BU Mu IG Ca iLL ai <-> ST ~o Ht APE tO pet SS . 5 rt ott ; bisa a ; . J ; 99 28: 3 ar . - , n hak PE 2 \ cA $ 7] erty : te en i ’ ’ Be Tet TERRIER ; fi “eR Pia ace cee : Me 3" a, ie ‘ 7 a r4 sf : Riera tet . 4 HET pit sig piece rien th Pe : b Oy ee Tw A! pslnisirsadoaneesise ma sonst aN esti NU, Seer ek ae ne ae at Pea 8 oat i Pree Wer are Piats} ACE T : ae iM Teivie 7 iad} Hi pi ee se ie — 0s TABI ci ero aif | ie annranzebunbenintant rat auni iar ite aeielah igen = : thik apna illic ay EE iM HANDBOOKS OF PRACTICAL GARDENING EDITED BY HARRY ROBERTS w THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING BY R. LEWIS CASTLE FORMERLY MANAGER, NEVILL COURT GARDENS AND NURSERIES RIDGMONT FRUIT FARM, AND HAMPTON PARK FARM AUTHOR OF ‘* COMMERCIAL FRUIT GROWING” ( PRIZE ESSAY, ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, AND DR HOGG’S SILVER MEDAL) AND ** GRADING AND PACKING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ” (GoLD MEDAL ESSAY, FRUITERERS’ COMPANY ) LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY. MCMVI mar 04 1986 LIGRARIES mw ww a aid oa iil eet sri PREFACE Lorp Ons.Low’s Committee, appointed in 1903 to investi- gate subjects connected with commercial fruit culture, recommended that a sub-department of the Board of Agriculture be established to deal with horticulture and pomology. If substantial official recognition be accorded to that suggestion, important benefits may accrue to market gardening as a form of intensive cultivation which greatly concerns landowners, tenants, and the public. Parliamentary aid is urgently needed in the promotion of many reforms, and with such assistance on judicious lines considerable and profitable advance might be made. In the following pages an attempt has been made to indicate the directions in which cultivators can help their own progress with advantage, and to show the methods adopted by many growers who have made commercial gardening a highly successful business. The author’s only object has been to set out in plain language the results of thirty years’ practical experience and close study in the United Kingdom and on the Continent: Cultural details of all the principal crops are fully dealt with in other manuals of this series. RK: Ls.C: Vil CONTENTS PREFACE , ; : i | INTRODUCTION Tue SELECTION or Lanp— Value > ‘ Land Tenure é Compensation Situation and Aocuenibility Special Districts, Climatic Characters Soil, Aspect, Altitude Lazour Questions AND DirricuLtizs— Permanent and Temporary Workers - Horse Labour Steam Power Crops, MeTHops, AND MaNaGEMENT— Specialisation Vegetables Hardy Fruits Plants and Flowers Arrangement of Crops Economy in Production Fertilisers, The Use of Insects and Diseases Cultivation under Glass A Summary of Cultural Essentials IMPORTANT DETAILS IN CoMMERCIAL GARDENING— Selection of Kinds and Varieties , Variety Trials Earliness , Productiveness Constitution and Hur eior Appearance and Quality . , ix eS . ve : CONTENTS PREPARING PRopUCE FOR SALE— Gathering and Collecting Crops , GRADING FOR PRoFIT— Packages and Materials Packing Garden Produce. Packing Materials Metuops or PackiInc— Packing Fruits , Bunching Vegetables Packing Cut Flowers : Packing Plants. ; , Tue DistrisuTION oF PRopuceE— Consignment to Market Salesmen Growers as Salesmen Supplying Retailers é Markets and Auction Sales Consignment direct to Consumers THe CoNVEYANCE OF PRoDUCE— By Road Motors and Tractors By Rail ! By Canals : By Parcel Post Supjects WortTH ATTENTION— Co-operation : , Assessment, Taxes, Rates Compensation and Insurance Fruit Preserving Factories Farming and Market Gardening. — Crop Returns, Values, and Profits Vegetables Hardy Fruits APPENDIX INDEX ; : ° PAGE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Watercress FOR Market f : . Redateipisce Market GARDEN INTERCROPPING . ; To face 6 ARRANGEMENT OF Crops—DiAGRAM Is. f : II 9 29 re) Be . , : 17 2 ” 29 eT , . 23 ” ” ” 4 : . 29 23 ” 29 5 ; 35 Mixinc Compost . : 40) ; ; To face 40 CapBBAGES ON A SMALL Ho pine . : P LXe) Sussex Truck BasKeT . ‘ : ; j ; 60 SwepisH, Cure Fruit-Basket : ) ; 65 FRuIT AND FLowER Basket : : : ; 65 Parstey FOR MARKET. ; Io face 70 Apples AND Nuts roR Market . ; :' és 74. PaTENT FotpING WoopDEN CRATES ‘ : 83 Parcet Post Boxes (CARDBOARD) 36 Cure PunNETs For Fruits . : 92 MusurooMs IN A SHED . : : : : To face 100 Sguare Wittow Basy-Baskets_ . : : Hens iol Box For CucuMBERS ; : i a)! OS CaRNATIONS OUT-OF-DOORS ! ‘ To face 110 Motor Marxet Van _. : ‘ seh HO Market Roap TrRacTor . ; , ‘ \ if | EES Messrs Logjoit’s TRActToRs ‘ , 2 io Be Foprn Wacon For Market 9 SURO AGRICULTURAL Moror . Hin , : aa) AG WELLINGTON TRACTOR. ; Bei) Co Be ' , . rT » \ 4 q ‘ " ee. \ i s ( } i : | +i ehh Aes leet , gL ae na rae ied ae a Saat ’ tf © aT gtd * iQ! ait i ohh ah if a \ As ee aa) fe ES aa ae ge 1 AES AMIN Alaa ita 3 Pra a RY * PU ra An Pt) : . = m oe % P b fi , % ay r 4, i" i INTRODUCTION MarkeET gardening in its widest sense, comprising every department of productive commercial horticulture, must always rank in populous countries amongst the most important industries connected with land cultivation. Though mainly concerned in providing a material portion of the food of the people, it also contributes largely to the health, to the pleasures, and to the artistic tastes of all classes. The concentration of workers in the cities has increased the necessity for abundant fresh fruits and vegetables, and the demand has advanced rapidly ; while the self-supplying members of the community have been reduced in numbers by the depopulation of rural districts, and the totally inadequate provision of garden ground to urban residences. With increased facilities for the economical distribution of produce, there can be no reasonable doubt that for many years market gardening will extend over greater areas of land; the domain of the farmer will be more and more invaded, and the wider adoption of intensive methods of cultivation will gradually bring back to usefulness thousands of acres that have almost become derelict under out-of-date and exhausted systems. The enormous proportions assumed by imported fruits, flowers, and vegetables, together with the in- creasing number of home growers, have naturally created a keen and general competition attended by reduced prices, leaving, even under the best systems, narrow margins of profit. Such competition, too, will probably become still more acute in the future, A I | >» THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING notwithstanding the demands caused by the advance of population. The position of the market gardener may therefore be briefly summarised as follows: he is secure of a great and increasing market for his produce, but except for that of the highest quality, always in limited demand, prices will rule low; and to meet this his methods must be rigorously revised, wherever there is the slightest chance of improving returns by extra care, or reducing expenses by better systems. The productive power of good land under the best cultivation is only fully understood by those who have spent a life in its study; it is one of the greatest blessings accorded to well-directed industry. British growers can claim in this respect that they are rivalled by few and excelled by none, where attention has been concentrated upon the best types of market gardening. It is not in general cultivation that defects are so conspicuous as in the neglect of details, in imperfect organisation, and in rough methods of placing their produce before the public. Any business that is worthy of a man’s utmost exertions, both bodily and mentally, must pay for starting and conducting in a systematic manner. Certainly, in modern market gardening this is one of the first essentials, otherwise the expenditure of capital and labour will be heavily discounted, and the greatest skill in cultivation will not suffice to ensure financial success. Organisation and directing power are as much a necessity as the physical strength required in the work. The purpose of the following pages is to review the chief stages of a market gardening business; to point out the most notable and prevailing defects, with such remedies as long experience in horticulture has found to be generally effective, suggesting also methods which are worthy of trial, and indicating the lines upon which the most successful businesses are conducted. Intended i, MZ. INTRODUCTION 3 mainly for those who are familiar with cultural methods, about to start in the trade or desirous of extending their operations, it is also hoped that others may derive some assistance from a careful perusal of the facts set before the readers. THE SELECTION OF LAND VALUE THE reduced value of agricultural land at the present time favours the cultivator who wishes to break fresh ground and who is prepared with the means to purchase large areas. The official returns of the gross income derived from the ownership of land (excluding ground- rents and gardens under one acre) for 1902-2 were the lowest in a period of thirty years, amounting to the following totals, which are compared with the highest totals of the period named. Lowest Year, Highest Year, 1902-3. 1876-77. England and Wales . £36,624,408 451,811,234 Scotland ; : 5,883,487 7,689,717 This represents a total decrease for Great Britain of nearly seventeen million pounds. Many farms and country estates have come under our notice for examination and report, where the price asked for the freehold has been as low as £8 or £I0O per acre, including residence and farm-buildings. This has ranged upwards to £50 per acre, the amount depending much more upon the situation than the quality of the land. Planted with fruit trees or other permanent stock, or having glass-houses, the selling prices rise rapidly, from £100 to over £400 per acre being asked and paid. _ The actual price per acre is not the only consideration 4 THE SELECTION OF LAND 5 which demands the attention of the market gardener. In the first place, especially at starting, he is seldom prepared with the capital for either buying or working farms of several hundred acres. However tempting the chance may appear, it is folly to take more land than can be satisfactorily cultivated. The outlay upon labour must be heavy, and there is the possibility of hard seasons to be faced. With a large area in hand to keep up to the best conditions, and a small capital available for the purpose, the prospect is not encouraging. Apart from other considerations, this has led to more failures, both in farming and gardening, than lack of skill or application. It is responsible for a large proportion of the foul, neglected land which is found on many of the great estates, and which in some cases the owners have turned into game preserves or rabbit warrens as the last resource. There is a confirmed reluctance to break up large farms into smaller ones, yet the applicants for the latter are far more numerous and the rents obtainable much larger in proportion. Numbers of examples could be quoted in proof of this, but two will suffice for our purpose, both of which are on a large agricultural estate within fifty miles of London. In one case 20 acres were obtained at /2, Ios. per acre, and in the other 50 acres were rented at £2 per acre. Both were cut out of farms which were rented at Ios. to I5s. per acre, and the small holders did not share in any reductions for bad seasons. Each of the small men devoted the land to market garden purposes, partly fruits and partly vegetables, maintaining a condition that was a credit to the district. “The whole of the fruit trees were planted on a yearly tenancy, so that the land was being improved, while much of the other cheaply rented land was as steadily decreasing in value. How far the formation of smaller holdings in agri- cultural districts could be carried out with success depends 6 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING mainly upon the situation, the soil, and the local demand. The question is too large and involved to be entered upon here, but it is an absolute fact that on many estates such a scheme could be partially adopted with advantage to both owners and tenants. In special districts which have proved to be fitted for fruit and market gardening generally, the rents obtained at the present time vary from 30s. up to 450 per acre, for plots ranging from Io acres downwards, the last-named extraordinary rent being that charged on small town plots of garden ground which have been under cultivation for hundreds of years. Yet, with a rental of over 6s. per square rod, occupiers have proved that, taking a series of years, they sold enough produce (fruit chiefly) to pay their rent, besides supplying themselves with what was required. In one case this was considerable, because the tenant held a restaurant in the town. ‘To purchase the tenant-right of such land requires an enormous capital, and we know small holders who have obtained for well planted fruit land from £50 upwards per acre under the Evesham system. For larger areas similarly planted from £100 to £200 per acre is asked. One plantation in the home counties, comprising 50 acres, was recently offered at £,10,000, or £200 per acre. The Channel Islands afford a good illustration of how greatly the value of land in special situations is increased under horticultural methods. Mr A. Collinette, F.C.S., stated before the British Dairy Farmers’ Association recently that the value of land per acre in Guernsey was as follows :— Poor Land, £80. Good farm land, £100 to £150. Land on horticultural estates, { I50—{f 300. Extreme prices lately realised (actual sale aoe £ 500—f 600. SCORES OF LETTUCES PER ACRE CELERY PER ACRE T,400 INTERCROPPING MARKET GARDEN ES OF I,000 BUNDI THE SELECTION OF LAND 4 He estimates that ‘‘a fair average value, taking the last five years’ sales as a guide, is equal to {£250 per acre.” But this would be reduced now to £200. Lanp TENURE The majority of beginners in market gardening require from I0 to 20 acres, and if the freehold of suitable land could be purchased at {10 to £20 per acre there would be plenty of buyers. Even if it could be had on leases of twenty-one years with the option of purchase, tenants could be readily found who would give from 30s. to {4 per acre, according to the quality of the land and the position. It is the difficulty of obtaining such small blocks which induces some men to take plots of land on building leases of 99 years ; but if the erection of houses within a specified time and of a stated value is required, such holders frequently find themselves involved in considerable difficulties. It encourages a man to exert himself to the ut- most when he is working upon his own land, or with some security of tenure over a definite period; but failing the opportunity or the means to purchase free- hold land, or to obtain sufficiently long leases, the majority are reduced to renting Jand on yearly tenure, the basis upon which most farm land is let on large estates. Near towns the rapidly increasing value of land for building renders owners unwilling to let it on leases for horticultural purposes, so the market grower is either compelled to take it on yearly agreement, or go _ farther out from the centres of population. CoMPENSATION Protection is afforded by law, whatever may be the terms of tenure, provided the land is let for market garden purposes, distinctly stated in writing. Under 8 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING the Agricultural Holdings Act and the Market Gardeners’ Compensation Act, compensation can be claimed for permanent improvements, like the planting of fruit trees and the erection of buildings which come within the scope of the business. Much attention has been called to the custom prevailing in the Evesham district in reference to the compensation for fruit trees, etc., on land held on yearly tenure. The Departmental Com- mittee of the Board of Agriculture, appointed to consider operations relating to fruit culture, strongly recommend that some modification of the Evesham custom should be made generally applicable by law. In that district, if a tenant wishes to quit his holding he secures another man who is willing to take it, and to pay the valuation of the permanent stock on the ground. His name is then submitted to the landlord for approval, but the latter may not arbitrarily or without adequate reason refuse to accept a tenant thus obtained. If he do refuse without sufficient reason, or because he wishes to retain the land himself, he becomes liable for the compensa- tion, exactly as if he had given the tenant notice to quit. When the incoming tenant is duly accepted the outgoing tenant gives notice in accordance with the terms of his agreement. As it stands, this custom is of especial value in reference to fruit planted before the Market Gardeners’ Compensation Act, 1895, came into operation. But though it carries weight in the district, it would be of little avail elsewhere. The fact that the Act in question is not retrospective is rightly considered as extremely hard upon men who have been paying increased rent on their own improvements, and who yet have no claim for compensation when they quit. The Fruit Committee named recognised this, and recommended that Section 4 of the Act should be made retrospective, and it may be hoped that this will be carried into effect. THE SELECTION OF LAND 9 The purchase value of freehold land is reckoned on the annual rent; thus a farm or holding let at £1 per acre would be worth, at eighteen years’ purchase, £ 18 per acre freehold; at twenty-five years’ purchase the value would be £25. Those are thetwo extremes. For some agricultural land eighteen years’ purchase has been con- sidered a fair basis in recent years, and in few cases has it risen above twenty-five years: the majority of sales would average from twenty to twenty-two years. Rents vary enormously, from Ios. or 15s. per acre for neglected farm land to {4 or £5 for the most fertile land without permanent crops; planted with fruit trees, the rental rises from {5 to £10 per acre, depending upon the age and condition of the trees. But where the tenant- right custom prevails, the rent often does not exceed £2, Ios. per acre, though the price paid for incoming is equivalent to rent. SITUATION AND ACCESSIBILITY The position selected for a market garden will be partly determined by the special objects of the grower, but in any case it is important to be either near a town or within a moderate distance of a station on a good railway line. ‘The distance to be covered in the con- veyance of produce must always be more or less of a disadvantage, whatever means are at command. The reduction of such distance to the minimum usually brings a corresponding increase in rent, and the gain in one direction has to be weighed against the loss in another. It therefore becomes a question that must be settled in every instance in accordance with the grower’s particular requirements. There is, however, a conspicuous cultural advantage in going beyond the smoke area of large cities, and many growers have thus changed their quarters with 10 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING substantial gain in many respects. ‘The prevalence of south-west winds in Great Britain needs consideration in this connection, because as a rule the smoke trouble is less serious in the west or south-west quarters of a city, or at least the area of danger does not extend so far. It is not only in the poisonous substances carried by smoke and dense fogs that injury is found, it is also the diminu- tion of light which affects vegetation unfavourably. The accessibility of a place is of much importance, including good roads and a convenient approach. Serious defects in these matters will greatly decrease the value of land, while probably forcing expenses upon the occupier that may cripple his resources severely. We know instances where the loss incurred in time wasted, with damage to the goods on bad roads or in the expense occasioned by repairing and maintaining such roads in fitting condition, has nearly doubled the rental of the land. Low prices or low rents sometimes tempt a man to take a place without duly considering these points, and estimating the outlay that will be essential to bring it into proper form. SpPeciaL Districts, CLimaTic CHARACTERS The question is often asked, Where is the best district to start market gardening ? ‘The answer is that if the essential conditions can be secured which are here enumerated an energetic and skilful cultivator can found a business in any English county, or in many parts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. At the same time the special advantages of some localities, and the objects of the grower, should be kept distinctly in view. If early outdoor produce is desired, the warmer sheltered situation and aspects must be chosen, so that the more northern and populous manufacturing centres can be supplied in advance of their own districts. It is useless e 8 X& as XK Wi 4 SMALL VEGETABLES FRUITS oO —~ = ® 8&8 *® & @e Oo x % K Diacram 1,—Mixep Prantations. (See page 32.) Standard Apple Trees ( X ), 30 feet by 30 feet, cropped between the lines with small fruits or vegetables, or these crops in alternate breadths. Standard Plums (@)) can be planted at half distances, i.e. 15 feet, or Dwarf Apples, Pears, and Plums (Q) at 10 feet in the rows. [Scale, 1 inch=30 feet. 12 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING going into exposed bleak places on cold heavy soils with the idea of competing in early crops from the land. Favourable situations are not restricted to the extreme southern and western counties, though these naturally offer many advantages; good sites occur even far north, but knowledge, experience, and judgment are needed in their determination. The principal climatic characters affecting outdoor gardening that demand attention are the rainfall, the sunshine, and the exposure to winds. As regards the first, the difference between the extreme eastern and western counties of England is very marked: the average annual rainfall in some of the latter amounts to three times that recorded in the eastern counties. Apart from other effects, the annual duration of sunshine is reduced where the rainfall is greatest, though, upon the cold East Coast, fogs are apt to be prevalent, and, in certain districts especially, produce a similar effect, particularly in the river valleys. Except in the worst coast localities wind influences can usually be counter- acted by suitable planting. The advantages derived from selecting land in districts where market gardening is a well established industry are chiefly found in the facts that good land is obtained, labour of a suitable character is more readily secured, and probably special facilities are available for the carriage of produce. Against these must be set the higher price or rent of the land, higher rates of wages, and a competition which renders local markets, or any within convenient reach of the grower, unprofitable outlets. There is, however, just as much overcrowding of growers in some districts, as there is too great a tendency to rush into a few markets. With more independent enterprise and courageous energy, growers might find plenty of excellent land where they could not only make a substantial business for themselves but initiate a new industry for the district. Many examples S: ) | hae ; ; aps SHHONNAG NOITTIN ALYOA ADAGOUNd ALVWIXOUddV “SANDV OOZ ANV ANAH.L SAILNNOD NVLITOGOULAW AHL NI “LANUVIN MOH SSHAOVMALVM THE SELECTION OF LAND 13 of this having been accomplished are within our knowledge. SorL, Aspect, ALTITUDE Commercial success in cultivation depends largely upon the fertility and physical character of the soil chosen. In both respects most soils can be vastly improved by adequate and continued attention, but the expense of doing this must be reckoned carefully, or the grower may find his resources exhausted before he has reaped the reward, which will fall to his successor. Excessively light, sandy, stony, or rocky land must be avoided on the one hand, while heavy, tenacious clays are equally unsuit- able on the other. ‘Thin surface soils resting upon deep chalk beds are of little value for market-garden pur- poses, nor are those which are peaty, marshy, or water- logged likely to yield any return in comparison with the expense. Shallow soils resting upon a rocky or stony ‘ Se <@ - x x x , K x » y VeceTABLES y Vecetaarer ,, x a x a 53 w 4 x . * ‘a ¥ K 4 ¥ x*K ¥ : i DiacraM 3,—FRruit anp VEGETABLES OR FLoweRs. (See page 32.) Standard Apples ( X ) in single lines 30 feet apart in the rows, 30 yards between the rows, Plums, Apples, or Pears, with Bush fruits (as in Diagram 1), in the lines of trees, The intermediate spaces cropped with vegetables or flowers. [Scale, 1 inch= 30 yards, 24'THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING utilised, and to avoid all trouble of booking it is some- times the rule to pay the sum agreed upon to each indivi- - dual when the basket or box is brought in. Otherwise numbered tickets or metal checks are given and payment is made daily or weekly as arranged, but daily payment or part-payment is commonly required by such workers. The actual rates are even more variable than those that apply to permanent wages, and in many instances they depend upon the amount of the crop, as the possible earnings will be regulated by the quantity available. In bunching or similar work, fixed rates are adopted, as the workers’ earnings depend entirely upon their own skill and quickness. As regards the relative value of men and women in temporary work of the kind indicated, there is little doubt that while the former are needed for most land work, especially on the heavier soils, the latter are the best adapted for the lighter forms, particularly gathering and bunching. It should be added that wages for permanent hands range from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per day, according to the skill and experience of the men, while for some it may rise to 5s. or 5s. 6d. a day. In some extensive market gardens also it is the rule to have the.smallest possible number of permanent hands, who practically act as foremen in different departments; the whole of the work is done by temporary labour by piece-work or payment by the hour, and printed bills are posted up at the entrance to the office or at the gateway, ‘‘ No notice given or required to terminate work in this establishment.” Considerate treatment with judicious firmness and fairness is appreciated by the best men of all classes with which we have had to deal, and those who are not amenable to such management are not worth having. It is, however, always advisable to have a few plain LABOUR QUESTIONS ~—- 25 rules regulating the hours of work, meal-times, etc., and stated times for the payment of wages. Such rules should be strictly enforced, especially with regard to the times for starting and ceasing work. In a large staff, laxity in these matters means considerable loss, and regu- larity is mainly a matter of habit. Horse LABour No more efficient means of cultivating the soil has been found than the operations of digging, forking, trenching, and hoeing by manual labour. Valuable as this is, the expense is so heavy that wherever possible it is reduced by the employment of other power, and the larger the area of land to be dealt with, the more necessary it becomes to utilise cheaper sources of labour. With the aid of the best ploughs of various forms, and the many excellent cultivators now in the market, horse power can be turned to good purpose, especially on heavy soils, which need so much strength to break them up sufficiently. It is only at particular times that the soil is in the right condition for operations of the kind named, and it is therefore necessary to complete them as quickly as the means at command will permit. ‘The satisfactory preparation of any heavy soils by horse labour depends entirely upon the frequency with which they can be worked before they are too wet. For many of the refractory soils (which are not, however, those usually selected for market garden crops) a period of exposure in a roughly turned- up state to the action of frost and weather is also essential, and when that can be provided the condition is improved in a surprising manner. On light and medium soils, simple horse ploughs and cultivators can be used to good purpose; but on the more substantial loams, two and three-horse machines are requisite, and in some instances we have had to employ four horses to 26 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING carry the work out in a thorough manner without unduly distressing the horses. All the cultivators we have tried are fitted with tines, shares, or blades that are movable, so that they can be raised or lowered for light or deep draught respectively. “They can be reduced in number if desired, and in some cases the machines can be widened or contracted to fit them for working in rows of different widths in horse-hoeing. The Planet Junior Machines are very useful in this way on medium soils. STEAM PowER On farms and market gardens of the largest extent, and with heavy soils, steam power is often a desirable aid in ploughing and cultivating, or in breaking up old pasture or arable land that requires to be deepened for special planting. When the engines and tackle can be conveniently hired and brought on to the land, it is the cheapest form of preparing large areas of land, but it will not pay on small extents, or when a portion only can be done at the one operation. It is usual for the hirer to provide and cart the coal for the engines, also to keep them supplied with water, and this is a serious item, especially when it has to be carted a distance. When water is not procurable or only at a serious cost in labour, it is useless to think of steam cultivation. Otherwise where speedy preparation is important the power is both cheap and valuable, but if the soil is heavy and has not been efficiently cultivated it must be remembered that the work is apt to be done in a rough manner, necessitating much after-treatment to reduce it, or a prolonged period of exposure to effect the same object. Some forms of Agricultural Motors have been tried with varying results, but improvements are being constantly effected, so that we may look for really useful machines in this direction. CROPS, METHODS, AND MANAGEMENT SPECIALISATION In commercial gardening, as in other forms of business, the truth of the old homely adage that it is unwise to have all your eggs in one basket has been often proved. These are days of specialisation, and it is well to have ~ some crop to which particular attention is paid, to excel if possible in its production, and to gain a _propor- tionate reputation. But the uncertainties of British weather, and the variability of British taste in some matters, are apt to lead to unexpected failures, with disastrous results if there is nothing else to depend upon. The advice given by the savant with regard to general knowledge, ‘‘ learn everything of something, and something of everything,” is just as applicable to gardening for profit, as the wider the range of a man’s cultural knowledge, the more likely is he to keep up to the times and ahead of his rivals. At the same time, it is not advisable to attempt too much, or that may lead to equally bad results. It has been proved that gigantic businesses can be created in the production of a few special crops like Grapes, Cucumbers, or Tomatoes amongst under-glass fruits; Roses, Chrysanthemums or Daffodilsamongst flowers ; Celery, Onions, Asparagus, Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Brussels Sprouts, or Potatoes amongst vegetables; and Apples, Pears, Strawberries, Raspberries, Currants, or Gooseberries amongst hardy fruits and such exceptional crops as Mushrooms both outdoors or under cover. 27 28 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING It is sometimes found that a man can make a profitable business with one group of plants alone, as with Ferns, for instance, or even with one kind of plant, as Lilies of the Valley, or any of those already mentioned. Such results may be brought about by special experience and skill, by the help of local conditions or circumstances, or by the grower’s perception of an increasing demand which it pays to supply. It is unquestionable that a material aid to any undertaking is yielded by an easily produced speciality, and under exceptionally favourable conditions it may be developed into a_ substantial business. Still, the majority of those who engage in market-gardening cannot depend upon one crop alone, especially when the land held covers an extensive acreage, and a combination of crops becomes a necessity. VEGETABLES Near populous cities vegetables are always largely grown, as the demand is constant for fresh produce, and where bulky or heavy crops of that kind can be con- veyed by road, it is advantageous to the grower. Another point in their favour is that under the best systems of cultivation several crops can be raised from the same land in one season. Soil which has been brought to the highest state of productiveness by constant working and heavy manuring is independent of any precise system of rotation; it is only a question of | time, weather, and good management to have the land constantly occupied, or ready for the reception of another crop as soon as one is removed. Again, too, when fresh land is taken in hand, a course of cultivation under vegetables is an excellent preparation for what are to constitute the permanent crops. Very large returns are also obtained from well-grown vegetables of the more important kinds, and it is not therefore > ¥ bd # > fp ie ¥ % ¥ ff x ¥ | Fd *~ “NAY Ju PC Oa Wie ¢ VeGermes yy ee * “ - TO a xs me "Vis oad Mi Oe x ¥ ¥ » y * & x ¥ x x 9 I ain ee a ke ry ee DiaGraM 4.—FRvuIT aND VEGETABLES OR FLowers. (See page 32.) Apples at 30 feet by 30 feet in three lines. The intermediate spaces 30 yards wide, cropped with vegetables or flowers. Between the trees as in Diagram 1 or 3. [Scale, 1 inch= 30 yards. 30 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING surprising if these crops rank high amongst those to which a grower turns his attention. Harpy FRuvuIts Hardy fruits are indispensable wherever the soil and situation are suitable, and the best varieties well grown constitute a most important part of a market-man’s assets. In favourable seasons the returns will always be substantial for the space occupied, and occasionally special crops of choice fruits will yield a profit un- surpassed by any other form of out-door cultivation. But there are always the weather risks to be reckoned upon, the spring frosts being the most disastrous, though high winds at the time when Apples, Pears, Cherries, or Plums are maturing may bring equally bad results in damage to the fruit. If it were not for these uncertainties, fruit-growing would be the most profitable form of utilising the land ; and even with these difficulties to contend against, taking a series of years, the average returns under the best systems and in the right situations compare very favour- ably with those from any other crops. When grown in combination with both vegetables and flowers, arranged upon the most economical methods, with the highest cultivation, the gross returns per acre often exceed any other form of land utilisation for cultural purposes. The kinds of fruits especially adapted to the soil should always have precedence: thus in one district Apples may thrive the best, in another Plums. Amongst small fruits, Strawberries would form the best paying crop in one place, and in another Currants or Gooseberries will be more profitable. These are points that each grower has to determine for himself, and they are worthy of his best attention, for if work is started with a mixed plantation it is soon ascertained which crop is likely to yield the best returns in the locality. CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 31 The Board of Agriculture Committee appointed to investigate matters relating to fruit-culture has stated that the total approximate area under fruit in Great Britain is about 300,000 acres. Though this is but a small proportion of the total amount of cultivated land (32 million acres for Great Britain and 15 million acres for Ireland are returned as under crops and grass), ‘‘ the fruit industry appears to be most progressive, in fact it is the only form of agriculture which has exhibited any sign of progress in recent years.” } PLANTS AND FLOWERS Plants grown out of doors to supply flowers for cutting constitute an important department, which can be well included with the others named in a general business. Where fruit-trees are grown as standards, not too closely planted, the ground beneath can be cropped with many spring-flowering plants, and this system has been adopted in the metropolitan counties for many years. Wallflowers are chiefly grown in this way, but many others can be included where the spaces between the rows of trees are sufficiently wide for the purpose. Such positions are, however, naturally best fitted for plants that flower before the trees are in full leaf. Of other plants that are largely grown out of doors for their flowers, the principal are Roses, Violets, Bulbs (comprising Daffodils, Tulips, and Lilies), Irises, Asters, Dahlias, Gaillardias, Lilies of the Valley, Pzonies, and early Chrysanthemums. Just as with the vegetables and fruits, some of these form specialities in certain localities, while a few constitute a trade in themselves, like the Daffodils in the Scilly Isles. Plants grown for sale from the open ground are 1 The last official return of Market Garden acreage in Great Britain (1896) gives the total as 96,981 acres, which includes some fruit land. 32 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING mostly hardy perennials, of which large quantities are consigned to the markets in the early spring months. The demand for these has increased greatly in recent years, but the period during which they can be dealt with is of limited duration. Where a combination of the nursery business with market gardening is carried on, as some growers do very successfully, hardy trees and shrubs are included in the stock, besides a general collection of fruit-trees and bushes. When a stock is once raised, the space required for its maintenance is comparatively small, and an annual auction sale is a convenient means of disposing of the surplus. But in some country markets growers make up bundles of trees for the sale day throughout the winter. Unfortunately so much carelessness is often displayed in the selection and naming of such consignments, that they have fallen generally into bad repute. ‘The remedy for this state of — affairs is in the hands of every grower. ARRANGEMENT OF CRops Where vegetables, fruits, and flowers are grown upon one holding for market purposes, the three chief methods of arrangement in use-are: (I) the mixed system, where the fruit trees are planted closely with bush fruits as under-crops, and all intermediate spaces are filled, as long as the growth of the trees and bushes will permit, with vegetables or flowers; (2) the separate method, each crop being allotted distinct plots of land; and (3) the alternate system, where fruits and vegetables, or fruits and flowers, are planted in alternate blocks. The first is practised largely, and is regarded as the most economical in some districts, but it is attended by several disadvantages in connection with routine cultivation, in the gathering of the fruits or under-crops, and in securing the best results with them. CROPS, METHODS, MANAGEMENT 33 The second enables cultivation to be carried out thoroughly and conveniently, but as regards the fruit quarters the land cannot always be utilised to the fullest extent, and it often happens that the best aspect and the best soil for the fruits are also those where vegetables, especially early crops, would succeed most satisfactorily. The third, or alternate method, provides a com- bination of the recommendations of the other systems, with a reduction of the defects to a minimum. The best positions can be equally utilised for all crops, and if any kind of rotation is desirable or necessary, it can be readily arranged. In addition to this the fruit trees, if in single, double, or triple lines, are more fully exposed to atmospheric and sun influences, they develop into finer specimens, the wood is better ripened, and the fruits assume a superior colour and flavour to those borne by trees in dense plantations. Then, too, the operations of spraying, pruning, and gathering are more conveniently performed; while, if the lines are kept to certain varieties, and any of these fail, they can be removed and others put in their places without dis- turbing the arrangement of a whole plantation. Upon moderate slopes, towards the south, such systems are excellent in all respects. The distances allowed between the lines of trees may be varied according to convenience and the fruits or other crops which are to be grown. We ‘know examples where the distances allowed are from 20 yards to 60 yards or more, but within reasonable limits the trees afford a measure of protection to the other crops, so that can be borne in mind when pre- paring the plans, as local surroundings would require consideration. Usually such blocks can be only cultivated in one direction, following that of the tree lines, but cross-cultivation is not of so much moment where the land is subjected to the constant working of market C 34 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING garden methods. For strawberries this alternate system is well adapted, because they are only retained for a few years on one plot, and, more than most fruit crops, they are benefited by having fresh land. Root crops can also be alternated with other vegetables in a similar way; while bush fruits, such as gooseberries or currants, succeed remarkably when planted upon land previously cropped with vegetables. Many exhausting crops can be followed by flowers with advantage, as too rich a soil is apt to induce excessive leaf growth. EconoMy IN PRODUCTION Several matters in connection with commercial horti- culture do not receive the attention they merit, and one of the most important of these is economy in production. This does not mean a blind reduction of expenses to the. lowest level, which may really defeat the best objects in view, but a constant endeavour to secure efficiency, to avoid waste of labour or material, to increase the output of the power employed, or to improve the quality of the products. ‘These results are partly dependent upon the employment of the most skilful labour at fair wages, and upon the supervision exercised; but they are also largely influenced by the knowledge, experience, and judgment of the directing power. Many instances could be given where a falsely named economy, founded upon insufficient or inaccurate knowledge, has produced far worse financial results than the defects it was intended to remove. On the other hand, some of the most successful growers for market have, at times, incurred expenditure in the organisation or development of their business which appeared excessive to the unenterprising, though it resulted in gains out of all proportion to the outlay. Keen observation and sound personal knowledge must furnish the key to success in such matters, and it is wise » 4 gS ° ° 4 CUeeRUAMEER, | os eC ive o% e & oe e & o Flowers. 9 © e 0 ? 4 ‘a e @ ro e * Qo rey e ’ @) ¢ r) & ° ? 0 9 & e ° x iliod ited. » sy, TGR KTR 06 ie “hdl 8g, of 295) MTA OR Oe pa PEGs These boxes are intended for use once only, and the following conditions are attached, viz.— ‘«« That the boxes be secured by nails, not by rope or cord.” ‘< That the produce be conveyed at owner’s risk, and | the carriage prepaid.” ‘<’That no box shall be of greater weight than 60 lbs.” The charge is 4d. for 20 lbs. and Id. for every 5 lbs. up to 60 lbs., including delivery within the usual limits, but the collection is not undertaken now. 88 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING We have used these boxes extensively,for some years, and have proved them to be very satisfactory, the smaller sizes for fruits, and the larger ones for flowers or light vegetables of a choice character. ‘The stipula- tion that nails only shall be employed is objectionable, and we have not found that the companies are very strict about enforcing the regulation, provided the lids are nailed on (and this is necessary); but tying with stout string also is a protection that has proved advisable. Nos. I and 2 are the least liable to be damaged, being comparatively stronger than the others, and when the produce is well packed they can be safely sent long distances, provided ordinary care be exercised by the railway servants. Numerous firms of box-makers throughout the country make a special feature of their business in the production of boxes for farmers and market gardeners, so that such packages can be obtained in any desired size and strength at moderate prices. But where the amount of produce is very large growers have found it profitable to make their own boxes, either by employing men in wet time and during the winter months, or by utilising some of the up-to-date machinery constructed for box-making. Much can be said in favour of the former method, as there is nothing elaborate in the construction of the boxes usually required. Any intelligent handy man can soon master the few details, and it is a great advantage both to employer and man to have regular work avail- able at all bad times. This, of course, especially applies where the crops are chiefly grown in the open ground ; when there is a large area under glass the labour is not affected to the same extent by weather conditions, and the employment of machinery is then advisable if it can be kept in use sufficiently. Excellent and ingenious machines are now sold by several firms, which can turn out large numbers of well-made boxes in a few hours. GRADING FOR PROFIT 89 In districts where there are numbers of small growers, a larger producer would find a sale for a considerable pro- portion of the boxes he could turn out beyond his own requirements, provided they were cheap enough. In such a case the outlay upon machinery would be a safe investment, and might prove a substantial aid to his business if judiciously worked. The essentials in the production of boxes that are to be of real service to market growers are as follows :— I. They must be as light as possible consistent with a reasonable strength ; it is useless to rely upon flimsy makes—they will only result in endless trouble and re- peated loss of goods. On the other hand, if heavy thick wood is employed, the weight will be prohibitive. 2. The cost must be low, and in proportion to the value and quality of the produce they are to convey, especially if they are to be non-returnable. For instance, it would be folly to give a box costing sixpence with goods that are only worth one shilling. When boxes are to be returned, and are made stronger to fit them for an average number of journeys, the larger cost per box amounts to much less per journey, provided the empties do not have to be returned singly. We have used home-made, strong half-bushel and smaller size boxes, the actual cost of which, including return in bulk, did not average one penny per journey. It is obvious that in such cases the relative value of the produce is of less consequence than when the box is used once only. Boxes should be made the means of advertising the grower, and they should therefore be labelled or branded with his name, and preferably also with the name of the place, and of the variety (when fruit is sent in them), as well as the quality or grade. 4. If the boxes are returnable the lids should be secured with strong hinges, as their loss is a frequent go THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING source of annoyance and expense; when non-returnable this is not important. Convenient as boxes unquestionably are, and much as there is in their favour, they must be mainly relied upon for direct conveyance to consumers or retailers, at all events for the present. Salesmen in general have a prejudice against dealing with British garden produce in boxes, although so large a part of their business is founded upon imported fruits in similar packages. We have repeatedly endeavoured to induce salesmen to take first-class fruits in boxes and have always been met with objections. If they have taken them it has been almost under protest, and with a ‘‘ don’t blame me for results” kind of expression that has not been encouraging. Not- withstanding this, however, when genuine efforts have been made to give them a fair trial, well-selected, graded fruits have yielded much better returns than similar fruits. sent in baskets in the ordinary way, and that is what concerns the grower. One experienced salesman in a northern market assured us that he has had to turn pro- duce out of boxes into baskets to enable him to secure a sale for fruits as British grown. He says the custom is so general, and so firmly established, to regard fruits in boxes as of foreign origin, that he failed to convince his customers to the contrary. “There is no reason why such prejudice should prevail, and properly branding the boxes would remove the difficulty. We have abundant proof that the demand for boxes is extending, and if salesmen do not awaken to the fact they will find that increased facilities for direct communication with the consumers, and the development of co-operation amongst producers, will eventually deprive them of part of their business. | Card-board boxes of excellent design are now manu- factured in great numbers for art flowers and florists’ productions; they are light and strong, being well GRADING FOR PROFIT 91 adapted for parcel-post trade, in which they are ex- tensively employed. These are sold at such a cheap rate that it is scarcely worth while to make them at home, still machines are now available that render the task an easy and expeditious one. They can be had stamped with the trader’s name and address and an indication of the nature of the contents. Much improvement has been effected in these boxes of recent years; the insides are covered with a smooth, non-porous lining which aids materially in preserving flavours in a fresh state after they are packed. Thin metal boxes have also been advocated for similar produce, but while they offer some advantages in the preservation of flowers or fruits in transit they have several objectionable features, notably the weight and the liability to damage; besides this, in proportion to their size they are expensive. Such boxes with partitions to enclose special fruits like peaches have not proved satisfactory in general business, though they are some- times used privately. A method adopted by some of the Californian growers for the conveyance of plums to this country consists in having small metal boxes which fit into larger shallow wooden cases, and it appears to offer some advantages, as the fruits are not in bulk, and the effects of one or two damaged fruits are confined toa small area. Barrels, though chiefly used by American and Canadian fruit growers for apples, are not likely to be generally employed in that way here. They are occasionally used for roots such as Potatoes, Turnips, Carrots, and Horse- radish, but only for inferior grades of the second and third named, as the best are bunched. “Tubs of smaller size are employed for later gatherings of soft fruits that will not pay for sorting, and which are conveyed direct to jam-makers for conversion’into pulp. ‘This is often only an excuse for disposing of a quantity of damaged 92 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING fruit, and it must be remembered that the closest supervision is exercised in jam-factories as regards the quality of such consignments, and prompt destruction follows upon condemnation. Sacks and bags of varied sizes and materials have many uses ; they are manufactured in enormous quantities, and can be bought cheaply on a large scale from the Peace & Co, a (Osman & Co.) Cuiep PunNETs FOR FRUITS, makers. But the smaller, lighter bags may be profitably made as winter or bad-weather work in many establish- ments of moderate extent. We have tested this matter and found it to answer well, taking into account the utilisation of labour that would either be unprofitably employed or stopped entirely. In my gold-medal essay on packing fruit and vegetables for small holders the details of sizes, material, and methods are dealt with fully. Ifa good system is organised the work is simple and readily mastered, sufficiently at least for all ordinary purposes. Small bags for light produce are best made from Hessian canvas, which, if of good quality, is both GRADING FOR PROFIT 93 strong and durable. A convenient width for cutting up is 6 feet, and this costs about 6d. a yard run, or 3d. per square yard. Useful bags can be made at from 2d. to 6d. each, according to the size, that can be employed for small quantities of roots or hard, unripe fruit. Bags should never under any circumstances be used for produce that is easily damaged. Potatoes require strong and specially made bags or sacks; the former are usually formed to hold I cwt., and the latter 14 cwts. or three bushels. The two-bushel bags are more extensively used now than formerly on the score of convenience, and bags of similar size are utilised for the heavier roots, such as turnips and carrots. Bags are almost exclusively employed for imported nuts, but generally the small sizes are preferred; British grown walnuts, hazel-nuts, and filberts are marketed in a similar way, though they are also sent in baskets. Pack1InG MATERIALS An important aid to the best packing is afforded by the choice of the right materials, and a small quantity of that fitted for the work used in a judicious manner will do far more to effect the purpose in view than a large amount of a cheaper but defective substance. The only object in using such aids should be to ensure firmness in the contents of the package, and to prevent damage, though in the case of some produce a suitable substance may be rendered the means of maintaining freshness as well. Beyond this, too, materials of an ornamental character are sometimes desirable, particularly in small packages, for the sake of increasing their attractions to purchasers. What might be termed the artistic side of packing receives little attention amongst British growers, though the majority of importers to this country have realised its value to the fullest extent. It is sufficiently 94 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING difficult here to induce those concerned to study the utilitarian side alone, namely, the due protection of their goods. | An ideal packing material should possess some measure of elasticity, otherwise it is liable to be a source of trouble rather than an advantage. If there be a shrinkage after the package is completed the space left allows a movement of the contents which almost invariably results in some degrees of injury. It must be entirely free from any strong odour, or fruits especially are unfavourably affected; for the same reason it should not be of a very perishable nature, as if decay commences quickly, even in an incipient degree, an enclosed package is rendered offensive. Substances that are either unduly dry and absorbent, or too retentive of moisture, should be avoided, as well as fancy products at excessive prices. Efficiency with | reasonable economy must be the rule in this as in all other operations of the commercial gardener. Nothing at present available comes so near the ideal as the best forms of ‘‘ wood-wool,” as the extremely fine wood-shavings are termed, the production of which has become quite an industry by the aid of improved machinery and methods, ‘This is obtainable in many different degrees of fineness and quality, and at varying prices, but some manufacturers have made great progress in recent years, providing more suitable wood and turning out a much better article than was the case a few years ago. At first it was thought wood-wool would never be of much real use in the horticultural world, owing to the strong resinous smell it possessed for one thing, and its coarseness for another; but though these objections still apply to some of the common grades, they have been effectually removed from all the best brands. At one large manufactory in the east of London GRADING FOR PROFIT 95 large quantities are produced, and we have seen thousands of waggon-loads of hundredweight bales despatched thence to many districts, for this substance is employed for many purposes besides packing fruits. The four grades in most general use vary in price from 4s. 9d. to 6s. Od. per cwt., and we greatly prefer the last on account of its fineness, whiteness, and odourless char- acter. All the grades are said to be cut from white ‘¢ pulp-wood,” the lightest timber in use for the work, that generally employed being heavy ‘ fire-wood ” which affects the weight considerably. Some makers turn out a quantity of a very fine quality termed Aspen-wood-wool, which is more expensive than the above named but extremely light. Some which we have used for years has not weighed more on the average than 12 ozs. to I lb. per bushel. The cost and weight are therefore insignificant additions to any package, while the advantage is considerable. Even when the most expensive brands are employed, such as that which under the name of ‘‘ Continental White Wood-wool”’ is sold as high as 4os. per cwt., the substance is so extremely light and fine that abund- ance is allowed for an ordinary sized package at the cost of +d. An experienced fruit-growing friend in Kent claims to have sent over 10,000 peaches packed in this grade within a short period, without having one fruit damaged, a record that also speaks well for his judg- ment in gathering the fruits and his skill in packing. Cotton-wool or wadding is not in so much favour, as the wood-wool has proved more efficient in its elasticity. This property wadding possesses in a very small degree, and it is apt to become ‘‘ dead” or compressed, so that the contents of the package are loosened, however much care may be exercised in the filling. When employed at all it should be used in the sheets as bought with the smooth side outwards, but as a general rule it is prefer- 96 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING able to separate the articles packed from the wool by sheets of tissue paper. Apart from the defect mentioned it is very absorbent of moisture, and if loosened out the fibres readily adhere to anything with which they may be in direct contact. It is obtainable in two qualities, the grey, which is the cheaper and answers the same purpose but is not so pleasing in appearence; and the white or bleached, which is in more request where cotton wool is in use for any purpose. ‘The sheets are usually 18 inches wide, and are sold by the dozen yards. Paper-shavings, shredded paper, and similar produc- tions are used as packing materials to a limited extent, but they are chiefly employed in different colours for ornamental effect, and if a little taste is brought to bear upon the matter they are valuable aids to the sale of small boxes of fruits that are placed direct in the fruiterers’ windows. The same remark applies to narrow margins of loose paper for small boxes, like those containing early cherries, apricots, etc., from Con- tinental growers. But as reliable packing materials all paper products alone are not so satisfactory as vrood- wool. Moss in a dried and dyed state is chiefly used for ornament ; it is not an efficient packing material for most fruits, it is expensive, and the tinted sorts have an artificial appearance. Fresh, green, clean moss can be employed for some choice flowers to good purpose, but its principal use is for packing small plants turned out of their pots. When the soil is shaken from the roots to save cost in carriage damp moss is the best substance that can be had to prevent the plants suffering from evaporation in transit. This is especially the case as regards short journeys by post or train, for long distances, as with exported or imported plants it is found risky to enclose a quantity of damp moss. Under GRADING FOR PROFIT 97 the right conditions of gathering and packing many flowers travel well without such assistance. As an ordinary covering for open baskets various materials are utilised, such as straw, hay, grass, and the stems or haulm of the crop gathered, as Pea, Bean, and Potato tops. Where it is available Bracken Fern is used, and this with good soft straw is the most efficient of what | may be termed ‘‘ make-shift” substances. Hay is soft, but often smells too strong, and is expensive; grass is not always available, and is objectionable in its quick decay ; the haulm of crops is obviously only at command when the supply is finished, further it is often not so clean as might be desired. Certain substances are used for packing imported produce that might occasionally be employed here, though not for the same goods. For example, Buck- wheat husk is extensively used for packing bulbs in Holland, and it serves the purpose well in preventing damage while at the same time being dry but non- absorbent. Where obtainable at a cheap rate it would be useful for ripened roots. Cork dust is largely used in packing Almeria grapes in tubs, and they travel well as a rule, but it is a very thick skinned variety, and the removal of the cork on arrival causes dealers and fruiterers a great amount of trouble. It is a question if the substance could be imported to this country cheap enough to be of any service for other purposes, certainly it should not be used for fruits. Paper is chiefly used in packing fruits to protect them from the material relied upon for safety or as a top-covering to exclude dust. The best forms of tissue-paper are well fitted for the first-named purpose and in the smaller boxes for the latter also. We prefer the white tissue for general purposes, but where ornament is an object it can be had in various colours, of which the pink and blue tinted grades are the most serviceable. A superior G 98 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING form with a very smooth surface is sold under the name of ‘‘ Waxed tissue,” and any of these kinds of paper can be had at particularly cheap rates by the ream of 480 sheets. : | When it is thought desirable to surround an entire package with paper a different quality is needed, and nothing is better than some grade of brown paper which is sold as ‘‘ wrapping.” It is seldom necessary to take this course, however, as the small wooden and card-board boxes are sufficient in themselves. In the case of covering open baskets for protective purposes it is a waste of time and labour to use common thin paper, which is certain to be torn before a market is reached, as it gives the packages an untidy appearance. If the contents are not of sufficient value to pay for doing the work thoroughly, it is better to adopt some other method. | : Tying materials comprise a variety of substances, each of which has some special purpose, but the market gardener’s principal requirements are bunching vegetables, salads, or flowers, tying boxes or baskets, and securing the tops of open baskets. In bunching vegetables, willow shoots, specially selected for their pliability, in various grades are most generally employed, and in some market districts it constitutes quite a business, the bundles being exposed for sale like other produce in large heaps. Varied in size and strength, they are used largely for Radishes, for Asparagus, and for such roots as Carrots and Turnips, as well as for bunched Greens (Coleworts). When boxes are tied in addition to being nailed, the regulations of the Railway Companies (noted on p. 87) must be remembered. In any case it does not apply to packages sent at the ordinary parcel rates at owner’s risk. It is useless employing string or cord that is not sufficiently strong to ensure the safety of the boxes; GRADING FOR PROFIT 99 though on the score of cheapness, growers are often tempted to use samples that are quite unfit for the purpose. Adequate strength is the first consideration, after that lightness and neatness, and then the question of price demands attention. But on the latter point the careful avoidance of waste will often provide all the difference between a low price and a much higher one. Exact measurement of the length required for each package, and cutting this off before the work of tying begins, ensures an economy that amounts to a consider- able gain ina large business. For the small size boxes any ordinary stout string suffices, but for the larger sizes when packed with heavy fruits it is advisable to use cord. The best and cheapest we have tried is Manilla, in 2, 3, or 4 ply strengths, in proportion to what it is required to secure. Large boxes of extra strength, on which the lids are firmly hinged, with some form of fastening in front that can be relied upon to serve its purpose, may not need cording. It is wise in such cases to provide either metal or rope handles at the sides in order that the boxes can be readily lifted. String is also used for hampers to secure the lids, and sometimes to tie on the covering of open baskets. But for the latter, sticks are mostly preferred, either stout willow, split hazel, or some other strong and flexible wood, crossed in the centre and passed through the sides. In bunching flowers of all kinds only soft material that will not bruise the stems should be employed. Rafha stands pre-eminent for the purpose, as it is tough, soft, and pliable, it is also obtainable in excellent quality at moderate prices. A neat green-tinted material of similar texture termed Raffiatape has come into use for tying flowers to sticks more particularly; it is incon- spicuous, and that is a recommendation in such work. Some soft kinds of string are useful for large and heavy 100 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING bunches of flowers, that termed << Fillis ” being the sort we have found serviceable for several purposes. Large dealers in the substances named are Messrs Corry & Co., Ltd., Finsbury Street, E.C.; Wood & Son, Wood Green, N.; and Messrs Osman & Co., 132- 134 Commercial Street, E. (See Illustrations. ) SANIL LY SQOWNONA ADNGOMNd “‘NOUNOT GNNOY NOWWOD AuV sdad AHOdIa ‘Ndd0 AHL NI ‘GAHS ¥ NI SIWOOMHSNAIN METHODS OF PACKING Havine at hand the requisite baskets or boxes, together with the materials it is decided to employ and the pro- duce to be packed, there should be little difficulty about the methods. Provided that sound produce only is to be dealt with, the main consideration is to ensure firmness without crushing or bruising the contents of the package. The whole art of successful packing is expressed in those few words, and the manner in which the desired result is attained is of comparatively little consequence. ‘The fresher and better the condition of all produce at the time of sale, the better the price, other characters being equal in merit. FRUITS To ensure the desired result with the higher-grade fruits necessitates a certain amount of careful labour and attention. Every fruit must be placed in position singly ; it is a poor practice to shoot a quantity into a box or basket and then shake it to ensure that all spaces are filled. The act itself is a source of damage to the fruit, and it is seldom that a firm package can be thus obtained. With practice and aptitude for the work, little more time is needed for packing fruits individually and properly than for the slip-shod, unsystematic styles. A comparative experiment or two will soon establish the money value of the extra care as far in advance of the additional cost it occasions. It must be clearly understood that these remarks in every case apply tothe best classes of graded ror 102 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING produce, and not to excluded or refuse fruits, which frequently will not pay for carriage in any form. The protection of fruits in boxes should be chiefly provided at the bottom, top, and sides, while sometimes it may be desirable to protect the fruits individually. Thus for the small size boxes that will hold a dozen good dessert Apples of the Cox’s Orange type ina single layer, the bottom is covered with the finest wood-wool, sufficiently thick to prevent contact with the wood. Over this is placed a sheet of tissue-paper, cut to the requisite size to fold over on the top when the package is completed. ‘The Apples are placed in, close together, and wool is added at the sides as necessary to render all firm; another layer of wool is placed on the top over the paper before securing the lid, and boxes packed in this manner have been sent hundreds of miles without the slightest injury to the contents. When the fruits are rather smaller but highly coloured, a piece of tissue-paper, folded several times into a strip a little less in width than the height of the Apple, is wrapped round each fruit as it is placed in position, and this method we have always adopted with choice ripe Plums. Sometimes, in place of the tissue-paper wrapping, rather more wood-wool may be used, and drawn up in ridges between the rows of fruits ; in that case and in all others where the substance named is in direct contact with the fruits, it should be shaken quite clear of dust or small particles that might adhere to their surface. An example of the care which Californian and other foreign growers consider to be worth expending upon the best fruits is afforded by the system often adopted of wrapping each Plum, Pear, or other fruit in a small square of soft paper. This is stamped with the name of the grower, and occasionally with that of the variety. It serves as an advertisement, and while protecting the contents, also indicates to the buyer the character of the METHODS OF PACKING 103 fruit. If a seller appears to set no value upon what he is offering, it is not surprising that the buyer, who may be quite ignorant of its real merit, places the same low estimate upon it. Shallow boxes are preferable for all choice fruits, and those named are best in single layers, or at most two layers, while ripe Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots should never be in more than one layer, and even then need the utmost care to ensure safety. The deeper and larger boxes that are used for culinary Apples or unripe Pears and Plums are dealt with in a similar way as regards the protection supplied at the bottom, top, and sides; but the last can sometimes be dispensed with if paper is employed, and close packing is adopted. When very fine samples are being packed, it is advisable to separate the layers by sheets of paper and a covering of wood-wool. In these and similar matters the packer must exercise his own judgment and discretion as the cases arise; the general methods and the principles upon which it is advisable to work are what we wish to indicate. Ripe Strawberries can be safely packed in the smallest size railway boxes previously mentioned; but it is useless attempting to send the soft varieties in that way, or any fruits that are over-ripe at the time of gathering. Each box will hold about 2 lb. of selected fruits, and for these we have never used any other packing than strawberry leaves and the best tissue-paper. As regards the leaves, however, they are always specially selected for their softness and deep green colour, in which characters a few varieties excel. These are worth growing for their foliage alone where much Strawberry packing is done in punnets or small boxes. Near to a centre where there is a good demand for the best Strawberries early in the season, the most profitable mode of disposal is in punnets, the shallow 104 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING round form, holding about I Ib., being usually pre- ferred, as showing the fruit to the best advantage. The square chip punnets, with or without handles, are convenient for packing, but as a rule they do not sell so readily as the others. Round punnets, neatly set off with leaves at the sides and well selected Strawberries tastefully arranged, are very tempting, and if presented in good form invariably bring good prices, but much care is required in the carriage. For this method of packing Strawberries, shallow trays are needed that will just take six punnets, but these must be made firm with some material at the ends or sides, as if there is much shaking in transit the appearance is soon spoiled. Some- times cases are used into which the trays are passed like drawers, and this offers some advantages in the direction of safety; but the cases are heavy for moving about, and an accident means disaster to the whole consign- ment. When punnets of ripe fruits have to be sent a long distance by train, the results are apt to be unsatisfactory. Owing to this fact there are some districts in which Strawberries are largely grown, but at a distance from populous towns, where punnets have been entirely dis- carded in favour of small boxes or baskets that take from 3 1b. to 6 Ib. each. It is claimed that the net profits are greater in this method, taking the frequent losses by damage, the extra labour, and cost of carriage into consideration. Under such circumstances this con- clusion is no doubt correct, but we have increased the acreage return of a Strawberry crop so materially by the utilisation of the best early fruits for sale in punnets, that whenever buyers can be found within a reasonable distance the system is too important to be disregarded. In arranging Strawberries in punnets, the appearance is greatly improved by placing the fruits so that the points are in one direction, and with the bright side METHODS OF PACKING 105 upwards. The berries should be as nearly equal in merit as possible, but the best formed and brightest fruits may always be used to finish off with. This is only a fair displaying of goods to the best advantage; it is not to be confounded with the method by which a top layer of good fruit is employed to conceal a larger proportion of inferior quality. Such practices with any fruits or garden produce cannot be too strongly con- demned, not merely in the interest of the pur- chasers, but also in that of growers. Special details have been given with regard to Strawberry packing, because they illustrate the methods best adapted for all soft fruits in small quantities of high quality. Ripe Raspberries, when of good size and rich colour, sell readily in punnets, though it is usually left to the retail fruiterers to sort the fruit for that purpose. There is no reason why growers should not reap a share of the advantage when they are conveniently situated for doing a trade direct with consumers. The white or yellow varieties of Raspberries are well fitted for sale in punnets or small boxes, though the demand is more limited than for the red type. Red and White Currants look well in punnets when the berries and bunches are large, the colour bright in the former and clear in the latter. They must be fully ripe, and only long bunches should be used, the small ones and single berries, however fine, being excluded. This also applies to Black Currants, though they are not so much used for dessert purposes. The finest ripe Gooseberries of any colour, provided it be bright or clear, are sold retail in punnets, often at prices considerably in advance of those obtained for fruits of the same quality by weight or measure. Small or medium fruits are useless for this purpose, even though they may be highly flavoured. Comparatively few of the general public are familiar with the choice 106 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING varieties of Gooseberries, but all can understand a large ripe fruit of attractive appearance. The small boxes already mentioned have been utilised for Currants and Gooseberries, as well as for Straw- berries and ar with satisfactory results, pro- vided the fruits were a a of sufficiently good quality to pay for aes = HEE ZA the trouble of pack- alan al) wiek@. ing. The smallest ‘yy size in use holds “ aS ee: about 4 lb. of Cur- cr iS | rants or three quarts Tu eS of Gooseberries, and py lining the box with paper is usually sufh- meted nnn cient, making sure ewe ee Ban BasksTs, that the whole is firm SP air when the lid is fixed on. Vine leaves or Strawberry leaves are useful for finishing off the top, and the fruits should be filled in evenly so that no large spaces are left, all damaged or over-ripe fruits being rigidly excluded. When forwarded in bulk, the peck baskets commonly employed have much in their favour; the tops being contracted to form a narrow mouth, serve to protect the contents and are also convenient for covering with paper, which is tied securely round the rim. They will take 12 lb. of Strawberries and other small fruits, or about 14 lb. of Plums, and as these fruits in such quantity are liable to be overheated in closed boxes, the spaces in the wicker-work of the baskets provide for a degree of ventilation which keeps that in check. There is apt to be some irregularity in the size and weight of these baskets, except those from the best makers, and this defect often causes the sender ec IE © PT CRT NI . | = VS j= = October I905. One of Elder, Fyffe & Co.’s steamers arrived at Avonmouth, Bristol, loaded with bunches of Bananas ; two special Great Western goods trains of fifty fruit vans each were immediately loaded with 14,000 bunches. The trains arrived at Paddington at 6 a.m. the next morning, where Ioo pair-horse vans with 300 men awaited them, and they were all started with their loads by 8.15 a.m. for distribution amongst the London markets, fifty one-horse vans clearing the remainder at a later period in the day. It was a notable performance, and proved how a Company can rise to the occasion when the magnitude of the trade is sufficient to induce them to put forth their best efforts. It must be admitted that the rates on some of the lines represent but a small proportion of the retail value of the produce. For example, the manager of one of the lines pointed out to us that in one season it was within his own knowledge that the same plums which only brought to the grower Id. per pound were being sold in a large northern town at 6d. per pound, yet the railway charge in conveying this fruit 200 miles by goods train was only one-sixth of a penny per pound 152 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING in half-ton lots. He very truthfully remarked that the difference in the two prices was certainly not due to the amount required by his Company for their share of the transaction. On some of the lines which cover a shorter distance, the average rate is only one-half of the above, namely, one-twelfth of Id. per pound. By passenger train the rates are necessarily higher, but the advantages are proportionately greater; and where there is sufficient trade to justify the needful provision of vans, 24 lb. packages of fruit can be conveyed at an average rate of $d. per pound up to 200 miles, or one-third of 1d. per pound in 5 cwt. lots for the same distance. Obviously in such cases there is little room for com- plaint as to charges, and if these were made uniform on all lines and in all districts a considerable help would be rendered to thousands of growers. Consignments in larger weights, from I to § tons, can be conveyed at still lower rates, and in this direction co-operation amongst growers would produce _ sub- stantial pecuniary results. Well-organised combination might be turned to excellent purpose, but it is a means of which British agriculturists and horticulturists have not as yet fully availed themselves. Lord Onslow’s Departmental Committee, in present- ing their Report, furnished a series of summarised recommendations for the improvement of the railway traffic as regards fruit, which are worth repetition here as a guide to those who wish to promote the business relations between the great carrying companies and the growers. ‘They are as follows :— That it is highly desirable a more simple and uniform system of rates for fruit be introduced by Railway Companies. This can be done without a statutory re-classification with the assistance of the Board of Trade. That Railway Companies should make _ greater [4070] 1029-49011U07 IY T,, | NMYOM NHCMUYVD LAMAVW MOH MNHASN N'IOONIT £°OD GNV YALSOA "IN. M\) NYOLIVYL NOLONITIEAM HHL THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 153 efforts for ensuring the prompt delivery of perishable _ fruit. That the Companies be urged to areride suitably ventilated goods vans for fruit traffic. That sheeted trucks without sheet supporters should never be used. That it is most desirable all fruit be consigned at Company’s risk, and that the so-called owner’s risk rates be abolished, the rates at Company’s risk being reduced to a figure approximating to those now in force at owner’s risk, providing the Companies with just a sufficient margin for the extra liability incurred. That 5 per cent would be a fair margin. That, in the event of owner’s risk rates being re- tained, the liability of the Railway Companies should not be confined to cases where only ‘ wilful miscon- duct,” but to those where ‘‘ culpable negligence” can be proved. The Committee also suggest that in view of the recent tendency to combine among the railways, it would be an advantage if the Government were to appoint an official or a Department to watch over the Companies’ actions, and to report to Parliament. That in the case of all serious grievances against the Railway Companies, growers and merchants should at once send their complaint to the Railway Department of the Board of Trade, and ask them to exercise their powers under the Conciliation Clause of the Act of 1888. That in years of glut, the Companies should be urged to temporarily lower their rates for fruit, just as excursion passenger fares are lowered on_ special occasions, and that if this cannot be done by agree- ment, it is desirable that the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1894 should be amended for the purpose. 154 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING CONVEYANCE BY CANALS Though this system might be utilised under some circumstances for the conveyance of heavy roots in large quantities, we have not succeeded in obtaining any statistics to illustrate how far it is employed. It is useless for anything of an immediately perishable nature, or where it is desirable to secure a quick market. For the transport of manures, canals are convenient in some districts, but so many have been acquired by Railway Companies to diminish the chances of competition that the rates are not so favourable as they otherwise would be in such a cheap system of conveyance. The navigable rivers are chiefly employed for exports and imports, and they are but little used for internal traffic in the United Kingdom as regards market garden produce. CoNVEYANCE By ParRcEL Post Fruit, flowers, and vegetables in small quantities can be sent by parcel post throughout Great Britain and Ireland, but except for I lb. or under the rates are higher than those charged on the railway lines which make a special provision for parcels traffic. ‘The restriction as to total weight, z.e, 11 lb., is also an inconvenience, nor have we found the system favourable as regards the safety of the contents of the packages, in fact with fruits the results have been less satisfactory, on the whole, than with similar small packages sent by train. The utmost care should be taken in packing any fruits to be sent by parcels post, for over-ripe or damaged fruit might cause a risk of injury to other parcels, in which case the postal authorities can, if they choose, detain the whole package. For flowers the method has been em- ployed more largely, but the officials advise the use of tin or wooden boxes in preference to card-board, for fear THE CONVEYANCE OF PRODUCE 155 of injury, though we have had the first-named quite as badly smashed as the last. In fact the smaller size of card-board boxes are now made strong and durable. In all cases tie-on labels or tags must be used, and the address of the consigner should also be written on the parcel. Where it is a long distance to the sender’s nearest railway station, or in the numerous cases of provincial stations where there is no delivery of parcels, the postal system offers advantages. But delays are frequent in country districts, especially where there is only one delivery of letters daily, and the postmen have long distances to travel. SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION Co-OPERATION Many of the difficulties which affect small producers in connection with railway charges for the carriage of goods, the expenses attending sales, and the purchase of materials, might be greatly reduced by well organised systems of co-operation. In the general trade of the country as regards provisions, clothing, etc., methods of co-operation have proved highly successful, especially in the North of England. The number of members con- stituting these industrial societies now exceeds two millions, while the funds amount to over forty-five million pounds, and considerable profits have been realised for distribution amongst the members. Amongst British farmers, fruit growers, and market gardeners the progress made in the direction of such combinations has been deplorably slow, though several Continental nations (like Denmark, for instance) have taken the fullest advantage of the benefits co-operation confers. The Agricultural Organisation Society, Ltd., Dacre House, Dacre Street, VictoriaStreet, London,S. W., has been registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Acts as a non-trading society instituted for the purpose of advocating the principles of co-operation amongst all classes of land cultivators. Under its auspices many local societies have been formed for various purposes, and up to the end of 1905, 125 such bodies were registered and affiliated. Instructive leaflets are issued gratuitously dealing with the methods 150 SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 157 available, full information respecting the formation of societies is readily furnished, and under some circum- stances representatives are sent to explain the system of organising, and the directions in which co-operation can be of special service to growers. In districts where small cultivators are numerous, substantial help could be rendered in reducing expenses and aiding those with small capital. All engaged in commercial horticulture should also make earnest efforts to assist themselves by extending their knowledge upon all matters relating to their business. In this connection it must be noted that the Board of Agriculture issue many important practical leaflets which can be obtained free by post from the offices, Whitehall Place, London, where also there is a large library which can be consulted on special subjects. The © publication of Parliamentary Reports, or Acts dealing with the growers’ interests, should also be watched, and most of them can be obtained at low prices from Messrs Opottiswoode & Co., East Harding Street, Fleet Street, E.C., or from Messrs Wyman, Fetter Lane, E.C. In addition, the numerous excellent trade periodicals should be closely studied, for much more journalistic attention 1s now paid to commercial horticulture than formerly. ASSESSMENT. Laxes. RATES. Several grievances under these heads were carefully investigated by the Board of Agriculture Fruit Com- mittee, and some valuable suggestions have been made that affect the interests of market gardeners generally, as well as fruit growers in particular. In reference to assessing market gardens and nurseries under Schedule B of the income-tax, there is a special rule by which the tenant pays on the estimated profits, instead of on one-third the annual value, as other agricultural tenants 158 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING do. It does not apply to fruit plantations generally, but to those considered to be market gardens and nurseries as well, though some confusion exists in the matter, as there is no accepted definition of a market garden and nursery. Hop gardens formerly came under the rule, but it has been abolished in their case, and the Com- mittee recommend a similar course with regard to market gardens and fruit land, with the exception of nurseries. In the assessment of fruit land for local rates, the chief complaint is that valuation is raised too soon after the planting, before the tenant or owner has had any chance to reap the slightest advantage from his outlay. It is strongly recommended by the Committee that such re-assessment should not be made until five years after planting small fruits, seven years for mixed plantations, and twelve years for orchards. In the taxation of glass-houses the chief grievance is in reference to the income-tax as regards the allowance for depreciation, which only amounts to one-sixth, as in the case of dwelling-houses, though they are entirely different, the cost being considerably greater for the due maintenance of glass-houses. The committee named recommend that the allowance be increased to one-third, i.e. one-sixth for repairs, and one-sixth for depreciation. Another unjust arrangement is that for local rating purposes ‘‘ glass-houses and the land upon which they stand, are excluded from the benefits of the Agricultural Rates Act of 1896.” The Committee therefore recommend that this act be amended so ‘‘ that glass-houses used for commercial purposes should be held to be land and not buildings for the purposes of the Act.” , Excellent as the preceding recommendations un- doubtedly are, they will be of little avail until they are incorporated in the law of the land. To this end SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 159 parliamentary influence must be acquired by market gardeners and other cultivators, a matter of consider- able difficulty. Lord Onslow (late President of the Board of Agriculture), in the course of a letter to Mr Pike Pease, M.P., had the following trenchant remarks : ‘‘The amount of time devoted by the House of Commons to Agriculture is out of all proportion to the magnitude of the interests involved. ... If the Agricultural Rates Act were eliminated it would be found that to legislation promoted by the Board of Agriculture the House could find time to devote only six hours in the last four years (1902-1905)... . All classes interested in the cultivation of the soil should make clear to their representatives the conditions upon which they will continue to support them, and per- tinaciously to press their needs in Parliament.” CoMPENSATION AND INSURANCE The liability of employers to claims for compensation in the event of accidents befalling their workpeople is so extended that it is only a matter of common prudence to provide against such risks by insurance. Many Companies undertake to secure the employer for moderate premiums, but it is advisable to endeavour to understand the extent of the liability, and how far the various Companies really go in providing the grower with security to cover the whole of this. The subject has been concisely treated by Mr W. Fitzherbert- Brockholes, President of the Lancashire Farmers’ As- sociation, in a leaflet (No. 6) issued by the Agricultural Organisation Society, which should be read by all who wish to gain an idea of a complicated and difficult sub- ject. The following are the leading points. The Acts of Parliament affecting the question are (1) the Workmen’s Compensation Act of 1897, which in- 160 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING cluded most employers, (2){The Workmen’s Compensa- tion Act of 1900, which extended the first Act to work- men employed in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. (3) The Employers’ Liability Act of 1880, applied only to manual labour, and to accidents due to defective plant, or to the fault of the employer or his agents. (4) A workman might claim in some cases under the common law, and independent of the Acts named. The compensation fixed by the 1897 Act is as follows: In case of death where dependants are left, three years’ wages (with {150 as the minimum and £350 as the maximum sum), and where there are no dependants a sum not exceeding 410; in case of disablements, half-weekly wages (maximum 41 per week) during the whole period of disablement after the first fourteen days. When preparing the estimates of wages paid for the purpose of insurance, include the value of board, lodging, or house-rent where this is — provided or allowed in addition to money. Include females employed in farm or garden work, also casual labour. Fruit PRESERVING FACTORIES Some large fruit growers have found it to their advantage to provide factories for reducing their pro- duce to jam, or preserving fruits whole in bottles upon the premises. Properly worked, this should secure the profits that go to other dealers, and enable the grower to utilise his fruits in seasons of gluts when the market rates are unduly low. Great and flourishing businesses have been created by combinations of the kind referred to, but it is also fair to state that there have been some deplorable failures. It is obvious that the two departments are very distinct, and require a different kind of experience and knowledge. SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 161 Because a man is highly successful as a fruit grower, it does not follow that he will be equally so as a jam maker. On the other hand, one who has established a business in fruit preserving may prove a dismal failure as a grower. A sufficiency of capital will go far to assist in averting failure in either direction, because qualified managers can be employed in the respective departments where the owner’s knowledge is defective. But even that is not all, for if an up-to-date factory is duly fitted with appliances, the capital sunk will yield but a poor interest if they can be utilised for only a small part of the year. It therefore necessitates launching out into preserving generally as a business, including the pre- paration of pickles, jellies, etc., and the development of a wide connection with retailers. FARMING AND MARKET GARDENING Some combination of farming with gardening is, under certain circumstances, both advisable and profitable. Thus, poultry-keeping may often be included in the scope of the work, and, in favourable localities, with careful selection of the best breeds and due attention, it can be made to pay. Ducks, also, where they can be reared early in the season, constitute a useful addition to the resources. In Buckinghamshire, and on the borders of Bedfordshire, where Plums and Damsons are extensively grown in grass, ducks form an important “‘crop,” and often yield ample returns. Geese and turkeys may similarly be included, but the last named are delicate as young birds, difficult to rear up to a certain age, and they are large eaters. Under the best management as to selection and cleanliness, with economical feeding pigs can be kept with advantage where there is suitable accommodation for them. But in a general way they pay best if sold young L 162 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING as ‘‘ stores,” a succession of breeding sows being kept to furnish stock. Where fruits are grown on an extensive scale it is an advantage to keep some hives of bees, as, apart from any direct profit they may yield, they render important assistance indirectly in promoting the fertilisation of flowers, which often determines the setting of the fruits and the consequent crop. Crop ReTuRNS, VALUES, AND PROFITS The discussion of returns and profits has been avoided, because statements on these matters are apt to mislead the inexperienced, and raise expectations which are rarely realised. There is a wide range between a return of 410 per acre, which may barely pay expenses, and £100 per acre, which should leave margin enough to satisfy any one. The influences are many, varied, and complicated which lead to the higher results. The skill of the grower, the nature of the soil, the situation, the crops grown, the character of the season, and the methods of selling all have a bearing upon the total values. With special crops like some high quality fruits, in certain seasons, the maximum mentioned may even be exceeded, also by exceptional crops like mushrooms, while under glass the acreage returns are still more largely increased. Crops of early Cabbages or Peas, and particularly fine Celery or Potatoes, sometimes yield the grower abundant returns, while at others the losses may be heavy. Profits will vary in the same way, the systems of working as well as the weather being impor- tant as determining factors. Under the most favourable conditions no form of land cultivation yields such satis- factory results as well-conducted market gardening ; even with average advantages it affords a substantial advance upon ordinary agricultural methods. SUBJECTS WORTH ATTENTION 163 The following are examples of the amount of vege- table and fruit crops per acre obtained within our own experience or knowledge. The first two figures repre- sent the average range, the third shows extreme crops. Marketable produce only is included. VEGETABLES Asparagus, 200-400-600 bundles (100). Beans, Broad, 100-200-400 bushels. Beans, Kidney, 150-250-300 bushels. Beans, Runner, 200-400-500 bushels. Beetroot, 10-15-20 tons. Borecole, Io-12-14 tons. Broccoli, 6-9-15 tons. Brussels Sprouts, 150-250-300 sieves. Cabbages, 1000-2000-3000 dozen. Cauliflowers, 5-10-14 tons. _ Carrots, 8-12-20 tons. Coleworts, 150-250-200 dozen bunches. Cucumbers (out-doors), 1000-2000 dozen. Celery, 800-1 100-1300 bundles (12). Horse-radish, 4-6-7 tons. Lettuce, I000-1200-1 400 scores. Mushrooms (ridge beds), 3-5-8 tons. Onions, 5-12-20 tons. Onions, Spring Salad, 2000-2000-3500 dozen bunches. Parsley, 1000-1200-1400 dozen bunches. Parsnips, 10-12-18 tons. Peas, 100-150-200 bushels. Potatoes, 5-10-15 tons. Radishes, 1000-1600-2000 dozen bunches. Rhubarb, Io-15-20 tons. Savoys, 800-I1000-1200 dozen. Spinach, 2-4-5 tons. Tomatoes (out-doors), 4-6-10 tons. 164 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING Turnips, 400-700-900 bushels. Vegetable Marrow, 1000-1200-I500 dozen. Watercress, 5-10-12 tons. Harpy FRvuIts Apples (dwarf), 2-4-6 tons. Cherries, 2-5-7 tons. Currants, Black, I-4-5 tons. Currants, Red, 2-3-4 tons. Gooseberries, 3-6-8 tons. Pears, Standard, 4-6-8 tons. Plums and Damsons, I-5-Io tons. Raspberries, 2-4-5 tons. Strawberries, 2-4-6 tons. Filberts, 5 cwt.-1 ton-3 tons. Under glass crops vary enormously. ‘The following are examples of three important crops in amounts per acre covered with glass. Grapes, 6-15-20 tons. Tomatoes, [0-20-30 tons. Cucumbers, 3000-5000-6000 dozen. To conclude, the fact must be emphasised that commercial horticulture is a highly specialised industry, and practical experience in all departments is essential to any measure of success. ‘The principles which underlie this and private gardening are identical, but the methods are so entirely different that the best training in either requires considerable modification to fit the practitioner for the other. Some experience in both is an advantage, as in private gardening the chief object is the highest cultural results, but in market gardening the striving for perfection is qualified and restricted by financial con- siderations in every direction. ee ee — APPENDIX WHILE this manual was passing through the press, some correspondence has taken place between the Board of Agriculture and the Local Government Board relative to the recommendation of the Fruit Committee concerning the assessment of fruit land. The reply of the latter Board is to the following effect: ‘‘ The Board are not sure that any amendment of the law is required to meet the point referred to. If in fact any injustice is created by the over-assessment of the occupiers of an orchard, the fault would generally result from the action of the overseers or the Assessment Committee, and every such action is, under the existing law, subject to correction by means of an objection to the valuation list, or an appeal against the poor rate. The Board may at the same time point out that orchards, in the matter of the general district rate, and the separate rate for special expenses, have at the present time, under the Public Health (Rating of Orchards) Act 1891, the advantage of a partial exemption, and that orchards are also included in the definition ‘agricultural land’ for the purposes of the Agricultural Rate Act 1896, as continued in force by the Act of 1905. The Royal Commission on Local Taxation recommended that no further extension of the principles of exemption from liability to rates should be permitted.” The effect of the Rating of Orchards Act mentioned is that the occupier of an orchard shall be assessed to the general district rate in an urban dis- trict, or to a separate special rate in rural districts, in the proportion of one-fourth of the net annual or rateable value of the land. 165 166 THE BOOK OF MARKET GARDENING In connection with the difficulties caused by the railway companies having formed a ‘Joint Claims Committee,” the avowed object of which is to investigate claims for loss or damage of goods, but which appears mainly con- cerned in refusing all claims for the loss of articles sent at owner’s risk rates, market growers and others are endeavouring to protect themselves from much injustice. An influential Committee has been formed, known as the ‘