind, in horse practice, are, —

Oil of Bay, an expressed oil from bay berries : now
obsolete, except in the recipes of the country smith.

Oil of Castor. — See Castor Oil. — In very large doses
this occasions some disturbance in the bowels, and does
not often operate as a laxative ; but in doses of eight or
ten ounces, repeated every five or six hours, it proves
frequently an excellent laxative w4ien more drastic matters
are inadmissible. It is apt to be decried, and numerous
experiments are detailed to prove that it is noxious as
well as inert ; but hardly any two experiments agree.

646 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Mr. Blaine had given it for years, without experiencing
any ill eftect, but often the best, from its use. It is true,
it can never gain a character as a certain aperient ; it is,
on the contrary, an uncertain one, unless joined with a
watery tincture of aloes, or with neutral salts, when the
mixture seldom fails, if mashes have been in use : alone,
it must be owned, it is not always certain as a purgative,
but in quantities that produce much irritation. It is
most safe when guarded by Chloroform.

Oil of Olives. — The best olive oil may be substituted
for castor oil, when the latter cannot be obtained. It is
the principal medium in the composition of liniments,
and enters into many ointments.

Oil of Linseed. — It is a pretty certain laxative, and is
more to be depended on than olive oil ; and in many in-
stances more than castor oil.

Oil of Palm. — This has the consistence of lard ; with
the addition of a fragrant smell. As it does not become
rancid, it is greatly to be preferred : it must also be less
noxious to the stomach of the horse than the animal oils.
It is the produce of the kernels of the fruit of the Cocos
Butyracea, or Mackaw tree, or Brazilian palm.

The essential or volatile oils are, —

Oil of Amber. — An antispasmodic not much in use.
It is said to have a pecuhar property of hastening the
action of aloes.

Oil of Anise Seeds. — This is an excellent warm aro-
matic, and may very properly be added to cordial balls.

0*7 of Caraways may be used in the same way, and
considered in a similar point of view.

Oil of Jumper. — This is often added to diuretic balls,
to increase their effect : it acts, however, principally, as
a warm aromatic. It is now mingled with mange appli-
cations.

Oil of Tar is a cheap penetrating distillation from tar.
It may be employed in mixture with whale oil, as a
suppling matter for the hoofs.

Oil of Turpentine. — See Turpentine.

Oil of Origanum. — This warm penetrating oil was
formerly much used as an external stimulant; but it

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 647

possesses no powers superior to turpentine, and is there-
fore little used by modern practitioners.
Oil of Vitriol. — See Sulphuric Acid.

Ointments are greasy applications for covering excoriated
surfaces. The numerous preparations of this kind are
much reduced in number.

Opium. — We believe it has been attempted to prove that
this valuable antispasmodic is nearly inert in the
horse, and it is true that it requires a large dose to
exert a narcotic efiect ; on the contrary, its action is
rather that of a stimulant when the system is already
excited ; it therefore is injurious in direct increased
vascular action ; but in indirect vascular action, the con-
sequence of some great irritation, it then exerts its
sedative properties. In enteritis of the horse, never-
theless, after blood has been abstracted, it has had a most
salutary effect. Its advantages also are apparent in teta-
nus, where its benefits are sometimes most striking : in
spasmodic colic its powers are particularly observable after
very enormous doses ; in which cases, also, it may be
given in clysters as well. It greatly assists the action of
astringents' in diarrhoea ; and, in profuse staling, united
with alum and catechu, it has proved singularly effica-
cious ; as also in difficult staling, not dependent upon
spasm of the neck of the bladder. In farcy and
skin complaints, it combats the ill effects of too large
doses of active minerals. It increases the pulse, in
repeated doses of one to two drachms every six hours ;
hence it is an useful auxiliary remedy in the debile stages
of irritative fever.

Laudanum is the tincture of opium, and is a most
effective preparation. It must, however, be given to
the horse in doses of one ounce, and even larger, accord-
ing to the necessity of the case.
Oxymel, Simple.— This is made by simmering a pint of
vinegar with two pounds of honey. Sugar is sometimes
substituted, but this is never advisable, as it destroys a
considerable portion of the efficacy of the compound.
Oxymel, properly made, will be found a valuable remedy
in pneumonia, and all catarrhal affections ; particularly
in conjunction with nitre, tartar emetic, and foxglove ;
the dose from four to six ounces.

648 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Palm Oil.- — See Oils.

Peppers. — The various kinds of peppers are sometimes
used, particularly in colic. Mr. B. Clark has written a
treatise expressly on the virtue of the pimento berry.
As a domestic remedy, any of them may be very
properly given in doses of three drachms to six ; except
the Cayenne, which, as being very strong, admits of only
a drachm as a dose : the peppers are sometimes used as
stomachics, or to w-arm other more permanent tonics,
like steel, bitters, &c.

Physic. — See Cathartics,

Pitch is used to give a consistence and adhesiveness to
plaisters and ointments, and is also the basis of charges.
It has a strong medicinal quality as its relationship
with terebinthinated substances convinces.

Potash {Potassa) has been commonly called the vegetable
alkali, to distinguish it from soda, or the mineral alkali.
Potash in its pure state is a potent caustic, and enters as
a base into the composition of salts. The nitrate and the
supertartrate have potash as their foundation : the former
has been noticed as nitre ; the other is popularly called,
cream of tartar.

Supertartrate of Potash (Potassse supertartras, cream
of tartar). — This is not a very active medicament in horse
practice, but is however slightly febrifuge, and mildly
diuretic : it has some alterative powers, and unites with
those medicines wdiich are generally employed when
horses are labouring under cutaneous affections.

Poultices. — In veterinary practice, bread would be too ex-
pensive an article to make poultices of in common cases.
Bran, therefore, is very commonly used ; and, to give it
a proper consistence, some linseed meal, if thought ne-
cessary, may be mixed with it ; or, in default of this, a
little of any other meal. A poultice should be made of
a sufficient consistence, that it may not run through the
cloth it is put in ; and yet it should not be so thick as to
dry too quickly, for a poultice acts principally by its
moisture ; therefore it should be frequently wetted through
the cloth. In applying poultices to the legs, care should
be taken not to tie them too tight, as is frequently done,
and thereby the mischief is aggravated instead of reHeved :
a piece of broad list is, for this reason, very proper to

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

649

fasten them on with. A poultice should never be applied
too hot ; very little good can be derived from it, and
much pain may be occasioned. A hot poultice soon
sinks to the heat of the part. Poultices are likewise, in
many cases, applied cold. A very convenient mode of
applying a poultice to the extremities is by means of an
old stocking cut off at the ancle. The leg of it being
slipped over the hoof, is brought around the part, and se-
cured below by means of broad list. The poultice is then
put into the stocking by means of the hand, and afterwards
secured above by another piece of broad Hst. In cases
where it is found difficult to keep a poultice on any part
of the extremities, from its inclination to slip down, still
by no means tighten the supporting bandage ; but, instead,
pass a long tape from it over the withers if in front, or
back if behind, and attach it to the other side of
the bandage ; it will then be effectually secured from
slipping.

A common softening Poultice.
Bran, any quantity; pour on it boiling water, to form a thick paste; add linseed
meal sufficient 'to m:.ke it adhesive. After this, stir in one or two ounces ot
sweet oil.

A cooling Poultice,
Bran, any quantity ; pour on it a sufficient quantity of cold water to form a
poultice ; and, as it dries, moisten with more water.

Cleansing Poultices in general use for Grease, or ichorous Discharges, or for gangrenous

Wounds.

Oatmeal half ^ pint-

Linseed meal I'all a pmt.

Powdered charcoal four ounces.

Stale beer and bran grounds sufficient to make a

poultice.

Or,

Carrots, scraped sufficient to make a

poultice.

Or,

Turnips, boiled and mashed sufficient to make a

poultice.

To either of these last two four ounces of charcoal may
be added, if thought proper. Or,

Linseed meal, or oatmeal, any quantity; mix with boiling water, and ferment with
a table-spoonful of yeast : as it rises, apply to the part.

Powders. — Pulverized medicines, without much taste, may
be conveniently given by mixing with a mash, or in the

650 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

corn. If in the latter, and the matters given are very-
dry and hght, the corn should be first sprinkled with
water, to prevent the powder being blown away by the
breath of the horse or the snorting of the animal. But
whenever a horse is delicate in his stomach, and refuses
his food on this account, the attempt to give them thus
should not be persisted in.

Purges. — See Cathartics.

Quassia, a useful bitter in doses of six to ten drachms.

QuiNA, often called quinine, is a disulphate of quina ; and,
as far as our own experience goes, is a very valuable
brute as well as human tonic in doses of from one drachm
to two drachms, and is more particularly so if conjoined
with camphor. We need not say that its costliness pre-
vents its use save in particular cases.

Raking is a method of emptying the bowels by means of
the hand. The right-hand arm being stripped and oiled,
with the left hand the tail is drawn aside, wdien the right
being made as small as possible, should be gently intro-
duced up the fundament, and any hardened excrement
the hand meets with carefully removed. From this it
will be at once evident that back-raking must be useful
in a vast variety of cases. It should always be made use
of previously to giving a clyster, otherwise the hardened
matter may cause the rejection of the fluid. It is also
always proper in colic ; and in all cases of costiveness it
should never be dispensed with.

Red Precipitate. — See Mercury.

Repellents. — Medicines whose action was supposed to
consist in driving back humours from one part to
another. Modern physiology allows no such power ;
and it appears, from the theories now received, that all
repellents, as they were termed, act simply by their tonic
force.

Resin, or Rosin, is either yellow or black. The yellow is
the one used in veterinary practice ; internally, as a
diuretic ; and externally, in charges, plaisters, &c.

Salts : —

Common Salt. — This is a useful remedy in veterinary
practice ; for when Epsom or Glauber's salt cannot be
conveniently got at, this may be substituted as an ape-

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 651

rient. It also proves itself a vermifuge, and in solution
assists the effects of opening clysters. It may be given
in doses of from six to eight ounces. The chloride of
sodium or common salt is an invaluable tonic and altera-
tive, and is so palatable that it induces the animals
before whom it is placed to eat it with avidity. It
increases the digestive powers ; and we believe it to be a
vermifuge also. As a remedy for the rot in sheep, Mr.
Youatt bears evidence of its excellence.

Salt, Epsom (Magnesia sulphas). — See Sulphate of
Magnesia.

Salt of Steel. — See Iron.
Salt of Tartar. — See Potash.

Savin. — It is efficacious against warts.

Sedatives. — These form a class of valuable remedies cal-
culated to diminish the irritability of the system, either
by acting on the immediate part or on the whole senso-
rium. In some cases they may be supposed to act by
enabling the system to resist irritating impressions ; in
others they lower the animal powers by a narcotic or
soporific effect. In the horse we have no remedies that
are decided soporifics ; but we have such as lessen irrita-
tion and check spasmodic action (see Antispasmodics) .
Opium, hyoscyamus, digitalis, cicuta, belladonna, cam-
phor, nauseants, and the cold bath, are sedatives adopted
in different stages succeeding upon injuries or fever.
Some irritative states are best combated by tonics, as
the mineral acids, &c.

Silver furnishes us with a nitrate known as the lunar
caustic, whose properties as an escharotic are detailed
under that head.

Soda is the mineral alkali, the medicinal properties of which
do not differ materially from potash, or the vegetable
alkali.

Chloride of Soda is a detergent, and a disinfectant.
As an application for malignant and spreading ulcers it
possesses very great efficacy. It forms also a good
stimulating injection for poll-evil and fistulous withers ;
and in grease it may be often advantageously employed.

Spanish Flies. — See Cantharides.

652 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Spurred Rye, or Secale Cornutum, or Ergot of Rye, acts as
a uterine excitant. It should be kept in well-stoppered
bottles, and even then it must not be kept too long. It
acts in doses of two to four drachms ; but it should
not be given until the regular forcings of the womb have
proved ineffective. It has been administered to the
foaling mare with effect, but it a})pears to exert its
powers most successfully in cows and sheep. The secale
is certainly an emmenagogue of great power, yet it should
be employed only when other means have failed.

Squills {Scilla Maritima). — Squills are highly recom-
mended by Mr. White. By their stimulating properties
they may assist the bronchial secretions in a slight
degree ; but in cases of emergency they ought not to
supersede more active agents.

Starch. — In diarrhoea, starch clysters have proved very
useful. Starch may also in such cases be given internally,
united with chalk and opium.

Stimulants. — The veterinarian is doomed to hear the word
cordials so often, that he will gladly recognize all proper
matters under this head in preference to the former
much abused one. Stimulants are medicines that exert
an influence on the system by increasing the power and
action of a part ; hence they may be considered as very
numerous, and the term as of very extensive signification.
Local stimuli are all such matters as either promote the
vascular, the nervous, or the absorbing energies ; as
friction, rubefacients, blisters, &c. General stimuli act
on the sensorium at once, through the medium of the
senses : the voice of the hounds stimulates the horse ;
the exertions of a fellow will likewise stimulate ; and
the stallion's fire is drawn forth by the scent of the
mare. Absorbing stimulants are heat, cold, friction, de-
pletion, mercury, &c.

Stomachic stimulants. — Such may be called cordials, as
are intended to have a temporary effect on the stomach ;
and those may be noted as stomachics whose action is
more permanent. Both the one and the other appear to
act by a sympathetic effect they excite between the sto-
mach and the brain : warm spicy matters possess some

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 653

efficacy; but, as might be supposed, such cordials (i.e.
stomachics) appear to act best when they are received
into the system at large, as generous food, malt, gruel,
ale, &c.

No. 1. — Gentian, powdered eight ounces.

Ginger, powdered four ounces.

Oil of anise seed half an ounce.

Make into a mass with lard, honey, treacle, or conserve
of roses, and give one ounce for a dose.

No. 2. — Of the preceding mass one ounce.

Gum myrrh one drachm.

Balsam of Tolu one drachm.

No. 3. — Of the first mass one ounce.

Camphor one drachm.

Opium one drachm.

Either of these may be given as a drink also, by infusing
the powders in a pint of ale.

As stimulants, Mr. Vines, in his Treatise on Glanders,
enumerates the following articles : — Cantharides, canella
bark {canellcB cortex), capsicum berries {capsici hacca),
cubebs or Java pepper {cubeha), ginger root {zingiberis
radix), grains of paradise (grana paradisi), pellitory of
Spain {pyrethri radix) ; all the different sorts of peppers,
as the common, black, Cayenne, Chili, long, and white ;
pimento or allspice {pimentcB haccce), sweet flag-root
{calami aromat. radix). Winter's bark {Wiritera cortex).

More permanent stomachic stimulants are such as act
not only by determining a greater quantity of blood to
the stomach, but also by strengthening the muscular tone
of that organ, enabling it to act with more energy in
its digestive movements. The following formulce are in-
serted, and are proper in cases of convalescence, or re-
covery from debilitating diseases which have impaired
the appetite : —

Powdered canella alba four drachms.

Ginger one drachm.

Sulpliate of copper {blue vitriol) one drachm.

Make into a ball with conserve of roses.

Decoction of chamomile three pints.

Watery tincture of aloes one ounce.

Ginger, in powder half an ounce.

Sulphate of iron {<jreen vitriol) half an ounce.

Mix, and divide into four drinks.

654 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Gum myrrh two drachms.

Mustard fl(jur one drachm.

Cantharides five grains.

Gentian powder four drachms.

Make into a ball with thin Venice turpentine.

Powdered gentian three drachms.

Powdered quassia three drachms.

Powdered grains of paradise three drachms.

Make into a ball with Venice turpentine.

Tonic stimulants are supposed to exert their influence
on the muscular fibre, and to improve its tone : this
they do, in some instances, through the medium of the
stomach, and are then called stomachics ; or they are
received into the blood. Tonics are, therefore, stimu-
lants of permanent action ; from which we may learn
that this class is numerous, and is, in fact, diffused
through the whole materia medica. A complete know-
ledge of their number and effect can only be gained by
an intimate acquaintance with the animal economy, and
the nature of the various agents employed in acting upon
it. Either of the subjoined may be given daily : —

Gum myrrh two drachms.

Sulphate of ii"on (ijree.n vitriol) two drachms.

Gentian powder three drachms.

Ginger powder one drachm.

Mix into a ball with turpentine or palm oil ; or into a
drink with a pint of mild ale.

Arsenic four grains.

Gentian, powdered three drachms.

Cascarilla, powdered three drachms.

Mix into a ball with conserve of roses ; or, like the
above, into a drink.

Gum myrrh three drachms.

Powdered gentian three drachms.

Carbonate of iron two drachms. .

Make into a ball.

As tonics, Mr. Vines also enumerates Angustura bark
[CusparicB cortex), Buckbean [Menyanthes trifoliata),
Cascarilla bark {CascarillcB cortex), Chamomile flowers
{Anthernides Jiores) , Geni'mn root {G enti an fs radix) , Quas-
sia wood ( Quassias lignum) .
Stoppings are articles introduced into the hollow at the
bottom of the hoof to moisten the horn ; and in other

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A. 655

instances also, as in cases of corns, or bruised soles. For
the first purpose, any thing that will retain moisture
may be used ; the following will be found as good as any,
as it not only moistens but renders the horn tough : —

Linseed meal four parts.

Tar one part.

This may be taken out of the foot, and re-applied ; thus
sufficient to stop the foot once, is made to serve several
times.

Clay is not a good stopping. It dries too soon, and
then rather adds to the evil of hardening the hoof than
diminishing it. In cases of pricks, &c., tar is not im-
properly used as a stopping. Pieces of tow are dipped
into it, and are then retained by means of tough strips
of wood, as withy from the broom-binding, which may
be laid across. Oil of turpentine one part, horse turpen-
tine one part, and grease a third part, make also a good
stopping for similar purposes. Sole pads are now in-
vented of thick felting, which, being passed within the
shoe, and then wetted, swell, so as to be permanently
retained, and yield moisture.

Storax. — See Balsams.

Styptics are remedies that restrain haemorrhage, either in-
ternally or externally. Those used in the first case, are
acetate of lead, sulphate of zinc, alum, and catechu ; in
the last, pressure, division of the vessel, cold, hot iron,
cobwebs, down, galls, or any substance that has a coagu-
lable property.

Sublimate. — See Mercury.

Sudorifics. — These are uncertain remedies in the horse.
We can procure a slight relaxation of skin by diluents,
warmth, and diaphoretic medicines ; but actual perspira-
tion we can seldom excite, except by violent nauseants.
Vinegar, however, in frequently repeated doses of six
ounces, will generally produce it ; but it appears to excite
much action in the system, and hence is not to be recom-
mended. Increased clothing will generally produce it;
but by exciting increased action, it may do more harm
than good. In common cases, it will be therefore pru-
dent to content ourselves with diluents, antimonials, and

656 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

acetated liquor of ammonia : in important ones we may-
use nauseants.

SuLFHUR. — Flour of sulphur is a very common remedy in
veterinary practice ; internally as an alterative, and exter-
nally as a cure of eruptions of the skin : for the latter
purpose, the black sulphur, which is cheaper, should
never be used, as it is apt to contain arsenic.

Sulphuric Acid, or Oil of Vitriol {Acidiun sulphuricuni) , is
seldom used in horse practice but as an escharotic, or in
a diluted state as a lotion.

Sulphur, Balsam of {Oleum sulphur eium) . — Brimstone,
boiled in oil, was used formerly in old coughs and thick
wind ; but, as may be supposed, with little advantage.
Anisated balsam of sulphur was made by adding oil of
aniseed to the former.

Sulphate of Copper {Cupri sulphas). — See Copper.

SuLPHURET of Quicksilver {Sulphuretum hydrargyri ni-
grum), or ^thiop's mineral. — See Mercury.

Sulphate of Magnesia {Magnesifs sulphas), Epsom Salts,
is a valuable medicine oftentimes to the veterinarian. In
cases requiring a loose state of bowels, but where aloes
are inadmissible, as in inflammatory affections, this salt
is often a resource : in fevers it appears to have a double
effect ; one as a febrifuge, the other as an aperient. It
requires from six or eight ounces to twelve, dissolved in
water or gruel, to open the bowels ; and sometimes it is
necessary to repeat the dose before the effect is produced.
It cannot, therefore, be considered altogether as a certain
laxative ; but when combined it seldom fails, particularly
if assisted by bran mashes. In opening clysters, also, it
may be very properly added.

Supertartrate of Potash (Potassce supertartras) , or
Cream of Tartar. — See Potash.

Tar is a very useful article to the veterinarian. Equal
parts of tar and fish oil make an excellent application for
the hoofs of horses, applied daily with a brush. Tar is
also an excellent stopping for the bottom of the feet, in
the proportion described under Stoppings : it is, also,
either alone, or mixed with oil of turpentine, often used
with advantage as a salve in pricks and bruises of

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 657

the sole. Tar has also been given inwardly in balls for
coughs.

Tar, Barhadoes. — This is the more cleanly preparation
to be employed as an internal remedy, and is often given
for coughs. Mr. Hart has attempted to sanction the use
of it, under the name of Green Naphtha, as an internal
remedy in all chronic chest affections.

Tannin is prepared from oakgalls ; when concentrated with
galhc acid, it then effectually becomes a powerful astrin-
gent.

Tartarized Antimony (Antimonii tartarizatum) . — See An-
timony.

Tents are substances introduced into wounds, to prevent
their too early closing. In deep lesions having a narrow
outlet, or when any foreign body remains to be expelled,
they may be very properly employed ; and any soft sub-
stance, as lint or tow, may be introduced for this pur-
pose.

Tin. — This is used as a vermifuge for horses. It has, how-
ever, but moderate efficacy, and, when given, it should
be always in fine filings, and not levigated, as there is
reason to believe its action is purely mechanical ; in
which case, tin must be preferable to pewter filings, as
being harder ; but the last are generally substituted. Dose,
three ounces daily.

Tinctures are solutions of vegetable or other matter in spi-
rituous liquors, of various strengths and of different kinds.
When any of the resinous gums are to be dissolved, pure
spirit of wine should be used. When the roots, bark,
leaves, &c. of plants are to be made into tinctures, dilute
or proof spirit is sufficient. Most of the tinctures of the
human pharmacopoeia may occasionally be employed in
veterinary practice, but, for the above reasons, this will
never be a very useful formula. The principal ones in
use are tincture of aloes ; compound tincture of ben-
jamin ; tincture of myrrh ; and tincture of Spanish flies ;
all of which are occasionally used. Internally, also, all
of them are stomachics and tonics. Tincture of catechu
likewise may sometimes be useful in astringent drinks.
The tincture of opium also would be of use. Foxglove,

u u

658 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDIC A.

as being a powerful remedy, may likewise be often given
in tincture ; so also would many others.

Tobacco. — This is a very powerful narcotic. An instance
is mentioned by Mr. White, of two ounces having been
given by an ignorant groom to produce a tine coat, which
occasioned almost immediate death. But this very
activity, when we are better acquainted with its mode of
action, may be made subservient to important medicinal
purposes.

Tonics are remedies so called from a supposed property of
giving tone to the living fibre ; by which they increase the
action of the heart and arteries throus-h the medium of
the stomach principally. — See Stimulants.

Turner's Cerate.- — See Cerates.

Turpentine forms an article of very considerable importance
in veterinary medicine. There is no great difference
between the Venice and the common, which are the kinds
principally used in our practice. The oil is the essential
principle : the Venice turpentine is less potent, and owes
its slight activity to the little oil which it contains.

Turpentine, Oil of. — This terebinthinated preparation
is far more in use than the Venice turpentine. Inter-
nally, in doses of two to four ounces, it forms an anti-
spasmodic in flatulent colic, and half the quantity in daily
doses is a vermifuge ; in both chronic and acute indiges-
tion it is also serviceable. Externally, its use is still
more frequent : it is a ready and never-failing stimulant ;
and more dilute, it forms an application for old strains
and bruises.

Unguents. — Synonymous with ointments ; which see.

Verdigris (JErugo). — See Acetate of Copper.

Verjuice is only an apple vinegar, and hence applicable
to similar purposes with acetic acid.

Vermifuges are such substances as remove worms from
the body. Tin or pewter, iron filed fine, but not levi-
gated, or powdered glass, two or three ounces of either
are in general use. Common salt, six to eight ounces ;
oil of turpentine, two to three ounces ; savin, one to two
ounces ; cowhage, half a drachm ; calomel, a scruple ;
arsenic, ten grains ; aloes, till they purge ; tartar emetic

VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA. 659

in drachm doses for six mornings, and then a purging
ball ; all these are, or have been, thought to be excellent
vermifuges, but the last is now most confided in. Worm
medicines should be given fasting. — See Worms, in the
Diseases.

Vesicatories, blistering articles. — See Blisters.

Vitriol, white {Sulphas zinci). — White vitriol, or sulphate
of zinc, is an excellent styptic and astringent : applied
externally : Mr. Morton speaks of it in solution, as
very useful in reducing the swellings of horses' legs,
gorged by over exertion. But instead of the common
linen or woollen bandages usually employed, Mr. M.
recommends those made of chamois leather, which not
only retain the moisture, but by their elasticity give a
continued compression to the relaxed or gorged limb.
In ophthalmia it forms the best wash for the middle and
latter stages. It is also a good detergent in grease and
other ill-conditioned sores.

Vitriolated Copper. — See Blue Vitriol.
Vitriolated Iron. — See Green Vitriol.
Vitriol, Oil of. — See Sulphuric Acid.

Vingegar, Dilute Acetic Acid {Acetum). — The acetous
acid is very frequently used in veterinary practice ; it is
of the utmost consequence, therefore, that it should be
pure. It is, however, unfortunately, very liable to be
adulterated with, or wholly made of, sulphuric acid, and
then becomes very unfit for use as an internal remedy,
being changed into an active stimulant instead of a refri-
gerant. Vinegar, not neutralized by salt or sugar, is
capable of proving very noxious to the horse. We have
instances on record of a pint of strong vinegar destroying
life ; but, neutralized with carbonate of ammonia, it forms
a most excellent febrifuge, under the old name of Min-
dererus's Spirit. Neutralized with sugar or honey, it
forms a valuable expectorant called oxymel. As an ex-
ternal application, the acetous acid is likewise no less
useful. In strains, bruises, and other local injuries, it is
the base of the best remedies, either in combination with
acetate of lead when active inflammation exists, or mixed
with crude sal ammoniac, or the bay salt, to counteract
the effects of distention.

u u 2

660 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

Vinegar, distilled. — This preparation is nothing more
than the common vinegar deprived of its water and fecu-
lent parts.

Washes are watery solutions, or infusions, of various sub-
stances, to be washed over the parts to which they are to
be apphed.

Wax, White and Yellow. — The yellow is principally used
by the veterinarian, to thicken and give consistence to
ointments.

Willow Bark. — See Bark.

Worm Medicines. — See Anthelmintics.

Zinc — See Vitriol, Calamine, and Chloride of Zinc

INDEX.

Abscess, 432. 439. 455.

chronic, 459.

Abdomen, anatomy of, 225.

regions of, 236.

■ stones in, 422.

wounds of, 442.

Absorbents, 121.

■ functions of, 122.

Abstraction of blood, 594.

Abuse of purgatives, 600.

Action ofthe muscles of respiration, 215.

Acute indigestion (cattle), 389.

larainitis, 522.

Adhesive inflammation, 439.

Aeration of the blood, 221.

Age, the teeth with regard to, 36.

of horned cattle, 47.

of sheep, 48.

Alimentary canal, diseases of, 385.
Amaurosis, 506.
Ammoniacal blisters, 592.
Amputation of the penis, 587.

tail, 588.

Amputations, 586.
Anasarca, 417.

Anatomy and physiologv of the foot,
259,

ofthe abdomen, 225.

of ganglia, 162.

of spinal marrow, 163.

of spinal nerves, 164.

Anchylosis, 496.

Ancient English writers, 5.
Anconeus, 100.
Animal poisons, 425.
Antea spinatus, 98.
Anterior aorta, 127.

cava, 144.

extremities, 79.

Aorta, 127.

anterior, 127.

posterior, 136.

Appearance of really aged horses, 41.
Appendage to bone, 96.
Apoplexy, 375.
Arteries, 1 19.

course of, 120.

ofthe brain, 135.

• wounds of, 451.

Arteriotomy, 594.

Articles used for purgatives, 601.

Articular cartilage, 90.

Ascites, 415.

Axillary artery, 129.

Back (the), when well formed, 32.

sinews, rupture of, 473.

Bars, 263.

Bel (M. St.) successful in 1790, 7.

Belly, dropsy of, 415.

wounds of, 442.

Biceps rotator tibialis, 109.
Bishoping horses to disguise their

age, 43.
Bites of venomous reptiles, 427.
Bladder, 242.

arteries of, 130.

inflammation of, 338.

— spasm of the neck of, 339.

Bleeding, 594

Blistering, 589.

Blood, abstraction of, 594.

aeration ofthe, 221.

circulation ofthe, 218.

spavin, 478.

Bloodv urine, 410.

Blown, 389.

Blows on the pointof the shoulder, 470.

Bog spavin, 470.

Bone spavin, 492.

Bones, 63.

appendages to, 90.

of the foot, 84.

662

INDEX.

Bones of the pastern, 82.

posterior extremities,

85.

shank, 82.
skull, 64.

Bony trunk, 73.

Bowels, inflammation of the, 333.

Brain (the) and its meninges, 150.

base of the, 153.

diseases of the, 374.

inflammation of the, 299.

structure of the, 155.

Breast, chest, or counter, 25.
Broken knees, 449.

wind, 348.

Bronchii, 220.

Bronchitis, 342.

Bruises, 475.

Bursas mucosae, 118.

' enlarged, 479.

Calculus concretions, 422.

intestinal, 422.

urinary, 423.

vesicular, 424.

Calving, dropping after, 291.
Canine teeth, or tushes, 39.
Canker, 556.

Cannon, or shank bone, 26.
Capped hock, 481.
Capsules, renal, 246.
Carcass, or trunk, 31.
Carotid, connnon, 131.

external, 132.

internal, 135.

Cartilage, 90.

• articular, 90.

■ non-articular, 90.

Casting, 562.
Castration, 567.

• by cauterization, 569.

Cataract, 505.

Catiirrhal fever, or influenza, 277.

Cattle, the horns denote the age of, 48.

the permanent teeth of, 48.

Cava, vena, anterior, 144.

posterior, 148.

Cellular tissue, 173.
Cerebral nerves, 156.
Cervical ligament, 208.
Channel (the) should be wide, 20.
Charter granted to the Veterinary Pro-
fession by Her Majesty, 10.
Chest, counter, or breast, 25.

dropsy of, 413.

Chronic abscess, 457.

cough, 345.

■ founder, 526.

■— indigestion, 388.

Circulation of the blood, 218.

foetal, 254.

greater, 219.

pulmonic, 236.

Coats of the eye, 183.

Coecum, 225.

Cold, or cough (cattle), 296.

Coleman and Morecroft (Messrs.) ap-
pointed joint professors, 8.

Coleman (Mr.), summary of his merit, 9.

Colic (cattle), 388.

spasmodic, 385.

College, Veterinary, History of, 6.

Colon, 236.

Colours, or marks, of the horse, 49.

Colt (the), 258.

Committee, medical, established, 8.

Common cold, 341.

integument, 168.

Complexus major, 105.

Composition of bone, 59.

Condition, 51.

always means one thing, 52.

getting a horse into, 54.

morbid, 63.

Conformation of the exterior of the
horse, 15.

Coraco humeralis, 100.

Corns, 539.

Costiveness, 397.

Coverings of the body, 168.

of the viscera, 168.

Cribbiting, 401.

Customs, induce material change in
horses, 13.

Cuticle, 169.

Cutis, 176.

Cystitis, 338.

Danger of purgatives, 600.
Deglutition, 205.
Depressor capitis major, 107.

minor, 107.

Descent of the testicle, 255.
Description of Plate I., 60.
II., 92.

III., 117.

IV., 119.

. v., 149.

VI., 175.

VII., 209.

VIII., 224.

IX., 250.

X., 260.

Diaphragm, 213.

rupture of, 442.

Diarrhoea, 398.

(cattle), 400.

Diffused inflammation, 272.

INDEX.

663

Digestion, 231.

Disease of the alimentary canal, 385.

■ bone, 488.

brain, 374.

divisions of, 271.

of the eye, 497.

feet, 522.

generally, 269.

glands, 407.

navicular joint, 537.

nerves, 374.

skin. 507.

Diseased collections of fluid within the

cavities, 412.
of fluid within the

cellular membrane, 417.
Dislocated patella, 48G.
Dislocations, 481—486.
Distribution of the arteries, 127.
Diuretics, 606.
Division of disease, 271.

the flexor tendons, 585.

■ the sentient nerve of the

foot, 581.

— — the temporal artery, 594.

Docking, 588.

Dro])ping after calving, 291.

Dropsy of the abdomen, 415.

belly, 415.

chest, 413.

head, 412.

heart, 415.

skin, 417.

Duodenum, 234.
Dysentery, 331—368.
■ cattle, 370.

Ear (the). 176.

Earl of Plymouth, the first to stable

hunters, 58.
Early writers of Greece, 2.

. Rome, 2.

Ears, how they should be carried, 17.
Ecchymosis, 420.
Elbows of the horse, 25.
Embryotomy, 566.
Encysted tumours, 478.
Enlarged bursas mucosae, 479.
Epidemic of 1841-42, 297.
Erectores capitis major, 106.

minor, 106.

Exostosis, 488.

of the cofRn bone, 496.

Extensor pedis, 102.

posterior, 113.

■ accessorius, 113.

■ metacarpi magnus, 101.

obliquus, 101.

Exterior conformation of the horse, 15.
External iliac arteries, 138.

tumours, 478.

Extravasation of blood, 420.
Extremities anterior, 79.
Eye (the), 179.

coats of, 183.

humours of, 180.

use of, 181.

Eyelids, 186.

Eyes, the mode of examining them, 17.

Face, bony, 67.

of the horse, 19.

Foetal circulation, 259.

Fall of the veterinary profession in

the Dark Ages, 2.
False quarter, 560.
Farcy, 362.

• water, 418.

Fat, 72.

Fauces, 199.

Feet, diseases of, 522.

inflammation of, 522.

should be of a proper size, 26.

Femoral artery, 141.

Fetlock joint, sprain of, 473.
Fever in cattle, 288.

pure, 271.

Firing, 588.

Fistulous parotid duct, 464.

withers, 463.

Flanks, 33.

Flexor brachii, 100.

metacarpi externus, 102.

internus, 102.

• medius, 102.

pedis perforans, 102 — 115.
perforatus, 102 — 115,

radialis accessorius, 104 — 115.

tendons, division of the, 585.

rupture of, 473.

sprain of, 471.

their ligamentous con-

nexions, 471.

suff'raginis, 102.

their sheaths, 471.

ulnarius, 103 — 115.

Folly of turning a horse out to grass,

52.
Foot, anatomy and nhvsiology of the,

259.

division of the sentient nerve of

the, 581.

interior of the, 263.

pumiced, 536.

prick in the, 547.

punctured, 547,

Fore-arm (the) should not be too
large, 26.

664

INDEX.

Founder, acute, 522.

chronic, 526.

Fractured arm bone, 485.

bones of the extremities,

484.

cannon, 485.

• face, 483.

femur, 485.

• humerus, 484.

■ ilium, 48G.

jaw-bone, 484.

navicular bone, 486.

■ olecranon, 485.

pastern bones, 486.

• patella, 486.

pelvis, 484.

ribs, 484.

scapula, 484.

scull, 48:3.

■ tibia, 485.

■ vertebrae, 484.

Fractures, 481.

French method of castrating, 574.
■ Revolution (the), favoured ve-
terinary medicine, 4.
Fret, 385.

Frontal sinuses, 190.
Functions of the eye or sight, 188.

Ganglia, anatomy of, 163.
Gangrene, 435.
Garget, 293.
Gastrocnemii externus, 114.

• internus, 115.

Gemini, 113.

Gestatory term, 256,

Getting a horse into condition, 54.

Glanders, 353.

Glands, diseases of, 407.

of the head, 283.

Glass eyes, 508,
Gluteus externus, 108.

internus, 112.

maximus, 108.

Good and bad form, 15.
Gracilis, 110.

Grant of a Charter by Her Majesty, 10.

Grease, 507.

Greater circulation, 219.

Gripes, 385.

Gutta Serena, 506,

Guttural pouches, 178.

HiEmorrhage, modes of stopping, 451,

Hair, 168.

Head, bones of the, 63.

dropsy of, 412.

■ • of the horse, 16.

and neck generally, 207.

Heart, 216.

dropsy of, 415.

Hepatitis, 334.

(cattle), 335.

Her present Majesty grants a Charter,

10.
Hernia, congenital, 406.

intestinal, 402.

strangulated, 404.

History of the Veterinary College, 6.

Veterinary Medicine, 1.

■ in Great

Britain, 4,
Hock (the) and its conformation, 35.

capped, 481,

Hoematuria (cattle), 337.

Hoof (the), 260,

Hoose, cattle, 296.

Horn, 262.

Horns (the) denote the age of cattle,

48.
Horny sole, 262.
Horse and dog, comparison between,

14.
Horses of great age mentioned, 45.
Hove, cattle, 389.
Humeralis, 100,
Humours of the eye, 180.
Hydrocephalus, 412.
Hydrops pericardii, 415.
Hydrothorax, 413.

Iliac arteries, 138.

Iliacus, 1 12,

Ilio femoralis, 111.

Importance of thorough drainage, 57.

Impregnation, 252,

Indigestion, acute (cattle), 389.

chronic, 388.

Inflammation, adhesive, 439.

of the bladder, 338.

brain, 29;).

cornea, 497.

feet, 522.

heart, 325.

intestines, 326.

local, 430,

of the liver, 334,

(cattle), 334.

kidneys, 335.

lungs, 303.

(cattle),

324.

324,

303.

(sheep),
and pleurae,

mucous surfaces.

331.

INDEX.

665

Inflammation of the peritoneum, 332.

— ))leura3, 313.

throat, 342.

veins, 432.

udder, 293.

womb, 340.

Influenza, 277.

(cattle), 22G.

Interior of the foot, 263.
Internal ear, 177.
Intestinal calculus, 422,

hernia, 406.

Intestines, 234.

morbid displacement of the.

40i

-406.

strangulation of the, 406.

Ischio femoralis, 110.

Jaundice, 407.

(cattle), 408.

(sheep), 408.

Jaw, lower, 69.

Job possessed horses, 12.

Jugular vein, bleeding from the, 597.

Kidneys, 240.

inflammation of the, 335.

Knee and its bones, 81.

— joint penetrated, particularly of,

448.

of the horse, 26.

broken, 449.

Lacerated knee, 450.
Lactation, 257.
Lamina, sensitive, 265.
Laminitis, acute, 522.

— chronic, 526.

Lampas, 391.

Large intestines, 235.

Larynx, 200.

muscles of the, 201.

use of the, 202.

Latissimus dorsi, 96.
Legs, swelled, 419.
Levator humeri, 96.
Ligaments, 92.

Lips, 194.

Lips and nostrils, 20.
Lithotomy, 577.
Liver, 238.

inflammation of the, 334.

• (cattle),

334.
Local inflammation, 430.
Lock-jaw, 379.
Loins, their importance, 32.
Longus colli, 107.
Loose boxes better than stalls, 56.

Lower jaw, 69.
Lumbrici, 116.
Lungs, 219.

inflammation of, 303.

(cattle), 324.

(sheep), 324.

Madness, 299.

Mad, sleepy staggers, 299.

Majesty, Her present, grants a Cliar-
ter, 10.

Mammary gland, 249.

Mane, and how to dress it, 21.

Mange, 520.

Marks of the mouth, 37.

Medical Committee established, 8.

Medicine, Veterinary,the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries favourable to,
3.

history of, in

Great Britain, 4.

Medulla, or marrow, 91.

Megrims, 376.

Membrane, cellular, 173.

of the placenta, 253.

Mesenteries, 137.

Mesentery, 226.

Messrs. Coleman and Morecroft ap-
pointed, 8.

Mayor, chief in obtaining the

Charter, *11.

Mineral poisons, 425 — 429.

Minimus, 100.

Mode of performing neurotomy, 583.

Molars, or grinders, 38.

Morbid displacement of the intestines,
402—406.

Mouth, 193.

muscles of the, 193.

Mr. Morecroft resigns the joint pro-
fessorship, 8.

Mr. Morton, chemical lecturer, 10.

Mr. Sewell appointed head professor,
10.

Mr. Simonds added to the Veterinary
College, 10.

Mr. Spooner appointed head professor,
10.

Muscles of the anus, 116.
ears, 176.

generally, 93.
of the globe of the eye, 185.
larynx, 201,

mastication, 206.

the mouth, 193.

nose, 192.

part of the neck, 96.
the pharynx, 203.

666

INDEX.

Muscles of the respiration, 212.

action of, 215.

tail, 116.

tongue, 196.

■ voluntary, 95.

Mucous surfaces, 331.

Nasal organs, use of, 192.

Natural history of the horse, 11.

Navicular joint disease, 537.

Navicularthritis, 537.

Neck of the horse, 20.

Nerve, the sentient, of the foot, divi-
sion of, 581.

Nerves (of), 165.

(the), 155.

cerebral, 156.

■ diseases of, 374.

of the fore extremity, 161.

hind ditto, 162.

spinal, 159.

sympathetic, 164.

Neurotomy, 581.

Nicking, 588.

No determinate figure of the horse
possible, 16.

Nose (the), 184.

Obstetrics, veterinary, 565.
Obturator, externus, 112.

■ internus, 113.

Q]]sophagus, 209.

Of the urinary organs, 242.

Omentum, 228.

Open joint, 445.

Operations, 561.

Ophthalmia, periodical, 499.

simple, 497.

■ specific, 499.

Orbits, 67.

Organs of generation (female), 247.

(male), 244.

Overreach, 472. 551.

Palate, bleeding from, 594.

Pancreas, 293.

Panniculus carnosus, 174.

Paracentesis abdominis, 414.

Paralysis, 377.

Parasitic animals (cattle), 395.

Parotid duct, fistulous, 464.

Parturition, 257.

Pastern (the) should not slant too

much, 28.
Patella, sprain of the ligaments of, 474.
Pectoneus, 111.
Pectoralis anticus, 104.
niagnus, 104.

-- trans versalis, 104.

Penis, amputation of, 587.
Permanent nippers, 39.

(cattle), 48.

Periodic ophthalmia, 499.
Periosteotomy, 584.
Peritoneum, 91.
Peritonitis, 332.
Pharynx, 203.
Phlebitis, 452.
Phlebotomy, 596.
Phrenitis, 299.
Physicking horses, 599.
Physiology of secretion, 167.
Physiology of the viscera, 237.
Placenta, 252.

membranes of, 253.

Plantarius, 114.

Plantar vein, 596.

Pleurae, 210.

Pleurisy, 313.

Pleuro-pneumonia (cattle), 315.

Pneumonia, 303.

Poisons, 425.

animal, 425.

mineral, 425 — 429.

vegetable, 425 — 428.

Poll-evil, 460.
Popliteus, 1 15.
Postea spinatus, 98.
Posterior cava, 148.
Power and safety of horses, 212.
Prick in the foot, 547.
Profuse staling, 411.
Properties of the blood, 222.
Psoas magnus, 111.

parvus. 111.

Pulmonary vessels, 142.
Pulmonic circulation, 218.
Pulse, 124.
Pumiced foot, 536.
Punctured foot, 547.
Pupils taken at the Veterinary Col-
lege, 8.
Pure fever, 271.
Purgatives, 599.

articles used for, 601.

danger of, 600.

treatment of, 604.

Purpura haemorrhagica, 284,
Pyriformis, 1 1 2.

Quarter, false, 560.
Quittor, 551.

Rabies, 425.

Ramus anastomoticus, 135.

Real thigh bone of the horse, 35.

Rectum,'^236.

Red water, true (cattle), 409.

INDEX.

667

Regions of the abdomen, 225.
Renal capsules, 241.
Reproductive system, 250.
Reptiles, venomous bites of, 427.
Restraints, various, 561.
Rheumatism, 476.

• (cattle), 477.

Rhomboideus, 96. ^

Ring-bone, 495.

Roaring, 343.

Romans (the) exported horses from

England, 12.
Rot (cattle), 370.

(sheep), 372.

Rotator capitis, inferior, 106.

internus, 107.

superior, 106.

Round bone, sprain of the ligaments

of, 474.
Rupture, 406.

of the back sinews, 473.

Ruptured diaphragm, 442.

flexor tendons, 473.

suspensory ligament, 472.

Sandcrack, 544.
Sartorius, 109.
Scalenus, 107.

Scapulo humeralis major, 100.
Scapulo ulnarius, 97.
Scarifications, 596.
Scouring in calves, 401.
Sense of taste, 198.

touch, 171.

Sensitive lamina, 265.

Sentient nerve of the foot, division of,

581.
Serratus magnus, 97.
Setons, 593.

Setting on of the horse's head, 16.
Sewell (Mr.) appointed professor, 10.
Shoeing, 527.

general remarks on, 531.

Shoulder (the) should slant, 23.

sprain of, 468.

point, blows upon, 470.

Sight, 188.

Simonds (Mr.) added to the Veterinary

College, 10.
Simple ophthalmia, 497.
Situation of the viscera, 225.
Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

favourable to veterinary medicine, 3.
Skull of the horse, 62.
Sleepy staggers, 299.
Slinging, 564.
Sloughing, 434.
Small pox in sheep, 515.
Sore throat, 392.

Spasm, 378.

of the neck of the bladder, 339.

Spasmodic colic, 385.
Specific ophthalmia, 499.
Spavin, blood, 478.

bog, 480.

bone, 492.

Spleen, 240.
Spienius, 104.
Sjjinal nerves, 159.

anatomy of, 162.

Splint, 490.

Spooner (Mr.) appointed professor, 10.

Sprain of the fetlock joint, 473.

flexor tendons, 471.

ligamentous connexions

of the flexor tendons, 471.

patella, 474.

sheaths of the flexor ten-

dons, 471.

shoulder, 468.

stifle, 474.

whirl bone, the ligaments

of, 474.
Sprains, 466.
Stable (the) itself, 55.
Stables are kept too warm, 56.
Staling, profuse, 411.
Sterno maxillaris, 107.

thyro-hyoideus, 107.

Stifle corresponds to the human knee,

35.

sprain of, 474.

Stomach, 229.

staggers, 299.

Stones in the bladder, 424.

~ intestines, 422.

kidneys, 423.

Stony concretions, 422.

Strains, 466.

of the ligaments of the femur,

474.
Strangles, 457.

Strangulated hernia, treatment of, 404.
Strangulation of the intestines, 406.
Stringhalt, 384.
Structure of the brain, 1.55.
Styptics, 451.
Subscapularis, 98.

Summary of Mr. Coleman's merit, 9.
Summering of hunters, 58.
Suppuration, 433.
Surgical operations, 561.
Suspensory ligament, rupture of, 472.
Sutures, 437.
Swelled legs, 419.
Swellings, encysted, 478.
Symptomatic fever, 282.
Synovia, 92.

668

INDEX.

Tail, amputation of the, 388.

■ and how it should be set on, 34.

Taking a horse up from grass, 54.
Taste, 198.
Teeth, 70. .

of the calf at birth, 47.

with regard to age, 36. ■

Temporal artery, division of, 594.
Temporary and permanent teeth, 37.
Tendons, 95.
Tensor vaginae, 108,
Teres externus, 97.

internus, 97.

Testicle, 144.

descent of, 255.

Tetanus, 379.
Thick wind, 347.
Thorax, viscera of the, 210.
Thorough-pin, 481.
Throat.^sore, 342.
Thrush, 542.
Toe, bleeding from, 595.
Tongue, 195.
Touch, 171.
Trachea, 208.
Trachelo mastoideus, 105.
Tracheotom}', 579.
Trapezius, 96.
Tread, 551.

Treatment connected with physicking,
604.

• of strangulated hernia, 404.

Triceps abductor femoris, 110.

Triceps extensor brachii, 99.

True red water (cattle), 409.

Trunk, bony, 73.

Tumours, external, 478.

Tusks, or tushes, or canine teeth, 39.

Udder, inflammation of, 293.
Ulceration, 459.
Ureters, 241.
Urethra, 246.
Urinary organs, 242.

calculus, 423.

Use of the larynx, 202.
nasal organs, 192.

Various restraints, 561.

Varix, 478.

Vas deferens, 245.

Vastus externus. 111.

internus, 111.

Vena portae, 148. 238.
Vesical calculus, 424.
Vesicular disease, 295.
Veterinary obligation to John Hunter,
9.

obstetrics, 565.

Veins generally, 143.

inflammation of, 452.

of the head and neck, 146.

hind extremity, 147.

wounds of, 452.

Viscera of the chest, 210.
— physiology of, 237.

— situation of, 225.

Voluntary muscles, 95.
Vomition, 233.

Warbles, 459.

Water farcy, 418.

Warts, 519".

Whether the litter should be removed

or not from under horses, 57.
Whirl-bone of jockeys, 35.
sprain of the ligaments of,

474.
Wind broken, 347.

galls, 479.

- thick, 348.

Withers, fistulous, 463.

■ (the) should be high, 22.

Womb, inflammation of, 340.
Worms, 390.
Wounds, 436.

of the abdomen, 442.

arteries, 451.

articular cavities, 444.

chest, 442.

neck, 441.

particular parts, 441.

■veins, 452.

Writers of the seventeenth century,
3.

Yellows (cattle), 408.

THE END.

GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN S SttUARE, LONDON.

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine 'at
Tufis University
200 Westboro Road
North Grafton, MA 01 536

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