THE BOOR OF ALFALFA the university of Connecticut libraries -n BRITL 633.3 1.C63 c. 1 COBURN # BOOK OF ALFALFA 3 T153 0002S30M T mo i> -n fSZT'^^ da J 2' It is the pleasure of the publishers to present to those who are interested in alfalfa, the man who declined an appointment as United States Senator, that he might continue to direct the affairs of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture in general and of farmers in particular, — Orange Judd Company. The Book of Alfalfa ' HISTORY, CULTIVATION AND MERITS. ITS USES AS A FORAGE AND FERTILIZER. * * * * Spanish clover, such as has Usurped the Occident and dwells On Sacramento's sundown hills. And all the verdant valley fills With fragrance sweet and delicate As wooing breath of woman is. — Joaguin Miller. By F. D. GOBURN Secretary Kansas Department of Agriculture. Illustrated 1912 Obangk JuDii Company New York Copyright, 1906 by Okange Judd Company New Revised Edition Copyrighted 1907 by Orange Judd Company ' 5b SO AH Bights Reserved Printed in the U. S. A. THERE ARE SOME SILENT SUBSOILERS THAT DO THEIR WORK WITH EASE, AND IN THEIR WAY, MORE EFFECTUALLY THAN ANY TEAM OR PLOW EVER HITCHED. THE CLOVER PLANT IS RIGHTEOUSLY FAMED AS ONE OF THESE, BUT ALFALFA IS ITS SUPERIOR. ITS ROOTS WORK SUNDAY AS WELL IAS SATURDAY, NIGHT AND DAY; THEY STRIKE 5, 10, 15 OR 20 FEET DEEP, MAKING INNUMERABLE PER- FORATIONS, WHILE STORING UP NITROGEN, AND WHEN THESE ROOTS DECAY THEY LEAVE NOT ONLY A GENEROUS SUPPLY OF FERTILITY FOR ANY DESIRED CROP, BUT MILLIONS OF OPENINGS INTO WHICH THE AIR AND RAIN OF HEAVEN FIND THEIR WAY, AND HELP TO CONSTITUTE AN UNFAILING RESERVOIR OF WEALTH, UPON WHICH THE HUSBANDMAN CAN DRAW WITH LITTLE FEAR OF PROTEST OR OVERDRAFTS. " Its long, branching roots penetrate far down, push and crowd the earth this way and that, and thus constitute a gigantic subsoiler. These become an immense magazine of fertility. As soon as cut, they begin to decay and liberate the vast reservoir of fertilizing matter below the plow, to be drawn upon by other crops for years to come " The Author's Foreword This volume, however strong its statements in favor of alfalfa may appear to those unacquainted with that plant's productivity and beneficence, is by no means pre- sented as an argument that everyone should raise alfalfa. It is intended rather as a conservative setting forth of what others have found alfalfa to be and do under wide variations of soil, climate, condition and locality; of its characteristics and uses; the most approved methods of its raising and utilization, and the estimates of it by those who have known it most intimately and longest as a farm forage crop and a restorer and renovator of the soil. The author believes in alfalfa; he believes in it for the big farmer as a profit-bringer in the form of hay, or condensed into beef, pork, mutton, or products of the cow ; but he has a still more abiding faith in it as a main- stay of the small farmer; for feed for all his live stock and for maintaining the fertility of the soil. To avoid the appearance of both special pleading and exaggeration the statements have been guarded, and many of a laudatory nature, which fully authenticated facts seemed to justify, have been omitted, as neither the author nor the publishers have desire or willingness to extol unduly a commodity so little needing it as that of which the volume treats. Alfalfa's strongest commen- dations are invariably from those who know it best ; none are incredulous who know it well, and none have grown it but wished their acreage increased. F. D. COBURN. Topeka, Kansas. 1906 IV Introductory BY Former Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin Editor Hoard's Bairyman I am exceedingly gratified by the preparation and publication of a new and larger work devoted to the sub- ject of Alfalfa The earlier effort by Mr. Coburn upon the same subject was in many respects a classic, and I am sure farmers everywhere will now hail with joy the advent of a kindred work by him, still more complete. It is strange, this late awakening all over the Union and in Canada to the feeding value and possibilities of this marvelous plant. Again, it is wonderful to me that within a few years farmers everywhere are being com- pelled to revise their judgment as to their chances of success with it. A large correspondence on this subject comes to me from every state in the Union and the prov- inces of Canada, and success is being had in the growing of alfalfa where not more than three years ago it was deemed impossible to make it live. Of course the ques- tion of growing alfalfa contains a thousand or more chances for good or poor judgment. Men who are not too conceited, too ignorant or too stubborn to learn by reading other men's experience will go ahead rapidly and soon make a success of it. I believe this alfalfa movement is the most important agricultural event of the century. For the production ot beef, mutton and milk, the combination of corn ensilage and rightly cured alfalfa hay, furnishes almost a perfect ration, requiring but a small addition of grain feed. Both of these can be cheaply and easily produced on nearly every farm in the land. In my herd of nearly fifty reg- istered and grade Guernsey cows these feeds constitute the sheet anchor of my dairy work. No one more literally abets the growth of two blades of grass where one grew before than he who effectively urges the cultivation of alfalfa upon those who are strangers to it, and no one is more truly working for the benefit of agriculture, the basis of all prosperity, than he who proclaims its excellence as the foremo^c forage. Hoard's Dairyman will do al! in its power to enhance the circulation and reading of such a book as Mr. Coburn has made. W. D. HOARD. Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. 1906 Publisher's Announcement All the plates of the "Book of Alfalfa" were de- stroyed in the disastrous fire that consumed our mechan- ical department January 28, 1907. We have taken advantage of this emergency and present the present volume in a new and revised edition, with the addi- tional material furnished by the author. ORANGE JUDD COMPANY. VI Tabic of Contents The Author's Foreword .... iv Introductory ..... V CHAPTER I History, Description, Varieties and Habits . I CHAPTER n tJniversality of Alfalfa .... . 13 CHAPTER HI Yields, and Comparisons with other Crops . 20 CHAPTER IV Seed and Seed Selection . . . :. ... 2y CHAPTER V Soil and Seeding . . . . i.i :. 44 CHAPTER VI Cultivation ..... t., . 67 CHAPTER Vn Harvesting ...,.., . 79 CHAPTER Vni Storing ...... . 93 CHAPTER IX Pasturing and Soiling ..... . 107 CHAPTER X Alfalfa as a Feed Stuff .... . 125 CHAPTER XI Alfalfa in Beef-Making .... . 138 CHAPTER XII Alfalfa and the Dairy .... . 143 vn CHAPTER XIII Alfalfa for Swine ..... Page CHAPTER XIV Alfalfa for Horses and Mules . . 165 CHAPTER XV Alfalfa and Sheep Raising . 171 CHAPTER XVI Alfalfa and Bees . 175 CHAPTER XVII Alfalfa and Poultry .... . 180 CHAPTER XVIII Alfalfa Food Preparations . 182 CHAPTER XIX Alfalfa for Town and City . 187 CHAPTER XX Alfalfa in Crop Rotation . 189 CHAPTER XXI Nitro-Culture ..... . 197 CHAPTER XXII Alfalfa as a Commercial Factor 204 CHAPTER XXIII The Enemies of Alfalfa .... . 206 CHAPTER XXIV Difficulties and Discouragements . 220 CHAPTER XXV Miscellaneous ..... . 223 CHAPTER XXVI Alfalfa in Different States . 231 List of Illustrations Page F. D. Coburn Frontispiece A Typical Alfalfa Plant i Typical Stems and Foliage of the Alfalfa Plant i An Eight-year-old Alfalfa Plant 6 Crown of Plant Shown in the Preceding Illus- tration 6 Alfalfa Blossoms Enlarged 7 Intergrading Types of Seed Between Alfalfa and Sweet Clover 12 Seeds of the Weed Known as Buck-horn . . 13 Alfalfa Seeds Magnified Five Diameters ... 13 Sweet Clover— Alfalfa— Yellow Trefoil ... 26 Three Distinctive Types of Alfalfa Seed Magni- fied Twelve Times 27 Yellow Trefoil Pods 32 Alfalfa Seed Pods 32 Sweet Clover Pods 33 Bur Clover Seed Pods 33 Three General Types of Alfalfa Seed .... 44 Dodder Seed Magnified 45 Alfalfa Seed Magnified 45 Dodder Plant on an Alfalfa Stem 46 Dodder (Cuscuta arvensis) 47 Alfalfa and Dodder Seed (Actual Size) ... 47 Dodder (Cuscuta epithymum) 47 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Bur Clover Pod 66 Yellow Trefoil Seed Pod 66 Alfalfa Seed Pod 67 Spotted Clover Pod 67 Gathering Alfalfa Hay into Windrows with a Side-delivery Horserake 78 Cutting a Fine Field of Alfalfa 79 Gathering an Alfalfa Crop in Page County, Iowa 92 Alfalfa Harvesting Scene in Yellowstone County, Montana 92 Mast and Boom Stacker, with Six-tined Jackson Fork 93 A Derrick Stacker 93 Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle . . 106 Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep . . . 106 Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep . . 107 Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle . . . 107 Alfalfa Field in Central New York . . . . 124 Fourth Cutting of Alfalfa in Shawnee County, Kansas 124 A Second Cutting of Alfalfa (July 28) in Shaw- nee County, Eastern Kansas . . . . 125 Kansas Farmer Viewing One of His Alfaifa Fields 138 Harvesting Alfalfa in Ohio 139 Showing Advantage of Early Fall Sowing . . 154 Five-year-old Alfalfa 155 Alfalfa One Year Old, Showing Effects of Inoc- ulation 170 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi Page A Good Type of a Four-year-old Alfalfa Plant . 171 x\lfalfa Plant and Roots Showing Bacteria Nod- ules ig6 Tubercles on Clover Roots 197 Peculiar Nodules in Groups on Small Rootlets 206 Alfalfa Roots Showing Normal Nodules . . . 207 And There's Still ]\Iore to Follow 220 Dead Prairie Dogs 221 Pot Culture Experiments at University of Illinois 230 Six Months' Growth of Alfalfa Foliage . . . 231 Cutting Alfalfa in Southern California . . . 256 Baling Alfalfa in Southern Oklahoma . . . 256 A 400-ton Rick of Alfalfa 257 A Cable Derrick, Provided with a Grapple Fork 257 Sweet Clover {McliloHis alba) 288 Yellow Trefoil (Mcdicago liipulina) .... 289 A Typical Alfalfa Plant as it appears before the blossoms are developed. From ^lichigan Experiment Station Bulletin No. 225 Typical Stems and Foliage of the Alfalfa Plant Avhen beginning to blossom the most suital)le for hay. Grown in Shawnee County, Kansas, on unirrigated upland prairie with a "gumbo" or hardpan subsoil. From the season's third cutting, August 20; height 24 and 26 inches ALFALFA (Medicago satwa^ Linn.) CHAPTER L History, Description, Varieties and Habits HAS ALWAYS BEEN KNOWN There appears no record of a time when alfalfa was not in some portions of the world esteemed one of Na- ture's most generous benefactions to husbandry and an important feature of a profitable agriculture. Its begin- ning seems to have been contemporary with that of man, and, as with man, its first habitat was central Asia, where the progenitors of our race knew its capabilities in sus- taining all herbivorous animal life, and where, possibly, it too afforded the herbage which sustained Nebuchad- nezzar in his humiliating exile, and eventually restored him to sanity and manhood. It was carried by the Persians into Greece with the invasion by Xerxes in 490 B. C, utilized by the Romans in their conquest of Greece, and carried to Rome in 146 B. C. Pliny and other writers praise it as a forage plant and it has been in cultivation in parts of Italy continu- ously from its introduction. Some writers are disposed to aver that it was brought to Spain and France by the Roman soldiery under Caesar and early thereafter, but 2 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA more probably it was not introduced into those counties until several centuries later. It is known to have been cultivated in Northern Africa about the time it was first brought to Italy; and the name "alfalfa" being Arabic the inference might be reasonable that it was introduced into Spain by the Moors from Northern Africa at the time of their conquest of Spain about 711 A. D., but this is of small consequence to the twentieth century. From Spain it crossed to France, and later to Belgium and England. It was highly spoken of by an English writer of the fifteenth century. A3IEKICA INDEBTED TO SPAIN But in those ages Europe was not so much interested in agriculture as in war. Land tenures were not well fixed and ownerships were uncertain. Spain, however, was to perform at least two important services for half the world, if none for herself. She was to reveal to civilization a new continent, and give to it the most valuable forage plant ever known. And so, in 15 19, Cortes, the Spaniard, and his remorseless brigands car- ried murder, rapine and havoc to Mexico, but gave alfalfa. Less than a score years later Spain also wrote in Peru and Chili some of the bloodiest pages of human history, but left alfalfa there, where it has since luxu- riantly flourished. If it was brought to the Atlantic coast of the United States in that century, it was not adopted by the Indian inhabitants, who were not an agri- cultural people, nor by the early European settlers. It was not until about 1853 c>r 1854 that it was intro- duced into northern California, the legends say from Chili, but it had been grown by the Spaniards and HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, VARIETIES AND HABITS 3 Indians in southern California for probably a hundred years, having had a gradual migration from Mexico. Strange to relate, while it is even now on the Atlantic coast discussed as a new plant, there is good evidence that it has been in cultivation on a small scale in the Carolinas, New York and Pennsylvania for probably one hundred and fifty years. Certainly there are small fields in those states that have been producing for over sixty years, and there are to be found articles and letters written far earlier showing that it was then known and had been proven. One Spurrier, in a book dedicated to Thomas Jefferson, and written in 1793, spoke highly of alfalfa, called 'Uucerne;" told how it should be cultivated, and that three crops of valuable hay could be cut annually. In the "Transactions of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture," published at Albany in 1801, it was favorably mentioned, and in the "Farmers' Assistant," printed in Albany in 18 15, alfalfa was praised and the statement made of its yielding 6 to 9 tons of hay per acre "under the best cultivation and plentiful manuring." Yet its cultivation did not spread. The inertia of farmers, or perhaps their indifference to new ideas, in the early days must have been marvelous. According to Spurrier the difficulties were not considered greater than now ; he said one plant- ing would survive many years and the yield was three times as great as that of any other forage plant. The seed was no doubt introduced there from England or France; it was probably scarce, and difficult to secure from growings in this country. 4 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA THE NA3IE AND ITS ORIGIN The name "Alfalfa" is from an Arabic word meaning "the best fodder," which honor it can certainly still claim Many writers have assumed that the name "Lucerne" which it bears in France and England, was from the name of the Swiss canton. Lucerne. This is a mistake as it was not known there until long after it was cultivated in France and England. The name is probably from the Spanish word "Userdas" which the French changed to "La-cuzerdo" and later to "Lu- zerne," still later to "Lizerne" and then to "Lucerne.'* Among other names by which alfalfa is known are the following: Lucerne; French Lucerne; French Clover, in part; Mexican Clover, in part; Lucerne Clover; Lucerne Medicago; Alfalfa Clover; Chilian Clover; Brazilian Clover; Syrian Clover; Sainfoin, erroneously; Spanish Trefoil; Purple Medick; Manured Medick; Cultivated Medicago; Medick. Persian, Isfist; Greek, Medicai; Latin, Medica, Herba Medica; Italian, Herba Spagna; Spanish, Melga or Meilga, also (from the Arabic), Alfalfa, Alfasafat; French, La Lucerne; German, Lucerne, Common Fodder, Snail Clover, Blue Snail Clover, Branching Clover, Stem Clover, Monthly Clover, Horned Clover, in part, Peren- nial Clover, Blue Perennial Clover, Burgundy Clover, Welsh Clover, Sicilian Clover. Alfalfa belongs to the botanical family Leguminosae, or the legumes, of which there are thousands of species, and is thus related to all clovers, peas, vetches and beans. Its botanical name is Medicago sativa. There are some fifty species of the genus Medicago that are known, but HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, VARIETIES AND HABITS 5 alfalfa and one or two others are all that are of practical value as fodders. It is a true perennial plant, smooth, upright, branching, ordinarily growing from one to four feet high, yet in some instances much higher, owing to conditions of soil, climate and cultivation. Its leaves are three parted, each leaflet being broadest about the middle, rounded in outline and slightly toothed toward the apex. The purple pea-like flowers instead of being in a head, as in red clover, are in long, loose clusters or racemes. These are scattered along the plant's stems and branches, instead of being especially borne, as in red clover, on the extremities of the branches. The matured seed-pods are spirally twisted through two or three com- plete curves, and each pod contains several seeds. The seeds are kidney-shaped, and average about one-twelfth of an inch long by half as thick. They are about one- half larger than seeds of red clover, and in color are at their best an olive green or a bright egg-yellow, instead of a reddish or mustard yellow, or faded brown. The ends of the seeds are slightly compressed where they are crowded together in the pod. Alfalfa is very long-lived; fields in Mexico, it is claimed, have been continuously productive without re- planting for over two hundred years, and others in France are known to have flourished for more than a century. Its usual life in the United States is probably from ten to twenty-five years, although there is a field in New York that has been mown successively for over sixty years. It is not unlikely that under its normal conditions and with normal care it would well-nigh be, as it is called, everlasting. 6 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA ITS WONDERFUL. ROOT SYSTEM In its root growth it is probably the greatest wonder among plants. While it usually grows no higher than four or five feet (although it has been known to reach more than ten feet ; an unirrigated stalk is on exhibition at the office of the Kansas Board of Agriculture, meas- uring nearly seven feet) and its normal height is about three feet, its roots go down ten, twenty, or more feet, and one case in Nevada is reported by Charles W. Irish, chief of Irrigation Inquiry United States Department of Agriculture, where the roots were found penetrating through crevices in the roof of a tunnel one hundred and twenty-nine feet below the surface of an alfalfa field. Prof. W. P. Headden of Colorado found roots nine feet long from alfalfa only nine months old, and another reports roots seventeen inches long of but four weeks' growth, the plants being but six inches high. It usually has a slender taproot, with many branches tending downward, yet with considerable lateral growth. As the taproot is piercing the earth it is also sending out new fibrous roots, while the upper ones, decaying, are leav- ing humus and providing innumerable openings for air, the rains, and fertilizing elements from the surface soil. The mechanical effect of this root-growth and decay in the soil constitutes one of the greatest virtues of the plant, and by its roots alfalfa becomes, self-acting, by far the most efficient, deep reaching subsoiler and renovator known to agriculture. VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES There are several other varieties of alfalfa besides Medicago sativa, the most common being the Interme- An Eight-year-old Alfalfa Plant with 312 stems growing from one root. Grown at Manhattan, Kan., on high upland prairie having a stiff, hardpan subsoil. Depth to water 180 feet Height of growth ^lay 6, ten inches Crown of Plant Shown in the Preceding Illustration Stalks removed to show branching crown Alfalfa Blossoms Enlarged HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, VARIETIES AND HABITS 7 diate Lucerne or Medicago media, the Yellow Lucerne or Medicago foliata and Turkestan alfalfa or Medicago sativa Turkestanica. None of these have such unquali- fied value as the ordinary alfalfa ; in fact the first two are properly regarded as weeds when found with Medi- cago sativa. In 1898 when there had been reported many failures in the alfalfa districts of the extreme North and the extreme Southwest, the United States Department of Agriculture sent Prof. N. E. Hansen of South Dakota to Russia, especially the cold, arid and semi-arid portions of northern Turkestan, to discover if possible a more hardy strain of alfalfa than that grown in America. He brought back from there several hun- dred bushels of seed which was distributed to govern- ment stations and individual experimenters in forty- seven states and territories. The reports of its behav- ior varied greatly, some growers being enthusiastically in its favor, while most reported results below or not above the average from other sorts, and some practically a failure. It would appear from the consensus of opin- ion at this time that the Turkestan alfalfa has not dem- onstrated in America any such superiority as to justify its general adoption, even in the dry and warm regions of the Southwest, in our colder states, or in Canada. Among other claims for Turkestan alfalfa by the gov- ernment officials in charge of its introduction and exploitation have been that ''its seed will germinate much quicker and the plants start into growth earlier under the same conditions than common alfalfa. The plants are more leafy, grow^ more rapidly, and have a stronger, more vigorous root system. Another advan- 5 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA tage which the Turkestan variety has is that the stems are more slender and less woody, the plants making a more nutritious hay of finer quality. That it will with- stand drought under the same conditions better than ordinary alfalfa seems certain from the reports of the experimenters. In the West and Northwest, at least, it seems to be more productive, both with and without irrigation." At the North Dakota station Turkestan alfalfa sown in 1901 yielded in the three years following (1902-3-4) at the average rate of slightly more than two tons per acre annually. Acclimation of alfalfa is a slow process, and numerous close observers think there are too many radical differ- ences in climate and possibly of soil between Turkestan and New Mexico, or North Dakota, to admit of this variety's becoming a preeminently valuable acquisition to America. It is thought more reasonable to let the American-grown alfalfa gradually accustom itself, as it will, to any particular region, sowing seed from nearly the same latitude and grown under as nearly as possible the conditions it will encounter in its new environment. In 1903 the Department of Agriculture began experi- menting on a small scale at stations in Arizona, Califor- nia and the warm regions with alfalfa seed procured by Mr. D. G. Fairchild, from Arabia. The officials in charge observe that the plants from this seed appear to make a much quicker growth after cutting, and as a result of this one more crop in a season than is obtained from other alfalfa may be possible. It differs from other strains in having larger leaflets and in being much HISTORY^ DESCRIPTION^ VARIETIES AND HABITS Q more hairy. "It is thought very probable that by careful selection hardiness can be bred into Arabian alfalfa so that it will grow much farther north than it does at present." AN OPINION FROM HEADQUARTERS As a latter day opinion or estimate of alfalfa from an official who is presumed to speak as an authority, with- out bias and knowing his subject, the words of W. J. Spillman, agrostologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, should carry weight. In an address before the eleventh annual convention of the National Hay Association, at St. Louis, in 1904, Professor Spill- man said : **Alfalfa is the oldest plant known to man; it is the most valuable forage plant ever discovered. It has not been appreciated in the eastern part of the United States until the last five years. We are now growing it success- fully in every state in the Union, and I believe it is safe to say in every agricultural county in the United States it is being grown with success. Two weeks ago I secured a picture of a field of alfalfa in South Carolina that was sowed over sixty-nine years ago. It was still in pretty good condition. I know of another field in New York State sowed forty-five years ago, and one in Minnesota that was sowed thirty-three years ago. All over the West there are thousands of fields of alfalfa that were sowed twenty-five years ago that are still yield- ing large crops. In Wisconsin alfalfa yields three crops of hay a year, and in Texas, four and five large crops. In southern California, below sea-level, where they 10 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA never have any frost, they cut alfalfa eleven times a year, and in Texas, south of the Rio Grande, they cut it nine times a year. "Alfalfa does not exhaust the soil. Nitrogen is the soil's most important element, and the one most liable to give out; the one the farmer is called upon to supply first. Alfalfa does not ask the farmer for nitrogen at all, because it can get its nitrogen out of the atmosphere. Four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. Ordinarily, plants cannot make use of that nitrogen at all; the roots of the alfalfa will leave in the soil eight or ten times as much nitrogen as was there before. The farmer who plants alfalfa, clover or peas does not have to get nitrogen from the fertilizer factories. I know one farmer who for the past eight years has made an average of eight and one-half tons per acre of alfalfa on irri- gated land in the state of Washington. I have heard of other men that produced twelve tons an acre in south- ern Texas on irrigated land. It would hardly be possible to produce that much on land that is not irrigated, because rain does not come to order. *T have lived ten years in a country where the horses, cattle, sheep, hogs and chickens eat alfalfa hay, or green alfalfa, the year round. It is the richest hay food known. Eleven pounds of it is worth as much for feed- ing purposes as ten pounds of bran." A most pleasing word-picture of alfalfa is that by Geo. L. Clothier, M. S., who has studied his subject closely in the field, the feed lot and the laboratory, and he paints it thus : HISTORY, DESCRIPTION, VARIETIES AND HABITS II "The cultivation and feeding of alfalfa mark the high- est development of our modern agriculture. Alfalfa is one of nature's choicest gifts to man. It is the preserver and the conserver of the homestead. It is peculiarly adapted to a country v^ith a republican government, for it smiles alike on the rich and the poor. It does not fail from old age. It loves the sunshine, converting the sunbeams into gold coin in the pockets of the thrifty husbandman. It is the greatest mortgage lifter yet discovered. 'The alfalfa plant furnishes the protein to construct and repair the brains of statesmen. It builds up the muscles and bones of the war-horse, and gives his rider sinews of iron. Alfalfa makes the hens cackle and the turkeys gobble. It induces the pigs to squeal and grunt with satisfaction. It causes the contented cow to give paiisful of creamy milk, and the Shorthorn and white- faced steers to bawl for the feed rack. Alfalfa softens the disposition of the colt and hardens his bones and muscles. It fattens lambs as no other feed, and promotes a wool clip that is a veritable golden fleece. It compels skim-milk calves to make gains of two pounds per day. It helps the farmer to produce pork at a cent and a half a pound and beef at two cents. * 'Alfalfa transforms the upland farm from a some- time waste of gullied clay banks into an undulating meadow fecund with plant-food. It drills for water, working 365 days in the year without any recompense from man. The labor it performs in penetrating the subsoil is enormous. No other agricultural plant leaves the soil in such good physical condition as alfalfa. It 12 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA prospects beneath the surface of the earth and brings her hidden treasures to the hght of day. It takes the earth, air, moisture and sunshine, and transmutes them into nourishing- feed stuffs and into tints of green and purple, and into nectar and sweet perfumes, alluring the busy bees to visits of reciprocity, whereon they caress the alfalfa blossoms, which, in their turn, pour out secre- tions of nectar fit for Jupiter to sip. It forms a partner- ship with the micro-organisms of the earth by which it is enabled to enrich the soil upon which it feeds. It brings gold into the farmer's purse by processes more mysterious than the alchemy of old. The farmer with a fifty-acre meadow of alfalfa will have steady, enjoyable employment from June to October ; for as soon as he has finished gathering the hay at one end of the field it will be again ready for the mower at the other. The homes surrounded by fields of alfalfa have an esthetic advan- tage unknown to those where the plant is not grown. The alfalfa meadow is clothed with purple and green and exhales fragrant, balmy odors throughout the grow- ing season to be wafted by the breezes into the adjacent farmhouses." ■r. p C rt :i (TO ;^ 5* ST w =- C/3 r. - dd - > O 2. < 7c rt Seeds of the Weed Known as Buck-horn Ribbed plantain, English plantain, or Rib-grass, (Plautago hu.ceolata). Very commonly present in alfalfa seed, especially that of European origin A bad weed. Magnification five diameters Alfalfa Seeds Magnified Five Diameters Note the characteristic angular point at one end, typical of alfalfa. The kidney shaped type, as in "a" is also characteristic. The rounded type b is rare, and resembles Sweet clover. Seeds marked "c" and "d" resemble Yellow trefoil in the projecting "beak" CHAPTER IL Universality of Alfalfa ITS WIDE DISTRIBUTION As the history of alfalfa is traced in the preceding chapter the conclusion is reached that its distribution is not to be circumscribed by any hard and fast lines of climate and soil. It is grown profitably in every country of Europe, in central Asia, its original home, in Austra- lia, the islands of the sea, and in almost every state and territory of the United States, and in Canada. Only two states, Maine and New Hampshire, and only one ter- ritory, Alaska, are left wholly in the experimental col- umn. Everywhere else there have been such results as to prove that it ought to become, in greater or less degree, a staple crop on practically every farm, dependent only upon more energy, faith and skill on the part of the farmer, and a natural acclimation. There are several other states such as Vermont, ^Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, Michigan, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ar- kansas and North Dakota where the experiment station experts are not fully ready to recommend it as a regular crop for every farm, yet, in each of these there are en- terprising farmers who have for years found profit in its raising. The station authorities in Vermont say that success with alfalfa there ^'depends first on the man, and second on the soil." 14 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA W. R. Dodson, botanist of the Louisiana station, says it is his firm conviction that nothing will contribute so much as alfalfa toward making the southern farm self- supplied with feed for work animals, for the production of dairy products, and home raised meat. *'I doubt," he also says, "if alfalfa does better anywhere outside the irrigated regions of the West than it does in the alluvial lands of Louisiana. We have had as high as eight cut- tings in one year, with a total tonnage larger than is had in Kansas or Nebraska, and our annual rainfall is sixty- five inches, or more." From Ontario, Canada, conies a report of a yield of four tons to the acre in three cuttings, on a clay hillside ; at far-off Medicine Hat, Northwest Territory, it makes a growth pronounced "phenomenal," and at the experi- mental farm at Brandon, Manitoba, three cuttings per year are harvested. On a gravelly hill in the District of Columbia, a field was sown in April, 1900. Two crops were cut from it that summer, three in 1901, and the first cutting in 1902 yielded three tons per acre. In southern Minnesota, some thrifty Germans, not knowing that "alfalfa will not grow in Minnesota," have been raising it since 1872, while others were declaring it im- possible. A half -score of men in the sagebrush wilds of Nevada decided to try it, and in 1872 they had 625 prosperous acres, without plowing and without irriga- tion. J. H. Grisdale, agriculturist of the Central experi- mental farm at Ottawa, (Bui. No. 46) says, "it is grown in Canada more or less extensively from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is the staple forage plant for winter in the dryer part of British Columbia, and it has been grown in UNIVERSALITY OF ALFALFA 1 5 Southern Alberta for many years. It is not much known in Alanitoba, but is possible of easy propagation in almost all parts of Ontario. It is, and has been grown long and successfully in Quebec, and is not unknown in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick." In Cape Colony, South Africa, ''lucerne can be cut from four to six times in summer and from once to twice in winter, and is the greatest forage plant in the world." In 1901 the Brit- ish consul at Buenos Ayres reported alfalfa as covering "an enormous area in Argentina, and every year becom- ing more important." NOT PAKTICUIiAR AS TO SOIL While experts have been declaring that alfalfa would only grow in certain soils and in certain climates it has proven adaptability to nearly all climates and almost all soils. It produces with a rainfall as scant as 14 inches, and in the Gulf states flourishes with 65 inches. It gives crops at an elevation of 8000 feet above sea level, and in southern California it grows below sea level to a height of six feet or over, with nine cuttings a year, ag- gregating ten to twelve tons. An authenticated photo- graph in possession of the writer, reproduced opposite page 231, shows a wonderful alfalfa plant raised in the (irrigated) desert of southern California, sixty feet below sea level, that measured considerably more than ten feet in height. Satisfactory crops are raised, but on limited areas as yet, in Vermont and Florida. New York has grown it for over one hundred years in her clay and gravel; Nebraska grows it in her western sand hills without plowing, as does Nevada on her sagebrush l6 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA desert. The depleted cotton soils of Alabama and rich corn lands of Illinois and Missouri each respond gener- ously with profitable yields to the enterprising farmer, while its accumulated nitrogen and the sub-soiling it ef- fects are making the rich land more valuable and giving back to the crop-worn the priceless elements of which it has been in successive generations despoiled by a con- scienceless husbandry. Its introduction into Maryland was largely through the perseverance of Prof. W. T. L. Taliaferro of the agricultural college, who says: 'The future for alfalfa for southern Maryland is bright, indeed, and with its general introduction will come a new era of prosperity for the 'lower counties.' Live stock farming will take the place of tobacco farming. The fertilizing elements of the soil will be concentrated at home instead of being shipped abroad. Larger crops will be raised. Soil im- provement will take the place of soil exhaustion; worn- out farms will be restored to their original fertility." THE ORACLES REFUTED One by one the oracular statements of so-called ex- perts have been shown at fault. One said, ''it will grow wherever corn will grow;" and as promptly men from New York and Louisiana rise and say that they are growing it where corn will not grow. Another declares, "it will not grow over a hardpan or gumbo subsoil;" at once a New York man reports a good field of alfalfa with roots fifteen feet long that pass through six inches of hardpan which was so hard that it had to be broken with a pick axe in following the root. A Kansas man writes that he has eighty acres that has stood five years UNIVERSALITY OF ALFALFA 1 7 and promises to continue indefinitely, yielding 4 1-2 tons from three cuttings a year, and the whole of it on gumbo soil where corn raising was a failure. An- other declares, *'it must have a rich, sandy loam," and forthwith from the deserts of Nevada, the sand hills of Nebraska and the thin, worn, clay soils of the South come reports of satisfactory yields. Such results are significant, indicating better returns than any other crop brings from these varied soils, and that few farmers are justified in postponing the addition of alfalfa to their agriculture because of supposed hindrance of soil and climate. A XEAV YORK EXAMPLE As citing an example, and suggestive of the fact that alfalfa not only grows but flourishes in the eastern states where the claim has been made that it would not grow, the following by the editor of the Rural New-Yorker, in his journal of September 3, 1904, is forcibly to the point : "A farmer visiting the New York state fair this year will do well to take time to look at some of the alfalfa fields near Syracuse. Whether it means that the soil in this locality is well suited to alfalfa, or that farmers have learned how to grow it, it is a fact that the crop makes a wonderful showing there. You find it everywhere — in great billowy fields of green, along the roadsides — even in vacant city lots. The crop crowds in whether the seed is sown by hand, dropped from a passing load or scattered by the wind. The majority of the farms show great fields of it, and the character of farming is slowly changing as more and more alfalfa is cut. On fruit farms or small private places the crop is changing meth- l8 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA ods and habits. A few acres in alfalfa provides all the roughness needed for stock on these small places, and gives extra room for fruit or similar crops. In fact, the most interesting thing about these alfalfa fields is the way they are changing the entire conditions of the coun- try. It is similar to what happens when a new industry is established in a town or city. ''The Grange meeting at a Mr. Worker's farm, was held in a great barn. He had delayed the alfalfa cut- ting so that the barn might be empty. Some other farm- ers nearby had already cut. I had a chance to see alfalfa growing under what seemed to me about the toughest chance you can give a plant. The city of Syracuse is buying gravel from his field, to use on the street. The workmen are digging right into the hill, and it requires hard labor to pick up this tough, hard soil. As they dig they follow the roots of the alfalfa down. Some of the roots are quite as large as my thumb, and I am sure that many of them had gone down twenty feet at least into this tough soil. These big roots make plowing an al- falfa sod anything but fun. This is one of the few ob- jections to the crop. I had supposed that the plant does its best where it can work down into an open or gravel subsoil. I have been told by one who is called an 'ex- pert' that alfalfa cannot thrive on a hardpan subsoil, yet here it was going down into the toughest soil I ever saw, and covering the surface with a perfect mat of green stalks. Mr. Worker goes so far as to say that the tougher the subsoil the better the alfalfa goes through it, provided water does not stand about the roots. That is one point upon which all agree — the alfalfa cannot stand UNIVERSALITY OF ALFALFA I9 wet feet. It must have water enough; that is why its roots go down so far, but it will not thrive in wet fields where water does not run easily away. ''On other farms I saw the alfalfa growing at the top of steep clay hills, which were formerly almost useless for farm purposes unless stuffed with stable manure. Now that alfalfa has been started these hill-tops have become about the most profitable fields on the farm. At another place I saw a fair crop of alfalfa growing in a thin streak of soil over a rocky ledge. There were not eighteen inches of soil covering the solid rock, yet the alfalfa was thriving. I have been told that this is the condition under which alfalfa will not grow, yet here it was giving more forage than any red clover we can grow. I have said that the spreading of these alfalfa fields is changing the character of farming in central New York. It is not easy to realize just what this means without visiting this favored section. This new forage plant brings fertility and feed to the farm. It is just like having a fertilizer factory and a feed store drop out of the skies upon the farm, to get this alfalfa well started. Of course as the farmer learns what the crop will do he uses it more and more to feed both stock and the farm. It would not be a very bright farmer who would continue to grow wheat or some other annual crop which brings him $25 per acre when a permanent crop like alfalfa will guarantee $60. Some farmers are quicker to see this than others, but in the end the major- ity of them see it and then we see a change. These alfalfa farmers are giving a great object lesson, and their farms are more interesting than any exhibit at the state fair." CHAPTER III, Yields, and Comparisons With Other Crops COMPARED WITH CLOVER Many things are understood best through contrasts with others better known. In every part of the country certain crops are considered standard, and all others are judged by comparison with these. For example, red clover in most parts of the United States is ranked as the richest and best yielding forage, and the fertilizer and renovator par excellence. The Massachusetts experiment station after a series of tests reports that lOO pounds of clover contain 47.49 pounds of digestible food and 6.95 pounds of proteids, while 100 pounds of alfalfa contain 54-43 pounds of digestible food and 11.22 pounds of proteids. The New Jersey station reports that the average yield per annum of green clover to the acre is 14,000 pounds, and of green alfalfa 36,500 pounds; the protein in the clover is 616 pounds and in the alfalfa, 2214 pounds ; one ton of alfalfa has 265 pounds of protein, and clover only 246 pounds. But alfalfa will produce three, four, or more cuttings each year, while clover will produce but one or at most two. Further, clover will ordinarily sur- vive but two years, while alfalfa will last from ten to one YIELDS AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER CROPS 21 hundred, thus saving many plowings and seedings. It is also estimated that the stubble and root-growth of alfalfa are worth at least four times as much for humus as are those of clover, while the mechanical and other beneficent effects of the long alfalfa roots far excel those of clover. The alfalfa field is green for pasturage a month earlier in the spring than clover and may be mowed a month earlier. It starts a vigorous growth at once after cutting, covering the ground with its luxu- riant foliage before the second growth of clover has made any substantial progress. The Wisconsin experiment station says that ''one acre of alfalfa yields as much protein as three acres of clover, as much as nine acres of timothy and twelve times as much as an acre of brome grass." COMPARISONS WITH SEVERAL. GRASSES Plat No. 10 11 12t Variety Grown June Clover Mammoth Clover.. Alsike Clover . .. Alfalfa (first cutting) 26 inches high, June 29th. Blue-grass Orchard grass Timothy Red-top Meadow fescue Tall meadow oat grass... Italian rye grass Timothy, blue-grass and orchard grass mixed .. Hay lbs. 473 475 413 816 575 478 560 470 375 600 Yield per acre, lbs. 2,365 2.375 2,065 4,080 2,875 2,390 2,800 2,350 1,875 3.000 1,015 ♦The alfalfa plat yielded a second cutting 26 inches high on August 2nd, and a third 24 inches high September 1st; there was also a six-inch after-erowth esti- mated at 180 pounds. The total alfalfa yield was equivalent, "approximately to 6 1-2 tons of good dry forage." None of the other clovers or grasses gave more than one cutting. tRobbed somewhat of both plant food and moisture by an adjacent row of grown Cottonwood trees. 22 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA The Nebraska experiment station has made very care- ful tests of the comparative yields of various grasses, clovers and mixtures. These were on plats of one-fifth of an acre. The foregoing table shows the yields the second year from planting, which owing to the very dry spring was a quite unfavorable season. COMPARED WITH CORN The Colorado station reports a comparison with corn as follows : Yield per acre of Corn and Alfalfa Corn, lbs. Alfalfa, lbs. Dry Matter 3,605 296 2,186 1,060 63 5,611 1,198 3,114 Starch Sugar etc Fiber ! 1,198 Fat 101 INDIVIDUAL INSTANCES OF CASH RETURNS A Lincoln county, Kansas, farmer writes that from five acres of alfalfa he received in one season $ioo for hay, $150 for seed and $20 for straw. A farmer near Atwood, Rawlins county, Kansas, cut two crops for hay and threshed the third crop for seed, realizing 13 bushels per acre, which sold at $5 per bushel. A Harlan county, Nebraska, farmer reports an income of $774 in one year from seed and hay from six acres. Scott Bros., of Pottawatomie county, Kansas, report to the author as follows concerning their returns from a twelve-acre field in one year: YIELDS AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER CROPS 23 2 hay crops, 30 tons at $12 $360 105 bushels of seed at $6 630 Straw 50 Fourth cutting, 12 tons at $12 144 Total, one year's return $1,184 A Buffalo county, Nebraska, farmer sold from a year's growth on 22 acres, hay worth $328.12, seed $1000, and straw $150. A Montgomery county, Kansas, farmer reports to the author a return of $106 per acre in one year from hay, seed and straw. Another report was sent in 1904 from southern Kan- sas, of five cuttings, making 8 1-2 tons per acre, which sold at $5 per ton in the field. SOME REPORTS OF YIELDS A farmer of Harvey county, Kansas, reported in 1903 two hay crops and one seed crop, the hay, seed and straw returning more than $50 per acre from a field that two years before had failed to yield enough corn to justify its gathering. Sixteen acres in Reno county, Kansas, are reported to have pastured in 1904 four hundred pigs and yielded one cutting of hay of over 16 tons. An alfalfa field of eleven acres in Washington, on the bank of the Columbia river, under irrigation, produced in 1 90 1 over 100 tons of hay. Former Governor W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, reports from three-fifths of an acre on his farm in the southern part of the state, four cuttings in one season, yielding 5.7 tons of hay. 24 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Alva Langston, of Henry county, Indiana, sowed five acres of alfalfa May 20th, and harvested nearly ij/^ tons of hay per acre August 25th following, and about the same quantity September 20th to 25th. This was on upland, thirty or more years in cultivation. The alfalfa was clipped twice before the cutting for hay. In 1902 F. S. Kirk of Garfield county, Oklahoma, sowed a field near a creek, but about 25 feet above water, with thirty to thirty-five pounds of alfalfa seed per acre, broadcast. The soil, which he calls ^'higli bottom," was a dark brown and contained considerable sand. For two years no attention was given the alfalfa except harvest- ing from it three crops the second year and four the third year. In 1905 he harvested from ten acres nine cuttings, estimated to weigh fully one and one-half tons each, per acre. The longest time between any two cut- tings was twenty-two days, and the shortest fourteen days. During the season of 1904 seven cuttings were made and the field was gone over with a disk harrow early each time after removing the hay from the field. It was possible to cut another growth of 8 to 12 inches, had he not preferred to use it as pasturage for stock. Mr. Kirk does not irrigate and maintains that in his part of the country "the best irrigation for alfalfa is with a disk harrow." He also insists that "alfalfa can be en- tirely killed by disking in the dark of the moon," espe- cially if the weather that follows is hot and dry. He pas- tures his alfalfa with cattle and horses in fall and spring, and disks in the spring as soon as the stock is removed. YIELDS AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER CROPS 25 SOME MONEY COMPARISONS A good acre corn crop in Ohio is forty bushels, worth not to exceed $20, after all the labor of cultivating and husking; the stover, if properly cared for, ought to be worth $5, making a total of $25. An Ohio farmer reports a yield of 4^/^ tons of alfalfa hay per acre, worth for feed as compared with the price of bran about $12 per ton, or a total value of $54, from only one plowing in six years (as long as he let it stand) and with less labor in harvesting than for husking corn and caring for the stover. A good Kansas or Nebraska corn yield ( far above the state average) is 50 bushels per acre, worth ordinarily about $17, with stover worth $3. The farmer should obtain from his alfalfa at least four to five tons, worth to him for feed for cattle, hogs or sheep from $10 to $12 per ton — practically two or three times his income from an acre of corn, while the cost of production is much less. The average year's corn or wheat crop is worth only about $10 per acre, while the average alfalfa crop is worth on the market from $15 to $35, or more, per acre, owing to the market appreciation of the crop, and from $35 to $60 as feed for stock. Many thousands of acres in western Kansas and Nebraska are now returning from their alfalfa fields an income of from $15 to $25 per acre where but a few years earlier the land was deemed worthless for agricul- ture. Hundreds of acres in western New York that 26 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA were returning only a small income above cost of labor and fertilization are now supporting great money mak- ing dairies from alfalfa. Cotton land in the South rents for $5 per acre, while alfalfa fields bring a yearly rental of three times that amount. o V|-l H o z % t > .5 42 ^ C3 n ^ rf o 13" < ■^ o^ n H w ^ v; ni 'O '> rt n a. w ►-1 o O ^. '< •-H, o 5 > SU =i 9i ^' w <^ :; m n ^ fb 3 ft D. W o S ni o SX) w" 5' '0 -+ Ch O- a S-' V < 2 rt »Q H 3 a en CHAPTER IV. Seed and Seed Selection NO SUCCESS WITHOUT GOOD SEED It is a time-worn but no less true saying that good seed is essential to good agriculture. No matter how well the farmer prepares his land, no matter how much time, labor and money he spends on it, if much or all of his seed fails to grow, he will either have a poor crop or be obliged to reseed, thus losing time and labor. Many causes may contribute to prevent a good stand, but if he can eliminate any one of these, he is by so much the gainer. Poor seed is a primary and great cause of a poor stand. The farmer obtains his seed from one of two sources ; he raises it or buys it. If the former, there should be less danger, as the chief source of poor seed is careless handling in harvesting and storing. If the seed becomes damp, mold will damage much of it, or it will sprout, then dry out, and the germ be killed. If seed is bought of strangers or from a distance, the chances of poor qual- ity increase many fold. If all seed were bought of reliable dealers, there would be less cause for complaint, but farmers too often buy where they can buy cheapest. They pay for trash that is either full of harmful weed seeds or has a liberal admixture of old and dead seeds left over from previous seasons. 28 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Before seed is purchased it should be tested for purity and germination. The adage that a dollar saved is a dollar earned well applies here; it is an easy matter to waste a dollar on seed, and when profit depends on avoid- ance of useless expenditure the use of inferior seed points its own moral. IMPORTANCE OF SIMILAR CONDITIONS The farmer who has brought himself to the point of introducing alfalfa upon his farm should be extremely careful in the selection of seed. In the first place it is important that he should sow such as is produced in about the same latitude as his farm and from a region of about the same rainfall, thus keeping in a line of accli- mation, and with the habits and habitat, as it were, of what he is seeking to raise. Next, he should not sow seed raised under irrigation if he is in a non-irrigation region. A Michigan farmer, for example, should sow seed grown as near to his latitude as possible, say, from Wisconsin, Minnesota or the Dakotas, or not south of Nebraska or Kansas. It is questionable, at present, whether it is wise or profitable to attempt raising alfalfa seed in the more humid districts of the eastern and south- ern parts of the United States. It may be economy to leave the raising of seed to those regions with the least summer rainfall, keeping always in mind the securing of seed grown under conditions nearly like those to which the seed is to be introduced. Speaking of the alleged different varieties of alfalfa, the seed of which is urged upon buyers by seedsmen, the editor of the Oklahoma Farm Journal pertinently says : SEED AND SEED SELECTION 2g ''We see occasional references to 'dry land' alfalfa and statements that it's a kind that just longs for the hilltops so that it may turn off big crops of rich hay from land too dry and hard to yield good sorghum. Don't for- get that the one thing to look for when purchasing alfalfa seed is good seed, that will grow. It's hard to find and the price is usually high. When you buy it, buy subject to test and send a fair sample of about an ounce to your experiment station, where it will be tested without charge. At the present time there is but one variety of alfalfa that Oklahoma farmers should buy, and that is good alfalfa seed. There is no 'dry land' variety of alfalfa, and the much boomed Turkestan variety isn't as good for sowing in Oklahoma as Oklahoma or Kansas grown seed. Rich soil, thorough preparation, good seed wdl sowed, cutting at the right time, harrowing when weeds and grass bother, all these are requisite to success with this most valuable crop, and it pays for all the bother." Seed from Nebraska and northwestern Kansas has been generally successful through Iowa and Illinois, and is probably adapted to Ohio and southern Pennsylvania. Utah seed produces good crops in Minnesota, the ex- tremes of cold and heat in Utah having developed a strain that does well in cold climates. The writer would use Utah grown seed for New York, northern New Jersey and northern Pennsylvania, and seed from Wyoming or Montana for New England. On the sandy land of south- ern New Jersey, in Delaware and Maryland, the seed grown in southern Colorado and southern Kansas ought to do well. 30 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Prof. H. M. Cottrell, formerly agriculturist of the Kansas experiment station, says: *'One year I sowed 20 acres to alfalfa — 19 acres with Utah grown seed and one acre with imported seed ; both showed a germination of over 98 per cent, and the growth was good from both lots all through the season, with no difference that could be detected. The next spring there was a good stand all over the 19 acres seeded with Utah seed, and not a single live plant on the acre seeded with the imported seed. I have seen several trials with imported seed, and never yet saw a good crop harvested from it. Usually after passing through the first winter there is from one-fourth to one-half a stand from such seed; the plants make a weak growth and, if allowed to remain, most of them die out in two or three years. Descriptions of the puny growth in reports of failures of this crop, given by east- ern growers, make one think that probably imported seed had been sown. No intelligent farmer would take corn grown in the warm soil and climate and long season of southern Kansas and expect to grow a good crop in New York on heavy soil with short seasons. It is even more difficult to succeed with so great a change in growing alfalfa, as it would have to withstand the long severe winter, as well as the change in summer conditions. No one should sow alfalfa seed without knowing where and under what conditions it was grown." New seed, other conditions being right, is always pref- erable, although that kept for several years, properly cared for, may have retained most of its germinability. Such tests as have been made appeared to show a loss in well stored seed of only about one and one-half per SEED AND SEED SELECTION 3 1 cent of germinability in five years. W. P. Headden (Colorado Bui. No. 35) after various experiments declares, ''the results are positive in showing that the age of seed up to six years does not affect its germinating power." It is usually handled and stored by seedsmen in the ordinary seamless cotton sacks holding from 150 to 160 pounds, and quoted and sold by the pound or hundred-pounds instead of by the bushel. The legal weight of a bushel of recleaned alfalfa seed is sixty pounds. Although the seed is handled in sacks for convenience, seedsmen say there is no good reason wdiy it might not be safely stored in bulk in bins without any deterioration from heating, or otherwise. There might, however, be some degree of danger from weevils or other insect pests in warm weather. Exposed to too much light, seed will lose its bright yellow color and change to a brownish cast. When stored, dealers say, it does not go through a '•'sweating" process as do the seeds of some other forage plants and grasses. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF SEED In years of large production in America and a short- age in other countries, considerable American seed goes abroad to Italy, France, Germany and Australia. The largest portion is consigned to Germany because exten- sive seed houses at Hamburg act as distributers to all portions of the world, from which they receive demands. In recent years the United States has been a buyer rather than a seller, and imports have been as follows : 32 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Year Lbs. 1902-3 1,018,559 1903-4 2,200,267 1904-5 2,865,324 According to the government authorities the bulk of the imported seed comes from Germany and France. That having the best reputation in Europe comes from Provence, (southeastern) France. A small quantity comes from Italy, but it is not generally considered to be of as good quality as that grown farther north. Seeds- men complain that many consignments of the foreign seed contain large quantities of Yellow trefoil and Bur clover. It is a fallacy popular among farmers and country seed dealers that great quantities of alfalfa seed are exported to be used for dyeing purposes. There is no foundation in fact for such a belief, and the exportations made, like the importations, are for seeding purposes exclusively. IMPURITIES AND ADULTERATIONS A foremost source of danger and loss, aside from infertile seed, is impurities and adulterants in the alfalfa seed planted. Growers often are careless and do not examine their alfalfa before or at the time of harvesting, and do not reclean their seed after threshing, thus send- ing out among innocent purchasers seed mixed with those of weeds, inferior grasses and forage plants, and with various trash which adds bulk and weight but has no value. The commonest seed adulterants or impuri- ties are those of Sweet clover (Melilotus alba) (Illus. Yellow Trefoil Pods The pods of \»lo\v trefoil are shaped as here shown and contain but a single seed. Magnified four diameters F 1 P ■j k -.4^ 1 r Ik 1 ^H ^^^^^^^H 1 ^^^H Ik^^ ^^1 p ^^^^^^^H H w ■1 1 B^^m^^^B ^jl 1 ^^1 Alfalfa Seed Pods Alfalfa has a spiral pod of two or three turns, often containing five or six seeds Magnified four diameters Sweet Clover Pods :\ragnified four diameters Bur Clover Seed Pods The seeds are enclosed in a coiled pod which is covered with bristly projecti.ms . as shown above. Magnified four diameters SEED AND SEED SELECTION 33 opp. p. 26), Bur clover (Medicago denticulata), Spotted clover (Medicago Arahica) (p. 67), Yellow trefoil or Hop clover {Medicago lupulina) (p. 26), and the Dod- ders (Cnscuta epithymum and Ciiscuta arvcnsis), (pp. 45 and 47). That an extraordinary proportion of the alfalfa seed in the markets, wheresoever from, is adulterated to an amazing extent with seeds of undesirable plants or loaded with worthless, if not actually harmful impurities, is being demonstrated by the United States Department of Agriculture. In a circular pertaining to this work is given the following, showing the adulterants found in samples bought in the open markets of the cities named : Seeds used as adulterants. City where bought Providence, R. I... Denver, Colo Rochester, N. Y... MilwaukeCj Wis. .. Indianapolis, Ind. Marblehead, Mass... Petersburg, Va Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Indianapolis, Ind..., Pittsfield. Mass Atlanta, Ga Salem, 111 St. Paul, Minn Louisville, Kv New Haven, Conn... Independence, Iowa. New Orleans, La Troy, N. Y Sweet clover Per Cent Bur clover Per Cent 3.47 16.86 5.02 5.74 4.27 3.90 3.00 5.49 3.37 10.04 16.53 5.88 12.69 2.57 6.23 Yellow trefoil Per Cent 32.86 39*48 38.43 39.53 1.25 38.54 6.98 31.77 39.85 31.26 Total adulterants Per Cent 36.33 16.86 44.50 5.74 42.70 43.43 3.00 1.25 5.49 41.91 9.52 10.04 6.98 31.77 16.53 45.73 12.69 3.20 37.49 In Farmers' Bulletin No. 194 of the United States Department of Agriculture is given the table on page 34 34 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA to snow the result of analyses of alfalfa seed imported within a period of six months. Bearing also upon the adulterations, impurities and defectives found in alfalfa seed sold in the markets, extracts from reports of tests made at the Wooster, Ohio station (Bui. No. 142) are exceedingly interesting. In Laboratory test No. 21000, 21001. 21002, 21003, 21004 , 21005. 21006. 21007. 21008 . 21009. 21010 . 21011 . 21012 . 21013 . 21014 . 21015 . 21016 . 21017 . 21018 . 21019 . 21020 . 21021 . 21022 , 21023 . 21024, 21031 . 21032 . 21033 2103o, Broken Alfalfa seed seed and dirt Per Ct. 93*38 92.1 82.28 84.72 89.16 74.06 58.74 80.12 73.02 96.82 80.2 96.96 88.84 96.24 91.06 93.44 77.78 81.52 69.48 96.5 96.4 94.4 24.5 94.14 94.58 87.72 90.56 89.04 72.36 Per Ct. 5.8 7.»4 15.92 11.58 8.78 21.38 34.46 \1M 22.32 2.72 12.1 2.16 3.98 2.66 5.44 2.7 16.04 12.18 23.78 3.04 2.82 5.04 70.96 1.8 3.44 11.02 8.08 10.5 27.1 Weed seeds Per Ct. 0.82 .56 1.8 3.7 2.06 4.56 6.8 2..'34 4.66 .46 1.7 .88 7.18 1.1 3.5 3.86 6.18 6.3 6.74 .46 .78 .56 4.54 4.06 1.98 1.26 1.36 .46 .54 Number of weed seeds in 1 pound 2,100 900 3,060 3,420 2,700 15,928 32,420 8,964 12,829 990 3,060 1,710 17,299 3,510 7,650 8,526 16,435 21,848 23,082 1,080 1,260 1,620 21,070 3,780 3,060 4,140 3,420 1,260 270 Number ofdodder seeds in 1 pound 90 2,520 5,490 270 90 360 720 810 Alfalfa seed that'll grow Per Ct. 63.73 59.17 66.64 57.39 62.18 53.87 28.78 61.36 49.65 85.2 55.59 87.26 43.2 11.^1 62.14 77.08 47.83 7.13 5.21 88.53 91.82 90.15 6.34 73.43 51.78 81.14 76.29 84.7 04.58 Amount imported Potmcis 4,000 30,8C0 5,500 32,877 14,700 7,613 33,075 8,779 32,963 33,000 30,800 5,500 33,000 21,340 8,778 33,000 33,000 16,280 38,172 44,000 44,000 72,600 12,540 234 5,500 143,000 33,000 6,673 13,516 fifteen samples bought, each of one dollar's worth, the quantity of pure germinable seed was found to range from 5.1 to 9.3 pounds; the number of noxious seeds found in a dollar's worth of that bought as alfalfa seed ranged from 360 to 185,940. Seven of the fifteen one-dol- lar samples each carried more than 23,000 noxious seeds. SEED AND SEED SELECTION 35 Seed bought at $7.80 per bushel showed as low as 61.2 per cent that was germinable, of which the actual cost was $12.74 per bushel. None of the fifteen samples had less than yy per cent of germinable seed. One pound sample contained 21,728 noxious seeds, of which 18,144 were lamb's-quarter or pigweeds; the same pound also had 3126 seeds of dodder. Another pound carried 6420 seeds of crab grass, and one had 3325 seeds of foxtail. The station authorities recommend that no alfalfa seed be sown until carefully screened through a screen fine enough to remove dodder seeds. Wire sieves or screens with twenty meshes to the inch are found to serve the purpose. ADULTERANTS DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED As a further and more thorough discussion of the fre- quent adulterants. Prof. H. F. Roberts, botanist of the Kansas experiment station, has kindly prepared, with illustrations, for this volume the quoted statements which follow here: "The immense and steadily increasing value of alfalfa as a forage crop in the United States, and the high price of the seed, make the securing of sound, pure seed a matter of supreme importance to farmers, and render it equally important for them to be able to recognize, by sight, the presence in alfalfa seed of the adulterants and seeds of certain weeds most commonly known to occur. There is conclusive evidence that an amount of adulteration and substitution is actually practiced with alfalfa seed. It is usually charged that this is done abroad, especially, as is alleged, in Germany. 36 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA 'The writer has been informed that, to a limited extent, the practice exists in America. The chief adul- terant used is the seed of the Yellow trefoil, or, as it is sometimes called, Hop clover or Black medick. (See illustrations opposite pages 26 and 32.) About fifty species of plants are known as 'medicks' or, scien- tifically, Medicago; but it so happens that the only perennial species among them is alfalfa, which goes under the botanical name of Medicago sativa, (p. i). Other species such as Yellow trefoil {Medicago lupulina) (p. 38) and Bur clover {Medicago denticidata,) while they possess some forage value and are useful to a lim- ited extent, lack, for the most part, the lush, abun- dant growth of alfalfa itself, and are notably inferior through the fact of their annual habit. It is because of its perennial nature, therefore, as well as on account of its rank, succulent growth, that no species of annual leguminous plant can hope to compete with alfal- fa for a moment in importance. This means, then, that any substitute for alfalfa seed, or adulteration of it with the seed of another related species, such as Yellow tre- foil or Bur clover, is distinctly a fraud of serious char- acter, despite the fact that the adulterants are plants that make fair pasturage and have some forage value. They are merely annuals, ending their life with the season, whereas a field of alfalfa should live twenty years or more, under right conditions. THE CHIEF ADULTERANT "At present, as stated. Yellow trefoil is the chief adul- terant used in American alfalfa seed. A number of cases, SEED AND SEED SELECTION 37 indeed, of complete or almost complete substitution of Yellow trefoil for alfalfa seed have come to the writer's attention within the past year. It is important, there- fore, for farmers to know the characteristic marks of distinction between the seed of alfalfa and of its chief adulterants. What are the chief characteristics of alfalfa seed? Facing- page 13 are samples of pure alfalfa seed, photographed under a magnification of five diam- eters. It will be noted that seeds of three general types exist : ( I ) A kidney-shaped type, marked *a' in the illus- tration; (2) a type in which one end terminates in an acute wedge, marked 'e'; and (3) a type that is round or nearly so, marked *b'. These types clearly illus- trated, arranged for comparison in parallel rows are shown opposite page 44. See also page 27. It should be noticed that type 2 is the most characteristic and frequent, and that the perfectly round type is extremely rare. This angular slant toward one tip of the seed is found nowhere among any of the adulterants. Neither does the kidney shape of seed occur, except in Bur clover; and, in that case, the difference in the size of the seeds of the two species is sufficient to distinguish them, in most instances. "It is when we consider the round or roundish type of alfalfa seed that there is difficulty in distinguishing from alfalfa the seeds of Yellow trefoil and of Sweet clover (illus. opp. p. 26), which latter frequently occurs as a weed seed, and possibly in some cases in sufficient quantity to be suspected as an adulterant. By comparison of the seeds of alfalfa with the two adulterants just men- tioned, (p. 26) the resemblances and differences of the three species will become evident. In general the 38 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA seeds of Yellow trefoil are shorter and rounder than those of alfalfa, the largest seeds of trefoil measuring 0.0629 inch wide by 0.0897 inch long ; whereas the larg- est alfalfa seeds measure 0.0653 inch wide by o.i 153 inch long; so that the largest alfalfa seeds are a trifle wider and more than a third again as long as the largest trefoil Yellow Trefoil : Black Medic : Hop Clover {Medicago lupulinoj seeds. The smallest seeds of Yellow trefoil are usually plumper and shorter than those of alfalfa (0.05 11 inch wide by 0.0291 inch long, as compared with 0.0496 inch wide by 0.0751 inch long in alfalfa) ; nevertheless, among both the small and the large seeds, so far as the criterion of size goes, individuals occur that equally well belong to either species, and the average differences in size are SEED AND SEED SELECTION 39 not SO great as the differences found on comparing the largest and the smallest seeds of the two species, the average for the trefoil being 0.0574 inch by 0.0799 inch, and for alfalfa 0.0582 inch by 0.0944 inch. So it will be seen at once that while trefoil seeds as a rule are smaller, shorter and rounder than those of alfalfa, the rule is transgressed by many individuals. We must, therefore, turn to the form and general outline of the seed. A farmer can detect at once an attempt to substitute wholly Yellow trefoil for alfalfa seed by the fact that in no case will the kidney-shaped or the regular-pointed types of seed be found in trefoil, whereas these always occur in alfalfa. (Illustrated opp p. 26.) "In the more common cases, where adulteration rather than complete substitution is practiced, detection is more difficult — is practically impossible, in fact, without the aid of a lens or magnifying glass having a power of about fifteen diameters. There are many seeds of tre- foil which can scarcely be distinguished from certain rounded seeds of alfalfa. Generally, however, the trefoil seed has a little projection or '*beak" on the middle line of the seed, just back of the scar marking where the seed was attached to the pod. This is rarely found in alfalfa. "Bur clover as an adulterant is probably not so fre- quently used as Yellow trefoil, since the larger size of its seed renders detection easy. Were it not for this fact. Bur clover would be a most effective adulterant, because its seeds resemble those of alfalfa more closely than do those of Yellow trefoil. There are, of course, smaller seeds of Bur clover and larger seeds of alfalfa that ap- proximate each other in size, but the averaere Bur clover 40 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA seeds measure 0.0604 inch by 0.1188 inch, as compared with an average for alfalfa of only 0.0582 inch by 0.0944 mch. ''So far as the plants of Yellow trefoil and Bur clover are concerned, they are easily distinguishable from alfalfa. Both are of lower growth, as a rule, than alfalfa. Both have wider leaflets, which, in Bur clover, are like broad, inverted wedges. The flowers of these plants are yellow, and are borne in scanty clusters. The pods are wholly unlike those of alfalfa. Alfalfa has a spiral pod of two or three turns (p. 32), containing as many as five or six seeds. Yellow trefoil has a straight pod (p. 32), containing but one seed. Bur clover has a coiled pod (p. 33), but covered with bristly projections that give the plant its name. Where adulteration or substitution is practiced, some of the pods are very apt to occur in the bulk seed, and they can then easily be identified and dis- tinguished from those of alfalfa. ''Seed of Sweet clover seems to occur frequently in western-grown alfalfa seed (p. 26). Sweet clover (il- lustrated in this book) grows to a height frequently of from four to six feet, bearing small, white flowers on slender spikes three or four inches long. Unfortunately, and unlike Yellow trefoil and Bur clover, Sweet clover is generally rejected by stock. On this account, it is a plant of no generally established value for hay or as pasture, although, in some instances, it is successfully used. The seeds of Sweet clover are of a golden yellow when ripe; those of alfalfa, trefoil and Bur clover being greenish yel- low. The seed coat of Sweet clover seed is covered with minute elevations, while alfalfa seed is smooth. The seeds SEED AND SEED SELECTION 4I of Sweet clover (p. 26) are rounder and plumper than those of alfalfa, and have a very pronounced groove be- tween the main body of the seed and the ridge which marks the location of the rootlet of the young plant with- in. It is this ridge that in alfalfa seeds runs off, as a rule, in a marked slant, but which in both trefoil and Sweet clover, especially in the latter, forms a well-rounded curve to the tip of the seed. No pointed or kidney-shaped seeds are ever seen in Sweet clover. (See illus. opp. p. 26.) A COM3ION WSED IN IMPORTED ALFALFA SEED **It remains to mention the most common weed found in imported alfalfa seed — the English or Ribbed plan- tain, or, as it is more generally called in the West, Buck- horn or Rib grass. It is a difficult weed to eradicate, lots of seed containing any noticeable percentage of it should be rejected. (See illus. opp. p. 13.) "The farmer is often to blame for the poor seed of which he makes complaint. Prime alfalfa seed is expen- sive, and a cheap grade will inevitably be poor in quality, containing much dead seed, rubbish, and the seeds of many kinds of weeds. Where 'cheap' alfalfa seed is demanded it will always be sold, and buyers need not be surprised by its quality. On the other hand, there is no excuse or palliation for the offense of selling, under the name and at the price of standard alfalfa seed, seed of substituted species. It is the duty of seed dealers to ascer- tain beforehand the character and genuineness of seed that they sell vmder any given name, and this applies to the retailers as well as to the wholesale dealers. On the '42 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Other hand, farmers cannot expect to obtain the best seed unless they are wilhng to pay the price it brings." DODDER SEED Dodder seeds are somewhat smaller than alfalfa seeds (pp. 45 and 47), but are not separated from them except by careful recleaning; consequently, they are often sown along- with the alfalfa seed, especially in that which has been imported. If a field is badly infested, it should be plowed up and devoted to some other crop for a few years. Prof. F. H. Hillman of Nevada (Bui. No. 47) says there are several kinds that infest alfalfa, but two kinds are especially common and destructive in this coun- try. Ciiscuta epithymum is the commoner. "The seeds of this (p. 47) are very small, and are almost sure to es- cape detection on casual examination of the samples ; yet, once recognized under the lens, their presence may be easily discovered. They are so much smaller than alfalfa seeds that the use of a sieve of twenty meshes per inch separates them from the latter when only free dodder seeds are present. Not only are various other small weed seeds disposed of in the process, but little if any alfalfa seed worth buying is lost. The few ripened flowers of dodder retaining matured seeds, which sometimes pass the thresher uninjured, may be removed by proper fan- ning. It is safe to say that no purchaser of alfalfa seed can afford to neglect sifting his seed carefully with a twenty-mesh sieve, which is the mesh the writer recom- mends for the separation of this kind of dodder from al- falfa seed. FEED AND SEED SELECTION 43 "Cuscuta arvensis is another dodder as destructive when once estabHshed. Its seeds (p. 47) seem to be less common, however. They are larger than the preceding, many of them being practically the same size as the smaller, more rounded alfalfa seeds, which they often strikingly resemble. Thus they are hard to detect, and cannot be removed without the loss of much small alfalfa seed. This should be the more dreaded of the two dod- ders, because alfalfa seed infested with seeds of Ciis- cuta epithymum can be made practically free from them with comparatively little loss and expense. Not so, how- ever, with seed containing Cuscuta arvensis, which should not be purchased at any price. Dodder seeds can scarcely be regarded as an adulterant, yet as an impurity they are very common and most objectionable." (See illustra- tions opp. pp. 45, 46 and 47.) CHAPTER F. Soli and Seeding VARIATE, YET UNIFORM In this double title we have a case of the widest varia- tions and the most positive and rigid uniformity. Alfal- fa may be grown in almost every possible kind of soil and under almost all soil conditions (save two), but omitting these the seeding, including the tilth of the ground, is based, so far as any future success is con- cerned, on perfect cultivation. The dictum, ''Alfalfa must have a dry, warm, sandy loam, very rich" has become obsolete, as already pointed out. There are just two soil conditions that seem absolutely against the growth of alfalfa. The first is a soil con- stantly wet. The common remark, ''Alfalfa will not stand 'wet feet'," seems to be the expression of a law. It does not do well where the water is nearer to the sur- face than six feet, or where in winter water will stand on the ground for over forty-eight hours. This invaria- bly smothers the plants ; in fact it usually kills any crop. If water flows over the field for some such time, due to a freshet, the alfalfa is often found uninjured if too much soil has not been deposited on and around the plants. Even in such instances fields have been saved by a disking once or twice, but it is wholly unwise to sow on f#.a# • ^# #t *% Three General Types of Alfalfa Seed The right-hand column, kidney-shaped, a characteristic form, bvit not so common as the type in the central column. The left-hand column approaches more nearly the rounded type of Sweet clover. Magnification five diameters Dodder Seed Magnified Alfalfa Seed Magnified SOIL AND SEEDING 45 a field subject to overflow, or one where water rises to the surface in winter or spring; likewise on a field so flat that water will not run off in time of a heavy rain or promptly drain out through the sub-surface. The time is rapidly coming everywhere when the intelligent farmer will not try to raise any crop on such a field, undrained. The alfalfa roots will find their way to moisture if given the right surface conditions. There are profitable alfalfa meadows in parts of Kansas where it is eighty feet to water, but there has not yet been found one that is pros- perous where water comes close to the surface, or where it stands on the ground in winter. The other kind of soil where alfalfa refuses to grow is that in which there is too much acijity. This is often the case where corn and wheat have been raised for many years, thus robbing the soil of much lime; a condition that may be remedied by an application of lime to the land just before sowing the alfalfa, harrowing it in beforehand or, if the seed is to be broadcasted, the lime may be applied just before sowing, when once harrowing will suffice for both, or it may be sown with a drill — 500 to 1000 pounds per acre. A simple test for acidity is to make a deep cut in the ground with a knife, pressing the earth slightly apart; then push a piece of litmus paper into the opening and press the earth together. Leave the paper there for a few hours. If upon examination the litmus paper has a pink appearance it is proof of acidity, and this, as already said, may best be remedied with lime. 46 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA SOIL PREPARATION With the only two negative points considered, the more important conditions upon which success will depend may be discussed. One chief essential is the advance preparation. Many of the most successful growers begin their preparations two or three years before they sow the seed. There must be, by rights, the most perfect physical condition of the soil. It should have been plowed deep for at least two years, and in most fields in the central and northern states a two- or three- inch subsoiling along with a seven- or eight-inch plowing will be very helpful. If corn is to precede a spring sowing, the ground should have a liberal dressing of stable manure plowed under for humus, to encourage earthworms and to intro- duce the particular bacteria so essential to alfalfa's wel- fare or at least furnish favorable conditions for bacteria, and the harrow should follow the plow each day. The soil's condition should be like that for a garden. Care should be taken never to work with the ground when too wet, as such working almost inevitably results in clods and baked soil. The corn should be cultivated often, and a liberal sowing of cowpeas just before the last cultivation, which should be shallow, has been found quite helpful. This crop will repress and take the place of weeds, furnish a rich food for fattening pigs or lambs after the corn is cut, add fertility to the soil, and also introduce bacteria similar to the bacteria for the alfalfa. The cowpea, being a legume, prepares the way for alfalfa, its near relative. Dodder Plant on an Alfalfa Stem Dodder, (Cusntta arz'cusis) (a) A group of seeds (enlarged), showing the prevailing forms; (a, b, and c) individual seeds having somewhat the form of clover seeds; (d) a grou]! showing the natural size Alfalfa and Dodder Seed. Actual Size Dodder, (Cuscuta epithymum) (a) A group of seeds showing comparative forms and relative size (enlarged) ; (b) a group showing the natural size; (c) the embryo removed from the seed, showing the form it usually assumes; (d) a section of a seed, showing the manner in which the embryo lies imbedded in the endosperm SOIL AND SEEDING 47 KEEP DOWN THE WEEDS It is always timely to emphasize the very great impor- tance of keeping down weeds in the cornfield where alfalfa is to be sowed the next spring. If corn is husked from the fields, the stalks should not be pastured except when the ground is fully frozen. Later they should be thoroughly broken, raked and burned, to leave the land in the best condition for spring work. If the corn is cut and fodder hauled off, the stubs should be broken in cold weather by a pole or other drag, and raked and burned as recommended for the stalks. This adapts the ground for disking and harrowing early in March. Then every ten days the field should be disked or harrowed to con- serve moisture, to start weeds and then kill them, and to bring the ground into the desirable tilth. Ordinarily, in the central states, sowing may be done early in April, while in the South this may be done by the middle of March, and in Wisconsin and Canada by the last of April or early May, although the dates are variable. Many report seeding in Kansas the middle of May, obtaining a clipping in July and a hay crop in September. Others report sowing in March and cutting a hay crop in June. Some Wisconsin reports say that the first of June is early enough, while others in that state and in Minnesota pre- fer to sow two or three weeks earlier, and still others in Wisconsin sow in April. The important things to keep in mind are to have the soil right and the weeds disposed of, and to sow when the weather and moisture and condi- tions are right. Alfalfa is a child of the sun; permanent shade from any source is its enemy, and when young it is not a good fighter against adversaries of any sort. More 48 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA failures are due to weeds than to any other one cause, and unfortunately all the weeds do not grow on the land of the farmer who is shiftless or neglectful. The latter is so benevolent as to permit his weeds to scatter their seeds to the fields of his neighbors. If a spring sowing is to be made on wheat ground, the land will be helped by a liberal dressing of manure imme- diately after the harvest, and by plowing and harrowing at once; then sowing about the last of August to rye or wheat for fall and winter pasturage, and to prevent the soil from leaching or washing. In the spring the land should be disked and harrowed for alfalfa, keeping in mind the point emphasized in the preceding paragraph. Instead of the rye or wheat, cowpeas may be sowed after the wheat harvest; thus both fertility and bacteria will be added to the soil, and the farmer have a valuable pas- ture crop for pigs or lambs. If the season is extremely favorable, a hay crop may be cut in early October. If potatoes are to precede a spring sowing of alfalfa, more than usual care should be taken to keep the field clean of weeds. Some farmers do well by sowing millet with the last cultivation of potatoes, leaving the potatoes in the ground until after the millet is harvested, and when the crop is dug the land is free from weeds. Then it may be harrowed or disked and seeded to rye for winter pasture. Some plow the potato ground in the fall and sow to wheat or rye. Certainly if weeds are present the ground should be plowed as soon as the potatoes are dug. The idea is to secure a fine seed bed and have the ground free from weeds, the great curse of the American farm. All things considered there is probably SOIL AND SEEDING 49 no crop which leaves the soil in finer physical condition for alfalfa-sowing than millet, and none that is more unsatisfactory for a like purpose than sorghum or Kafir corn that was planted in hills or rows. A clover sod for a spring sowing should be plowed in September or October, disked or harrowed, and not in- frequently a light sowing of rye for winter pasture is feasible. In early spring use disk and tooth harrows on the land. It is excellent if a liberal application of rotted stable manure is plowed under with the clover sod. Us- ually it is better to follow clover with a corn or potato crop before seeding to alfalfa. FAIili SOWING Fall sowing presents fewer difificulties than spring sow- ing. Corn is not the preceding crop and hence the weed problem is not so formidable. Usually a fall sowing fol- lows millet or oats, cowpeas or potatoes. Almost any crop except the sorghums may be grown to precede alfalfa for a fall sowing; these should not be as they con- sume too much moisture. If possible, put on a dressing of stable manure the preceding winter; plow deep in the spring and work to a fine tilth for the summer crop. South of the latitude of 40 degrees cowpeas is one of the best preparatory crops. They are legumes, and the bacteria that live on their roots are similar to those upon the alfalfa roots; they are also nitrogen-gath- erers, taking nitrogen from the air as does the al- falfa, and thus they prepare the soil for alfalfa. Be- sides, cowpeas are a valuable forage, the hay being worth almost as much, pound for pound, as that of 50 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA alfalfa. When cut off they leave the ground ready for disking and other preparation. Millet is also excellent for this purpose, leaving the soil unusually friable. Potatoes make a satisfactory preparatory crop, but the danger from them too often is neglect to keep the w^eeds down. As soon as the land is free, it should be disked and harrowed, and this repeated about every ten days until the time for sowing. RECENT PLOWING NOT DESIRABLE It is seen that plowing for alfalfa just preceding the seeding is not recommended. Plowing leaves the sub- surface too loose, thus depriving the roots of a sufficiently firm footing and making a full sowing more liable to harm from freezing and thawing, and the spring sowing to harm from a dry summer. The necessity of the most perfect surface conditions cannot be to often empha- sized, and this too includes considerable compactness rather than a too light or ashy condition. There must be no clods, no stiff and stubborn humps. If alfalfa is to follow clover, and to be seeded in the fall, the sod should be broken early after the clover is harvested and each day's plowing harrowed that day; then the held disked and cross-disked and harrowed again. After that it should be disked, lapping half, every ten or fifteen days until time for seeding. Alfalfa may follow timothy if the sod is not too old and stubborn, and it may be treated the same as clover sod. INTRODUCE BACTERIA BY PREPARATORY SOWING Another form of preparation followed by many suc- cessful growers, men who do not complain about alfalfa SOIL AND SEEDING 5 1 not doing well ''here," is the sowing of a few pounds of alfalfa seed on the field two or three years before it is intended to sow for a permanent crop. Mr. Joseph E. Wing, of central western Ohio, a widely known farmer, stockman, and writer on matters agricultural, uses alfalfa in a regular rotation, and two years before he is ready to sow it on a given field as a main crop, sows clover and timothy along with two or three pounds of alfalfa seed, for a pasture crop. Thus the bacteria are introduced, and when the pasture is plowed for the full sowing of alfalfa, the disking and harrowing that follow distribute the bacteria throughout the soil, and the probabilities of a good stand are greatly enhanced. He sometimes sows two or three pounds of alfalfa seed to the acre with a wheat crop two years before he is to sow the field entirely to alfalfa. Another, in a state where the experiment station director still declares alfalfa-raising to be doubt- ful, writes that he has not had a failure in a decade, and his plan is to precede alfalfa with winter wheat, sowing a little alfalfa seed with the wheat, probably three pounds to the acre, and the next fall after giving the land a thor- ough preparation he sows fifteen pounds of alfalfa seed to the acre. Another reports pleasing results in two dif- ferent fields by sowing in the spring five pounds of alfalfa seed with clover; in two years the alfalfa stood thick on the ground, having crowded out the clover. If these plans introduce the bacteria into the soil, it may be won- dered why it would not be equally helpful to sow two or three pounds of alfalfa seed per acre with the oats or millet in the spring, preparatory to the thorough seeding to alfalfa in the fall. 52 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Another man, whose profit in raising alfalfa has been marked, reports that his soil is very waxy and hard to deal with. He has met this trouble by listing his ground in the fall and leaving it thus open for hard freezing throughout the winter. He then disks and cross-disks in the spring, putting the soil in fine tilth, and sowing millet as a preparatory crop. He has occasionally sowed alfalfa in the spring, following the fall listing and later freezing of his ground. ALIi CROPS DEMAND CONDITIONS Alfalfa, like corn and cotton, demands certain condi- tions of the soil and certain constituents in that soil. Every crop demands its certain foods. All crops except alfalfa and the other legumes obtain practically all their food, including nitrogen, from the soil. The latter crops use nitrogen but get it from the air. Alfalfa takes nitro- gen from the soil only during the first few months of its growth, and thereafter not only takes its own necessary supply from the air, but a large surplus which it stores in the soil, available for whatever crop may follow. Other crops take much nitrogen from the soil, but contribute nothing to its enrichment SPRING OR FALL SOWING— WHICH? This has been a much argued question with experi- menters. Possibly it will be found to be of minor impor- tance in itself, depending more upon other conditions than the season. From the northern tier of states many reports favor spring sowing, yet from each come letters in favor of fall sowing. Several experiment stations in the South are in favor of spring sowing, yet report sat- SOIL AND SEEDING 53 isfactory results from fall seeding. It seems pretty well established, however, that fall sowing is safer in the central latitude states, say including Ohio, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado and Utah, and states within the same parallels. In other states prevailing opinions favor spring sow- ing. Nevertheless, when all conditions are understood, fall sowing seems likely to become the established prac- tice throughout the United States. This is in line with the system for the more staple crops and common rota- tion ; it gives opportunity to bring the ground into better condition; the preparation and sowing come at the most convenient season, and one of relatively greater leisure; there is less interruption by unfavorable weather ; the soil, responding more readily to surface cultivation, permits the work to be done with less danger of surface water retarding normal root development, and the annual weeds being dead they cannot interfere with the first growth of the alfalfa. Sown in the fall, with time to secure some growth for winter protection, alfalfa will be ready to respond to the first call of spring, and for the mow^er early in June. Moreover, if it fails from freezing or other cause, little crop-time is lost. The farmer has but to disk and harrow in April or early May, and sow half as much seed as he sowed in the fall, and he will have prospect of a cutting in eighty or ninety days, at an expenditure of but few pounds of seed and a little labor. DISADVANTAGES OF SPRING SOWING Ordinarily, if a farmer sows in the spring, he has his old enemy, the weeds, to contend with. If the season be 54 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA damp and cloudy, the alfalfa may not grow fast, but weeds will. Therefore, June may see him mowing to retard a rampant growth of weeds instead of gathering a profitable cutting of prime hay. It is not improbable that he may be doing the same in July or in September, thus losing a whole season. Again, the spring prepara- tion comes when the farmer needs to be working his corn and potato land ; hence he is likely to slight or neg- lect the careful preparation of the alfalfa ground and so do a poor job, with, in such cases, the usual result of a *'poor stand." Then too, the frequent rains interfere with regular disking and harrowing and the weeds may obtain a start the farmer cannot check. In most cases fall sowing means three cuttings the following year. In many instances spring sowing means no crop the first season, although better farming will gain a September crop, while the best farming, with no weeds, may give two if not three crops; not heavy ones, perhaps, but of no inconsiderable value. Commenting on spring sowing in the more northern states, Henry Wallace, editor of Wallaces' Farmer, says : ''Our own experience in growing alfalfa both in Ne- braska and Iowa has taught us that it is a waste of time and labor to sow in the spring. If sown in the spring without a nurse crop, it will have to be mowed twice, probably three times, to keep down the weeds, and even then it will not be in as good condition as if a crop of early corn or even oats was taken off, and the ground put in fine condition and seeded in August. 'Tn 1904 we sowed in the spring 250 acres of alfalfa on our Nebraska farm, and some twenty or thirty acres SOIL AND SEEDING 55 of it was washed in ridges Dy a very heavy rain imme- diately after. We reseeded the vacant spaces in the fall and later could see no difference between the fall sowing and the spring sowing. We did the same thing on one of our Iowa farms, sowing in the spring and mowing three times. Another piece was sowed in August. The August sowing was much better than the spring sowing. It should be said, however, that the land was richer and the difference was therefore not all due to the time of sowing. So long as Kansas farmers con- tinued to sow their alfalfa in the spring they had but par- tial success, owing to the fact that Crab grass and other grasses will come up in the early fall and smother out the spring sowing. By using some other crop the first part of the season, then putting the land in fine condition in the month of August or even by September ist, an alfalfa crop can be started which will have a strong enough growth to smother out the weeds the next spring. "We don't know that we would insist on this so strongly for northern Iowa and Minnesota, but certainly from the latitude of the Northwestern railroad in Iowa, south, and corresponding latitude in other states, we would abandon spring sowing and sow alfalfa on well prepared ground in August. We would not, however, plow the ground for this fall sowing, but put the soil in first-class condition for a spring crop, then use a disk and harrow for the fall preparation." SEEDING BY DRILL OR BROADCAST? Here too, there is a variety of opinions, all based on experience. Those who object most to drills may have 56 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA used poor implements, with feeding gears not well regu- lated, or possibly they have not known how to use the drills. Many who object to the broadcast method have had little training or skill in it. It is reasonable to sup- pose, however, that given soil in fine tilth, and a good drill rightly adjusted, there will be a more even, and hence a more economical distribution and a better and more uniform covering of the seed. It is also claimed that drilling secures a more uniform distribution of soil moist- ure. The general opinion is that by sowing with a drill, properly regulated, one can safely use five pounds less of seed per acre. Some alfalfa raisers use a wheelbarrow seeder ; others use a kind of swing seeder strapped to the sower's body; still others, who have had training in the old-fashioned method of broadcasting, declare it the best, but the experiment stations of practically all the states, and most up-to-date farmers, favor the use of the press drill. There are now on the market different types of alfalfa seeders which can be attached or are already attached to the ordinary grain drill, and that will distribute the seed in any desired quantities per acre with broadcast effect or leave it in drill rows as may be preferred. At the Kansas Experiment Station success has followed broadcasting, and cross-drilling gave no particular advantage. HOW MUCH SEED TO THE ACRE? Reports of seed sown, varying from six to sixty pounds to the acre, indicate much ignorance of the nature of the alfalfa plant; or a great recklessness and extrava- gance. Twenty pounds to the acre, if all seeds \ SOIL AND SEEDING 57 germinated, would mean 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 plants, whereas a stand of 500,000 is ample. Most of the experi- ment stations favor twenty to thirty pounds to the acre, although several experts at these stations insist that fifteen pounds of clean, germinable seed to the acre is as much as should be sowed. Even if these all grew it would give nearly 44 plants to the foot square of land, or four to five times as many as would thrive after two years old. Of course the quantity may depend upon a variety of circumstances, such as the vitality of the seed, condi- tion ct the surface soil, condition of the subsoil as to moisture, the method of sowing, weather conditions at the titne of sowing or immediately after, also the nat- ural fertility of the soil and the bacterial life present, or at least the conditions for propagating or sustaining bacterial life. With land prepared by sowing a few pounds of seed six months or a year preceding, with a heavy application of stable manure plowed under six months before, perfect soil preparation, normal moist- ure, and clean seed, testing ninety per cent germinable, there should be no need for more than ten pounds to the acre. Disking that the field should have later will split the crowns and many new stalks will be sent up ; so that in a few years a square foot of surface will not accom- modate more than six to ten robust, vigorous plants, and having these the ideal stand has pretty nearly been attained. One plant has been known to send out as many as 360 branches from its single main root, re- sembling in form a spreading bush. A successful farmer in Geary county, Kansas, who has been raising alfalfa for twentv vears. seldom sows more than six 58 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA pounds of seed to the acre and never more than ten. A prominent Ohio farmer usually sows but ten, and never over twelve or fifteen pounds to the acre, although he has always introduced alfalfa bacteria into the soil one or two years before ready to give it a full seeding. Of strictly good seed, well cleaned, twelve pounds would likely be too much rather than too little, other condi- tions being right. WITH OR WITHOUT A NURSE CROP? The practice of sowing a nurse crop with alfalfa was inaugurated when the nature of the plant was not as well understood as now. It was also somewhat on the theory too that '' a half-loaf is better than no bread." It began when there was a good deal of doubt about "getting a stand," and the farmer thought no doubt that a crop of oats or barley would pay for the plowing even if the alfalfa failed. Whik the practice is continued by many, the prevalent later method is to provide no nurse crop. Few who have abandoned the nurse crop have returned to it. The alfalfa plant does not need protec- tion from the sun, nor is it bettered by dividing any of the soil moisture or fertility with those of another crop. On the other hand, if alfalfa is sowed in the spring, it is important that it obtain an early start in order that its roots can quickly work their way down into the moisture of the subsoil, against the dry days of July and August. When a nurse crop of any vigor is removed the alfalfa plants are likely to be found weak, spindling and with little root growth ; the nurse crop also has taken up some of the soil nitrogen needed by the young alfalfa; or if SOIL AND SEEDING 59 the nurse crop is heavy and has lodged, there will be left bare spots, where the alfalfa has been smothered out. Cutting the nurse crop is likely to be attended with no little damage to the tender alfalfa plants by trampling their crowns into the ground, or by breaking them off. Practically all the experiment stations favor sowing alone. With few exceptions the second and third years have brought heavier yields where no nurse crop was used. The theory that the nurse crop will prevent the weeds choking the alfalfa is apparently, as a rule, not well founded. In the first place alfalfa should not be sown on foul land, and in the second place proper disking and hr.rrowing, at near intervals for four or six weeks before sowing, will disturb or kill far more weeds than can any nurse crop. Besides, the oats or barley sown as a nurse will when cut leave weeds in good growth, or dormant and ready to spring up as fast or faster than the alfalfa. No nurse crop is ever used with fall sowing. When ground has been thoroughly prepared for the preceding crop, and then properly cared for, and made ready for the alfalfa by the preliminary weed destruc- tion, it will be found advisable to sow alfalfa alone, even in the spring. INOCULATING THE SOIL It has been found where alfalfa shows thrifty vigor, is making a good stand, and is at least two years old, that on the roots are little nodules or wart-like pro- tuberances. On fields where the alfalfa is unthrifty or failing to make a good stand, examination will probably fail to discover any of these nodules. Scientists tell us 60 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA ,' that these nodules are the homes of bacteria, microscopic vegetable organisms obtaining their sustenance from the nitrogen of the air and the starch of the plant ; that they collect much more nitrogen than they need, the over-supply being taken up by the alfalfa, which, after these nodules are formed and occupied, takes no more nitrogen from the soil, but annually stores about its roots more from the air, thus adding to the nitrogen supply in the soil instead of taking from it as do all other farm crops except the legumes. Each legume — clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, etc. — has a distinct species of bacteria, or at least bacteria with a distinct development, excepting, as has been found, that Sweet clover (Melilotus alba) and Bur clover {Medicago denticulata) develop the same species as does alfalfa. BUYING INFECTED SOIL Several methods of preparing land for alfalfa by introducing its peculiar bacteria have been suggested, and practiced to some extent. Many farmers and experi- menters have used with success infected soil upon their lands; soil from established alfalfa fields, or that from along the roads or creeks where the Sweet clover or Bur clover has been growing. This soil is spread upon the field or sown with alfalfa just before the seeding. If the drill is to be used the inoculated soil is spread on and harrowed in. If the seed is to be broadcasted, the infected soil may be harrowed in with the seed. It is better, however, to harrow this infected soil in thor- oughly before seeding. Experiment stations recommend an application of two hundred pounds of such soil to SOIL AND SEEDING 6i every acre, but good results have been secured from half that quantity. This will depend very much upon the nature of the soil, and the subsoil especially. Many fields seem to have these bacteria waiting for the coming of alfalfa. Land that has been well manured and con- tains abundant humus, and land that is light and friable will usually respond to the bacterial life attached to the alfalfa seed. Most farmers who have established fields will sell soil to their neighbors, which should be from the top six or eight inches, and include roots, stubble and earth. Both Sweet clover and Bur clover are found in almost every neighborhood in the northern states, while the latter is very general in the South. Some alfalfa raisers make a business of selling and shipping inoculated soil. Probably any experiment sta- tion will ship small quantities to farmers within its state, at about the cost of digging, sacking and delivering at the railroad station. Therefore, if a farmer desires to use it, little labor or expense is attached to doing so. There is reason, however, to doubt the need of this method in any of the western or central western states where the suggestions mentioned in the first part of the chapter are closely followed. No doubt there are advan- tages in using it in most states east of the Mississippi river, in order to hasten the development of the bacteria and to make a good stand more certain. Preparation one or two years in advance as already described, by a light sowing of alfalfa seed for introducing its peculiar bacteria, is less expensive, and requires less labor and car- ries no risk of introducing the seeds of other clovers or weeds, Most farms have enough weed seeds already. 62 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA DANGERS OF IXOCULATION BY SOIL TRANSFER Touching upon the dangers possibly resulting from inoculation by soil transfer a bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture has this to suggest : ''Satisfactory inoculations have been obtained by trans- ferring soil from old fields on which the legume has been grown, but experience has shown that there are dangers incident to such methods of soil transfer which it is wise to avoid. ''The source of supply of such soil should be definitely known, and in no case should soil be used from fields which have previously borne any crop affected with a fungous disease, a bacterial disease, or with nematodes. Where a rotation of crops is practiced, it is often difficult to make sure of this factor, so that the method of soil transfer is, under average circumstances, open to sus- picion, if not to positive objection. Numerous animal and plant parasite live in the soil for years, and are already established in so many localities that it is mani- festly unwise to ship soil indiscriminately from one por- tion of the country to another. " The bacterial diseases of the tomato, potato, and egg plant, and the club-root, brown rot, and wilt disease of the cabbage, all more or less widely distributed, are read- ily transmitted in the soil ; while in the South and West there are the wilt diseases of cotton, melons, sweet pota- toes, cowpeas, and flax, and various nematoid and root- rot diseases which might easily become a serious menace over areas much larger than they now occupy if delib- erately spread by the careless use of soil for inoculation purposes. There are several insects and fungous SOIL AND SEEDING 63 diseases of clover to be avoided, and various diseases of beans and peas. There is also a disease of alfalfa, the 'leaf spot/ which is causing damage in some regions. These are only a few of many diseases liable to be trans- mitted in soils. The farmer should therefore be on his guard. The danger from such sources is by no means imaginary. The Department of Agriculture has had specific cases of such accidental distribution reported, and if the business of selling soil for inoculation is made to flourish by farmers purchasing without question 'alfalfa soil,' 'cowpea soil,' etc., there is every reason to believe that experience will demonstrate the folly of such haphazard methods. "Of scarcely less importance is the danger of dissemi- nating noxious weeds and insect pests through this plan of inoculation by means of soils. Even though weeds may not have been serious in the field, the great number of dormant seeds, requiring but a slight change in sur- roundings to produce germination, is always a menace. The enormous damage to crops caused by introduced insects and weeds should convey a warning and lead to caution. It is not the part of good judgment to view the risk as a slight one.'' OTHER METHODS OF INOCULATION There are two or three better ways of inoculating land than by using a neighbor's soil. Some alfalfa raisers recommend the sowing of alfalfa meal with the seed. Another plan which appears reasonable and practicable is for the farmer who wishes to introduce alfalfa to buy alfalfa hay the year before and feed it to his live stock; 64 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA then haul the manure to the fields and plow it under for the crop to precede alfalfa. It is claimed by those who have done this that a satisfactory stand is well-nigh certain, other conditions being met. It can be said, how- ever, that some high authorities on this crop, men who have experimented on many different kinds of soil and who have succeeded under varying conditions, declare that neither soil nor seed inoculation is necessary. It is altogether probable that if a field has been well farmed for a few years previous to the alfalfa-sowing, with unusually good cultivation the preceding year, a heavy application of stable manure plowed under at least five months before, then given the proper preparation and seeding, using seed raised in about the same latitude and under similar conditions in which the new crop must grow, and wnth seed testing ninety per cent germinable, there should be little anxiety about the need of inocula- tion. Of course old, worn-out land may require more fertilizers, restoring to the soil not only necessary nitro- gen that has been exhausted by other crops, but also the potash and phosphorus. In eastern states it has been found advantageous also to apply a very light top-dress- ing of stable manure just before sowing the seed. If lime is deficient, that must be applied. An examination of any particular soil will usually be made without charge by the state chemists, and the farmer may thus approxi- mately ascertain just what the soil will need for alfalfa, corn, or any other crop he may desire to raise. KEEP ON TRYING It is important to say to the eastern farmers, espe- cially, that there is little difference between successful SOIL AND SEEDING 65 alfalfa-growing and the successful growing of other crops. Poor farming never brings big crops, nor will poor land produce as big yields as the more fertile. Failure to restore to the soil the necessary elements of which it has been robbed means the same in New York, Kansas, Virginia, or anywhere else. Every farm plant, to prosper, must find in the soil, readily available, the elements needed for its development. If a farmer finds the soil lacking in elements needed for certain crops, he should either apply the deficiency or not attempt their raising. This is true of corn or wheat, cotton, or tobacco, no less than alfalfa. Alfalfa needs especially nitrogen, potash and phos- phorus. The average virgin soil in the United States contains enough of these to last several hundred years. If there had been at all times an intelligent rotation of crops, these chemical elements would be found in just as large proportions in the soil that has been farmed a hun- dred years as in the soil never cultivated. Hence, if after trying alfalfa a man meets with failure, he should not stop, and say, "Alfalfa won't grow *here'," but try it. again immediately. If he discovers a seeming failure in March or April, he should disk and harrow and as early as possible sow about ten pounds of seed to the acre; in many instances he will have to clip his alfalfa in about six or eight weeks and can mow a crop of hay in Sep- tember, or possibly two hay crops in the season. There have been various cases reported where three hay crops were secured the first season after such cultivation, when the fields had been pronounced a failure in March. Alfalfa may be sown on such ground as late as the first 66 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA of June if the weeds have been thoroughly subdued. Or, if it has been sown in the spring and the weeds seem to be overtopping it in July, mow close to the ground, rake into windrows and burn. Then disk and harrow thoroughly and sow again. In all probability there will be something of a crop to mow early in September, with a considerable autumn growth to follow. If it is not desired to sow alfalfa in midsummer, disk this ground and sow to rye or oats for pasture; then late in August disk and put in readiness for September sowing. The failiu'e may have been because the soil had not enough bacteria, or favorable environment for the bacteria. Some of the seed sowed at first undoubtedly ger- minated and some bacteria were developed; enough certainly to prepare the soil for the second sowing. It is unwise after such a failure to go to another field or to wait for another year. It is wiser to meet the conditions at once, and vigorously persevere. In reference to the application of lime, mentioned on a preceding page, it should be noted that the later experi- ments seem to indicate that it is better to apply smaller quantities at shorter intervals than larger quantities at longer intervals ; also that air-slacked lime is less caustic than the quicklime, and not so liable, when recently applied, to harm the young plants which may come in contact with it, hence more of the former may be used and with greater safety. Ordinarily quicklime is con- sidered the most beneficial. Bur Clover Pod ^lagnified six diameters Yellow Trefoil Seed Pod Magnified twelve diameters Alfalfa Seed Pod Magnified six diameters ^^^^^^^^#' '^ ' '^'-'"'' illHH^H ^H^^^"'''-'' ^f^^l ■w^">''''" "^B ^^^H^^^..?y , ■ 1 H ^B^^'^'*'- s Hi^^?'/-^ !<^ 9 ^B^i V > ' ~''' ^^1 l^^^£Sfl> 1 H^^^^^r'ik' 9 ■^^■i,< f ~ "--* fl Spotted Clover Pod Magnified six diameters CHAPTER VL Cultivation CLIPPING IS AN INVIGORANT Strange as this title may seem it suggests a very important means of securing a satisfactory stand. In fact in some parts of the South, where the land has become very foul, it is occasionally recommended to sow the alfalfa in rows, eighteen inches apart, for regular culti- vation the first season. After the second year the crowns will have sent up so many stems that the surface of the ground will be well occupied. Spurrier, in his work referred to in Chapter I, recommended drilling in rows and cultivating the first year. But it is better to get rid of the weeds before tr3ang alfalfa. The cultivation here recommended is clipping, manuring, disking and har- row^ing. Frequently when alfalfa is sowed in the spring it comes up weak and spindling. In such case clip it just before ready to bloom, having the mower sickle set rather high. If the growth is not very heavy, leave this cutting on the ground; if quite heavy, remove it. The field may need to be clipped again during the summer, but the farmer can feel reasonably assured that he will have a good stand the following spring. If the leaves turn yellow, mowing is the remedy. If there is any sign of the "spotted leaf" disease, the mower should be used 68 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA forthwith. Of course if alfalfa comes up strong, vigor- ous, and free from weeds, it should stand until blossom- ing is well begun and then be mown for hay. It should not be supposed that the purpose in clipping and allowing the clippings to remain on the ground is primarily to make a mulch. It is to retard the weeds, and as no other way equally convenient and economical has presented itself, the young growths are mown and left on the ground. In many parts of the country Crab grass (Panicum sanguinalc) is the plant or weed that most persistently interferes with the prosperity of alfalfa during its first year, and frequent mowing is the remedy most recom- mended and resorted to, but there are growers who main- tain that such treatment is not best. An extensive and ve*-y successful grower in southern Kansas tells the author repeated experience has demonstrated to his satisfaction that the advice to mow alfalfa frequently during the first summer may under some circumstances be quite wrong. If the season happens to be wet, and there is a rank growth of Crab grass, frequent mowing causes the Crab grass to set in a close sod and smother out the alfalfa. He says : "My practice has been, under these conditions, to let the Crab grass grow with the alfalfa until matured, before mowing. The young alfalfa will usually keep its head out sufficiently to breathe, and will survive until the Crab grass is matured and all is cut. If allowed to mature, the Crab grass will not start a second time, and the alfalfa immediately springs up and occupies the ground. Where the Crab grass is very rank it may some- times be blown down in spots and smother out some CULTIVATION 69 alfalfa, but even under these conditions one will have a much better stand than is possible by repeated mowings. This is not mere theory, but has been proven correct by frequent experience and close observation of the other method during the same seasons." Something similar may be said of Witch-grass (Panicum capillar e), which, however, is less obnoxious than the Crab grass, because of not having the habit of rooting at the joints. In many parts of the country Crab grass (Panicum sanguinale) is the plant or weed that most persistently as to make burning in the spring seem the most feasible means of getting rid of them, and fire is resorted to. Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck says he has seen this done a number of times without injury to the alfalfa crowns. He, however, recommends disking after burning, to loosen the exposed soil and leave the surface generally in a better condition. Sowing additional seed on the ground before such disk- ing may do much to improve and thicken the stand. The editor of the Nebraska Farmer has been collecting information on alfalfa culture from every section of the United States for the past ten years, and as a result of this work unhesitatingly advances the opinion that ''nine- tenths of the failures with alfalfa have been due to fail- ure or neglect to cut it as should have been done when young. This is the law of alfalfa culture; it must be cut down. And the man who has not the courage, morally and physically, to use a mowing machine persistently had best pass by alfalfa culture. It takes moral courage to cut baby alfalfa; but it must be cut down to save it." 70 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA MANURING A light top-dressing of manure after sowing, or, in case of fall sowing, any time during the winter, helps to conserve moisture as well as to give the growing plants some nitrogenous food. Applying a top-dressing of stable manure at least every second or third winter is certain to prove profitable. If it contains coarse straw or other litter, this should be raked and hauled off later, but before the alfalfa grows too high, especially if the hay is intended for the city market. Many successful growers in Kansas, who claim to cut from five to seven tons of alfalfa hay per acre in a season apply a top-dressing of manure every winter. The highest yields reported from eastern states are where this practice is followed. Some experiment station men believe that where this is not done the crop will after eight or ten years tend to impoverish the land instead of further improving it. DISKING The foremost method of cultivation is with the disk harrow, one of the most excellent farm implements ever invented. Alfalfa sown in the fall is almost invariably helped by disking the following spring, with the disks set quite straight, so as not to cut the crowns but to split them. It is usually well to follow this disking with a tooth harrow, with its teeth set straight. Occasionally in a dry summer the disk may be used to great advantage after the second, and possibly the third, cutting also. Many disk their alfalfa field every spring, and some after each cutting, others do so only once in every two or three years, owing to weather conditions and the con- ditions of the alfalfa. In some instances the common harrow is used instead of a disk. CULTIVATIOIT 71 The disking has several beneficial effects. It splits and spreads the crowns, causing more and consequently finer stems to spring up, affording hay of the most delightful quality, easily cured; it loosens the soil about the crowns, conserves moisture and destroys the weeds. There need be no fear of killing the plants if the disks and the harrow-teeth are set straight and weighted or otherwise adjusted to give direct and steady forward movement. As an implement for the cultivation and in- vigoration of an alfalfa field the disk harrow has no equal, and its frequent use is by those who know it best deemed quite indispensable. RESEEDIXG If it is a question of reseeding the whole field, the problem is simple. In that case disk and harrow the ground and sow half as much seed as was sowed at first. But to restore bare spots is more difficult; the young plants from the reseeding in these spots will be shaded by the larger growth about them, and such reseeding seldom gives the desired results. There is no doubt that very many fields are given up as failures and inferior crops planted in them, when a thorough disking would have renewed the growth, saved a crop, and, what is more important, a stand of alfalfa. Many reports have come to the writer of fields that had little sign of life the first of March, yet when thoroughly disked, cross-disked and harrowed, surprised the neighborhood by showing in two weeks a strong growth. Some wishing to be on the safe side, have sown a little seed after this heavy disking and harrowing, but many of them have reported an entire loss of^the seed, 72 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA as the plants from the previous sowing came up so thick as to choke out those from the later seeding. In some states a common plan of thickening a stand is to let the third crop ripen seed, and then about the last of Septem- ber disk and harrow the seed into the ground where it grew. This frequently saves the stand and adds many- years to its life. But where a field begins to fail after a third year it is usually better to plow it up and raise one or two crops of corn, a crop of oats or of millet, and then reseed. ALFALFA UNDER IRRIGATION The greatest yields of alfalfa are produced by irriga- tion. Reported yields of six or more cuttings, aggregat- ing eight to twelve tons per acre each year, are almost invariably, yet not always, from districts where irrigation is practiced. It is claimed by experiment station experts from the irrigation states that the tendency is to use too much water; too much at a time and too often. The general recommendation is to irrigate thoroughly before the ground is plowed or disked, and not again till the alfalfa is about four inches high. Then again a week before each cutting. It has been found that old alfalfa fields do not need as much water as new fields, the alfalfa roots seeming to find moisture and bring it to the surface. It is insisted that the surface must be perfectly smooth to keep water from settling into low places and smothering the plants. Some farmers do not irrigate for the second crop if as much as two inches of rain falls after the first mowing. Others claim that old fields do not need flooding for the second crop even if there has been no rainfall after the first cutting. CULTIVATION 73 Wilcox in his "Irrigation Farming"* says : "The critical time with alfalfa is the first six weeks of its growth. Flooding during this period is quite certain to give the plants a backset from which they seldom fully recover before the second, and sometimes not before the third year, and it is not often in the arid states that rain falls with sufficient frequency to dispense with the neces- sity for irrigating the plants while small. By soaking the earth from thirty-six to forty-eight hours before seeding, however, the plants will make vigorous growth until they are ten to twelve inches high, after which they may be irrigated with safety. "When alfalfa has become established, a single copious irrigation after each cutting will ordinarily be found suf- ficient. Irrigation before cutting is undesirable, because it leaves the earth so soft as to interfere with the move- ment of machinery and loads. It also makes the stalks more sappy, and, while they will retain the leaves better, there is more difficulty to be experienced in the curing at harvest time; and taken all in all, we much prefer to irrigate after each cutting. In Colorado we cut alfalfa three times and often four times in a season, hence the stand gets as many irrigations. Some people irrigate very early in springtime, before the crowns have awak- ened from their hibernal rest, but this practice is not right. The chill of the water in very early spring is not conducive to quick growth and may often retard the plants in getting an early start. We do not irrigate prior to the first cutting unless the season is particularly dry and the plants seem to actually demand water. We * " Irrigation Fanning," by Lute "Wilcox : 314 pp. Orange Judd Company, New York. 74 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA irrigate late in the fall and apply a top-dressing of light barnyard manure, which is found to be of great service in several v^ays." INFL.UEXCE OF IRRIGATION UPON COMPOSITION I find no report of experiments published by any sta- tion in which the influence of irrigation upon alfalfa hay is made a special study, but Bulletin No. 80 of the Utah station contains a great deal of information along this line relative to grain crops, potatoes, and mixed grasses. In summing up the results of the experiments, the fol- lowing conclusions are ''Heavy irrigations increase the percentage of weight of the heads of plants ; light irrigations increase the rela- tive weight of leaves. ''Irrigation modifies definitely the composition of plants and plant parts ; the seeds are affected more than any other plant part. "The percentage of protein in corn kernels was in- creased from 12.05 to 15.08, as the amount of irriga- tion decreased; in oat kernels from 14.07 to 20.79; ^^ wheat kernels from 15.26 to 26.72. In all these seeds the fat and nitrogen-free extracts were increased by lib- eral waterings. "Increased irrigations increased the starch content and decreased the protein content of potatoes. "The water in plants is somewhat dependent on the water in the soil. "The proportion of ear corn to stover increased regu- larly with the increased application of water. "The percentage of grain in the wheat crop increased with increased irrigations. CULTIVATION 75 ''The yield of wheat increased up to thirty inches of water. "Crops in an arid district require a greater number of pounds of water for one pound of dry matter than in humid cHmates." The experiments cited do not include alfalfa, yet the results with other crops would indicate that the percent- age of protein in alfalfa hay may be less where the crop is grown by irrigation than where it is grown by dry- land farming. The composition of the hay, however, will depend upon the quantity of water supplied to the crop and not upon the method; that is, alfalfa which receives as much natural rainfall as other alfalfa would receive by irrigation, would be similarly affected in com- position, and from the experiments with grains reported in the bulletin noted, it would appear that with the appli- cation of large quantities of water the percentage of protein is decreased; yet, the yield is increased, and although the feeding value of the crop may be a little less, the quantity may be greater, due to large applica- tions of water. WIDE VARIATIOXS IN CONTENT Professor Ten Eyck compiled from their station bulletins the following figures on the composition of alfalfa hay in four different states: Bulletin Number Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Number of Analyses New Jersey 148 39 61 114 Per Cent 15.»4 17.36 9.22 11.89 Per Cent 38.97 36.71 43.25 41.03 Per Cent 3.82 1.65 .97 .66 2 9 Utah 29 Kansas 3 76 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA On this showing he remarks : ''Although it was not definitely stated, I take it that the Colorado and Utah hay were grown by irrigation, while the New Jersey and Kansas hay received no irrigation. It will be observed that while the percentages of protein and fat in the Utah samples are low, the percentage of carbohydrates is high; yet the Colorado samples grown under irrigation show a larger percentage of protein and fat than the Kansas samples grown without irriga- tion. The crude protein often varies in quantity accord- ing to the stage of maturity of the alfalfa when it is cut for hay, as shown by experiments at the Kansas station, and described in Bulletin No. 114. "The general conclusion may be that the protein con- tent of alfalfa hay will decrease to some extent, accord- ing as the supply of water furnished the crop is increased ; that is, by supplying the right quantity of water, a better quality of hay may be grown by irrigation than is often grown in humid climates in soil which receives only the natural rainfall. From what I know of the Colorado and Utah stations, I would judge that the quantity of water supplied at the Utah station was much larger than that supplied at the Colorado station. At the Colorado station the supply of irrigation water is often limited, and hence, the larger percentage of protein and fat which appears in the samples of hay grown and analyzed at that station.'* The annual report of the secretary of agriculture (1904) says that at the Utah station a series of co-oper- ative experiments is in progress to determine the water necessary, and the most favorable method of application, CULTIVATION 77 to insure a maximum yield of alfalfa, and also experi- ments to determine the minimum application of water required to secure a crop. ''It has been found that abun- dant irrigation throughout the season, 6i inches of water being applied, gave a yield of 6.2 tons per acre, while four irrigations in the early part of the season with only 25 inches gave five tons per acre, showing that beyond a certain supply the excess is wasted." A. S. Hitchcock, in United States Farmers' Bulletin No. 2 1 5, speaking of the Utah experiment just mentioned, says that where the supply of water is limited a much less quantity than is ordinarily used will produce paying crops. The minimum quantity to produce a crop of alfalfa, and the time at which the water should be applied, depends upon the soil and climatic conditions. Below are results of experiments in 1903, by the Utah station : WATER REQUIRED BY ALFAIiFA; QUANTITY AND DATE OF APPLICATION Date of each irrigation and quantity of water applied First June 16 June 29 June 16 June 29 June 15 June 20 July 8 June 20 June 15 June 16 Jiuie 23 .June 16 June 23 .June 16 Acrein. 3.360 5.970 5.070 7.020 5.030 6.774 12.490 8.303 6.320 6.2.T0 6.2.T0 6.2.50 6.610 Second July 29 July 29 July 8 July 8 July 3 July 8 Aug. 19 July 6 July 6 June 23 July 7 July 7 July 7 July 7 Acrein. 3.359 3.359 5.036 5.036 5.100 6.694 12..506 8.352 6.248 4.280 6.220 6.220 3.720 3.720 Third Aug. 19 Aug. 6 Aug. 19 Aug. 1 Aug. 19 Aug. 19 Aug. 1 June 30 Aug. 15 Aug. 6 Aug. 15 Aug. 6 Acrein, 3.359 5.003 5.002 5.036 6.682 8.362 6.248 5.705 6.2:)0 6.7.50 3.2.50 3.750 Fourth Aug. 24 Aug. 29 July 7 Aug. 31 Aug. 31 Aug. 31 Aug. 31 Acrein. 5.002 6.2;50 a5.230 6.2.50 6.2.50 3.7.50 3.750 Total Water applied Acre in. 6.719 12.688 15.109 17.058 20.168 20.150 25.002 2.5.017 25.066 61.46.5 24.970 25.470 17.330 15.200 aThis plat was given 5 inches of water on each of the following dates: July 14, July 22, July 28, August 4, August 17, August 25, August 31, September 8. 78 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA DATE OF HARVEST AND YIELD OF HAY Date of harvest and yield of hay at each cutting Total yield of plat Calcu- lated First Second Third yield per acre June 26.... June 26.... June 26.... June 20.... June 26.... June 26.... June 26.... June 26 .... Pounds 264 177 261 204 191 175 93 99 224 176 1-2 170 1-2 147 105 112 1-2 Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 12.... Aug. 10.... Aug. 10.... Aug. 10.... Aug. 10 .... Aug. 10.... Pounds 501-2 101 68 1-2 108 1-2 85 1-2 74 62 44 140 177 1-4 136 1-2 141 112 1-4 106 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'. Pounds "1201-2 73 3-4 61 46 35 Pounds 314 1-2 278 329 1-2 312 1-2 276 1-2 249 155 143 364 474 1-4 380 3-4 349 263 1-4 253 1-2 Tons 3.145 2.780 3.295 3.125 2.765 2.490 1.550 1.430 June 26.... June 18 ... . June 18.... June 18.... June 18.... June 18.... OcV.'ie".!"" Oct. 16 Oct. 16 Oct. 16 Oct. 16 3.640 6.243 5.017 4.598 3.468 3.340 "It will be observed that the maximum crop was pro- duced by applying plenty of water throughout the grow- ing season. However, it is also to be noted that a much less quantity of water, when applied at intervals of three or four weeks, produced a fair crop. Fifteen and 17 inches of water applied in this way produced more than half as much as 61 inches applied at frequent intervals. Furthermore, three irrigations of 15 to 17 inches pro- duced about the same results as the same amount applied at four irrigations. In applying irrigation water to fields it is necessary to saturate the soil to a reasonable depth. All the water that drains off beyond the amount required for use is lost to the crop. It is not necessary to apply water again until the crop has removed a large part of the available supply." 'H t« ca o c >» CO X la < C ■J f ;#.-^. CHAPTER VIL Harvesting CALLS FOR INTELLIGENCE AND PAINSTAKING Considerable space in this volume is devoted to the discussion of soil and seeding, but their importance can- not well be over-estimated. Really the whole subject of alfalfa might well be treated under the two heads, ''Seeding" and ''Harvesting," so very inclusive are these two phases of the subject. Without careful seeding one cannot have a crop to harvest, and without careful har- vesting he might almost as well not have a crop. Both call for intelligence and painstaking farming, and much patience and hard work. But the rewards of these vir- tues and labors are heavy yields from the most valuable forage plant. If it is worth nine times as much as tim- othy, it can well demand a little more time and labor than the average crop. GREAT VALUE OF LEAVES The first point to accentuate as we approach the sub- ject of harvesting is the preeminent value of the leaves. These contain from seventy-five to eighty per cent of the protein of the whole plant, that valuable compound that goes to produce milk and meat. It has been estimated that a ton of properly cured alfalfa leaves is equal in pro- 8o THE BOOK OF ALFALFA tein to 2800 pounds of wheat bran; and when it is also estimated by careful observers that the loss of leaves in harvesting, even under favoring circumstances, ranges from fifteen to thirty or more per cent it is readily seen that the harvesting is an important part in alfalfa hay- making. WHEN TO CUT For the best hay the cutting should begin when the alfalfa is about one-tenth in bloom. Of course, if the acreage is small, calling for but one or two days' cutting, it might stand without particular harm until a fifth or. fourth was in bloom. Cutting should be completed, if possible, by the time one-half is in bloom, as after that it is cut at a loss of leaves. As they have more experience the tendency among farmers is to cut alfalfa earlier than had before been believed at all desirable, and some experienced growers and feeders now insist upon cutting just before the blossoming stage is reached. Experiments seem to show that horses like the hay that has been cut when at least half in bloom, or later, better than do other stock. For sake of the after effects on the plant, it is highly important that the first cutting be made in the early bloom, as, if it is delayed, the second crop starts more slowly and gives a lighter yield. Frequently a short delay in cutting the first crop means that the field will produce but two crops instead of three or four. So important is this that Prof. H. M. Cottrell declares that he has found it profitable to cut the first crop of a season in earliest bloom even if it were to be injured by being rained upon, or in fact entirely lost. HARVESTING 8 1 MOST PROTEIN IN EAKLY CUTTINGS The Utah experiment station found by a feeding test that the early cut alfalfa was worth far more than any later cutting. It reported : stage of Growth Hay worth, per ton Beef, lbs. produced TVTien MO in bloom When in full bloom $5.35 4.90 4.35 706 562 When 1-2 of blooms have fallen 490 The Kansas station found the protein content to be : stage of Growth Protein content When I- ID in bloom 18.5 per cent. When 1-2 in bloom 17.2 '' " When in full bloom 14.4 " " CONSTANT WATCHFULNESS DEMANDED In humid regions, the alfalfa farmer at the time of the first cutting often finds himself in a trying position. The value of the leaves demands early cutting, and this may be just when it is likely to rain with great frequency. He knows that a wetting will injure his hay, and that this results in more or less loss of some of its most valuable parts from the hour of cutting until it is thoroughly cured. The Colorado station reports that alfalfa hay left out for fifteen days after cutting and rained on twice, lost 26.1 per cent of its feeding value. Hay left out for seven days and having only one light rain, lost 10 per cent. Another lot left out three days, without rain, lost 5 per cent. Wetting delays the cur- ing, and by the washing the hay loses much sugar, dex- \£0SO 82 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA trill and other soluble matters, and also develops fungi. However, the only thing to do is to cut, exercising good judgment of course as to the amount each day. LOSSES IN CURING Headden founds at the Colorado station, that in an average alfalfla plant the stems amounted to forty to fifty per cent of the weight, while with very leafy, small- stemmed plants the leaves sometimes form more than sixty per cent of the entire weight. The leaves were read- ily lost if the hay was not handled carefully. He con- cluded that the minimum loss from the falling off of the leaves and stems in careful haymaking amounts to from fifteen to twenty per cent ; and in cases where conditions have been unfavorable, as much as sixty or even sixty- six per cent of the entire dry crop is lost. Stated in an- other way, with the best of conditions, and with great care, for every 1,700 pounds of hay taken off the field, at least 300 pounds of leaves and stems are left scattered on the ground, "and, in very bad cases, as much as 1,200 pounds may be left for each 800 pounds taken." A study of these facts should induce the careful haymaker to use all possible skill in curing alfalfa, and they show that it will be profitable to expend more than the usual amount of labor in saving the leaves, considering that they are worth, pound for pound, nearly four times as much as the stems. HARITCSTING IN HUMID REGIONS Ordinarily, it is not well to cut alfalfa immediately after a heavy rain, because the wet ground will operate against proper curing. Begin cutting in the morning, HARVESTING ^^3 when the clew is well off. If the weather is fair, the ted- der ought to follow about two hours behind the mower. It is a mistake to think that the sun is the great curing agent. Too long exposure to the sun makes the curing all the more unsatisfactory, besides drying the leaves in such a way that they crumble and drop off. Aslong as alfalfa remains "alive" w^ater will be exhaled from the surface of the leaves and be pumped constantly from the stalks in a natural way much as though they were still standing. On the other hand, if newly cut alfalfa is spread too long in hot sunshine, the leaves are scorched to such an extent that transpiration of moisture from pores becomes impossible. Hence, that in the stalks can only escape by simple evaporation, which is very slow. By this means much undesirable, in fact harmful, moisture in the hay is brought to the barn or stack, although the leaves of the hay are dry and crisp. As J. E. Wmg has well said in his bulletin (Bui. No. 129 prepared for the Pennsylvania department of agri- culture), "there is a principle to be observed in making alfalfa hay that applies to making hay from all clovers. If it can be so managed that the leaves are not at once burned and dried to powder, the moisture from the stems is the more easily removed. Leaves are natural evapo- rators of sap ; stems are not. Therefore, while the leaf has yet pliancy and some semblance of its natural condi- tion, it is most efficiently carrying away the sap of the stem, but when it is dried up it no longer aids in drying the plant at all. Therefore, the best hay in all respects is made partly in the shade, in loosely turned windrows, or in narrow cocks." 84 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Two or three hours behind the tedder start the rake and keep it going regardless of the noon hour, and unless the hay is very heavy it may be put into small cocks, this to be completed before the dew forms. In humid regions, hay is cured best and with greatest safety by the use of hay-caps, and these should be put on the cocks also before the dew forms, and removed each morning. The hay may be left in these cocks for four or five days, as found necessary, and then stacked or stored in the barn. This may not follow, however, unless the weather is favorable. Many prefer to leave the hay in the wind- rows until the second morning, turning them by hand or otherwise before noon and putting into cocks in the afternoon, letting these stand for two or three days. If it is left in the cocks over three days, they should be moved or the plants under them will be smothered. All agree that alfalfa should not lie in the swath over two or three hours. Most who have ever used a tedder like it if the alfalfa is less than half in bloom. If half or more in bloom, the tedder may cause the breaking off and loss of many leaves. Most experiment stations recommend that the hay be put into small cocks on the day of the cutting, if the weather is at all fair, not risking it in the windrows over night. It is a fact that cocked green alfalfa, even without caps, will shed much rain, while when fairly well-cured it will not do so. A Colorado farmer reported that he started the mower one morning as soon as the dew was off, followed it with the tedder one hour later, and with the rake one hour behind the tedder ; he kept a force of men only two hours behind the rake putting the alfalfa, yet quite green, into HARVESTING 85 small cocks. These stood through two days of heavy rain. Later the cocks were opened and found to be unharmed, and after one day the hay was put into stacks in excellent condition. This was a somewhat unusual circumstance, surely, and might not often occur in a climate less dry than that in some parts of Colorado. A grower in southern Kansas, however, who harvests about one thousand tons of alfalfa per year, and is work- ing with it nearly every day from the second week in May until November 10, insists that alfalfa, under the same conditions of rainfall, is much easier to save in fair feeding condition than red clover. He finds the side- delivery rake especially excellent for turning over the green or wet windrows to the sun and air with the least loss of leaves, and cured thus, after being wet, the nat- ural color is better preserved. "That alfalfa hay has a higher feeding value than almost any other, even when saved under the most unfavorable circumstances, should be impressed upon the inexperienced." THE USE OF HAY- CAPS Any man who goes into the business of raising alfalfa anywhere in the rain belt cannot well afford to ignore hay-caps as a part of his equipment. Comparatively the cost is slight and the trouble of using them small con- sidered in the light of their great utility, although the expense, and the use and care of them may at first blush appear to be quite formidable. American haymakers do not seem to appreciate the bad effect of dew upon the color and aroma of all kinds of hay. Prof. F. H. Storer in his ''Agriculture" (Vol. Ill, p. 559) says: ''One 86 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA advantage gained by the use of hay-caps to protect the cocks during the night, is that they hold in the raked-up warmth, and keep the hay from coohng off. Thus it happens that the hay not only improves a little as to dry- ness during the night, but is all ready to dry rapidly when the cocks are again exposed to the air and sun- shine, on being uncovered in the morning. All this as a normal and constant benefit, to say nothing of the advantages derived from the caps in case light rains, or even heavy rains, should fall before the cocks are again opened. The caps keep dew from settling upon the hay, moreover, and thus prevent the loss of aromatic matters that would result if the dew were to dry off from the hay." *'With regard to the exclusion of dew, it is not alone its power to carry off aroma that should be considered. When dew ^falls' it must tend to carry with it any parti- cles of solid matter that may happen to be in the air from which it is deposited, and, in this way the spores of fungi, such as would cause the hay to mold, are put upon it. It can scarcely be questioned that many of the organisms deposited with the dew are likely to promote hurtful decomposition, especially in case the hay should remain or become damp, and the less of these organisms that infest the hay the better it will be." When the farmer considers that a ton of well-cured alfalfa hay is worth about as much as a ton of wheat bran, he ought to see that it is profitable to protect it from the rain and the dew. He would scarcely hesitate to provide suitable covering if he had several tons of bran in the field exposed to the elements. Hay-caps will HARVESTING S7 soon pay for themselves by the finer quality of the hay they assure, aside from the larger quantity of the best grade that their protection guarantees. Storer further says, ''there can be no question as to the very great merit of hay-caps when properly used. They are simply pieces of stout, cotton cloth of suitable size, say 40 to 45 inches square as a minimum, (60 inches square would be far better — Author) which are thrown over the cocks when rain is imminent, or at nightfall. These cloths may have wooden pegs or some sort of weight attached to each corner to hold them in place ; the pegs can be driven into the ground or pushed under the hay, as seems most suitable to the size of the cock or con- ditions of the weather. The porosity of the cotton cloth hinders dampness from collecting beneath it at the top of the cock which it covers." Curing alfalfa in dry regions where the problems and dangers of rainfall do not need any large consideration, is attended with few of the difficulties which confront the grower in a region of much humidity. In western Kansas and Nebraska, and in Texas and other states where summer rains are somewhat infrequent, the mowers start at the beginning and do not stop until the field or fields of alfalfa are all in the swath. The rakes follow close behind, frequently the side-delivery rake, and then the gathering implement, usually designated as a "go-dtvil," keep only about a half -day behind, drag- ging the cured hay to the stack or rick where the horse- fork lifts and carries it to the center of the stack, to be distributed and placed by men with pitchforks. The market and feeding value of hay so cured and gathered, 88 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA is deemed by some authorities as not the highest. Curing" in the windrow alone is hkely to be a mere drying (per- haps too rapid drying) of one side of the exposed portions. Alfalfa should cure successively in the swath, windrow, cock and stack or mow, to develop its greatest value. The man who has so many acres that he cannot cure it in this way might do better with fewer acres for hay, and pasture hogs on the remainder, or use the land for other crops. Still it is true that alfalfa even poorly cured has no inconsiderable feeding value. Many farmers in the West and Middle West claim to secure very good hay by early following the mower with the tedder, this with the rake, and then the ''buncher," letting the hay remain in bunches over night and dragging it to the stack the next day. Others take from the windrow to wagons by a hay-loader, preferably one operated by a belt. After all is said and done, and regardless of thrift and yield, it is unquestionable that the grower of alfalfa in humid regions meets with difficulties in the matter of satisfactory curing that in some years are almost or quite disheartening, and of a character to which his brother in arid territory is virtually a total stranger. Curing in the two regions presents different problems, with advantage all the time favoring the man in the country of little rainfall. Second and later cuttings are not so much endangered by rains as is the first, and, hence, these are usually cured in better condition. Notwithstanding this, virtually all tests point out that the first cutting has more feeding value and is better relished by all kinds of stock. Most farm- HARVESTING «9 ers are agreed that it pays to cut every time the alfalfa blooms, up to the last of September in the North, and possibly a month later in the more southern latitudes. A few have reported that they prefer to make but two cuttings a year, claiming to realize a greater feeding value by so doing; but it seems that the loss in leaves and protein, together with the fact that live stock has less relish for the more mature cuttings, makes frequent cut- ting by far the most profitable. To sum up, the points to be emphasized in cutting alfalfa for hay, and its treatment immediately after, are: Cut in early bloom. Handle as little as possible. Prevent its being wet after cutting. Cure if possible partly in the swath, in the windrow, in the cock and in the stack or inoz Cut as often as it blooms, which will range from twice in New England to nine times a year in southern Okla- homa, southern California, Texas and Louisiana. In a region of frequent rains protect with hay-caps. HARVESTING FOR SEED The first cutting should not be used for seed for three reasons : First, if that cutting is delayed until the seed has ripened, the second and third cuttings will be very light, and in the extreme northern alfalfa territory there may not be even a second. \ stronger reason is that at the time of the first cutting, favorable weather is likely to be much less certain and rains will interfere with the stacking of the seed crop, which, to insure its best value, must be put in the stack or mow without wetting. 90 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Another is that the seed pods at that season are not usually so well filled and the proportion of fertile seeds is less because the bees and other insects have not so early in the season had time and opportunity to aid in the poUenation. Cutting should be done when the greater proportion of the seeds are hard, but not sufficiently ripe to shell. At this stage a majority of the pods are turned a dark- brown color and the seeds are fully developed. Fre- quently the cutting can be raked into windrows after two hours if the weather is drying, and in two or three hours more put into cocks and let stand for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, as the weather may justify. It should, however, be well cured and thoroughly dry when put in the stack, or there is danger of heating, and stack- heating seriously injures the vitality of the seed. It is not uncommon, if extremely ripe, to leave the cutting in the swath only an hour or a half -hour, then stack, and let stand for autumn or later threshing. If allowed to stand in the stack for about thirty days, the entire mass goes through a sweating and curing process which makes the threshing easier, while less of the seed is left in the straw than would be if it had not stack-cured. In western Kansas many seed raisers cut their seed crop with a self- binder, put the sheaves in shocks the same day and thresh in about ten days, or put it into a stack to await a con- venient threshing time. They claim to secure 20 per cent more of the seed in this way than if they cut with the ordinary mower. Others cut with a mower having a dropper attachment which leaves the alfalfa in small bunches at the will of the driver, in the center of the HARVESTING 9I swath, and these are ''straddled" by the team and the wheels of the mower in the subsequent rounds. These bunches are left for two or three days and then stacked. There is little, if any, danger from mold or spontaneous combustion in stacks of alfalfa cut for seed, but there is danger of the seed heating in the stack if stacked wdien damp. If bright, clean seed is expected, the stacks must be well topped with slough grass, or covered with tarpau- lins or boards, or given other protection. It is better still to put the alfalfa intended for seed into a barn. One Kansas farmer in the western part of the state reports that he used a self-binding harvester, shocked the sheaves like those of grain, let them stand ten days and then put in a mow, with no bad results. YIELDS OF SEED The yield of seed ranges all the way from two to thir- teen bushels per acre, the normal yield in the seed regions being four to eight bushels. It is threshed with ordinary grain separators with seed attachments, although the clover-huller is usually preferred. No threshing machine cleans the seed satisfactorily or sufficiently, and a careful recleaning is necessary. Fanning mills or seed-cleaners are now made that will remove most weed seeds, seeds of dodder, and all light-weight and probably infertile alfalfa seeds. However, no raiser should by rights thresh, to say nothing of marketing, the seeds of the dodder or any other weed with his alfalfa; these should be cut out of the field with scythe, sickle or knife a month before the alfalfa is cut. The threshed alfalfa straw is worth only about half as much as the hay, yet it makes excellent feed for horses. 92 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA colts and calves. Or, if put into stacks of alfalfa of the third cutting, in alternate layers, it may be fed to any stock to good advantage, as it is relished quite as well as ordinary third cuttings, notwithstanding its lower feeding value. THE THIRD CUTTING FOR SEED Seed raisers in some instances, especially in Kansas, use the third cutting for seed, claiming that the pods are more uniformly filled and the seeds more generally fertile, due to the assistance of the bees in pollenation. They claim, too, that this cutting has fewer weeds and weed seeds than its predecessors; also that they are thus sure of two good hay crops, while often if they use the second crop for seed, the third crop is hardly worth more than the cutting. The only point left in favor of using the second cutting for seed, where the farmer is confident of a third, is that the protein value of the second is the lowest, and hence its hay can better be spared than that from any other cutting. The raising of seed in the more humid eastern states should not, generally, be attempted, as it will not only interfere with obtaining full value in the hay crop, but the less fertile soil will not produce as vigorous seed as will the newer and richer lands west of the Missovn*i river. At present the best seed for general use is produced between that river and the Rocky mountains. Utah pro- duces a hardy seed, but much if not most of it is raised under irrigation, and, hence, at least theoretically, not deemed best adapted for regions dependent entirely upon soil moisture from rains. Gathering an Alfalfa Crop in Page County, Iowa Photograph by courtesy of Henry Field ||^^^^4?^ Alfalfa Harvesting Scene in Yellowstone County, Montana /i H^^^^ 1# Mast and Boom Stacker, with Six-Tined Jackson Fork The mast is held in place by guy ropes from the top. Leading to the right may be seen the rope to which is attached a team of horses. The base of the derrick is in the form of sled runners, so that the whole may be drawn along the stack by attaching a team l&^ygl. WSkesim.s-y. ^M^^. ;j«_^ • *mP P Wf i ^^MM|^^ £„ ^VM^HHH^^^^^^M W0 i - " 'V^^HiHj^^^B . ^., M' , '^H A Derrick Stacker with six-tined Jackson or California fork. The derrick is substantial, and guy ropes are not necessary. Stakes driven into the ground around the base hold the derrick in place CHAPTER VIII. Storing CARE IN CURING After all possible care has been taken in seeding, cul- tivating and harvesting alfalfa, its feeding value may be greatly impaired or quite lost by ignorance or careless- ness in storing; that is, by stacking or putting it into sheds or barns, or by baling it for market when in an unsuitable condition. The only path to safety in stacking or storing in shed or mow is having the hay in proper condition for com- pleting its own curing. The true medium for its curing is air, not sun; the sun has done possibly more than its share already. But good hay is not completely and properly cured in swath, windrow and cock. If cured in the windrow, the exposed parts are liable to be much injured by the sun. Therefore the principle stands, ''Handle alfalfa green." It must be cut green, teddered, raked and cocked or bunched while comparatively green, and must not then be allowed to dry and parch to brittle- ness. True, it must not be put into a stack so long as it is possible to wring water out of the stalks. A constant study should be to find the best method of getting the hay into storage without loss of its natural color. The method that will safely store it greenest will be the best to follow. 94 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA Handled green the leaves are saved, and these constitute from 50 to 75 per cent of the whole value. PUTTING INTO WINTER QUARTERS When (in regions of much humidity) the hay is safely in cock, covered with hay-caps, and has had a few days of curing, it is ready for permanent quarters. Remembering that the hay after its drying has begun should be handled as little as possible, the cocks have been made small enough so that two men may lift them bodily onto a wagon, if a wagon is used in the stacking. From the wagon, the hay is lifted by a hayfork to the stack. Or, more careful still, the farmer will use three slings to each wagon, which are lifted by a hook to the stack or mow. A sling is a heavy sheet the size of the wagon hayrack. One is spread on the bottom of the rack, another on top of the first one-third of the load, and the other on top of the second third. These slings are banded at the ends ; the ends are drawn together and a third of the load lifted to the stack or mow, thus saving in some instances a third more leaves than any other method. In arid and semi-arid territory, cocking and loading on or off wagons are dispensed with by dragging the rapidly dried hay directly to stacks built in the fields, where the lifting into place is done with great expedition by horse implements. A wheel-rake or "go-devil" is used to take at once several cocks, bunches or a part of a windrow to a nearby stack. Others use a rope to drag one or more large cocks to the stack; or, if the hay is to be taken from windrows, it may be put upon wagons with STORING 95 a loader. The loader is an excellent implement for hand- ling timothy and clover, but is apt to shake off a good many leaves of alfalfa if the hay is very dry. The more common sling now on the market is made of ropes, four ropes the length of the hayrack and with ropes across like a rope ladder, and used to handle one-third or one- fourth of a load. Others are made like the carriers of a threshing machine with slats and ropes. STORIXG TS THE BARN The barn is the best place for alfalfa if all conditions are right. Cases of spontaneous combustion in stack and mow make farmers fearful of using the barn, espe- cially for the first cutting, which is always most difficult to cure. There are certain conditions that must be observed if this hay is to complete its curing properly and safely in the mow. The bottom of the mow should be elevated at least a foot from the ground, floored with poles or joists, and they should be about two-thirds cov- ered with boards or other material in such a way as to provide numerous openings or air spaces of considerable size. If the mow already has a tight floor, a part of the flooring should be removed before the hay is put in. Then a box or barrel should be placed in the center of the space and lifted up as the filling proceeds. If the mow is over thirty feet long, a second barrel should be used; that is, an air shaft should be left in about each fifteen to twenty feet. A layer of dry hay or straw sand- wiched in about every four of five feet, as the mow fills, can be used to much advantage. If the mow is large enough in length and width, an excellent, safe plan is to 96 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA spread the first cutting over the entire bottom, filling up to a height of four or five feet. The second cutting may be placed over this, on top of a layer of straw, and the third cutting over this. There is virtually no danger from spontaneous combustion or from mold if this is done, and the hay will be as bright and green and almost as rich in protein in January as when harvested. J. W. Berry of Jewell county, Kansas, member of the board of regents of the state agricultural college, uses this method and bales his hay in October for the city markets, finding it in perfect condition. He puts his hay into the mow green but not wet, direct from the cocks, or windrows the day it is cut, in layers about four feet deep, with the slightest possible loss of leaves, no bleaching and no injury by dew. In 1905 he cut his alfalfa four times and stored the fourth cutting on top of the three preceding. He says that having an open floor and plenty of air from the out- side, the hay can be put in the barn as described; that it should not be tramped, and it will settle and cure per- fectly. The bottom layer or first cutting may show some dust when taken out if handled loose, but the color will be good and it will bale in with the other cuttings and all grade well. Hay cured in this way in 1904 graded "choice" in the St. Louis market. Spontaneous combustion does not occur very often, but it is a possibility, and it is well to bear in mind that hay may be put in the barn too green. Observation teaches that it never takes place unless the hay has been put in the barn while containing a large amount of mois- ture, and piled too deep. Alfalfa and other clover hays STORING 97 may safely be put in the barn when they contain not to exceed 30 per cent of water. If, however, they contain much more than this there is considerable danger, espe- cially where large quantities are put together, as is the case in large, deep mows and sometimes in large stacks. A practical test which may be safely followed is to take a handful of hay, twist it as hard as possible, and if no juice can be wrung out of its stems, it is dry enough to be put in the mow. Bunches of wet hay mixed with dry hay have often caused combustion. Such should always be discarded. It is poor policy to haul clover hays into a barn after sundown, as at that time it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere very rapidly. It is a good plan for the haymaker to go into his mow every morning while the hay is curing and observe the conditions, but he should not, however, become alarmed if he finds that the top of his hay is very damp. This will always be the case, even if it was comparatively dry when put in ; considerable heat develops during the night, which in turn evaporates moisture. The following morn- ing, when the air is cool, a large percentage of this, especially if the mow is not well ventilated, is condensed and settles back on the hay. If the moisture, however, is excessive, it is a sfood plan to scatter a load of dry straw over the top. This will absorb the moisture in part, after which filling may be continued. In case a load has been put in the barn too wet, it should be spread to the outer edges, as there is much less danger of com- bustion at these places than in the center In fact, the greatest heat is always developed in the center, where the so-called craters form, and from which moisture and 9^ THE BOOK OF ALFALFA gases are given off as a result of heating and oxidation below. From the fact that spontaneous combustion cannot take place until the water has all been evaporated, there is no danger until three to four weeks after the hay has been stored. During the first week or so, if the hay heats to such an extent that there is danger of com- bustion, it is well to open up the center as much as pos- sible and allow some of the heat to escape. If, however, the heating has continued much longer, it is dangerous practice to open the hay at all, because all that is needed, after the water has been evaporated, is air, or oxygen to support combustion, and the mass will at once burst into flames. Sometimes combustion takes place without flames, in which case the center of the mow gradually chars, leaving the hay there as black as charcoal, and without value. Professor Cottrell, discussing spontaneous combustion (Kansas Bui. No. 114), says that all cases observed by him have occurred in hay of the season's first cutting — cut at a time when the growth was rank and the curing most difficult. A period of wet, muggy weather in July or August increases the danger, which in dry weather seems much less. On account of previous trouble from heating in the barn, he had four year prior to writing stacked the first cutting out of doors and put only the later cuttings in the barn. LOSSES FROM STACKING The Colorado station found that the loss in feeding value from the hour of cocking to the hour of taking from STORING 99 tlie stack was 12.4 per cent, while the loss in hay stored in the barn was about 2.5 per cent. If we add to this the stacked hay lost by exposure, it will easily reach more than 20 per cent under average conditions while in many cases it would reach 40 per cent. This certainly represents an enormous waste, and by preventing it a man with any considerable area of alfalfa could soon save enough to pay for a barn. THE HAY SHED After a barn the next best place for storing hay is a shed with an adjustable or lifting roof. The ground dimensions should be ample to allow the first cutting to cover its floor and not be over five or possibly six feet deep when first put in. The bottom of the mow should be raised at least one foot from the ground, and the floor should have at least a twelve-inch air space about every three feet. Poles or joists covered with dry straw or old hay make a good floor. Spread the hay over the entire floor surface, on a layer of straw or other dry material. Use barrels or boxes as recommended for ventilation in the barn, and lower the roof until the second cutting. For such a roof the covering should be of some such mate- rial as ruberoid, and the rafters need not be he^vy, except about every sixteen feet. Strong iron clamps can be easily adjusted to the supports. When the second cut- ting is ready, raise the roof, which should be in sections, and put the second crop on top of the first. Follow this plan for all other cuttings. If a shed with a stationary roof is used, dry straw, or hay, or corn stover should be lOO THE BOOK OF ALFALFA put on top of each cutting to protect the alfalfa from rain. Almost any kind of a shed or covered structure is preferable to a stack. CONDITIONS FOR STACKING If the hay is to be stacked, there are also special condi- tions that the experienced insist should be observed. This is not to say that alfalfa hay stacked under conditions quite different may not give fair results, and much depends on the locality and the climate. However, the result desired is palatable and nutritious hay and not such as is moldy, stack-burned or dusty. Stacking the hay directly on the ground is sure to mean a loss of some por- tion of it. Elevate the bottom of the stack with poles, timbers or other like material ; put straw at the bottom and, preferably, build a rick rather than a round stack. Start the bottom sixteen or eighteen feet wide and build straight up instead of tapering or slanting the sides, as alfalfa hay will not shed rain or snow water. If there is much moisture and it is convenient to do so, use a layer of straw or dry hay of some kind every five or six feet. Keep the stack full in the middle, or a little higher than the sides, and well tramped all the time. When the stack has reached the. desired height, top it out with slough grass, or dry timothy or prairie hay, or very green alfalfa, or protect with tarpaulins or boards; the boards may be nailed and chained together, lapped and weighted at the corners, making a very satisfactory roof. If these directions are followed, the losses will be kept at a min- imum. The Kansas experiment station authorities say that in an experiment made there an application of STORING lOI salt to the hay when being stored seemed to decrease, if anything, rather than increase its feeding value. Lime applied in stacking is claimed to have a beneficial effect in preventing mold. The raised bottom and layers of straw are useful ac- cessories for the stack, shed or mow, while the barrel or other ventilating contrivances should not be overlooked in either sheds or mows. STORING AS SILAGE As land values increase and farmers and dairymen come to more fully appreciate the worth of green feed in winter, the silo grows in estimation. Eastern farmers who keep cows or young stock of any kind use the silo more or less, to conserve for winter the value of both green grass and corn. Alfalfa makes an excellent silage, but its peculiar quality of retaining its green food value, as hay, when properly cured, makes its ensiling much less a necessity. Alfalfa hay taken from the mow in Febru- ary, green, appetizing and nutritious, falls little, if any, short of serving the purposes of silage. OFTEN PROFITABLE TO ENSILE THE FIRST CUTTING However, it is not infrequently found that the first cutting of alfalfa may be ensiled directly from the field at a season when rains would prevent its proper curing for hay. If this is done, it is important that the rakes and wagons follow very closely after the mower, as even two hours of sun exposure in the swath lessens its value for silage. Men who have cut alfalfa during a light rain and 102 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA raked and hauled it directly to the silo have reported sat- isfactory results. Others report having cut it in the late afternoon and, the next morning, after a heavy rain, raked and hauled it to the silo while dripping wet. Therefore the farmer in the eastern and southern states, in the Pacific Northwest, or even in the central states may, on occasion, plan for the ensiling of his first cutting, in the faith that it will come out in fine condition if his silo is properly constructed. SUGGESTIONS FOR SILOING The Kansas and Colorado experiment stations recom- mend that alfalfa for silage should be cut into lengths of, say, two inches. Long alfalfa does not pack suffi- ciently close in the silo, and when so stored the loss is much more than if in short lengths. It should always be heavily weighted and great care taken to pack it well at the outer edges. Round silos are most approved because their contents are more readily compacted. The points urged by Professor Ten Eyck, of the Kansas experi- ment station, are, (a) getting the alfalfa to the silo quickly after mowing, allowing little, if any, curing; (b) cutting the alfalfa into short lengths rather than storing it whole; (c) packing it tightly, and weighting heavily when all in. He says, however, that if the weather will permit proper curing of the alfalfa, it will make more valuable winter feed as hay than as silage. BALING The increasing general demand for alfalfa hay in the city markets of the United States, away from the dis- tinct alfalfa regions, has made finding a method of pre- STORING 103 paring it for economic shipment of much importance. The compressing of timothy and prairie hay has become so general that alfalfa raisers and shippers are also fol- lowing this method. The problem of saving the leaves, and, at the same time, being able to market alfalfa green, has been hard to solve. Baling it uncured meant mold, and baling it when very dry meant loss of leaves and, hence, loss in feeding and selling value. The Kansas station a few years ago carried on a series of experiments extending over several years from which the conclusion was that the only safe procedure is to cure carefully in the field, put in the stack or mow, and bale after the final sweating — say thirty days. Most of the hay cured and baled in the field was moldy or brown. It is possible, however, that a more careful curing, the use of hay-caps, letting it stand for several days in cock, baling, and then storing in an open shed, the bales stacked on edge and separated about every third layer by poles, rails or raft- ers, might result in securing high-grade hay direct from the field without stacking. Seemingly it will never be safe, away from the semi-arid regions, to bale the first cutting from the field; but the secret may yet be found of so baling the second and third cuttings and obtaining prime hay. Its doing is not likely to prove satisfactory, how- ever, except in the drier portions of the alfalfa district where large cocks of, say, 500 pounds may be made and left standing for several days before baling. But baling is not likely to be largely followed except in territory where extensive areas are devoted to alfalfa. When practically every farmer in the United States has his field of alfalfa as he now has of corn, cotton or clover, the I04 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA' greater part of the product will be fed on the farm and the surplus hauled direct to the local markets. Western Kansas and Nebraska alfalfa raisers are having this problem solved for them by the growing practice of stockmen shipping cattle and sheep from the mountain ranges to be fed or fattened where the hay is raised, and hauled directly from the stack to the feed lots. POOR STUFF Hay dealers report that much of the baled alfalfa shipped is poor stuff. They advise small bales, weighing about sixty to eighty pounds ; about 27 to 36 inches long, 14 or 15 inches thick and 18 inches high when laid on edge. They also recommend that in loading a car the bales be placed on their edges instead of on the sides, as they are less liable to heat. The problem of the city hay dealer is to sell what he has received, with satisfac- tion to the purchaser and profit to himself and to his client. If he receives moldy, dead hay, with little protein value, he is not able to please his customer, not able to secure a good price, and hence, not able to please either shipper or buyer. The farmer who raises and ships hay and receives two dollars less per ton for it than his neigh- bor, should learn by such money losses the necessity of harvesting and storing his product properly. A. S. Hitchcock says in Farmers' Bulletin No. 215, of the United States Department of Agriculture, that the baled hay for export to Alaska, Hawaii, and other trans- oceanic points is compressed by the process known as double compression, done with baling machines oper- ated by electricity or hydraulic power. The hay obtained STORING 105 by loosening the ordinary bale is compressed into square or cylindrical packages of smaller and more compact form than the ordinary bale. The hydraulic presses used for making the round bales are similar to those used for the cylindrical bales of cotton. The measurements of the different types of double-compressed bales are about as follows: Square, 15 by 18 by 38 inches, weight 160 pounds; square bale for Alaskan trade, 14 by 18 by 26 inches, weight 100 pounds; round bale, 2 feet in diam- eter, 24 inches long, weight 145 pounds, or 36 inches long, weight 260 pounds. The saving of space in transit may best be understood by comparing the weight and cubic contents of baled and compressed hay. The ordi- nary bale occupies 140 to 160 cubic feet per ton, and round bales 55 feet per ton. The most essential point in loading new hay into a car is to see that it is not loaded flat, that is, with the flat sides of the bale up. When loaded in this way, with the smooth sides of the bales together, no space is left for air and as a consequence the hay not infrequently heats. A properly loaded car has the edges or rough sides of the bales together. This allows air space between the bales and always prevents danger of heating. A new machine is being introduced which makes ( from the windrow if desired) a cylindrical bale, with a hollow space lengthwise through its middle. This open space must undoubtedly facilitate the curing of hay baled before sufficiently dry. The machine has a capacity of four to six tons per hour, makes a bale thirty-six inches long and twenty inches or less in diameter, as desired, bound with twine, and the hay can be eaten from the bale, with a I06 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA minimum of waste, without untastening. This baler, if it justifies the claims of its inventors, should be very use- ful to those who grow alfalfa for marketing away from the farm. GRADING AND GRADES OF ALFALFA HAY On account of the increasing demands for alfalfa hay, and growth in the business of selling it in cities, dealers have found that the establishment of some uniform and generally accepted method of grading the different qual- ities was a business necessity. As a result of this its con- sideration was taken up by the National Hay Associa- tion's committee on grades and upon the committee's rec- ommendation the association in 1905 adopted the follow- ing classification: Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine, leafy alfalfa, of bright green color, properly cured, sound, sweet and well baled. No. I Alfalfa — Shall be coarse alfalfa of bright, green color, or reasonably fine, leafy, of good color, and may contain five per cent of foreign grasses; must be well baled, sound and sweet. No. 2 Alfalfa — Shall include alfalfa somewhat bleached, but of fair color, reasonably leafy, not more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound and well baled. No. 3 Alfalfa — Shall include bleached alfalfa, or al- falfa mixed with not to exceed one- fourth foreign grasses, but when mixed must be of fair color, sound and well baled. No Grade Alfalfa — Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for other grades, caked, musty, grassy, or threshed. Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle «^.:'.^J.:2^ ^Hl J^^^ ;i^-^„4SSi^p^^:*— C3 ^^^^iix--^-:si^»^^^ 1 .i^'.X^ -""" ' " .^i^Sltttl^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M ■ Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep tei >t „"<.*^*::*°l * J -^ ; - lAt'J^i^^lv^tSs^ f^sMrtaM^mmmmmmm Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep ^^ Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle CHAPTER IX Pasturing and Soiling PASTURING NOT ALiWAYS ECONO]MY Its perennial nature and the reports of its wonderfully productive and nutritive qualities might naturally lead the farmer, without better acquaintance, to suppose that with alfalfa he has perpetual pasture; that he will open the gate to his live stock in the spring, send for the butcher or buyer in October, and then winter in luxurious leis- ure. But he finds that the easiest is not always the most profitable way. Pasturing with any stock is an expensive and extravagant method of gathering a valuable crop from high-priced land. Where land is cheap and pasture is wild, stock are not expensive help in gathering a cheap crop ; but it is easily demonstrated that when land values are high and a crop value is in a like altitude, man with machinery can do the harvesting more economically than can a cow, a steer or even a sheep. ALFAIiFA A TENDER PLANT In some respects alfalfa does not seem to be a natural pasture plant. The stems are delicate, it will not thrive in a hard, trampled soil, and the crowns when broken off will not revive; if some of the plants bloom and drop their flowers early in the season, they lose vigor and many of them die. These peculiarities would at least indicate I08 ' THE BOOK OF ALFALFA that it should not be pastured at all until it has become esr tablished, has its crowns well spread, has abundant stem^ and its roots have a strong start on their underground ca- reer. Not an animal should be turned on an alfalfa field until the second or third year if it is desired that the stand endure for several years, nor should it be pastured too early in the spring or too late in the fall. There should be something of a growth left for winter protection. Careful alfalfa raisers are known who pasture their older fields, but never put on a full quota of stock until they have cut over the field when the plants are first coming into bloom. They insist that this cutting invigorates and gives the plants new life. They then pasture quite closely until some time in September, after which there is time for some final growth for winter protection. A GOOD SWINE PASTURE A chief exception that most farmers insist on is that it is an excellent pasture for pigs and, if it is not stocked too heavily, its use for grazing young swine will not largely decrease the yield of hay. Its marked protein property seems to give to the pigs a superior growth of frame and flesh. Farmers claim that pigs a few weeks old turned into an alfalfa field derive almost their entire living from it and leave the sows two weeks earlier than other pigs, coming in September with a gain of from ICO to 125 pounds, while the field has yielded its three cuttings of hay. Of course, if too many pigs are grazed, the hay yield will be less. But even here the question of labor versus hay must be considered. PASTURING AND SOILING lOQ DANGERS TO CATTLE AND SHEEP The greatest objection to pasturing alfalfa is its bloat- ing cattle and sheep. Hogs and horses do not suffer, although a Texas farmer writes that he lost some pigs from something similar to bloat that he attributed to the alfalfa. But this may be considered questionable, as thou- sands have regularly pastured hogs and horses on alfalfa with no symptoms of bloat. From hundreds of inquiries sent out by the experiment stations, it is determined that over ninety per cent of those who have pastured cattle or sheep on alfalfa have losi one or more animals by doing so, yet many report having pastured the same kind of stock on alfalfa for years, regularly every season, with- out loss. Careful investigations have been made with the purpose of finding out why some have been immune while others suffered. Since, in the cases of loss, only a small proportion of the animals pastured are affected, it may be inferred that much depends upon the nature and condition of the individual animal. Practically every western station has carefully experimented, following the directions of men who have been free from loss, yet it has cost each station valuable animals. Horse stock of all ages find alfalfa pasturage con- ducive to growth, fattening, and their general health. If the foliage is short and scant, horses are severe on the fields used in winter because they are able to crop close, and not infrequently paw loose dirt away from the plants, biting off the crowns a fourth or even half inch below the surface of the ground. It is easy to under- stand the loss of the bud or growing point may be detrimental to the growth and usefulness of the plants. no THE BOOK OF ALFALFA causing many to die, resulting in bare spots later to be overgrown by noxious weeds and grasses. After the damage is done there remains no remedy but to plow up the field and reseed, or to disk thoroughly and then reseed the bare spots. If the field has not deteriorated too much, the latter is much to be preferred. By diligence and careful treatment, or prompt action closely following any encroachments upon the life of the plants, the quality and yield may be maintained and the profits relatively enhanced. Alfalfa has wonderful recuperative powers, but continuous nipping of the crowns will do most serious harm and eventually decrease the yield not a little. EXPERIENCES WITH CATTLE One man reports turning eighty steers into one alfalfa field where there was running water, and a second herd into another field without running water, but water ran through a wild grass meadow adjoining, into which this herd was driven every afternoon and turned back into the alfalfa the next morning. The first herd suffered no loss, while five valuable animals died in the second field on the second day, before they could be removed. When all were put into the first field there was no more bloat. Another reported turning cows into a small field where there was a trough full of water all the time. Here, as in the case of the steers, a full feed was given before the cows were turned on the alfalfa. Before noon one cow had to be relieved by a trocar, and another by being driven rapidly about the field. The wherefores of such occur- rences present a problem yet to be solved. Certainly there is more danger in pasturing cows and sheep on alfalfa PASTURING AND SOILING III than most people care to risk. Aside from the financial loss, there is, also, the humane side of the question. A very fair statement, representative of those made by parties who pasture cattle on alfalfa without losses from bloat, is the following, given to the author by Mr. S. C. Hanna, an extensive and reputable breeder of Short- horns, in Elk county, (southern) Kansas, who says: ^'I have been pasturing alfalfa successfully without bloating my cattle for a number of years ; in fact, I have never lost an animal from alfalfa bloat. As I am raising high priced, pure bred Shorthorns and graze them on my meadows more or less at all times of year, I always sow a good mixture of English blue-grass (Festuca elatior) and orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) with it, making alfalfa the base and principal seeding. I am very partial to orchard grass in this mixture because it makes considerable hay, and springs up so quickly after each mowing. In this section orchard grass is a stayer, and will hold its own against all comers. *'I alw^ays am cautious when we first turn the cattle on alfalfa, seeing to it that they have a good fill on some- thing else beforehand, and hold them at first on some part of the field where the mixed grasses are the thickest, so they can graze there first. In twenty minutes they will be safe to go where they wish, and may be allowed to run at will thereafter. I find, however, that on the clear alfalfa meadows there is almost no danger from bloat after the plants have begun to bloom. I usually have some hay stacked in the pastures, that the cattle may run to. I have, however, pastured alfalfa in all stages where there would be perhaps twenty acres of alfalfa in one 112 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA place, and some prairie grass and also tame grasses in the same enclosure, and had no bloat. This has been, too, sometimes in May and June, when showers were frequent and the alfalfa most succulent. It would seem that the cattle will take care of themselves if they have a good chance. I usually superintend these changes per- sonally, and see that all conditions are right. "I find we get almost as much hay from the mixed fields as from the exclusively alfalfa meadows, and the fall aftermath is much better. The theory that alfalfa will not flourish with the other grasses is wrong. My favorite meadows contain a mixture of this kind, includ- ing some red clover, and I have cut four good crops of hay from them this season, after pasturing moderately from March 1 5 to May i . I always get the stock horses and mules on pasture by March 15, and the cattle about April I, and move them to wild grass prairie pasture about May i, except a few that we will keep on the meadows all season. These we change from one field to another when the alfalfa becomes tall enough to be trampled down or dar^aged. 'Tf my object was only to raise hay for market, I would sow the alfalfa alone and keep the stock off altogether, but for my purpose I prefer a mixture. By doing my way I never miss a good stand, and the mixture keeps down the foxtail and crab grass. I have been sowing this mix- ture for about fifteen years, and have over 300 acres." Mr. J. R Stodder of Cowley county, Kansas, a promi- nent breeder of pure bred cattle, makes this statement to the author, which is simply further testimony that a mix- PASTURING AND SOILING II3 ture of other grasses with alfalfa intended for grazing greatly diminishes, if it does not entirely eliminate, the risk and dangers of bloat : **I have several fields of mixed grasses. These contain enough alfalfa so that we cut them for hay at regular times, and the proportion of grasses and alfalfa is largely in favor of the latter. In such fields as these I pasture cattle at will, and have never seen any evidence of bloat therefrom. But my experience with the straight alfalfa fields leads me to be very cautious. I find that I can pas- ture them at times without danger, and at other times a large proportion of the cattle will bloat. It is possible that I have made the statement that I never lost cattle by pas- turing alfalfa, which is true, because we have always been lucky enough to discover the ailing animals in time to give them relief." Mr. F. S. Kirk of Oklahoma, mentioned in Chapter III, pastures his cattle on alfalfa in fall and spring, but does not give them access to his meadows in the morning until the dew has dried ofif, and for only twenty or thirty minutes the first day or two ; then for an hour or two for a few days, and after that they are left in the pastures until sundown. GENERALLY DANGEROUS TO SHEEP Experiments with sheep seem to be even more disas- trous than with cattle. In an investigation conducted by the Colorado station, losses were reported by nearly every man who had pastured sheep on alfalfa. Some lost but one or two, while others lost forty or fifty. A few re- ported that each spring they lost a few sheep the first 114 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA day they were on the pasture, and then no more, and that the losses of old sheep were of less importance than the growth of the lambs, these being seldom affected by bloat. Most, however, advised that the old should not be turned on alfalfa under any circumstances, but that lambs, if well fed in the morning, let on the alfalfa after the dew was off and then kept there night and day would do well, and the loss be smaller than that in a nor- mal season from other causes. J. E. Wing states that his loss from pasturing lambs on alfalfa in Ohio is less than it formerly was from one or two parasitic diseases that never trouble alfalfa-pastured lambs. He gives his lambs a full feed in the morning, turns them on the alfalfa field about ten o'clock, and leaves them there continuously until September. He begins the pasturing just before the seasons first growth of the alfalfa blooms. While by no means without risk, pasturing sheep on alfalfa is not always necessarily fatal and the following, related in the Breeder's Gazette by Mr. C. H. Williams of Powell county, Montana, is interesting: ''We have been pasturing sheep in large numbers on alfalfa for the past eight years. We have lost from bloat as many as 26 in one day from a flock of 1600, but we seldom lose one now. We find they are much more apt to bloat on windy days; more especially if the wind blows from the south and is soft and balmy. This may seem strange, but we believe it a fact. We have in our employ a shepherd who has during the greater part of his life herded sheep on alfalfa in the vicinity of Pau and d'Oloron, France. The day we lost 26 ewes from bloat this man was several miles from the home ranch. When PASTURING AND SOILING II 5 Visited by the camptender he remarked : 'This will be a bad day for the old ewes on the alfalfa.' Why so? 'Because the wind is soft and warm,' said he. That afternoon we found 26 dead. "Our French shepherd has a simple and never failing remedy for bloat from alfalfa or clover. It is simply a half-pint of sweet milk administered to the animal when found bloated. I saved a fine ram lamb the other day. He was fearfully bloated, unable to walk and scarcely able to breathe. I found an old can in the road, hastened to the pasture, milked a half pint of milk from a cow, set the lamb on his rump and poured the milk down his throat. In a half hour he was all right and following the flock. Milk from a ewe will answer just as well. We have adopted the following rules : Never allow the sheep to go on alfalfa pasture when very hungry; if possible get a little dry feed in their stomachs in the morning before going to the alfalfa; watch them closely on windy days, and have the herders carry a bottle of sweet milk." A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION The most of the losses reported were of animals which had been taken off the pasture at night and turned back the second morning when hungry and eager to graze. Yet there are reports of severe losses the first day, even after a full feed. Possibly it will be found that the ani- mals that suffer from bloat are not in good physical con- dition, and are more nervous and greedy in their habit of eating than those not affected. It may be that an intelli- gent sorting of the animals to be turned on the pasture Il6 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA might save loss. It is also quite generally believed that alfalfa growing on uplands is less liable to cause bloat than that raised on bottom lands. RULES FOR PASTURING The most generally approved rules in regard to pas- turing are : At the beginning of the pasturing season give animals a heavy feeding in the morning before turning upon the alfalfa. Have water in the pasture all the time. Keep the animals in the pasture night and day, after they have become accustomed to it, until removed per- manently. Use upland in preference to bottom fields for pasture. Watch the stock closely the first few days and remove permanently animals that show symptoms of bloat. Sow blue-grass, brome grass, or meadow fescue with alfalfa in fields intended for permanent pasture. The following valuable information upon bloat (tym- panitis) and its treatment was prepared by Nelson S. Mayo, formerly professor of veterinary science at the Kansas agricultural college : "Bloating, in all cases, is accumulation of gas in the stomach or intestines, or both, but more particularly in the paunch (rumen). This gas is produced by a fermen- tation, similar to that observed when cider is 'working' and the gas escapes in bubbles. There is usually a small quantity of gas given off from the food during normal, healthy digestion, but so small that it causes no trouble, and passes off readily through the intestines, though PASTURING AND SOILING II7 sometimes from the stomach, up the esophagus, and out of the nose or mouth — 'belched up,' as it is commonly expressed. These gases which cause an animal to bloat are generated in considerable quantities if a large amount of juicy, green food is eaten. Alfalfa, clover and frozen roots are very liable to produce bloating. ''It is well known that only part of the animals in a herd pasturing upon clover or alfalfa bloat; so the blame cannot be laid entirely upon the food, but is probably the result of a slight derangement of the digestive organs, not ordinarily noticed, but easily aggravated by certain foods which ferment easily. Animals that are ailing are very liable to bloat when turned on alfalfa pastures. Alfalfa and clover are much more liable to produce bloat- ing if wet with rain or dew, and especially hoar frost, and animals are more apt to bloat if turned into the pas- tures when very hungry, as they gorge themselves, and the food is not properly masticated. Hence, cattle should not be allowed to go hungry to the pastures. "It is generally believed by those who have had con- siderable experience in pasturing clover or alfalfa, that cattle and sheep are less liable to bloat if they have free access to dry food, such as hay or straw. Common bloat- ing, or hoove, occurs in animals having a compound stomach and that chew the cud — ruminants, as they are called. Of our common domestic animals, cattle and sheep belong to this order. "One of the first symptoms noticed is that the animal stops feeding, and remains lagging behind or stands by itself. Rumination, or chewing of the cud, is suspended ; the animal appears dull and listless, the back slightly Il8 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA arched; the whole abdomen or belly is distended with a prominent swelling on the left side just forward of the point of the hip. If the swelling is tapped lightly with the fingers there is a hollow, drum-like sound ; hence the technical name, tympanitis. "The rumen being distended with gas not only makes the animal appear much fuller than usual, but it presses forward on the diaphragm, or ^midriff,' and this presses against the lungs, and interferes seriously with the ani- mal's breathing. The breath is short and rapid. The animal often grunts, or moans, with each breath. The animal's nose protrudes, and there is a driveling of saliva from the mouth. Sometimes there are quite severe colicky pains, shown by the animal's kicking at its belly and stepping about uneasily. Sometimes, also, the pres- sure is so great as to cause eversion or bulging out of the rectum. The symptoms of bloating are so prominent, especially when the history of the case is taken into account, as to make this disease very easy to recognize, even by an ordinary observer. "When animals die from bloating, death usually takes place in the following manner: The diaphragm is pressed against the lungs so hard that the animal cannot breathe, and it dies of suffocation. Animals usually remain standing until near the end, when ^hey gradually lose consciousness, stagger, and fall, and in falling rup- ture some of the vital organs. "Treatment must depend somewhat upon the condition of the animal. If the animal is badly bloated, with la- bored breathing and staggering gait, energetic meas- ures must be resorted to at once. The best and most PASTURING AND SOILING II9 satisfactory treatment for bad cases is tapping. This con- sists in making a hole through the skin and muscles, over the prominent swelling on the left side, into the rumen or 'paunch,' thus allowing the gas to escape at once, re- lieving the animal. "The best method of tapping is by means of an instru- ment called a trocar and cannula. A trocar is a sharp- pointed instrument, five or six inches long, and about the size of a lead pencil, with a handle at one end. Over the point of the trocar slips a tube, called a cannula, not quite as long as the trocar, with a wide flange around the upper end of the tube, as shown in the illustration herewith. TROCAR AND CANNULA "To use a trocar and cannula, proceed as follows : Tie the animal so it cannot get away. With a sharp knife, make a small incision through the skin over the promi- nent part of the swelling on the left side. This incision Trocar and Cannula should be made about naif way between the point of the hip and the last rib, and should be large enough to admit the trocar and cannula readily. The incision should be made quickly; then the animal will not notice it. After the incision is made the trocar and cannula are pushed quickly in and directed downward, inward, and forward; push the trocar in until the flange of the cannula rests against the skin. Withdraw the trocar and the gas will rush out; that is, it usually does so; occasionally, how- ever, the end of the cannula is plugged up with green 120 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA food. This can usually be remedied by pulling out the cannula part way, or pushing the trocar in again and withdrawing it. If this doesn't work, tap the stomach again in another place, using the same hole through the skin. The escape of gas is usually accompanied by a small quantity of green food. "If a trocar and cannula are not available in an urgent case, a knife can be used very successfully — a good-sized pocket knife blade, pushed quickly through the skin and muscles, in the same manner as described for the trocar and cannula. Care must be taken that the sharp edge of the blade is not turned towards the animal's tail, as it sometimes jumps forward, and a much larger hole is cut than was originally intended. "A careful and observing stockman of Colorado, who has had a large experience with alfalfa bloating, informs me that he prefers a moderately small, sharp butcher knife to either a trocar and cannula or a pocket knife. It gives relief quicker and with no bad effects. Sometimes, if the opening through the skin is small, made by a small knife, a quill or small tube is fastened in to keep the incis- ion open, so the gas can escape. It is usually necessary to keep the incision open for several hours. The only bad result of tapping is that occasionally green food gets outside of the rumen into the abdominal cavity in suffi- cient quantities to cause inflammation and death; but if the operation is intelligently performed, these bad results ?,re extremely rare — probably not more than one case in TOO. If the weather is warm, care should be taken that flies do not bother the wound in the skin. PASTURING AND SOILING 121 "If the case is not severe enough to warrant tapping, the following remedies will be found useful : A gag made by winding a good-sized rope back of the horns and through the mouth, or a bit, made of a piece of wood the size of a fork handle, can be tied in the animal's mouth. The bit should be smooth, to prevent injuring the mouth. Then a small handful of salt should be thrown well back on the roots of the tongue. This causes the animal to work its tongue, increases the flow of saliva, and thus favors the regurgitation, or gulping up, of the gas. The salt and saliva swallowed help to stop fermentation. *' Blankets wrung out of cold water and wrapped around the abdomen or belly, or cold water dashed on with a bucket, often give relief. Turpentine given as a drench, in milk sufficient that it will not irritate the animal, is good, two ounces of turpentine for adult cattle and one-half ounce for sheep being a dose. Hyposul- phite of soda, dissolved in water and given as a drench, is good ; one ounce for cattle and two drachms for sheep. This can be repeated every half hour for two or three doses. Aqua ammonia, two ounces for cattle and one- half ounce for sheep, well diluted with water; carbolic acid, cattle 30 drops, sheep 8 to 10 drops in sufficient water; common soda, in half-ounce doses for cattle and one-half drachm for sheep, can be given. In giving medi- cine as drenches, they should be well diluted with water or other substances until they will not burn w^hen touched to the tongue. In giving drenches, be careful and not choke the animal. If the animal coughs or struggles violently, stop at once until it recovers somewhat. Give drenches slowly. 122 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA ^'Drenches are mostly administered from along-necked, thick, glass bottle, or drenching horn. Take hold of the nose with the left hand, by putting the thumb and finger in the nostrils, while an assistant takes hold of the horns, and tips the head back. Standing on the right side of the animal, with the right hand put the neck of the bottle in the right corner of the mouth, and pour the medicine in slowly. After the bloating has been relieved, it is a g-ood plan to give the animal a purgative — one pound of Epsom salts, with one-half pound common salt, for cattle; and for a sheep, six ounces of Epsom salts and three ounces of common salt, dissolved in plenty of warm water, and given as a drench. The animals should also be dieted until their digestive organs regain their normal condition. By dieting, I do not mean starving, but plenty of easily digested and nutritious food. An animal that bloats once is very liable to bloat again. By judi- cious handling and feeding, by watching animals closely, and treating them in time, few will be lost by alfalfa bloating." ALFALFA AS A SOILING CROP Alfalfa may be cut for soiling just when it contains the highest per cent of protein, while if pastured some is eaten before its best period, the most of it after that point is reached, and proba1)ly a large portion of the leaves is lost entirely. Cut for soiling and fed daily, when wilted, there is less danger from bloat, as in this way animals will eat stalks as well as leaves ; the entire product is used and there is no loss from trampling the fields nor by plants being covered and smothered with animal droppings. PASTURING AND SOILING I23 SOME COMPxVRISONS The Nebraska station reports that in an experiment there it required .71 of an acre to keep a cow for a given time by soihng, while by pasturing it required 3.63 acres; also that the cows kept on pasture during the experiment actually consumed more grain than those that were soiled. This report further states that while the pastured cows gave more milk each day, the cost of production was greater. By another experiment with cows for a single year it was indicated (Bui. No. 69) "that about twice as much feed was secured from the land when the alfalfa was soiled as when it was pastured. The average daily production of milk and of butterfat was markedly greater when the crop was pastured than when soiled. In one test this amounted to one-third more, but in the other test the difference was not so great. The profits from soiling as compared with pasturing will depend largely on two factors — the price of labor and the value of the land." A western Kansas farmer writes that one acre of alfalfa cut daily for soiling maintained as many cows as he was able to keep on a five-acre field used as pasture. The Kansas station reported that in an experiment, lasting 144 days, the cows on alfalfa pasture returned an income, less cost of grain fed, of $4.23, while cows soiled on alfalfa cut and fed green returned an income, less the grain fed, of $18.08. This station also reported that a neighboring dairyman maintained ten milch cows for a whole summer, without any grain, on two acres of al- falfa, cut and fed to them fresh three times a day. 124 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA A METHOD FOR THE SMALL FARMER In the Central West where labor is scarce and land comparatively low in price, farmers are not likely to adopt the soiling system while such conditions exist; but east of the Mississippi river, and especially in New York, Pennsylvania and New England, where land is high and labor scarce, alfalfa offers great possibilities as a soil- ing crop. The small farmer who now cannot afford to raise many pigs, because he does not raise enough corn to fatten them, will find that by soiling alfalfa he can main- tain from May to September from five acres as many as ten cows and fifty pigs; and that these pigs, with some grain from the first of August, while being fed green alfalfa, may by the middle of November be made ready for market. If he has another five acres of alfalfa for hay, it will yield enough in three cuttings to go far toward wintering his cows, a team of horses, and his sows. His ten acres will be growing richer every year, and at the end of five years be in prime condition to yield him big re- turns in corn, wheat, or potatoes and other vegetables. Al- falfa is distinctly a crop adapted to the small farmer, everywhere; there is, as a rule, little question that this method of utilizing it brings much greater returns per acre than if it were used as pasturage or hay. Green alfalfa when pastured, (barring bloat), or cut and fed daily is peculiarly valuable for all such young stock as colts, lambs, calves and pigs. It tends to develop strength of bone and hastens the growth of muscle. Alfalfa Field in Central New York Showing growth August 22, 1907, seven days after third cutting Fourth Cutting of Alfalfa in Shawnee County, Kansas Photo taken in September ■M bO W bo C o CHAPTER X. Alfalfa as a Feed Stuff AS AX APPETIZER The feeding value of alfalfa is largely in its chemical compound known as protein; its extreme digestibility is another desirable quality to be considered, and not least is its appetizing character. Not only do all animals like it, but when given in moderate quantities it seems to increase the general appetite for more fat-making feeds. Steers beginning to ''fall off" on a heavy diet of corn will come to their appetites after being fed only a few pounds of alfalfa daily, and will eat and assimilate more corn than before. Alfalfa alone is not a fat-making feed. Animals fed upon it grow in weight, but the weight is principally of bone, blood and muscle. It is without a sufficiency of fat and carbohydrates, and these should be added in such foods as corn, corn meal, Kafir corn, or Kafir corn meal ; or to a limited degree even in corn stover, sorghum or millet. When alfalfa is fed alone all the protein cannot be digested, and, therefore, it is always economical to add some carbonaceous foods, if animals are fattening for market. 126 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA For several years feeders have been deploring the fact that fattening mainly with corn was becoming less and less profitable. When they began to figure the exact cost of each pound of gain on a steer or hog, they saw clearly that corn alone made the pound of gain cost too much ; sometimes as much as it was worth in the market, leaving neither profit nor interest on the investment. The problem then became how to produce the pound of meat more economically. Such a condition has prompted the state stations to make tests to determine the feeding value of various articles, and especially the value oi alfalfa as a balance to the more carbonaceous foods. The tables here appended are worth studying : FOOD VAIjUE of SEVERAL! FODDER CROPS (From New York experiment station Bui. No. ii8.) Alfalfa.... Corn, entire plant Red clover Oats and peas Timothy Rutabagas Mangels Sugar beets Yield per acre of total crop Poxtnds 34,100 28,000 18,000 13,000 10,000 31,700 2.5,000 17,800 Dry matter per acre Pounds 8,C00 5,800 5,220 3,120 3,500 3.400 3,500 2,500 Total digesti- ble matter per acre Potinds 5,280 3,800 3,200 2,521 2,000 3,000 2,750 1,800 Digestible protein Pounds 875 300 491 350 228 279 232 213 ANALYSES OF FEEDSTUFFS The following table gives the analyses of a number of feedstuffs, showing the percentage of digestible nutrients and fertilizing- constituents in each : ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF 127 (From Texas experiment station Bui. No. 66) HAYS : Alfalfa Cow'pea Oat hay Fodder corn Sorghum Cottonseed hulls GREEN FEEDS: Alfalfa Cowpea Oat fodder Com silage Sorghum Rape GRAINS: Wheat bran Cottonseed meal Corn Cowpea Cotton seed a 91.1 57.8 82.04 88.9 28.2 16.4 37.8 20.9 82.4 14.0 88.1 91.8 89.1 85.2 89.7 Digestible nutrients Fertilizer constituents in 100 pounds 33 •S 0 ^.^ f-> u>. PI 11.0 39.6 10.8 38.6 4.3 46.4 2.5 34.6 2.4 40.6 .3 33.1 3.9 12.7 1.8 8.7 1.0 18.9 .9 11.3 2.4 4.1 1.5 8.1 12.2 39.2 37.2 16.9 7.9 66.7 18.3 54.2 12.5 30.0 in 1000 pounds 12; f= 21.9 19.5 17.6 5.1 5.2 6.9 7.2 2.7 4.9 26.7 67.9 18.2 33.3 31.3 5.4 '2.5" 16.8 14.7 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.1 28.9 28.8 7.0 12.7 8.9 16.2' 5.6 3.1 3.8 3.7 16.1 8.7 4.0 From the above table we find that live tons of alfalfa hay contains 1,100 pounds of protein, equal to this food element in Cotton seed meal 2,956 pounds Linseed meal 3»754 pounds Wheat bran 9,016 pounds Cowpea hay 10,185 pounds Red clover hay 16,176 pounds Timothy hay 39.285 pounds RELATIAT] VALUES OF DIFFERENT CUTTINGS The most interesting experiments comprehending tests of the comparative yield, composition and digestibility of early, medium and late cuttings of alfalfa, of the first, second and third crops; the relative feeding value Ii8 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA of the various cuttings, and of the different crops, have been made at the Utah station, details of which are recorded in the station's bulletins Nos. 31, 44 and 61. These tests and investigations extended continuously through a period of five years, and following are the more important facts developed and the conclusions that may be legitimately drawn from them, as summarized (Bui. No. 61) by Profs. Luther Foster and L. A. Mer- rill who supervised the work : 1. The largest annual yield of hay per acre is obtained by the method of early cutting and the lowest by the late, the average result standing as follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 92; and late, 85. 2. The early cut alfalfa contains the highest per cent of protein and fat, the most valuable food constituents, and the lowest per cent of crude fiber, the most indigest- ible portion. The former decrease constantly while the latter increases rapidly from early bloom to the full maturity of the plant. 3. The proportionate amount of leaves to stems is greater al early bloom that at any subsequent time, and both leaves and stems contain a greater per cent of pro- tein and a less per cent of crude fiber at this time than at any later period in the growth of the plant. The rela- tive proportion of leaves to stems in the different cuttings is as toilows : early, 42 to 58; medium, 40 to 60; and late, 33 to 67. 4. Alfalfa leaves as compared with stems are very much richer in protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract, and they contain a much smaller proportion of crude fiber. The per cent of the protein and fat grows constantly less, ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF 1 29 and that of the crude fiber greater, from the time of early bloom to maturity. The average composition of all cut- tings and crops shows the leaves to contain 150 per cent more protein than the stems, 300 per cent more fat, 35 per cent more nitrogen-free extract, and 256 per cent less crude fiber. 5. The more important nutrients, protein and fat, have the highest per cent of digestibility in the early cut- tings and it grows less and less with the age of the plant. 6. In the feeding tests, the highest gains were made from the early cuttings and the lowest from the late, the results standing proportionately as follows : early cutting, 100; medium, 85; and late, 75. 7. The variation in the amount of the different cut- tings eaten per day was very slight, being the highest for the early cutting and the lowest for the late, but the quan- tity of dry matter and also of digestible matter required for a pound of gain was decidedly lowest for the early cutting and highest for the late, the relative amounts of dry matter standing as follows: early cutting, 100; medium, 131; and late, 166. 8. The annual beef product per acre was largest from the early cuttings, not only in the general average but in each separate season's test, and that from the late cuttings was smallest, the proportional products standing as fol- lows: early cutting, 100; medium, 79^ ; and late, 69^. 9. Taking all points of comparison into consideration, both separately and collectively, including everything that pertains to the largest yield and the highest feeding value, the tests favor cutting alfalfa for cattle feeding when the first blooms appear. 130 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA CROP COMPARISONS 10. The first crop gave the largest yield in each of the five tests and in fourteen out of the fifteen cuttings, while the third crop gave the lov^est for every test and in every cutting but one. The average acre yields for the five years, including all cuttings, stand in the following relation: first crop, 100; second, 78; and third, 39; for the early cuttings alone, first crop, 100; second, 83; and third, 66. 11. In the average composition of all cuttings for three years, the nutrients of the three crops vary but little. The second has slightly the highest per cent of protein and fiber; and the third the most fat and nitro- gen-free extract. 12. The third crop has the largest proportion of leaves to stems ; but the per cent of protein in the leaves is highest in the second crop ; and next highest in the first. The leaves of the first crop contain the most fat and of the second, the least. 13. The third crop produced a higher average rate of gain in the feeding tests than the first or second and also higher than any of the separate cuttings. The amount eaten daily was also highest of all, but the dry matter and digestible matter for a pound of gain were the lowest. In a pound per pound comparison the gains stood as follows: first crop, 100; second, 81 ; and third, 126; dry matter for a pound of gain, first crop, 100; sec- ond, 115; and third, 69. 14. The beef product per acre, taking the average result of all cuttings for the five years, was very much the highest for the first crop and decidedly the lowest for ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF 131 the third, standing as follows : first crop, 100; second, 61 ; and third, 45. But taking the early cuttings alone they stand, first crop, 100; second, 80; and third, 69. 15. Pound for pound, taken as a whole, the results show the highest feeding value for the third crop and the lowest for the second. 16. The average annual beef product from early cut alfalfa was 705.61 pounds per acre; it required 9575 pounds of timothy to produce an equal weight; 11,967 pounds of red clover, and 10,083 pounds of shredded corn fodder. Prof. John A. Widtsoe at the Utah station (Bui. No. 48) made a study of the nutrients of the alfalfa crop, and some of the facts gathered are given in the following table : First Cutting Condition of growth Protein Nitrogen- free extract Crude fiber Ether extract Ash May 4 Height 6 1-2 in . . Pounds Pounds 607 1,247 2,278 2,298 1,776 Pounds 168 618 2,108 2,531 2,544 Pounds 40 103 118 116 94 Pounds 167 369 431 423 311 Junel. HeightUsin July 7. Full flower Aug. 10. Flowers fallen, leaves dry 697 745 644 Aug. 24. Still drier 428 Second Cutting July 7. July 20. Aug. 3. Aug. 24. Budding 334 519 551 388 657 1,140 1,529 1,484 357 1,031 1,316 1,329 50 78 81 81 197 Medium bloom. . Full flower Leaves dry 314 323 333 Third Cutting Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 14 138 317 322 757 298 9^ 155 634 818 17 33 43 85 211 214 132 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA COMPARATIVE CHOP AND FEEDING VALUES The following is another table showing the average yield of alfalfa as compared with some of the more common fodder crops and hays, as found in New Jersey station Bulletin No. 148. Total Yield Green Forage per acre Alfalfa Corn (entire plant) Red clover Barnyard millet.... Crimson clover.... •• Cowpeas Oats and peas Pounds 36,540 24,000 14,000 16,000 14,000 16,000 14,000 Dry Matter per acre Pounds 8,258 5,040 4,088 4,000 2,674 2,624 2,107 t'>n alfalfa hay contams " red clover hay contains... " oats and peas contains.... " timothy contains " wheat bran contains " wheat middlings contains " rye bran contains " oats contains " rice meal contains " buckweat bran contains .. Dry Matter Pounds 1,809 1,694 1,375 1,736 1,762 1,758 1,768 1,780 1,796 1,790 Total Protein per acre Pounds 616 384 434 384 Total Protein Pounds 265 246 175 118 308 312 294 236 240 248 At the Colorado station (Bui. No. 26) Prof. W. W. Cooke compared an acre of dent (Golden Beauty) corn, planted May 16 and harvested September 21, with returns from an acre of alfalfa on an adjoining plat, three years seeded. The corn crop was a fair one, and including ears and stalks weighed 15,500 pounds, containing 35.62 per cent or 5539 pounds of dry matter. The alfalfa yielded three cuttings of hay weighing respectively 4600, 3350 and 3250 pounds, or 5.6 tons, containing 10,304 pounds of dry matter. But, as Professor Cooke says, this ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF 133 is not quite a fair comparison, for a pound of dry matter from the corn crop is more digestible and has a higher feeding value than an equal amount from the alfalfa. The corn crop contained 3605 pounds of digestible feed- ing material, while the alfalfa crop contained 561 1 pounds, or a little more than half as much again. The corn crop per acre in feeding value was equivalent to three and a half tons of alfalfa hay. The total digestible nutrients of the two crops are presented in the following table : TOTAL DIGESTIBLE Com Alfalfa Com Alfalfa Pounds 5,539 405 3,263 1,472 84 315 Pounds 10,304 1,602 4,782 2,800 246 829 Pounds 3,605 296 2,186 1,060 63 Pounds 5,611 1,198 3,114 1,198 101 101 Aluuniinoids Starfh siipar ptp . Fiber Fat (ether extract) Ash .. COMPARATIVE VALUES OF ALFALFA HAY AND OTHER FEEDSTUFFS FOR PROTEIN Feedstuff Alfalfa hay (average) Red clover hay Orchard-grass hay Millet hay Timothy hay Sorghum hay Corn-fodder (stover) Oat straw Wheat straw Sugar beets Mangel-wurzels Alfalfa hay containing 12.9 per cent digestible protein Wheat bran Value per ton when prairie hay is worth per ton— $4.00 $12.11 7.77 5.48 5.14 3.31 2.74 2.28 .91 1.25 1.14 14.73 14.0* 134 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA It is seen that the alfalfa yielded nearly twice as many pounds of dry matter as the corn, with the digestible nutrients far in the lead, and the protein of the alfalfa was three times that of the corn. THE BAIiANCED RATION No feeder can learn to use alfalfa, or in fact any for- age or grain, in the most economical way until he under- stands somewhat the compounding of a balanced ration. All foodstuffs for either man or beast are, as already stated, made up of three classes of substances — namely, protein or proteids, carbohydrates and fats. The animal's digestive and assimilative organs are so constructed that it cannot use these three classes of substances interchange- ably; in other words, an animal fed wholly upon any one of these three would be in process of gradual starvation. Given in the proportions needed to best supply the vital organs of the body, these substances become the suste- nance for animal life and growth. The protein builds up the brain, nerves, muscles and other tissues in which the life force is active, and without protein there would be no life. To balance a ration for domestic animals is to so adjust the quantity of digestible proteids, fats and carbo- hydrates it contains that the animal economy may use each without waste. The balanced ration means an eco- nomical ration, allowing the digestive organs to work at their highest efficiency; an unbalanced ration is one in which one of the three classes of food substances is in excess, or is deficient. Fed such a ration, the animal retaliates upon its owner by failure to digest the excess, ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF I35 which is worse than wasted; for the feeding of any class of substances in excess adds to the labor of the digestive organs and reduces their efficiency. >L\KIXG A BALANCED RATIOX In Press Bulletin No. 12, from the Kansas station, the following is given to illustrate somewhat how a balanced ration would differ from others into which consideration of a proper balance had not entered : "There are three important groups of substances in feeds — protein, carbohydrates, and fat. Protein includes all materials in feeds which contain nitrogen. It enters into the composition of milk, blood, muscle, hair and the brain and nerves ; is necessary in the formation of these, and no other substance can take its place. Protein is also used in the body in producing heat, energy and fat. Carbohydrates include the fiber of feeds, the sugars, starch, and gums, and furnish heat, energy and fat in the body. Carbohydrates and fat can take each other's places, one pound of fat being worth 2.2 pounds of carbo- hydrates for production of Keat in the body. ''Extended investigations have shown that to obtain the best results, feed should be given which will furnish these materials in the following proportions : "Dairy cow — protein, 2^ pounds; carbohydrates, I'zYz pounds; fat, ^ pound. "Fattening steer — protein, 2^ to 3 pounds; carbohy- drates, 15 pounds; fat, ^ to J^ pound. "Growing cattle — protein, 4 pounds; carbohydrates, 13^ pounds; fat, 2 pounds. "For a young animal (cattle) gradually decrease the proportion of protein until at the age of two years the pro- 136 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA portions are similar to those for the fattening steer, but less in quantity. A pig two to three months old needs feeds containing seven and one-half pounds of protein to each thirty pounds of carbohydrates and fat, while a year-old pig needs seven and one-half pounds of protein to each forty-eight pounds of carbohydrates and fat. Feeds con- taining a greater proportion of protein than called for by these standards can be fed, because protein can take the place of the other materials. Carbohydrates and fat cannot take the place of protein, however, and no matter in how large quantities they may be fed, if protein is lacking, the growth or gain will be less. "The weak point in feeding is that the average rations are greatly deficient in protein, and have too much carbo- hydrates and fat. Every feeder knows that good pastur- age produces rapid growth, good gains, and abundant milk yields. It furnishes nutriment in the proportion of three pounds of protein, twelve pounds of carbohydrates, and one-half pound of fat. The proportions in some of our feeds in pounds per loo pounds of feed, are as follows : Com Kafir-corn Prairie hay... Corn fodder.. Sorghum hay Protein Carbohy- drates 7.8 66.7 7.8 57.1 3.5 41.8 2.0 33.2 1 " 40.6 Fat 1.6 2.7 1.4 0.6 1.2 'Tt will be seen that none of these contain a sufficient proportion of protein to secure best results, and all com- binations of these feeds will have the same defect. ALFALFA AS A FEED STUFF ^7 "Some feeds have too great a proportion of protein to be fed alone, as shown below, the figures indicating pounds per lOO pounds of feed : Alfalfa hay Gluteu-meal Linseed-oil meal Cottonseed-meal Soy-beans Protein 10.6 31.1 28.8 37.0 Carbohy- | drates i 43.9 32.8 16.5 22.3 Fat 1.4 4.8 7.1 12.6 14.4 "Making a balanced ration is combining the feeds deficient in protein with those having an excess of it, to make a ration which will contain the right proportions for the animals fed." VARIATIONS IX ANAIiYSIS Variations in the foregoing tables would indicate that the analysis is likely to vary with the product of differ- ent soils and different cultivations. In spite of variations it may be readily seen that alfalfa with its high protein value makes a very effective and economical balance for corn for heavy feeding. When it is taken into considera- tion that this forage so rich in protein can be raised at home, and that its growing is at the same time enriching the soil, the conclusion is easy that alfalfa hay may profit- ably constitute a part of all the fattening operations ; it is also clear that the economical way to market alfalfa is through the farm's live stock. CHAPTER XI. Alfalfa in Beef-Making The cattle feeder is not much given to sentiment and cares less for the beauty of the purple flowers of the al- falfa than he does for the best method of converting those purple flowers and the accompanying foliage into marketable beef. An accepted but unwritten rule of corn- feeding is that looo pounds of grain with ordinary for- age will produce lOO pounds of gain, under normal con- ditions. SOME FEEDING TESTS The Kansas station in a careful feeding test of 153 days produced 100 pounds of gain with 718 pounds of grain by using alfalfa hay for roughness. This test also gave the following table of gain in values, from the use of different feeds in the same given time : Corn and alfalfa hay $109.74 Corn and prairie hay 56.96 Corn and sorghum hay 27.09 Corn and oat straw 43-28 Barley and alfalfa hay 57- 16 The Utah station after a feeding test published the statement that to produce 705.61 pounds of beef it re- quired : Of alfalfa hay 7,182 pounds Of timothy hay 9,575 '' Of red clover hay 1 1,967 " Of shredded corn fodder. . 10,08^ " ffi 1 4) P 5' O 5*. o' ALFALFA IN BEEF-MAKING 1 39 At this Station steers made a most rapid gain when fed upon early cut alfalfa hay, either with or without an accompanying ration of grain. "By early cut hay was meant hay cut just before bloom. The gain upon this early cut alfalfa hay was one-third more than that upon hay cut when in full bloom or later." The Utah station also reports a cattle feeding test (Bui. No. 61) in which lOO pounds of gain from feeding alfalfa hay cost $3.76; from timothy, $4.71, and from corn fodder, $6.21. At the Nebraska station Prof. Howard R. Smith (Buls. 85 and 90) fed 50 yearling and 50 two-year-old grade steers in lots of ten for six months, each lot of each fifty having rations different from the others, and the table herewith shows the average cost per pound of gain made by each steer of each lot of yearlings : Lot fed com and prairie hay 8.27 cents *' " com 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and prairie hay.. .6.82 '• " corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and corn stover.. .6.09 " " " corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and sorghum hay.7.00 " •' " com and alfalfa hay 6.04 " Below is shown the cost under similar conditions with the two-year-olds, (the cost of the corn and oil meal fed them having been slightly greater than that fed the year- lings) : Lot fed com and prairie hay 8.23 cents " " corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and prairie hay ....8.27 " " " corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and corn stover ...6.49 " " " corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and sorghum hay..7.87 " " " com and alfalfa hay 6.89 '• Among the deductions from these experiments, Profes- sor Smith records the following, bearing upon the use of alfalfa : 140 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA "Alfalfa is much superior to prairie hay when the grain consists of corn alone. It also proved to be a cheaper source of protein than oil meal. The returns on the cattle fed alfalfa hay, were the alfalfa figured at $11.14 P^r ton, would have been as great as the returns on prairie hay at $6 per ton, with corn as the grain ration at 39 cents per bushel. In comparison with prairie hay at $6 when oil meal worth $28 per ton was a part of the grain ration, the alfalfa returned a value of $8.28 per ton. (In these experiments the cost of all alfalfa hay and all prairie hay was figured at the one price of $6 per ton. — Author. ) '^Bright, well-cured corn stover fed with an equal weight of alfalfa, the grain consisting of corn alone, gave slightly larger gains tiian corn and alfalfa, and proved the most economical ration in the experiment. The addi- tion of corn stover may have improved, to some extent, the corn and alfalfa ration by furnishing greater variety, and by its tendency to check scours sometimes caused by alfalfa. The stover fed with alfalfa returned a value of $4.57 per ton in comparison with alfalfa at $6 per ton as the sole roughness. "By feeding alfalfa hay, which is a protein-rich rough- ness, extremely palatable and readily masticated, in place of prairie hay with corn alone, 14 per cent less grain was required for each pound of gain on two-year-olds and 2.^ per cent less on yearlings. "Alfalfa hay, fed once per day in connection with corn and well-cured cornstalks, furnished sufficient protein for two-year-olds to make the three foods a combination ALFALFA IN BEEF-MAKING I4I producing heavy and very economical gains — more eco- nomical than any other ration in the experiment. "Alfalfa is pronouncedly superior to prairie hay for beef production, and the more rapid the extension of the area of land devoted to the production of alfalfa, sup- planting the less valuable and lower yielding native hay, the more rapid will be the production of wealth from our soil." One authority who has made a study of such problems says, ''steers can be fattened on one-third less corn with alfalfa for roughness than w^ithout." W. H. Jordan, director of the New York (Geneva) experiment station says : 'Trobably no species of forage are known that are more economical sources of high- class cattle food than alfalfa and corn, and if in the realms of stock raising corn is king, alfalfa is queen." FEEDING TOO MUCH AliFAIiFA Many feeders make the mistake of feeding too much alfalfa hay to young steers grained heavily on corn. Careful tests seem to prove that cattle on a heavy feed of corn, corn meal, Kafir-corn or Kafir-corn meal gain as much with 15 or 20 pounds of alfalfa hay per day as by having 35 pounds, the very common quantity in feeding. It is also reported by experienced feeders that steers over three years old may be fattened on alfalfa with a mod- erate feed of corn, while for younger steers the heavy feed should be corn with 15 to 25 pounds of alfalfa hay per day. A Colorado feeder put a lot of steers nearly four years old on a daily ration of ten pounds of corn chop and 142 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA fifteen pounds of alfalfa hay for lOO days. The gain was surprising and the steers weighed on the Denver market about 1430 pounds per head. A feeder in Osborne county, Kansas, reported to the author the following: ^'Began feeding 22 two-year-old steers on February 3rd, averaging 941 pounds in weight. Gave them no feed but alfalfa hay until March 4th. From March 4th until May ist fed all the alfalfa they wanted and 243 bushels of corn chop, when they weighed out at an average gain of 259 pounds each in 86 days, or three pounds per day on a feed of 11 bushels of corn chop and plenty of alfalfa hay per steer.'' Western feeders generally claim to be able to put fat cattle on the market from 20 to 30 per cent cheaper with alfalfa as the balance than on corn alone, or with corn and bran or any purchased protein foods. The cheapest beef-making in the West is the raising of calves on alfalfa, and at 20 to 24 months fattening them by a heavy feeding of corn and alfalfa hay for 100 days. Cattle car- ried to 1000 to 1200 pounds on alfalfa, and then finished by strong feeding on corn with alfalfa hay for fifty to sixty days, make beef of a choice quality at a low cost. CHAPTER XIL Alfalfa and the Dairy MAKING A MARGIN The most enthusiastic advocates of alfalfa are dairy- men. The market price of milk is quite well fixed and the price of butter fat at the creameries remains, in the different seasons, pretty much the same year by year. Hence, the problem of increasing his financial returns must depend upon the dairyman's being able to increase the volume of his product or to decrease the cost, or both. If he is selling butter fat at a profit of five cents and he cannot force the price any higher, it is the sensible thing to decrease the cost per pound and thereby enlarge his profit. The dairyman who buys all his feed has but little mar- gin. To raise enough clover calls for considerable land. Alfalfa will yield a large bulk of excellent feed from a few acres of well treated land. For profit he must raise more feedstuff and buy less. The Kansas station reported that with common scrub cows fed on alfalfa hay and Kafir corn meal it was possible to produce butterfat at a cost of seven cents a pound. SOME MHiKING TEST VALUATIONS The New Jersey station as a result of a very pains- taking milking test reported: (i) In a ration where 144 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA alfalfa hay was tested against wheat bran and dried brewers' grain the saving in the cost of milk was 12.7 cents per hundred, and 2.3 cents per pound of butter when alfalfa hay was used. This saving means a great deal when it is considered that the alfalfa is raised and not purchased. (2) That the milk value of one acre of alfalfa was $74. A Kansas dairyman is reported to have kept ten cows through one summer on the alfalfa cut daily from a patch containing four square rods less than two acres. Some dairymen believe that there is a great saving in the alfalfa hay by cutting it into two-inch lengths, and feeding it dry. It is also believed that it will always be a matter of economy to feed with the alfalfa, green or as hay, a small ration of carbonaceous food, even corn- stover serving such a purpose. Former Governor Hoard, editor of Hoard's Dairyman, says that with alfalfa hay at $10 and bran at $20 per ton there is a saving, by using alfalfa, of $2.80 for every 100 pounds of butter made, and a saving of 19.8 cents for every 100 pounds of milk. In a section of New York where alfalfa has been quite generally introduced, dairymen claim an increase in their profits of 15 to 30 per cent by its use, besides the enrich- ment of their farms for other crops. Prof. D. H. Otis, telling of experiments with the dairy herd at the Kansas agricultural college, states that, "it is usually recommended to feed a cow all the rough feed she will eat, and then balance up the ration with grain. The experience at the college indicates that much rough feed is wasted in careless feeding. The cow will eat the ALFALFA AND THE DAIRY 145 best first, and, if given too much, will pick the most desirable morsels, leaving what might be called passably good, which too frequently is treated as waste and thrown under foot. No more hay should be given an animal than it will eat up clean. This refers to first-class quality, however, as a cow could not be expected to eat poor hay clean. "In feeding the rough feeds, the following table has been used by the college as a guide : KouGHNESs.— Value per ton when alfalfa is worth $1-00 per ton Fekd Total nutrients Protein nutrients Feed Total nutrients Protein nutrient Dky Roughness Alfalfa 1 $1.00 .32 .97 .40 .&4 .59 S.3 $1.00 .19 1.02 .24 .42 .41 1:^ Green Roughness Alfalfa $0.34 .13 .14 .23 .12 .28 .10 .14 .11 $0.37 Corn-fodder Corn silage . . . Fodder corn Pasture grasses... Sorghum fodder. . . Soy-beans .12 .09 .24 .06 .30 Fodder Corn Millet Oat hav Oat straAV Roots and Tubers Orchard-gi-ass Prairie hay .60 1 .45 .51 1 .33 .70 ! .64 .43 i .23 .98 1 1.02 .67 ! M 47 •>" Sugar-beets Turnips Sorghum .08 Soy-beans Timothy Wheat straw .25 .08 ''Students working with the dairy herd were anxious to have the cows make the best possible yields, and were tempted to give all the good alfalfa hay the cows would eat. When we discovered the alfalfa hay going too rap- idly we looked for the cause and found that the dairy cows had consumed an average of forty-three pounds per head daily, besides fifteen pounds of Kafir corn fodder. The quantity of alfalfa was reduced to thirty-three pounds 146 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA and the Kafir-corn fodder to three and one-half pounds daily per cow, and we found that the daily yield of milk was slightly increased. The quality of the hay was the same in both instances. In the latter case it was eaten up clean, while in the former considerable was hauled away and fed to dry cows. Later records show a still greater reduction in the allowance of alfalfa without decreasing the flow of milk. This experience shows some of the leaks that may take place in feeding roughness, especially when those feeds are appetizing, like alfalfa and red clover. 'Tor ease of calculation the roughness is figured on the basis of alfalfa hay selling for one dollar per ton. When alfalfa is worth six dollars per ton the other rough feeds are worth six times the amount indicated in the table; when alfalfa is worth eight dollars per ton the other feeds are worth eight times as much, and so on. Usually we find that we can give practically all the rough feed that the cows can eat, although, as indicated above, with a good quality of alfalfa or clover hay more may be eaten than will be consumed at a profit. At this writing alfalfa hay is selling in Manhattan at seven dollars per ton. This would make the feeding values of the other rough feeds worth seven times the amount indicated in the table. Red clover, for instance, would be worth seven times seventy cents or $4.90 per ton ; prairie hay would be worth $3.57 per ton; and millet hay would be worth $4.48 per ton. If the problem was to select the most eco- nomical roughness, we would select alfalfa at seven dol- lars per ton, in preference to red clover at six dollars per ton, or prairie hay at four dollars per ton, or millet ALFALFA AND THE DAIRY 147 at five dollars per ton. Knowing the cost of these differ- ent rough feeds and having this table before him, a feeder can tell which is the most economical feed to use. It will be noticed that the table is divided into two parts, the first part giving the value of the total nutrients, and the second one the value of the protein nutrients. It fre- quently happens that we have plenty of carbohydrates and fat, but that we are lacking in protein. In this case we would consult the 'protein nutrients' column in order to determine what feed to buy in order to furnish the protein most economically. If it be carbohydrates and fat as well as protein that is required, as was the condi- tion in the dry year of 1901, then we should take the total nutrients' column. When it is possible to get a rough feed containing a large amount of protein, we find that in feeding a liberal allowance of roughness the grain can be reduced. Hence, the importance of providing roughness rich in protein, like alfalfa." SELLING FARM PRODUCTS THROUGH THE COW No other branch of agriculture presents more advan- tages than dairying — disposing of the products of the farm as milk and butterfat. When the latter may be sold to creamery stations and the skim milk fed to calves and pigs along with alfalfa the profits are greater than from almost any other form of agriculture. No other business tends so rapidly to build up the fertility of the farm, and, when judiciously conducted, no other branch of farming yields more satisfactory financial returns. Raising and feeding alfalfa will add from 15 to 30 per cent to the profits of dairying over the use of any other feedstuff 148 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA that may be raised or bought. The profit problem for the dairyman is constantly to find the feed that will decrease the cost of his production. The diagram below, prepared by the editor of the Nebraska Farmer^ is to ''represent the digestible protein or milk property contained in different kinds of rough- ness. Points represent the decimals of a pound, and the bars are an exact representation of the superiority of one kind of food over another for the production of milk. Each bar represents 10 pounds of roughness. The ap- proximate yield is also given per acre :" Com Stover Approximate Yield Per Acre. 6 to 8 Tons 10 to 14 Tons 2 Tons 17 Point? Drilled Corn Fodder 25 Points Timothy Hay- 28 Points Prairie Hay 2 Tons 30 Points Millet Hay 3 Tons 32 Points Oat Hay 3 to 4 Tons 43 Points Red Top 2 Tons 48 Points Red Clover 2 Tons 68 Points Alsike 3 Tons 84 Points Alfalfa G to 8 Tons 110 Points A. S. Hitchcock cites as an illustration of feeding alfal- fa alone, the case of the dairy farms in the vicinity of Moneta, CaL, where the stock are ordinarily fed no other ration than alfalfa. As alfalfa is not a balanced ration, a number of local dairymen tried to replace a part of the alfalfa by sorghum, thus giving a more nearly balanced ration. The cows, however, did not give as much milk upon this combination as upon pure alfalfa. ''This result ALFALFA AXD THE DAIRY 1 49 may be assigned to the fact that the cattle were unable to consume a sufficient quantity of the mixture to produce the same results as the alfalfa alone. These dairymen find they can secure a larger yield by feeding a little grain ; but the increased yield does not pay for the grain, which is high priced in this locality." AN ESSEXTIAIi IN 3irLK PRODUCTION Oscar Erf, professor of dairying at the Kansas experi- ment station, writing for this volume, says : "Alfalfa is quite indispensable in successful dairy operations, being one of the cheapest sources of protein, that most essential compound in feeds for milk production. The Kansas sta- tion found that for milk Ij4 pounds of well-leaved al- falfa hay, containing a high per cent of protein, is equal in feeding value to a pound of bran. In case the alfalfa is of a stemmy nature it requires i^ pounds to equal the feeding value of a pound of bran. Alfalfa hay is worth from $4 to $7 per ton on the farm, while bran costs from $14 to $20 per ton, hence it is far more economical to feed the alfalfa hay. "Like other hays alfalfa varies in composition accord- ing to the time of cutting, the soil on which it grows, and its per cent of leaves. It has been found that three-fourths of a pound of alfalfa hay is equal in feeding value to a pound of clover hay of equal brightness and quality. A good stand of clover yields about 2J/2 tons per acre per year, while a good stand of alfalfa yields about 5 tons per acre per year. Hence, on an acre of land, 1 100 pounds of protein can be produced by raising alfalfa while only 340 pounds can be produced by growing clover, the pro- 150 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA tein in the alfalfa and that in the clover being equally digestible. This comparison is chosen from the fact that clover is the next cheaper source of protein found on the farm. **At the Kansas station the following experiment was conducted, and illustrates the low cost of a ration includ- ing alfalfa hay for roughness as compared with a ration in which prairie hay was used. The experiment was with ten cows. The first ration consisted of 21 pounds of alfalfa hay and 9 pounds of corn. While the cows were on this ration each produced an average 26 pounds of milk per day, the milk containing 3.9 per cent of butter fat. To formulate a ration from prairie hay and bran which had the same amount of nutrients, we were obliged to feed 19 pounds of bran and 15 of hay. Fed on this each cow produced only 24 pounds of milk per day, con- taining 4 per cent of butterfat. The 21 pounds of alfalfa hay at $7 per ton, which is rather a high estimate, and 9 pounds of corn at 70 cents per hundred weight cost 13.6 cents per day. At this rate it cost 31-3 cents to produce a gallon of milk, or approximately 13.5 cents for a pound of butterfat. Estimating bran at $16 per ton and prairie hay at $5 per ton, the cost of the second ration was 18.95 cents per day, and milk approximately 7 cents per gallon, making the butterfat worth 19.7 cents per pound. "The following two tables show the difference in cost between a ration in which alfalfa is used for part of the roughness and one which contains no alfalfa but has the same amount of digestible nutrients : ALFALFA AND THE DAIRY 15' Alfalfa hay . . 19 lbs at $ 7-00 per ton. . .$.066 Corn Bran 7 lbs at .70 percwt... .049 2>4 lbs at 18.00 per ton. . . .0225 $.1375 Sorghum hay. .10 lbs at $ 3-50 per ton. $.0175 Prairie hay. ... 12 lbs at 6.00 per ton. .036 Ground wheat.. 8 lbs at .80 per bu.. .1066 Cottonseed meal. 3 lbs at 24.00 per ton. .036 $.1961 "As shown by the table a gain of 5.86 cents is made by feeding the alfalfa. Being a proteinaceous feed it can to a great extent be substituted for cottonseed meal, hnseed meal or gluten meal, and will entirely substitute other leguminous hays and forages, such as soy bean hay, cow- pea hay. clover hay and vetch hay any one « -hich ,s more expensive, for nutrients contamed. than alfalfa hay. "The Kansas station has found it practicable, from results obtained in the past three years, to ensile green alfalfa for dairy cows. This is superior to dry alfalfa owing to its succulent nature. In the eastern part of the United States ensiling alfalfa has another advantage m that all cuttings can be harvested in perfect condition. As a rule the first cutting throughout this whole territory is liable to be damaged more or less by rains. By putting the green alfalfa into a well constructed silo this loss can be obviated and the full value retained. For example: a man has 40 acres of alfalfa, from which he harvests for the first crop i V. tons per acre. Estimating the price of 152 THE BOOK ALFALFA good, clean alfalfa hay at $7 a ton, this would be worth $420. Should the hay be damaged by rain its value would be greatly reduced and, as has been the case for many years, such damaged hay could be purchased for $2 or less per ton. Accordingly this damaged hay would be worth $120. The loss caused by rain would therefore be $300. Put into the silo this first cutting would be equal in value to the best bright hay. ''The cost of a 100-ton silo is $250, hence the owner could not only save the first cutting, but money besides. Furthermore, it is not infrequently the case that alfalfa of the first cutting is of a stemmy nature, and it has been estimated that fully 28 per cent of such hay is wasted when fed to cows, as they do not eat the coarse stems. This loss can be entirely eliminated by the siloing, for cows will readily eat the stems as silage. "The value of alfalfa silage in influencing the milk flow was indicated when a ration was fed to sixteen cows, in •which 12 pounds of alfalfa hay, 20 pounds of corn silage, 5 pounds of bran and 4 pounds of corn meal were used ; this ration was afterward changed by substituting alfalfa silage for the corn silage, and at the same time the bran was reduced to i pound, and the corn increased i pound. By these changes the milk was increased 10 per cent. "With butterfat worth 23 cents a pound the value of a ton of alfalfa silage has been estimated at approximately $8. This silage solves the problem of feeding cows eco- nomically in summer, as well as in winter, under a system of intensive farming." W. J. Fraser, chief in dairy husbandry at the Univer- sity of Illinois, says: "Corn silage and alfalfa, two of ALFALFA AND THE DAIRY 1 53 the best feeds for dairy cows, make practically a complete or balanced ration in themselves. Several years' experi- ence in supplying- the university dairy herd with various kinds of soiling crops in midsummer has led to this high recommendation of corn silage and alfalfa. Alfalfa hay has much the same laxative effect as June pasture. An Elgin, III, dairyman, with fifty cows, says: "Every month I feed alfalfa in winter gives me a month In which I have practically pasture conditions. The cows show the pasture-effect in the glossy condition of their hair and in the yield of milk, and have never before looked quite so well. CHAPTER XIIL Alfalfa for Swine HOGS WILLI EAT HAY In the preceding chapter it was stated that alfalfa is a valuable pasture or soiling crop for pigs. It is equally true that they will actually eat alfalfa hay. A hog is not usually ranked as a hay-eating animal but an exception must be made as to his eating alfalfa hay. As a pasture or soiling crop for sows and young pigs, alfalfa proves a wonderfully helpful ration for milk-making in the sow and for growth in the pigs. Experiments have shown that pigs make better growth when the dam is fed consid- erable alfalfa than those from sows fed the best of com- mercial rations, but with no alfalfa. Given two sets of pigs, one fed clover, rape and soaked corn and the other fed only alfalfa forage, the latter seemed to grow the more rapidly. For brood sows it is a most valuable food, either as hay, a soiling crop, or as pasture. The litters of such sows are generally large and vigorous and the dams have a strong flow of nutritious milk. Alfalfa meal in slop may be used with profit where the hay is not to be obtained. It is also claimed that sows fed on alfalfa dur- ing pregnancy will not devour their young, its mineral elements seeming to satisfy the appetite of the sow, while contributing to the fetal development of the pigs. ^- <^ iw- vJ Five-year-old Alfalfa at the time of its third cutting. September 8. and its root development Grown at Manhattan, Kansas, on upland prairie having a heavy clay subsoil ALFALFA FOR SWINE 1 55 On a farm of Governor Hoard, in Wisconsin, all the brood sows have for several years been wintered on alfalfa hay of the third cutting, and their drink, without any grain until the last two weeks of gestation. Mr. Hoard says the object was to give the sows a food that should keep them in a non-feverish state and furnish protein sufficient to build the bodies of the forthcoming pigs. (Their "drink" was the skim milk from the dairy.) "It was a matter of experiment at first, our only guide being what knowledge and reason we could exerc;ise from what we knew, or thought we knew, of the philosophy of gestation. The experiment proved to be a success from the first. The sows went through their work in fine con- dition, giving milk abundantly. The pigs came with splen- did vitality, thus reducing our losses from early death fully 30 per cent over what they had previousl}^ been. The hay is fed dry and is thrown into the pen on the feed- ing floor without any cutting or chaffing whatever. We have sometimes thought we would try the experiment of cutting it into half-inch lengths and moistening it. Pos- sibly it would take less hay in this way. The sows keep in good flesh, fully as much so as we like." A Finney county, Kansas, farmer reports having pas- tured 30 pigs on one acre of alfalfa from May ist to September ist, when they weighed 100 pounds each and were in fine condition for fattening. Another Kansas farmer reports keeping 100 pigs from about the middle of April to September on five acres of alfalfa pasture. A little grain during the last two months would have gained him many pounds of pork. Many alfalfa raising pig- 156 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA growers insist that their pigs can be maintained from May to October on alfalfa for one-half what it would cost for almost any other feed. The Utah station found that young shoats gained one- third of a pound a day on alfalfa pasture without grain. But the station found also that the gain was not so great in older hogs. A Wisconsin dairyman reported that he kept nine sows all winter and spring on alfalfa hay and skim milk, without any grain, and raised from them 75 pigs, all healthy and vigorous. The Colorado station considers that a ration of three- fourths corn and one- fourth alfalfa hay is the best for fattening hogs for market, but for young hogs not ready for fattening the proportions should be reversed. The station does not recommend grinding alfalfa hay for hogs, probably on the theory that the hog's time is not worth much at best. A VAL.UABLE FEEDING TEST The Kansas station in the fall of 1898 made a series of experiments of interest to feeders everywhere. The test was to determine the value of alfalfa hay fed to fattening hogs that were receiving all the grain they would eat. The results are related here in the language of the bulletin : "The hogs fed in this experiment were bought of farm- ers, and averaged in weight 125 pounds each. They were placed in lots of ten each, in large pens, having for shelter some sheds open to the south. The alfalfa hay used was of the best quality, carefully cured. Blackhulled White Kafir-corn was the grain used, the hogs being fed all they ALFALFA FOR SWINE 157 would eat without waste. The hay was fed dry in fork- fuls in a large flat trough. The pigs were given more than they could eat, and they picked out the leaves and finer stems, rejecting the coarser stems. One lot of hogs was fed Kafir-corn meal dry and alfalfa hay; one lot whole Kafir-corn dry; one lot Kafir-corn meal dry, and one lot Kafir-corn meal wet. "The experiment began on November 24 and lasted nine weeks. By that time the alfalfa-fed hogs became well fattened^ and were marketed. We estimated that it would require four to five weeks additional feeding, with ordinary weather, to get the hogs that were fed grain alone into good marketable condition. "The grain in nine weeks from the different methods of feeding were as follows : Gains per hog iu pounds Kafir-corn meal dry and alfalfa hay. .90.9 Kafir-corn whole 59.4 Kafir-corn meal fed dry 52.4 Kafir-corn meal fed wet 63.3 "The gain from feeding alfalfa hay with Kafir-corn meal fed dry, over the meal alone fed dry, is more than 73 per cent. "The gains per bushel of feed were as follows : Pounds Kafir-corn meal dry and 7.83 pounds alfalfa hay 10.88 Kafir-corn whole 8.56 Kafir-corn meal fed dry 7.48 Kafir-corn meal fed wet 8.09 158 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA 'Ten hogs in nine weeks were fed 656 pounds of alfalfa hay; and as shown above, for each 7.83 pounds of alfalfa hay fed with the dry Kalir-corn meal, the hogs gained 3.4 pounds over those having dry Kafir-corn meal alone — a gain of 868 pounds of pork per ton of alfalfa hay. These results are not due to the feeding value of the alfalfa alone, but also to its influence in aiding the hogs to better digest the Kaflr-corn. The alfalfa hay also gave a variety to the ration, making it more appetizing and inducing the hogs to eat more grain. The ten hogs having grain alone ate 3885 pounds of dry Kafir-corn meal, while the ten hogs having hay and grain ate 4679 pounds of the Kafir-corn meal and 656 pounds of alfalfa hay. The hay-fed hogs ate more grain and gained more for each bushel eaten. "In a former experiment pigs were pastured through the summer on alfalfa with a light feeding of corn. After deducting the probable gain from the corn, the gain per acre from the alfalfa pasture was y']^ pounds of pork. "These facts indicate that to produce pork most cheaply the Kansas farmer must have alfalfa pasture in summer and alfalfa hay in winter." The Kansas station also found in another test that one acre of alfalfa produced pork worth $20.30, while one acre of rape produced pork worth $10.05. The Iowa station director estimated that one acre of alfalfa pastured was worth at least three acres of blue- grass for pigs. It is claimed by Kansas farmers that an average acre of alfalfa will pasture 15 pigs, while some report having pastured 20 or more pigs per acre. Those ALFALFA FOR SWINE 1 59 who have used alfalfa as a soiling crop for pigs admit, however, that one acre so utilized is equal to two if not three used as pasture. It is argued by feeders that as many hogs may profit- ably be allowed with cattle that are being fattened on corn and alfalfa as when fed corn alone, as the feeders believe in cleaning out the feed-racks every few days and giving the left-over stems to the hogs. If necessary, a little corn is added to the hog ration. A NEBRASKA TEST The Nebraska experiment station, from a hog-feeding test made in 1903 reported the following: "With the alfalfa hay worth $7 per ton, the leaves, containing 40 per cent more protein, would be worth approximately $10 per ton. The shorts cost $12.50 per ton delivered. The dairy department charged 15 cents per hundred for the skim milk used. Corn was delivered to the barns at 30 cents per bushel. Adding the usual rate of 6 cents per hundred for grinding, the corn meal cost $12 per ton. At these prices, each hundred pounds of gain in the several lots cost as follows : Lot I, corn alone $4.48 Lot 2, corn and skim milk 3.97 Lot 3, corn and shorts 3.53 Lot 4, corn and alfalfa 3.40 ''This experiment shows that at the market prices quoted and the proportions used in the experiment, skim milk will make corn bring four cents more per bushel, wheat shorts eight cents more, and alfalfa leaves nine cents l6o THE BOOK OF ALFALFA more. Assuming that only five per cert of the 252,520,- 173 bushels of corn produced in Nebraska this year is being fed to hogs as a single food, tliese figures would go to show that $1, 000,000 more wealth would be added to the state if wheat shorts or alfalfa were substituted for one-fifth of the corn fed." CUT ALFALFA EARLY FOR HOGS It is especially important that alfalfa intended to be fed to hogs should be cut early. An experiment at the Kansas station showed that a ton of early cut and well- cured alfalfa, fed with grain, produced 868 pounds of pork while a ton late cut and poorly cured, fed with grain, produced only 333 pounds. Foi* fattening hogs it is well to feed about one ton of well-cured alfalfa hay with each 250 bushels of grain. Farmer's Bulletin No. 215 of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture declares that alfalfa is an ideal pas- ture plant for hogs. ^'There is no danger from bloat and with a limited number of hogs there is practically no injury to the alfalfa field. Vigorous alfalfa will support 15 to 25 head of pigs per acre. It is best to limit the number of pigs to that which will be insufficient to keep down an alfalfa field. Cuttings of hay may then be made at intervals and the growth thus rejuvenated. On the average pigs weighing 30 to 60 pounds in the spring will make a gain of about 100 pounds each during the season. Although pigs may be grown and fattened upon alfalfa alone, it is best to combine tlie alfalfa with some kind of a grain ration. Alfalfa by itself is too rich in protein to give a balanced ration. Where pigs are pastured upon ALFALFA FOR SWINE l6l alfalfa alone they may be prepared for the market by feeding for a few weeks upon corn. It is still better, however, to feed a third to a half of a ration of corn or other grain during the time of pasturing." The great mistake made by too many who attempt to pasture swine on alfalfa is in overstocking. There is a tendency to keep within a small pasture more stock than it can comfortably support, with the result that the stand is gnawed, trampled and rooted out, while the animals fail to prosper as they would under more rational treat- ment. One of the most extensive and successful swine raisers in Kansas tells the author this: ^'Twenty-five years of pasturing hogs of all ages on alfalfa has proven conclu- sively to me that with a fourth to a half grain ration, while they are on such pasture, will produce in them a greater growth per day than when in dry lots on full feeds of corn. Hogs will maintain a reasonable growth, but not fatten much, on alfalfa pasture alone; I believe it profitable to feed them some grain while running on green alfalfa. If it is desired to full-feed hogs, they will make a rapid fattening growth by increasing the grain ration while on the pasture, and with the full grain ration the meat will be nearly as firm as those of the dry lot, where grain alone has been fed. I find no distinction on the market between alfalfa-fed swine and those purely grain-fed, and they sell price and price alike. The general health of the alfalfa-fed hogs is equal to that of those maintained on any other feed, and they are prolific." 1 62 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA The Kansas station realized $i 1.90 per acre from rape pasture and $24.10 per acre from alfalfa pasture in nine- ty-eight days. These results were obtained from the fol- lowing experiments, which were begun July 25 and con- cluded October 31. Thirty shoats, averaging fifty-two pounds in weight, were divided as nearly equally as possible into three lots of ten each. Lot I was fed on a grain mixture of shorts one-half, corn meal one- fourth, and Kafir-corn meal one- fourth, in a dry lot. The other two lots were fed the same grain ration, but one received rape pasture and the other alfalfa pasture in addition. Each lot was given what grain the hogs would eat up clean, and each had access to water and ashes. The weights of grain con- sumed and gains made are as follows : Feed Grain consumed in pounds Total gain, in pounds Grain consumed per 100 lbs. gain, in pounds T N^n na.^tnrp 3,801 3,244 3,244 1,023 1,076 1,078 371 TT "Ranp nn ^^5v fi feiS^;..- '.^^1^ ^P^L. jmK ^^^^% ^^^^,_ I^Ji^3wMii^^^K''^^ft ^My- 2 ^^v ''3k ^^HB^H^B ^^h i ^mmm^^^M ^■#w*^^^ ^J- r#i^^^H ^?^ p V^KfI^m ^S^^i ^^StStMs M- «^8^^Ss'^* ^rirff'^^ p^^^S JA^ 1 ^^ id|^ J ^^^^ "'^|Mjji|ii'°' 1 ..F iK^n ^ JEjp^S W^ s M^^fliW^« ' ■• 'mH^? '^ •:^ ; m.'^ 1^91 ^^^^^^1^1 ^^S^^^^^^^^^B ^^^^m ^^K ^^Sfc'^ ^^^^ w ^^S^mM ^^^^r ^8^^^E ^'^'f 4 P ^*"' '^ ^^mM ^^ 1^^^^^;%' " "^1 lt«S*^5^ •^^r'^'^ ' ' ..;;.-.■ J-.-4- ^^SV'''.^^^Hi^ "f"%.^Kff^^^^?^^^P*^^P.""ifi i 's ^^Prl^ft W^W ^^^^^m-fii ' ^'i\^i 1 -,r'^,r'''''fffF' f'-'^'-/^^ cS"; I frii^^^^^^ffiiwWlBWi DIFFICULTIES AND DISCOURAGEMENTS 221 taken too much of the land's moisture, especially if the season has been somewhat dry, to permit a prosperous beginning of the plants from fall sown seed. Millet, oats or cowpeas are the best crops to precede, i. e. for the first trial. The plowing for this preceding crop should be deep. In clay land a subsoil plow (the kind which loosens but does not throw the subsoil to the surface) should follow. It is extremely important that a dressing of stable manure be plowed under for this preceding crop. The seed bed should be carefully prepared, and under favorable conditions. Working the ground when too wet would make it impossible to secure a proper seed bed later when preparing for alfalfa. c He neglects to prepare the alfalfa seed bed prop- erly. He should begin disking and harrowing as soon as the preparatory crop is off the ground, and continue this at intervals of ten or fifteen days until time for sow- ing, when the soil should be as fine as for an onion bed. d He uses poor seed ; seed that is infertile, or adul- terated with weed seeds — undesirable and unreliable in every way. 2. Dying out the second year, which in most instances is due to one of two causes, viz. : neglect to plow under stable manure for the preceding crop, or pasturing alfalfa in its first year. Not an animal should be turned on an alfalfa field for pasture until the second or, preferably, the third year. Another cause is disturbance of the soil and plants by severe freezing. This may often be pre- vented in a degree by a light top-dressing of manure in December. 222 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA 3. Failure through harvesting and stacking. 4. Injury from insects or disease. These are practically all the things that need occasion serious vexation. Of course alfalfa calls for more work in harvesting than corn, or clover, or timothy; but one acre of prosperous alfalfa is worth two or three of corn, or clover or timothy, even for market, while for feeding purposes the difference is even greater. The "poor" farmer, the lazy farmer, the ''corner grocery" farmer should not sow alfalfa. CHAPTER XXV. Miscellaneous AliFAIiFA IN THE ORCHARD Probably nine-tenths of those who have written on this subject have condemned the practice of sowing alfalfa in the orchard. They have said that the alfalfa demanded so much moisture that the trees would be dwarfed if not destroyed. In going through an immense amount of material in the preparation of this book only two in- stances have been found of men who claim that the alfalfa is a benefit to orchards. One of these was from Texas and the newspaper quoting him did not give his name. He was reported to have used his orchard for hog pasture, keeping on five acres from ten to fifteen sows with their pigs from early April to September. He claimed that the alfalfa instead of robbing the orchard of moisture actually contributed to the surface moisture and benefited the trees. Prof. F. L. Watrous, of the Colorado station, is an earnest advocate of the use of alfalfa in the orchard and from an article of his this is quoted : "Whatever may have been believed or imagined as to the uncongeniality of trees and alfalfa the theory is des- tined to an early downfall. The evidence is at hand now 224 THE BOOK OF ALFALPA to show that not only is alfalfa not a detriment when grown among fruit trees, but in many ways it is a posi- tive benefit, lending itself and its properties to the advan- tage of the trees. *'On land where moisture can be found at from six to ten feet from the surface, the congeniality of the alfalfa plant and the apple tree becomes apparent. Both need plenty of water the first year, a little less the sec- ond, and very little or none thereafter. ^'After trees become old enough to bear and need all the land between them, and that fertilized and renovated, alfalfa may be used as a food gatherer and distributer. It pushes down into the lower strata, bringing up min- eral elements, captures nitrogen from the air through its root processes, and brings all together near the surface, thus giving to the trees the food they need to fill up and mature fruit. Nor is this all. The alfalfa falling on the ground makes a soft cover upon which windfalls may drop with little bruising; it so occupies the soil as to allow no foul growth to creep in ; it does away with the work of weeding or cultivating, and keeps the surface cool and porous, furnishing excellent pasture for hogs if the trees are protected. It would be possible, of course, in this system of co-operation between fruit trees and alfalfa to secure a crop of hay or seed during the off years for fruit, but whether this would prove profitable may be questioned. Orchards growing under the condi- tions described have produced magnificent crops of fruit which, for size, quality and coloring, is seldom equaled." MISCELLANEOUS 225 S03iE AliFAIiFA "MUSTS" AND "DON'TS" A Knox county, Ohio, man, in expressing himself as to some of the requisites for success with alfalfa, as observed from his viewpoint has this to say: ''I have known about alfalfa from boyhood; been familiar with it for thirty years, and have grown it suc- cessfully on many soils, from a stiff clay, upwards. The failures which I have seen have been accounted for by the non-performance of some of the essentials. There are certain ^musts', not 'shoulds,' to be observed to secure success. Here they are from my experience: 'Tirst of all the seed must be pure, of high germinat- ing power, and of the highest possible vitality. If I doubted my own proficiency in these determinations, I would consult the nearest experiment station. I have had occasion to consult experiment stations, from New Jersey to Wisconsin, on various subjects, and in every instance have met with prompt and valuable — and sym- pathetic— assistance. "The soil must have lime; either as one of its natural constituents, or lime must be added. If the soil is defi- cient, then the lime must be incorporated with the soil some months before seeding. "The land must have efficient drainage, either natural, or, as in the case of clay and heavy clay loams, artificial. "The land must be fertile to a depth of at least nine inches. Beyond that depth the taproot in its search for water will take care of itself." Another writer, impressed by practices he regards as reprehensible, enumerates them as follows : 226 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA "Don't SOW any nurse crop. "Don't sow on freshly plowed land, no matter how care- fully prepared. "Don't let weeds or grass grow over six inches high with- out clipping. "Don't clip or mow when wet with rain or dew. "Don't let alfalfa stand ; if turning yellow, cut it. "Don't sow old seed. "Don't sow less than twenty pounds per acre, one-half each way. "Don't sow twenty-five acres at first ; sow five. "Don't pasture it. "Don't put any of the rotten manure anywhere but on your alfalfa plot. "Don't depend upon 'culture cakes' or soil from some distant field. "Don't let any water stand on it. "Don't let it go if a thin stand, but disk in more seed; don't be afraid you will kill it. "Don't replow the land, disk it. "Don't wait for it to stool ; it never does. "Don't try to cut for hay until the alfalfa takes the field. "Don't sow on any land not well underdrained. "Don't leave your land rough ; use a roller or a plank float to level and smooth it. "Don't give up." MISCELLANEOUS 227 AliFILERILLA OH "ALFILARIA" (Er odium citcutarium. ) On account of the similarity of its name to that of alfalfa and the possibility of the two plants being con- fused in the minds of those not acquainted with them, it is proper to make mention here of the plant referred to in the caption above. It is not generally known nor widely distributed, and has as yet its principal habitat in semi-arid parts of the southwestern United States. The Century Dictionary calls it Pin-clover or Pin-grass, and classifies it with the Geranium family. Webster's Dic- tionary speaks of it as a weed in California. It is an annual and seeds profusely; a few seeds scattered over quite a large area result in a thorough seeding the sec- ond year. A stockman in Arizona writes that it will grow on any kind of soil except alkali ; that it was intro- auced from Australia by sheep carrying it in their wool. It is a southern plant and should not be seeded largely north of the northern line of Oklahoma until tested by the experiment stations. It should not be confused with alfalfa, as it is entirely dissimilar and not related. In discussing this plant an Arizona editor writes the following : ''It is by no means a new or experimental crop, for it was the main reliance of Arizona stockmen during ten years of drouth. We suppose that the experiment sta- tions in the West have given it little attention because it is as well known as alfalfa here, and millions of acres are covered with it in various portions of the Territory. 228 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA *'We know from many years experience that alfilaria will thrive and keep stock in good condition where no grass roots would live through one of the dry seasons. It is peculiarly adapted to the poorer soils in western Kansas, Nebraska, the Texas Panhandle, New Mexico, and portions of the northern section of Mexico. *'Its merits are that it will grow in seasons so dry that other forage fails and that it will keep cattle in better health and condition as to flesh and growth than any- thing else we can grow in Arizona, not excepting alfalfa. In the spring cattle and horses will go miles to find it and it is better than 'condition powders' to put them in con- dition for summer growth. "What it will do on other classes of soil, under excess of moisture, is a matter of experiment; but where it is needed most — as above outlined, there is nothing that has ever been tested under these adverse conditions which can compare with alfilaria. This will be certified to by every ranchman and cattleman in this section of Arizona." MEASURING HAY IN THE STACK Some method of arriving at the quantity in a stack, rick, or mow without weighing it, is, at one time and another, found desirable by everyone who has to do with loose hay. There can be no absolute rule laid dov/n for this because of the varying compactness the hay attains under differing conditions of coarseness or fineness, moisture, length of time stacked or stored and the weight which has rested upon it. For prairie hay stacked not less than thirty days a cube seven feet square (343 cubic feet) is not uncom- MISCELLANEOUS 229 monly bought or sold as a ton; yet seven-and-a-half feet square, or 422 cubic feet, are often made the basis of estimating. The author is advised that in the alfalfa growing districts of the Yellowstone valley it is the general custom to accept as a ton 422 cubic feet of alfalfa hay if it has settled thirty days or more. Also that hay- men find there is a noticeable variation between the dif- ferent cuttings. The first cutting will fall short of actual weight more than the second, while the third cutting will hold up in weight, and sometimes overrun. Prof. E. A. Burnett, of the Nebraska experiment station, thinks an eight-foot cube, or 512 cubic feet, a fair figure. Professor Ten Eyck says : **The rules for measuring hay in the stack will vary according to the length of time the hay has been stacked and the kind and quality of the hay, and also according to the character of the stack. With alfalfa or prairie hay which has been stacked for thirty days it is usual to compute an eight-foot cube or 512 cubic feet as a ton. When the hay has been stacked five or six months, usually a seven-and-a-half -foot cube or 422 cubic feet is calcu- lated for a ton. In old stacks which have been stacked a year or more a seven-foot cube or 343 cubic feet is al- lowed for a ton. ''There are different methods of measuring a stack, depending upon its shape and also its size. For a long stack or rick the usual method is to throw a line over the stack measuring the distance (in two or three places, and use the average) from the bottom on one side to the bottom on the other; add to this the average width of the stack, divide this sum by four (which equals one side 230 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA of the square) and multiply the quotient by itself and this product by the length of the stack; this will give the number of cubic feet in the stack, which may be divided by 512, 422, or 343 in order to find the number of tons. For small, low ricks the rule is to subtract the width from the *over,' divide by 2, multiply by the width and multiply the product by the length, dividing the result by the number of cubic feet in a ton. "There is no established rule for measuring round stacks, but this one will approximate the contents of one of the ordinary conical form: Find the circumference at or above the base or 'bulge' at a height that will average the base from there to the ground, find the vertical height of the measured circumference from the ground and the slant height from the circumference to the top of the stack. Multiply the circumference by itself and divide by 100 and multiply by 8, then multiply the result by the height of the base plus one-third of the slant height of top. The hay in a round is necessarily less compact than in a rectangular stack, hence a greater number of feet should be allowed for a ton; with well settled hay, probably 512 feet. "The rules given may also be used in measuring any kind of hay, sorghum or Kafir-fodder in the stack. How- ever, for sorghum or Kafir-fodder only approximate results can be procured by stack measurements because the fodder is apt to vary greatly in weight, according to the moisture it contains." AIFALFA V Btttti ALIMTV Hactfri.-: (rem «*i Clovrr Tutvjrjles Pot Culture Experiments at University of Illinois showing effect produced upon growth of alfalfa by nitrogen-gathering bacteri obtained from older alfalfa and Sweet clover. Reading from top to bottom the four photographs were made five, six, seven and eight weeks, respectively, from time of planting CHAPTER XXVL Practical Experiences of lAIfalfa Growers in the United States of America ALABAMA Prof. J. F. Duggar, Director Alabama experiment station. — Alfalfa is grown in Alabama with entire suc- cess on the lime soil of the central prairie region of the state. This is a strip of land from lo to 20 miles wide, extending southeast and northwest almost across the state and into Mississippi. Beginning near Union Springs, this prairie passes near Montgomery, Selma, Demopolis, Greensboro and northwestward towards Co- lumbus, Miss. On the prairie lands in this area alfalfa affords from three to six cuttings per year, usually four, and the yield is from three to six tons per acre. Irriga- tion is not practiced. The seed is sown either in Septem- ber or in the early part of March, usually from 20 to 24 pounds per acre. Almost a full crop is secured the first year from fall seeding, but only from one-third to two- thirds of a full crop is secured the first year from sowing seed in March. It is not customary on this soil to use fertilizer on alfalfa, but an application of even a light coat of stable manure immensely increases the yield on the poor spots. Failure has generally attended attempts to 232 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA grow alfalfa on non-calcareous or sandy soils, though un- der favorable conditions, with liberal manuring and con- stant warfare against crab-grass, it occasionally succeeds. In Bulletin No. 127 of the Alabama experiment station the results in alfalfa growing are summarized as follows : Usually the best crop to precede spring sown alfalfa is cotton, especially if cotton follows melilotus (Sweet clo- ver). The best crop to prepare the land for fall sown al- falfa is cowpeas, sown very thickly. Farmers have found that alfalfa thrives when sown on Johnson grass meadows, holding its own, at least for the first few years, against this aggressive grass. Dodder, a yellow thread- like growth, is a serious enemy of alfalfa. One of the remedies consists in mowing and burning. Seed mer- chants often pass alfalfa seed through a machine which is claimed to remove the dodder seed. On sandy upland soils at z-Vuburn, alfalfa has not afforded very profitable yields. On such soils it requires heavy applications of lime or barnyard manure, and it is believed that more profitable use can be made of manure. At Auburn neither nitrate of soda nor cottonseed meal very greatly in- creased the yield of alfalfa that was properly stocked with root tubercles. Acid phosphate and potash fertilizers are considered indispensable here, and generally advisable on sandy or other soils not rich in lime. Inoculation with soil from old fields of either alfalfa or Bur clover greatly increases the yields of alfalfa growing on sandy land. The germ that causes tubercles to develop on Sweet clover also causes tubercles to develop on the roots of al- falfa. Hence artificial inoculation of alfalfa is not neces- sary when it is grown on prairie land that has recently PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 233 borne a crop of melilotus. Artificial inoculation of al- falfa is probably advisable even for prairie soils when it is uncertain whether either the melilotus or alfalfa germs are present in great numbers. In regions in Alabama Vshere neither alfalfa, melilotus, nor Bur clover is exten- sively grown, inoculation of alfalfa is advisable. For this purpose one may use soil from old fields of either of these plants or inoculating material prepared in the lab- oratory. ARIZONA John Blake, Graham county. — Alfalfa is the king of forage plants here. It will stand considerable dry weather and live, but it will not yield profitably unless irrigated, or on naturally damp ground. It does not do well here on clay soil, and if clay subsoil is near the surface it is likely to dry out, unless watered. I have grown alfalfa for eight years on 175 acres, first and second bottom, and upland, with sandy and loam soils, with small patches of clay and various subsoils ; the alluvial bottoms are usually loam of different depths, underlaid with sand and gravel ; the next bottom more clayey, with quicksand about 13 feet deep and gravel about 30 feet below the surface. On first bottoms, well water is reached at a depth of 3 to 8 feet, the soil being dry on the surface only ; on the upland, tlie soil is dry for 20 to 30 feet, or until water is reached. Land intended for alfalfa had best be cultivated in other crops for two or three years, thus insuring the killing off of native brush and grass, and their roots ; then it must be laid off in "lands" of various widths, according to the slope, each land being leveled uniformly and bordered to hold water. Seed may be sown in August, September, 234 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA and October; in fact, all the year, except from the middle of April to the first of August, when it is so hot and dry here. The quantity of seed used varies with the prepara- tion, from 12 to 20 pounds per acre. Sow with a "Cahoon" seeder, and cover with a brush or light harrow. It is generally sown here with barley, wheat, or oats. The grain is cut early for hay, or ripened and headed, in which case the stubble and alfalfa are cut immediately afterward and hauled off. The ground is then irrigated, and if it has previously been foul, there will be plenty of weeds. Another cutting in good time will usually eradi- cate these. The plant will not winterkill here if old enough to have four leaves before frost. We irrigate abundantly, from the Gila river, in winter and spring, filling up the soil and thus making less need for water during the hot, dry period. Irrigate after each crop is taken off, and some land is benefited by two irrigations for each cutting. The quantity of water needed depends on the character of the soil and subsoil ; some on the bot- toms needs but little after the first year, and it is a good plan, if the subsoil is open, to let the plant go without artificial water after it has a good start, as it sends its roots down to moisture or water, if at a reasonable depth below ; it will then thrive on much less water, and the crop will be more nutritious. If one is raising hay for quan- tity, of course this does not apply. The four crops per season yield on an average: First, i^ to 2 tons; second and third, ij4 to 4; fourth, three-fourths to one ton. If cutting for quantity, mow when fairly in bloom; if for feeding, when the seed has formed. I have raised no seed, but the crop used for that purpose is usually the sec- PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 235 ond, and it is not irrigated. The time required for curing depends on the stage at which the hay is cut, the dryness of the ground, etc. ; a good rule is to rake as soon as the rake will take it up clean, and let it cure in windrows or cocks. I use a ''Landen" single pole stacker, with slings, which puts the hay, just as it laid on the wagon, in the center of the stack. The seed, threshed on an ordinary thresher, contains straw and chaff, which are easily taken out by running through ordinary wire screen-door net- ting, and then it is suitable for the "Cahoon" seeder. On land worth $40 per acre, the hay in the stack costs $3 per ton. Baling costs $2 per ton, the best size being 100 or 150 pounds in weight. Size does not affect the keeping quality of the hay. The hay has sold here for $6 to $12, averaging about $7.50, and the seed sold here last year for 9 cents per pound. I do not think the straw is of much value. Alfalfa will yield abundantly the second year, and, if harrowed with a good harrow, digging up the soil, it will yield for a very long period. Mine, which is 10 years old, looks as well as it did when two years old. To rid land of it, it would be well to plow when dry, then cross plow later on. On naturally damp bottom it is hard to kill. Cattle pastured on rank alfalfa in the spring are liable to bloat. Thomas C. Graham, Pinal county. — Though I have been familiar with alfalfa growing for 10 years, my first experience on a large scale was five years ago, when I seeded the Kenilworth farms, containing 900 acres. I was successful in securing a good stand on the entire tract. Some of the land is upland, with sandy loam soil, washed from the mountains, and various subsoils, hard- 236 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA pan being, in places, only 10 inches below the surface; the remainder of the land is low, or bottom, with adobe soil. Well water is found at a depth of 95 feet, and the soil is dry from the surface to within a few feet of the water stratum. Before sowing, the surface soil is plowed and harrowed thoroughly; 20 pounds of seed is used to the acre, and covered not more than one-half inch deep. In our section, the best time for seeding is in September and October, and there is no danger from the winter frost. During the first season we cut twice or three times, to destroy all weeds, and obtain 2j^ or 3 tons of hay per acre, but have never been able to get a paying crop of seed from the first season's cutting. For irrigation, we obtain water from the Gila and Salt rivers, but in some sections of our country water is pumped from wells by steam pumps. It has not been found practicable to lift the water from a greater depth than 50 feet for this pur- pose. The first year, as the land is very dry, it requires twice the quantity of water that is needed the second year and after. We flood the alfalfa five or six times a year — once in the fall, in the spring, and after each cutting, using water enough to cover the land to a depth of about one inch. We have no rain to amount to anything here, and depend entirely on irrigation. I think the ground should be prepared in the fall, and seeded in February or March as, if seeded in the fall, the young plants might be liable to injury from frost. In all cases, the soil should be thoroughly prepared, and the seed not covered more than one-half inch deep. It is not uncommon to harvest six crops of alfalfa in a single season, and its feeding qual- ities are unequaled for cattle, horses, or swine. It is PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 237 found, by careful tests, that alfalfa is 45 per cent better than clover and 65 per cent better than timothy for feed- ing farm animals. In my opinion, there is no other hay that will equal properly cured alfalfa. That grown with- out irrigation is much better, as it contains less sap and is not so stalky. The threshed hay is splendid feed for milch cows, and is sold here for the same price brought by the hay cut earlier. Last season I pastured 65 head of hogs on 10 acres of alfalfa, and they did well. In my experience, it is far better than clover, from the fact that it cannot be dislodged, the roots penetrating to a depth of 10 to 20 feet. The pasturage is profitable and satisfac- tory for sheep and horses, and 45 per cent better for cattle than clover. They will bloat sometimes, but if properly handled there is little danger. The best pre- ventive is to not allow the cattle to become too hungry. We get, on an average, three cuttings a year, averaging i to i}^ tons per acre each, and have pasture for five or six months. For hay, we mow when in full bloom, rake as soon as possible, and let stand in windrows until the stems are about half dry; then put in the cock for two days, and stack in large ricks of about 80 to 100 tons each. If put up damp or green, it will mold. The seed is harvested, usually, from the second crop, when the pods turn black and can be shelled out by rubbing in the hand. It is cut, raked in windrows, and allowed to stand until thoroughly dry. I used, this season, a J. I. Case separator, and threshed and cleaned 6000 pounds of seed in three days. An ordinary yield is 100 pounds to the acre, and the cost of cutting and threshing is 3 cents a pound. The total cost of the hay in the stack is about 238 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA $3 a ton on $50 land, with 15 cents an acre for irrigation. The average selhng price for hay is $4 a ton, and for seed, 10 cents a pound. With proper care, alfalfa will last time without end, and improve each year, and it is difficult to kill it out, as it makes more or less seed every crop. An open soil, free from hardpan, is best for it. CALIFORNIA Henry Miller, San Mateo county. — Since 1871, we have gradually increased our acreage of alfalfa, until we now have about 20,000 acres. This is on reclaimed swamp and upland, under a complete system of irriga- tion, with the exception of a little light, loamy soil, with water near the surface and no irrigation. On the latter ground the plant is short-lived, on account of the gophers. The depth at which well water is found varies from 10 to 40 feet, and, with irrigation, it is immaterial whether the soil is naturally moist or dry. The preparation for seeding consists of deep plowing and cross plowing, and the depth for planting is not over two or three inches. For light, loamy soils, 12 pounds of seed to the acre is ample, while for hard, rough, new land, from 16 to 20 pounds is required to insure a good stand. Seeding may be done here after the cold season, and when danger of heavy frost is past, but in time to take advantage of the spring rains, which are very essential. During the first season, the weeds should be mowed as they require it, without regard to returns of alfalfa, and after they are subdued it is well to let the first year's growth go to seed and allow it to be trampled into the soil by young stock, but if there is a full stand this is not necessary. We irri- PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 239 gate from streams, applying water as soon as the sprmg opens and every time a crop is cut, the quantity of water needed depending on the quahty of the soil. Drainage is very necessary, especially when irrigation is done in warm weather. After the first irrigation, less water is needed at an application than at first. Winterkilling seems to be effectually prevented by watering in the fall. Alfalfa will attain its best state in three or four years, and its condition after that will depend upon its treatment. We put stock on our land generally after the first and second growth is cut, and the only rest the land receives is when it is being irrigated. After hay has been cut for several years, we harrow in the spring with a heavy har- row or disk cutter, and take the opportunity to reseed that which shows lack of vigor. The more sun and the less shade there is, the better the growth and the more satisfactory the yield. We find it more difficult to get a stand than to get rid of it ; but, in some instances, where we have wanted the land for orchard, vegetables, or root crops, we found several plowings would destroy it. W^ith- out irrigation, we have net found the crop very profitable, but there are a few favored spots in the state where it can be grown without water; but when we plant we usually select such land as can be put under a perfect system of irrigation before using. Longevity of the plant depends on treatment and on the nature of the soil. On heavy adobe soil it will not live and thrive as long as on loamy soil, and on sandy, light soil it will be of short duration without constant and judicious irrigation. After the first season, we make two cuttings a year, and consider two tons to the acre each time a good yield. For 240 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA hay, we cut when the first crop is moderately ripe — say nearly in full bloom; the second crop and any later ones are cut when the bloom first shows ; otherwise the lower leaves will drop off. The first crop is generally prefer- able for seed, provided butterflies and other insects have not injured the bloom, as they often do. If the second crop is used for seed, it should ripen longer than the first. The crop for seed is mowed, windrowed as soon as pos-- sible, allowed to dry in that state, gathered with a hand fork, loaded on hay wagons, and put in stack as gently as possible. We find a good crop of seed a rare thing, but use the ordinary threshing outfit, and turn out 800 to 1000 pounds a day, in rare instances double that quan- tity, with a cost for threshing and cleaning of about 5 cents a pound. The hay we never put in barns, but stack in small, narrow ricks, to ?void danger of heating, endeav- oring to get it in the rick as dry as possible, gathering in the forenoons to avoid shelling. When we use our own press and men, the cost of baling does not exceed $1 per ton. The weight of the bale depends on the kind of press used. An average, handy bale weighs about 150 to 175 pounds, and we never have any trouble about the hay keeping perfectly in bales of that size. The average price per ton for hay in our San Francisco market is about $8 to $10; of seed, by the ton, 8 to 12^ cents a pound, 10 cents a pound being about the usual average price. For feeding farm animals, good, well-cured alfalfa hay is better than clover. For milch stock, especially, we con- sider it fully as good as any other hay. We find but little difference between the straw and the hay, and while all stock like the straw better, there is no doubt that the hay PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 24 1 contains the more nutriment. Like all rank growths, al- falfa will produce double under irrigation, and the quan- tity will greatly overbalance any possible improvement in quality without irrigation, for I have found little differ- ence between that grown by irrigation and under natural moisture. For horses, there is no pasture better than the alfalfa; for sheep and cattle, it sometimes works injury by way of bloat, caused by too rapid grazing, especially when there is dew, thin cattle and young stock being most liable. Cattle in high condition and cows suckling or vv^ell forward in calf do not bloat. As preventive of the bloat, hay should be kept in the pasture where the stock can run to it, and a good supply of salt in troughs to which they have constant access. The plant will not stand trampling by stock unless the surface of the ground be entirely dry, and we do not allow sheep or cattle on the fields during certain stages of growth nor during certain states of the weather. We consider this pasture better than clover for swine, especially when the ground has a smooth surface, but if the soil is of a sandy nature, and allowed to dry, it is not so good. The capacity per acre depends on the nature of the soil, and the gain in weight made by the hogs depends on the breed and on the com- fort they have. We can raise hogs on alfalfa, and by feeding them two months on grain (say barley, wheat, or Egyptian corn) they will average, when lo months old, 250 pounds, gross. /. B. De Jarnette, Colusa county. — I have had ii years' experience with alfalfa, and have about lOO acres border- ing on the Sacramento river. The soil ranges in depth from 10 to 20 feet, and rests on a clay subsoil, while 242 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA water is reached at a depth of from 12 to 20 feet. In sinking two wells on my place, the soil was found as fol- lows: First 12 feet, decomposed vegetable matter; 4 feet of quicksand; 4 feet of clay loam; 4 feet of hardpan; 16 feet of yellow clay; 6 feet of hardpan; 2 feet of black sand, and at 48 feet, coarse gravel. The ground should be thoroughly pulverized — the finer the better — after plowing at least 12 inches deep, and then seeded with not less than 25 pounds of seed to the acre. I have had the best results from sowing in the early fall, immediately after the first rains, using the "Gem" seeder, harrowing in with very light harrow, and rolling the ground well. The first crop is usually quite weedy, and of little value, but the second is better, producing about i^ tons of hay to the acre, if the stand is good. Stock of all kinds should be kept off the first year. There is no danger here of winterkilling, and by the second year the full yield is real- ized. The length of time the plant continues vigorous depends on the treatment. If pastured extensively, it will require to be reseeded in from five to eight years; but otherwise it may go considerably longer. I invariably obtain three crops a year, averaging per acre for the first 2^, and for the others Ij4 to 2 tons. I irrigate only in the winter, when the river is bank full and I can turn in water from it. Alfalfa produces the best results with irrigation after each cutting, and in that case there are five to seven cuttings obtainable, where with winter flood- ing I can secure the three only. I mow for hay as soon as the bloom begins to develop, raking in the afternoon fol- lowing the morning cutting, commence hauling about the third day after, and then put in the barn with plenty of PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 243 salt. The third crop is given the preference for seed, ana is harvested when the plant is well matured. I let it cure in the windrows and haul to the thresher, handling as little as possible. The common yield of seed is from lOO pounds up, according to the stand. The cost of my hay, on land worth $ioo to $150 per acre, does not exceed $2 per ton, and it sells for from $5 to $8, while seed brings from 8 to 16 cents per pound. The hay after threshing is of but little value. The pasture is unquestionably the most profitable I have ever had any experience with, sup- porting more stock of any kind to the acre than any other forage plant. In early spring, cattle are liable to bloat on the rank alfalfa, but after the first of June I have had no trouble. There is no special difficulty in ridding land of the plant, and it is undoubtedly as good for fertilizing as Red clover. COLORADO Jacob Downing, Arapahoe county. — I introduced alfal- fa into Colorado in 1862, and have between 500 and 700 acres. It is on upland, clay, sandy and loam soil, with some adobe subsoil, but mostly sandy loam; it is gener- ally dry to sand rock, and then it is necessary to drill 50 to 100 feet to get water. The plant will not thrive where there is hardpan, but will grow in any soil that is dry. Un- like most other forage plants it derives considerable nour- ishment from the air and water, though too much moisture will kill it. After deep plowing and thor- ough pulverizing of the soil, the land should be scraped thoroughly smooth, as this cannot be done after sowing, and is needed to make the mower work smoothly. I sow about 25 pounds to the acre, 244 "^I^^ BOOK OF ALFALFA drilling in about two inches deep, 12^ pounds one way, and the other I2j/^ pounds across it, thus making an even stand. Prefer to sow in the spring, early. After the plant is eight inches high, it may be cut and used for feed, but is not very good. After this there will be no weeds. It matures in three years, and after that is good for seed. I have seen, near the city of Mexico, fields of alfalfa 300 years old that had been constantly cropped and never reseeded. It will last 1000 years, and possibly forever. Irrigate from streams, as is required; when there is a great deal of heat and wind, probably three times. The water must not run too long, or the plant will be killed, and the land should be kept as dry as possible during the winter, particularly in cold climates, as on wet soil alfalfa winterkills. Well water is better than the stream, pro- vided it is pumped into a reservoir and allowed to get warm. Water is brought from the streams by ditches. Less water can be used the first year than after the plant is matured. I am five miles west of Denver, and 500 feet above the city, in warm valleys. With plenty of water, I can obtain three cuttings a year. Have raised as much as 3^2 tons to the acre at one cutting, and my highest yield of seed per acre has been nine bushels. Hay is cut when the plant is in bloom, cured until it is dry to the touch of the hand. Stacking by hand makes the best bay, as machinery is likely to pack it in bunches, causing il to heat and become dusty. Hay in the stack costs about $1.50 per ton. Baling costs $2 per ton ; 100-pound bales are well esteemed, but it is probable that large bales keep better than small, if properly cured. The seed pod assumes the form of a cornucopia, and, when the seed is PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 245 ripe, it is of a rich orown or mahogany color. The first crop is preferable for seed, and should be cut and stacked as the hay is. It can be left and threshed when most con- venient, but the longer it remains in the stack the more easily its threshes. The ordinary threshing machine does for the alfalfa, but the seed must be fanned to be market- able. Six bushels is a common yield, and the cost of threshing and cleaning is probably 25 cents per bushel. The price of hay has ranged from $5 to $15 per ton, and of seed, from 8 to 20 cents per pound. The straw has almost no value, as it is cut up very fine, and can be used only where it is threshed ; if fed there, it is very fattening. For feeding horses for slow work, the hay is better than clover or timothy. For fattening purposes, it is the best in the world, for, while the animal lays on fat, it is never feverish, but always healthy. For pasturing cattle and swine, alfalfa is superior to anything else, and, after it is mown, it makes very excellent feed for horses and sheep. If the alfalfa is wet, ruminants pastured on it bloat and die very quickly. It is not properly a pasture plant, and such animals should be kept away from it, but the hay, properly cured, is superior to any other food raised for fattening purposes. There is no difficulty in ridding land of the plant, as a good team and sharp plow will cut it out without any trouble. I have plowed fields of alfalfa under and put in oats, obtaining three or four times the usual yield, and have known of 50 bushels of wheat to the acre on broken alfalfa land. L. TV. Markham, Prowers county. — I have had four years' experience with alfalfa. Have under my charge 500 acres. It is on both second bottom and upland ; part 246 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA has clay subsoil, other dark loam, and all has more or less sand. Water is reached at from 10 to 40 feet, and on land not irrigated the soil is dry all the way down to the water veins. The preferred time for sowing is either April I or August i. Have as good success right on the sod as on old land. If to raise seed only, 10 pounds is sufficient to the acre ; for hay, 20 pounds is not too much. Seed not more than two inches deep. About June 15 cut weeds and tops of young alfalfa, and then irrigate well, and you get one-half to one ton of hay in September. It is best to not try for seed the first year, but give all the strength to the roots. It does not winterkill here. We irrigate from the Arkansas river, and the number of irri- gations depends on the soil. The first year requires twice as much water as later ones. Usually three applications are needed : in early spring, mid-summer, and late fall. I have 160 acres not irrigated for three years. We have three cuttings, yielding i;[^ to 2 tons per acre each. Cut for hay just when coming into full bloom, and stack in the field — never in barn — in long ricks, 12 feet wide by 80 to 120 feet long. It will not heat in the stack. Let all pods become dark brown or black before cutting for seed. The second crop is preferable, unless there is a large acreage, when I take one-half the first crop and one- half the second, in order to help the farmer out with work. Have men follow the machine closely, and cock up, to remain four or five days before stacking. Never cut for seed with a mowing machine, as you will lose one- third of the crop in trying to gather it. The cost of alfalfa in the stack is not over $2 at the outside. To bale — preferably in 80-pound bales — costs $1.50 per ton. An PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 247 ordinary yield of seed is five bushels per acre. The cost for threshing is 60 cents per bushel. There is a special alfalfa huller, as even the ordinary clover huller is not a success. For a number of years the average price paid the farmer for alfalfa seed has been $4.50 per bushel, and hay in the stack has sold for $3.50 to $5. For feed- ing farm animals, alfalfa hay is far more valuable than timothy or clover. Horses will work and do well the year round on the first cutting of alfalfa, and no grain whatever. The pasturage for hogs and cattle is far bet- ter than clover, and is profitable and satisfactory for horses and sheep. I have 250 hogs now, and raise them to weigh 200 pounds on green alfalfa alone; turn the sows in the lot in early spring ; they raise their young, and I never bother ^hem for eight months at a time, as they have plenty of alfalfa and water. Put cattle on the pas- ture in early spring and let them run, and few, if any, will bloat ; but when they are not used to it, they eat too fast, or too much, and bloat. The hay is not so good after it is threshed as that cut earlier for hay alone, but the straw sells readily at $1.50 in the stack. The stand gets better every year for hay, and I know of fields in old Mexico 60 years old that have never been reseeded. There is no difficulty in ridding land of the plant if it is plowed under eight inches deep while green. It makes Tar better green manure than does red clover. On the same quarter section, wheat grown on old wheat land produced 20 bushels per acre, and that on broken alfalfa land 50 bushels per acre. CONNECTICUT Dr. E. H. Jenkins, Director Connecticut experiment station. — Alfalfa has been tried in a haphazard way in 248 THE BOOK 01? ALFALFA Connecticut for many years and scattered plants and colonies may often be seen in fence corners and headlands. Within five years, however, some farmers under direction of the agricultural station at New Haven, or on their own initiative, have made more careful experiments and while failures are numerous, there are at present a number of small areas well established, yielding three or four cut- tings yearly and highly valued by their owners. On the farm of C. W. Beach of West Hartford, F. H. Stad- mueller had for seven years a considerable field of alfalfa which yielded well and was used as a soiling crop. Mr. Barnard of North Haven, after repeated failures, has a fine field and feeds it to both cows and poultry. The Gaylord Farm sanatorium at Wallingford, John Matthies of New Mil ford and others might be cited as successful growers of alfalfa. It does well on a variety of soils with us. Liming heavily, 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, is a necessity. Some form of inoculation of the soil is gen- erally required and clean, well-tilled land. Weeds are the worst enemy of the newly seeded alfalfa and easily smother the crop. For that reason we prefer August seeding, using at least 30 pounds of clean, fresh seed. It will pay to fallow the land, in order to kill the weeds be- fore seeding down. Thin spots cannot be successfully patched by seeding later. Great care in preparing the land pays with a permanent crop like alfalfa. DELAWARE Dr. Arthur T. Ncale, Director Delaware experiment station. — Twenty years ago, I drilled alfalfa in rows 18 inches apart, and cultivated at intervals of ten days until the crop occupied the ground, seeding late in March, say PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES ^49 the 28th. The first cutting of nearly 8 tons of green forage per acre was made nine weeks later. Thereafter four additional cuttings were made that season, resulting in a total yield of 21 tons of green forage per acre. This plot remained in good profit, all told, for five years. An adjoining plot seeded broadcast, grew into a \veed crop the first year, but during four succeeding years w^as in every respect the equal of its neighbor, the drilled plot. Twenty similar experiments made during that year in as many other sections of the state failed utterly. The dates of seeding were in every instance subsequent to March 28, but followed each other as rapidly as men could travel from point to point, drilling the seed on w^ell and previ- ously prepared soil. Two years later nine similar failures resulted from spring seedmgs. Late summer is now the time most frequently selected for alfalfa secdings, but success is by no means invariably attained even then. Liming has been of service in one five-acre test con- ducted in Kent county, by W. H. Dickson in co-operatioii with this station. The third trial withm four consecutive years appears at present to be a complete success. The first seeding gave a satisfactory stand, but the plants died late in the following spring. The ground was limed that summer, after thorough preparation of the seedbed. Nitro-cultures from federal sources were used upon por- tions of the seed, and 1000 pounds of soil per acre from a successful alfalfa plantation were applied to the other areas. This second seeding also failed. The five-acre plot was then plowed, wheat was drilled and a fair crop resulted. The wheat was harvested, lime was again used after the seedbed had been prepared, and alfalfa seed sown 250 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA as usual. The crop this year has exceeded anticipations. The check strip, to which no hme whatever has been ap phed, but upon which nitro-cultures were used, carries no crop. It will be disked after the third cutting of alfalfa this year, well limed and again seeded. GEORGIA Prof. R. J. Redding, Director Georgia experiment station. — This station has successfully cultivated alfalfa for 12 years, and we have never found it necessary to inoculate when we have sown the seed on rich, well pre- pared land. The plants at once became supplied with nitrogen tubercles and grew as luxuriantly as might be expected from the quality of the land. Our practice is to fertilize annually in January or February by sowing from 800 to 1000 pounds of acid phosphate and one-fourth as much muriate of potash per acre. We run a cutaway harrow over the alfalfa two or three times in different directions. We then use a smoothing harrow and finally a heavy roller. This puts the land in good shape for the mowing machine and at the same time destroys weeds that come up during the fall and early winter. I believe that it is not desirable to continue land in alfalfa more than six or eight years, because of the impossibility of preventing infestation of weeds to such extent as to very greatly diminish the yield of alfalfa. We have a plot growing, that was sown about April 10, which seems to be as favorable a time as any, provided there shall be one or two good rains to give the young plants a start. The main factors in success are: First, a deep, well-prepared and well-drained soil, made very rich; and second, good seed, carefully sown and repeated mowings at the proper time. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 25 1 IDAHO H. W. Kiefer, Bingham county. — I have grown alfalfa in Idaho, under irrigation, for 12 years. Have 40 acres on second bottom, heavy clay soil for 12 feet. This sub- soil pulverizes by the action of the air, and will produce a good crop of small grain. Water is reached at loo feet. The 12 feet of clay is dry; the gravel and sand below are more or less moist till water is reached. Land having produced two successive crops of small grain is preferred for alfalfa. Sow 20 pounds, in the spring, and cover lightly with harrow, brush, or drag, or roll. The plants should be vigorous enough to choke out weeds. Amount of hay obtained the first year is governed by conditions and treatment. When sudden freezing and thawing occur, it is liable to winterkill. The frequency of our irrigation is governed by the rainfall, but is usually done when the ground is dry, without regard to stage of growth, allowing the water to run until the soil is wet the depth of a spade; usually average two irrigations to each cutting. Our supply of water comes from Snake river and tributaries, which furnish sufficient for the Snake river valley. Have noticed no difference in amount of w^ater required during first or later years, except as affected by the amount of rainfall. We get three cut- tings, averaging about five tons for the season, cutting for hay when in bloom, and for seed when seed is matured, which generally requires the entire season to mature in this locality. The seed crop should be handled as little as possible, to avoid loss of seed. Alfalfa should cure at least two days, and, if dry, will not mold in stack. The cost of alfalfa hay, if irrigated, is about $2 per ton. 252 tHE BOOK OF ALFALFA Cost of baling, $1.75 per ion, ni bales weighing 75 to 100 pounds, the keeping being governed more by the solidity than size of bale. During the past six years, hay has averaged about $4 per ton, in the stack, and seed about 8 cents per pound. Alfalfa makes satisfactory pasturage for sheep and horses. Cattle are liable to bloat, but, if taken in time, may be relieved with a gag, and by exer- cise which will cause the gases to escape ; the knife is used as a last resort. The straw from which seed has been threshed has about the same value as green oat straw. The various soils here appear equally favorable to longev- ity Usually the third year gives about the best yield. If not damaged by freezing, it will not need reseeding for 10 or 15 years. We have no trouble in ridding land of alfalfa. We cut a hay crop, and plow under, for spring wheat, with good results. Our best alfalfa land is clay, which requires moisture, artificial or natural. Our best yields have been six tons per acre for the season. The feeding qualities of the hay have been well established. James Otterson, Logan county. — Have had 12 years' experience growing alfalfa on sagebrush land, that will grow nothing but sagebrush witliout irrigation. It is fine, sandy loam, extending down 6 to 10 feet, where lava is encountered, which is from i to 100 feet deep. The soil is dry until water is struck, which is at a depth of from 100 to 200 feet. There is no water in the soil. When preparing for alfalfa, we plow well, level the ground, and sow 15 to 20 pounds of seed per acre, and harrow lightly, or brush it in. Sow as early as the ground can be worked — about March i. The first crop, if prop- erly handled, will yield from three to five tons per acre ; PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 253 it will have more or less sunflowers, which are a protec- tion while the plant is getting a start. It seldom winter- kills. We irrigate by flooding the ground twice each sea- son from a stream. After the first year, three cuttings are had; 2^ tons per acre the first; i]^ to 2 the second; and one ton per acre the third. Cut for hay as soon as well blossomed. It grows too rank here for seed. Hay should cure in from one to two days, and, if properly cured, stack as other hay. Alfalfa costs, in stack, $3 per ton. The size of bales is immaterial, except in fitting cars. Prices for hay have ranged from $5 to $10 per ton; for seed, from 7 to 15 cents per pound. It is the best hay in use for farm animals. Horses will thrive on it without grain, if properly handled. For swine pasture it is far ahead of clover. It is satisfactory for sheep. In some localities it will cause cattle to bloat ; as a preventive, feed well with dry hay before turning them on the pasture. Deep soil is the best for the long life of the plant. The second year it is at its best, and, if properly handled, and does not winterkill, will last for all time. It is much bet- ter than Red clover for green manure. ILLINOIS Prof. C. G. Hopkins, Agronomist Illinois experiment station. — Alfalfa is being introduced into Illinois to a considerable extent. Very careful and somewhat exten- sive investigations conducted by the experiment station, beginning in 1901, have positively established the fact that alfalfa can be grown in this state on several of our most abundant types of soil. As a rule, it is markedly advan- tageous to thoroughly inoculate the soil with alfalfa bac- 254 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA teria, preferably by taking infected soil iiCm a well-estab- lished alfalfa field, where root tubercles are found in abundance or from land where Sweet clover (melilotus), has been growing successfully for several years. Infected Sweet clover soil serves just as well as infected alfalfa soil for the inoculation of alfalfa fields. As a rule, the best results are secured from summer seeding. The land should be thoroughly prepared and made as free from weeds and foul grass as possible and then seeded between June 15 and August 15, if the conditions are favorable. Under exceptional conditions good results are obtained from earlier and later seeding. Three cuttings are usually obtained in the northern part of the state and four in the southern part. The average yield is five or six tons per acre. A liberal use of farm manure in getting the alfalfa started is advantageous and on some soils the application of lime is necessary in order to correct the acidity of the soil. As a rule, the yield is increased by adding to the soil some form of phosphorous. A yield of 8^ tons of thoroughly air-dry hay has been obtained where a special effort has been made to make the conditions favorable. INDIANA C. M. Ginther, Wayne county writes in Orange Jiidd Farmer, July 8, 1905 : — *'Up to last year there had not been half a dozen attempts to grow alfalfa in Wayne county, not because there was no desire on the part of the farmers to raise the crop, but because the farmers knew absolutely nothing about the methods to pursue in order to get a fair stand. Last year, however, a number of agriculturists in the county determined to try the crop. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 2^^ A mile west of Richmond lies the farm of J. H. Hollings- worth, a well-known farmer, whose practical ideas about farming have given him a local reputation. He is an advocate of intensive farming and cultivates his crops in the most thorough manner. He keeps a herd of dairy cattle and in his search for more economical food than mill stuffs and clover hay, he decided to try alfalfa and feed it with a ration of corn meal. He had a tract of five acres. This land was a clay loam with a good mixture of sand. It was not underdrained, and Mr. Hollingsworth believes the result would have been better had there been a thorough system of underdrainage. The soil is what is known here as sugar tree land. About May i of last year, the tract was plowed moderately and then rolled. During the previous winter a heavy top-dressing of barn- yard manure had been applied to two acres for the pur- pose of comparison. One week later the roller was run over it again. After this the ground was thoroughly torn up with a two-horse cultivator. This was for the purpose of killing the weeds, which had been given time to take a start. After the cultivator had thoroughly torn up the ground, the field was harrowed twice both ways. It was then rolled, and pronounced in first-class condition. The weeds had succumbed to these repeated attacks and but very few appeared in the crop later. This thorough prep- aration of the ground is absolutely necessary for the suc- cessful starting of alfalfa. It is a fastidious plant, re- quiring the most favorable surroundings in its early life, but gradually grows quite robust and strong. Its early wrecks seem to be the critical time in its life, and if it can 256 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA once be started well its thrifty nature will assert itself and it will grow with amazing rapidity. On June 1 1 the seed was planted. It was sown broadcast and harrowed in lightly. One hundred pounds pure alfalfa seed were sown, which was 20 pounds to the acre. The experience of many others is that 15 pounds per acre is better. The seed was first treated with bacteria, procured from the department of agriculture at Washington, and when the seeds were thoroughly dry, they were planted. Exactly five weeks after the seed was planted, the crop was i foot high and covered the ground everywhere. On that day it was clipped first and later given two more clippings during the season. The effect of the clipping was to cause the crop to become more stalky, and spread out more over the ground. None of the crop was removed from the soil last year, the three clippings being allowed to remain about the roots as a mulch. This was regarded as highly important and its effect was noticeable in the per- fect manner in which the crop passed through the win- ter. Early this spring it started to grow and on April 18 the plants averaged 12 inches high all over the tract. Mr. Hollingsworth is a firm believer in the efficacy of the bacterial treatment of the seed before planting. He at- tributes the wonderful growth of this crop to the effect of the organisms produced by inoculation. It is interesting to note the effect of the top-dressing which was applied to two acres of the tract. The crop on that part of the ground is larger and more luxuriant than the part that received no dressing. The crop all over the tract appears vigorous and healthy, but the two acres show a decided improvement and superiority." Cutting Alfalfa in Southern California Bailing Alfalfa in Southern Oklahoma A 400-ton Rick of Alfalfa in Malheur County, southeastern Oregon. Dimensions, 400x30x26 feet A Cable Derrick, Provided with a Grapple Fork The cable is supported by poles at the ends, and these in turn by guy ropes PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 257 Farmers Guide says: — With alfalfa more generally grown throughout Indiana we are hearing less complaint regarding hay crop failures. In fact, some farmers who have taken our advice and tried the crop are now saying that they are having all they can do to take care of their crops of hay. Think of cutting four or even three crops of good hay from the same area each season. Isn't it worth being busy and not going fishing when a farmer can do that? It means an enormous saving in high- priced land when ten acres will produce as much hay as thirty or more formerly did, and hay better in quality also. And then, think of keeping a field in meadow thirty, forty, or more years and having it growing better each year. There is not much necessity for crop rotation under those conditions, is there? especially when every season means three or four crops of good hay. But that is the way with alfalfa and the more farmers get of it the more they usually want. We are glad so many Indiana farmers are getting busy with this crop, and there is i;o question of its keeping them busy if they will only give it a trial. IOWA. Prof M. L. Bowman, Department Farm Crops, Iowa experiment station. — We are receiving very good results from the alfalfa which is being grown at this station, mak- ing from three to four cuttings each season with the yield ranging from 4 to 7 tons to the acre. From one field, seeded in August, 1905, the first cutting was taken June II, 1906, and yielded 2.17 tons per acre. Two other cut- tings were made. We believe alfalfa is sure to become 258 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA one of Iowa's great crops as desirable results are being obtained in many parts of the state where land is prop- erly seeded. We take great pains to see that the ground is in good physical condition and that the seed is sown in late summer, some time between August 5 and 15, so that the young plants will make sufficient growth to with- stand the winter. If the seeding takes place in the fall, the alfalfa plants will not make sufficient growth to with- stand the winter. Alfalfa should not be pastured the first season. The growth from seeding time until winter sets in should be 6 to 8 inches and should be left on the ground for winter protection. A nurse crop should not be used. Alfalfa will not do well on low, wet ground, but must have land that is well drained. In the northern parts of the state it may be sown in the spring, and in this case desirable results have been secured by using a nurse crop. If oats are used at all, they should be an early variety. Wheat or barley is much better. They are not so likely to lodge. If the nurse crop is heavy, a poor stand of alfalfa is almost sure to follow. Not more than one-half the usual amount of grain should be sown to the acre. Better results may be expected if no nurse crop is used. In this case, it will be necessary for the weeds to be mowed down two or three times during the summer, so that the alfalfa will not be choked out. It is better to sow in the spring than late in the fall. Late summer seeding is the best. The following year it will be freer from weeds 'and have a better stand than that which was sown the spring before. Cornstalk ground which was well ma- nured the year before for corn is generally used for spring seeding. The stalks should first be removed. The PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 259 field may then be thoroughly disked and harrowed. The seed should be sown about the middle of April. KANSAS. C. D. Perry, Clark county. — In 1887, I sowed 200 acres of alfalfa, and now have 270 acres. This is nearly all on second bottom land, with black, sandy loam, black sand, and gumbo. The land is largely "made" land, about 6 to 12 feet of good soil, with gumbo only on top for 12 or 14 inches. On the heavy land the dry soil begins at the top, and, at the breaking of the sod, extended down eight or nine feet. Water is found at a depth of 12 to 21 feet. We irrigate most of our crop from the Cimar- ron river. The first time the land is watered it takes from two to five times as much water as is required later, and now we find the best results are obtained by watering about 10 days before cutting, using three or four inches of water. There is no damage by frost, except on low, wet land. Without irrigation, I should double plow the ground before seeding, having one plow follow the other in the same furrow, and going as deep as possible. Seed by drilling one-half to one inch deep, 10 pounds to the acre for seed, 20 pounds for hay, and 30 pounds for pas- ture, usually about March 15 here. W^e mow the weeds the first year before they seed, leaving them on the ground. After this, there will be a yield of three-fourths to two tons of hay, or one to six bushels of seed to the acre, depending on the season. In two or three years the plant is at its best, and does not seem to need reseeding after that. We have from three to five crops a year 26o THE BOOK OF ALFALFA depending on promptness in watering and cutting. Any later cutting is better than the first for seed, and, before cutting, two-thirds of the seed pods should be black. We mow, then rake and cock at once, stacking as soon as well cured. Hay should be cut when it is coming into bloom. To make good hay, let it lie for half a day (if dry weather), then rake and cock, and let cure thor- oughly. We stack in long ricks, and it keeps well. The alfalfa land is valued at $50 an acre, and the four irriga- tions cost 25 cents each; the estimated cost of the alfalfa in the stack is $2.15 a ton. An average yield of seed is three bushels to the acre, and the cost of threshing and cleaning it is 80 cents a bushel. Hay has sold for $5 a ton, and seed for 6, 8 and 10 cents a pound. The threshed hay is not so good as that cut earlier, but cattle eat it all clean. The pasture is excellent for horses, hogs, and cattle. H the alfalfa is wet, it is liable to cause bloating with sheep; for cattle, there is not much danger, except for the first few days they are turned on. H the animal is seen in time, it may be relieved by driving around, but if too bad to be helped in that way, it needs the trocar. I have had 50 hogs on six acres of pasture this summer, and have 50 pigs, 3 to 12 weeks old; used two bushels of ground wheat and barley each day, and think I could have had as many more hogs on the pasture. The sod is very hard to plow, but it can be killed. On a piece of hog pasture plowed under, I raised 70 bushels of barley to the acre. My alfalfa seems to do the best on black, sandy land and on gumbo, with sand or open subsoil below. /. R. Blacksherc, Chase county. — I began with alfalfa in 1875, by sowing i>4 bushels of seed bought in San PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 26l Francisco, at the rate of $21 per bushel. As the germi- nation was defective, or the seed grown so far away was not adapted to our soil or climatic conditions, a good stand was not at first obtained, but I now have 700 acres on Cottonwood river bottom land, having a clay sub- soil underlaid by a layer of sand 20 feet below, and with a good portion of gumbo, where the best alfalfa grows. The soil is not especially moist until water, 20 to 30 feet below, is reached. My best results have been obtained on corn land, cutting across the rows with a disk harrow, leveling with a plank drag, and sowing, after danger of freezing is past, 20 pounds of seed per acre with a disk having seeder attachment, being sure to have all the seed covered. I cut the weeds off with a mower, and leave them on the ground. After the first year my average product annually for 10 or 12 years has been about five tons per acre. That permitted to ripen seed yields three to five bushels per acre. I do not irrigate. The plant will thrive on upland having a clay subsoil without a stratum of hardpan. Grazed closely late in the fall, it is liable to die out in a dry winter. Benj. Brown, Osborne county. — I have had four years' experience with alfalfa growing in this country, and have also grown it in England, without any irrigation, and now have 45 acres. The land is bottom rising to second bottom, with vegetable loam and some gumbo in the upper portion, and loam subsoil, similar to surface, but somewhat paler, for 15 feet down. Well water is found by digging 11 to 22 feet through the soil, which is usually moist except in dry weather, when the upper two or three feet are not. It has been found best to plow six 262 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA inches deep, in August or September ; to roll or level with a heavy float about April 15, then harrow, and broadcast 25 pounds (or drill 20 pounds) of seed to the acre. I broadcast all of mine, and harrow and roll or level. The best time for sowing here is April 14 to 30, as it almost invariably rains here about April 20, and frosts have never hurt my crop, nor does it winterkill. Mow first when the weeds are six to nine inches high, and, if worth hauling, stack; if not, let lie; generally mow again about July 4 to 20, and stack; there may be one- fourth to one- half ton of hay per acre. The second season we cut three times, unless we ripen seed, and obtain from one- fourth to one ton each cutting; after this it grows about a foot high by October. For hay, mow as soon as about half full of flowers, rake the same morning, and haul in one or two days, as the leaves fall if dry. It does not heat nor mold here if the sap is half out and the straw long; I use the ''Acme" hay har- vester, making stacks with rounded ends, nine steps long by five wide, and top out with straw or hay, taking care to keep the middle well filled. The total cost of hay in stack is about $1.50 per ton, the land being valued at $15 per acre, or $60 with a good stand of alfalfa. The hay has sold for $4 to $6 per ton during the past four years. The best crop for seed depends on the weather; sometimes the first flowers set best, and again the later ones do better; on my bottom land the plant grows too large for seed, unless in a dry time. If seed is ripe, cut only while damp or in the early morning, rake into rows immediately or early the next morning, haul with a "Monarch" rake, and use a stacker. Last year and year PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 263 before I obtained four bushels of seed to the acre, and it cost me 60 cents per bushel for cleaning. Used ordinary- threshing outtit, and set hind end of thresher 10 inches lower than front. The seed has sold here during four years for $5 to $8 per bushel. Horses and sheep should not be pastured on the alfalfa, as it pays to mow and haul it to them, either green or dry. It makes good pasturage for cattle, but they must not be turned on when the ground is frozen, nor when they are hungry, as it is necessary to start them gradually to avoid bloating. Mine never have bloated, and I feed milch cows in the early spring and on the fourth crop in the fall. Alfalfa ripened and threshed has little value, as it breaks up into dust and chaff. My stand improved every year; was about at its best the sixth year, and continues about the same for an indefinite time. If it gets a fair start, and is cut three times, a good stand can be kept; but if it is pastured, and the weeds are not eaten, it is apt to thin itself. A neigh- bor plowed under alfalfa for green manure, but the next year it grew up as thick and strong as if not plowed. We do not need manure here. I have seen several pieces of fairly good alfalfa on high prairie, with some gumbo in the soil, but it grows best where the subsoil is fairly open. Upland is generally best for seed, as the plants should grow only one to two feet high, and mine on the bottom grows 2 to 3^ after the second year. I think there is no other crop here to compare with alfalfa. My third year's crop cleared me over $20 per acre. I have known of nine bushels of seed on one acre, and have heard of 15 in this county. My bottom lands will grow three good crops of hay almost without rain, and kill out all the weeds. 264 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA IvENTUCKY Prof. H. Garman, Botanist Kentucky experiment sta- tion,— We have grown alfalfa on the experiment farm for a good many years and have been impressed with its many good qualities, although we have not found it as well adapted to our soil and climate as it appears to be in the western states. In our small experimental plots, on good soil, it has recently done remarkably well. This is partly the result of understanding it better than for- merly, and partly due to the care which these plots re- ceive. Last year we harvested, from some of them, hay at the rate of from 6.32 to 10.03 tons per acre. The same plots are yielding very well this season, but I think will not produce quite as much hay as last year, though they look very well at present. Farmers in this state are becoming interested in alfalfa, stimulated by the reports made to them at farmers' institutes, and urged by failure to grow Red clover successfully in some parts of the state. But thus far they have not met with uniform success. Part of this is due to a lack of acquaintance with the plant and part may be attributed to our climate. A few men have been growing alfalfa successfully for eight or 10 years, and I can see no reason why many others should not succeed with it. The chief difficulty appears to come in getting a start. Alfalfa, thoroughly started, holds its own better than Red clover and yields much more forage. The value of the forage is recog- nized by everybody, and I expect to see in the course of the next quarter of a century a much larger acreage sown in Kentucky. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 26: LOUISIANA. Prof. W. R. Dodson, Director Louisiana experiment station. — Alfalfa has been grown by the Louisiana sta- tions since 1887. At the time the stations were estab- lished there was little or no alfalfa grown in the state. From the very first experiments conducted by Dr. W. C. Stubbs, it was apparent that the plant was well suited to the alluvial lands of the Mississippi and Red rivers. Dr. Stubbs never lost an opportunity to advocate its cul- ture, and the great progress made in securing its exten- sive cultivation is largely due to his efforts. Alfalfa is now extensively grown in the Red river bottoms, and a very large percentage of the sugar planters grow it for soiling and for hay for the plantation mules. We get from four to seven cuttings per year. The average is about I J'2 tons for the first three cuttings, but less for the last cuttings. The station one year secured a harvest of 12 tons of cured hay per acre; six tons in a season is a good yield. Were it not that one or more of these cut- tings will fall due during a rainy season, when it is diffi- cult to cure hay, we would go into the business very extensively in this state. As to the quality of the hay or forage, there is no question about its place at the head of the list of desirable forage crops. The sugar planters find it especially desirable to mix with their cheap mo- lasses, as the former is rich in protein and the latter rich in carbohydrates. In the southern portion of the state best results are secured by planting in the fall. In the northern portion good results are secured from early spring planting. We use from 25 to 30 pounds of seed to the acre. Some planters use more than this. Land 266 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA that is least suited for growing corn in Louisiana, be- cause of its stiffness, is the very best land for alfalfa. Where the crop has once been used and the local supply runs short, it is shipped in from Colorado to supply the demand. It is selling now for $15 a ton. No better testimonial need be given of the people's estimate of its value. MASSACHUSETTS. Prof. William P. Brooks, Director Hatch experiment station. — Our experiments with alfalfa have been con- tinued both upon our own grounds and those of a few selected farms in different parts of the state. We are bringing to bear upon these experiments information in regard to successful methods from every possible source. We find in all cases a distinct benefit from a heavy initial application of lime. We have used from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds per acre. We are enriching soils already natur- ally good by heavy applications both of manures and fer- tilizers, using materials which experience has proved best. We are also giving the soil a most thorough preparatory tillage. It has usually been fall-plowed, and in addition it is plowed in the spring, and repeatedly harrowed to destroy weeds which start in the early part of the season. We have tried inoculating the soil, both with earth ob- tained from a field in New York, where alfalfa is suc- cessfully grown and with the cultures sent out by the department of agriculture and prepared by private firms. We have not attained such degree of success as justifies us in recommending the crop. We have occasionally got a fair stand of alfalfa, but in all cases the winters prove PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 267 more or less injurious. In the course of a few years the alfalfa is mostly crowded out by grasses and clovers. The alfalfa almost every year suffers from leaf spot, which tends to cut down the yield. We have found a very dis- tinct benefit from the inoculation with earth from the New York alfalfa field. We have not found an equally distinct benefit to follow inoculation with any of the cul- tures; and, although we are not as yet ready to make a final report, it should be here remarked that the most careful experiments on the use of these cultures in steril- ized soils, under conditions calculated to give accurate results, indicate that they have little, if any, value. In our various experiments alfalfa has been tried on a wide variety of soils. We have had a quarter of an acre field upon a coarse-textured soil upon a farm in this neigh- borhood where there is never any standing water within 50 to 60 feet of the surface. Even on this soil the alfalfa, although it did fairly well for a year, has been injured by successive winters, until it is at the present time almost ruined. In this connection I call attention further to the fact that D. S. Bliss of the department of agricul- ture, who has been making special efforts to promote the introduction of alfalfa into New England, and who has traveled extensively for the purpose of studying the re- sults obtained, now speaks very discouragingly as to the outlook in general. In conclusion, while we are not in- clined to discourage experiments with alfalfa, we do wish most emphatically to caution against engaging in these experiments upon an extended scale, for we feel that dis- appointment is almost inevitable. 268 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA MICHIGAN Prof. C. D, Smith, Director Michigan experiment station. — Alfalfa has had and is having a checkered career. Under favorable conditions it makes a good stand. Some fields have produced crops for many years, the ground being occasionally fertilized by manurial salts. The difficulties that environ the crop are : ( i ) The severe winters, w^hich sometimes kill off v^hole fields, leaving scarcely a root alive; this has happened to fields two, three, or four years old. (2) The Blue grass crowds it out badly; (3) the ignorance of the farmers in regard to the requirements of the crop and the consequent im- perfect preparation of the soil in the matter of tillage or fertilization, has made it difficult to introduce it in a broad way. Notwithstanding tliese difficulties and the farther consideration that alfalfa does not easily lend itself to a short rotation, the crop is advancing in the state by leaps and bounds. Hundreds of farmers are experi- menting with it and are learning how to prepare the ground, sow it and care for the crop afterwards. Statis- tics are not at hand to show how many acres of alfalfa there are in the state, nor can definite figures be given as to the growth of interest in the crop and its actual acre- age. When proper strains have been developed, it seems fair to presume that alfalfa will be one of the staple crops in Michigan. On the station grounds at the agricultural college fields of alfalfa have been continuously maintained from 1897 to 1904. There are fields here sown in 1903 bearing their three crops each year, yielding from 5 to 7 tons of dry hay annually per acre. There has been some difficulty in getting pure and vigorous seed. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 269 AHNXESOTA Prof. W. M. Liggett, Director Minnesota experiment station. — Our experience with alfalfa has extended over 12 or 15 years. In the early days of this station, it was not very successfully grown. During the past eight or ten years, however, the changes in soil due to manures and cultivation and the discovery of several varieties of alfalfa which appear to be hardy, have made it possible to grow it successfully in nearly every part of the state. For the past five years we have cut three crops of alfalfa hay, yielding from 4 to 5^ tons per acre each year. With the land properly prepared and some attention given to seed- ing at the right time, there is no difficulty in growing it on the state farm. Occasionally it will winterkill. We were unfortunate enough to have a heavy, driving rain during March of the present year which froze as it fell and smothered the alfalfa crop. W^e are not discouraged, however, as the clover crop in southeastern Minnesota was killed at the same time and from the same cause. W^e regard alfalfa just as sure as Red clover. It is sometimes a little difficult to get a stand under careless methods of farming. With the land nicely prepared and with a good supply of humus in such condition that the plant food is readily available, strong, vigorous growth and a good stand can be secured during any normal year. We have alfalfa growing at the northwest sub-station at Crookston, and in several localities in the northwestern part of the state, where even clover is not supposed to grow. The outlook at the present time for this crop is very bright. Dairymen, swine raisers and sheep men unite in praising its merits as stock food. 270 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA MISSOURI Prof. M. F. Miller, Agronomist, Missouri experiment station. — Alfalfa is being grown with success on various types of soil, although many soils are not well adapted to its growth. A knowledge of the peculiarities of the plant will ultimately make it possible to extend its culture to most soil types of the state. Liberal manuring is the key to successful culture on upland soils. The manure may be applied before plowing and also as frequent top- dressings. The value of the crop as a feed and its high yield, where favorable conditions are supplied, make it a particularly desirable one to grow, at least in small areas, on farms where mixed f aiming or dairy farming is prac- ticed. While alfalfa makes a most nutritious pasture crop, it does not lend itself well to pasturing unless cer- tain precautions are taken. Where it is grown for hay, difficulty is often experienced in harvesting the first, and sometimes other cuttins^s, on account of wet weather. The silo may be used in such cases. The stiff subsoils of the state are responsible for most failures reported, because it requires some knowledge of the methods of handling the crop to make it succeed under such conditions. Alfalfa is not adapted to our soils, liming, manuring or drainage being necessary to prepare such for the crop. If sown on upland soils that have never grown alfalfa or Sweet clover, it is benefited by inoculation. On bottom lands or lands that are very fertile, inoculation has little or no effect. The surest and often the simplest means of inocu- lation is by means of inoculated soil. The cultures pre- pared for seed inoculation have in many cases given ex- cellent results, but they are still in the experimental stage PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 'Z'Jl and some skill is required to handle them properly. The best preparation of the seedbed is that which allows of an early plowing and the use of a harrow every time a crust forms or weeds start before time to sow the seed. The seedbed should be much like that for wheat — loose above but firm below. The best time to sow in this state is be- tween the middle of August and the middle of September, the last week in August usually giving best results. The amount of seed to sow is between 15 and 20 pounds, de- pending upon the quality and the character of the soil. It is best sown without a nurse crop. It must be clipped frequently the first and sometimes the second season, es- pecially on soils to which it is not well adapted. It should usually be cut when the lower leaves begin to turn yellow. MONTANA Alfred Rasicot, Deer Lodge county. — Alfalfa is the most valuable crop that is raised in Idaho or Utah for hay, growing on any kind of land but that which is low and wet, yielding five to seven tons of hay to the acre, and providing excellent feed for all kinds of farm ani- mals. For about 20 years I have grown from 20 to 50 acres on second bottom and upland of heavy clay soil, with gravel below and water at a depth varying from 16 to 100 feet on different localities. We irrigate from streams, flooding the land and turning the water off as soon as the land has been all covered, applying once for the first cutting and twice for each succeeding cutting, whenever the ground is dry. The first year on new land requires fully one-third more water than is needed after- ward. Before seeding, the ground should be mellow, 272 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA then harrowed with the back part of the harrow or brushed, and seeded with 15 to 20 pounds to the acre, between the first and middle of April. The plant will usually run out the weeds, and on that account no special treatment is needed. The first season will produce a small crop of hay, but no good seed. Unless water is allowed to freeze on the land, alfalfa does not winterkill here, and at two or three years of age it is at its best, continu- ing vigorous for 10, 20 or 30 years without seeding. The first cutting of the season yields about 2^/^ to 3 tons to the acre, the second about 2 to 2^<, and the third i to i)^ tons. The hay is cut when the plant has been in bloom 8 or 10 days, allowed to lie for 24 to 36 hours, and treated as Red clover is. The second crop is always the best for seed here. The cost in the stack, on $25 land, irrigation costing 50 to 75 cents an acre, is $2 a ton. To put this into 100-pound bales costs $2.50 a ton. On the ground it sells for $3 to $5 a ton, while the seed brings $3, $4 and $5 a bushel. An ordinary yield of seed is 300 pounds to the acre, and this is threshed with the same machine used for grain, at a cost of about one- fourth of the seed. The straw is worth about one-fourth as much as the hay. We consider alfalfa hay, for cattle, sheep, and hogs, far superior to clover, but for horses timothy is best. It will keep steers and sheep fat all win- ter, providing they are under shelter, and is excellent for milch cows. The pasture for swine and cattle is far bet- ter than clover, and for work horses and sheep it is good, but not the best for horses that are driven fast. Cattle will bloat about as they do on Red clover when turned onto it after rain, dew, or frost. To rid land of a stand PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 273 of alfalfa is very difficult, requiring four stout horses with a very sharp plow to turn it over, but as a green manure it has about the same effect as Red clover, pro- ducing two or three extra crops afterwards. NEBRASKA Olmstead & Olmstead, Furnas county. — Alfalfa, while excellent for all other stock, is preeminently the feed for hogs. Its early appearance, its wonderfully rapid growth, its nutritious properties, its perennial nature (keeping green until about December), its resistance to drouth, its wonderful fecundity, and, lastly, its adaptability as a dry feed, make it, in our opinion, the most profitable crop that can be grown. Tesi acres of alfalfa will pasture 150 head of hogs, and give them abundance. From the 15th of March, or at most not later than the 15th of April, hogs and cattle can be turned on pasture, and kept there until snow flies. On first bottoms, six tons per acre can be depended upon as a fair, average yield, while many fields this year have made as high as eight. On divide, or high land, where it has been tested for three years, it averages about two to four tons per acre, but this land gives the best returns for seed, not growing too rank. Since we have been investigating and gathering information on this subject, we have had reported to us a yield as high as eight bushels of seed per acre, and quite a number as high as nine, and some eleven. Six bushels an acre on a good stand is an average yield, while some will fall below that. The seed has never sold here below $4 per bushel. Last year and this, all seed grown in this part of the country sold readily at 274 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA* $5 per bushel, and for the next five years will probably not go lower than $3. One crop of seed and two of hay are the average on low land, and one crop less of hay on high land. The threshed hay is nearly as good for feed as the unthreshed. There is no waste in feeding this hay, and horses are especially fond of the coarse stems. It stands our winters remarkably well, so far, coming through in excellent condition. There is no stock but eats alfalfa hay as well or better than clover or timothy. Young colts and calves will winter in fine condition on this hay, with little or no grain. If the last cutting is allowed to stand, with a growth from six to eight inches, horses and cattle will graze on it through the winter, the same as on Red clover, doing equally as well. Now, as to the other side. Will this clover grow in all latitudes and longitudes as well as Red clover? We think it doubtful. It requires a dry, porous soil, in which there is no hardpan nor too much clay, and it does not like too much water. It does well where the soil is somewhat sandy, its roots penetrating to a depth of from 15 to 25 feet, thus drawing its nutrition from various strata of soil. What else against it ? If cattle are turned on after a rain, when it is wet, or dew is on, they often bloat and die; but if turned on in the spring, and kept on continu- ously, have little danger of gorging themselves or bloat- ing. No other stock is adversely affected by it. This is all that can be honestly said against alfalfa, and this is obviated by a little care by the farmer, while the many good things said about it must certainly recommend it to the intelligent husbandman. Thus we can enumerate: First, its certainty as a crop ; second, its enormous yield ; PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 275 third, its excellent pasturage qualities; fourth, its nutri- tious qualities, being equally good green or dry; fifth, its yield and price of seed, which is threshed with an ordinary grain separator; sixth, its tremendously rapid growth during the summer season. There are many more attributes that can be credited to alfalfa. W. 0. Thompson, Lincoln county. — I have had 20 years' experience with alfalfa, on second bottom and upland. The upland has a clay subsoil; the second bot- tom soil is three feet deep, underlaid with a bed of sand and gravel. Abundant water is found from 8 to 23 feet from the surface. If dry soil is found, it is the first three feet below the surface. Land should be tilled several years before seeding, in order to perfectly subdue the sod. Use about 16 pounds of seed per acre, and pre- pare the ground the same as for wheat, sowing in the spring. The first crop will be nearly all weeds ; cut and haul these off the ground. The second crop will produce about one ton of hay per acre. Alfalfa is liable to win- terkill if the winter is warm and dry. I irrigate from a stream two or three times during the season, with suffi- cient water to flood all the ground. The first year the ground is soft and porous, and twice the water is required as in the following years. From three to four crops are raised during the season, yielding from ij4 to 2 tons each cutting, or from five to six tons per acre in one sea- son. Cut when in bloom for hay, and let the seed ripen before cutting for seed, using either the first or second crop for this seed. When cutting for seed, it should be pitched out of the way of the mower after each round; then let it dry before stacking, but not enough for the 2/6 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA leaves to fail off when handled. Stack in the ordinary way, but be sure the hay is thoroughly dry in the shock before stacking. It is more liable to get moldy in the barn than in the stack. About $2 per ton will cover all expenses of raising, on land worth $50 per acre. The expense of baling is about $1.50 per ton, 100-pound bales being preferred. It should not be baled until perfectly dry in the stack. About six bushels per acre is the aver- age yield of seed, and it costs about 75 cents per bushel to thresh and clean. A clover huller is the most satis- factory for threshing alfalfa. The hay has sold here at $3 to $10 per ton, averaging $6. The seed has brought from $3 to $10 per bushel averaging $5. One acre of alfalfa will raise 35 hogs, with the aid of a little grain. Horses thrive on it, but it is tmsafe for sheep and cattle. Animals which chew the cud will bloat if pastured on alfalfa. The only way to prevent it is to keep them from the pasture. The best way to cure it is to insert a tube into the paunch, to allow the gas to escape. As to the longevity of the plant, I call to mind a patch sown in 1873, on upland, and it is still growing. Alfalfa attains its best growth in about two years. I do not think it can be profitably raised on high, arid ground, without irriga- tion. Hogs can be wintered on alfalfa hay and a very little grain, and cattle can be fattened for the home mar- ket, but it produces softer flesh, and they could not be shipped a great distance in the best condition. Richard Stolley, Hall county. — In reading the farm papers I see many articles about seeding alfalfa, but have failed to see anything in the line of advice regarding a sure way to kill it, if it has to be done. We have had PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 2/7 alfalfa on our place as long as I can remember — nearly thirty years. At first it was a small piece, just for exper- iment's sake. Finally we sowed about nine acres on good soil and had it well manured before sowing. The result was immense crops, as high as four cuttings ; and, really, the worst feature was to harvest the crop so often, since it came just as regularly as clock-work. It actually stood in the way of alfalfa, for I asked one of our neighbors, who had very little hay, why he did not sow alfalfa, and all he could answer was : ''Well, I have to harvest it too often and I haven't the time to do it." We did not sow more of it until we got more improved methods of handling it, and we have had as high as fifty to sixty acres on a i6o-acre farm here at home. Some fields run out in about ten years. Our plan is to then plow it up. The first thing you learn is to have a very sharp plow, and it must have a strong cutter bolted to the share, being long enough to reach well through the sod. Then if you have three good horses you are fixed out. A riding plow that we tried w^as thrown out too easily or pulled too hard. Others had the same experience, and the old reliable fourteen or sixteen-inch walking plow fills the bill best. We plowed some of it quite early in the spring and after harvesting the oats we had a won- derful stand on the field in the fall. All the inconven- ience the clover had was to take a little time to start work at the crown and start sprout at the other end; that is the root end. I do not know of any other plant that is not a weed that has this peculiarity. Planting corn on alfalfa sod cannot work well, because the roots are so tough that no 2yS THE BOOK OF ALFALFA cultivator will be able to cut them, and since burning does not make any difference, it only has a tendency to start roots and sprouts at both ends at the same time. This is, of course, only possible In a wet year. Now, we tried late plowing- in the spring; that is, let the clover get up to about six or eight inches. We had a chain on the plow and disked and harrowed it well, and to kill it sure, put in millet to smother it. We intended to raise seed from the millet, but the crop got too heavy and we cut it for hay. After putting it up I saw very little alfalfa signs and went home contented that all was dead. Some nice rains came on and soon I noticed from our house, since I did not go to that corner of the farm in between, that all of it was green again, and sure enough, there was a comparatively good stand and the sprouts showed quite a bit of vigor. This surprised me. I had no time to plow right away and having a large harvest of bottom hay, I did not go to the field for three weeks, and when I saw it again it was just about ready to cut. I actually did cut and harvest it and it was well worth the time it took us to do the work. The next plowing and disking, of course, thinned it out, and espe- cially as dry weather came just right to assist in killing it. All this made it clear to my mind that we did not find the right time to plow alfalfa, so the next time I tried it still later; in fact, it was almost in bloom, and, being a wet year, there was little difference in the result. This year I waited the second time for the alfalfa to come up a foot high before plowing it back and drilled in sweet corn, and now T can hardly see any difference on parrs of the field. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 279 NEW HAMPSHIRE Prof. Frederick W. Taylor, Agriculturist New Hamp- shire experiment station. — We have tried to secure a stand of alfalfa for four consecutive seasons, but so far our efforts have been unsuccessful. Various types of soil, from a heavy boulder clay to a light sandy loam, have been tried, and, contrary to our expectations, the most promising crop was on the heavy clay soil. Our chief difficulty has been in having the alfalfa keep ahead of the weeds and in getting a uniform catch that would with- stand our winters. From one-fourth to one-half of the plants have usually wintered over in good condition and made a vigorous growth the next season, but there has not been enough of them to say that we have made a success with alfalfa. We have largely eliminated the seed question by plowing the ground early and keeping it har- rowed until about the middle of July, when it is sown. Our experience seems to indicate that an application of lime is beneficial, if not absolutely necessary, in this sec- tion and we have accordingly been using it at the rate of a ton to the acre. We have also tried inoculation with the various cultures, but in no case have any benefits been observed. So far as we know, there have been no suc- cessful attempts to grow alfalfa on a medium or large scale in this state, although several farmers in the Con- necticut river valley have reported success on some areas of an acre or less. When we more thoroughly under- stand the plant, and the conditions necessary for its growth, we believe it can be grown upon some of our soils. 28o THE BOOK OF ALFALFA NEW JERSEY Dr. E. B. Voorhees, Director New Jersey experiment station. — The farmers of the state have manifested much interest in the growing of alfalfa, and many experimen- tal plots have been seeded in the past two or three years. In order to obtain accurate information as to the methods employed, and the results obtained, a circular letter was sent out during the past summer to 140 growers. De- tailed replies were obtained from loi growers. Of these there were 57 distributed over 15 counties, which showed the successful establishment of the crop. The soils upon which these successful crops are growing vary widely, both in their physical and chemical character, ranging from a light, sandy loam, with sandy subsoil, to a medium heavy clay, with compact clay subsoil, which indicates clearly that success does not depend so much upon the character of the soil as upon the methods of seeding, fertilization and after-treatment, though the most suc- cessful stands were, as a rule, obtained upon sandy soils, overlying a reasonably open subsoil. Twenty-seven growers had a more or less satisfactory experience, while 17 were absolute failures. A study of the reports of failures shows that in most instances they were due to lack of observation of the methods recommended for the seeding and care of the crop, which experience at the station showed to be essential for success. In most cases the land was imperfectly prepared; in many an insufficient amount of fertilizer or manure was applied. In many cases, too little seed was used ; in others the date of seeding was contrary to all recommendations, or the crop was not clipped often, and thus choked out by weeds. PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 28 1 In many instances, where lime had not been used for many years, none was applied at the time of seeding. In the case of those having more or less success, the recom- mendations were not fully observed or soil conditions were imperfect. D. C. Lewis of Middlesex county, in the summer of 1903 seeded about ij4 acres with alfalfa, observing closely all of the recommendations of the experiment sta- tion in reference to seeding, but did not inoculate the soil. The seed germinated well, and the crop grew nicely dur- ing the fall, but entirely disappeared later. In 1904, the same area, after an oat crop was grown, was seeded again, on August 10. The soil is a clay loam, with a clay subsoil, and in a good state of fertility. The land had been previously in grass and corn. The corn was manured and the alfalfa area well limed previous to seed- ing in 1903. The seed was at the rate of about 25 pounds, and at time of seeding 800 pounds of Mapes' fertilizer and an extra bag of high-grade sulphate of potash were applied, and the field was inoculated with about 300 pounds of soil, taken from the old alfalfa patch at the experiment station. The seed germinated well, and made a rapid and large fall growth and passed the winter successfully. The yield per acre was about three tons of hay for the first cutting. This experiment is strikingly suggestive in showing the importance of soil inoculation, for while inoculation is not apparently essen- tial in all cases, it would seem that where soils have not been heavily manured that this point should be care- fully observed. 282 ^HE BOOK OF ALFALFA J. P. Nelson of Monmouth county has had a very suc- cessful experience in the growth of alfalfa, since he has observed all of the recommendations made as to methods of seeding and after-treatment. The following is a de- scription of his method and the results obtained from a seeding made August 10, 1904. The surface soil is a medium clay loam, underlaid with a gravelly clay subsoil. The crops preceding were grass and corn, and the ma- nures used were barnyard manure and 600 pounds per acre of ground bone. The corn preceding the alfalfa was limed at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre, and 1,400 pounds per acre were applied just previous to the seed- ing of alfalfa. Thirty pounds of seed were used per acre, and lightly harrowed in and the land rolled. The ger- mination and early growth were good, and the first crop was harvested June i, 1905. The yield was two big, two-horse loads of cured hay per acre. E. T. Gill of Camden county has a sandy loam, under- laid by a subsoil varying from sand to clay. He has an area of 24 acres, ranging from two to six years in age. The first seeding of about two acres is still growing profitable crops, though not uniform in stand. The later seedings show an excellent stand and large and profitable crops are annually harvested. Usually four cuts are made each year, which are used both for soiling and for hay, with splendid results. The practice on this farm is to top-dress with manure during the winter at the rate of about eight tons per acre. Mr. Gill's experience leads him to believe that the stand is often injured, par- ticularly during the first year, by allowing the crop to reach too great maturity and then cutting when the plants PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 283 are just beginning to bloom, and leaving a stubble of at least three inches. Mr. Gill did not inoculate the seed or soil at his first seeding, but did follow this practice with recent seedings, and believes it to be a wise precau- tion, especially on soils that have not been previously heavily manured. NEW IMEXICO Thomas J. Clark, Grant county. — I have had 15 years* experience with alfalfa on first and second bottom land with gravel soil, dry to within four feet of water, which is reached at a depth of 15 feet. I irrigate from the Gila river, and my alfalfa, which is 14 years old, is as good to-day as at any time since it was sown. The seed is sown as turnip seed is. I plow the land thoroughly, har- row it over smoothly, then sow the seed in March, and harrow lightly once. Then the water is turned on, and the ground will remain moist until the seeds sprout. After the alfalfa is six inches high, I cut it to make it spread and destroy all the large weeds ; and there may be two cuttings of hay that same season. Water will not injure the plant unless it stands on it in low places. Stag- nant water standing on the plant, or mineral water so near the surface that the roots reach it, will kill the plant, but it is not liable to injury from winter frost. After the first season there are three or four crops, the first being usually chosen for seed and not irrigated. For hay it is cut when in full bloom, and, if the sun is shining, should cure 24 hours if in June, or 20 in July or August, before raking, and then 30 hours in the cock. It must be thoroughly cured before stacking, and then will not 284 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA mold. The most convenient bales weigh 90 to 100 pounds, and the cost of preparing them is $2 a ton. The total cost of hay in the stack is about $3 a ton, and the average yield about three tons to the acre each year. When the burs turn brown the seed is harvested, and when well cured should be stacked in a dry place. An average yield is 500 to 600 pounds to the acre, and it sells for $4 a bushel. The hay makes excellent feed for farm animals, keeping them in good condition the year around without grain. The alfalfa pasturage is better for swine and cattle than clover, and yields more largely ; sheep may be kept on it to advantage also. A good acre will keep five grown hogs in excellent condition, but will not make them fat. If they are taken up in October and fed about 40 days on grain, they will be marketable. Cattle on the pasture sometimes bloat, but I have had 100 head of cows and calves on mine for two months, and have had no trouble. The irrigated alfalfa is better than that grown on land that requires no water. The straw is about equal 10 oat straw, but not half so good as the alfalfa hay. To rid land of the plant requires a strong team and a sharp lo-inch plow. The roots rot at once after plowing, and the land is well fertilized for other crops. In my opinion, alfalfa is the best forage plant known in this western country. It is most easily raised, produces the largest yield, commands the best price, and can be planted at any time from March to September. Land seeded to it is the most valuable, and the farmer who has plenty of it is the most prosperous. Farming here cannot be a success without it, and I take pleasure in recommending it to my brother farmers. It PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 285 will lie dormant all summer if it is dry, and with fall rains revive and make good pasture. It is the earliest plant up in the spring, and the last to stay green in the fall. In other words, it is the best of all. Hartman & Weil, San Miguel county. — We have been dealers ni alfalfa hay for eight years, and have some small fields of our own. This is on both bottom and upland. In the bottom, the subsoil is sand and bowlders ; on the upland, stiff bluish clay, and in some places blue limestone. W^ell water is reached on the bottom land at a depth of 8 to lo feet, through soil moist all the way; on the upland, it is necessary to dig 60 to 100 feet, and, beginning two or four feet from the surface, the ground is dry. When seed is planted in the spring, the soil should be well pulverized, moist, and warm, that the seed may germinate quickly. It should not be put m deeper than 1)4 inches, and may be planted in May or June, or any time in the spring after the soil becomes warm. In our climate, it is best to sow about 30 pounds of good seed to the acre, besides just enough oats to shade the ground and protect the young alfalfa from the hot sun. Once well started, it will kill out all weeds, and does not winterkill here. We irrigate from streams. Alfalfa should not be irrigated when quite young, for, if the small plant is covered with soil, when watered, it will not come up again, but, after it gets a good start, it is not easily killed. There should be about two irrigations to each crop harvested, or ordinarily, six in a season. The heavier the stand the more water is needed. We have three cuttings, yielding about 3,000 pounds of cured hay per acre per cutting. When the plant is fairly well 286 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA in bloom, it is cut, and is best when cured under large sheds or in the shade. If left until dry where cut, the foliage will fall off and pulverize. It is best to stack in narrow ricks, as it is liable to heat if put in large stacks, and it should be salted liberally when stacked. The last cutting is preferred for seed, which is mowed when most of the pods are well matured ; in this case only two crops should be cut during the year. The straw makes good feed for stock in winter, having about half the value of the hay. Each irrigation costs about 50 cents per acre, and the total cost of hay m the stack is about $3.50 per ton. Baling costs $1.25 per ton, with 50 cents additional for wire. The common yield of seed is 6 to 10 bushels from the acre. ''Reeves" clover huller will thresh about 12 bushels per hour. The price of hay, baled, in New Mexico has averaged about $8 per ton for the past eight years and seed for the same time about $5 per bushel. Our experience indicates that alfalfa hay is a more nutri- tious food for farm animals than either clover or timo- thy. We have found nothing better to feed cattle for market; it makes good, solid beef, and they take on fat very fast. The pasturage is excellent for swine, horses, and cattle. If overfed, animals will sometimes bloat on raniv ?lfalfa, especially if unaccustomed to it. About the t'-jird year from seeding, the plant has acquired its best yield. It is difficult to rid land of it, as plowing under is sometimes beneficial, making it come up thicker than before. Success with it on high prairies depends upon the precipitation during the growing season. We think four inches of rainfall during the time of its growth PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES 2'6'J would make a fair crop of hay; or 8 to 12 inches from May to September, for two or three cuttings. NEW YORK Isaac Zollcr, Montgomery county, writes in a recent article in American Agriculturist: — *'In the spring of 1889, I sowed my first ten acres of alfalfa. The field was reseeded for the second time in April, 1905. I now have 25 acres. The land was plowed in the fall after being manured. In the spring, generally during the last two weeks of April, the surface for five or six inches is made extra fine and 25 to 30 pounds of the best seed are sown with three pecks of oats as a nurse crop. By June i the oats are cut three inches above ground and again every four weeks during the first season. The following June during the third week the first crop is cut, usually yield- ing about three tons. The second cutting generally comes during the last week in July when i^ tons is an average. By September, the third cutting is made, but I generally let sheep browse it, but not very close or after it is frozen. The season of 1905 it was cut and allowed to wilt, raked with a side delivery rake, allowed to lie a couple of hours, then rolled over with the rake and drawn to the barn. Formerly I used to shock it and allow it to sweat, but this is too much work. I feed it to sheep and find it equal, if not superior to Red clover. To be at its best it must be cut when about one-tenth of the blossoms are out. The soil in which my alfalfa grows is a heavy, clay loam and rolling, but is underdrained. The soil here is apt to heave three or four inches during winter and injure clover. But where properly drained, this does 288 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA not occur on alfalfa fields. I am certain alfalfa can be more extenvsively and economically grown here." H. B. Fullerton, Long Island. — As an experiment, an acre of scrub-oak, waste land was cleared and the brush and stumps burned in November, 1905. About 2,000 pounds of wood ashes were applied and turned under at once. In April about ten tons of manure was applied so that each quarter acre would have about 2,500 pounds. Three weeks later 400 pounds of kainit were applied and ten days later 200 pounds of Canada wood ashes. Since the soil, when tested, still showed acidity, about 400 pounds more of ashes were spread, chiefly because of its high percentage of vegetable lime, 40 per cent. The lime of ashes on Long Island soils is considered superior to that of stone or shells. Early in June the test acre, being considered ready, was finally prepared and sown to alfalfa in two directions crosswise over each quarter acre. In less than a week the plants appeared evenly on all four plots. Showery weather continued from before seeding until well into June. One of the quarter acre plots sown with a dressing of 150 pounds of soil from an old alfalfa field at Fayetteville, N. Y., early took the lead in color and vigor and about six weeks from sowing could be readily distinguished at a distance by the richness of its foliage. It was also in flower before the other plots, one of which was uninoculated, the other two sown with inoculated seed. Unfavorable weather prevented cutting until mid-August when all four plots were cut, the few large weeds were removed and the alfalfa weighed. The plot inoculated with alfalfa soil yielded 1673 green pounds which cured to 701 dry; the • .'': ■y % * \ -I 'n ^^ r,- .,/. .' ^ f ;"'-r« /H '.. 4.. ^^ ^ ' >*' /. '.r-./ / ..// ^ : . ■' • ,' % A 'u* '• '\ ' -*' ./ ^f%\ ^ } ^^'0 Harvester, Acme 2>V2 Harvesting v. '79 By stock 107 Few and many 88 Humid climates 82 Like grain 88 Loss of leaves 80 Operations, time be- tween 87 Z2>^ THE BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE Harvesting, Continued Seed 89 Time 80 Time to begin 82 Hawaii, liay for 104 Hay and silage compared. 102 Association, National, grades 106 Association, Spillman's address 9 Baling, California 240 Composition depends on water 75 Feed value 145 First season 65 Grades 105 In mow, watch 97 In windrows 84 Lying in swath 84 Making, Arizona 237 Making, losses in 82 Meal cheaper than baled 186 Measuring in stack 228 Money in 22, 23 Poorly cured, value 87 Preserved, color 94 Prairie and alfalfa com- pared ..140, 141, 148, 150 Prairie, composition ....130 Prairie, dimensions of ton 229 Prairie, feed value 145 Value of 91 Values, Arizona 235 Various, and alfalfa com- pared 148 Yield to acre, Utah 78 Hay-caps advantages 85 Described 86 Favor baling 103 Humid regions 84 Size of 86 Usa of 85, 86, 89 Haying, time between op- erations 84 Hay-loader, belt 88 Headden, Prof. W. P., stub- ble value 191 Long roots 6 Curing 82 Seed storing 31 Heating, prevent in tran- sit 105 Seed 31 PAGE Heating, Continued Seed stack 90 Stack 90 Heaving, danger of 50 Height, normal 6 Highmore forage testing station 300 Hill, Prof. J. L., report... 309 Hillman, Prof. F. H., dod- der 42 Hitchcock, A. S., baled al- falfa 104 Feeding alfalfa alone... 148 Quoted on irrigation 77 Hoard, Gov., brood sows.. 155 Yield 23 Rotation 194 Hoard's Dairyman, econom- ical butter 144 Hogs, alfalfa or blue grass for 158 Balanced ration for 136 Cut early for 160 Food for fattening 46 Kansas 155 Like alfalfa 23,154,237 Over stocking with 161 Pastured on surplus acres 87 Pasture for 48, 108 Hollingsworth, J. H 255 Honey from alfalfa 12, 178 Hoove, See Bloat. Hopper dozer 216 Kansas 218 Prof. S. J. Hunter 217 Hopkins, Prof. C. G., pot cultures 202 Report 253 Hog raising, Kansas 161 Horse raising, Ohio 166 Raising 165, 166 Horses, alfalfa for work... 166 Alfalfa for driving 167 Cheap feed for 188 Injure pasture 109 On pasture 170 Overfed 166 Thrive on pasture 109 Humus favors bacteria. ... 61 Hunter, Prof. S. J., hopper dozer 217 Bees 176 Idaho, experiments 251 Italy, alfalfa introduced... 1 INDEX 333 PAGE Illinois, alfalfa in 16 Experiments 253 Feeding cows in 152 Pot culture experiments , 202 Seed for 29 Imported seed 30, 31 Impurities in seed 32, 33 Income, alfalfa. .22, 23, 25, 26 Indiana, experiments 254 Yield in 23 Infected soil 60 Injuries from lime 66 Inoculation, Alabama 232 Any method helpful 199 Dangers of 62 Seed not needed 64 Failures expected 201 Illinois 254 Long Island 2SS Massachusetts 266 Methods various 63 Necessary 200 Not like magic 202 Old theory 197 Soil, not needed 64 Soil, Sweet clover 202 Unnecessary 200 Virginia 311 With diseased soil 62 Insects carried by soil.... 63 In seeds 31 Introducing on farm 2S Iowa, experiments 257 Leaf spot in 213 Pig raising 158 Seed for — • 29 Spring sowing 54, 55 Irish, C. W., depth of root growth 6 Irrigation after cutting 73 Alfalfa under 7- Before cutting 73 California 238 Colorado 244 Co-operative experiments 76 Effect on hay 76 Excessive •- Gila River 234 Harrow 24 Idaho 253 Influence on composition 74 PAGE Irrigation, Continued Influence on seed 28 Increases protein 75 Necessary to saturate soil 78 New Mexico 283 Oregon 295 Salt River 236 Spring 73 Utah bulletin 74 Water to acre, Utah.... 77 Irrigation Farming quoted.. 73 Irrigated land, yield 10, 23 Irrigations, number of.... 77 Italy, seed from 32 Jefferson, book dedicated to 3 Jenkins, Dr. E. H., report. 247 Jones, John, report 306 Jones, O. S., report 301 Jordan, Dr. W. H., opinion of feed 141 Kafir corn preceding al- falfa 49 Fed with alfalfa 125 Feed composition 136 Kansas, alfalfa flowers. .. .176 Alfalfa for dairyman 149 Alfilaria for 228 Annual top dressing 70 Bees 175, 176 Bulletin, balanced ra- tion, 135 Broadcasting at experi- ment station 56 Cows on small area 144 Curing in 87 Early cut hay for hogs.. 160 EnsiUng 151 Crab grass 68 Eighty feet to water 45 Experiments 259 Fall sowing 53 Feeding cows 144 Feeding tests 138, 142 Grass in alfalfa fields... 112 Gopher injuries 213 Hay, composition of 76 Hog raising ...155, 161, 163 Hopper dozer 218 Horses raised 165 Lands, values increased. 204 Low cost ration 150 Prairie dogs 212 334 THE*' BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE Kansas, Continued Profit from hog's 1G2 Profit in 22, 23, 25 Preventing bloat Ill Protein in cuttings 81 Seed 20 Seed raising 90 Self-binder for harvest- ing 88 Sheep fattened 171,287 Siloing 102 Soiling and pasturing 123 Sowing 57 Spring sowing 55 Station disfavors salt... 100 Station on baling 103 Stock feeding 103 /Storing in 9G Time to sow 47 Third cutting for seed.. 91 Wheat after alfalfa 193 Wintering horses 107 Work with scrub cows.. 143 Kenilworth Farms, Ari- zona 235 Kent County, Delaware. . .219 Kentucky experiments 201 Kiefer, H. W., report 251 Kilgore, Dr. B. W., report 289 Kirk, F. S., pasturing 113 Yield 24 Labor prices 204 Saved 25 Lake County, South Da- kota 301 Lamb-feeding, Nebraska. . .172 Lambs, fattening 46 Fort Collins 173 On pasture 114 Never bloat 172 Pasturage for 48 Quarter in seed 35 Land, alfalfa on bottom... 24 Foul, unfit for alfalfa... 59 Values improved 204 Worthless made valuable 25 Lang-ston, Alva, yield 24 Lantz, Prof. D. E., gopher injuries 213 Large alfalfa roots 18 Latitude influence on seed 28 PAGE Leaching, winter prevented 48 Leaf spot 63, 211 Legumes, bacteria on 60 Prepare soil 49 Leaves and stems, feed value compared 82 Broken by tedder 84 Lost in curing... 80, 82, 183 Help in curing 83 Proportion to stems 128 Saved by slings 94 Pay for floor 99 Value 79 Lewis, D C, report 281 Light discolors seed 31 Liggett, Prof. W. M., re- port 2o9 Lime, air slaked 6(5 Injuries 66 Must be applied 64 Needed 45, 201 Prevents mold 100 Small dressings advis- able 06 Soil for 231 Liming 249 Connecticut 248 Massachusetts 266 Ohio 290 Lincoln County, Nebraska. 275 Linseed meal and alfalfa compared 127 Feed composition 137 Replaced by alfalfa 151 Listing waxy ground 52 Litmus for testing soil.... 45 Loader, disadvantages 95 Loading, slings 94 Localities influence seed... 28 Logan County, Idaho 252 Long Island, experiments. .288 Loss from impure seed.... 32 Losses due to wetting 81 In curing- 82 Louisiana, alfalfa 'dn 14 Cutting in 89 Experiments 265 Lowden, F. M., report. .. .314 Lucerne, book dedicated to Jefferson 3 Intermediate 76 Ongrin of name 4 Yellow 7 Lumps, soil, bad 50 INDEX 335 PAGE Mangels, feed value.. 126. 145 Protein value 133 Manitoba, alfalfa in 14, 15 Mammoth clover yields ll Manure before* seeding. . .. 04 Manuring 40, 70 Wheat land for alfalfa. . 4^ Mare, ration for brood.. _^.. IGo, 160 Marketing 137 Markham, L. AV., experi- ments ^f^ Maryland, alfalfa in 10 Seed for ^ Massachusetts, analyses, clover ^^ Experiments -^o Matthies, John -4b Maximum yield, irriga- tion 'J Maury County, Tennessee. .dUg Mayo. Prof. N. S., bloat HO McEathron, George E., re- port 301 McNeil, E. W., succeeds in West Virginia 31 ^ Meadow fescue and alfalfa compared ^-•- Fescue and alfalfa yields --'■ Meal, Prof. Cottrell's opin- ion 1"^-* Superior to hay 184 Sown with seed 50 Meat production in South. 14 Medicago dentictiJata, bac- teria 60 foliata ^\ " media '^ " saliva 4 Medicine Hat, yield 14 Medick, black, an adulter- ant 3o Medicks, fifty species ^0 Meeting at Mr. Worker's., lb Melilotus, bacteria on OU Merrill, Prof. L. A., fed horses 1'^^ On cuttings 1-^ Mexican fields, old i> Mexico, alfalfa introduced in .....; 2 Alfllaria for ;^g Growing -44 Michigan, experiments ^0» PAGE Middlesex County, New Jersey 2S1 Middlings, food value 132 Milk, alfalfa in making. . .14-2 Balanced ration 135 Cost of gallon 150 Flow increased 152 tests 1^3 The marketable product , .^ 147 Value an acre 144 Yield increased 146 Yield, pasture and soil- ing 123 Miller, Henry, experiments 238 Miller, Prof. M. F., report. 270 Millet, alfalfa sown with.. 51 And alfalfa compared... 146, 148 As preparatory crop 52 Before reseeding 72 Best to precede alfalfa.. 49 Between potatoes and al- foX^a, 48 Fed with alfalfa Ao'J?- Feed value 131, 14-3 Good to precede g'^ Protein value 133 Minimum water to apply. .77 Minnesota, experiments -OJ Field, old J' Seed for j-l Spring sowing 5o Time to sow 4 j Yield in j^ Missouri, alfalfa in 10 Experiments -j.^ Fall sowing ^3 Moisture absorbed by straw Conserve before seed- ing 47 Robbed by nurse crop.. o» Molasses, adulterated with With alfalfa 185 Mold, prevent in stacks... 00 Moldy seed ^7 Monmouth County, New Jersey 28^ Montana, experiments 271 Pasturing sheep 11* Seed 29 Sheep fattening 20d 33^ THE BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE Moore, Dr. G. T., breeds bacteria 198 Moore, Prof. R. A., report. 311 Morg-an, Prof. H. A., re- port 302 Mortgage lifter 11 Mow, fires . . . . » 95 Storing 95 Mower not favored for seed harvest 90 Mowing-, early 21 Por yellow leaf 67 Improves stand 67 In wet season 68 May be wrong 68 Mulch not 'needed 68 "Musts" 225 National Hay Association g'rades 106 Neale, Dr. Arthur F., re- port 248 Nebraska, alfalmo 185 Alfllaria for 228 Comparative yields 21 Curing 87 Experiments 273 Fall sowing 53 Feed tests 139 Hog feeding test 159 Hopper dozer 216 Lamb feeding 172 Lands, values increased. 204 Profit 22, 23, 25 Sand hills 15, 17 Seed 29 Sheep fattened 171, 205 Soiling 123 Spring sowing 54 Stock feeding 103 Work horses fed 166 'Nehrasha Farmer, on cut- ting 69 Nebraska Farmer, various fields 148 Nelson, J. P., report 282 Nematodes in soil 62 Nevada, alfalfa in 14 Alfalfa, on sagebrush land 15 Deserts, alfalfa succeeds in 17 New Brunswick, alfalfa un- known In 15 New England, cutting 89 Seed for 29 PAGE New England, Continued Soiling 124 Success 311 New Hampshire, experi- ments 279 New Jersey, experiments. . .280 Hay composition 76 Milk test 143 Feed values 132 Plant food to acre 192 Seed for 29 Yields of clover 20 New Mexico, alfllaria for.. 228 Experiments 283 New Milford, Connecticut. .248 Seed, new preferred 30 New York, alfalfa intro- duced 3 Alfalfa success 17 Dairymen claim profits.. 144 Experiments 287 Lands improved 26 Old field 9 Seed for 29 Soiling advisable 124 New York Station fodder crops 126 Newman, Prof. C. L., re- port 299 Nitro-cultures 249 Nitrogen from roots 10 From soil 52 Gathered 190, 192 Gathered by cowpeas... 49 Not needed 10 Old plants need none..,. 60 Robbed by nurse crop... 58 Specially needed 65 Sustains bacteria 60 Nobbe, discovery of bac- teria 197 Nodules formed 59 North Carolina, experi- ments 289 North Dakota, experiments 286 Turkestan alfalfa 8 Nova Scotia, alfalfa un- known 15 Nurse crop, effects of cut- ting alfalfa 59 Iowa 257 Or not? 58 Nutrient values, various. . .145 Oat grass yields 21 INDEX 537 PAGE Oat hay. analysis 127 And alfalfa com.pared. . .148 Feed value 145 Oat straw feed value 145 Protein value 133 Oats, sown with alfalfa. ... 51 And peas, feed value.... 12(3. 132 As nurse crop 58 Before reseeding 72 Following alfalfa 193 Feed value 132 Foster weeds 59 Ohio bulletin, seed.... 33, 34 Experiments 290 Fall sowing 53 Farmer sows thickly 58 Horse raising 160 Pasturing lambs 114 Preliminary seeding 51 Requisites in growing. . .225 Seed for 29 Oil meal a.id alfalfa com- pared 140 Oklahoma, cutting 89 Experiments 292 Pasturing 113 Seed 29 Yield 24 Olmstead and Olmstead, report 273 Ontario, lamb feeding 173 Yield 14 Orchard, alfalfa in 223 Orchard-grass, yields 21 Feed value 145 Protein value 133 With alfalfa Ill Oregon, experiments 295 Osborne County, Kansas... 260 Otterson. James, report 252 Otis, Prof. D. H., feeding cows 144 Pasture for hogs 163 Overfeeding horses 166 Over stocking with hogs.. 161 Panicum capiUare, a weed... 69 Panicum sanguinale, a weed.. 68 Destroying 303 Parasites in purchased .soil 62 Pasture, alfalfa in grass... 51 And soiling compared. . .123 Cattle 26.3 Grasses, feed value., 145 PAGE Pasture, Continued Horses 263 Lamb 48 Only when established. . 108 Pig 48 Poultry 180 Sheep 263 Stock 24 Uplands 116 Pasturing 107 Cattle 113 Horses 170 Previous to seeding 47 Rules for 11»> When to stop 108 Pennsylvania, alfalfa intro- duced 3 Bulletin, curing 83 Experiments 297 Seed for 29 Soiling advisable ....... 124 Perry, C. D., report 259 Physical effects, root growth 6 Effects on soil 21 Phosphoric acid needed... 65 Pig, See Hog. Pigs, death rate reduced.. 155 Pigweed in seed 35 Pinal County, Arizona 2.35 Pin-clover 227 Pittuck, Prof. B. C, report 297 Plantain in seed 41 Plants smother in wet land 44 Smothered under wind- rows 84 Weak with nurse crops.. 58 Pliny praised alfalfa 1 Plow, character of tool.... 195 Plowing, deep, necessary.. 46 Difficult 195 For other crops 193 Importance of careful. .. 195 Proper 221 Recent not good 50 Sod, rate of 195 Stand renewed by 72 Plowings saved 21 Pods poorly filled 89 Pork, producing cheap.... 158 Potash specially needed... 65 Potatoes following alfalfa. 193 Precede alfalfa 48, 50 338 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE Poultry thrive on 180 Prairie dogs, destroying. . .215 Injure alfalfa 212 Preparation, proper 220 Soil 46 Preparatory crops 49, 50 Presses for baling 104 Press drills favored 56 Prices received 22, 23 Profit reduced in feeding cows 14G Profits ....22, 23, 25, 144, 147 Protection, winter 108 From sun not needed... 58 Protein, abundance in al- falfa 125 And carbohydrates not interchangeable 13G Digestible 12G Excess in ration 137 Function of 134 Highest in first cutting.. 129 In clover 20, 21 Increased by irrigation.. 75 In early cuttings 81 In hay 70 Percentage in leaves 79 Values, various feeds.... 145 Provence, seed from 32 Prowers County, Colorado 215 Purgatives for bloat 122 Quebec, alfalfa in 15 Quicklime very caustic... 60 Rain, cutting after 82 Hay-caps 89 Rain-fall effect on hay. ... 75 Influence on seed 28 Raiscot, Alfred, report 271 Rake, Monarch 262 Side delivery 87 Time to start 84 Range of soils 16, 17 Rape, analysis 127 And alfalfa for hogs com- pared 162 Ration, balanced 134 Balanced, explained 135 Cost of 150, 151 Money value 138 Unbalanced 134 Receipts 22, 23, 25 Recleaning seed, impor- tance 32 PAGE Recleaning to remove dod- der 42 Redding, Prof. R. J., re- port 250 Redtop and alfalfa com- pared 148 Yields 21 Renewing growth 71 Rentals of land 26 Reseeding 65, {jii, 71, 72 Rhode Island, experiments 298 Rib grass in alfalfa seed. 41 Rice meal, food value 132 Richmond, Indiana 255 Rick, measuring for ton- nage 229 Preferred 100 Roberts, Prof. H. F., adul- terants 35 Robinson, J. W., raises horses 165 Rome, alfalfa taken to.... 1 Roofing for hay sheds 99 Root growth 190 Growth, physical effect. . 6 System 6 Roots, deep 6 Nitrogen in soil from..., 10 Spindling, with nurse crop 58 Thumb-sized 18 Value of 21, 191 Rot, root 212 Rotation necessary 194 Roughness supplied by al- falfa 18 Various kinds to feed.... 145 Rural New-Yorker, article quoted 17 Rutabagas, fodder value... 126 Rye bran, food value 132 Grass yields 21 Winter cover 48, 49 Sacramento River, growth. 241 Sagebrush land for 252 Land, new alfalfa on.... 15 Sales 22, 23 Salt River, irrigation 230 Salt in storing hay 100 San Mateo County, Califor- nia 238 San Miguel County, New Mexico 285 INDEX 339 PAGE Sand hills, Nebraska, al^- falfa succeeds 15, 17 Scott Bros., yield 22, 23 Screened alfalfa seed rec- ommended 30 Scrub-oak land for 288 Seed, adulterated 33 Analysis 33 Bed, securing a fine 48 Bees insure fertile 175 Best costly 41 Best from Provence 32 Buckhorn in 41 Bur clover in 39 Bushel weight 31 Characteristics 37 Cheap 27. 41 Conditions influencing germination 57 Cutting time 89 Damp 27 Dodder described 41 Dodder in 32 Exports and imports. ... 31 Failures, imported 30 Farmer to blame for poor bought 41 First cutting not for b\) For Illinois 29 For Iowa 2'J For Ohio 29 For Pennsylvania 29 Formation, bees help in.l7<> Good costly 29 Good, essential 27 Harvesting 89 Importance of pure 35 Impurities 32 Imported, Department of Agriculture ^7 Increased by bees 175 Influences affecting 28 Injuries by storing 30 Inoculation not needed.. tU Insects in 31 Introduced from Europe 3 Kansas 29 Kept several years 30 Kind to buy 20 Large and small 3S Losses in stored 30 Moldy 27 Nebraska 29 Necessity of drying 90 PAGE Seed, Continued New preferred 30 Northern grown 28 Noxious 31 Oklahoma 29 Old 27 Plantain in 41 Pods, poorly filled 89 Poor, cause failures 221 Precautions in buying. . . 29 Pure 28 Purest in third cutting. . . 91 Quality of 27 Quantity sowed 21, 50 Raising, dry climate 28 Raising, humid climates 28, 92 Raising, Kansas 90 Removing infertile 01 Removing weed 91 Returns 22, 23 Rib grass in 41 Roberts on pure _. 35 Selection 27, 28 Sifting to remove dodder 42 Size of Bur clover bO Size of 38 Storing 31 Substitution of trefoil 39 Test before buying 29 Third crop self sown.... 72 Third cutting for 91 Types of 37 Utah vs. imported 30 Value in Arizona 235 Vitality injured in stack. 90 Weed in alfalfa 31 Yield 91 Yield, Arizona 237 Seeding 44 After disking unneces- sary 71 Alabama 281 Arizona 233 California 238 Colorado 244 Drill or broadcast 55 Fall 49 Importance of 79 July 6G Kansas 258 Manure before G4 Pennsylvania 297 Preliminary 51 340 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE Seeding-, Continued Soaking- soil before 73 Seeder, Cahoon 234 Gem 242 Seeders, various aG Seeds dead 27 Fertile few 89 Seedsmen to blame for bad seed 41 Selection of seed 27, 28 Self sowing- third crop 72 Self-binder, harvesting- with 88 In seed harvest 90 Selling- inoculated soil 61 Separator, J. I. Case 237 Separators in threshing seed 91 Shed, hay 99 Sheep, dang-ers to, from pasturing- 109, 113 Eat bindweed 219 Fort Collins 174 Losses from bloat 113 Old, kept off pasture 114 Shepperd, Prof. J. H., re- port 289 Sifting- out dodder 42 Silage for cows lo2 Storing- as 101 Superior to hay 151 Silo, advantages of using.. 151 Cost of 152 For alfalfa 101 Siloing suggestions 102 Slings in stacking 94 Smead, Dr. D. C, horse feeding 168 Smith, Prof. C. D., report.. 268 Smith, Prof. H. R., feed test 139 Smothering under wind- rows S4 In wet land 44 Snake River irrigation 251 Soaking soil before seed- ing T3 Sod, breaking, for alfalfa.. 50 Hard to plow 105 Soil acid, unfavorable 44 Acidity determined 45 Adobe 230 And seeding 44 Baked, avoid 46 PAGE Soil, Continued Bur clover for Inoculat- ing 60 Buying inoculated 60, 61 Buying not necessary.... 61 Buying infected 60 Buying, objections to.... 61 Character affects irriga- tion 77 Conditions demanded.... 52 Conditions essential 46 Depleted, improved 16 Diseased, for inoculation. 62 For alfalfa 15 Gumbo 261 Hardpan 16. 18 Improved by alfalfa. .16, 190 Improvement due to al- falfa 16 Inoculated for sale 61 Inoculated, quantity to acre 61 Inoculation 59, 197 Inoculation, dangers of. . 62 Inoculation, meal or hay for 63 Inoculation, not neces- isary 63, 64 Listed 52 Never work wet 46 Not exhausted by alfalfa 10 Preparation 46, 297 Preparing, Arizona. 233, 236 Preparing, Colorado 243 Preparation, Washington 314 Restrictions, obsolete 44 Robbed of lime 44 Rocky 19 Sugar tree land 255 Waxy 52 Wet makes failures 44 Soiling 107, 122 Advised in East 124 And pasturing compared 123 Nebraska, 123 Pigs 124 Sorghum analysis 127 Bad to precede alfalfa.. 49 Consumes moisture 49 Fails to increase milk flow 148 Fed with alfalfa 125 INDEX 341 PAGE Sorgrhum, Continved Feed value 14o Hay, feed composition. . .13(j Protein value 133 Soule, Prof. Andrew M., re- port 311 South Africa, alfalfa in 15 South Carolina, experi- ments in 299 Old field 9 South Dakota, experiments 300 South favors spring sow- ing 52 Land values increased. .205 Sowing- time 47 Southern farms, self sup- plied 14 Southern seed 28 Sowing dates 47 Fall 49, 53 Foul land 59 Spring disadvantages.... 53 Spring or fall? 52 Spring, on wheat ground 48 Points to remember 47 Time, South 47 Time, Central States 47 Sows, brood, Mississippi. . .155 Like alfalfa 154 Soy beans, feed value 145 Feed composition 137 Spain, alfalfa introduced.!, 2 Takes alfalfa to America 2 Spillman, Prof. W. J., opinion 9 Spontaneous eombustlon. See Fire. Spot, leaf 211 Spots, bare. In lodged nurse crop 59 Restoring bare 71 Spotted leaf, mowing for.. 67 Spring or fall sowing?.... 52 Spring sowing, disadvan- tages 53 Sowing favored 53 Sowing, importance of early 58 Spurrier on alfalfa 3 Favors drills 07 Stack, curing in 90 Elevate bottom of 100 PAGE Stack, Coni'xniied Fires in 95 Protect top 100 Sweating in 9U Stacks, condemned 99 Covering seed 90 Preventing mold in 90 Stacker, Landen 235 Stacking, conditions 100 Dry 93 In ricks 259 Losses from 98 Operations in 87 Precautions 90 Seed crop 89 Slings recommended 94 Stadmueller, F. H 248 Stand, ideal 57 Improving 6? Increasing 51 Plowing to renew 72 Poor 27, 30, 54 Securing good 220 Thickening 72 With nurse crop 58 Starch in corn 22 Needed by bacteria 60 Steers pick up on alfalfa. . .12.5 Stellaria media, destroying. .297 Stems and leaves, food value compared 82 Stewart, Prof. J. H., re- port 310 'Stock, best way to market alfalfa 137 Fed, Utah 25 Injure alfalfa 107 Keep off field 221 Stodder, J. F., bloat 112 Storer, Prof. F. H., hay- caps 85, 8G Storing 93 As silage 101 In barn 9.5 In evening 97 Seed 31 Stover and alfalfa com- pared 140, 148 Fed. with alfalfa. . .125, 144 Protein value 133 Straw, feed value 145 Feeding value, Colorado 245 For stack feed 91 342 THE BOOK OF ALFALFA PAGE straw, Continued Money in 22, 23 On damp hay 97 Protein value 13'J Value of 1)1. 240 Stubble, value of 21, 191 Stubbs, Dr. W. C, experi- ments 265 Subsoil, toug-h, roots in... 18 Subsoillngr effects of alfalfa IG, 194 Substitute for alfalfa 3G Substitutes, recog-nizing . . . 40 Substitution of trefoil for alfalfa 39 Success depends on cultiva- tion 44 Typical in New York 17 Sugar and alfalfa 18.5 f^ug-ar beet dependent on alfalfa 173 Sugrar beets, feed value.... 120, 145 Protein value ...133 Sugar, losses in hay 81 Sun not greatest curing agent 83 Swath, alfalfa lying in 84 Sweating before baling 103 In stack 90 Sweet clover in alfalfa seed 32 Clover soil for inoculation 00, 202 Swine, See Hogs. Swing seeder 50 Svnoground, N. O. P., re- port 302 Syracuse, alfalfa near 17 Sysonbv eats alfalfa 107 Taliaferro, Prof. W. T. L., opinion 10 Tapping for bloat 119 Taproot 0 Taylor, Prof. Frederick W., report 279 Tedder, loss from using. . . 84 . Starting 84 Ten Eyck, Prof. A. M., burning weeds 09 Dimensions of ton 229 Hay 70 Hay composition 75 Silo U)2 Tennessee, experiments. .. .302 PAGE Testing soil for acidity 45 Texas, alfalfa cut nine times 10 Alfilaria for 228 Bulletin, feed stuffs 127 Curing 87 Cutting 89 Experiments 303 Yields 9 Thawing, harm from 50 Thickening stand 72 Thompson, \Y. O., report.. 275 Thorne, Prof. Charles E., report 290 Threshing made easy 90 Time between cuttings 24 To cut 89 To sow 47 Timothy and alfalfa com- pared.. 21, 79, 127, 148, 222 Alfalfa sown with 51 Before alfalfa 50 Fodder value.. 120, 132, 145 Protein value 133 Ton, cubic feet in 229 Top-dressing annual 70 Benefit of 74 Trampling, effects of 59 Transportation, solving problems 180 Trefoil seed in alfalfa 32 Yellow, adulterant 33 Yellow, in alfalfa 30 Yellow, beak on seed 39 Yellow, chief adulterant. 35 Ye'llow, distinguished ... 39 Yellow, size of seed .... 33 Yellow, to distinguish seed 37 Yellow, recognizing seed. 39 Trocar for bloat 119 Tubercles formed 5^ Office of 197 Turkestan, alfalfa 7, 29 Alfalfa, North Dakota.. 8 Alfalfa, South Dakota... 300 Turnips, feed value 145 L^tah bulletin, nutrients ...131 Bulletin, various cut- tings 128 Bulletin, irrigation 74 Bulletin, Utah County, Utah 300 Co-operative woi-k 76 INDEX 343 PAGE Utah, Confinttrd Dates of cutting 7S Experiments .304 Experiments, early cut- ting 81 Fall sowing 53 Feeding test lo8 Hardy seed 92 Hay, composition 7(5 Ilorsef ceding K'.S Reports profits 2"» Seed 20 Seed not favored 92 Seed sown by Cottrell ... 80 Shoat raising 15(j Water applied In 77 Value, leaves 79 Straw 91 Poorly cured hay 87 "Values received 25 Feed, various 145 Varieties 6 Alleged 28 Ventilation in hay shed ... 99 Vermont, experiments. .15, 309 Virginia, experiment 311 Vitality, injured in stack.. 90 Voorhees, Dr. E. B., re- port 280 Wallace, Henry, spring sowing 54 Wallaces' Farmer, spring /sowing 54 Walla Walla County. Wash- ington .307, 314, 315 Wallingford, Connecticut. .24S Washing, soil, prevented... 48 AVashington, yield 10, 23 Experiments 314 Waste, feeding cows .... 144, 14 Yield I), 1:3 Witch-grass less bad than crab grass 09 Woodford, J. E., hog rais- ing 1()3 Work animals, alfalfa for. . 14 Worker's, grange meeting at Mr 18 Worm, army 219 Worn-out soils restored ... IG Wyoming, fertilizing value of alfalfa 192 Experiments 322 Seed 29 Xerxes carried alfalfa to Greece 1 Yield, acre ol2G Affected by irrigation ... 77 Alfalfa and grass com- pared 21 Arabian alfalfa 8 Arizona 234 Below sea level 15 Best when no nurse crop. 59 Butter, pasture and soil- ing o if» Compared with clov^er... 20 Corn and alfalfa 22 District of Columbia ... 14 1815 .3 Fodders, various 148 PAGE Yield, Continued Increased by irrigation . . 74 Indiana 24 Irrigations affect 77 Irrigated land 10, 23 Largest annual 128 liouisiana 14 Manitoba 14 Maximum under irriga- tion 78 Medicine Hat 14 Milk increased 146 Minnesota 14 New Jersey 20 Not impaired by hogs... 108 Oklahoma 24 Ontario 14 Reduced by wrong cut- ting 80 Seed 91 South Africa 15 Turkestan, North Da- kota 8 Twelve tons under irriga- tion 72 Washington 10 Wisconsin 23 Yields, big, poor land 65 Irrigation, Utah 78 Profitable 22, 23 Texas 9 Wisconsin 9, 23 Zoller, Isaac, report 287 \