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AUTHOR:

HAMILTON, FREDERICK

TITLE:

BORDIGHERA AND THE
WESTERN RIVIERA

PLACE:

LONDON

DA TE :

1883

Restrictions on Use:

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT

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'AV

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS

\

Tin: COXTEMPOEAIIY JUJVIEW

« This i^ ail cxc'llciit liiindljouk. Tlie iilea and execution are

])utli liOiHi it u,.v ,.. such full iiitliniiatiuii on iiliiiost eviTy topic

of intiTcsi io will rii.ihli' tiK* sojouriior to uiiderstaiid and eiijov
tliu countrv »

\

THE PALL MALL GAZETTE

« Dr'siilti'i-y » !> tlic last word to l)e n<<>d in connection witli
ihi< v<liiiii<'. uliicli i> |ia<*ked tii^'litlv from cover to covit with useful
infoni, i. all closoly lieariiii;' uii one distinct objt'ct. There is no

paddiim' Ihji.- ^I. liaiiiiltuii. who is an old n'sid«'nt , and tlie

Kiii^-lish hanker at IIordiLiiicra is a lit: L'X]>uiieiit of its merits

bciiiy- (jualilic'l to say in tin- most transparent hingua^i' and the
most los-'ical and iiL'tlnxiiivil manner, all that he has to sav. lie
lias also lieen fortunate in hndini-' a transLitor who renders him
into our more misi\ idiom with vi/rv little loss of kviditv, and
uho himS'df coiitrihutcs two iiiterestiiii;' chapters to th(< book. ?d.
Hamilton li'rapjdes with. branch of his subject — climate,

history. Italian law. I'.uina and tioca , artistic features, and lan-
^•uas»*e. »

'J HE ACADEMY

<< The Intok is ti- !»<> re-enmaud-Ml for its varied information and
inteit'siin^- sketehc^ *>l Imj die days to all who are going to Bor-

dighera The aver.i -itnj- will tind many useful suggestions,

wliile for studt'iits tli'iv are artieles on the u'eologv, th.' fiuiia and
llora of tlie district , the local diah'ct and a valuable chapter of
practical information (»ii Italian law and a<lmhiistration as they
atlect ho'eigii r('si'lent,>.... »

MOliXIXa POST

« The work strikes out a new line: it is instructive, and

the various inf irmatioii is judiciously arranged. »

BTJBLIh' EXPPiESS

« This Work is of a solid ciiarafter. ...... and will certainly

be the standard work for all thnse who desire information about
Bordighera. »

Sanremo 1'^<S4 — Tip. Biaiicheri.

BORDIGHERA

AND

THE WESTERN RIYIERA

BY

FREDERICK FITZROY HAMILTON,

AUTHOR OF 'THE BOTANY OF THE BIBEE,' ETC., ETC.

TKANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, WITH ADDITIONAL

MATTER AND NOTES,

BY

ALFRED C. DOWSON.

Est ubi plus tepeant hiemes, ubi gratior aura
leniat et rabiem Canis et momenta Leonis?

Hoe.

LONDON:
EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

1883.

[All rights reserveil.]

Know ye the land

where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit
and the voice of the nightingale never is mute ?
Where the tints of the earth and the hues of the shy,
in colour though varied, in beauty may vie,
and the imrple of ocean is deepest in dye ?

Fair Italy !
Thou art the garden of the world, the home
of all Art yields and Nature can decree ;
even in thy desert, what is like to thee ?

Byron.

%\,

^

JL /W e3 Ju "J i

PREFACE.

-•o*-

LONDON:
,,uvr. D nr uuxum cu.wk and s«n^ r,TMTTi:r». sttamford strret

AND CHAltlM. CHOW.1.

Having at M. Hamilton's request undertaken an English
translation of his work on Bordighera and Western
Liguria, and being thus the means of placing another
book on the Kiviera before English readers, a few words
as to its aim and contents may not be out of place.

The various works which have appeared within the last
few years, having reference to that part of Southern
Europe, may roughly be divided into two classes :

(1) Those almost entirely of a medical character, written
by Physicians practising at one or other of the many winter
resorts on the coast, and treating of the climate and the
benefits that are to be gained from it : some to urge the
claims of the comparatively less known towns : others to
give greater prominence to those whose advantages are
already admitted.

(2) Books which are of the nature of im])ressions de
voyage: the result frequently of the diary or notes of an
invalid who has passed the winter wandering from one
picturesque town to another ; or perhaps, remaining
quietly at one of them, has made that especial spot and
its neidibourhood the basis of a little brochure of
descriptive matter with all the local traditions thrown in
as" padding."

To neither of these divisions, however, can the present

PREFACE.

VU

VI

PREFACK.

work be referred; for tl.ough it iu:.t^ very fu ly o
the climate of Bordighera, its advantage^ as a healtl
resort and those features in whi.h it d.iTers from ^s
neighbours, and also contains detailed descriptions of he

• 1 f - f rn t in its c'uvir(»ns, yet these are but
many points of int(M-..4in it> uiMmiL,;y

a i,ortio.. of its content. The volume, m fact is an
endeavour to place before the visitor to that portion of
the Riviera of which Bordighera may b.- eousidered as
a centre, the fullest information on almost every topic
«pon wliich he couhl possibly desire it. For it contains,
in addition to the subjects to which I have just refern.d,
the history of Liguria from the earliest days down to the
present time, the story of the foundation of Bord.ghera and
a Ml account of its many vicissitudes during the past four
bundled years, with sketches of the fortunes of the neigh-
bourin.- towns (,f Veutimiglia, San llemo, Monaco, &c.

The^Fauna and Flora of the district haw each a section
dt'voted to them, and in the latter the botanist will find
particulars of all the wild flowers he is likely to meet
with in his pedestrian rambles. The geological formation
of this part of the coast, which is iilmost unique in its
character, and the dialect, pa.t and i^resent, of the in-
habitants, are both very tlioroughly treated ; and these, with
chapters on " Italian Law," and -The Artistic Features
of Bordighera and its Neighbourhood," give a variety and
comiileteness to the wjvk which placo it in a category of
its own, and fully explain my wish to make it more gene-
rally known through the medium of an English edition,
which may perhaps prove a convenience to those who
have neither the time nor inclination to study it in

Frencli.

Several important additions have also been made to

the present edition ; for not only has every chapter been
carefully revised by the author and not a few considerably
amplified, but that entitled " Practical Hints to English
Residents in Italy," has been specially written for it by
M. Hamilton. The two chapters on "The Riviera in
Olden Days," and "British Operations on the Riviera in
the Eighteenth Century " are also new.

There are only two other points to which I wish here
to allude : 1st, to state that the Latin and Italian docu-
ments, to which reference is made in Chapters X. and
XL, Part II. (where translations of the latter are to be
found), are given in exfenso in the French edition, in
which they may be studied by any who wish to do so ;
and 2ndly, to tender niy most sincere thanks to those
friends whose kindly and valuable help has enabled me to
place these translations before my readers, and who, at my
request, readily undertook a task entailing both labour and
patience, owing to the peculiar and technical character of
the Italian in which they are expressed.

Alfred C. Dowson.

Arts Club, Hanover Square,

October, 1883.

-af

;e 11,

ft

15.

» J

15.

i»

47,

II

51.

»t

57.

>»

61.

*l

65,

Ji

67,

n

85,

1 1

92,

»•

111,

^»

116,

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118,

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162,

• t

163,

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177.

1 »

227,

»r

265,

i»

289,

325,

liiu

ERRATA.

10, Jor " position, ' read "situation."
17, for " north-west," read "north-east."
19, for " north-east," read " north-west."
2, for " tenasti," read " tentasti."
28, for " Mont," read " Mount."
15, for " east," read " west."

31, for "at Turbia," read " of Augustus."

4, for " further eastward," read " further westward."

4, for " freestone blocks," read " limestone blocks."
26, for " Ventimilium," read " Vintimilium."

13, /or "to which this sovereignty continued," read "from
which this sovereignty dated."

32, for "at pure," read " of pure."

7, for " at the head," read " at the side."

8. for " upon the right," read " upon the left."

5, for " to the east," read " to the west."

2, for " which shared," read " who shared."

8, for " national part," read "national party."
21, for " Oscian," read " Oscan."
I'J, /or " Cimbres," read "Cimbri."
31, for "douth-weat," read " south-east."
21, for " celeris," read " cderio."

8, for "Spruce Family," read "Spurge Family.'

CONTENTS.

PART I.

BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

CHAPTER I.

1840 TO 1880.

PAGE

How first brought into notice-" i)r. Antonio^'-lts character
and advantages as a Winter station

CHAPTER II.

THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BORDIGHERA.

General topography-The Cape-The Tower of Mostaccini--La
Ruota-CoUa di Rodi-Montenero-Sasso-Borghetto-Valle- ^

crosia — Nervia — Roia

CHAPTER III.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE CLIMATE.

Special reasons for the Mediterranean climate-Exceptional
position of Bordighera-Known and inferred causes of the ^^
climate

CHAPTER IV.

LOCAL SANITARY CONDITIONS.

Sanitary position-Drainage of the flat ground-Death-rate of ^^
Bordighera and other places

(ONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

XI

CHAPTEll V.

THE CLIMATE MEDICALLY CONSIDERED.

Oi)iuiuii of a resident iihysician — A few hints to invalids ..

CHAPTER VI.

PilACTlCAL HINTS TO EN<iLIS[I ItESIDENTS IN ITALY.

Number of foreiL^turs in Italy — Peculiar difficulties encountered
by the English— (Mucral state of legislation and administration
— The iirogn-ijs of twenty years — Pul)lic administration —
ProiK-'rty — Mortgages — Taxation — Leases and tenants —Wills
and successions — Banking and sundries

PART II.
LOCAL HISTORY

CHAPTER L

PliEHlSTORIC AND !5Ai:i{AIlOUS TIMES.

First attempts at colonisation— Origiu ui the Ligurians— Found-
ation of Nice and Marseilles — Annexation of Liguria by the
Romans — Hannibal amongst the Alps— Z^^c 'Is merveilles ..

CHAPTER II.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

Administrative organisation— The Aurelian Way : its construction
and its route— The tropliy of Augustus— Building of Turbia—
Geographical frontier— RoiDau ruins in the neighbourhood ..

CHAPTER IIL

THE HERMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

The Lower Empire— liarUiric invasions— Origin of monasticism
--The hermits and tlie first monks— St. Honorat at Planasia—
The Abbey of I.erins— Ampelius at Bordighcra— Ilormisdas
and Romulus at Matufa

TAGR

21

25

45

56

CHAPTER IV.

THE FEUDAL TIMES.

PAGE

68

The Genoese league— The Emperor suzerains— Foundation of
fortified villages— Matuta, Nice, Monaco, and Ventimiglia
during the Middle Ages

CHAPTER V.

THE " COUNTY " OF VENTIMIGLIA.

Introduction of Christianity-Origin of the " County "-Early
wars with Genoa -Translation of the body of St. Ampelio
—Civil war— Ventimiglia as a Commune— Fresh wars with
Genoa: first siege and stratagems of .the Genoese— Second
siege and capitulation of tlie town— Third siege and destruc-
tion of the town— The " Castrum VmtuniUense ''—Yeniimiglm
a Genoese possession

CHAPTER VI.

SAN REMO IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

Depredations of the Saracens-Rule of the Archbishops of Genoa
-Sale to two Counts-Taken by D'Oria and sale to Genoa—
Bomulus hecomes JRemus

CHAPTER VII.

THE FIEF OF SEBORGA.

Controversies on the subject of cession of Seborga to the Abbey of
Lerins-Act settling boundaries with Ventimiglia m 1177—
Other possessions of Ldrins in the neighbourhood-The Abbey
coins money at Seborga-^Act of assignment of 1666-Act of
confiscation of 1686-Negociations for sale with Genoa-Fmal
sale to the House of Savoy

77

80

88

92

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

'IHi: rillNCIPAIJlY OF MONACO.

Monaco after the Koman epocb— The Fraxinets—Yici8s\tude&
until 1792— Annexation to France— The Restoration of 1814
— Republic of Mentone and Roqiiebrune— Annexation of 18G0
— The gambling tables

i-A'ji:

98

CHAPTER IX.

THE FOUNDATION OF BORI»l<.lIKllA.

State of Kurope ami Liguria in the middle of the fifteenth century
^Borghetto San Niccol(!» — Reasons which led to the emigration
— Cape St. Ampelio and the Bonligue which has disappeared
— Retirement of tlio sea and the formation to which it has
given place — Deed for the foundation of Ik)rdighenv in 11 70 —
Second deed in 1471 — Development of the new Commune —
The Knights of St. John at La Ruota— Great commercial
companies — Sale ui Ventimiglia and its towns to the Banco di
San Giorgio — Return to the Republic

116

CHAPTER X.

THE 1:MANCII'A!I"N of the COMMUNES.

Harassing taxation by Ventiiuii^ua — Laws on fishing and petition
of the fishermen — Monopoly of corn, &c., and petition with
regard to same-Petitions as to .nnnitions of war-Systematic
rejection of all by the authorities of Ventimiglia — Cam}>orosso
takes the initiative in the separation — A'_!;it;iti(>n at Bordi'^hera
— Conciliatory policy of the Republic's Commissioner — Decree
of emancipation and its accei>tance of tlie Communes .. .. 129

CHAFTEIt XI.

THE Com,., AlK'N oF lllK IhlllT TOWNS.

The Eight Communes : their boundaries and poiailation — Act of
Federation of 1686 — Penal and civil codes — Development of
the Confederation and vicissitudes of Ventimiglia up to the
French occupation— Cliurch building at Bordighera — Con-
version of the tower into a belfry — Removal of the drawbridges
and opening of new g.ites I3'j

CONTENTS.

Xlll

PAGli

149

CHAPTER XIL

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

Annexation of the " County " of Nice— Revolution at Genoa in
1797 and the Provisional Government— Enthusiasm of the
populace— The Ligurian Republic — The First Empire — Annex-
ation of Liguria and division into French departments— The
Restoration of 1814 and the incorporation of Liguria into the
Kingdom of Sardinia

CHAPTER XIIL

LIGIKIA IN THE I'llESENT DAY.

The Restoration of 1814— Phases of the Italian Revolution up to
the year 1843 — The Sardinian Constitution— Proclamation of
the Kingdom of Italy in 1861— Annexation of Nice to France
— Journeys of Sovereigns through Liguria— Earthquakes in
1831__Opening of the Cornice Road — Resolutions as to the
"sandy lands" 160

CHAPTER XIV.

LEGISLATIVE UNIFICATION.

Necessity for unification— Old Italian codes — Preparation and
promulgation of the Civil Code in 1865— Other Codes and laws

Principal characteristics of the Penal Code, the Constitution

and the Civil Code 169

CHAPTER XV.

DIALECT.

Formation of the ancient dialects of Italy and the Latin language
—Influence of the Barbarian immigrants— The Romance
language in the time of Charlemagne — Dialects of o'i and oc
—Formation of the Italian language— Comparison with French
Present dialects of Italy— Modern patois of Nice and Genoa

CHAPTER XVI.

176

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

By Alfred C. Dowson.
Travelling in the Middle Ages— DifiSculties of coast path— Note-
worthy travellers ; Dante— St. Catherine of Siena— Lady
Blessington's impressions of Liguria— Opening of the Cornice
Road in 1828— Mules superseded by diligence and post-chaise
— Extract from ' Miss Angel ' 19^

TAOF.

XIV CONTENTS.

ClIAFTEK XVII.

BRITISH OrKRATIONS ON TIIK UlVlKItA IX TIIK ElGHTEENTir

CENTURY.

By Alfred C. Dowson.
Origin of the Spanish war of 1737--Captain Jenkins and his ear
— Admiral Matthews appointed to the commaml of British fleet
—Complaints as to the inefticiency of shijis— Captures French
troops—Fortifies Tiirbia and Villa Franca— Spanish agents
collecting supplies of grain, &c., at Vmtimiglia— Letters giving
particulars of same— Order to Captain Martin to destroy them
—What actually took place— Tobias Smollett and the Young
Pretender 205

CHAPTER XVIII.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF LIGURIA

i^2(;

X jcxliX 111.

THE CLIMATE OF BORDIGHEKA
SCIENTIFICALLY CONSIDERED.

«t

CHAPTER I.

nok'hi ani» soirni,

Imix)rtance of a scientific .study of climates— Tlie suh-tropical
zone of Europe— Principal meteorological differences between
the Northern and Southern portions of the Continent— System
to be followed in the comparison of climate 238

CHAPTER II.

TKAirEIlATURK.

Observations at Bordighera since 1876- Comparison with Nice,
Cannes, and Mentone— Result justified by the configuration of
the coast-Summer temperature-Effect of nocturnal radiation 241

CONTENTS.

XV

CHAPTER III.

RAINFALL.

PACK

Difference of rainfall in the same district— Conclusion suggested
by the position of Bordighera — Statistics of rainfall — Compari-
sons with other towns — Influence of the various winds on rain-
fall— Character of rains— The Barometer 248

CHAPTER IV.

WINDS.

The invalid's greatest enemy — Average number of days of violent
wind — The mistral — The true levante and the Genoese
tramontana — The scirocco — The Uheccio — The sea breeze —
Land winds 252

CHAPTER V.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

The southern sun— Effect of light upon the respiration of animal
and vegetable life— Mean of cloudless and cloudy days —
Hygrometrical observations — Views of Corsica — The parhelion
of 1882 259

PART IV.
NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.

LOCAL GEOLOGY.

Geological history of Liguria- The Nummulitic Sea — Formation
of deltas — Fossiliferous clays — Levels of the various upheavals
— Pliocene fossils — Stratification of the plain of Bordighera —
Porosity of the soil — Mineral springs 271

X¥l

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER 1 1.

THE FAUNA OF LIGURIA.

PAGE

Poverty of the South as regards animal life— Mammalia — Birds
of passage — Feathered game — Reptiles and batracbians, Medi-
terranean fish— Insects: the scorpion, the fire-fly, the cigale —
Lepidoptera 280

CHAPTER III,

THE FLORA OF LIGUIUA.

Difference between the Flora of Northern and Southern Europe
— Richness of the Ligurian Flora — Depredations by collec-
tors and visitors — Extinct species — Gardening in Ligiiria —
Annotated catalogue of interesting plants 290

ARTISTIC FEATURES OF BORDIGHERA.

By M. Charles Garnier, Arcliitect.

I. — TO ARTISTS 336

II. — THE TOWER OF MOSTACCINI 338

III. — siG. Moreno's garden 343

IV. — the cape of ST. AMPELIO 344.

V. — THE OLD TOWN 347

VI.— THE VILLA CHARLES GARNIER 350

VIL— THE SASSO TORRENT 350

VIIT. — THE TORRENT OF CEPHISUS 356

IX.— THE WELL OF LA RUOTA 360

BOEDIGHEEA

AND THE

WESTERN RIVIERA,

PART I.

BORDIGHEEA AS A WINTER RESORT.

-•o*-

CHAPTER I.

1840 TO 1880.

How first brought into notice — ^^ Dr. Antonio'* — Its character and

advantages as a "Winter station.

Forty years ago the traveller who passed over the cele-
brated Cornice Road, either in post-chaise or by diligence,
saw nothing in Bordighera but a place somewhat finely
situated. The village which commanded the Cape was
picturesque, no doubt, as were all along the Kiviera, but it
did not possess sufficient attractions to tempt him to re-
main the night there. Indeed, the Guide Books, even the
classic Murray, found nothing to point out in Bordighera
except some beautiful palm plantations.

But as time passed on, and the regular winter stations
along the Eiviera, first Nice and then Mentone and San
Kemo, increased in size and became too expensive and too

2 BOBDIOHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

crowded to suit those who sought quietness and a simple
country life, some English, the pioneers of civilisation
all over the world, began to speak of Bordighera as one of
the wintering places of the future.

To some, indeed, the name of the town was already
known. A pen of tlie first order, that of the Patriot of
Taggia — who delighted, when an exile, to celebrate in the
language of that country where he had again found liberty
and kindness, those places where he had passed his youth —
brought the name of Bordighera into prominence by
placing there tlie scene of one of the most passionate and
touching stories to be found in Euglisli literature.

The events are supposed to take place in 1840, and in
the spring-tiiue. A rich and elderly English baronet,
proud and over-bearing, with the strong prejudices of
an ultra-Tory — a type, in a word, of the aristocrat of
tlie old school, now fast disappearing — has passed the
winter in Rome for the benefit of the health of bis only
daughter, a beautiful and charming girl about twenty years
of age.

Returning to England at the beginning of April by way
of the Riviera, tlie horses take fright and overturn the
carriage at the bottom of the slope which terminates in
the plain of Arziglia ; that is to say, in front of the village
of Bordighera, and about 200 yards from the iirst in-
habited houses— just at the point, in fact, where one now
sees the entrance of the second tunnel from the railway
station.

At the moment of the accident the village doctor, a
young Sicilian— his nationality no doubt suggested by the
number of Neapolitan and Sicilian refugees in the neio-h-
bourhood after the events of 1818-49, many of whom

1840 TO 1880.

3

settled there— is following the carriage in his calessino,
and hastens forward to attend to the young lady, who, he
at once discovers, has broken her leg. Dr. Antonio orders
the fair sufferer to be carried to the nearest house, the
Osteria del Mattone, a village auherge kept by an old
woman and her daughter, and situated at the turning of
the road which mounts to the village of Bordighera,
almost at the same spot where is now the modern villa of
the same name.

The installation of a family accustomed to the greatest
luxury takes place, for good or evil, in this tumble-down
dwelling, and is followed by sundry incidents, amongst
which may be mentioned the violent discussions which
take place between the old and aristocratic baronet and
the young and liberal doctor, whilst of even greater
importance is the fact that with the latter the invalid
unconsciously falls in love.

Gradually her father softens, and friendly relations
are established between the travellers and the people of
the country ; and later on, as his daughter gains strength,
excursions are made in the neighbourhood, which allow
the author to describe Bordighera, its characteristics,
and its peasantry, with an ability only equalled by its
grace.

But at length the moment arrives when the recovery is
complete, and they must depart ; but at this point that
portion of the book ends which treats of Bordighera, and I
will not, by attempting an analysis of the story, spoil the
interest of those who have not yet read this delightful
book, but merely recommend them to make acquaintance
with it at the first opportunity.

But in placing the scene of his romance at Bordighera

B 2

4 BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

tlie Chevalipr Euffini has obeyed a sentiment more pro-
found tlian that which causes an author to phice the
incidents of his story at a spot which he knows well and
is able to describe faithfully. Our author loved this place
already, and wished to make it better known to strangers.
He tells us this liimself in a letter addressed to one of our
citizens, and from which we g^ixe an extract :—

"... Xessuno potra contrnstjinui il diritto di rssfre annoverato fra
i pill antichi ammiratori di B(.rdi-hera. Ella certo non ignora clie
Bordighera fii, posso dire, la mia |>rima fiamnia ; non avevo ancora
UE pdo al niento, qiiando la vidi jier la prima volta. S'andava
collo zi.) canonico, a vedere non so che o clii a Ventimiglia, e quella
gl<>rir.sa altura, coronata di palme, colpi siflattamente la iiiia infantile
fantasia che ne sognai lungo pezzo la notte. La rividi molti e molti
anni doi)0, nel 1848, quando coUa barba gih grigia, mi riconducevo in
patria per la via di Nizza. ' La rividi piu l)ella e non meno altera,' e
81 fu allora cbe rcso ardito dagli anni, le indirizzai quella dichiarazione
in regola, clie feci poco stante di pubblica ragione." *

The following is an English translation of the above :—

•*. . . No one, I am sure, will dispute with me the right of being

counted among the oldest admirers of l>or.lighera. You are doubtless

not i'^norant that Bordighera was, so to speak, my first flame; I had

not a single hair uiion my chin wlien I saw it for the first time. I

was on my way to Ventimiglia with an uncle, a canon, to see some one

or something (I have forgotten who or what) at that town, and that

glorious lieight, crowned with palm trees, made a profound impression

upon my childish imagination : I remember dreaming of it great part

of the night. I beheld it a^^ain, many and muiiy a year afterwards,

when in 1848, with my heiml already grey, I returned to this country

by way of Nice. 'I saw her again as fair but h<jt less proud,* and

being emboldened by years, made a formal avowal of my sentiments,

which was shortly afterwards confirmed by a public declaration."

Tlie publication of * Dr. Antonio ' was then the first step
towards making the advantages of the position and climate

♦ See the Via Aurelin, Feb. 20, 1870.

i

M

,/
i

1840 TO 1880. 5

of Bordighera known to strangers. A few years later the
Hotel d'Angleterre opened its doors to travellers, and from
tliat day the little foreign colony has never ceased, year
by year, to increase, and the tourist who alights to-day at
the handsome building which forms Bordighera Station,
knowing nothing of the place but the description given in
' Dr. Antonio,' will certainly be astonished by the changes
he notices on every side. The thirty years which have
passed have indeed left their mark upon it.

However, Bordighera has not yet become a town, and
we should indeed be misleading a stranger who proposed
coming here, if we allowed him to think he would arrive
at a fashionable place like Nice or San Eemo. Neither is
it organised as a winter resort, with band, circle, casino,
&c., as are so many of our summer haunts in Switzerland
and Germany.

It is still a village, a commune of which the population,
according to the official census, has not reached the total
of 3000 inhabitants. These, engrossed in agriculture and
fishing, and accustomed to a solitary and simple life, have
but lately realised the advantages which nature has
showered upon their country and the brilliant future
which is reserved for it.

After the Chevalier Euffini came those to whom he
had made it known. Wandering about Europe from
north to south, from east to west, are a class of travellers
always on the look-out for, and delighted to call atten-
tion to, those places which, from their climate, situation,
and geographical position, are suitable for winter re-
sorts; and these could not fail to be struck in passing
by our Cape, from which may be seen a view unique
in the Riviera; by the palm plantations, which make

w

6

BORDIGHEIIA AS A WINTER RESORT.

this spot look like a piece of the East transported
into Europe; by the superb sites — tempting to a
builder's eye — offered by the lower ranges of the hills
and the extensive plain stretching to the western limit of
the commune.

And this, indeed, is precisely what has occurred.

Little by little the name of Bordighera spread over
Europe, and travellers arranged their plans so as to visit
it. Hotels have been opened, some families liave settled
here — some indeed have purchased land and built villas,
and the municipul administration has at last begun to
understand that the future prosperity of Bordighera is to
be found in the development of its winter colony.

After long discussion, and hesitation even more pro-
longed than is usual in such cases, the municipal council
at length started fairly forward in the direction which
destiny had marked out fur it. A loan of one hundred
and fifty thousand francs was arranged, and three broad
roads, forming together nearly a mile and a half of well-
made carriage road, has been opened. ** It is but a com-
mencement," you will say ; and this is true, but it is no
slight thing to have advanced even so far. In the
development of towns, the first and most important func-
tion which rests upon those in authority is to open good
means of communication : the rest follows as a matter of
course, and may safely be left to private speculation. To-
day Bordighera possesses two large hotels, several smaller
ones, and many pensions; a fair number of shops, amply
meeting the wants of visitors ; an English church, where
service is held regularly from the middle of October to
the middle of May ; two chemists, a telegraph office, a
railway station, where all trains stop without exception;

f

1840 TO 1880. 7

and between forty and fifty villas and apartments,
especially built and furnished for letting to the winter
visitors.

Here then are the elements for a foreign colony, which
there is no doubt will rapidly develop. I can but repeat,
however, that a stranger coming to Bordighera, and expect-
ing to find it a fashionable wintering jplace, will be greatly
disappointed.

At Nice, at San Remo, and even at Mentone, beyond
the advantages of a southern climate, one finds the whole
retinue of fashionable life: here the visitor meets with
nothing but a perfect climate and the loveliest scenery ;
all else is conspicuous by its absence !

The advantages then of Bordighera are these : a winter
residence, not only sunny and sheltered, but free from the
noise and turmoil of a town, and where nature brings her
choicest treasures to your very door. These characteristics
new towns lose, alas ! only too quickly ; let us hope that
at least Bordighera will keep them for as long a time as
possible.

No doubt it is to be desired that the foreign colony
should increase, and that speculation should develop in
every possible manner our ''million square yards of
admirable building land"; but in all its developments
Bordighera will be wise to preserve before everything its
character as a quiet and rural wintering resort, where,
under a southern sun, and in the midst of a tropical
vegetation, far from the noisy throng and the buzz of
mundane pleasures, worn-out humanity can find rest, and
the sick restoration to health. As long as our little
commune preserves these features, its success is certain,
for it will take the first rank amongst all places of its

8

BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESOKT.

kind : it will more and more become a rendezvous of the
class of traveller I have described-; but on the day that it
takes another course, Bordighera must resign itself to
follow sadly in the wake of its better-known rivals.

Looking at it from this point of view, one might counsel
Bordighera to act as did the inhabitants of a certain large
village in another part of the world, whose designation
they were advised to change into that of town : *' Nay,"
said they, " we would rather be the first of villages than
the last of towns."

CHAPTER II.

THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BOKDIGHERA.

General topograpliy — The Cai)e— The 'J'owor of MostacciDi — La

Fai* .ta— Colla di Rodi— Montcneru— SiLs^o— iiorghetto— Vallecrosia
— Nervia— Ruia.

The chain of the Blaritime Alps, which in this part is
mingled with the Apcn nines, nins parallel to the coast at
a distance of about 37 miles Irom it. Its highest peaks in
our neighbourhood do not attain a greater elevation than
9800 feet above the level of the ]\re(literranean. Tlie
area situated between this raii,-<' and tlie coast is occiii)ied
by a confused mass of secondary hills, as a rule very
stony, with a deplorable absence of trees and extremely
broken up.

This area is furrowed by a series of valleys ruiuiin
north and south, and which graanally diuvinish in in"
portanre iVuni the French frontier to Bordighera. The
Boia, which empties itself into the ..u at Yentimi.^liu,

the neighbourhood.

9

has its source in the central chain of the Alps, owing its
waters to the perpetual snow of the Col di Tenda. The
Nervia, which has its mouth at the western extremity of
the great plain of Bordighera, may be followed north as
far almost as Dolceacqua, where it turns to the east and
is lost to north of this neighbourhood. The torrents of
those valleys which follow, as we go from west to east
(those of Vallecrosia, Borghetto and Sasso), only receive
the pluvial waters coming from the southern slope of the
secondary chain of mountains formed by the upper valley
of the Nervia.

The almost isolated range which commences at the
Cape of Bordighera and separates the Borgo Marina from
the valley of Sasso, reaches a height of from 800 to
1000 feet for the distance of three-quarters of a mile,
up to the Tower of Mostaccini, which protects the entrance
of the Borghetto valley. From this point it is connected
with the shoulder of Montenero by a ridge which runs
north and south between the valley of Borghetto and the
upper extremity of that of Sasso. The Strada Bomana
runs along the foot of the chain on the south, the path of
the aqueduct being on the opposite side ; near the top is
found the communal road to Sasso and that which is named
after the Fontana Vecchii, which follows almost a straight
line from the old village of Bordighera to the Tower of
Mostaccini. A number of little paths, crossing the olive
plantations, bind these four roads together in all direc-
tions, and enable the visitor to vary his walks admjinitum.
Indeed it is a fact, that there are few winter stations
which offer to the visitor a wider or more varied field for
excursions than our neighbourhood; only, to be able
thoroughly to enjoy a sojourn at Bordighera, one must be

^

10

BORDIOHEEA AS A WINTER RESORT.

THE NEIGHBOURHOOD.

11

a lover of wild flowers, of silent woods, of nigged moun-
tains, and be satisfied witli these and the vast horizon of
a country which has yet received no embellishment from
the hand of man. Those then who desire to find in their
winter home sometliiiig which may remind them of Hyde
Park or the Bois de Boulogne had better not stop here,
for we possess nothing which even in the most remote
degree resembles the Prom h des Anglais of Nice or the
Viale del Colli of Florence.

However, as these pages are intended to be read at
Bordighera, it is useless to give a description of a country
and scenery which the reader will already have under
his eyes : I will therefore pass on at once to indicate
the principal excursions which can be made in the
district.

The traveller who wishes to make acquaintance with
the natural beauties of the place, and to acquire a know-
ledge of its toi)ography, ought first of all to betake liimself
to the plateau of the Cape of St. Ampelio. From this
superb point of view, the eye can take in the Italian coast
as far as San Eemo and the French almost to Toulon ; yet
however beautiful this may strike him, it is still inferior
to that from the point I suggest as the first tvalk which
the stranger should take on his arrival, viz :

The Tmeer of Mostaeeinl-ThiB excursion does not take
an hour and a half, both going and returning. To reach
the Tower, the pedestrian follows the Strada Momana
imtd close to Pozzoforte, from whence he must turn to the
right by the first path which presents itself. He can
however, equally well gain the summit of the hill, thouc^h
It IS somewhat a longer route, by climbing the paUi
behmd the bastions of the old town, taking the mule track

by the Fontana Vecchia and following it straight onwards
till it brings him to his destination. The tower is pro-
bably of lioman origin ; at any rate, it served as an avisium
(or watch-tower) in the middle ages. It is in a perfect state
of preservation, but does not offer any other point of interest
to the tourist, than that from it is obtained a view un-
rivalled along the Eiviera.

La Madonna della Ruota is a hamlet situated on the
high road, about a mile and a half to the eastward of
Bordighera. Here is a sanctuary founded by the knights
of Khodes, from whom it derives its name, Kuota. The
church contains an Annunciation in marble, which has a
certain artistic value. Sulphurous waters gush forth here
in two places : one at the side of Montenero, behind the
church ; the other below, almost upon the beach which is
called Giunchetto.

ColJa di Bodi is a large village admirably situated on
the top of Capo Nero, which separates the bay of San Eemo
from that of Ospedaletti, a little hamlet about a mile and
a half further on than Euota, and which took its name
from a hospital (now entirely disappeared), which also was
erected by the knights of Ehodes, or, as they are perhaps
better known to us, the knights of St. John of Jerusalem
or of Malta.

The visitor to Colla will find two things which he would
hardly expect to come across in such a very out-of-the-way
place: viz. a library of 0000 volumes and a gallery of
pictures, amongst which are some works of great artistic
merit. Both of these are legacies to his native town by
Professor S. P. Eambaldi, a distinguished professor, who
died in Tuscany in 1865.

Montenero is the name of an extensive wood, over-

12

BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

hanging the valley of Sasso and the bay of Euota, and
exactly over the latter are some gaping apertures, which
go by the name of ciotti fumosi, or " smoking holes," owing
to the popular tradition, which states tliat formerly smoke
may luive been seen issuing from them.

Montenero joins to the north-east Caggio, which in
its turn serves as a shoulder to the gigantic Bignone, a
striking mountain clothed with turf to its very sumni'it,
which rises to the lieight of nearly 3300 feet, and from'
wlu'ch may be obtained one of the most striking views in
the Eiviera. These woods, viz. those both of Montenero
and Caggio, are admirable places for long pedestrian
excursions and pic-nics : the flora is very rich, and gently
sloping paths wander in every direction.

Sasso is a little village situated at the head of the valley
of the same name : it offers few points of interest to the
visitor except its unusual origin, which is that of a stronrr
castle turned into a village. ^

The Borghetto Valleij, the first to the west of Bordi-hera
contains the villages of Borghetto, Vallebuoiia, and Se-'
borga, which latter occupies its most distant point. These
villages are all extremely i)icturesque and well worth a
visit ; a^ fur as Vallebuona there is a good carriage road.

Ike Valkcrosia Valleij only possesses a carria-e road
as far as the village of the same name: if the traveller
goes either by carriage or on horseback, he will pass at
the pomt where this road turns off from the high road a
very interesting establishment~a home or asylum with a
school attached, where the boys are taught a trade : the
estabhshment was founded by an English lady for the
orphans of poor protestants of both sexes, who are received
irom all parts of Italy. This valley, wider and colder

THE NEIGHBOURHOOD.

13'

than the previous one, also contains three villages, viz.
Vallecrosia, San Biagio, and Soldano.

The broad valley of the Nervia contains also several
villages; Camporosso, Dolceacqua (remarkable for its
excellent wines and its castle, dating from the middle
ages), and Pigna, celebrated for its beautiful forest and its
mineral waters.

The valley of the Roia (rapid river? from the Latin
ruo)y offers little of interest, but a very beautiful drive,
unless indeed the tourist is able to afford time to push on
as far as Giandola or St. Dalmas, an excursion which
necessitates an absence of several days : should he be able
to do so, either of those places may be made the centre
of the most agreeable excursions.

But those I have mentioned are far from being the
only interesting drives or excursions which are to be
found in our neighbourhood.

The sanctuary of Santa Croce at the entrance of the
valley of Vallecrosia, the Castel d'Appio above Yenti-
miglia, Taggia (the birth-place and for so many years the
home of the Chevalier Rnfiini), with the lovely valley of
Argentina and a great number of other localities, offer to
the taste of the winter visitor excursions as beautiful as
varied, and not exquisite views only, but historical,
archceological and geological curiosities of the greatest
interest.

Artists also will find in our valleys and on our hills an
inexhaustible mine for sketches and pictures, and I am
happy to be able to call their attention to an interesting
work on this subject from the pen of M. Charles Gamier,
which they will find further on.

( J4 )

CflAPTEU III.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE CLIMATE.

Special ^..on, for the Mediterranean climate-Exceptional ...sition of
i>ordi2hera — Known in/i inr^n.. i . , ' auion oi

B CI* ivQovvn and inferred causes ol the climate.

The Wpai and Li.„rian coast, situated between the
43rd and 44th parallels of latitude, rejoices in a hotter

8 tuated from s.x to seven degrees further south But
th.s alone ,s not sufficient to explain the exceptional .oft
ness of the climate: for the 43rd nar.ll^l /
Caucasus. Tartar^, and the enl^ t J^Tx t
America, and everyone knows that the winter of thlse
countries has no resemblance whatever to that nf T ■
Therfi miiQf h^ +i »ievtr to that of Liguria.

Aflere must be, then, some special influences in a/iv
-e^^^^^^^^^^^^^ to produce the clTmrw^t

ture far higher than those of the de ^o ^ nj ,' r'"'"
latitude. P ^""^^ '" tlie same

chmate which differs considerably frolthosp TT "'' "
of Europe, in having a far greaL alu rb:''?:^'

CHARACTER OF CLIMATE.

15

But this climate, so superior to those found in the foggy
countries of the north, varies considerably in its details
one place with another, owing to the nature of their soil,
their position as regards the sea and its depth or shallow-
ness, the height and distance of the mountains, which to
a greater or less degree shelter the various localities and
modify considerably the direction of the winds. For if
we study a map of the coasts of Provence and Liguria,
we shall notice that all the places referred to—Cannes,
Nice, ]\[entone, San Kemo, Alassio, Pegli, Nervi, and the
rest— are, with one exception, situated at the bottom of
bays more or less deep : Bordighera alone occupying a
prominent position.

The promontory, the extremity of which forms the
cape of Bordighera, presents on the map the appearance
of a right angle, the coast receding in a straight line on
each side for nearly two miles to north-west, to the bottom
of the bay of La Euota, and for more than three to the
north-east beyond Ventimiglia.

The first result of this is that all winds from east or
west, veering south, necessarily blow from the sea, the
consequence being a Salter air at Bordighera, even inland,
than at any other place along the coast.

The predominating influence of wind from the sea
forms then the special peculiarity of our climate, the
only one, indeed, which has a serious and appreciable
value.

The reader will find further on a detailed analysis of
the climate, so I will confine myself here to giving a
summary of it. The comparison of meteorological obser-
vations made at Bordighera with those of the neighbouring
winter resorts, shows that this climate really possesses

16

BOKDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

some peculiarities which are not found in other places
along the coast ; thus it is impossible to deny :

1. That the variations of temperature are less ; that is
to sav, that it is both warmer in winter and cooler in

summer.

2. That the cold rains from the mountains are rarer.

3. That the winds here are more frequent and also
stronger, but that, modified in their course, they are
warmer and damper,

4. That the sky is more frequently cloudless, and con-
sequently the climate is sunnier during the winter.

But these conclusions are merely suggestions. They
are summarised, it is true, from careful observations, as
well as indicated by the geographical position ; but it is
only by a careful comparison of means during a long series
of years, that we can definitely ascertain the facts.

The facts, however, even when most complete, constitute
differences so infinitesimal that they would be apparent
only in meteorological reports.

The climate of Bordighera is, then, from all we can
learn, very similar to those of the rest of the coast, with a
somewhat larger proportion of sea winds and a Salter air,
which gives it an essentially tonic character.

This, then, is the only conclusion which it is possible to
draw from the facts with wliich meteorology furnishes us,
and this result naturally suggests the question, "What
complaints does the climate of Bordighera especially
suit?" To which we reply, Those which require a
southern climate combined with a tonic and saline air.

( 17 )

CHAPTER IV.

LOCAL SANITARY CONDITIONS.

Sanitary position— Drainage of the flat ground — Death-rate of
Bordighera and other places.

For the traveller who thinks of passing a season at one of
the winter stations on the Mediterranean coast, an agree-
able climate and a pleasant situation are not the only
points to be considered; the sanitary conditions of the
place necessarily play an important part in the selection.
Strictly speaking, all the winter stations of this part of
Europe enjoy very favourable sanitary conditions, espe-
cially if we compare them with the large towns of northern
Europe. The powerful sun which warms them, and the
dry and purifying winds which sweep their streets during
the winter, necessarily produce this result. But if we
analyse the details, if we compare one locality with
another, we are compelled to admit that Bordighera is the
most favoured of all.

Now tliere are three classes of facts which influence the
sanitary conditions of a place : its topographical position,
the nature of the 8oil, and the density, in a greater or less
degree, of its population.

To assure ourselves that the position of Bordighera is
eminently healthy, it is enough to make a visit to the
Cape and look around.

The old town, situated on a ridge, is completely ex-
posed to strong east and west winds, which penetrate into
the most remote corners of the streets and even of the
houses. New Bordighera, that is the Borgio Marina, with

c

18 BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

its broad and rich olive woods, is, it is true, only exposed
to the west winds ; but tlie whole of this neighbourhood,
iutting out as it does into the sea, is found to be infinitely
more airy and more subject to purifying sea air than is
possible in towns situated in bays.

However, at first sight a strang^'r might p(^rliaps think
that the drainage of new Bordigheia is not all that could
be desired. The old town, with all tlie buildings which
are grouped around the Cape and on tlie hillsides above the
Strada Emiana, are no doubt slieltered from any suspicion
of this sort; but that part wldch is necessarily destined to
receive the cliief portion of the town of the future, that
is, the Via Vittorio Enmanuele and the hind separatmg
it' from Strada Romana, stretching li'om the Cape to
tlie Borghetto valley and beyond, is only raised about
12 feet above the level of the sea. Nor is this all. The
old high-road, now become the Via Vittorio Emmanuele,
having been constructed on a bank of sand and gravel
wbicirthe sea had gradually washed up, the level ground
to the north is found at certain points to be considerably

lower than the shore.

How then, under such conditions, is drainage possible?
Nature herself, most fortunatt^ly, comes forward to

help us.

Further on the reader will see, in the geological chapter,
how the delta of tlie Borgo has boon formed, and the con-
stituents of its soil ; so I will only mention here that the
soil is so porous tliat water penetrates it and disappears
with extraordinary rapidity.

The question is therefore answered in the simplest and
most efficacious manner possible : by a natural drainage.

With regard, then, to the theory that I have been ad-

LOCAL SANITARY CONDITIONS.

19

vancing, that Bordighera stands at the head of the winter
resorts so far as healthiness is concerned, I will refer my
readers to the statistics furnished by the communal
registers, which all tend to support my position.

Below I give the totals of births and deaths for the ten
years ending 1880 : —

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
187C)
1877
IS78

1879

Total

Births.
61
54
64

54
60

87
81
68
95
70

694

Deaths.
37
34
44
38
46
45
36
55
48
48

421

The excess, then, of births over deaths is 273, more
than 50 })er cent. ; but the proportion which the result of
this table gives is less than the truth, because the foreign
colony furnishes a certain number of deaths, which is
rarely the case with births.

The population of the commune was, by the census of
1871, 1688 ; in 1878, 2048. The mean for that period is,
consequently, 1868. The mean of deaths during that
time was 42*1, which, for a population of 1868, gives a
death-rate of 22 • 7.*

This striking fact will be conclusive to the minds of all
statisticians, for it proves that the sanitary conditions of
Bordighera are eminently healthful.

"' According to the Census of 1881, the population of Bordighera on
December 31st wa. 2372, .u- an increase of 324 souls in the three years.—
A. C. D.

c 2

20 BOBDIOHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

Below I give, as a means of comparison, the deatli-rate
of some of tlie large towns of Europe :—

I^odie 40* deaths per til ousaiid.

Paris 31*2 „

London 25' »i

Lyons 31*2 t,

Berlm 29-4

Madrid 34*4 n

Amsterdam .. .. 34 "4 „

Legliorii 28*5 „

Nice 32*2 „

Fifty years ago the entire population of Bordigliera
inhabited the circle formed by the old bastions ; but on
the opening of the carriage-road from Nice to Genoa
buildino- operations commenced at the Marina and the
slopes which surround the old town. Into these new
houses those residing in the old portions of the town
gradually settled themselves, so that we may truthfully
say at the present time that, along the whole of the coast,
there is no place where the residents are spread over so

wide an area.

We must therefore conclude a priori tliat Bordighera
ought to be an exceptionally healthy place, as indeed we
find all the conditions fulfilled which justify such a con-
clusion, viz. : —

1. An airy position, far from the mouth of a river or
from any collection of stagnant water.

2. A soil so constituted as to form a natural drainage.

3. A small population spread over a large area.

This conclusion is supported by facts. Epidemics ar**
unknown here ; the cholera especially, in spite of frequent
visits to the neighbouring towns both east and west, has
never shown itself at Bordighera.

\

1*

( 21 )

CHAPTER V.

THE CLIMATE MEDICALLY CONSIDERED.

Opinion of a resident practitioner— A few hints to invalids.

Although this book is by no means a medical work, I
have much pleasure in inserting here a few notes on the
character of the climate, for which I am indebted to Dr.
J. A. Goodchild, English physician at Bordighera :

"The general character of the climate of the Riviera has been too
often descril>ed, and is too well known, both to the medical profession
and to the public, for it to be needful for me to go deeply into the
question of its merits and demerits in the treatment of disease ; so I
shall content myself with giving those particulars in which, so far as
my experience goes, the climate of Bordighera differs from that of its
neighbours. In the climatological iwrtion of this work the observa-
tions of Mr. Hamilton go to prove what I should consider probable
beforehand, namely, that whilst the average temperature in the winter
is much the same as that of its neighbours, it is cooler in spring and
autumn, and warmer in midwinter, than most of them ; and also that,
when compared with the east bay of Mentone, undoubtedly the warmest
situation on the entire coast, the curious fact appears, that whilst the
maxima at Mentone are usually from four to six degrees higher than at
Bordighera, the minima are in almost every instance lower.

" At first sight this difference is puzzling, but the explanation consists
in the fact that radiation goes on far less rapidly during the night from
the surface of the densely sheltered plain and hills of Bordighera than
from the bare and rocky mountains which form the coast at Mentone.
In the daytime these arid rocks reflect a considerable amount of heat,
and the higher maxima at Mentone are no doubt due in great measure
to this cause. It often happens, however, that during cold weather,
even in the daytime, Mentone is colder than Bordighera. This, how-
ever, only occurs during exce[»tionally cold seasons, and is evidence of
the presence of large masses of snow upon the mountains above Men-
lone at the time of this interchange of relative day temperatures.
Two other causes contribute to render Bordighera more suitable, for

22

BORDIGUELIA AS A WINTER RESORT.

THE CLIMATE MEDICALLY CONSIDERED.

23

tho.. vvl.n uisli tu bf much in the oi»c«ii air i.i midwinter, than either
Mentuiie or San lleuio, lx)th due to its south-west as^ct ; the two
latter i»laces facing south-east.

" The first is, that the sue sets into the sea, so that its warmth is
preserved till the last moment, whilst at Mentone and San Remo it
sets nearly an hour earlier hchiud the mountains which lie to tlie west
of these places. I'his is m:itter of great concern to invidids in the short
winter, as the afteniocu is considerably prolonged, and the sunset chill,
which constitutes one of the daufjers of a southern climate, comes on

more graiually.

*'The second advantage consists in the much fuller protection which
Bordighera enjoys from the east and south-east winds than its rivals ;
these are tlie prevalent w inds in midwinter, and blow straight into the
neighbouring towns. Mr. Hamilton lias stated that the protection
from the south-east is only partial ; this is, however, only true of the
old town and some iK)rtions of the Mari/i>i. The neighbourhood of the
Stradii liomima, which is the residential ([uarter, and where the two
new hotels are in courseof construction, is better sheltered from easterly
winds than perhaps any similar situation on the coast.

"As regards humidity, whilst the average moisture of the air is

very low, even near the sea, far lower than any climate to be found in

Europe north of the Alps, the dryness does not equal that of Cannes ; the

changes from saturation to extreme dryness are also less rapid, owing,

1 believe, to our richer soil and the abundance of trees. This fact is

an advantage to newly arrived invalids, who have not been [previously

acclimatised, as the sudden changes from a humid atmosphere to a

condition of extreme dryness are a fruitful cause of severe irritation of

the mucous membrane, and even of the skin.

" In conclusion, I may say, from a considerable personal experience,
that whilst less stimulant and exciting than either Nice or Cannes, the
climate of Bordighera is far more bracing than that of Mentone ; and
l^erhaps, allowing for the differences caused by a diflerent as[)ect,
approaclies more nearly to that of its neighbour, San Kemo.

"With these general characters, with a good water sujiply and at
present a scattered jwpiilaiiou, the place is an exceptional residence for
almost any cases marked by chronic degeneration of tissue. Chronic
bronchitis, asthma dei)endent upon the former disorder or u\mn dis-
ordered digestion, phthisis of a non-febrile type, exhaustion from over
work, nervous debility, anemia, chronic Bright's disease, chronic
rheumatism, gout, and the varied forms of long-continued disease which
affect the mucous membrane, are all likely to derive more or less

I

I

't

(

benefit from a winter's residence ; and I should like to say a strong
word in favour of the remarkable effects produced by this climate in
every case of diabetes which has come under my notice.

" Such a work as the present is not, however, the place in which to
dilate upon subjects which I hope to have the opportunity of bringing
before the members of my own profession upon some future occasion.
The information contained in this work will be a sufiBcient guide to
those physicians who may wish to select a southern residence for their
patients ; and I would advise all non-medical readers to avoid acting
upon their own impulses in the choice of a winter residence, and to
consult one or other of the numerous branch of physicians who possess
practical acquaintance with the merits of the multitudinous health
resorts which are daily being pressed into notice upon the Continent,
many upon the slenderest evidence, and others apparently upon no
other grounds than the well-being of hotel-keepers."

Travellers from northern Europe who arrive for the
first time on the Kiviera not unfrequently lack the neces-
sary knowledge which would enable them to place them-
selves under the most favourable conditions for a residence
in this climate. I will therefore add a few words of advice
to the visitor who comes to us an invalid, and is thinking
of passing a winter on our coast.

1st. Do not forget that you are stiU in Europe^ and in a
climate which is no warmer than that of Canada, save by-
reason of its sheltered position and its proximity to a sea
whose Walters enjoy an unusually high temperature. Do
not then expect from the climate more than it is able to
give you — that is, lovely weather rather than sub-tropical

heat.

2ud. Do not keep your apartments too ivarm. Nothing
is more dangerous for a delicate person than sudden
transitions from heat to cold. In the damp and cold
climates of Northern Europe, it is necessary that the
interior of the house be kept warm, and one is therefore
exposed to the danger of facing a very much lower tern-

24

BOHDIOHEllA A- A WINTEH RESORT.

PKACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

25

perature on going out into the open air, but in the south
it is possible to avoid a change as disagreeable as danger-
ous. From the moment that the rays of the sun fall on
your apartment, its teiiiperatiiro is naturally raised to
about 54^ Fahr. ; it is better, therefore, to content your-
self with a fire in the evening only, when you have come
in for good.

3rd. Do not he out after the dew has begun to fall', that
is, for half an hour before, until two hours after sunset.
Later in the evening you may go out with impunity, as
the temperature rises several degrees.

4th. Ahvays take your tvaJks in the morning. Invalids
too often bring with them to the Riviera the habits and
customs of more temperate latitudes, one of which is
taking their usual walks after luncheon — that is, between
two and four o'clock. These happen, however, to be
precisely the hours when the wind is most to be feared.
The blusterous winds which blow from the east, west, and
Bouth-west seldom get up (except during tempestuous
periods) before eleven o'clock, but then invariably increase
in force after mid-day. Above all, then, we advise a
choice of the calm hours of the early morning, say between
nine and eleven, for the daily constitutional.

5th. Bo not wrap too warmly. In these sheltered
places on which the sun shines so powerfully, there is a
great tendency to perspire freely, and especially if too
warmly clad. Along the Riviera coast then, it is wiser
to accustom the body, both in the open air as well as iu
doors, to a lower temperature, and it is found by experi-
ence that this can be done without risk.

6th. Bo not leave your winter quarters too early in the
spring. A large number of our winter visitors turn again

j

northwards during the month of May, and by doing so,
not unfrequently run the risk of losing much of the benefit
they may have received from their winter iu the south.

The summer of Northern Europe has not commenced
in May ; the temperature is still low and the winds, as a
rule, blowing keenly from the north-east, at best a
modified March. The month of June even leaves much
to be desired, above all by those who have rendered
themselves especially sensitive to damp and cold by a
residence where the climate is particularly warm and dry.
On the other hand, on this coast, June is one of the most
delightful months of the year ; it is characterised by
lovely days of moderate warmth and cool nights, and
frequent showers which preserve the luxuriant vegetation
of the spring. The time of intense dryness, when this
coast is alone disagreeable, begins about midsummer, or
sometimes later, and ends about the 15th of September.

CHAPTER VI.

PKACTICAL HINTS TO ENGLISH RESIDENTS IN ITALY.

Number of foreigners iu Italy— Peculiar difficulties encountered by the
English— General state of legislation and administration— The pro-
gress of twenty years— Public administration— Property— Mortgages
—Taxation— Leases and tenants— Wills and successions— Banking
and sundries.
Few countries are frequented by strangers to the same
extent as Italy. The climate, the natural beauties of the
landscape, the historical associations connected with the
land of Caesar and Dante, and the magnificent monuments

26 BORDIOHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

of classic times and medifeval art, are all attractious of
tlie liigliest order and wbieh draw together in tlie

** . . . IkjI paese
che rAi^nnin parte e il mar circoiida e TAlpe,"

a motley crowd of valetudinarians, antiquarians, artists and
pleasure-seekers of all classes.

The number of foreigners (stranieri) established iu
Italy is surprising ;* it amounts to one-fifth per cent, of
the entire population. According to the census of
1st January, 1882, these foreigners were divided as
follows :—

Austrians .. 15,790

Sui.^s .. 12,104

Freocli 10,781

British 7,402

Germans 5,234

IviLssiaiis 1,387

( ireoks 1,212

*Si>auianls 922

Turks 001

Belgians 583

Swedes and Norwegians 441

Hnngariaiiis 302

Dutdi 204

Danes 168

Nortli Americans (U.S.) 1,286

Soiitli Americans and Mexicans .. 906

Other nationalities 633

Total 51>,956

The large numbers of Austrians and Swiss are principally
compost>d of the labouring classes ; the French are chiefly

* The siixnificatiotis of ' , i . , .exactly the opposite to

thosi' t.i tin' c.rrojHin.liii^- wur.l.s m Liiiili.-h. A atninkro is a foreigner to
the country, a i -tiaiii:- r to the [.lace.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

27

II

shopkeepers, engineers, and men otherwise engaged in
business : hence the largest proportion of those foreigners
with private means residing in Italy is supplied by the
British empire ; and to these 7402 permanent residents
we must add the thousands of health-seekers and tourists
who flock into Italy every autumn. Switzerland, during
the summer months, will doubtless show a larger number
of tourists in proportion to the extent of the country,
certainly not of residents.

But of all people who settle in Italy, the English stand
most iu need of practical information. Others— the French,
for instance—find not only a language more akin to their
own, but a legislation and mode of doing business of every
kind which do not differ essentially from what they have
in their own country. But to the Englishman all is new.
The language is radically different from his own ; the
laws, the organisation of the various public departments,
the system of taxation, and the proceedings necessary for
the transaction of business of all kinds, are totally at
variance with what is familiar to him at home.

Of course the first impulse of Englishmen under such
circumstances is to criticise and grumble at what they do
not understand, and to expatiate in glowing colours on
the superior way of managing everything in the British
Islands. Indeed, I have often been amused at this
tendency in would-be English proprietors in Italy, who,
after having ventured for the first time across the " silver
streak," come to ask for information, say, how to buy a
piece of land, without running the risk of paying for it
twice over. When one begins to explain the admirable
clearness of the law on property, and the very simple
formalities connected with its transfer, a man will often

28

BOBDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

fire up at hearing barbarously sounding terms which he
does not understand, and then, after branching off into a
long dissertation on how the same thing would be done in
England or Scotland, finally leave the office no wiser than
when he entered it.

In the French edition of this book I did not deem it
necessary, for the reason stated above, to devote any space
to such matters ; but the case is different when writing
for the English, who are generally compelled to glean the
information they require in a language they understand
but imperfectly, and from more or less reliable sources,
such as hotel and shopkeepers ; or by applying at public
offices where they rarely meet with more than what a well-
known writer so happily calls " the bamboozling smell of
how not to do it." Hence I feel sure that a few practical
hints to intending or present residents in Italy will prove
a boon to many.

But let me first offer a few words on the general state
of legislation and public administration.

In the days of the fallen despots, when Bomba and
Bombalmo could allow the lazzaroni to sack Naples with
impunity, when Canapone could, without blushing, order
the artillery of the Fortezza da Basso to bombard the town
at Florence — when, in a word, climate, art and ruins, with
cheating, highway robbery, dirty inns and slow travelling,
were tlie only attractions which Italy could offer to the
tourist, and the best eulogy that could be pronounced on
her was to call her la Terra dei morii—dthctixe legislation,
corrupt administration, iniquitous taxation, and all the
evils of bad government were naturally the order of the
day. But it is important not to confound the past with
the preseni state of tlie country.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

29

An eminent writer remarked lately, that Italy has
done in twenty years what England did in six hundred.
This— and it is true to a great extent— is of course less
owing to anything peculiar in the character of the people
than to the rapidity with which events take place in the
nineteenth century, aided by the powerful patriotic feeling
which arose with the peaceful and glorious revolution of

1860.

All matters connected with legislation, public adminis-
tration and instruction, taxation, &c., are now organised
in Italy upon a most satisfactory footing. It has indeed
been said that the State is in advance of the people ; that
the new legislation and administrative principles are
beyond the comprehension of the ignorant inhabitants,
degraded and demoralised as they have been by centuries
of tyranny, and that consequently the laws fail to work
well. Such is truly the case in the southern provinces ;
not so in the northern, especially in the highly civilised
and prosperous district of Liguria.

There everything proceeds in the most orderly manner ;
and those who contemplate settling in this country may
do so unhesitatingly, as they will find everything relating
to the transaction of business just as satisfactory, and, I
may add, in many respects much easier, than they would
at home, if they will only set about what they want to do in

the right way.

I now proceed to examine the different questions con-
nected with business, which I will class under the fol-
lowing heads :— Public administrations, Property, Mort-
gages, Taxation, Wills and Successions, Banking and
Sundries.

30

BORDIOHERA \- A WINTER RESORT.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

31

STATE ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PUBLIC SERVICE.

Local government in Italy is oro:aiiise(l as follows:

The ('ountrvis divided into [tioviiic s. .aeh of which has
a Preffct (Prefetto) iv-idinir in tlie rlii.'t' town (capo-Iuo(jo) ;
these are a;;;iin (lividril into fV hiri, presided over hy
Sub-prefects (SoUoprefeiii). Each province has a Provincial
Co\mcil{Consi(/IioProvi)if''"^"). ejected by the i)eo|)]e, wliich
holds one or two sessions every year, to discuss provincial
interests. This body appoints a permanent commission of
three or more of its members (Dejjufazione Provinclale), Inr
the dispatch of ordinary business.

The communes or townships (Comuni) are administered
by a mayor (Sindaco) and a town council {ConsigUo
Comunale), the number of whose members is in proportion
to tlie population: at Bordiglura we have fifteen; this
council, as in the preceding case, appoints a permanent
commission {Giunia\ composed of men liters (Assessor i) who
are authorised to undertake the duties of the mayor when
absent from any cause. The crown ii|»p( tints tlie mayor,
clioosing him among the elected Assessor i ; the appointment
is for fi\(' \i ars. One tifth of the council is renewed each
year by election. No deliberation of a communal council
is valid unless ratified by the Provincial Deputation.

Communes are grouped for judiciary, military, and other
purposes in " cmitous'' (mandamth.,,, havinir a judo-e a
Conciliator, a tax-gatherer, and other functionaries in
common.

The judge of the mandamento passes sentence for minor
penal offences, like a magistiate in England, and hears
civil cases in which tlie interest involved is not above

1500 francs. The Conciliator hears only those not ex-
ceeding thirty francs.

At the Capo Luogo di Circondario there is a Correctional
tribunal for higher penal offences, and at the chief town of
the province a Civil tribunal for civil cases of all kinds,
and a Commercial trihiinal, whose judges are merchants or
manuflicturers elected by their colleagues, and which hears
all cases in which commercial interests are involved. The
Court of Assizes also holds sessions once or twice a year in
the chief towns for trial by jury. Appeals from all these
tribunals are allowed to the Courts of Appeal and thence to
those of Cassation.

Tlie police service in Italy is effected by three distinct
corps : 1st, the Carabineers {Beali Carabinieri), a military
police, both foot and mounted; 2nd, the police properly
so-called (Guardie di Puhblica Sicurezza) ; these are at-
tached to courts of law and prisons, and preserve order in
the streets of large towns : the detectives belong to this
corps ; 3rd, the local police {Guardie di Citta) supported
by the municipalities of large towns to supplement the
other corps for street service. But in small places, as at
Bordighera, the whole service is effected by the carabineers
and one or two Guardie Urbane.

I may remark here that the terms police (polizia) and
gendarme (<7e?ir?arwie), having become odious to the public
ear through their association with the tyranny of past
times, have been completely banished from the official
vocabulary of Italy, and replaced by those of public se-
curity {Sicurezza Pubblica) and carabineers {Carabinieri),

Public instruction in Italy is organised on a principle
which differs widely from that of France. The machinery
is as follows.

oA

BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

I

Four classes of elementary schools, viz Ist and 2nd, to be
found in almost every village ; these are obligatory by a
recent law, which however is not as yet applied as rigor-
ously as it should be ; 3rd and 4th, existing in all towns and
most chief places (ca^i Imghi) of cantons, as at Bordighera.
Besides these official schools, tliere are infant asylums
{asili infantili), mixed schools for small children of both
sexes, and adult evening schools, all supported by volun-
tary contributions with help from the communes.

I should remark liere that whereas in other countries
tlie first class in a school is the highest,* and consequently
the last through which the pupil passes, in Italy tlie oppo-
site, and perhaps more ratioiuil system, has been adopted,
the classes being numbered in the order in which they are
gone through from the lowest to the highest.

After the elementary classes the pupil has before liim
two distinct lines of study, tlie technical and the classical ;
the former leading him through a series of special schools
and colleges to the career of a civil engineer, to commer-
cial and nautical life, to the arni\ and navy, Sec; the
latter through the gymnasium {ginnasio), the lyceum
Qiceo) and the university (universitd), to the professions of
the bar, medicine, &c.

The chief occasions on which English residents and
visitors are called upon to have dealings with the local
authorities are tlie registration of births and deaths; mar-
riages between British subjects being independent of the
Italian laws.

All births must be registered within five days. The

* The author seems to have forgotten that in all the great public schools
in En£;lantl th*.- numeration is the same as iu Italy, the Upper Sixth being the
highest. — A. C. D.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

33

law requires the child to be presented at the communal
office for tlie certification of the sex, but this can gene-
rally be avoided by a medical certificate from an Italian
official physician, that of an English practitioner not
being sufficient.

Deaths must be registered within twentv-four hours,
before which lapse of time no body can be buried, except
under peculiar circumstances. A medical certificate of
the same description as above is necessary.

PROPERTY.

All property is freehold, at least in this part of Italy ;
the system of long or perpetual leases (enjiteusi) being
confined to the central and southern provinces.

Land is generally sold by the square metre, or, in the
olive woods of the less modernised part of the country, at
so much a tree at a valuation. The title to ownership
consists in the " transcription " (trascrizione) at the Office
of JMortgages (Conservazione delle fyoteche). At this office
a register is kept in which an account is opened to every
landowner, and in which land is transferred (trascritto)
from one name to another upon presentation of a deed of
sale, or of a w^ill or other document showing that one per-
son has inherited it from another. For the purpose of
" transcription," land is described by (a) the names of the
former owners, (6) the boundaries as expressed in deeds,
(c) the official number it bears in the catasio or survey
map of the country. Once the " transcription " is effected,
the transfer is complete and definite.*

* The excellence of this simple and expeditious system is shown by it
having been adopted in Canada, Australia, and, I believe, all the great British
colonies.

34

BORDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

35

Now, let lis suppose that Mr. Smith is about to purchase
a piecJ of land at IJordighera, and see how he should set

about it.

Having agreed as to the price witli the seller (and this
he will prudently have done in writing), the first tiling is
to see how the property stands as to mortgages (tor th(^
nature of mortgages, see fallowing page). For this purpose
he must go to the Uffizto delle IiMeclie at San Eemo, and
ask to see the account of So-and-so. The register is
public, but there is a charge of 50 centimes for each

account one looks at.

Having satisfied himself on this point, the next thing is
to send for a notary, who will write out the deed of con-
veyance {contratto di vendita) currente calamo, and attest
the signaturea of the parties, together with two wit-
nesses.

If there are mortgages on the property, the mortgagees

should be present and receive tlieir money, otherwise the
mortgages will remain on the land and run their course,
the buyer, of course, retaining the amount. The deed
must be registered at the liicevitoria del Begistro at
Ventimiglia within twenty days of its date. This regis-
tration, for which a duty of forty-eight per thousand on
the price is paid, does not effect the legality of the deed,
being merely a matter of taxation. The " transcription "
at San Kemo, which implies the real transfer, is indepen-
dent of registration.

The only other formality necessary is to communicate
the deed to the office of the Catasto or survey, at the town-
hall of Bordighera : this merely with a view to having the
owner's name changed at the tax agency. I should add
that these formalities, including the visit to the Office of

Mortgages at San Rerao, are generally left to the
notary.

Tlie expense of conveyancing is considerable, and it
falls entirely upon the purchaser. Including registration
duty, as above, stamps, certificates, notary's fees, &c., it
will generally amount to between six and seven per cent,
of the sum paid. It is always preferable, when possible,
to pay for land in cash on the signing of the deed, as a
receipt signed at a later period is subject to a stamp duty,
and, of course, a second fee to the notary. In the case of
Jiouses, furniture and other " movables " should be men-
tioned in the deed and quoted for their full value, as
the registration duty on such articles is only twenty-four
per thousand.

MORTGAGES.

These {fyotecJie) are loans, marriage settlements, or
other moneys owing and charged upon landed property.

They are subject to the following legislation : —

No mortgage can have a duration of more than thirty
years; at the expiration of this period, if not renewed,
they fall void by limitation (prescrizione) or prescription,
as it is called in Scotland.

Mortgages, to be legal, must be registered, subject to a
duty of six per thousand, and "inscribed" (iscritti) on the
pro})erty at the Office of Mortgages mentioned above.
They affect only the property upon which they are
charged, and they do so in the order of their " inscrip-
tion."

An example will make this clear.

Mr. John Smith purchases a piece of land and builds a
house upon it, but not having cash enough to cover the

D 2

36 BORDIOHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

expenses, which exceed his estimate by a long figure, he
contracts two successive loans of, say, 1000/. each, with
two different parties. These are dnly "inscribed" as
mortirages on the proi)erty. Now, let us suppose that at
the term stipulated for refunding these mortgages, Mr.
Smith does not fulfil his engagements, and fails to pay.
His creditors now have the right to seize his house and
land (not his furniture) and put them up for sale by
auction. If the property sells for more than the 2000?.
charged on it, Mt. Smith will receive the balance ; but if
it sells for less, say 1500/., the mortgagee whose " inscrip-
tion " bears the earliest date will get the whole of his
money, the other creditor having to content himself with
500/. ; nor can he touch any other property belonging
to the debtor, not even if he had an estate worth a
million of francs next door. From this the reader will
clearly understand that, in the case of mortgages, the real
debtor is the land they are charged upon, not the owner of
it, and that in lending money on landed security it is
always advisable to have a jii'st mortgage.

TAXATION.

The equitable distribution of taxation, so that each
citizen shall contribute to the expenses of the State in [pro-
portion to his income, is one of the most difficult problems
of political economy. Theoretically speaking, this problem
is at once solved by an ineome4ax, in the broadest accep-
tation of the term, everyone lianding over to the State a
certain percentage of his income, from whatever source it
may be derived. But in jiractice the difficulties which
beset the application of the principle are enormous. Hence
have arisen the multifarious contrivances for taxation

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

37

which exist in different countries. In Italy the end has
been attained by two distinct systems, direct and indirect
taxation. Let us consider them successively.

Direct Taxation. — This is in fact but a subdivision of
the income-tax into three heads, viz. on land (terreni),
buildings (fahhricati), and income properly so called
(riechezza mohile).

The machinery provided for the collection of these taxes
is as follows : —

The country is divided into districts (circoscrizioni), for
each of which there is a tax-agent {agente delle tasse), and
these are subdivided into groups {consorzi) consisting of
several communes, each having a tax-gatherer (esattore).
Our tax-agent resides at Yentimiglia, the tax-gatherer at
Bordighera.

The business of the agent consists in taxing new build-
ings or fresh sources of income, the land-tax rarely
varying.

He sets about it in the following way : —

Wh< n a new house is built, or a shop, manufactory, or
other industrial establishment opened, the agent serves a
notice upon the ow^ner in which he informs him that he
has estimated the income supposed to be derived from his
house or establishment, at a certain figure. The proprietor
generally thinks this figure too high, and he has twenty
days to appeal, by a petition (ricorso) on stamped paper,
to the Commission of the group {Commissione consorziale),
stating his reasons for demanding a reduction. This com-
mission is a body elected by the councils of all the com-
munes of the group, and its members being tax-payers
themselves, their tendency naturally is to cut down the
agent's figures.

do

BOHDIGHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

If neither party (proprietor or agent) are satisfied
with the decision, tln^y both have twenty days to api)eal
to the Provincial Commission, sitting at the chief town, and
after that there is a third appeal, in the same way, to
a Central Commission at Rome. However, in practice the
proceedings rarely go beyond the first appeal.

The factor {aliqmta) used fur obtaining the amount to be
paid, is, for the income-tax, 13 francs 20 cents ; for the other
two, 30 per cent, of the taxable income (reddito imfoni-
Me) upon which the parties agree. Of course, the gist of
the question lies in this figure : what proportion does it
bear to the real income ? But this is rather a dangerous
question to treat in print ; suffice it to say that everyone
naturally does his utmost to get his figure fixed as low as
possible.

The functions of the tax-gatherer consist merely in col-
lecting the taxes according to the rolls (ruoU) which are
transmitted to him by the agent. They are payable by
sixths, in bi-monthly instalments, or the whole in June,
under penalty of a fine of 4 per cent. The above fiictors
are fixed by Act of Parliament, and vary in slight propor-
tions from time to time. Tliey are subject also to be in-
creased and even doubled by the communes, under certain
special circumstances, of which hereafter.

Indirect Taxation. — These taxes consist of custom-
house duties, the monopoly of the sale of salt and tobacco,
stamps, registration and succession duties, and, above all,
town duties, or dazi comunali, tlie octrois of France.

Town duties are the most inconvenient taxes for
the public, as they entail a repetition of that most
objectionable institution, the Custom House, throughout
the interior of the country, at the gate of every citv, and

t

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

39

they have also the disadvantage (or advantage, according
to some) of encouraging building outside rather than inside
towns, leading thus to the formation of extensive suburbs
inhabited by the labouring classes. But on the other
hand, they offer the advantage of being a most equitably
distributed tax, as they are necessarily paid in a fair pro-
portion by all consumers.

The dazio di consumo or dazio comunale is divided into two
classes, pertaining to the State and to the communes. The
Government duty applies merely to wine, beer, and spiritu-
ous liquors, and it is levied on all the communes through-
out the kingdom indiscriminately by direct taxation
on the licensed vendors of spirits, like an English excise
duty, in those communes which have no dazio of their own,
and hence form the class of comuni aperti ; and by a sum
or canone paid annually by the commune to the State in
those which, having an octroi, form that of comu7ii chiusi.

Once a town has agreed with the Government as to the
sum to be paid, it is free to tax, subject to ministerial
approbation, every kind of merchandise which is intro-
duced into its territory. At Bordighera we pay dazio on
eatables and liquors of all descriptions, furniture, building
materials— almost everything, in a word, except tissues.

The following extract from the tariff will give the
reader an idea of the duty on a few important articles :—

Wine, per 100 litres ..
Brandy, per bottle
Fresh meat, per 100 kilus. . .
Flour, per 100 kilos

Fr.

.. .. 5

.. .. 0-27
.. .. 9
.. .. 1-50
.. .. 7

i)iiLi/er n

.. .. 5

Dugar 1,
Poultry „

.. .. 10

40

BORI'IGllEIiA AS A WINTER KESORT.

, '

Ft.

Coffee, |)er 100 kilos

5

Tea „

.. 100

Coal and charcoal, per 100 Idlux

0-50

Lime, per 100 kilos

0-20

Farnituns metal, per 100 kil^>^^. ..

3

„ walnut „

5

„ mahogany „

8

Pianos, I iir 100 kilos. ..

8

Gunpowtk-r „

.. 12

Soaj) „

3

DyDamite „

.. 20

Stearic candles, j>er 100 kilos. ..

.. 15

The dazi comunali are not collected in Italy, as are tlic
octrois of France, by direct adiriiiiistration for the account
of the town ; they are, with few exceptions, farmed out by
auction for periods of five years, to contractors, who pay
whatever the sum may be, and then make the most protit
they can. At Bordighera, as may naturally be suppo.^ed,
the fijyiire at which the dazio is let has steadilv increased
at all tlie rtcent auctions, at tlie following rate: —

Fr.

1871 14,000

187tJ 28,000

1880 38,000

The canone paid to the State being 6000 francs, tlie
commune at present derives a net income from the dazio
of 32,000 francs = 1280/. per annum, which sum will
doubtless rise considerably at the coming auction in
December 1884.

The dazio is the main source of revenue for Italian com-
munes. Bordighera p* t^s several others producing
small sums, sueh as the rents paid f* )r the occupation of
the terreni arenili (for which see l*art II., chapter XIII.) ;

.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

41

those for the use of four olive mills, and for the working
of the stone quarries, which are farmed out on the same
principle as the dazio ; sales of timber on the Montenero,
a pine forest of over six hundred acres in extent ; and a
small percentage on the direct Government taxes.

Under ordinary circumstances communes are expected
to meet their expenditure with resources of the above
description. They can, however, under special circum-
stances, increase, and even double the direct taxes. This
is chiefly done to defray the expense of opening roads.
They can also put on special local taxes or rates, such as
the tax on hearths (fuocatieo) or so much for every house-
hold, the tax on families (tassa di fa^niglia) or so much
per member of each family, taxes on dogs, servants, &c.
These are generally applied to the payment of interest
and reimbursement of loans.

LEASES AND TENANTS.

Tenants of furnished apartments pay no direct taxes
whatever; those of unfurnished apartments are expected
to pay the local rates when any exist.

Furnished apartments are always let for the season, or
from 15th October to 31st May, rent being payable half
on entrance, or not later than 1st November, and half on
31st January.

Eents for unfurnished apartments are payable in advance
by three or six months, according to agreement.

Leases are generally made for one, three, six, or nine
years. Sub-letting for both furnished and unfurnished
houses is always legal, when not forbidden by a clause in
the lease.

)

42

BOBDIOHERA AS A WINTER RESORT.

WILLS AND SUCCESSIONS.

No one may bequeath by will, away from his direct
heirs, more than one-half of what he possesses, if he has
children, and two-thirds if he has no children, but parents
or one of them living (Civil Code, art 805 and 807).

In the case of persons dying intestate, property goes to
the child or children, or in default of such to brothers and
sisters, parents or uncles, and in equal shares to all of each
degree of relationship.

Succession, whether by will or otherwise, must be notified
(dmunziaio) to the Keceiver of Registry (Eiceviiore del
Eegistro) at Ventimiglia within three months of the
decease, under pain of a heavy penalty. The duty is
regulated by the following scale:—

Child ren find parents

Husband and wife

Brotbers

Uncles and nepbews 7 '20

Cousins t)'(>0

Otber relations to the tentli de:^rec 10-80
Noo-relations.. 1'-

1 • 44 per cent.

3-60

6

))

>>

»f

English proprietors wishing to bequeath their property
in Italy otherwise than to their direct heirs in equal sliares,
should do so by a special Italian will, as the proving and
registration of a foreign will give rise to long formalities
and useless expense.

I have often been asked how an Englisliman owning
property in Italy can bequeath it to any one person, say
to one of his children, in spite of art. 805 of the Civil
Code? All lie lias to do is to make an Italian will
leaving the property to that son, and adding, if he likes,

PRACTICAL HINTS TO RESIDENTS.

43

I

that his other children are provided for in their own
country. No question will be raised. In fact, any will,
however irregular in the eyes of the law, can be executed,
as long as no interested party comes forward to opjiose it.
Wills are of two kinds: the secret will {testamento
olografo), which must be entirely written, dated, and sub-
scribed by the testator, without witnesses, and the public
will {testamento per atto di notaio), which must be signed
before two notaries, or one notary and four witnesses.

BANKING AND SUNDRIES.

As long as the forcible currency of bank notes existed in
Italy, i. e. from May 1866 to April 1883, gold was at a
premium, which rose on one or two occasions as high as
20 per cent, till the spring of 1881, when the passing of the
law providing for a return to payments in specie within two
years caused it to fall suddenly to between 1 and 2 per

cent.

In the days of 10 per cent, premium, exchange on
foreign countries was high and very variable. Cheques on
London were often cashed at as much as 28 francs to the
pound sterling, This is now at an end, and exchange is at
par, save the trifling rise and fall occasioned by the
ordinary fluctuations of offer and demand.

The pound sterling, generally considered, for round num-
bers' salco, as 25 francs, is in reality worth Fr. 25-221,
gold for gold, hence when exchange is at 25*20 it may be
said to be at par. It will probably continue to oscillate
between the extreme limits of 25*10 and 25-30.

The most advantageous method of transferring money
from England to Italy, is by cheques on London, circular
notes for mere travellers, and private cheques for those

44

BORDIOHEHA A8 A WINTEE RESORT.

( 45 )

who, being residents, are known to tlieir bankers. Cheques
on any place out of London are subject to a loss of a
quarter per cent. Bank of England notes are worth less
than cheque.s on account of tlie risk attendant on their
transmission, and English gold is subject to a still heavier

loss.

Servants are engaged and paid by the month ; they can,
however, leave at a week's notice.

In giving receipts for money it is always well to put a
stamp (marea da hollo) of five centimes on them and sign
across it. This is merely a matter of taxation, as the
presence or absence of the stamp in no wtiy aiKVcts the
validity of tlie receipt. But tliose who sign receipts witli-
out stamps are subject, if it is discovered, to a heavy fine,
the party getting tlie receipt going scot-free. Hence it
foUow^s that one may always take a receipt, but sliould be
careful not to give one, without a stamp.

Drafts and bills must be presented for payment on tlie day
tliey fall due. If not paid thoy can be pr* .tested the day
following, and not later than the second day. Bills falling
due on Sundays or recognised holidays are payable the day
after. The holidays recognised by the State are tlie fol-
lowing eleven: — New Year's Day, Epiphany (6th Jan.),
Ascension, Corpus Domini, St. Peter and St. Paul (29th
June), Assumption (15th August), Nativity (8th Sept.),
All Saints (1st Nov.), Conception (8tli Dec), Christinas
(25tli Dec), and tlie local patron saint, who for Bordighera
is St. Ampelio (14th May).

I

PART 11.
LOCAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.

PREHISTORIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

First attempts at colonisation — Origin of the Lignrians — Foundation
of Nice and Marseilles— Annexation of Liguria by the Romans —
Hannibal amongst the Alps — The Lacs des Merveilles.

Like the rest of Italy, the Ligurian coast was colonised by-
wandering tribes from Asia Minor and Greece. These
tribes overran an uninhabited country, where they chose
sites for tlieir colonies as inclination or fancy prompted
them, establishing themselves, without doubt, exactly as
emigrants have done in all times, viz. where the climate
and topographical conditions most resembled the country
they had left behind, and where they could consequently
most nearly follow the agricultural and pastoral occupations
or any others to which their traditions led them.

The first inhabitants of Italy are known to us from the
earliest historical days under the names of Pelasgi and
Ligurians. These last originated probably in some of the
mountainous countries of Asia Minor, and fixed themselves
in Italy in the valleys of the Apennines and the Alps, and
in the more undulating portions of Lombardy and Pied-
mont. They occupied the sea-coast of Gaul and Italy from

46

LOCAL HISTORY.

PREHISTORIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

47

the Rhone as far as the Arno, a part of upper Italy and
the coasts of tlie Adriatic, where we find traces of them
in the name o^Libumia, which is another form of Liguria ;
whilst without doubt they spread themselves also along
the entire chain of the Apennines into the very heart of

the peninsula.

Virgil mentions the Ligurians amongst those who gave
a favourable reception to iEneas on his landing. In the
list of tlie tribes which united with the Trojans in their
conflict with the Kutuli, we find the reference : —

" ISToD e<:;o te, Ligtinim ductor, fortissime bello,
transierim, Cjcoe . . ." *

But this people were held in very slight esteem by the

Romans. They seem indeed always to have borne a luid

reputation for intrigue and duplicity, and this is shown

us very clearly by some further passages in the iEneid,

where Cycnus, son of Stenelus or Aunus, the king of the

Ligurians (just referred to) is painted in colours far from

flattering to that people :—

" Apenninicolc'B bellator filius Aimi,
band Ligiirum extremus dum fallere fata sinel):iiit."t—

jEneid, Bouk XL, line 700.

* Mmid, Book X. line 185 :—

*' Nor iimsl I ointt thee, 0 Cycims, v. limit leader of the Liiruriaiis

in vv;ir." In Anthon's Fjr//iYthe reaiUn nm, riuyra . . ." ryciuis

was a monarch of the Ligurians, t'ciiUy att-K h«d t«> i'haeton, and wlio pinoJ

away in sorrow at the latter's untimely end until Ih clian^ed into a

«wan.— A. C. D.

f " . . . . The warlike son of the Apennine-haunting Annus, not the last
of the Ligurians, as long as the fates permitted (h;ceiving." Anthon adds in
a note, "The Ligurians had a very bad repntation for treachery and fiaud."

—A. c. a

Dryden's translation of this verse is also peculiarly sf\.>r.' uiK>n the

Ligurian ratst :

"A true Liguriin, horn fn cheat."

" Vane Ligiis, frustraque animis elate siiperbis,
nequidquam patrias tenasti lubricus artes ;
nee fraus te incolumem fallaci perferet Auno." *—

^neid, Book XL, line 715.

The Ligurians, no doubt, were essentially a race of
mountaineers ; the name even seems to have had an iden-
tical meaning and served to distinguish the inhabitants of
the Alps and the Apennines from the Pelasgi or inhabitants
of the plains. However, though this derivation of the
word is generally admitted, its etymology is far from being
clearly established.

According to some, ligur and ligus are derived from two
words of the ancient language of the Osci, lix, lids, water
(from whence the Latin limtus, boiled), and gur or gom,
high or mountainous. The Ligurians, therefore, would be
the " Mountaineers hy the Sea Coastr According to others,
these words come from "Lycia" or **Milyas," the name
of a little mountainous country in the south of Asia Minor,
colonised in very ancient times by the Greeks, and from
whence the Ligurians may have migrated. The fact re-
lated by Herodotus, that a tribe of the Lycians bore the
name of " Termilii" seems to give weight to this hypo-
thesis, for we meet again a similar name in Ligures Intemelii
or Intermelii,^ But we must not attach too much import-
ance to a detail of this kind, bearing in mind that a great
number of names from Asia Minor and Greece are found

* " * Vain fool and coward ! * said the lofty maid ;

' caught in the train which thou thyself hast laid!
on others practise thy Ligurian arts :
thin stratagems and tricks of little hearts
are lost on me : nor shalt thou safe retire
with vaunting lies to thy fallacious sire ! ' "

Dry den's Translation.

t Celesia : Dell' antichissimo Idioma del Liguri.

I

48

LOCAL HISTORY.

I

PREHISTORIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

49

reproduced in Italy, owing to the fact of all the early
colonies being of Greek origin.

There is, however, another somewhat plausible and at-
tractive derivation, altliough utterly unsupported by proof,
and that is one which derives Urjus from the Greek adjec-
tive having the same spelling. Tliose who hold this theory
are influenced, in fact, by the relation which exists between
ligur and %«s, and \iyv<i and \iyvp6<;y which is the more
remarkable, as the two words present the same change of
termination. But Xi.yv^ signifies clear, harmonious, shrill,
when speaking of sounds, and one cannot help asking how
this adjective could become the name of a people ? How-
ever it is possible, I do not say probable, tliat the first
chief of the tribe was distinguished by a strong, harmonious
voice, and that he received in consequence the surname of
Xt7v? ; it is possible, also, the first hordes of the Ligurians
who established themselves in the mountainous countries
adopted the horn for the transmission of their signals from
one height to anotlier, and that the surrounding people
gave them the name of Xt7i/pe«?, or, as wo should translate
it, " Eorn-Mmvers.^*

However imaginative or even fantastical this view
may appear, we must at least acknowledge that it is
singularly eoiifirined by a quaint custom of the modern
inhabitants of the Alps and the Apennines, which con-
sists in awakening the echoes of the mountains, on
the eve of St. John the Baptist, by blowing cow-horns!
the prolonged and monotonous sounds from which are
answered from one village to anotlier, and from the valleys
to the heights. This custom, which has no apparent
motive or any Christian or Pagan tradition to explain it,
may perchance be a reminiscence of the national horns

which gave the Ligurians their name in the earliest days
of tlieir history.

It is not possible for the historian to make any but the
slightest conjectures as to the primitive inhabitants who
occupied this coast before the Ligurian immigration.
Bone caverns undoubtedly exist in this part of Italy, a
human skeleton having been discovered by Dr. Kiviere
some few years ago in one of the caves of the Kochers-
Eouges near Mentone, which was removed to Paris. If
these remains were well authenticated, they would prove
that this country was inhabited in the Stone Age ; but
it is at least probable that so bright and attractive a
coast, when joined to so charming and perfect a climate,
would not be long in finding favour in the eyes of the very
earliest colonists.

Some remains of Cyclopean or Pelasgic constructions
are found occasionally along the mountain range, notably
on the plateau which forms the summit of Mont Agel
above Monaco; and the old tradition has it that the
mythological explorer Hercules, after having forced the
passage of the Maritime Alps, founded the town of Monaco,
which took the name of Portus Herculis Monoeei ; Monoe-
cus, /jLovoLfco<; (signifying an isolated house) very well
expresses the first impression of the Rock of Monaco as
seen from the surrounding heights ; but it is probable that
the massive and enormous construction on the Agel was
really the primitive Monoecus, mentioned also as the
Aggeres Al^ini by several Latin authors :

"... Aggeribus alpinis atque arce Monoeei
Descendens."

Virgil, JEneidf Book VI.

" Descending from the rugged Alps and from the rock of Monaco."

B

60

LOCAL HISTORY.

PREHLSTOEIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

51

Ml:

At the dawn of historic times the Ligurian coast was
inhabited by two peoples, entirely different from each
other, although equally of Greek origin, and speaking
without doubt dialects derived from the same language.

One of these, the Ligurians, divided into tribes, mainly
occupied the mountains, but they possessed also establish-
ments on the seashore. The three most important of these
primitive ports were (1) that of the Ligures Intemelii,
which the Komans called Alpium Intemelium, or Inte-
melium of the Hills, now called VeniimigUa ; (2) that of
the Ligures Ingaimi, which became Alpium Ingaunon, the
modern Alhenga ; and (3) that of the Ligures Genuati, now
the important city of Genoa,

The other, the Phocaeans, a warlike but also a trading

people emigrated from the mountainous country which

surrounds Mount Parnassus, had thriving colonies both in

Corsica and on the coast of Provence, on which latter they

founded Marseilles about 600 years B.C. They have equally

the credit of founding Nice (from i/t/c7?, victory), but the

archaeologists are not agreed upon the period of this event.

According, however, to the most generally received

opinion, this town was not founded until the year 350 B.C.,

and then by colonists from the Phocaean settlement at

Marseilles; but, according to others, we must go back

to the year B.C. 536, and seek the origin of Nice in a

migration of the inhabitants of Alalia, a powerful Phocaean

colony on the north-west coast of Corsica (near the site

of the modern town of Algajola), who, harassed by the

incursions of the Carthaginians, decided to change their

country.*

* Memoire stir les Origines de Nicej a paper read by M. Brun, architect
It the Scientific Congress of France, held at Nice in 1866.

1

Whatever may be truth in this respect, Nice was a
dependent of Marseilles at the time when the Romans
first came into direct contact with the Phocaean re-
public. Similarity of race, language, and customs helped
inevitably towards a fusion of the two colonies, but above
all the presence of a common enemy, the Ligurians, who
saw with anything but a favourable eye these strangers
establishing themselves on their coast. This latter people
struggled long and courageously against the stream of the
Eoman power, the first influx of which took place in the
year 237 B.C. This was under the command of Consul
Sempronius Graccus and his successor Cornelius Lentulus,
who, according to certain historians, massacred 23,000
Ligurians and took 5000 prisoners ; but these figures are
probably exaggerated.

In 234 B.C. Fabius ]\raximus attacked the Eastern Ligu-
rians, and subdued all the country between the Arno and
the Magra, whilst a few years later, viz. 210 B.C., Scipio
Africanus, returning to Spain at the head of a powerful
force to attack Asdrubal (the second Punic war), put into
Portus Herculis (or IMonaco) or perhaps into Villa Franca.
The view of the smiling hills of Liguria no doubt excited
the covetousness of his troops at that time, for not long
afterwards (200 years B.C.) the republic entered upon a
war of extermination against the Ligurians. The Consuls
Appius Claudius and Marcus Sempronius gained a series
of bloody victories in this campaign, and erected a fortress
on Mont Magliocca, above Ventimiglia, whose ruins still
bear the name of Castel d'Ai:)pio. Rome had, however,
arother and more important motive in attacking these
mountaineers. Mago, brother of Hannibal, after having
sacked Genoa in 204 B.C., landed in Liguria at the head

LOCAL HISTOEY.

of au army, and established his head-quarters at Savo (or
Savona). He occupied the eoiiiitry for about two years,
and the Ingauni (or inhabitants of the town now called
Albenga) declared themselves his allies; but lie retired when
hostilities were commenced against him by tlie Romans.

This desperate struggle was not ended until the Ligu-
rians made their definite submission to the Consul C.
Papiriiis Carbo in the year 163 B.C. They continued,
however, to war against the Marseillais until 153 B.C.,
when tlie Phocaean Republic was compelled to invoke
against them the aid and arms of Rome. This measure,
whether dictated by imminent danger or by a clever
calculation, had, as an effect, the preservation of the
autonomy of the Phocaean Republic by making Rome its
ally, and later on, the opening to Ctesar's victorious
le*i;ions of the coast road to Gaul.

In the year 118 B.C. Liguria was finally annexed to the
Roman territory, and constituted a province, the prefect
of which resided at " Cemenelium" * a town probably
founded a little before, and perhaps by the Consul Carbo,
on the liigh land about a mile and a quarter to the north
of Nice. This locality bears even at the present day the
name of Cirniez, but it only preserves, as a memento of its
once having been the chief city of a Roman province, a
rather small but well-preserved amphitheatre and some
insignificant ruins.

The only remarkable event connected with Roman
history in which Liguria played any part, prior to its
annexation, other than those of wliich I am about to speak,
was the passage of Hannibal, about the year 218 B.C.

* K4fifp\€ov in Strabo. We may infer that this ui.i<l is a contraction of
icfVfi' tAiov, town of Monts Cemtoes, Cemenc being a word of Celtic origin.

PREHISTORIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

53

y

It was after the taking of Saguntum, which led to the
breaking out of the second Punic war, that Hannibal con-
ceived the daring project of attacking the Romans in their
own country, and moving his army by land.

He crossed the Pyrenees, overran Gascony and Lan-
guedoc, passed the Rhone, and penetrated into Italy by
crossing the Alps, but we are ignorant at ^vhat point he
effected the passage over the mountains.

The most generally accepted view, however, is that which
attributes to him the same route followed since by Charle-
magne, Charles V., Francis I., Napoleon, and all the other
conquerors of Italy, viz. either by the Mont Cenis or the
Great St. Bernard. But one is permitted to have doubts

on this point.

Those armies which invaded Italy in the Middle Ages
and in modern times all came from the iiorth, and they
naturally approached the mountains by the most con-
venient and best-known valleys, and at the same time
those nearest to their point of departure. Hannibal, on
the contrary, came from the south. He had passed the
Rhone in the plains of Lower Languedoc, to the south of
the Cevennos ; and such being the case, one naturally asks
why he should march up to the interior of transalpine
Gaul in order to make a circuit by Savoy or Switzerland ?
Is it not much more natural to suppose that he would follow
the coast until he came upon the broad valleys of the Var
or the Roya, which would conduct him, the first by the
Tinee over the Col de Frema-Muorta, and the second
over the Col di Tenda ?

This was evidently the shortest and most practical route
for him ; for, given an utter absence of roads or even of
paths, the easiest and most direct mode of getting from

LOCAL HISTORY.

the south of Gaul into Upper Italy was, without doubt, by
the valley of the Var and its affluent the Tinee, the Col
de Frema-Miiorta, and the valley of Gesso (Valdieri), to
the plains of Piedmont, whilst the valley of the Koya, the
Col di Tenda, and the descent by the gorge of Limonetto
into the valley of Vermenagna, offer facilities hardly less
convenient.

Some may, however, object that the presence of P. Cor-
nelius Scipio (father of Africanus) at the mouths of the
Ehone, at the head of an army of 24,000 men, who had
been sent to contest his passage, would be sufficient to
decide Hannibal to turn away from the coast. But this
objection falls to the ground when we remember tliat
Scipio nt vcr came across the Carthaginians in Provence at
all ; for at the very moment he had made arrangements to
disembark his troops, he learnt tliat Hannibal had crossed
the Ehone, and was already marching towards tlie Alps ;
so there was nothing left for tlie former but to follow him
as speedily as possible.

Whatever may be thq actual fact,* we may consider this
at least as certain, tliat at any rate one division of tlie
Carthaginian army, if not Hannibal himself, passed by the
valley of Tenda. The memory of the great commander
still remains engi-aven in tlie popular traditions, just
as it did in the neighbourhood of Barletta, where
was fought the battle of Canna? (which even now bears
the name of Ca7njpo di Sangue, or Field of Blood);

• To those who feel an interest on this point, viz. the exact route taken, it
may be worth while suggesting that they should get a good map of Southern
Europe, and linding Saguntinn, now the modern town of Murviedro, on the
sea coast ot'Catalonia, wliiih was the point of Hannibal's departure, carefully
study the two routes, and having read the arguments in favour of either,
endeavour to form an opinion for themselves.— A. C. D.

w

PREHISTORIC AND BARBAROUS TIMES.

55

even now in the valley of the Roya the mountaineers
still recount to each other, as they watch their grazing
flocks, the passage of the African legions, and speak with
reverence and respect the name of that great leader.

The valley of Tenda, or rather one of its offshoots,
presents a natural phenomenon which for a long time was
considered a proof that the Carthaginians passed along

this road.

Several little lakes occupy the bottom of an amphi-
theatre, which terminates a secondary gorge, some hours
above the ancient convent of St. Dalmas. The perpen-
dicular rocks which surround this amphitheatre are
covered with extraordinary figures which are thought to
have been carved by the hand of man. Nearly all the
historians and arch^ologists of the country have pointed
out these designs as hieroglyphics engraved by Hannibal's
soldiers; but recent investigations have unmistakably
shown that these outlines left on the smooth surface of
the rock were formed by the flints which a glacier
dragged with it as it progressed century after century

down the valley.

The Lacs des Merveilles then are nothing more than a
geological curiosity ; for it is indeed too improbable to
believe that the Carthaginians, with the army of Scipio
in their rear, would waste their time cutting out figures
on the rocks of a hill side, difiicult of access and some
distance from their route !

( 56 )

CHAPTER II.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

Adminiatrative organisation — The Aurelian Way : its construction and
its route — The trophy of Augustus— Building of Turbia— Geo-
graphical frontier — Roman ruins in the neighbourhood .

After the annexation of Liguria to the territory of the
Republic in the year 118 B.C., the passage of the Roman
legions who entered into Southern Gaul, to take part in
the campaign against the Cimbri and the Teutons, ter-
minated in 102 B.C. by the victory of Marius at Aix
in ^Provence, contributed to civilise the Ligurians and
introduce Roman colonisation along the whole length of
the coast. Progress in this direction was rapid, for
in the year 89 B.C. the Ligurians were included amongst
those recently aimexed people to whom the Pompeian law
granted the Jus Laiinum; the Jus Eomanum not, how-
ever, being given them until a century later, in the
reign of Nero. The Jus Latinum conferred the rights
of holding property, of disposing of it by will, and
carrying on business, but it did not comprehend, as
did the Jus Bommimnj either connuMum or tlie pairia
potestas.

But this enfranehisement in the first case, as in the
second, was only given to those territories which officially
were recognised as part of the Roman Republic: Nice aud
Antibes, as belonging to the Phocaean Republic, received
no benefit from it.

At tlie time of Augustus, Liguria formed the seventh of
the ten provinces of Gaul ; it extended along the coast

I

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

67

westward from Cemenelium (or Cimiez) and was ad-
ministered by a President, the inhabitants of the mountain
districts, still classified as ** barbarians," being under the
command of a prefect of the Equestrian order.

The period of the Roman dominion in Liguria, from its
annexation to the dismemberment of the empire, under
the pressure of the barbaric invasion, presents to us only
two events of note, viz., the opening of the Aurelian Way,
and the construction of the monument at Turbia.

Starting from Rome by the Porta Janiculensis, after-
wards called the Forta Aurelia, the great coast road
ran by the Etruscan and Ligurian coasts, passing through
the towns of Pisa and Genoa as far as Ceynenelium ; from
whence, some vears later, it was continued to the Forum
Julii (now called Frejus), a flourishing town to the east
of the Esterel, founded in the year 49 B.C. by a lieutenant
of Julius Caesar. Ultimately it was continued as far as
Aries. The entire length of this road constituted the Via
Aurelia J but that portion which traversed Liguria is better
known by the special title of the Via Aurelia Mmilia,

We are ignorant of the precise date of the opening of
this great work, the only one of the twelve great Roman
roads which ci'ossed the limits of Italy ; but the trade
which sprung up between the Romans and their allies the
Phocaeans of Marseilles and the coast of Provence, and
the military transports, necessitated by the campaigns of
Caesar in Gaul, during the century previous to the
Christian era, had without doubt caused the construction
of this road, at least as far as Cemenelium, shortly after
the constitution of the province. All we know definitely is
that the section from Rome to Vado was constructed by
the order of Scaurus ^milius, consul at the period of

58

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

59

the incorporation of Liguria into the territory of the

Roman Republic.

The Roman roads were remarkable for the solidity of
their construction. They were not, however, broader
than about 16i feet (5 metres), that is, less tliau the
ordinary provincial roads in the present day ; but this
breadth was fully sufficient for all the wants of the

period.

Vehicles were rare in the olden days ; people travelled
on horseback, and the entire transport of merchandise
was effected on the backs of mules.

The system adopted by the Romans in the construction
of these roads was copied, it is said, from the Cartha-
ginians. On the gremiim or solid bed obtained by
digging (frequently to a considerable depth), they spread a
bed or layer of broken stones, this is the daiumen ; after
this came the rudm, that is, a layer of concrete formed
of large pebbles ; then the nnelmis, another bed of concrete,
formed of small pebbles, and finally the pavhnentum, or the
pavement. If tlien the Aurelian Way was so solidly and
durably constructed, it seems strange that we are not able
to find any trace whatever of it in these parts. It is true that
its maintenance by the Roman administration has been
interrupted for more than fifteen centuries, during which
period Time has pursued, without any intermission, his slow
but inexorable work of destruction. It is true that the
configuration of the country has been frequently modified
by landslips, by floods, and perhaps even by volcanic
eruptions ; and that the old road has been entirely engulfed
in many places ; and finally, that in the middle ages, the
little confederated states, always at war with each other,
were interested (from the strategic point of view of the

period) far more in interrupting than in maintaining the
means of communication.

In the days of Dante, this wonderful road was already
little more than a recollection, as we learn from the
following passage in his " Purgatorio " :

" Non divenimmo intanto a pife del monte,
quivi trovammo la roccia si erta,
che indarno vi sarien le gambe pronte.

Tra Lerici e Turbia, la piu diserta

la piu rotta ruina h una scala,
verso di quella, age vole ed aperta."

Purgatorio III. 46.

«... Meanwhile we had arrived
far as the mountain foot, and there the rock
found of so steep ascent that nimblest steps
to climb it had been vain. The most remote,
most wild, untrodden path, in all the tract
'twixt Lerici and Turbia were to this,
a ladder easy and of access free."

Carey's Translation.

In spite, however, of these considerations, one might
reasonably have expected to find, even in the present day,
some remains of the Aurelian Way, if it had been con-
structed under the same conditions as the other Roman
roads of the first class. But, confronted by the fact that
nowhere do we find any signs of it, one is tempted to ask
if this road, especially laid out with a view to the trans-
port of troops, and in a far country hardly yet conquered,
could really have been the object of the care and expense
which the Roman engineers lavished on those in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the metropolis ?

As to the route of the Aurelian Way as it traversed

60

LOCAL HISTORY.

Lignria, it is probable that it was almost identical with
the old Cornice Koad, which was after all but the old
Roman road repaired, when, towards the end of mediaeval
times, the various peoples began to lose their dread of easy
communications. Some considerable modifications were
however necessary at certain jwints, for the towns of the
middle ages were not always built on the same sites as the
Roman and Ligurian towns served by the Aurelian Way.
It is, however, certain that tliis road passed by Cemenelium
by Turbia, by Alhintemelhuu (Ventimiglia), and by
Maiuta (San Remo). As to its passage through the can-
ton of Bordighera, we can but make conjectures. Tliis
part of the coast, or just about here, was undoubtedly
uninhabited at the period in question, for the Roman
village of Scepe, where is now situated the modern Sasso,
was in all probability posterior to the constniction of
the Aurelian Way. That being so, and the flatness of the
shore offering no serious difficulty to the carrying out of
the road, we have no reason whatever for questioning the
identity of the route with that of the road of mediaeval times
which still bears in our neiglibourhood the name of the
Strada Bomana.

The era of peace and prosperity wliich commenced im-
mediately upon the proclamation of the Empire was more
quickly followed by substantial benefits in Liguria than
in many otlier provinces, thanks to the monument at
Turbia, whicli flattered the vanity of Augustus, and
drew his favours to the province in which his troj)hy was
situated.

The battle of Actium, which put an end to the
Republic, was fought on the 2nd September, 31 B.C.
Octavius himself seized tlie reins of power at the com-

THE ROMxVN PROVINCE.

61

(

mencement of the following year, as Consul and Tribune,
but it was not until three years later, after the death of
Marcus Aurelius and the taking of Alexandria, in the
year 27 B.C., that the Senate accorded him the titles of
Augustus and Emperor. These particulars are important,
as they show us, sufiiciently nearly, the date which we
may take as the year when the trophy was erected.

The Senate decreed to Octavius, at the same time that
they elected him Emperor, the honour of a public tri-
umph. Augustus refused, and it was decided to substitute
a monumental tropliy for the proposed entry. Many
authors speak of this monument: they have written
about it, and I give, on the following page, a copy of the
inscription engraved upon it, but none of them make
any allusion to its situation, otherwise than in the
vaguest manner possible, viz. " on the confines of Italy,
and in summa Alper The result therefore of this
omission is, that three Roman erections have disputed
the honour of being the trophy of Augustus : the Tri-
umphal Arch of Aosta, that of Susa, and the ruin of
Turbia ; but it is conclusively proved at the present
time that the last is the correct one.

The Arch at Aosta is in a much later style than that of
the century of Augustus, and the remains of the inscrip-
tion do not correspond in an^ degree v/hatever with the
dedication preserved to us by Pliny; the arch at Susa
bears an inscription which is still legible and in some re-
spects resembles that of the trophy, but it states that it
was raise I in honour of the Romans by their ally. King
Cottius, and was erected in the year 744 from the build-
ing of Rome, whilst the trophy at Turbia, according to
Pliny, dates from the year 749.

62

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

63

The following is the inscription as given by Pliny : —

IMP. CAES. DIVI. F. AVGVSTO.

PONT. MAX.

IMP. XIIII. TRIBVNIC. POTEST. XYII.

QVOD EJV8 DVCTV AV8PICIISQVE

GENTE8 ALl'INiE OMNES

q\M A MARE SVPERO AD INFERVM

PERT I NEB A IJT

8VB IMPERIVM P. K.

REDACTiE 8VNT.

0ENTE8 ALPIN^E DEVICT.E

TRIVMPTLINI. CAMVNI. VENONT-"" '.

ISNARCI. DUEVNL XAYNES. FOC\>Air.S.

VINDELICORVM OENTES QVATVOR.

CONSVANETES. VIRVCENATES. Llf'ATES. CATENATES.

ABISONTES EVGVSCI. 8VANETES.

CALVCONE?. BRIXENTES. LEPOXTlL VI DERI.

KAKTVATE8. SEDVNI. VERAGRI. S ALA SSI.

ACITAVONES. MEDVLLI. VllM.

CATVRIGES. BRIGIANL SOOOKTII. EBHODVNTII.

NEMALONES. EDENATES. EsVLlANI.

VEAMINI. oallitj:. trivllati.

ECTINI. VEECVNM. EGVrrVUI.
KEMEKTVRI. ORATELLI. NERVSI. VELAVXr.

8VETBI.

NON .SVXT ADJECT. E

COTTIAN.E CIVITATES XII

qVM NON FVEBITXT H0STIEE8

ITEM ATTR I B V T.E M V X I ( • I IM I s

LEGE POMPEIA.*

If we complete the abridged words of this dedication, we
find the sentence runs as follows :

"Imperatori C»sari, divi filio, Aiii!iisto, pontifici maximo (anno)
imperii XIV., tribunitia3 potestatia XVII. scnatua i>oiJulusqiie

I j

romanus.

'»

• I am indebted for the text of the above, and also fur a mass of details
connected with this monument, to a very learned paj^T n.vl l.y M. A. Carlone
at the Scientific Congress of Fran<v>, held at Nice in 1866.

The inscription may be translated as follows :

" To the Emperor Cc'esar Augustus, son of a divine father, sovereign
Pontifif, in the 14th year of his empire and the 17th of his rule as
Tribune, the Senate and people of Kome ; because under his leadership
and auspices, all the Alpine peoples who are spread from the upper to
the lower sea have been brought under the dominion of the Koman
people.

Conquered Alpine peoples : — (Here follows list).

" There are not included amongst these, twelve Cottian tribes who
were not hostile ; neither those (tribes) which have received municipal
government by the Pompeian law."

The trophy was raised, or at any rate dedicated, in the
year 749 of Eome or 14 B.C., and it was intended to
celebrate the submission of forty-seven Alpine tribes
dwelling amongst the mountains, from the Adriatic to the
Tyrrhenian sea.

Savants have been engaged for centuries in endeavouring
to identify the tribes whose names are set forth on the
trophy, but their efforts have been hitherto crowned
with but little success. And indeed this is not at all sur-
prising, for the llomans were accustomed to disguise the
names of the conquered people by latinizing them ;
besides this, some of the names are found at more than
one point, both on the chain of the Alps and the upper
Apennines; many of the tribes have disappeared from
the earliest times ; and finally, the transcribers may not
always have copied Pliny's text with accuracy. There is
nothing strange, then, in finding a great want of harmony
in the various views which have been taken ; each student
has wished rather to establish his own theory on the subject
than really to sift the whole matter. But the truth is,
that we must seek for those who are mentioned in the
inscription through the whole range of mountains, from

64

LOCAL HISTORY.

the very confines of tbe Austrian frontier to the extreme
limit of Etriiria : in fact, between the same boundaries
which are set forth in the inscription itself.

It will be useless in these pages to enter into the dis-
cussion as to the right interpretation of tliis catalogue:
but it may perhaps be interesting at least to note some of
the names in which tlie local historians and archieologista
have thought they recognised the tribes of the Maritime
Alps, for these indications seem to throw a certain light
on the etymology of some of the names of the villages on

this part of the coast.

Thus Lepontii, Levens above Nice ; Viheri (Sospello) in
the valley of the Bevera ; * Brigiani, Briga, valley of the
Roia ; Sogiontn, Saorgio, in the same valley ; EsuUani,
the valley of Vesubie ; Gallitm, Gillette, valley of the
Esteron ; Edmi, valley of the Tinee ; AratelU, XJtelle, valley

of the Vesubie.

To those almost conclusive reasons, which I have
already given for looking upon the monument at Turbia
as the actual trophy of Augustus, I will now add the
following. The trophy was situated on a height ; Fornix,
says Dion Cassius, irophmum ferens in alpihus impositus
ed. Among the Romans the word alpis signiiied simply
** height ; " it was not till much later, and in low Latin,
that it became restricted to designate the lofty range of
mountains which bounds Italy on the north. It results
therefore that the summa alpis where the trophy was
placed must be some lofty point close to the Italian

• The Latin word vibius^ amphibious, and fiber, beaver, and the Saxon word
befer have indeed the same origin. By a singular coincidence of change the
first has become bevero in Italian, the latter beaver in English. The name
Viberi seems consequently to indicate that the beaver existed formerly amongst
the torrents of the Maritime Alps.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

65

boundary, and there is no point which so completely
fulfils those conditions as the Tete de Chien.

This lofty table-land marked the precise limit of Roman
country, since, in pursuing this road further eastward, the
traveller met immediately the territories of the Marseillais
towns of Nicxa Civitas and of Antipolis. An important
road, the Aurelian Way, passed through it— an advantage
which none of the other frontiers could offer— and finally,
it constituted a natural, that is a geographical boundary.

Mount Clapier, which is the most elevated peak of the
Maritime Alps, marks the point of meeting of the high
valleys of the Gesso, the Vesubie, and the Roia, between
the passes of Fenetres and Tenda. From the flanks of
this mountain starts a ridge which passes by the heights
of the Authion, the Mairis, the Brois, the Grammont, the
Agel, and the Tete de Chien, prior to plunging into the
sea at Monaco, forming an uninterrupted range between
the Alps and the Mediterranean. This ridge, the only one
which fulfils all these conditions, is without doubt the
most rational line of demarcation which can be established
between the Alps and the Apennines; also the Roman
generals, with that first glance which was always so accurate,
in spite of the rudimentary state of geographical science
at that time, had recognised in this secondary chain the
true limit of Italy.

In the Itinerary of Antoninus, written about the year
150, we read this note :

" Hue usque Italia, abhinc Gallia.''

According to some data which have been collected, and
from which calculations were prepared in 1564 by the
Franciscan Boyer (a Nifois)— who had the advantage of

F

1

m

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE ROMAN PROVINCE.

67

seeing the ruins before the Genoese had carried away the
marbles, and the Monegasques had demolished the greater
portion of the masonry— the monument consisted of a
square tower in the Doric style, whose sides, 230 feet in
breadth, were ornamented with massive cohimns. The
height has never been estimated, but it must have been
very considerable, for the statue of Augustus, which
occupied the summit of the buildiug, and tlie head of
which has been found, was 22 feet in length.

All that remains at the present day of this most im-
posing monument,* is a rough mass of masonry, and
some fragments of sculptured inscription in the walls of
the village of Turbia, the name alone of which will ever
form an imperishable memento of the trophy of Augustus.

Kemains of Eoman ruins, naturally numerous in a
country traversed by a road like the Aurelijin Way, are
however, with few exceptions, insignificant in Western
Liguria, thanks to the depredations of the Saracens, and
the continuous struggles of which this part of Europe was
the theatre during the middle ages. Tlie only ones of any
remarkable character which still survive are the amphi-
theatre and aqueduct of Frejus, the amphitheatre of
Cimiez, the monument of Turbia, a strong castle above
Ventimiglia, which has seen some service in the wars of
medieval times— Caste! cV Appro, already mentioned— some
remains of villas, a theatre and a cemetery on the right

• We may mention in reference to this trophy, that the Piedmontesc
Government (and it is a fact wliich deserves to be {.ut >m record) decided in
1859 thoroughly to r.^.a-e it; the remain^ v, re carefully surveyed, and
plans duly prepared for the purpose, but unfortunately, the war which broke
out in that year put an end to the enterprise. When peace was again restored
Turbia belonged to France, and up to the present date no further steps have
been taken in the matter. (See Pembeiiton's History of Monaco.)— A. C. D.

bank of the river Nervia, about half a mile to the eastward
of Ventimiglia, which probably marked the site of the
ancient Alhintemelium, The theatre already referred to
is built of freestone blocks brought from the quarries at
Mortola, and bears decided traces of having been destroyed
and again rebuilt at a much later period with the same
stones, but without much attempt to reproduce the original
building. The theatre and cemetery are to be found in a
plot of land, consisting of an immense sandbank formed
by the winds of many centuries. This ground has been
taken as national property, and the excavations have been
carried on under the intelligent direction of Professor
Gerolamo Eossi, Inspector of excavations and of national
or historic monuments in the province. The tombs which
have been discovered are five in number, and they contain
several objects of interest, amongst others a Christian
opisthographum of which it is hoped a facsimile will be
published.

A sculptural inscription on the front of the first tomb
bears the name of Manius Junius Tranquillus, Prefect of
military labourers. It is as follows :

D. M.

MANIO TRAN

QVILLO BENEF

PRAEF FABRIC

FECVLIARIS.

MATER FUJO PL

ENTISSIMO FEC.

Besides those mentioned, there have also been dis-
covered the ruins of a bridge, which must have carried
the Aurelian Way over a brook to the east of San Remo,

near the Bondb.

F 2

III

( «8 )

THE HERMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

69

I

CHAPTER III.

THE HERMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

The Lower Empire— Barbaric invasioBS— Origin of raonasticism— The
heniiits and the first niouks— St. Hooornt at Fhiiiasia— The Abbey
of Le'rius— Anipelius at Bordighera— Hurmisdas and Ilumulus at
Matuta.

Western Ligueia enjoyed complete tranquillity during
the first four centuries of the Christian era ; the silence of
history forces this conclusion upon us and compels us to
pass forward at once to the year 400.

The glory of Rome and the prestige of the Roman name
are now but memories. To the manly energy of the
Republic, to the splendours of the Augustan age, have
succeeded the effeminate luxury and the moral debasement
of the Lower Empire.

The Roman people, always implacable as enemies, never
became cruel as conquerors, until the decline of their
power. In the best days of the Republic as of the
Empire, their conquests were based on a sound policy ;
this, joined to the generous sentiments which a sense of
irresistible power inspires in man, prevented the Roman
Generals from over ill-treating their vanquished enemies ;
they desired only to absorb tliem into the common-
wealth and raise them to a liigher state of civilisation.

But the period which we are approaching offers a very
different liistory. The gratification of the debased tastes
of a decaying and vicious people, and the pursuit of per-
sonal advantages by means of the most shameless crimes.

have, for the last three centuries, been the sole occupation
of those in power.

The barbarous peoples of the Danube and the Rhine,
and the Christians over the whole of the empire, have been
pillaged, sent into captivity, and persecuted without
measure and without mercy. But the thunder-cloud is
about to burst, and the hour of revenge approaches.
The blood of gladiators and martyrs has imbued the soil
of the arenas, and loudly calls for vengeance :

" I see before me the gladiator lie :

he leans upon his hand — his manly brow

consents to death, but conquers agony,

and his droop'd head sinks gradually low —

and through his side the last drops, ebbing slow

from the red gash, fall heavy, one by one,

like the first of a thunder-shower ; and now

the arena swims around him — he is gone,
ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won.

He heard it but he heeded not — his eyes
were with his heart, and that was far away ;
he reck'd not of the life he lost nor prize,
but where his rude hut by the Danube lay,
there were his young barbarians all at play,
there was their Dacian mother — he, their sire,
butcher'd to make a Roman holiday —
all this rushed with his blood — shall he expire
and unavenged ?— Arise, ye Goths, and glut your ire ! "

Childe Harold^ Canto IV.

It was in the year 400 that Alaric crossed the Alps at
the head of the first barbarian invasion. He did not,
however, sack Rome until 410, but his Gothic hordes
spread themselves immediately throughout Provence and
Liguria, and about 405 destroyed the Phocaean town of
Nice. But the Roman authority appears then to have
been sufficiently powerful to keep them at bay, for

70

LOCAL HISTORY.

Cemenelium did not fall into tlie hands of the barbarians

until much later, viz. 574.

The invasion by the Goths was the signal in Europe for a
period of terror, conflict, and devastation, which lasted till
the formation of the powerful states of the Renaissance. The
history of this period offers a most heart-rending picture :

" Criidelis ubique
luctus, ubique I'livor et plurima mortis imago."

Monasticism was the natural outcome and one of the
first results of such a troublous time. The sight of the
desolation which reigned over the finest countries of the
empire, the depravity and the ignorance which had in-
vaded and eaten into society, and the ravages and mas-
sacres which increased on every side, could not fail to
disgust tliinkers and men of lofty character with life and
the world around them. The hermitage was the first
result. But soon, either because grottos, however inacces-
sible and secluded, did not always offer a secure retreat,
or because their inhabitants felt the inconveniences
of a solitary life, these hermits began to gather into com-
munities and to build dwellings, frequently of a fortified
character, which in time became the only refuges re-
maining in Europe for those who had either attained
knowledge or were desirous of acquiring it.

Letters, the fine arts, and science were forced into the
background; they were unknown even to the higher
classes, and despised by those who made warfare their
profession. The Church alone could offer them an asylum
and safety; and so it came to pass that thought and
learning found in the cloister both a sanctuary and a home.
It was about the end of the fourth or at the beginning
of the fifth century, in 375 according to some, in 410

THE HEBMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

71

1

' III

according to others, that a friar, a native of Gaul but de-
scended from a Koman family, after having vainly
wandered over Europe and the East in search of a spot for
meditation and rest, established himself in a hermitage on
Cape Eoux in the Esterel, where, later on, some pious
monks having joined him, he decided on founding a
monastery. Two beautiful islands, situated at the entrance
of a superb gulf, easy to fortify, and sufficiently far from
the coast to render surprise improbable, attracted St.
Honorat and his associates, and led them to determine on
the foundation of the institution known in history as the

Abbey of Levins.

" The group of the Lerins Islands, towards which the
continent throws out the low headland of the Cap de la
Croisette, is composed of tsvo islands, unequal in size, but
symmetrical in shape, and running parallel, side by side,
in the direction of east and west. The northernmost one,
the shores of which face north-west in abrupt cliffs, is sepa-
rated from the coast of Cannes by a strait of about three-
quarters of a mile wide, crowded with rocks, amongst
^^hich it is hardly safe to navigate a vessel drawing more
than twelve or fourteen feet of water. The anchorage of
Frioul, which stretches between the two islands, has a very
similar depth, and is 760 feet broad. Some little islets,
entirely uninhabited, complete the archipelago. A temple
dedicated to Lero, a famous pirate of the heroic times, in
whom it is possible to recognise Hercules, rises on the
larger island ; the name of the demi-god became the title
of the entire group, and is continued to the present day
under the transformation of Lerins:'*

Saint Honorat chose the most distant of the two islands,

* Reclus— Xt'S ViUes tVIIwcr dc la MMiterranee.

I

72

LOCAL HISTORY.

Phnasia, witliout doubt because of its sheltered position
from attack, and as protected in a great degree by Lerina,
For there was on the hirge island a colony of barbarians
subsisting on piracy.

This cmnohium soon became a sort of school of theology.
St. Honorat, a learned theologian, an eloquent preacher, an
enthusiastic apostle, was in every respect a master mind,
proof of which we find in the large number of tliose who as
disciples placed themselves under his teacliing, amongst
whom indeed are to be noted some of the foremost names
of the fifth century, such as St. Loup, bishop of Troyes,
St. Patrick, evangelist of Ireland, and Salvien, the preacher
of Marseilles. But Honorat was too distinguished a man
and too valuable to the Church to be left indefinitely upon
his island, and in 427 he yielded to the entreaties with
which he was assailed, and accepted the bishopric of Aries.
. Towards the middle of the sixth century tlie monastery
adopted the Benedictine rule, as formulated by St.
Benedict in 529 at Monte Cassino in the Terra di Lavoro.

From this time it developed rapidly, and became at
once a monastery, a fortress, and an important commercial
centre, until, at the end of the century, its fame had
spread throughout Europe and placed it amongst the most
celebrated institutions of its kind, its monks having in-
creased to nearly 3700 in number. These naturally could
not all subsist upon the Lerins Islands, but established
powerful and numerous dependencies in the neighbour-
hood, a hospital at Genoa, a nunnery at Tarascon, two
other monasteries on the Ligurian coast, and, somewhat
later on, an establishment of a very peculiar character in
the immediate neighbourhood of Bordighera, and which
played an interesting part in the local history of the six-

THE HERMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

73

teenth century : hence we shall again meet the abbey in
the great days of Louis XIV.

At the very same time that St. Honorat was establishing
himself in his grotto in the Esterel, another individual,
whose history singularly resembles his, although the
latter's work lacked the widespread reputation of the
former's, had come and installed himself in the cavern at
the extremity of the Cape of Bordighera. This was
Ampelius, the patron saint of the locality.

The historical particulars which exist with regard to
this saint contain but few details. His biographer, the
Abbe Rossi of Sasso, having examined the old manuscripts
and ecclesiastical works which are to be found in the
libraries of Genoa and Turin, concludes as follows :

'' According to some writers Afnj>elms (Ampelio in Italian)
was born at Arezzo in Tuscany, but this has been con-
tradicted ; what is more to the point is, that St. Petronius,
Bishop of Bologna, found him amongst a number of monks
and hermits in Upper Egypt, where he followed the trade
of a blacksmith."

The austerity of his life, his devotion to the suffering,
and the remarkable miracles which he accomplished, in a
very short time created for him in the Theba'id a notoriety
which was far from being to his taste, and he speedily
obtained from his superior permission to abandon the life
of the cloister and pass into that of the Anchorites.

The neighbourhood of Bordighera must have been un-
inhabited at this time, but we can well imagine that the
Cape, with its splendid view, its pure and stimulating air,
and its delicious climate, had attractions for one seeking a
peaceful retreat, far from the busy hum of men. But
though we are ignorant of what especial chain of circum-

74

LOCAL HISTOBY.

stances brouglit Ampelio to tins place, it is allowed that
he died here in the year a.d. 428, after having inhabited
for several years the Grotto, which at the present time
forms the crypt of the chapel.

His death was a public loss to the whole of Western
Lignria, for he had been at once an oracle and benefactor.
Here, as in Egypt, his life had been devoted to the welfare
of his neighbour, and his miracles and the austerity of his
life had made him as celebrated as beloved. He was
buried in the same cave which had been his dwelling-place,
and his tomb quickly became a favourite place of pil-
grimage.*

This grotto, which is still visited by many on the 14th
of May, Imfeie day as patron saint of tlie town, is now
surmounted by a chapel, the date of the original construc-
tion of which is unknown. It must, however, have been
after the year 1140, since at that period the people of San
Kemo, in their anxiety to discover the tomb, were com-
pelled to seek information as to its situation from certain
Vintimiglian prisoners, who gained their release by dis-
closing the secret : a most improbable fact, if the Grotto
had already been marked by a sanctuary. It was, how-
ever, enlarged and restored in 1852, but still remains par-
tially incomplete. The statue in marble, very fliirly
executed, which stands above the altar, represents the
saint holding his blacksmith's hammer, and was placed
there on June 29th, 1655.

The priory is a very ancient foundation : it possessed
formerly a revenue of one hundred crowns per annum, but
reduced later to fifty.

The ashes of St. Ampelio rested in peace in the her-

* Profits..! F. ll'^ssi—Mimork di S. Ampelio.

THE HEEMITAGE AND THE CLOISTER.

75

mitage, now become a vault, until the middle of the
twelfth century, when they were transported to San Kemo,
and later on to Genoa, under circumstances of which 1
shall speak hereafter.

At this distance of time it is not easy to separate fact
from fiction in the legend of St Ampelio. His biographers,
as we have found, state distinctly that he passed the first
portion of his life in Egypt, but it is impossible to deny
the fact that this assertion rests entirely on the hypothesis
that the name of Apelles, under which St. Fetronius and
others knew him in the East, had been transformed into
Ampelius on his arrival in Italy. So that it may have
been with his, as with otlier Greek names known and in
use in Italy at the period when he existed, that the last
form became that most common; there was a Roman
prefect under Valentinian, and a Latin author of the fifth
century named Ampelius.

The transformation is then quite possible, but it does not
appear sufficiently well proved to establish absolutely the
identity of the two individuals.

However this may be, the presence of a hermit in the
grotto on the Cape at the commencement of the fifth cen-
tury must be considered an incontestable fact ; and it is
equally probable that this individual was a saint in the
truest acceptation of the word: that is, a humble and
earnest Christian, devoted to his fellow-men, and ready to
sacrifice everything in the philanthropic and missionary
work which he had undertaken.

With regard to the miracles which his biographers
attribute to him, some of which might have rivalled those
of the Apostles and their Divine Master himself, if we are
obliged to hesitate in accepting them at once and without

76

LOCAL HISTORY.

examination, we must at least recognise in tliem deeds of
courage and nobleness which come down to us, after four-
teen centuries, disguised and exaggerated by the con-
tinually magnifying power of popular tradition. We can
well say, then, of St. Ampelius, borrowing the words of
one of the hymns of his office :

" Hie Deo soli prociil a profanis
servieiis miindi docuit cadiicas,
spernere invicto pede res, et astra

meiite siibire.

Corpus affixit made ritique
arduam duxit sine labe vitam
donee insignis meritis beata

regna iietivit."

Or, to roughly paraphrase it into English :

" Alone, remote from sin, he served bis God,

the fleeting things of tins world dailj- spurned,
treading them firmly 'neatli the resisting sod,
whilst heart and eyes were ever heavenward turned.

By poverty and fasting mortified
his fiesh, and stainless lived in faith and love ;

famed for pure life and gentle deeds, he died—
say, rather, sought the blessed realms above ! "

J. Y.

The town of Matuta has no place in the history of the
Koman period, but the peculiarly Latin form of the name
and the ruins which have been discovered indicate very
clearly that it was founded at tlie latest under the empire
and before the fall of Paganism. Matuta, then,* does

• Matuta, commonly called "Mater Matuta," was the Goddess of the Dawn,
identified by the Romans with the Leucothea of the Greeks. Her festival, the'
Matralia, was celebrated on the 11th of June. As to Leucothea, u r read that
she was originally a mortal, Ino hy name, and the second wife of Ath.xnas, a
son of .Eolus ; owing, however, to domestic troubles, which it is unnecessary 'to
recount here, she threw herself with a son into the sea, and, as a reward
apparently, was changed into the goddess Leucothea.

THE FEUDAL TIMES.

77

not appear on the scene of history until the commence-
ment of the seventh century. At this time, according to
tradition, Stephen, Bishop of Genoa, sent as a missionary
a monk of the name of Ilormisdas. We know nothing what-
ever of the life of this worthy, except that, like Ampelius
of Bordigbera, he lived, died, and was buried in a grotto
which is still, at the present day, an object of veneration.

The invasion of the Lombards under Alboin took place
towards the end of the sixth century. They destroyed
Cimiez in 574, Matuta in 641, Genoa in 670 under
Kotharis.

The Bishop of the last town, Eomulus by name, driven
from his own diocese, took refuge in the grotto of
Hormisdas in the midst of the ruins of Matuta. The
population, scattered and miserable, gathered themselves
instantly round him, and, encouraged no less by his
example than by his exhortations, began to reconstruct
the town which afterwards was known as San Bomolo.

We shall see in good time how, much later on, Bornulus
became Bemus, prior to forming the modern name of San
Bemo.

CHAPTER IV.

THE FEUDAL TIMES.

The Genoese league — The Emperor suzerains — Foundation of fortified
villages— Matuta, Nice, Monaco, and Ventimiglia during the Middle
Ages.

The first traces of a revival, after the long period of
anarchy and the degradation of the moral sense which
accompanied the dismemberment of the empire, are not

78

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE FEUDAL TIMES.

79

found in Western Liguria until tlie commencement of the
seventh century. The Genoese League, embracing the
whole of the coast, was organised in 617, and victoriously
resisted the Franks until the overwhelming triumphs of
Charlemagne and his coronation by Leo IIL in the year 800.

But a new era of confusion and trouble was at hand.
Charlemagne died in 814 and liis empire was divided
amongst his sons : Charles tlie Bald received France (as
for shortness we may call it), whilst Italy fell to Lothair,
who took the title of Emperor of the West.

But at this time the emperors were no more than titular
suzerains of Liguria, where the colonies had already begun
taking the first steps towards the formation of free towns.
The continued incursions of the Saracens forced moreover
the inhabitants of the sea-coasts to fortify their villages
and to arm themselves in defence of their hearths, inde-
pendently of a sovereign whom incessant wars, not less
than a tottering throne, occupied far too exclusively to
cast an eye even on a country not only far off, but without
any political importance.

Thus then were founded the Ligurian villages, the
oldest of which had a much greater resemblance to strongly
fortified castles tliau agricultural hamlets, whose popula-
tions, gathered together around their intrepid leaders,
erected themselves these fortified dwellings on situations
as varied as well chosen ; sometimes on a commanding
position, sometimes carefully hidden by wooded hills,
but always easy to defend, and from whence they never
went out, even to attend to their agricultural labours, but
with arms in their liands — to pillage, it might be, one
another, or to contend together against the common
enemy, the pirates (the African corsairs), whose sudden or
imexpected landings were a source of permanent danger.

4

The history of Western Liguria during the whole of the
feudal times hardly offers to our notice any events of

interest.

The town of Matuta, which did not officially take the
name of San Remo until the twelfth century, was a fief of
the Bishopric of Genoa. Nice, whose population and pros-
perity had increased with great rapidity towards the end of
the sixth century, thanks to the immigration of the
inhabitants of Cimiez (which town had been destroyed by
the Lombards in the year 574), was possessed in turn by
the kings of France, the Bishop of Genoa, and the Counts
of Aries ; but in the year 900 consuls were elected, and the
town rejoiced in an almost complete autonomy until its
union with the "county"* of Provence in 1228, during
the reign of Raymond Beranger IV. In 1332, however,
it was taken by Amadeus VII. of Savoy, and from that
time remained almost uninterruptedly in the possession

of that house.

Monaco, originally founded, so it is said, by Hercules,
and occupied continuously by the Saracens from the time
of Charlemagne, was ceded to Genoa in 1162 by the
Emperor Frederic II., but the republic did not take pos-
session until 1215.

In 1338, Charles Grimaldi, a Frankish noble according
to some, a Genoese according to others, seized the territory
composed of the communes of Monaco, Roquebrune, and
Mentone, and founded a principality which, though it has
passed through an endless variety of vicissitudes, has, so
far at least as Monaco itself is concerned, remained ever
in his family.

* As this word county may perhaps cause confusion to English readers, I
will mention that the meaning here is perfectly distinct from our ordinary use
of it. Here it refers to a province governed by a " Count." — A. C. D.

80

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE COUNTY OF VENTIMIGLIA.

81

Yentimiglia, a very strong and important place according
to the strategy of that time, arose upon the ruins of the
ancient Alhintemelium, and had given it the rank of a
"county " by the Emperor OthoL, towards the end of the
tenth century. Sanguinary wars with Genoa, varied by
repeated sieges, fo. lowed each other, until the town was
finally joined with the republic in the thirteenth century.

It would but uselessly fatigue the reader to n^peat the
details of the long see-saw of local wars, of the cessions,
more or less definite, of the various territories and of con-
tinual depredations by the Saracens. It is, however,
necessary, in order to understand clearly tljc later events
connected with this part of tlie coast which we are specially
interested in, that before recounting the founlation of
Bordighera, we take a rapid view over the histoi y <'f some
of its localities; viz. Veutiiniglia, San Remo, the Fief of
Selorga, and the Principality of Monaco.

CHxVPTEll V.

THE " COUNTY " OF VENTIMIGLIA.

IntrocluctioQ of Christiariity— Origlu of the " county"— Early wars
willi Genoa — Tnmslatiou of the body of St. Aiupolio — Civil war —
Ventimiglia as a Commune— Fresli wars with <Jenoa: first siege and
stratagems of the Genoese — Second siege and capituhitiun of the
town — Third siege and destruction of tlie town — The " Cast rum
Vihtimiliense " — Ventimiglia a Genoese possession.

Ventimiglia, which at the end of the Roman dominion
was an important town — an urhs magna, as the writers of
the period tell us— had developed rapidly during the first
centuries of the middle ages, whilst its position, strong

u

from the ease with which it could be defended when
attacked, drew to it an ever-increasing population.
Christianity was introduced at a very early date ; tradition
indeed has it, that many saints of the first century visited
it— amongst others, the suffragan apostle Barnabas, who
came and preached in these parts and founded the
Bishopric of Ventimiglia. However this may be, it is
certain that the baptistry and the cathedral are amongst
the most ancient pagan temples in Liguria, transformed
into Christian churches. It is impossible, unfortunately, to
fix the exact date of the first creation of the " county " of
Ventimiglia*. According to some authorities, Charlemagne
had awarded it to a certain Guide Guerra, a noble of
Liguria ; according to others, the Emperor Otho I. had
created it to the profit and for the benefit of Count Aleran ;
whilst again there are some (and according to Abbe Rossi
with greater truth), who trace the descent of the Counts
of Ventimiglia from Conrad, son of Berenger II., King of
Italy, who died in the year 062.

The "county" was originally a dependency of the
marquisat of Susa, and extended on the east as far as the
Armeria by Taggia and Porto Maurizio, to the west to
Turl)ia and St. Etienne de la Time, whilst to the north it
was bounded by Piedmont or the Duchy of Turin.

At the commencement of the twelfth century, the
Republic of Genoa aspired to the supremacy of the whole
of Liguria, and constructed a powerful fortress at San
Remo, under the pretext of securing the safety of the roads.
A struggle followed, in which the Count was worsted, only
just preserving his independence, but in 1140 the Genoese

* See note on page 79. The use is here a territorial one, just as we now
say " the Duchy of Lancaster," or "Duchy of Cornwall."— A. C, D.

LOCAL HISTORY.

Government, always jealous of the autouomy of Venti-
miglia, complained to Conrad II., King of the Komans,
with regard to the inhabitants of the county, characteris-
ing them as « robbers and pirates," and implored liis aid
to crush them. Conrad allied himself to the Marquess of
Savona, and laid siege to the town, which was taken and

The people of San Bomuh took on this occasion a
certain imraber of Ventimiglian prisoners, but gave them
their liberty in exchange for the body of St. Ampelio, or
rather on tlieir informing their captors of the exact
situation of the grotto where the saint was buried, at the
extremity of the Cape which bears liis name.

The body of the saint, therefore, had already become an
object of veneration. The Ventimigliaus attached, with-
out doubt, a very great value to it, and at the commence-
ment of hostilities they had probably destroyed, with very
great care, every tiling that might indicate the entrance

of the cavern.

Any way, the fact of the inhabitants of the former
town giving liberty to their prisoners on their divulging
the secret, proves very clearly that there can have been
no sanctuary raised over the tomb at this time.

The body of the saint was then transported to San
Remo and deposited in the church of St. Stephen, where
it rested until 1258, at which time his relics were again
removed, this time to Genoa, and placed in a church there
also dedicated to St Stephen, and belonging, curiously
enoucrh, to the Abbey of Lerins, which, as before mentioned,
was founded by his great contemporary, St. Honorat.

Soon after these events. Count Hubert made submission
and did homage to the Republic of Genoa, receiving in

THE COUNTY OF VENTIMIGLIA.

83

I

return a formal investiture of seignorial rights over the
" county." This was nothing else but an abdication under
another name ; but it had deeper significance so far as the
town was concerned, for from this event we must date for
Ventimiglia the commencement of free government by
Consuls and a Parliament.

Towards, however, the end of the twelfth century, an
interesting movement began through the whole length of
Jjiguria, having for its object union with Genoa, then the
most important naval and commercial power in that part
of the Mediterranean. For that great but unscrupulous
republic^ whose fiscal policy was of an entirely protec-
tionist character, knew only too well, that the best means
of imposing its suzerainty on the inhabitants of the coast,
was, by appealing not to their fears, but to their pockets !
The allies and friendly towns could traffic freely with
Genoa ; their vessels, laden with merchandise, might
enter and leave her ports at will, whilst the ships of the
independent Communes were taxed, and their freights
almost crushed by onerous duties, ere they could enter the
harbour.

But the inhabitants of Ventimiglia, who not only
possessed ships, but had even a little port at the mouth of
the Roia, claimed to act independently and to trade with
distant countries on their own account. They therefore
held themselves aloof, and even dared, under the influence
of an ambassador of the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, to
destroy a fortress which the Genoese had erected just
above their town, and later on, completed their defiance
by boldly taking the side of the Emperor against the
Republic in the wars of the Lombardian League.

Ventimiglia thus became practically a fief of the

G 2

OTC

LOCAL HISTORY,

Empire, and the autliority of the Counts was reduced to

zero.

But on the death of Count Guy (who, having more
philosophy than force of character, had fallen easily into
the state of affairs), his son and successor, Otho, sought at
once to recover his lost authority and to suppress again
the liberties of the town.

This was naturally the signal for a civil war. The
Count was besieged in the castle of St. Agnes and his son
in that of Dolceaqua, which latter was taken and burnt

in 1185.

The triumph of the town was followed by a compromise,
the result of which was, that Count Otho granted a
charter to his people, not only re-establishing all their
rights, but even extending them.

Ventimiglia then entered upon a period of complete
independence, enjoying a Republican hvm of government in
everything but tlie name. Authority was exercised by four
elected Consuls, a Council of nobles or citizens of position,
and a rarliament Nvliicli met in the Cathedral of St.
JMaria, an extremely ancient building whicli had been
erected on the ruins of a temple of Juno.

The principal officers of the State were— the Cintracus
** Herald ; " the Boni Fm or experts, cliarged with the
administration of the public funds ; a Chancellor, who
undertook the drawing up of the parliamentary reports and
the decrees of the Consuls; and a Potestasov High Bailiff,
whose position was that of Chief Judge, and who attached
the great seal of the Commune to the public acts.

The Cintracus, in the free towns at this time, and
especially in Genoa under the Eepublic, was a very
important functionary, who combined, in a sort of way, the

THE COUNTY OF VENTIMIGLIA.

85

\

modern posts of Secretary to the Commune and Euissier*
He called Parliament together, took oaths in the name
of the State, acted as "Public Prosecutor," presided at
the auctions for the farming of the taxes, and promulgated
the laws and all the news after blowing his horn in the
Piazza.

But a system of liberty so complete, especially when
combined with great commercial prosperity, could not fail
to cause irritation to the two natural enemies of the town :
the titular family of the county, who still longed to re-
assert their lost autliority, and the Republic of Genoa,
always jealous of any rival, however insignificant ; and the
time, alas ! was not far off when this spirited little town
was to be made cruelly conscious of it. In the year 1196,
Count Otho and the Genoese combined their forces and
besieged Ventimiglia for the space of two months, but
failing, in spite of the most determined efforts, to enter
the town, they organised a league of the whole of
Liguria to make Guerramvivam contra Vintimilienses.

I may mention here that the name of Ventimiglia has
suffered many transformations ; its primitive was Allium
Intemelium, which aherwordshecsime Alhinteinelium; later
it was abbreviated to Iniemelium, whilst towards the end of
the middle ages we find Vintimilium. The formation
Vigintimilium, which is found in many documents, is
nothing but an unscholarly translation of Ventimilium,

The allies established their camp on the Cape of St.
Ampelio, but they were unable to do more than ravage
the country on either side of the Nervia.

In face of a resistance as successful as it was obstinate
and courageous, the Genoese, finding force of no avail, had

♦ This is a sort of French equivalent of our sherifTs officer. — A. C. D,

86

LOCAL HISTOEY.

recourse to stratagem, and caused a rumour to be spread
that a large Ventimiglian galley, which had been cruising
on the coast of Spain, had been captured and taken into

Genoa.

At this news, as disastrous as unexpected, the galhint
defenders of Ventimiglia at once laid down tlieir arms
and capitulated, in order that they might purchase the
safety of their compatriots, now, as they believed, fallen
iBto tlie hands of a cruel and vindictive enemy, and the
Genoese entered and took possession of the town.

The history of the miserable years which followed is
alas but that common to most of the smaller states during
medijBval times— a long series of hopeless revolts on the
one side and bloody repressions on the other, only one of
which is of sufficient importance to find mention here.

In the year 1222 the town of Ventimiglia had allied
itself to Raymond V. of Provence, who had married the
Princess Beatrice of Savoy. Kaymond himself directed
the defence of the town, and a most memorable siege took
place ; a siege the most terrible in every respect which
this unfortunate town has ever sustained. Finding them-
selves utterly unable to take by assault a town situated as
this was on the top of a precipitous cliff, tlie Genoese
decided to reduce it by famine. They therefore sank a
large galley full of stones at the mouth of the Roya, thus
most effectually blocking the port,* and also turned the
course of the river aside above the town, entirely depriving
the inhabitants of water; the result of which was that

* This was the same course, it may be remembered, as that taken by the com-
mander of the United States Naval Forces in order to reduce New Orh-.ins to
submission, and put a stop to the blockade running, which was the chief
means of support of the beleaguered city. — A. ('. D.

THE COUNTY OF VENTIMIGLIA.

87

1

after an heroic resistance Ventimiglia was compelled once
more to capitulate.

At the conclusion of the siege, the Genoese restored the
Caziel d^A^pio, and constructed the present fortress of St.
Paul, hoping by these means to hold in subjection this
brave and independent little town. But symptoms of
another revolt were not long in re-appearing, and drawing
down upon it again the wrath of its powerful suzerain.

A third siege took place in 1251, and terminated in
the complete defeat of the Yentimiglian forces on the
Cape of St. Ampelio ; upon which occasion the Genoese
razed to the ground the strong fort which stood on this
point, and which some writers mention under the title of
Castmm mutimiliense, a word which is probably an acci-
dental variation, a clerical error perhaps, of Virdimiliense,
This town also bore the name of the Monastery of St.
Benedict, and served as a sort of resting-place or half-way
house for the monks of Lerins in their maritime com-
munications with their possession of Seborga, of which I
shall have to speak further on.

In taking leave of this period of the history of Venti-
miglia we must consider it as a Genoese possession ; for
the Counts— the family having greatly increased, and
divided amongst themselves the various villages and
strong castles scattered over the county— were but little
more than petty lords, who placed their services and their
followers at the disposal of any warring prince— for a con-
sideration! Unfortunately, however, union with Genoa
was far from proving the commencement of a period of
prosperity to this unhappy people, whose position as a
frontier-town exposed them to continual dangers. During
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Ventimiglia was

ir

/

88

LOCAL HISTORY.

SAN REMO IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

89

contiEually the toy of the varying fortunes of war, in
the struggles of the Guelplis and Ghibelins ; it passed even
for a short time into the hands of Ladislas, King of Naples,
but Genoa quickly took possession again; whilst about
the year 1388, Amadeus YII. of Savoy made a long and
ineffectual siege of the town, which, however, remained
faithful to the Kepublic.

I cannot follow further the especial history of Venti-
midia. The more modern events which occurred in this
interesting town will be found in the chapters relating to
the foundation of Bordighera, and the development of the
Confederation of the Eiglit Towns.

CHAFTEK VI.

SAN REMO IN THE MIDDLE AUES.

Depredatiuns of the Saracens — Rukiuf the Archbusliwps of Geiiuu— Sale
to two Counts — Taken by D'Oria auJ sale to Genoa — lio/iLuluii
becomes Rem us.

Situated at the bottom of a wide gulf, without natural
protection and without strategic importance, owing to the
fact that no valley of any size opens in its neighbourhood,
the history of San Kemo is far from offerino; as interestin^r
a picture of striking events and dramatic adventures as
that I have just been recounting.

The Saracens devastated Matuta over and over ao:ain in
the nintli and tenth centuries, but after their comj)lete
defeat and expulsion from the Fmximts* which they

* For eiplanation of the "Fraiiiiets. " of the Saracens, scf cliaj.. viii.

I

possessed on the coast by William, Count of Provence, in
972, a Villa Matutiana, loco Sancti Bomuli, was con-
structed through the influence of Theodolphus, Bishop of
Genoa. This town originally formed part of the " county "
of Ventimiglia, but in 1038, the Count Conrad, submitting
to the pressure exercised by his suzerain, the Emperor
Conrad II., signed a convention by which he renounced
in favour of the Bishop of Genoa (who was also named
Conrad) all his rights over the new city : " omnibus rebus
. . . qum sunt positm in comitatu Vigintimiliense, in locos et
fundos ipsius loci Sancti BomuU."*

During the rule of the archbishops, St. Romulus
governed itself almost as if it had been a free town. Its
distance from Genoa, the difficulties of communication,
and the embarrassment which continued political com-
plications caused in the diocese (raised to the rank of an
archbishopric in 1135), practically limited the interven-
tion of the archbishop to the nomination of consuls, to
the levying of certain assessments or annual taxes, and to
the exaction of an oath of fidelity in the Church of St.
Syrus, patron of the city, which the Cintracus took every
^\e years in the name of the people.

But the temporal and spiritual powers did not manage
to pull along together in this little town in the Middle
Ages better than they have done in our ow^n times in far
more important States. Two opposing factions soon formed
themselves, followed by intestine struggles which paralysed
all authority, and checked public prosperity, until at last
the archbishop himself decided most wisely to dispose of
a possession which it was neither possible to govern be-
comingly nor which gave back anything for all his care.

* Rossi—Storia delta Ciita d'l San liemo.

90

LOCAL HI8T0BY.

In 1297, therefore, the archbishop obtained from
Boniface VIII. a Bull, which authorised him to sell St.
Eomulus and Ceriana, — eastra Sandi Bomuli ei Celianse,—
to two Genoese nobles, Hubert d'Oria and George de
Mari, for the sum of three thousand Genoese livres (about
13,000?.). These two counts did not long enjoy in peace
their common possession. The D'Orias declared for the
Gliibelins and tlie De Mari for the Guelphs, and this in-
volved this unhappy commune in the great struggle of
these two powerful factions. Later on, one of the D'Orias
found himself sole ruler of St. Eomulus, but he was dis-
lodged by Robert, King of Naples, who installed there
one Cosmo de Mari as his lieutenant.

But in 1330, Antonio D*Oria, who commanded the naval
forces of the Ghibelins on this coast, drove out the Guelphs
and took possession of the commune, which he sold to the
Genoese Republic for a sum total, paid in many instal-
ments and to various creditors, of fifteen thousand fise
hundred and fifty Genoese livres, or nearly 16,000/.
sterling.

The final union with the Republic was signed on the
15th of March, 1361, in the Bmilica of St. Lawrence at
Genoa.

Some little time after this, but at any rate during the
fifteenth century, the name of St. Romulus was changed
for St. Remus, but there exists no satisfactory explanation
for this transformation ; M. Elisee Reclus, in his Villes
d'Hiver de la Mediterranee states that the inhabitants of
the first St. Romulus, which occupied the site of Matuta,
sought refuge, after the pillage of their town by the
Saracens, on a steep hill, where they constructed a new
St. Romulus, surrounded by walls, but that when the

ii

»

SAN REMO IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

91

danger of these barbarous occurrences had become less
imminent, viz. in 973, some citizens of St. Romulus
descended into the plains and founded on the site of
ancient Matuta a new town, to which they gave the name
of St. Bemus, in order to show the kinship of these two
neighbouring cities.

This hypothesis carries with it a certain amount of
probability, the more so as the name of San Bomolo is still
to be found associated with a little hamlet, built upon a
steep hill, some hours distant from San Remo ; but it is
supported by no proof whatever by M. Reclus, and one
would like to know something of the facts upon which he
bases his theory, for the local historians make no mention
whatever of it. That, however, which proves that it could
not have been as he suggests, is the fact that the town
which was erected upon the ruins of Matuta bore officially
and continuously the name of St. Romulus—ZocMS— and
later on Castruni and oj^pidum Sancti Bomuli, up to the
period to which we have now arrived. Local historians,
both Professor Rossi and the Abbe Grosso, attribute the
change from Bomulus to Bemus to a simple modification
of th'e word, due to the influences exercised on the pro-
nunciation of Latin in this part of Italy by the irruption
of the Goths. They would at first shorten the name to
Bomus, and later on the pronunciation of the o would
insensibly approach that of e*

The odd result of this transformation is, that it has given
successively to the same town, the names of the two

* Such changes are common enough in the names of English towns and
villages, the natural tendency to shorten a word being the most frequent
cause: Bnghton, from the Saxon Brighthelmston, being a fair example, tor
further explanations see chap, xv.— A. C. D.

THE FIEF OF SEBOKGA.

93

92

LOCAL HISTORY.

brothers who founded Rome, and yet in all probability
this fact is, extraordinary as it may appear, absolutely the
merest aod most accidental coincidence.

CHAPTER VII.

THE FIEF OF SEBORGA.

Controversies on the subject of cessi<tn of Seborga to the Abbey of
L(?riiis — Act settling boundaries with Ventimiglia in 1177 — Other
l)Ossessions of Lerins in tlie neigh l>ourliood — The Abbey coins money
at Seborga — Act of assigtiincnt of IGO';— Act of confiscation of 168G
— Negociations for sale with Genoa — Final sale to tlie House of
Savoy.

The little village of Sehorga, Sehorca, or Sahoiirg (the
Eoraaii Septdchrum), whicli forms to-day a commune of the
canton of Bordighera, was formerly a portion of the
" county " of Ventimiglia, remaining so, as did the rest of
the district, up to the commencement of feudal times, to
be detached later on, and become a possession of the
powerful Abbey of Lerins. This fact is incontestable : that
which is less so is the title in pursuance of which the Lerins
Monastery arrogated to itself tlie sovereignty of the district
and the period to which this sovereignty continued. At
the end of an old document drawn up in the form of a will,
a certain Guide Guerra, Count of Ventimiglia, wishing to
secure the repose of his soul before departing to figlit
against the Saracens in 954, bequeathed JSeborga to the
monks of St. Honorat: Castrum de septdchro cum mero
et lihero imperio, cum ejus halitatorihus et ierritorio . . .
propri ynei juris do et lego pro septdchro meo et anima

\

wk

I

mea et parentum meorum* This document is, however,
treated as apocryphal by almost all the historians and
archa}ologists who have interested themselves in this ques-
tion. According to Gioffredo, the fraud dates from the
year 1446, and was the work of a monk of the abbey,
George by name, belonging to the family of the Counts
of Ventimiglia, who, as a clever modern critic says, " had
acquired a certain celebrity for this kind of work." t

That the " county " of Ventimiglia existed, however, at
the period in question, is without doubt. The historian
Rossi has observed with perfect justice that if it is true, on
the one side, that we do not possess any authentic document
that speaks of a Count of Ventimiglia before the year 1000,^
it is equally true on the other, that the Liher Jurium of
Genoa beai^ witness to a petition of Bishop Theodolphus,
dated the year 962, on the subject of certain lands situated
in comitatu vigintimiUense, Bnt if the " county " existed
there would also have been a titular count ; it is therefore
possible that Guido Guerra was a real personage, and the
actual author of the will which has been attributed to him.
I venture, however, to suggest as an argument in support
of the contrary view, that an act of division of the lands of
Ventimiglia and Seborga in 1177, drawn up between the
Consuls and the Benedictine Fathers of Lerins, speaks
with great distinctness of a then living and a real Guido
Guerra as titular count. A legacy by will in 954, and a
formal gift with definition of boundaries two centuries
later, but both by two counts of similar names, is, to say
the least, a suspicious circumstance, and of a nature to

* Rossi — Storia di Vcntimujlia.

t Paper read by M. A. Carlone at the Congres Scientifique de France at

Nice, in 18G6.

I»:#

THE FIEF OF SEBORGA.

95

94

LOCAL HISTOKY.

suggest serious doubts as to the authenticity of the earlier

document.

A forger not blessed witli a vivid imagination, but
fearinjr, for reasons more or less avowed, that the posses-
sion of Seborga by his convent might one day be disputed,
and wishing to protect this possession from all controversy
and invest it witli the authority of age, would iiiid nothing
easier than to attribute a gift so ancient to the name of
one who had actually existed. And he would avoid detec-
tion up to a certain point : for tlie gift w x.uld always liave
been signed by Guido Guerra ; the period alone would bo
changed. At any rate, he may have been able to put upon
a wrong scent the critics of the fifteenth century.

Whatever may have been the ease, this at least is
certain, that the fief belonged to the abbey by right or
by usurpation prior to the act defining the boundaries in
1177, which implied less a gift than the regulation of a
previously existing state of things.

Others, however, of the reverend fathers had already
been attracted to the neiglibourhood. They possessed
the Castrum Vintimiliense on the Capo of St. Ampelio ;
in 1041 Count Otho (?) had given them the Monastery of
St. Michael at Ventimiglia; his son had added, in 1080,
the Church of St. Blary at Canolese ; and finally, in 1092,
the Bishop of Ventimiglia gave up to them that of St.
Mary of Saorgio.

This powerful abbey had, moreover, a strong ten lency to
push forward and colonize, and there is nothing astonishing
in their coveting this little fief, even independently of the
practice they afterwards followed there. This practice
was coining money.

We are ignorant at what period this enterprising

monastery commenced to make use of that most sovereign
of rights, and which had perhaps been exercised secretly
from a very remote date, thanks to the possession of an
insignificant village hidden amongst the mountains, and
where no traveller ever cared to wander. One is there-
fore well able to understand the anxiety of these reverend
fathers to assure to themselves by every means in their
power their sovereignty of the fief

The monks, however, did not always carry on this
work of coining gold and silver pieces themselves; they
farmed it out to manufacturers: but only one of their
acts of assignment has been preserved to us. It is dated
the 24th of December, 1666, and had been drawn up by a
M. Jean De Luc, Notaire Hereditaire at Cannes.

This deed is a concession in favour of one Bareste of
Mougins for four years, in consideration of an annual
rent of 1500 livres, payable in half-yearly instalments,
and authorised the grantee :

" To coin gold pieces, large and small, and to sell them in the
countries of the Levant with the stamp and arms of the said monastery,
of the same weight and quality as those now circulating, and all the
»aid pieces of money which shall be made at the said mint of the
quality of seven standard-fine, at the least, and the gold pieces which
shall also be coined at the said mint shall be of 18 carat fine
gold ; to which the said Bareste binds Limself. Moreover, the said
Reverend Fathers, as named, also give permission and a faculty to the
said Bareste to coin in tlie said mint pieces of five sols and other pieces
of silver common to the countries of the Levant, with the same stamp
and arms as above, and of the same standard and quality of those above
mentioned ; further, that he can coin the said pieces in such quantity
as he pleases, by day or night, by coining press or hammer, as may
seem good to him, «&c."

At the Museum of Vienna are still to be found some
specimens of these gold pieces struck at Seborga ; they

96

LOCAL HISTORY.

4

i

bear the dates of 1066 and 1686 with the effi.y of the
Monastery of Lerin., sormoooted by a mitre, and
inscription, Deus et ormmentmn ecdestie

But the mint at Seborga was destined to a sad enclin^,
and at the moment of its greatest prosperity.

The administration of the abbey, eitln r too absorbed
in commercial and agricultural works to occupy itself with
nuestions of eonseience, or finding that the Protectants
iere better workmen than the Catholics, committed, at a
certain period of their history, the mistake ot forming
the establishment at Seborga to a Huguenot contractor.
This was indeed a blunder from the point of view of those
most interested, occurring, as it did, in the reign of a cruel
and arro-ant monarch, who allowed himself to be so
blinded b^ the flatteries of a Jesuit without conscience, as
to devote five hundred tliousand of the worthiest of his
subjects to exile, to slaughter, and to persecution of the
most revolting character. ^

The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes was signed on
the 22nd of October, 1685, and was followed by a series
of vexatious measnr. s, which the most despotic govern-
ment of our own days would blush at: they order..! the
demolition of the cliundies and the schools of tbe Tro-
testants, they took from them their children, they forbad
their lawyers from practising : they forbad them employ-
iBg or serving other than Catholics, and they dispatched
th^ dragoons of Baville in pursuit of the recalcitrants!
In the midst, then, of such a state of things, who could
hope that a Protestant manager would be tolerated in an
establishment which was considered to be situated on
French territory, since it belonged by sovereign right of
possession to a French monastery ?

THE FIEF OF SEBORGA.

97

The decree, given below, and which was issued eight
months after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, is
a proof that the bloodhounds of Letellier were not
sleeping : —

" It having been represented to the King, in Council, that one Dabic
by name, a tradesman of the town of Nimes, of the R.P.R.* who has
lived for some time past at Sabourg, a dependency of the monastery of
Saint Honorat, at Lerins, and has there coined money in pursuance of a
lease which had been granted him for a term of three years by the
administration of the said abbey, at the rate of fifteen hundred livres
per annum : and as, by the same lease, it is allowed to the said Dabic
on the part of the monks to worship according to his own faith, and
to have with him such number of friends and workmen as may seem
good to him, which things his Majesty desires to alter :—

" The King, in Council, has broken and annulled the said lease, as
also all other leases, general and particular, of the farms and depend-
encies of Sabourg made to the contractors of the R.P.R. by the abbots
and monks of the said Abbey of Saint Honorat of Le'rins, whom His
Majesty expressly forbids and inhibits from letting the said properties
to others than Catholics, or to give shelter to these heretics ; neither to
continue any longer the coining of money at the said town of Sabourg
upon any pretence whatever; in case of disobedience to which His
Majesty has commanded that proceedings shall instantly be taken by
LeSieur Mozant, Intendant of Justice, Police, and Finance in Provence,
wlio has been enjoined to carry out the execution of the present decree,
and which shall not be delayed in spite of any opposition or appeal
whatever. Made at the Council of State, before His Majesty the King,
at Versailles, the 1st of July, 1086.

" (Signed) Colbert." f

This decree, as we see, did not only forbid coining of
money by Protestants: it suppressed the establishment
itself by a stroke of the pen, and was the punishment
which the liberality of the abbey had attracted to itself.

* Religion Protestante Kc'form^e.

t I am indebted for the text of this decree, as also for the act of assignment,
to a M€inoire sur unc episode de Vhistoire du Monastere de St Honorat, read at
the Congres Scientifique de France at Nice, in 1866, by M. Oallois-Montbrun.

H

98

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

99

From this time the possession of Seborga became
a source of loss ratlier than profit to the monastery, and
measures were at once commenced for getting rid of it.
Negotiations were opened with the Republic of Genoa,
but at the moment when they had agreed to sell for a
large sum to be paid in hard cash, Victor Amadeus II.,
Duke of Savoy, placed his veto on the transaction in his
capacity as Vicar of the Empire.* This was evidently a
pretext. Victor Amadeus desired himself to become the
possessor of Seborga, which he finally bouglit, in 1697, for
the sum of 20,000 crowns. The house of Savoy retained
the fief definitely, but the price was never paid.

CHAPTEK VIII.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

Monaco after the Roman epoch— The /^'raxme^s— Vicissitudes nntil
1792— Annexation to France— The Restoration of 1814— Republic of
Mentone and Roquebrnne— Annexation of 1860— The gambling
tables.

The history of the vicissitudes of Monaco is not especially
interesting from the point of view of the historian of
Bordighera, but the two localities are too near to one
another, and the splendid establishment which now exists

* Leopold I. was Emperor of Geiinany, but the Western Empire of feudal
times existed only in name. However, the right of the Emperor and his
Vicars to forbid such cessions of territory as were (lisi)leasing to them was, it
appears, perfectly legal. Until the re-arrangement of the map of Europe,
which followed the French Revolution, these cessions were sheltered under
the formula, Salva fidelitate domini imperatoris.

in the Principality plays too important a part in the
midst of our winter resorts to allow us to pass the place
over without a word. So in this chapter I will give a
glance at the history of Monaco from the commencement
of the Middle Ages to the present time, in order that we
may not have to return again to so unsympathetic a

subject.

From the death of Charlemagne until about the tenth
century, the Rock of Monaco was occupied by the
Saracens. It constituted (as did also the Portus Olivulm,
now Villefranche, and another place in the Gulf of
Sambracie, perhaps San Tropez) one of their Fraxinets *
or fortified forts, from whence they issued forth upon
their piratical expeditions to pillage both friends and
enemies throughout the Western Mediterranean. The
Genoese, after they had taken posession of it in 1215,
laid the foundations of the present castle and the existing
fortifications. From this point Monaco became a fortified
place of great importance, and wJiilst nominally belonging
to various branches of the Grimaldi family, was wrangled
over, besieged, taken, retaken and occasionally occupied
by all the various parties who have waged war in these
parts. In 1789, when the great revolution burst over
France, the three Communes of Port Hercules, Roque-
brnne and Mentone were under the sceptre of a
prince who had lived almost continually in Paris, viz.,

Honor^ III.

The breath of liberty was not long in blowing upon

* The word Fraxinetum signifies a forest of ash. It is hence very probable
that the first aud chief naval establishment of the Saracens was on the Gulf
of Sambracie, where the flat and wooded coasts, far more than those of Monaco
and Villefranche, suggest the name in question.

H 2

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

101

LOCAL HISTORY.

this microscopic State, and as early as 1790, deputa-
tions were sent to Paris demanding a representative
government. Honore refused, which lead to a revolu-
tion at Monaco as soon as the French army crossed

the Var.

A "National Convention " of the Principality addressed
in 1792 a petition to the Convention of Paris for union
with France, and the decree of annexation appeared on
the 15th February, 1793. From that time up to the
Eestoration in 1814 Monaco partook of all the vicissitudes
of tlie Republic and the Empire.

On the drawing up of the Treaty of Paris in 1814, this
little Principality seemed to have been forgotten, but
Talleyrand recollected it at the last moment, and
added at the end of an article ..." And the Prince of
Monaco shall be restored to his dominions." (Et le Prime
de Monaco sera reintegre dans ses etats,)

The Protectorate of France, which dated from a con-
vention concluded with Louis XIII. in 1641, was main-
tained until the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, but in 1817
the Principality placed itself under the protection of the
kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of Stupinigi. A
convention, concluded at the same time, granted to the
Sardinian Government the salt and tobacco monopoly,
the extradition of criminals, and the administration of
the postal service.

Honore V. succeeded his father and grandfather of the
same name and followed in their footsteps. His reign was
characterised by exactions of such severity that before
long they completely paralysed the life of the country.
The working of oil mills, the manufacture of bread and
pdies alimentaires (macaroni and the like), and also of

\

gunpowder and fire-arms and a large number of other
industries, became state monopolies.

The productions of the country were hampered by
enormous exports which provoked, in a spirit of reprisal
on the part of France and the Sardinian Governments,
the enforcement of import duties equally burdensome ;
all of which rendered impossible the exportation of any
of the local productions.

Such a state of things could not, however, have lasted
for any length of time, even if the revolutionary whirl-
wind which was blowing over Italy, owing to the tem-
porary liberalism of Pius the IX. in 1847, had not led to
the freedom of Mentone and Roquebrune.

The agitation which began at the end of this year
ended on the 21st of March, 1848, by a declaration of
independence. From that time, in spite of their desire
to be annexed to Piedmont, these two continued happily
as a Republic, under the protection of Sardinia,
until the plebiscite of 1860, when they were united to

France.

This annexation was legalised from the " Divine Right"
point of view, by the payment of a sum of four million
francs (160,000Z.) by tlie Imperial Government of France
to Prince Charles III. The Rock of Monaco and a
narrow strip of barren laud on the slope of the Tete de
Chien and the Agel : in other words, a territory about
two miles long, varying from 150 to 1000 feet in
breadth, and inhabited by a little over 1200 souls, is
now all that remains to the oldest reigning family in

Europe!

So small a domain and so scanty a population could
not, it is evident, furnish to Charles III. the enormous

102

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

103

revenues that his predecessors had been able to draw
from the ahnost tropical gaidens of Koquebrune and the
fertile valleys of Mentone.

But the Grimakli dynasty was not destined to depart
from its old ways, and it was reserved to the Prince to
fulfil once more, and even by more startling means, the old
popular saying of his hereditary rock :

" Son Monaco sopra iino scoglio,
noQ semi no e non raccoglio,
eppiir maogiar voglio ! **

" I, Monaco, sit perclied where billows rave,
upon a rock. Alas! no harvest's wave
for me ; I sow nor reap, yet footl I crave.'

J. Y.

The Fraxinet of the Saracen pirates was a legend of the
past; the Genoese adventurers, who had made the im-
pregnable fortress of Monaco the headquarters of their
depredations for a hundred leagues around, were now but
matters of history ; the monopoly of cereals and all the
iniquitous exactions of the reign of Honore V. were no longer
possible after the fiscal arrangements with France ; but,
as, with Monaco, whatever else might alter, the necessity
of living upon others still remained, it became necessary
to discover a new source of revenue, which, in spite of ail
change of times and manners, might keep up their old
traditions. For Roulette was coming: a dazzling and
fascinating snare was to be spread out before the honest
fools, as well as the dishonest knaves of the whole world ;
a contrivance which, thanks to the enormous sums it
would give to the State, would make in a short time the
inhabitants of the rocky town the happiest, so far as their
matm'ial life is concerned, of any people under the sun ;

1

\

for without conscription, without taxes of any kind, the
Monegasques of the present day have nothing to do but
to enjoy the shower of golden rain which falls upon them

unceasingly.

The Casino of Monte Carlo, which was fated to exercise
so great an influence on the future of the Principality,
owes its origin to a rebuff received in 185G by certain
speculators, who conceived the idea of starting some public
gaming tables and forming a grand establishment for
that purpose on the Promenade des Anglais at Nice.

But the Sardinian Government, to its great credit be
it said, was inexorable, and instead of giving the desired
permission to open a gambling Casino at Nice, they
suppressed that which already existed at Aix les Bains.

In the face of this unexpected refusal, the interested
parties addressed themselves to His Highness, Charles III.,
who showed himself far more amenable and gave the
desired authorisation for thirty years.

The gaming tables were opened to the public at once
in a house of a very modest character on the Place du
Chateau, whence they soon removed to the Condamine
returning again a little later to the upper town ot

Monaco.

But these establishments were purely of a temporary
character, for it was specially laid down in the Concession
granted to the promoters of the scheme, that the Casino
was to be built about three-quarters of a mile to the east
of Monaco, on the tableland called SfMugues, to which
Charles III. gave, in his own honour, the name of « Monte

The building was commenced in the spring of 1858,
but funds were wanting to finish it quickly : besides the

104

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

105

promoters ^vere disappoiBted ; the sclieme, so far, bad not
answered their expectations.

The indifferent success of an institution which had
elsewhere always been the speediest road to a fortune, is
not difficult to explain, considering the many obstacles
with which it had to contend during the days of its
infancy. The fitting-up of the Casino was far from
satisfactory, and its frequent removals were most un-
fa vtmrable to its development.

But the greatest obstacle of all consisted in the inac-
cessibility of Monaco. To reacli it from Nice it was
necessary to go by carriage along the Cornice Koad (and
its most elevated section) by Turbia and Roquebrune, a
journey of at least four hours, or else attempt it by sea in
the small steamers, for which the weather might not
always be favourable.

To make the Casino at Monte Carlo the brilliant
establishment which it has now become, two things were
necessary — a large cajntal and the opening of the railway
from Nice to Monaco. But for these two elements of
success it had not long to wait.

The German Goverimients decided on suppressing the
gambling establislmients on the Khine, tliu>! forcing their
proprietors to seek new theatres where they might carry
on their immoral pursuits ; and thus it happened that at
the commencement of 1860 M. Francois Blanc, who had
leased the tables at Homburg, arrived at Monaco and
purchased the privileges and properties of the then exist-
ing company for the sum of 1,700,000 francs (68,000/.)
payable in cash.

The buikiings were then quickly finished, and the
opening of the railway in 1868, reducing the journey to

\

forty minutes, practically made Monaco a suburb of

Nice.

From that time millions have flowed into the cash-
boxes of the lessee, allowing him to expend money on all
sides with a prodigal hand ; thanks to which the Casino
at Monte Carlo has become as we see it now, an establish-
ment unique in its luxury and splendour, as in the suffer-
ing it draws down upon those brought under its influence.
It remains to be seen, however, to what extent the
inhabitants of the Principality have cause to congratulate
themselves on harbouring so colossal and dangerous an
institution on their territory : it is hardly likely, we fear,
to turn out the case of that referred to in Scripture of
those who " entertained an angel unawares." Putting on
one side all considerations of morality and viewing for a
moment only the material side of the question, it is
certain that the Casino has brought considerable benefits
to the Principality. The inhabitants are not subject to a
conscription: they pay no taxes, neither have they any
octroi duties or charges whatever.

The administration of the Cercle des Etrangers, which is
indeed a State within a State, provides for everything : it
keeps up the roads and lights them with gas; it charges
itself in one word with all the expenses of the State,
without speaking of the costly improvements and em-
bellishments which it executes each year ; and beyond all
this, pays to the Government a percentage on its gross
receipts, which gives to the reigning Prince a civil list of
several millions of francs per annum.

But these purely material advantages are purchased at
the cost of the most terrible moral evils.

In the first place, the poorer classes do not profit greatly

106

LOCAL HISTOEY.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

107

by the riches which the presence of the Casino brings
into the place to the extent one might suppose at first
sight. The hotels, cafes, shops and commercial establish-
ments of all kinds, which are gathered around the stations
of Monte Carlo and the Condamine, belong almost en-
tirely to strangers from other lands : the true Monacotins,
subjects of His Highness Prince Charles, their lands once
sold that the magnificent buildings of the gambling com-
pany and luxurious hotels and villas might be erected
upon them, have nothing to gain from the millions
squandered at Roulette or trente-et-quaranie.
But what they do get are :

1. Their town invaded by hordes of gambling strangers.

2. An immoral institution in their midst, constituting
a permanent danger, and which drives away all respecta-
ble people from the neighbourhood ; and

3. Their streets infested by crowds of " fast " strangers,
composed of the "rif-raf" of the entire world, in broad
cloth and silks and satins.

Here then are some of the results of having a gambling
Casino in our midst, which ought to be taken into con-
sideration by the light-hearted Monacotins when they
boast of their immunity from the conscription, and their
freedom from taxation !

I do not wish to soil my pages with a description of
what goes on within the splendid walls of the Casino, or
of the class of people one meets in the fairy-like gardens
of Monte Carlo. It is, however, necessary to say a few
words as to tlie gambling itself, and also with regard to
the arguments which are used for and against the mainten-
ance of this establishment.

Two games only are played at the Casino, irente-et'

quarante, a game at cards where the minimum stake
allowed is twenty francs; and roulette, where it is five
francs : both are pure games of chance.

Entry to the gaming-rooms, as indeed to the whole
of the establishment — reading, concert-rooms, &c. — is
entirely free, without any payment whatever. A notice
published daily in the Nice and Mentone journals an-
nounces emphatically, it is true, '' That according to the
rules of the Cercle des Etrangers at Monte-Carlo, entrance
is only allowed to persons provided with tickets, and is
forbidden to the inhabitants of the Principality as well as
those of the department of the Alpes-Maritimes, with the
exception of members of the principal clubs." But this
regulation, which has been imposed for some years past
upon the administration of the Casino by the French
Government (uneasy, perhaps, as to the morals and
pockets of the inhabitants of Nice and Mentone), is
merely a form for appearance sake. Nothing, in fact, is
easier than for a Nipois, or even for an inhabitant of the
Principality, to evade the regulation and penetrate into
the "Salle Turque" itself, where he can sacrifice his
fortune at his leisure, and complete the business by re-
tiring afterwards and hanging himself on the celebrated
tree called the caroubier des decaves.

And turning to the question of the game itself, I may
remark that it is difficult to fall into a graver error than
to believe it possible to win, with any certainty, large
sums at roulette. The fact that the bank realises very
large profits each day proves beyond controversy that the
wind of good fortune is never in favour of the mass of
players. Some isolated cases of large winnings no doubt
do occasionally occur ; luck is ever capricious, and fortune

108

LOCAL HISTORY.

now and then allows some stroke of success ; but these
are, to use the old aud appropriate quotation, rari nantes

in gurgite vasto.

The game of roulette is composed of two distinct divi-
sions, numbers and cadres. Upon the former it is jpossihie
to gain thirty-five times tlie value of the stake, this
number being so high owing to there being thirty-five
chances, plus zero, against the phiyer and in favour of the
bank. Upon the eadres there is less risk ; for on rouge or
noiVj pair or impair, passe or manque, there are the same
number of chances for the i)layer as for the bank, but, on
the other hand, you cannot gain more than the value of

your stake.

It is not, in fact, possible to win with any certainty
except by playing the martingale, which consists m
choosing a cadre, and playing resolutely upon it,
doubling the stake each time you lose, until that you are
backing wins (wliich it is almost sure to do before long,
there being as many chances for as against the player),
upon which you win the total of the series plus one, and
n.ay commence agaiu with the minimum stake. But
even here the bank takes care to guard itself, for it sets a
limit, or rather fixes a maximum stake, which may not be
exceeded ; and anyone may calculate for himself, with very
liitle trouble, how many times it takes, doubling each time
he loses, to bring his original stake of five francs up to the
maximum allowed. We have heard ourselves of runs on
one or other colour of five and twenty or even thirty, aud
ten or twelve is far from uncommon. The old puzzle of
the nails in the horse's shoes, beginning with one farthing
and doubling on each, and its astonishing result, is a very
effective illustration of how quickly a large amount is
reached by so very simple a process. But this line of

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

109

play is not only looked upon with an unfavourable eye by
the croupiers, but is too matter-of-fact, and offers too little
excitement, to attract the professional player. He requires
the excitement that must accompany risk ; he plays then
on the numbers, makes elaborate combinations, and in-
vents " systems," all absolutely fallacious without doubt,
but which, thanks to the stupidity of mankind, always
find supporters, who are ever their victims and dupes !

The salons of Monte Carlo are then a yawning and
bottomless gulf, which is ever swallowing up innumerable
fortunes both great and small : sometimes those of mil-
lionaires, who play out of their vast riches ; sometimes—
and this is more frequently the case— of thoughtless and
foolish sons, of merchants and others, who come with the
forlorn hope of re-establishing themselves, and averting
the inevitable bankruptcy, instead of which they precipi-
tate it; sometimes those of absconding cashiers, who
know of no other mode of throwing away their ill-acquired
riches ; sometimes, and especially on Sundays, the hard-
earned savings of honest but ignorant workmen, who,
tempted by a possible and great gain, sacrifice in an hour
the result of weeks of labour I

The question, then, which we have to answer is, Is it
right to allow an institution of this character in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of these health-giving wintering
resorts, frequented as they are by visitors from all parts
of the world ? And at no period of its history has this
question of the toleration or abolition of the Monaco
Casino been so keenly argued as at the present time, and
especially during these last few months.*

* Even as I write (June 1882) I see in one of the evening London papers
that the Municipal Council of Ventiraiglia has unanimously adopted a petition
to the Italian Government, praying that it may be suppressed.— A. C. D.

110

LOCAL HLSTORY.

One would have thought at first sight that all re-
spectable people would necessarily be partisans in the
endeavour to do away with these gambliog-rooms ; but
sad to say, such is not the case. Strange indeed, one
would tliink, but " no less strange than true," for a good
number of worthy and honourable people approve the
existence of the Casino.

The arguments which are employed in support of it
are indeed weak enough; but I will give a few speci-
mens, with the replies of those who are desirous of sweep-
ing away this plague-spot from the Riviera.

1. It is argued that tlie Casino makes an excellent use
of its great profits : it supports and affords employment to
a large number of people, carries out important public
works, encourages industry, and gives large sums to various
charitable objects ; the money which it gains thus profits
and brings benefits to humanity which it would not do if
it had remained in the hands of those who have lost it.

To which we reply : Tliis does not touch the question.
If the proprietora of tlie Casino make good use of tlieir
winnings, so much the better for them ; but whether or
no, it is nothing to the main point.

2. It is said, the game is a perfectly fair one ; the
organisation is of such a character that any trickery or
dishonesty is impossible, which is more than can be said
of the ordinary gambling hells, or even of the cercles
in the neighbouring towns, however respectable. And
further, gambling is an inherent quality of our human
nature. Is it not, then, rather a praiseworthy action to
offer to gamblers a place where they can indulge their
weakness without any fear of being cheated or robbed ?

We reply : Honesty of mode does not necessarily imply

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

Ill

that the principle is a right one, or, to reverse the old
proverb, "the means most certainly cannot justify the
endr It is well, no doubt, that the croupiers should act
honestly ; but gambling is either one thing or the other :
it is moral or immoral ; and if the latter, it cannot be
justified by an honest administration.

3. They say the establishment and carrying on of a
gambling institution like Monte Carlo is an industry like
any other, and therefore ought to be permitted. This
industry appeals, it is true, to a vicious propensity, and
encourages it ; but there are many others not unlike it
which not only are free, but receive every encouragement
alike from the State as from individuals who would refuse
to enter the doors of Monte Carlo. Are not the various
stock exchanges in every European city merely great
gambling houses recognised and supported by the govern-
ments of their respective countries ? The great clubs, too,
are they not also casinos, whose chief success is frequently
due to the gambling which goes on within their doois?

The stock exchanges, we reply, have an object and
special work of usefulness, quite apart from any gambling
which may be carried on there. The temptations of
speculation for the purposes of gain, however regrettable,
are the indirect consequences of the rise and fall of stocks
and shares, and it would be the duty of an honest Govern-
ment to put a check on it, if it were possible; but the
legislature is powerless to interfere.

As to the clubs, they are actually private houses ; the
law could only touch them by violating one of the first
principles which governs the relations between the State
and the individual. The French and Italian laws do
indeed forbid the playing even in clubs at games at pure

112

LOCAL HISTORY.

chance, such as those of roulette and trente-et-quarante ;
but how can such laws be practically enforce! ? But a
public Casino, where gambling is the ayowed and only
object of its existence, is altogether in a different category.
An institution of this cluiracter has become illegal in all
civilised countries ; and if the law's arms are not long
enough to embrace and repress all abuses, surely that is
not a reason why it should ignore others of a like cha-
racter which it has the power to remove entirely.

4. But it is argued, the gambling at the Casino of
Monte Carlo is always for eash, whilst at the clubs they
play on credit, or borrow before leaving the room from
usurers, who are frequently the waiters of the establish-
ment, the result being that gambling is far more dan-
gerous at these clubs than at Monaco, because tlie gambler
risks more at the former before he tears himself away
from the fascinations of the game. The man, they say,
who will think twice before realising his house or selling
out his investments, to throw their value upon the green
baize at Monte Carlo, will not hesitate in the excitement
of a game at his club to borrow fifty pounds in order to
continue a game which, with the infatuation of the
gambler, he feels sure has only to be prolonged to land
him once more a winner. Now, as gambling is an eradi-
cable trait of humanity, is it not wiser, then, to offer to
those who have it most strongly developed a place where
they are exposed to the fewer dangers ?

The answer to which is, tliat though this may be true
of a certain class of gamblers, tlie majority of tliose who
lose their money at Blonte Carlo do not frequent great
gambling clubs; and besides this, the Casino at Monte
Carlo is a school of gambling : it encourages a taste for

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

113

play amongst those who otherwise would be ignorant of
it, and especially in its immediate neighbourhood; and
with regard to the tables at Monte Carlo, its influence is
additionally great, owing to the thousands who now visit
the Riviera each winter in search of health ; indeed, if it
did not exist, there would probably be far less gambling
at the cercles at Nice ; the appetite, we know, " grows by
what it feeds on." Beyond this, too, is the question of
principle. Ought we to hesitate to pull up by the roots
a poisonous weed, which we are able to reach, because we
can see another growing strong and lustily beyond our
reach ? Gambling is an immoral amusement ; that is, is
harmful both to the individual and to the State ; it must,
therefore, be put a stop to wherever it is possible to do so,
\\ithout troubling about it elsewhere.

Some such, then, as we have been giving above, are the
principal arguments which are brought forward on the one
side and the other with regard to the question of prin-
ciple : Is an institution like Monte Carlo right or wrong ?
Granting the latter, the question now arises, how is it
possible to suppress it ?

Monaco is an independent State. In spite of the
revenue from excise, and the many branches of a State
organisation, such as the railway, telegraph, postal service,
sale of tobacco, &c., which have been handed over to the
French Government by a treaty which is only a measure
of administration, the little State preserves its inde-
pendence. It has not only its own codes, but makes its
own laws ; and justice is administered in the name of the
Prince by special courts. This being the case, the State
of Monaco has the same right to exist, and to do what it
likes on its own territory, as France or Italy ; and if its

I

i

114

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO.

115

Government insists on keeping up the Casino, it would
only be possible to put a stop to it by suppressing the
Principality itself, whieb would be an act opposed to the

law of nations.

This sounds very plausible, but the argument is a weak
one. Politicians are not in the liabit of looking at things
in such a scrupulous manner wlien they are anxious to act ;
for history oflea-s us innumerable examples of interferences
far more violent and for less worthy objects ; it is not
even necessary to go back far into our own century to
discover them. Is it not then merely a question as to the
willingness of tlie European Governments to interfere ? If
several of them were convinced that the public gambling
tables at Monte Carlo were intolerable, and a danger to
their own subjects, and not to be put up with any longer, it
would not be long, we take it, before the Prince of Monaco
learnt wliat political scruples are worth !

The real difficulty is not here then, but it lies in the

important and numerous interests wliich are bound up in

the existence of the Casino. Enormous sums, belonging

to p< ^rfr»ctly honest individuals, have been invested in

hotels, in liouses, in shops, and commercial undertakings

of all kinds upon this little Principality, and the ruin of a

great number of people whose only crime has been to try

and gain a livelihood where it was possible to do so,

would be the inevitable result of a sudden suppression

of the gambling rooms. How to guard the interests

of these people? — how to indemnify them, unless we

were as rich as the Casino itself?— these are important

questions. The difficulty, no doubt, is a serious one,

but it has been satisfactorily solved elsewhere; for

why is it impossible to do here what has already been

I

done in similar cases at Baden, at Homburg, and Saxon
les Bains ?

Besides, Be minimis non curat prdetor, and if the Govern-
ments of some of the great powers would only decide to
take, in harmony with France, who is more especially
interested in the matter, a firm and vigorous line of action
towards the Principality, it is not the interests of a few
landlords, or a certain number of shopkeepers or hotel
proprietors, which should be allowed to weigh down the
scale against these hundreds of families from all parts of
the world who are yearly plunged into ruin (and often into
mourning as well), owing to a great public gambling hell
on one of the loveliest headlands on the always lovely
Riviera!

The former are after all but a small and local minority ;
the latter, the victims, an enormous and ever-increasing
majority, whose misfortunes are only bounded by the con-
fines of the civilised world.

Merchants made bankrupt, the bread-winners of happy
families ruined, their wives and children beggared,
desperate gamblers seeking suicide as their only resource ;
such are the pretended blessings which this magnificent
institution brings to the very door of our winter health
resorts : an institution which has been happily described
by a pithy writer as Le paradis du Diahle !

I 2

( n<> )

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIGHERA.

117

CHAPTER IX.

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIGHERA.

State of Europe and Li-iiria in the middle of the fifteenth century-^
Borghetto San Niccolu- Reasons which led to tlie eiiiigration-Cape
St. Ampelio and the BonUyue which has aisaj.peared— Ketirement
of* the sea and the fonnation to which it has given place— Deed for
the foundation of Bordighera in 1470 -Second deed in 1471-
Development of the new Commune— The Knights of St. Jolui at La
Ruota— Great commercial companies— Sale of Ventiniiglia and its
towns to the Banco di Sitn Giorgio— ll^lwm to the Republic.

After the unpleasant scenes wliicli we have just contem-
plated, it will be an agreeable change to the reader to turn
to the latter portion of the tlfteentli century, and go with
us up the peaceful and secluded valley which opens about
three-quarters of a mile to the west of Cape St. Ampelio.
After a little more than half-an-hour's walk, charmingly
placed at the head of the valley and half-way up the hill
upon the right, lie will perceive a little fortified village,
whose inhabitants, by emigration, are preparing to take
the first step towards founding Bordighera. Let us pause
for a moment, and take a look at the state of Europe and
the surrounding countries at this time, viz. the autumn of

1470.

Louis XI. was King of France and Edward IV. of Eng-
land ; Paul II. was Pope, and the Eastern Empire had
come to an inglorious end by the taking of Constantinople
bv the Turks in 1453 ; Frederick III. was Emperor of
Germany, and John Guttenberg had invented printing at
Strasburg in 1440. The Kepublics were flourishing in
Italy : that of Genoa was in the fulness of its power and

magnificence, and possessed the whole of Liguria as far as
the Nervia; Ventimiglia had nominally belonged for
some years past to Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan, but in
reality governed itself as a free town, under the protec-
tion of the powerful family of the Grimaldi, who reigned

at Monaco.

The Communes which now together form the Canton of
Bordighera already existed, and were considered as VUldB
Vintimilienses, with the exception of Seborga., which
belonged, as we have seen, to the Abbey of Lerins. San
Kemo, united for more than a century with the Genoese
Kepublic, was constantly disputing with its suzerain on
questions of taxation ; the village of Colla was already a
strong castle belonging to San Kemo, but the hospitals of
Ospedaletti and the Kuota did not yet exist.

The Saracen corsairs, driven out of the Fraxhiets by the
Counts of Provence and chased from the seas by the
Genoese galleys, had left these waters. All Liguria
rejoiced in a respite from warfare and revolt.

It was during this time of peace and comparative pros-
perity, after the struggles and distractions of which this
country had been tlie theatre ever since the fall of the
Roman Empire, that thirty-two families from the Bourg or
Castrum Sandi Niclwlai became filled with a desire to
leave their narrow valley and wall-encircled village and
found a new town amid the invigorating breezes, and sur-
rounded by the unrivalled view which one gets from the

Cape St. Ampelio.

But before entering upon the details of this event, it will
be interesting to cast a bird's-eye view over the topogra-
phical conditions of the place which had such attractions
for the inhabitants of Borghetto. The configuration of

118

LOCAT- TTTSTORY.

the coast must have been very di fife rent tli n to what
it is at the present day. In all probability the shipes
of the Cape were washed on three sides by the sea,
which must have penetrated even to the very foot of the
hill to the east, entirely covering the low-lyinuj lands
which are known to-day under the name of Orti Sottani :
thus forming a creek or hordigue, which served no doubt
as a sort of harbour for the operations of some fisher-
men.

Here, as at so many other parts on the Eastern coast of
Italy, we find tliat the sea has slowly but regularly retired ;
but this phenomenon does not point however to any volcanic
subsidence of the soil, but only to the steady action of a
current which, running always from west to east, tlirows
tip again on the shore the sliingle and debris brought down
into the sea by the mountain rivers of the west, viz. the
Var, the Roya, and tlieNervia. The- '>ris accumulate
especially in those places where tlioy are checked by the
hollows and indentations of the shore, or where thiown u\)
by the regular action of tlie gentle ripple of the waves, the
result of which is a gradual effacing of the irregularities
of the coast.

There does not exist, so far as I know, any w ritteii |)roof
of the existence of the creek or Bordigue* which no doubt
suggested the name of Dordighera. This Bordiijue is not,
however, merely the offspring of the imagination of an
liistorian seeking for the etymology of a name; its history
is written is indelible characters on the soil of the place.

♦ See note, page 124. The modern French signitication of tlie word Bordique
is a creek provided with stakes an«l nets for the purpose of (■.Uchiiic^ fish. Mr.
BeUows (whose dictionary is so well knv.wn), however, informs me that this
term is also used for a store-tank for 6sh.— A. C. I).

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIQHERA.

119

f

It is sufficient to dig to the depth of only a few feet any-
where round the foot of the hill, below the remains of the
old Strada Romana, to find the beach, just as it has been
buried by these many layers of debris and rubbish.

The sand still emits, when freshly dug up, the smell of the
sea ; it is salt to the taste, and abounds in recent shells,
and I have myself turned up pieces of the claws of crabs
in a perfect state of preservation.

It is very difficult to say precisely at what period this
silting-up commenced and the sea to retire, but it is
reasonable to infer that the surf still beat at the foot of the
hill when the Aurelian Way was opened— that is about 2000
years back ; for if the plain or any part of it had existed
at this time, the Roman engineers would not have planned
their route on the hill side, but would most certainly have
run it alongside the shore like their modern successors.
At the commencement of our century the sea came up to
within a hundred yards or so of the present shore ; the
Cornice Road was traced on the strand itself, along the
edge of the cultivated land. From which we may infer
that the sea is gradually retreating at the rate of nearly a
yard a year. This phenomenon is confirmed also by

official documents.

From the very earliest time, owners of property having
a frontage on the beach were in the habit of advancing
their fences and enclosing, for the purpose of cultivation,
the land which had been gradually formed by the retiring
sea. The statutes of the federation of the ** Eight Towns"
imposed the payment of an annual rate upon these pro-
prietors, which, however, did not constitute a title of
possession; but in 1827 the position oHhese ferreni arenili
was finally regulated by an Act of the Communal Council

120

LOCAL HISTORY.

(which I shall refer to in detail later od), wherein we
read that —

"... The limited sf ace available for dwellings witliin the walls of
ibis commune, and tbe increasing population, led many of the inhabi-
tants, during long years past, to erect buildings outside the walls and
along the adjacent beach, taking advantage of tJie gradual retnat of
the seUj wliich our ancestors considered as a special provision for this
most important object."

We are in ignorance as to the exact distance the sea
had retreated at the time of the funndation of Bordighera,
but it is very probable that the Cape projected much
further into the sea then than it does at the present time.
Indeed, it is even probable that the creek formed by this
projection (the heiglit of the Cape sheltering it also
from the strong winds from the east) gave it almost the
character of a little harbour.

Coasting, by means of small vessels from port to port,
was always the chief means of communication and trans-
port along the whole lengtli of tlie Ligurian shore, prior
to tlie opening of the carriage wa\-, wliich we must re-
member was not complete until the year 1828. Naturally,
the surrounding villages of Vallebuona, Borglietto, Sasso,
and otliers would require a port where they might ship
without trouble their varied productions, and none could
have been so handy in every respc ct for tliis purpose as
the natural harbour afforded by Cape St. Ampelio.

The abbey of Lerins esjiecially would make great use
of such a landing place in its communications with its
establishment at Seborga.

Besides, the very terms of the deed by which the
thirty-tw( > families as^oriate(l themselves togetlier to lV)und
Bordighera seem to point to the fact that the site of the

I

11

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIGHERA.

121

new commune was already inhabited. The deed mentions
a well, — terrain . . . sicut stat lo jpozo, — and it speaks of
the place as already bearing another name than that of
Cape St. Ampelio, — which had served to designate it
during the whole of the Middle Ages — loco dido laBurdi-
ghetta : two points of detail which seem to justify the pre-
sumption that this point of the coast was then occupied
by a little cluster of dwellings, without doubt the huts of
some fishers, attracted to the spot by the proximity of a
creek, convenient for mooring in and putting off their
boats. Perhaps also, in addition, there may have been a
humble hostelry to give shelter and refreshment to those
pilgrims who visited the cenotaph of the saint.

It was upon the 2nd of September, 1470. that the
thirty-two families* associated themselves together for the
purpose of founding Bordighera, by a deed, wliich was
signed by the senior member of each in the Church of
St. Nicholas at Borghetto, and which was drawn up by the
notary Antonius Corrubeus, of Ventimiglia.

I will not trouble my readers with the text, or even a
translation of this document,! but merely mention that
the former may be found in the French edition of this
work.

In the year following, and for reasons of which we are
ignorant, the colonists wished to renew their agreement
by a second deed, which was signed on the 28th of June,
1471, on a stone table, supra hanchetto lapideo, placed on
the Cape, in capite,

* Thirty-one names in all ; the second deed, signed the following year, con-
tains one more name, and which has without doubt been dropped from this in
copying it.

t Tlic manuscript was communicated to me by the family of the late M.
J. 13. Vialc, Judge {Frdorc) of Bordighera.

122

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIGHERA.

123

It is not worth while to give tlie text of this second deed,
which, save in some insignificant particulars, is identical
with that which we have before referred to, but the eou-
cluding paragraphs somewhat difler.

From these deeds * we infer that the first village at
Bordighera was a sort of castle, whose exterior bastion
formed at the same time the walls of the houses, which hud
all their fa<^ades fronting a central court, as we still see
at Sasso.

We are completely ignorant of the dimensions of this
castle, but they cannot have been considerable, if we may
judge at all by those of the houses, some of which were
twenty-tliree feet in length by eighteen feet broad, and
close upon eleven feet in height; they were in fact nothing
more than rooms under a shed.

It is difficult to determine with any exactness where
were placed the walls which shut in these primitive dwell-
ings ; but the mention in the deeds : a via pMka versus
mare, and the fact that the square bastion of the old
cemetery and the walls which are close to the ;porta ddla
Maddalena, all of which ajtpear to piint to a period more
remote than the rest of the fortifications, authorises us in
concluding that the village of Bordighera of 1471 occu-
pied the south-east angle of the modern town.

The new commune developed rapidly, and we find a
proof of it in a resolution passed by the Parliament of
Ventimiglia, which granted as early as the year 1472, a
sum of money touanls buiMing the walls of Bordighera.f

• I aoi iQilebteJ for this second document, a> uril as lur ni.inyotheix which
will ht found luithtT on, to a y n ,.f maiiii.srii|.t upon

the local history of Itordighcra, which M. k C'lievalicr Plana, Mayor of the
town, kindly plued at my tlisposal.

{

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, and probably
a little after the foundation of Bordighera, the Freres
HosjQitah'ers of St. John of Jerusalem, who had been settled
in the Island of Rhodes ever since the year 1310, founded
a colony or village at Colla, which took in consequence
the name of Colla di Eodt, and shortly after, without
doubt, they built the establishments at Ospedaletti and
the Ruota, whose names indicate their origin.

This remaikable order, driven from Palestine in 1188,
and thus prevented from carrying out the purpose for
which it was originally formed, that of receiving pilgrims
and providing for tlieir wants in Jerusalem, had now
devoted itself to the extermination of the pirates of the
Mediterranean.

The Algerian corsairs had succeeded the Saracens, and
their ravages upon the coast of Italy, France, and Spain
had rendered navigation almost impossible. Hariadan
Barbarossa, usurper of the throne of Algiers in 1518, and
who was considered after Doria the greatest sailor of the
day, personally conducted a landing and attack upon
Bordighera, but the chroniclers tell us that he w^as re-
pulsed. Tlie presence of these pirates in the Gulfs of
Genoa and Lyons probably determined the Knights of
Rhodes to settle at Ospedaletti, but it does not appear
that they remained for any length of time. The Bay of
Ruota was as shallow as it was unprotected, especially
from the west wind, and did not offer sufficiently good
anchorage for their ships ; so that before very long they
transferred their establishments to Villafranca, which
Charles the Good, Duke of Savoy, granted to them in the
year 1527, especially with the object of putting down
|)iracy along the shores of the Riviera. But here also

124

LOCAL HISTORY.

the stiiy of the knights was of short duration, for in 1530
they moved again to the island of Malta, which was given
them by Cliarles V. of Spain.

During the two centuries which followed its foundation,
Bordighera or Burdighetta* as it was then called, followed
the fortunes of Ventimiglia, as did the other seven com-
munes which formed the Villm Yintimilienses. Thus, they
passed for a short time, towards the end of the century,
under the dominion of Charles VIII. of France, to return
again to Genoa in 1505 ; but shortly afterwards they were
the object of a curious sale, a foreshadowing, perhaps, of
wliat was to occur to tlieir neighbour, Monaco, 400 years
later : the Kepublic sold Ventimiglia and the dependent
towns to a great financial institution, the Bank of San
Giorgio! This great commercial company was one of
several which were the fruits of the anarchy that reigned
throughout Europe at the end of the Middle Ages.

Without laws, with nowhere a firm government,
commerce was utterly unprotected. The seas, infested by
ruthless pirates,t made navigation ibr shipping, even

• The name of liordnjhera has (n-i<1.^ntly the same derivation as that of
Bm-deaux (Bun! ■'■"). l>ut these naiiu-s have neither of them a Latin origin.

Like Imrd or 60/",, , they are derivea from soiur (iuthic word signifying

creek or gulf. It might he possible .d-. t.. traee thtm Irum the Ligurian
word boding, without bottom, that is, ■■ ... deep." (C(i\esia~iyr autkhls-
Simoldiotmi del Ligun),(r<Mn wheme aL.u has come the iianu- of Fo (Padanns).

+ And these dangers not oidv arose from the corsairs ut" Tunis and Algiers,
but from what in later days was kiiuwn as "privateering." For there is
aniple evident*' to i-rove that the rival rei.uldics of Genoa and Venice, and the
petty prin( ti- of the Italian iH-uin.Mila, were only too ready to li* . ii>e armed
vessels of tlieir subjects to prey upon the Ci»mmerce (»f a neiglibour. We find,
amongst others, reference to this in some of Shakespeare's plays, and he, we
must not forget, lived about this time, and is as a rule wonderfully correct
in his local incidents and allusions. In Titelftk Mght, it may be remem-
bered that Antonio, the sea captain, who rescues Sebastian, is recognised by
the Duke as having formerly commanded one of these vessels. Indeed, at tirst

THE FOUNDATION OF BORDIGHERA.

125

along the coast, almost an impossibility, except when
sailing in company; and on land, the depredations of
handitti rendered many of the highways impassable ; whilst
pillage of merchandise and wholesale destruction of crops,
the inevitable accompaniment of the incessant local war-^,
the great curse of that day, went on almost continuously.
IMerchants then were powerless to carry on tlieir trade alone
under such conditions; they therefore associated them-
selves together and formed companies, which were less
intended, like those of our own time, to make a large return
on their capital, as to render trade possible, by protecting
their vessels by armed cruisers, and to so organise com-
merce by a collective action as to be able to influence the
varying politics of the day.

Thus were founded over the whole of Europe powerful
trading institutions, the most remarkable examples of
which are to be found in the East Indian Companies —
French, Dutch, and above all the English— which, founded
in the year I6OO, for the space of over two hundred years
ruled absolutely over one of the largest and richest pro-
vinces in the world.

Each industrial and agricultural centre, each seaport
possessed an institution of this character, of a greater or
less degree of importance. Ventimiglia had one in the

he taxes him with being a pirate, a charge which Antonio indignantly denies.
The whole dispute may be found in Act v. Scene i., and it is interesting as
showing how distinct were these privateers from the much dreaded pirates,
though both appear to have infested the Adriatic and Mediterranean. But it
is evident that the former warred mainly, if not entirely, from a political
motive, or perhaps, like Drake and Raleigh at the same period, but in other
seas, whose object was not only as good patriots to harass the Spaniards in
every possible manner, but also to relieve them of their dollars whenever the
opportunity offered ! — A. C. D.

LOCAL HLSTORY.

twelfth century siiflfiniontly powerful to inspire a certain
respect even from Count Otlio, as it compelled liiiu to swear
fidelity at the compromise of 1135, which was signed after
the sieges of St. Agnes and Dolceacqua.*

But of all the companies organised in Liguria, none
approached in importance to that founded by some mer-
chants of Genoa about the year 1316,t and which, under
the name of the Bank of San Giorgio, took a proud and
important position towards the end of that century : thanks
to the fact that the Eepublic farmed to it many of the
most valuable sources of revenue.

This singular institution, placed under the direction of
eight administrators and a council composed of a hundred
of the leading citizens, was not long in assuming that always
awkward position, tm etat duns Vetat The Republic was
often short of money, and in order to procure it, sold its
distant possessions to the Bank, which after a time by these
means became possessed of Corsica, the town of Sarzana,
and colonies in the Levant. In the eighteenth century
it was in a condition so extremely prosperous, as to be
enabled to lend the State fifteen millions of livres, in
order to furnish the sinews of war against the Austrian in-
vasion of 1746. But this loan almost paralysed the Bank,
and the loss of Corsica, coming soon afterwards, completed
its ruin ; for a panic took place, which, though soon tided
over, prevented San Giorgio from ever rising again to its
former splendour. Kedueed by these misfortunes to an
ordinary banking house, San Giorgio only lingered on
to our own day, in order, a few years ago, to end in a dis-

* Quando compagna VintimiUi r« ' fwr .... hocidem juramentum ego
et fiiii rnei renovabimiis. (Rossi — StorM dt Ventimiyiia.)
f Gazzio — Compenditj (kiUx Shrki Ji Gfriuiyj.

THE FOUNDATION OF BOnDIGHERA.

127

astrous failure. In 1514, Yentimiglia and its dependent
towns were sold by the Government of the Doge, magni-
ficis dominis protectorihus comperarum Sancti Giorgi. The
possession by the Bank of this portion of Western Liguria
continued for forty-eight years, w hieh w^ere for these tow^ns
a time of neglect, coupled with very lax government.
The only event occurring during this period which
deserves to be specially alhided to was the barbarous sack
of Ventimiglia in the year 1525, by the troojis of the
Constable de Bourbon, who was fighting in the service of
Charles V.

In the year 1559, the treaty of Cateau - Cambresis
once more gave peace to Europe, and in a short time
the finances of the Genoese Eepublic became so flourishing
that it was able to regain possession of Ventimiglia in
1562.

The return once more to the authority of Genoa sig-
nalised for Ventimiglia and the neighbouring towns the
commencement of the period of peace and prosperity which
lasted until the invasion of Liguria by Charles Emmanuel I.
of Savoy. For this ambitious Prince coveted Ventimiglia
and the valley of the Eoya, owing to the great advantage
which the latter offered for opening up a new and direct
route (by reason of the facilities for making a good road),
between the " county " of Nice and Piedmont ; and con-
sidering himself, thanks to an alliance with France and
Venice, sufficiently strong to measure himself with the
Eepublic, seized hold of a worthless pretext to declare war.
We have not space here to follow the varying vicissitudes
of this campaign, which pertains rather to the history of
Genoa ; but it will be sufficient to say that Prince Victor
entered Liguria in April 1625, at the head of very consi-

128

LOCAL HLSTOKY.

derable forces, by the valley of the Impero, and advanced
as far as the Cape of Bordighera.

Ventimiglia was determined to resist, and called out
the militia of the dependent towns to the number of 8000
men;* but the representatives of the Republic, who had
been sent to direct tlie defence, considered that it was not
in a fit state to sustain a siege, and decided to capitulate,
negotiations for which were carried on at Bordi^hera.

But the fortune of war once mure turned in favour of
Genoa, owing to the succour she received from Spain, and
a treaty was signed at San Kcnio in September of the
same year, by which Ventimiglia was again restored to the
Eepublic.

The remainder of the century offers no events worth
particularizing except those which form the subject of the
following chapter. Victor Amadeus 11. followed the
same policy as his fatlier, waging a continual warfare
against the province with tlie hope of annexing Dolce-
acqua, Penna, and other positions amongst the mountains,
but these local campaigns do not appear to have had any
influence on the prosperity of the towns upon the coast

♦ This total must be exaggerated by the chroniclers. If Diutlii^hera, with
a population of 1000 inhabitants, was not able to iilace more tlian a hundred
and thirty combatants in the field, it is very ditliciilt to believe that the eight
little couimunes together could place ci'tjht thousand. The tutal of 800 is
much more probable.

( 129 )

CHAPTER X.

THE EMANCIPATION OF THE COMMUNES.

Harassing taxation by Ventimiglia — Laws on fishing and petition of
the fishermen — Monopoly of corn, c^c, and petition with regard to
same — Petitions as to munitions of war — Systematic rejection of all
hy the authorities of Ventimiglia — Camporosso takes the initiative in
the separation — Agitation at Bordighera — Conciliatory policy of the
Republic's Commissioner— Decree of emancipation and its acceptance
of the Communes.

There is one point at least, which tlie student of history-
notices, as common to ahnost all revolutions, whether
great or small, whether taking place on the banks of the
8eine or the Eoya ; and that is, that it has always been the
oppression, the exactions, or the cruelty of those in autho-
rity, be they kings or Committees of Public Safety, which
have provoked the people to rise against them. These,
never doubting they had the power, have always sought
in the first place to obtain justice by lawful means ; they
made humble representations to their masters, but the
Sovereign or the Council, or what not, blinded by the
pride of power, and ignoring the new requirements which
the progress of civilisation had created in the lower ranks
of the people, have ever opposed a systematic refusal to
all appeals. Then, and then only, when their constitu-
tional demands have been contemptuously refused, the
masses, powerful from their passion and unity, break the
yoke and teach their rulers, when it is too late to profit by
the lesson, tliat there is a certain limit beyond which men
will not tolerate with impunity the violation of their rights.
And it was not otherwise with the Villm Vintimilienses,

130

LOCAL HISTORY.

Crushed by their suzerain, ruined by onerous taxes,
deprived even of the necessities of life — thanks to the
monopolies which the State created as a means of revenue
from its own citizens — and excluded from any real partici-
pation in the affairs of government, their representatives
in the Parliament being a decided minority, — their posi-
tion at the commencement of the seventeenth century
had become intolerable.

From the year 1502, Yentimiglia had (with others
equally vexatious), imposed on the dependent towns a
stringent law on fishing — Traeiatus novus gabellm piscium,
which forced the fishermen not only to take all their fish
to Ventimiglia, but obliged them to sell it also at a tariff
fixed by the Government, and always to give the prefer-
ence to Yentimiglian buyers, whilst at the same time they
were compelled to hand over one-filth of the receipts as a
Bort of royalty or tithe.

We give an extract from this law, translated into

Englisli :

" They have decreed that all and each of the fishermen, of whatever
degree, fishing and taking fish in the sea, either by lines or by nets,
if they land the said fish on the territory of Ventimigha. . . they are
commanded to sell to the citizeos and inhabitants of Ventimiglia and
its jurisdiction ; neither may they sell to sti angers whilst the citizens
are desirous of buying. . . . Also it is dtcretd tliat all and each of the
fishermen are bound to surrender to the township of Yentimiglia a fifth
part of the price (or value) of the said fish. . . ."

In June 1558, the fishermen of Bordighera addressed
a petition to the authorities of Ventimiglia, from which I
give an extract, translated from the original document :
"Most Honoueable Gentlemen, —

" Some of the fishermen of Burdighetta desire in all humility
to express to you, that owing to the smalluess of the territory they
occupy, the hardness of the times, and their lack both of the means of

THE EMANCIPATION OF THE COMMUNES.

131

living and of commerce, they being thus in great poverty, have, as did
their predecessors before them, betaken themselves to fishing, &c. This
having become known to the city of Ventimiglia, they have been obliged
to pay, under the pretext of a tax or duty, a fifth part of all they
receive ; besides which, at the present time, those of Ventimiglia have
prosecuted certain of the Bordighera fishermen for having sold fish out
of the jurisdiction, as laid down by the Acts of 1502 and 1514, which
ordered that all fishermen should carry their fish into Ventimiglia and
sell it on the Chiappa^ &c."

This request, like many others, presented one after
another during the whole of the century, received, as one
might expect, only a refusal. But the question of the
fishing was not the only hardship which had to be borne
by Bordighera and the sister (dependent) Communes ; all
the productions of the country were taxed in proportions
which would astonish the farmers of our day, whilst the
exercise of every sort of industry was monopolised for the
benefit and profit of the citizens of Ventimiglia.

The monopoly of the sale of grain and the limitation of
the manufacture of bread to certain contractors, which
had no slight resemblance to the monopoly of cereals at
Monaco later on, led, towards the commencement of the
seventeenth century, to a number of petitions on the part
of " the men of Burdighetta,'* some extracts from which I
cannot refrain from placing before my readers. And I
must crave forgiveness here as to Fhe number of these
quaint old documents which I have inserted; my plea
being that they have a valuable historic interest, on
account of the information they give us as to the social
state of the country and the everyday life of the inhabitants
at that time.

Here then is a petition from the local administration of
Bordighera to the Syndics of Ventimiglia, from whicli we

K 2

132

LOCAL HISTOEY.

learn that in Marcli 1619 the population of the Commune
numbered about one thousand inhabitants.

I give below a free translation of this petition, which
may be found in the French edition of this work :

"Most Excellent Signori, —

" Signor Giovauni Battista di Francbi, tlie Commissioner, Sec,
having visited the town of Burdighetta, &c., has found amongst other
things that in this locality tlie hread made is worse than had, it being
black and of inferior quality, extremely unwholesome and b armful, not
only to the inhabitants themselves, but to the numerous persons daily
arriving here from other parts: the place liaving a popuhition of some
thousand souls or thereabouts, the majority of whom are chiefly sailors
and fishermen of very small means. The afore-mentioned Commissioner
feels convinced that this is entirely due to there being no medrali * in
the above-named place, which dei>ends solely on those of Ventimiglia,
&c. The officials and agents of the said district of Burdigiietta throw
themselves, therefore, upon the kindness of y 'ir esteemed and
honoured Signorie, entreating you of your goodne&s to sanction this
decree, (fee."

This prayer for a consideration of their case received
only an evasive reply : " The question would be examined."
But no satisfaction having been given them, and the state
of affairs remaining unchanged, the inhabitants of Bordi-
ghera returned to the charge in August 1633, with a
touching and interesting petition, from which we learn,
amongst other facts, some details as to the state of
communication then existing between the two towns.

The point of this new petition was something like the
following :

* The mestralt — in this case "sellers " ' f- >>rn or flour — were the merchants
who had the privilege of selling to the public the commodities monopolised by
the townships : a position analogous to that of the tobacconists of the i>rescnt
day in France and Italy.

THE EMANCIPATION OF THE COMMUNES.

133

" Most Respected Signori, —

" The town of Burdighetta is inhabited by poor fishermen and
sailors, three-fourths of whom live on a mere pittance, and buy their
bread of small retail bakers, neither sowing nor reaping anything upon
which they might live, subsisting only upon the small profits they
make by fishing and seafiiring.

" It has always been the custom for the last ninety years, — indeed,
beyond that time there is no recollection to the contrary, — that the
agents of that town annually sell the monopoly of bread-making in the
open market to persons wlio undertake to provide bread for the use of
the aforesaid town, together with the grain from which it is male, as
has ever hitherto been the custom ; a custom established by Mon-
signore Marcello Invrea and confirmed by sundry acts passed, &c. . . .

" Everyone intending to make bread must have his name inscribed
for that purpose, neither is he able to make bread or anything else, save
from grain procured from the magazine established at Ventimiglia,
under penalty, &c. . . .

" And because, most noble Signori, there are between Burdighetta
and Ventimiglia two wide rivers and two torrents, which frequently
delay communication for ten days, or at least render it difficult ; there
are times when neither wheat nor anything else is to be obtained : And
further also, it sometimes happens in times of scarcity that wheat is
refused to our bakers, on the plea that the magazine is empty and
without grain ; whereas, our city, if provisioned by private individuals,
need never be in want of bread, and would not be dependent upon your
own (where provisions alone can be obtained from the aforesaid bakers),
and thus a famine may be averted :

" We therefore appeal for help at the feet of your most excellent
Lordships, throwing ourselves upon your kindness and clemency,
humbly supplicating, &c. &c. .

'J

But still the same result.

And now we come upon a petition whose charming
naivete compels me to place an English translation in
extenso before my readers; besides which it contains an
allusion to the new church, the construction of which had
evidently been undertaken about this time, and which it
was intended should replace, as a more worthy building,
the little primitive chapel built by the first colonists on

134

LOCAL HISTORY.

the site of the present "Casa Palanea." This church
became later on the Oratory of St. Bartholomew.

"Most Excellent and Honoubable Lords,—

" As your Excellencies are well aware, the district of Burdighetla
represents one of the principal valleys in your Lordships' jurisdiction,
not on account of its wealtli, for it is a very i)oor locality, but owing to
the extraordinary faith and devotion it has always shown ; also, from
the fiict that it is situated ui)on the sea-coast and in a position more
exposed than any other promontory in all Liguria ; it has consequently
been more liable to receive the first brunt of the attacks of corsairs and
pirates ; thus covering by its defence on the west side all the tract of
coast to Ventimiglia, at least three miles in length, as well as the wliole
coast beyond as far as Monaco ; and on the eastern side, all the hills
and coast line as far as the Cape of San Kemo : And as, by the Divine
goodness, there are in that town as many as one hundred and thirty
fighting men of valour both in sea and land engagements, and not
inferior to those of any other inhabitants of Liguria : and whereas, on
account of the sterility of the soil, the poverty of the sea, the heavy
taxation of three hundred crowns annually paid to your city of Venti-
miglia, and the large debts incurred by private individuals who live in
so great misery and destitution that the larger portion of the inhabi-
tonts go barefoot and almost naked, subsisting upon herbs and drinking
water, and exposed to the inclemencies of wind and sea, of heat, and
cold, and rain,— as if they had been so many beasts of the field,— whilst
still they are orderly and well-behaved citizens, of good manners and
religious ; so much so, indeed, that they have pinched and denied
themselves even of their scanty supply of bread, encountering hunger
in order that they may build their church, which is now one of the
handsomest in the neighbourhood, &c. . . .

" Further, about eight and thirty years ago the men of this town
were furnished by your honourable Republic with arms and artillery
for the seasonable defence of the city of Ventimiglia, of the other towns
of the coast and of this town itself,- a precaution which at that time
appeared necessary, and this defence was always made with promptitude
and courage ; and for their maintenance, as well as for arms and ammu-
nition, according to the custom of the times, they were always aided
by the said city of Ventimiglia with regard to powder, timber, and
trenching tools, as can even now he proved by the public records of the
said city. But now, need having arisen for tlie repair of many things,

THE EMANCIPATION OF THE COMMUNES.

135

conformable with an order and decree issued to Francesco Molinaro and
Gaspar Rainero, Consuls of the said city, which is now brought before
us, these Consuls having referred the matter to the Parliament of the
City, in order that the rates might be proix)rtionally lowered,— as was
customary in these requirements on the contingency of the place being
invaded by Corsairs who infest our coast,— they were not only left
without help, but they received such a repulse that they were provoked,
contrary to their own iocli nation, which had never been to quarrel or
complain of the said city, to send Stephen Rainero, their Syndic, to
your illustrious Lordships, that he might relate to you truthfully and
respectfully what is here related, and at the same time make supplica-
tion that you would vouchsafe so to arrange matters that this city may,
in conformity with established usage, and to meet present emergencies,
provide whatever that Captain orders : as Don Stephen, Syndic, humbly
petitions, relying ui>on the kindness of your illustrious Lordship, to
whom, &c. ..."

This letter does not bear any date, but the period is
fixed by the curtly official negative which was its only
answer, and which was dispatched on the 23rd of March

1622.

It is not worth our while to go on multiplying in-
definitely these touching addresses or repeat similar
instances. Those which we have already placed before
our readers are sufficient to show that the position of the
Communes at this time was such that they could only
pray for some propitious chance which might enable them
to throw off the now unbearable yoke of Ventimiglia.
And it was not long before the opportunity presented
itself: the cord was already stretched to the breaking
point, and the slightest further strain alone was wanting
to bring about a fracture.

However, it was not Bordighera after all, but Campo-
rosso, which had the privilege of giving the signal for
resistance against the common enemy : besides too, she

V

136

LOCAL HISTORY.

had a special grievance of her own against her Ventiiiiiglian
masters.

During the war of 1672, the Genoese Kepublic sent a
body of troops to protect Ventimiglia against the forces of
Victor Amadeus I., who was anxious to obtain command
of the valley of the Roya. These troops were garrisoned
for some time at Camporosso, but on the Commune
making a claim for indemnity for the expenses they liad
incurred in respect of the Genoese battalions, their
demand was most curtly reiected, in spite of the especial
justness of the demand.

Thfs unexpected refusal to so just a elai. was the last
straw on the back of the long-suffering Commune, and raised
its inhabitants to a pitch of irritation. Public meetings
were held to protest, and the word " emancipation " was
pronounced. Under such circumstances, the new idea
could not fail to become popular; so on the 14th of
December, 1682, the Commune addressed tolthe Supreme
Senate of Genoa the following prayer, from which we give
an extract in an English form :

"Most Noble Lords, —

"The district of Camporosso and its inhabitants, being con-
tinually burdened with imposts laid upon them by the agents of the
community of Ventimiglia, the said agents comi>elling the district and
its inhabitants to take their share in defraying the expenses which
only affect the benefit and convenience of the said city of Ventimiglia ;
and being desirous of separating themselves in matters concerning the
expenses of the said community and city of Ventimiglia, and paying
only such a share as may suffice for their own wants ; hereby pray your
Lordships that they may be rated a specific sum, as they may be able
to afford, by the captinate of that city, and may be freed from the
imposts continually laid upon them, and from the disputes which are
constantly arising in consequence of the aforesaid expenditure and
ever-increasing taxation : in which hojie we join, &c. . . ."

k

THE EMANCIPATION OF THE COMMUNES.

137

i

^

This act of Camporosso would probably have borne no
fruit if it had not found imitators in the sister Communes ;
but the agitation promptly spread to Bordighera, where
the discontent was even more keenly accentuated by the
Fishing Tax which was levied on this locality, by reason
of its being almost exclusively inhabited by fishermen,
but the remaining six Communes were not slow in
following so inspiriting and contagious an example.

The Senate of Genoa soon found itself in the presence
of eight demands for administrative separation from
the eight Communes dependent upon the Captinate
of Ventimiglia. But these Communes did not claim
political independence, only internal autonomy ; in other
words, their cry was that so familiar to our ears in the
present day: "Home Kule," or the right of internal
government in their own way and the administration of
their own finances ; whilst offering at the same time to
continue to contribute to the just expenses of the
" Capitanato and the town of Ventimiglia," but only the
proportion which fairly might fall to each Commune.
In spite of the strong and natural opposition of the town
of Ventimiglia, the Senate could not refuse a demand so
fair, so moderately put forward, and which practically did
no sort of injury to the Eepublic, and the decree of
emancipation was not long in appearing. It was dated
the 11th of February, 1683.

But certain provisions of this decree relative to the
boundaries of the various townships and the division of
the public revenues, failed to meet with the approval of
the Communes, and protracted negotiations ensued. It
was over this dispute that printing was made use of for
the first time, probably, in this part of Italy. The Re-

138

LOCAL HISTORY.

public, honestly anxious to bring all parties into liarmony,
sent a special Commissioner to the various towns, who was
successful in his efforts, but only, it appears, after the
lapse of some years, in reconciling the opposing interests
of the town of Ventimiglia and the Communes.

In the meantime, however, these latter had already
taken advantage of the decree of the 11th of February to
grasp their autonomy. A notarial act, accepting the
principle of the separation, was signed by tlie authorities
of each locality, and below is given a translation of that

of Bordighera :

In the Name of God, Amen.

"In the year 1683, on Tlmrsday, the 4th of March, at Biirdighetta,
in the oratory of St. Rai tbolomew, in the presence of Messrs. Francesco
Bianchero (son of Giovanni), Tlielamo Gerbaldo (son of Agostino),
Stefano Alberteri (son of Bartolomeo), and Giovanni Bait. Arrigo (son
of Francesco), Agefits* and with thein, Giovanni Batt. Gerbaldo (son
of Marco), and Antonio Bianchero, Consuls* of the above-mentioned
place, who, having been informed of the decree made hy the most
excellent Magistrate of the communities on the 11th of February last,
granting permission for the separation of the villages (of Camporosso,
San Biagio, Soldano, Vallecrosia, Sasso, Vallebuona, Borghetto, and
Burdighetta (otherwise Bordighera), hereafter referred to as "The
Eight Towns ")i from the city (civUas) of Ventimiglia: By this
present act state and declare that they accept the separation, with
the protest, that in the articles to be drawn up with regard to their
taxation, this place (of Burdighetta) be charged only a just rate in
proportion to its territory and appurtenances, and not at the rate of the
taxes raised from it heretofore.

"And further, that if it be necessary to have a de^tuty, they elect
and depute Benedetto GerbaUlo (sou of Agostino), here present (with
the condition that lie does not undertake that post unless the said
place (Burdighetta) is charged in every respect as has l)een laid down

♦ "Agents'* and "Consuls" were the titles of the delegates hitherto
representing the eight villages at Ventimiglia.— A. C. D.

♦THE CONFEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS. 139

above), so that this place may have an opportunity of protesting, not
only as above-mentioned (i. e. through its deputy), but in every other
better way, as may be necessary, reserving to itself an appeal to the
n)ost Serene Senate (of Genoa), or whatever may appear best, in the
case of any grievance arising as to the before-mentioned matters.

" Given in the year and day as above, in the presence of Bartholomew
Rainero (son of Pietro) and G. M. Palanca (son of Giovanni), witnesses

to the above. ,^ „

" Gaspake Noaro, Notary:

CHAPTEE XL

THE CONFEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS.

The Eight Communes : their boundaries and population — Act of
Feder°ation of 1686— Penal and civil codes— Development of the
Confederation and vicissitudes of Ventimiglia up to the French
occupation— Church building at Bordighera— Conversion of the
tower into a belfry— Removal of the drawbridges and opening of
new gates.

We have not happily to concern ourselves any longer with
eight little dependent Communes, crushed and impoverished
by a rapacious suzerain, and presenting humble petitions,
commending themselves to his pity and clemency, in
hopes of obtaining some remission of the taxation which
was crushing them; but, starting from the spring of 1683,
find ourselves face to face with a very different and far
happier state of afif^iirs. For now we see in their place the
Magnifica Communitas Locorum Odo, which promulgates its
own laws, fixes the amount of its taxation by its own choice,
and treats, on the most perfect terms of equality, with its
old oppressors of bygone days. And one should not fail
to notice the determined line taken by the Consuls and

n

140

LOCAL HISTORY.

Agenh of Bordigliera when face to face with those of
Ventimiglia, in the proceedings of which we have given
an account at the end of last chapter, and the stringency
of the orders which they imposed on the delegate entrusted
with the management of the affair.

The community of the "Eight Towns" was composed of
the Communes of (1) Camporosso {Campus Buheus), in the
valley of the Nervia ;* (2) San Biagio ( Villa Martis) ; (3)
Soldano, and (4) Vallecrosia in the valley of the same
name ; (5) Sasso ; (6) Vallebuona, and (7) Borghetto, in
the adjoining valley ; and (8) Bordighera on the Cape of
St. Ampelio. It is in fact the modern Canton (Mandamento)
of Bordighera, plus the commune of Camporosso and
minus that of Seborga. The boundaries to the east and
north are identical with those of the present Communes,
save that the territory of Camporosso extended further
beyond the right bank of the Nervia than it does now, and
followed the boundary line of the Ventimiglian territory
along the crest of the foremost hills.

This boundary descended probably towards the shore by
the ridge of Colla Sgarha and the Torre Orengo, a massive
construction which still exists, though in a state of ruin ;
and which, like the tower of Mostaccini on a hill near
Bordighera, served as an Avisium from which the sea could
be watched and notice given of the approach of pirates.
The neighbourhood of the Colla Sgarha (or Pierced Hill)
took its name from a tunnel which runs through the hill
from one side to the other. It is well worth a visit from all
pedestrians, for the view obtained from it is as beautiful as

* It is asserted that the name Campus Rubens was suggested by the number-
less blossoms of the oleander [Xcn'ntn olemiAcr), which give a red tint to the
banks of shingle in this torrent, especially in the month of June.

li

THE CONFEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS. 141

it is unexpected. It is difficult to fix precisely the date of
the foundation of these villages; Camporosso and San
Biagio are probably the oldest, after them Borghetto;
Sasso and Bordighera being the most modern. The popu-
lation of the eight towns at the time of emancipation is
equally difficult to fix ; but it is most probable that it
would not, at the very utmost, exceed the total of 5000

souls.

This figure may perhaps appear below the truth, but
I do not see how it is possible to raise it. I have obtained
it by allowing one thousand inhabitants to Bordighera, the
same number to Camporosso, and three thousand to the
six other Communes ; that is to say, their present popula-
tion.

Under the rule of Ventimiglia, the Communes were
governed by two " Consuls," who with the " Agents " were
appointed by the Civitas ; they elected, together, a third
of the members of Parliament, but they had not any direct
influence in the administration of public affairs ; neither
could their citizens be magistrates or hold any civil or
public office or superior appointment of any kind.

But under the new regime, the posts of " Consul " and
** Agent " disappear, and the executive power is confided to
four "Syndics," nominated by the Parliament and all
residents in those of the four divisions of the Confederation
where the Parliament for the time being is sitting. These
divisions were four, not eight in number, owing to the fact
that the Communes in each of the valleys of Borghetto
and Vallecrosia were united iu a single municipality.

The Parliament, composed of twenty-four deputies, was
renewed each year, and it sat for a term of three years in
each of the four divisions. One peculiar feature in the

142

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE CONFEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS. 143

organisation of the Eight Towns was the mode of electing
the Parliament ; it was purely self-elective : the retiring
members selected their successors.

After their emancipation the eight Communes decided
to associate together in the task of drawing up a code of
laws which should be binding upon all. Their deed of
Federation, signed on the 20th of April, 1616, is quite
worth insertion here, almost in its entirety, in spite of its
length, as an interesting specimen of the documents of that
time; and also as it contairis the official statute of tlie
Confederation :

THE DEED OF CONVENTION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS.

"In the Name of God, Amen.

" In the year of tlie Nativity 1686, on the afternoon of Sunday tlie 20th
of April, in the oratory of St. Bartholomew at Burdighetta (Burdighera).
AVhereas the villages of Camporosso, Bnrdighetta, Vallelmoiia, Bor-
ghetto, San Biagio, Soldano, and Sasso, have received ixjrmission
from the most exctllent magistrate of the communities to separate
themselves from the city of Ventimiglia in all that belongs to the
said villages, and which has hitherto been in common with the said
city, the most worthy Signor Gerolamo Invrea has been elected Com-
missioner to execute the said decree :

"And as at present it is still uncertain what propjrtion the above-
mentioned villages are expected to contribute by taxation or rates
towards the revenue of the said city (such sums having been liitherto
merged in a common fund), it is desirable tliat such taxation and rates
should be set forth in the deed of separation :

" And it being expedient further, that the above-mentioned villages
should not only maintain a good understanding between each other,
but also union and concord for the preservation of peace as ne"ghbours
and friends, they hereby apiwint (six)ntaneously and in the manner
which seemeth best to them), Messrs Paolo Gerbaldo (son of Agostino),
Gio. Batt Molinari (son of Pietro), and Giacomo Molinari (son of
Giov. Aoto.), now * Agents ' of this village of Burdighetta, and also
Giov. Batt. Bianchero, their colleague (who is now ill), * Deputies,' to

represent the majority of this place, in conformity with the deeds
witnessed by me as Notary. . . .*

" . . . . And the above-mentioned gentlemen declare that the
separation taking place, all such portion of the charges and revenue
connected with public projxjrty, as also all sums raised by duties
upon the sale of fish, by concessions, either for pasturage or vege-
tables, upon the manufacture of oil and of wine, by duties uix)n
contracts, by concessions for drawing water and for forced labour, by
fines for damage done by cattle, by duties ui^n grain, by tolls, by
duties uix>n stufifs, silk and rags, &c., which, until now, have been
levied by the city (as well as all other goods and chattels that may be
assigned or which may now belong to them), belong to the above-
mentioned villages. . . .

" They then (the delegates), for the good government of the said
villages, make the following agreements, uiK>n the conditions and
details of which they are entirely agreed :

"1. That after the separation of Ventimiglia and the above-
mentioned villages, the latter shall elect every year four ' Syndics ' for
the good government of the said villages, whose office it shall be to
assist in the * Parliaments,* whenever they may be convoked; and
although they may not vote in the said * Parliaments ' they shall take
part in the sale of concessions and the ' farming ' of the duties, octroi,
and other receipts, which the villages will have as revenue.

"2. That four 'Vendors* shall be elected with the four 'Syndics,'
and together with them shall be responsible for the sale of the right of
* farming ' the duties, concessions, octroi, and ail receipts as above
referred to ; and that these * Vendors * shall be elected in the following
manner, viz. : one for Camp)rosso ; one l)etween Vallecrosia, San
Biagio, and Soldano ; one between Vallebuona, Borghetto, and Sasso ;
and the fourth from Burdighetta (other\vise Bordighera), which
elections shall be valid for tliree years, the right of farming the duties,
&c., being also for a like period.

"3. That every year twenty-four persons shall be elected for the
said villages and form a Council or Parliament (such persons being
at the least tw^enty-five years of age), viz., six for Camporosso ; six for
the valley of Vallecrosia, San Biagio, and Soldano ; six for the valley
of Vallebuona, Borghetto, and Sasso ; and the other six for Burdighetta

* I have omitted the paragraphs similar to that quoted with regard to
Bordighera which speak of the elections of Deputies for the other seven
Communes. — A. C. D.

f

144

LOCAL HISTORY.

FEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS.

145

(Bordigliera) ; and in the said 'Parliament' nothing shall he de-
termined without the concurrence of four-fifths of the whole number of
votes, *this being in order that one valley shall not oppress anotlier.*

(lit).

" 4. That the said elections of * Syndics ' shall take place first of
all in the village of Camix^rosso, and continue for three years ; when
this term has passed there shall be elections for the valley of Valle-
crosia, also for three years ; then for the village of Burdighetta, and so,
in this order, it shall l>egin again * and go on for ever.' (lit.)

" 5. That the said Parliament shall always meet in the village or
the valley where the Syndics may be, and tliat the said Parliament
shall be convoked by the order of the said Syndics u|X)n every occasion
(they think necessary), it (i. e. the Parliament) having authority to
discuss and deliberate iiix>n all that may be useful, necessary, or
exjiedient for the said villages, according to Article 3, and with the
assistance of the said Syndics, or at least a majority of them ; and
whoever, being elected to the said Parliament, sliall fail to resixmd to
the summons, shall render himself liable to a fine of a golden scudo, to
be paid to the Communities.

"6. That every three years two cn|>ablc and fit 'cashiers' (or tax-
collectors) shall be apiwinted, whose duties sliall lye to collect all
receipts, taxes, &c., from tlie said villages, in order that they may,
with them, pay all charges as may belong to tliem ; which taxes, if at
the end of three years they have not collected and given an account
of, they must supply themselves ; and this shall take place in tlie same
valley or village where the Syndics shall be ; and farther, that such
Cashiers from this time forth shall be paid (as remuneration) 2 jxir
cent, on the total, in equal parts.

" 7. That if any of those elected to the Parliament shall foil to attend,
others may be substituted from the valley or Communes where the
Parliament shall then be.

" 8. That in the village or valley where the Parliament is convoked,
all concessions, duties and receipts which the villages have in common
shall be sold by auction (i.e. farmed out).

** 9. That on the first occasion, the Parliament shall be elected in the
following manner, viz.: the Agents and Officials for the Commune
of Camporosso shall elect six persons for the said Commune ; the
officials of Vallecrosia six for the valley ; the officials of the Commune
of Burdighetta, other six for the same place ; and the officials of Valle-
buona, other six for the whole of that valley ; and that the first Parlia-
ment shall take care to elect its successor, and composed of the persons

M

i

■f

1

described as above, and further, that the expiring Parliament shall
always create the new one, as well as all necessary officials for the
government of the Communes.

" 10. That the first delegates of the Parliament shall require the
Syndics, Vendors and Cashiers to elect a Public Crier, such crier to be
elected by a majority of four-fifths of those voting, and this the Parlia-
ment (2>ro tempore) sitting shall always continue to do.

" 11. That all the Syndics, Vendors, Members of Parliament, Delegates
and Cashiers who shall be elected, shall not in any way be able to
excuse themselves, although they shall be allowed some privileges as
compensation.

" 12. That the Syndics who shall be elected, 2)ro tempore^ shall not
incur any expenses which have not first been authorised, after full dis-
cussion, by the Parliament, with the exception of that which shall be
paid to the excellent Chamber as annual tribute (the annual tribute to
Genoa), and other real and personal debts excepted, which may be
necessary; should, however, occasion arise when outlay is necessary for the
jmblic service, but only for objects which have been already approved.

" 13. That every year four Master Controllers (or Auditors) shall be
elected by the said Parliament, wliose duty it shall be to examine the
accounts presented by the Cashiers at the end of each three years (even
if it should be a month after the expiration of their office), in the
presence of the Syndics, or at the least of the greater number of them ;
and the said election of Master Controllers (or Auditors) shall be made
in the same manner as that of the Vendors, as indicated in Article 2.

" 14. That with regard to tlie tax on the marine {probably some
charge upon fishing and coasting craft), and also the tax upon meat
(with regard to which latter, the division has already been made), it is
not intended that any change be made between the said villages.

" 15. That the expenses incurred up to the present time or which
may be incurred with regard to the separation, as also the tax upon
wine (which has already been decided by the most excellent magistrates
of the Communes), shall be paid pro raid, by each one of the said
villages.

" 16. That the collector who shall receive the taxes shall be obliged
to appoint some person in each one of the said villages to whom pay-
ment can be made and by whom information may be given.

" 17. That each one of the villages resi^ectively shall reserve to itself
all those " honours " (perhaps " royalties "), privileges, rents and pos-
sessions which belong to each one, and which they have enjoyed
previous to this convention.

I

146

LOCAL HISTORY.

FEDERATION OF THE EIGHT TOWNS.

147

" 18. That whenever additional taxes shall be necessary, to pay debts
or for other purposes, such taxes shall be levied pro raid on all upon the
register ; the said delegates reserving to themselves power and authority
as soon as the separation is made, to alter, moderate or increase the said
conditions, so that the said delegates shall give their votes, should
occasion arise, to alter, moderate or increase (as specified above); and
should the said delegates not agree, tht-y must elect two learned and
skilful persons to arbitrate in this matter. Of which things, I, Gaspare
Noaro, Notary, do hereby testify to, in the said village of Burdighetta,
in the said Oratory, on tlie day of the year above mentioned.

(Signed) Gaspare Noaro, Notary.

, ,, , / PiETRO PiAXA (son of Gu-^liclmo),

Witnesses to the above, Is^jj-i^i^o Ariikjo (son of Francesco).

Tlie deed whicli we have just read was soon completed
by the addition of a code uf Hi>ecial hiws both civil and
penal ; the latter being remarkably severe even to their
most miiinte details, although they were in reality merely
bylaws for tlie punishment of petty offences. Civil hi\v, and
what \\r should call " misdemeanours," are not combined
in tlie above, as, owing to the fact that the confederation

remaintd still under the iU noese flag, u»w hgislation on

these points was unnecessary. The Penal Code of the
Eight Towns is especially remarkable for its minute and
Draconian cliaraeter ; the very slightest contraventions of
the law being provide^l against and punished severely. I
give a few instances, whicli I think will amuse my readers:

f(

Gathering snails on another's liuid: if during the day-time a fine
of 4 lire, if at night 8 lire. Stealing leaves, flowers, and small or large
branches (commonly called brutti iralberi) or in any otlier manner
injuring trees, a punishment of from 12 to 24 lire at the discretion of
the judge. Stealing vegetables of any kind whatever from lands
adjoining the sea: if during the day-time 14 lire, if by night 24 lire.
Stealing gates from another's property or doing the same any sort of
injury, either by breaking or carrying away, a fine of 20 lire. Tres-
passing on another's lands or breaking down openings, a punishment

4
(

\

of 4 lire ; under this head also shall be classed the leading of public
water-courses across the lands of others, also appropriating private
water-courses."

The Confederation of the Eight Towns existed until the
French occupation at the end of the eighteenth century,
thus enjoying an existence of nearly one hundred years.
This period was indeed a time of great prosperity for the
emancipated and federated Communes ; as, thanks to their
separation from their tyrannical suzerain, Ventimiglia,
they escaped the vicissitudes which seem fated to pursue
that unfortunate town. For, situated as it was upon the
frontier, strongly fortified, and at the mouth, from a
strategic point of view, of an important valley, Venti-
miMia necessarily continued to be exposed as formerly to
foreign disturbance of every kind, to occupation by alien
troops, and especially to the liorrors of continual sieges
with their train of cruelties and sufferings.

During the war of succession which raged over the whole
of Europe after the death of Charles VI. of Austria in
1740, Ventimiglia was taken and sacked no less than four
times: by the English under Admiral Matthews in 1742,*
by the Spaniards in 1745, and later on both by the
Savoyards and the French.

At the end of the period which is now occupying our
attention, Bordighera must have presented very much the
same aspect as its walls and bastions do now. The old
parish church, begun in 1600 and dedicated to St. Mary
Mao-dalene, was converted into the oratory of St. Bartho-

* The local liistorians seem greatly to have exaggerated what really
occurred, but full details of the events which took place in this part of the-
Riviera during the Spanish War, and the part played by the English fleet, will
be found iu Chap. xvii. — A. C. D.

» If

148

LOCAL HISTORY.

lomew on the construction of the present building;
the ancient tower, which had originally been ereetod to
serve as an Avisium, being altered into a belfry in 1750 ;
whilst the same year saw also the removal of the draw-
bridges from both the then existing gateways ; those which
are known to-day as the Porta a Mare and the Porte
Sottane ; the Porta cMla Maddalena being opened in 1780.
The fountain wliich occupies the centre of the Piazza to
which it gives its name, as well as the aqueduct wliich
supplies it, were constructed in 1783, the statue above the
fountain being from the studio of the Genoese sculptor,
Sivori. But this period of prosperity and progress was not,
alas \ destined to be indefinitely prolonged. The French
Revolution was almost at hand, and the torch of war was
to be carried by its baneful influence from one end of
Europe to the other ; for that continent had now arrived at
one of the most eventful periods of its history, and Liguria,
no longer to be left sleeping on one side, was sliortly to
become the theatre of events of the most stining character.
Rumours of war were in the air, and the bugles of General
Auselme had already begun to awaken the echoes on the
banks of the Var.

( 149 )

I*

CHAPTER XII.

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

Annexation of the " County " of Nice— Kevolution at Genoa in 1797
and the Provisional Government— Enthusiasm of the i^pulace— The
Ligurian Republic— The First Empire— Annexation of Liguria and
division into French departments— The Restoration of 1814 and the
inecjriioration of Liguria into the Kingdom of Sardinia.

A FEW days before the fall of the throne — that is to say, in
the month of August 1792— the Dumouriez and Eoland
Cabinet declared war with Austria and the Kingdom of
Sardinia, and immediately concentrated an army on the
banks of the Var, under the orders of Generals Anselme
and de Courten.

But the Prussians were already in France, and in pos-
session of the eastern departments, and it w^as not until
after tlie retreat of the German forces, which was brought
about by the victory of Valmy on September 20th, the
same day upon which the Eepublic was proclaimed, that
it was definitely decided to take the offensive upon the
Italian frontier.

The first step was precipitated by an inexplicable panic
which took place at Nice. The rumour having been
spread about that the French troops had already com-
menced their march, the Sardinian forces to the number
of 10,000 men and sundry battalions of French refugees,
who were organised to oppose the Kepublican army, were
seized with a sudden panic, and without waiting to find out
what were the real facts of the case, retired precipitately

I

•I

150

LOCAL IIISTORY.

UDcler the guns of the Fort of Saorgio, in the u|»per valley

of the Roya.

Anselme took advantage of this retreat to occupy
Nice without firing a shot, hut the incorporation of the
« County " with the new Republic under the name of the
department of the *' Maritime Alps" did not take place
until the 15th May, 179G.

The annexation of Monaco had already talvcn place as
far back i.s February 15th, 1793. The Princiiiality was
therefore the first territory ofiicially united to France
during this period of conquest.

Some time in the spring following (about the 25th of
April) the army of Italy— which counted in its ranks not
only the future Marshal 3Iassena, tlien chef de hataillon,
but also Napoleon Bonaparte, a captain in the artillery-
gave the signal for the invasion of Genoese territory by
the occupationofYentiiiiiglia, establishing their advanced
posts along the right bank of the Nervia.

But after a delay of only a few days the "Sans
Culottes" again moved forward and occupied successively
the towns of KSan Remo, Porto Manrizio, and Oncgliu, and
the valley of the Inqjero, by which latter ihcy penetrated
into Piedmont.

From this moment the whole of Eastern Liguria was
subject to French infiuence; Genoa, suiiporUnl by Nelson
with a British fleet, alone held out, but it was only a tem-
porary resistance : for the Government of the Doge liaving
finally declared against tlie coalition, a revolution took
place in May 1797, and a Provisional Government was
formevi, charged with the task of preparing the consti-
tution of tlie Ligurian Republic, based on tlie juineiples
of '89.

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

151

■

'l

The proclamation of Liberty and Equality led, as
might be expected, to great rejoicings throughout the
whole of Liguria. The Genoese and the semi-independent
states who were united to them under one flag, though
nominally enjoying a republican form of Government, had
always been intensely aristocratic in character. An im-
passable barrier divided the population into two great
divisions, which bore the names respectively of the
" Magnifici " and the " Particolari " ; in other words, the
upper and the middle classes.

These two classes, violently hostile to each other, were
ever struggling for power, which had hitherto been almost
always in the hands of the " Magnifici," who had exer-
cised it without any consideration whatever for their
opponents. But the modern idea of true liberty and
equality was absolutely unknown.

One can therefore well understand that the suppression
of social distinctions and all the privileges of caste was
hailed by the loiirgeoisie as the commencement of an era
of happiness which opened for them new and vast

horizons.

As soon as this proclamation became known, all the
Communes which formed a portion of Genoese territory
sent deputations to the metropolis to signify to the Pro-
visional Government their adhesion to the new order of
things, and to offer them their congratulations on having
taken so decided a step.

One may form some idea of the enthusiasm and the
spirit which animated the whole country by the following
fragment, which I have extracted from a discourse de-
livered on the 26th of June by the spokesman of the
deputation from the Eight Towns. As the heading is

152

LOCAL III8T01:Y

peculiar, I give it in the original ; but tlie substance is
given in the English translation :*—

" Libert A.

"Cittadini Provvisori. . . ."t

Eguaglianza.*

" LiBEBTY. Equality .

"Provisional Citizens, — After tliree centuries of o])]>ressi(tn,
siilfering Inuiiaiiity lias at length thrown .»ff tlie yoke of her tyrants,
and dei>uted I >y the i)eoi>le of the Ei-^ht Tttwns, I am able now to
s|">eak to yon, no l< »nger as fiTmerl}', enervated hy tlio seductive
s[ileiidmrs of a throne, but with only your own virtue as snrn>undings,
and to make you acquainted with the seutimcnts of my fellow citizens,
concerning the past, the present, and tlie future.

"And first, as to the past: as true Ketuiblicnns, we rememl)er it
no longer; we consign it to oblivion, and if, l»y cIkiihc, our feet should
touch again some link of our now bri»ken eliaiu, without passion,
witliout desire for vengeance, we will < »tfer it uix-n the altar of our
country. . . .

"And yon, who are destined tt» preside at tlie da\\ii of our regenera-
tion, wh"St' valour jusliiles tlie choice of vict'Tioiis Italy, continue
your noble work and bring it to a sueeessfiil issue, proving to the
neighlMjuring peoples tliat you can exercise your sovereignty in a
nifumer just and proportionate; so tliat when you ha\e ended your
glorious task, you may lie abh3 to -ay: ' IVoplc ot Liguria, we have
brought you to the pates t.f tlie temple <'f happint'ss; it (inly remains
for you to o[)en it wide and draw from its treasury iiros|>€rity ftir [»resent
and future generations.' And this same people wi!l answer you, * We
promise; and will ever render tliauks to yon for the wisdom with which
yon have directed this revolution : a wi >o -reat tliat it should

justly be an example and model to other nations.' Aiicpt, tlien, the
tribute of our gratitude, of our love, of our n vcn nee, and our sincerest
trust. • • •

♦ It is rat hi r an interesting [)oint in tonnectinti with the odicial tlocauiicnts
of the Genoese Revolution, that though nearly all bear as a headiiii; the in-
scription Liberfa, K'juiiglkinzo, and some Mnrtu, V hymiglianza, the
word FraiernUii is always conspicuous by its absence in the Liguriau

PrJMlblic.

t This singular designation of the members of the rr('vi>i..na] fH.\<rinnent
!.-> not a careless mistake, but is constantly recurring throughout a mass of
documents of that time.

<

n

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

153

I

The first constitution of the Ligurian Republic is dated
the 1st of August, 1797. It established the equality of all
citizens, the sovereignty of the people, liberty of con-
science, and granted special protection to local industry
and trade.* The Legislative power was confided to a body
composed of two councils, of one hundred and twenty and
of sixty members, elected by universal suffrage, a third of
which was renewed each year, whilst the executive was a
Directory or Cabinet of fifteen members nominated by the
Leixislative bodies.

Under the new organisation the country was divided
into thirty-two districts, having each a central administra-
tion composed of ^yq members, and into Communes admi-
nistered by elected municipalities, whose members were in
|)roportion to the population.

I give below the details of the two districts which
embraced Western Liguria.

District of the Boya. — Chief town : Ventimiglia. Com-
munes : Peima, Bevera, Airole, Camporosso, Soldano, San
Biagio, Bordighera, Vallebuona, Vallecrosia, Borghetto,
and Sasso.

Boundaries : to the west, the Mentonese territory,
marked by the Caravan torrent and the ridge of Gram-
mont ; to the north, the southern border of Dolceacqua ; to
the east, the district of the Palm Trees (details of which
will b3 found below), marked out by a boundary line to
westward of the Lizzia Canal. Popuhition, 10,411.

District of the Palm Trees (delle Palme). — Chief town :

* It is a curious fact, and one which I commend to the attention of ardent
Free Traders, that one of the iirst acts of a community, large or small, after
it ha> gained its freedom, is to organise measures for the protection of its own
industries aud prod act ions. — A. C. I>.

154

LOCAL HISTORY.

San Kemo. Communes : Colla, San Bartolomeo, Veresco,

Poggio, and Ceriana.

Boundaries : to the west, the district of the Eoya (as
above) ; to the north, Dolceacqiia ; to tlie east, the district
of Argentina. Population, 13,133.

But this division of the country had but a short duration
80 far as Bordighera was concerned, as for some reason or
other, but of which we are unaware, in the following year,
1798, it was detached from the district of the Roya and
joined to the neighbouring one of the Palm Trees.*

Tiie Constitution of 1797, drawn up as it was in the
Jacobin spirit which animated the policy of Napoleon
before the proclamation of the Empire, was too democratic
to suit the people of Liguria, where aristocratic ideas and
habits were still too strongly implanted to be rooted up in
so short a time. So it was modi tied in a somewhat less
radical form in 1803, and, atk-r this revisiou, remained
in full vigour until the end of 1805.

This period of eight years did not, however, pass with-
out some very stirring events ; but the only one which
especially concerns us is the occupation of Nice and Venti-
miglia by the Austrians in 1800, quickly followed by the
capitulation of Genoa, whicli had been besieged by the
united forces of Austria and England.

General Elznitz, who commanded at Nice, obeying
without any doubt the solicitations of the Magnijici party,
published a proclamation, by which he declared the old
order of things re-established, and the eight confederated
communes, to their bitter sorrow and disappointment, once

» Certainly if there is "anything in a name," Bonlighera's right and
fitness to become a portion of the latter district was indisputable. —
A. C. D.

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

155

\

more were given back as dependants, to the tender mercies
of their old suzerain.

But this attempt to return again to feudal times was
not destined to meet with success or be of a permanent
character. The victory of IMarengo on the 14th of June
caused the fortune of war to turn again in favour of France,
and as an immediate result led to the evacuation of
Liguria by Austria.

On the 2nd Floreal, in the year XII. (20th of l\ray,
1804), Napoleon proclaimed tlie First Empire, and from
that moment inaugurated a new policy. It was no longer
a question of creating and protecting friendly republics
on the borders of France ; henceforth his aim was a very
different one— to aggrandize the Empire by annexations,
and to give kings of his own choosing to the neighbour-
ing states.

It was not, however, until after the battle of Austerlitz
(December 2nd) and the Treaty of Presburg had been
signed (which latter event took place on the 26th
December, 1805), that the Emperor felt himself suffi-
ciently firmly seated on his throne to suppress a republic
which he had himself created, and which had in all things
proved a faithful ally, though jealous at the same time of
its own freedom and individuality.

It was about the commencement of the year 1806 that
tlie time-honoured Kepublic of Genoa,— after a career only
equalled and barely excelled by its sister of Venice,— and
all her territory, were absorbed into the new empire, and
now, alas ! appeared in the new scheme of Europe as but a
group of French departments. Below I give the desig-
nations of the chief towns and their districts {arrondisse-
ments).

}

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

157

156

LOCAL HISTORY.

Apemmies,— Chief town : Cbiavari. Districts : Pontre-
moli, Sarzaiia, Spezia.

(rewoa.— Chief town : Genoa. Districts: Bobbio, Novi,
Tortona, Voghera.

MontenoUe. — Chief town : Savona. Districts : Acqui,
Ceva, Porto Maiirizio.

Maritime Alps. — Chief town : Nice. Districts : San
Eemo, Puget-Thc^niers.

The tricolor waved over Ligiiria until the fall of the
Empire; that is, for nearly eighteen years, whieli were for
that country a period of peace if not of prosperity. Only
one event of a warlike character took place during this
time, viz. a bombardment of Bordighera, an account of
which may amuse our English readers, it being more a
burlesque of real war than anything serious ; but it is
further interesting also, as it is the last occasion when
shots have been fired with hostile intentions on these
coasts.*

On the 14th of July, 1811, an English cruiser, whilst
sailing along the coast, was becalmed off Bordighera, not
more than a few cable-lengths from the shore, and speedily
found itself a target for the five little batteries, each
armed with one gun, which then existed upon the plateau
of St. Ampelio.

* I have searched carefully through the Admiralty papers during the year
mentioned (1811), but can find no mention of either incident; though perhaps,
if it hail been possible to find the names of the vessels engaged, a search in
their log-books might give us further information. As far as one can judge
from Signor Palanca's brief account, the English vessel (most probably a small
cruiser or vessel with despatches from 'Jfima, working up to Lord Exmouth,
the commander-in-chief, otf Hy&res) was becahneil, and must have drifted
stern on to within gunshot of the batteries. Mr. Hamilton suggests, " be-
calmed, no doubt, westward of the cape ; when the current, which sets to the
east, would carry her to the cape and very near the shore ; but the current

It was, of course, an act of impudent bravado on the
part of the artillerymen and the officer in charge ; but the
gunners served their pieces so well and aimed so truly,
that they succeeded in smashing in the cabin windows,
and doing considerable damage to the stern of the vessel ;
so much so, indeed, that instead of replying and prom^^tly
silencing them, the captain was compelled to lower his
boats and tow his ship out of range. Great rejoicings, as
may be imagined, took place ashore, the gunners boasting
of their easy victory, and all imagined they had heard
the last of it ; but a few days afterwards they learnt they
had counted without their host ; for a ship of the line and
two frigates, under English colours, entrusted with the
task of bringing tlie belligerent little village to her
senses, appeared in the offing, brought up broadside to
the cape, and opened a sustained fire upon the town. The
windows rattled in their casements, and the chimney-pots,
appropriately enough, toppled down upon the little gar-
rison, but no one was either killed or wounded, and the
inhabitants, only too anxious to bring such a state of

disperses itself when once it has doubled the cape and gets into the expanse of
water formed by the opening of the Bay of La Ruota " ; hence the vessel
became stationary, and, as she was lying in the position above mentioned, was
unable to get any of her guns to bear upon the battery which wms attacking
her. Naturally, the captain did the best for his vessel, under the circum-
stances: he lowered his boats and towed out of range. And the return of a
small squadron, five days afterwards (the date given is the 19th of the same
month), would just allow time for the injured vessel to work up to Hyeres or
Toulon, communicate with the Admiral, and for the return of the powerful
vessels to demand redress for the insult. It may perhaps be of interest to
note here that I find from a despatch of the English Admiral, dated the
15th July, 1811, that on that day the "in-shore squadron," cruising off Cape
Sicie (which is near Antibes), consisted of two line-of-battle ships and two
frigates : the Conqueror and Rodney^ and the Franchise and Apollo. Might
it not then have been the two latter and one of the former which appeared off
Bordighera on the 19th ? — A. C. D.

158

LOCAL HISTOKY.

things to a conclusion, hastened to surrender ; the mayor,
most probably the bearer of the message, being invited
to dinner on board tlie Englisli flagship ! *

But if this period of their union with France was not
characterised by any remarkable event, an imperishable
memento of it is left behind in the wonderful Cornice
Koad. This magnificent highway, laid out, however, more
from a strategic point of view than one of practical utility,
has always been the delight and called forth the enthu-
siasm of all travellers who pass over it ; as owing to the
fact, which has just been stated, of its having been de-
signed by engineer officers for military purposes, it winds
around the projecting heights which obstruct its passage,
in place of always following the coa4-line. It thus offers
to tlie tourist, for its whole length of 125 miles, a variety
of land and sea-scapes and a series of exquisite views
which are probably unequalled in the whole world. The
work, on that portion of the route between Nice and Men-
tone wliich had already become French territory, was con-
tracted for about the year 1804, and the whole length of
the road was laid out and arranged tor iu 1810, but it was
not fully completed until the year 1828.

The abdication of Xai)()hM»u took plan' :»t Funtainebleau
on the 13th of April, 1814: the English immediately
occupied Genoa, and there aiinoune^'d that the lu'[)ublie
which had existed for so many centnrl« s was to be restored.
This news was welcomed witli denionstratioiis of joy along
the whole of the Ligurian coast ; and knowing the national
pride of the" Genoese, any other feeling would have been
impossible.

/■", a imrra-

• Uwi. GcnerosUtt
tive by the late Signor S. Pakmca, published m the Via Anreiia in June 1876

THE FRENCH OCCUPATION.

159

The Republican constitution of 1797 had been drawn
lip for them at the camp of Montebello: the annexation
to France was a high-handed act of the strong towards the
weak : both one and the other were a form of government
forced upon them, and wliich they detested. Under such
conditions, then, and in spite of a taste for liberty and
democracy which had begun to spread, a people so proud
and independent as the Genoese could not fail to hail
with delight the prospect of a return to the glorious
autonomy of the past.

But unfortunately for their aspirations, the Treaty of
Paris decided otherwise. Liguria was to be incorporated
into the kingdom of Sardinia under the sceptre of Victor
Emmanuel L, who was recalled from Gagliari, where the
conquests of Napoleon had exiled him, to be placed at
the head of a secondary sub- Alpine power intended to
act as a barrier, on the road to Austria, against the French
armies of the future.

Little did those think who arrang. d and concurred
in this transformation— which, intended to maintain the
European equilibrium, gave the finishing stroke to the
life of an ancient and historic Republic — that they had
throvNU down at the foot of the Alps, the germ of a future
Italy, united, powerful, and free !

( 160 )

LIGURIA IN THE PRESENT DAY.

161

CHAPTER XIII.

LIGURIA IN THE PRESENT DAY.

The Restoration of 1814— riiases (.f the Italian Revoliitinn up to
the year 1848— The Sardiiiiaii Ci)iistinit:..n-Fro€lamatioM of the
Kingilom of Italy io 18CI— AiiMexation .-1 Kuv. \o France— Journeys
of Sovereigns thnxiili Li'^uria— Earthquakes in 1831— Oi>ening <»f
tlie Cornice Roail— UesuliUious as tn the " suuly lauils."

Victor Emmanuel I was fifty-four years of age when

the Treaty of Paris, in 1814, callid him baclv again to

Piedmont. He had succeeded his brotlier, Charles

Emmanuel IV., on his abdication at Cagliari in 1802,

and was a prince of a gentle and benevolent character,

but without energy and with very mediocre abilities ; but

nothing was dearer to his heart than to re-establish the

old order of affairs from one end of Ids kingdom to the

other. The old Piedmontese nobility, who, during " the

usurpation of the demagogue Napoleon," had retired to

solitude in their chateaux, drifted back again to the court

at Turin, and threw all the weight of tlieir coronets and

all the influence of their traditions into the organisation

of the new kingdom.

The Code Napoleon was suppressed with all the liberties
which it had established, the privileges of the nobles
were restored, the clergy were favoured by the re-estab-
lishment of monasteries and tlie recall of the Jesuits.

This return to an absolutism from which all popular
representation, all participation of the nation in its
government was banished, and where tlie State and its

officers were all-powerful, did not, however, press so
hardly upon Piedmont, Savoy, and the *' County " of
Nice. They had been accustomed to all this before. But
it was far different with the Genoese, and they, who
looked with pride upon their ancient Republic, could not
without the keenest sorrow see themselves deprived at
the same time of their liberties and their national inde-
pendence.

However, the Sardinian Government showed itself
enlightened even in its despotism, which consisted mainly
in ruling with a strong rather than a cruel hand. Besides,
too, the idea of a united Italy was not slow in springing
up, and neutralised, by absorbing them, all the aspirations
towards the various separate autonomies of past centuries.

But the stream of history has now tided us down nearly
to the middle of the nineteenth century, and to events
which the present generation has witnessed. To recount
these events in detail, would be equivalent to writing
a history of the political Renaissance of Italy, and this
would lead me far beyond the scope of these pages, which
are but an historical resume intended only to give the reader
some idea of the past of the country. I will confine my-
self therefore to recall as briefly and clearly as possible the
various phases of this magnificent evolution.

Carlo Felice, the third of the sons of Victor Amadous
who reigned at Turin, succeeded to the throne of Sardinia
upon the abdication of his brother Victor Emmanuel I.
in 1821 ; he died in 1831, leaving the crown to his cousin
Charles Albert. The period from 1821 to 1831 was indeed
a time of marvellous advance in the progress towards the
great goal, that of delivering Italy from her tyrants and
making her an independent nation. The idea of unity

M

162

LOCAL UISTOUY.

LIGURIA IN THE PRESENT DAT.

163

spread and increased visibly; but, amongst all the kings,
princes, and dukes which shared the Peninsula, Charles
llbert alone had the sense to see that the only way
of saving his throne was to place himself, frankly and
without any selfish designs, at the head of the movement
which, it was becoming evident, had seized the whole ot
Italy in its fascinating toils.

The election of Pius IX. in 1846, and the libera
inclinations he showed the following year, the excitement
provoked in Naples by the tyranny of Ferdinand IL. the
cruelties of Austria in Lombardy, and the pressure which
she exercised on the little States, her vassals, and above
all the open hostility this Power displayed towards the
sub-Alpine kingdom, finally decided the Sardinian Govern-
ment to throw itself heart and soul into the national

''X " February 1848, Naples obtained the shadow of
parliamenUxvy representation and freedom of the press.
This precipitated events at Turin, for a Government ali^ady
80 enliMitened and advanced as that of the Sardinian
States could no longer remain passive when even the
Bourbons had set an example. Shortly afterwards the
agitation at Turin and Genoa began to assume a serious
aspect, upon which was issued that famous proclamation,
as digmfied as it was brief : " Citizens ! Order and modera-
tion : the King has promised that he will satisfy h,s people !
And right nobly the King kept his word ; for almost
immediately Carlo Alberto granted a constitution to his
subjects, assuring by this memorable act the crown of
Italy to his successors, at the very same time that another
sovereign, who had listened to less enlightened counsel
and followed a totally different policy, was hurriedly

kl

flying from tlie throne of St. Louis and treading tlie exile's
path, never to return. By a singular coincidence, the
news of the Revolution of Paris on the 24th of February,
184>^, was received in Italy whilst the Piedmontese were
giving themselves up to orderly but intense demonstra-
tions of joy at the proclamation of a constitution ; the
fact being known precisely at the moment most favour-
able for giving a fresh elan to the national part and en-
couraging it to go steadily forward.

We all of us know the vicissitudes of 1848-49 which
ended in the abdication of Carlo Alberto, and accession to
the throne of Victor Emmanuel II.

As soon as the Sardinian States became in the truest
and fullest sense of the word a free and constitutional
kingdom, they adopted as a national flag the Italian tri-
colour, composed of the colours of the town of Bologna,
which the patriots of that city had used in the revolu-
tion of 1831, united with green, the emblem of hope.
Tliis latter symbolising, as significantly as silently, the
desire of uniting the entire Peninsula under the sceptre of
the House of Savoy; the fulfilment of which by every
means in their power became henceforth the chief object
of the statesmen of the sub-Alpine kingdom.

But this faith in a great idea and this devotion to a
glorious cause, which are personified in the name of Victor
Emmanuel and in those of the two great historic figures
of Garibaldi and Cavour,* were not to receive their recom-
pense until 1860, or their complete and final crown for ten
years later, until that memorable afternoon in September,

* To those readers who would care to learn something of the real character
and inner life of this wonderful man, Christian, patriot, and statesman, let
me strongly recommend them to get his life, by M. Mazade ; of which there
is now an English edition published. — A. C. D.

M 2

164

LOCAL HISTOKY.

LIGURIA IN THE PRESENT DAY.

165

1870, wlien tlie troops of a once more united Italy entered

tlie ffates of Rome. ,

The kingdom of Italy was formally proclaimed on he
15th of March, 1861 ; but this wonderful result of the
Sardinian policy was not attained -thout sacnfice.
The support given by France to Piedmont m the war of
1859, and the acquiescence of the former Power in the
annexations of the other Italian States, was not entirdy
or by any means of an unselfish character, and had to be
paid for by the renaissant Italy not only surrendering
the cradle-land of the Savoy dynasty, but also the
"County" of Nice, which had belonged to that ancient
house for four centuries and a half.

This double surrender, demanded by the Imperial
Government as necessary to France as a strategic rectifa-
cation of frontier " in view of the imminent transformation
of Italy into a Power of the first order," was consented to
;' Cavour, in a despatch dated 2nd March, 1860 with the
reservation, however, that the inhabitants themselves
should decide by a pUUscite. To make the affair more
complicated, the Parisian jouruals, when it was announced
that "the department of the Maritime Alps was to be
restored to France, believed or pretended to beheve that
it was to be the same as under the First Empire-that
is to say, including the district of San Eemo, which
extended as far as the Torrent of Argentina-and dilated
eloquently on the number of square miles of new territory
and the increase of population whicli would be added
to the Empire. The inhabitants were greatly excited by
these paragraphs, and the deputies of San Eemo protested
most energetically against the suggestion in the parliament

at Turin.

I

But the project was never seriously entertained by
Napoleon III. The Cabinet of the Tuileries knew well
enough, whatever the daily papers might say on the
subject, that the country to the eastward of the torrent
of Garavan— which formed the old limit of the Princi-
pality of Monaco — was essentially Genoese, no less in its
history and language than in the habits and customs of its
inhabitants ; and was therefore naturally anxious to shield
itself from the reproach of diminishing with one hand
the territory of a nation which it had reconstructed with
the other, at the cost of such great sacrifices.

The plebiscite of the " County" of Nice, which gave an
enormous majority in favour of annexation to France,
took place in the month of April, but the Government of
that country did not take possession until the 12th of
June following. This annexation having taken away the
chief town of the province of which San Eemo was a
sous lyrefedure, this enterprising little town — which had
already aspired to take its place amongst the wintering
places of the Eiviera, hoped that the mantle of the
" Prefecture'* might fall upon its shoulders, and its deputies
made great efforts to bring this to pass. But the Sardinian
Government decided otherwise, and the position of chief
town was transferred to Porto Maurizio which shared the
advantages with its neighbour Oneglia.

During the period of nearly three-quarters of a century
which has elapsed since Liguria has been definitely united
to the kingdom of Sardinia, the history of the canton of
Bordighera docs not offer any remarkable event for our
notice. But I must not omit to mention one at least
which gave great delight to the faithful laity of the town,
and that was nothing less than the passing through it of

LOCAL HI8T0BY.

Pope Pius VII. on his return from Paris. He rested at
Bordighera, most probably journeying, like many before
him, on mule back, and after a Pontifical Mass in the
parish church, gave his solemn benediction to the town.
All the Sardinian sovereigns also have passed along our
coast either going to or returning from Nice ; Carlo Felice
in 1826, Carlo Alberto in 1836, Victor Emmanuel in
January 1857, and his two sons Humbert and Amadous
also, who made a stay of some days in the town in
September of the same year.

But the most important event of tlie period was un-
doubtedly the opening of the carriage-road, better known
to us now as the " Cornice Koad," which took place, so far as
Bordighera was concerned, in the year 1823. From this
moment the inhabitants of the i»lace, like all those who
were similarly situated, began to feel the necessity of
building a new town at the foot of the hill. The old
villages perched on the heiglits, surround* <1 by lofty walls,
and which it was only possible to enter by passing through
narrow gateways, were no longer adapted either to the
wants or habits of modern days. Life, for the future,
both of business and pleasure, would pass along this great
highway, whether the traveller choose the diligence, the
vetturino, or the waggon. It was necessary, therefore, to

come down to it.

At this period the demolition of the batteries upon the
Cape— which gave so warm a reception to the English
cruiser (referred to at page 156)— took place, and the guns
were removed ; a mule path being opened, which connected
the old town with the Cornice near St. Ampelio's Chapel.*

♦ This road was replaced in 1867 by the carriage-road up the Cape which
traverses tb« Orti Sottani.

LIGURIA IN THE PRESENT DAY.

167

\

From this time houses began quickly to arise all along
the shore, forming the commencement of the Borgo
Marina, the Bordighera of the future.

And after a time this movement shorewards (or sea-
wards rather) was, as it were, officially brought before
the notice of the Municipal administration. The new
road had been traced as close to the beach as was possible ;
but the continuous retirement of the sea, before long, left
a considerable slip of land upon the further side of it,
which though at first mere worthless beach, by a certain
amount of labour and the addition of a top soil could be^
made suitable for cultivation. This reclaimed land, in
the first instance, however, did not by right belong to
any one ; it had originally been covered by the sea and
only had become dry land owing to the former's retire-
ment ; but the owners of land bordering the road seized
the newly formed beach, enclosed it, and placed it under

cultivation.

But the Municipality treated this arbitrary seizure as
an illegal act, and declared the land in question " Com-
munal property," though they accorded the above-men-
tioned landowners the right of cultivation, subject to an
annual rent; agreeing further, that if any one built a
house, the ground in front of the building, as far as the
shore, became ij^so facto the property of the occupier or
possessor ; whilst with regard to those portions of the
reclaimed lands (known as terreni arenili *) which had not
been built upon, the Municipal Council reserved to them-
selves the right at any time of taking possession of them,
if they were ever demanded as *•' building sites " by other
inhabitants of the town. The Council also laid down

♦ Literally, sandu lands.

168

LOCAL HISTORY.

a stringent rule that at tlie distance of every 50 metres
(160 feet) there was to be a passage twenty-five feet broad,
in order to give free communication from the road to the

shore.

The meeting of the Communal Council, at which these
resolutions were passed, took pkce on April 6th, 1827;
but up to the present time (July 1882) the most essential
points have never been carried out !

The Commune has received and still receives the rents,
which now furnish a revenue of about 20Z. a year, but by
a weakness the evil consequences of which are only too
evident to-day, they have omitted to enforce that stipula-
tion which insists on the reservation of passages giving
access to the sea ; and further than this, have allowed
sales of those armiU lands which are still unbuilt upon —
a stiite of things perfectly illegal, it is true, but which has
been sufficient to establish rights of property, difficult to
deal with at the present time.

If in 1827 the Commune, looking forward somewhat to
the future, had reserved absolutely and without conditions
the land which the sea was gradually giving up to them —
as if with reference to the ultimate development of the
town — instead of sacrificing it to private speculation by a
fantastical resolution impossible to enforce, it would be
unnecessary now to have recourse to taxation and loans
to defray the expenses of public improvements, for the
Municipality would be the owners of property worth more
than a million of francs !

1

( 169 )

CHAPTER XIV.

LEGISLATIVE UNIFICATION.

Necessity for unification— Old Italian codes— Preparation and pro-
mulgation of the Civil Code in 1865— Other Codes and laws-
Principal characteristics of the Penal Code, the Constitution, and the
Civil Code.

When the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861, the
administration of justice varied in each State which com-
posed it, and those who took the reins of power found a
number of conflicting codes on every side of them.

The various peoples, united under the Constitutional
Monarchy of Victor Emmanuel by the iMUscites of 1859
and 1860, had nothing in common but the Sardinian
Constitution {Lo Statiito) which had force amongst them
owing to the fact of the annexation. Five civil codes, all
more or less imitations of the Code iVapoZeow— which the
first Empire had brought to Italy, and which, having lapsed
with the fall of the Emperor, had ever since been uni-
versally regretted— contended for precedence in the old
States which had now become parts of the New Kingdom.

The Lombardo- Venetian provinces used the Austrian
code of 1815 ; the Southern Provinces and Sicily, a code
specially drawn up by the Government of Ferdinand I. in
1819 ; the Duchies of Parma and Modena possessed their
own codes of 1820 and 1851, and the code which was
known as the " Albertine " of the Sardinian States had
been extended to the Eomagna, the Marches, and Umbria.
Tuscany alone was still governed by common law, modified,
however, on many points by special enactments.

170

LOCAL HISTOBY.

Folly cognisant of the grave inconveniences which
must necessarily result from the simultaneous existence
of so many discordant and contradictory codes, the
ministries wliich Mlowed each other from 1861 to 1865
made continual efforts to bring about a more har-
monious state of things. But this was far from easy.
Each province naturally desired its own code to be made
the basis of tlie new one, and an assembly composed
almost exclusively of advocates, each prepared to support
the legislative system of his own country, was not nearly
homogeneous enough in its composition, to undertake the
details of the codification of a civil law, as elaborate as
it was comprehensive.

To proceed in a strictly constitutional manner under
these circumstances, was impracticable ; the assembly
would have been engaged in an endless discussion, beside
which our debates on Irish land bills would appear mere
child's play, and which would have deferred to the Greek
kalends the realisation of a National Code. Under these
circumstances the Government took the wise and judicious
course of appointing what we should call a " Royal Com-
mission," composed of the first magistrates and jurists of
the country, witli power to draw up a scheme of codifica-
tion to be placed before tlie Assembly, and upon which the
members might vote, without discussing the articles.

Commission after commission, nominated by the diff taent
ministries, succeeded each other, and the task dragged on
from year to year, wlien tlie transfer of the seat of
Government to Florence, to the only province whicli was
still without a code of any kind, rendered an immediate
solution of the question necessary.

The civil code which now exists was presented to the

LEGISLATIVE UNIFICATION.

171

Chambers on the 24th November, 1864, and was formally
adopted in the following spring, complete, and without
discussion. The decree promulgating it appeared on the
25th June, 1865, and announced that it would come into
operation on the 1st January of the following year.

This important measure was complemented shortly after
by the promulgation of a code of Civil Procedure (Codice
cli Procedura Civile) by a Commercial Code, and by six
acts for promoting harmony of administration, called
Leggi organiche, and which we may roughly translate as
acts for: (1) the administration of Communes and Pro-
vinces; (2) for Public Safety; (3) for Public Health;
(4) for the Organisation of a Council of State ; (5) for a
Court of Arbitration between Administrations; (6) for

Public Works.

The Penal Code, however, is still under discussion, but
pending its publication, that of the kingdom of Sardinia
has been extended to the whole of Italy. The chief
feature which distinguishes the scheme in preparation is
the abolition of the penalty of death, save for regicide

and parricide.

The ''Statute'' or Constitution promulgated by Carlo
Alberto on the 4th of September, 1848, in the old Sardi-
nian States, was extended to the other provinces of Italy,
as from time to time they came under the rule of the
House of Savoy. Below we give some of its more im-
portant provisions :

" The Govermnenf.

" The Government of Italy is a representative, or, as we should say,
" a constitutional monarchy f the crown is hereditary in the male line.

(Article 2.)

" Legislativt i^ower rests with the Crown and the two Chambers.

172

LOCAL HISTORY.

(I '

' The Executive power belongs to the King alone, who declares war,
is Commander-in-Chief of both Army and Navy, and concludes peace ;
nevertheless, all treaties, «&c., which involve exiienditure by the State
must first be submitted to the two houses. (Article 5.)

" Parliameni,

" Parliament consists of an Upper House, composed of Senators,
nominated by the King, without limitation as to numbers, but they
must be chosen from certain classes of citizens, such jis arclibishops
and bishops, ambassadors, ministers, and ex-mirii.^ters, general officers,
permanent officials of superior rank (answerin^r to our Permanent Secre-
taries), who have served a certain term of years in the public service,
landowners and manufacturers who pay more than 3000 francs (120/.)
a-year in taxes, and others. (Article 33.)

"The Elective Chamber is composed of Deputies, elected in con-
formity with the electoral law. (Article 39.)

"Deputies are elected for five years, but no on'> can offer himself for
election who is under thirty years of age. (Article 40.)

"The Chamber has a right of impeaching the Ministry and arraign-
ing them before the Senate, constituted as a High Court of Justice.

(Articles 36 and 37.)
•*A11 'money bills' must be presented first to the Chamber of

Deputies. (Article 30.)

" Neither Senators nor Deputies receive any salary. (Article 49.)
" The sittings of both Chambers are public, unless ten members

demand that they shall be held with closed doors. (Article 52.)

" The Miriistry,

" Ministers may not vote in eitlier House, unless they be Senators or
Deputies, but they have the right of entering and speaking in both
Chambers. (Article 66.)

" Ministers are responsible for their acts. (Article 6G.)

" The Courts of Justice,

** The Judges are nominated by the King, except those of the cantons
(Mandamenti). Their appointment becomes a |XTmanent one after the
lapse of three years. (Article 69.)

" All courts, other than those established by statute, are forbidden.

(Article 71.)

LEGISLATIVE UNIFICATION.

" The State Church.

173

« The Roman Catholic faith is the religion of the State ; but all other
creeds are tolerated according to the laws in force. (Article 1.)

" Citizenship,

« All Citizens are equal in the eyes of the law. (Article 24.)
"The liberty of the individual is guaranteed; neither can any one
be arrested or brought up for sentence otherwise than is provided by

law. (Article 26.) ^ t^ ^'

"The House of a Citizen is sacred; any entrance by the lolice is

forbidden, unless in those cases specified by the law. (Article 27.)
" The right of holding public meetings is recognised, subject, however,

to regulations of the Police, referring to gatherings of that character.

" The Press.

" The Press is free, but the law represses all abuse of this privilege ;
but the printing of Bibles, catechisms, prayer-books, or liturgies is for-
bidden, without permission from the Bishop of the Diocese." (Article 28.)

One cannot fail to be struck, on glancing through the
Sardinian statute which forms the basis of Italian liberty,
with the hesitation and reserve which marks each article.
It is, indeed, impossible not to notice in the many reser-
vations and exceptions the cautious hand of a sovereign,
compelled by the pressure of events to make concessions
to his people, but who, though not doing so unwillingly,
is yet too much influenced by the time-honoured traditions
of an absolute and autocratic Government, not to feel that
he is on the edge of a precipice, and embarking on an
enterprise fraught with the gravest perils. Liberty is
given, it is true ; but each concession is followed by a
reservation as elastic as it is dangerous, and which, whilst
granting the freedom desired, tends to a certain degree to
neutralise the gift. One has the feeling that, what has

174

LOCAL HISTORY.

apparently been given by one hand has quietly been
taken back by the otlier.

Thus : the Press is free— 5w^ ihe law wiM repress amj

ahtise.

The right of public meetings is tecogmsed—but they

must he suhjeet to ihe regulations of the Police !

The home of a citizen is smred—hut it may he searched
hij the Police, under circumstances provided for hj the law!
But this charter has to-day but a secondary importance,
so far as the liberties of the country are concerned. The
restrictions and reservations I have noticed have fallen
into disuse, and many are no longer anything but a dead
letter. For it is in Italy as in England : liberty and the
rights of the individual, deeply rooted in the hearts, and
part of the traditions of the people, exist much more there
than in any written law whatever.

It has often been said that the Civil code of Italy is a
mere translation of the Code Napoleon, but I think it
would be more just to say that it is the very latest
edition, revised and corrected.

Now, no collection of laws whatever can have any pre-
tension to be considered perfect, though it is only, indeed,
when we come to put them into force that we discover
their various faults and omissions ; but then it is no less
difficult than dangerous to alter them. No precedent can
be created more perilous to the welfare and safety of a
State than the modification of its code.

But when the object in view is to produce a code or
collection of laws for a new kingdom, it is but natural to
fall back upon and to reap the benefit of the various ex-
periences of others in the past, and so endeavour, not only
to fill up the deficiencies which exist, but to correct those

LEGISLATIVE UNIFICATION.

175

iiiults which have been brought most prominently to our

notice.

The Italian Codes of the Restoration of 1814, though
all modelled on that of the French, yet differ from
it and each other in a great variety of points, and the
National Code of the present day, which is practically a
resume of all, gives us, if we compare it with the original,
differences still more marked. But these divergences are
those of progress — they are all steps forward in the right
road ; and we may give as instances those of the liberty
and independence of the individual, and the simplification
of all transactions concerning the transfer of property and

contracts.

Thus, in the law on marriage, the position of the woman
is far more rational than in France; since, unless the
marriage contract stipulates to the contrary, she can hold
property independently of her husband. And further, on
his death, she has the right of administering his property,
and the guardianship of his children.

Again, the National Code gives a much greater liberty
to the two sexes, in so much as it suppresses the quaint
formalities of les actes respectueux, which the Italian legis-
lators wisely considered an old-fashioned and useless
provision, out of harmony with the modern principles of
the equality of all and the individual responsibility of
each.

( 176 )

CHAPTER XV.

THE DIALECT.

Formation of the ancient dialects of Italy and the Latin langnage-
Muence of the Barbarian immigrants^The Bomance langnage m
the time of Charlemagne^Dialects of .1 and oc--Forrnation o the
Italian languase-Comprison with French^Present dialects of
Italy— The modern fcitois of Nice and Genoa.

It has been skrewdly remarked, that it is possible to
deduce the history of a people from their language. I
propose then in the present chapter, having brought to an
end this resumi of the history of Liguria, to add a few
words on the dialects of this part of Italy and the
adjoining neighbourhoods.

The original inhabitants, or aborigines, of Italy, as tar
as we are able to discover, undoubtedly spoke a dialect
derived directly from the great oriental language which
served as a basis for the speech of all European people ;
and this is proved by the great proportion of Sanscrit
words which we meet with in the ancient patois of the
Italian peninsula, and in tlie Latin language. The
primitive tongue has been gradually transformed under
the influence of various immigration, and thanks to the
tendency of barbarous peoples to modify the pronunciation
of words, 80 long as the language remains unfixed by an
unvarying orthography :

•' Opera naturale e ch' uom favella,
ma cosi o cosl, natnra lascia
iwi fare a voi sccondo che v' abbella

DIALECT. 177

e ci(S coTiviene,

cho I'nso dei mortal i ecome fronda
in ranio che son va ed altra viene."

Paradiso, Canto XXVI.

" For nought that man inclined to, e'er was lasting
left by his reason free and variable
as is the sky that sways him. That he speaks
to Nature's prompting : whether thus or thus,
she leaves to you, as ye do most affect it.

" And so beseem eth : for in mortals, use
is as the leaf upon the bough : that goes

and others come instead."

Carey's Tmnddtion ,

In this manner was formed a certain number of distinct
dialects, of which the Latin language became the final
result. The union of Italy under the Roman autho-
rity, necessarily gave the ascendency to the language
of the conquerors, which after being modified and com-
pleted by contact with the various subjected races, became
finally the national tongue.

Latin is essentially the Oscian dialect, perfected by
civilisation and enriched and amplified by words drawn
from all the varied races of the Peninsula, as well as the
literature of the Greeks.

The Romans made great efforts to spread the Latin
language over the whole of Italy, and later on over the
whole of the Empire. But if it has not been possible to
stamp out the various patois, even in this nineteenth
century and with the powerful aid of the Press, we must
not be astonished if the Romans, in spite of their iron
will and the most summary proceedings, were but partially

N

\

178

LOCAL HISTORY.

DIALECT.

170

able to realise the promise which Virgil places in Jupiter's
mouth on tlie landing of iEneas :

« Do quod via, ... r .• «

faciamqiie omnes uno ore Latinos.

« I do what you desire . . . ^ .

and will make all the Latin iieopie spcaw wi JL^o

• ' ■ ^ JSneid, Book ML, Ime y^<>-

Latin thus became the language used both for Bpeakb^^^

. 4. fL« nnnpr and educated classes, dui

and writing amongst the upper and e

the various patois were still used not or^^ ^^^X, Rome
provinces, but in the heart of Latium and even an Eome

"Except in a more synthetical construction, these old

dialects differ but little from the patois which are spoken

rtle p It day in the same regions. A great numbe.

o^ v^orL which have never passed into the P- -ted ^^^^^^

sovereign language, but -^^\^-'^\^-'ZlZX^Z
\. Wn Dointed out by Latin authors as belonging lo
thrdialects which besides presented, up to a certain point,
he tme P c^liarities of local pronunciation as the modern
patois. Thus the inhabitants of Upper Italy were rema^-
S for their tendency to contract words by ehd.ng the
.owels even before consonants, exactly as do their
successors in the same regions at the present day^

I, the centre of the Italian V^-^^^^l^^^^
tendency was to confound certain letters ; to change tor
TatpL'the consonants I and .. and this peculiarity w.s
L marked in the Boman period as at the pres nt day
?he Tuscan peasant still says grobo for gZobo farso for
fl, arivedlla for a rivedena, &c.; and the Roman

^ ■ f^nm which we jret the Italian vernacolo
♦ The VemcB. or slaves, spoke patois, from which ^e gei

and the English ven,

patois also changes constantly the / into the r, as in the
article er for il The old inhabitants of the Terra di
Lavoro did exactly the same, and a very interesting proof
of this was found in the excavations amongst the ruins of
Pompeii. A scholar who had been, without doubt, learning
by heart from the dictation of his master the beginning
of the Mneicl — whicli was published just before the erup-
tion— had written the first verse with a piece of charcoal
on the wall of the school, exactly as I here reproduce it :

" A/ma viAiiTique cano, n7oia\ . . ."

The barbaric invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries!,
leading as they did to the immigrations en masse of new
populations, speaking languages of an absolutely different
character, necessarily had a radical effect in modifying
and altering the dialects of the south of Europe.

The Goths, the Huns, the Vandals, and later on the
Lombards, brought with them into Italy, not only an
enormous number of new words, but the analytical con-
struction of the phrase and the modern form of speech :
the former people especially, played the chief part in this
work of transformation, and their influence was naturally
more marked in the north than the south of the Penin-
sula. The u of the Piedmontese, and the oe of the
Genoese, which are pronounced as the German * u and 6,
are evidently some of the results of the Gothic immi-
gration. About the end of this period, that is, the time
of Charlemagne, the dialects of Northern Italy must
have assumed nearly their present form, for the only

* This modification of the pronunciation of the vowels explains clearly the
change in the name of San Romolo to San RemOy the transition from JRoemus
to I\C7nus being perfectly natural.

N 2

180

LOCAL mSTORT.

influence wliieli they have liad to eontend apjainst since
is the comparatively slight one, of contact with a written
tongue, the Italian, and the invasions of foreigners in the

middle ages.

The Latin language straggled long and valiantly
against the powerful current of tlie popular idioms, but
the fight was an unequal one ; used by the masses, and
favoured by the conquerors from the north, the new
languages had on their side both numbers and power,
whilst the Latin on the contrary was confined, with those
who could read and write, to the monasteries and bishops'
palaces, and was compelled to defend itself, disputing step
by step the invasion of its vulgar rivals, from the strong-
hold of municipal and imperial acts, of the liturgies and
religious ceremonies of the Church of Kome, and of

literature.

At the commencement of the ninth century, the south
of Europe possessed a language almost unique in character,
viz. " the rustic Latin, or langue romane— Eomance ; *' and
Charlemagne, understanding thoroughly that a language
common throughout the whole of his Empire would be
an enormous step towards its consolidation, decided to
raise the dialect of the masses to the rank of an official
language and to impose it upon all his subjects.

By the Capitulaires of 813, he ordered that the Gospel
was to be read to the people throughout the whole of the
Empire, " dans h roman vulgaire'' or the Romance tongue,
which was spoken over the whole of Provence and a great
portion of France and Northern Italy *

But this bastard and transitional language lasted no
longer than the degenerate and ephemeral empire which
upheld it. The Romance tongue of that day, variable and

♦ Maffei— 5*oria della Letteratura Italiana.

DIALECT.

181

I

\

imperfect in its construction, without rules of spelling and
differing greatly in one country from another, did not
l)0S8ess in itself tlie qualities necessary for a great and
endurin^^ lan-uaoe ; it could only be a stepping-stone to
something higher and more complete.

Below I give a si)ecimen of the language Charlemagne
was so desirous of popularising, extracted from the oath
taken by Louis the German at Strasburg in the year 842,
at the conclusion of peace with Charles the Bold.*

« Pro Deo ainur et pro Xristian poblo et iiostro commun salvament,
dist di en avaiit, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat ; si salvarai
jeo cist meon fradre Karlo et in adjuda et in cadliuua cosa, si cum om
l»er dreit son fradra salvar dist ; in o quid il mi altresi fazet : et ab
Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre
Karlo in damno sit."

Which may be translated as follows :

" By the luve of God and by our common salvation and that of all
Christian people, iuasmuch as God shall give me knowledge and
power, so will I support my brother Charles, here present, by aid and
in all' other ways, as one ought to support his brother, so long as he
shall do the same for me, and will never enter into any treaty with
Luthaire by my own wish, in any way x)rejudicial to my brother Charles."

During the centuries immediately following the reign of
Charlemagne, the Romance language gradually perfected
itself, thanks especially to the Troubadours, who placed it
under stringent and unvarying rules, and fixed, up to a
certain point, its orthography. But later on, in France, it
split up into two distinct forms, which received respectively
the names of the languages of oi and oc, from the way in
which the adverb oui was pronounced.

The language of o'i which was spoken to the north of the
Loire, and which contained the germ of modern French,
became in time and in spite of its poverty and its

* Barthe— //^^^-'«Vc■ dc la Lanjue Frangaise.

I

182

LOCAL HISTORY.

ronghness when spoken, the langnage of the whole country,
and thia especially owing to the accidental ascendency
given it by the unification of France, under a government
whose seat was in the north ; whilst its rival, although richer,
more harmonious and classic in character, was fated to
linger on in the south and never take a higher rank than
a patois. The following selections will show how consider-
able a difference existed between the two languages about
the twelfth century ; but beyond the material difference
of dialect, we must notice also those of form and mode of
thought in the two contemporary examples. Tlie first,
harmonious in expression though somewhat clumsy in
construction, and rich in images drawn from nature and the
surrounding scenery, seems a last echo of the old classic
poetry ; whilst tlie second, simple, graceful and light, is
nothing less than a foreshadowing, in all its characteristics,
of the songs and ballads of modern days.

In other words, the Romance tongue was only a fading
echo of the Latin ; its rival in the north, already lusty and
spreading, was soon to develope into French.

LaiKjiUKje o/oc, 1130.

" Al chans d^aiizels comciiza iiki chaiiz",
cant aug chantar la -lucnta et aiglos
('litils cortils vey vmloyar lo luis
la blava flors qe par eotr'els boissos,
el rill clar corien sol >r els .sablos
la u s'espand la bhuica tior ties lis/'

Its equivalent in thf Frencli of tlie present day would
be much as follows :

" Aux chants des (Visoaux, coinmen^a ma clianson, quand se mettent
a chanter le pinson et I'aigle, (jiiand dans les epais Ijerceaux je vols
verdoyer la terre, que la fleiir l»leLie fleurit cntre les buisaons et que le
ruisseau clair court sur les sables oil s'dpanouit la blanche fleiir des lis."

DIALECT.

183

Below is an English version, in which I have
endeavoured to reproduce the form and arrangement of
rhymes of the original ; but a literal translation would have
sounded almost ludicrous to modern ears :

" When 'rose the song of birds, began my song,
(both king and humblest songster swell the strain) ;

around thick arbours, green grass waving free,
and blue flowers mingling with the golden grain ,•
clear streams course gaily to the same refrain
with water-lilies floating joyously."

A. C. D.

Language of oi, 1160.

" Quand florist la violettc
la rose et la flor de glai,
que chanteiit li papegai,
lors mi poignent amorettes,
qui me tiennent gai.

" Mes pie^a ne chantai ;
or chanterai

et ferai
chanson joliette
[lOur I'amour de m'amiette
oil grand pie^a me donnai."

The following is au English version :

" When blooms the violet, when in summer hours,

comes forth the rose and stately iris grand,

when pigeon-coos are heard o'er all the land,

within my heart love's fancies come in showers,

my soul rejoicing more than do the flowers.

" Ne'er yet have I poured forth these thoughts in song,
but now will (since delay hath been too long),

my lady tell of mine aff"ection strong,
and charm her ear with sweet melodious verse
wherein love's rapturous joys I will rehearse,
the bliss that doth to mutual joy belong."

J. Y.

181

LOCAL HISTORY.

DIALECT.

185

III Italy the formation of tlie modern tongue followed a
different process ; in the centre of the Peninsula Latin
was still a living tongue, spoken by all, wliilst tlie endless
recollections attaching themselves to the idioms of Cicero
and Yirgil helped to preserve the ancient language from
outside and foreign influences. The Barbarians of Northern
Europe who were able to impose their inflections and their
pronunciation upon, and completely to destroy the cha-
racter of tlie language of the conquered peoples of France
and Northern Italy (owing lo the ignorance of the inhabi-
tants and their use of an unwritten patois), fared differently
however, amongst the cultivated people of Tuscany. For
here exactly the reverse took place, and the conquerors
were irresistibly compelled to adopt the language of tlie
vanquislied country, which they assimilated to their own
by the adoption of articles, classification under grammati-
cal rules, and the abbreviation of words.

" The Goth," says Perticari,* " who wished for bread, and
who heard the Latin people he had come amongst say,
*Da mihi ilium panem" sought to imitate them in his
desire to be understood and said, * Da mi . . . il . . . fane' "
Here the modern construction of tlie sentence is found,
and tlie article formed out of a Latin pronoun.

Under such conditions, then, one can well imagine that the
French language would evolve itself far less quickly than
the Italian. And such indeed was the case, tijr about the end
of the eleventh centyry, the latter had almost attained its
present form ; a jtroof of which we find when we examine
one of the oldest examples of Italian that we possess, viz. the
somewhat amorous verses of Piero delle Yigne,t the poet

♦ Delia difesa di Dante.

t Fiero delle Vigm^ a native of Capua, who by his eloquence and legal
knowledge raised himself from a very humble condition to the oilice of

'

of the court of the Emperor Frederick IL, the earliest
patron and protector of the newly born language.* Below
is an extract with an English paraphrase :

((

<(

Com hoin ck'e in mar, ed ha spene di gire
quando vede lo tempo, ed ello spanua,
vostro amore mi tiene in tal desire,
e donami sperauza di si gran gioia,
clie non euro sia duglia o sia marlire,
uiembrando I'iiora ch'io vengo da voi.

Like to a sailor then, by tempests backward driven,
his little bark, sore tost by storm and wave —

when U) ! a soft wind blows, new hopes to him are given,
joy fills his heart, his craft he yet may save.

Tis thus thy love doth raise my soul to highest heaven,
as thy displeasuie laid it in its grave."

A. C. D.

At the time of Dante— that is, towards the end of the
thirteenth century— the Italian language was definitely
formed, whilst even a century later French, both as spoken
and written, strongly recalls the language of o'i of the
trouveres. Ht^re is a specimen of the French of that
day as it existed and was written in Paris at the time
of Louis XI. : it is part of a ballad by Francois Villon,
celebrating the heroines of history, and so charming in
character that its retrain has become a proverb through-
out France :

Chancellor to the Emperor Frederick II. The courtiers, envious of his
exalted position, contrived by means of forged letters to make Frederick
believe that he held a secret and traitorous intercourse with the Pope. In
consequence of this he was condemned to lose his eyes, and in despair dashed
his brains out against the walls of a church, in the year 1245. Both Piero
and Frederick composed verses io the Sicilian dialect, which are still extant ;
a canzone by each may be seen in the 9th Book of the Sonetti and Canzoni di
dlversi autori Tuscani, published by Guinti in 1527. — A. C. D.
♦ Mallei — Storia ddla Lettcratara Italiana.

186

LOCAL HISTORY.

"Dictes-moi ou, ne en quel pay>,
est Flora la belle Komaine,
Archipiada ne Thais,
qui flit sa cousine germaine ;
echo parlant quand bruyt on mainc
dessas riviere ou sus estan,
qui beautte eut trop plus que huniaine ?
Mais oil sent les neiges d'antan ?

u

La royne blanche comme ung lys,
qui chatitait k voix de sereine ;
Berthe au grand pi<S, Bi^trix, Alix,
Harembouges qui tint le Mayne ?
Et Jebaone la bonne Lorraine,
que Angloys bruslerent h Rouen ?
Oil sont-ils, vierge souveraiue '?
Mais oil sont les neigis d'autan V " *

•* Tell me now in what strange air
the Komaii Fl«>ra dwells to-day.
Wliere Areliipi>iada liides, and where
beautiful Thais has passed away V
Wlience answers Eclio, a field, astray
l>y mere or stream, — arounil, 1h-1ow?
Lovelier she tliaii a w<>ii>aii ot clay ;
nay, but where is the last year's snow V

»(

Where's that White Queen, a lily rare,
witli h' et song, tlie SirciTs la\ V

Wliere's llertlia Broadf«)Ot, lieatrice lairV
Alys and Ermengarde, where are they ?
G(XkI Joan, whom English di.l betray
in Eoiieii ttAvn, and burned her? No,
maiden and queen, no man miv -ay ;
nay, but where is tlie last year's snow ? "

♦ Through the kimlness of Mr. Andrew Lang I «im enahle.l to ii)>eit his
adaptation of the foregoing ballad, the whole of which may be found in ins
spirited little collection of verses entitled XXXlIBaUmksinBlucChia't.—

DIALECT.

187

Tlie French and Italian languages once formed and
definitely fixed by the most certain means possible, viz. the
introduction of printing, the various dialects fell necessa-
rily int^ the background and underwent no further modifi-
cation. And of tliese dialects, or patois, the Italian
peninsula possesses an extraordinary number ; for, with the
exception of Tuscany, all the great geographical divisions
of the country speak a distinct one, which, though very
dissimilar in its construction, even to that of its nearest
nei<»hbour, vet has sufficient resemblance to all to enable
those speaking it to understand the others without much

difficulty.

The existence of tliese dialects, which are used by all
classes and upon all occasions when not compelled to
employ the national or official language, affords a subject
of tlie most interesting study to the enthusiastic philolo-
gist. But one cannot tail most keenly to deplore it, looking
upon the question from an educational standpoint ; for no
doubt here it is a serious obstacle, from the fact that when
a child is taught to read, he is compelled to do so in a
language which is quite new to him.

The Italian dialects in the present day, then, are
the result of the varied and successive influences through
which the Peninsula has passed, and may be roughly
classified as follows :— (1) There is the original language
of each province, which has lingered on, a shadow of its
former self, for many centuries. (2) The immigration of
the barbarous hordes from the north, which ditfered in
importance in one province from another. (3) The invasion
of foreign armies of the Middle Ages and even in modern
times; and (4) the two official languages which followed
one after the other, Latin and then Italian. And the

188

LOCAL HISTORY.

traces left by these influences arc so dt'cisivel y marked, that
they enable us to interj>ret correctly the peculiar accent of
each patnis, the special words natural to them, and their
local idioms, and to discover, in each one of the dialects
of the Peninsula, the special history of tlie people who
s[)eak it.

Tluis the Genoc'se exchange the h and the 'p for g and c,
which is probably a reminiscence of the primitive idiom
of Lignria : using (jianco fur hianco, Taggia for Tahhia,
eiu for 'piii, cian for piano; in addition to arbitrarily
crippling many words (this, no doul't, arising from the in-
Huence of tlie Goths), such as AlbUaula for Alha Bocilia,
Vintimilium for AlUntemeUum, Mostaccini for Mous
Station is*

Tlie dialects of Upper Italy, harsh in sound and
abounding in consonants and qnaint contracticms, have
preserved nothing of the sonorous harmony of the raagni-
ticent Romance language, which, had it not been for the
chance of political events, might have become tlie language
of France.

Komance is limited in thi3 present day to the territory
comprised between the Alps and the Pyrenees, and here it
is spoken almost in its original purity ; perhaps, indeed, it
is amongst the mountains of the '* County " of Nice that the
language of tlie Troubadours has experienced the least
change.

Here are some siiecimens of the Nifois dialect, and it is
interesting to remark the harmony this patois i)rcsents
with those verses in the Komance tongue reproduced a
few pages back :

* It is customary to say ii torre dei Mostaccini^ but it wuuU be iiiDro in
harmuiiv with the urii^iu of the mime tu use the biugular — dd Mostaccini.

DIALECT.

189

**La filona vi<Til:mta non va mai senza camia.

« Si coucciJl (ie biionVa et si leva de buon matin, procura sanita,

fortiina e saojessa. n ^ r i«

« Se ainias la vida non prodighes lo temp ; car lo temp es 1 estofa de

la vi»la.

" Coiira lo iwns cs sec si conoisse la valour de Taiga.

» Acheu die va serck un che U preste, si va serca nna mortifi-

cassion.

»»

IMost of the above are very fiimiliar to us in their

English form :

" The indiistrions seamstress never lacks clothes.

« Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and

"wise. . 1 i. ^•c

" If yon care for life, don't waste your time ; for time is what hfe is

made of. . ,

" When the well runs dry, one Icams what \vater is wortn.

" He who goes a borrowing goes a sorrowing."

The Genoese dialect, spoken thronghout the territory
which formed the Lignrian Republic of 1797, is a parti-
cularly rich and sonorous one ; for, quite opposed to that
of the Piedmontese (which slurs over the vowels and
strongly accente the consonants), it suppresses the latter
and dmibles the former. This tendency exists above all m
Western Liguria, where the diphthongs, contracted into one
sound by ihe Genoese, preserve their pronunciation as two
distinct vowels, strongly accentuated. I give a few
examples: aiga for mgua, faeto hrfmto, and andaeto for

andseto. • j o •

The following verses, extracted from the Lunajo do bcto
Tocca, will give the reader an idea of the modern patois of
the Genoese :

190

LOCAL HISTORY.

A MEIXIXXA.

SUNETTO.

" Cut bono Vnvte medica in sostansa ?
I marotti a txiiari con estenuali.
Qua^ son de questa i fruti priiiripali ?
Clie con ciu a ia teorie, meiin a s'avmisn.

Qnffi son i mefjjio fra i iiiediciuali?
^giia cada, riiMsn e teiuperansa.
De salute qua? son i vei segnali ?
Testa fresca, ]»e cadi e netta a jtansa.

Perche i meglii lian ])e-o ciii tan to siissiego?
Perche 6 nobile e 6 rieco o sjtera in lo.
Clu lia ciii l)on a 8cami>h nn sec.>lo intiviio?

Clii o >|H/Ja no freqnenta, ne o flotto.

CV»se giia<;na clii in <;isa ha M-iiiprc C> nicgo?
lTan<lasene ciu \nvMi > aj-v ScLair-."

CHAPTER XVL

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.
BY ALFRED C. DOWSON.

Travellings in the Middle Ages — Difficulties oftcast j.ath — Noteworthy
travellers : Dante— St. Catherine of Siena— Lady Blessington's
imitressioTw .,f Liguria — Ottening of the Cornice Road in 1828 —
Mules sui't..-. >.cil by diligence and pust-cliaise— Extract from 'Miss
Angel.'

In previous chapters an endeavour has been made to give
some idea of Bordighera from its earliest liistoric days
up to tliose of our own, its first development, its various
struggles and sufferings, its long dependence on Venti-
miglia, its hardly earned freedom, and, finally, its con-
dition as we see it now,— a rapidly rising \\intering place.

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

191

The history of some of the adjacent towns of interest has
also been slightly touched upon, and it has been shown
that with many of them their fortunes and those of
Bordighera were identical. It may not, then, be unin-
teresting, before passing to other aspects of the place, to
endeavour to recall a few of tiie noteworthy travellers
who have journeyed by these lovely, if rugged shores ; to
give some idea of the perils and discomforts which were
associate.! with travelling in the Middle xVges along the
Ligurian coast (and not then only, but until the com-
pletion of the Cornice Road in 1828) ; and reproduce some
of the feelings which passed their minds as they first
gazed on the same blue sky and sea, and the same glo-
rious mountains which now delight us. And one cannot
help wondering, en lyassant, how many of the thousands of
modern travellers who yearly visit this coast— travelling
from Paris, or perhaps, even from Calais, in a luxurious
cowpe lit, and whose greatest discomfort has been a broken
ni<>-ht's rest and the custom-house at Ventimiglia— ever
cast a thought as to how travellers fared in bygone days,
not ten or twenty years ago, when tliere was neither rail-
way nor ''Ba])ide''\ but any time within the past eight
hundred years, before the existence of the Cornice, when
the only means of transit was by a small sailing craft, or
on mules along a narrow path as steep as it was dangerous.
But there were travellers in those days, and even before
them. For, without going back to the time when the
Roman Empire extended " from the greater to the lesser
sea," let us think for a moment of the Papacy in its most
brilliant period, when embassies, missions and pilgrimages,
soldiers and priests, envoys, monks and troubadours,
passed continually along the coast; when Provence was

192

LOCAL HISTORY.

not, as now, a grographfenl expression, but an inipcrtiitit
State, and the dangers from corsair and tempest rendered
a land journey, perilons as tbat was, at least safer than
one by sea.

And first of all we will turn to one of tbe greatest wbo
ever passed along tliese sbores : no less a one tban tbe poet
Dante, wbo must bave toiled along tbe winding coast
patb — tbe snrvival of tlie older Anrelian Way — wbieb, as
he says, "led from Spezia to Turbia." many times in bis
varied wanderings; and we can well imagine bow bis
poetic imagination must bave been cbarmed as tbe various
beauties of tbe coast opened tbem selves out before bim.
We have seen in tbe stanzas quoted on page 59, bow
tbe steepness and rugged ness of this stony and winding
track suggested to bim an image of tbe road out of Pur-
gatory ; and we know tbat it was not from bis imagination,
wonderful as it was, tbat lie drew tbe graphic picture, but
from actual and painful experience of tbe roughness and
badness of tlie road in question.

Mrs. 01ii)hant, in her most cbarming book, '* The Makers
of Florence," gives us a toucliing picture of the beart-sick
and weary poet on one of tbese journeys.

It is a letter from tbe Prior of the Convent of Santa
Croce, wbieb was *• situated on tbe bills overlooking tbe
lovely bay of Spezin," to a friend, tilling him of a visit
from Dante, wbo, turned back again from tbe gates of his
beloved Florence, sought and found iu tbe quiet and
soothing atmosphere of tbe monastery a temporary rest-
ing-place before starting, most probably on foot, for the
north : possibly for Paris, or to study iit Oxford, as some
historians believe. Tbe letter is too long for insertion
here, simple and pathetic as it is ; but I cannot forbear

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

193

1^

quoting a few lines from it, and also tbe translator's com-
ments on the same ; as they illustrate tbe subject of this
chapter, and give us a poetic if somewhat imaginative
picture of tbe lonely and exiled poet as be sadly wanders
westward along tbe rocky coast road of Liguria.

The letter opens with an account of tbe poet wearily
standing, waiting for admittance, outside the monastery
gates. It was, as far as it is possible to judge, about the
year 1310, and, as I have mentioned, just after Dante
bad made a third unsuccessful attempt to return to Flo-
rence ; " and sick at heart, the poet was probably at this
moment on his way to tbe northern side of tbe Alps, and
to tbe alien world far from Italy, or perhaps to one of the
castles upon tbe sunny bills above tbe eastern Kiviera of
tbat Malaspina who was one of Dante's protectors." He
appears to bave been anxious to leave some work be had
lately completed with the good prior " before he wended bis
way into those strange and barbarous countries, whither
be went in exile and poverty and something like despair."
Fra Ilario continues : " His intention being to travel into
ultramontane regions, be passed through the Diocese of
Luiui, and either from devotion to the place or from some
other cause, came to this monastery. As be was un-
known to me and my brethren, I asked, when I saw him,
'What would you?' And he answering not a word,
but gazing at the building, I asked him again what he
sought. He then, looking round upon me, answered
* Peace.' . . . And then the translator continues, —

" This vivid and touching glimpse of the wandering poet, already so
well known that the eager monk could see at once what manner of man
he was, and recognised him as soon as he had talked to him, disperses
the shadows for one brief moment, and lights up the gloom in which
the wanderer was almost lost to us. Who could it have been but

194

LOCAL HISTORY.

Dante? straying abstracted by the convent walls, looking at the
building while the curious friars surrounded him with their questions,
saying out of his deep, weary, melancholy soul the one word ' Peace,*
when they asked him what he wanted. Alas! that was the thing he
was not to have any more than the rest of the world. . . .

" Only for a moment, however, is such a glimpse of the great way-
farer i)ermitted to us. Very soon he has to resume his journey,
leaving the sheltering convent, where the kind prior admired and
wondered over his great work, solitary and sad, yet noting with
glowing, abstracted eyes every natural feature of the way, transplanting
the * wild and broken paths ' between Lerici and Turbia into his Pur-
gatory, and receiving into his heart the music of the sea and the winds.
Gazing wistfully from those heights over that loveliest of sea lines,
perhaps hearing softly behind him, as he went forth, tlie sound of Fra
llario's convent bells, what softening moisture must have stolen into
the poet's eyes as the magical momentary lUalian twilight grew dim
over the shining water between night and day. . . . Not on so ixjaceful
a sea as the Mediterranean was Dante's voyage, but as he gazed over
the resplendent waters and listened to the distant bell, and saw the soft
day die before lum, drawing a sudden veil over her sunset glories,
what a touch of tender sadness was that wliich made him think of the
navigantl, the parting sailors who had that day bidden sweet friends
farewell ! He too was saying farewell to sweet friends, to dear hopes,
to Italy, while yet one of the fairest of landscapes held him, and the
soft dying cadence of the religious bell pu relied him like a recalling
voice."

With one more quotation, but this time from another
source (viz. Euskin's * Modern Painters') T will leave
Dante and pass to others who followed in his footsteps.
It is in reference to the same subject, however, the steep-
ness of the Ligurian coast-path, and the suitableness of
the similes Dante draws from it, that Mr. Euskin writes :
but how true are his words, only those know who have
either on foot or by carriage followed the Cornice between
the two points named in the stanzas referred to.

" The similes " (says Mr. Ruskin) " in vol. iii. of the above-mentioned
work, " with which Dante illustrates the steepness of that ascent (viz.

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

195

from Purgatory), are all taken from the Riviera of Genoa, now traversed
by a good carriage-road under the name of the Cornice ; but as the road
did not exist in Dante's time, and the steep precipices and promontories
were then probably traversed by footpaths, which, as they necessarily
passed in many places over crumbling and slippery limestone, were
doubtless not a little dangerous : and as in a manner they command
the bays of the sea below and lie exposed to the full blaze of the
south-eastern sun, they corresix)nded precisely to the situation of
the path by which he ascended from the Purgatorial sea, the image
could not possibly have been taken from a better source for the fully
conveying his idea to the reader; nor, by the way, is there reason
to discredit in this place his powers of climbing ; for with his usual
accuracy, he has taken the angle of the path for us, saying it was con-
siderably more than 45. Now a continuous mountain slope of 45 is
already quite unsafe either for ascent or descent, except by iiig-zag
paths, and a greater slojx} than this could not be climbed straight-
forward by the help of crevices or jags in the rocks and physical
exertion besides."

But let us pass on towards the end of the century, and
we shall come upon another and hardly less distinguished
traveller journeying along the Kiviera, though on this
occasion it is a woman with a small escort on mules or
horses, not a solitary pedestrian, who attracts our notice ;
no less a personage, indeed, than Catherine of Siena on
her noble errand of bringing back the Papal court to
Eome : the only means of restoring peace and order in
her beloved Italy. And apart from the historic and senti-
mental interest of this celebrated journey and the noble
picture it presents us of a woman's courage and deter-
mination overcoming all difficulties (of which physical
weakness was not the least), there are two points brought
out by it bearing on the subject of this chapter, viz. : the
time it occupied and the state of the coast-path. For we
find, first, that the journey from Florence to Avignon,
which, thanks to the railway, now takes less than twenty-
four hours, was then a question of weeks ; and, secondly.

0 2

196

LOCAL HISTORY.

H

that no improvement whatever had taken place in this,
the onit/ coast road between Provence and Italy, during
the sixty or seventy years which had elapsed since Dante's
account of it; and that the same difficulties and dangers,
the same sharp turns and steep and stony descents, were
still to be found there. The fact also of this journey of
St. Catherine and her escort having been such a lengthy
one, gives us a very good idea of the time consumed in
travelling in those days ; for we know that hers was one
where speed was of the greatest importance, and her
party being only small, and well mounted, would naturally
push forward with fewer delays than usual. But what do
we find ? That with all her anxiety to reach her destina-
tion quickly, it took Catherine nearly three weeks to travel
from Florence to Avignon !

" She left," we are told, " the former city as Ambas-
sador of the Florentines to Pope Gregory, in the summer
of 1376, in the early days of June ; " and though suffering
in health, her illness being aggravated by the heat and
the fatigues of the journey, she travelled with as great a
speed as was possible. Her journey for the first few days
would pass smoothly enough along the valley of the Arno
and across the flat country lying at the foot of the Carrara
Mountains, until she arrived at Spezia. Here, however,
the road almost immediat* ly elianges in character, and
becomes, as we have just seen it described, steep, rocky,
and dangerous, as it winds around or across the many
headlands lying between Spezia and Cleuoa; and then
again, after a day's journey of smoother travelling, re-
sumes its better known and wilder features until it
crosses the Var. To quote tlie words of Mrs. Butler in her
charming life of this saint, "We can only imagine what

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

197

wt

1

the toils, or indeed the pleasures of this journey may have
been, along the beautiful Kiviera, passing beyond the
Maritime Alps and the Esterel, by Frejus and Toulon, to
IMarseilles, and thence through the flat and desolate por-
tions of the department of the Boiiches du Bhone, entering
the sunny and verdant lands of Provence.*' * " Catherine,"
she tells us, "lost no time on her way, being impatient to
reach her destination," and yet it was not until the 18th
of June that this long and most exhausting journey came
to an end, and the little party entered the gates of the
old Provencal city. And only tho^Q forestieri who have
remained on the Riviera as late as the date mentioned
will be able to form any idea of what fatigue and suffering
this delicate but determined woman must have gone
through, riding continually for so many days along this
rugged path, exposed to the full force of an almost tropical
sun. Indeed, to show with what feelings such a journey
was viewed in those days, and how grave were considered
the perils of all kinds which encompassed it, it is only
needful to make a quotation from the Bull for the Cano-
nization of Catherine, issued by Pius II. in 1461, wherein
were set forth the various acts entitling her to that
honour: and amongst which we find it specially stated,
" that, to reconcile the Florentines and the Church, she
did not hesitate even to cross the Apennines and the Alps
in order to reach Gregory our predecessor."

I have not here space to refer to other noteworthy
travellers who, during the Middle Ages, journeyed through
Liguria, but will leap at once over several centuries and
see what an English lady, and she an authoress too !

* Mrs. Butler appears to forget that Catherine had entered Provence on
crossing the Var. — A. C. D.

198

LOCAL HISTORY.

thouglit of this coast-road at the commencement of the
present century.

The individual in question was the well-known Lady
Blessington, the friend of Byron; and the work from
which I have gained tlie information I now place before
the reader is her • Idler in Italy,' which, though rarely
opened in the present day, met with a great success on its
first appearance ; although in looking through it now, and
remembering that the work in question passed through
several editions, one is filled with wonder that readers
could have borne the moralisings which occur in every
page, without throwing it aside in absolute weariness.

But for us it has an especial interest, as it contains an
account of a coast journey from Nice to Savona prior to the
opening of the Cornice ; and we learn from it that the path
was still a mule track, and as rough and stony as when
Dante and St. Catherine passed over it, four centuries
before ; and that unless a traveller was prepared to rough
it, be he lord or pedler, he had better stay at home.

We will make our acquaintance with her ladyship and
party at Nice, at which town we find them, like most
travellers who arrived at that point of the journey, debat-
ing as to the manner of proceeding ; for they were bound
to Florence, where they proposed to spend the spring.

"The usual route by land," she tells us, "is over the Col di Teiida
and via Turin, Imt this being impracticable, owing to snow (the date is
March 21st), and as we had a strong objection to a voyage in d, felucca,
we determined to proceed to Genoa by the route of the Cornice, which
admits of but two modes of conveyance, a chaise a porttttrs or on horse-
back, or rather on mule-back."

Think of this, luxurious traveller of the present day !
You who, leaving Nice by the 4.40 p.m. express, grumble

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

199

m

violently if you are not deposited punctually in the
brightly lit station at Genoa by 11 . 20 ; and yet the state
of locomotion just referred to was barely seventy years
ago!

But to return to her ladyship.

The Cornice Eoad, as has been previously mentioned,
was commenced by Napoleon some years before his fall,
and at the time we are speaking of was partially opened ;
but evidently that portion where wheels could pass was in
a most incomplete state, for the writer mentions, ** We
were enabled, as far as Mentone, to use one of the light
carriages of the country, but here we must have recourse
to mules, which our courier is now busily examining." Of
course she falls into ecstasies over the views, "which sur-
passed our expectations,*' and in a less degree over the road,
" which is remarkably good and bears indelible mark of
him who planned it; boldly designed and solidly con-
structed, with a disregard to difficulties or a complete
triumph over them, it reminds one of that daring man who
said he disbelieved in impossibilities," — and so on for half a
page. The village of Turbia and the ruin next attract her
attention, and she w^as naturally anxious to obtain some
information as to the latter's history, but the custom-
house officer — for it is the Monaco frontier — could only in-
form her " in a very pompous manner, ' that it was a very
fine and ancient ruin, well worthy of the attention of
travellers.' " Soon afterwards the first view of Monaco
fills her with delight. " It looked at a distance like a town
built by children, and its pigmy white houses, peeping out
from groves of olive, orange, and lemon trees, have a
beautiful appearance." Another page of rapture must be
imagined, in which occurs this somewhat peculiar sen-

fl

200

LOCAL HISTORY.

THE RIVIERA IN OLDEN DAYS.

201

teDce: "At each step some new and attractive view fills us
with admiration, and begets the desire of fixing upon some
one of the various beautiful sights (sic) for a resi-
dence ! "

A house built upon a " sight " would prove, one would
imagine, a veritable Chateau mEsfagml

At Mentone, she tells us, she went to the Hotel de Turin,
" which was in a state of primitive simplicity ; for it did
not even possess a tea-pot ! Tlie landlady indeed had pos-
sessed one, the only one in the town, and that given her
by Lady Bute, but in an evil hour it had been broken by
having been placed on the fire to boil water ; " a some-
what dissimilar state of things to Mentone as we know it
now.

Here the party mounted mules, and evidently mule-back
was not so conducive to moralising as sitting in a carriage,
for the authoress is much more practical during this portion
of the journey than previously. She mentions the bridge
of St. Louis being then finished, but oddly enough places it
" about six miles from Mentone," and then refers to the
dilatory way in which the works for the Cornice were
being carried on, "some eight or ten labourers being em-
ployed where one hundred ought to be." They slept at
Ventimiglia, " the inn being extremely bad in every re-
spect, except not being unclean ; " and Lady Blessington
adds that she was very much struck during the whole
length of this mule journey, a ride in fact from one end
of Liguria to the other, *' with the wonderful attention paid
to cleanliness, for nowhere have we seen ought approach-
in;; to the untidiness and dirt we had so much reason to
complain of in France." And so day by day the little
party jogged onwards, and it will perhaps give a better

\

n

idea of the mode of travelling on this coast, prior to the
opening of the Cornice, if I insert her account of it.

" There cannot be a more agreeable mode of travelling than on mules ;
their pace, which is an amble, a movement between a quick walk and
a trot, is not fatiguing ; and the animals are so sure-footed they seldom
make a false step even on the worst roads. Our party consists of
thirteen persons, and to these two muleteers are allotted, whose duty
it is to whip on the mules and to lead them over those i^ortions of the
road which are considered dangerous. It is distressing to see these
l)Oor men trotting along, covered with dust, and half dissolved beneath
the rays of the sun, which is really scorching, though we are only at
the end of March.* . . . The saddles on which women ride here
resemble the pillions used in Ireland, except that they have backs and
sides formed of leather and stuffed with hair. The rider sits side-ways
with her feet supix)rted by a band, which is suspended like a stirrup.
The route sometimes diverges from the sea-side and passes through

ravines thickly wooded, but the sea is seldom lost sight of for more
than fifteen or sixteen minutes, and the return to it always gives
])leasure. Sonictinies our route, if route it may be called,— for in many
places it is but a wild track,— passes over the ledge of rocks hundreds of
feet above the sea, which is on our right, while the rocks themselves
rise so high above the track to the left, that nothing but the heavens
and the azure mirror which reflects them is visible. The heat, during
the time occupied in travelling along such parts, is very great, for the
high barrier of rocks that towers above it intercepts the air, and reflects
the rays of the sun like a burning glass. The track often descends to
the sandy beach on whicli a very narrow iX)rtion is left uncovered by
the sea that bathes tlie feet of the mules, two only of which can pass
abreast on the sand."

In this manner the cavalcade worked its way slowly
along the narrow coast-path with apparently no more ex-
citing incident t than that caused by a human skull being

♦ If this was Lady Blessington's experience in March, we may infer what
St. Catherine suffered in June I

t Lady Blessington seems to have been more fortunate than some other
English travellers who passed along the same path a few years before— two
Encrlish ladies and their brother; (ox in crossing one of the torrents they were

I I

': i'

202

LOCAL HISTORY.

rolled by the waves at the feet of the authoress, or her
n.ule ratU which gives an opportunity, too tempting to be
thrown away, for two pages of fine writing ! However,
they arrive at Savona on the evening of the sixth day after
leaving Mentone, at which town the journey on mule-
back commenced ; and in spite of her ladyship's enthusiasm
for this even then old-fashioned mode of travelling, it is
difficult to believe she was sorry to find again a carriage-
road and *' proceed to Genoa in coaches of the country."

Such then was travelling in Liguria up to the opening
of the Cornice in 1828, at which period the heavy travel-
ling carriage of Milord Anglais, and the still heavier
diligence, were enabled to pass on a good road the entire
distance between Marseilles and Genoa. Grand days
these, not only for the Vetturino and all his numerous kin,
but for all travellers who really cared to see something of
the country through which they passed, and to whom
neither time nor money were important.

But in 1873 the railway was opened throughout between
the same two important towns, and another and still more
remarkable change took place. For the Rapide now
brought the impatient tourist in thirty hours from Paris to
the frontier, where, after half-an-hour's delay and the dis-
comforts of the Douane, another express train in four
hours would land him at Genoa ; a hasty glimpse between
countless tunnels, of blue sea and wonderful capes on one
side, and grey mountains, pine and olive-clad hills, and
now and then an orange or lemon valley on the other,

THE mVIEBA IN OLDEN DAYS.

203

nearly swept awaj, and only saved with difficulty. One of these ladies also
kept a diary, and published it in 1817, but it does not appear to have met
with the same success as that from which J have been (luoting.

being his confused recollection of the Riviera ! Alas ! both
the time and the men have changed, and, to quote the
words of a modern author : *

« Not for them the joyous assembling on the Mediterranean shore,
where Nice lies basking in the sun, like pink surf thrown up by the
waves. Not for them the packing of the great carriages, and the
swinging away of the four horses with their jingling bells, and the slow
climbing of the Cornice, the road twisting up the face of the prey
mountains, through perpetual lemon groves, with far below the ribbed
blue sea. Not for them the leisurely trotting all day long through the
luxuriant beauty of the Riviera,— the sun hot on the ruddy cliffs of
granite and on the terraces of figs and vines and spreading palms [no
doubt, here he has Bordighera in his mind], nor rattling through the
narrow streets of old walled towns, with scarlet-capped men and
swarthy-visaged women shrinking into door-ways as the horses clatter
by ; nor the quiet evenings in the hotel garden, with the moon rising
over the murnmring sea and the air sweet with the perfume of the
south."

I cannot conclude this chapter more fitly than by trans-
ferring to it a bright little sketch of Bordighera by Miss
Thackeray, in her— but slightly idealised— life of Angelica
Kauffman, entitled '' Miss Angel '' ; especially as it refers to
a rest made by some travellers along this coast in the
eighteenth century ; and the few clever touches in which
she gives her impression of the place, "the sunshine
everywhere, the avenue of lemons and olives, the shepherd
followed by his goats, and they by the two children in
their goat-skin coats [how well one knows them ! wander-
ing up and down the Via Bomana, the half-starved flock,
nibbling at the scanty herbage beneath the olives], the
ivy- grown wall, &c. &c.,"— all these cannot fail to bring
back Bordighera to those who have once visited it.

She has, however, been guilty oi' an amusiug anachron-

* W. Black : the .quotation is from Sunrise,

m

204

LOCAL TIISTOllY.

ism, wliich I daresay has escaped tlie notice of the hirger
number of those who have read the book. It consists
in making the heavy travelling carriage, which con-
tains Miss Angel and the Ambassador's party, change
horses at Bordighera ! The journey in question, however,
is supposed to take place in the middle of the last century
(about the year 1765), when — alas ! for Miss Thackeray's
unities— there was, as we have seen, nothing but a mule-
path existing between Savona and Nice.

But now for the extract.

After describing the journey througli the plains of
Lombardy, ** in their beauty and tranquillity," and then
the siglit of the Mediterranean " with its long rolling
breakers, its bordering groves and hills, where olives climb
the steep declivities, and from their smoking pyre rise
white villages, like flames bursting from the summits,"
she continues—

C(

Tliey stopjied to change horses at a little place called Bordighera,
on the Mediterranean. . . . Here tlie sun came out and the clouds
disap}>eared : a sort of dimmed brightness was everywhere. It lay on
the sea, on the village, in a little smiling grove beyond a wall, where a
small gate hung on its hinges. Miss Aii;^m1 went up a little way along
an avenue of lemon and of olives, and breathed tlie sweet morning
pastoral silence. She came tu an old ivy-grown well, as she walked
aud sat down, resting upon its in;uii,iM. The pretty i>eiLsive figure
itself was not unsuggestive, looking thoughtfully down into the water.
Her heart beat with hojie, with a sort of rumaiitic delight and sweet
absurdity. Some jieasants i>assed : a woman carrying a load of leaves
and tendrils of vines, and driving a beautiful white cow with long
arched horns. Then came a sliejdierd fullow^ed by some goats trotting
with tinkling bells, and lastly, two little children with goat-skin coats ;
one had her hands full of leaves and olives. The youngest was
carrying something held carefully against its little breast. The child
looked with two wild eyes at the jiretty lady leaning against the old
iron clank of the well. Something in her look invited confidence, and
he held up a little dead bird as he i>assed.

1

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 205

" ' What are you going to do with it ? ' Angel asked kindly.
" ' We are going to dig a grave,' said the child. * It is dead : ' and the
little thing walked on wdth careful steps."

Where can we find a prettier picture ? The graceful
girl in the becoming dress of that period, which Leslie's
canvases have made us all familiar with, resting on the
ivy-grown well; around and behind, lemons and olives
forming a background, and rising beyond again, the white
houses of the old town, glistening in the sunshine, and in
front the two dark-eyed children in their rough goatskins,
looking up into Angel's face. And yet, charming as it is,
not a more suggestive subject for an artist's brush than
may be seen, not once but many times, even in the present
day, by all who journey with their eyes open along these
Ligurian shores.

CHAPTER XVII.

BRITISH OPERATIONS ON THE RIVIERA IN THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

BY ALFRED C. DOW SON.

Origin of the Spanish war of 1737^Captain Jenkins and his ear-
Admiral Mattliews ap])ointed to command of British fleet — Com-
I)laints as to the inefficiency of sliips— Captures French troops-
Fortifies Turbia and Villa Franca— Spanish agents collecting sup-
lilies of grain, &c., at Ventimiglia— Letters giving particulars of
same— Order to Captain Martin to destroy them— What actually
took place— Tobias Smollett aud the Young Pretender.

Towards the conclusion of Chapter XL, in that portion
which treats of the vicissitudes of Ventimiglia, the reader
may have been struck by the mention, quite incidentally,
of the taking and sacking of that town by the English,

I

206

locaIj history.

under Admiral Matthews. He may perhaps have won-
dered what brought the fleet into the neighbourhood, and
why 80 extreme and savage a proceedino; was necessary.
Such at least was the feeling of tlie writer of the present
chapter ; and as no information reerardinor it was to be
found in the naval histories of that period, and having a
strong impression that local tradition had greatly exag-
gerated what really occurred, he obtained permission to
examine the Admiralty records of the year when the
attack was said to have taken place. The result was as he
had expected ; but as the search opened up a new phase
of English naval history to him, he has thought that other
visitors to the Eiviera, even if not sharing liis ignorance,
might yet care to know something of the causes which led
to the English appearing as belligerents on the Ligurian
coast, and also details of the operations against Venti-
miglia which had given rise to the tradition just
referred to.

Before, however, I take notice of the special operations
carried on in this neighbourhood by Admiral Matthews
during the years 1742-43, a few words as to the origin of
the war, the cause of its extending to this coast, and the
reason of our taking part in it, may not be uncalled for ;
for why, if we were at war with iSpain (as the reader may
remember was the case), were we blockading the coast of
Liguria and Provence from Genoa to the mouth of the
Khone ? The answer is a long one, but I will endeavour
to give it in as few words as possible.

For the past hundred years — indeed, since the reign of
Elizabeth — the efforts of the English to trade with
the Spanish South American colonies, and the determina-
tion of the latter Government to put a stop to this trading.

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 207

had led to endless conflicts ; for, whether there was war or
peace in Europe, it was always war south of the Equator.
And this mutual irritation, year by year increasing, was
fanned in England by the claim of the Spanish cruisers to
search all English vessels in those seas, and brought to a
white heat by an incident which, though occurring some
years previously, only became generally known in Eng-
land about a year or eighteen months before the declara-
tion of war.

This was the mutilation of an English sailor (Jenkins
by name) by cutting off his ear; and this comparatively
trivial incident, like the quarrel for the possession of the
key of the Holy Sepulchre in 1853, had the gravest possible
results, one of the minor ones of which was the blockade
of the Ligurian coast, the subject of this chapter. The
mutilation took place in the Gulf of Florida in 1731, and
for seven years Captain Jenkins, with liis countrymen's
tenacity, kept his precious relic " wrapped up in cotton
wool," showing it to all he came across as an instance of
the indignities we were experiencing at the hands of
Spain and her cruisers. "And he, a peaceful trader,
too ! "

Of course much correspondence took place between the
two Governments : conferences were held, and conventions,
to settle the above-mentioned question of trading, were
prepared. But the English nation, in spite of Walpole,
was determined upon war ; a Committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to go into the whole question,
especially the alleged cruelties. Jenkins, naturally being
called before it, appeared in triumph at the bar of the
House with his ear in his hand, and, adds Carlyle, "gave
a graphic account of his sufferings."

208

LOCAL HISTORY.

BRITLSH OrERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 209

Walpole's obstinacy was, however, great, and war was
not finally declared until November 1737, but then amid
great rejoicings : even the church bells being rung, which
act led to the great statesman's bitter remark, *' You are
ringing your bells now ; before long you will be wringing
your hands ! " With the varying fortunes of the war, so
far as the expeditions to Soutli America are concerned, we
have nothing to do here, but only with certain operations
in the Mediterranean, which are interesting to recall now
that the Riviera is so well known, physically at least, to
the modern English traveller.

The English fleet in the Mediterranean at this time was
under the command of Admiral Haddock, who received
orders to blockade the chief ports of Spain without delay.
But the death of Charles of Austria in the foUowiog year,
and the general scramble that took place immediately for
a share of his possessions, gave the war a much more com-
plicated character; and, so far as the south of Europe
was concerned, divided the belligerents into two parties-
Spain, with France as a secret ally, opposed to England
and the King of Sardinia.

The relations of England and France, however, during
the earlier years of this long struggle, were most extra-
ordinary ; for, though we were actively engaged against
each other, we were still theoretically at peace ! a state of
things almost as difficult to understand as if one was told
'• that a door was neither shut nor open."

It 18 true that a powerful English fleet blockaded the
French coast from the Var to the mouths of the Khone
from the commencement of 1740, and that an English
army, with its Dutch and Austrian allies, had been
manoeuvring against the French forces in Germany

during the whole of 1742 ; it is true, furtlier, that we
fought a battle against the French in tlie following
summer, with an English king as commander-in-chief, and
that in February 1744 the blockading fleet just mentioned
engaged the French and Spanish fleets off Toulon; but
yet, strange as it may sound, war was not finally declared
by France against England until a month later than the
last-mentioned encounter, viz. in March of the same year !
A pro2)os to which, Carlyle remarks, "Not yet at war
then, after so much killing?" Oh, no! reader, mere
" allies of belligerents hitherto ! "

But now, to turn more particularly to the British fleet,
and see what it had been about during the two or three
previous years, when, so far as France was concerned, war
had not been declared ! For some months it was engaged
in the dreary work of keeping the Spanish ports blockaded,
and nothing of interest is to be found in its proceedings.
The Spanish Court, or the Queen Mother rather, who was
the ruling spirit, was anxious enough to get to work, and
for that purpose had collected 15,000 men at Barcelona.
But, unfortunately for her, though the ine^i were at
Barcelona, the transports and Spanish fleet were at Cadiz,
and that port strictly blockaded by a powerful British
fleet, still under the command of Haddock. So for some
months any embarkation was impossible. However, about
the middle of October, to every one's great surprise, the
English Admiral withdrew the blockading fleet to Gib-
raltar to refit, without, strange to say, leaving a single
ship to watch the imprisoned Spaniards. Need we add,
the latter seized the opportunity; the transports and
convoy slipped out and round to Barcelona ; the troops,
assisted hy the Freiich (note this !) were speedily embarked,

P

210

LOCAL HISTORY.

and by the middle of December landed on the Genoese
coast;* the English, who here tnrned up, "feebly op-
posing." So decided a step at once compelled Charles
Emmanuel, who had hitherto temporised with both parties,
to declare openly against Spain ; indeed, Carlyle states
that the sudden withdrawal of the fleet from Cadiz was
believed by many to have been au adroit and diplomatic
act, in order that, by allowing the Spanish troops to land
on Italian territory, this decision, so anxiously desired,
might no longer be delayed.

However, neither witli the war in Lombardy and
Piedmont, any more than the war in South America,
have we anything to do ; it is to the English fleet, now
scattered along the Provenqal and Ligurian coast and
blockading, or rather endeavouring to blockade it, to
which we must turn our attention. And even here, I
must leave unnoticed the various operations, interesting
as many were, which were carried out during this period
westward of the Var ; and content myself with noticing
some of those which occurred in the more immediate neigh-
bourhood of Bordighera, soon after Admiral Matthews'

appointment.

Matthews appears to have been appointed to the com-
mand of the British Mediterranean fleet, some time
prior to March 24th, 1742 ; as we find from the oflScial
correspondence of the Admiralty, that he sailed from
Portsmouth early in April, in the flagship mmwr, to take
up this important post. The new commauder-in-chief

• Carlyle especially mentions the Genoese coast ; but, as we find not long
afterwards an army of 20,000 Spaniards at Antibes, and no mention of another
at any other place on the coast, it is difficult not to believe it was the same.
See also Matthews' reply to Count Cleerine, when, in reference to the same
army, he says, "part of which m> transported in French vessels.

I L

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18TH CENTURY. 211

liad evidently been, for some cause or other, on the retired
list, for in the letter informing Admiral Haddock of his
successor's appointment, it is stated that his Majesty has
been pleased to restore Mr. Matthews to his rank in the
Navy, and make him Vice- Admiral of the Ked."

Why Matthews was chosen for a position as difficult
as it was important, where an able diplomatist was
almost more necessary than a gallant sailor, it is hard
to discover ; perhaps the same want of judgment which
gave Vernon the command of a powerful fleet and sent
Anson away with three small vessels ! For we find the
new commander, from the very first, seems to take a de-
sponding view of the situation and the insufficiency of the
means placed at his disposal for the end in view : no less
indeed — as we read from his instructions — than ** to destroy
the Spanish Ships and Embarkations (?) and the combined
Spanish and French fleets, when they can be met with ;
and to assist, protect and defend the States and Dominions
in Italy belonging to the Queen of Hungary and the
Great (sic) Duke (of Tuscany), his Majesty's allies." As
early as the date just mentioned (March 24th), whilst still
in London and probably immediately after his appointment,
we find him writing the first of his long series of entreating
or complaining letters to " My Lords " ; which give a
painful insight into the mismanagement of the Navy at
that time, and I fear for many years afterwards.

After the usual formula of his desire, to the utmost of
his capacity, to execute all such orders as his grace (the
Duke of Newcastle) judges proper to honour him with,
he continues : " I am greatly apprehensive from what I
know of the condition of His Majesty's Squadron in the
Mediterranean, and the verry (sic) few ships at present

p 2

212

LOCAL HISTORY.

designed to reinforce it, that I shall not be able to
answer His Majesty's expectations." And in this style,
week after week, our poor Admiral continues to pour the
same melancholy tale iuto my Lords' unwilling ears, and
apparently with hardly any results whatever. Indeed, it
half of what Matthews states was true (and I shall, later
on, give some particulars of his complaints), our wonder is,
northat he did so little on the Ligurian coast, but that

he did anything at all !

However, in spite of his despondency, ho began ener-
getically enough, by strictly blockading the coast from
Ventimiglia westward, and so capturing and preventing
the disembarkation of 30O French troops, who were on
their way to reinforce the French garrison at Monaco ; a
proceeding naturally enough objected to by the Com-
mander of King Louis's forces, then at Antibes : a M.
Cleerine, who takes the line, as one might expect him
to do, that England and France being then at i^eace,
the act was a most unusual one. But Matthews is ready
with his reply, that though what M. Cleerine states is
perfectly true, the acts of the French Government are not
in harmony with that position— indeed, are most opposed
to it ; and instances, amongst other facts of a suspicious
nature, that at that moment there is lying at Antibes a
Spanish Army of 20,000 men, with a Prince of Spain, Don
Philip, at their head," part of which army was transported
in French vessels, as also the necessaries for its support."
In spite of which, and a good deal more all bearing on the
same point, the English Admiral, with great fairness,
offers " to release the said troops if it can be proved tliat
they are not in the pay of the King of Spain but honafide
those of the King of France." I have not space to

BUITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURA. 213

give any extracts from the lengthy correspondence which
this capture brought about, but it ended by the release of
the troops, some days later, on their giving their j)aroZe to
return to Antibes ; and it would hardly have been worth
noticing here, except as another illustration of the peculiar
relations existing at that time between the two countries.
This indeed is brought out very strikingly by another
incident which was actually taking place, whilst the Admiral
and the Commandant were engaged in settling the question
just referred to, and the latter expressing his horror that
such a breach of neutrality should have occurred ! It was
the news of the safe arrival in Toulon of thirty French
and Catalan vessels (not very creditable this to the English
blockading squadron !) " with cannon, powder, ball, &c.,
and barley and straw for the Spanish army at Antibes ;
and also that twelve cannon had been landed at Mar-
seilles and would be sent hy land to the same destination."
— (Dispatch to the DuJce of Newcastle)

From the same dispatch we also gain a good deal of
information as to the actual state of affairs on the coast
and the situation and numbers of the opposing forces.
The Spaniards, as we have seen, were at Antibes, no less
than 20,000 strong, and endeavouring, by the collection of
stores at that place, and all along the coast, to complete
their arrangements for a move into Liguria. The French
were garrisoning Monaco, with the idea, no doubt, of cover-
ing the Spanish advance immediately it commenced ; for
Nice was still held by the Sardinian troops and also Villa
Franca, where Admiral Matthews was at anchor with some
of his ships. This last place, with its defences in decay
and an inadequate garrison, was in daily expectation of an
attack from the Spanish advanced guard. Indeed, so grave

214

LOCAL HISTOUY.

\ f

was the state of affairs from these two caua. s, that tho
Sardiuian commander begged for English marines to assist
him in the expected attack ; and Matthews, fully impressed
with the danger of such an important post falling into the
enemy's hands, not only supplied him with twelve small
guns, but undertook to land 200 marines from the fleet to

assist in working them.

The admiral refers especially to the importance oi
strengthening the Castle of Montalban, which covered Ins
anchorage, and which •' if taken," he adds, « would compel
me to quit the harbour and prove of very bad consequence.'
But he evidently has but a poor opinion either of the
sincerity or energy of his Sardinian ally, for he concludes a
letter to the Secretary of the Admiralty by saying : " On
the whole, I do not find the Governor has any inclination
to secure the harbour, for which reason, the moment the
Spaniards begin their march from Antibes, I shall get
under sa»7 to prevent His Majesty's flag being aponted
without any Probability of my taking Revenge ! " An
example of the gallant (?) admiral's discretion, which un-
fortunately, a few years later, was to bring him to grief and
dismissal from His Majesty's service. We can hardly
imagine a Nelson or CoUingwood expressing their inten-
tion of getting under weigh and retiring the moment the
enemy appeared in sight. With the same letter, he
encloses a list of ships under his command ; from which we
gather that in addition to his own flagship, the Namur,
which he brought out from England, and including galleys
and fireships, he had between thirty and forty vessels ;
whilst from another document we learn that the Spanish
and French fleets, either ready or fitting for sea in Toulon
harbour, amounted to thirty-two vessels, but none were

'

BBITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 215

fitted with less than 50 guns, and the majority were
larger.

However, Matthews, on paper at least, was not going to
let the Spaniards have an uninterrupted march into Sar-
dinian territory ; and turns his attention seriously to endea-
vour to stop them, by " the erection of works in the passes
behind Villa Franca, especially at Turhia" And his ener-
getic remonstrances appear at last to have had the effect
ofcorapelling the Sardinian authorities to take steps
towards erecting fortifications better fitted to oppose the
Spanish advance, with some prospect of success, than those
hitherto existing; for we find the admiral, who seems never
so happy as when writing florid accounts of his proceed-
ings to the Duke of Newcastle, informing his Grace, on
July 25, that he had left four detachments of soldiers, who
had been put on board the squadron as marines, at Villa
Franca and made all the necessary dispositions for supply-
the batteries at Montalban, for defending the passes to
Villa Franca, and the important post of La Turhia, " the
whole being under the command of Captain Vincent of
the Boyal Oalc,"

Additional orders were given, that all Marines were to
be landed in case of necessity, and that gunners were to
be sent from the fleet to manage the sights of the guns
already landed and placed in position " on some batteries
which I had prevailed with the Governor-General at Nice
to be erected," (not very cordial co-operation this) " and
with them ammuuition,&e." And we discover immediately
that these preparations were not made an hour too soon,
for on the very same day the Spanish General at Antibes,
the Count of Clunes, sent a formal notice to the Sardinian
Commander at Villa Franca, informing him that he had

216

LOCAL IIISTOKY.

received orders to niarcli into Lombardy, and asking for
« a pass tliroiigli the territories of the King of Sardinia,"
and offering "to pay for all provisions and storage in
ready money." In fact, nothing could be more courteous
than the entire letter. However, we may infer that the
Count received no reply to his cool demand or a decided
negative, for the forward march of the Spanish forces was
for the moment suspended. Just at this time Admiral
Matthews writes another urgent letter to the Admiralty
Board, calling attention to the frightful state of the ships
now in the Mediterranean ; and anything more disgraceful
to the authorities at home, or unsatisfactory to the officers
in command, is impossible to imagine. I wish I had space
to transcribe it in full, for it is a picture as shameful as
humiliating. Want of medical stores, and want of
ordinary stores, and as a consequence the ships little
better than fever dens ; on board Vice-Admiral Lestock's
ship, no less than eighty men on the sick list, and on
others not far short of a third of their crew in a similar
state. The ships foul and dirty, from the length of time
they had been cruising off the coast, some barely able to
beat to windward, and no chance of sending them to Port
Mahon to refit, owing to tlie absence of fresh vessels from
England to replace them ; the gear and running rigging
(braces, &c.) so worn out, that to keep even a respectable
squadron cruising off Toulon and Nice, the Admiral had
to denude some of the most inefficient of the little they
kad, and leave them, incapable of moving, at anchor in
one of the securest harbours on the coast ! . . . .
But let us return to the preparations at Turbia.
Those who have driven along the lliviera by Vetturino,
and remember the wonderful curves and twists of the

\

\

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 217

Cornice Road when it leaves Nice and winds upwards to
Turbia, can well understand what a strong position that
village might be made, as a defence to the country behind ;
and how the passage of a considerable army might be
barred by a few well-placed batteries, manned by highly
organised troops, and led by an officer capable of infect-
ing with enthusiasm those under his command. How
much stronger then must have been this position, when
instead of a broad and wide road, as now exists, there was
nothing but a steep and rugged mule-path, which only
enabled those journeying along it to ascend slowly, and
with difficulty, and above all, in single file. No doubt at
this date (the end of July), the Spanish authorities were
making the greatest efforts to move their troops forward ;
for we read in another letter from Marseilles (intercepted
probably in a vessel attempting to run the blockade), that
a large number of mules had been collected for baggage
purposes and were being sent down to the headquarters at
Antibes. Indeed, as a preliminary, a portion of the army
was moved forward to Digne and Barcelonnette, but for
sjme cause or other, either from want of transport or un-
certainty as to the support they would receive from the
French, there they remained for some weeks.

The chief fear which seems to have haunted Matthews
at this time, was that the united French and Spanish fleets
would suddenly break out of Toulon, either evade or crush
his blockading squadron, weakened by sickness and barely
seaworthy, and transport the Spanish troops at Antibes, to
Genoa, or some other point on the Ligurian coast (Savona
perhaps), which would best suit the latter's purpose of
striking at the Piedmontese army. And so in pitiful
iteration, we see week after week, entreating letters from

218

LOCAL HISTORY.

the English admiral to the Duke of Newcastle, for more
ships of all sorts. Ships he must have, if he is to carry
out the programme that has been laid down for him in
these waters. '* I again acquaint your Grace, that the
different services required cannot be performed with the
sliips under my command and most of them in a bad
condition, weakly manned and sickly ; and that keeping
the sea both winter and summer must inevitably destroy
both ships and men;" and much more to the same

effect.

But the energetic step he had taken in landing guns and
marines, and placing Turbia in a state of defence, appears
to have frightened him ; for a few days later, he withdrew
them, on the plea that the "allied fleets" (i. e. of France and
Spain) " were really moving " ; much to the disgust, we may
believe, of the Sardinian commander, who no doubt had
felt increased hopefulness in delaying, if not checking the
Spanish advance, when an addition of a couple of hundred
English marines and a detachment of naval gunners had
been added to his little force.

It was at this moment, when poor Matthews seemed
hardly to know whirh to do first of tlu^ many things expected
of him, that he received news of a great accumulation of
stores of various kinds, straw and grain especially, by
Spanish agents at Ventimiglia : preparations, in fact, for
the forward marrh of that army into Liguria. The letter
which ffave the information was a peculiar one ; it contained
no signature, and was only addressed, ** Dearest Uncle,"
and besides was written in a very guarded manner. I wish
I could insert it here, but my limited space prevents my
doing so. The writer began by stating that great quantities
of straw, &c., were being collected in the town, undoubtedly
for the Spanish cavalry, and evidently sliowing an intention

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 219

to cross the river at that point : that they were being pur-
chased by a Genoese, a Signor Montebruno, and by a citizen
of Ventimiglia, " from the country inland, and along the
coast as far as San Kemo," and further that these gentle-
men " have also been taking note of any stores of straw
belonging to private houses, in order to seize them by
force,°should the owners refuse to sell them, which, unless
they did it hj order of the Repuhlic, would be utter ruin to
them." At the time of writing, both Signor Montebruno
and his colleague were away at San Remo for this
purpose, and were expected to return to Ventimiglia " in
five days, with all the straw and forage they can collect,
some of which I understand " (and this evidently shocks
him,) " has even been brought from the lands and castles
of H.M. the King of Sardinia."

Apart from the information it contained, which later on
was proved to be perfectly correct, the letter is interesting
as corroborating the complaint which had been frequently
made by the English admiral that the Genoese republic
C* unless they did it hy the order of the Bepuhlic;') and the
inhabitants of this part of Liguria, far from being opposed
to the Spaniards, gave them help and information when-
ever possible; and a couple of incidents which I shall
presently quote even more markedly prove it.

The anonymous writer, after referring to the great
risks he runs by giving this intelligence, which again shows
the direction of popular sympathy, asks whether the straw,
&c. might not be transported to Bordiguera (sic) or San
Remo, and some given to a M. de Bruel, who acted both as
Dutch and English consul, and was living at the latter
town. On receipt of this letter the English Admiral writes
at once (as I infer by the rest of the correspondence), to
inform the Governor of Ventimiglia of what was going on,

220

LOCAL HISTORY.

and tliat such proceedings could not be allowed ; and
somewliat later— on the 12tli of August— we may suppose,
as tliat gentleman pleaded ignorance of the facts or his in-
ability to interfere, sends an order to Capt. Martin, of the
"Ipswich," who was in command of a division of the
blockading fleet, " to make arrangements to land and destroy
all such collections of grain, straw, fodder, &c., which it
could be shown were belonging to the Spaniards or their
agents in that town."

It is difficult to understand, at tliis distance of time and
with nothing but official documents to fall back upon,
why, not only the Genoese Republic, but the inhabitants of
the Li^urian coast towns were partisans, more or less
markedly, of the French and Spaniards, and opposed to
their Italian fellow countrymen and their English allies.
Yet such was evidently the case ; and the few facts which
are incidentally mentioned having reference to the feel-
ings and behaviour of those residing in towns like Venti-
miglia and San Remo, or even in villages like Bordighera,
all point unmistakably in the same direction. One would
have thought that the townsfolk of Ventimiglia would
have been singularly indifferent to the success of any one of
tlie four belligerents, for they at least had suffered at tlie
hands of each ; and their town, during the past three
Imndred years, had been taken and sacked by the French,
Spaniards, Sardinians and Genoese in turn. Yet now these
four, or three at least, were divided into two opposite
camps, the inhabitants of that unfortunate town were un-
doubtedly in favour of the advancing Spaniards, aliens as
they were and speaking a strange tongue, and hostile to
the Sardinian and Piedmontese troops, who were almost
their kinsfolk. Two incidents I may cite as illustrating

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE 18tH CENTURY. 221

this, both occurring within the next week or so. They are
mentioned in a letter addressed to Admiral Matthews by
the commander of a frigate cruising off this part of the
coast, who states that he is '' sending as a prisoner, an
English-speaking barber from San Remo, who has brought
news to the English authorities of the continued accumu-
lation of straw, corn, &e., at Yentimiglia by the Span-
iards ; " from which we can only infer that this individual,
anxious to assist the English (perhaps having lived in
England, as he spoke that language), preferred the nominal
position of a prisoner in their hands to returning to San
Remo, where the knowledge that he had given this
information would probably be dangerous to him. Whilst
in conclusion. Captain Goodlake (the officer in question),
has also to report, '' that the loeoi)le of Bordighera have
quite recently warned a large Spanish roivhoat " — no doubt,
an armed galley—'* and so saved her from capture hj the
English blockading squadron." So we see that even the
fishermen of the little village which has so special an inter-
est for us appear to have held decided views in favour of
the strangers who were now about to invade their territory.
It may therefore have been the case, that the English
Admiral, finding how general was this feeling along the
coast, and that no aid but rather opposition was to be
expected from the inhabitants, determined to make a
demonstration, for the double purpose of showing that the
Eno^lish were not to be despised, and also to overawe
those whose partisanship for the Spaniards was daily
more openly displayed. For we find that a formal letter
was sent to the Governor of Ventimiglia,* ordering him at

* 1 infer that there must have been some previous communication, as the
letter ordering Captain Martin to make arrangements for landing is dated
Aucrust 12th, and this to the Governor on the 18th of the same month !

•immlltmm

LOCAL HISTORY.

once to destroy all stores of straw and grain, and threaten-
ing that if it was not done, the admiral would be compelled
to land and do it himself !

Previous to this, however, not having gunboats of a light
draft of water — a class of vessel poor Mattliews has been
vainly urging the English Admiralty to send out to him
as necessary for an effective blockade of the shallower
portions of the coast — the admiral determines to buy one
of the large armed galleys, which appear even then to
have been common tliroughout the Mediterranean. So
first of all he tries to purchase from the Genoese Kepublic,
but is courteously but decidedly refused ; which causes him
to write a long and angry dispatch to the Duke of New-
castle, complaining of the great favour shown by that
Republic to Spain, and its hostile attitude to himself and
those under him. Then he appears to have tried at the
various important towns along the coast, and finally
obtains what he is seeking from a Count Eicardo of
Oneglia, who sells him a " row-boat " as it is called, for the
sum of 3334 livres or about 185Z. She was no doubt a large
galley, similar, we may believe, to that Spanish one which
had been saved from capture by the timely warning of the
Bordighera fisher-folk. Her dimensions were : length
56 feet, breadth 1 1 feet ; and she was propelled by 28
large oars, *' and manned " — so continues the dispatch
announcing the particulars — *' by forty-nine subjects of the
King of Sardinia." Perhaps the English Admiral had
this vessel in his mind when he decided to land men from
the fleet and destroy the magazines of straw, &c. for she
appears to have been delivered only a few days before his
ultimatum to the Governor. And as Ventimiglia was a
strongly fortified town, he might have hesitated to employ

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN THE IStH CENTUEY. 223

the small boats of the squadron to disembark his sailors
and marines ; as in the event of the garrison opening fire
there would be nothing but the muskets of the latter with
which to reply to them. The fleet too, owing to the
shallowness of the water, would not probably be able to
cover the boats' advance, beyond a certain distance.

I have not been able to discover if any reply was made
to Admiral Matthews' ultimatum ; perhaps the Governor
treated it with silent contempt ; perhaps his position was
a difficult one, and he thought silence the safest policy ;
or his sympathies, like those of his fellow townsmen, were
in favour of the Spaniards. But if any reply was made,
it was unsatisfactory : for on the 31st of August, nearly a
fortnight later, the English blockading squadron, under
the command of Captain Martin, in the " Ipswich," appeared
off the old fortress, which had had so many and varied
experiences, and shortly after came to anchor. The men
appointed, " with an officer from each ship, under com-
mand of Captain de L' Angle" (it is curious, such an
unmistakably French name occurring at this juncture),
were embarked on board the new galley, which, judging
from the models in the naval museum at the Louvre,
would carry a large carronade on her forecastle, or pos-
sibly two. The view at this moment must have been as
striking as it was beautiful. The frigates and line-of-
battle ships swinging at anchor, probably in two lines, with
their lofty spars and white sails, the latter still hanging
from the yards, whilst below rows of black-muzzled guns
peered through the open ports, the long galley meantime
moving swiftly toward the mouth of the river, with its
pointed prow and graceful lateen rig; and its tier of brightly-
painted oars at which laboured the hardy Sardinian crew.

I

l',!'

\

224

LOCAL HISTORY.

In tlie after part, or perhaps mingled amongst the rowers,
the marines and bliie-jaclvets, and the little knot of ofTicers
grouped together on tlie raised poop, which as a rule these
vessels were provided with. Jn front the old town and
fortress, "compassed by the everlasting hills,'* and above
and below the deep blue of a Mediterranean sky and sea :
a scene which all those who have visited the Riviera,
and this spot in particular, will have no difficulty in

picturing.

However, to the surprise, no doubt, of all on board,—
if we remember the hostile feeling of the inhabitants,
—no attempt to open fire was made on the advancing
galley; neither did the garrison oppose their landing,
but the Governor— awed, we may believe, by the sight of
tlie squadron almost within gunshot— actually sent down
some officers to receive them and to point out where the
ma"-azines were situated. Four, containing barley, it
appears, were entirely destroyed, and tlieir contents ihnv;^
into the sea, and then Cai)tain K Angle and the English
officers, under the same guidance, " visited every part of the
town, and had all private magazines opened for their inspec-
tion wherever corn, straw, or any sort of grain was stored."
It is not stated that "the inspection concluded, the
whole party returned to the Governor's to luncli, and that
the healths of His Majesty King George and the Doge of
Genoa were proposed and drunk with enthusiasm." But,
considering the courtesy shown throughout by the latter's
representative, and we may believe reciprocated by the
British officers, it would certainly have been a fitting
conclusion to so unique a proceeding. The officers and
men then re-embarked (one cannot help wondering, by
the bye, at what point of the old town the landing and

1

BRITISH OPERATIONS IN TIJE 18tH CENTURY. 225

embarkation took place), the ponderous oars of the galley
once more moved, and they are before long on board their
own vessels ; and the latter, making sail, resume once more
the dreary routine of a blockading squadron. The next
morning Captain Martin writes a brief dispatch to Admiral
Matthews, headed, " H.M. Frigate * Ipswich,' in the Roads
of Araiche, 1st September, 1742;" which the Admiral
weaves into one of his long and melancholy epistles to my
Lords, as an instance of the vigour and energy with
which he is prosecuting hostilities.

Such then are the details of this very unromantic and
harmless operation, where no life w^as lost, where no gun
even was fired, but which local tradition, with the marvellous
mngnifying propensities peculiar to it all over the world,
now refers to as a homlardment and a sack Well indeed
would it be for humanity, if every sack and every siege
could be proved to rest on as slender a basis, to have been
as bloodless, and to have been attended with as little
suffering to all taking part in it, as the bombardment and
capture of Ventimiglia by Admiral Matthews in 1742.

Two other facts, though not actually coming under the
heading of this chapter, T cannot help just mentioning, as
being of interest to English and Scotch readers. The
first is, that it is almost certain that Tobias Smollett was
an assistant-surgeon on board this identical squadron ; for
Carlyle speaks of him as being, from the evidence of
his own books, under the same Captain Martin (then
Commodore), when the latter appeared off Naples with his
celebrated ultimatum a little later on ; whilst there is no
doubt that it was during his service in these parts, that he
was finding materials for those wonderful sketches of naval
life and its miseries which are to be found in his novels.

Q

226

LOCAL HISTOBY.

CHRONOLOGY.

227

The other point I wished to notice is in reference to
a very different individual, Charles Edward, the young
Pretender, who about eighteen months later embarked
in a small sailing craft at Genoa, under the name of
Count di Spinelli ; and having in some wonderful manner
escaped the English blockading squadron, landed at
Antibes in January 1744, from whence he hastened to
Paris This was prior to the attempted invasion of
England from Dunkirk, where 15,000 French troops were
collected under Marshal de Saxe ; an invasion which was
only prevented (the troops and fleet having actualhj started)
by a very violent storm, which dispersed the fleet of
transports, and wrecked many of the vessels of which it
was composed.

B.C.

CHAPTER XVIIL

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF LIGURIA.

In this table the events which especially relate to the
History of Bordighera are indicated by Norman type =

Norman.

A certain number of noteworthy events, but rehiting to

other countries, are indicated in small capitals = small
CAPITALS, in order to aid the reader in connecting the
history of Liguria with that of the rest of Europe.

The Counts and Dukes of Savoy and Kings of Sardinia
are indicated by capitals = CAPITALS.

536 Foundation of Nice, according to some by a Phocaean

©migration from Corsica.
534 Tarquin the Proud, king of Kome.

)j

j»

520 Return of the Jews to Jerusalem under Esdras.

480 Xkbxes invades Greece.

350 Foundation of Nice, according to other authorities by the

Phocacans from Marseilles.
218 Second Punic War.
210 Scipio Africanus, on his way to Spain, puts into Portus

HercuHs, i. e. Monaco or Villa Franca.
204 Genoa sacked hy the Carthaginians.

Mago establishes his head-quarters at Savo (Savona).
Albingaunum (Albenga) attacked by the Carthaginians.
202 Genoa rebuilt by the Romans.

200 War waged by the Romans against the Ligurian tribes.
„ Appius Claudius, Consul, builds the Castel d'Appio at
Ventimiglia.
163 Submission of the Ligurians.
146 Carthage taken by the Romans.
118 Annexation of Liguria as a Roman Province.
„ Probable Opening of the Aurelian Way.
102 Victory of Carbo at Aix (Provence) over the Cimbrcs and
Teutons.
55 Julius CiESAR invades Britain.
49 Foundation of Frejus.
31 Battle of Actium (September 2).

27 Augustus receives the homage of the Senate and the title
of Emperor.
The Monument of Turbia is supposed to have been erected

at this period.
The town of Cemenelium increases greatly under the
a.d. patronage of Augustus.
54 Nero grants the Jus Latium to the inhabitants of the

Ligurian Provinces.
79 Destruction of PoMrEii by Mount Vesuvius.
400 Alaric invades Italy.
405 Nice destroyed by the Goths.

410 Probable foundation of the Abbey of Lerins by St. Ilonorat.
„ Sack of Rome by Alaric.

411 Arrival of St. Ampelio at the Cape of Bordighera.

<^ 2

)»

n

228

LOCAL HISTORY.

428 Death of St. AmpeUo in the Hermitage on the

Cape.
448 The Huns under Attila invade Italy.
455 Taking of Rome by the Vandals.
481 Clovis, King of France.

568 Conquest of Italy by the Lombards under Alboin.
574 Cimiez {Cemenelium) destroyed by the Lombards.
578 Nice grows in importance, owing to tbe immigration of

the inhabitants of Cimiez.
584 Nice conquered by Chilbcrt, King of France.

617 Nice joins the Genoese league against the Barbarians.

618 Epidemic of leprosy at Nice.
622 Era of the Hegika.

639 Nice throws off the yoke of France, and puts herscit

under the protection of Genoa.
641 Destruction of Matuta (San Rome) by the Lombards under

Rotharis.
670 Arrival of Romulus at Matuta.

Destruction of Genoa by the Lombards.
The Saracens commence to scour the Mediterranean.
730 Destruction of the Abbey of Lerins by the Saracens.
741 Nice accepts peaceably French authority (annexation to

France).
795 Genoa taken by Charlemagne, who installs Count Ademar

as Governor.

800 Coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III.

838 San Romulus (San Remo) taken and sacked by the
Saracens.

872 Alfred the Great, King of England.

879 Nice transferred to the rule of the Counts of Aries.

931 Genoa ineffectually besieged by the Saracens.

934 Genoa and San Romulus taken and sacked by the Saracens.

936 Genoa again sacked by the same.

954 Guy, Count of Ventimiglia, commencing a war against
the Saracens, and desiring to secure his entry to Para-
dise, bequeaths the Fief of Seborga to the Abbey of
Lerins (doubtful fact).

)»

»»

CHRONOLOGY.

229

a.d.

958

972

1002
1011

1022

1027
1032

1041

1048
1060
lOGG
1072
1080

1095
j»

1103
1115

1140

1148
1152
1158

1162

1167

Bcrenger II., King of Italy and Aries, allows Genoa the

privilege of self-government.
William, Count of Provence, drives the Saracens from

these coasts.
Henry II., Emperor.
Independent municipalities begin to spring up in Provence,

owing to the indifference of the Counts of Aries.
Reconstruction of the Abbey of Lerins by St. Odilon,

Abbe of Cluny.
HUMBERT I. {WJiite Hands), first Count of Savoy.
Count Conrad of Ventimiglia cedes his rights over San

Romulus to the Bishopric of Genoa.
Presentation of the I\lonastery of St. Michael at Venti-
miglia by Count Otho to the Abbey of Lerins.
AMADEUS I., Count of Savoy.
AMADEUS II., Count of Savoy.
William the Conqueror, King of England.
HUMBERT II. {The Strong), Count of Savoy.
Construction of the Church of Monaco by the inhabitants

of the village of Turbia.
The First Crusade.
Great prosperity of Genoa, resulting from its becoming

the point of departure for the Crusaders.
AMADEUS III., Count of Savoy.
Alliance between Nice and Pisa against Count Raymond-

Berenger III. of Provence.
Ventimiglia besieged and taken by Genoa and her allies.
The body of St. Ampelio removed to San Remo.
HUMBERT III. (The Saint), Count of Savoy.
Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor.

Genoa preserves her independence by payment of an in-
demnity to the Emperor.
Frederick grants Monaco to Genoa, and authorises the

Republic to occupy all the coast between Monaco and

Porto Venere.
Alphonso II. of Arragon succeeds Raymond-Berenger III.

of Provence.

230

LOCAL lUSTOriV.

A.B.

117G

1185

1186

1188
1190
1191

1215

ft

»>

1219

1226
1228
1230

1232
1233

1238

1246

1251

1253
1258

1263

1266
1268
1285

Alplionso besieges Nice, wliich capitulates, but retains its

liberties by the payment of a heavy iudemuity.
Civil war in Ventimiglia : sieges of Dolceacqua an.l

St. Agnese.
Siege of Ventimiglia by Count Otbo and the Genoese.
THOMAS, Count of Savoy.
Henry VI., Emperor of Germany.
Henry grants Monaco definitely to Genoa, making tlic

latter a fief of tlie empire.
The Genoese take possession of Monaco.
Contest between the Grimaldi and tbe Si»iuoIa family for

tbe possession of Monaco, wbicb bad become a robber

Btrongbold.
Genoa baving sought to subdue Nice, that town proclaiuiK

its independence.
Revolt of Ventimiglia, which is later on besieged by

Genoa, and captured in the year 1221.
Saint Louis, King of France.
Nice taken by Kaymond IV. of Provence.
Eaymond-Berenger confirms the liberties

commences the building of tbe Castle.
Guelf league directed by Genoa against Frederick II.
AMADEUS IV., Count of Savoy.
Savona, Albenga, Porto Maurizio, and Ventimiglia revolt

at the instigation of Frederick.
Marriage of Charles of Anjou with Princess Beatrice of

Savoy, and union of their dominions.
Siege of Ventimiglia by Genoese, and rout of the Venti-

miglians on the Cape of St. Ampelio.
BONIFACE, Count of Savoy.
Translation of the ashes of St. Ampelio from Sau

Eemo to tbe Church of St. Stephen at Genoa.
PIERRE (sumamed the ''Little Charlemagne"), Count

of Savoy.
Charles of Anjou cedes Ventimiglia to Genoa.
PHILIP, Count of Savoy.
AMADEOS V. (sumamed " The Grmt "), Count (4Savi»y.

of Nice, and

CHRONOLOGY.

231

A.D.

1297

1306
1308
1310

1311

1323
1329
1330
1338
1343

1348
1350
1383

1388

1391
1402

1409

jj

1410

1436
1440
1453

1461
1465

Sale of San Remo by the Archbishop of Genoa to Hubert

D'Oria and George De Mari.
Opizzino Spinola comes into power at Genoa.
HENRY VIL, Emperor of Germany.
Fall of Opizzino Spinola, followed by his imprisonment

in the Castle of Monaco.
Visit of Henry VII. to Genoa, to whom is granted the

supreme authority for twenty years.
EDWARD, surnamed the " Liberal;' Count of Savoy.
AIMON, surnamed the " Peaceful;' Count of Savoy.
San Remo taken by Antonio D'Oria.
Charles Grimaldi takes possession of Monaco.
AMADEUS VI., surnamed the ''Green Count;' Count

of Savoy.
Great Plague at Ventimiglia.
Sale of San Remo to Genoa by Antonio D'Oria.
AMADEUS VII., sumamed the "Bed Count;' Count of

Savoy.
Nice places herself under the protection of Amadeus.
Unsuccessful siege of Ventimiglia by Amadeus.
AMADEUS VIII., Duke of Savoy.
Nice granted absolutely to Amadeus by Louis III. of

Anjou.
Genoa, under the protectorate of France, revolts against

Charles VI. Amadeus joins with the latter, offering the

" County " of Ventimiglia in exchange.
Treaty of peace. Charles of Anjou renounces his pre-
tensions to Nice.
Taking of Ventimiglia, after being besieged by the

Genoese and defended by the French.
Serious outbreak of plague in Liguria.
Birth of Christopher Columbus at Cogoleto.
LOUIS, Count of Savoy.
Constantinople taken by the Turks : end of the Eastern

Empire.
Louis XL of France.
AMADEUS IX., Duke of Savoy.

A.D.

1466

1468
1470
1477
1482
1483
1489
1492
1496
1497
1499
1500

1504
1509
1513
1514
1515
1519
1525

1527

1528
1530

1533
1536
1538
1543

1550

1558
1559

IJK'AL HISTOKY.

Monaco, held by Prioce Laml>ert of (irimaldi, is besieged

by Sforza, Duke of Milan.
The plague again commits great ravages.
Foundation of Bordighera.

PHILIBEKT I., surnamed tlie *' Hunter;' Duke of Savoy.
CHARLES I., surnamed the " Warrior^' Duke of Savoy.
Charles VIII., King of France.
CHARLES IL, Duke of Savoy.
DiscovEEY of America.
PHILIP II., Duke of Savoy.

PHILIBERT II.. Duke of Savoy, surnamed The Beautiful
Renewed outbreak of plague, which ravages Liguria.
The Knights of St. John, about this time, establish them-
selves at Ospcdaletti.
CHARLES III., surnamed Tfie Good, Duke of Savoy.
Henry VIII. of ExXGland.
Leo X. elected to the Papacy.

Cession of Ventimiglia to the Banco di San Giorgio.
Francis L, King of France.
Charles V., Emperor of Spain and Germany.
Sack of Ventimiglia by the troops of the Constable

de Bourbon.
The Knights of St. John establish themselves at Nice and
Villafranca, by treaty with Charles, Duke of Savoy,
in order to exterminate the pimtes.
Revolution at Genoa headed by Andrea Doria.
Charles V. cedes the Island of Malta to the Knights, who

retire from Villafmnea.
EMMANUEL PHILIBERT, Duke of Savoy.
Capture of Lerins Islands by Andrea Doria.
Treaty of Nice between Charles V. and Francis I.
Nice besieged by the Turks, allied with Francis I., under
Hariadan Barbarossa and the Due d'Enghien. Episode
of Catharine Segurane. Nice capitulates.
Further outbreaks of the Plague.
Elizabeth, Queen of England.

TltKATY of CaTEAU-CaMBRESIS.

CHRONOLOGY.

233

A.D.

15G4
1576

1580

1581

1585
1586

1589
1600

1)
1617

1625
it

1626
1635

1637

1638
1641

1643
1660
1662

1672

Great Eaithtj^uake in Liguria.

Sale of the princii)ality of Oneglia by Emmanuel-Philibert
of Savoy to the D'Oria family.

CHAELES EMMANUEL, surnamed The Great, Duke
of Savoy.

The Plague renews its ravages.

Sale of the County of Tenda by Emmanuel-Philibert to
the Lascari family.

SiXTUS V. elected Pope.

Sixtus grants to the Bresca family of San Remo
the privilege of furnishing Palms to Rome.

Henry IV., King of France.

Nice is ca^jtured by the Proveu9aux under Guise.

Commencement of the Oratory of Saint Bartho-
lomew at Bordighera.

The Bishop (Spinola) of Ventimiglia lays the first
stone of the Parish Church at Bordighera.

Charles I. of England.

Ventimiglia, invested by Prince Victor of Savoy, capitu-
lates in April, but returns to the jurisdiction of Genoa in
September.

Charles Emmanuel grants the privilege of a free Port to
Nice.

VICTOE AMADEUS, Duke of Savoy.

The Lerins Islands captured by the Spaniards.

FRANCIS HYACINTH, Duke of Savoy.

CHARLES EMMANUEL IL, Duke of Savoy.

Monaco accepts the Protectorate of France, the treaty
being signed by Louis XIII. ou one side, and the Prin-
cipality on the other.

Louis XIV., King of France.

Charles II., King of England.

Genoa repurchases Ventimiglia from the Bank of San
Giorgio.

Nice declares war against Genoa, owing to the construc-
tion by the latter power of a road from Piedmont to
Oneulia.

1 1

231

A.B,

1675
1683

1686

1696
1697

1705
1706
1713

1714
1715
1720

n

1730
1742

II

)»

1744

If
1*
1745

1746
i»

»»

LOCAL HISTOItY.

VICTOR AMADEUS II., Duke of Savoy.
February 11. Emancipation of the Eight Com-
munes, which fonned the Villce Vintimilienses.
April 30. The Community of the Eight Towns

signs its act of federation.
Suppression of the Mint of Seborga by Louis XIV.
Siege of Nice by the French under Catinat : explosion of

magazine and taking of the town.
Treaty of Turin. Nice returns to the Throne of Savoy
Sale of Seborga by the Abbey of Lerins to Victor

Amadous of Savoy.
Siege of Nice by the French under hi FeuiUade.
Destruction of the Castle of Nice by tlie Duke of Berwick.
Nice evacuated by the Proven^aux under the Treaty of

Utrecht.
George I., King of England.
Louis XV., King of France.
Victor Amadeus II. exchanges Sicily for Sardinia, and

takes the title of King of Sardinia.
Great outbreak of the Plague in Marseilles and in Pro-
vence, but not crossing the Var.
CHAKLES EMMANUEL III., King of Sardinia.
Blockade of the Ligurian coast by the English Fleet, and

great stores of grain destroyed by them at Ventimiglia.
Nice captured by the French.
Monaco occupied by the Spaniards.
Capture of Villa Franca by French and Spaniards, and

retreat of Charles Emmanuel.
Ventimiglia and Porto Maurizio occupied by the French.
December 25. Peace of Dresden.
The same towns occupied by the Spaniards.
Capture of Genoa by the Troops of the Queen of Hungary.
Kevolt of Genoa against the Austrians, and expulsion of

the latter.
The Spaniards evacuate Nice.

,.

CHRONOLOGY.

235

A.D.

1747 And also Ventimiglia.

1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

„ Nice restored to the Kingdom of Sardinia.
1750 Conversion of the Tower (avisiim) of Bordighera
into a Belfry.
„ Removal of the Drawbridges at Bordighera.

1773 VICTOR AMADEUS III., King of Sardinia.

1774 Louis XVI., King of France.

1776 Declaration of the Independence of the United States
of America.

1780 Opening of the Porta della Maddalena at Bor-
dighera.

1783 Construction of the Fountain and Aqueduct at
Bordighera.

1792 September 21. Abolition of the Monarchy in France.
„ September 30. Occupation of Nice by the French.

1793 February 15. Occupation of Ventimiglia, and succes-

sively the whole of Western Liguria, by the French.
„ Annexation of the Principality of Monaco to the French
Republic.

1796 March 15. Annexation of the " County " of Nice to the

French Republic.
„ CHARLES EMMANUEL IV., King of Sardinia.

1797 Revolution at Genoa. Proclamation of the Ligurian
Republic.

May. Siege of Genoa by the English Fleet, and occupa-
tion of Ventimiglia by the Austrians.

June 14. Battle of Marengo. Evacuation of Liguria by
the Austrians.
1802 Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia.

1804 May 20. Proclamation of the First Empire.
Commencement of the Cornice Road between Nice and

Mentone.

1805 December 2. Battle of Austerlitz.

December 26. Treaty of Presbourg. Annexation of Li-
guria to the French Empire.

»f

»»

236

A.D.

1810
1814

»»
1817

1821
1823

1828
1830
1831

1832

1837
1846
1848
»»

n
»»

1849
»>

1869

It

LOCAL HISTOUY.

Work begun on tbe road between Mentono and Genoa.
April 13. Abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau.
May 30. Treaty of Paris. Incorporation of Liguria with

tlie Kingdom of Sardinia.
Treaty of protection between the Principality of Monaco

and the Sardinian Government.
March 16. CHAKLES FELIX, King of Sardinia.
Opening ol the Cornice Road through the Canton

of Bordighera.
Completion of the Cornice Road.
Louis Philippe, King of the Frcncli.
CHAELES ALBERT, King of Sardinia.

Earthquake in Liguria.

Victoria, Queen of England.

Pius IX., Pope.

Fehruary. Agitation in Italy.

February 24. Revolution in Paris.

March 4. Charles Albert grants the Constitution of the

Sardinian States.
March 21. Declaration of Independence by Mentuiic and

Roquebrune.
March 23. Charles Albert dcchircs War against Austria.
May 29. Capture of Peschiera by Charles Albert.
July 25. Defeat of Custoza.
Aufnist 9. Armistice of Salasco.
Marcli 12. Rupture of the Armistice.
March 23. Great defeat at No vara, and abdication of

Charles Albert.
March 24. VICTOR EMMANUEL IL, King of Sardinia.
June 30. Entry of the French into Rome.
April 26. War between France and Piedmont against

Austria.
June 24. Battle of Solferino.
July 12. Peace of Villa Franca.
J une 12. Annexation of the " County " of Nice and Savoy

to France.

CHRONOLOGY.

237

A.D.

1861
1866
1867

1870

1873

1878

»»

March 16. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy.
January 1. Publication of the Italian Civil Code.
Opening of the Carriage-road across the Cape at

Bordighera.
September 4. Fall of Napoleon III. Proclamation of

the Republic at Paris.
September 20. Taking of Rome by the Italians.
Opening of the Railway between Genoa and Ven-

timiglia.
January 9. Death of Victor Emmanuel II.
HUMBERT I., King of Italy.

M

11

( 238 )

PA T? T Tir
'■■II Mill JL-w '-M. -Ik. JL-. Ml •

THE CLIMATE OF BOKDIGHEUA
SCIENTIFICALLY CONSIDERED.

NORTH AND SOUTH.

239

it

CHAPTER T.

NOETH AND SOUTH.

»»

Importance of a scientific study of climates— Tlie siib-tropical zone of
Europe — Principal meteorological diflcrenci ' ween the Northern
and Southern jjortions of the Continent — System to be followed in
the comparison of climate.

The study of climate lias only within the last few yen is
become a science. At the commencement of the century,
invalids from the north of Europe, anxious to escnpe the
frosts and fogs of their own country, had alrciul y begun to
migrate south and to winter indifierently anywhere, when
once they had entered the region of the orange and
olive : a region to whicli certain meteorologists have given
the name of the suh-iropical zone of Europe*

But in the present day physicians are not content with
merely ordering their patients to the south, but go so far

♦ The northern limit of this zone touches our continent at the Pvrenn's,
crosses France at the latitude of the Departnunt of the Drome. turii> to the
south as it meets the Alps, follows the erest of those mountains an.l tlie
Apennines as for as the latitu*!" f*" Rome, from whence it stretches nway to
the Levant ; its climate is eharavUii.Mvl hy drv winters ami smiinins, tlie rain
falling almost entirely in the intermp<li;it.' vM-..ns.

as to specify not only the town, but even that quarter of
it which is most suited to different maladies.

This elaborate investigation into the character of the
climates of the Kivieran wintering-places has in fact become
an important branch of modern medicine, but as a science
it is still in its infancy, and its present position far from
justifying the conclusions, often from very incomplete data,
whicli its professors place before us. So w^ithout disputing
the utility of medical climatology, it is impossible not to
regret the subtile distinctions raised betw^een the climates
of neighbouring localities and the rash judgments as to
their effects which one meets with in certain w^orks of this
class.

IMoreover, the authors rarely agree with each other.
Thus, to speak only of the place to which I am especially
referring, we read in one of these works that " the climate
of Bordighera is drtj, hracing, and stimulating ; " whilst from
another author we learn that it is " moist and enervating.^'

These absurd contradictions can only be explained by
the incomplete and insufficient data and observations,
upon which authors too frequently found their con-
clusions. The exaggerated praise of zealous partisans,
although made no doubt in good faith, is perhaps more
injurious to the interests of the locality they wish to serve
than they have any idea of. There is nothing indeed so
damaging to the progress of any place desirous of attract-
ing a foreign colony, as exaggeration of its merits and the
beneficial effects of its climate; the result is only to
disgust those who have been tempted to visit it, and to
convince its injudicious supporters that here, as elsewhere,
falsehood ever harms most those who make use of it.
The following figures will give an idea of the radical

!i

240

METEOROLOGY.

difference which exists between the climates of the north
and south of Europe. The mean temperature of our
region during the six winter months is (Nice) * 51° 2'
Fahr., whilst tliat of London is 43° Fahr., the difference
being more than 9° 1' Fahr.

The mean temperature of tlie English Cliannel is 49^
Fahr. ; that of the Mediterranean on our coast 57° Fahr ,
a difference of 8° Fahr.

The mean of the rainfall for the six mouths at Nice is
20 inches ; in the north of Europe from 11 to 12 inches.

From this we see that there is a greater rainitiU in
these parts than in the north, but on the otlier hand the
number of wet daijs is less ; tlie mean at Nice being only
36, but in Northern Europe it is from 90 to 100.

But to appreciate the meteoroloirif^al character and the
medical effects of any one of these places, in so fiir as its
climate differs from those of its neighbours, it is necessary
to have before us the observations of a considerable
number of years and to examine the results obtained by
the resident physicians, in their treatment of the principal
forms of illness, during many winter seasons. But we are
far off as yet, as regards meteorology, at least in the
greater number of our winter stations, from possessing
the necessary elements to enable us to apply the test with
any satisfactory result. And this apjilies to Bordighera
especially, for the daily variations of the thermometer have
only been registered there for the last seven years, neither
did a rain-gauge exist prior to January 1st, 1879.

It is therefore impossible at present to offer to the

♦ I have used the figures of Nice for the general comparison of the southern
climate with that of the north, as it is the only place on the coast where the
means hare been based on a very lon^^ sfvip^i of obsfrvntions.

TEMPERATURE.

241

public complete and authentic information as to the
especial features which distinguish the climate of this
town. All that we can do is to state the facts which have
been observed, and to indicate to a certain extent, the
conclusions to which these facts would seem to lead.

And it is to this point I have endeavoured to confine
myself in the following pages.

CHAPTEK II.

TEMPERATURE.

Observations at Bordighera since 1876— Comparison with Nice, Cannes,
and Mcntonc— Result justified by the configuration of the coast-
Summer temperature— Effect of nocturnal radiation.

The question then to which we have to give an answer is,
*'Is Bordighera warmer or colder in winter than its
neighbours along the Eiviera ? ''

The answer will be found, so far as it is possible to dis-
cover it, by comparing the following observations of the
thermometer, made at that place, with those obtained at
other towns.

Temperatures of the winter months at Bordighera,
January, February, March, October, November, and

December :

Maxima.

Years.

1876

1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882

Fahr.
80°

75°

84°

75°

78°

80°

TOO

R

i

242 METEOROLOGY.

Minima.

Years. Vahr.

1876 ^^^

1877 ^^

1878 ^^l

1879 ^^l

1880 .. .. ^^l

1881 ^^l

1882 ^^°

Mea^:-
Years. _ _
1870 '-

rio

1877 ^\

1878 •' '• ^^°

1879 ^^^

1880 ^^°

1881 • •• •• "^^

1882 _^

General mean 52°

But if we compare these meaDS witli a table of the

winter temperatures of Cannes, Nice, and Mentone, given

by Dr. Sparks in his work on * The Kiviera,' we find as a

result that the mean temperature of the winter season at

Bordighera is practically identical with that of Nice, lower

by nearly one degree Fahr. than that of Cannes, and by

nearly one degree and three quarters Fahr. than that of

Mentone, which is the highest of all But on examining

the details of the table, we discover a somewhat dififerent

result, viz. that Bordighera is warmer than her neighbours

in mid-winter, but cooler in the spring and autumn.

Practically, the highest means are, for

November ) ^^ ^^ Mentone.
December )

January ) ^^ ^^ Bordighera.
February j

Marcb \ ^ ,, Mentone.

April J

TEMPERATURE.

243

On the other hand, the lowest means are :

November

Docci liber

Januiiry

Fel)ruary

March

April

1

I

Bordighera.

Nice.

Bordighera.

These n^sults bring us to the conclusion that taking one
thing with another, the climate of Bordighera does not differ
sensibly, so far as its temperature is concerned, from those
of the towns on the French coast, except in the fact that
it is more equable : that is to say (but only in insignificant
proportions, however), it is probably somewhat warmer in
winter and cooler in summer.

The configuration of the coast also bears out this
opinion. Islands, it is well known, have generally a more
equable climate than the interior of continents ; that is to
say, the extreme temperatures of winter and summer differ
less from the general mean of the year.

Now the projecting position of Bordighera, the unusual
depth of the sea close in shore, and the complete shelter
it receives from the mountains, constitute almost an
insular situation compared with that of Nice, Cannes,
and Mentone, which are placed in bays, where the sea is
much shallower, and which, owing to their wide valleys,
are exposed to the influence of strong inland winds,
blowing direct from the snowy mountains.

The materials are not at hand to enable us to compare,
with any satisfactory result, the summer temperatures of
Bordighera with those of the neighbouring towns; but
below are given those of our little town for the last seven
years, from May to September :

R 2

244

TEMPERATURE.

245

METEOROLOGY.

Years,,.
1876

Maxima .

Fatir,
.. 84°

1,877

.. 89°

1878

.. 86°

1879

. . 93°

1880

.. 89°

ISSl

. . . . . . • ■ . .

.. 87°

1^^::

.. 87°

Ib.b

Minima,

Frthr.

.. 48°

1877

.. 44°

1878

. . 50°

1870

.. 41°

1880

.. 18°

1881

. . 53°

1882

.. 48°

Years.
1876

Me,'

Fahr.

.. 67°

1877

.. 69°

1878

.. 71°

1879

. . flS • 5°

1880

.. 08*5°

1881

.. 68°

1882

Geoeral mean

.. 68°

.. 68-5°

I cannot leaye this subject of temperature without
saying a word as to the remarkable phenomena which are
occasioned by radiation during the still nights of winter.

Not unfrequently I have been asked tlie following
question :

" How do you explain the fact, tliat often on a day when your
minimum lias shown three, four, or even five degrees above freezing,
any one going out early enough would find tlie hoar frost on the grass
and ice on the little puddles and pools of water ? "

I answer :

" The minima which I register are marked by a themiometer placed
under the roof of a Belvedere about fifty feet from the ground, but
o]»eu to the north and exposed to winds from every quarter. Now the
temperatures which affect a thermometer under these circumstances
are necessarily very different from those registered by one placed on
the crrass and under the influence of the nocturnal radiation ; and it is
the former, and not the latter, which it is necessary to observe to gain a
true idea of the climate."

And tliis is the reason : a thermometer placed on the
grass, and unprotected by any covering, such as a roof or
the boughs of a tree, receives tlie full effects of the direct
radiation between earth and sky, and the following pheno-
mena take place. Hardly has the sun set, than the heat
which its rays have thrown out in the atmosphere dis-
perses itself in space. This sudden chill immediately
causes the condensation of the watery vapours existing in
the air, which fall to the earth's surface in the form of
dew. During this process the temperature on the grass
falls considerably, and in a few minutes it attains almost
the minimum which will be marked during the whole of
the night by the thermometer in the Belvedere.

But now that the first and chief fall of dew has taken
place, the radiation from the heat which has penetrated
the earth's surface during the past day begins to make
itself felt, and the temperature, still on the grass, rises
several degrees. This state of things lasts for some hours ;
but little by little the provision of heat existing below the
surface becomes exhausted, and the temperature in conse-
quence sinks once more. This decrease of temperature
continues steadily until sunrise ; that is, until the moment
when the sun's rays, striking the atmosphere transversely,
begin to spread heat through the air. The result of these

i»

t'L

246

METEOROLOGY.

alternations being that the night gives us two minima
temperatures : one early in the evening, about an hour
after sunset ; and a second, which is the true minimum of
the night, in the early morning, about an hour before

sunrise.

But these extreme temperatures, taken on the grass
bathed in dew, have but little influence on human beings,
and are therefore without interest to our winter visitors.

Tlie sudden cold in the early morning, however, is but
a passing and limited phenomenon. To take it into
account in observations especially prepared to give a true
idea of our climate, would be but to lead the reader into
error ; for this temperature is never experienced by those
who enter their houses at ten or eleven at night, neither
can it penetrate their windows and reach them in their
apartment. Eaise yourself ten or fifteen feet from the
ground, or place yourself against the wall of a house, and
this sudden chill will have no effect upon you ; there the
first minimum of the evening, of which I have already
spoken, remains perceptibly the whole of the night. It is
this minimum, then, which it is necessary for us to register
when commencing our observations ; the other may offer
a certain amount of interest to the horticulturist and the
florist, but only to them, and has no bearing whatever on
the climate of a wintering place medically considered.
However, this sudden fall of temperature, which, I may
add, never takes place unless the weather is extremely
fine, is not without its advantages: it is the forerunner
and infallible sign of a warm and beautiful day.

The Meteorological Congress has laid down a rule that
the position for a thermometer is under the shelter of a
louvre-screened cage, about four f*ei from the ground.

TEMPERATURE.

247

m

But we must not forget that this rule has only been
established for a purely scientific end, and has nothing
whatever to do with giving an approximate idea of the
climate of a place ; and, for the reasons given above, I
think my observations, from a practical point of v?ew,
more useful than those taken so near the ground. How-
ever, in order to conform to this rule, and place my obser-
vations for the future on. exactly the same basis as those
of the neighbouring towns, I intend shortly putting up a
second thermometer in the position laid down by the

congress.

Next to the radiation, the land wind, or wind blowing
from the mountains, is the chief factor in the low night
temperature. The irregular variations registered by ther-
mometers placed in elevated situations are, without doubt,
due to its presence, its temperature, or its absence. Blow-
ino^ in a strai^iht line from the mountains, it brings with it
the temperature which prevails there ; and this fact, more
than any other, explains tlie capricious variableness which
our winters frequently present from one year to another,
and also between one place and another.

The Alps act as a complete barrier between our meteor-
oloo-ical zone and that which lies immediately to the
north ; consequently, we are but very slightly influenced by
the state of the weather in the plains of Northern Italy.
But we are affected, at night, by the land wind, blowing
southwards from the mountains. For the snow falls very
irregularly each winter along the coast. One season,
perhaps there may be enormous masses to the north of
Mentone, and little on the mountains behind Bordighera,
or vice versa, and the winds blowing from thence south-
wards will be more or less cold in consequence.

\i

248

METEOIIOLOGY.

CHAPTER III.

RAINFALL.

Difference of rainfall in tlie same district— Conclusion suggested by
the position of Bordighera— Statistics of rainfall— Comparisons with
other towns— Influence of the various winds on rain 'all — Character
of rains — The Baroineter.

The quantity of rain which falls during the year on the
surface of the globe varies according to latitude ; its maxi-
mum is oil the equator, and it decreases towards the pole ;
but the number of rainy days is in an inverse proportion.

But this rule is subject to important exceptions.

The nature and physical configuration of the district,
its elevation above the level of the sea, and the nature of
the prevailing winds, are causes which have an important
and modifying effect on the question of rainfall. Thus, in
the tropical zone, we find every possible variation in the
amount of rain received during the year, from zero on the
western face of the Cordilleras, up to a total of 48 feet in
certain portions of Hindostan.

There is therefore nothing astonishing that our own
district, varied in character as it is, should oifer some re-
markable differences as regards its annual rainfall, even
indeed between those places which are closely adjacent to
each other.

The position of Bordighera, however, is of a nature
to lead us to infer that it would liave a somewhat smaller
rainfall than other places on the coast.

A headland projecting into the sea, not only far beyond
the general line of the coast, but more than any other

BAINFALL.

249

cape in Liguria, with a massive mountain range rising
northwards, unpierced by any broad valley, ought neces-
sarily to offer a situation far more sheltered from cold and
frequent rains than those towns situated at the mouths of
deep valleys like Nice and Mentone.

This hypothesis is probably true, so far at least as
regards those rains brought by the winds from the interior,
but it is not possible at present to say anything definite on
this point. Observations as to rainfall having only been
made at Bordighera since January 1, 1879, it is difficult
to give any trustworthy mean.

Below I append a summary of these observations :

Year?.

1879

1881
1882

Inches.

371

20|

29|
301

Total for 4 years
Mean

118f
29|

The yearly mean of Genoa is 52 inches, that of Nice
32 inches, and that of Hyeres 29 1 inches.

Now Genoa, owing to its position at the junction of the
two broad valleys of Polcevera and Bisagno, which run up
to the very crest of the Apennines, is much more exposed
to the action of the mountain winds than Nice, which
again is much more exposed than Hyeres.

These observations tend then to establish the position
that Bordighera, thanks to the solid mountain range
sheltering it from the north and its projecting situation,
receives less rain than its neighbours on the coast. It
will, however, only be possible to settle this question with

11

250

METEOROLOGY.

any degree of certainty when we are in possession of the
means for a considerable number of years.

I am sorry that I am unable to give the means for
Cannes, Mentone, and Siin Remo, but observations have
not been carried out for a sufficient length of time in
those localities to make it worth while to do so. I may
add, however, in support of the position taken up, that the
rainfall at Mentone during the year 1879 amounted to
38J inches, and at Bordighera to STJ inches : thus showing
that even during this period of excessive rain we had less
by I inch than a place barely nine miles distant.

This reasoning, based on a comparison of the observa-
tions made at Bordighera with those of tlie winter resorts
near it, appears at first siglit to be upset by the fact that
the rainfall at Nice during the same year was only
32tif inches ; in other words, Sflj inches less than fell at
the former place.

But it must not be forgotten that the mean of Nice is
32 inches, and that consequently the increase fur the year
referred to was but of insignificant proportions. A rainfall
80 much above the average, tlien, both at Bordighera and
Mentone, must have had an explanation, and we have no
difficulty in finding it. It was caused by the violent
storms of rain which those towns received from the west
and south-west; and as the continuous rains from the
mountains failed, it is easy to understand that no increase
took place at Nice ; for the heavy rain-squalls have a ten-
dency to pass seawards of tliat place, leaving it to be
influenced only by the mountains behind it.

The fine and persistent rains, giving but a small amount
of water, but continuing for a lengthened period, which
cliaracterise the climates of northern and central Europe,

EAINFALL.

251

are rare in this district ; for ours are of a tropical nature,
and were especially so in 1879 ; the great excess for that
year proceeding entirely from violent and extraordinary
rain-storms from the south-west. As an instance, I may
mention one which took place about sunrise on the 26th
of September in that year, and broke over the district of
Bordighera, when nearly an inch and a quarter fellin less
than an hour I This was the heaviest rainfall of the year,
but it was almost equalled by several heavy showers in the
month of April.

As to the direction and character of the various rains
which fall on this part of the coast, we may divide them
into three classes, as follows :

1. Fine rains, but of long duration, and with tempera-
ture varying from 35° to 45° Fahr. ; these are generally
brought by a light wind from the north, although the
upper current is generally from north-east. These rains
sometimes change into snow ; they last for some days, and
visit us perhaps two or three times during the winter,
during the months of November, December, January, and
February.

2. Eciins of a heavier character than the foregoing, but
of equal duration ; their temperature is somewhat higher,
and they come with strong and moderate winds from the
east. They are experienced at all periods of the year,
except the height of summer.

3. Violent showers, but quickly over, often accompanied
with thunder and lightning, and changing frequently into
hail ; these are brought to our coast by squalls from the
west and south-west, and chiefly take place in spring and
autumn — September, October, March, and April — rarely
in the winter, never in the middle of the summer.

252

METEOROLOGY.

Snow seldom visits Bordighera, and its fall is generally
followed by a sudden clearing of the sky, during wliicli it
rapidly melts.

The observations of the barometer offer but little in-
terest in reports. It is very important, however, to
remember that the barometer does not occupy the same
position as a weather guide in these regions as in the
north ; its variations are not only much less in the south
than the north, but appear to have little to do with
meteorological phenomena. Here it may rain when the
barometer is very higli, and has not fallen a single fraction ;
and on the other hand, during our long periods of fine
weather, the barometer will fall considerably and rise
again, without a cloud showing itself on the horizon.

The thermometer, then, furnishes us with surer indica-
tions of a cliaiige in tlie weather, at least during the
settled periods of the summer and winter; for a sudden
rise of temperature in winter, and a sudden fall in
summer, are certain signs of approaching rain.

CHAPTER IV.

WINDS.

Tlie iiiviilid's (^featcst tneniy — xVveriige niiiiiljer of days of violent
wind — Tlie Mkind — The true /- ^' - '" and the Genoese tramoittfUKi
The Schvcco — The L/'hfCch—'l'lix: >ra breeze — Lund winds.

If the position of Bordighera, with regard to tlie sea and
the mountains, leads us () priori to the conclusion that it
receives less rain than either Nice or Mentone, does not
that position, from its very nature, cause it to suffer more

WINDS.

253

acutely from winds of a violent character than those
places situated in deep bays and protected by lofty
promontories ?

This question deserves a very serious examination, for
the force and frequency of the wind, no less than its
direction, is an important element in the estimation of a
climate, when viewed from a medical standpoint.

Wind is, without doubt, the invalid's greatest enemy on
our coast. Even the most beautiful mornings, opening
with a cloudless sunrise and warm and still atmosphere,
are spoilt, as the day advances, by sudden gusts of
merciless and violent winds, which raise clouds of dust,
and render impossible that daily constitutional to which
the invalid looks forward so eagerly.

But this fault of our climate is not confined to any one
place on the coast ; it is, alas ! common to all, and a
wintering place entirely free from strong winds is one of
the perfect things in this life yet to be discovered.

Dr. Sparks writes very sensibly on this subject :

"... It may be stated with confidence, that no climate exists
where storms and violent gales are unknown. It does not require a
very large acquaintance with climatological literature to know how
many would-be tropical and sub- tropical Paradises are at certain
seasons ravaged by winds. This is true of Australia, New Zealand, and
the Cape, without prolonging the enumeration further."

The wind being, then, an inevitable evil, the question
which we now have to settle is, whether Bordighera is
more exposed to it than its neighbours ; for the old proverb
tells us, *' Of two evils choose the least."

Now it is more difficult to discover a trustworthy com-
parison of wind than of rain, owing to the manner in
which observations are made. Anemometers are almost

254

METEOROLOGY.

unknown in most of our observatories, and every one
registers an approximate value to the force of the wind
according to his own judgment and by a table prepared by
himself. It is evident, therefore, that we can accord but
a relative importance to results so obtained, and that the
only valuable information they give us is the direction, not
the force of the winds.

In my observations at Bordighera I have classed the
winds under four headings— s^row^/, moderate, light, and

calm.

Below is a table in reference to the winds which are siiffi-

ciently strong to cause discomfort to invalids :

Years 1879-82.

No. of dayi.

January 15

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September 13

October 17

November 13

December H

22
13
19

16
19
14
13

Mean.
3*25

5-50

3-25

4-75

4-

4*75

3-50

3-25

3-25

4-25

3-25

2-25

From the above figures we learn, (1) that the month
of February gives us the highest mean of strong winds,
and that December, on the other hand, is the calmest
month of the year ; and (2), that during the six months
of winter (say 182 days) the number of days upon which
winds blow strong enough to cause inconvenience to invalids
is on the average twenty-two days, or in the proportion

WINDS.

255

of twelve per cent. Is this proportion, then, an exces-
sive one? Is it higher than that experienced by our
neighbours on either side ? I doubt it.

Besides, it is worthy of remark that our days of abso-
lute calm during the same period are in the proportion of
sixty per cent. However, high as this proportion may
appear to us, it is probably less than we should find in
those places which are sheltered by headlands, where
the sea-breeze is less felt than at Bordighera. But if
it is true that our position causes us to experience a
greater amount of wind, this can of course only apply
to those which are light and moderate. The stronger
winds, coming from a distance and sweeping over a wide
expanse of country, are almost equally felt by all ; though
it is true, no doubt, that in places like Nice and Mentone,
situated at the entrances of valleys, some parts of these
towns are more or less protected from certain winds, in a
manner which is not the case with the outlying portions
of Bordighera.

The plain of the Borgo Marina and the hill-sides which
bound it to the north are more or less protected by the
Cape from the easterly winds, which it is probable are felt
less in that part of the place than either at San Kemo or
Mentone ; but no doubt the weak point of Bordighera is
its complete exposure to winds blowing from the west and
south-west.

But does this fact constitute an advantage for the
neighbouring places ? If I did not fear the accusation of
seeking everywhere and at any cost for arguments in
favour of our climate, I might reply that an open enemy,
attacking without concealment, is far preferable to one
who hides himself, that he may assail at the most favour-

256

METEOROLOGY.

able opportunity the unsuspicious pedestrian, and when lie
is least prepared to repulse him.

To sum up the position, it is most probable that at
Bordighera we have nearly the same number of days of
strong winds as our neighbours, and perhaps a few less
when it is absolutely calm.

The winds which prevail on our coast divide themselves
into two classes: light winds haviii.i; a local origin, and
those of a more or less violent cliaracter which come from
a distance. These latter, whatever may be their original
direction, have a tendency to follow the configuration of
the coast and mountains, and to blow east and west at

Bordighera.

The eaderhj wind is that which is generally accom-
panied by rain ; that from the west, which U the mistral
of Provence deviated from its original course, is, above all
others, the wind of fine weather, for it will not tolerate a
single cloud in the sky.

The 7nistral or maestrah of the Italian Compass Card has
an origin analogous to the trade winds of the Tropics, and
follows their variations on a small scale. The gradual
heating of the atmosphere on the Mediteiraucan coast
causes a current of cold air to move from the north, whicli,
encountering the chain of the Alps and seeking a means
of escape, turns to the west, and rushes south, by the
opening offered it by the valley of the Khone. Arrived
south of the mountains, it swerves to the east, attracted by
the southern face of the Maritime Alps, where, owing to
the sun's rays striking on a vast extent of barren moun-
tains, there is a great rarefaction of the air.

In Provence and at Nice the midml is a north-westerly

WINDS.

257

wind, but at Bordighera, and indeed everywhere to the
east of the point of Monaco, the massive mountain range
formed by the Tete-de-chien, the Agel, the Bres, and
Grammont turn it to the west, and force it to pass over
the sea, which modifies considerably the cold and dry
character it originally possessed.

The easterly winds may be divided into two classes.
The true Italian levante, a light or moderate wind, greatly
charged with moisture, which comes to us direct from the
marshy plains of Tuscany. Originally this wind is a sciroceo
or south-east w ind, deflected from its original direction by
the chain of the Apennines : on our coast it is the wind
which not only brings us the worst weather, but that
which has also the longest duration. The other easterly
wind is never accompanied by wet weather, though it is
often the precursor of it: it is merely a cold Genoese
tramontana drawn to the west by the sun's action on this
part of our coast.

We might almost call it an easterly mistral, so analo-
gous are the origins of the two winds; and, like its
relative, it is cold, strong, and blows tempestuously
beneath a perfectly cloudless sky for periods extending
from some hours to several days : this is the worst wind
from which the district suffers.

As a third violent wind we must mention the south-west
or libeccio, as it is called in Italy. This wind visits us in
the form of gales, lasting from one to three days, often
accompanied by storms of tropical rain. It is easily
recognised, in opposition to the mistral, by the large,
dense cumidi with which it covers the sky.

The light winds, of local origin, are the sea and land
breezes, and these are only experienced when the weather

s

258

METEOROLOGY.

is very fine and settled, tlie sky cloudless, and no other
winds are troubling the atmosphere. Their origin is
analogous to that of the mistral The sun, during the
earlier portion of the day, heats the eartli more than the
sea, and towards midday a movement of air commences
towards the land, in order to replace the rarefied air which
has ascended to the higher regions. After sunset exactly
the opposite takes place; the chill produced by radiation
is greater on land than on sea, and the current ot air is
now reversed, and travels from the land seawards.

Many authors state that this land breeze blows rt'gularly
from sunset to sunrise, but this is incorrect. I have
already shown that the cloudless nights give us two dis-
tinct minima of temperature, and it is a fact that the land
wind follows faithfully the variations of the thermometer ;
it springs up with the first minimim of the evening, which
coincides with the fall of the dew, and dying away almost
to nothing during the relatively wanner hours of the
middle of the night, revives again with fresh intensity
towards morning, when the thermometer flills once more.
But not imfrequently, and especially during the height
of the summer, during the warmer period referred to, a
current of air blows from tlie sea landwards.

The ordinary sea breeze rises generally from the south-
east about 10.30 A.M., and veering steadily to the southward
and westward, finishes off towards sunset by blowing from a
south-westerly direction. No sufficient explanation of the
cause of this phenomenon has yet been proposed. Certain
meteorologists have indeed attributed this peculiarity to
the sun successively heating the different slopes of the
mountains which face towards the sea. But this ex-
planation is hardly admissible, when one bears in mind the

THE ATMOSPHERE.

259

undulating irregularity of our coast line ; and, further,
that the phenomenon in question is found to exist along
the whole leno:th of the Riviera.

I venture, however, to suggest the following as a more
probable theory :

This wind being due to a current of cold air produced
by the action of the sun's rays upon the mountains, the air
which supplies this current is necessarily drawn from the
coldest point in the immediate neighbourhood. Now, this
point we know is neither beneath the sun nor behind him,
but well in front of his course, where the atmosphere has
not yet felt liis full power.

CHAPTER V.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

The southern sun — Effect of light upon the respiration of animal and
vegetable life — Mean of cloudless and cloudy days — Hygrometrical
observations — Views of Corsica — The parhelion of 1882.

The glorious southern sunshine and heavenly blue of the
Mediterranean constitute, far more than a high tempera-
ture, the especial charm of the Riviera, and it is fine
weather, more even than warmth, which tempts strangers
from the sunless north to visit our shores.

This is a fact which is not sufficiently recognised.

Many visitors, strangers to the Riviera, and arriving
there perhaps just as summer is turning gently into
autumn, suffer a cruel disappointment, and feel almost as
if some deception had been practised upon them, when

s 2

260

METEOROLOGY.

they experience the cold weather of December and

January.

Deceived by the poetic and exa*r,ii:erate<l descrif»tions of
a southern climate which have reached them in the North,
and encouraged in this error by the appearance of tlie suh-
tropical vegetation tliey fmd in the gard(>ns after the
glorious summer of the South, they h)ok forward to passing
a winter which shall be but a perpetual spring.

Forests of grey olive.^ cover the hill-sides everywhere ;
oranges and lemons around them are ripening in the open
air ; violets may be plucked in the woods in Decemher,
and anemones in January ; the date-palm and eucalyptus
are in the public walks, whilst in the gardens the banana,
the fan-palm, tlie guava, and a profusion of otlier sub-
tropical, nay, even tropical plants, pass the winter out of
doors ; everythinsr suggesting at first sight a climate many
degrees warmer than is really the case.

But, in truth, the vegetation in these parts is even less
to be relied upon than are the i>oets,

Tlie olive is an extremely hardy tree ; it grows liigh up
in our mouutaio valleys, where the climate in no degree
presents a southern tenipirature, and the date-palm i)os-
sesses these characteristics to even a greater extent;
whilst with regard to the banana, ev- n if it manages to
survive our winters, it bears no fruit, or none worth
speaking of IndeeJ, to get satisfactory results froui this
latter, a far warmer climate than that of the Riviera is
required, and it is well known that even at Algiers the
fruit never arrives at perfection.

So, though no doubt our climate, and that of this
portion of the Mediterranean coast, is much superior to
those of Northern Europe, its chief characteristics consist

THE ATMOSPHERE.

261

in the intense brilliancy and perpetual sunshine which a
constantly unclouded sun disperses through the atmosphere.
Both animal and vegetable life alike profit by this excess
of sunshine, but we know that the respiration of each is
exactly the reverse of the other ; that plants exposed to
the influence of light absorb carbonic acid, and exhale
oxygen, and animals do precisely the opposite ; and that
these actions of the respiratory organs liave an activity
proportionate to the intensity of the light.

Now, the sunsliine in the South, being infinitely more
intense than in the cloudy countries of the North, it
results that the respiration not only of animals, but also of
plants, takes place under far more favourable conditions
in the former than the latter. This, then, is the real
secret of the brilliant vegetation of our coast ; and this
also is, without doubt, the cause why so many serious
complaints are benefited and not unfrequently cured by a
residence at a Rivieran winter resort. But the tem-
perature often falls considerably in these parts, and the
air becomes quite cold enough to render an overcoat or
shawl no less necessary at Nice or Bordighera than at
Paris or London.

The real difi'erence between the two meteorological
zones consists in the contrast presented by the clouds of
the former and the fogs of the latter town to our blue and
cloudless sky, and to those sunny days which frequently,
in some winters, follow each other month by month, with
scarcely an interruption.

The whole of the Mediterranean basin has the good
fortune to enjoy the great privilege of a cloudless sky
more than any other region with an equally temperate
climate : more so indeed than most of the tropical ones.

I

262

METEOBOLOOY.

But all the coast does not possess it to the same extent,
and none probably to so great a degree, if we except
some parts of the Levant, as the amphitheatre formed by
the union of the gulfs of Genoa and Lyons.

The meteorological influences which combine to produce
such a state of things are not difficult to point out. Tlie
two powerful winds from beyond the Alps, the inistral,
which blows from the west, and the Genoese tramontana
from the east, are indefatigable in clearing the sky of
clouds, whilst the enormous radiation which takes place
during the winter nights plays a nut unimportant part, as
it prevents the watery vapours collecting in the upi)er air.
These causes combined give us a state of sky exactly the
opposite of that of Northern Europe, viz. that the number
of our chudy days is about equal to the total of their fine
ones, and vice versd.

The follov\ing table shows that the mean during the six
winter months was 81 perfectly cloudless days at Bordig-
hera. The average at Nice during the same period was
60, and at London 12.

Years 1879-82.

Perfectly Cloudless Days.

Bitys.
January 57

February 48

March
April ..
May . .
June ..
July ..
August
SeptemlKjr ..
October
November ..

61

Q9

54
69
oo
65
62
40
64

Deceml)er 67

Average.
14-2

12-

12-7

8-

13-5

17-2

13-7
13-
10-
16-

16-7

Mean per month

14

THE ATMOSPHERE.

263

Days completely Overcast.

January
February . .
March

Days.

.. 20
.. 19
.. 11

April

May

June

.. 16

.. 20

8

July

August

0
1

September ..
October

.. 10
.. 19

November ..

.. 20

December ..

.. 14

Mean per

month

Average.

5

4
2
4
5
2
0
0
2
4
5
3

25
5

7

3-3

We may remark that it is not in mid-winter, but well
forward in spring and autumn, viz. the months of April
and October, that give us the lowest means of cloudless
days ; and the month of December is, of the winter months,
that which has the lowest number of those days which are
completely overcast.

If we take out from the foregoing table the particulars
for the six winter months (from October to March), we
obtain the following results :

Perfectly Fine Days,

January

February
March
October
Nuvcniber

December

Total

Mean per month

14

2

12-

12-

7

10-

16-

16

•7

81-

6

13'

6

Being 24 '7 per cent, of the 182 days composing the six
months.

264

METEOROLOGY.

Days entirki.y Ovekcast,

January

February

March

Octoter

Novenil>er

Decemter ••

Total

Mean icr moiitli

4-f»

J- »

4-7

5-

3-5

4 -'A

Thus giving 7*8 per cent, for the 182 days as above.

Hygrometrical observatioDS have not been made at Bor-
dighera either for a sufficient length of time, or with
sufficient reguhirity during the year, to be of any value. ^

1 can only place before the reader, interested in this
subject, the results of a series of observations made by one
of our winter residents during the season of 1881-82 by
means of the wet and dry bulb thermometer (Mason's
hygrometer), in a garden close to the beach. The tlier-
mometers were placed under cover, in a Stevenson's louvre-
screened cage, at the height of about four feet from the
groimd, and at a suitable distance from houses and trees.

Here then is the result of these observations as to the
relative moisture; saturation being considered equal

to 100 :

Observations at 8 a.m.

November 1881
December „
January 1882
Februarv
March
April

)»

»»

»»

1 HEKt

OMKIfclt.

Relative

Dry Bulb.

Wet Bulb.

Humidity.

54

49

74

46

42

73

44

42

76

48

42

65

54

48

64

59

53

GO

Mean

68-6

i

^1

THE ATMOSPHERE.

Observations at 2 p.m.

265

Thermometer.

Relative

Dry Bulb.

Wet Bulb.

Humidity.

NovemlKT

1881 .

. .. 61

55

68

December

»»

. .. 54

48

58

January 1882

. .. 57

51

64

Februarv

>»

. .. 58

49

52

March

»»

. .. 62

55

59

April

j»

. .. 03

of)

57

Mean

• * •

.. 59-6

'«

Genei

al

mean

.. 64-1

The usual mean of the relative moisture at Bordigbera
daring the winter months will then be 64 • 1. This indi-
cates an extraordinary dryness, if we compare it with that
either of Paris or London. In northern climates, the
moisture of the atmosphere is almost always correlative of
the state of the sky and the existing weatlier ; an increase
of moisture indicating approaching rain or vice versa. On
the Ligurian coast it is otherwise. The rain-clouds do not
form themselves above our heads, but they are brought by
the various winds from far off, and, as we may say, dis-
charge their contents in passing, and frequently from a
great height. It then frequently happens that rain falls
when the atmosphere on the earth's surface is at the
maximum of drNuess.

The view of the mountains of Corsica, which we 'obtain
from time to time, is always a point of great interest to
strangers, as it only occurs at intervals and under very
exceptional circumstances. If the Corsican mountains
were visible on each occasion when the weather is clear
to the south-west, the fact would be of no greater import-
ance than a similar view of the other distant mountains
which rise above the horizon, such as the Cape Roux of
the Esterel for instance, which may be always seen. But

i

\

METEOROLOOr.

Corsica is not always visible, not even in the clearest

weather.

We may sometimes look for it on a winter's clay, a clay
following rain even, when the atmosi.liere is wonderfully
clear, and search the horizon with a telescope, without being
uble to discover any signs of it ; whilst on another, in the
afternoon perhaps, when tlie atmosphere may be thick and
hazy all round, you may distinguish its peculiar outline,
traced indistinctly in the distance. But it is in the
autumn especially, and in the early morning a few moments
before sunrise, that this phenomenon presents itself in its
siDgular beauty. Then it is that Corsica appears strangely
nea^r and enlarged, and the outlines of the mountains
delineated with astonishing clearness : all their irregulari-
ties are visible, and it seems almost as if we could make out
the houses and trees, whilst it is difficult to believe that
anything more than a few hours row now separates us

from them.

To find out the explanation of these apparent contradic-
tions, there are two things we must take account of: the
heigJd of these Corsican mountains and their distance from

this coast.

Now the summits which are seen from Bordiglicra are
those of the lofty mountain range which runs across the
north-west portion of the island, between Calvi and St.
Florent. This chain contains Monte Rotondo, tlie highest
mountain in Corsica, whose peak rises 8768 feet above

the level of the sea.

On the other hand, the distance of our shores from the
coast of Corsica is just 100 miles, and from Monte Rotondo
about 136 miles.

Now it is well known that distant objects viewed across

THE ATMOSPHERE.

267

the sea are partially hidden by it ; that anyone watching
a ship sailing away from him loses sight first of all of the
deck, then of the lower masts, and so on ; the disappear-
ance being gradual, until finally even her trucks disappear

from view.

Arguing then from these facts, we arrive scientifically at
the conclusion that an observer standing at Bordighera
about 300 feet above the level of the sea, and looking
straight before him, would see nothing more than the top-
most peak of the mountain.

But we see far more tlian this, even from the level of
the sea ; and it is only necessary to examine the outline
of Corsica carefully on a fine autumn morning, to convince
oneself that we can see nearly, if not quite indeed, as far

down as the shore.

It is therefore evident that it is owing to refraction or
mirage that we enjoy so complete a view of this island.

Now it is a scientific fact that rays of light have the pro-
perty of refracting themselves— that is to say, of deviating
from a straight line— when passing obliquely from one tran-
sparent medium to another more or less refringent than
the first. And further, that the greater be the difference
in density between the two mediums, the greater in
proportion will be the refraction ; whilst if this passage
takes place from a less refringent medium to another which
is more so, the deflection will be towards the observer ; in
the contrary case, the opposite will take place. Thus, if a
stick be plunged obliquely into water, it will appear to
bend at the point of immersion and the other end will
seem nearer to the observer than it is in reality.

To apply these data to the phenomenon which we are
considering, it is necessary to imagine the following state

.1

1

268

METEOROLOGY.

of things : over Corsica an atmosphere so clear that the
niountrins are strongly lit up, and which is also so exceed-
ingly dry that the air is but slightly refringeiit ; over the
sea an atmosphere greatly charged with moisture, and
consequently highly refringent.

The results being that the luminous rays leaving Corsica
meet a denser and more refringent medium, which has the
effect of deflecting the image of the island towards the
earth, and thus enabling us to see that which is really
below the horizon. And this also explains how it is that
we can sometimes see Corsica even in liazy or foggy weather.
But if we imagine an exactly opposite state of things,
viz. a moist atmospliere over Corsica and a dry one over
the sea, it is clear that exactly the reverse will take place ;
the luminous rays meeting a less refringent medium will be
deflected upwards, and however clear the horizon may
appear, we shall see nothing.

I cannot conclude this chapter without speaking of two
very remarkable phenomena, showing an abnormal state
of atmosphere, which were witnessed at Bordighera at the
commencement of the year 1882.

The barometrical pressures were extraordinary over the
whole of Europe; tlie maximum of 30-434 which was
reached in Ireland had not been observed witliin the
memory of man, and at Bordighera the height for several
weeks had averaged 30 * 355.

The results of such an nnparalleled state of things, viz.
so extraordinarily heavy an atmosphere, were as curious

as they were varied.

To begin with, the weather was extremely beautiful ; we
had at Bordighera, during the period in question, nine-

THE ATMOSPHERE.

269

teen days, following each other, absolutely cloudless from
morning till night.

But the effect of such an abnormal pressure of atmos-
phere, added to an extreme dryness, was not only entirely
to clear the sky of clouds ; it produced phenomena very
rarely seen in these latitudes, and influenced both animate
and inanimate nature in a very remarkable manner.
People of a nervous temperament felt ill and depressed, tlie
insane became violent, certain complaints became aggra-
vated, whilst others were benefited. Inanimate nature
offered phenomena hardly less singular : the influence of
the atmospheric pressure was felt to the depths of the
earth: the water in wells rose without rain, fountains
gushed more abundantly, and the fire-damp in collieries
threatened explosion.

Two very interesting and unusual phenomena were
noticed on this coast during the period in question.

On the 20th of January, at two o'clock in the afternoon,
a thick fog of remarkable dryness, whose presence so near
the ground it was difiicult to explain, spread itself all over
the country ; it was brought by a south-east wind and
consequently from the direction of Corsica. The same
phenomenon was observed at Nice a few days previously.

These dry and dense fogs advancing in narrow columns
—for whilst that which visited Nice was not experienced
at Bordighera, ours of the 20th was not observed in that
town or further east than Oneglia— are peculiarly cha-
racteristic of the Polar Eegions. For the same causes
produce the same effects. The barometrical pressure
rendering the presence of watery vapours in the atmos-
phere impossible, produces an extraordinary dryness;
an exactly similar result being brought about by the

270

METEOROLOGY.

( 271 )

intense cold of the Arctic regions, and this dryness, for
reasons of which we know little, causes a variety of inter-
esting and peculiar phenomena.

Amongst the most curious of these is the parhelion, a
very beautiful specimen of which was seen at Bordighera
on the 27th of January. Towards one o'clock in the
afternoon, a fog similar to that of the 20th, but at a much
greater altitude, spread itself over the sky, and soon a wide
and luminous circle was formed some distance around the
sun ; a few moments later two moch suns (jmrhelia), coloured
like the rainbow, appeared on the outer side of the circle,
on a line witli the sun, and to tlie east and west of it.
This striking phenomenon lasted for more than an hour.
At one time it was possible to see an arc of the counter
circle above, which is a detail of great rarity in parhelia,
even in those regions where they frequently occur.

PART IV.

NATUEAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.

LOCAL OEOLOGY.

GL'<»'(>;^icnl history of Tiiguria — Tlie Niiiinrmlitic Sea — Formation of
deltas — Fossililerous clays — Levels of tlie various upheavals — Plio-
cene fossils — Stratification of the plain of Bordighera — Porosity of
the soil — Mineral s]n-in;j;s.

The geological history of the narrow strip of land which
stretches between the chain of the Maritime Alps and the
sea, goes back to the end of the Cretaceous period.

This belt of country, composed of a mass of secondary
mountains singularly ragged and furrowed by deep valleys,
is essentially tertiary, from the great fault at the shore
up to the crystalline rocks of the crest of the Alps and
Apennines ; it does not offer, however, except very rarely,
any signs of other formations more ancient than the
eocene.

But on the other hand, all geologists are agreed in
acknowledging that it is impossible to study the tertiary
formations and their admirable fossils, anywhere so well
as in Western Liguria, where nature has brought them
together in a narrow space, like specimens in a museum.

272

NATURAL HISTORY.

From the period of the Nummulitic sea, which covered
the whole of the country towards tlie end of the Jurassic
period, this coast has been the theatre of repeated depres-
sions and upheavals, which however did not alter its topo-
graphical character in any important degree.

The ridges which separate the valleys, and the water-
courses which the mountain streams have worn between
them, have maintained their present position through
every geological vicissitude.

The result of which has been tliat the streams at certain
times rushing towards the sea as mountain torrents,
during periods of upheaval, at others, thrown back so as
to form slow flowing rivers with deep estuaries, thanks to
subsidences of the soil— liave deposited upon their deltas,
at different epochs, shingle, sand and clay.

The whole of the liills which border the torrents
between the valley of Borglietto and the crest of the
Berceau, contain deposits of Pliocene clay, rich in fossils,
belonging to the tertiary beds called '' sub-apennine," as
they are met with on all the hill sides of Liguria and the
Apennines, from Antibes far into the south of Italy and in

Sicily.

The upheaval which produced these hills, which is
believed to be one of the most ancient of the Pliocene
formations, has its culminating point not far from Venti-
miglia, where the fossiliferous clay is found about 950
feet above tlie level of the sea ; whilst at Genoa it does
not rise much above 20 feet, at Savona about 150 feet, and
at Albenga to about 220 feet. This upheaval indeed
is said to be the earliest of which Italy has been the
theatre, as tlie Pliocene fossils of these regions and Upper
Italy generally show no less than 76 per cent, of extinct

LOCAL GEOLOGY.

273

1

1'

species. This proportion regularly diminishes as we go
South, until the lowest percentage of barely 30 is reached
in Calabria and Sicily.

The Pliocene clays generally rest on beds of gravelly
conglomerate, rich in bivalve shells, and these again, as
one mav see at the Cima cli Monte, on a conglomerate
{'pudding-stone) with very large pebbles, the composition
of which clearly sliows that it has been formed by a sea
so violent in its nature as to be almost impossible to
conceive in the present epoch.

This conglomerate rests in its turn upon the black lime-
stone which crops out on the hill sides of the Borglietto
valley, where it is used for the manufacture of hydraulic
lime, and side by side with the sandstone on the lower
slopes of Monte Nero,

Some traces of the volcanic action by which these
upheavals have been brought about, are met with here
and there in the veins of p)orpyhry which have penetrated
to the surface through crevasses in the strata above them :
an example of this may be found between Monaco and

Eza.*

The lover of fossils will be struck when hunting for them
in the Pliocene clays, not only by the remarkable number
of species represented (more than 70 indeed have been
tabulated), but by the admirable state of preservation
which the shells are in. Anyone who will take the
trouble to visit the valleys of Borghetto, Vallecrosia,
or Nervia, can find for himself specimens superior to most
which are found in the Geological museums. Dr. Good-
child, the English physician practising at Bordighera, has
presented the British Museum with no less than 415

* Chambrun de Rosement — Etvdes geologiques sur le Var et le Rhom.

T

274

NATURAL HLSTOKY.

LOCAL GEOLOGY.

275

specimens of Pliocene fossils collected by him in the
neighbourhood of Bordigherii and Vallecrosia.

The cape at Mortola also offers a rich deposit of
nummulites of Eocene origin wliich may be followed up the
slopes of the Berceau to a height of between 900 and
1000 feet.

The fine plain which stretches from the cape of Bordig-
hera as far as the riglit bank of the Nervia, the eastern
portion of which is destined to receive the Bordighera of
the future, is entirely of recent formation : its existence does
not even extend beyond historic times. It is to a certain
extent a delta, formed by the alluvium of the torrents
which have brought down gravel, sand, and mud, by dehns
from the hills, which hfive added to all this deposits of
conglomerate and clay ; and lastly, by the constant action
of a current which sets along the coast from west to east,
and which has thrown up the detritus of the various rivers,
and thus completely succeeded in effacing the bend or
elbow which originally formed the creek or hordigue of
St. Ampelio.

It may strike some readers as strange that I should
speak of a current setting from west to east along the
Ligurian coast, since it is a well-known fact that the great
current of the Mediterranean flows from east to west in
the gulf of Genoa ; hence an explanation of this apparent
anomaly, and a few words on the general question of
currents and tides in the Mediterranean, will not here be

out of place.

It is often said that the Mediterranean is a tideless sea ;
and such is indeed the case, practically speaking. The

/

\

H

shallowness of its waters, its limited extent, and the large
promontories and islands wliich crowd its surface,
dividing it into a series of narrow channels and deep gulfs,
are all circnmstances eahulated to preclude the formation
of a tidal wave. Still, the waters of the Mediterranean are
not motionless like those of a stagnant pond. The whole-
some purifying effects wliich tides produce on the sea-
boards where they occur, by continually changing the
water which bathes the coast, are provided for in a
different way in this land-locked sea.

The level of the IMediterranean is considerably lower
than that of the Atlantic : a fact caused entirely by the
enormous evaporation inherent to a shallow sea under a
hot sun and a cloudless sky.

To form an idea of this astonishing amount of evapo-
ration, one has only to remember that besides the
strong current wldch the difference of level causes to
flow in by the strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean
absorbs— in common with the Black Sea, which forms
part of its system— the waters of all the greatest rivers of
Europe, excepting only the Ilhine and the Volga; and
to this enormous mass of fresh \^ater we must add that
contributed by one of the most important rivers of Africa,

the Nile.

The chief effect of this great influx of fresh water is, no
doubt, to temper the excessive saltness which the sea
would acquire, were the difference of level compensated by
the inflow at Gibraltar alone, seeing that the evaporation
leaves the salt behind ; as it is, the Mediterranean is but
slightly Salter than the Atlantic.

Still, it maybe asked why the saltness of the Mediter-

T 2

1

276

KATUBAL HISTORY.

ranean does not continue regnlarly increasing, since sea-
water is constantly pouring into it, and the answer to this
question is well worth a few lines, as it elucidates one of
the prettiest phenomena in nature.

{Strong brine is heavier than ordinary sea-water; conse-
quently the current which enters by the strait of Gibraltar
spreads itself on the surface of the .AltMlitci ranean, the
brine left by evaporation sinking to the bottom, and
thence, in obedience to the law of the equilibrium of li-
quids of different densities, flowing out into the AU an tic
as an under-current. And tliis outflow necessarily takes
place in greater or less quantity, exactly in proportion to
the strength and depth of the brine wliich forms the sub-
stratum of the Mediterranean, the saltness of whose waters
is thus maintained at a certain degree and regulated with
the greatest nicety.

The same phenomenon occurs under still more striking
circumstances in the Eed Sea, the level of which, owing
to evaporation, is identical with that of the Mediterranean,
as is practically demonstrated by the absence of any cur-
rent in the Suez canal But the Red Sea receives no
important rivers; consequently, the loss of water from
evaporation is entirely compensated by tlie current which
sets in through the strait of Bab el ]\Iandeb, the brine flow-
ing out at the bottom, as at Gibraltar, and thus maintain-
ing the Mater but little, if at all, Salter than that of the
Mediterranean.

But, to return to the question of tides and currents :
The compensation for evaporation supplied by rivers,
however great it may be, would prove totally insuflScient
without the help of the volume of water which pours in at
Gibraltar, forming a system of currents the effects of

i

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LOCAL GEOLOGY.

277

wliich are perceptible throughout the Mediterranean.
From tlie strait of Gibraltar the current proceeds east-
ward, along the north coast of Africa ; on meeting the
island of Skily, it divides into two branches, one flowing
towards the Levant by the Malta channel, the other turn-
ing north along the east coasts of Sardinia and Corsica,
then deflecting westward, after doubling Cape Corse, so as
to strike the coast of France at the bottom of the gulf of
Lyons. Here its main body again swerves to the west
and proceeds to disperse itself along the coast of Spain ;
but at the same time a small counter-current turns east-
ward and comes along the sea-board of Provence and
Liguria, and it is owing to this particular fact that we
have a current from west to east, which, although almost
imperceptible elsewhere, is easily recognisable at Bordi-
ghera, owing to the projecting configuration of the coast,
which forms, so to speak, a strait between the land and
the main current flowing in the opposite direction at sea,
and through which the counter-current is compelled to

force its w^ay.

But this system of currents of the Mediterranean is
necessarily affected by the tidal wave of the Atlantic.
When it is high-water outside the straits of Gibraltar, the
inflow naturally takes place in greater quantity than at
low-water. Hence the currents of the Mediterranean are
constantly receiving a series of impulses, at regular inter-
vals, which are, in fact, secondary tidal ivaves, and which
produce small tides throughout the system. These are,
however, so slight on our coast, that any disturbing influ-
ence, such as winds blowing from the sea or the shore, or
a heavy swell, suffice to render them imperceptible; but
in calm weather, a tide of ten or twelve inches may be

if

278

NATURAL HISTOKY.

recognised on this coast. In deep gulfs, on tlie other
hand, they are more apparent : at Venice tliere is a tide
of several feet.

The following table will show tlie order of the various
beds which form the soil of the delta of Bordighera in the
upper parts, towards the commencement of the hills :

Humus.

^mvly clay or sand with recent shells.

G ravell y [xnldi iig-stoiie.
. , . Sea level. . . .

Hiinl fussiliferous irndding-stoue.

Fossiliferous saiidstoiie,

Black limestone.

rriiiiitive rocks. (?)

Nearer the sea the clay disappears, the sand and gra-
vel resting directly on the conglomerate.

The soil of this phiin has an extraordinary porosity ;
the rainfall passes through it with marvellous rapidity,
and in spite of the neiglibourhood of the hills, the fresh-
water level which feeds tlie wells is never sensibly liigher
than the surface of the Mediterninean.

The water from the wells and springs which we are
compelled to use at Bordighera and San Kenio, pending
the construction of the aqueduct (a work greatly to be .
desired), which is to bring us the abundant and delicious
water of the lioya or the ^\*rvia — is of an excellent quality
for drinking, although strongly impregnated with calcareous
salts, drawn witliout doubt from the bed of gravelly con-

I

iS

i

1

LOCAL GEOLOGY. ^79

glomerate. Indeed, of mineral waters Liguria possesses
none, save a few sulphurous springs. These springs, often
warm ou the northern face of the Alps and the
Apennines, as at Valdieri and at Acqui, are uniformly
cold or nearly so on the southern. The valleys of the
Vesubie and the Borreon, as well as those of the Roya
and the Nervia, contain a large number of sulphur springs,
but the flow is too insignificant, and the sulphurous matter
in solution too small in quantity, to make it practicable
to turn them to any account.

I give below an analysis made in 1820 by Signer Mojon,
the analytical chemist of Genoa, ns to the properties con-
taiued in the water of the springs of Giunchetto, which
flow from the side of Montenero, close to the Madomia
della Ruota :

Sulphate of Ume 00*003

Chloride of calcium 00 '001

Chloride of sudium 00*004

Sulpho-carbonate of lime 00*003

Water 09*989

10*000

280

NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER 11.

THE FAUNA OF LIGURIA.

Poverty of tlie South as rei^ards animnl life— Mammalia — Birds of
passage — Featliered game — Reptile.-, aim i-.n lacliiaris, ^ItHliterraoeao
fish — Insects : the seoritiou, the tire-liy, the ciijole — Le[)itlt>i>tera.

The fauna of tbe Mediterranean coast is as poor as its
flora is rich.

Whilst in Northern Europe the woods and forests re-
echo in the spring with the carols of innumerable birds,
the marshes swarm with wild fowl and the rivers witli tish,
in this district tlie naturalist is painfully struck by the
absence of animal life of everv kind.

m

The causes of this absence, which is found throughout
the whole of Southern Europe, are not difficult to discover.
One's first thoughts would naturally be, that in so lovely a
climate, so especially suited to open-air life, wild animals
would exist under extraordinary favourable conditions ;
that they would be attracted in great numbers to a region
where they would escape not only from the frosts, but
from the damp of the countries of the North.

But the extreme dryness of the summer Itads to an
opposite result. Tlie small earnivora are rare because
their prey, the birds and larg(3 insects, disappear during
part of the year ; whilst the herbivora, sucli as tlie rabbit
and liare, have difficulty in finding food on the scorched
hills of Liguria during the months of July and August.
And the case is almost similar with tlie birds; for in the
summer the extreme dryness of the country drives away
the insects, thus forcing tlie inseetivora to migrate else-

FAUNA.

281

\

where, whilst the granivora find but little to satisfy
their hunger in a country covered with olive plantations.
And as if this was not sufficient, man steps in to make
desolation complete. " La Chasse" carried on as it is in
the South, has no doubt contributed enormously to diminish
the number of the smaller birds, and this wanton massacre
is to be regretted from more than one point of view. But
what else can be the result, when everyone is anxious to be
a sportsman, and game does not exist ? It is but natural,
under such circumstances, to fall back upon anything that
has wings, and not even to spare the tomtits and the

wrens !

The Mammalia of this district in the present day are en-
tirely devoid of interest. The brown bear of the Alps, the
wolf and the lynx, formerly abounded in these mountains;
the two last still existed at the commencement of this
century in tlie woods of Montenero above Bordighera, but
they have entirely disapiteared for a long time past.

The small birds which are found are the chaffinch, the
siskin, the goldfinch, the warblers, the water-wagtails,
the thrushes, and others; these which in nortliern countries
remain the whole of the year, pass over this coast in the
spring on their journey to the extreme north of Europe,
returning again in the autumn, en route to their winter
quarters in Centi al Africa. Spring time, always delightful
in the south of Europe, owes at least one of its attractions
to these songsters, especially the nightingales and chaf-
finches, who fill the olive woods with their melodies during
the months of April and May.

Amongst the birds of passage of an interesting character
we may notice the golden-oriole {Oriolis galbula), the
hoopoe {Uiwpa epops), several herons, and amongst others

282

NATURAL HISTORY.

which do not migrate, the bhie thrush {Turdus cijamus\
who biiihl their iiests even in the roofs of inhabited houses,
the serecch-owl {Buho maximus), tlic hirgest of European
owls, and wliich is coiunioniii the mountains, mnny falcons,
amongst others the bee-eater (Penm a])ivorus), and the
royal eagle (Aquila fidva).

Winged game is neither varied nor abundant, except
quails, which in certain years on their fliglit (coming from
or returning to Africa,) settle in enormous numbers along
the whole length cf the coast. The wild duck, the black
diver, the teal, sliow themselves from time to time at the
mouths of the torrents, and a f<nv red-legged partridges
still exist in the moorland amongst the hills. The heath-
cock, who is a perfect epicure for wliurtlc-berries, is
occasionally met with in tlie high valleys of the Maritime

Alps.

Among the reptiles it isliardly ne< - iry to mention the
beautiful lizards {Lacerta viridis), so well known to all
visitors to the Suuth of Europe, sometimes eighti en inches
in length, which are found among the brushwood on the
hills, the common wall-lizard {Lacerla uufralis), several
handsome snake^, < specially Zamenis rh'ilijiavus and the
viper, common in the mountains. The < J reek tortoise is
indigenous in Liguria as throughout the whole of
Southern and Central Italy, but it is at the present time
rarely found in a wild state. Placed at liberty in a
garden it thrives well, and breeds freely without any look-
ing after.

The Batraehians are repres nted by the graceful sala-
man.ler {Salarmndra maculosa) which lives in the rocks
an I in the crevices of old walls, and whicli the commou
people erroneously tliink venomous; but still more

FAUNA,

283

markedly by the pretty little green tree frog (Hyla
viridis), the peculiar croaking of which will not fail to at-
tract the attention of the freshly arrived visitor, especially
in the summer months ; and it is one of the signs of
spring, well known to all who have wintered on the Kiviera,
when the harsh " croak, croak " is first heard on a March
or April evening.*

The JMediterranean is far from containing as much fish
as the seas of Northern Europe, although, on the other
hand, it presents us with a larger number of species.
Several sharks, the sword-fish and the tunny fish are
amongst the largest that swim in its waters, but they are
not met with to any great extent in either the Gulf of
Lyons or of Genoa. Amongst the small fish, suitable for
tlie table, are the anchovy and the sardine, which take the
first place ; following them are the loii}), the dorade, and
red and white mullets, &c., but all are not only inferior in
size but in quality, when compared with those caught
either in the Atlantic or English Channel.

The class of insects ofters a far more interesting field to
the naturalist than any other division of the animal
kingdom. The European scorpion is very common, but
his sting, although very painful, is not dangerous or

fatal.

The Coleoptera are richly rt presented : amongst the
most interesting species I may mention the Sacred Beetle
of ancient Egypt (Ateuehus sarer), wliich one sees on every
road during the spring, hard at work rolling his bull of
manure.

♦ It was to silence this croaking (something terrible when a large number
arP collected together) that the old feudal nobles, prior to the Revolution of
1788, kept the peasants the whole night through beating the marshes around
their chateaux. — A. C. D.

284

NATURAL HISTOIIY.

FAUNA.

285

III ii|i

The Firefly or "luciole" (Phosphoenus hemipterm),
appears in extraordiiiaiy numbers io the mouth of Ai)ril,
disappearing again at the end of l^Iay, and notliiug strikes
a stranger so much, or leaves so Listing an impression on
his mind " of the simny soutli," as an hour i)assed some
lovely spring evening in a Ligurian garden.

t(

. . . Wliere the flower of tlie oran2:e Ii1«a\s,

Jind the fire-flies gUuice throiit^h tht- niMtl.' 1. >n.'L<."

The Cigale is another characteristic insect of the
south; it sings on every tree during miilsummer, but it
is only lieard during the hottest hours of the most beauti-
ful days.

" Sole sul) ardent i irsoiimit ;irl>nst;i cicndis."
" Under the buniing siui, tlie woods it'-i-cn*. witii the ci^rdc's sonir/'

Virgil.

The order of Lepidoptera will afford a rich harvest to
the collector in tlie gardens and on the hills of Lii>uria
during tlie months of April, 31ay, and June.

The motlis, however, an' not particularly interesting,
the most remarkable being the g\^iix\i\Q Bomhjx pavonia
major and Bomhyx 2)roeessionaria, whose caterpillars live
in colonies of thousands together on tlic branches of the
Maritime Pine. But the diurnal and crepuscular Lepi-
doptera are well w^orthy of tlie attention of all admirers of
this attractive division of the animal kin-dom. I there-
foresubioin an annotated cataloirneof the n.ost intorostin'^
species peculiar to the south, which the ainateiir aurelian
may expect to take on the Kivieni. An asterisk dis-
tinguishes those rarer British sp( ci( s which I have
thouglit advisable to mention.

PAPILIONIDiE.

Pajnlio Fo'IaliriiL^, (*) Linn., Scarce Swallow-tail.
Machcion, (*) Linn., Common Swallow-tail.
„ Al€xa7wr, Esj)er.

Podalirius and Machao)i are abundant everywhere
throughout the summer. Alexanor is a small species
very Timilar to Machaon, abundant in the French depart-
ments of the Hautes and Basses Alpes, Probably occurs
among our mountains.

Thais hupsipile, Fabricius.
„ 7nedi8io(stu, Godart.

An exclusively Mediterranean genus. The strange and
brilliant marking of the wings gives the insect a peculiarly
tropical appearance. Eypdpile is fond of marshy woods,
and is abundant in those along the coast near Pisa.
Medisicasta frequents upland valleys.

Parnasius Apollo of authors.

Mnemosyne of authors.

Apollo is a doubtful British species, but common in most
alpine regions, the caterpillar feeding on saxifrage and
Crassulacem, Mnemosyne is a smaller species without the
ocelli of Apollo ; will probably be found in the mountains.

Gonepterix rhamrn {*) of authors, Brimstone Butterfly.
„ Cleopatra of authors.

Both common in the early spring.

CoUas edusa, (*) Linn., Clouded Yellow.
„ htjale, (*) Linn., Pale Clouded Yellow.

Common in autumn.

286

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NATURAL niSTUlJY.

NYMPHALIDiE.

FAUNA.

287

All the British Frifillan'es are probably to be met with
on the coast, as also the handsome and exclusively
soutliern A, DdpJine, roinnioii ou the nioiuitaius near
Toulon.

All the British spet-ies of the g*'nii.s Vanessc -.m^
abundant on tht; Itiviera. V. Aidiopu and Atalarda (lied
Admiral) may often be noticed on tlie wing in wintir.

Ct/nthia ciiidui, {*) !''i> i'i"i

rain ted Lady.

ij

The Painted Lady, so remarkable for its migratory
habits and world-wide habitat, may always be taken
plentifully on the Eiviera ; but from time to time it
appears in spring in enormous numbers, and may be
noticed in swarms on the waste lands, where there are
plants of Tijrimmis hucograflms. It has been asserted
that these flights of butterflies come over from Africa, but
the assertion requires proof. At any rate, the wings of
the individuals that compose them are generally sufti-
ciently damaged to justify the idea. (7. Levana is a
soutliern species.

Liminitis Camilla (*) of authors. White Admiral.
„ Syhilla, Linn.

The latter probably in the valley of the Nervia and
similar localities. The Wh'te Admiral is not rare in
gardens.

Xepfis Luciliaf Fabricius.

A tropical type. Not rare in Piedmont; probably in
our inland valleys such as the neighbourhood of Albenga.

Apatura h is (*) of antliors. riiri)le Emperor.
„ ///'/, Fabricius.

These splendid insects are perhaps less rare than is
commonly supposed, from their habit of flying high.

Nuiiiphalis JaslnSj Fabricius.

TLe .- -ropiJ .y,» o< ... E„o,.«n Le,.id,pte,..

The caterpillar feeds ou the Ar-hutus unedo. This mag-
nificent butterfly is common in Provence, and especially
at Hyeres. It may probably occur on our Montenero,
which, like the hills of llyeres, is covered with arbutus.

The vast group of butterflies composing the tribe of the
Satyriclm, genera Satyrus, Erehia, Eipimrchia, &c., distin-
guished by eye-like spots on the wings and sober colours,
forms alone more than one-third of the diurnal Lepidoptera
of Europe. They are neither peculiarly interesting nor
very abundant in this region, their favourite habitats
being damp and shady woods or alpine meadows and

heaths.

The following species belong to the south of Europe :

Erebia ceto, Hubner.

„ epistygne „
Satyrus adcea, Esper.

cordidciy Fabricius.
fidkiy Linn.
Circe^ Fab.
eudora „
Jda, Esi^er.
Fasqjhae ,,

»

Erycinid^.
This family is composed of small but richly coloured
butterflies, the Blues, Coppers, and Eair-strealcs of the

288

NATURAL HISTORY.

FAUNA.

289

n
n

English aureliaiis. The following species may be quoted
as belonging to tlie ]\Ie(literranean region :

Lycmna td'i'^"u>'^, IIerl»st.
aha 6, i aU.
melanopfij Pxtisiluval.
mekii'j* i\ Ks|.er.
Joh(8f i Uliseiilieimer.

haft us, Fa I).
eiimedony Esper.
Thecia wscidi, Hiibiier.
„ evqypus, Hliger.
Folyormnafus hallm, Fab.

HESPERIDiE.

The Shippers are a small group of insects which many-
authors have considered as a connecting link between the
true butterflies and the Sphinges or hawk-motlis. The
following belong to the region :

Jksperis nosfmdamus, Fab.
tyyrichtus &ida>. Fab.

saoy Huliiicr.

proto, Ochseiiheimer.

»»

»»

Sesii.

A remarkable family, on account of the resemblance its
members bear to hymenopterous insects. Indeed, most
of the Sesii, when on the wing, may be taken for large
wasps, hornets, or wild bees. The following are indicated
as peculiar to the ]M editor ran ean coast :

Sesia hrosifoniiis, Hubner,
meUiniformia, Laspeyre.
rhingiceformisj Hubner.

Sphinges.

The magnificent family of the Hawk-moths is nowhere
more richly represented than in the gardens of Liguria,
where in the short twilight of summer evenings they may
be noticed poising their graceful forms over every flower.
Besides the well-known British species, including the
Death's Head, Acherontia atropos, whose caterpillars may
be found in every potato field, I may note the following
as interesting insects :

Macroglossa steUatarum, (*) Linn., Humming Bird.

A rare British Sphinx, of diurnal habits. Abundant all
over the south of Europe, where it often survives the

winter.

Deilejphila Nicma, Depruner.

„ eupJiorhice, Linn.

Two very fine insects ; caterpillars on various Euphorbim,
especially E. dendroides on the mountains near Nice.

DeUephila esvloe, Boisduval.
Common, especially in Tuscany.

Deilephila vespertilio, Fab.
„ celeriSy Linn.

Mountains of the South of France.

u

( 290 )

FLORA.

291

CHAPTEK III.

THE FLORA OF LIGUEIA.

Difference between the Flora of Northern an<l Southern Eurore-
Richness of the Ligurian Flora-Depreciations by collectors and
^i,itors-Extinct siiecies-Gardening in Liguria- Annotated cata-
logue of interesting plants.

The flora of Southern Europe is distinguished from those
of the north by the larger proportion of herbaceous plants.
Whilst in the northern countries, subject as they are to
frost and extreme cold, shrubs and trees, and these mostly
deciduous, are in the majority, in the tropics the contrary
is the case. This modification of the character of the
vegetation, which continues regularly as we journey from
north to south, is already very apparent in these latitudes,
for our shrubs and trees, almost all evergreens, form but
a small proportion of the flora of the coast.

So it is amongst the herbaceous plants that the pedes-
trians of our winter colony who love flowers will find the
richest harvest, will discover those which are most brilliant
and perhaps most strange to them :

"Those stars, which on earth's finnanient do sliine."

It is the anemones, the tulips, the narcissi, and the
orchids of our valleys which will especially delight visitors
ani cause them to realise, as never before, the words of
our Lord : « Consider the lilies of the field ; for I say unto
you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed

like one of these."

Few countries ofi'er to the botanist and lover of flowers

a field of research so rich as Liguria, and I may mention a
striking illustration of this.

According to MM. Gilly and Magne, the flora of France
is composed of about 5600 species of vascular plants, which
gives a mean of about 1300 species to each department.
In order, however, to meet with these 5600 plants of
France, it is necessary to traverse the whole length and
breadth of that extensive country, from the Alps to the
Pyrenees, from the English Channel to the Mediterranean.
But the large valleys of Liguria, owing to their peculiar
topographical position, give us an opportunity of passing
in a few hours from a region almost sub-tropical to one
lying amongst the glaciers, and collecting on our way as
many as 2500 different species, which succeed each other
as we pass upwards from the sea to the mountains, in
exactly the same order as that which characterises the
transition, district by district, of the flora of the south to
that of the north. It is thus possible to gather in the
mornmg palm leaves on the scorched rocks of the coast,
and in the evening of the same day, the Edelweiss on the
Col di Tenda. *

This wonderful richness of the Ligurian flora becomes
still more striking if we compare it with that of the
British Islands. Notwithstanding the length of Great
Britain and the considerable difference of climate which
exists between the south of England and the north of
Scotland, the most diligent collector, were he to travel
from the Land's End to John o'Groat's House, would fail

* The dwarf palm (Chamcerops humilis), the only indigenous representative
of the palm family in Europe, still grew but a few years ago on the steep cliffs
of the coast, and especially at Villa Franca, but the gardeners and florists have
completely exterminated it !

u 2

FLORA.

293

292

NATURAL HISTORY.

in meeting with more tl.an 1708 species ami that
according to the highest estimation, Babington s Manual ,
whereas other authors reduce the number considerably :
Hooker and Arnott's Flora contains only 1571 flowering
plants, a figure not equal to two-thirds of the flora of this

favoured strip of country. , , ^

But this flora, so rich, so beautiful, and so abundant,
is unhappily in a fair way to lose its chief attractions,
owin- to the ravages of our winter visitors, especially the
plant" collectors and botanists. It is almost impossible
to enumerate the number of species which have either
become rare or entirely disappeared during^ the last few
Years, owing to this mania for " collecting." *

Besides the Dwarf Palm and the Peony, once so common
in the neighbourhood of Nice, but which now are nothing
but memories, the beautiful Tulipa clusiana is becoming
rare, even in the vicinity of Bordighcra, and has already
disappeared from the fields and woods around Nice and
Mentone ; the magnificent Pancratium maritimum, which
once covered the sandhills of this neighbourhood, no longer
exists on our coast, save in isolated tufts ; and our liliaceous
plants, our orchids, and even our anemones, the dellata and

, • « „=«£.r.i"allv ire becoming more and more

the pavomna especially, art- uei-ummj,

difiicult to discover.

This rapid extermination of rare and beautiful wi d
flowers, which one cannot sufiiciently deplore, is mainly

. This selfish custom, an.l the result which follows, is not, alas, P^™''" '■>
the Kiv ra The vcar of a country ,,arish in North Devon tells me that the
^ . rLautifu. a.,-ns, which were formerly found in -ry lane - e,

/. . J. .,.;^,, fi-Am PTactlv a sim lar caHse. During the montnsoi

irone or fast disappearing, from exacuy a »»"' , - ,- vu ^.r^torintr

Zj and Augustle visitors to the neighbouring town (. n.sh.onabh= wate. ng
pUce) sweep the lanes a„,l wood, of the district l.ke locusts, and w.th the
8ftm« result. — A. C. D.

\

due to the habit of those seeking flowers of pulling them
up by the roots. By all means pluck the flowers which
adorn our woods and fields : you have every right to do
so, for it is for you they open their gorgeous blossoms ; but
in the name of that consideration which each of us owes to
Hs neighbour, respect the roots which do not belong to you.
Do not wantonly destroy that which is useless to your-
self, but is one of the chief attractions possessed by
Liguria in the eyes of all lovers of Nature.

But if the botanist is filled with wonder and delight
by the richness of the Ligurian flora, the agriculturist of
the north, who comes for the first time to our coast, is no
less struck by the manner in which the cultivation of the

soil is carried on.

The division of the land into extensive farms, with large
ploughed fields, protected from the north wind by thick
hedges and copses, so characteristic of the landscape of
Grett Britain, gives place in Liguria to forests of olive
woods (which deck the hills with a mantle of greyish
green), and to groves of lemon and orange trees.

In the market gardens, too, the same difference may be
noticed : the tomato, the egg plant, the gourd, the prickly
artichoke, take to a great extent the place of the familiar
vegetables of the north ; whilst the dog mercury, the
capuchin arum, several peculiar sedges, the narcissus and
the wild garlics over-run and choke our crops, instead of
the groundsel, the dock, and the nettle.

The peculiar fruit and vegetables which characterise the
gardens of the Mediterranean region in autumn, and the
abundance of certain flowering plants difficult to cultivate
in the north, but which grow like weeds on this coast,
frequently mislead visitors into the idea that gardening

FLORA.

295

294

NATUBAL HISTORY.

must be cbikrs play in so fine a climate. This is, how-
ever, a serious mistake.

The coast of the gulfs of Genoa and Lyons in general,
and the neighbourhood of Bordighera in particular, are
certainly exempt from the late frosts and rainy summers
which often render horticulture so unsatisfactory in the
north ; but the southern gardener has to contend with
other and by no means less serious difficulties, first and
foremost among which stand the burning sun and the
dry summer. Continual and often expensive watering is
necessary ; and this combination of sun and water has
naturally the effect of pushing vegetation on too rapidly.
All plants show a tendency to flower and go to seed before
they have attained the development necessary to insure an

abundant crop.

This is especially true of those annual vegetables wliich
belong properly to northern countries, such as all the
varieties of cabbage and cauliflower, the pea, bean, &c.
These are cultivated in Liguria under difficulties just as
great, only of a different kind, as tliose which attend the
raising of the tomato, the custard apple, and other southern
delicacies in northern climates. Perennials, such as the
artichoke, asparagus. Sec, do better, on account of the
advantage afforded by their permanent root-stocks ; but
vegetables of both these classes can be obtained (with the
exception of the French bean), only in winter and early

spring.

The summer vegetables which are peculiar to the south,
Buch as the tomato, the auhergine or egg-plant, and the
numerous varieties of custard-apple and pumpkin, grow
luxuriantly and produce abundantly where well watered,

\l

but are nevertheless subject to many mishaps, the most
dangerous of which is exposure to the burning sun when
wet. Hence it is necessary, for the tomato especially, to
irrigate the plants by conducting the water to their roots
in rivulets, with the greatest care not to wet the stems or
leaves. Rain in summer is extremely prejudicial on this
account. I have known whole crops of the tomato de-
stroyed in half-an-hour by a thunder shower on a hot day

in June. , <• n

The fruit of Liguria may be enumerated as tollows :
The vine, which, however, and probably on account of the
vicinity of the sea, does not thrive as well as in the inland
provinces; the peach, which thrives to perfection and may
be reckoned the finest fruit of the country, although wmter
visitors never see it to advantage, as the best varieties
ripen in August. Tlie cherry bears freely ; the apricot and
the plum more sparingly ; apples are a failure, the drought
causin- the fruit to fall before maturity ; pears, the winter
varieties especially, do fairly. The Japan medlar (Mesj^ilm
jafonica), introduced some thirty years ago, now grows
like an indigenous tree all over the South of Europe, and
its juicy fruit are highly appreciated in June. But the
really characteristic fruit of Liguria, after the orange tribe
mentioned further on, is the fig, the endless varieties of
which, fresh in autumn, dried in winter, form a staple
article of food for the lower classes. Small fruit, such as
the strawberry, raspberry, currants, &c., are difficult to
cultivate except in shady valleys.

Flower gardening is subject to the same difficulties as
the cultivation of vegetables. Many of the familiar
herbaceous flowering plants of northern gardens will not

\\

296

MATURAL HISTORY.

grow at all, and those that will, go to seed with despairing
rapidity. A few annuals, such as EschoUzia calif ornica,
Linum grandiflorwn, Maholmia maritima, and some
others, if sown in September, will make a g.)0(l show in
March and April, but they are inevitably burnt up by the
sun of May and June. Indeed, from the middle of June to
the beginning of September, planting and sowing is next
to impossible, the most a gardener can do being to keep
his plants alive by abundant watering.

The operation of "bedding out," with geraniums and
verbenas so familiar to northern horticulturists, is im-
practicable in this climate. The geranium of all varieties
grows like a weed, and the plants attain an enormous
size. The verbena flowers freely, but however ricldy
coloured be the varieties planted, they will inevitably
return under the action of the sun, and sometimes even
during the first summer, to the original pink of the wild
flower. The verbena is also extremely sensitive to water
on the leaves, a shower followed by hot sunshine being
generally fatal to the plants.

The anemone and its congeners, and all liliaceous plants
thrive and flower freely, but they degenerate rapidly.

The reader will easily gather from what precedes, that
between the constant care and watering and the frequent
renewal of plants necessary to insure a show of flowers,
anything like an attempt at high-class gardening becomes
an expensive undertaking. Hence it follows that pro-
prietors of moderate means, or who do not care to take
much trouble with their gardens, should limit their atten-
tion principally to flowering shrubs and herbaceous
perennials, especially those introduced from Japan, Poly-
nesia, South Africa, Mexico, and other intermediate

FLORA.

297

climates. These give but little trouble, and if well
disposed will produce a fine sub-tropical effect.

Those who wish to study in detail the very interesting
flora of this coast, will find a large number of excellent
works to aid them, of which I may especially mention the
Flore Frangaise of MM. GiUy and blague, and the Flore
des Alpes Maritimes of M. H. Ardoino of Mentone. I will
therefore only place before my readers a list, with a few
remarks subjoined, of the plants, wild and cultivated,
which I think likely to interest the majority of our winter
visitors But this list does not by any means claim to be
a complete catalogue of the flora of the district ; it is
merelv a resumS, and a very simple and condensed one, of
those 'flowers which the botanist and pedestrian may not
only look for, but hope to find.

Ranunculace^, the Ranunculus Family.
This beautiful family, the varied character of which has
caused it to be placed at the head of the vegetable series,
is nowhere more richly represented than in the south of

Europe.

However, the true ranumuU or Mea^low Buttercups

offer no point of interest in this neighbourhood.

Seventeen different species are found ; they abound in
the marshv fields near the mouths of the torrents, the
Banmculus lulhosus or Bulbous Crowfoot being the com-
monest.

Adonis cBstivalis, Pheasant's Eye.

This little flower is only remarkable for the brilliant
scarlet of its petals, its extremely finely lanceolate leaves,
^vhich are marked like a finely plaited thong, and for its

298

NATURAL HISTORY.

FLORA.

299

being one of the rare flowers to be found (luring the
height of summer.

Clematis vitalha* Old Man's Beard.
„ flammula.

These two species of the Clematis are common; the
former abounds in the hedges and amongst the brush-
wood in shady places, and the latter on the rocks
and cliffs. This last has a fragrant scent. May and
June.

An^none core naria,
cyanea.
jmvonina.
hortensis.
stdlata.

1*

ft

The anemones are one of the glories of our southern
flora; they flower from January to March. I have
noticed five species, although most writers on this subject
reduce them to four. The A. cyanea is generally consi-
dered a variety of the A, coronaria, but the distinctive
characteristics are constant, and the two species never
mingle. The four first abound in our neighbourhood, but
the hortensis, though common in the environs of Nice, is
rare east of Monaco. The A. alpina, var. sulfurea, abounds
on the mountain pastures above a height of 3000 feet, and
blossoms in May. The A stellata is only met with in the
valley of the Nervia.

Hepatica triloba. Blue Hepatica.

The blue variety only, and that rare.

* This will be most familiar to English readers ai the " wild clematis."—

A. \j» ■L'.

\
I

»»

>f

»»

nellebonis niger, Christmas Rose.
„ foetidus, Bear V foot.

The E. niger or Christmas Rose was formerly found in
the neighbourhood of Nice; the K foetidus or "Fetid
Hellebore," of classic memory, is common in the beds of
torrents : flower in winter.

Ni'jilhi damascena, Love in a Mist, or Devil in a Bush.

This plant, remarkable for the curious shape of its
blossom, resembles the allspice in its cultivated state : it
flowers in June, on cultivated ground.

Aconltum Napcllus, Common Monkshood.
panicuhdtim.
anthora.
lycoctonum.

The Aconites do not form part of the coast flora, but
those visitors remaining well into the summer, to July,
and making excursions high up in the Apennines, will
find the four species I have enumerated.

Pceonia officimdls, Common Peony.
The peony grew formerly in the neighbourhood of Nice,
and is probably now found in our secluded valleys : flower
in summer.

Papaverace^, the Poppy Family.

Paftaver rhceasy Common Poppy.

In ploughed land : May and June.

Papaver setigerum.
This beautiful species, whose large violet-tinted flowers
give it a resemblance to the oriental poppy (P. somni-

300

NATURAL HISTORY.

ferMm), has not been noticed in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Bordigliera, but it is common on other points of
the coast, especially at Hyeres and Alassio.

aiaucluni luteum, Yellow-horned Poppy.
One of the most beautiful flowers of the seacoast, re-
calling the EsehoUzia of the English gardens: spring and
autumn.

FuMARiACEiE, the Fumitory Family.

Fumari ifn, Spiked Fumitory.

The fumitories, to the number of seven or eight species,
infest the fields under cultivation, and choke the crops.

The species mentioned above is one of the finest, and is
peculiar to the south.

CRUCiFERif], the Cnicifer Family.

Matthiola trkuspidata, Sea Stock.
A pretty gilly-flower, with lilac blossoms and a fragrant
smell : is found on the sands and beach in the summer.

Alyssnm maritimum. Sweet Al3ssnin.
A pretty little sweet-smelling plant, with white blos-
soms ; it is found everywhere under the olive-wood, and
throughout almost the whole of the year.

Capparide^, the Caper Family.

Capparis sjpinosa, Common Caper.

The Caper plant is not a native of Europe; it has
been brought from the East, like so many of the alimen-

FLORA.

301

m

fary plants, probably on the return from the Crusades. It
is cultivated throughout the whole of the south, for the
sake of the capers, which are the flower-buds preserved in
vine-ar. It is naturalised all over Liguria, but is not
found in any abundance except in the district of Koque-
brune between Monaco and Mentone, where the lofty
walls are covered with its beautiful tufts. The flower is
remarkable for the exceptional length of the stamens.

The Cistos Family.

Cistus ulhidus. Pink-leaved Cistus.

saloifolius, Sage-leaved Cistus.

A dozen varieties of the Cistus family are included in
the flora of the Riviera, but the two indicated above are
the onlv ones which are found to any extent in our
neighbourhood. The C. allidus, or Pink Cistus, with its
purple-pink flowers, grows upon the barren hillsides,
flowering in May ; the C. salvifolms, or White Cistus,
covers the beds of the torrents in June, with its milk-
white blossoms.

Violace.t;, the Violet Family.

Viola oihnitii, Sweet Violet.
Is it necessary to describe the Violet, which carpets the
moist places under the olives, and scents the air with its
sweet perfume as early as December ? The variety with
double blossoms (known as the Parma Violet) is cultivated
for perfumery by some of the proprietors of Bordighera.
The Yellow Violet (Viola lutea), is common in the higher
valleys of the Apennines.

302

NATUBAL HISTORY.

FLORA.

303

RESEDACE.E, Mignoncttes.

Reseda phyteuma.

The first of these species resembles the garden Migno-
nette in all except the scent ; the second differs consider-
ably, and the flower is slightly fragrant.

Cabyophyllace^e, the Pink Family.

Bilene hifl'da, Bladder Campion.

These two species abound in all our valleys, but the
flora of our coast contains no less than twenty-two.

Diantlms cmihubianoru m .

A dozen species of Wild Pink flourish almost all the
year round on the barren hills.

Saponaria ocymoides. Soap-wort.

This pretty Soap-wort is rare in the neighbourhood, but
it abounds at Alassio and Nice.

LINACE.E, the Flax Family.

Linum gcklUcum.

The Wild Flax, of which there are about twelve species
on this coast, do not call for any especial remark ; I have,
however, mentioned the Linum gallicum, which abounds
in the neighbourhood, as it is considered one of the rarest
of French flora.

»i

»)

»j

j»

I)

j>

>j

)5

Malvaceae, the Mallow Family.

Lavatera cretica.
This beautiful mallow covers the ground under the
olives with its pretty pink blossoms, during the height of
the summer.

Hesperide^, the Citron Family.

Citrus vulgaris. Bitter Orange-tree.
aurantium, Common
myrti/oUa, Mandarin
sinensis, Chinese
limoniam, Lemon-tree.
limetta, Bergamot.
medica. Citron-tree.

The orange has been cultivated from the very earliest
times The three daughters of Atlas and Hesperis had
a beautiful garden in Mauritania full of golden apples,
placed under the guardianship of a dragon with a
hundred heads. Hercules, by the order of Eurystheus,
kin.^ of Argos, journeyed to the garden of the Hesperides,
killed the dragon and carried the golden apples back to

This classic myth is interesting as showing how highly
this fruit was prized even in the earliest times.

In more modern days, the Portuguese appear to have
brought it from India or China, and from this cause it is
now not unfrequently called Por^o^aWo in W of he
Italian provinces, whilst the extract which >« distiUed
from the peel in France is even yet known as Essence de

^'Ftlm the Iberian peninsula it spread quickly to Italy:

I

304

NATUBAI, HISTORY.

that is, to the two Sicilies and Ligiiria, and the merchant
prinocs of Genoa were the first to adorn their gardens with
its golden fruit. There was, however, one solitary orange-
tree in France in the year 1500, which had been brought
from Pampeluna, the capital of Navarre ; it is still hvmg
in the orangery at Versailles, where it takes the highest
rank for its size and beauty under the name of the Grand
cmnetahle de Bourbon. Since that date orangeries have
become very numerous in the suburbs around Pans, where
the most beautiful in the world are now to be found,
amongst which may be mentioned those of Ferrieres and

The beauty of the orange-tree, the delicacy of its foliage,
the grace and sweetness of its flowers, the perfume and
beneficent qualities of its fruit, cause it to be one of the
most valuable as well as one of the most beautiful of the
floral ornaments of our globe. ^ ^

The orange-tree lias some very distinct varieties: we
may mention the Blood, or Maltese orange, so called from
the fact that its juice is of the colour of blood : and also
one which is known in Italy under the name of Aramw
di Leece, which has the peculiarity that the oranges are
sweet even when they are still green. This variety, though
little cultivated at present, has the advantage of giving us
yery early oranges. But the most remarkable variety,
however, of this superb tree, is without doubt that of the
Mandarin ; its shape, its foliage, its blossoms and its
fruit are all smaller than its cougeners, but the precocity of
this variety (which ripens about the commencement of
the autumn), its sweetness, its delicacy, and the ease wjth
which its peel can be removed, which again has even a
sweeter scent than that of the common orange, causes its

FLORA.

305

cultivation to be a very profitable business. The Mandarin
was originally brought by the English from China, where
it was only cultivated in the gardens of the great digni-
taries of that vast empire. The first attempt at cultivation
took place at Malta and resulted in a great success, whilst
in Sicily it will before long become one of the most im-
portant horticultural industries in the island.

However, even in 1848, this fruit was far from common
in Europe: it was only at the chief fruiterers in Paris and
London, and at an extremely high price, that it was to be

obtained.

About this time a horticulturist of Marseilles imported
some plants of this beautiful tree, one of which was brought
to Bordighera, from which place it passed to San Eemo,
to Ventimiglia, and finally to Nice. In our own locality
there are several gardens where it is especially and scien-
tifically cultivated, and where it has attained a height of
over 12 feet, and bears not less than 1000 oranges. It is
however necessary, in order to produce thoroughly satis-
factory results and crops of a first-rate quality, to have
considerable depth of soil, plenty of light and air— indeed,
full exposure to the sun is most necessary, and above all
plenty of water during the extreme heat of the summer.
We may add also, that perhaps there is no place in
Europe where the orange-tree flourishes more satisfactorily
than at Bordighera, the neighbourhood of which requires
but little to transform it into a veritable garden of Hespe-
rides, where the happy Eurystheus of tlie present day
could pluck these luscious fruits, inhale their sweet
perfume, or even raise a glorious palace surrounded by
trees laden with their golden burden. It is impossible for
us to urge too strongly upon proprietors in this beau-

306

NATURAL HISTORY.

tiful country the cultivation of the common orange-tree
or some of its rarer varieties, and we trust that each
year a larger area of land may be devoted to this

purpose.

The stranger first arriving amongst us m the month ot
November and December, having left behind him regions
already enveloped in ice and snow, finds indeed a surprise
in store for him, as, brought out perchance by a through
carriage from Calais, he first sees, as if raised by Aladdin's
lamp, these groves of golden fruit.

The common Orange-tree will bear an amount of cold
equal to about 28^ to 29° Fahr; but the fruit of the
mandarin is far more sensitive of frost, though even they
have never suffered in this climate.

The Lemon-tree is not only more delicate, but at the
same time gives larger profits than the orange ; it is this
reason which causes the former to be cultivated more gene-
rally, and also with much greater care, than the latter ;
it is also without doubt, after the olive, and because of the
importance of its produce, the most interesting tree under
cultivation in this part of the Riviera of Genoa, which
extends from Monaco to Mentone, from Ventimiglia to
Bordighera,andasfaras SanRemo and its neighbourhood.
There are also some other parts of Liguria where this
beautiful plant is cultivated, but only as a wall-fruit, or if
in other ways, it is in certain spots especially sheltered by
the formation of the coast or otherwise. This is the case

both at Nice and Cannes.

In his * Voyage aux Alpes Mariiimes; Fodere states the
fact, and adds :^" The reason of this is that the winter is
milder not only at Mentone and San Remo, but also at

FLORA.

307

the other places where the lemon-tree is grown in the

open country."

The portion of the coast where this especially mild
climate prevails is a strip of about twenty-five miles, ex-
tending from Monaco to San Remo, of which Bordighera
is the°centre, and it might fitly be called the "home of
the lemon-tree." It is there only that it is cultivated to
any great extent, and completely resists even the most

rigorous w^inters.

For, of all the varieties of this noble family {Auran-
tiacem), the lemon-tree is by far the most delicate ; it is
this which shudders most at the sudden variations of tem-
perature and at the icy winds which blow down from the
mountains after the cold rains of winter, and the slightest
frost, in certain cases, may even prove fatal to it. It is
necessary then, in order that it should be a success, to
have three things : (1) a warm and (2) even climate, and (3)
a sMtered situation. Where, then, are such conditions
most perfectly to be found ? Surely nowhere, if not at
Bordighera, the whole neighbourhood of which is specially
suited for such a purpose. The hills, which the want of
water has hitherto prevented from being brought into
cultivation, offer the most favourable sites, and the experi-
ments of some years past have proved conclusively that
the fruit there grown is even finer than usual. Our
mountain, Montenero, is also capable, to a great extent, of
being covered with lemon-trees.

On the western side of this noble mountain, on a hill
adjoining, one of our ablest agriculturists lias followed the
example of the Spanish Moors, and dammed a rushing
torrent with a solid dyke of masonry, which not only pre-

X 2

308

NATUBAL HISTORY.

serves the low4ying lands from inundations, but also, by
retaining a portion of the water, has enabled him to turn
bis pine woods into lemon-groves. Already the acres so
planted give him a first-rate profit, and each year he in-
creases the area under cultivation.

The Lemon-tree, originally a native of India, was intro-
duced into Europe during the Crusades, and is divided
into two distinct varieties, the SeriescJii and the Bignete ;
the fruit of the latter having a much thinner skin and
larger amount of juice than the former. This tree, the
most remarkable in the world, has this striking pecu-
liarity, that it bears fruit continuously ; and this is the
cause of its extreme sensitiveness to the slightest frost.
It is possible to count on a well-cultivated tree eight, ten,
or even twelve successive crops of fruit. At first the little
buds show themselves at the joints of the leaves, like tlie
tips of a violet rose ; then the larger buds appear, which
only require a few of those warm days, so numerous with
us in the winter, to open out and fill the air with a
perfume, which is tlie more acceptable as the sweet-
scented flowers are rare at that season.

For, apart from the fact that the lemon is one of the
most profitable of fruits, and returns the largest crops in our
district, the tree itself would be grown because of its ex-
traordinary fecundity, which presents to us the appearance
of a perpetual spring ; a continual succession of fruit ap-
pearing on its branches, from those as small as an olive to
the very largest kind, whose yellow jackets tell us they
have arrived at ripeness and maturity.

The lemons are classed under five or six varieties :—
(1) the graniti which are gathered in the spring ; (2) the
verdami or summer lemons; (3) the primijiori, which

FLORA.

309

are plucked in the autumn ; (4) the auiunni, with their
thick peel, which, when they have arrived at full maturity,
are great favourites, being eaten with a knife like apples ;
the young girls of the district having an especial fondness
for them. As a rule, the lemon-tree has even a fifth quality
of fruit, which is known as the testasse, but this is gene-
rally considered a bastard fruit, whilst some produce yet
a sixth variety, which goes by the name of the maraviglie,
and takes the most peculiar shapes ; this is owing to the
wounds which the lemons receive from insects when just
emerging from the flower.

In Corsica, Naples, and above all in Sicily, the lemon is
much cultivated, but in those countries the trees produce
but one crop during the season, which, commencing in
September, ends in March. For the remainder of the
year, that is, during the whole of the spring and summer,
there is no sign of fruit whatever. It is only in Liguria,
where the climate is more equable, the winters milder,
the summers less parching, that we see the lemon-tree
always loaded with fruit. Experience also has shown that
lemons from this district are better suited for a long
voyage than any others, especially for exportation to the
United States, where our fruit is always considered the
finest which enters their markets.*

OxALiDACEiE, thc Wood Sorrcls.

Oxalis comicidata, Yellow-wood Sorrel.
„ lyhica, African Sorrel.

The Yellow-wood Sorrel (0. corniculata) is very common
on every side ; the other species, which originally came

* This paper is a reproduction of an anonymous article which appeared
in the Voce di Bordvjhera on June 13th and July 1st, 1875.

310

NATURAL HISTORY.

from South Africa, has a much larger flower. In the
present clay it grows spontaneously over the whole of
Liguria.

EHAMNACE.E, the Buckthorns,

Bkamnus alatei'ims.

One of the commonest shrubs in these parts ; it grows
wild in the sliacly valleys and is remarkable for its bunches
of red fruit, which turn black as they become ripe.

TEllEBINTHACEiE.

Pi&tada lentiscum, the Mastic Tin'.
terehiiithHS.
vera, the Pistiicbio Tree.

The Lentisk covers the barren hills with its pretty
bushes. Owing to certain strengtliening properties which
the wood of this tree was supposed to possess, it was used
in ancient times for the manufacture of tooth-picks.*

*' Lentiscum melius,
seti si tibi frondea cuspis defuerit
dentes penna levare potest."

The Terebinth is one of the finest forest trees of Asia
Minor, and although it is not found in Europe larger than
a stunted shrub, we may naturally expect that it \vould
be mentioned in Scripture, and so it is, although only in
the Old Testament. The Hebrew word alah, which un-
doubtedly designates this tree, since the Scptuagint uni-
formly renders it by repefiivOo^i, appears to have puzzled
the early translators of the Bible, and not being acquainted
with the tree, as it does not belong to the flora of Northern

• The celebrated lentisk tree in Signor Adolfo Garibaldi's garden is well
worth a visit. — A. C. D.

FLORA.

311

Europe, they use, apparently at random, a variety of
words. Thus, in the authorised English version, it is ren-
dered oah in Gen. xxxv. 4 ; teil in Isaiah vi. 13 ; elm in

Hosea iv. 13.

The Pistachio is cultivated as a fruit-tree in many

gardens at Nice.

Papilionace^ or LEGUMiNACEiE, the Pea-flower

Family.

Ceratonia siUqua, the Locust Tree; Fr. Carouhier.

The Carouba or Locust Bean Tree came originally from
the East, but it has been acclimatized throughout the
whole of the Mediterranean coast. Its long beans, which
have a sweet flavour, form an admirable food for horses.
The tree is only cultivated on a large scale in the Levant,
on the African coast, and in the island of Corsica, whence
the locust beans are exported in large quantities. On
this coast it has sprung up spontaneously at Eza and on
the territory of Monaco, but Bordighera possesses only a
few specimens of any size. According to a tradition pre-
served by the Eastern Church, the locust beans were the
food of St. John the Baptist in the desert ; from which
the Germans give the tree the name of Johanishrodhaum.
If, however, this was the fact, it would be necessary to
alter the word locusts into locust leans in the English
version of the New Testament, and to change sauterelles
in the French translations into carouhes. However, the
word uKpl^ which is used by the Evangelists, most clearly
means locusts, whilst at the same time we know that the
true name of the Carouba or Locust-tree Bean, Keparia,
(which Linne has turned into Ceratonia), was familiar to
them, as we find it used in Luke xv. 13, in the parable of

312

"W A T'TTTJ A T 'OTO'TT^UV

PlAiUxvAJL JtllolUlti.

the Prodigal Son : " the shells or husks which the swine
did eat." However, the word uKpk which is derived from
dfcpo^, sharpf pointed, may have been applied to the Locust
on account of its angular members, and it is not impossible
that for a similar reason, and in a country where Greek
was but imperfectly known, the same word was employed
to designate the Locust or Carouha Bean.

Sjmrtlmn junceum^ Spanish Broom.

This beautiful species, with rush-like branches, impro-
perly called " Spanish Broom," abounds on all the burnt-
up hills in the spring.

Genista Bispanica, Thorny Broom.

A small shrub, very thick and thorny, w^hich grows in
great quantities on the hills. Yellow flowers in the spring.

Cytisus sessUifolius.

„ laburnum f the Yellow Laburnum.

Several Cytisi are found in the shady and secluded
valleys, but hardly ever near the shore.

Ononis nimosissmaj the Rest Harrow.
„ spinosa.

Seven species of Ononis belong to the flora of this coast,
but the two mentioned above are the only ones which
exist in any numbers on the beach in this neighbourhood.

Psoralia hituminom.

This handsome plant is very easily distinguished by its
strong odour of bitumen ; it is common under the olives
and on the slopes of the railway embankments ; flower in
May,

FLORA.

313

Coronilla scorpioides.

A remarkable herbaceous species, but rare ; May.

C. emerus.

Several sub-ligneous kinds are met along with Cytisi in
the shady valleys in May.

Lathy rus latifoUtis, Everlasting Pea.
„ setifoUus.

Two beautiful kinds, the former especially, with large
flowers in terminal bunches, found amongst the olives in
May.

EosACE^, the Rose Family.

Agrimonia eupataria. Agrimony.

Yellow flowers in one long vertical spike, found under
the olives.

PuNiOACE^, the Pomegranate Family.

Punka granatunif Pomegranate Tree ; Fr. Orenadier.

It is generally believed that this tree, the modern French
name of which so well describes the form of the fruit, was
introduced into Italy from Africa by the Komans during
the Punic wars, from whence may have arisen its Latin
name. The Pomegranate is sufficiently hardy to with-
stand cold northern climates, but the fruit does but imper-
fectly ripen even on this coast.

MYRTACE.E, the Myrtle Family.

Myrtus communis^ Common Myrtle.
The myrtle is found along the whole of the Riviera and
in all our valleys. It is in full bloom in May.

314

NATURAL HISTORY.

FLORA.

315

Eumlyptus globulus, the Blue Gum Tree.

The Blue Gum Tree of Australia, introduced into Europe
about twenty years ago, is at the present day, of all purely
ornamental trees, the one which is most generally found
in these parts. Its graceful shape, its peculiar leaf and
strong scent, and the extraordinary rapidity of its growth,
have made its adoption universal by those who are anxious,
in as short a time as possible, to obtain plantations of full-
grown trees. But in taking a just account of this inter-
esting tree, we must not fail to recognise its faults. The
Blue Gum is singularly greedy, particularly of water,
which its wide-spreading roots absorb in enormous quan-
tities, exhausting the soil and rendering difficult the
cultivation of anything around it, and its presence in our
gardens causes all sorts of inconveniences, but the very
strong camphor perfume thrown out by its leaves, and the
extraordinary property of absorption its roots possess, make
it nevertheless a valuable instrument in draining marsh
kinds,* whilst a preparation from its leaves has been used

* Those who take an interest in the reclamation of ua^tc lands, and better
still, in seeing a whole district, for centuries dcsei-ted l»y iiKin, once more
rendered healthy and habitable, mi«;ht do worse than vi.sit the monastery,
farms and gardens of the Trappists, at the Tre Fontaiia, about four miles
from Rome. Here they will see what hkuvcIs this tree, wisely and ex-
tensively cultivated, is capable of performing. The convent, long deserted,
was given by the Pope Pius IX. to some French Trappists in ISOS, who began
by spending the winter in their new home, brin-ing it into repair, and planting
hundreds, nay thousamls, of the E. ,jMm!us, but returning to Rome when the
summer heats began. This went on for three or four years, until the trees
were sufHciently grown to enable the monks to venture on remaining the
summer; fortifying themselves for this ordeal by taking daily a certain (juan-
tity of the preiKiration referred to. When visited by the present writer in
1876, the monks had been settled there for some years, cases of fever were
rare, and never fatal, a large number of acres had been reclaimed and were
under cultivation, the farm labourers were returning, and livin--, like the

with considerable effect in cases of malaria fever. The
wood, which is greatly valued in Australia for its toughness
and durability, has not, however, up to the present time,
been found to possess the same characteristics in Europe ;
neither will it serve for fuel, as it is nearly incombus-
tible. The want of appreciation which it has so far expe-
rienced in this continent may perhaps be explained by
the fact, that the E. globulus is not the species which is
most thought of in its native country: in addition to
which, to obtain wood really tough and hard, even in
Australia, it is necessary for the trees to be of great age.

The genus Eucalyptus contains a large number of
species. Thirty at least have been tried during the last
few years on the Eiviera, but the only one which appears
to merit serious attention from amateur gardeners is the
Eucalyptus tremula, the foliage and beautiful shape of which,
somewhat resembling the birch-tree of the North of Europe,
have given it a prominent place among the ornamental
trees suitable to our coast.

CucuRBiTACE^, the Cucumbsr Family.

Ecabalium elaterium, Squirting Cucumber ; Fr. Momordique.

The Squirting Cucumber affects chiefly the cultivated
land, not very far from the shore. The fruit from two to
three inches long falls when perfectly ripe, throwing its
seed with great force to a considerable distance on every
side.

Trappists, on the spot, who were still hard at work rearing and planting the
eucalyptus. There was this beneficent shrub in the large convent garden,
in rows and rows, in thousands of every size, from those a few^ inches high in
pots, just springing up from seed, to those 5 or 6 feet high, ready for planting
in those fields even yet a prey to the once all-powerful malaria. — A. C. D.

316

NATtlRAL HISTORY.

Tamaricace^, the Tamarisk Family.

Tamarix Africana, Tamarisk .

The African Tamarisk abounds on the sand-hills of the
sea-shore ; its shape is that of a straggling bush.

CRAssuLACEiE, the Stone-Crop Family.

Sedum reflexum.

The most remarkable of twenty species of the genus
and one of the most beautiful flowers of midsummer.

Umbellifer^, the UmbeUiferous Family.

Crithmum maritimum, St. Peter's Herb, or Samphire.

A thick juicy plant which grows on the rocks of the
sea-shore ; the leaves are edible and resemble in taste
the Angelica {Angeliea sylvestris).

Eryngium maritimum, Sea Holly.

One of the most remarkable of the plants growing on
the sea-shore ; leaves outspread and thorny ; flowers prickly
and of a pinkish white colour. Blossoms in June.

CAPRiFOLiACEiE, the Woodbine or Honeysuckle

Family.

Lonicera implexa.

This beautiful species, which is in every respect a much
handsomer and larger plant than tlie ordinary honey-
suckle (Lmiicera perieli/menum) of North Europe, abounds
on the uncultivated land in May.

FLORA.

317

KuBiACEiE, the Madder Family.

Oalium Utigiosum.

Many varieties of bedstraw overrun the cultivated land
on all sides ; the G. Utigiosum is peculiar to the south.

VALERIANACE.E, the Valerian Family.

Ccntranthus rubra j Red Valerian.

Abounds on old walls, and is remarkable for its beautiful
red flowers in a terminal corymb ; found nearly all the
year round.

CoMPOSiTiE, the Composite Family.

Tyrimn us leucographus.

The most remarkable of the southern thistles. This
gigantic weed is common on all wild or waste lands in
June.

Calendula arvensisj Wild Marigold.

The Wild Marigold is found in great numbers in May
on the ploughed fields.

Inula viscosa.

A sticky plant with strong aromatic perfume, found on
the bare hills in June; mentioned by Dr. Antonio as
a defence against mosquitoes and flies,

Eelichrysum Stoeclias, Wild Immortelle.

The Wild Immortelle covers all our hills in May with
its sweet yellow flowers ; its leaves of a whitish tone have
a strong perfume.

318

NATUKAL HISTORY.

FLORA.

319

Diotis candidi'ssima,

A pretty little white flower found on the sea-shore in
July, but rare.

Chrysanthemum segetum, the Corn Marigold.
This beautiful species does not appear originally to
have belonged to our flora ; but is found at the present
time in great quantities on the railway embankments
between Bordighera and Ventimiglia, its seeds having
probably been brought in the ballast used for making
them.

Cineraria 7naritima, Wild Cineraria.

The Wild Cineraria is not found in our immediate neigh-
bourhood, but it covers the rocks on the sea-coast east of
San Kemo with its great tufts in the month of July.

Uellis sylvestris, the Wood Daisy.
This variety has large flowers, reddish on the outside,
and must not be confused with the common daisy (B,
permnis). It is only met with under the olive woods on
the plain and in the valleys ; autumn.

Scolymus macuiatus.

One of the finest flowers of the beach, resembling a
yellow thistle.

Urospermum Dalcchampii,

A large yellow flower, having its ligulate flowerets tipped
with brown ; found in the fields and meadows in June.

Arnica montana.

The Mountain or Common Arnica. This is common on
the mountains, close to the line of perpetual snow ; found
in the summer.

Tussilago farfara, Yellow Coltsfoot; Fr. Pas d'dne.
The Coltsfoot, one may say, is the first flower of spring ;
it appears in the torrent beds in January.

Leontopodiiim alpinum, Edehveiss; Fr. Pied de Lion.
The Edelweiss, the discovery of which gives such delight
to Alpine travellers, is very rare in our mountains. It
has, however, been found on the Col di Tenda and on some
of the heights of the valley of the Vesubie.

Ericaceae, the Heath Family.

Erica arhm^ea, Large Heath, or Mediterranean Heath.
Gro\NS abundantly on Monte Nero in !March.

Arbutus unedo, Strawberry Tree, or Red Arbutus.
Found also on Monte Nero ; two other species, the A.
alfiiia or Alpine Bear-berry and the Uva-ursi or Common
Bear-berry, exist amongst the mountains.

Kliododendronferrugineum.

This is often, but wrongly, called the Alpine Kose.
Found on the north slope of the Alps in June.

Apocynace^, the Periwinkle Family.

Nerium oleander^ Oleander ; Fr. Laurier rose.

Abounds in the beds of the torrents, in that of the Nervia
especially. The variety with white blossoms is found upon
the hill of the Madonna delta Guardia, to the east of San
Kemo.

Vinca acutiflora^ Periwinkle ; Fr. Pervenche.

This is the only one of the three species of the genus
which grows at Bordighera, and it is only found in any

320

FLORA.

321

quantity on one spot : the valley of the Fontana Vecchia
and its immediate neighbourhood.

Jasminace^, the Jasmine Family.

Olea Eiirop(ea, the Olive-tree.

The Olive-tree has been known from the most remote
times. We read in the Old Testament, how the dove,
after it had been set at liberty by Noah during the
deluge, returned to the ark, bearing a branch of the olive-
tree in its beak, and many have attributed to this cliarming
incident the adoption of tliis tree as the symbol of peace
by all the peoples of antiquity :

" Pacifercxque manii ramiira protendit olivas."

According to some authorities, Cecrops brought the
olive from Egypt to Greece about the year 1580 B.C.;
according to others, Hercules, on his return from one of
his expeditions, planted it upon Mount Olympus. What
is most probable, however, is that it was introduced by
the Phocaeans to these parts about the year 600 B.C.
Pliny states that at the time of Tarquin the Elder, there
were none to be found either on the African coast or in
Europe.

The Olive blossoms in the spring, and its fruits ripen
during the winter ; the olives are sharp and bitter to the
taste ; the oil from them, which is known all over the
world, is obtained by crushing them in powerful presses.

The traveller journeying towards the soutli of Europe
first meets them in the neighbourhood of Marseilles,
but they are few and far between and of small size.
The real olive woods, containing trees which have stood

for centuries, are to be found in the neighbourhood of
Cannes, to the eastward of the Esterel Mountains, and
they stretch away to the cold plains of the Serchio and the
Arno in Tuscany. There is no district along the
Riviera where this tree is more extensively cultivated,
than in the neiglibourhood of Bordighera ; but the visitor
must not conclude from the immense number of trees
which he sees on every side, that its culture is a source of
wealth to those countries which possess it.

On the slopes of the hills, where the lemon, orange, and
other valuable plants will not grow, owing to the difficulty
or impossibility of obtaining a sufficient supply of water,
the cultivation of the olive may still be a profitable in-
vestment; but in the flat parts, especially over the whole
area of the extensive plain which stretches from Bordi-
ghera up to the Nervia, anything else, whether it be
wheat, or Italian rye-grass, or vegetables, would give
infinitely more remunerative results.

During the long wars of the first Empire, a strict
blockade prevented the oils of the Levant from entering
the French markets; consequently, olive oil rose to an
exorbitant price, and the inhabitants of Liguria (that
province having been annexed to France) were led to
plant these trees in great quantities.

But the exaggerated rates of bygone days are no
longer maintained ; * whilst at the same time, the increased

* There is another reason also, I think, for the decreased demand for these
oils and the consequent fall in price, viz. the discovery and extraordinary
popularity of the mineral oils of America, which, for the purposes of illumina-
tion and owing to their wonderful cheapness, have practically driven the olive
oil from the market. There is hardly a cottage in England, not to mention
great part of Europe, in which the lamp is not now fed by petroleum, or one
of its sister oils. — A. C. D.

t

III

oJLA

NATUEAL HISTORY.

dryness which has characterised the past decades (pro-
duced, no doubt, by the reckless way the woods and
mountain forests have been cut down), has caused a
partial failure of the crops; for the olive needs great
quantities of water, and since it has failed to obtain it, its
crops have become smaller and smaller.

The produce of an olive-tree varies enormously, accord-
ing to the size of the tree, the manner of its cultivation,
and its position.

Left to itself, unpruned and unmanured, its produce
gradually dwindles until it reaches zero. On the other
hand, when it is carefully pruned from infancy, watered
abundantly, and well manured with substances strongly
impregnate with azote and especially horny matter, such
as woollen rags, a fine tree ought to give about 44 lbs. of
oil, or in other words, a net profit of about 30 francs.

During the whole of the winter the peasants employ
themselves in picking up the ripe olives which fall beneath
the trees, and as spring draws to an end they beat the
branches with long canes, to bring down all those which
have not already fallen.

The operation of extracting the oil is effected by two
distinct processes ; first of all, the olives are crushed in a
frantoio^ that is, a mill-stone revolving on its edge round
a vertical axis. From thence the olives are carried to a
powerful press, tlie flow of oil from which is often hastened
by the help of warm water ; this, however, does not im-
prove the quality of the oil. The dregs which are left
behind then undergo a further process ; the oil resulting
from which goes by the name of ressanse.

FLORA.

323

GENTIANACE.E, the Gentian Family.

Chlora acuminata. Yellow Wort ; Fr. Chlorette.

Erythrcea centaurium, Common Centaury.
The species mentioned above are the only two members
of the Gentian family which are found in our valleys ;
the true gentians are only to be met on mountains of a
considerable height.

PoLYGALACE^, the Milkwort Family.

Polygala comosa.
„ nicceensis.

Seven species of the pretty Milkwort family are found
amongst our flora; but the P. comosa with its pink
flowers, and the nicmensis with its blue, are the only ones
which exist in any abundance in the neighbourhood.

CoNVOLVULACE^, the Bindweed Family.

Convolvulus sepium, Large Bindweed.
„ cantahrica.

The Large Bindweed, white with flowers, abounds in
our valleys; the Biscayan Bindweed (cantahrica), with
pink flowers and prostrate stem, affects the dried-up hills :
it is found in May.

BoRAGiNACE^, the Borage Family.

Cerinthe aspera, Fr. Melinet.

This is somewhat rare, but is found in the valley of
Borghetto, also at Ospedaletti in the month of April.

Anchusa italica, Bugloss, or Ycnus' Looking-glass.

It abounds near the sea in April.

Y 2

324

NATURAL HISTORY.

Lithospermiim purpureo-coeruleumf The Millet.

This flower, called by the French Gremil is one of the
most beautiful of flowers of the south ; it is found in March,
and especially under the olives.

OROBANCHACEiE, the Broom-rape Family.

FMipoea lavandulacea,

„ mufsli.
Orobanche epithymum.

„ concolor,

„ speciosa.

No less than twenty species of this singular family are
found in this neighbourhood, mainly in April.

LABiATEiE, the Labiate Family.

Lavandula officinalis^ Common Lavender.
„ stcechas.

The latter a fine variety, but almost without perfume ;
found on Monte Nero in March.

VERBENACEiE, the Verbena Family.

Vitex agmis-castuB, Fr. Gattilicr.

One of the prettiest shrubs in the country, especially
in the height of the summer, when it is covered with
beautiful blue flowers, in terminal spikes ; flowers in the
valleys in July.

GLOBULARiACEiE, the Globulary Family.

Olobularia vidgaris.

The Globularias are found upon the sunburnt hills,

FLORA.

325

which they brighten up the whole of winter with their
pretty blue flowers.

Phytolacce-e.

Phytolacca decandra.
Ori-inallv from America, but at the present day natu-
ralised over' the whole of the south of Europe ; remark-
able for its bunches of black fruit ; rather rare.

EuPHOEBiACE^, the Spruce Pam ily-

Euphorbia dendroides.

No less than twenty-nine species of this family belong
to the flora of the coast. The E. dendroides, the only
ligneous one, is very common, but only eastward of the
French frontier.

Conifers, the Coniferous Family.

Larix curopoa, Common Larch.
Finns Cemhro.

„ stjluvdris, Sylvester Pine.
Ahies fectinata, Scotch Fir.

„ cxcelsa. Spruce Fir.

These five species form the forests of the Alps ; they arc
met with in the following order : above 4000 feet the
larch {Europm) and the P. Ge^nhro ; below these, the
Spruce Fir (P. exceha) and the Scotch Fir, and finally,
near the coast, the Sylvester Pine (P. sylvestris).

Finns maritima, Chister Piue.
„ Jialepensis, Aleppo Piue.
pinea, Umbrella Piue.

The Cluster Piue and the Aleppo Pine compose the
>voods on the lower or secondary range of mountains, but

326

NATUEAL HISTORY.

tlie P. Finea is found in any considerable numbers only

in the neighbourhood of Cannes.

LiLTACEJE, the Lily Family.

„ clusinna.

The large Early Tulip {Fr. TtiUpe jprecoce) has red
flowers spotted with black and yellow on the unguis, and
is common in certain parts in the cultivated lands ; flowers
in April. The tiny but most charming Tulipe cle Tecluse
with its \\hite and pink flowers is very rare; flowers in
April.

Allium iieajfolitanumj Garlic.

rosnim.

FLORA.

327

)»

)>

»i

suhliirsutu/n.

trlijHtfrmii,

These four beautiful species are met with in the fields
under cultivation ; the two last are somewhat rare ; March
to May.

OrnUhogalum narhotienae, Narbonne Star of Bethlehem.
Grows in shady valleys in March ; rather rare.

Erythroiiium dens-can is^ DogVtooth Violet.
Found high up in the mountains in April.

Aluscari cmnostiiH, common Grape II}acinth.
„ botryoides.

Very plentiful in the gardens and cultivated terraces.

A n iher icum Uliago,

Shady valleys, not rare.

Frirdlariii pyrmiaica^ Fritillary.
Ill the high mountains in April ; rare.

AsPARAGiNACEiE, the Asparagus Family.

Asparagus acutifoUus, Asparagus.
The pointed-leaved asparagus (Fr. Asperge a feuilles
aigues) grows wild on the hills ; its young shoots are

eatable. _ .,,

Smilax aspera, Sarsapanlla.

The SarsapariUa, with its lovely bunches of red berries,
is in spite of its thorns, one of the most pleasing climbing
plants of our flora ; sheltered valleys ; fruit in winter.

Iridace^, the Iris Family.

Gladiolus segetum, Pink Gladiolus.
The pink gladiolus plays the same part in the south as
the corn-flower does in the north of Europe ; it overruns
the arable land in all directions ; May.

Ilermodadylas tuherosus, the Black Iris.

A very rare plant ; flowers in March.

AMARYLLiDACEiE, the Daffodil and Snow-drop

Family.

Leucoiiwi autumnale, the Snowflake.

The little Snoivflahe of the south is rare everywhere, and
the few specimens which are met with along the coast are
in the cracks and crevices of the rocks between Monaco
and the frontier ; March.

Narcissus poeticus. Narcissus.

tazzetta.

pat id us.

italicus.

incomparahiUs, Garden Daffodil.

The first-named {Narcissus podiciis) is as rare as the

jr

f»

J>

»

328

NATURAL HISTORY.

N. patulus and ifalicus, wliicli are, it id probable, but
varieties of the Tazzetia; this latter abounds everywhere.

Fancratiurii inuritimum.

One of the largest and most beautiful flowers of the
Eiviera, but rare in the present day ; flowers in July.

ORCHiDACEiE, the Orchid Family.

Eplpuctis anslfolhi.

The most graceful of our orchids ; white flowers ; shady
valleys; May.

Liinudorum ahoitivum.

Valleys and rocks in May, but somewhat rare.

Ojthrys arm, if em. Spider Orchis.
scolopax.

up if era, Bee Orclnn.
I

(ui(hroj>o2>hon(. Green Man Orchis.
„ fmca, Lady Orchis.

Numerous during the month of February in most places,
but each has its special quarter, the different species
hardly even mingling. The 0. aranifera and authro-
pophora are the i*arest.

w
1)
»)

•f

Oiflti,-

-I

itCiuliS.

This is the only species with yellow flowers ; it is found
on Mmite Nero in March.

Orchis hifvU't.

Found in the high lands in April, but rare.

Orchis laxiflora.
„ variegata.
„ gakata,

„ pyrumidalis, Pyramidical Orchih.
., tokojmuj Fragrant Orchi-s.

FLORA.

329

Orchis coriox»1iora, Bug Orchis.
„ simiiij Monkey Orchis.

All tliese are very numerous in the valleys and meadows
in April and May. _ , .,

^ '' 0. densifiora.

The only orchis which flowers in the autumn: it has
white flowers ; on the hills.

Serapias limjua.
„ longipetala.

Tliese two remarkable species are common near springs

in the valleys ; April.

Aroidace^e, the Arum Family.

Arum italicum, the Capuchin.

i»

arimrum.

These two species, known in France as the Gouet d'ltalie
and the Gouet ca^puchoUy are, out of the whole number of
the noxious and troublesome herbs, those most difficult to
destroy and exterminate. The larger species is remark-
able for the heat which is radiated by its pistil.

Cyperace^, the Sedge Family.

Cyperus schoenoides.
A beautiful species having globular heads, growing on
the sands by the sea ; blooms in the summer.

Cyperus rotundus.
A small species, having a triangular stem; it grows
everywhere in cultivated land; and flowers throughout

the year.

The Palm Family.

Charnarops humilis^ the Dwarf Pahii.

The Dwarf Palm is the onlv member of the family

330

NATURAL HISTOBY.

whieli belongs to the European flora, but in the present
day it is only found in a few parts of Europe ; those in fact
which are not overrun as completely as the rest, by the
amateur botanist and specimen collector; such as the
islands of Corsica and Sardinia. It formerly grew in large
numbers on the Kiviera, and was to be found in the
neighbourhood of all the wintering resorts, and especially
at the bottom of the Gulf of Villa Franca, where it
probably marked the northern limit of the Palm Family.

Phoenix dactylifera, the Date Palm.

The Date Palm belongs to Northern Africa and Asia
Minor, but it has been introduced within comparatively
recent days, as an ornamental tree, in all those parts of
Southern Europe where the climate is sufficiently warm
to permit its cultivation. But in our relatively cold cli-
mate, this beautiful tree does not show itself to the same
advantage as under the burning suns of the Sahara.
Tliere, it is multiplied not only by seed but also by
separating the young suckers from the roots and the axils
of the leaves. This last mode of propagation is the most
advantageous, the plants thus obtained being all females,
that is to say fruit bearers, and tliey will bear fruit at an
age of only five or six years, wliilst those obtained from
seed bear no dates until they have reached an age of
fifteen or twenty years.

In the oases of Southern Algeria, the inhabitants plant
the Date Palm in the proportion of 100 trees to
the hectare, and the average of each hectare is 72
quintals, about 72 kilos, or 1 cwt. and 1 quarter, re-
presenting from 8 to 10 clusters of fruit, each weighing
from 7 to 8 kilos, or 15 Us. to 16 lbs. English measure-

FLOKA.

331

ment; the net return being about at least MOO francs
the hectare. No cultivation of cereals, however success-
fully carried out, could produce such results.

France possesses about 400 oases in Algeria planted
with the Palm Tree ; that of Biskra, which is the most im-
portant, containing 40,000 at the very least ; some others
but a few hundreds; the average probably running as
high as 10,000, which will give a total for the French
oases of 4,000,000 of trees and a revenue of 60,000,000

of francs.

With us at Bordighera, the date rarely ripens, for
winter coming on before it has arrived at maturity, the fruit
fails to acquire the flavour and sweetness which it attains
in its native land. Again, at Bordighera, the tree is not
cultivated for its fruit, as strangers might naturally
imagine. The object is solely to obtain the white
branches, and for some years past to multiply, by means
of seeds, the plants for exportation, as an ornament for
gardens along the coast.

Two Date palms are especially cultivated for their
leaves ; the first, called the Palma alia romana, having
very long leaves, their leaflets terminating in a very
solid point; the other known as the Palma aW ehrea,
whose leaves are much shorter and their leaflets

blunter.

The bleaching, or turning the Palm leaves into a
yellowish white colour, is produced by a process exactly
similar to that employed by the market gardeners in ob-
taining the white centres of the lettuces. They strongly
tie up the whole of the branches so as to form a vertical
roll, in the centre of which are the young leaves, which
have to grow as best they may, shut off from both light

332

NATURAL HISTORY.

and air. This operation takes places, so far as tlie Palma
alia romana is concerned, in the summer, in order that
the white leaves may be ready for the Palm Sunday ot
the following year ; and for the alF ehrea, in tlie spring, m
view of the Feast of Tabernacles of the German Jews.
The Talm plantations at Bordighera are nearly all grouped
around the old village ; in the level ground of the Borgo
Marina, we come across none, except the magniticent one
of M Adolphe Garibiddi, which stands quite alone. The
most beautiful specimens of the Date Palm in Bordighera
however, are found in the ganlen of the Villa Moreno ;
some of these indeed cannot be less than from six to eight

hundred years old.

But it is to the east of the old town, and especially on
the steep slopes which form the entrance to the valley,
that the largest palm plantations are to be found, which
supply the enormous quantities of leaves despatched from
these shores. The *' eampanile " of M. Charles Garuier's
pretty villa gives a lovely view of these oriental gardens,
which are on every side of it.

It was probably the Crusaders who introduced the date
palm into Liguria and Provence ; and especially may we
infer tliat tliis was the case at Hyeres, whicli was one of
their ports of embarkation ; but the cultivation of the tree
on a large scale at Bordigliera only dates back to the end
of the sixteenth century, and owes its origin to an incident
which occurred in Rome on the 10th of September,

1586.

The great basilica of St. Peter was then under con-

struction, and Sixtus V. had ordered the architect,

Domenico Fontana, to place in front of the fa^-ade

of that church an Egyptian obelisk which hud been

FLORA.

333

found in the amphitheatre of Nero, the actual site of the

sacristy.

This operation, which modern engineers would have
found a perfectly easy one, was full of difficulties to those
of that period ; indeed, it was looked upon as one of an
important and serious character, and was accompanied by
all that pomp with which the Papacy habitually surrounds
its great functions.

Sixtus V. said a solemn mass, and gave his benediction
to the workmen, who numbered eight hundred, besides
forty horses, and then adjourned with all his suite to the
grand balcony, in order that he might witness the opera-
tion. A mass of people, full of enthusiasm for art, filled
to overflowing the vast pVma, and perfect silence reigned
throughout the immense and excited crowd, owing to a
cruel order threatening death to any one who uttered a
cry. Everything went well until the moment when the
enormous block of granite was on the point of attaining its
upright position, but at this critical moment the ropes,
stretching under the excessive strain, began to slacken.
Instantly a loud voice broke the silence, and in spite of
the penalty, rang through the air, exclaiming, " Wet the
ropes!'' This most opportune advice was immediately
followed, bringing the affair safely through the crisis to a
successful termination. It turned out, on inquiry being
made, that the speaker was a certain Bresca, the captain
of a merchant vessel hailing from San Kemo. The Pope
ordered the gallant sailor to be brought into his presence,
and, far from punishing him, presented him with a hand-
some sw^ord, and, more important than this, granted to
his family the privilege of supplying palms to the Vatican
for Palm Sunday and the Holy Week Services.

334

NATURAL HISTORY.

GRAMiNACEiE, the Grass Family.

Laguriis ova t us.

Brim maxima^ Large Quaking Grass.
„ minima^ Little Quakmg Grass.
Stipa pennata. Feather Grass.

The Grasses of this iieigliboiirhood offer hardly any in-
terest to the amateur botanist, for they do not differ
sensibly from those of Northern Europe. The Siipa pen-
nata, with its long, feathery edges, is only to be found on
the higher mountain ranges.

Ariindo dmax, tlie Provencal Cane.

This is probably a native of Asia, but is now cultivated
over the whole of the Soutli of Europe.

It is to a certain extent a classic plant, for from it were
manufactured the first musical instruments ; probably it
was from this reed the great god Pan cut his pipe, and
from which he discoursed such strange music. Everyone
is conversant, too, with the line in Virgil :

" Agrestem teniii medi tabor arundine musam."

FiLicES, Ferns.

Ceteruch ojlcinariim.
Asplenium rutd-m uraria.

,, adifinttcni nigrum,

Folypod ill m v uhjare.

These four varieties are numerous on old walls in all
moist and sheltered positions.

Adiantum capillus- VmeriSy Maiden Hair.

This gem of the flora of Southern Europe carpets the

rocks in some especially moist situations, and particularly

the Vallm Ohscur, near Nice ; it is also found amongst

the crevices of the stones which form the well-sides, and

H'LOEA.

335

in the fissures of the rocks from whence the springs emerge
into daylight ; and it is the belief of the peasantry that
the presence of this fern is a sign that the water is espe-
cially pure.

Pteris aquilina^ Common Brake.
„ cretica.

These are rather rare, but found occasionally in the
damp woods ; the latter especially, with its entire fronds.

Aspidium fiUx-maSf Male Fern.

The only large fern which grows low down near the
coast ; it is fairly common in our valleys.

( 336 )

P A 17 T V

ARTISTIC FEATURES OF BORDIGHERA.'
By M. Charles Garnier, Architect.

-tOt-

Jl*

To Artists.

We may take it, I think, as a general rule, tliat artists as
a body do not care to have subjects either for sketches or
finished works pointed out to them. They iniiuitely prefer
to wander hither and thither at will, and discover for them-
selves those picturesque spots, those tempting '* bits "
which they find so great a delight in transferring to their
sketch-book or canvas. If, then, it always happened that
the artists who visited Bordighera came there intending
to make a long stay, I at least should be the last to
anticipate their impressions, but should leave them to
ramble haphazard, feeling certain tliat their artistic in-
stinct would direct them to all the interesting points of
the neighbourhood. But it is probable that some of the
landscape painters and amateur artists who visit this spot
do little more (if it is allowable to say so) than take a

♦ This interesting description of Bordighera considered from an artistic
point of view has already been published in two successive editions of my
little guide-book : Bordighera in gennaio, Vaik-Mecum del Forestiere.

TO ARTISTS.

337

hasty turn round ; and it is possible therefore, that, in
spite of their innate faculty for discovering beautiful " sub-
jects," they may pass over the most picturesque spots
and lovely and characteristic views, without being aware
of their existence. Thus, they would not only lose the
enjoyment which such exquisite views would give them,
but also fail to carry away a just recollection of Bordi-
ghera : a result, if possible, to be avoided.

I think, therefore, that I may be rendering a service to
those artists who are but birds of passage, and to all lovers
of the picturesque who have but a short time to stay in
this lovely corner of the Riviera, if I attempt to point out
some of the places they ought to visit, if they wish to fix
on their minds, if not on their canvasses or in their sketch-
books, some of those innumerable subjects, as quaint as
characteristic, which make Bordighera unlike any other
town in the world.

For in truth Bordighera is far less Italy than Palestine,
and without crossing the sea, we can imagine, if so inclined,
as we wander through the old town and its environs, that
we have been transported to the Holy Land, and, in one
particular spot, even to the kingdom of the Pharaohs.

But it is not my wish to write pages of description. I am
only anxious to be of use to those who have but little time
at their disposal ; though perhaps, indeed, some of the in-
formation I am able to give may prove of interest even to
those of our visitors who are spending some time at Bor-
dighera.

In the following pages I have called attention to some
of the most interesting points of view in the neighbour-
hood. I do not attempt to class them in order of merit,
for each has its especial charm ; but I have grouped them

z

338

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

into a series of walks, which will enable the tourist to
visit the spots referred to.

11.

The Tower of Mostaccini.

We will imagine our artist starting from the little
Piazza facing the church steps in the old town. Passing
the square where stands tlie fountain, he must turn to the
right, then to the left, and he will find himself in the
narrow passage leading to the aqueduct, where all the
washerwomen of Bordighera are engaged in tlieir work.
Crossing the little stream wliich renders their labours
possible, he must take the somewhat steep little path
on the other side, and having reached the extreme point,
turn to the left ; he will then be on the direct path to the
old fountain (Fontana Veeehia), and cannot fail by any
chance to lose his way. The first part of this path is very
beautiful, as indeed are all in this part of the Eiviera, but
it possesses no special character. But continue the walk,
and we shall soon arrive at the old fountain, a little spring
situated at the corner of the road, and which is
decidedly picturesque in appearance. In front of this
fountain, where the ground shelves suddenly and forms a
hollow, is a very shut in valley, now part of M. Bischoff-
sheim's property, which is quite worth spending a few
minutes in visiting ; but it will be best at present if we
merely content ourselves with descending a few steps, and
leaving the pretty valley to be explored on our return.
Any way, those who follow it through its whole length
will find charming subjects for their sketch-book, already
composed for them, and full of rich colour. But we must

THE TOWER OF MOSTACCINI.

339

still follow the path, and after about a quarter of an hour's

walking, shall arrive at the upper end of another valley,

which we must examine carefully on our return, for it is a

very remarkable one. The road now divides ; one branch

at once ascending, and the other, the continuation of that

we have so far followed, turning obliquely to the left.

Tliis it is, along which we must still pursue our walk : it

now becomes very bad and stony, and leads us to the

bottom of the massive rocks upon which is built the tower

of Mostaccini. At this point, where the almost vertical

rock towers in front of us, dressed in its robe of ivy and

wild briar, we shall find two or three grand subjects, full

of wildness and character. This superb rock to the left,

in front of us the sea, to our right the French mountains,

the whole of the foreground broken up by the masses of

olive trees, form together a wonderful picture, offering

magnificent subjects of untamed and savage nature.

We must now take the little path which it is somewhat
difficult to make out, so slightly marked is it, which
passes below the rocks upon the left, and follow it steadily
until it passes the fragments of an old wall; a little
beyond tliis we shall find our track is crossed by a little
path which winds up the mountain in the opposite direction,
and shortly we arrive at what appears to be an old ruin,
almost hi(klen by masses of brambles. It is at this point
that the view is most beautiful and most extensive.

I have no intention of describing it, but only wish to
indicate as precisely as possible the exact point from
which it is to be obtained. For it is a view, I do not
hesitate to say, which from its panoramic character is one
of the finest in the world.

We can now proceed to. the Tower, either by taking the

z 2

340

AUTISTIC FEATUTIES.

little path on our left, or by climbing that which is little
better than an apology for a path, which we find to the
right: butli of these will lead us to our destination, which
is°now barely 150 yards distant. Here also a very lovely
view is to be obtained, but personally 1 much prefer the

former.

We must now pass by the stone wall raised in front
of the tower, and turn again into the little bridle-path
which descends on our right, and by which we shall
arrive almost immediately at the level plateau, where
is tlie cluster of pines whieli crowns that portion of the
summit. Before continuing the track which leads us back
again to the plain, let us stop for a few moments on the
pine crest and turn our eyes towards the left : here are at
least four or five delightful subjects for our sketch-books.
which seem to stand out from their surroundings, as if only
waiting to be reproduced on canvas. This is an especially
characteristic corner of Bordighera, and one which is not
likely to be soon forgotten. It is not of course possible to
indicate the exact spots where one should place one's self
to get these suggestive subjects in the best possible aspect :
but any painter or sketcher possessing the artistic faculty,
once brought to this place, will choose for himself, and
cannot fail to choose satisfactorily. Let us now descend
the path (here very steep and badly cut) as it winds
serpent-like down the face of the crumbling hill, and
either by continuing along it, or by taking the path cut
by M. Bischoffsheim as a plan for a road, we arrive at the

bottom of the hill.

Then, instead of following the road, we will turn to the
left, for the path is sufficiently marked to enable us to
trace it ; besides, it has the further attraction that it creeps

THE TOWER OF MOSTACCINI.

341

along the right bank of the little torrent, almost always
dry, which forms the lower part of the valley up which I
am anxious we should wander. It is in this valley that the
landscape painter will find the most tempting subjects
imaginable, with powerful lights and shadows ; whilst even
the ordinary tourist, who chances to discover tliis spot, will
find shade, a refreshing breeze, peaceful solitude, and all
those hundred and one charms so dear to the tired pedes-
trian, longing for a resting-place.

When sufficiently rested, we will again move forward,
continuing to mount the torrent, until we find on our left
some rocks rising almost perpendicularly : here let us leave
the i»at]i for a little, and wandering hither and thither,
enjoy the ever fresh and always charming " bits " which
continually present themselves to our view. Pass across
also, if you are inclined, to the right side of the torrent,
follow the bed of it for a time and in the little ecole
huissonniere, to which I w^ould guide you, you will find,
amidst periwinkles, violets, flags, &e., a path which will
more than once stop you short with the longing to transfer
some of its beauties to the sketch-book, which should be
your constant companion.

If we follow this as far as the top of the ravine, we can,
if so inclined, return by the road leading to the Fontana
Vecchia ; but this is rather waste of time, for the upper jjart
of this torrent is not equal to the lower. So it is prefer-
able only to go on, until on our right hand we see a sort
of arched glade, flanked by a large vertical rock covered
with ivy ; cross this aperture by a jump, and climb, even
though it may cost you some little trouble, towards the
right, so as to arrive helow the rock just referred to. Here
the path is very difficult to indicate ; indeed, it may be

III

342

AUTISTIC FExVTUKES.

said to be noii-existeiit, and what does exist is far from
being horizontal : it follows the rows of olive trees, and this
necessitates one's passing and repassing, as one progresses,
close to some of the finest trees it is possible to see, some
above, some below us, according to the height we have
reached. Let us turn our backs now on Bordighera and our
steps into the very heart of this lovely forest, where many
of the trees are centuries old. We may chance here to
lose ourselves, but it will be nothing serious. Any way, we
shall most probably arrive at the little ravine before men-
tioned, the ravine of the Fontana Vecchia. We will cross
it if we can, or rather if we feel inclined, for this is not
anywhere a difficult operation. However, I wi^rn you that
here we shall be trespassing on a portion of the grounds of
the Villa Bischoffsheim, so that it will perhaps be prefer-
able to enter by the gate which opens on the Strada
Komam, Besides, we can see the villa at the same time,
for the gate is always open to all who care to enter ; and
if I am not able to say a good word for it, I hope you at
least will not think any ill of it* Then, if you are not
knocked-up with seeing so many beautiful effects, and each
as characteristic as it is beautiful, give one farewell glance
around this lovely spot, and then we will go out by the door
which opens out of the rustic fence dividing the garden
from the olive woods. Here we re-emerge on the path
leading to the Fontana Vecehia, but are compelled to
descend several of the terraces, as the track follows the
winding of the fence. Then, continuing our walk, we very
soon arrive at a bai'e and open spot, a sort of clearing on

* The author of these papers is also the architect of the villa in question,
one of the handsomest in the neighbourhood, and which was selected for the
residence of the Queen of Italy m tlic spring of 1880.-A. V. D.

THE TOWER OF MOSTACOINI.

343

the hill side, where is a little white building, having a
black cross painted above the door ; this is the point which
tells us that a good path is close at hand. We pass onwards,
along one of the vine terraces below, and at the end of
that which has an enormous fig-tree growing out of the
supporting wall, we shall find the path we are in quest of;
it is a capital one, and will lead us direct to Bordighera, to
the very point from whence we left it. Here I shall bid
you farewell, with hope that the excursion we have just
made together has been a pleasant one. Only one thing
I must ask you to bear in mind, in taking it alone or intro-
ducing it to a new comer, that it should always be made
in tlie afternoon, for at that period of the day both the
mountains and valleys have a better light upon them.

III.

SiG. Moreno's Garden.

It is unnecessary for mo to tell you how to find this
marvellous garden, the pearl of Bordighera ; anyone will
show you the way. Indeed, I am almost ashamed to
mention this garden, for it is almost as if I were men-
tioning the sea ! Any way it ought not to be neglected
by artists, as, apart from the extremely rare and interest-
ing plants and shrubs which it contains in great numbers,
there are certain delightful corners, thoroughly charac-
teristic of the place and worthy of admiration from all who
love nature and her handiwork. For example, this large
pool or reservoir, surrounded by those clumps of enormous
palms,— can anything be more characteristic, more oriental
or more suggestive of the Arabian Nights? And the
lower portion of the garden too ; can one ever visit it too

344

ARTISTIC FEATUREP.

often— with its twisted palms, creeping everywhere, and all
entangled the one with the other? At each step, new pic-
tures, fresh combinations present themselves to our eyes, and
tlie painter is only embarrassed by the variety ready to his
choice : embarrassed very greatly indeed in this enchanted
garden of E len ; but can a stronger proof be wanting of
the number and variety of the subjects it offers for our
sketcli-book ? Do not delay then, 0 painters and brotiiers
of the brush, to visit this garden, for it is unique in
Europe: study those clumps of Palm trees, the Phoenix
daetj/Iifera, the Chamoerops, tlie Latania, mingled with
the Bananas, the Oranges of every variety ; and if you do
not reproduce anything on your canvas, at least you
will have added to the storehouse of your memory a
radiant corner of the East, and your imagination cannot
fail to be more poetical, by contact with its enchantment.

jY

The Cape of St. Abipelio.

I am not desirous now of speaking of the view from the
Cape, nor of the Cape itself, as a place for a stroll. As
such it is the first place which should be visited by every
stranger on his arrival at Bordighera, and a tourist must
indeed be hard to please if he is not charmed with it. But
I am anxious especially to call attention to that portion of it
formed by the jutting-out rocks, wliich is seen from the
Cornice Eoad, at the point where stands the little chapel
of St. Ampelio. Here there is a little roofless hut, close
to which is a winding ascent leading to a rude bastion,
and close by a large wooden cross, which give to the
whole a character, if we may use the term, of grandeur

cape ST. AMPELIO.

345

and simplicity combined which is unequalled along the
Riviera. The soft line which crowns tlie Cape, the roofs
of some old houses which rise just above, two or three
stunted olives lower down to the left, and the gorgeous
colouring of the foreground, make this corner of Bordi-
ghera like a bit of the East, or perhaps rather one of those
subjects, purely oriental in character, which delight the
imagination, and to which our memory is ever ready to
return.

Look also in the direction of the entrance to the rail-
way tunnel with the deep blue of the Mediterranean
forming a wonderful background ! What a picture to de-
light an artist's eyes ! and one as striking as typical ;
and I vow, that so far as I personally am concerned, I
would most willingly give up all of the famous promenades
of the great capitals of Europe for this exquisite little bit
of the East ; the characteristics of which are stamped
around us in all their fulness and beauty. Ah! my
brother artists, look well, I pray you, at this little corner,
with its rich colouring : out with your sketch-books and
your canvasses ; make your studies and pictures whilst it
is still possible to do so, and endeavour to reproduce this
exquisite bit of this most beautiful neighbourhood ; for
alas! it is more than probable this striking page of
nature's book is destined soon to disappear ! Bordighera
has taken, like so many places along the Riviera, a great
start forwards, and is entering upon a new existence : it is
rapidly becoming a town, luxurious if not fashionable,
instead of a simple and picturesque village ; and it is not
improbable, therefore, that before very long, perhaps
sooner than many think, this unique cape may be
transformed into the conventional square ; if, indeed, it

346

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

may not have erected upon it an ostentatious Casino with
all its meritricious accompaniments ! Then farewell fur
ever to the artistic character of the place ! For the
Eastern surroundings will disappear and fjjive place to the
feeble conventionalities of Western civilisation, and those
rich and picturesque gifts, which nature, time, and even
the poverty of the country have combined to give us, will
but survive in tlie recollection of tlie past.

I beseech, therefore, all those having authority and in-
fhunce in our little community to preserve, as far as
possible, the three great features of Bordighera ; viz. the
Old Town, the eastern side of the Sassu torrent, and the
Ca[)(' facing St. Ampelio's chapel. We must think of the
Artists, as much as we do of the winter visitors ; for it is
the former, let us remember, to whom the reputation of
Bordighera is due. Who knows that in the future, when
our visitors may have departed tootlicr still unmodernised
towns, tliat it will not be to the painters, we shall have to
go, if we desire to bring back to our recollection this City
of Palm Trees ? Do not let us then allow this part at
least to be transformed ; let the west side, if you will,
become the Iiome of our winter residents and visitors, but,
in Heaven's name, stop at the Cape and leave its natural
picturesqueness to remain just as Nature has presented
it to us. Whatever happens, let us not add a touch to this
roofless cottage, this ruined bastion, this zig-zag path,
the rocks which blush in the sunset, or the little olives,
which in their unpruned luxuriousness have a delicacy of
outline most graceful and ideally beautiful.

You have there, Bordighesi, in truth, a rough diamond ;
do not try and make a too costly casket, or it is possible
that in so doing you may chance to hide your gem.

( 347 )

V.

The Old Town.

There is no doubt that in bygone days there must have
existed a Good Genius, who took the landscape painter
especially under his protection. This Good Genius built
all the narrow and winding streets, designed the
old towns which are perched upon the hillsides, sur-
rounded tlie cities with towers and ramparts, and above
all, threw the sunbeams into the many cracks and crevices
and allowed the moonlight to glisten so weirdly on the
deep gateways and lofty CampaniU. However, in the
present day, this kindly Spirit appears to be somewhat
exhausted by his labours — " played out" the Americans
might term it— and his place has been filled by the Genius
of the Civil Engineer, whose idea of beauty is a horizon-
tal plane, a straight line, and an angle of 90 degrees !
You will not take long in finding out what pranks the
latter has been playing in our neighbourhood, as every-
where else; let us trust, however, that he may be so
fatigued by his journey, as at least to leave untouclied the
Old Town, to some of the picturesque bits of which I now
proposed to introduce you. For all true artists will re-
joice to find in this old portion of Bordighera one of the
works of the Good Genius just referred to; here they
can penetrate into thousands of little corners, in each
of which a sul)ject may be found, as characteristic as
picturesque.

The Via Dritta, which leads from the town to Signer
Moreno's Garden, is one of these typical bits: or two,
rather ; for you can either place yourself at tlie bottom of

348

AUTISTIC FEATURES.

the steep declivity with the old Gateway as a background ;
or, better still, reverse your position : let the old Town Gate
serve as a border and foreground; allowing you to see
through the arch the panorama it encloses, standing out
in full relief. The composition is as perfect in one as in the
other, and more than one artist of my acquaintance has
already reproduced them. As to the little Piazza in
which the church stands, it is a composition which is
simply perfect in its details, especially \Nhen, standing
alongside the door of the parish church, one views the
Campanile rising from the curious base formed by the
black-toned arcades. There is indeed, in the Imrmoniuus
effect produced, sometliing which reminds one of Verona
or Vicenza, and une is compelled to admit, that under all
circumstances, this place, so viewed, possesses a character
which is essentially Italian. And, if you will believe it
possible, they have actually thought of pulling down these
old houses in order to open up a communication between
this piazza and the Via Lunga. It would have been
nothing less than an act of the most horrible vandalism,
viewed either from an artistic or common-sense point of
view. Already indeed, the authorities have gone so far as
to colour with a whitish yellow tint the rez-de-chaussee of the
Portico on the right, which was formerly so harmonious in
its neutral tones of smoky line. But after all, one must
not expect everything, and by degrees this yello^v wash
will return again to the more harmonious tints of the past,
but this will not apply to the proposed demolition of which
I spoke ; for time in that case would be powerless to cure
the evil, should it ever chance to take place.

If, however, the authorities of Bordigliera wisli to turn
thi ir attention to this curious old spot, which is in fact the

THE OLD TOWN.

349

most interesting point of the town, they can do so, not
only without interfering with its picturesque character,
but, on the contrary, by carrying out an improvement
which will much intensify its already marked individuality :
I mean by replacing the sharply pointed and painful
stones (boulders, rather), which at present serve for pave-
ment, by flagstones of a large size, which we see now in
most of the Italian towns. Nothing is pleasanter to the
eye, or more agreeable and quieter to walk upon, or would
better contribute to give a sort of eomme il faxit discret
to the streets and piazzas, making them both attractive
and artistic. This it is which artists must demand,
and when the fagade of the old church has to a certain
extent been restored, not modernised but in the
Italian style of its date, one will find in Bordighera a sort
of little Forum, which will not be the least interesting
amongst the marvellous camjyi of Italy. However,
whilst we are waiting to see these wishes realised, there is
already plenty to delight and occupy the eye of a painter,
and the circuit of the old ramparts, both inside and out,
offers to him at once only one of a number of subjects
which, added to those I have already mentioned, are suf-
ficient to show that the artist who desires to reproduce the
characteristics of the old town will not be obliged to stand
idle, but has merely to select from subjects which are as
charming as they are varied.

As to the town as seen from the exterior, it presents on
its four sides four different aspects, all very simple, but
of most harmonious lines. The two most interesting are :
first, that looking to the west from the front of the
Pension A^iglaise, and which, rising as it does from the
picturesque rock, has a very striking appearance; and

350

AKTISTIC FEATURES.

secondly, that which is best viewed from the Camjjariile of
my villa, Tliere, the lines are botli dignified and grace-
ful, and the outline of the bell tower of the commune
crowns to perfection this collection of walls and of
darkly toned houses, whicli stand out sharp and clear
against the cloudless sky, all coloured as it is by the rays
of the setting sun.

VI.

The Villa Charles Gatinier.

If I mention this villa, I must beg the reader to under-
stand that I do not do so to praise it, or to call attention
to any artistic features it may chance to possess. But I
have thought it my duty not to pass it over in silence,
because from its terrar-es and its Campanile the most
lovely view can be obtained, and some very charming
subjects, suitable to the landscape painter, are to be found
in the garden. I wish above all to make it clear to any
stranger who may visit onr town, that the door of the'
villa stands always open to those who may care to enter.
I am not perliaps able to offer them any great attraction,
but I am at least anxious to adopt to strangers thehos})i-
tality which is everywhere found in Italy, whose inhabit-
ants always open to the passer-by not oidy their public
buildings, but even their private houses and their homes.

VII.

The Sasso Torrent.

This is one of the most interesting points of Bordighera,
and the excursion which I am now about to sketch out is
one of those which every lover of nature, let alone an

THE SASSO TORRENT.

351

artist, should not fail to make before he moves forward.
It is besides both a short and a pleasant one, and can be
easily made without the aid of a guide. If, then, I venture
to take the reader by the hand, as we take this walk to-
gether, it is more for the sake of not leaving the spot
unmentioned, than because I think I can be of real
assistance to him. For, to be perfectly honest, there is
nothing which gives me greater pleasure tlian to take this
walk as often as I can ; so perhaps I shall be allowed the
equal pleasure of describing it.

We must then turn off at the common lavatory (where
the washerwomen ''most do congregate"), of which I have
before spoken, on the road to the Fontana Vecchia, but
now to the right, and follow the little canal which conveys
water for irrigation.

Our path at first lies along the covered aqueduct (this
supplying the drinking water for the townspeople), and if
the road is not very broad, it is at least nearly horizontal,
and we can follow it without the least fatigue. After
going forward for some time along a sort of alley formed
by the higli walls of various private gardens, above which
we notice the tufted heads of some very beautiful palm-
trees, we arrive at some patches of cultivated land, where
are some magnificent olive trees, growing upon terraces
supported by massive stone walls, which are wonderful to
look upon, and form a glorious foreground to the masses of
trees of every description. At each step we take the view
changes, but ever presenting the same character, viz.
Italy and especially the neighbourhood of Naples ; and it is
indeed an endless delight to our eyes, a veritable pano-
rama, only broken by a corner here and there, which does
but give to each picture not only completeness, but
individualitv.

352

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

There is also the wood below, with its harmonious tones,
with its graceful and varied foliage ; these alone are suffi-
cient to arrest the footsteps of all artists or true lovers of
nature who may chance to wander along this path.

And in following the tiuy canal we soon skirt a piue-
wood, but with the trees still young and thinly planted,
but some of which, nevertheless, are very graceful in
form. Then at the turn of the road we see the village
of Sasso, perched on the height above, Jind standing out
boldly and picturesquely in the midst of the green woods
which surround it. After a short half-hour's walk, we
at length arrive at a large aqueduct wliieh cros.sus tlie
torrent, the single arch of wliieli is perfectly graceful.
We may, if we clioose, continue to follow the smaller
aqueduct, and clamber for some little distance along the
bed of the torrent ; but tliere are indeed such a number of
interesting features in this excursion, it is almost better for
us to retrace our steps and return by the torrent itself.

To carry this idea into practice we will take the little
path which turns off at the end of the aqueduct, and
which leads directly to the bed of the torrent. I will add,
in parenthesis, that this path might be somewhat less
steep and more convenient, especially towards the lower
portion. It does not, however, need anytliing but a few
strokes from a pickaxe, and I will undertake to say that
at the cost of a few francs it might be made far more
pleasant for walking than at present. However, we must
not let this deter us.

The descent is very short, and we arrive before long
beneath a large arch. It is a good plan at this point to
remount again some dozen yards or so and view the valley
through this picturesque arch, which forms a natural and
cliarming frame. This done, we will return again to the

THE SASSO TOREENT.

353

bed of the torrent, gathering now here, now there, some
of the many-coloured anemones which flourish even
amongst the stones, and, passing sometimes along a track
which it is almost impossible to distinguish, sometimes
climbing across the stones which the winter floods bring
down with them, we shall have no difficulty in following
its course. This path has, you may notice, to the left a
graceful little spring, which trickles in the midst of
maiden-hair ferns, and by enormous barren rocks, and by
the brilliant oleanders which are scattered about on every
side. There were but a year or so back some even more
beautiful than those around us, but those, alas! have
been cut down. However, those left will before long
throw out new shoots, and the ravages we have noticed
will be effaced.

I have no desire to describe all the beauties, charming
as they are, which this delightful walk presents to us, but
will only say. Look continually before you, look fre-
quently behind, and at every step you take, fresh subjects
for your sketch-book will arise before your eyes.

Then, when we have arrived at a sort of dam which cuts
the torrent bed in half, from which the water is directed
to a little watercourse which follows the left bank of the
torrent, we must descend by a little smooth, shelving
slope to the right of the before-mentioned barrier, and
continue along the torrent's bed for about another
200 feet.

Here we shall find on our right hand the broken wall
supporting the water-course, and must climb some ten or
a dozen roughly-cut steps, in order that we may follow to
our right the most tempting little path which passes under
the shade of a clump of palm-trees. Here they are even

♦ 2 a

i

oOa

AKTISTIC FEATURES.

There is also the wood below, with its liarmonious tones,
with its graceful and varied foliage ; these alone are suffi-
cient to arrest the footsteps of all artists or true lovers of
nature who may chance to wander along this path.

And in following the tiny canal we soon skirt a pine-
wood, but with the trees still young and thinly planted,
but some of which, nevertheless, are very graceful in
form. Then at the turn of the road we see the village
of Sasso, perched on the height above, and standing out
boldly and picturesquely in the midst of the green woods
which surround it. After a short half-hour's walk, we
at lengtli arrive at a large aquetluet which crosses the
torrent, the single arch of whieli is perfrctly graceful.
We mav, if we choose, continue to follow the smaHcr
aqueduct, and clamber for some little distance along the
bed of the torrent ; but there are indeed such a number of
interesting features in this excursion, it is almost better for
us to retrace our steps and return by the torrent itself.

To carry this idea into practice we will take the little
path which turns off at the end of the aqueduct, and
which leads directly to the bed of the torrent. I will add,
in parenthesis, that this path might be somewhat less
steep and more convenient, especially towards the lower
portion. It does not, however, need anything but a few
strokes from a pickaxe, and I will undertake to say that
at the cost of a few francs it might be made far more
pleasant for walking than at present. However, we must
not let this deter us.

The descent is very short, and we arrive before long
beneath a large arch. It is a good plan at this point to
remount again some dozen yards or so and view the valley
through this picturesque arch, which forms a natural and
charming frame. This done, we will return again to the

THE SASSO TOREENT.

353

bed of the torrent, gathering now here, now there, some
of the many-coloured anemones which flourish even
amongst tlie stones, and, passing sometimes along a track
which it is almost impossible to distinguish, sometimes
climbing across the stones wliich the winter floods bring
down with them, we shall have no difficulty in following
its course. This path has, you may notice, to the left a
graceful little spring, which trickles in the midst of
maiden-hair ferns, and by enormous barren rocks, and by
the brilliant oleanders which are scattered about on every
side. There were but a year or so back some even more
beautiful than those around us, but those, alas! have
been cut down. However, those left will before long
throw out new shoots, and the ravages we have noticed
will be effiiced.

I have no desire to describe all the beauties, charming
as they are, which this delightful walk presents to us, but
will only say. Look continually before you, look fre-
quently behind, and at every step you take, fresh subjects
for your sketch-book will arise before your eyes.

Then, when we have arrived at a sort of dam which cuts
the torrent bed in half, from which the water is directed
to a little watercourse which follows the left bank of the
torrent, we must descend by a little smooth, shelving
slope to the right of the before-mentioned barrier, and
continue along the torrent's bed for about another

200 feet.

Here we shall find on our right hand the broken wall
supporting the water-course, and must climb some ten or
a dozen roughly-cut steps, in order that we may follow to
our right the most tempting little path which passes under
the shade of a clump of palm-trees. Here they are even

* 2 a

354

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

more beautiful than before, and are planted apparently to
present the appearance of magnificent bouquets or macchie
of the most exquisite outline.

Still following this winding path, with the soft murmur
of the stream which flows at its side as an accompaniment,
we shall before long arrive at a sort of little aqueduct.
We must stop here, for we shall find below a ravine, which,
though not of any great size, is nevertheless simply foiry-
like in its beauty. Are there not here the golden apples
and the palm trees ? Are there not the garlands of wild
briars and clumps of laurels ? It is indeed a marvel of
beauty, and if a painter would find it difficult to reproduce
a subject so complicated in all its details, there will always
be for him at the worst the satisfaction of seeing how well
nature knows how to combine her subjects and to vary her
charms.

But we must move forward again, and still in the same
track, and soon shall come across in our path the stump of
a palm tree jutting out from the wall : it is all that
remains of a remarkably curious tree which has been cut
down by the owner of the land surrounding, because it
proved inconvenient to him in his w ork !

This is, however, only what one might expect, for the
peasant all the world over has ever been found without
artistic sympathies of any kind ; aud I cannot help feeling
regret as I think of the leaves once hanging above in an
undulating cluster, and the tree raising herself gracefully
to spread out her proud tufts ! But we must pass on
until we come upon a large reservoir ; here we must take
the path which descends, and which is formed by a series
of steps cut in the rock : then at the bottom of these steps
cross to the left, and pass behind some new palm planta-

THE SASSO TORRENT.

355

tions ; and after taking a few steps, turn round, and you
will have before your eyes a picture which will fairly cap-
tivate you with its harmonious composition, colour, and
character : a little house close to a broken-down terrace,
a staircase built on an arch of bricks, whilst a palm tree
laden with dates towers beside them. In front, forming
the foreground, a grand clump of palm-trees of noble shape,
which of itself forms a perfect frame to the cottage ;
below us the valley which presents the whole of its left
bank to our view, and at the bottom of everything the bed
of the torrent, wild and stony and desolate. It is, indeed,
a magnificent scene. It is Palestine brought back to us,
and we might cliristen it, not the Torrent of Sasso, but
the Valleij of Kedron, and full w^orthy is it of its sacred
name. But whether we call it the one or the other, it is
a very lovely valley from the painter's point of view, and
that, after all, is the principal one.

We cannot now do better than return to Bordighera by
skirting the cemetery, whicli, to tell the truth, is somewhat
out of harmony w^ith the wild and characteristic aspect of
nature whicli surrounds it.

The Memorial Chapel of the Moreno family is a monu-
ment of true artistic merit, but it is at present too fresh
and bright in tone, and draws our attention too forcibly
to its markedly Gothic character : but in the course of
time the stone of which it is built will be considerably
modified in tone, and have a somewhat less glaring ap-
pearance, and it may perhaps be set down as a bastard
specimen of the architecture of the Crusaders of old
in Palestine. It will then be somewhat more in har-
mony with its surroundings ; besides, it is necessary that

2 A 2

-it

i

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

we skould think of tlie visitors and endeavour as hf
as possible to hide this restiB-phice irom their view, or
at least make it as beautiful as possible. And to do so
most effectually it will be necessary to plant a mimber of
eyprus trees, which will only allow a lew white stones to be
seen tlirongli their tall and shndtr forms, or a simple
cross, and perchance one or two ornaments upon the
pyrainid of the chapel referred to.

" This done, the cemetery will luive an appearance f\ir
more subdued and reverent in character, and be in a similar
k.^y to its settiii-s, whilst the mass of deep-green foliage
will not only conceal it under its dark wing, but vmH har-
monise with the savntro grandeur of the Valley ol
Ivedron.

VIII.
The ToiiKENT of ('Kriusi s.

I am ignorant of the name of this torrent; no duubt I
could discover it if I desired to do so, but I inilnitcdy
preft^r tliat wliieh I have given as a recollection of tlie
spriii-^ of Cepldsia, ef tlie iorni and character of which it
greatly reminds m.'. Let us put it down then as the
Cei^iims, whieh llous through Bordigheia, Jind allow me

to conduct you to it.

When you have passed the torrent of Sasso on the
Cornice Koad, a little before you arrive at the quarry,
where is excavated the stone from Monte Nero, there is a
tiny cottage built of rubble, upon the right side of a httle
spring. Follow this spring which juts out at the moun-
tain s foot. This is the way to Ce2)hisus.

THE TORRENT OF CEPHISUS.

357

We begin to mount almost immediately at this point;
but before starting off take notice, in a path somewhat
broader than that you are following, of an immense palm-
tree wliich there rears itself, its head slightly bending.
You will find in this new road a beautiful view, and should
you chance to have your sketch-book with you, you will
most certainly feel tempted to stop and sketch it. Whilst
in this path, continue to follow it until you arrive at the
torrent: there you will see a ruined house, which has
nothing remarkable so far as its exterior is concerned ;
but cross the torrent on the stepping-stones and enter
into this tumble-down building, and if you have, even in
the smallest degree, the artistic faculty, I promise you a
grand treat as you penetrate this weather-stained ruin.
It must once, I think, have been an oil mill, but for many
years abandoned ; some old vats to the left, at the bottom
a wheel with wooden cogs, empty holes here and there,
nothing very particular in the arrangement, but things
which, though essentially common in themselves, by
studying their composition, by following the light which
comes in at the door, in fact, by taking in the decay
into which everything has fallen, will be found to possess
a marvellous wildness and savageness, almost incredible.

It is here, as before, that the historic scenes of the Bible
are again presented to us ; sometimes under one aspect,
sometimes under another.

This is the history of Samson; for it is not difficult
to imagine that here, in this retired little nook, he
toiled at the millstone. And truly a painter of genre
— we might even add, an historical painter — could
hardly find a better bit of scenery to form a back-
ground to some such composition, than this sombre

58

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

dungeon affords. Decamp himself, if he had known it,
wonld without doubt have employed it in the grand
pages of liis liistory of that great patriot. It is pos-
sible, that to be especially affected by the charms of this
original spot, one's mind should be cast in a peculiar
mould, and all my readers perhaps may not be able to
feel exactly as I do about it. However, whether or not,
make a point of visiting this ancient mill ; that will be a
good criterion, for if you are of my opinion, you will be
one of tlie privileged ones of the world : since it will prove
you to be endowed with imagination and the artistic

faculty.

This having been accomplished, return a little on your
path and clamber up a short slope; this will quickly
enable you to regain the first path of which I spoke.
Follow this then as it passes across a rock, which is partly
buried in tlie ground ; and sometimes ascending, some-
times descending, you will arrive exactly opposite a tiny,
a remarkably tiny, house— a sort of doll's house indeed,
which stands on the extreme edge of the torrent's bank. I
infer that you will see this quaint cottage a little below
you ; if you do not find the path conducts you exactly
opposite, descend, as well as you can, tlie terraces which
separate you, and you will have reached the bed of the
Cephisus. By this tiny cottage, both to the right and
left, we at once notice two lovely subjects for landscape
painters, quite Greek in feeling, and which will them-
selves alone repay you for your search for them. But
mount the torrent again, some twenty steps or so, if you
will not mind doing so; that will give you another
aspect of the same subjects, for seen either from before
or behind they are equally striking. Then direct your

THE TORRENT OF CEPHISUS.

359

steps until below you, and somewhat to the right, is
a little bridge ; pass over it for a few yards ; there again
are lovely and suggestive subjects composed ready for

your brush.

I have not attempted to describe the various details
which make up these pictures. I can but say this to you :
tluit CepMsus and Eurotas, in spite of their peculiar beauty,
are not equal to tlie Cephisus of Bordighera, which, in-
dependently of the shape of the rocks which surround
it, of the oleanders which are scattered everywhere, and
of the glorious peep of the blue Mediterranean, has
beyond these the most magnificent palm trees, artistically
planted, of grand size, and which gives to the whole an
effect which is perfectly Greek.*

In truth, I can only say, '^ This little corner is Greece,
but Greece with all the beauties of the East added to it ;
and I can assure you that it is an act of great unselfish-
ness on my part to make such a spot known to you, for at
the present moment it seems to me as if it was a private
possession of my own. As the most profound solitude
alwavs reigns there, I will risk doing so; and the silence
so adds to the charm of the place, that I am unable
entirely to free myself from it.

Perhaps now that I have made known my treasure
to the whole world, and made common that which
has hitherto been sacred to me— perhaps I shall never
be tempted again to visit it, for it can never have
the same attraction as when it was my own. At least,
I have honestly fulfilled my duty as Cicero7ie, and I
shall have to be recompensed by the hope that those

» It is curious that Mr. Pater takes a similar view of the character of this
part of the coast in his charming book, Sketches in Italy and Greece.-^A, C. D

360

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

who on ray recommendation have paid my Cephisus a
visit may find that my imagination is not so great
as the reality, and that they will not merely content
themselves with a glance at it. This is, indeed,
my earnest hope each time that I visit my beloved
torrent. But alas ! even since I have written tliese lines,
already a change has come over it, for here and there
portions of it have been embanked with stone walls, and
something of its picturesque character has passed away.
Lose no time then in visiting it; in a few years more
perhaps there will be no need to give it a page in a
guide-book !

The Well of La Kuota.

Let us now, for tids our last ramble, turn along the
Cornice Koad, and follow it as far as the little chapel
of La Euota. Facing the latter is a long path leading to
the edge of the sea. We will descend it, and, when
arrived at the bottom, direct our steps towards the clump
of palms which we see upon our right.

These have been originally planted in two irregular lines ;
between is an old cistern, an old well, now full of stones,
and some yards in front, a large, flat, broad rock, which has
the appearance of reposing on the ground ; further down
some undulating ground covered with broom, heath, rock,
and brambles, all burnt up by the sun, and beyond as a
boundary line, giving a finish to the picture, the deep
blue of the Mediterranean, glorious in the sunshine.
Here then is a place to visit, for all my readers who are
painters or lovers of nature ; here, 0 poets, is a spot

the well of la ruota.

361

to delight your hearts, a corner of "beauty, to be a joy
for ever," where those should come who seek a fresh and
keen, yet pure sensation, and who know that for them at
least nature has the power of making their hearts beat
faster !

1 have before spoken of the oriental character of
Bordighera, and certainly nowhere is this characteristic
more strongly marked than in those spots which, under
my charge, you have lately visited ; but I vow nevertheless,
that if continued reminiscences of the East are presented to
us, as we pa-^s through the old town and its surroundings,
such is no longer the case here : for now it is not a remi-
niscence which is brought to our minds, but the reality
whicli is set before our eyes; here it is Palestine itself
with all its associations that is conjured up before us.
Nay, it is more than this : it is not the Palestine of
to-day, but the ideal Palestine we so like to dream
of. This is the fountain where sat the Samaritan woman,
where Kebecca met Isaac;* there are the Jews, there
are the apostles, there is Jerusalem ! Nazareth and
Bethlehem reappear once more in the simple nook of
the little Bordighera promontory, and yet, almost while
we look upon it, the scene is changing: the plough
during the past year has already passed over the soil !
Who can tell what the future has in store for this ancient
deserted cistern and these partially uprooted palm-trees?
Surely it would not cost a large sum to save it ? Why
cannot the town of Bordighera purchase the site and save
from impending ruin this spot, as unique as it is in-
teresting ? If the town is too poor, then let a subscription

* The English residents at Bordighera have given to this spot the pretty
and expressive name of " Hcbccca's well" — A. C. D.

362

ARTISTIC FEATURES.

be made. Should this not prove sufficient to cover it, let
some of the rich proprietors of the place devote some
of their gold to save from destruction this corner, so sug-
gestive of both the Old and New Testament ; and finally,
if none care to give themselves the pleasure, which the
doing of such an artistic and noble act, and done for the
benefit of all, would result in,— well, hand over this portion
of the shore to me, and I will promise that it shall never
be mutilated or given up to speculation.

THE END.

LOXDON: PEIOTED by WILLIAM CLOWKS and SON8, LIMITED. 8TAMFOKU MKEET

AKD CIIAUISG CROSS.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

AN6L0-LIGURIAN BANK,

FEED. F. HAMILTON & CO..
BORDIGHERA,

IT-A.I.

CHEQUES CASHED, MONEY EXCHANGED,

EEMITTANOES TOE ALL COUNTEIES.

FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCES.

ITALIAN WINES SUPPLIED.

Luggage Warehoused during the Summer.

special Tariffs for the conveyance of Luggage and Parcels
to and from London and all parts of the icorld.

GENERAL AGENCY FOR THE TRANSACTION OF BUSINESS.

2

ADVEKTISEMENT8.

PIETRO SAVIO,

"STABILIMENTO MECCANICO INDUSTRIALE,"

28, CORSO ROMA,

liinvitiire Hanttfacturcr.

CABPETS, BLANKETS, LINEN, IRONMONGEKY,

CHINA, GLASS.

:FUR]NITUI^Ei MAI>E TO OllOEl^.

This old-establislied and well-known House undertakes the
complete Furnislimg and Decoration of Public and Private Esta-
blishments of every description.

EXTRACT FROM GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Iron and Woodb:n Bedsteads.
Iron Fences and Roofing.
Scales ani' ^MiivsniES.
LooKrNoCJi'Ass & Picture Frames,

Gilt and Imitation of Wood.
Glass and Crystal Ware, from

France and Bohemia.
Flate Glass and Glazed Tiles.
Looking Glasses.

Porcelain & Earthenware Syphons.
Soda-Water Apparatus.
Plate (Alpacca and Christofle).

&c., &c

Clocks am» Wat( ties.

Iron, Tin, am> Zinc Utensils.

Stuffs for Fri;MrrnE

W.M)L and Hair fuu Mattrasses.

^VALL Paper, at all Prices.

()ij:o(;i:Ai'inc and Lithographic

PlCTIllES.

Lamps, Lustres, «fec.

Gas Apparatis (Fittings).

French Cement.

Kitchen Stoves.

Heating Apparatus of every variety.

, &c.

ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUES SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.

Extremely moderate Prices and prompt execution of Orders, together with
the best Materials, are the points upon which the Firm rely to secure the
patronage of the EngUsh Kesidents in Liguria and Northern Italy.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

POMli AND MOSCA,

(iLJr^

O

f * S ■/'- 11^) rr

BORDIGIIERA,

IC,

VIA VITTORIO EMMANUELE,

and at

Large assortment of Pianofortes from the most
renowned Manufactories, on Sale and Hire.

MUSICAL LENDING LIBRARY.

THE MOST MODERATE PRICES.

MOMBELLI & BULGHERONh

BUILDERS & CONTRACTORS

For VILLAS, ROADS, WELLS, &c.,

BORDIGHERA AND NICE.

The above Firm having executed the ^^^orks
of the Observatory and new Dock at Nice,
the Theatre and nevsr Salon at Monte-Carlo,
and built the Villa Bischoffsheim (lately
occupied by the Queen of Italy), that of M.
Garnier (Architect of the new Opera House
in Paris), and others at Bordighera, will be
happy to estimate for similar Work for
the English Colony, guaranteeing first-rate
v/orkmanship, moderate prices, and prompt
execution.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

ADVEBTISEMENTS.

f*

MICHELE IIUSSO,
|llctrtl)ant ^aUor>

300 VARIETIES 01 CLOTHS, TWEEDS, & OTHEE MATERIALS.

Orders executed with the greatest Precision and Punctuality.

SUITS KtADE IN 84 HOURS.

UNIFOEMS, LADIES' CLOAKS, RIDING HABITS.

BORDIGHEEA, via Vittorio Emmaimele, casa Etienne.

HOTEL WINDSOR,

Proprietor — N EGRO-DAZIANO

{Formerly of the JTotel de la Grande Bretagne, Mentone^

B ORDIGHER A.

DolightMly eitnatcd near Eailway Station. Fine view over Sea

and Country. Iliglily recommended to Families and Single

Travellers. Every Comfort and Attention.

PUBLIC^ALON AND GARDEN.

MICHELE MICHIARDI,

PUBVEYOE to H.M. the KING of ITALY, and to H.B.H. the DUKE of AOSTA,

ITALIAN WAREHOUSE.

CHEESES; REAL MILAN BUTTER; HAMS, SAUSAGES, AND

FRESH PORK.

PRESERVES OF ALL KINDS ; OLIVE AND OTHER OILS.

MANUFACTURER OF TOMATO SAUCE.

VIA CAVOUR, SAN REMO.

WINE MEllCHANT,

18, VICO STELLA (Piazza Fontane Morose), aENOA.

Italian, Frencli, Spanish, and otlier Wines in Cask and Bottle,

supplied Wholesale and Retail.
Vermuth, Cognac, Rum, Kirschwasser, and English and

German Ales.

Special Agent in Liguria for the MARASCHINO of the Firm

of Gerolamo Luxardo of Zara.

BOI^DIOKEEI^^A..

HOTEL VICTORIA.

CENTRAL, OPPOSITE THE TELEGRAPH OFFICE AND THE ANGLO-
LIGURIAN BANK, NEAR TO THE STATION.

The Hotel, newly furnished, is replete with every modern comfort. Excellent
Cuisine. Moderate Prices. Pension from 8 to 10 francs per diem. Table
d'Hote and Restaurant a la Carte.

VERY LARGE GARDEN. SHELTERED PROMENADE.

P. BAUNI, Proprietor.

HOTEL CONTINENTAL,

BORDIGHERA

(OnPElSTEID ISSS).

Full South. View of the Sea. English Church at a short distance. Modern
Construction and Luxurious Furniture. Beds with Edredons.

Moderate Prices. Pension from 8 to 9 francs. Excellent Cooking.

Heated throughout by hot-air apparatus.

ANTONIO IMPERIALE,

BUILDER AND CONTRACTOR,

BORDIGHERA.

Builder of the ENGLISH CHUEOH at Bordighera, and
of ALL the VILLAS erected by English Proprietors,
viz. ' Pozzoforte,' 'Bella Vista,' 'Villa CappeUa,' 'ViUetta
Aurelia,' * Villa Valentina,' * Casa Bianca,' ' Villa Grazia,'
* Villetta Francesca,' * Casa Coraggio,' ' Villa Boscaccia,'
' Villa Giorgio,' &c., &c.

\/i//as Constructed at Fixed Prices by Estimate, including,
if required, the Purcliase of Land.

I I

6

ADVERTISEMENTS.

RAFFAELE MURAGLIA,

PURVEYOR TO H.R.H. THE DUCHESS OF GENOA.

CHEESE; POULTRY; HAMS AND SAUSAGES; BISCUITS;

MILAN BUTTER.
GLASS AND CHINA. MINERAL AND OLIVE OILS.

BORDIGHERA, VIA VITTORIO EMMANUELE

(OPl-OSITE K)Sr OFFICE).

HOTEL PENSION MEYLAN,

fill flTTOffi; "^IMMlPfiliS

(Entrance also by the PIAZZALE DELLA STAZIONE),

BORDIGHERA.

IPAMILY I?ICMSI()]Sr BY i;?^EEK OR MONTH.

RESTAURANT A LA CARTE.

DINNERS AND SINGLE DISHES SENT OUT.

HOTEL BELVEDERE,

STEADA EOMANA,

lO ^3 IR ID I GrItI £i .

Tliis splendid Hotel is situated about oneliundrcd feet above tbo
level of the sea, in a fine situation, commaiKling a grand view over
coast and mountains. Largo garden. i?bower and other Baths.

Conducted on English principles by English Proprietress.

MODERATE PRICES.

LOMBARD!, PROPRIETOR.

W. ESSARCO,

EORDTrTTTEllA,

Opposite the Railway Station.

ENGLISH GROCERIES, TEAS, COFFEES, WINES, ETC.

Circulatiiifl Uifirari) %V UraUing Uoom-

APARTMENTS AND VILLAS LET.

KEGISTRY OrriOE FOE SERVANTS. GENERAL AGENOY.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

GIUSEPPE ROSSI,

WINES AND LIQUOKS

OF ALL BRANDS, ITALIAN, FRENCH, AND SPANISH.

ORDINARY TABLE WINES of Good Quahty and at Low Prices.
DAILY ARRIVALS OF FISH, LOBSTERS, AND GAME,

DURING THE WINIER SEASON.

VIA VITTORIO EMMANUELE (TaZeterT^^ BORDIGHERA.

DEGRO881 & MA88IERA,

VENTIMIGLIA, ITALY,

Agents for the OHEMINS DE FER DE L'OUEST of Erauce, and

for the Loudon, Brighton, and South Coast, and

Great Western Railways.

ItltANCn OFFICES at PORTO MAURIZIO, SAN REMO, BORDI-
(UlERA (Li(JUUiA), MENTONE, NICE, CANNES (Alpes Maritimes),
ALA (Tyuol), and UDINE-CORMONS (Austrian Frontier).

INTERNATIONAL CUSTOM-HOUSE AGENCY.

MERCHANDISE FORWARDED TO ALL COUNTRIES AT FIXED RATES.

Bills Collected. Money Exchanged.
LUGGAGE WAREHOUSED,

FURNITURE REMOVED WITH THE UTMOST CARE.

MAPS & BOOKS FOR TOURISTS,

STANFORD'S TOURISTS' CATALOGUE,

Now Edition, Revised and Enlarged to 56 pages, with Index Maps
to the One-inch Ordnance Survey of England, and to the Govern-
ment Maps of France and Switzerland, contains full information of
the Best Maps and Guides now obtainable, and suited to the

British or Continental Traveller.

Post Free to any part of the British Isles for Penny Stamp.
London : EDWARD STANFORDrSS, CHARING CROSS, S.W.

2 B

8'

ADVEirnSEMENTB.

GUIDE BOOKS

ALPS (THE). THE UPPER ENGADINE.

ALPS (THE). DAVOS -PLATZ. Guide to

Winter. BvOne Who Knows it Wlu.. WUIiMhi.. l.'coi..>v..,cl(.tli,28.o,J

lutendeJ

roau tuck, 3e. Od.

BIARRITZ AND THE BASQUE COUNTRIES.

By Coimt Henhy IUs.-.ell, Member uf the Alpine Club, &c. With a
Map. Crown 8vo, cloth, ik.

MADEIRA; ITS SCENERY, AND HOW TO

With a new Map of Madeira im.l flu.. ■ .. !• ..ud.al. Crown 8vo, clotb, 7.. Oc(.

NICE AND ITS CLIMATE. By Dr. Barety.

ri^ 1*1 ,„;♦>> Aa.litioiia bv Chaiu.i > V. M.D-, Fellow and late

TraiisilattHl, with Aaailioiis, uy kjuaiua i' ,,,inr. With an

Senior Censor of the K-nMl College ot l>hy«u-iuu. ot ^'^"^ «"; Yu S
Appendix un the Vegetation of the Kiviera, by Profe«8or Allman, 1^ .U.b.,
&c. Two Mapd. Foijt 8vo, cloth, 4». Gd

SAN RIIMO. Visitor's Guide to San Eemo.

By John Congkeve, Pro-Consul at Sun Eemo. With Maps. Small
post 8vo, cloth, 3«.

EUROPE. APPLETON^S EUROPEAN GUDE-

BOOK FOK EN(;LISH-SFEAK1NG travellers Including
En-Vla^Kl Scotland, Ir, land, France, Belgium, H.dland, Switzerland,
Gen u v^ Italy, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Denmark Norway, Sweden,
Gre^K'Tpt, Algeria, aud Uie Holy Land: t;> whicli is appended a
vSkJ^;^ Travel-Talk, in English, German, ^^^-^J^"^^^;.;;;
Hotel Liht and Si)€cialitieB of European Cities. hmeteenth Mibon.
Gt^^le^y Revised and Corrected. With Illustrations and Maps, i wo
vols. Post 8vo, French morocco, gilt edges, -2Us.

LONDON-, EDWABD STANFORD, 55, OHAKING GROSS, S.W.

945B64

ijiamillbn
T5orcii§heva

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

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