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A BOOK FOR THE BEGINNER IN ANGLOSAXON

EARLE

ItontJon

HENRY FROWDE

OXFOBD UNIVERSITY PBESS WAREHOUSE 7 PATEBNOSTEE EOW

A BOOK FOR THE BEGINNER IN ANGLOSAXON

COMPRISING

A SHORT GRAMMAR

SOME SELECTIONS FROM THE GOSPELS

AND A PARSING GLOSSARY

BY

JOHN EARLE, M.A.

Rector of S7vanswu:k Professor of Anzlo-Saxon in the University of Oxford

f/ V^ OF T1]E '

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS M DCCC LXXIX

\All rights reserved '\

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CONTENTS.

PAGE

Preface vii

Preliminary Note i

I. Alphabet . , 2

II. Spelling and Pronunciation .... 3

III. Interjections 5

IV. Parts of Speech 6

V. Symbolic and Presentive . . . .7

VI. Verbs: —

1. Strong 9

2. Mixed 21

3. Weak 23

VII. Nouns: —

i. Substantives . . **' 26

ii. Adjectives 31

iii. Adverbs 36

§ Numerals 38

VIII. Pronouns 40

IX. Link- Words 48

X. Syntax 50

XI. Compounds 65

XII. Prosody 70

Passages from the Anglosaxon Gospels . .73

Parsing Glossary 99

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UinVERSITY

PREFACE.

The study of Anglosaxon is the study of a dead language which stands in open continuity with the living English of to-day. It offers a means whereby all who own the English language by birthright may on the easiest terms win a share of those benefits which are more elaborately purchased by the study of Greek and Latin. Truly there is a fine poetic ken which is won by the study of classic languages ; but much of this reveals itself spontaneously to the Englishman who will but bestow a look of natural kindness upon the antique glory of his mother tongue. Old language is a sort of poetry. Its poetic light shines out by the foil of modern phrase, and all who vernacularly know the new are qualified to taste the romance that kindles in the old. But while all English folk have a fair inviting gradient between them and the serener heights of Saxon antiquity, the classical scholar has the high- est interest in a study which would tend both to increase his usefulness and also to secure to himself the fuller enjoyment of the fruit of his labours.

It will hardly be denied that there is an untoward breach between our academic learning and the general intellect of the land. The education of school and college often perishes because there is no corresponding power of communication. Except in a few favoured spots, its beneficial effects are too obscurely traceable. Might not this be somewhat mended

Vlil PREFACE,

if our more recondite studies were fringed around with a border of native culture, opening a common frontier for barter of thought with the non-graduate world ? Might not some of that knowledge which now shrivels for lack of exer- cise find genial action to the increase of generous thought and the better husbanding of intellectual stores?

In subtle ways of its own English knowledge gives a man surer hold of his distant possessions, and it also enlivens his daily path with glimpses of fresh discovery. Hardly a place, whether in town or country, whether in sheltered nook or open plain, but, either by its name or its dialect, or else by some event custom or incident, or again by some ancient book or coin or labelled jewel or stone-cut memorial, proffers the cheering stimulant of its homely problems to him who can read writings in Saxon. Whereas he whose knowledge is all remote, stands discontinuous like an alien in his native land.

For the loyal and home-loving Englishman the old Saxon language flings open the gates of learning, and if he have other lore doubles its value — for him the hills and valleys smile with dear associations, transforming the common field into classic ground — for him there is a ready access to the national fountain of poetry, and at least one particular key to the pleasaunce of the faery land.

BEGINNERS BOOK

IN

ANGLOSA

IlTEESif

PRELIMINARY NOTE,

Anglosaxon is a literary designation for that early stage of our mother- tongue which was by native usage in its own day called englisc. This genuine name would be preferable to any other, and might even now supersede that of Anglosaxon, but for its proximity of form to the word English. It is felt that for two conditions of lan- guage so divergent as Englisc and English there ought to be a conspicuous distinction in the names ; and this feel- ing it is that supports the term Anglosaxon. Certainly this term is not quite un-objectionable. It has been often urged that by the employment of these two names, the continuity of the old language with the new is ignored and obscured. With some this consideration is paramount, and they prefer to employ the term English for every stage of the mother- tongue, from the first colonisation in the fifth century down to the present day. When this terminology is adopted, qualifying words are added for distinction of the great periods, and thus Anglosaxon is sometimes called ' Old English.'

ALPHABET. [i.

I. ALPHABET.

In Anglosaxon books, as now printed, there are only two characters unfamiUar to the reader's eye. These are p ^p and D S. They both represent ih. The former is the old Rune, called Thorn, and the latter is a modified D.

More rarely another Rune, the W6n f p is seen in print, chiefly in American books. This is generally replaced by W in the English and by V in the German editions.

Sound the vowels after the continental rather than after the modern English fashion. The vowels are a, ae, e, i, o, u, y. These represented in English vocalism would sound as follows : ah, ae, eh, ee, oh, oo. The y had a thin «-sound, easily confused with the i—ee.

C as K. Particular questions may be raised, but this is the general rule.

F for the most part as V. The Latin words servicium^ Vergilius, versus, Vitalts, figure in Englisc as serflse, Pergil, fers, PiJ>ele. It was also used for PH, as in Farisei Pharisees, Filip, Orfeus.

G generally as in gig. But there was an early softening towards a y-sound, especially before e and i, as in lufige / love, also written lufie.

Give H a gentle guttural sound. Pronounce niht neither like night nor like neal, but something between this latter and the German Nicht. That the H was very audible may be gathered from the fact that x stood as a monogram for hs, and it is thus that 7text was formed from nehst.

K is a substitute for C.

n.] SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 3

P is rarely initial. There is but one strong verb begin- ning with P ^

There is no Q. In place of gu they used czu, and Torquatus was rendered Torcwatus : but we, when our spelling became romanised, reversed the process and turned cw6n into queen, cwsetS into quolh,

R is guttural and consorts with gutturals. In Greek the initial p is aspirated ; and many English words that now begin with R began in Englisc with HR, as hrsefn raven, hricg ridge, hreoh rough.

X is a monogram for HS or CS. Thus acsian to ask is sometimes written axian. Even where a word is always written with x in Englisc, the hs may be found in another dialect : thus weaxan lo wax, grow, is in Old High German wahsan : and feax hair is in Oldsaxon fahs,

Z is no Saxon letter. It occurs only once or twice, and then in foreign names.

II. SPELLINa AND PRONUNCIATION.

In Spelling and Pronunciation there is this chief warning to be given : — Never forget that a silent e-final is a thing of recent development ! The form stowe if met with in -Elizabethan English, would be pronounced ex- actly the same as stow: the -e has absolutely no value whatever either in sound or in sense, it is a mere thing of orthography. But if in Anglosaxon we meet with

* In the first edition I said that there was not a single strong verb beginning with P. Mr. Sweet, in his edition of Alfred's version of the Cura Pastoralis, p. 476, has helped us to the single example found below in the list of Strong Verbs.

B2 \^

4 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. [ii.

stowe, it will sound and mean differendy from stow. The latter is a monosyllable, the former is a disyllable. The Englisc stow is a nominative, equivalent to the Latin locus; but stow-e is a genitive or dative, equivalent to lod or loco.

Altogether the vowels are very influential and worthy of careful attention. The most obvious example of this is seen in the scheme of Strong Verbs. But, besides these, a slight vocalic change in the form of a word will often revolutionize the meaning. Thus byrnan is lo burn as when we say a wick burns : but bsernan is to burn as when we say the enemy burnt the town. Some of these vocalic distinctions remain, as drincan to drink, drencan to drench : feallan to fall, fyllan to fell : licgan to lie, lecgan to lay: sittan to sit, settan to set: windan to wind, wendan to wend : but more are lost ; as biigan to bow oneself bigan to make another bow : hnigan to stoop, hnsBgan to make stoop : lifan to remain, Isefan to leave : sinean to sink (neut.), sencan to sink (act.) : swincan to toil, swencan to slave-drive : wacan to wake up spontaneously, weccan to rouse another from sleep : ]7incau to seem, "Sencan to think.

A slight consonantal variation may make one of these great sense-changes : cwelan to quail, cwellan to quell : and note what hangs on a letter in hrim frost, rim number : wic habitation, wicg horse^ wig war.

The simple vowels are seven short, a, se, e, i, o, u, y; and seven long, d, se, 6, i, 6, ii, y.

Beware of imagining that there is no system of ortho- graphy in Anglosaxon writing. The fact is very much the reverse. The vowel system is very delicately graduated. Besides the simple vowels, there are two short vowels which

iji.] INTERJECTIONS. 5

seem to represent a shake of the voice, and each is written with two characters. These are ea and eo, and they must be carefully distinguished from the two Diphthongs which are written with the same characters ea and e6.

This distinction, as well as that of the short and long vowels, is indicated by the Accent mark. The Saxon manuscripts suggest this use of Accents, but modern philo- logy has reduced them to system. They are by all means to be studied as a valuable notation, and great sense- differences • hinge on them. Thus: ac but, 2i.c oak : an ofij dn one: bser bare, bs^r bier; cneow knee, cne6w knew : for /or, for /ared German fu^r : geat ga^e, geat poured German gof : hwsete eager, liwsete wheat : is ts^ German x% is lir^, German ei§ : lam lame, lam loam : man man, mdn crime: ne «<?/, Latin and French ne, n6 nor Latin nee French ni\ seed said, seed seed: tol toll, tol tool: wende went, w^nde weened.

III. INTERJECTIONS,

The Interjections are either (i) spontaneous and original utterances ; or (2) grammatical words lapsed into mere exclamations.

1. Of the first sort are wa wo, la lo, and their composite walawa, out of which have sprung the modern forms well-a-way and well-a-day. There is moreover eala, which may possibly have had to do with the cry halloo. Also hig or he, hey, eh, ah, oh, heigh ; as, Hig la me Heu mi hi I

2. To the second sort belong efne, lit. evenly, but used as Latin ecce, or our familiar only just look, look you, lo

you, mark me.

6 PARTS OF SPEECH. [iv.

"Was Seon efne , Si'/ion was {lo you)

Sum J)ara kynincga One of those kings

Efne we forleton ealle tJing — Behold we forsook all things.

Hwset, lit. what, but used like 'what ho!' It is a favourite exclamation for the beginning of a poem or of a paragraph. In the following quotation we see it coupled with la, and meaning as much as hark I SuwiatS hwset la, ne gehyre ge hii myrige lofsangas swegat5 on heofenum ? — Hush, hark ! hear ye not how merry hymns resound in heaven ?

Leof, lit. dear, was used as a term of respectful address to a superior, like ' my lord ' or * my liege,' whether in speech or in the greeting of a letter. The foHowing are the opening words of an epistle from a subject to the king : Leof, ic tSe cySe hu hit wses ymb tSset lond 83t Puntial — Dear Lord, I declare to thee how it was about the land at Fonthill. Then it slid into a vague interjectional use, as Gea leof ic hsebbe — Yea marry have I.

IV. PARTS OP SPEECH.

The Parts of Speech will be found to have much in common with the analogous parts in English Grammar; but this correspondence is often broken in detail by the fact that many of the Saxon words now in English ar^ found occupying an altered position in the scale of the Parts of Speech.

You will often meet with a familiar English word, which yet will not be the same part of speech as the selfsame word is in English. Thus latS is the same word

v.] SYMBOLIC AND PRESENTIVE, 7

as loth and loalhe, but in Saxon it is an adjective, latS gewidru foul weather ; whereas in English it is best known as a verb to loathe \ while the adjective survives only as a relic in the antiquated phrase * I am loth.'

The word ceap is the same as the Enghsh adjective cheap ; but in Anglosaxon it is a substantive meaning cattle: ge tJses ceapes ge "Sses comes both of the cattle and of the corn : mid ceapes cwilde end moniia with murrain of cattle and of men.

The substantive wyrd fate exists in the modem English only as an adjective weird.

We may here add a remark upon a change of a different nature. Where the word still lives in English, and still in the same part of speech, it has sometimes undergone a great change in signification. Thus, in Saxon hafoc is a bird of prey, but this word exists in English in a sense widely removed, namely, that of havoc, destruction. For the bird we have adopted the Danish form of the selfsame word, and we call it hawk.

These things make us feel the distance between Saxon and English.

V. SYMBOLIC AND PRESENTIVE.

There is a still greater change, viz. that from the Presentive to the Symbolic; from that use of a word in which it stands for a thing or an idea (Presentive), to that use in which it is a pure function of language (Symbolic).

Shall and will both exist (as words) in Saxon. But in that early stage these words meant something widely different from that which they generally mean in modern English. The Saxon sceal meant is due, belongs to, and

8 SYMBOLIC AND PRESENTIVE. [v.

it is only by filtration through time that shall, should have become symbols of Tense and Mood, while the word retains only a film of its original sense of necessity, obliga- tion, and duty. Decs b6e sceal to Wiogora Ceastre This book is to go to Worcester. For the use of the word in its presentive sense, see below the extract from Matt, xviii.

The case of will is similar. In Saxon it signified decision and determination of the will; in modern English, though it has not utterly lost its original power and faculty, yet it is not found once in a thousand times to have any other function than that of a tense-symbol.

The words dom, had, are in Saxon presentive sub- stantives. The meaning of dom was judgment, decision, choice, conditions, terms; and had meant rank, order, estate, condition. The first of these is still in English a presentive substantive in the form of doom, but in a widely removed sense, and with a very limited use. If we seek the retreat of the Saxon dom in modern English we find it in the termination of such words as Christendom, king- dom, thraldom, wisdom ; not in a presentive but in a sym- bolic character.

The case of had is still more markfed. This word has no existence as a presentive word in modern English. It is now a symbolic appendage of words in the foriti of hood : as boyhood, manhood, a usage which had already begun in Saxon as cildhad childhood.

Here we see a natural change of the presentive word to a symbolic use, till it differs little from an inflection. But this is not the only source of modifying terminations. There are flectional terminations of which we cannot say that they ever were presentive words. Such is the famous

I.]

STRONG VERBS,

termination -ing, which from a vague genitival or adjectival sense (much seen in Local Names) came to be used as a patronymic; thus, Alfred -Sifelwiilflng Alfred the son of Ethelwulf

VI. VERBS.

The Verbs shall be described in two great Conjugations, the Strong and the Weak, with an intermediate shadowy one which we will call Mixed, making three groups in all.

I. Of the Strong Conjugation three samples follow, in the verbs faran to go^ byrnan io burn (ardere), writan to write.

Indicative Mood.

Pres. sing.	I. fare 1 go	byrne / burn	write I write
	2. fserst	byrnst	writst
	3. f^rS	byrntS	writ
plur.	1,2,3. faratS	byrnat5	writaS
Pret. sing.	I. for	bam	wrat
	2. f6re	burne	write
	3. for	barn	wrat
plur.	1,2,3. f^ron	burnon	writon
	Subjunctive Mood.
Pres. sing.	fare	byrne	WTite
plur.	faren (-on)	byrnen (-on)	writen (-on)
Pret. sing.	fore	burne	write
plur.	foren (-on)	burnen (-on)	writen (-on)
	Imperative Mood.
Pres. sing.	far	byrn	writ
plur.	faracS &	byrna'S &	writat5 &
	fare ge	byrne ge	write ge

lO

STRONG VERBS.

[VI.

Infinitive Mood.

Pres. faran byrnan writan

Gerund. faranne byrnanne writanne

Part. act. farende byrnende writende

Part. pass, faren burnen writen

To this class belong the two great symbol-verbs wesan to be, and weor'San to become, German njcrben. The Verb to be is thus made up :

Present.

INDICATIVE.	SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE.
Sing, I. eom	^^ wese
2. eart	s^	wes
3. is wesetS	sy wese
Plur. I, 2, 3.1 ^'^j iwesatS ^ (syndonj	{ wesa'5 & syn wesen { ( wese ge
Present and Future.
Sing. I. beom, beo	beo
2. bist	be6	be6
3. byS	be6
Plur. 1,2,3. beotS	beon	be6«
Preterite.
INDICATIVE.		SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing. I. wses		W2ere
2. W2ere		waere
3. waes		w£ere
Plur. I, 2, 3. wseron		w^ren
Infiniirve, wesan & beon.
Gerund, beonne
Participle pres. wesende.

VI. I.] STRONG VERBS. 11

The parts of this necessary verb are supplied from three different roots; and we shall often see, that the words which are most necessary and in most incessant use, are those which exhibit the strangest anomalies.

The verb weor'Saii is conjugated as follows : —

INDICATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE.

Fres. sing. i. weor(5e Sing. weort5e

2. wyrst

3. wyrtS

plur. I, 2, 3. weorfjatJ | Plur. weortJon

.}

weor'Se we, &c

Pret. sing. i. weartS - Sing, wurde

2. wurde

3. wear's

plur. I, 2, 3. wurdon Plur. wurdon >

Imper. sing. weorcS Infin. pres. weortSan

plur. weorJ^a'S ) Gerund weor"Sanne

weorSe ge j Part. Past geworden

Most of the Strong Verbs extant in Anglosaxon hterature will be found in their alphabetical order in the following list. The first column generally exhibits the First Person singular of the Present Indicative. From this form the Infinitive may be inferred, by putting -an in the place of the final -e. Thus the Infinitive of beode is beddan. In a few instances however the Infinitive itself is put in the first column, as in the case of fangan, hangan, whose I. pers. sing. pres. ind. are f6, ho; forms alpha- betically inconvenient here ; and wesan to be, which has no ' I am' belonging to its root.

12

STRONG VERBS.

[vi. J.

PRES.	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART.
1ST PERS,	PERS.	SING.	PL.
ale	. . .	ol			groiv
bace	b2ec=6	b6c	b6con	bacen	bake
bannen	. . .	be6n	• . .	bannen	summon
beate	be£te«	be6t	be6ton	beaten	beat
beige	bylg«	bealh	bulgon	bolgen	am civroth
V be6de	be6de^	bead	budon	boden	command
beorge	byrg^	bearh	burgon	borgen	keep, secure
bere	berS	baer	b^ron	boren	bear
berste	byrst	baerst	burston	borsten	burst
bidde	bit	bsed	b^don	beden	bid, beg
bide	bide^	bad	bidon	biden	bide
V binde	bint	band	bundon	bunden	bindl^
bfte	bi'te^	b^t	biton	biten	bite
. blawe	bl^w=S	ble6w	ble6won	blawen	blofiv
blice	blic=S	blac	blicon	blicen	gleam
blinne	blin^	blan	blunnon	blunnen	cease
bl6te	blet	ble6t	ble6ton	bl6ten	sacrifice
brece	bric^	braec	br^con	brocen	break
j brede I bregde	brit	braed	br^don	breden	braid broid
. . .	braegd	brugdon	brogden
(a)bre6^e ...	-brea^	-bru^on	-broken	perish
bre6te	britt	bredt	. , ,	br6ten	break
bre6we	...	. . .	...	browen	bre^iu
bringe	bring^			brungen	bring
bHice	br6ce^	breac	brucon	brocen	use, brook
bdge	hfh^	be^h	bugon	bogen	bonv
byrne	byrn^	barn	burnon	burnen	burn
[ca!e]	. . .		-. . .	(of) calen	be cold
ceorfe	. . .	cearf	curfon	corfen	carve
ce6se	ce6se'S	ceds	curon	coren	choose
ce6we	c^w^	ceaw	cuwon	gecowen	chenv
cle6fe	cl^f=S	cledf	clufon	clofen	clea've
climbe	. . .	clomm	clumbon	clumben	climb
clinge		clang		clungen	shrink

VI. I.]

STRONG VERBS.

13

PRES. I ST PERS.	3RD PERS.	PRET. SING.	PRET. PL.	PART.
cnawe	cn^w^	cne6w	cne6won	cnawen	kno<w
crawe	cr^w^	cre6w	cre6won	crawen	crocLV
cre6pe	cr^p^	creap	crupon	cropen	creep
cringe	...	( crane ( crang	cruncon crungon		fall dead
CUME	cym^	cwom com	cw6mon comon	i cumen	come
CWE^E	cwy^S	cwae^	cw^don	gecweden	say
cwele	cwil=S	cwael	cw^lon	cwolen	die
(a) c wince . . .	-cwanc	. . .	. . .	quench, intr.
delfe	dylf8	dealf	dulfon	dolfen	del've
deorfe	dyrfS	dsrf	durfon	dorfen	hold out
drage	. . .	dr6h	dr6gon	dragen	draiu
on-dr^de -dr^t	-dred	-dr^don	[dr^den]	dread
dre6ge	drfh^	dreah	drugon	drogen	endure
dre6se	. . .	dreas	. . .	droren	fall
drepe	...	draep		( drepen ) ( dropen )	kill '^
drife	drffe^	draf	drifon	drifen	drive
drince	drinc^	dranc	druncon	druncen	drink
ge-d6fe	-dfP6	-deaf	-dufon	-dofen	di-ve
dwine	dwm^	dwan	dwinon	^ dwinen	pine
[eace]		. . .	. . .	eacen	grew
[eade]			. . .	eaden	be happy
ete	et	act	^ton	eten	eat
fangan	feh«	feng	fengon	fangen	seize
fare	faerS	f6r	f6ron	faren	go
fealde	fylt	fe61d	fe61don	gefealden	fold
fealle	fyl=S	fe611	fe6Ilon	gefeallen	fall
felhan	. . .	fealh	fulgon	-folen	enter
ge-fe6	-fih«	-feah	-fdegon	-fegen	rejoice
feohte	fyht	feaht	fuhton	fohten	fight
finde	fint	fand	fundon	funden	find
fle6	fleh«	fleah	flugon		fiee

14

STRONG VERBS.

[vi. I.

PRES,	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART.
1ST PERS.	PERS.	SING.	PL.
fle6ge	fl^h^	fle^h	flugon	flogen	Jy
fle6te	fift	fledt	fluton	floten	float
flite	flit	fldt	fliton	fliten	contend
fl6we	flevv=S	fle6w	fle6wun	fl6wen	floiv
fre63e	. . .	freas	fruron	froren	freeze
frete	frit	fraet	fr^ton	freten	fret
frine	frin^	fraen	frunon	gefrunen	> enquire
frigne	. . .	fraegn	frugnon	gefrugnen
gale	g^l^	g6l	g61on	galen	sing
gangan & gan	ganged ge6ng		gangen	go
gelde	gyit	geald	guidon	golden	pay
gelpe	gylp=S	gealp	gulpon	golpen	boast
[ge6pan]	. . .	geap			swalioiv
ge6te	g^t	geat	guton	goten	pour
gife	gif^	geaf	geafon	gifen	give
on-ginne	-gin^	-gan	-gunnon	-gunnen	begin
on-gite	-git	-geat	-geaton	-giten	understand
glide	glfde^	glad	glidon	gliden	glide
gnage	gnaeg=S	gn6h	gn6gon	gnagen	g?miv
gnide	gnit	gn£d	gnidon	gniden	rub
grafe	graef=6	gr6f	gr6fon	grafen	dig
grinde	grint	grand	grundon	grunden	grind
grfpe	gripes	grdp	gripon	gripen	seize
gr6we	gre\rS	gre6w	gre6wur	I growen	groiv
hangan	[heh=6]	hing	bengon	bangen	bang
hite	haet	heht & bet beton	baten	command
healde	hylt	beold	beoldon	bealden	hold
heawe	heawe^ he6\v	be6wun	beavven	henv
hebbe	hef«	b6f	b6fon	bafen	lift
for-hele	-hil^	-bsel	-h^lon	-bolen	conceal
heipe	hylp=S	bealp	bulpon	bolpen	help
blade	hlaet	bl6d	bl6don	blaeden	lade
hleape	hlyp=S	hle6p	ble6pon	gebleapen	leap

VI. I.]

STRONG VERBS.

/ 15

PRES.	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART.
1ST PERS.	PERS.	SING.	PL.
hle6te	hl^t	hleat	hluton	hloten	obtain^'
hli'de	. . .	-hldd	. . .	-hiiden	co'ver
hlihhe	hlih=S	hl6h	hl6gon		laugh
hl6we			hle6won	. . .	lo<w,bello<iv
hnige	[hnih«]	hnah	hnigon	hnigen	bo^u
hre6¥e	. . .	, . .	. . .	hroden	adorn
hre6se	hrist	hreas	hruron	hroren	fall
hr^owan	hre6we^ hreaw		. . .	r«^,impers.
lirme	hrin^	hran	hrinon	hrinen	touch "
hweorfe	hwyrfS	hwearf	hwurfon	hworfen	turn
lace	lace^	le61c			sport
l^te	l^te=S	let	leton	-l^ten	let, leave
lea	l^h^	16h	16gon	. . .	blame
le6ge	\fh^	leah	lugon	logen	lie
(for)le6se -lyst	-leds	-luron	-loren	perish
lese	list	laes	l^son	lesen	gather
liege	( licge^ ili=S	l^g	^ lagon 1 i l^gon i	egen	lie
(be)life	[-lif«]	-laf	-lifon	-lifen	remain
lihe	(on)lih^	. . .	lah	. . .	lend
limpe	limped	ge-lamp -lumpon	-lumpen	happen "^
linne	linnet	. . .	lunnon	. . .	cease '^
li^e	. . .			(ge)liden	'voyage
mce	]fc^	leac	lucon	locen	shut up
16te	\ft	leat	luton	ioten	incline
mawe	mawej)	. . .		mawen	moiu
melte	mylt	mealt	multon	molten	melt
mete	mit	maet	m^ton	meten	measure
mige	mih=6	mah	migon	migen	mingere
murne	myrn^	mearn	murnon	mornen	mourn
ne6te	n^t	ne£t	nuton	noten	enjoy
(ge)nese	-nist	-naes	-n^son	-nesen	recover
nime	nim^	nam	namon	numen	take
plion		pleah	. . .		risk

i6

STRONG VERBS,

[vi. I.

PRES.	3RD	FRET.	PRET.	PART,
1ST PERS.	PERS,	SING.	PL.
re6ce	ryc^	reac	rucon	rocen	reek
[reofe]	. . .			(be)rofen	strip
ride	ride^	rad	ridon	. . .	ride
(a)rfse	-ri'st	-ras	-rison	-risen	arise
r6vve	rew^	re6w	re6vvun	r6wen	ronv
sace	saec^	s6c	s6con	sacen	dispute
sawe	s^wrg	se6w	se6wun	sawen	sow
sceace	sceace^	sce6c	see6con	seeacen	mo've, shake
scafe	scaef^	sc6f	se6fon	seafen	shave
sceade	sc^t	sce6d	sce6don	geseeaden	di'vide
sce6te	scft	see6t.	-scuton	scoten	shoot
scere	scire^	scaer	-sc^ron	scoren	shear
seme	scme^	scan	scinon	seinen	shine
serife	scrifS	(ge)scraf . . .	(for)serifen	I shrive
(for)serince -scrincS -serane -scruncon -seruneen	shrink
serfSan	serfs	scra«	serldon	scriden	march
sc6fe	se^f^	see^f	seufon	scofen	shove
seyppe		■ se6p see6p	f se6pon	seeapen ) seepen )	create
se6	sih^	seah	sdwon s^gon	gesewen ) gesegen )	see
(a)seolGan			. . .	(a)solcen	languish
se6^e	se6^e^	sei^	sudon	soden	seethe
si'ge	Slh^	sah	sigon	sigen	fall
(be)sinGe	-sine^	-sane	-suncon	suncen	sink
singe	-sing^	sang	sungon	sungen	sing
sitte	sitt	saet	s^ton	seten	sit
slape	sl^p=S	slep	slepon		sleep
sle^	s\fh^	(sl6h ) (sl6g J	sI6gon	slagen ^ slegon { slaegen )	strike, slay
(a)slkle	slides	-slad	-slidon	-sliden	slide
(to)-slipe	.slfp=6	-slap	-slipon	-slipen	dissolve
slite	silted	slat	sliton	sliten	slit

VI. I.]

STRONG VERBS,

17

PRES.	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART
1ST PERS.	PERS.	SING.	PL.
sltjpe	sl^p=S	sle^p	slupon	slopen	slip
sme6ce	smfcS	smeac	smucon	smocen	smoke
(be)smite	smiteS	[smat]	[smiton]	smiten	dejiley smite
sne6wan	snowed	. . .	...	...	hasten
snf^an	... *	snd«	snidon	. . .	cut
spane	spane^	( sp6n ( spe6n	sp6non spe6non	I aspanen	allure
spanne	...	spenn	...	...	clasp
speorne spurne	1 spyrn^	spearn	spurnon	spomen	spurn
spinne	spin^	span	spunnon	spunnen	spin
spiwe	spiw^	spaw	spiwon	spiwen	spit
sp6we	. . .	spe6w	spe6won	. . .	succeed
sprece	spricS	spraec	spr^con	(ge)sprecen speak
springe	sgring^	sprang	sprungon	sprungen	spring
stande	stent	st6d	st6don	(ge)standen jtand
stele	styl«	stael	stolon	stolen	steal
steorfe	styrf=S	staerf	sturfon	storfen	die
steppe	staep^	st6p	st6pon		step
stige	stih=S	stah	stigon	stigen	ascend
stince	stincS	stanc	stuhcon	stuncen	stink
(of)stinge	-sting^	-stang	-stungon	stungen	stingy stab
strede					Jail
suce ) suge )	s^cS	seac	sucon	-socen ) -sogen )	suck
swape	swapeS	swe6p	swe6pon	swapen	snveep
swefe	swef^	swaef	swdefon	swefen	sleep
swelge	swylgS	swealh	swulgon	swolgen	s^allo<iv
swelle	swil«	sweoll	swullon	-swollen	s'well
swelte	svvylt	swealt	swulton	. . .	die
sweorce	sweorce¥swearc	. . .	(ge)sworcen^ro<zf dark
[swerian]	. . .	sw6r	sw6ron	-sworen	snvear
svvfce	swice^S	swac	swicon	(be)swicen	fail
swife	swife^	swaf			rush

i8		STRONG VERBS,	[VI. I.
PRES.	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART.
1ST PERS.	PERS.	SING.	PL.
swimme	swim^	swamm	swummon . . .	sivim
swince	swinc^	swanc	swuncon	swuncen	toil
swinde	swint	swand	swundon	swunden	'Vanish
swinge	swing^	swang	swungon	swungen	scourge
te6	tfh^S	teah	tugon	togen	dra^
tere	tyrS	taer	t^ron	toren	tear
[tihan]	tfh^	teah	. . .	. . . •	accuse
trede	trede=S	traed	tr^don	treden	tread
)>e6	)>yh«	)>eah	])Ugon	(ge)|)ogen	thri've
]>e6te	]>ft	]>eit	|)uton	)>oten	hoivl
))ersce	)>yrsc^	jjaersc	^urscon	])orscen	thresh
))icgan	))ige=S	(ge)>ah	-))aegon	))igen	take of
[))ingan]			(ge)))ungc	►n -]>ungen	prosper
J)rawe		|)re6vv			tivist, veer
Jjringe		J)rang	J)rungon	(ge)])rungen tbrong
))wea	|>weh^	]>w6h	])w6gon	(a)|jwegen	(Wash
])weran	...	...		(ge)])woreii (ge)|)uren	{yweldj forge
))wite	))wite=6		J)witon		fivhittle
wace	waec^	w6c	w6con	wacen	ivake
wade	wade^	w6d	w6don	(ge)waden	<wade
wasce	waesce^	w6cs	woxon	gewaescen	(ivash
wealce	. . .	we61c	. . .	(ge)wealcen roll
wealde	wylt	we61d	we6Idon	(ge)wealden ivield
wealle	wealle^	we611	we611on	(a)weallen	boilf bubble
weaxe	wex^	we6x	we6xon	(a)weaxen	grow
wefe	wife^	waef	(£)w^fon	wefen	(Weave
wege	wige^	waeg	wdegon	(a)vvegen	move
weorSe	wyrS	wearS	wurdon	(ge)worden	become
weorpe	weorpe^	1 wearp	wurpon	worpen	throw
wepe	wepe^	we6p	we6pon	wepen	weep
wesan	. . .	waes	w^ron	. . .	be
winde	wint	wand	wundon	wunden	wind
winne	win^	wann	wunnon	wunnen	strive

VI. I.]		STRONG VERBS.	I(
PRES.	3RD	PRET.	PRET.	PART.
1ST PERS.	PERS.	SING.	PL.
(ge)wite	-wi'te^	-wat	-witon	-witen	depart ~
wli'te	wilted	wlat	wliton	wliten	look
-^ wrece	wric^	wraec	wr^con	wrecen	ivreak
wn'ge	wrih^S	wrah	wrigon	wrigen	cover
wringe	wrings	wrang	wrungon	wrungen	ivring
^^*^rite	write^	wrat	writon	writen	write
wri^e	wrf^e^	wra«	wrigon	wrigen	^wreathe
yrne	yrn^	arn	urnon	urnen	run

This body of Strong Verbs constitutes a sort of ancient core of the mother tongue ; and the student will do well to acquaint himself with them pretty thoroughly. A good plan is to read them frequently and aloud ; or even to learn them by heart. If the latter course is taken, it is better to learn them in groups, than in the above miscellaneous collection. This collection, which is designed for ready reference, is not so well calculated for learning by heart. To learn them by groups is both easier and more profitable ; and the grouping may be found in Mr. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader.

The chief thing to be attended to in the Strong Verb is the formation of the Preterite by an inward vowel- change, as fare, for ; byrne, bam ; write, wrat. Next to this, the thing to observe is the further change which in many verbs takes place in the second person singular of the Preterite, as barn, burne ; wrat, write. In the cases where this change enters, it sets the radical vocalism not only of the second person singular itself, but also of the whole plural of that tense, of the whole subjunctive preterite, and' of the past participle. This remark applies tP some of the Praeterito-Praesentia below.

And this transition sometimes extends itself beyond c 2

20 STRONG VERBS, [vi. i.

vowels. Thus the verb ceosan fo choose, makes preterite ic ceas / chose, second person ])u cure /hou chosesf, and this -ur- is continued in sequence, viz. we, ge, hi curon we, ye, they chose ; subj. cure, curen ; and coren chosen. The same thing happens to the verbs dredsan to fall, fre6saii to freeze, lire6san to rush, le6saii to lose. Where the last root-consonant is t5, this is changed in the same parts to d, as may be seen above in weor'San, seotJan.

As the cliffs at Dunwich are eaten away by the sea, and the place is now but a fragmentary monument of ancient celebrity, so the Strong Verbs have been and are continually undereaten by the influence of modern forms. This innovation had already made some way in Saxon times. Just as in the present day the preterite of sleep is slept, while there coexists a popular Strong form slepp, so do we find in writings of good Saxon mark, that the verb slsepan pret. sl6p had already its second preterite in a Weak form slaepte. There are two preterites of the verb swear, namely sw6r and swerede. Of Strong Verbs that have become Weak a list is given in my English Philology, § 274.

Something of the sort happened to the verb find, but in a peculiar way. The Strong preterite ran thus, i. ic fand, 2, })u funde, 3. he fand; but the form of the second person funde gradually prevailed in all three persons. We find ic funde in Luke xv, and he funde in Matt, xx; both among the selections below. A verb that might seem to exhibit the same tendency to transition is d6n to do, which has a Strong Participle gedon, with preterite dyde. This looks like a weak form, but may perhaps be rather a reduplicate form, and of high antiquity. Other forms of

VI. 2.]

MIXED VERBS,

21

this important verb are: — Fres. Ind. i. d6, 2. d6st, 3. d^tS; PI. d6tS: PreL i/dyde, 2. dydest, 3. dyde; PI. dydon : Imperative d6 ; d6tS : Gerund to donne.

2. The Mixed Verbs are a meagre and motley com- pany, embodied for mere convenience sake ; a company which does not deserve the title of a natural class, as the Strong and Weak verbs most eminently do. The Mixed Verbs are but border-products, which have taken shape on the outer confines of those cardinal groups ; and their only common quality is this : — That they have all of them some- thing of the Strong and something of the Weak. Like the Strong they suffer change of the root-vowel ; like the Weak they take a d or t for preterite and participle.

Such are —

PRESENT,	PRETERITE.	PARTICIPLE.
brenge	brohte	gebroht	bring
bycge	bohte	geboht	buy
cwelle	cwealde	gecweald	kill
r^ce	r6hte	ger6ht	reck
recce	reahte	gereaht	reckon
s^ce	s6hte	gesoht	. seek
secge	saede	gesaed	say
telle	tealde	geteald	iell
wyrce	worhte	geworht	work
f)ecce	Jjeahte	ge}?eaht	thatch
)?ence	jjohte	ge|5oht	think

Here also belongs the impersonal verb (to be carefully distinguished from J)encan to think) JjyncS seems, which makes preterite Jjiihte, participle gejjiiht. It is from this verb that we get ' methinks.'

What makes this group important, is the fact that it

22

VERBS.

[yi. 2.

contains all the residue of the Auxiliaries, after wesan and weorSan, which have been already described above, under the Strong Conjugation. Habban io /lave, and willaii fo wi/i, with its negative nyllan to nill, are so important, that they must be given at length.

Indicative.

Pres. sing. i. haebbe	wille	nelle
2. hsefst	wilt	nelt
3. hseftS	wile	nele, nyle
plur. habbatS	willatJ	nellaS, nyllatS
habbe we, <S?c. wille we, &c.	nelle we, &c.
Pret. sing. i. haefde	wolde	nolde
2. hsefdest	woldest	noldest
3. haefde	wolde	nolde
plur. haefdon	woldon Subjunctive.	noldon
Pres. sing, hasbbe	wille	nelle, nylle
plur, haebben (-on) willen (-on)	nellen, nyllon
Pret. sing, haefde	wolde
plur. hsefden	wolden Imperative.
Sing, hafa		nelle f>u
Plur. habbaS «fe habbe	'ge Infinitive.
Pres. habban	willan	nyllan
Gerund, habbenne	Participles.
Pres. haebbende	willende
Past. gehaefd

VI. 3-]

WEAK VERBS.

23

There is a Negative of habban, as ic nsebbe I have not, &c.

And here belong twelve Prseterito-Prsesentia. They are so called, because they start from a Strong Preterite, which they treat as if it were a Present, and upon it they build a new Preterite, after the model of Weak verbs.

	PRESENT.	p	RETERITE.	INFINITIVE	-
SING. I & ;	3- 2.	PLUR.	>
an	unne	unnon	6^6	unnan	grant
can	cunne canst	j cunnon	c6^e	cunnan	kncnv
))earf	( ))urfe ( j)earft	j )>urfon	Jjorfte		need
dear	durre	durron	dorste	. . .	dare
ge-man	-manst	-munon	-munde -munan	remember
sceal	scealt	sculon	sceolde mihte	I---	jball
maeg	miht	magon	meahte	may
ah	age	agon	ahte	dgan	onvn
wat	wast	witon	wiste wisse	> witan	I ^ivot
deah	duge	dugon	dohte	dugan	be good for
neah		nugon	nohte		ha've enough of
m6t	m6st	m6ton	m6ste		may [must]

They who are conversant with Latin or Greek Gram- mar, may remember some Praeterito-Praesentia in those languages, as olha novi / know.

3. The Weak Verbs form preterite and participle by external addition. There are two chief types, the one with infinitive -ian and the other with infinitive -an. Examples, lufian to love, baernan to burn anything up.

24

^ WEAK VERBS,	[VI.
Indicative Mood.
Pres. sing. i. lufige	baerne
2. lufast	baernst
3. lufatS	baern(5
plur, I, 2/3. Iufiat5 & lufige	baernatJ Sc baerne
Pret.'sing. i. lufode	baernde
2. lufodest	baerndest
3. lufode	baernde
plur. I, 2, 3. lufodon (-edon)	baerndon
Subjunctive Mood.
Pres. sing, lufie	baerne
plur. lufien (-on)	baernen (-on)
Pret. sing, lufode	baernde
plur. lufoden	baerndon
Imperative Mood.
Sing, lufa	baern
Plur. lufiatS & lufige	baernatJ & baerne
Infinitive Mood.
Pres. lufian	baeman
Gerund. (to) lufigenne	baernenne
Part. act. lufigende	baernende
Part. pass, (ge)lufod	baerned

Instead of -de the formative becomes -te after the letters p, t, and x, as dyppan to dip dypte: gr^tan to greet gr6tte : lixan to gleam lixte : m^tan to meet m6tte.

A few verbs in -ian form the preterite in -ede and the participle in -ed, as

VI. 3-] VERBS. 25

ferian ferede gefered carry

herian herede gehered ex/ol

nerian nerede genered save

but these are inconstant : we likewise meet with ferode, nerode, generod.

Caution. In looking back over the verbs, a word of caution is suggested by old and various experience. Keep an eye upon the formation of the second person singular of the preterite, and mark how diversely it is formed in the Strong and Weak verbs. Thus, })U f6re /hou fared'st^ wenlest: ))U burne thou wasi burning, thou wast on fire : J)u write thou wrotest : but J)u lufodest thou didst love, J)u baerndest thou didst burn a piece of paper. See how English has changed in the direction of Weak forms : so much so, that in translating the Strong we are compelled to use the forms of the Weak.

This contrast not rarely meets us in the build of sentences, thus: J)u J>as J)ing wismn and gleawnm behyddest, and lytlingum awruge thou hiddest these things from the wise and cunning, and revealedst them to little ones.

Concluding Remarks on the Verbs.

And yet nevertheless, after making due allowance for such a movement as that just indicated, the striking and remarkable fact is this : — How little our verbs have changed/ The changes which have taken place in them, have had some effect on parts and proportions of parts, but hardly any upon the verbal system as a whole. The flectional terminations are somewhat worn, thus lufode is reduced to loved] but there they still are, for the most part The

26 NOUNS. [vii. I.

distinct form of the second person singular of the Strong preterite, and the distinct radical vocalism of that form, with the attendant consequences, as noted above in the section of Strong verbs ; these subtle distinctions have disappeared, having been absorbed into the growing system of the Weak verbs. The latter had begun to encroach very early (as the Praeterito-Praesentia show), and they have now drawn over many of the old Strong verbs to their side. But after all, the change is only in relative numbers ; and the entire frame of the verbal system remains substantially now as it was in Saxon times.

With the Nouns it is different: there we shall see a great and decisive transition.

VII. NOUNS.

In the Inflection of Nouns we shall have to make acquaintance with a variety of forms which are now extinct : and in fact we here enter upon that part of the grammar in which the mother tongue wears her strangest aspect for the modern student.

Nouns are either (i) Substantives, (ii) Adjectives, or (iii) Adverbs : and the chief thing to be attended to in their inflection is the difference between Strong Declensions and Weak Declensions. This distinction is the main thread to guide us in our exploration of nounal forms.

1. Declensions of Substantives.

The declensions of the Strong substantives vary with the genders, and therefore the most convenient arrange-

VII. I.] SUBSTANTIVES. 27

ment for these will be to group them according to their genders : Masculines, Feminines, and Neuters.

a. Strong Declension of Masculines.

Our type-word for these shall be smit5 smith.

Sing. Nom. and Ace. smitS Plur. smiSas

Dat. and Inst. smitJe smiSum

Genitive smiles smiSa

This type comprises masculines ending in a consonant or e : in short, almost all that do not end with a or u.

Words with inner vowel se (short) change it to a in the cases of the plural : thus dseg day, makes D. dsege, G. dseges ; but in the plural dagas, dagum, daga. So mseg kinsman^ makes msege, mseges; but pi. magas, magum, maga.

Many w^ords of this declension have an e final in the Nominative and Accusative singular, but differ in no other respect from the type-word. Thus, ende end, makes D. ende, G. endes : pi. endas, enduin, enda.

Some of the commonest words are unconformable. Thus siinu son, makes D. and G. suna, pi. N. suna, D. sumim, G. suna and sunena. In the same manner wudu wood, sidu custom^

Then brotJor (-er) brother, makes G. brot^or, D. bretSer ; pi. N. brotSra (u), D. brotSrum, G. bro^ra. And in the same manner two feminines, namely, iiohtor daughter, sweostor sister, D. swyster. We must note likewise the collective plurals gebrotSor (-ru) brethren, gesweostor, which remind us of the German ®e6rtiber, ®e[(fcttiftcr. The word foddieT father is often undeclined in the sing. (G. fsederes is found); but in pi. like smitJ.

a8 NOUNS. [vii. I.

The word man man, makes D. men, G. mannes : pi. N. menn, D. mannum, G. manna. There is a rare Ace. Sing, mannan or monnan. In Hke manner f6t /oo/, pi. f6t; t6tS /oo/^, pi. t6t5.

Fre6nd friend, and fe6nd enemy, are like smit5 in other respects : — but they form pi. nom. and ace. thus, frynd, fynd.

Swa hwset swa him Godes frynd on selmessan forgeafon, J)8et he dselde fortS ot5rum Searfum. Whatsoever Gods friends gave him in alms, thai he dealt forth to other needy folk.

^. Strong Declension of Feminines.

The examples make two groups, according as the substantive ends with a consonant or with the vowel u (sometimes ^) : as in the type-words, stow place, gifu

Sing. Nom. and Ace. stow Plur. stowa "

Dat. and Inst, stowe stowum

Genitive stowe stowa

Nom. gifu )

Ace. gife J

Dat. and Inst, gife gifum

Genitive gife gifa (-ena)

gifa

Those in nom. -el, -en, -er, mostly drop this e in all after cases ; as wylen female slave, wylne ; wylna, wyhium. So swingel scourge makes swingle, and ceaster city ceastre. Except substantives in -rseden, as hiw rseden family, mseg rseden relationship, which make their oblique forms hiw rsedene, mseg rssdene ; or else hiwrsedenne, mseg rsedenne.

vii. I.] SUBSTANTIVES, STRONG. 2g

Here again as before some of the most familiar words have a path of their own. Such are b6c dook, br5c hose {dreeches), burh /br^, eii cow, gos goose, liis huse, miis mouse, turf /ur/i Take two of these for a sample : —

Smg. N. and A.	b6c	burh
D.	b^c	byrig
G.	b^c	burge, byrig
Plur. N.andA.	b^c	byrig
D. and Inst.	b6cum	burgum
G.	boca	burga

Of confusion between burh and byrig be ware ; — it is a common source of error. The difference is exhibited in the following quotation: — and forgeaf him. tJa wununge on Cantwarebyrig, sec wses ealles his rices heafod burh, — and gave him then a residence in Canterbury which was the capital of all his kingdom.

y. Strong Declension of Neuter Substantives.

Here we have two sorts, those which make the plural nom. and ace. as the singular, and those which take -u as the sign of plural nominative and accusative. Our type- words shall be word ivord, and treow tree.

Sing. Plur.

Nom. and Ace. word word

Dat. and Inst, worde wordum

Genitive worde s worda

I. The first sort are mostly monosyllables ending in a double consonant, as hors horse, land land, weore work, }>ing thirig ; or having a long vocalism, as de6r beast, ear ear of corn, leaf leaf, reaf garment, sceap sheep, wif

Sing.	Plur.
treow	treowu
treowe	treo^um
treowes	treowa

30 NOUNS. [vii. I.

woman. Modern English retains something of this type in the fact that sheep and deer have but one form for singular and plural.

2. The second sort contains neuters with e final in the Nom. as rice kingdom, rices ; ricu, ricum, rica : — : disyllables in er (or), el, ol, en, and they drop the vowel when they receive case-endings, as wundor wofider, wundre, wundres; wundru, wnndrum, wimdra: — monosyllables with short vowel and simple consonant. Thus god was an old neuter substantive in heathen times, and made pi. godu; but under Christianity it became masculine for God (pi. godas), and remained neuter for heathen gods. Words with se before a single end-conso- nant, turn 96 to a before the endings -u -a -lun ; as fset val, fsBte, fsetes ; fatu, fatum, fata.

t^. The Weak Declensions of Substantives.

These differ so little from one another, that the three genders may be taken together, and exhibited in one frame, thus:

Nom.

Ace.

Dat. Instr. and Gen

MASC.	FEM.	NEUT,
-a	-e	-e
-an	-an	-e
i Gen. -an	-an	-an
Nom. and Ace.	-an
Dat. and Instr.	-um
Genitive	-ena

The three type-words, Masc. steorra star ; Fem. tunge tongue; Neut. edge eye, may be conveniently declined in one table :

VIl. 2.]

SUBSTANTIVES, WEAK.

3Tt

	MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Sing. Nom.	steorra	tunge	edge
Ace.	steorran	tungan	eage
Dat. Insir. and Gen.	steorran	tungan	eagan
Plur. Nom. and Ace.	steorran	tungan	eagan
Dai. and Ins tr.	steorrum	tungum	eagum

Genitive

steorrena tungena eagena

But, while we tabulate the three genders as if on equal terms, it must be noted, that the Weak forms are almost all masculine or feminine j we can muster but one or two examples besides the type-word, namely, eare ear, and perhaps cliwe clew, lunge lungs.

^ This -a final is an important formative : mutS mouth, mutJa river-mouth : gild guild, gilda guild-brother.

We have seen, in this sketch of the Substantival Inflections, that all substantives are subject to one of two declensions : either they are Strong or they are Weak ; some of them are declined in one way and some in the other ; all are declinea in one of the two, ways, few in both. We now pass on to consider the Adjectives, and there we shall see a different sight.

2. Declension of Adjectives.

The Adjectives are not, like the substantives, subject merely to one or other of the two schemes of variation called Strong and Weak, but each adjective is liable, according to circumstances which will be explained in the Syntax, to both sorts of inflection. Here it will be sufficient to note, as the most ordinary instrument of the distinction, that the adjective with the definite article takes the Weak, without it the Strong formation. These different

32 NOUNS, [vii. 2.

sets of forms are here exemplified in the type-word g6d

good.	Strong.
MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Sing. Nom. g6d	g6d	g6d
Ace. g6dne	gode	g6d
Dat. g6dum	godre	g6dum
Insir. gode	. . .	god^
Gen. g6des	godre	godes
Plur. Nom. and A	ee. gode
Dat,	godum
Gen,	godra Weak,
MASC.	FEM.	NEUT.
Sing. Nom. (se) g6da	(se6) gode	(c^aet) g6de
Ace. (tSone) godan	(tSa) godan	(Saet) gode
i Dat. ((5am) g6dan	(tSaere) g6dan	("Sam) g6dan
Gen. C^aes) g6dan	C^aere) godan	(tSses) g6dan
Plur. Nom. and Ace	. (t5a) g6dan
Dat.	(Sam) g6 dum
Gen,	(tSara) godena

Care must be taken to distinguish between the -e of flexion, and a nominative -e of some adjectives, as blitSe blithe^ c6iie keen, cls^ne clean, deore dear, 6ee everlasting, grene green, maere splendid, rice rich, sw6te sweet, wyr'Se worthy.

Participles are declined like adjectives both definitely and indefinitely, except that in the weak gen. pi. they keep to -ra; thus, not fara rihtwillendena, which would be too draggling, but fara rihtwillendra of the

VII. 2.] ADJECTIVES. 33

upright: J>ara ungelseredra 0/ the unlearned: }?8era gehyrendra heortan awehte he stirred the hearts of the hearers. This seems to be matter of euphony, for it is not the part of speech that determines it, but the length of the word. So also Jjsera Egjrptisera of the Egyptians, })8era hsetJenra of the heathen.

The participle is first an adjective, but it easily becomes a substantive ; and according as the Present Participle assumes one or other of these two characters, it has a difference of declension which should be attended to. Let us compare the strong mascufine declension of the adjec- tival wegferende wayfaring with that of the substantival wegferend a wayfaring man.

		ADJECTIVE.	SUBSTANTIVE,
Sing.	Nom.	wegferende	wegferend
	Ace.	wegferendne	wegferend
	Dat.	wegferendum	wegferende
	Gen.	wegferendes	wegferendes
Plur.	Nom. and Ace.	wegferende	. wegferendas
	Dat.	wegferendum	wegferendum
	Gen.	wegferendra	wegferenda

He is ure fritJigend and lire gescyldend He is

our patron and our protector.

The Comparative Degree of Adjectives.

The distinction between forms Strong and Weak takes in this place a decisive and significant line of action. The Strong Comparative, as heard hard, heardor harder, is used only as an Adverb. When the Comparative is Adjectively used, whether in concord with a substantive or

D

34 NOUNS, [\ni. 2.

not, then it has only one form, and that the Weak, namely, heardra, heardre, heardre.

There is in this a logical propriety of which we will speak in the Syntax. In this place we ask the reader to master the fact and make himself familiar with it, by the aid of the following illustrations : —

Singular.

Norn. Masc. Se stranga .... gyf })Oiine strengra ofer hine cymS The strong man , . . , if then a stronger cometh upon him. Neut. pset is ciitSre lif That is. a nobler life. Accus. Masc. Nsefre ie geferde heardran drohtnotS Never did 1' light upon harder fortune. Fern. Ic hsBbbe maran gewitnesse / have greater witness.

Plural

Nom. Ge ssmd s§lran fonne manega spear- wan Ve are better than many sparrows^ pa wseron segtJer ge swiftran ge unwealtran ge eac hieran fonne J)a otJru They were both swifter and less rolling and eke higher than the others.

The Superlative Degree.

Here the twofold system returns, and the Superlatives, like the Positives, have in their adjectival capacity, both the Strong and Weak declensions. In the Strong declen-

..2.]

ADJECTIVES,

35

sion the termination is -ust, -ost, -est ; in the Weak it is -osta, -oste ; or -esta, -este.

pes is min leofesta sunu This is my dearest son.

pd. hsefde he J>a gyt anne leofestne sunu Then had he yet one most beloved son.

pa men ))e swiftoste hers habbatJ The men that have swiftest horses.

Here as elsewhere some of the commonest and most necessary words have peculiarities of form ; and the beginner will find it useful in reading to refer often to the following lists.

Anomalous Comparison. Some of the most frequent and indispensable words have peculiar modes of comparison.

(i) Some exhibit a patchwork of divers roots, as —

COMPARATIVE.

betera (bet) wyrsa (wyrs)

good g6d (wel) bad yfel

'^'■'"''^{f^ir } mdra(m^)

little lytel (lyt) laessa (laes)

The bracketed forms are adverbial. (2) Some suffer vowel-change, as-

SUVERLATIVE.

betst wyrrest, wyrst

maest

laest

old	eald	yldra	yldest
easy	ea^	(e^)	ed=Sost
young	ge6ng	gingra	gingest
high	heah	hearra, herra .	hehst
nigh	neah	(near)	nehst, next
short	sceort	scyrtra	scyrtest

The usual rule, whereby adverbs are the offspring of adjectives, seems reversed in the following list, where

ofi NOUNS. [vn. 3.

we see instances of words which are only adverbs or prepositions in the Positive, become adjectival in the higher degrees :—

ere (^r) ^rra (seror) ^rest (aerost)

after (aefter) afterweard aeftera seftemest

else (elles) (ellor)

fore (fore) foreweard forma, fyrmesta

fortb (for^) (furSor) (fur^um?)

bind (hindan) (hinder) hindema

in (inn) inneweard innera innema, innemest

mid (mid) middeweard midmest

north (nor^) nor^vveard (nor^or) norSmest

nether ni^eweard ni^era (ni^or) ni^emest

up ufeweard (ufan) ufera (ufor) yfemest

oi^t (<jt) titeweard titerra (6tor) ytemest

The Superlatives in -mest are cumulate forms ; an ancient. Superlative in -ma having been treated as if it were a Positive, and then rendered subject to the later rule of comparison.

The ancient Superlative -ma has only the Weak de- clension; but the later -mest has both the Strong and the Weak, as:— f)a fyrmestan ytemeste, and fa ytemestan fyrmeste T/ie first last, and the last first.

3. Formation of Adverbs.

The most frequent formative of adverbs is the flectional termination -e added to the stem of the adjective ; thus from the adjective switJ vehement, is formed the adverb switJe vehemently, exceedingly, as swi])e gewtindod seriously wounded; he wses switJe waclic on his gewsedum he was very mean in his attire. This swic5e became the trite and common adverb of every-day use,

VII. 3-] ADVERBS, 37

corresponding to our ' very,' and it may be met with ten times in a page.

From s6t5lic true-like is formed s6'Slice soothly, truly. Hence our modern adverb in ~ly.

The Comparative degree is simply in -or as switJor; the Superlative in -est as swic5ost.

The adjectives and adverbs are so closely knit into one system, that they may conveniently be tabulated together.

	POSITIVE.	COMPAKATIVE.	SUPERLATIVE.
Adj. Strong	swiS	....	swit5ost
Adj. Weak	SAvitSa, -e	switSra, -e	swiSesta, -e
Adverb	swiSe	swi'Sor	swit5ost

Example of the Adverb in each Degree : —

Positive. And fa switJe ra])e sefter Jjsem And then very

soon after that. Comp. Hit wyrsode switJor and switJor // grew

worse and worse. Superl. Folces fritS bette switSost Jiara cyninga ]je

&c. He bettered the folk' s peace most effectually

of the kings that &c.

In the quotation that follows, this adverb appears in all the three degrees.

Nsefde se here, Godes J)onces, Angel cyn ealles for swit5e gebrocod : ac hie wseron micle swiJ>or gebrocede on fsem frim gearum mid ceapes cwilde and monna : ealles swifost mid fsem Jjset manige Jjara selestena cynges fena fe ])8er on londe wseron, forts ferdon on J)8em J>rym gearum. The invading host had not, thank God, distressed the English nation so very severely ; but they were much more distressed during the

38 NOUNS, [vii. 3.

ikree years with murrain of catile and of men ; worst of all by the fact that many of the best of the king's thanes that were in the land died in the course of that three years. A special Adverb formative is -inga, -unga :

dearninga clandestinely. neadinga hardly.

eawunga openly, orsceattinga gratuitously.

fseringa suddenly. semninga suddenly.

holinga in vain. unceapunga gratuitously.

hracJinga swiftly. wenunga conceivably, irringa wrathfully.

There is an important adverbial formation in -an, of which it will be most convenient to treat in the chapter on Pronouns, viii. 6.

§ The Numerals.

Numerals are either Cardinal or Ordinal, and both are subject to declension. The Cardinals have a fitful and fragmentary declension ; the Ordinals a steady and regular one. But the leading distinction between them is the same as that which we have found so guiding in substantives, adjectives, and adverbs. It is the distinction between Strong and Weak. The Cardinals decline Strong; the Ordinals decline Weak. The only exception is 6^er which declines Strong. An apparent, but not real, excep- tion is dna, a weak form of an. But ana is rather a Pronoun than a Numeral, as unus is in Latin when employed in the sense of solus : God ana wat God only knows, Deus unus scit : and he ana wses on lande and he alone was on landy et ipse solus in terra.

CARDINALS. ORDINALS.

1 an forma, -e

2 twegen, twa 6c5er

VII. 3-]

	NUMERALS.
	CARDINALS.	ORDINALS.
3	J5r^, )?re6	frydda, -e
4	feower	feorSa
5	fiT	fifta
6	six	sixta
7	seofon	seofo^a
8	eahta	eahtocSa
9	nigon	nigo'Sa
lO	tyn	teotSa
II	endlufon	endlyfta
12	twelf	twelfta
13	}?reotyne	}?rytteo^a
14	feowertyne	feowerteo'Sa
20	twentig	twentigocSa
30	Jjrittig	f)rittigot5a
70	hund-seofontig	hund-seofontigo^a
80	hund-eahtatig	hun d-eahtatigoSa
90	hund-nigontig	hund-nigontigoSa
100	hund, hundred	hund-teontigo'Sa
120	hund-twelftig
1000	jjusend

39

The ace. sing. masc. of the Strong fonn anne, is oftener written senile. For an is declined like an adjective, with the three genders, just as untis is in Latin. The same thing happens partially to the second and third Cardinals.

prf J?re6 f)re6

jjrym

J^reora

Like twa is declined M. begen, F. ba, N. ba (biitii)

dofh.

N.andA. tw^gen twa twa (tii) D. twam (twaem) G. twegra (twega)

40 PRONOUNS, [vm. i.

For the first Ordinal, besides forma, there are the words fyrresta, fyrsta, formesta, fyrmesta, and seresta.

In the Adverbial expression of Numbers, the first three Numerals have a form of their own, sene once, twiwa (tiiwa) /wi'ce, friwa //ince. The other numeral adverbs are formed by the help of sitSe, instrumental case sing, of siS Journey, time, added to Ordinals; as friddan sitSe the third time, sume sit$e some time, once on a time. Or with sicSum (sitSon) instr. pi. added to Cardinals, as feower sitJon/bwr times.

r VIII. PRONOUNS.

The student is advised to give minute attention to the Pronouns. There are some distinctive features which might the more easily escape notice, because of a rough general similarity between the Saxon and the English Pronouns.

The Pronouns fall into six groups, (i) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Demonstrative, (4) Relative, (5) Interroga- tive, (6) Indefinite.

I. The Personal Pronouns of the First and Second Persons are without distinctions of Gender, but they have three Numbers : —

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.

Sing, Nom. ic / ]?u thou

Ace. (meh, mee) me me (fee) ]?e thee

Dat. me to or for me J?e to or for thee

Gen. min of me {jIn of thee

Dual Nom. wit we two git^<? two

Ace. (uncit) unc us two (incit) mc you two

Dat. unc to or for us two inc to or for you two

Gen, uncer of us two incer of you two

VIII. 2.] PRONOUNS, 41

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON.

Plur. Norn, we we gej'^

Ace. (usic) us us (eowic) eowjyou

Dai. lis /o or for us eow to or for you

Gen. (user) ure of us eower ^j'^m

The bracketed forms are archaic. A fine example of MEG may be seen in the legend on Alfred's Jewel AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN, Alfred Ordered to make me. This noble relic is in the Ashmolean Museum, and should be visited by the student who lives within reach of it. The Pronoun of the Third Person has three Genders in the singular : —

Singular.

MASC. FEM. NEtJT.

Nom. he he hio she hit it

Ace. hine him hi her hit it

Dat. him to him hire to her him to it

Gen. his his, of him hire her his its

Plural.

FOR ALL GENDERS.

Nom. and Aec. hi, hie, hig, hio, heo they, them Dat. him, heom to them

Gen. hira, heora of them, their ,

This Third Personal Pronoun was anciently a Demon- strative, and there are certain adverbs which grew out of it when it was in that stage, which adverbs retain their original demonstrative force, namely her here, hider hither, heonan hence, to be noticed again below, under Adverbial Pronouns.

2. The Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Persons are based upon the Genitives of their respective

42 ' PRONOUNS, [viii. 3.

Personal Pronouns, which then decline as adjectives, namely, min m/ne, my ; uneer our (dual), lire our (pi.) ; fin thine, thy, incer your (dual), edwer your (pi.). These are declined strong as adjectives. Thus lires cynges faeder our king's father : e6wre geferan your companmis.

There is no adjectival Possessive Pronoun of the Third person, but the simple genitives his his, its, hire her, hira, heora their, serve this purpose just as in modern English.

3. The Demonstrative Pronouns are this and that, just as now, only they have Genders and Cases :

That. This.

MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.

Sing. N. se seo J^aet	l^es	feos f)is
A. Jpone J?a J»aet	fisne	)?as l?is
D. )3am f)gere J^am	f)isum	f>isse f>isum
Instr l^y, l^e	. .	. . }?is,}?5^s
G. J?aes l^aere faes	]?isses	J^isse ])isses
Plur. N. and A. f)a		fas
D. J^am, )?sem		fisum
G. ]?ara, fsera		fissa

Observe the distinct form for the case which we may call Instrumental or Ablative or Locative, for which a form distinct from the Dative is clearly displayed in the case of J)y. It is much used in the Saxon Chronicles.

And ^pY ilcan geare sende ^felwulf cyning Alfred his sunu to Rome Atid in that same year king Ethelwulf sent Alfred his son to Rome.

In the above we see the Demonstrative tise in full action. But the prevalent use of se — seo — faet is in

^^II. 5-] PRONOUNS, 43

the character of a Definite Article, and it is this fact which invests this Demonstrative with its great import- ance in Anglosaxon.

Example of Genitive Singular Feminine of J)is : — -Alfred cyning wses wealh stod )?isse b^c JfTing Alfred was the Iranslator of this book.

To this group belong three adverbial pronouns of locality — ])83r there, J)ider thither, fonaii thence-, to be noticed again below, under Adverbial Pronouns.

4. Of Relative Pronouns there is only one form distinct and separate from other pronouns, and that is the indeclinable J>e : Jjset micele geteld fe M6ises worhte The great tent which Moses made.

I who am ic fe com

thou who art fu f)e eart

he who is se j^e is

not * he J)e' — not the Personal Pronoun (a^ you would expect) but the Demonstrative : sy gebletsod se \q com on DriMnes naman Blessed be he that hath come in the Lord's name. Gradually however the Demonstrative entered so deep into the office of the Relative, that J>e was often set aside, and the commonest way was to repeat the Demonstrative, using it first as Antecedent and next as Relative. Thus se . . . se /^^ who, fset . . . })8Bt that which. Se man se fset swifte hers lisefS The man who hath the swift horse.

5. The Interrogative Pronouns are three, all of an adjectival kind, furnishing forth the three .questions : —

a. Who and What?

N. hwa hwaet

A. hwone hwaet

44

PRONOUNS.

D. hwam hwam

G. hwaes hwaes

InsL . . . hwf

[viii, 6.

b.	Which of two?
Sing.	N. A. D. G.	MASC. hwae'Ser hwae^rne hwae'Serum hwaefees	PEM. hwaecSeru hwaeSere hwae'Serre hwae^erre	NEUT. hwaeSer hwaeSer hwae(5eruin hwae'Seres
Plur.	\i	hwaet5ere	hwae"Sere	hwae(5eru
	D. G.	hwaecSemm hwaeSerra	hwaeSerum hwaeSerra	hwae(5erum hwae(5erra

c. What sort of? or Which of all P is expressed by hwilc (hwelc, hwylc), and this is declined like any- strong adjective.

Of an adverbial kind, three of locality; hwser where, hwider whither, hwonan whence : one of time hwsenne when : one modal hii how ?

6. The Indefinite Pronouns are a very diversified group.

Some of them are taken from the Interrogatives. Thus hwd is not only who P but also some one, anyone : and hwset somewhat, something ; as, hwset lytles some little ; and hwylc one, any one ; swa fram slsepe hwylc arise as if one rose from sleep.

These combine with swa to make composite pronouns, as swa hwa swa whosoever ; swa hwset swa whatsoever-, swa hwilc swa whichsoever.

And hwilc makes with swa a composite Indefinite which has prepared the way for the later whichsoever.

vHi. 6. J PR ONO UNS, 45

pider urnon, swa hwilc swa }>onne gearo weartS

Thither they ran, whichsoever then ready was.

Again, Interrogatives form Indefinites by taking the prefix seg- or ge- ; as seghwa, seghwset, seghwilc, 8eghwset5er; gehwa, gehwaet, gehwilc, gehwse'Ser whoever, whatever, whichever, anyone, anything. Especially gehwilc may be noted as eminently useful by reason of its vagueness, which is the cardinal virtue of an Indefinite Pronoun. It can mean upon occasion any of these : each one, eDery one, many a one, some folk, certain, divers, various : And hiera se setJeling gehwelcum feoh and feorh gebead, and Mera nsenig hit ge]>icgean nolde And the Prince offered to each one of them money and life, and not any one of them would touch it. Gehergade switSe micel on J)sem nortShere, segtJer ge on mannum ge oh gehwelces cynnes yrfe Harried very much on the north army, both on men and on every kind of cattle, Augustinus gesette biscopas of his geferum gehwil- cnm burgum on Engia feode Augustine set bishops from among his companions to divers cities in the English nation.

Sum answers but partially to our some. It is very like the Greek t/s, and will require various turns of rendering, one, some, a certain man ; and often approaching very near to the Indefinite Article an, a :

Sum welig man wses se hsefde sumne gerefaxi A rich man there was who had a reeve.

Yet it cannot be said that an Indefinite Article had been matured in Anglosaxon. Sum . . . sum stands for one . . . another ; not alius alium but alius . . . alius. Da forgymdon hi J>8et, and ferdon; sum to hys tune, sum to his mangunge Then neglected they that, and

46

PRONOUNS.

[vni, 6.

departed, one to his/arm^ another to his merchandise — ' alius in villain suum, alius vero ad negotiationem suam.'

An one and its negative nan none.

Wuht, wiht thing, creature, matter, combined with the former makes dnwuht, dwiht, aht aught; nanwuht naht naught, nought.

ping thing combines with sum and nan, and hence our modern something, nothing. Ne fand })8er nan ))ing buton ealde weallas He found there nothing but old walls.

Man is symbolised to the sense of one, any one, like German man and French on. But short of this extreme pronominal use, it has a convenient sub-pronominal function, superior to gender, answering to our * person/ This occurs repeatedly in the Will of King Alfred :

And ic wille ])a menn ))e ])a land habbatS, fa word gelsBstan }>e on mines faeder yrfe gewrite standacS swa swa hy fyr- mest magon.

And ic wille gif ic senigum menn aenig feoh unleanod hsebbe Jjset mine magas fset huru geleanian.

And ic wille fa menn fe ic mine b6e land be- cweden hsebbe, fast hi hit ne asyllan of minum cynne ofer heora dseg.

And I will J that the per- sons who have the lands, fulfil the words that stand in my father's testament so as they sootust may.

And I will, if I have left any money unpaid to any one, that my kindred pay that of

And I will, the persons to whom I have bequeathed my book-lands, that they alienate it not out of my kin after their day.

VIII. 6.] PRONOUNS, 47

Other Indefinites of similar grammatical range are :

seg^er et^/ier. fela many, Germ. Jjiel.

selc eac/i. genoh enough. senig any, and its negative lyt liitle.

nsenig not any. manig many.

senlypig single. 6t5er other.

eall all, unlyt no little. iQQW^/ew.

Some Adverbial Pronouns.

There is a suffix variously written as hwugu, hwigu, hwegu, hwega, which is of the very essence of an Indefinite, and to which it is hard to assign a value, but it is something like *at all/ It is found attached to hw86t, hwilc, and selc, so that hwsethwegu means something, hwylchugu someone, selcnehugu dsel what- ever part, any part at all.

Hwene sometime, some-when, as Hwene ser we spreecon be "Sam. &c. A while ago we spoke of the &c.

Hiiru at least, anyhow, for certain.

The form -inga, -imga, gives a few :

anunga, aninga, ^ninga by all means, certainly. eaUunga altogether so. ^

Here we will speak of the Adverbs in -an, for many of them are pronominal, and these three triplets especially :

h^r here hider hither heonan hence

J)8Br there J>ider thither ]>onan thence

hwser where hwider whither hwonan whence

The third column teaches us that the termination -an has the sense of from, like the Greek O^v in t^inB^v from

48 THE LINK-WORD GROUP, [ix. i.

without, ovpduodev /rom heaven. Like these are for an z« front, innan within, utan from outside^ seftan from behind, feorran from far, nean from near, nitSan from below. The points of the compass east, west, nortS, sutS, have their Adverbs of direction eastan, westan, norSan, siitSan. The rage of the Danes against Abp. ^Ifheah is partly accounted for by the chronicler thus : — Wseron hi eac swytSe druncene, forjjam Jjaer waes gebroht win sii'San Also they were very drunk, for wine was brought there from the south. This form is frequent among the Prepositions.

IX. THE LINK-WORD GROUP.

I. The Prepositions consist of a small number of old and a large number of new Prepositions, the latter being often made out with the adverbial termination -an. In the following alphabetical list the old fundamental pre- positions are distinguished by CAPITALS.

The letters attached to each indicate the cases which they usually govern.

abutan (A. D.) about. beneo"San (D.) beneath.

^FTER (D.) after. betweox (D.) among.

2er (D.) ere. betwynan (D.) between.

MY (D.) at. binnan (D.) within.

andlang (G.) along. bufan (D.) above.

baeftan (D.) after. butan (D.) without, except.

BE (D.) about, around. eac (D.) besides.

beforan (A. D.) before. FOR (A. D. Inst.)>r.

begeondan (D.) beyond. foran (D.) in front of. beheonan (D.) on this side of. fore (A .) before, for.

behindan (D.) behind. fram {p.)from.

IX. 2.]

THE LINK' WORD GROUP.

49

gemang (A. D.) among. geond (A.) through. IN (A. D.) in, into. innan (A. D.) within, into. into (D.) in, into. MID (A. D.) with. , neah (D.) near. near (D.) nearer. OF (D.) of, by. OFER (A. D.) (wer. ON (A. D.) on, in, into. ongean (A. D.) towards,

against. on innan (D.) within. on uppan (A. D.) over, upon. OD (A. D.) unto, until. TO (D.) to.

2. The Conjunctions in

ac hut.

eeg'Ser gt . . .go. both . . . and.

and and.

butan but, unless^

eac eke, also.

eac swylce likewise.

foTp2im])e/brasmuch as..

forjjy therefore.

ge fl'w^/.

ge . . . ge both . . . and.

hwae'Ser . . . pe whether .. .or. J)onne sx'/^ifw, if.

t6 eacan (D.) besides.

t6 eranes (D.) alongside,

abreast of. t6 foran (D.) before, above. t6geanes (A. D.) towards,

against. toweard (D.) toward. pURH (A. D.) through, by. under (A. D.) under. uppon (A.. D.) upon. WID (A. D. G.) towards, by

the side of, against. witSinnan (D.) within. wiSutan (D.) without. YMB {^^.^f^u^^r^^mr^., ymbiitan (A.JT f}jund ^<ibout.

otitside^M f \'r ^ ^' ''"' \

ordinary use are.^a§>foUows :-= ^ /

midpy since. ^^OK^Sl^'

natSer n^ . . . n6 neither. . . nor.

xii nor.

o'S^e or.

same also.

swa . . . swa so . . . as.

swa same likewise.

swasamesway^j-/ as well as.

swaj^eah however.

swylce as if.

tof)on})set to the end that.

})A then, therefore.

pi J)a then when.

50 SYNTAX, \x.

fset that. uton go to, let us,

f>edh though. witodlice but indeed, hut

))edh hwaet5ere nevertheless. withal.

The preposition 6tS formed a conjunctive phrase 6^ tJaet (rarely 6 J) ^pe) often written in one word : — and hie J)eah J>a eeastre aweredon oJ)j58et Alfred com mid fierde, and they however defended the city until Alfred came with Fierd. Sometimes it stood alone as a conjunction, without any pronoun : J)a rad se cyning mid firde o'S he gewieode set Baddan byrig witS Win burnan Then rode the king with Fierd until he camped at Badbury near Wimbourne.

As to uton, it might with equal propriety be ranked among the Interjections.

X. SYNTAX.

The interest of Syntax is more intellectual than that curiosity which surrounds words and their modifications. The peculiarities of any given syntax are not a mere result of the peculiarities of the vocabulary ; there is a new and distinct character which appears in the act of combination. The word-store of one nation is in its most necessary elements analogous to the word- store of another nation, because the meanings most urgent to be conveyed are (speaking broadly) the same in all nations. The curious variety of the devices for conveying sense by a combination of words — this it is that constitutes the charm of syntax. The diversities of words and the diversities of syntax may spring from like causes, but in words the cause is hidden, in syntax it is partly un- folded. Words are for the most part inexplicit things. In the syntax the mind reveals its mode of action at least

X. 2.] SYNTAX, 51

enough to awake sympathy in the spectator, and to kindle in him a strange peculiar admiration while he traces the unity of purpose through the diversity of mental operation. Thus much to indicate with what thought I begin a chapter on Syntax, which must be so brief that it can only be fragmentary, but which at the same time, if a leading thought preside, need not be chaotic.

I. Interjections. Among the Conjunctions is put an obscure word uton, also written wuton, and this vacillation in treatment will not have been useless if it fix the attention of the student upon a very peculiar and problematic word. It is used before the infinitive, making it into a hortatory imperative : uton biddan God let us pray God I wutan cuman ealle let us all come : wuton cunnian let us look sharp : uton etan let us eat', uton faran let us set out', uton gangan let us go : uton Jjyder habban let us have (them) thither : uton hleotan let us cast lots : uton gemunan let us remember.

2. Verbs,

Tense. The small number of tenses in the Anglo- saxon verb must strike the eye which is familiar with the varieties of tense-forms in the Latin verb. There is a Present and a Preterite, but no form for the Future, or the Pluperfect, or the Perfect, or Imperfect. From this poverty two consequences flow which merit attention. First, there is the make-shift use of these few, by which their power of expression was exerted to the utmost, and by which a plurality of function was laid upon single forms. Hence, an Implicit syntax, requiring vigilance in the reader. Secondly, there is the endeavour to supply

E 2

52 SYNTAX, [x. 2.

by means of auxiliaries those shades of relative time which with the progress of thought or with the study .of Latin came into demand. Hence an Explicit syntax, which gave the first outlines of modern English prose.

a. First then of the old forms in exerted senses. The most conspicuous is the case of the Present Tense standing for the Future. And here the instance which claims special mention is that of bit5, a Present of been to be. For two reasons it claims special notice : because of its great frequency ; and because the verb to be having another form for the Present Tense, namely eom eart is, this bytS made the more progress towards establishing itself as a distinct Future, which however it never fully achieved. Examples :

pe6s biS geciged fsemne This shall be called woman,

Gif he sl8ept5, he bytS hal If he sleeps he will be well.

pu nast nu, ac J>u wast sytSc5an Thou knowest not now, but thou shall know hereafter : tu nescis modo, scies autem postea.

The Preterite discharges not only its proper function, but also acts upon occasion for the Perfect or Pluperfect. For the Perfect ; as, Wu smeadon gehwilee men oft, and gyt gelome smeagacS, hii se hlaf fe biS of corne gegearcod, and Jjurh fyres hsetan abaeen, mage been awend &c. A'^ow divers men have often asked and yet do frequently ask, how the bread which is prepared from corn, and by fire' s heat baked, can be changed, &c. For the Pluperfect ; as, He ofslog fone aldormon J>e him lengest wiinode He slew the alder?nan that had longest dwelt with hitn.

j8. The more discriminative rendering of time-relations was to be effected by means of the auxiliaries, be, have,

X. 2.] SYNTAX. ^^

may, might, shall, should, will, would. There was yet one more, weorSan, which has since been dropped, but which continues to hold this place in German tecrben. Of these the two first, be and have, are the only ones already established as auxiliaries: the rest are but partially sym- bolised, and rarely appear as pure auxiliaries. The Present hgebbe with the Past Participle forms a Perfect ; ic hsebbe gessed / have said. The Preterite hsefde in like manner goes to form a Pluperfect, as ]ja hig hsefdon hyra lof sang gesungenne when they had sung their hymn.

The Present-exact and the Imperfect are obtained by the corresponding tenses of the verb to be with the Present Participle of any verb: nii J)u ])us glsedlice to us sprecende eart now thou art speaking to us so cheerfully : he mid him sprsecende wses he was talking with him.

Voice. There is no Passive Inflection. The Active verb is made to express the Passive idea. Thus, he is to lufigenne, lit. he is to love, signifies as much as he is (worthy) to be loved. iElfred mec heht gewyrcean Alfred ordered me to be made. Hyne h6t his hlaford gesyllan His lord commanded him to be sold. This is the imphcit Passive.

The explicit Passive is rendered in all tenses by help- words, viz. the Present with is or bytS or weorS : the Im- perfect with wses or wearS: the Perfect and Pluperfect with is . . . geworden and waes . . . geworden : the Future with bytS or sceal beon. Darius geseah Jjaet he ofer wujmen beon wolde Darius saw that he would be overcome.

But these explicit Passives often labour under all the vagueness of a recently learnt lesson : and the fashion of the structure is then most idiomatic when the passive idea is conveyed by such means as the active verb affords.

54 SYNTAX. [x. 4.

3. Substantives, .

' Plat construction. Substantives construe with Sub- stantives in a manner which we have not indeed lost, but which nevertheless sometimes causes us a surprise. Thus, woruld men worldly men: — and fela ot5re unjjeawas tJe woruld men to nanum latJe ne taliaS and many other bad habits which worldly men account no harm of.

Case. An important feature is the frequency of the genitive case : — se scires man Leofric the shire-man Leofric : healdende keora yldrena gesetnessa holding the traditions of their elders : hii fela wilegena how many (of) baskets : tyn ]>usend punda ten thousand (of) pounds.

4. Adjectives.

The distinction between the Strong and Weak forms of the Adjective is one which, though delicate and subtle, is neither vague nor fanciful, but real and firmly defined. Which of the two forms shall be used depends entirely upon the logical relation of the Adjective to the other words of the sentence. The distinction is one of thought, and, when it has been once apprehended, the student will require no definitions. For an outward rule the fol- lowing may be sufficiently Dear : the Weak form is used when it is preceded by a genitive, or an adjective, or a pronoun, or an article ; but it would be too much to say that in all other cases the Strong form is used. The learner will gradually perceive that the Weak is in fact a Definite and the Strong an Indefinite form, and he will readily understand why in some grammars the terms Definite and Indefinite are employed, when adjectives are spoken of, instead of Strong and Weak.

X. 5.] SYNTAX. ^^

The Syntax of the Comparative Adjective offers a fine illustration of this principle, for as it is in its nature a definite adjective, so it is employed only in the Weak declension. The Ordinal Numerals exemplify the same principle, being highly definite in thought, and Weak in form.

5. Adverbs.

Adverbs are formed from Adjectives, in the Positive by the termination -e ; in the Comparative and Superlative degrees the Strong Adjectives stand unaltered in -or and -est. See example p. 37.

The genitival termination is much used as an adverbial inflection, and it survives in modern English, in that -s which often closes our adverbs. Thus nortSweardes northwards, J)iderweardes thitherwards, hamweardes homewards.

Da cwaeS hio tSset hio ne mihte hyre dseles 116 he his Then said she that she could not do it on her part nor he on his.

The genitival adverbs are not necessarily of the same form as the genitive of the declension to which the sub- stantive belongs. The feminine genitive is sometimes put aside. For instance, the true genitive of niht night, is nihte, but the genitival adverb is nihtes by night, just as in German they say 0la^t6, which is not the substantival genitive of ^\a6:ji.

Poron dn streces dseges and nihtes They marched at one stretch day and night.

But the feminine genitive is also used adverbially. Thus Tinnendre handa, lit. of granting or consenting hand, i.e. voluntarily and with good will : also in like sense imnendre heortan cordially, from the heart.

55 SYNTAX, [x. 6.

6. Numerals.

Cardinal Numeration. In the collocation of the numeral grades, that precedency of the units, which is now to us a picturesque archaism, is in Anglosaxon the rule. Thus six and f if tig six and fifty: seofon and feowertig seven and forty.

But when there are hundreds in the sum, these stand first, taking also the substantive with them ; which sub- stantive is repeated again at the close of the statement.

Hundteontig wintra and seofon and feowertig wintra A hundred winters and seven and forty winters.

And here observe, that the Cardinals are sometimes construed as substantives, and sometimes as adjectives. Speaking roughly, the higher numbers incline to be substantival and to govern genitives ; the lower to be adjectival and stand in concord with their substantives. In the following example manna is gen. pi. and men is nom. or ace. preo hund manna and eahtatyne men Three hundred of men and eighteen men.

OrdinaJ. Numeration. When, in Ordinal numeration, units are added to tens, the units retain the Cardinal form if they come first; but if they are stated after the tens, then they become subject to the Ordinal inflection. This is the more interesting to us because the distinction is still in use.

An and twentigotJe one and twentieth.

Fif and twentigoc5e five and twentieth.

py twentigot5an dsege and J>y fe6r)>an Septembris The twenty and fourth day of September.

The Ordinals come into play where ' half * is added in English to a Cardinal number. So in German aubert^alfi

X. 8.] SYNTAX. 57

one and a half, britt^al6 two and a half. He ricsode nigonteo'Se healf gear He reigned eighteen years and a half. Se bat wses geworht of Jjriddan healfre hyde

The boat was made of two and a half hides.

7. Pronouns Personal.

A well-marked idiom of Gothic syntax is that by which the predicate of a person is rendered by a neuter pronoun. Ic hyt eom / it am, where we now say // is I, or / am he. So also interrogatively Hwset eart J)U ? What art thou? for *Tu quis es?' Who arl thou? The former of these is still in force in German %^ \)\\\ e0 : but in the latter case that language agrees with modern English in saying 3Ser Bifi bu ?

The Personal Pronoun Impersonal is man or men : tSa wses sionotSlie gemdt on Jjsere mseran stowe tSe mon hatetS Clofeshoas then was there a synodical assembly in the celebrated place which is called Clovesho.

8. Pronouns Reflexive.

In the First and Second Persons there is no distinct form for the Reflexive Pronoun, but the simple Personal is used reflexively : le me reste / rest myself. Neither is there now any Reflexive pronoun of the Third Person answering to the Latin se, sui, sibi, suus : himself herself itself themselves. There once existed such a pronoun, and a trace of it survives in the poetic diction ; but it had died out before the historic period of the language. The practice here is the same as in the First and Second Persons. It is simply to use he, heo, hit, as a Reflexive pronoun. Thus : —

58 SYNTAX, [x. 9.

Petrus stod and wyrmde hine Peier stood and warmed himself.

Da ongan se Pariseisca on him smeagan Then began the Pharisee to think within himself.

Where antithesis or emphasis required it, or where in translation it was suggested by the original, we find sylf added, as OtSre he hale gedyde, hine sylfne he ne mseg habie gedon He healed others, himself he cannot make whole] seipsum non potest salvum facere.

In modern English for greater distinctness we habitually form the Reflexive pronoun by the addition of self selves ; but we are familiar to this day with the reflex use of me^ thee, him, her, them, as poetic and archaic :

But than a chorle, foul him betide, Beside the roser gan him hide.

Often in the Psalter; as, ' I will lay me down in peace'; — ' they get them away together, and lay them down in their dens.'

The Possessive pronoun sometimes takes the addition of agen own, just as at present : Da c6m ^cSelred eyning ham to his agenre cSieode Then came king j^ their ed home to his own people.

The Reciprocal pronoun which we now render by such formulae as each other, one ajioiher, is expressed in Anglosaxon by a repetition of the Personal pronoun : And hi SBt Jjsere byrig hi gemetton And they met each other at the city.

9. Pronoun Relative.

When the Relative pronoun is required to stand in an oblique Case, there is no single word in Anglosaxon that can fulfil the function, like our modern whose and

X. II.] SYNTAX, 59

whom. For these words were at that time only used as Interrogatives and Indefinites.

This difficulty sprang from the fact that the Relative pronoun ]>e was indeclinable. The remedy was to add to fe, either next to it or after intervening words, a Per- sonal pronoun carrying the requisite Case; as fe ]?urh hine through whom, ^pe furh his through whose, se wses Karles sunu ^pG M]>ebmxl£ West Seaxna cyning his dohtor hsefde him to cuene He was son of {that) Charles whose daughter ^thelwulf King of Wessex had to queen.

The same inability showed itself in the Hebrew language : it rose from the same cause and was met in the same manner.

lo. Pronoun Adverbs

Under this head the most important matter is the instrument of Negation. This, in its simplest form, is ne, preceding the verb.

pses ne eom ic wyr'Se I am not worthy of that.

Ne wyrn Jju hym Deny thou him not.

When the negation has to be strengthened, another and secondary negative is placed after the verb: there is no fastidiousness about a double negative, any more than there is in Plato and all the best Greek writers.

ne fengon nan fing They caught nothing.

Nan ))8era fe far sset ne dorste hine acsian hwaet he wsBre None of those that there sate durst ask him who

he was.

II. Prepositions.

I. Government. The government of the several prepositions has been indicated above, and there is not

6o SFNTAX, Ix. II.

much to add. Let us choose one for exemplification. The cases taken by wi'S are three ; and the corresponding shades of meaning are generally manifest :

Accusative. Da tyn leorning cnihtas gebulgon witJ tJa twegen gebrotSru The ten disciples were angry with [i.e. against] the two brothers.

Wits ]?one garsecg By the ocean.

Sgeton wiS ]?one weg They sate by [i.e. facing] the way.

And J)8es on Eastron worhte iSlfred cyning, lytle werode, geweorc set ^])elinga eigge, and of J)am geweorc was winnende wij) ]?one here And the ensuing Easter wrought king Alfred with a little band a Work at Athelney, and from the Work was fighting against the [heathen] host.

Sy he fah witS Sone cyng and wit5 ealle his freond Be he foe to (against) the king and to (against) all friends of his.

Dative. We willatS wit5 tSam golde gritS fsestnian We are willing in consideration of the gold to establish peace.

Feeder gesealde bearn witS weortSe The father sold the child for a price.

Geiiitive. Da he fortS on fset leoht com, fa beseah he hine under bsec wit5 J>3es wifes As he came forth to the light, he looked routid behind towards the woman.

Hafoc wit5 'Sees holtes Hawk towards the holt.

pa wende he hine west wit5 Exanceastres Then turned he him west toivards Exeter.

2. Function. Prepositions live by usage merely. They are so far removed from the etymological pedigree of their origin, that their offices are held by tradition only, and having no acknowledged mooring in reason, they do from

X. II.] SYNTAX. 5l

time to time shift function. The variation of prepositional function is curious and instructive ; moreover it offers one of the firmest characteristics for distinguishing the several periods of the English language.

A rudimentary scheme of Prepositional functions may be sketched by pairing off the contraries :

in	out
on	of
to	from
at	by

It is clear that these pairs are formed of contradictories: it being remembered that ' by' means ' somewhere round about/ and therefore not 'at.' It is further clear that there is a community of sentiment in each column which unites it within itself, and which sets it as a whole in contradiction to the other column as a whole.

And it is no more than natural that a solidarity should arise between the members of either column so that they should be able to step up or down along the vertical line and fill a neighbour's office. And as a consequence of this facility, no great inconvenience would result from the retirement partial or complete of any of these prepositions, seeing that not one of them is indispensably necessary to the action of the language.

Out, of, from, by. And as a matter of fact lit oul had retired so early that not a trace of it as a preposition is pointed out. To assure ourselves that it ever was a preposition we must look abroad ; as at us in Moeso- gothic and ^w^ in German. A diluted representative of its form is seen in butan, that is, hi-ut-an. Its pre- positional function devolved upon its subaltern of^ as may

62

SYNTAX,

[x.

conveniently be seen in the Gospels edited by Bosworth and Waring, John vi. 31-33, where the Moesogothic has us himina four times, and the Anglosaxon of heofene. Further we see in the same book that this function passed on from of to its subaltern fro or from, for in all the four places Wiclif hasy>"(? and Tyndaleyr^;^.

M.G. Attans unsarai manna matidedun ana au])idai, swas- we ist gameli]), Hlaif us himina gaf im du matyan.

paruh qa]) im lesus, Amen, A- men. qi])a izwis, ni Moses gaf iz- wis hlaif us him- ina, ak atta mains gaf izwis hlaif us himina ))ana sun- yeinan ;

Sa auk hlaifs Gujjs ist saei at- staig us himina, yah gaf libain J)i- zai manasedai.

A.S.

Ure foederas se- ton heofonlicne mete on westene, swa hit awriten is, He sealde him etan hlaf of he- ofone.

Se Hffilend

cwsej) to him, So}), ic secge eow, ne sealde Moyses eow hlaf of heo- fenum, ac min fseder eow syljj s6j)ne hlaf of heo- fenum ;

Hit is Godes hlaf 0e of heofone com and syl]) mid- dan-earde lif.

Wiclif. Oure fadris eet- en manna in de- sert, as it is writ- un, He 5af to hem breed fro heuene for to ete.

Therfore Ihesu seid to hem, Treu- li, treuli, I seie to 50U, not Moyses 5af to 50U very breed fro heuene, but my fadir 5y- ueth to 50U verri breed fro heuene;

Sothli it is verri breed that cometh doun fro heuene, and 5yueth lyf to the world.

Tyndale. Oure fathers di eate manna in th desert, as yt written, He ga\ them breed froi heven to eate.

Jesus sayde vi to them, verely, saye vnto yoi Moses gave yo not breed froi heven, but my fj ther geveth yo the true breed froi heven ;

For he is th breed of Go which commet doune from hi ven, and gevet Ijfe vnto tl worlde.

Of obtained great prevalence, being, among other things, the preposition of passivity, a function which for a time it shared with fram, but at length took altogether to itself.

The preposition be, which in Anglosaxon signified

X. II.] SYNTAX. 6^

round about, concerning, came at length in the form by to be the companion of the passive verb, having superseded of in that function.

In, on, to, at. In the elder Anglosaxon writings we find in, but it fell out of common use, leaving behind it a feeble descendant innan. Its chief functions passed to its subaltern on, which became one of the very greatest prepositions in Anglosaxon. Nis nan witega butan weorJ)seipe, buton on his eSele, and on his msegjje, and on his hiise No prophet is without honour, except in his native country, and in his tribe, and in his house. This preposition holds in Anglosaxon a breadth of area almost comparable with that of of in modern English. Many a place where we now use of was indeed filled by on : cyning on Engla lande king of England, biscop on Lundene bishop of London.

The distinction between on and to is sensibly de- monstrated in a place where we, after the original, read a ring on his hand and shoes on his feet. The Anglosaxon has hring on his hand, and gescy to his f6tum.

But it is with at more especially that to comes into competition. In Anglosaxon we find to where now at is preferred, quite often enough to modify our wonder at the great prevalence of to in Devonshire. Such a phrase as this wses Hama swan gerefa to SutStune Hama was herd-reeve at Sutton, is of constant occurrence in Devonshire ^.

But set prevailed in connection with names of places,

^ Not so very many years ago, schoolmasters in Devonshire were wont to tell how that Atterbury gave as a reason for unwillingness to go into Devonshire, that the natives could not pronounce at, and he had no fancy to be called To-terbury !

64 SYNTAX, [x. 12.

and we find it in Anglosaxon both where we still use at^ and also where in the subservience of the place-name to the purpose of personal description we have now sub- stituted of. Besides this, aet has a very peculiar use in Anglosaxon, of which we have not a trace remaining. We can say 'at a time' and 'at a place,' but not 'at a person.' But as Latin says ' apud eum ' so Anglosaxon says set him. The following quotation illustrates all these three uses of set : Her swutelatS on 'Sissum gewrite "Sset EJjelstan bisceop gebohte set Leofrice set Blace- weUon flf hide landes set Intebyrga Here appears in this ivriiing that bishop Ethelstan bought of Leofric of Blackwell five hides of land at Inkberrow.

Hit gelamp Sset hire fseder aborgude xxx punda set Godan // happened that her father borrowed thirty pounds of Goda.

12. Conjunctions,

Distinguish ne neither^ nor, the conjunction, from ne the particle of simple negation. The latter had a short vowel, while the former was probably n6. In our quota- tions it shall be so marked for distinction sake.

Ne slsefS n§ ne hnappac5 se tJe hylt Israhel Lit. Not sleepeth nor not slumbereth he who keepeth Israel.

Behealdat5 heofenan fuglas^ forJ)am )je hig ne sawat5, n6 hig ne ripatS, n6 hig ne gadria]? on berne Behold heavens fowls, for they sow not, nor do they reap, nor gather into barn.

Ge w^nat5 Jjset ge nan gecyndelic g6d n6 gesselfe on innan eow selfum nsebben Ye ween that ye have no natural good nor happiness within yourselves.

The simple negative ne coalesces with some verbs, as

XI. I.] COMPOUNDS. 65

here in nsebben for ne hsebben ; but this never happens to the conjunction nd.

The most ordinary conjunction for the connection of sentence to sentence is Jjset //^a/, as in modern English. See the preceding quotation.

For coupling words in pairs (especially opposites) ge

is used : — ealde ge geonge old and young ; leofum

ge la'Sum to friends and foes ; sotSfsest ge synnig

faithful and faulty (indifferently) ; feor ge neah far and

near ; ewucra ge deatSra of quick and dead.

For clustering words or phrases the formula is ge . . . ge, both . . . and, as well . . . as. Thus ge witS cyning ge witJ ealdorman ge wicS gerefan alike against king and against ealdorman and against sheriff.

Sometimes 8egt5er precedes, thus: segtJer ge god- cundra hada ge woruldcundra both of spiritual and temporal orders : and hu him tJa speow segtJer ge mid wige ge mid wisdome and how success attended them both in war and in counsel.

The formula of alternation is hwse'Ser ])e, introducing the second member of the alternative : Eart J>u J>e to eumenne eart, hwsetSer fe we otJres sculon onbidan ? Art thou the one that art to come, or are we to wait for another ?

Wses lohannes fulluht of heofene, liwsej)er fe of mannum Was fohris baptism from heaven or from men /

Sometimes J>e alone without hwsetJer : Eart ])U fe to eumenne eart, fe we sculon oSres onbidan ?

66 COMPOUNDS, [xi. 1.

XI. COMPOUNDS.

I. Two chief means there are for the supply of new words, namely Derivation and Compound-making. We must distinguish between Derivatives and Compounds. In the Derivative the first part is principal and the second part is accessory ; but in the Compound this is reversed. Thus Sd^eling prince is a Derivative; and the object of thought is contained in the first part setSel inheritance, estate, with reference to which the second part ing serves as a formative of the word and a definer of the expression. But brimfugol sea-fowl is a Compound; and here the second part is principal in thought, while the first part is subservient and qualifying.

There are however certain groups of Compounds (to be noticed below) in which these conditions have under- gone such a revolution, that the Compounds have taken somewhat the character of Derivatives.

Among the oldest Compounds are those in which a Particle is prefixed to a substantive or adjective, as •bi spel parable, bi word proverb, for wyrd ruin, ge scy pair of shoes, ge limp chance, ofer in6d pride, or sorh tranquil, ungelimp misfortune, imlust evil passion, un J>eaw vice, under cyning under-king, up fior upper floor, up land high lying land, ymbe hwyrft circmn- ference.

Particular attention is due to a certain collective value of the prefix ge- as in sceo shoe, ge scy a pair of shoes or shoes generally; sculdor shoulder, ge scyldre the shoulders; timber building material, ge timbre an edifice ; wsed garment, ge wsede vesture, robes ; botl shelter, ge bytle range of buildings. This is worthy of particular notice.

XI. 2.] COMPOUNDS. 6y

not so much for its area in Anglosaxon as for its large sphere in the other Teutonic languages, and notoriously in German.

Compounds are also formed by the union of a particle with a verb ; of a noun with a noun ; of a noun with a verb ; of adverbs, pronouns, prepositions with one an- other. It is by these new combinations that the functions of language are replenished with new verbs, new substan- tives, new adjectives, new adverbs, new pronouns, new prepositions, new conjunctions, new interjections.

2. New Verbs are formed by composition with adverbs and adverbial particles: a German cr-; set ^/; be adoti/, near, by : ed again, over again (Latin re-) ; efen even ; for German ijer- produces strong effects ; ful fully ; forcS forth ; ge, not always the formal prefix, but having some- times an important effect on the sense; mis expressing disturbance ; of sometimes expressing attainment of aim ; cm on, in ; 6'S German cnt- \ to indicates division like Latin dis- and German ^er- ; under under ; witS against. By composition with these particles verbs acquire new powers, sometimes transcending the sum of the parts.

a hebban exalt from hebban heave

2dthevsta.n dreak away „ berstan ^z^rj/

be gan cultivate, exercise

be cuman arrive

edl^ecan repeat

efen l^can imitate

forgifan concede, forgive

ful fremman accomplish

forS faran depart

ge winnan conquer, win

mis endebyrdian mal-officiate

F 2

gan^^

cuman come

Isecan play

l^can play

gifan give

fremman promote

fa.va.nfare

winn^Lnfght

endebyrdian order duly

68

COMPOUNDS.

[xi. 3.

of ridan capture

on fon receive

6'5 fleon escape

to cnawan distinguish

under standan understand

wi'S sac an dispute

„ ridan ride „ fon take from ^Qonflee „ cnawan know „ standan stand sacan contend

3. New Substantives grow out of the drawing together of two old Substantives, seppel treo appletree from aeppel apple and treo tree

bur }>egn chamberlain ciric sang church-singing dged bot penance disc f>egn dish-thane earm bring bracelet fot adl ^o«/

graes hoppa grasshopper hancraed cockcrowing hand geweorc handiwork inwit searo machination land saeta squatter man cild <5^ man atS perjury n/^d l^earf necessity niS hete abhorrence rim crseft arithmetic

bur chamber cirice church dged </(?^d/ disc ^w>^ earm ^r;» f6t>^/ grses ^r^jj hana <:(?<r^ hand /^(Z«^ inwit ^«z7^ land /^;z^ man w^« man rr/;?^^ nyd need niS j///^ rim number

sand geweorp sand-bank „ sand j««d?

setel gang sun-set „ setel r^j-/

tre6w wyrhta carpenter „ tre6w /r^^

uht sang prime (matins) „ uhte dawn

win berige grape „ win wine

y'5 hengist j'i^/):^ „ yt5 zc;<2Z'^

fegn servant sang j^«^ bot bettering J?egn //^<2«^ bring rz«^ adl disease hoppa hopper craed crowing geweorc wd>r-^ , searo device , saeta settler cild c/^z7(i a"5 <7^/-^ J)earf z£;a«/ , hete /2^/.? , craeft craft ( geweorp cast- \ ing up , %-^n% going , wyrhta wright , sang song berige berry hengist horse

XI. 5.] COMPOUNDS. 6g

Some of this class have greatly changed their character by the throwing back of the tone on the first part and the extreme generalisation of the sense of the second part. By this transfer the relations of the two parts have been inverted, and the compounds have become very like Derivatives. Such are cristen d6in Christianity, cild had childhood, hlaford scipe lordships hiw rseden family^ witnes witness.

4. New Adjectives are formed thus: fjrr heard hardened by fire, from ffr fire and heard hard; lof georn greedy 0/ praise, from lof praise and georn eager ; meole li?5e soft as milk from meole 77iilk and litJe mild.

But here again, as in the substantives, a few adjectives, from frequently standing in the second place, have come to be mere formatives, and some of them have lost their independent existence.

Such are fsdst fast, t\x}l full, leas devoid of, lie like^ sum same. The two latter only in compounds. Ex- amples : arfsest honorable, geleafiful faithful, arleas dishonorable, gastlie ghostly, wynsum winsome.

5. New Adverbs are obtained by composition. Thus in place of the old adverb so"S, as BO'S ie secge eow truly I say unto you, came the compound soS lice, and this pattern of the compound with -lice was followed by a whole troop of new adverbs, insomuch that it has become the chief adverbial model of the English language. This -lice -ly, from frequently filling this office, became at length a mere adverbial formative. Similar was the lot of the words weard, riht (rihte), lang, much used to form compound adverbs of Place, thus — nitSerweard netherward, hiderweard hitherward, hamweardes home- wards^ wherein weard adds nothing to the sense, but only

70 PROSOi>Y. [xii.

gives point or explicitness. So with the expressions east- rihte and eastlang easiwardly, and fser rihte thereright.

6. New Pronouns are swilc from swa and lie, literally so4ike^ whence our such : also ]?8es lie this-like, and hwilc from hw;^ and lie, whai-Uke, whence our which. From nan no7ie and wuht, wiht whit was formed nanwnht, nawiht, nothing, whence our nought and not.

New Prepositions and Conjunctions may be seen above in the lists of these parts of speech.

New Interjections are ea la from ed and la : from wa and la was formed wa la wd, which became ivell-a- way, well-a-day.

XII. PROSODY.

Although this little book was destined only to supply the most elementary guidance in the reading of Anglo- saxon Prose, yet it will hardly seem complete without a few words upon the mechanism of the Poetry. This poetical mechanism is so simple and so ingenious, effect- ing so much by means so small, contrasting moreover so strongly with all our modern notions of poetical frame- work, that it is decidedly one of the attractions of the mother tongue, enlisting, the curiosity of the student, and beguiling his path till the first difficulties are surmounted.

The chime of the verse is produced by words with like initials, and this is called Alliteration, or Letter-play. The lines are short, and run in pairs, being coupled together by the alliteration. In a typical example the first member of the couplet has the alliterative letter twice, and the second member has it once. To illustrate this and other features it will be convenient to have a specimen before

XII.]

PROSODY,

71

us. The beautiful fragment of 'The Ruined City' shall furnish a sample : —

1 hryre wong gecrong,

2 gebrocen to beorgum ;

3 })ser iu beorn monig

4 glaedmod and gold-

beorht

5 gleoma ge fraetwed

6 wlonc and wingal

7 wighyrstum scan;

8 seah on sine on sylfor

9 on searo gimmas :

10 on ead on aeht

11 on eorcan stan :

12 on f>as beorhtan burg

13 bradan rices.

the crash cracked the pave- ment broken into barrows : where once many a beorn glad -hearted and gold- bright in gleaming array, wanton and wine-hot in war-harness shone : saw treasures of silver with settings of gems — - and stock and store and precious stone — saw this bright burgh of broad dominion.

In considering this specimen, let us begin, not from the top, but from the last lines. Lines 12 + 13 "^^^ ^ couplet, with B twice in 12 and once in 13. So of 2 + 3. In 6 + 7 the alliterative letter is W, and its distribution is the same. In 4 + 5 the letter is G ; and it seems to occur four times, twice in each member. But this is not really the case, the G of ge-, a toneless prefix, does not count. So completely does this rule hold, that the initial of such a prefix can neither bear part in the alliteration, nor prevent the letter which follows it from acting as an initial. The following from Beowulf \[\\i^\.r2^.es this in each couplet. In the first couplet G is the alliterative letter, and it is initial in for gyldan. In the second couplet W is the letter, and it is initial in ge worhte.

72 PROSODY. [xn.

Grendle for gyldan to Grendel make good

gii'S raesa fela grapples many —

^ara ]>e he ge worhte those that he wrought

X.6 West Denum. upon the West-Danes.

Returning now to our first specimen, we observe that 8 + 9 is abnormal in having the alliterative letter thrice in the first member. In lo-f-ii the alliteration is vocalic. And here observe that the vowels are all different. To our inexact and uncultivated notions about vowels they might seem hardly distinct, and litde better than three E's. But they are in fact three different vowels, viz. ea, se, and eo. Note this. In vocalic alliteration not identity of vowels, but diversity, was aimed at. Thus —

Eotenas and ylfe Giants and elves

and orceas and hobgoblins.

A still more subtle feature is this : — The sense does not seek to run with the alliteration, but rather alternates with it. The lines from 2 to 1 3 pair off in alliterative couples : but line i belongs to a previous alliterative couple, so that the quotation is abrupt as regards the alliteration, though complete as regards the sense. As regards the sense we should couple the lines thus — i + 2, 3 + 4, &c. But in regard to the alliteration they couple as follows — 2 + 3, 4 + 5, &c. So the grammatical and the poetic articulations overlap one another, and produce a linked chain, not indeed running with machine-like regularity, but shewing here and there by glimpses, so that the keen observer may catch the latent ideal.

SOME PASSAGES

FROM THE

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS.

S/. Matth. V. 37-42.

So'Slice sy eower spraec, Hyt ys, hyt ys ; Hyt i

riys, hyt nys : sot51ice gyf f>ar mare by'S, ]?aet bytS 2

of yfele. Ge gehyrdon J^aet gecweden waes, Eage 3

for eage, and totS for totS : soSlice ic secge eow, 4

Ne winne ge ongen fa 'Se eow yfel do's : and gyf 5

hwa slea fe on f>in swyj^re wenge, gegearwa hym 6

)33et otSer. And )?am tSe wyle on dome wicS J^e 7

flitan, and niman fiine tunecan, Iset him to f»inne 8

wsefels. And swa hwa swa f>e genyt f>usend stapa, 9

ga mid him otSre twa J^usend. Syle ))am Se J»e 10

bidde, and J>am f)e wylle aet J>e borgian, ne wyrn ir

J^u hym. . 12

iS"/. Matth. X. 5-13.

Das twelf se Hselend sende, hym bebeodende, and 13

cwej)ende : Ne fare ge on J^eoda weg, and ne ga ge 14

innan Samaritana ceastre : ac ga'S ma to f>am 15

sceapum ]?e forwurdon Israhela hiw-raedene. Se 16

74 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

Haelend cwaej? to hys leorning-cnyhtum : GatJ and 17 bodiaS, cwej?ende, Daet heofena rice genealaec)?. 18 Haela'S untrume, aweccea'S deade, claensiaS hreofle, 19 drifa^ tit deoflu : ge onfengon to gyfe, sylla'S 20 to gyfe. Nsebbe ge gold, ne seolfer, ne feoh 21 on eowrum bigyrdlum; ne codd on wage, ne twa 22 tunecan, ne gescy, ne gyrde: soj^lice se wyrhta ys 23 wyrj?e hys metes. On swa hwylce burh otS^e 24 ceastre swa ge in-gaS, acsiatS hwa sy wyrj^e on 25 J^aere; and wuniatS Jjser of) ge ut-gan. Donne ge 26 in-gan soJ)lice on J>3et bus, gretacS hit, cwe)?ende, 27 Sy syb )?ysum huse. And gyf j^aet hus witodlice 28 wyt\>Q by (5, eower syb eymf) ofer hyt : gyf hyt 29 soJ)lice wyrj^e ne byt5, eower syb by}) to eow 30 gecyrred. 31

Si, Matih. xii. 1-8.

Dys sceal on Frige-dseg, on tJsere eatLtoUan wucan ofer Pentecosten.

Se Haelend for on reste-dseg ofer aeceras ; so'Slice hys leorning-cnyhtas hingrede, and hig ongunnon pluccian ))a ear and etan. Sot51ice t5a })a sundor-halgan })3et gesawon, hi cwaedon to him : Nu }>ine leorning-cnyhtas dots })set him alyfed nys reste-dagum to donne. And he cwae'5 to hym: Ne raedde ge hwaet Dauid dyde Jja hyne hingrede, and J^a t5e mid hym wseron ? hu he in-eode on Godes hus, and aet fa offring-hlafas, J^e nseron hym alyfede to etanne, ne })am })e mid hym waeron, buton })am sacerdum anum? Ot5t5e ne raedde ge on J)8ere se, fset })a sacerdas on reste-dagum on J^am temple gewemma'S })one reste-daeg, and synd butan leahtre? Ic secge sot51ice eow, Daet J^es ys maerra })onne }>aet

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 75

tempi. Gyf ge so'Slice wiston hwaet ys, Ic wylle mild- heortnysse, and na onsaegdnysse, ne geny})rade ge aefre unscyldige. So^ice mannes Sunu ys eac reste-daeges Hlaford.

Sf. Matth. xiii. i-8.

On f)am daege, pam Haelende ut-gangendum of huse, he saet wiS fa sae ; and mycle msenio waeron gesamnode to hym, swa faet he code on scip, and j^aer saet ; and eall seo maenio stod on )?am warofje. And he sprsec to hym fela on bigspellum, cwej^ende : So'Slice, ut-eode se ssedere hys saed to sawenne: and J?a J^a he seow, sume hig feollon wi'S weg, and fuglas comon and eeton f)a : sotSlice sume feollon on staenihte, J^aer hyt naefde mycle eorfan, and hraedlice iip-sprungon, forJ>am f)e hig naefdon )?aere eorf)an dypan : socSlice, up-spmngenre sunnan, hig adru- wedon and forscruncon, forf)am fe hig naefdon wyrtrum : socSlice sume feollon on })ornas, and J?a J?ornas weoxon and forf)rysmodon ))a: sume sot51ice feollon on gode eorjjan, and sealdon waestm, sum hundfealdne, sum syx- tigfealdne, sum ]?rittigfealdne. Se ]?e haebbe earan to gehyranne, gehyre.

St. Maith. xiv. 6-12.

Da on Herodes gebyrd-daege, tumbude J^aere Hero- diadiscan dohter beforan hym, and hyt ITcode Herode. Da behet he mid a)?e, hyre to syllanne swa hwaet swa heo hyne baede. Da cwaeS heo, fram hyre meder gemyngod: Syle me on anum disce, lohannes heafod, f>3es Fulluhteres. Da waes se cyning geunrotsud for f)am ajpe, and for f)am f)e hym saeton mid ; and he asende fa, and beheafdode lohannem on fam cwerterne. And man brohte fa hys

76 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

heafod on anum disce, and sealde J?am msedene ; and J^set maeden hyre meder. And f)a genealaehton hys leorning-cnyhtas, and namon hys lichaman, and bebyrgdon hyne, and comon and cyddon hyt J>am Haelende.

Si. Maith. xviii. 23-35.

Dys sceal on tJsere xxiii. wucan ofer Pentecosten.

Forf>am is heofena rice anlic })am cyninge J^e hys feowas geradegode. And J)a he J)set gerad sette, hym waes an broht se hym sceolde tyn }>usend punda. And f)a he naefde hwanon he hyt agulde, hyne het hys hlaford gesyllan, and hys wif and hys cild, and call J^aet he ahte. Da astrehte se )?eow hyne, and cwaeS: Hlaford, hafa ge})yld on me, and ic hyt J^e eall agylde. Da gemiltsode se hlaford hym, and fcrgeaf hym J)one gylt. Da se J^eowa ut-eode, he gemette hys efen-J)eowan se hym sceolde an hund penega : and he nam hyne J^a, and forjjrysmode hyne, and cwaetS: Agif J^aet fu me scealt. And J^a astrehte hys efen-J^eowa hyne, and bsed hyne, and ]?us cwaeS: GeJ^yldega, and ic hyt J^e eall agife. He ];a nolde ; ac ferde and wearp hyne on cweartern, ocSfaet he hym eall agefe. Da gesawon hys efen-f>eowas })3et, ]?a wurdon hig swy'Se geunrotsode, and comon and ssedon heora hlaforde ealle f)a daede. Da clypode his hlaford hyne, and cwae'S to him, Eala \m lyf)ra })eowa! ealne f)inne gylt ic J^e forgeaf, for]?am f)e 'Su me baede: hu ne gebyrede f>e gemiltsian ]?inum efen-f>eowan, swa swa ic })e gemiltsode? Da waes se hlaford yrre, and sealde hyne J>am witnerum, otSfjaet he eall agulde. Swa detS min se heofenlica Faeder, gyf ge of eowrum heortum eowrum broj^rum ne forgyfat5.

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS, 77

6*/. Ma//h. XX. 1-16.

So'Slice heofena rice ys gelic ]?am hyredes ealdre, pe on serne-mergen ut-eode ahyrian wyrhtan on hys win- geard. Gewordenre gecwydraedene })am wyrhtum, he sealde aelcon aenne penig witS hys daeges weorce : he asende hig on hys win-geard. And })a he ut-eode ymbe undern-tide, he geseah oj^re on strsete idele standan : f>a cwsetS he : Ga ge on minne win-geard, and ic sylle eow ))set riht bytS : and hig J^a ferdon. Eft lie ut-eode ymbe fa sixtan and nigoJ?an tide, and dyde J?am swa gelice. Da ymbe )?a endlyfian tide he ut-eode, and funde olpre standende, and fa ssede he : Hwi stande ge her ealne dseg idele? Da cwaedon hig: Forfam fe us nan man ne hyrede. Da cwae'S he: And ga ge on minne win- geard. SotSlice fa hyt waes sefen geworden, fa saede se win-geardes hlaford his gerefan : Clypa fa wyrhtan, and agyf hym heora mede : agyn fram f am ytemestan 0(S 'Sone fyrmestan. Eornestlice fa fa gecomon fe ymbe fa endlyftan tide comon, fa onfengon hig aelc his pening. And fa f e f ser serest comon wendon faet hig sceoldon mare onfon ; fa onfengon hig syndrige penegas. Da ongunnon hig murcnian ongen f one hyredes ealdor, and f us cwaedon : Das ytemestan worhton ane tide, and fu dydest hig gelice us, fe baeron byrfena on fyses daeges haetan. Da cwaeS he andswariende heora anum : Eala f u freond, ne do ic f e naenne teonan : hu ne come fu to me to wyrcanne wi'S anum peninge? nim faet fin ys and ga : ic wylle f ysum ytemestum syllan call swa mycel swa fe. OSSe ne mot ic don faet ic wylle? hwaefer fe fin eage manful ys, forfam fe ic god eom? Swa boots fa fyrmestan ytemeste, and fa ytemestan

yB SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

fyrmeste: so^lice manega synd gedypede, and feawa gecorene.

S/. Matth. xxii. 1-14.

Da ssede he hym eft o'Ser bigspel, and j^us cwse^ : -Heofena rice ys gelic geworden J>am cyninge J?e macode hys suna gifta; and sende hys J?eowas, and clypode J)a gelaSodan to f)am giftum : f>a noldon hig cuman. Da sende he eft oc5re J)eowas, and saede fam gelaSodon, Nu ic gegearwode mine feorme : mine fearras and mine fugelas synd ofslegene, and ealle mine f>ing synd gearwe : cumatJ to J^am giftum. Da forgymdon hig J^aet, and ferdon; sum to hys tune, sum to hys mangunge. And ■^a oSre namon hys feowas, and mid teonan geswencton, and ofslogon. Da se cyning )3aet gehyrde, ]?a wses he yrre, and sende hys here to, and fordyde )?a man-slagan, and heora burh forbsernde. Da cwseS he to his J^eowum, Witodlice fas gyfta synd gearwe, ac '5a }?e gelaj^ode waeron ne synd wyrf>e. GacS nu witodlice to wega ge- laetum, and clypia'S to J^isum giftum swa hwylce swa ge gemeton. Da eodon tSa J^eowas ut on ]?a wegas, and gegaderodon ealle fa fe hig gemetton, gode and yfele : fa waeron fa gyft-hus mid sittendum mannum gefyllede. Da code se cyning in, f set he wolde geseon fa '5e f aer sseton, fa geseah he f aer senne man f e nses mid gyftlicum reafe gescryd: fa cw3e6 he. La freond, humeta eodest fu in, and naefdest gy ftlic reaf ? Da gesuwode he. And se cyning cwaetS to hys f enum, Gebinda'5 hys handa, and hys fet, and weorpa'S hyne on fa uttran f ystro ; fser bytS wop and tof a gristbitung. Witodlice manega synt gelaf ode, and feawa gecorene.

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 79

-S"/. Maith. xxiv. 42-51. Dys Godspel sceal to maerdges confessores Msesse^dsBg.

Wacia'S witodlice; for]?am J>e ge nyton on hwylcere tide eower Hlaford cuman wyle. WitatS, J>aet gyf se hyredes ealdor wiste on hwylcere tide se )).eof toweard waere, witodlice he wolde wacian, and nolde gef)afian J?aet man hys hus underdulfe. And forj^am beo ge gearwe; forjjam t5e mannes Sunu wyle cuman on f)3ere tide )?e ge nyton. Wenst J^u hwa sy getreowe and gleaw J^eow, f)one geset hys hlaford ofer hys hyred, J?aet he hym on tide mete sylle ? Eadig ys se fjeow, })e' hys hlaford hyne gemet ]?us dondne, J^onne he cym^. SocS ic eow secge, Daet ofer call J^aet he ah he hyne geset. Gyf se yfela })eowa })enct5 on hys heortan, and cwytS, Min hlaford ufera'5 hys cyme; and agyncS beatan hys efen-f)eowas, and yt and drinctS myd druncenum; ])onne cymtS J^aes weales hlaford on J?am daege "Se he na ne wenS, and on faere tide f)e he nat, and todseltS hyne, and aset hys dael mid liceterum ; f aer bytS wop, and tofa gristbitung.

St. Maith. XXV. 1-13. Dys sceal to haligra feenmena Msasse-dsege,

Donne bytS heofena rice gelic J)am tyn faemnum, ]>e Sa leoht-fatu namon, and ferdon ongean J^one brydguman and J)a bryde. Heora fif waeron dysege, and fif gleawe. And f>a fif dysegan namon leoht-fatu, and ne namon naenne ele mid hym: J>a gleawan namon ele on heora fatum, mid )?am leoht-fatum. Da se bryd-guma ylde, fa hnappedon hig ealle and slepon. Witodlice to middere

8o SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

nihte man hrymde, and cwsetS, Nu, se bryd-guma Gym's ; faratS him togeanes. Da aryson ealle J?a faemnan, and glengdon heora leoht-fatu. Da cwaedon })a dysegan to J?am wisum, SyllaS us of eowrum ele ; forfam ure leoht- fatu synd acwencte. Da andswaredon fa gleawan, and cwaedon, Nese; )?y-lses J)e we and ge nabbon genoh: gats to J)am cypendum, and bycgaS eow ele. Witodlice f)a hig ferdon, and woldon bycgan, fa com se bryd- guma ; and fa f e gearowe wseron, eodon in mid him to fam giftum : and seo duru waes belocen. Da aet nehstan comon fa oSre faemnan and cwaedon, Dryhten, Dryhten, laet us in. Da andswarode he heom, and cwaeS, SoS ic eow secge, ne can ic eow. Witodlice waciatS ; forf am "Se ge nyton ne f one daeg, ne fa tide.

Si. Mark ii. 14-20.

And fa he fortS-eode, he geseah Leuin Alphei sittende aet his cep-setle, and he cwaetS to hym : Folga me. Da aras he and folgode hym. And hit geweartS, fa he saet on his huse, f aet manega manfulle saeton mid f am Hsel- ende, and his leorning-cnyhtum ; soSlice manega, fa tSe hym fyligdon, waeron boceras and Pharisei, and cwaedon : Witodlice he ytt mid manfullum and synfullum, and hig cwaedon to hys leorning-cnyhtum : Hwi ytt eower lareow and drinctS mid manfullum and synfullum.? Da se Haelend fys gehyrde, he saede him: Ne befurfon na Sa halan laeces, ac Sa fe untrume synd: ne com ic na f aet ic clypode rihtwise, ac synfulle. And fa waeron lohannes leorning-cnyhtas and Pharisei faestende: and fa comon hig, and saedon hym : Hwi faesta'5 lohannes leorning-cnyhtas and Phariseorum, and fine ne faestat5?

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 8 1

Da cwaeS se Hgelend : CweSe ge sculon J^ses bryd-guman cnyhtas faestan swa lange swa se bryd-guma mid him is? ne magon hi faestan swa lange tide swa hig 'Sone bryd-guman mid hym habba'S.

Si. Mark vi. i-ii.

And f)a he ]?anon eode, he ferde on his ej?el, and him folgedon hys leorning-cnyhtas. And gewordenum reste- daege, he ongan on gesomnunge Iseran; and maenige gehyrdon, and wundredon on his lare, and cwsedon : Hwanon synd fyssum ealle f>as }>ing? and hwset ys se wisdom f>e hym geseald ys, and swylce mihta f»e Jjurh his handa gewordene synd? Hu nys f)ys se smiS, Marian sunu, lacobes broker, and losepes, and lude, and Simonis? hu ne synd hys swustra her mid us? And J>a wurdon hig gedrefede. Da cwae'S se Haelend: So'Slice nys nan witega butan weorf)scype, buton on his et5ele, and on his maegSe, and on his huse. And he ne mihte f)ar aenig maegen wyrcan, buton feawa untrume, on- asettum his handum, he gehaelde. And he wundrode for heora ungeleafan. He J^a laerende, })a castel beferde. And him twelfe to geclypode, and agan hig sendan, twam and twam ; and him anweald sealde unclaenra gasta; and him bebead f>aet hig naht on wege ne namon, buton gyrde ane : ne codd, ne hlaf, ne feoh on heora gyrdlum : ac gesceode mid calcum ; and jjset hig mid twam tunecum gescrydde naeron. And he cwaecS to him : Swa hwylc hus swa ge in-gaS, wuniaS J?ar, oS paet ge utgan. And swa hwylce swa eow ne gehyra"S, f)onne ge f>anon ut-ga(5, asceacatS f>aet dust of eowrum fotum, him on gewitnesse.

Sz SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

S/. Mark x. 17-31.

Dys sceal on "Wodnes-dseg, on tJeere seofe^Jan wucan ofer Pentecosten.

And )5a he on wege eode, sum him to arn, and gebigedum cneowe to-foran him, cwaeS, and baed hine : La goda Lareow, hwset do ic J?3et ic ece lif age? Da cwse'S se Haelend: Hwi segst f)u me godne? nys nan mann god, buton God ana. Canst f>u ]?a bebodu, Ne unriht-haem J?u, Ne slyh f)u, Ne stel f>u, Ne sege J?u lease gewitnesse, Facen ne do ]?u, Weor]?a J^inne faeder and ]?ine modor ? Da answarede he : Goda Lareow, eall J)is ic geheold of minre geoguJ)e. Se Haelend hine ]?a behealdende, lufode, and saede him : An ]?ing f)e ys wana: gesyle eall ]?aet \m age, and syle hit )?earfum; J?onne haefst J?u gold-hord on heofenum; and cum, and folga me. And for J>am worde he waes geunret; and ferde gnornigende ; forf)am he hsefde mycele aehta. Da cwaetS se Haelend to his leorning-cnyhtum, hine beseonde : SwytSe earfoSlice on Godes rice gaS J?a ]?e feoh habbaS ! Da forhtedon his leorning-cnyhtas be his wordum. Eft se Haelend him andswariende cwaeS: Eala cild, swytSe earfoSlice J^a t5e on heora feo getruwiaS gatS on Godes rice! Eaf>ere ys olfende to farenne J)urh needle f>yrel, Jjonne se rica and se welega on Godes rice ga. Hig faes J?e ma betweox him wundredon, and cwaedon : And hwa maeg beon hal? Da beheold se Haelend hig, and cwaetS : Mid mannum hyt ys uneapelic, ac na inid Gode : Ealle fing mid Gode synt ea)?elice. Da ongan Petrus cwefan : Witodlice, we ealle )?ing forleton and folgodon J)e. Da andswarode him se Haelend : Nys nan )?e hys hus forlaet, o)3j?e gebrofru, oJ^J^e geswustra, o]pJ?e faeder,

St. Mark xi. i-fo. /^ '^ *i S T ^ Tr'

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS, 83

oyp& moder, oype beam, oypo. seceras, for me and for Jjam godspelle, \>q hundfeald ne onfo nu on }>ysse tide, hus, and brofru, and swustra, and faeder, and modor, and beam, and aeceras, mid ehtnessum ; and on toweardre worulde, ece lif. Manega fyrmeste be»^g^'YtErH^f5^=;%^ ytemeste, fyrmeste. / ^ '^fi

I OF j^jj

Dys gebyxa^ feower wucon ser Myd"daji-wi3^|>-W["t ^V

Da he genealaehte Hierusalem, and Bethania, toDliuetes dune, he sende hys tvvegen leorning-cnyhtas, and cwaetS to him : FaratS to J?am castelle, ])e ongean inc ys, and gyt faer sona gemetaS assan folan getigedne, ofer J?aene nan man gyt ne saet: ungetigea'S hine, and to me gelaedaS. And gif hwa to inc hwaet cwyt5, secgatS, Daet Dryhten haeftS his neode; and he hine sona hyder laet. And f)a hig ut-ferdon, hig gemetton J?one folan ute on twycinan beforan dura getigedne : pa. untigdon hig hine. And sume pe }>ar stodon, }3us saedon him : Hwaet do gyt, J^one folan untigende ? Da cwaedon hig : Swa se Haelend unc bead : and hi leton hig J)a. Da laeddon hig f>one folan to f)am Haelende, and hig heora reaf on-aledon; and he on saet. Manega heora reaf on fone weg strehton : sume pa bogas of )?am treowum heowon, and streowedon on )?one weg. And J?a tSe beforan eodon, and J3a tSe aefter folgodon, cwaedon Ipns: Osanna: Sy gebletsod se fe com on Dryhtnes naman: Sy gebletsod J^aet rice fe com ures faeder Dauides; Osanna on heah- nessum.

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St. Mark xii. 13-17.

Dys, sceal on IJsere xxiiii wiican ofer Pentecosten.

Da sendon hig to him sume of Phariseum and Hero- dianum, )5aet hig befengon hine on his worde. Da comon hig, and pus mid facne cwaedon : Lareow, we witon f»aet J)U eart so'Sfaest, and f)U ne recst be senegum men : ne besceawast f)u manna ansyne ; ac fu Codes weg laerst on so'Sfaestnysse : AlyfS gafol to syllanne f>am Casere, h\vaef>er ]?e we ne syllaS? Da cwae'S he, and heora lot- wrencas wiste: Hwi fandige ge mm, bringaS me f>one pening, J)3et ic hyne geseo. Da brohton hig hym. Da saede he hym : Hwaes ys J^eos anhcnys, and ))is gewrit ? Hig cwsedon : paes Caseres. Da cwaetS se Haelend to hym. Ag)'fa'S ]?am Casere j^a J^ing ]?e f>8es Caseres synd, and Code f)a ^pe Codes synd. Da wundredon hig be ])am.

St. Mark xiii. 28-37.

LeorniacS an bigspel be ]?am fic-treowe : ponne his twig biS mearu, and leaf htd^ acennede, ge witon f)3et sumor ys gehende : and wite ge J)onne ge J)as fing geseocS, J^aet he ys dura gehende. So'^lice ic eow secge, fset f)eos cneores ne gewit, aerf)am ealle fas Jjing geweoijpon. Heofen and eor'Se gewitaS ; witodlice mine word ne gewita^S. Be J?am dgege and J^aere tide nan man nat, ne englas on heofnum, ne mannes Sunu, buton Fseder ana. WarniaS, and wacia'5, and gebidda'S eow; ge nyton hwaenne seo tid ys. Swa se man, ))e ael]?eodlice ferde, forlet his hus, and sealde his })eowum f>one anweald gehwylces weorces, and beode ]?am dure-wearde f)aet he wacige. Eornostlice waciatS : ge nyton hwaenne faes

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. %t^

buses hlaford cymS, Se on aefen, J^e on midre nihte, ))e on hancrede, })e on mergen : ]3e-lses be eow slaepende gemete, J?onne he fseringa cymS. Sot51ice ic eow secge, eallum ic hit secge, Wacia(5.

St. Luke i. 56-65.

Dys gebyratJ on Mid-sumeres Msesse-dseg.

SotSlice Maria wunede mid byre swylce J^ry montJas, and gewende J^a to byre buse. Da waes gefylled Eliza- bethe cenning-tid, and beo sunn cende. And byre nehhe- buras and byre cuSan J^set gebyrdon, J^set Dryhten hys mild-beortnysse mid byre mgersode, and by mid byre biissodon. Da on fam ehteo'San daege big comon J^aet cild ymb-sniSan; and nemdon byne hys faeder naman Zacbariam. Da andswarode hys moder : Nese sot5es ; ac be byS lobannes genemned. Da cwsedon big to byre : Nis nan on J^inre msegcSe fjyson naman genemned. Da bycnodon big to hys faeder, bwait be wolde byne genemnedne beon. Da wrat be, gebedenum wex-brede, lobannes ys hys nama. Da wundredon big ealle. Da weartS sona hys mu'S and bis tunge geopenod, and be spraec, Dribten bletsiende. Da wear's ege geworden ofer eall byra nebbeburas; and ofer ealie ludea munt-land w^ron J^as word gewidmaersode.

St. Luke ii. 36-50.

And Anna waes witegestre, Fanueles dobtor, of Asseres maegt5e : )?eos wunede msenigne daeg, and beo lyfede mid byre were seofen gear of byre faemnhade ; and beo waes wuduwe o'S feower and bund-ebtatig geara, seo of fam

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temple ne gewat, dae^es and nihtes J^eowigende on faestenum and on halsungum. And )?eos f)^re tide be- cumende, Dryhtne andette, and be hym spraec eallum fam ^pe geanbidedon Hierusalem alysednysse. And ]?a hig ealle fing gefyldon, sefter Dryhtnes ee, hig gehwurfon on Galileam, on heora ceastre Nazareth. So'Slice f>aet cild weox, and wses gestrangod, wisdomes full, and Godes gyfu W3es on hym. And his magas ferdon selce gere to Hierusalem, on Easter-dseges freols-tide. And fa he waes twelf wintre, hig foron to Hierusalem, to ]?am Easter- lican freolse, sefter heora gewunan. And gefylledum dagum, f)a hig ongean gehwurfon, belaf se Haelend on Hierusalem ; and his magas J^aet nyston : wendon J^aet he on heora gefere wsere. Da comon hig anes daeges faer, and hine sohton betweox his magas and his cu'San. Da hig hyne ne fundon, hig gewendon to Hierusalem, hine secende. Da aefter ]?rim dagum, hig fundon hine on fam temple, sittende on middan }?am lareowum, hlyst- ende and hig acsigende. Da wundredon hig ealle fe gehyrdon be his gleawscype and his andswarum. Da cwsetS his moder to hym : Sunu hwi dydest Jju unc J?us .? j^in faeder and ic sarigende J?e sohton. Da cwaet5 he to hym : Hwaet ys J^aet gyt me sohton } nyste gyt J^aet me gebyratS to beonne on J^am f)ingum })e mines Faeder synd? Da ne ongeaton hig )?2et word f)e he to hym spraec.

Si, Luke vi. 27-38.

Ac ic eow secge, forJ)am p)e ge gehyra'S, LufiatS eowre fynd, dot5 )5am tala ]?e eow hatedon, bletsiatS Jja "Se eow wirgeatS, gebiddatS for f)a Jjc eow onhiscaS. And )?am "Se )?e slyh'S on ]?in gewenge wend oSer ongean ; and J)am

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 87

Se ])\n reaf nymS, ne forbeod hym na f)ine tunecan. Syle aelcum f)e (5e bidde; and se ^e nim'S }?a f)ing J)e fine synd, ne mynga ]?u hyra. And swa ge wyllaS f>3et eow men don, dotS heom gelice. And hwylc })anc ys cow, gif ge lufia'S f)a f)e eow lufia'5? soSlice synfulle lufiatS J^a Se hig lufiaS. And gif ge wel do's J^am cSe eow wel doS, hwylc J^anc ys eow ? witodlice j^aet doS synfulle. And gif ge IgenaS )?am J?e ge eft aet onfoS, hwylc f)anc ys eow ? sotSlice synfulle synfullum laenaSi, J^set hig gelice onfon. Deahhwaef)re lufiaS eowre fynd, and hym wel dots, and laene syllaS, nan J?ing f)anun eft gehyhtende; and eower med byS mycel on heofone, and ge beoS f)aes Hehstan beam : forf)am f)e he ys god ofer unj^ancfulle and ofer yfele. Eornostlice beotS mild-heorte, swa eower Faeder ys mild-heort. Nelle ge deman, and ge ne beoS demede : nelle ge genySerian, and ge ne beoS geny- Serode : forgyfaS, and eow byS forgyfen : syllaS, and eow byS geseald ; god gemet, and full, and geheapod, and oferflowende, hig syllaS on eowerne bearm.

6"/. Luke xi. 1-13.

SoSlice waes geworden, J)a he waes on sumere stowe hine gebiddende, )?a Sa he geswac, him to cwaetS an his leorning-cnyhta : Dryhten, Iser us us gebiddan, swa lohannes his leorning-cnyhtas laerde. Da cwaeS he to him : CweSatS fjus, fjonne ge eow gebiddaS, Ure Faeder, }ju J?e on heofene eart, Sig fin nama gehalgod. T6- cume fin rice. GeweorSe fin wylla on heofene, and on eorf an. Syle us to-dseg urne daeghwamlican hlaf. And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa we forgyfaS aelcum f aera f e witS us agylt. And ne laed f u us on costunge ; ac alys us

g8 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

fram yfele. Da cwaetS he to him : Hwylc eower haeftS sumne freond, and gae^S to midre nihte to him, and cwaetS to him, La freond, lyen me ]>iy hlafas ; forJ)am min freond com of wege to me, and ic naebbe hwaet ic him to-foran lecge ; and he ))onne him f)us andswarige, Ne beo ]>\i me gram: nu min duru ys belocen, and mine cnyhtas synd on reste mid me; ne maeg ic arisan nil and syllan fe. Gyf he f)onne fjurhwuna'S cnuciende, ic eow secge, gyf he [ne] aryst, and him sylS J^onne, forf)am J^e he his freond ys, J^eah-hwaeSere for his on-hrope he aryst, and syl'S him his neode. And ic eow secge: Bidda'5, and eow bi'5 seald ; secaS, and ge finda'S ; cnuciatS, and eow bits ontyned. -^Ic ]?aera J?e bitt onfehS ; and se )?e sectS, he fint; and cnuciendum byS ontyned. Hwylc eower bitt his feeder hlafes, segst J?u syl'S he him stan ? oSSe gif he bitt fisces, sylS he him naeddran for fisce ? o'St5e gif he bitt seg, segst J)U rsec^S he him scorpionem (j^aet ys an wyrm-cynn)? Witodlice gyf ge J^onne, J^e synd yfele, cunnon syllan gode sylene eowrum bearnum, swa mycele ma eower Fseder on heofone sylS Godne Cast J^am tSe hine biddat5.

St. Luke xiii. 18-27.

SoSlice he cwseS: Hwam ys Codes rice gelic? and hwani wene ic J)3et hit beo gelic? hit ys gelic senepes come, )?3et se man onfeng, and seow on his wyrtun ; and hit weox, and wearS mycel treow ; and heofenes fugelas reston on his bogum. And eft he cwaetS: Hwam wene ic J?aet Codes rice sig gelic ? Hit ys gelic f>am beorman, ]9e )?3et wif onfengc, and behydde on )>am melewe })reo gemetu, oc5 hit wearS eall ahafen. Da ferde he ]:>urh ceastra and castelu to Hierusalem, and j?ar laerde. Da

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 89

cw3e(5 sum man to hym : Dryhten, feawa synd f>e synd gehselede. Da cwseS he to hym : Efsta'S ]:)aet ge gangon ]?urh )?aet nearwe get: forj^am ic secge eow, manega secaS )?set hig in-gan, and hi ne magon. Donne se hyredes ealdor in-gaeS, and his duru beclyst, ge standaS J)ar ute, and fa duru cnucia'S, and cwe^a'S, Dryhten, atyn us: p>onne cwyS he to eow, Ne can ic eow; nat ic hwanon ge synd. Donne ongynne ge cweSan, We aeton and druncon beforan fe, and on urum strsetum f)u laerd- est. Donne seg'5 he eow, Ne can ic hwanon ge synd ; gewitaS fram me ealle unriht-wyrhtan.

Si. Luke xiv. 7-15.

Da ssede he sum bigspel be ]?am in-gela'Sedon, gym- ende hu hig f)a fyrmestan setl gecuron ; and J?us cwaetS : Donne J^u byst to gyftum gela'Sod, ne site ]>u on fam fyrmestan setle ; Jje-laes wenunga sum weor'Sfulra sig in- gela'Sod fram hym, and f>onne cume se (Se f)e in-gela(5ode, and secge J>e, Rym f>ysum men sed ; and \>\x J^onne mid sceame nyme f set yiemeste setl. Ac ]?onne f)u geclypod byst, ga, and site on f)am ytemestan setle ; f>aet se (5e ]?e in-gela'Sode, })onne he Gym's, cwe(5e to J^e, La freond, site ufer : })onne by'5 J^e weor'Smynt beforan mid-sit- tendum. Forf)am selc J?e hine up-ahef S byS genytSerod ; and se Se hine nySeraS, se bi'S up-ahafen. Da cwae(5 he to f)am Se hine inlaSode: Donne })u dest wiste o'SSe feorme, ne clypa f>u J)ine frynd, ne )?ine gebroSru, ne J?ine cuSan, ne J?ine welegan nehheburas; ]?e-]aes hig J^e agen la'Sion, and J^u haebbe edlean. Ac f)onne )?u ge- beorscype do, clypa }>earfan, and wanhale, and healte, and blinde: ]?onne byst J?u eadig; for]?am J^e hig nabbaS

90 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

hwanon hig hyt f)e forgyldon : so'Slice hyt bi?5 ]>e for- golden on rihtwisra aeryste. Da J?ys gehyrde sum of f)am sittendum, }?a cwse^ he : Eadig ys se Se hlaf yt on Godes rice.

St. Luke XV.

Dys Godspel sceal on "Sone feorlJan Sunnan-dseg ofer Pentecosten.

So'Slice him genealashton manfulle and synfuUe, J?3et hig his word gehyrdon. Da murcnedon fa Farisei and J^a boceras, and cwaedon : Des onfeh^ synfulle, and mid him ytt. Da cwaet5 he f>is bigspel to J^am : Hwylc man ys of eow J?e hsefS hund sceapa, and gif he forlyst an of J?am, hu ne forlaet he f)onne nygon and hund-nygontig on )?am westene, and gae'5 to J>am 'Se forweartS, o'S he hit fint ? And J^onne he hit fint, he hit set on his exla geblis- siende. And f)onne he ham cymS, he to-somne clypatS hys frynd and hys nehheburas, and cwyS, Blissia'S mid me; forJ)am ic funde min sceap J^e forweartS. Ic secge eow, ]>2di swa by'S on heofone blis be anum synfullum J^e daed-bote detS, ma f)onne ofer nygon and nygontigum rihtwisra J^e daed-bote ne bej^urfon. OcS'Se hwylc wif haefS tyn scyllingas, gif heo forlyst aenne scylling, hu ne onaelf) heo hyre leoht-faet, and awent hyre hus, and sectS geornhce oS heo hine fint? And ]?onne heo hine fint, heo clypaS hyre frynd and nehhebyryna, and cwycS, BlissiaS mid me; forfjam ic funde minne scylling J)e ic forleas. Ic secge eow, swa biS blis beforan Godes englum be anum synfullum ]?e daed-bote de'S.

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 91

Bys Godspel gebyra^ on Seeternes-dseg, on ^sere o'Bere Lencten-wTican.

He cwsetS : SocSIice sum man hsefde twegen suna. Da cwsetS se yldra to his faeder, Fseder, syle me minne dael minre sehte pe me to gebyre'S. Da daelde he hym hys sehte. Da, aefter feawa dagum, ealle his ping gegaderode se gingra sunu, and ferde wraeclice on feorlen rice, and forspilde far his 3ehta, lybbende on his geelsan. Da he hig haefde e^le amyrrede, j^a wear's mycel hunger on ])2.m rice; and he wear's waedla. Da ferde he and fol- gode anum burh-sittendum men f)aes rices : f)a sende he hine to his tune, fset he heolde hys swyn. Da gewilnode he his wambe gefyllan of ]?am bean-coddum J^e Sa swyn seton : and him man ne sealde. Da be]?ohte he hine, and cwae"S, Eala hu fela yr'Slinga on mines faeder huse hlaf genohne habba'S, and ic her on hungre forweor'Se ! Ic arise, and ic fare to minum faeder, and ic secge him, Eala faeder, ic syngode on heofenas, and beforan pe, nu ic neom wyr'Se })aet ic beo f)in sunu nemned : do me swa senne of finum yrSlingum. And he aras pa., and com to his faeder. And })a gyt, f>a he waes feor his faeder, he hyne geseah, and wearS mid mild-heortnesse astyred, and agen hine am, and hine beclypte, and cyste hine. Da cwae'S his sunu, F^der, ic syngode on heofen, and befor- an pe, nu ic ne eom wyrSe p2et ic J^in sunu beo genem- ned. Da cwaetS se faeder to his J)eowum, Bringa'S ra'Se ]5one selestan gegyrelan, and scryda'S hine; and sylla'5 him bring on his hand, and gescy to his fotum: and bringa'S an faett styric, and ofslea'S ; and uton etan, and gewistfullian : for]?am J>es min sunu waes dead, and he ge-edcucode; he forwear'S, and he ys gemet. Da on-

92 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

gunnon hig gewistlsecan. SoSlice his yldra sunu waes on secere ; and he com : and ]?a he })am huse genealaehte, he gehyrde ]?one sweg and f)3et wered. Da clypode he 3enne Jjeow, and acsode hine hwaet J^a^t waere. Da cwset5 he, pin broSer com, and pin faeder ofsloh an faett cealf ; forj^am ])q he hine halne onfeng. Da gebealh he hine, and nolde in-gan : J^a code his faeder ut, and ongan hine biddan. Da cwaeS he, his faeder andswariende, Efne, swa fela geara ic })e J^eowode, and ic naefre )?in behod ne forgymde, and ne sealdest f)U me nsefre an ticcen, )?aet ic mid minum freondum gewistfullode : ac sy'Sc5an Jjes fin sunu com, J^e hys spede mid myltystrum amyrde, J3u ofsloge him faett cealf. Da cwaeS he, Sunu, f)u eart symle mid me, and ealle mine }3ing synd J>ine: fe gebyrede gewistfulhan and geblissian: forj^am J^es fin broker waes dead, and he ge-edcucode ; he forweartS, and he ys gemet.

St. Luke xvi. 1-9. .

Dys Godspel gebyralS on ^Ssere tsotJan wucan ofer Pentecosten.

Da cwaeS he to his leorning-cnyhtum : Sum welig man waes, se haefde sumne gerefan, se wearS witS hine for- wreged, svvylce he his god forspilde. Da clypode he hine, and Stcde him, Hwi gehyre ic fys be fe? agyf fine scire ; ne miht f u leng tun-scire bewitan. Da cwaetS se gerefa on his gefanc, Hwaet do ic? forfam fe min hlaford mine geref-scTre fram me nym'S: ne maeg ic delfan; me sceamaS faet ic waedlige. Ic wat hwaet ic do, faet hig me on heora hus onfon, f onne ic bescired beo fram tun-scire. Da fa gafol-gyldan gegaderode waeron, fa seede he fam forman, Hu mycel scealt f u

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS, 93

minum hlaforde? Da soede he, Hund sestra eles. Da sgede he him, Nim j^ine fecSere, and site hra'Se, and writ fiftig. Da saede he o'Srum, Hu mycel scealt ])u ! Da cw3e6 he, Hund mittena hwaetes. Da cwsetS he, Nim Jjine stafas, and writ hund-eahtatig. Da herede se hlaford f)aere unrihtwisnesse tun-gerefan, forJ»am j^e he gleawlice dyde : forj^am J?e ]?ysse worulde beam synd gleawran )?ysses leohtes bearnum on )?ysse cneorysse. And ic secge eow : WyrcatS eow frynd of )?ysse worulde-welan unrihtwisnesse ; J^aet hig onfon eow on ece eardung- stowa, f>onne ge geteoria'S.

-SV. Zuke xxiv. 13-32. Dys gebyra^ on o^erne Easter-dseg.

And J?a ferdon twegen of him on J^aet castel f)aet waes on faece syxtig furlanga fram Hierusalem, on naman Emaus. And hig spaecon hym betweonan, be eallum Jjam pe f)ar gewordene waeron. And f)a hig spelledon and mid him smeadon, se Haelend genealaehte, and ferde mid him. So'Slice heora eagan waeron forhaefde, })aet hig hine ne gecneowun. And he cwae'5 to him : Hwaet synd f>a spraeca pe gyt recca'S inc 'betweonan, gangende, and synd unrote? Da andswarode him an, faes nama waes Cleophas, and cwaetS : Eart J^u ana forwrecen on Hie- rusalem, and nystest f)u ]?a J^ing pe on hyre gewordene synd on )jysum dagum? He ssede J)a: Hwaet synd pa. f)ing ? And hig saedon : Be })am Nazareniscan Haelende, se waes wer and witega, mihtig on spraece and on weorce beforan Gode and eallum folce : and hu hine sealdon f)a heah-sacerdas and ure ealdras on deatSes geny'Serunge, and ahengon hine. We hopedon f>aet he to alysenne

94 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

wsere Israhel ; and nu ys se J?rydda daeg to-daeg f)aet fis . wses geworden. And eac sume wif of urum us bregdon, ])a wseron ser leohte aet J?aere byrgene, and na his lichaman gemetton: hig comon, and ssedon, pddt hig gesawon engla gesihtSe; f»a secgatJ hine lybban. And Ipd, ferdon sume of urum to pxve byrgene, and swa gemetton swa ]?a wif seedon: hine hig ne gesawon. Da cwaetS se Haelend to him : Eala dysegan, and on heortan leete to gelyfenne eallum J^am pe witegan spaecon: hu ne gebyrede Criste J^as Ipmg J^olian, and swa on his wuldor gan ? And he rehte him of Moyse and of eallum haligum gewritum, J^e be him awritene wseron. And hig genea- laehton J^am castele, ]?e hig to ferdon: and he dyde swylce he fyr faran wolde. And hig nyddon hine, and cwsedon : .Wuna mid unc, for})am pe hit sefenlaectS : and se daeg waes ahyld. And he in-eode, J?aet he mid him wunode. And pa. he mid him saet, he onfencg hlaf, and hine bletsode, and braec, and him raehte. Da wurdon heora eagan geopenode, and hig gecneowon hine; and he gewat fram him. And hig cweedon him betwynan : Nses uncer heorte byrnende, pa. he on wege witS unc spaec, and unc halige gewritu ontynde ?

St. John i. 19-28. And })aet ys lohannes gewitnes.

Dys gebyxalS on "Sone Sunnan-dseg eer Myddan-wyntra.

Da f>a ludeas sendon heora sacerdas and heora diaconas fram Jerusalem to hym, )?aet hig acsodon hine, and p>us cwaedon ; Hwaet eart J5U ? And he cytSde, and ne wi'Ssoc, and J?us cwaetS : Ne eom ic na Crist. And hig acsodon

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 95

hine, and fus cwaedon : Eart f)u Ellas ? And he cwaet5 : Ne eom ic hit. Da cwaedon hig : Eart ]?u witega ? And he andwyrde, and cwas(5: Nic. Hig cwsedon to him: Hwaet eart Ipu ? pddt we andwyrde bringon J)am pe us to ]>e sendon. Hwset segst fu be )?e sylfum? He cwaecS: Ic eom clypiendes stefn on westene, GerihtacS Dryhtnes weg, swa se witega Isaias cwsetS. And pa, t5e )?3er asende waeron, pa. waeron of sundor-halgon. And hig acsodon hine, and cwsedon to him: Hwi fuUast Jju, gif pu ne eart Crist, ne Ellas, ne witega? lohannes him and- swarode: Ic fuUige on wsetere: to-myddes eow stod pe ge ne cunnon. He ys pe sefter me towxard ys, se waes geworden beforan me; ne eom ic wyrtSe p2et ic unbinde his sceo-f)wang. Das J>ing waeron gewordene on Betha- nia begeondan lordanen, paer lohannes fullode.

St. John ix. 1-12.

Dys Godspel gebyratJ on "Wodnes-deeg, on Myd-feestenes wucan.

Da se Haelend for, ^J)a geseah he aenne man J^e waes blind ^eboren. And his leorning-cnyhtas hyne acsedon, and cwaedon : Lareow, hwaet syngode Jjes, otSSe his ma- gas, ]?aet he waere blind geboren ? Se Haelend andswar- ode, and cwae'S : Ne syngode he, ne his magas : ac })aet Codes weorc waere geswutelod on him. Me gebyraS to wyrcanne J^aes weorc ]?e me sende, })a hwyle )?e hyt daeg ys: nyht cymtS, J?onne nan man wyrcan ne maeg. Ic eom myddan-eardes leoht, )?a hwyle pe ic on myddan- earde eom. Da he f)as J^ing saede, ]?a spaette he on fa eor)?an, and worhte fenn of his spatle, and smyrede mid }>am fenne ofer his eagan, and cwaetS to him: Ga, and

95 SOME PASSAGES FROM THE

))weh pe on Syloes mere. He for, and Jjwoh hine, and com geseonde. Witodlice hys neah-geburas, and Ipa. tJe hine gesawon, pa. he waedla waes, cwaedon : Hu nis f)is se f>e saet and wsedlode? Sume cwaedon: He hyt is: sume cwaedon: Nese, ac is him gelic. He cwse'S soSlice: Ic hyt com. Da cwaedon hig to hym: Hu waeron Ip'me eagan geopenede ? He andswarode, and cwse'S : Se man f)e is genemned Haelend worhte fenn, and smyrede mine eagan, and cwaetS to me, Ga to Syloes mere, and }>weh ])e : and ic code, and ]?woh me, and geseah. Da cwaedon hig to him : Hwar is he ? Da cwaetS he : Ic nat.

Si. John X. 1-21. Dys sceal on Tywes-dseg, on "Ssere Penteoostenes wucan,

SoS ic secge eow, Se fe ne gee's set })am geate in to sceapa falde, ac styh'S elles ofer, he is J^eof and sceatSa. Se }?e in-gaetS aet J?am geate, he is sceapa hyrde, f)aene se geat-weard laet in, and f)a sceap gehyraS his stefne: and he nemS his agene sceap be naman, and laet hig ut. And J)onne he his agene sceap laet ut, he gae(5 beforan him, and f)a sceap him fyliaS; forf)am f)e hig gecnawaS his stefne. Ne fyliaS hig uncuj^um, ac fleoS fram him ; forjjam J)e hig ne gecneowon uncu)?ra stefne. Dis big- spel se Haelend him saede : hig nyston hwaet he spraec to him. Eft se Haelend cwaeS to him : So'S ic eow secge : Ic eom sceapa geat. Ealle ]?a tSe comon wseron J^eofas and sceat5an ; ac })a sceap hig ne gehyrdon. Ic eom geat: swa hwylc swa f>urh me gaeS, bytS hal, and gaeS in and ut, and fint laese. peof ne cymS, buton f)aet he stele, and slea, and fordo: ic com to f)am ]?aet hig habbon lif, and habbon genoh.

ANGLOSAXON GOSPELS. 97

Dys sceal on Sunnan-dseg, feowertyne nyht uppan Eastron.

Ic eom god hyrde; god hyrde syltJ his lif for his sceapum. Se hyra, se t5e nis hyrde, and se J?e nah )?a sceap, J^onne he f)one wulf gesyhtS, f)onne flyh(5 he, and forlaet J?a sceap : and se wulf nim'S, and todrifS f>a sceap. Se hyra flyh'S, forj^am ]>e he biS ahyrod, and hym ne gebyraS to J^am sceapum. Ic eom god hyrde, and ic gecnawe mine sceap, and hig gecnawaS me. Swa min Fseder can me, ic can minne Faeder; and ic sylle min agen lif for minum sceapum. And ic ha^bbe ot5re sceap, )?a ne synt of J?isse heorde ; anc^ hyt gebyratS pxt ic lasde ))a, and hig gehyra'S mine stefne; and hyt by'5 an heord, and an hyrde. Forf)am Faeder me lufaS, forfam Ipe ic sylle mine sawle, and hig eft nime. Ne nimS hig nan man aet me, ac laete hig fram me sylfum. Ic haebbe anweald mine sawle to alaetanne, and ic haebbe anweald hig eft to nimanne. pis behod ic nam aet minum Faeder. Eft waes ungej^waernes geworden betweox J^am ludeum, for J?ysum spraecum. Manega heora cwaedon, Deofol ys on hym, and he wet; hwi hlyste ge hym.? Sume cwaedon, Ne synd na ]?ys wodes mannes word. Cwyst lp\i masg wod man blindra manna eagan ontynan ?

St. John xi. 1-16. Dys sceal on Fryge-dseg, on Myd-feBstenes wucan.

Witodlice sum seoc man waes genemned Lazarus, of Bethania, of Marian ceastre, and of Marthan hys swustra. Hyt wses seo Maria ]?e smyrede Dryhlen mid f)aere sealfe, and drigde his fet mid hyre loccum. Lazarus hyre

H

98 SOME PASSAGES J ETC,

bro'Ser waes geyflod. Hys swustra sendon to hym, and. cwaedon: Dryhten, nu ys seoc se J^e ]?u lufast. Da se Haelend ]?aet gehyrde, f>a cwaetS he to him: Nys J^eos untrumnys na for deacSe, ac for Godes wuldre; fset Godes Sunu sig gewuldrod J^urh hyne. So'Slice se Haelend lufode Marthan and hyre swustor Marian, and Lazarum heora bro'Ser. Witodlice he waes twegen dagas on J^aere sylfan stowe, )?a he gehyrde J?aet he seoc waes. -^fter J^yssum he cwaeS to hys leorning-cnyhtum : Uton faran eft to ludea-lande. Hys leorning-cnyhtas cwaedon to hym: Lareow, nu }>a ludeas sohton }>e, )?aet hig woldon )?e haenan; and wylt fu eft faran J?yder? Se Haelend hym andswarode, and cwaecS : Hu ne synd twelf tida Jpaes daeges? Gif hwa gae^ on dseg, ne aetspyrntS he, forpam he gesyhS J^yses middan-eardes leoht. Gif he gae'S on niht, he aetspyrnS, forf)am ]?e )?aet leoht nys on hyre. pas })ing he cwae'S: and sy'SSan he cwaet5 to him : Lazarus ure freond slaepS ; ac ic wylle gan, and awreccan hyne of slaepe. His leorning-cnyhtas cwaedon : Dryhten, gif he slaept?, he by'S hal. Se Haelend hit cwaetS be his dea'Se : hig wendon soSlice J>aet he hyt saede be swefnes slaepe. Da cwaetS se Haelend openlice to him : Lazarus ys dead ; and ic eom blit5e for eowrum f)ingum, ]?aet ge gelyfon, forJ)am ic naes ]?ara: ac uton gan to him. Da cwae'S Thomas to hys geferum : Uton gan, and sweltan mid him.

PARSING GLOSSARY TO THE FIRST TWO PIECES!.

The plan of this little Glossary is as follows. After the Head- word comes the number of the line in which it occurs ; then the parsing; then a reference to the divisions of this Grammar; then the modem English equivalent ; and lastly the numbers of other lines in which the same word recurs.

ac 15. Conjunction ix. 2: — but.

acsia^S 25. Weak verb acsian, Imperative 2 pi. vi. 3 : — ask ye.

eet II. Prep, with dat. On the use of this preposition with person-words, see x. 2:— at, of.

and 4. Conjunction ix. 2 ; and. 5. 13. 14. 17. 26. 28.

dwecceaJS 19. Weak vb. com- pound, a-weccean,Imperative 2 pi. xi. 2 — awake ye.

bidde, 11. Of biddan, vi. i.

subj. pres. 3^"^ sing. : — ask. bigyrdliim 22, Dat, pi. bigyr-

del, what hangs at the girdle,

a purse. bodia^ 18. Weak verb bodian.

Imperative pi. vi. 3 : — preach

ye. borgian 11. Weak verb infini- tive : — borrow. burh 24. Strong subst. fem. Ace.

sing. vii. I b -.—fort, borough,

city.

bytJ 2 twice. Symbol- verb vi. i ; 3. sing, indie, pres. or future, X. 2 a: — is, shall be, 29. 30 twice.

cfeastre 15. Strong subst. fem. Dat. sing. vii. 1 fi : — city.

csastre 25. Ace. sing id.

cl8ensia"5 19. • Weak vb. cleen- sian. Imperative 2 pi. vi. 3 : — cleanse ye.

codd 22. bag, wallet.

cwaep 17. Pret. 3 sing, of cwe- "Ban, vi. i : — said.

cwej>ende 14. Part. pres. sing, of cwetJan. vi. i : — saying.

cwepende 18. Plural nom. of the same, vii. 2 : — saying. 2 7.

cymj? 29. Strong vb. cuman vi. I : Indie. 3. Pres. used as Fu- ture X. 2 : — cometh, shall come.

deade 19. Strong adj. Ace. pi.

vii. 2 : — dead. deoflu 20. Strong subst. neut.

Ace. pi. vii. I 7 : — devils.

^ This Parsing Vocabularj^ has been added in the Second Edition in consequence of a suggestion in the Nation, the American paper, for which, as well as for other useful remarks, I desire to thank my unknown critic.

H 2

lOO

PARSING GLOSSARY

dome 7. Subst. strong masc. dat. sing. vii. i a : — law.

dotJ 5. Verb don vi. i fin. In- die, pres. 3. pi. : — they do.

drifaU 20. Strong verb dri'fan vi. I. Imperat. 2 pi.: — drive{ye).

e^ge 3. Weak subst. neut. nom. vii. I ^ : — eye.

edge 4. Accusative of same.

eow 4. Pron. Pers. 2. Dat. pi. viii. I : — you. 5. 30.

eower i. Gen. pi. of 2^^^ Pers. pron. used as Possessive pro- noun, viii. I and 2 : — your. 39.

30-

eow rum 22. Dat. pi. of eower, which see : — your.

fare 14. Imperative pi, of faran to go : a form used only when ge follows it. vi. i '.—go ye.

feoh 21. Strong subst. neut. Ace. sing. vii. i 7 § i : — money ^ 'fee."

flitan 8. Strong verb infin. vi. I : — contend.

for 4. Prep, with Ace. case ix. 1 -.-for.

forwurdon 16. Pret. 3. pi. of for-weortSan to perish, a com- pound of weorlSan vi. i : — have gone to ruin.

gd 10. Imperative 2 sing, of

gan : — go (thou). ga 14. Imperative 2 pi. of gan,

of a form only used when ge

follows : — go {ye). ga"5 15. Imperative 2 pi. of

gangan vi. i : — go ye. 17. ge 3. Pron. 2^^ pers. pi. nom. ;

viii. i: — ye. 14 twice. 20. 25.26. gecweden 3. Participle past

of strong verb cwetJan ; vi.

I : — said. gecyrred 31. Weak vb. ge-

cyrran, Participle past : — re- turned.

gegearwa 6. Weak vb. gegear- wian ; imperative 2^^ pers. sing. vi. 3 : — prepare, offer.

gehyrdon 3. Weak vb. hyran; pi. pret. with Perfect sense, x.

2 a : — Jieard, have heard. genealcecj) 18. W^eak vb. ge-

nealsecan, 3 sing. pres. indie. :

Compound xi. 2 : — approaches.

genyt 9. Weak verb genydan,

3 sing. pres. ind. : — compelleth. gescy 23. Collective of seed

shoe, xi. I : — shoes, a pair of

shoes. gife 20. See to gife. gold 21. Strong subst. neut.

Ace. sing. vii. i 7 § i : — gold. gretatJ 27. Weak vb. Impera- tive 2 pi. : — greet, salute ye, gyf (=^gif) 2. Conjunction ix.

2 :—if. 5. 28. 29. gyrde 23. Strong subst. fern.

gyrd. Ace. sing. vii. i /3 : —

yard, staff.

h8ela"5 19. Weak vb. heelan.

Imperative 2 pi. : — heal ye. H8elend 13. Participial subst.

of hselan to heal vii. 2 : —

Healer, the Saviour, the Lord. 1 7. heofena 1 8. Strong subst. masc.

Gen. pi. vii. i o: — of heavens. him 8. Pron. 3*^ pers. masc.

dat. sing. viii. i : — to him.

Again 10. hit 27. Pron. Pers. 3. neut. Ace ;

viii. I : — it. hiwrsedene 16. Strong subst.

fem. Gen, sing. vii. i b ; a

Compound, xi. 3 : — of the

family. hreofle 19. Strong adj. hreofl

Ace. pi. vii. 2 : — leprous. hus 27. Strong subst. neut. Ace.

sing vii. i 7 : — house.

Nom. singular, 28.

hiise 28. Strong subst. neut.

Dat. sing. vii. i 7 : — house.

TO THE FIRST TWO PIECES,

lOI

hwa 6. Pron. Indef. viii. 6 : —

any one. hwd 25. Pronoun Interrogative,

viii. 5 : — who ? hwylce 24. Pron. Indef. Strong.

ace. fem. See swahwylce. hym ( = hiin) 6. Pron. 3 Pers.

dat. sing. mase. viii. i ; — to

him. 12. hym ( = heom) 13. Dat. pi. 3

Pron. Pers. viii. i : — to them. hys ( = his) 17. Pron. Poss.

viii. 2 : — his. 24. Hyt I. =hit. Pron. y^ pers.

Neut. nom. viii. i : — it. 29. the same, accusative, 29.

ic 4. Pron. i^* Pers. sing. viii.

1 :— /.

ingan 27. Subj. Pres. pi. go- verned by ponne : — ye go in.

ingatJ 25. Compound of gan or gangan, vi. i. Indie, pres.

2 pi. : — ye go in.

innan 15. Prep. gov. dative ;

ix. i : — within. Israliela 16. A gen. pi. like

Samaritana : — q/" Israel.

Iset 8. Strong verb imperative ; vi. I : — let, leave.

leomingcnyhtum. 17. Com- pound subst, xi. 3 ; strong Decl. masc. Dat. pi. vii. i : — disciples.

ma 15. Adverbial comparative ofmicel, vii. 2 : — more, rather.

mare 2. Adjectival Compara- tive of same, vii. 2 : — more.

metes 24. Strong subst. masc. raete, Gen. sing. vii. i : — meat.

mid 10. Prep, with dat. ix. i : — with.

nsebbe ge 21. Negative of hab- ban vi. 2 and x. 1 2 ; Imper- ative pi. : — do ye not have.

ne 5. Verbal negative, x. 10 : — not. II. 14 twice 30.

116 21 twice. Conjunctional ne- gative, X. 12 : — nor. 22 twice. 23 twice.

niman 8. Strong verb infinitive ; vi. I : — tahe.

nys ( = nis) 2. Coalition of ne and is ; x. 12 : — is not.

o"8 26. Conjunction, ix. 2 : —

until. of 3. Preposition gov. Dative,

ix. I -.—from, out of. ofer 29. Preposition gov. Ace.

ix. I : — over, upon. on 14. Prep, with ace. x. 11 §

2 : — into. 24. 27. on 6. Prep, with ace. ix. i : —

on. on 7. With dative : — in, on, out.

22 twice. 25. onfengon 20. Compound of

strong vb. fangan : Pret. 2

pi. vi. I : — ye have received. ongen ( = ongean) 5. Prep.

governing ace. ix. i : — against. oUer 7. Pron. Indef. viii. 6 : —

other. o'Sre 10. Plural of olSer, which

see. o15t5e 24. Conjunction ix. 2 : —

rice 18. Strong subst. neut. Nom. sing. vii. i 7 § 2 : — kingdom.

Samaritana 15. Gen. pi. formed from the Latin Samaritanorum by changing the Latin gen- tival inflection -orum for the Saxon equivalent -a, accord- ing to the Declensions of Strong Substantives : vii. I : — of Samaritans,

sceapum 16. Strong subst.

103

PARSING GLOSS A RF

neut. dat. pi. vii. i 7 : — (to)

sheep. se 13. Pronoun Demonstrative

as Def. Article, masc. sing.

nom. viii. 3 : — the. 16. 23. secge 4. Mixed vb. 1 Pres.

Indie, vi. 2 : — I say. sende 13. Preterite of sendan,

to send : — he sent. slea 6, Strong verb slean vi.

I ; Subj. pres. 3 sing. : — smite. 8651106 I. Adverb used con-

junctionalljr : — verily ^ truly,

however, but. 2.4. 23. 27, 30. sprffic I. Strong subst. fem.

Nom. sing. : — speech. stapa 9. Strong subst. masc.

gen. pi. : — of steps. swa 25. Relative to Antecedent

swa hwylce, which see. swahwaswa 9. Pron. Indef.

viii. 6 : — whosoever. swahwylce 24. A phrasal In- definite Pronoun ; see hwylce.

viii. 6 : — whichsoever, whatso- ever. swytJre 6. Adj. Comparative

degree ; neut. ace. sing, of

w^eak Declension vii. 2 : —

stronger; right, as stronger

than left, sf I. 3 pers. sing. pres. subj. of

verb to be, used as a gentle

imperative : be it, let it be. 28, s^ 25. Same word used sub-

junctively ; vi. r : — may be. syb 28 =sib, Strong subst. fem.

nom. sing. ; vii. i /3 : — peace,

friendship. 29. 30. syle 10. Verb weak syllan,

imperative 2 pers. : — give.

to 15. Prep, governing Dative ix. I : — to. 17. 30.

to 8. Adverb : — too, also, like- wise.

to gife 20. Phrasal Adverb : — as a gift, freely. 21.

tots 4 twice. Strong subst. masc.

nom. and ace. vii. i a : — tooth. tunecan 8. Subst. weak fem.

sing. ace. ; vii. i « : — coat. tunecan 23. Subst. weak fem.

pi. ace. vii. I ^« : — coats. twa 10. Numeral cardinal ; vii.

§ : — two. 22. twelf 1 3. Numeral Card. vii. § :

— twelve.

tintrume 19. Strong Adj. acc.pl.

vii. 2 : — 7in-strong, weak, sick. lit 20. Adverb vii. 2 : — out. Titgan 26. Compound of gan

or gangan : xi. 2 : Subj. pres.

2 pi. :—ye go out.

•weefels 9. Subst. strong masc.

ace. : — cloak. ■weg 14. Strong subst. masc.

ace. sing. vii. i a : — way. ■wege 22. Dat. sing, of weg,

which see. wenge 6. Strong subst. neut.

ace. sing. vii. i 7 § 2 : — cheek. . wse^ 3. Symbol-verb ; Indie.

Pret. third pers. sing. vi. i : —

was, has been. winne 5. Strong verb winnan

vi. I, Imperative pi. 2^^ per- son : — strive ye. wlU 7. Prep, with ace. ; x. 1 1

§ I : — against. witodlice 28. Adverb vii. 3.

used as a conjunction : — verily,

indeed, hoivever. wtmiaU 26. Weak verb wunian,

Imperative 2 pi. vi. 3 : —

dwell ye. wyle 7. Verb willan, 3 pers.

sing. pres. vi. 2. : — will. wylle ( = wille) 11. Of willan

vi. 2. subj. pres. 3 sing. : —

will. wyrhta 23. Weak subst. masc.

Nom. sing. vii. i « : — wright,

workman.

TO THE FIRST TWO PIECES.

103

wyrn 11. Of wyrnan weak verb,imperatiye2'»'^pers. sing. : — refuse.

wyriJe 24. Adj. strong Norn, sing. masc. vii. 2 : — worthy. 25.

neuter nom. sing. 29, 30.

yfel 5. Either Strong adj. neut.

ace. vii. 2 or Strong subst.

neut. vii. i 7 : — evil. yfele 3. Instr. case of same. ys ( = is) I twice. Third sing.

Pres. Ind. of verb to be : vi.

1 -.—is. 23.

J)a 5. Pron. Demonstrative ace.

pi. viii. 3 : — those. J)8er 26. Adverb of place viii.

3. 7 -.—there. psere 26. Pron. Dem. Dat. fem.

viii. 3. referring to the subst.

fem. burh or ceastre, and

governed by the prep, on : on

psere — in that (city). ])8et 2, Pron. Demonstrative

neut. nom. sing. viii. 3 : — that. J)8Bt 7. Def. Art. neut. viii. 3 : —

the. 27. 28. ■ 3. Conjunction ix. 2 : —

that. 18. pam 7. Pron. Dem. masc. dat.

sing. viii. 3 ; antecedent to ^e

viii. 4 : — to that (person), i o,

pam 15. Pron. Dem. dat. pi.;

Antecedent to pe ; viii. 3 : —

to those. J?ar 2. Adv. of place, same as

peer viii. 7 : — there. pas 13. Pron. Dem. pes, ace.

pi. viii. 3 : — these. tJe 5. Pron. Rel. Indecl. viii. 4 :

— who, which, that. 11. 16. pe 6. Pron. Pers. 2 Sing. ace. ;

viii. I : — thee. 7. 9. 10. pe 1 1 . Dative of same, peoda r4. Strong subst. fem.

gen. pi. vii. i ^ : — of nations,

i.e. of the Gentiles, pin 6. Pron. Poss. 2"* pers.

Sing. ace. neut. of strong adj.

declension, viii. 2 : — thine, thy. pine 8. Of pin, ace. fem. sing.;

viii. 2 : — thy. pinne 8 Of pin, ace. masc.

sing. viii. 2 : — thy. ponne 26. Conjunction, ix. 2 : —

when. pu 12. Pron. Pers. 2 sing. nom.

viii. I : — thou, pusend 9. Numeral cardinal : —

a thousand. 10. pysum 28 = pisum, Pron. De-

monst. Dat. sing. neut. viii.

3 -.—this.

THE END.

CORRECTION.

P. 31, 1. 10, read: of Neuters we can muster &c.

4-

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