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BOTANIZING

WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY.

Among Rhode Island Wild Flowers*

With 4 plates. i2mo. Cloth. 75c. net.

New England Wild Flowers and their Sea-
sons* i2mo. Cloth. 75c. net.

BOTANIZING

A GUIDE TO FIELD-COLLECTING
AND HERBARIUM WORK

WILLIAM WHITMAN BAILEY, A.M.

Professor of Botany in Brown University

PROVIDENCE, R.I.

PRESTON AND ROUNDS CO.

1899

Copyright, 1S99

By

Howard W. Preston

PLIMPTON <t CO., PRINTERS 4 EINDEKS,
NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.

TO THE MEMORY OF

JACOB WHITMAN BAILEY

LATE PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY
IN THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT, N.Y.

(Cbis ^Soofc is ttffcctionatclP E)cDicatc&

BY

HIS SON

PREFACE

In the preparation of this work I have consulted
Verlot's very useful ''Guide du Botaniste Herbori-
sant" ; Crepin's " Guide du Botaniste en Belgique " ;
Penhallovv's u Botanical Collector's Guide " ; Knowl-
ton's " Directions for Collecting Recent and Fossil
Plants " ; and numerous articles which have from
time to time appeared in M The Bulletin of the Tor-
rey Botanical Club"; u The Botanical Gazette";
ik The American Naturalist " ; "Nature"; and other
periodicals.

My former work, " The Botanical Collector's
Handbook," published in 1S81, met with a nattering
reception. The present volume, while embracing all
the matters contained in the earlier work, is entirely
rewritten, much enlarged, and, I hope, improved.
Its preparation has engaged my attention for several
years. I should have often felt like abandoning the
project, had it not been for the encouragement and
active aid of my fellow-botanists.

Various remarkable vicissitudes have attended the
publication of the book. Among these figure, besides
M the law's delay," sickness, flood, and fire. When
on the ninth of February last Maxcy Hall, of Brown

Vlll PREFACE

University, was on fire, the manuscript of this book
was stored in the herbarium in the basement of that
building. The writer had several bad half hours
watching the flames, but, after all, the book was at that
time saved. It had to meet with another trial in the
fire at the printing establishment in Boston. There a
portion of the manuscript was irreparably lost, and
much of the remainder blackened and mutilated. It
was only by the efficient aid of Mr. J. Franklin Col-
lins, who also prepared all the illustrations, that I was
enabled to almost immediately return the copy.

My thanks are especially due to Prof. B. L. Robin-
son, of Harvard University, for herbarium sugges-
tions ; to Mr. M. L. Fernald, also of the Gray Herba-
rium, for field notes ; to Mr. Frank S. Collins, of
Maiden, Mass., for the instructive paper on algas; to
Mr. Haven Metcalf, my assistant, for remarks on
lichens and fungi ; to Mrs. N. L. Britton, of New
York, and Prof. C. R. Barnes, of Chicago, for moss
notes ; and to Mr. Walter Deane, of Cambridge,
Mass., for interesting hints and suggestions for field
and closet. Mr. J. Franklin Collins, besides the work
acknowledged above, at every stage of advance freely
offered the aid of his long and valuable experience.
Fertile in resource, and quick to seize upon the good
features of any scheme, he has, by his assiduity, ren-
dered my task, otherwise a burden, a distinct joy. I
have no words sufficiently strong to express to him my
deep obligation. We have often botanized together,
thus practically putting to the test of field experience
our thought in the seclusion of the study.

In again resuming this old-time labor, after so many
years of intermission, I am saddened to think of the

PREFACE IX

inroads made by death upon the circle of friends who
formerly lent me their assistance. Our beloved
master, Asa Gray, while not directly contributing to
my work, gave me the encouragement of earnest coun-
sel, of unequalled criticism, and emphatic final ap-
proval. With him have passed from us Dr. Sereno
Watson, my colleague on the Fortieth Parallel Survey ;
Prof. Edward Tucker man, the expert on lichens ; Mr.
Thomas P. James, and Prof. Leo Lesquereux, who
contributed the mosses ; Rev. Francis Wolle, the
student of fresh-water algae ; Charles Wright, the in-
comparable collector ; Dr. George Thurber, the genial
and learned ; and Mr. George Hunt, the Nestor of
Rhode Island botanists. No jaunt in the woods in
these later days seems complete without my old friend
Mr. Hunt. All of these were actively interested, and
most of them directly contributed to my work.

The pleasant welcome that met my former little
volume encourages me to hope that this book may
justify its existence ; that it may prove of service alike
to the amateur and the professional. Its virtues are
those of its distinguished contributors; its faults are
entirely my own.

WILLIAM WHITMAN BAILEY.

Brown University, Providence, R.I.
May g, /8gg.

CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. Introductory i

II. Equipment 10

III. Collecting 33

IV. Directions for Particular Families . . 41

V. Herbarium Work 87

VI. Storing and Exchange 100

VII. The Herbarium 109

VIII. Botanical Museum 122

IX. Botanic Gardens 128

X. Botanical Libraries 131

ILLUSTRATIONS

The Collector Frontispiece

Fig. i. Vials 14

2. Note-Book 17

3. Envelopes 19

4. Trowel 23

5. Vasculum 25

6. Wire Portfolio 27

7. Wooden Portfolio 28

8. Collins, Portfolio 30

9. Pocket Lens Attachment 32

10. Plant in Portfolio 39

1 1 . Case for Mosses 49

12. Drying Oven 94

13. Airing Driers 92

14. Mounted Plants 125

15. Herbarium Case 119

BOTANIZING

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

" O Botany, delightfullest of all sciences, there is no end to thy grati-
fication! " — COLLINSON TO BARTRAM.

The Claims of Botany to Consideration. — The questions
are often asked, "What is the purpose of Botany?
Why should students pursue it? Why do botanists
amass a lot of plants in a herbarium, or fruits, fabrics,
or drugs in a museum? Why are botanical gardens
established? "

Botanists are usually quiet people, unobtrusive, and
pursuing their researches in private. They are little
given to trumpet-blowing or the noising of their own
achievements. Generally good-tempered men, and
absorbed in occupations which to them seem impor-
tant, they are for a moment staggered when questions
of utility are suddenly presented to them. Almost
every botanist has an occasional experience of this
sort of vexation.

The questions often proceed, not from the illiterate,
but from those educated in other fields of usefulness.

BOTANIZING

To these the claims of the science have, perhaps,
never been properly presented. We must meet them
kindly and fairly, insisting, however, that much scien-
tific work, purely in the nature of research, and showing
no immediate results, is still legitimate. No one can
tell just when a scientific truth will bear fruit. Some of
the early chemical work of Pasteur, for instance, had
no direct reference to economic applications, but it
has led to the most astonishing utilities. By its means
the grape-vine scourge in France has been mitigated
and an immense revenue restored to the state; the
diseases of cattle and poultry have been assuaged ; the
silk- worm restored to health ; and, lastly, hydrophobia
checked in its terrible career.

We might, indeed, mention here the relations of
Botany to the whole science of bacteriology, of anti-
septic surgery, and antitoxine treatment as in diph-
theria and similar diseases.

Often one's querists are honest seekers after truth.
They really desire to learn what we are about. We
should meet their questions calmly, fairly, patiently ;
seeking to put ourselves in their position, and to ap-
prehend the ground of their thought.

We should now proceed to answer some of the ques-
tions more commonly asked. The science of Botany
is one that in a preeminent degree trains the observ-
ing and reasoning faculties. It leads to close inspec-
tion, to accurate comparison, to terse and forcible
forms of expression, to the habit of correct delineation.
In its inception it requires inexpensive apparatus. A
hand-lens, or, better, a simple dissecting microscope,
with a thin-bladed knife and a couple of dissecting
needles, is the necessary outfit. To be sure, in more

INTRODUCTORY

advanced stages of progress more costly instruments
and even chemical and physical apparatus are em-
ployed.

Here I am led to speak of the relations of Botany
to many kindred sciences. It is in close touch with
Geology, which tells us of the ancient life of the
globe, of a life indeed which antedated the coming of
man ; with Chemistry, which treats of the constitution
of air, water, soil, and the very life of plants; with
Geography, which tells of vegetable distribution over
the earth, the origin and determination of migrations,
and the causes of permanence or diminution; with
Entomology, for insects are either handmaidens to
help or active enemies to destroy plants; with Meteo-
rology, showing the effects of climate and seasons;
with Medicine, in pointing out plants useful to the
physician in the mitigation or cure of disease.

As life, too, is always more attractive than death,
we claim that our science is above and beyond many
of the sister sciences in interest. Here we have life
in its initial stages, leading from simple unicellular
organizations up to the most complete forms 01 plant
or animal.

Interesting as is the other branch of biological
study, namely, Zoology, the botanist must often feel
thankful that the question of pain cannot by any pos-
sibility arise in his pursuits. No law, religious or
restrictive, stands ready to close our laboratories. We
can point to our analyses as pure and painless.

Again, materials lie abundantly about us at all

ns and in every climate. Winter yields us her

lichens and mosses on rocks and trees ; her algae in

salt or fresh water ; her mushrooms and toadstools

BOTANIZING

in meadows and woods ; her smaller fungi as blights
and moulds on leaves, etc. Spring and summer
overwhelm us with abundant floral treasures, and
autumn offers us her harvest of fruit. Let the trav-
eller proceed to the utmost north, and still he will
find plants. The dry Sahara presents its oases ver-
dant with palms and grasses ; the steppes of Asia or
the barren heights of Arizona bristle with cacti ; the
Alpine summits of the Andes or the Himalaya bloom
with brilliant flowers.

The depth of the ocean has a life of Its own in
diatoms and foraminifers ; its lovely surfaces often,
as in the Sargasso sea, present a wild tangle of huge
marine growths. Nothing here " doth fade but doth
suffer a sea change into something rich and strange."

Even in the chinks of his dungeon it may happen
that the prisoner finds the weed that speaks of free-
dom and redemption :

" Nature never did forsake the heart that loved her."

As has been said, the elementary facts of Botany
require mostly careful observation. From these,
however, the student rises by gradual steps to com-
plex conceptions, profound generalizations, philo-
sophic discussions, which will require his most
mature thought. Advanced Botany is now a very
serious study, requiring in the student a knowledge
of at least three modern languages, and an equipment
in Greek and Latin. Besides he should have a ready
knowledge of Chemistry and Physics and an aptitude
in handling tools. Then, too, a certain inventive
faculty is always a great advantage.

By the study of Botany one acquires the use of a

INTRODUCTORY £

technical language unsurpassed in accuracy and flexi-
bility by any employed in the whole range of science.
It is the outgrowth of a long series of years, and the
result of the thought of many philosophers.

While this language is itself so precise, one must
remember that it is used to describe objects which,
from their nature, do not admit of mathematical pre-
cision in their description. No two leaves on the
same plant, for instance, are alike ; we have to com-
bine terms. The text-books contain a number of
figures illustrating types. There are infinite varia-
tions from these forms, making a constant demand
upon one's armory of words. The practice required
in selecting the best terms or best combination of
terms in which to record one's observations is, of
itself, of inestimable value.

It is, perhaps, unnecessary to emphasize the aes-
thetic aspects of the subject. There are few persons
whose sense of beauty is so dull that they do not
admire a stately tree, a symmetrical fern, or a perfect
and odorous flower. The poetry of all languages is
adorned with flowers. The sacred writings of all
nations glow with its figures. The palaces of princes
and the hovels of the peasant alike evince the admira-
tion of mankind for plants. A scientific knowledge
increases and develops this love of the beautiful.
Close acquaintance does not breed contempt, but
inspires awe.

If one examines the most stately and ornate of
human structures he will find flaws. Visit our finest
cathedrals and churches, and in some odd corner we
shall find something to oflend. The builder has said,
" Here is a corner that no one will see, or it will be

BOTANIZING

seen rarely. What use to finish here?" Nature has
no such unseemly recesses. Nothing is so minute as
to lack the most exquisite finish. The microscopic
diatoms at the bottom of the sea require our highest
lenses to resolve them, and yet are traced with deli-
cate curves, and lines, and ornaments, which are the
marvel and envy of all human designers.

Nor should we forget, in eulogizing the science, to
speak of the friendships formed in its pursuit. These
are among the most intimate of life. Sympathetic
ties exist between those who have never met and may
never meet on earth. They may indeed be separated
by wide oceans or continental distances. Often these
friendships give rise to heroic virtues. We have only
to mention the familiar story of the simultaneous pub-
lication of the theory of natural selection by Charles
Darwin and A. R. Wallace, and the beautiful and
chivalrous relation, free from doubt or envy, that ever
prevailed between them.

Botany introduces in the easiest way the use of
the microscope, and this instrument is to-day to the
botanist what the balance has long been to the
chemist, and the telescope to the astronomer. Hover-
ing all about us, in air or water, or even in our very
food, are a myriad minute forms of vegetable life,
many of them potent causes of disease. Against
them the botanist urges ceaseless war, and his weapon
is the microscope. Facility in its use adds much to
one's equipment for medicine and other sciences. It
affords as well, to himself and friends, an endless
source of innocent pleasure. But what of the practical
uses of the science? Let us consider some of these.

To a horticulturist some knowledge of Botany is of

INTRODUCTORY

great value. By its means lie learns to adapt plants
of one region to another. He ascertains the effects
of climataJ conditions, and how far the natural
range of a species may be extended. He studies its
lite history.

Says a botanical writer, '4 By the help of this
knowledge the inhabitant of a northern temperate
climate is not only enabled to increase the quality of
the vegetable productions indigenous around him, but
also to enjoy at his own home many desirable fruits
and flowers naturally confined to tropical regions." —
Asa Gray, 4t Elements of Botany," 1S36.

Again, one learns what plants are troublesome as
weeds, or noxious to man or animals, and hence to be
eradicated. The science teaches one not to waste
his time on unprofitable plants, but to extend and
improve the beneficial. It indicates families which
are apt to contain useful plants, as Leguminosa: (pulse
family), Solanaceae (nightshade family), Rubiacea3
(madder family), Gramineae (grass family), Palma-
ceae (palm family), etc., and hence when and where
to look for them.

It is generally considered that a knowledge of
Botany is useful to the physician. Surely he should
have some knowledge of the characters of the natural
orders and genera 4t so that even if placed in a land
with the vegetation of which he is wholly unac-
quainted he may decide with confidence as to the
species in which certain medicinal virtues are or are
not found ; what plants are wholly inert, what kinds
may be expected to produce esculent fruit, and what
should be looked upon with suspicion or sedulously
avoided." — Asa Gray, M Elements of Botany," 1S36.

8 BOTANIZING

As an instance of the beneficent influence of the
science the records of the Royal Gardens at Kew
may be cited. Under the directorship of Sir William
Hooker, and later of his son, Sir J. D. Hooker, and
at present under that of Prof. W. T. Thistleton-Dyer,
it has accomplished wonders for the education and de-
light of countless throngs of visitors. But its work does
not cease with this objective teaching ; it constantly
enriches the many colonies of Great Britain. One of
the annual reports of this truly Royal Garden contains
a complete reply to any carping criticism of Botany.

Here is, no doubt, the largest herbarium in the
world ; here botanists, gardeners, and explorers are
trained; here are conducted experiments of most
varied and useful character. By means of Kew,
coffee, cinchona, cotton, and many other important
products have been extended to different countries.
All the colonial as well as many foreign gardens are
in touch with Kew. Every new plant is there
examined, every supposed drug or fabric tested as
to its value. Improvements of cultivation are sug-
gested, means of protection instituted. Kew is now
conceded to be one of the most practical, best pay-
ing, of all Britain's national institutions ; it is honored
alike at home and abroad.

Who can fitly estimate the amount annually saved
to the farmer by the researches of botanists and
entomologists? The student of fungi alone becomes
a benefactor, for mould, blight, and mildew, as well
as many of our own diseases, arise from the prevalence
of active spores. We should then, in all ways, en-
courage those who with microscope and chemicals
wage upon these pests an unrelenting war.

INTRODUCTORY

But let us consider a little more closely the uses of
a herbarium ami of a botanic garden.

In regard to the former it is to be said that much of
the systematist's work is of necessity upon dried
plants. These he soaks in warm water, which in a
measure restores the contours and softens the tissues
so they can be examined. A botanist could not by
any chance visit all countries, nor even every part of
his own, but in the herbarium he can have all or a
large part of the plants of any given region exposed in
their natural sequence, or what science at the time
considers such. Plants even of one family or genus
are not all simultaneously in flower or fruit, but in
the herbarium all parts can be thus viewed. The
natural affinities and geographical and altitudinal dis-
tribution can be learned in no other way, though
closet work must needs supplement more direct field
observation.

Again, the herbarium is a cyclopaedia of ultimate
appeal. To it the student in doubt may appeal as to
an authority. At least he will ascertain what the best
investigators have thought. Hence a fine public her-
barium is something to be amassed and cherished.

A botanic garden is almost equally important.
Therein plants should be arranged as nearly as possi-
ble by their natural affinities, well and clearly labelled
so that all may learn them. Many horticultural ex-
periments can here be tried. Moreover, the garden
should, like that of Kew, be a centre of dissemination
both of knowledge and useful products. It should at
all times be open to the public and hence become a
park of most delightful and varied usefulness.

10 BOTANIZING

CHAPTER II

EQUIPMENT

"If you catch quite a beginner and want to give him a taste of
Botany, tell him to make a perfect list of some little field or wood." —
Charles Darwin to Sir J. D. Hooker.

In preparing for a jaunt in field or forest, in swamp
or mountain, the experienced collector carefully at-
tends to his outfit.

Clothing. — His clothes need not of necessity be old,
but they must be comfortable and serviceable. All
superfluous finery must be left at home. There may
be persons here and there who, under all circum-
stances, preserve the ensemble of the shops or fashion-
plates. The average botanist takes care that his
clothes fit, that his shoes do not pinch, and that the
fabric of his garments shall withstand the grasp of
briars, come out well from impromptu baths, and
allow him to climb, wade, run, or accommodate him-
self to any human vicissitude. The garments, too,
should be cavernous with pockets.

It has been said that the shoes should not pinch.
Equally important is it to have them long and broad
enough. Inexpressible agony may be caused by
neglecting this precaution, especially on a mountain
excursion.

Often it is desirable to carry with one a pair of long
rubber boots for wading in swamps and shallow

EQUIPMENT 1 1

ponds. These are apt to be too heavy and heating to
be worn except for the special occasion.

One should always have a pair of stout leather
gloves for handling prickly or thorny plants such as
cacti, green briars, blackberries, thistles, and nettles ;
as well as poisonous plants like Rhus venenata and
toxicodendron.

Another useful implement for collecting such plants
is a pair of pruning shears.

The character of the clothing worn will depend
much upon individual taste and upon the length and
character of the excursion. The season and climate
will largely determine it. One cannot lay down pre-
cise rules for anything so largely influenced by idiosyn-
cracy, caprice, or experience.

Many persons prefer a suit of corduroy ; others thick
woollen. It is for many reasons desirable to wear a
flannel undershirt, to prevent sudden alternations of
heat and cold, and to absorb perspiration. A rubber
coat of some kind is almost indispensable in case of
rain. Indeed, a complete rubber suit is good, for a
coat alone simply directs the water upon one's knees.
Woollen and rubber blankets are always taken on
long excursions involving days or weeks. They
pack readily on the outside of a knapsack. The rub-
ber blanket is sometimes of sudden avail to protect
one's plants.

Mr. M. L. Fernald says: "For two years now I
have used a duck or canvas shooting-jacket on my
long tramps. Aside from the semi-waterproof quality
of such a coat, and its convenient form, I find the
large pockets, both inside and out, of great service in
storing away mosses, lichens, and the like, thus sav-

12 BOTANIZING

ing box-room for more perishable material. The
pockets, too, are handy as primitive means of carrying
luncheon, bait, and fish-lines."

Again, on extended excursions one should be pro-
vided with an ample supply of serviceable stockings,
and it is not a bad idea to carry a pair of slippers or
even a change of shoes. Nothing can prove more un-
comfortable than wet boots. These can, however, be
surely and quickly dried by packing them full of bran,
which completely absorbs the moisture.

In mountainous regions, like the Sierra Nevada or
the White Mountains, we have found it an advantage
to have the soles of our shoes thickly beset with hob-
nails ; they are of great advantage in climbing on wet
rocks. Rubber soles are sometimes used, but are not
durable, and are often dangerous on wet rocks.

Situation, again, must determine the kind of head-
gear one should wear. In hot, dry regions a broad-
brimmed sombrero, or the ventilated helmet such as
soldiers wear, is an excellent thing. On windy coasts
or mountain tops, on the contrary, a close-fitting cap
with chin-strap may be desirable. In any case one
wants the most comfortable article to be found: a hat
that will not be constantly blowing off.

A botanist who is also an entomologist, as some-
times happens, may carry an umbrella, not so much
to shield him from the rays of the sun, as to serve as
an implement for collecting. Held upside-down under
a tree it serves to catch small insects shaken down
from the branches.

Cane or Staff. — A cane is often a useful implement.
It is desirable to have it curved at the end so that it
may be used for gathering the flowers and fruits which

EQUIPMENT

truth and fable both prove to be not Infrequently be-
yond one's reach. Pond-lilies and pond weeds ( Po-
tomogetons) also are otten unattainable otherwise.
Frequently one would have to wade in for them,
while "iili the cane they can be manipulated, after a
fashion, from the shore.

Prof. W. H. Brewer, of Yale University, writes
that he has used, as the handiest possible cane, a light
Staff of bamboo, such as a hshing-pole, the bottom shod
with a ferrule, the top furnished with adjustable hook.

In hilly regions a cane or alpenstock of greater length
is of use in climbing and descending. It should be
stout enough to sustain one's whole weight, and
should be armed with a ferrule.

Many collectors prefer to cut a staff for each trip and
discard it before returning home. At the thick end
the stub of a branch should be left to project one or
two inches, to serve the same purpose as the curve
mentioned above.

Dredge. — For pond weeds, such as Poto?nogeton,
JVa/as, Vallisncria, Anacharis, and the like, a rake
may be used to advantage, as such plants entangle
themselves among the prongs and may thus be
brought up.

A good but simple form of dredge has been used
at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl.
It consists of a piece of leaden pipe filled with a bunch
of iron wires. These are abruptly bent at the end, and
form an excellent prehensile tangle.

Another useful form of dredge is that described and
figured by T. F. Allen in the " Botanical Gazette,"
Vol. XI., page 141,01' in Knowlton's u Directions for
Collecting," page S. It consists of " an iron rod five-

U

BOTANIZING

sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and about twelve
inches long, bent to foim a small ring at one end, and
passing through carries below its centre a disk of lead
about three inches in diameter. This disk holds em-
bedded in it twelve or fourteen iron hooks all bent
toward the same side. The hooks project about an
inch from the leaden disk and curve inward about an
inch. The iron rod projects about three inches be-
yond the leaden disk, so that the rod strikes the bot-
tom first. The lead should be heavier on the side
towards the hooks, so that the dredge will fall with
hooks downward."

Knife. — A good jack-knife, or, better yet, a long,
sharp knife to be worn in a sheath on the waist-belt,
is a desideratum. It may be used for many pur-
poses, such as removing mosses or lichens from trees,
cutting one's way through obstructive brambles or
bushes, or even for rougher dissections. A com-
posite knife, with gim-
let, awl, etc., is often
useful. There is never
a moment in an excur-
sion when a knife may
not be demanded.

Pill-boxes and Vials

The significance of these
is not medicinal ; they
are carried empty, to
contain small objects, as
algae in the bottles, or
seeds, spores, mosses,
lichens, or fungi in the
boxes. A set of bottles may be taken in a convenient

ft*

Fig. i. — Vials.

EQUIPMENT 15

and compact form, by inclosing them, as in Fig. 1,
by an clastic band.

String, Thread, or Twine should form an essential
part of any outfit. Indeed, a reticule containing
needles, etc., is often handy. String is used for
tying up packages or bundles. Flexible rubber bands
should be carried in quantity, as well as pins and
safety-pins.

Map. — By all means carry a map of the region to
be explored. This point cannot be too greatly em-
phasized.

Procure some map of the State, county, town, or
island, such as is afforded by the United States Geo-
logical Survey. Paste this on cloth, varnish, and fold
to convenient size, or cut into sections. If this map
has the roads marked upon it, all the better. Then,
as knowledge is gained, let the springs and streams
be added, together with geological and topographical
features. Plants often bear a marked relation to the
soil and rocks. Indicate these relations by colors.
In other words, study the environment of the plants;
fill the map with observations.

Compass In the above connection a compass is

naturally suggested. There are times when a trav-
eller may lose his way, and all his woodcraft will fail
to extricate him from an annoying or even dangerous
situation. A word to the wise : streams always flow
down hill. If, then, you are lost on a mountain —
unless, indeed, it be in a fog, wrhen prudence would
dictate staying where you are — attempt to descend
by a ravine. It may be dangerous, but it is sure.

In the absence of a true compass remember that a
watch is an excellent substitute. Hold the watch

BOTANIZING

horizontally, point the hour hand directly towards or
beneath the sun, and half-way between the hour hand
and twelve o'clock, noon, on the dial will be south
(approximately) .

Old hands learn to direct their course by the posi-
tion of the sun, and to a limited degree by the loca-
tion of mosses and lichens on trees, but when really
lost this wood lore avails but little. The compass
may easily be carried as a charm on the watch-guard.

Provisions.

" A scrip with herbs and fruits supplied, and water from the spring."

Goldsmith.

We cannot legislate as to the kind of provisions one
should take into the field. Experience, or the advice
of friends, must rule in this regard. It is only nec-
essary to say that all indigestible food should be care-
fully avoided. As a light and portable as well as
nutritious article of diet in case of an emergency,
stick chocolate is recommended.

One should have a canteen in which to carry water.
In very hot and dry climates the canteen is kept cool
by wrapping it with wet blanketing or flannel. It
is not well to drink ice-cold water at any time, and
especially when heated, though personally the writer
has never experienced any ill effects from the water of
streams or wells. He is accustomed to drink freely
when he desires.

Where lime-water prevails a little citric acid is a
good corrective. Those who can avoid drinking
much on a journey no doubt have an advantage, and
it is easy to cultivate such abstemiousness.

There arc many forms of cup that are convenient,

EQUIPMENT

17

such as some of the telescopic ones made of rubber or
metal. Some persons always carry a filter — possibly
a wise precaution.

Note-Book. — Of equal importance with the map is
the note-book. Here should be entered memoranda
bearing upon the work of the day. A note-book of
uncalendered paper is advised, for the reason that it
is often desirable to make sketches. These cannot
be so well done on a smooth surface. It should have
strong but light, flexible covers, and be of such form
as to be readily carried in the coat-pocket. It is
desirable to adopt a uniform size for note-books, which
can then be numbered, dated, and filed away. If well
kept they become a mine of information, not only to
the writer, but to other botanists who may have occa-
sion to consult them.

A very convenient note-book
is here figured. It has been
used by Mr. Collins for several
years, and the prominent feat-
ures of it consist in its having
the lower corner, at the bind-
ing, perforated by a hole
through which a string: is
passed and secured. At the
other end of this string —
which should be once and a
half or twice as long as the
book — a short pencil is fast-
ened. In closing the book the
string is shut in at the page
being used (as shown in
figure) , and thrust into the pocket with the pencil hang-

Note-Book.

1 8 BOTANIZING

ing outside. When again desired the book is with-
drawn by grasping the pencil, and is instantly opened
at the page desired, for the string acts as a bookmark
and does not interfere with writing in any way.

Pocket Manual If it is possible to obtain a pocket

manual of the plants of the region in which you pro-
pose to collect, it will prove a valuable accessory,
provided the time in the field is not too limited to
permit of its occasional use. When time is available
for consulting it on doubtful points, the field work is
much more profitable and fascinating, and a great
amount of discrimination in collecting different species
is possible even to the novice. In such a book all
the plants which are known to occur in your region
can easily be indicated by some appropriate symbol
or colored ink. It is suggested that these symbols be
small, as you may at some later time wish to indicate
by other marks the plants known to occur in other
regions which you may visit. It can also be used as
a check-list for herbarium specimens, and in many
other ways which convenience, necessity, or fancy
may dictate.

Envelopes- and Paper. — A generous supply of both
envelopes and paper will always be found useful.
The former should he folded — not pasted. This
style of envelope is so generally useful in collecting
small mosses, lichens, fruits, etc., and is so easily
made that it is well worth a detailed description. In
order to make the " 4 X 5" envelope, — a very use-
ful size, — have the desired number of pieces of
manila paper — of about the same thickness as the
regular nineteen-pound mounting-paper — cut at any
printing-office or bindery having a paper-cutting

EQUIPMENT

19

machine, to the size of nine inches long and eight
inches wide. (Sec Fig. 3, A.) Four inches from the
straight sharp edge of a board (or table) insert two
perpendicular pins firmly, having them six or seven
inches apart. This forms your folding-gauge. Place
one of the short ends of a single sheet of the paper
against the pins and crease the paper over the edge

a. 4

Fig. 3. — Envelopes.

of the board. This should be four inches from one
end and five inches from the other. (See a a, Fig.
A.) Remove from the board and crease sharply with
the fingers, then place the folded edge against the
pins with the short fold down, and again crease as
before (6 £), folding the flap g over e so that it will
appear as at B. The flap should be one inch wide.
For the second folding (indicated by c c and d </, Fig.

20 BOTANIZING

B) a thin board five inches wide, with sharp parallel
edges, is needed. It is held firmly on a table by a
weight or clamp, with the end projecting beyond
edge for five or six inches. Two gauge-pins are
inserted, as before, near the edge, and about four and
one-half inches from the end of the board, in such a
way that a line drawn between them is perpendicular
to both edges. This is to insure the corners of the
envelope being right angles. The paper, as previ-
ously folded, is placed against the pins, flap up, so
that the ends (/i k) project about equally, and are
then creased downward, and afterwards folded more
sharply with the fingers. This completes the enve-
lope as shown at C. Notwithstanding this rather
formidable description it really requires but a few
minutes to make quite a number of these envelopes
when the two simple gauges are at hand.

Elastics Rubber bands of various sizes should be

carried on every trip. They are very handy, and
used for various purposes : to snap about envelopes
and small bundles, about several twigs that are to be
kept together, etc.

Tags. — These are used for labelling plants from
which a later collection is to be made. They may be
made of small pieces of metal with a number stamped
on each and fastened to the plant by a small copper
or brass wire — iron rusts too easily, and string is
generally too conspicuous and is sometimes appro-
priated by birds or boys. If a tree or large shrub is
to be tagged a copper tack with a large flat head, on
which a number is stamped, makes an excellent tag.
It is easily driven into the bark with a knife, trowel,
or rock. On account of the comparatively small size

EQUIPMENT. 2 1

of tli is tack it is a good plan to always label a tree on
a certain side and at a certain distance from the
ground ; for instance, the north side, and about five
feet from the ground. This system will make the
tag easier to find again than when no such system
is used.

Knapsack. — On long collecting trips and even for a
trip of but a single day — particularly on a mountain
— a knapsack is often needed to carry such articles
as are not being constantly used : luncheon, rubber
coat, blankets, reserve supply of envelopes, paper,
etc. It is carried on the back, out of the way when
collecting, and in a position where it can be borne
with the least possible effort, and writh comparative
comfort, provided the carrying straps are broad and
adjusted to fit the collector's shoulders. A light and
strong knapsack with one or numerous compartments,
and fitted with straps for carrying blanket rolls, can
easily be constructed from brown denim — the mate-
rial generally used to make overalls — and a few
leather straps.

Matches in a small waterproof receptacle should
always be taken on an extended trip involving one or
more nights away from home.

Insect Pests These foes of mankind have no more

respect for the botanist than for his less scientific
brethren, and mosquitoes, black flies, "midgets,"
moose-flies, and even ticks must be considered when
a trip is contemplated into localities which they
inhabit. Various compounds of tar, pennyroyal,
etc., are on the market and are advertised to keep
these pests from biting one, when the remedy is
spread well over the face, neck, and hands. Some

22 BOTANIZING

of these are more or less efficacious. We have heard
a few people remark that, owing to the odor, the
" remedy was worse than the disease." It is sus-
pected, however, that these same people would be
only too glad to resort to any remedy after an hour's
attempt to collect in a region which really swarms
with any of these foes, such as some portions of
Maine during June or July. A mosquito netting
with small meshes, or a veil, is sometimes used with
good results against most of them, except when trav-
elling through the woods and bushes. It completely
envelopes the head, and is gathered by a cord at the
top so as to fit tightly around the crown of the hat
just above the brim, the latter being sufficiently wide
to keep the netting from touching the face or ears.
The lower edge is carefully tucked inside the coat or
jacket collar, or otherwise fastened so as to allow not
the slightest opening by which the insects can enter.
This arrangement will not, ordinarily, keep out the
" midgets," but is pretty sure to baffle the larger
insects. Sleeves should be fastened closely about the
wrists and, if necessary to further protect the hands,
gloves can often be advantageously worn.

Medicines. — In malarial districts, when the excur-
sion is at least of several days' length, it is well to
carry quinine in the form of pills, as a possible pre-
ventative of ague. A mild laxative is also desirable.
To these we should add a small amount of brandy or
whiskey as a stimulant in emergencies, and strong
ammonia as an antidote to the bites of poisonous rep-
tiles and the stings of insects.

Trowel. — Under this heading will be included all
such instruments as are ordinarily used in digging up

EQUIPMENT

23

roots, bulbs, and other underground parts. They
vary greatly according to individual caprice or con-
venience. Perhaps the one most commonly used, at
least by the amateur, is that represented in figure 4
as C.

A cross-section of
the blade of this is a
regular curve. It can
be bought for a few
cents(fifteenortwentv)
of almost any hardware
dealer. As long as it
is not used for prying
it answers very well,
but as soon as it is used
for a lever — which is
often desirable — it
comes to instant grief.
A better trowel, and
yet a cheap one, is
that represented at A.
Instead of having a
curved blade it has a
wide V-shaped cross-section, with the right and left
portions of the blade either perpendicular to each
other at the keel or forming a more obtuse angle.
This is a somewhat stronger trowel than C, but hardly
strong enough for heavy, constant use.

Probably one of the best trowels is one which is
not here figured. It is reported to have come into
quite common use among the botanists of Cambridge,
Mass., and vicinity. Its important characters arc-
that it is unusually thick (one-quarter of an inch) at

Fig. 4. — Trowel.

24 BOTANIZING

the middle of the blade, tapering to thin edges, and
the handle (or at least the handle shank) is continu-
ous with the blade (not riveted on). It is seldom
that one of these is broken.

B represents a small, bayonet-like " digger" which
is extremely useful in removing mosses, lichens, etc.,
from crevices of rocks or from the bark of trees. It
is made by softening a four, five, or six inch half-
round file, removing the cut surfaces with another file
or with an emery wheel, slightly rounding the point,
bending as shown in the side view, rehardened and
retempered, and inserting firmly in a handle.

As has been stated, many other styles and shapes
of trowels are in use. They are too numerous to
describe in detail, and our object is only to give an
idea of the different types. This, we think, has
already been accomplished. It is often a great con-
venience, as well as a preventative against loss, to
have a hole bored through the end of the handle and
a narrow rawhide thong inserted as shown in the
figures of A and C. The loop is passed over the
hand, so that when the trowel is dropped it remains
suspended from the wrist.

Some botanists suggest and use a sheath similar to
a bayonet-scabbard for carrying the trowel. It is
generally, when used, suspended from the waist belt.
So attached have certain collectors become to the
trowel which has accompanied them through lifelong
explorations that they have, in later life, treasured it
as a souvenir, and even written verses in its praise.

Vasculum. — Concisely, this is a long tin box with
a tightly fitting cover which extends nearly its whole
length; it is generally used to collect specimens which

EQUIPMENT 25

arc to be studied later in as fresh and natural a condi-
tion as possible. The style which is most commonly
used is that shown in the figures, and the dimensions
are from 16 to iS inches long, 7 inches high* and 4^
to 5 inches wide. When closed it is essentially a
somewhat flattened cylinder, the ends being oval.

Fig. 5. — Vasculum.

The cover is hinged at the bottom and extends to
within two inches of each end. The fastening at the
top of the cover should be easy, sure, and positive ;
one that is not likely to become loosened by jarring.
At the top of the box are two tin loops, near the ends,
through which a broad carrying strap is passed. If
preferred, a handle can also be attached to the top.
Larger vasculums than the one here described are
often used by professional botanists, and they are
quite commonly of different shapes, sometimes,
indeed, with the ends square or rectangular instead of
oval. The interior may be one large compartment or
divided into several, according to individual taste. In
a great majority of cases there is but one compartment.

26 BOTANIZING

The painting of the vasculum is, to the writer, an un-
important matter ; many prefer and advocate leaving
it unpainted, and if it is allowed to remain open after
each trip till perfectly dry, there will be little or no
trouble from its rusting.

Collecting Bags often furnish an admirable expedi-
ent for carrying flowering plants home in good condi-
tion, and they are generally preferred for the collection
of mosses, lichens, and algas. They should be con-
structed of rubber or enamel cloth, as nearly water-
proof as possible, the former being better for very wet
specimens that are likely to drip, while the latter is
sufficient for drier specimens where the principal
object is to check evaporation. Flowering plants are
more easily destroyed or injured in a bag than in
either the vasculum or portfolio. Plants wrapped in
a thin sheet of rubber cloth will often keep for a long
time in good condition. Bear this last fact in mind
when you visit where, for any reason, you cannot be
encumbered with a vasculum or portfolio.

Portfolio. — This is doubtless more extensively used
by collectors than the vasculum. Its use generally
results in better dried specimens, though it is hardly
practicable to use it in a high wind, as on a mountain
top or sea cliff. We shall here briefly describe a few
types of portfolio and leave the method of using them,
which is practically the same in all, to be considered
in the following chapter.

The size of a portfolio should never be larger than
the sheet of paper on which the plant is to be ulti-
mately mounted, preferably a trifle smaller. Thus,
for the herbarium using the standard size of mounting-
paper, the collecting portfolio should be about n^ X

EQUIPMENT

27

165^3 inches, and the paper which fills it should be
about 22 X 16 inches, of a bibulous nature, and folded
once. Unprinted newspaper is excellent. All port-
folios are generally tilled with cheap unsized paper of
this nature, called specimen sheets.

Wire Portfolio.

In its simplest form, perhaps, a portfolio consists of
two binder's-boards, between which are the specimen
sheets, and around which pass one or two tightening
straps. The boards may or may not be connected at
their edges, or one side, by a loose cloth binding,
and may or may not be covered with enamel cloth or
even varnish, as one desires. This simple apparatus

28

BOTANIZING

is used by some professional botanists who are noted
for the excellence of their specimens. It may be
carried in the hand, under the arm, or suspended from
the shoulder by a strap which passes under the tight-
ening straps.

A portfolio with sides of wire netting stretched
across an iron frame, such as is here figured (except
that leather straps have been represented in the illus-
tration instead of the elastic or chain-straps which

■ . « o • 0 •

•

a ol

llll lllll Hill Hill Hill Hill

lllll

iiiii mi:

lllll III

llll Hill llll Hill Hill Hill

lllll

lllll lllll

lllll III

.

o o

0 9 I

llll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll

lllll

lllll lllll

lllll llll

• O O • 0 o

o

o o

» •

llll III 1 Hill lllll lllll

lllll

iiiii in«

o o o o o o

0

o o

o «|

llll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll

lllll

lllll Hill

mil mi

o o o o o o

o o

» o|

llll lllll lllll lllll lllll lllll

lllll

lllll lllll

lllll llll

• 0 O 0 o o

•

o o

* tf??»*l

Fig. 7. — Wooden Portfolio.

usually accompany it), is advertised by most dealers
in botanical supplies. The open sides allow the sun
to partially or wholly dry some of the outside speci-
mens, if the trip be long and the day warm and sunny,
while the collector is yet in the field. If the speci-
mens were placed at first as they were intended to
remain, this is so much gain; but if, as is often the
case, it was the intention to rearrange them before
drying, it is a decided disadvantage, one not readily
occurring when the sides are of binder's-board.

EQUIPMENT 29

For the elastic straps which often accompany the
purchased portfolio, leather ones can advantageously
be substituted. These will not roll into a cord and
thus cut the shoulder. Neither elastics nor chain-
straps will endure the rigorous usage to which they
are often subjected. Hence one may simply draw
two leather straps through the wire-work itself, and
secure the same pressure without danger of abrasion
by rocks, etc.

In wet weather the ordinary form has much the
advantage, but in any case the collector should be
furnished with a sheet of india-rubber or oil-skin large
enough to protect his specimens during a shower.
His rubber blanket is an excellent substitute for a vas-
culum.

Sometimes wooden lattice-work sides are substi-
tuted for the wire netting or binder's-board. These
can easily be made, and may be (and often are) used
as part of a portable press on extended trips where a
press is essential.

A very convenient portfolio here figured has been
invented and used by Mr. J. Franklin Collins, who
thus describes it :

" The leather straps ' A A' each pass through two
leather loops (one at each edge of the back binder's-
board of portfolio), and around in front where they
are attached to the ends of a one-quarter-inch square
or round steel rod. To the centre of the rod the
tightening strap is attached, as shown in the illustra-
tion. This latter is fastened by two rivets at the
upper edge of the front board, and is then loosely
I over and attached to the top edge of the back
board, forming the loop i B* for carrying in the hand

30

BOTANIZING

or on the shoulder by means of the strap and hook
shown at ' C "

A combination of portfolio and box into a sort of
knapsack has been employed by a few collectors, but
has never come into general use. Any collector with
an inventive turn can readily construct such a piece
of apparatus.

Fig. 8. — Collins' Portfolio.

The collector should have accessible at least two
portfolios and two press-boards with their straps, as
well as duplicate lenses, knives, etc., so that in case
of accident to one he may not be left unprovided.

For preserving such flowers as rock-rose, chicory,
etc., which quickly close or droop when collected in
a vasculum or bag, a miniature portfolio is required.
It should be small enough to slip into the pocket, and
may be secured by one or more heavy elastic bands*

.

EQUIPMENT 31

The flowers arc detached and placed in it immediately
when collected.
Lens.

" These little things are great to little man." —GOLDSMITH.

Every naturalist and especially the botanist car-
ries about him some handy lens or microscope. A
good instrument is a Coddington, or Hastings, or
achromatic lens of about one-half inch focus. These
give a broad, clear field and excellent definition.
They are metal mounted, and have sufficient collar
above the lens to protect them from being scratched.
The price of these instruments varies from two dollars
upwards. The mounting is usually of German silver
or brass, nickel-plated.

Many cheaper patterns, often with fairly good or
even excellent glasses, are on the market. These are,
as a rule, mounted in horn, hard rubber, or shell. The
so-called Gray microscope illustrates the type. In it
the double or triple lenses with their mounting can be
dissociated from the stand and carried in the pocket.
On the other hand, any one of an ingenious turn can
readily extemporize a stand for his hand lens and thus
transform it into a regular dissecting microscope.

In purchasing a microscope of any character what-
ever, the young student should always consult an
expert. He is too apt himself to think that what he
requires is a high-power lens and any number of
accessories. What he really requires most is a low-
power lens with a broad, clear field and accurate
definition. High powers have their place, but it is
later on, and for quite different work. It must be
remembered that while they magnify the size of the

34

BOTANIZING

hibit at least the leaves, flowers, and fruit. These
parts can seldom all be collected at the same time, yet
occasionally they may all be found on one specimen.

If not too large, the entire plant, both above and
below the ground, should be taken (unless by so doing
there is danger of exterminating a rare species) and
collections made at as many different seasons of the
year as is necessary to secure all stages of develop-
ment.

As of secondary importance (but sometimes of
scarcely less interest) are the dwarfed or abnormally
developed or diseased specimens. Do not be afraid
of collecting a species in its different stages of devel-
opment. The most interesting series of specimens
will be those which show the greatest number of these
periods from the seed through the seedling, budding,
flowering, fruiting, and seed-dispersing stages to and
including- the winter wreckage.

If the plants are large, select representative parts,
taking particular care to collect leaves from different
portions of the specimens in all cases where they
differ, and record the fact in your note-book. In the
case of shrubs or trees choose characteristic twigs of
flowers, fruits, and leaves, and make note of or
collect the bark and record the approximate height
of the plant.

It is advisable to collect numerous duplicates when
possible, with a view of exchanging.

Digging This operation may seem simple enough

to the inexperienced or careless collector, but, for the
best results, great care and patience are often essen-
tial. A single injudicious thrust of the trowel may
sever an underground shoot or root and thus destroy

COLLECTING 35

what might have been of great interest as showing the

subterranean connections of the plant with others of
the same species or, in the case of some parasites,
even with a species of another genus.

With care what was at first supposed to be several
separate plants may be shown to have underground
connections, and such specimens form instructive and
interesting object lessons, and, later, equally interest-
ing herbarium specimens. In digging up plants
which have deep-seated bulbs or roots and delicate
shoots (c-g", adder's-tongue and dwarf ginseng)
only the greatest care and patience will reward the
collector with a perfect, unbroken specimen. Where
wide-spreading underground parts, or even parasitic
connections, are suspected, commence digging well
away from the plant (six or even twelve inches) and
work slowly and carefully towards it, removing the
earth in small bits, using the fingers as much as
possible and the trowel only when absolutely neces-
sary. By this method the parts desired are less likely
to be broken, and it is often possible to obtain the sub-
terranean parts many feet or even yards in length.

Cleaning. — Occasionally when a plant has been re-
moved from the soil it is found to be comparatively
clean, but generally more or less dirt clings to it.
This should be gently shaken out, or, if water is
available, washed out. The latter method is much
the best when the plant has been removed from wet
and muddy soil ; the former quite as good in most
cases where they are taken from dry or sandy soil.

Notes. — The note-book should be available at any
moment. In it one should record colors of flowers
which may fade in drying; the nature, color, and

36 BOTANIZING

thickness of bark — when none is collected ; the
winged insects which visit the flowers — if they are
known ; the nature and composition of the soil, and
degree of its moisture ; the amount of sunlight or
shade ; the approximate altitude ; the plants which
are growing under similar life-conditions in the same
group ; the height of the plant, when the specimen
collected does not show it ; the nature of the general
locality, such as swamp, river-bank, dry field, woods,
etc. In brief, your note-book should be an epitome of
any and all observations which cannot (and certainly
ought not to) be trusted to memory. In addition,
train your observing faculties so that nothing of possi-
ble importance may escape your notice. After a little
practice you will learn to make terse, condensed notes
which cover, without undue brevity, wide observa-
tions. Do not expect to always keep a field note-
book absolutely clean. It is impossible under some
circumstances.

Tagging As has already been stated it is well to

have some system to the tagging, at least of large
shrubs and trees. (See " Tags," Chapter II.) The
wire tag is also very useful to separate twigs of nearly
allied shrubs (e.g., wllows), as well as other plants,
which have been placed in the tin box. The twigs
of each plant are tied together in one bundle with the
wire of the tag before being placed in the collecting
can, and any necessary notes made in your note-book.

Packing the Vasculum. — After the plants have been
properly cleaned they are placed in the tin box, if
that article happens to be the one in use. Care
should be taken, as far as possible, not to lay heavy
roots on delicate flowers, etc. Sometimes it is

COLLECTING 37

desirable to transport in the vasculum (for transplant-
ing, perhaps) plants which have the dirt about the
roots undisturbed. Before placing one of these in
the box wrap paper tightly about the roots, gather-
ing and fastening it about the base of the stem with a
stout elastic, and take care not to place it on top of
frail or delicate plants. Generally the plants will be
found to keep in the best condition (or at least in just
as good condition) when they are tightly packed, pro-
vided they are not crushed. On a warm day it is a
good plan to occasionally sprinkle the plants a little.
It is not necessary to have water running about in the
bottom of the can ; indeed, it is better not to have it
there. The specimens should be kept slightly
moistened, not dripping wet. The latter treatment
renders them harder to dry properly, and in some
cases delicate parts are completely ruined before
reaching home. When in the sunlight always culti-
vate the habit of carrying the box on the side of the
body opposite the sun, otherwise it will sometimes
get extremely hot and thus assist in the wilting or
destruction of those plants which are easily ruined in
this way.

Use of Portfolio As previously stated the portfolio

undoubtedly provides the best means for collecting
plants when the ultimate excellence of the dried
specimens is the prime consideration. Indeed, it is
the only practicable method by which most ferns and
nearly all delicate and sensitive plants (e.g., Herb
Robert, oxalis, sensitive-pea) can be obtained and
preserved in anv presentable condition. All the
directions in regard to selecting specimens, removing
from the soil, and tagging trees apply with equal

38 BOTANIZING

force whether the tin box or portfolio is used, and
those about notes with greater force when the latter
is used ; for, in addition to other notes, the natural
shape of the flowers and other parts must occasionally
be recorded, or else trusted (as is too often the case)
to an erratic memory.

To operate the portfolio place it on the ground, on
a rock, a stone wall, a log, or even on the knees,
— whichever is the most convenient or promises to
be most satisfactory, — with the buckles or fastenings
of the tightening straps uppermost. (For purpose of
clearness we shall hereafter — in this article — speak
of the cover which is now on top as the upper cover,
and the one on the ground as the lower cover.)
Open the portfolio so that both covers lie on the
ground, and place all the specimen sheets on the
upper. Open one of these folio sheets and place half
of it on the lower cover. On this place a field label
with brief data, — if memory cannot be trusted until
one reaches home, — and carefully spread out one or
more plants of the same species, as nearly as possible
in the position in which they are to be ultimately
dried, care being taken not to have parts overlap
excessively.

Leaves, flowers, and other characteristic parts should
be well displayed, provided by so doing a false im-
pression is not conveyed as to their original shape or
relative position. Do not shut the upper leaf of the
specimen sheet on to the plant all at once, but roll it
on from the fold. In this way any doubling of leaves,
petals, etc., is readily detected and adjusted at once.
If another plant is ready for the portfolio place another
empty specimen sheet on the one already filled and

COLLECTING

39

treat it in the same manner as the first one. If the
specimens are too Long, bend them abruptly into a V,
N, or \V. It* they tend to straighten again they may
be held in position by a bit of paper, with a hole in
it, slipped over the abrupt bend, or by thread or twine
wound about it, or even by a blade or stem of grass,
or an elastic used in the same manner. Do not try
to reduce the length by coiling portions of the plant ;
it may, in some cases, lead to the supposition that that

Fig. io. — Plant in Portfolio.

was the way it grew. When bent abruptly it almost
invariably shows instantly that it is an artificial ex-
pedient. When all of the plants at hand are in the
specimen sheets, in the manner described, place the
empty sheets on top, but with the folded edges in
the opposite direction from those containing plants, so
that the two piles can be readily separated when the
portfolio is next opened. On top of all place the
upper cover and tighten firmly with the straps, and you
are ready to proceed on your search for more plants.

It will be seen that more time is required to manip-
ulate the portfolio than the vasculum in the field,

40 BOTANIZING

but if the former is used conscientiously in the field,
just that amount of work is saved upon arriving home,
as the specimen sheets with the inclosed plants are
simply transferred from the portfolio to the home
press ; whereas when the tin box is used the process
of placing the plants in the specimen sheets has to be
done at home. In either case, when the plants are
transferred to the press, temporary labels (with proper
data) should be placed with every specimen, or group
of specimens, if all of one group are alike, provided
these were not supplied in the field.

Always have an abundance of specimen sheets and
keep your portfolio well filled. Some collectors take
a few driers into the field to separate the plants.
This is a good plan, but not essential, while it adds
extra weight to be carried.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 41

CHAPTER IV

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES

Methods with Cactaceae. — At first sight nothing can
appear more obdurate than certain cactaceae. Many
of them are beset with sharp, bayonet-like spines,
their points directed simultaneously in several direc-
tions. No one touches them with impunity. In
hedges they are the despair of poacher, scout, or
soldier. They form an impenetrable trocha. The
common prickly pear ( Opiuitia), which has not these
long, projecting spines, is armed with even more
dangerous weapons. Where leaves should be are
groups of needle-like prickles, dislodged at a touch,
and filling the skin with their painful barbs.

Again, the Cactacecc are coarse, succulent, and, in
bulk, unmanageable. One could hardly press a com-
plete specimen, however small. Fortunately this is
not required.

In case of the Platopuntuc the joints can be split
and the soft interior removed. Again, the flowers
may be sectioned, and the portions dried. When the
species are cylindric the branches are split and most of
the fleshy interior removed. It is then easily possible
to flatten the resulting halves. The object in each
case is to exhibit the prickly or spiny areolae. Treated
thus, the specimens present no difficulties in diving.

Longitudinal sections of Echinocactus are essential.

42 BOTANIZING

It is important to display the relative distances of the
areolae, and at the same time the sharpness or blunt-
ness of the ribs. These sections should reach to the
utmost extremities in order to show the very impor-
tant designative character of the tomentum of the
areolae. Count and record on the field-label the num-
ber of ribs.

Mammilaria is treated somewhat differently. Large
quarter sections are cut from the apex downwards.
Remove as much as possible of the soft parts and
press the residuum. This will bring out the arrange-
ment of the m ami Use.

In cereus, which presents cylindric or polyhedral
columns, always with vertical ribs, the acuteness or
obtuseness of these ribs can best be displayed in cross-
section. Longitudinal cuttings, on the other hand,
will best exhibit the distance of the areolas. The
young and the old areolas, with their tomentum, should
both be shown, and to do this sections should be
taken from the the apex downwards. In this genus
the flowers, if sectional and spread open at the proper
time, well exhibit their peculiar features. It is well,
when possible, to show them in situ.

Pereskia is the only genus that exhibits leaves.
These disarticulate badly, but a possible way of keep-
ing them in place is to pass a hot flat-iron over them
while in the specimen sheet. This gives them a good
scalding and thereafter they dry rapidly. Another
way is to immerse them for a short time in boiling
water. This is the familiar process often resorted to
for retaining the leaves of spruces, sedums, heaths, and
the like.

Says the late Mr. Charles Wright, from whose val-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 43

uahlc notes this article is prepared: "There is a
method which I have proved excellent for Begonias,
Peperomias, Portulacas, Talinum, and for Orchids
with membranous leaves, such as the Habenarias,
Microstylis, etc. Flowers of Cereus can be similarly
treated. Take one of the thin press-boards, place
upon it a number of sheets containing these plants,
one upon another, without driers between ; place upon
these a few driers and tie up the bundle. Invert it
and expose the black press-board to the direct rays of
the sun. It soon becomes quite hot and communicates
its heat to the plants beneath it, partially scalding
them. Leave the bundle thus two or three hours and
put the plants again in press with fresh driers. Plants
thus heated require more frequent changing than at
first, for they part pretty rapidly with their abundant
moisture; but they dry soon. The leaves do not dis-
articulate badly, and the flowers retain their colors as
well as when dried by other methods. For flaccid
plants, such as commelvna, this plan of killing them
is better than putting them in hot water, as the leaves
after immersion become still more flaccid and the
difficulty of laying them in press and arranging the
leaves is naturally increased.

•• >till another mode of killing these succulent plants
I have followed with success. Pass a flat-iron over
the sheets of specimens, especially the joints of the
stem where the leaves join it, avoiding as much as
possible the flowers ; then pressing them as before,
they dry rapidly ; but the first changes should be
made at shorter intervals, lest fermentation take place
and the plants become discolored."

Mr. Wright used in his extended journeys in Japan,

44 BOTANIZING

Cuba, and the far West but one sort of paper, making
this serve first as driers, stitching several sheets to-
gether, and later for containing the dried plants. He
says: "The specimen sheets should be thin, so as to
occupy but little space, so light as to not of themselves
make a load, combining at the same time such firm-
ness and strength that all ordinary plants may be raised
in them, and moved from place to place without the
risk of collapsing, and letting the specimens fall to
the ground. The absorbent paper may be of any
common thickness up to that of sheathing paper. A
good size is twelve by eighteen inches; if a larger
size is used, besides being cumbrous, sufficient pres-
sure cannot be applied."

Yuccas and Agaves Dr. William Trelease, of the

Missouri Botanical Garden, writes : '* One of the most
imperfectly represented groups of plants in herbaria is
that which comprises the yuccas and agaves. Perhaps
you will want to note for this kind of plants that one
ought to preserve entire leaves, where they are small
enough, so as to represent the usual foliage form ; also,
a series of thickish cross-sections of the leaf, dried like
other herbarium specimens; a series of two or three
bracts from the scape, and any peculiar flower bracts,
such as some of the yuccas possess, in addition to
flowers and fruit. Where the leaves are too large for
preservation entire, they have to be represented by
cross-sections and the marginal portion, showing the
teeth and border characters. I have several times had
a great deal of trouble with the flowers of the closed
gentians, and possibly it may be worth while noting
that these are very likely to contain insect larvae when
gathered, so that the flowers ought to be wormed be-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 45

fore being put in press, otherwise a good deal of the
interior of the plant is destroyed before the plant has
dried enough to kill the insect. I have seen the same
thing this summer, in a beautiful campanula from
the Azores."

Willows.1 — The good collector of other things will
scarcely need any special instructions for the collect-
ing of willows; nevertheless a few suggestions may
be helpful. Staminate aments will be snatched as
best they can be between " April showers." The
pistillate aments should be taken, first, a little after
anthesis, when the vesture of the capsule is best
shown, and while the styles and stigmas are still fresh ;
and again, later, when the capsules are fully grown,
but not so ripe as to burst in drying. For the latter,
a small twig will sutHce. Leaves should be taken late
in the season after they have become firm in texture.
Better a leaf specimen tinged with the yellow of
autumn than one made from the succulent growths of
June. Do not make flowering specimens too long, so
that the little tuft of young leaves at the tip will be
thrust out to the edge of the driers, where it will
receive inadequate pressure. On the other hand, let
the leaf specimen be ample : a good branch that will
show something of the totality of variation exhibited
by the leaves under different phases of development.
Take leaves to match the staminate specimens from
the same plant, and again leaves to match the pistil-
late specimens. Do not collect, for instance, " No.
7, staminate aments; No. 8, pistillate aments; No. 9,
leaves same as Nos. 7 and S." In this case no one
can tell whether the leaves belong to No. 7 or to No.

1 Contributed by Iff. S. Bebb.

46 BOTANIZING

8 ; they may be mismated altogether, and at any rate
you have prejudged the very question which alone
warrants so much painstaking. Willow specimens
part with their moisture very rapidly. They should
be shifted to fresh driers within a few hours after
being put under pressure, and changed again, if pos-
sible, in less than twelve hours ; after this they may
be neglected with impunity. But delay at the start
only makes more work in the end and gives a less
satisfactory result. It is natural for collectors to
begin by taking aments first and leaves to match
later, and this is the better way until a good, prac-
tical knowledge of the species is acquired ; but after
this some most satisfactory and often unexpected
results are obtained by collecting the leaves first, tag-
ging in autumn every bush which to the practised
eye presents any feature out of the ordinary, and then
waiting till the next spring for flowers and fruit.
I have had in mind the resident collector at a per-
manent station ; from the traveller we are thankful
to take what we can get and in such stages of devel-
opment as he may have chanced to find the plants.
Explorers, however, do not as a rule sufficiently
appreciate the value of mature leaf specimens unac-
companied, as of course such specimens are likely to
be, by either flowers or mature aments. These can
almost always be identified, and with our present
imperfect knowledge of some western willows are
quite as desirable as further collections of the already
better known early state of the species.

The Collection of Mosses.1 — There are few times in
the year at which one may not find species of mosses

1 Contributed by Prof. Charles R. Barnes, of the University of Chicago.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 47

in fmit, so that the collector may have mosses in mind
throughout the entire season.

After a rain mosses will generally be found in the
best condition for gathering.

Take into the field old pamphlets, in which the
stitches have been cut or the staples pulled. The
paper will thus be already in convenient size and form
for folding into field pockets.

Each specimen should be placed, as soon as col-
lected, in a separate pocket, so that loose parts may
not be lost.

Specimens should be freed from adhering sticks,
stones, and dirt as fully as possible, particularly when
they are mosses which grow in tufts.

Those which are only gregarious should not be
completely separated, but should be retained in such
condition as to show the habit.

If the specimen does not clearly show the sub-stra-
tum upon which it grew, note should be made on the
pocket, indicating its habitat.

Mosses growing in dense cushions should be sliced
vertically, so as to show this habit, and yet make the
specimen sufficiently thin not to unduly swell the
pocket. Slices should be a quarter to a half inch
thick, depending upon the density of the tuft and the
probable amount of compression in drying.

The weight used in drying mosses should be very
much lighter than that used for larger plants. Ten
pounds will usually be adequate, and the weight
should never be great enough to flatten the capsules.

It is particularly desirable that specimens should
show accurately the habit of the mosses.

A canvas bag will be found very convenient for carry-

48 BOTANIZING

ing paper for pockets, as well as the pockets after they
are filled. It should be somewhat like a school-boy's
satchel, and maybe provided with handle or straps, or
both.

If one is collecting flowering plants as well, the
pockets may be laid in between the sheets used in the
portfolio.

The same data in regard to locality, — as on dry or
wet stones, on trees, or in water, — date, collector's
name, and habitat should be entered upon the pocket
as upon the labels of flowering plants.

Young collectors generally make the mistake of
supplying scrappy specimens of mosses. They
should be abundant enough to show all the characters
that the plants in the field would show.

When the calyptra, and, worse still, the operculum,
is gone, one has to do the best he can in study, which
is often poorly enough. Too little attention is paid
to collecting mosses in prime condition. They
should, if possible, be gathered when these essential
parts are still present. Often the calyptrae may be
found on the specimens, even though oft' the capsules,
but when found thus the student should bear in mind
that there is a possibility of these calyptrae having be-
come detached from another species, if two or more
species are intermixed. Search the patch for them,
however. No specimen of moss can be considered
44 prime" without the opercula, and they should also
have the calyptrae. The male flowers, often neglected,
vary much. On some mosses they are plain to see,
and on others they can be found only by careful dis-
section. A beginner can form a pretty good idea of
them from a polytrichum, in which genus they form

DIRECTIONS IOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 49

prominent disks, surrounded by a rosette of leaves and
terminating the stems. One is sure to see them in a
patch of poly trichum. They are more abundant, but

harder to find, in bryum. Where concealed, search
for them in every budlike collection of leaves.

Mr. J. F. Collins' method of collecting mosses is
nearly identical with that of Professor Barnes, differ-
ing in that he carries folded manila envelopes into
the field with him for collecting. lie also recom-
mends the pockets of the ordinary canvas hunting
coat as an excellent substitute for the canvas collect-
ing-bag, the coat itself shedding a great amount of
water if the collector is overtaken by a shower.

It is generally a good plan to press the mosses im-
mediately after returning from the collecting-trip.

In this connection we
quote, by kind permis-
sion, horn " How to study
Mosses," by Mrs. Eliza-
beth G. Britton, in the
l* Observer" for March,
1S94 : " If it be desired
to keep mosses fresh for
study, they may be placed
in a deep dish and kept
moist till wanted. If cov-
ered with a glass cover,

a miniature Wardian case may be made, in which
immature specimens will develop and ripen fruit."

The student will find the following books useful in
studying mosses :

Lesquereux and James' " Manual of the Mosses ot
North America"; Grays '-Manual of the Northern

Case for M

50 BOTANIZING

United States," edition of 1S63, wherein the mosses
were described by William S. Sullivant ; Braith-
waite's " British Moss Flora " ; Paris' " Index Bryo-
logicus " ; Dixon and Jameson's " Handbook of the
British Mosses " ; Barnes and Heald's " Keys to North
American Mosses."
The Moss Herbarium.1

" No words, that I know of, will say what these mosses are. None
are delicate enough, none perfect enough, none rich enough." — RUSKIN.

After being pressed mosses are mounted, for the
herbarium, by gluing them to the mounting-paper,
as in the case of flowering plants, or they may be
kept loose in envelopes which are fastened to the
paper. The latter method is preferable if the speci-
mens are to be used for subsequent study. The best
method of all, however, is a combination of the two,
as a dry specimen can then be readily examined with
a hand lens without opening the envelope. The size
of the mounting-paper for a moss herbarium is often
a matter of personal preference. If the collection of
mosses is to form a part of a general herbarium it is
best, of course, to have the papers of uniform size
throughout. When the collection is to be kept sepa-
rate, a paper one-half or one-quarter the standard
size (or even smaller) is often used, and is more
easily handled. A special advantage of sheets one-
quarter of the standard size is their convenience if it
is ever desirable to transfer them to an herbarium of
standard dimensions, as four of them will just cover the
larger sheet, and the mosses will be in a vertical posi-
tion when the small sheets are fastened to the larger.

The envelope used in a moss herbarium should have

iByJ. F.Collins.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 5 1

closely folded corners, so that small parts of the speci-
mens and dirt cannot readily work out, the one to be
lost, the other to be unsightly. The envelope known
as the "Gray Herbarium Envelope" is highly recom-
mended for this purpose, the size varying according
to the bulk or area of the specimens. It is not con-
sidered necessary to poison dried mosses.

Every bryological student should cultivate the habit
of preserving microscopic mounts of the characteristic
portions of the mosses which have been studied. A
collection of this sort is an invaluable adjunct to the
herbarium, and these mounts are constantly being
referred to in subsequent studies of the same or nearly
related species.

A mica mount has a great advantage over the
glass for this purpose, as it can be kept in a small
envelope fastened to the herbarium sheet with the
dried plant, and is thus always easily consulted and
can readily be sent through the mail. The mica
slide should be fairly stiff and about two inches by
seven-eighths of an inch. The mica cover should be
thinner than the slide and of generous proportions, as
compared with the ordinary glass cover. Glycerine-
jelly is generally used as the mounting medium, and
the method of procedure is essentially the same as in
making glass microscopic mounts.

It is seldom necessary to use an extremely high
power objective in studying the mosses, so that the
objection offered by some microscopists to the use of
mica slides (viz., that modern objectives have been
adapted to a certain thickness of cover glass and any
change in that thickness or substance ailects the
image) is seldom if ever realized.

52 BOTANIZING

Lichens.1

" The bleakest rock upon the loneliest heath
Feels in its barrenness some touch of spring.
And in the April dew or beam of May
Its moss and lichens freshen and revive."

Beaumont.

As to all external features, lichens are best seen,
examined, and enjoyed in a suitable locality after rains
or in a thaw. But the plants are then wet, and, in
that condition, cannot be made available for the
herbarium. All the parts become confused and the
beauty is lost. The rule then is, if they are wet, to
allow them to become almost dry; if dry, to moisten
them slightly by wrapping them loosely in wet, soft
paper, when they become flexible, and can speedily
be flattened in a book by means of some sort of weight,
say a book on top. When thoroughly dry they are
easily attached to pieces of paper of proper size, and
marked, the attachment in the foliaceous kinds being
only at the middle, so that the under side may be
observed. Or else, a second specimen may be
mounted face downward, to show the reverse aspect.
This last direction applies only to foliaceous forms,
although fruticulose kinds are similarly treated, except
when growing in clumps, like many common cla-
doniaa, when one makes a vertical slice or slices from
such portions of the clump as will well display all the
features, and presses the section like the others.

Crustaceous lichens on bark are removed with a
thin portion of the matrix, and must also be subjected
to sufficient pressure till the living wood is thoroughly
dry ; otherwise it will curl.

1 Contributed by the late Prof. Edward Tuckerman of Amherst College.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 53

CrustaceotlS rock-lichens are secured like other
rock specimens, by means of hammer and chisel,
practice being the best guide.

Species are preserved in herbarium sheets* but not
attached. The sheets are kept in covers, when the
plants can be put away for ready reference.

Make a separate department for rock specimens.
They do not tit in well with the others in the herba-
rium. Lichens vary so much that one requires many
specimens of the same thing, and often excludes old
specimens for better ones. Hence it is best to keep
them loose in the species sheets. Those suited for
mounting are kept in folded pockets. Earthy crusta-
ceous specimens will easily crumble, but may be
made imperishable by sufficient gum to penetrate
every part except the upper surface where the plant
is. They may be mounted on paper, easily studied,
and preserved.

Mr. Henry Willey, of New Bedford, allows us to
quote from his useful " Introduction to the Study of
Lichens." lie says :

44 Unlike flowering plants, they can be collected at
all seasons of the year, they need little labor in their
mounting and preservation. Many of them are objects
of beauty, and there is no daily walk which will not
be rewarded by fresh objects of interest to the watch-
ful observer and student of lichens. . . . The
observer will have no lack of material, for they will
be all around him. Whether on the sea-shore or on
the tops of our highest mountains, they will equally
abound, lie will perceive the larger and more con-
spicuous ones without difficulty, but it will require
experience and a practised eye to detect the minute,

54 BOTANIZING

often almost invisible forms, which, however they may
seem to differ, have yet a bond of connection with
the largest and most beautiful. It is the tracing of
such connections that lends its greatest attraction to
the study of nature.

" He or she (for ladies are by no means to be
excluded from the ranks of the lichenists, and they
have been among the best students) who would col-
lect lichens will need a somewhat special outfit. As
a place of deposit for the plunder, the common tin
vasculum may be used, or, as lichens do not wither,
a basket may be carried. 1 have found it more con-
venient than either to have a coat with very large
pockets on the inside of the skirts, which are very
capacious and serve also to carry the hammer and the
wrapping-paper, and the indispensable luncheon for
an all-day tramp. As lichens are often brittle when
dry, it is well to moisten them so as to make them
soft and flexible. Rock specimens should be wrapped
in paper to prevent bruising by attrition, and the more
delicate plants, like calicium, should be well wrapped
up and put in a separate pocket or the vasculum.
A small sponge is useful to carry water, as dry
lichens might be broken in detaching. The crusta-
ceous earth lichens should be taken with a good
thickness of soil to keep them entire, and they will
crumble less easily if the soil is moist and they are
well wrapped up. A well-tempered knife with large
blades is indispensable. A very good knife of this
kind is made at New Britain, Conn. A poorer knife,
which it is not so necessary to keep sharp, is good to
separate earth lichens from the soil. The bark of
trees is most easily detached in spring and early sum-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 55

mer, and it is advantageous to carry as little timber

about as possible. Small branches may be cut oil*
entire. Lichens should not be scraped from rocks.
For their collection there is needed a cold-chisel,
which may be six or seven inches long, of half-inch
steel, well tempered but not too hard, and should be
carried in a sheath to be attached to the inside of the
coat. If placed in the pocket it will soon be lost.
The hammer may be carried in one of the large
pockets. A common geological hammer will do, but
I have preferred a combined hammer and hatchet, the
latter being very useful in many cases where the knife
is insufficient, as on large branches or very dry wood.
The blade, however, should be inclosed in a strong
leather guard, to prevent accidents. A spool of stout
linen or cotton thread will hold a large supply for
tying packages, or, if something stronger is desired,
twine can be obtained on spools at the stationer's.
A good pocket lens is requisite. Stones are often
difficult things to deal with, but a little experience
will enable the collector so to direct his blows as to
obtain his specimens with as little as may be of su-
perfluous material. On stratified rocks this is not
usually difficult, but the granite rocks are generally
refractory.

41 Pains should be taken to obtain fertile specimens.
Sterile specimens of cladonias and of crustaceous
lichens are of little or no value. Inexperienced persons
are too apt to collect and send for determination such
specimens and the merest fragments. They had
better at first confine themselves to large and perfect
plants. x\s they acquire familiarity with lichens
they will come to perceive that these inferior things

56 BOTANIZING

arc often mere conditions of species which they
already know. Still, many of the larger lichens
occur, without or rarely with fruit, and the collector
must be satisfied with the best he can get. He should
collect several specimens of each species, and note
the localities, so as to be able to return to the spot
where a plant has been found in case more should be
desired. The colors of lichens are heightened by
moisture, and after wet weather they become more
conspicuous, and some may be more easily detected
at such times. But in description the colors are noted
as in the dry state.

" Having returned from a tramp well laden with
lichens of all kinds, the next thing is to prepare them
for the herbarium. The plants will be separated and
sorted. The leafy and shrubby ones will be placed
between paper under light pressure to dry and
flatten. Those on bark may be reduced in thickness
on the under side, and then placed under considerable
pressure for several days, till they are thoroughly dry,
so that they may not curl and take up room in the
herbarium. If they have become curled and hard
they may be placed in cold water till soft, and then
put in the press. Cold water does not harm recently
collected plants, though wetting those in the her-
barium that have lost their vitality should be avoided,
and warm or hot water is decidedly injurious at all
times.

" Rock lichens may, with proper pains, often be
considerably reduced in thickness so as to reduce the
space they occupy ; but pains should be taken to pre-
serve a portion at least of the external contour of the
thallus, so as to know whether it is uniform or effig-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES S7

Drate. The earth specimens should be reduced in
thickness while moist, and a thin solution of mucilage
applied on the under side, sufficient to saturate the
earth, but without coming through to the upper side.
When this is dry the specimen will he hard as stone
and in no danger of crumbling. The specimens
should he cleaned of dirt and extraneous matter as
much as possible without injury. When all these
operations are completed the plants will be ready for
the herbarium.

"The methods for mounting for final preservation
will vary with the taste of the collector, the extent of
his collection, and the space at his disposal. Some
prefer to place the specimens in paper wrappers;
others to mount them on paper. In a small collec-
tion, and one in which it is desired to make a show of
the specimens, the latter is preferable. Nice white
paper should be selected, of which it will be well to
have two sizes, one for large lichens and the other
for small ones. Lichens become brittle with age, and
therefore not so likely to get broken when firmly at-
tached to paper. The plants should be perfectly dry
when mounted, as if damp they will contract in dry-
ing and curl the paper. It is well to attach them first
at the centre, and when they have become dry to
fasten them at the edges. As the features of the
lower side are often important, two specimens of each
species should be mounted, so as to exhibit both sides.
Some lichens, like the caliciums, are difficult to
preserve. These must be softened by moisture and
gently pressed till drv, so as somewhat to depress the
stipes, and they may then be- placed in envelopes, or,
if space is not a consideration, in boxes. On the

58 BOTANIZING

wrappers or on the paper on which the specimen is
mounted should be a written or printed label, giving
the name of the species, the time and place of collec-
tion, a note of any peculiar features, especially of the
internal ones of the thallus or fruit, which may have
been observed with the microscope, and a sketch of
the spores and note of their dimensions.
Handsome specimens, neat mounting, clearly written
labels, and methodical arrangement, add greatly to the
appearance of a collection."

NOTE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The most complete general work upon the lichens in the
English language is a Text-Book of Lichenology, by Albert
Schneider; Willard N. Chute & Co., Binghamton, N.Y.,
1897.

In addition the lichenologist will have occasion to use:

Willey, H. — Introduction to the Study of Lichens ; New
Bedford, 1887 (pamphlet).

Tuckerman, E. — Genera Lichenum ; Amherst, 1872.

Synopsis of North American Lichens; Part I., Amherst,
1882; Part II., Amherst, 1888.

Crombie. — British Lichens, I., 1895.

Lindsay, W. L. — A Popular History of British Lichens ;
London, 1856.

Nylander, W. — Enumeration generate des Lichens;
Cherbourg, 1858.

All the larger college herbaria, as those of Harvard,
Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, Brown Univer-
sity, the National Museum at Washington, etc., con-
tain collections of lichens.

DIRECTIONS VOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 59

The Collection of Algae.1

" With its waving blade of green,

The sea-fiag .sire. mis through the silent water,
And the erimson leaf of the dulse is seen
To blush like a banner bathed in slaughter."

It is impossible to give any general rule that will
apply to the collecting of all algae, for they differ
much in size and character, ami are found in entirely
different localities. In this respect the range is greater
than in anv other class of plants, for the largest plants
known are algae, and so are the smallest, except bac-
teria, which are now hardly to be classed as algae.

Even if we limit ourselves to marine algae the range
is enormous, and the habitat very varied. The only
condition common to all is the presence of moisture
and salt. Both of these, however, may be in some
cases present in very small quantity, but only incon-
spicuous forms, or very stunted specimens of other
forms, would be found under such conditions.

The typical seaweeds, those noticeable for their
size or beauty, are to be found in water of the stand-
ard salinity of the ocean ; the more brilliant ones in
spots where they are seldom or never exposed to the
air.

They range from high-water mark to a depth of
some hundreds of feet ; onlv a few forms, however,
to be found in the lower part. Few kinds of shores
are entirely barren ; a sandy beach exposed to the
waves is about as unfavorable as any. but even here
there is generally, at or near low-water mark, some
rock large enough to keep its place against the waves,

1 Contributed by Mr. Frank L. Collins, of Maiden, Mass.

60 BOTANIZING

and on this, as well as on any woodwork, a growth
of algae soon forms. A muddy bottom also is unfa-
vorable, but if the water is quiet and warm, a consider-
able growth soon forms, loosely attached to the muddy
substratum ; as it growrs older it often loosens, floating
or drifting ashore in considerable quantities.

Rocky shores are far the richest localities, especially
where the character and stratification of the rock are
such as to form pools, which continue filled with
water when the tide goes out and leaves bare the rock
around them. In these tide pools one can often find
species which otherwise would not be found above
low-water mark.

The outfit for a collector can be as elaborate or as
simple as desired. If one wishes to provide for every
emergency he will find himself supplied with so
many impedimenta that active movement will be out
of the question, and he may wish for a less elaborate
outfit. The following is a fairly complete list of what
will be useful in a trip along the shore :

Rubber boots : these should not be too heavy for
comfort, but should have long tops; the kind known
as " light thigh" or " sporting" boots is the best.

A bag or pail for carrying home the spoils. The
pail can be obtained anywhere, and so will be oftenest
used on impromptu or unexpected excursions, but a
waterproof bag, with a strap by which it can be slung
over the shoulder, is on the whole better, as it leaves
the arms free.

A strong knife for scraping off encrusting algae and
for loosening the heavier brown weeds from their
attachments. An ordinary pocket knife will do, but a
sheath knife to be worn in the belt is perhaps better.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 6\

A geologist's hammer and chisel for detaching bits
of rock with the stony algae attached. If these can
be kept in the belt it will also be handy.

A small net for scooping up floating weeds.

A >craper for woodwork, piles of bridges, and the
like.

Bottles or jars for keeping in salt water such plants
as had best not be exposed to the air. The best plan
is to have a number of wide-month bottles about six
or eight ounce size. This enables one to keep sepa-
rate different kinds or gatherings from different local-
ities ; pint or quart preserve-jars are also good,
either screw top or other kinds, but they are heavier
than bottles, and when on a long climb over slippery
rocks, weight is quite a consideration.

Pocket lens : a large si/e double or triple glass for
ordinary use ; if necessary, one can have also a Cod-
dington lens or triplet.

A supply of small envelopes, u pay envelopes," are
cheap and serviceable; any small plant which it is
desirable to keep separate, any bit of scraping from
the rock can be kept distinct, and if desired notes can
be made on the envelope, showing exact place where
obtained and such other particulars as are wanted.

Of the various appurtenances mentioned the really
necessary ones are the boots and the bag ; the others
are more or less important, according to circum-
stances.

Of course, one can walk along a beach and pick up
a few things, with only the ordinary footwear; but
one always s<_vs the best specimens floating just out of
reach ; while in clambering over the rocks one finds
the rubber boots not only a protection against uncx-

62 BOTANIZING

pectecl waves and a means of exploring the largest
pools, but also a great advantage in giving a much
surer footing on sloping and slippery rocks than any
leather sole can furnish.

Women are usually at a disadvantage in such mat-
ters ; boots of the kind in question are difficult for
them to obtain, and, indeed, would be impracticable
with the ordinary female costume ; though there is no
reason why an enthusiastic " algolagiste" should not,
like an enthusiastic bicyclist, wear a costume specially
adapted to the favorite pursuit ; still it is hardly
likely that many will vary much from the traditional
attire.

In collecting on a rocky shore the whole range from
high to low water mark should be explored.

A variation of even one or two feet vertical range
will be quite distinctly shown in the character of the
flora. The upper part of the range is accessible for
several hours of each tide, but the lower and richer
part only for a very short time, and every moment
when the lower pools and rocks are accessible should
be utilized.

Twice each month, just after the new and full
moons, the high tides are higher and the low tides
lower than ordinarily ; and at these times, generally
known as spring tides, a belt is exposed which is
quite inaccessible at other times.

Half way between these tides is what the shore
people call a low run of tides, when much less of the
shore is accessible at low water. The most favorable
tides usually occur rather early in the morning, from
six to eight o'clock ; though this varies largely, as the
time of the tide is governed considerably by local con-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 63

ditions in all places removed from the open shore.
The government publishes annually a little book giv-
ing full particulars of the time and extent of the tides
at the principal points along the coast. The col-
lector, especially if going from one place to another,
will find this quite useful.

In localities other than rocky shores some modifica-
tion of detail will be necessary, but one principle re-
mains the same: the best time is that when the water
i^ the lowest.

The richest yield will be obtained from the tide
pools, but other localities should not be neglected.
Many species grow on flat, sloping, and even perpen-
dicular rocks. When a coating of fucus covers a per-
pendicular or overhanging rock,, we often find that
lilting it will disclose seaweeds which otherwise we
would not see. Plumaria elegans grows exclusively
in this way in northern New England. The " run-
ways " through which the pools empty are excellent
places to examine, as are also the clefts in the rocks.
On the coast of Maine the cliffs often are composed
of rocks softer below than above, and the action of the
waves scoops out shallow caves locally known as
ovens ; their walls are usually covered with species of
Ectocarpus, Rhizoclonium, Calothrix, etc.

Whenever and wherever we collect, our aim should
be to get as perfect specimens as possible. The plant
should be removed from its place of growth with care,
keeping intact the organ of attachment, usually called
the root, though the name is really not appropriate ;
normally developed plants should be chosen, not
dwarfed or mutilated individuals ; and fruiting plants
in preference to sterile. In some cases it is almost or

64 BOTANIZING

quite impossible to tell whether a plant is in fruit or
not ; in such cases we must take our chances, but
when there is any difference in appearance among the
specimens, get some of each kind to examine later.
Many of the Phaeosporeae have two kinds of fruit, and
nearly all the Florideae have three kinds ; all of these
are necessary to a representation of the species.
With rare species, of course, we must take what we
can get, fertile or sterile, perfect or imperfect ; but the
aim should be to secure the best.

The flora grows richer as wre approach low-water
mark, and extends to quite a distance below low-
tide level ; farther, of course, in some places than
in others. There are species whose whole range is
out of our reach ; these we can ordinarily obtain only
as they are washed 'ashore. During calm weather,
very little is to be obtained this way, but a hard blow
will often bring ashore great quantities, and especially
when these drift into coves or in the curves of beaches,
the masses of floating plants are sometimes astonish-
ing. Promptness is necessary in collecting them ; in
a day or two all but the coarsest will be spoiled or
much damaged.

Salt marshes have a flora of their own, almost en-
tirely of green or blue-green algae, growing in tufts
or spread in thin sheets on the ground, attached to
stalks of juncus or spartina, or floating in the shal-
low pools. Closed basins, connected with the sea
only at high tide, are interesting localities, especially
in summer; the water often becomes warm enough to
support species which are found in open water only
considerably farther south.

As soon as possible after the algaj are collected

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 65

they should be mounted. In hot weather an hour or

two in the bag or pail will seriously injure some spe-
cies; and even when in bottles and jars delay is dan-
gerous. And care should be taken not to crowd too
many plants into the same jar or bottle ; and not to
put among new specimens any decaying plant, or a
desmarestia, which has a very destructive effect on
plants with which it comes in contact.

Salt water should be used in mounting, if one is at
the shore, the actual sea water ; when this is not prac-
ticable, and only fresh water can be obtained, add
common salt enough to make a three or four per cent.
solution ; it is not quite as good as sea water, but will
do. In case of need, the apparatus for mounting can
be reduced to a tin or earthenware basin, but it is more
convenient to have some special apparatus. The
writer has found nothing better than the following
simple outfit:

A pan of heavy tin plate, from three-quarters to
one inch deep, a little larger each way than the largest
paper intended to be used ; sheet of heavy zinc
plate, one-half an inch smaller each way than the
paper, perforated with quarter-inch holes, about an
inch apart; two wash bowls, and a pair of metal
forceps. The plants, or such portion of them as can be
attended to at one time, should be put in one of the
bowls and rinsed thoroughly ; then one at a time
picked up by the forceps and transferred to the pan.
This should be placed with one end toward the oper-
ator, the zinc plate with the end from the operator
resting on the bottom of the pan, the other end rest-
ing on the edge of the nearer vn<\. projecting slightly
toward the operator. The pan should be rather more

66 BOTANIZING

than half filled with clean salt water. The paper on
which the plant is to be mounted should be laid on
the slightly sloping zinc, the specimen floated over it
and spread out in a natural position on the paper,
proceeding from the part nearer the operator to the
other part, gradually raising the zinc as the work
goes on, so that as fast as a part of the plant is ready
it comes above the surface of the water; all these
movements to be very gradual so as not to disturb
even the delicate fronds of a callithamnion or an
ectocarpus ; the lifting being done by the left hand,
the right hand is free to attend to the arranging.

As soon as the preparation is complete the card
should be taken from the zinc and laid on a sloping
board to drain. It is convenient to set the board on
end in the second basin, and almost upright; the
wet paper will stick to it without trouble, and ten
minutes or so of draining on this board will generally
save a day or two in press, from what would be
needed if the paper and specimen were to be trans-
ferred directly from the pan to the driers.

The paper on which the alga? are mounted should
be of good quality and weight. Standard herbarium
paper is suitable. It can be obtained from dealers
(the Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, for in-
stance) the size of the herbarium sheet, and the half,
quarter, and eighth of the same. These will give sizes
suitable for almost all needs.

The drying paper should be heavy. It is better
economy, in the long run, to use a much heavier
paper than for ordinary plants. Where that weighing
two pounds to the yard can be obtained, it should be
used in preference to lighter weights. There should

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 6 J

be a supply of cloths, of almost the same size as the

driers. Common white cotton cloth will do, and when
one can obtain old cotton it is better than new ; dis-
carded sheets and pillow-cases furnish excellent
material.

In arranging for the press a drier should be laid
down, then on this lay the papers with the specimens
face up; when the drier is covered with the specimen
papers lay a cloth over the whole ; do it with care,
so as not to disturb the delicate fronds; then another
drier, more specimens, a cloth, and so on. When
the pile is complete, carefully turn it upside-down ;
take off the drier now on top, and remove to a fresh
drier the cloth and specimens. The specimens will
now be above the cloth and face down. Continue
through the pile, substituting new driers for the first
lot, which will now be quite damp. Then put the
whole in press. Any kind of press used for plants
will do, but the simplest and best is merely two boards,
one each side of the pile of driers, fastened with one
or two straps. The whole can then be hung out on a
fence in the sunshine, laid on a rock, put behind the
stove or over a register, according to weather or time
of year.

Driers should be changed at intervals; the oftener
the better at first: and the specimens finally removed
only when absolutely dry. Some collectors recom-
mend changing the cloths as well as the driers, but
the writer has obtained the best results, on the whole,
by letting the cloths remain from the first putting on to
the press till the final removal of the specimen-.

In removing the cloths from the dry specimens it is
often necessary to use much care ; gelatinous alga' are

68 BOTANIZING

likely to adhere more or less to the cloth. Species
which do not adhere to paper can be laid between two
cloths, or it is sometimes more convenient to float
them on paper in the ordinary way, but using any
kind of paper of little or no value, to be thrown away
when the plant is taken from press. With ordinary
algae it is well to strap up the press as tightly as pos-
sible, but if corallines are in press, or very soft
gelatinous algae, a less pressure should be used.
Some very soft and gelatinous plants, such as Cas-
tag7iea, should not be put in press at all ; after being
removed from the pan they should be laid on driers
and left exposed to the air (but not to the sun) until
they are dry.

Some of the lower algae, mostly blue-green, form
slimy coatings on rocks and wood-work; these do
not need the treatment described, but should be
spread in a very thin layer on a small paper, in
much the same way as an extremely economical per-
son would butter a slice of bread ; some few species
may then require a light pressure, but most will need
only to dry in the open air. Instead of spreading on
paper, it is often well to spread these very minute
algae on pieces of mica; such plants can only be ex-
amined by the microscope, and if on paper must be
scraped off and put on the slide, while the prepara-
tion on mica has only to be moistened to be immedi-
ately available. With such plants as form a coating
on the rocks, adhering too closely to be detached
except in fragments, we must use the hammer and
chisel mentioned in the list of articles needed for the
outfit, fragments of the rock being broken off, with
the alga attached ; this includes both stony forms, such

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 69

as lithothamnion, and thin soft coatings, such as hil-
denbrandtia and petrocelis. No treatment is neces-
sary for such specimens; they dry on the rocks, which
are then more conveniently kept in small boxes and
drawers, the same as specimens of minerals, rather
than in the ordinary herbarium.

In many species of algae the fruit is distinguishable
only by the microscope; but it is important to know
whether an herbarium specimen is or is not in fruit;
in some cases it may save much time in sectioning
and examining one specimen after another, if each
specimen is marked as it is placed in the herbarium.
The following marks are useful to indicate the kind
of fruit, o* f°r antheridia ; -+- or 0 for tetraspores ;
and O for cystocarps. For the two kinds of fruit of
the phaeosporeae, the unilocular can be indicated by
the sign 0» tne plurilocular by OO- When a hand-
some specimen, well showing the habit of the species,
has been mounted, it is a good plan to add a small
fruiting branch in one corner of the paper; material
for microscopic examination can be taken from this
Without defacing the specimen.

As to preparing smaller algae or portions of layer
species in the form of microscopic slides, that is
really an art by itself, and instructions in regard to
it would hardly be in place here. It is hoped that
the advice and instructions given in the preceding
pages will enable the ordinary collector for the her-
barium to obtain fairly good results; but only long
practice joined with natural aptitude will make the
work easy and the results sure and satisfactory.

One point more deserves mention : it is not always
the case that when we have the opportunity to col-

JO BOTANIZING

lect algae wc have also the time and facilities for
mounting them ; and it is exasperating to the enthu-
siastic student to see a feast of which he cannot par-
take. It may be of interest to him to know that most
species can be preserved for a considerable time
before mounting ; they will not be quite equal to
freshly mounted plants, but will not be much inferior.
The simplest way to keep them is to dry them ; rinse
a handful thoroughly in salt water, then by easy
pressure with the hand squeeze out any superfluous
moisture ; leave it exposed to the air, but not to the
sun, in a rather warm place ; as it grows dry, pack
it close together, and when it is thoroughly dry it
can be kept an indefinite time, and put in boxes to be
sent by mail or express. Care should be taken not
to let it grow moist again after it has begun to dry.
Some algae do not do well under this treatment. Fine
species of polysiphonia, ectocarpus, and the like
sometimes form clotted masses, which will not float
out again ; but the great majority of species can be
floated out after months or even years, and make
excellent specimens.

Still better results can be obtained by salting the
fresh specimens. A water-tight receptacle is necessary
for this : the best is a preserve jar with screw or
some other air-tight cap. Squeeze out superfluous
moisture from the specimens, and place a layer in the
bottom of the jar ; then sprinkle on them a layer of
common powdered salt ; another layer of algae, and
another layer of salt; and so on until the jar is full.
In a few hours you will find that you can push down
the mass to not much more than half its bulk, and a
considerable quantity of water can be drained off.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 71

After doing this, till up the jar again with more algae

and salt, and then after another interval chain off the
water once more. When little or no more moisture
will drain off, fasten up the jar ; it will now keep, not
for an indefinite time, hut for months, and the speci-
mens will be more like the natural plant than those
prepared from dried material. Fresh water should
be used in mounting them, as the salt in which they
are packed will be ample.

In what has been written here as to collecting and
preparing algae, the collector for scientific purposes
has been addressed. It may not be below the dignity
of this work to add a few words to those who, with-
out caring to study structure or growth, admire the
beauty of color or form, and wish to keep specimens
to show these qualities as much as possible. Instead
of collecting the mature, fruited plant, they should
generally select a younger plant, which woidd usually
be more delicate or brighter. Many of the darker
colored red algae show much brighter colors when
mounted in fresh water, and plants which are washed
ashore sometimes are variegated in a way which,
though caused by incipient decay, makes beautiful
effects in the mounted specimen. Instead of paper,
cards can be used for mounting, and bevelled edges,
gilded margins, and the like can be used to heighten
the effect, and though no true algologist would ever
combine two species in one specimen for his herba-
rium, it cannot be denied that a dasya or ptilota,
with its rich red set off by a background of feathery
ectocarpus, is a beautiful sight. But this is a sci-
entific heresy.

72 BOTANIZING

In collecting fresh-water algae a less extensive out-
fit is needed than is demanded by marine algas.

Rubber boots will sometimes be useful in rivers and
ponds, though wherever one can have the use of a
boat the boots will hardly be needed, while for
ordinary collecting the usual footwear is sufficient.
If intending to collect in considerable quantity, the
bag slung over the shoulder may be convenient, but
not otherwise ; smaller bottles should be provided
than those used for marine algae, and more of them.
Hammer or chisel will not be called for, but a dull
knife for scraping films from rocks is needed. The
scoop nets will seldom be wanted, but a large spoon
is often convenient for collecting fine scums. The
small envelopes are very necessary, and a good supply
should always be taken. The pocket lens every botan-
ist has always with him as a matter of course.

In winter, when ponds and streams are frozen,
little can be expected, though even at this season,
when there is a few days' thaw, something may be
found on dripping rocks and similar localities, while
at all other seasons there need be no lack of material.

In early spring small brooks and streams are the
best collecting grounds ; ponds and rivers are at their
best later in the season. Standing pools almost
always contain a flora, unattractive to sight, but in-
teresting to examine ; dripping rocks, and places wet
with spray from waterfalls, also abound with algas.

On moist ground in shaded places there will almost
always be found a growth of green or blue-green
plants, as also on the shady side of tree-trunks, fences,
and the like. In fact, algae are to be found wherever
there is moisture.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 73

Fresh-water algae attain much smaller size than
marine, the genus which most resembles a seaweed
proper, lemanea, sometimes reaching a length of
a foot, but such a size is quite exceptional, and the
great majority of species are of microscopic dimen-
sions. Hut sometimes the smallest forms occur in
such enormous quantity as to cover the surface of
large ponds, or form a dense coating on the bed of
a stream for miles. With most species of marine
algae one can tell at a glance whether the specimens
are in suitable condition, and one can at least approx-
imately recognize the genus if not the species. With
fresh-water algae the opposite is the case. The species
that can he recognized at sight are very few, and in
nine cases out of ten a microscopic examination is
needed to determine whether a plant is or is not of
interest enough to preserve a specimen. So that the
only safe way is to carry an ample supply of small
bottles and envelopes, and bring home a little of
everything, noting the exact locality in each case, so
that if the plant proves to be something new or rare,
you can return and get a quantity.

After the examination has shown you what you are
to throw away and what to keep, you can mount the
latter much in the same way as marine algae ; the
larger and coarser by pan and press, the fine and soft
by pan, but to be dried without pressing; the minute
and, to the eye, formless masses by spreading on
paper or mica. But while the greater part of marine
algae are to be treated in the first of these three ways,
very few fresh-water alga- require or will endure it —
only such plants as Lcmanca, Cladophora, Tuomcya,
and the like, which seem more like seaweeds that

74 BOTANIZING

have wandered from their home than they do like
real fresh-water algye. The blue-green algas, after
being dried on paper or mica, are ready for study at
any time, recovering their form almost perfectly when
moistened ; but with most of the green algas the case
is different : Cladophora, Rhizoclonium, and, to some
extent, Ulothrix and Confera, preserve their general
habit and cell shape, though of course characters de-
rived from the arrangement of chromatophores or
formation of zoospores are lost. Rut in the conjugatse
the arrangement of the chromatophores gives a great
part of the specific characters, most of the remainder
being obtained from the size and shape of the spores.
The latter are fairly well preserved in the dried plant,
but the former are usually entirely lost ; while it is
not uncommon to find fruit formed in such quantity
that it is hard to discover a normal vegetative fila-
ment. In preparing specimens of these plants, such
as spirogyra or lygnema, it is a good plan to put on
the same paper, side by side, specimens of both fruit-
ing and vegetative states ; and also with the speci-
men you ai-e to put in your own herbarium a
drawing of how both appeared when you examined
the fresh plant. If it is desired to study the plant
later, material should be preserved in fifty per cent,
alcohol. Practised microscopists will know of many
solutions that can be employed for this purpose, but
the alcohol can be obtained anywhere and at any
time, which is not the case with the other substances.
Such alga) as the cedogoniceai and vaucheria have
an elaborate sexual fructification ; sterile specimens
alone are quite worthless ; many species of both of
these are dioecious, and there is often still a third (asex-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 75

ual) fruit. All of these must be known to determine
these species, and when the collector tinds that it is a
common habit of acdogonium for several species to
grow inextricably mixed together, he will realize how
thorough collecting and how careful study are neces-
sary. This habit of various species growing in com-
pany is so common that in many cases it is practically
impossible to obtain pure material of a species.

The directions for collecting fresh-water alga3 are of
necessity much less clear than those for the collection
of seaweeds; but after a while the student will find a
sort of intuition developing, which will tell him that
this green mess is liable to be of interest, while that
similar one will not be worth gathering. He will find
it hard to tell any one what difference in appearance
has led him to this conclusion, but he feels it. The
intuition is not infallible, but it grows with practice,
until at last one is surprised to find how much one de-
pends on it.

The collector should study " Marine Alga? of New
England," by Prof. W. G. Farlow.

For Prof. W. A. Setchell's method of collecting
marine algae, see "Erythea," Vol. 7, p. 24 (1899).

The Collection and Preservation of Fungi.1

" Shall we glorify a mushroom ? " — BEN JONSON.
The fungi are a group comprising such various
forms that it is hardly possible in a work of this scope
to give methods of collection and preservation that
are applicable to all. Yet all except the distinctly
fleshy forms are either easy of preservation by simply
drying, or are so minute as to be best preserved in the
form of a microscopical preparation. There are very

1 By II. Metcalf.

J6 BOTANIZING

various methods of killing and preserving fungi to
bring out particular points of structure. For these the
reader is referred to more special works. Only the
most general methods are here discussed.

When and Where to Collect. — There is no group of
plants so widely distributed as the fungi. From the
ubiquitous bacteria to the puff-balls, there is hardly a
place or time when some representatives of every
group may not be found. In the winter various
forms of fungi occur growing on the bark of trees, on
dead wood and leaves, and on stored fruits and vege-
tables. Pieces of bread or cheese, or of various
vegetables and fruits, or dung of various herbivorous
animals, if kept moist in closed vessels, will yield a
most interesting and varied crop. The forms that
grow under such conditions are mostly microscopic,
such as the zygomycetes and various hyphomycetes,
but not infrequently fleshy forms, like small coprini,
appear in profusion. For all such cultures the writer
is accustomed to use shallow bowls or crystallizing
dishes, covering them with panes of glass. These
are in many ways easier to handle and watch than the
conventional plate and bell-glass.

Many ascomycetes and several coprini mature
their fruit surprisingly early in the spring, often
before the snow has disappeared. As soon as the
trees are in full foliage certain forms, parasitic in the
leaf tissues, may be expected. As the season advances
the mushrooms become more numerous and generally
attain their greatest profusion in " dog-days." Warm,
damp, showery weather is sure to bring them out in
field and wood, in places that the mycophagist soon
learns to find. Many mushrooms are quite restricted

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES JJ

in their habitat, growing only under particular con-
ditions of soil, moisture, tight, and shade. Conse-
quently a region of varied topography is more

productive of them than one more uniform, though
the latter may he very favorable to a few varieties.
Generally speaking, deep, dense, and extensive forests,
undisturbed by the axe of the woodman, are less pro-
lific of fleshy fungi than interrupted woods.

Xot a few mushrooms grow in profusion during
the autumn months, and many characteristic summer
forms persist in sheltered places; while the puff-balls
and certain phalloideae are perhaps most numerous
and in best condition for study at this time. The
leaf-inhabiting forms have now matured their spores,
and produce discolored spots on the leaves which
attract the collector's attention.

Two much-neglected groups — the aquatic fungi
and those parasitic upon insects — should receive
passing mention. The first may be found at any
time of year growing upon submerged sticks or water-
plants, or free in polluted water. The second from
their economic importance alone deserve far more
attention than they have ever received. Frequently
at various times of summer grasshoppers and locusts
will be found firmly clasping a blade of grass or a
stick up which they have climbed to die. Almost
invariably the bodies of these will be found to be full
of the mycelium and spores of a fungus. Butterflies
and caterpillars and many other insects are similarly
affected, though not all die in the characteristic posi-
tion of the fungus-infected grasshopper. The house-
fly, fastened to a window-pane by a halo of mycelial

threads, is a familiar object at any time of year.

7 8 BOTANIZING

How to Collect For collecting any except the fleshy

fungi but little equipment is needed other than that
used in collecting flowering plants. A sufficient
number of boxes for the more delicate forms, such as
the myxomycetes, and envelopes for leaf-parasites
and such forms as will not be damaged by pressure,
should be taken in the vasculum or pockets. A
strong hand lens is a necessity — the writer much pre-
fers the Hastings on account of its small size, large,
flat field, and long working distance ; but some cheaper
instruments serve the purpose. For cutting off
limbs and pieces of bark upon which fungi are grow-
ing, and for detaching large, hard polyporeae from
their hosts, a small narrow-blade hatchet which may
be carried in the belt is very useful. Aquatic fungi
may be collected and carried home in wide-mouthed
bottles, like small alga3.

Three general rules hold good for all fungus col-
lecting. First : never mix different species of fungi ;
put only one kind in an envelope or box. Even large
fungi had better be wrapped up in paper, as is here-
after directed for mushrooms, before being piled into
the vasculum ; this will prevent the spores of different
species from mingling, which might cause endless
confusion in determining the plant. Second: secure al-
ways a sufficient atnount of the specimen. A perfect
herbarium specimen should exhibit all characteristic
stages of development of the plant. Extra specimens
may be exchanged. Be sure to secure all parts of the
plant ; the portion in the substratum is often of radi-
cal importance in classification, particularly in the
mushrooms. Third : take careftd notes of locality,
time, surroundings, of anything about the specimen

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 79

that seems peculiar or unusual, and especially of all

characters that seem or are known to be evanescent.
Notes may be made in the note-hook, or, better, on a

slip of paper which is wrapped up with the specimens.

For collecting mushrooms and other easily decaying
and fleshy forms, certain special methods must be em-
ployed. It is well not to use a vasculnm, unless on a
very short collecting trip, as the close damp air causes
rapid decay ; a stout covered basket is much better.
Carry also a number of sheets of coarse tissue paper
cut about two feet square — any porous, tough paper
that will not break upon being wet will do. Wrap
up all the specimens of a particular kind in one of
these squares, and place in the basket so that in carry-
ing they will be jarred as little as possible. If desired,
a spore print may be taken, by cutting a hole in the
centre of a paper disk, and pushing this disk over the
stem so that it is brought close up under the pileus ;
then the mushroom is arranged in its package so as to
stand upright, and thus whatever spores are dropped
are caught on the paper disk. But unless the collect-
ing-trip is a very long one it is better to defer the
spore print until more elaborate methods can be em-
ployed. Particularly careful field notes are required
for mushrooms, since so many of their characters are
evanescent. For just what is required here the
reader is referred to special articles, such as that by
Professor Burt, mentioned at the end of this chapter.

The Boston Mvcological Club furnishes its members
a blank for collectors' notes which is very full and
suggestive.

How to prepare for the Herbarium Fungi that in-
habit leaves — indeed most forms that ""row on flow-

8o BOTANIZING

ering plants — can be preserved by drying the host
plant in the ordinary press, and mounting on an herba-
rium sheet in the usual way. Delicate forms, like the
myxomycetes, small purl-balls, etc., are best kept,
after drying, in small boxes. Some botanists, for the
sake of uniformity, attach these boxes to herbarium
sheets ; but in a group so diverse as the fungi it is
best not to attempt any uniformity in mounting.
Certain soft forms that shrink out of shape upon
drying, such as the tremellineae, are preserved in
alcohol, or better in two per cent, formalin. For such a
purpose flat or square bottles are preferable to round,
since they do not distort the view of the object within.
While mushrooms can be perfectly preserved in
liquid as regards shape, color is generally lost; still
it is well to keep both liquid and dried specimens ;
if these can be accompanied by drawing in color of
the fresh specimens their value is greatly increased.
Many collectors also preserve a thin longitudinal sec-
tion through the entire mushroom. Such a section
brings out many points not evident in the entire
specimens.

Filamentous fungi are often dried in the mass and
preserved in this form, but they should always be
accompanied by microscopical preparations on glass
slides, or, as many prefer, on mica. Similarly speci-
mens of many fleshy fungi, especially the ascomycetes,
are not complete unless accompanied by microscopical
sections. There are many ways of making such
permanent preparations ; the writer prefers simply
mounting the plant or section in pure glycerine, and
subsequently ringing the cover-glass with two coats of
Brunswick black. It should be remembered that

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 8 1

fungi growing in the air must always be wetted in
alcohol before being placed in glycerine, in order to

avoid air-bubbles. The cover-glass should be as
small as possible, and only enough glycerine should
be used to just fill the space beneath it. If the
specimen is at all fragile the weight of the cover-
glass should be supported by a tiny fragment of a thin
cover-glass, or a bit of paper, mounted witli the
specimen. When the first ring of Brunswick black
is put on great care should be taken that the surfaces
to which it is to be applied are perfectly dry and
clean. If these precautions are taken glycerine prep-
arations will last as long as those made with Canada
balsam, or glycerine jelly, and they possess the ad-
vantage of being prepared far more easily and rapidly.

Mushrooms and all other putrescent forms should
be identified as soon as possible after collecting, and
then dried. Drying may be accomplished by sus-
pending the mushrooms, each species in a pile by
itself, on a shallow wire or tin tray above a stove or
lam}). Not enough heat should be used to bake the
specimens. After this preliminary drying they may
be left until a convenient season for mounting, care
being taken that they are not attacked by insects in
the meantime. The first drying is likely to distort
the specimens; on this account it is generally neces-
sary, just before mounting, to dampen them by plac-
ing mem in a cellar, or in a box in which wet rags
have been placed. This method, which is simply
exposing the dried plants to damp air, will be found
preferable to sprinkling with wale), as is reaooi*
mended by some. When the specimens are damp
enough to be pliant they may be flattened out or bent

\8

82 BOTANIZING

into any desired shape to go on to the herbarium
sheets. They are then dried between sheets of un-
sized paper, as are flowering plants, — only with much
less pressure, in many cases none at all. All that is
here desired is to dry them, not to flatten them. Of
course this entire process of dampening and redrying
may be left out if sufficient care is taken to get the
plants into shape at the first drying. But this proved
in practice a difficult thing to do.

Those who poison their specimens with solutions of
corrosive sublimate or strychnine, etc., do so just be-
fore this last drying. The writer has never had suc-
cess with liquid poisons, and much prefers simply
exposing the specimens from time to time to the fumes
of carbon disulphide.

As soon as the specimens are dry they are ready for
mounting. If they are fairly flat they can be glued to
cards which are pinned or otherwise fastened to an
herbarium sheet of the ordinary size. In this way a
number of specimens of the same species from differ-
ent localities may be mounted on the same sheet.
Small specimens, or those not flat enough to be glued
to the card, may be placed in an envelope that is
pinned to the same sheet. Large, bulky specimens
are best kept in boxes, entirely unmounted. Fungi,
especially the fleshy forms, are much more liable to
insect attacks than other plants, and, when possible,
herbarium specimens of them should be kept in insect-
proof cases.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
On Collecting and Preparing Fleshy Fungi for the Her-
barium. E. A. Burt, •« Botanical Gazette," 25 : 172, 1898.

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 83

The Preparation of Agarics for the Herbarium. J. E.
Humphrey, "Botanical Gazette," 12: 271, 1887.

Suggestions to Collectors of Fleshy Fungi. L. F. Under-
wood, "Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin,"
80 : 271, 1S97.

Various publications of C. H. Peck, State Botanist,
Albany, X.V.

Reference List of Publications relating to Edible and
Poisonous Mushrooms, by Josephine A. Clark, United States
Department of Agriculture, January, 1898; Libr. 20.

The Collection of Fossils.

" A stone, o'er which there ran

Fairy peneillings, a quaint design,
Veinings, lea&ge, fibres clear and fine,

And the fern's life lay in every line."

The present vegetable life of the globe is so inti-
mately connected with that of prehistoric times that it
becomes necessary to study the remains of such ancient
plants as are found in geological formations. Trunks
of trees, stems of herbs, leaves, flowers, fruits, arc all
found in more or less perfect condition. From these
fragments is gradually being constructed a history of
this ancient life, and by its means we are enabled to
trace back to a remote past manv a modern tvpe ot
plant. Often genera survive of which no single living
species is identical with those of geologic time. The
whole study is most useful and interesting and is
being pursued by an increasing number of active
workers.

Of course the field outfit of a fossil collector will be
quite different from that of the ordinary botanist. He
will not require the vasculum or portfolio. Instead of

84 BOTANIZING

these he must carry some kind of bag or satchel in
which to place the fragments of rock that he collects.
The trowel, so useful with living plants, will be re-
placed by a small pick-axe and a hammer. These can
be carried in a belt about the waist. The hammer
should have one blunt and one cutting end, and be
well balanced. In addition a chisel is often necessary.

The directions for collecting fossils will necessarily
vary with the conditions. They may be found im-
bedded in rocks or in clay. They may exist as im-
pressions only, and are then obtained by splitting the
rock or shale which contains them. I have found
them at times in water-worn pebbles which I quite
accidentally broke open. Again, they may be in clay or
sand. Says Knowlton, " The geological horizon from
which they come may make certain fossils of the
highest interest. A few seemingly worthless frag-
ments from a horizon that rarely bears plant-remains
may often be of greater interest than a fine collection
from a well-known locality or horizon. Therefore, no
one should be discouraged because the remains seem
fragmentary, as much can frequently be made out
with very poor material. But care should be taken to
get as complete a representation as possible.

" In collecting in any locality it is well to get out as
large a series as possible before selecting the speci-
mens to be taken. In this way many valueless speci-
mens may be discarded at once, for with a large
number to select from, the really good material can be
readily picked out. Fragments that illustrate essential
or important characters should be taken, such as the
tip of a leaf, a petiole with a small part of the leaf
attached, a good perfect base of a leaf, or a well-pre-

DIRECTIONS FOR PARTICULAR FAMILIES 85

served portion of the margin. By the comparison of
a good series of such fragments a thorough and satis-
factory idea of the form, size, and character of the
leaf mav be obtained. A leaf with no part of the mar-
gin preserved can usually be discarded at once, with,
of course, the limitations mentioned above. Enough
should be taken to illustrate the species if it can be
obtained.

" In collecting ferns the most valuable specimens
are those found in fruit, and nothing, no matter how
fragmentary, that shows the slightest tendency to be
fruit-bearing should be discarded. A chance frag-
ment may frequently settle important biological ques-
tions.

14 Specimens that are accidentally broken are not to
be discarded as worthless, for they can easily be
mended with strong glue and made nearly or quite as
good as before. Parts of the same specimen should
be kept together if possible; that is, each should be
wrapped separately and the whole wrapped in a single
larger bundle. The repairing is best done in the lab-
oratory.

k4 Counterparts or reverse impressions should be
carefully preserved and also kept together. These
reverse impressions are frequently of great assistance
in the study of the specimen.

" Much work can be done in the field in the way of
reducing the size of the specimens; that is, just as
much matrix should be removed as possible with
safety to the impression that is preserved upon it.
The distance and means of transportation must be
taken into account, rind the specimen treated accord-
ingly. If it is preserved, for example, in a thinly

86 BOTANIZING

laminated shale very little reduction of the size of the
specimen should be attempted, but if the matrix is
firm, much can safely be removed. On the other
hand, very fragile specimens, such as clay, had best be
sent in bulk and broken up afterwards." '

1 From " Directions for collecting Recent and Fossil Plants," by F. H.
Knowlton, Washington, 1891.

HERBARIUM WORK 8/

CHAPTER V

HERBARIUM WORK

" There studious let me sit." — THOMSON.

It would be easily possible to extend the directions
and suggestions for field work, detailing the manage-
ment of special groups of plants and the demands of
circumstance and environment, but this would cumber
our pages. We have now to speak of certain opera-
tions of the closet or study.

Pressing. — While it is possible to secure an amount
of immediate pressure in the field, it is generally
necessary upon returning home to resort to a perma-
nent press. On longer excursions, indeed, where
transportation is possible, a press is an essential part
of the outfit. It always consists of two boards
seasoned against warping, cleated, and with rounded
edges. These boards should be half an inch longer
each way than the driers within. A large bundle,
backed by such boards, is easily and safely transported
for long distances. Instead of wood, the field-press
may be made of binder's-boards, covered with
enamelled cloth, green, or of some subdued color.
While the wooden press is liable to various accidents,
as splitting, such a one as this is impervious to water
and extremely durable.

Specimens, according to Lindley, may be dried
through the agency of sand. He recommends dis-

88 BOTANIZING

posing the plants between the specimen sheets and
pouring warm sand or dried earth over them. This
will press every part flat. The pile should be left
exposed to direct sunlight.

When one starts to press his plants at home, after a
return from an excursion, he should, while arranging
them in their sheets in much the same way as in the
field, yet exercise very much greater care and pre-
cision. The amount of pressure must be regulated
by circumstances, and vary with the quantity and
peculiarity of the plants to be treated. Very succu-
lent plants, indeed, might well be kept apart. Delicate,
herbaceous plants, like the wood-sorrel, Oxalis Aceto-
sella, require but little pressure. Many Orchids,
notably some Habenarias, cannot, by any ordinary
process, be dried in weeks. So, too, would it be
with Symplocarpus and Sedum.

How are we to preserve such very deciduous leaves
as those of many Crassidacecc, Portulacacece, and
Mesembryanthemacecc? Euphorbiacece, too, as well
as other succulent plants, cast off their leaves in dry-
ing. The leaflets of Tecoma radica?is, and other
Bignoniacece, after a day or two in press drop if you
look at them. There is no very satisfactory way of
handling these things. Gather up the leaflets in
envelopes, if they fall. Sometimes they can be pre-
vented from dropping by quick immersion in boiling
water. Occasionally the mounting and drying may
be simultaneously accomplished, but very few herbaria
will exhibit the leaves, say, of spruces, in place. Hot-
water immersion is said to maintain the color and
original appearance of Epiphegus and Monotropa.
When the number of plants is limited, one may

HERBARIUM WORK 89

employ the ordinary office press, but generally cleated

hoards arc used. The power is applied by lever,
strap, or weight. A legitimate objection is some-
times offered against the screw presses. The natural
shrinkage of the plants is not followed hy the neces-
sary pressure, and wrinkling may ensue. Care and
frequent change of the driers will, without question,
obviate this fault.

The writer believes that the best press is the
handiest. Two stout, well-selected boards only are
essential. These can almost always be obtained.
Between them are placed the driers, alternately with
the specimen sheets, and in number to be determined
at the time. Any convenient weight may be placed
on the upper board, such as books, stones, bars of
iron. It is well to keep on hand a number of weights
covered with cloth for this purpose. The importance
of regulating the pressure must be insisted upon.
Crushing must be avoided ; drying is the object to be
attained. When travelling on other business, or for
mere pleasure, it may happen to the amateur or even
to the professional botanist to be without any proper
press. He can, as an emergency measure, and often
with success, use a magazine or atlas, or old news-
papers, employing for a weight any handy object.
The real enthusiast will find some way to achieve his
end. While, as a rule, we shiver when a book collec-
tion is sent us, now and then we find it admirable.
Small alpines are thus often nicely preserved.

Whether the plants be collected by portfolio or
vasculum, they have, upon returning home, to be
transferred to the regular press, always in fresh, warm
driers and with plenty of them. Economy in the use

go BOTANIZING

of driers is loss of time, and often of specimens. The
driers may be heated by direct sunlight, by exposure
in a hot loft, in a kitchen, or other heated apartment.
One cannot have them too hot. With driers often
reheated and changed, very obdurate plants may
be treated. Orchids even maybe made to retain their
color, and semi-parasites like Melampyrum and Com-
andra be prevented from blackening. The grand
secret of good specimen making is the use of numer-
ous warm driers and these frequently changed.

A separation of piles is desirable unless one is
forced to economize space. A small pile is of course
more easily operated than a large one. It often hap-
pens that the collector may desire to separate partially
cured specimens from fresh and moist ones. This is
accomplished by means of interposed binder's-boards or
even blocks of wood. The lattice-work frames can
be advantageously used, as they allow the circulation
of dry air and the escape of moisture. There is no
serious objection to this unless it can be proved that
the process of drying is too much accelerated, thus
rendering the specimens brittle.

Around the heads of compositae, especially when
very large like those of HclUnithus, Silphium, or
Rtidbeckia, some collectors dispose rings of cotton
batting, but we do not advise this. When parts over-
lap there is likely to be resulting injury at least in
neatness of appearance. The consequent discolora-
tion is prevented by interposing slips of absorbent
paper.

In one pile there may be the products of several
or many excursions, simultaneously drying. Any
such details as the disposition of leaves, the spreading

HERBARIUM work 91

of petals, the separation of stamens, can best be done
in the early stages of pressing. Later these parts
become rigid and unmanageable. Fooling with them
is then a positive danger. The chief end always in
mind to be attained is as natural an exhibition of the
specimens as circumstances will allow. It may not
be possible in all cases to retain the fleeting color of
some flowers or even the living hue of certain leaves.
Still we strive towards that ideal. An incessant
change of the driers, and an abundant supply thereof
in every change, is essential to satisfactory results.
At first it is well to change them at least twice a
day. Later the demand for frequency of action is
less urgent.

Airing Driers In regard to this subject Mr. J. F.

Collins says: "When a collector does not have the
necessary space for spreading out his damp driers for
airing, he lias to resort to such other expedients as
circumstances may suggest or permit. In such a
strait I found myself a few years ago, and after dis-
couraging attempts with several devices, I finally hit
upon the following contrivance, which has proved
very efficient. I now use it in preference to any of
my former methods.

"Through the upper end of the patent clothes-
pin, sometimes known as ' spring clip,' or ' spring
clothes-pin,' I bore a quarter-inch hole, passing
through both pieces of wood. By this hole one hun-
dred or more of the clips (as may be desired) are
strung on a strong whipcord, or any stout line, this
in turn being stretched across the top of a room (as
in my case) or between trees or posts out of doors.
The clips are readily opened with one hand, while

92

BOTANIZING

with the other the driers may be placed in them
either singly or in twos. As they hang at right
angles to the cord there is, of course, an inch, or
little less, of space between the driers, and these are
aired very thoroughly in consequence. When in-
doors the several lines, with the driers, may be raised
up to the ceiling, out of the way, by means of small
overhead pulleys, if so desired.

li I have found two hundred of these clips quite suf-
ficient for collecting more than five thousand speci-
mens in one season. To be sure, it takes longer to
place the driers in the clips than to throw them about

on a floor, but the air
has a free circulation
on both sides when
suspended, wrhich is
an item to be con-
sidered."

(See sketch of two
clips on the cord.)

The duration of the
drying must depend
upon circumstances.
The process may be
slow in foggy or rainy
weather. In August, when it is often sultry and the
atmosphere super-saturated with moisture, it is very
difficult to dry specimens at all. Artificial heat is
then often resorted to. In dry, hot weather one can
work very expeditiously and well. The experienced
operator knows when his plants are cured by their
feeling to the hand or cheek ; also, at times, by the
crisp sound they emit when handled.

Fig. 12. — Airing Driers.

HERBARIUM WORK 93

As an instance of the " total depravity of inanimate
things" it is only fair to mention that plants which
one has forgotten in some old pile of papers or mag-
azine sometimes come out better cured than those to
which he has given unremitting care. Still, one
should not generalize on this fact. These anomalies
should not make us less careful, hut perhaps set us to
investigating causes. It may be that Nature herself
is tendering some useful information.

An ample table, with drawers, is a prime requisite
■oil and expeditious work. Hereon, if one has
a sense of order and follows some definite system, he
can dispose his work to best advantage, passing things
from left to right as he proceeds. Thus he may place
his heap of driers to one side, and directly in front
of him the specimen sheets. This gives him plenty
of space to work in. He makes up his new pile of
driers and specimen sheets to the other side. One
cannot have too many paper-weights; they are in de-
mand always. Ballard's clips, too, are of frequent
value.

It is convenient to place the collecting-box or the
portfolio, as the case may be, on the left, so that the
plants can be readily removed to the press. It is
well to have on hand a basin of water for washing out
sand and earth that may still, after every care in
the field, adhere to the roots. One should have a
pair of scissors, too, for trimming off dead leaves.
All refuse should be received in a basket and not left
to disorder the room.

Economical Drying Oven.1 — For diving succulent
plants or others that do not readily yield their moist-

1 Contributed by Mr. J. Franklin Collins.

94

BOTANIZING

ure, I have found a home-made oven very useful, es-
pecially in damp weather. One that I have used for
three or four years is made of a bottomless wooden
box, sufficiently long and wide, but twice the depth
necessary to accommodate the press. Through the
middle of the box there run horizontally two or three
rods or supports to hold the press. The box is fitted
with legs to stand three or four
feet above the floor. Beneath
this box is suspended, by wires,
an ordinary straight stove-pipe,
sufficiently long to extend up-
wards into the lower half of
the box, and downwards to
within an inch of the top of a
small single-wick oil stove,
which is placed on the floor
directly beneath. A loosely
fitted cover completes the
oven. The loose cover and
bottomless features allow an
easy escape of moisture, with-
out excessive heat.

The stove, with a three
and three-quarters inch wick,
turned low, affords plenty of
heat and requires from twelve
to sixteen hours to burn one quart of oil. In an oven
of this description I have dried the flowers and stems
of the so-called night-blooming cereus, and other
species of plyllocactus, in less than two days, with-
out any discoloration, but the specimens when thus
forced are apt to be brittle. The best results are

Fig. 13. — Drying Oven.

HERBARIUM WORK 95

obtained with the majority of specimens by not ap-
plying the heat until three or lour days after collect-
ing. Care must be taken not to have too mam

plants in the press at one time, or the top ones may
be discolored by the moisture from the lower ones.
Poisoning.

" Troublesome insects of the hour." — BURKE.

One would naturally suppose that after all the
work hitherto suggested a collector's work had, at
this stage of proceedings, been completed. It is a
profound mistake to so suppose. Insects stand ready
night and day to surprise the unwary. Like a beset-
ting sin, they are upon him at his most unguarded
hour. In a few hours or days they may completely
ruin the work of a lifetime.

Just now there is a reaction among some curators
even in our largest herbarium against direct poison-
ing. The late Dr. Watson, of Harvard University,
had for some years given it up, relying rather upon
dust-proof cases and frequent handling of the speci-
mens. His successor, Dr. B. L. Robinson, views the
matter in the same way. He argues that in many
cases the poison applied has only a superficial effect,
not sinking deeply into the tissues. That after dry-
ing, it easily brushes oft', and becomes a more posi-
tive danger to the curator than to the pests. The
application of any solution, too, by use of a brush or
by immersion of the specimen, disturbs or removes
fragile parts, like hairs or stamens. Discoloration
always results, and a solution, to be useful, must
be so saturated that the chemical employed will
incrust the parts, greatly to their detriment.

g6 BOTANIZING

In case a preventive is desired, various substances
are employed. Some use naphthaline or camphor,
the objection to these being their volatility and strong
odor. The smell of the first is especially offensive to
many. Personally we have not found it efficacious
against buffalo-bugs et id omne genus.

Long experience has proved that in case a preven-
tive is used at all the best is mercuric chloride (cor-
rosive sublimate) dissolved in alcohol of ninety-five
per cent. It is well to keep the solution below the
saturation point, as it will otherwise deposit upon and
disfigure the specimens with a white incrustation.

We recommend as a working formula one ounce
avoirdupois to a quart of alcohol.

According to Henfrey, " the mixture used at Kew
Herbarium, England, consists of corrosive sublimate,
one ounce ; carbolic acid, one ounce ; methylated
spirit, two pints ; mix."

It must never be forgotten that mercuric chloride is
a deadly poison. The bottle or other vessel in which
it is contained should be clearly marked tc Poisonous."
The addition of the death's head and cross-bones is
also likely to be deterrent. As, in the operation of
poisoning, some of the salt escapes into the air by
evaporation, it is advised to always ventilate the room
during or after the process. We have fancied that
the smell of the fluid has now and then produced
headache. This may be merely the result of the
work. At any rate, it is well to be on the safe side.

Application of the poisonous solution is made by
immersing the plants therein, or by going over them
with a soft brush dipped in the liquid. This brush
should be free of any metal fastenings which would

HERBARIUM WORK 97

form an amalgam with mercury and discolor the speci-
mens. Care >hoiild be taken to touch the plants
lightly, especially such as are downy or pubescent, lest

the hairs be removed. A dropping- bottle, much like
a chemist's working-bottle, is sometimes used. The
arrangement of the tube is the reverse of that in the
wash-bottle. The vessel requires merely to be in-
clined to cause a flow of the solution. As a strainer
a wisp of cotton has been advised.

It has been said above that the brush should be free
from any metal handles or fastenings. All scissors,
knives, and metal apparatus generally must be pro-
tected from contact with mercuric chloride, which at
once corrodes them. It will, too, remove the cuticle
from one's finders, so that it is well to wear gloves
while manipulating. Poisoning is usually done
before the plants are mounted, but there are times
when it is necessary to repeat the process, or
mounted plants acquired from others may need doctor-
ing. The solution in such cases of course stain the
papers, but this is unavoidable. Better a good, pro-
tected specimen than even a spotless sheet. The
poisoning may, in some cases, be done simultaneously
with the drying, but it is usually a subsequent process.
Of course, when the plants are wet down with the
alcoholic solution, they must be again dried, but the
process is now simple and rapid, not requiring much
paper, and but a very light weight.

To obviate the manifest dangers and inconveniences

resulting from the use of mercuric chloride, other

methods have occasionally been suggested. Some of

are supposed also to be more effective; thus a

German writer advises the application of paralline oil.

9$ BOTANIZING

At ordinary temperatures this is not volatile. It
holds in solution some paraffine, which, in severe
weather, will crystallize it. It is not costly and can
be easily procured. Those who have used it claim
that it is very efficacious.

One must be reasonably certain that all the plants
in his herbarium are in some way poisoned or pro-
tected. Duplicates, also, laid aside for exchanges,
should in like manner be secured. Good correspond-
ents usually inform one if the plants they send are
poisoned. When in doubt always quarantine the
plants till an examination assures their immunity.
One cannot always tell at a glance if the specimens
have been treated, though, as a rule, they evince
certain signs that are recognizable.

A little brown beetle, cousin of the voracious carpet
beetle, and known as Annobium fianiceum, is the
chief offender. He is ably assisted in his ravages by
a species of Dcrmestes, the familiar museum pest.
Probably every collector, especially in his younger
days, has had the experience of finding his work of
months or years ruined by the onslaughts of these
predaceous insects. They will even bore through the
heavy manila paper of genus covers. One wakes some
morning tc find a pile of dust in place of his cherished
treasures. The perfect beetles are fond of congre-
gating, towards evening, upon the window-panes.
Every one in sight should be at once destroyed.
They are destructive in both larval and imago condi-
tions. The little mites which sometimes swarm over
specimens appear to do no great harm, but they, too,
should be rigorously excluded. Make a clean sweep
of all visible pests.

HERBARIUM WORK 99

Ferns, grasses, and mosses, among the cryptogams,

seem little liable to attack. Labiatae are in a measure
protected by the odor of their volatile oils. However,
as any of these may serve as hiding-places and points
of rendezvous for the enemy, the safest way is to
poison all.

Certain orders seem especially liable to attack.
These are notably Compositeur especially those with
large heads, Gentianacece, Asclcpiadaccce, Euphor-
biaceas, Utnbelliferce, Ranunculacece, many Lcgiinii-
;/o>\r, all Salicacccv and their allies, and the genus
Prunus in Rosacea. These plants, known by ex-
perience to be in especial danger, might receive
particular and frequent examination. We have seen
curators poison their plants merely at the nodes.
This does not render them immune. All plants
should be treated. Nothing but a complete immer-
sion will insure safety. Look out for all tubers and
other subterranean stems and for the culms of sedges,
grasses, and rushes.

When a collection becomes certainlv and very gen-
erally infested, it may be purified by fumigation of the
packages by bi-sulphide of carbon. They are placed
in air-tight boxes and subjected to the penetrating and
offensive fumes.

100 BOTANIZING

CHAPTER VI

STORING AND EXCHANGE
" His constant cares were to increase his store." — John Home.

In a dry place, free from the attacks of mice, and
secure from dust, the collector stores his accumula-
tions of one or more seasons till he can study or ar-
range them. They are kept in their specimen sheets
and arranged in convenient packages, guarded by
binder's-boards, wrapped about with stout paper, and
securely tied. The contents should be legibly noted
on an exterior label. It is well to arrange the plants
by their natural orders or genera, so that they can
be readily consulted. In some cases an alphabetical
arrangement may be the more convenient — especially
in such large groups as composite, grasses, or sedges.
This renders them all easily accessible for exchange.
Be sure to record on the outside of the package its
special contents, and preserve a catalogue of the
whole collection. One then knows just what he
possesses and what are his desiderata.

In Botany we believe in " the open door " ; free
trade and exchange are with us synonymous. It is
by judicious exchanges that a herbarium mainly
grows. No one person can, by any possibility,
acquire all the plants even of his own town, or county,
or State. Division of labor is necessary. For a
full representation of the flora of any area he must

STORING AND EXCH wr.r: IOI

supplement his own work or his purchases l>v the
acquisitions of others. It is amazing how, l>v a
system of exchanges, a herbarium will grow. I5v
such a system, too, one obtains, if he so desires, main'
foreign plants, or rare species of his own country
which otherwise he might never see. To his surprise
he will soon find himself possessed of representations
of most of the natural orders — at least of his own
country. Knowing his lactone, he can seek specimens
to till them.

We should here direct attention to the importance
of securing extended suites of the same plant from
different locations- The variations brought about by
environment are thus most clearly shown. Extended
individual travel could not, perhaps, demonstrate so
much.

It requires but a small stock of duplicates in order
to initiate an exchange. The consequent increase to
a herbarium continues with amazing rapidity. Pleas-
ure and duty both compel one to make any large
stock of duplicates available to the less fortunate.
Unused they are liable to accident and may really be
in the way. Says Lindley : " We may be perfectly
certain, lor all experience proves it, that to be liberal
in the distribution of duplicates is a sign of a liberal,
generous disposition, and of a man who studies
science lor its own sake; while, on the other hand,
a contrary line of conduct is an equally certain indica-
tion of a contracted spirit, and of a man who studies
science less for the sake of advancing it than in the hope
of being able to gain some little additional reputation
by which his own fame may be extended. A private
individual has, no doubt, a right to do as he likes with

102 BOTANIZING

that which is his own, just as a miser has a right to
hoard his money, if such is his taste ; but of the
keepers of public collections it is their bounden duty
to take care that everything in their charge is made
available for the advancement of science."

The collector who intends to correspond and
exchange first secures some list of persons similarly
desirous. A naturalist's directory, the advertisements
in certain popular magazines, or the record of some
experienced friend, is consulted. It is somewhat
hazardous to trust the published lists.

Having selected a certain number of names, one
sends to such persons a " check-list " marked with
his desiderata and his duplicates. To this the cor-
respondent reciprocates, if he cares to exchange, by for-
warding a similarly marked catalogue. On the best
check-lists the plants are all numbered, and one may
save time by merely sending the numbers.

Delightful acquaintances are made by this means.

In arranging the packages for exchange be ever care-
ful to select well-prepared specimens, labelled, local-
ized, and even poisoned. Do as you would be done
by. Save your correspondent all unnecessary trouble.
Write your labels distinctly and let them embody all
essential information. The labels, by the way, may
be your own or those of some previous correspondent.
Even in this last case indicate in someway — as by
the words " Ex herbario" — that they have passed
through your hands. Send a generous suite of each
species, that your correspondent may have ample
material for continuing the exchange.

In packing for express or mail employ folds of
thin paper, and try in all ways to avoid any confusion

STOKING AND EXCHANGE 103

either of specimens or labels. The original collector
or possessor may be able to disentangle a snarl, for
he knows his plants, but some or all of them may
be unfamiliar to the recipient. A wrong name may
mislead a beginner for years. Let ns assume, for an
example, that one receives a dozen or more orioga-
nums, or twenty astragali, from the far West, with
mixed-up labels. No one but an expert can solve his
puzzles.

With the best of intentions any one is liable to an
occasional wrong determination, or to a chance dis-
placement of a label, so that the recipient should sub-
ject all immigrants to his herbarium to a close and
rigid examination. Thereby he will confirm or ques-
tion all the records. No plant should be admitted
without a proper certificate of health and character.
Government and railroad officials have no special re-
gard for our precious bundles, so we must be careful
to pack them in a way to withstand any possible ill-
usage.

While it is better, on many accounts, to place only
one species in a fold of paper, yet, to economize in
weight and consequent price, one may include several
or many, if small. They should, however, in such
case, be kept apart by adhesive straps, by folds of
tissue paper, or in some other way. They may even
be tied down with thread.

It is difficult to keep informed as to the various
and conflicting rulings of the United States Post Office
Department, which have fluctuated with almost every
administration ; but we believe that at present a printed
or even written label docs not subject the package to let-
ter postage. Still, it is always well to inquire at the

104 liOTANIZING

time, common sense sometimes being in abeyance to
the exigencies of politics.

At present any package weighing less than four
pounds can be sent within the limits of the Union ;
larger ones must be forwarded by express or by freight.
The charges either by mail or freight on foreign pack-
ages are almost prohibitive.

A neat package should always be made, with the
plants disposed so as to preserve the level. Papers
should be trimmed even, so as to leave no outlying
ends to catch or become frayed. It is often necessary
to place several layers of paper between the speci-
mens. In all cases the object in view is to preserve
the safety of the plants in transitu. Seeds and small
fruits should be enclosed in paper bags or pockets.

After laying out the set which it is proposed to
send, place the whole pile between binder's-boards,
securely fastened with strong twine, and cover the
whole witb stout paper, itself again tied. In case it is
to go by sea, the package may be at least partially se-
cured from moisture by wrapping it in oil-skin.

Very excellent botanical students and keen observers
are often very poor collectors. The converse is equally
true ; a good collector may be an extremely poor bot-
anist, and one whose every plant has to be redeter-
mined.

One soon learns the poor collectors, the dishonest,
and the tricky. All these kinds exist. There are
men who will coolly take one's best, and return rub-
bish or nothing. They get the plants, and you the
experience. Some years of practice will perfect an
exchange list by a process of natural selection. It

STORING AND EXCHANGE 105

will be reduced to a handy tew, tried and not found
wanting. With such it is a pleasure to correspond.

Entirely apart from courtesy, self-interest operates
to cause one to send only excellent specimens. Fail-
ure in this regard results in an evil and widespread
reputation, and the increasing certainty of only se-
curing poor material for that issued. The person who
seeks an exchange should, in all propriety, be the
first to forward his plants. Promptness in answering
is equally courteous. There are those who receive
and answer not at all, or after so long a time as to
try one's good nature. It is nothing but dishonesty
to fail entirely to reciprocate with specimens.

No consideration should induce a collector to
obliterate a rare species, and he should not publish
localities of such in other than botanical magazines,
and even then with some caution. It is a strange
fact that people, otherwise conscientious, seem to
have no regard for things of this kind ; vet by en-
riching themselves they may be doing incalculable
mischief to science. Very common things, like dan-
delions or plantains, need not be laid up in our ex-
change Stock. Still, it is to be remarked always that
what is superabundant in one's own vicinity may be
rare or unknown to a correspondent. Thus Leonto-
don autiimnalc and Ranunculus acris are common
on the seaboard of New England, but are not found,
as a rule, in the West. A plant, abundant in its own
locality, like Jasionc m on tana, on the island of
Connanicut, or Genista tinctorio, in Essex County,
Mass., may be so restricted in distribution that, see-
ing it, the experienced botanist names its place of

106 BOTANIZING

When a person has written a flora of a district, or a
monograph of some particular order or genus, all
plants received from him and described in his work
have an especial value. Our correspondents' tickets
should always be retained, and afterwards glued
down with our own in the herbarium.

u M. de Candolle, whose experience gives him a
better right than any other botanist, has insisted with
emphasis that all collections distributed among the
important herbaria should be numbered. The number
is not to show the collector's systematic reference of
the specimen, and it does not necessarily include all
his specimens that belong to the same species. It
designates merely specimens that belong to the new
stock, or such as from locality, data, or other circum-
stances he can with equal certainty assume to be
identical with each other and true duplicates. The
citation of such numbers, fulfilling as it does phytog-
raphy's law of brevity, has become very general on the
part of authors of floras, monographs, etc., and
every specimen under the same number becomes in
this way elevated to the rank of a voucher and original
of a description." — J. Donnell Smith, " Botanical
Gazette," June, 1886.

As to the duplicates kept in stock, they should now
and then be looked at, even though they may have
been poisoned, in order to see that they are not in-
jured by larvae, mould, or mice. If insects once get
into a lot of plants, they are sure to cause trouble ;
only unceasing vigilance will prevent this. One pre-
caution is to exclude dust by all possible means.

If, as may sometimes happen, a correspondent will
desire to have living plants sent him, these may be

STORING AND EXCHANGE 107

forwarded in Wardian cases. A Wardian case con-
sists of some kind of dish or pan to hold earth, and
provided with proper sub-drainage. Before putting
in the soil it is a good plan to fill the bottom of the
receptacle with broken pottery and charcoal ; then
with bits of moss-covered sticks and stones, between
which are inserted the plants. A bell-glass or similar
glazed covering is placed over the whole, with a pro-
vision for semi-occasional ventilation. Most plants
do well under these circumstances, and especially
ferns and their allies. We have, indeed, seen such
plants as Mitchella bloom in a Wardian case. Apart
from their evident aesthetic uses, such cases are in-
valuable in the transport of live plants by sea. It
insures them against the salt air and sudden changes
of climate. They will endure great extremes of tem-
perature. Directions for the proper use of his cases
are published in N. B. Ward's little book, to be found
in most botanical libraries.

The vitality of seeds is very various. The larger
number are not of long endurance ; others have veg-
etated after years. Oily seeds are least likely to sur-
vive. If seeds are gathered when ripe and then
planted in well-selected mould in a Wardian case they
will, according to Mr. Ward, " travel in perfect
safety."

Generally seeds must be so packed as to have plenty
of air. If they are to go by sea they must not be ex-
posed to salt water. They should be separately done
up in papers, and hung in small nets, packed with
clean straw. Keep all seeds dry.

108 BOTANIZING

CHAPTER VII

THE HERBARIUM

" The advantages of preserving specimens of plants, as far as it can
be done, for examination at all times and seasons, is abundantly
obvious." — Sir James Edward Smith.

Wc have now to specially consider the herbarium —
or, as the old botanists called it, the herbal, or /tortus
siccus, i.e., the dry garden. Our field excursions and
manifold phases of closet work have had in view
the amassing of a lot of plants for the herbarium.
These dried specimens must be carefully authenticated,
neatly preserved, and made easily accessible.

The first requisite is a dry room, light and airy. If
fire-proof all the better. Most distressing accidents
from fire have now and then occurred, in which the
unhappy collector has seen his work of years instan-
taneously destroyed, and has survived almost broken-
hearted. Even the fraternal assistance always tendered
must fail to restore many specimens rendered dear by
association.

Some think the duty of a curator is, as the word
implies, to keep things safe. That is not enough.
The plants must be well housed, sufficiently poisoned,
and, above all, often consulted in order to rentier them
fully secure. One must not trust to chance, though
for a long time it may favor him.

THE HERBARIUM 109

The life of a curator or the value of his charge
should in do case be imperilled by the improper

location of the collection. A basement room is often,
though not necessarily, a dangerous place. When it
is otherwise, the building has, in all likelihood, been
erected with this special end in view.

Ample working-tables, strong and firm, should be
provided. They are essential when the student has to
display extended alliances, and are a comfort at all
times.

A dissecting microscope should always be handily
within reach. If the tables contain drawers, as they
should, all necessary appurtenances maybe kept there-
in, including scissors, knives, needles, labels, adhe-
sive paper, and stationery of all kinds. Good work
is immensely aided by the convenient location of the
necessary tools.

If one's herbarium is rapidly growing, he may re-
tain his plants in their specimen sheets without mount-
ing. There are certain advantages in this. The
plants are more easily examined and can be more
readily transferred or intercalated. As paper, too, is
often an onerous expense, he can in this way econo-
mize. Some of the most noted writers urge this as
altogether the best permanent disposition of the plants.
Even where mounting is resorted to, it is well to
leave some loose specimens. Especially should one do
so with ferns, so that both sides of the fronds can be
seen. A public herbarium, often much consulted,
would hardly admit of the plants being so disposed.
There would be much herbage, legitimate loss, and
too frequent purloining. Many persons, honest and
above reproach in other ways, will take specimens

110 BOTANIZING

and deem themselves irreproachable. We should not
throw temptation in their wav.

The plants should then be so affixed as to allow-
free manipulation without injury, and the most accus-
tomed culprit will hesitate to depart with an entire
sheet. Mere study injures such fragile objects as
plants, all the more brittle from drying. The drawing
of the packages in or out of the pigeon-holes always
produces more or less abrasion.

Some persons prefer, and with excellent reason, to
mount their plants with adhesive slips of paper rather
than with glue. Dr. John Torrey, of Columbia Col-
lege, recommended and used, besides glue, photogra-
phers' albuminous paper, as white, neat, and efficacious.
Whatever kind of sticky paper is used, a lot of it
should be kept, cut to convenient sizes, in a readily
accessible drawer. In case it should happen after a
plant is fastened down with this that one should
want to displace it, the slips are readily removed.
We have seen specimens mounted with small pins or
even sewed down with thread. The last is far too
laborious a process.

All great public herbaria, at home and abroad, for
example, those of Kew, Harvard, and Columbia, fol-
low essentially the same process. The plants are
glued to the sheets. The writer has, for a number of
years, used liquid glue, which has the great merit of
always being ready. By its employment one escapes
the inconvenience and discomforts of the glue-pot.
No better plan can be followed than that of Mr.
Walter Deane, of Cambridge, Mass. It insures abso-
lutely neat specimens. Mr. Deane writes:

11 I always keep a pile of sheets of thin blotting-

THE HERBARIUM III

paper, a little Larger than mounting-paper. I use one

of these to paste my plant on, getting as little glue Oil
the sheet as possible. The glue left on the blotter is
readily absorbed, and the next plant may be laid on a
dry sheet to paste. I can make one sheet last for one
hundred plants before it is discarded. Of course, in
time it gets gluey. When I see a globule of glue on
the sheet as 1 am mounting, I just rub it in with my
linger, rub my finger on my apron, and go on. In
this way my sheets of mounted plants show no glue."

For another method of mounting plants, the reader
is referred to W. N. Clute's article in " Plant World,"
Vol. 2, p. 131. As certain plants are most obdurate
and capricious, curling up when wet into an inextri-
cable snarl, the operator has often to call into play all
his latent ingenuity to circumvent the culprit. We
have been at times forced to place the sheet of paper
on the glued plant, or to hold it erect, and quickly
bring the specimen against it.

If it should happen, despite one's care, that some
glue should ooze out around the specimen and threaten
to disfigure the sheet, it should be removed with a
moistened cloth. Some plants will require the full
strength of the glue ; others need only a thin wash.
Use vinegar to dilute it. The ends of stems, coarse
bulbs, and rhizomas must be tied down by slips of
adhesive paper. A carefully glued plant may 'foe
otherwise pulled off the sheet by having some object
catch in the projecting or uptilted parts.

Every sheet should be provided with one or more
open envelopes or paper pockets, glued down by their
backs. In these are kept flowers, small fruits, or
seeds for study. They are a sort of reserve supply,

112 BOTANIZING

complementary to the specimen proper. They are
easily made, but can be obtained in quantity from
dealers.

It was said, while speaking of the press, that one's
pile should be kept level. Still more essential is it to
have the mounted specimens so prepared that a pile
will slip easily in and out of a compartment. Mani-
festly, if all the plants were disposed in the centre of
their sheets this could not be done. Here one has
to resist the natural impulse to symmetry. Have
those on alternate or occasional sheets placed at side,
top, or bottom. From the fact that the base of a plant
is usually its most bulky part, there is a dangerous
tendency to have that end of a pile higher than the
other. Labels come there, too, to increase the eleva-
tion. The difficulty may be lessened, if not cured, by
disposing, where possible, fruits, envelopes, and the
like at the top of the page.

The size of the herbarium sheet adopted generally
in the United States is n^ X 16^ inches.

The old size, n^ X 16^, so long used as the
American standard, is said to have been a pure acci-
dent, resulting from a misunderstanding with the
paper makers. It is quite essential that uniformity of
size should be generally followed. As in the case of
private libraries, the ultimate goal of all herbaria is
some public institution. The enthusiast can by no
means depend on children, relatives, or friends to
maintain and increase his collection. In most cases
it is bequeathed or sold. Now, if every one mounted
his plants as the whim seized him, and not a few do,
when the herbarium reaches its new cases the sheets
would either not go into the pigeon-holes, or beridicu-

THE HERBARIUM I 13

lously too small. We build for posterity. A beginner,
not knowing that generous space should be allowed
for displaying all parts of a plant, is apt to use small,
inadequate sheets, thus cramping his specimen. Of
course, with the young, expense is often a determin-
ing factor, and paper is more or less costly. How-
ever, there are some things where economy verges
into penuriousness. The sheets should be sufficiently
ample to permit a full exhibition of any ordinary
plant. Mr. Deane has proved that on the standard
sheet may be displayed a most phenomenal length of
stem or root.

An originally ill-chosen size may entail discomfort
almost in perpetuity. This has occurred in certain
foreign herbaria, where, despite the faulty dimen-
sions, it has been deemed inexpedient to change.

According to Dr. Asa Gray, the paper should weigh
twenty-eight pounds to the ream of four hundred and
eighty sheets, though nineteen pounds to the ream is
now used at Harvard. It should be stiff, firm, and
smooth.

When one wishes to be economical he may select
his paper of manufacturers, and have it cut to suit
himself, saving the tailings for field labels. While
even our greater herbaria are not mines of wealth,
they usually are enough endowed to lift them above
an injurious economy. Cheap expedients are too apt
to be poor. Other things being equal, get the best
materials; it is often economy in the end.

The old botanists were in the habit of binding the
sheets into a book. When the volumes increased,
they were set on shelves as in a library. At the
present time the sheets are left free so as to be readily

114 BOTANIZING

intercalated or changed about ; moreover, they are thus
more easily consulted.

The species of one genus are collected under one
cover, known as the genus cover, and made of stiff
manila paper. If the species are too numerous, or
the same repeated on many sheets, extra covers are
provided and numbered, as 1,2, 3, etc., of that genus.
The genus covers ought to be at least a quarter of an
inch wider, when folded, than the contained species
sheets. In a clear, legible hand, in the lower left-
hand corner, the generic name is recorded, and
sometimes the name of the family is added. The
number of the order and the genus according to our
system of arrangement, be it Bentham and Hooker
or Engler-Prantl, should also be on the cover. As
the contained species vary from time to time, a record
of these fluctuations may be made in pencil. It is
only large herbaria that indulge in the luxury of
special " species covers."

In a small private collection the genera can be
gathered under somewhat larger, stirler covers,
marked with the name of the order. In large herbaria,
ordinal and even generic separation is secured by
distinct compartments of the cases, or by tags of tin
or cardboard inserted in the proper places. Other
divisions, like tribes and sub-tribes, are similarly in-
dicated.

A very useful, almost indispensable adjunct of a
large herbarium is a carefully prepared index of the
whole ; it should be placed in plain sight. Even better
is a card catalogue ; this allows of unlimited expansion.
A label may be a thing of beauty or a perpetual
grievance. There are as many kinds as there are

THE HERBARIUM. I I 5

individual human characters. Personality is largely

displayed in them ; they illustrate good or bad taste
as plainly as does dress or manners. As a rule, the
simpler a label the better. One soon learns to abomi-
nate either the thin-lined, weak, and watery-looking
sorts, or the ornate, flowery, illuminated-border ones.
Size, too, is an important consideration. There is a
happy mean. It should be large enough to gracefully
hold the necessary information, and not so big as to
cumber or disfigure the page. If too small, it neces-
sitates very tine writing, difficult to read. Dr. Gray
used to pronounce one a nuisance that exceeded four
by two inches.

It should be large enough certainly to embrace the
full name of the plant, its habitat, time and place of
collection, the name of the collector, and any special
observation concerning cold, soil, height of plant,
sunny or shady position. The paper of the label
should be thin enough to take glue easily without
curling. Clear type, simple border, if any, general
neatness, are the first necessities of a label. Here-
with are given some samples, which, while various,
are, most of them, good.

Dr. B. L. Robinson, curator of the Gray Herbarium,
writes me : " While not advocating any elaborate
borders or flourishes, our experience lately has been
that to simplify all labels as much as possible is to
make them too much alike and to lose the distinctive
quality which is highly desirable as a time-saver in
sorting. To secure this individuality in the labels of
different large sets we have had to employ a con-
siderable variety as well as different sizes of labels
and even different colors of paper. But this is not

Il6 BOTANIZING

time wasted, as one soon finds who may have to look
up several numbers of a particular collection scattered
among some hundreds of sheets of other collections."

It is considered better to attach labels by means of
paste than to use glue. Some even leave the labels
partly free, securing them merely by a pin or a pasted
corner. The object is to allow of their easy removal
if circumstances demand their transference to other
sheets. It has been our practice to attach them per-
manently. We occasionally have labels in exchange
from England printed on gummed paper. Until fas-
tened they are hygroscopic and curl up in a trouble-
some manner. In preparation for mounting,
especially when the work is to be delegated to some
assistant ignorant of classification, and whose work is
purely manual, the plants should be laid on their
sheets, labels lying loose in the designated places.
The whole pile should then be deposited in a deep
box or drawer of a slightly greater width and depth
than the pile, and with a drop-door in front. Things
are thus kept well in place, and, at the same time,
are readily accessible.

Mr. M. S. Bebb and Mr. Walter Deane commend
the following way of mounting labels: Mr. Deane
writes, "I invariably follow this plan: I paste the
four sides of the label, touching with the paste as
narrow a rim as possible. Then I lay the label in
position, put a small piece of paper, which I have in
my lap, over it, and rub it down. In this way the
label never curls, and it requires but a few seconds
to affix it. It lies perfectly flat on the sheet."

It will be noticed from these examples that the
headings and styles are quite different. All those

THE HERBARIUM I I 7

presented, however, are good forms. Some, it will
be seen, are used in distributing duplicates from an
herbarium, or forwarding those of some special re-
gion. In the last case they would then have a num-
ber attached to each label, corresponding with one in
a list which the distributor retains. Indeed, the
plants of well-known expeditions are often referred
to by their number. The labels sent with the plants,
together with the owner's private one, like No. — ,
are attached to the species sheet. The distribution
label only differs from this in having the words M Ex
herb." or tk From the herbarium of," printed first.
As a rule, we would recommend using as little Latin
as possible among compatriots. When sending to
foreign correspondents it is desirable to employ it as
the court language of science the world over. Gen-
erally speaking, the only printed parts of a label are
the heading and perhaps the word " legit" meaning
" he collected it," or the English equivalent, " Col-
lected by." All other matters, such as the name of
the plant, possible synonyms, habitat, etc., are writ-
ten in. When eventually mounted, the plants should
be arranged in such manner as to be easily inserted
in their appropriate pigeon-holes. One's work in
this regard may be much facilitated by withdrawing
the large families, such as Composite, Cyperacecc,
Graminecc^ Orchidacccc, arranging these in separate
heaps. One can then proceed with smaller families,
and finally with those which contain but few genera.
Thus marshalled beforehand, it is an easy matter to
relegate them to their comnartments.

Il8 I'.uTANIZING

Herbarium Cases.1

" Flowers and weeds of glorious feature." — Spenser.

Every one who makes a collection of dried plants
should have some receptacle in which to keep it.
Whatever the size, shape, or constructive material
used, one important point should always be borne in
mind : it should be made as nearly dust-proof as pos-
sible. Very small collections are sometimes kept in
pasteboard boxes, or, much better still, in dust-proof
tin boxes. The receptacle almost universally used is
a wooden case with a closely-fitting door. As may be
surmised, there are many styles of these cases, accord-
ing to individual fancy or necessity. The large col-
lege herbaria usually have cases which are occasionally
built into the walls. Owners of private herbaria often
have specially constructed cases, ornamental as well
as useful, sometimes more ornamental than otherwise.
It is not my object to here describe any of these more
expensive cases, but to confine my remarks to two
which have proved very satisfactory and are within
the means of most collectors. Indeed, either of them
might easily be constructed by a person having a little
knowledge of the use of a few woodworking tools,
particularly a saw and plane.

A small case of four compartments (pigeon-holes),
capable of holding from two hundred to four hundred
specimens, is shown in Fig. 14. It is constructed of
whitewood; the top, bottom, and sides being one-
half inch thick and the shelves (one-quarter inch
thick) fitted into grooves in the side pieces. The
interior of each pigeon-hole should be seventeen inches

iByJ. F.Collins,

THE I IK KHAKI TM

deep, twelve and one-eighth wide, and four or four
and one-half high, if the standard-size herbarium sheet

is used. The internal width and depth of the pigeon-
hole is really the only essential measurement to be
considered in constructing a case. The kind of wood,
its thickness, and the height of the pigeon-hole is

Fig. 14. — Herbarium Case.

generally a matter of personal choice. Whitewood
is specially mentioned because it is a good kind of
wood for the purpose, as well as one of the cheapest
and most easily worked ; and the thickness mentioned
(one-half inch) will make a case sufficiently strong
and rigid for cither the case figured or the double one
mentioned later.

20 BOTANIZING

The outside dimensions of the case figured are
eighteen and three-fourths inches high (each pigeon-
hole being four inches high), fourteen and one-eighth
inches wide, and eighteen inches deep. In the sectional
plan showing a section of the front right-hand corner,
UA" represents the side of the case, " B" the verti-
cal front corner strip, "CE" the door (" E " being
the panel), and " D" the front edge of a shelf.

Several cases of this sort can be placed together so
that they will, collectively, have the appearance of one
large case. Thus a growing herbarium can be ex-
tended from time to time by providing new cases.
These cases can, as stated, be placed together, or they
may be scattered about a room so as to occupy the
most available spaces.

Another style of case which is considerably used
is essentially the same in construction as the one
figured, except that it is a double case (with eight
pigeon-holes in two tiers), with two doors opening
away from the centre partition. In appearance it is
like two single cases placed side by side, except that
in the double one the partition is of a single thickness
of wood, whereas in the two single cases placed together
the partition would be of two thicknesses of wood
with an intervening space.

These small cases are easy to move from place to
place, and if space permits should be permanently
arranged so that they are raised about a foot from the
floor and the top of them not more than five feet high
— the intervening space being the most convenient
for handling the specimens.

The space below the cases can easily be utilized by

THE HERBARIUM 12 1

fitting it with drawers for holding bulky fruits, etc.,
and the space on top for books.

Another method of disposing of bulky fruits is to
have small cardboard boxes tacked or glued to a
thick, rigid binder's-board which is cut to the size of
the herbarium sheet and inserted in the collection in
its proper place. These small boxes should, obvi-
ously, all be of the same height (three-fourths of an
inch or more, according to the bulkiness of speci-
mens) on one board, though their width and length
may vary according to circumstances.

For keeping the doors closed the well-known
"museum-lock" is by far the best, but for these
small cases I have seldom seen anything more than a
simple lock or catch used — similar to the one indi-
cated in the figures.

122 BOTANIZING

CHAPTER VIII

BOTANICAL MUSEUM

"That within that passeth show."— HAMLET.

Museums of botanical economic products have
until recently been much neglected in this country.
Almost every great botanical centre, however, now
attempts some museum of fabrics, drugs, useful woods,
dye-stuffs, etc. As early, perhaps, as any, was that
inaugurated at Cambridge by Prof. G. L. Goodale.
This is now housed in the famous Agassiz Museum
of Comparative Anatomy, and includes, among many
natural products, the Blaschka collection of glass flow-
ers so graphically described by Mr. Walter Deane, in
the " Botanical Gazette," and by Professor Goodale
himself in the "American Journal of Science."

At the Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass.,
Prof. John Robinson has a very instructive exhibit
of the woods of Essex County, Mass., together with
many fruits and other objects useful to man.
The National Museum at Washington, the Jesup
Collection of American Woods in the American
Natural History Museum in New York, collected
under the supervision of Prof C. S. Sargent, the
Shaw Botanic Gardens at St. Louis, and numerous
other institutions now endeavor to present the economic
aspects of plant life. The importance of such dis-
plays cannot be overestimated. Besides specimens of

BOTANICAL MUSEUM 1 23

useful trees and shrubs, they should always include
fruits, textile fibres, drugs, and all articles used in
medicine, the arts, or commerce. Nothing does more
to attract the attention of the public to the direct prac-
tical uses of science. The adroit curator, wise as
Ulysses in his generation, ma}' thus at times direct
funds into other channels as well. Indeed, it is the
want of means for providing proper storage and dis-
play that so long prevented the accumulation and
display of our native products. Such collections at
Kew, illustrative of the vast resources of the British
Empire, attract incessant throngs of visitors.

As a special and very important part of the collec-
tion, tree specimens may be attached to pasteboard,
and accompanied by drawings, paintings, or photo-
graphs of the tree as it appears in life. Mounted
specimens of the essential diagnostic features can, at
the same time, be exhibited. Trunks of trees and
sections may be placed on convenient shelves ; smaller
portions, as slabs, in drawers. There is danger of
warping and cracking in the dry air of the museum
chamber, and to prevent this, at least partially, quar-
ter segments are made. The bark is retained, and
the section so cut as to exhibit both radial, tangential,
transverse, and oblique views. As a rule, slabs
should not be polished, though it may well be that the
collector desires to show some particular excellence
of the wood in carpentry or cabinet making, when
polishing is desirable. Then a part only is polished.
Warp and crack the specimens will, to a degree.
Holes bored in the larger sections partly obviate this
difficulty. Dry bark will, too, gather insects, and
the writer thinks economic exhibits should never be

124 BOTANIZING

made to any extent in the proper herbarium room.
Of course all specimens must be carefully named and
localized. Even an excellent specimen is valueless
when its origin is unknown.

Collections of seeds are important from many points
of view, and can be arranged in bottles or boxes, in
the natural order of the herbarium. They should
always be scrupulously determined and localized.
Guess-work in such matters is unpardonable, confus-
ing the student and leading, often, to most erroneous
results. This remark, indeed, applies to any part of
a museum. Better cast out a specimen than to label
it from u inner consciousness." Again, it is expe-
dient to possess an underground railway for aiding
the easy disappearance of useless truck, with which
every curator is overwhelmed by a generous but often
injudicious public.

Very beautiful and instructive sections of wood are
made and issued in book form by Mr. R. B. Hough, of
Lowville, N.Y. They are accompanied by a descrip-
tive pamphlet. These sections are thin enough to
allow free transmission of light, thus bringing out de-
tails of structure.

Fruits of various kinds, like cones or woody cap-
sules, may be hung on hooks. It is desirable often to
have sections showing the origin of branches. Im-
bedded cones are also interesting. The alert curator
is on the watch for any and all illustrative material, but
must never give way to flights of fancy. The accu-
mulation of material simply as such tends to confusion,
slovenliness, and finally to contempt. Microscopic
slides, well prepared, and selected for demonstrative
purposes, not alone for beauty or curiosity, are in-

Fig. 15. — Mounted Plants.

126 BOTANIZING

valuable. So are micro-photographs of tissues, and
well-made diagrams, and drawings of histological
subjects. Every collector should learn ordinary mi-
croscopic technique, and especially how to make good
slides. Such slides are kept preferably lying flat, in
neat cabinets or drawers, with a guiding index.1

We have Ions: been convinced of the advantage of
preserving some of the many illustrative sections made
under the lens in the daily occupations of the laboratory.
Too often these are rejected as useless after serving
their immediate end. How useful would be a well-
prepared set of the sectioned seeds of cruciferae,
showing the folding of the caulicle, and of the fruits of
umbelliferae, so distinctive of genera in that order.

A fine illustrative exhibit may be made, as at Cam-
bridge, of the ravages of insects upon particular
plants. Here may be shown the various stages of
injury, and the degree of development of the predatory
insects at the time of attack. The ordinary botanist
probably will not, at the same time, be an entomolo-
gist, but without scientific knowledge of insects he
can still do much to show up their work. As small
fungi, blights, and moulds are almost equally destruc-
tive, they too can be exhibited with or on their par-
ticular hosts.

In the same museum may be established a terato-
logical exhibit, a thing of vast philosophic interest, as
malformations often throw a flood of light upon the
morphology and history of plants. Chorisis, poly-em-
bryony, chloranthy, fasciation, suppression of parts,

1 Mica slides may also be kept on herbarium sheets, — as for mosses, —
made practically same as ordinary slides, except mica used for slide and
cover. For full directions see M Fern Bulletin," Vol. VI., No. 4, Octo-
ber, 1S9S; Vol. VII., No. i.January, 1S99.

BOTANICAL MUSEUM 127

may all he shown. Of late, too, ecology has assumed
so much importance, and is in itself so fascinating a
matter, that we would advise some attempt to display
certain of its phenomena, like the means of protecting
pollen, of the manifold uses of hairs, or the distribu-
tion of fruits and seeds. Kerner and Oliver's " Natu-
ral History of Plants" has been a great incentive to
such investigation, and is a mine of facts, while for tera-
tology one may profitably refer to the volume by
Maxwell T. Masters. It is published by the Ray
Society.

128 BOTANIZING

CHAPTER IX

BOTANIC GARDENS

" Who loves a garden loves a greenhouse too." — COWPER.

Botanic gardens should, when possible, accompany
all large public herbaria. Those best known in this
country are the Harvard Botanic Garden at Cam-
bridge, Mass., the Government Gardens at Washing-
ton, the Shaw Gardens at St. Louis, Mo., and the
New York Botanic Gardens at Bronx Park. Others
are developing in various parts of the country.

The object of such gardens is to present as many
plants, native and exotic, as can be made to grow in
our climate. They should be arranged and labelled
upon some accepted natural system. In them one has
an epitome of the vegetable kingdom. There will be,
of course, unavoidable gaps, and the system will not
always be that of nature, but plants will be placed in
as near relation to each other as the extent of knowl-
edge will permit, allowing for exigencies of environ-
ment and circumstance. Thus all plants of one family
may not be terrestrial, and hence will have to be sepa-
rated. Some members of a group may thrive in hot,
dry situations, others in cool, moist localities.

Conservatories or hot-houses should, when possible,
supplement the garden. Certain exotics, to be known
to us at all in their living state, must be grown under

BOTANIC GARDENS 1 29

glass. The garden allows the study of affinities and
admits of a vast range of physiological investigations.

We can here observe all kinds of vital phenomena,
as of movement, respiration, transpiration, irritability,
and pollination. We can determine what insects visit
particular plants, and whether these alone ; how they
act upon them, and the consequence to the plant.
Indeed, the range of study afforded by such gardens
is infinite. The expense is the principal drawback
to their establishment, but as the public learns to ap-
preciate those already in existence we can hope for
many more.

Even as places of resort for the unbotanical they
are not to be overlooked. The garden at Cambridge,
for instance, is open to all. There is not a day in
summer when it is not visited by many simply for the
beauty and restful quiet of the spot. Such gardens
are of perennial interest to visitors ; often they are an
incentive to study and research. They are, too, an in-
fluence for good in any community, refining and edu-
cating the masses. In a certain sense they more than
repay their cost.

These gardens are much commoner in the old
world than with us. Nearly every prominent city
possesses one. It is perfectly possible for many of
our schools to establish small gardens to illustrate the
local flora. This is a matter that has been too much
neglected. If they contain but a few hundred speci-
mens provided they are arranged on a scientific plan,
children will acquire from them much valuable infor-
mation, besides supreme delight. We have been glad
t<> see of late the tendency to label the trees and shrubs
in our parks. This, if correctly done, is highly educa-

1 30 BOTANIZING

tional. Interest in trees is growing and their preser-
vation demanded. This tree lore is promoted by the
institution of Arbor Day, and by many schools and
magazines advocating wise treatment of our forests.
Out of this frequent familiarity with them may in
time issue an intelligent public opinion, and em-
phatic remonstrance when they are injured or wasted.
In these days of object teaching some of the most
stately and beautiful of natural objects should meet
with due regard.

The most famous foreign botanic garden is that at
Kew, England, dating in its present form from 1S41,
but in its origin much earlier. Its importance has
been fully discussed in the introductory chapter of this
book. Other famous gardens are those at Edinburgh,
the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and the botanic gar-
dens of Montpellier, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Brussels,
etc., in Europe ; Melbourne in Australia ; Peradeniya
in Ceylon ; Buitenzorg in Java ; Calcutta in India ;
Jamaica and Trinidad in West Indies. Indeed,
almost every foreign city possesses such a garden and
regards it with pride. All of these possess besides
very valuable herbaria and libraries.

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES HI

CHAPTER X

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES

" My library was dukedom large enough."

When possible a botanical library should be main-
tained, rich especially in systematic works covering
our own and foreign countries. These books are the
working implements of the systematise They should
be arranged in a neat and orderly manner, readily
accessible. A private library is slow to accumu-
late ; a national, State, or academic one, represent-
ing much money, may be gathered more rapidly.
Public institutions, besides any possible endowment,
may through their employees or graduates greatly
increase their store. In selecting the books exercise
care and discrimination.

Collectors residing in cities have a great advantage,
for in the book-stores they can see and handle the
works as they are issued. On old stalls, moreover,
they may find the less frequent classics of an earlier
day, often possessing an abiding and more than his-
toric interest. The book-lover with any means at all
hates to neglect a homeless waif, but takes it in and
makes much of it. Such foundlings often bear
princely -names and show in many ways their lofty
origin.

How great is the advantage of municipal residence
at once strikes the collector who by some chance is

32 BOTANIZING

deprived of it, as when in the woods or in any distant,
barren country.

We are only able to give in this small volume a list
of such works as will best avail a student in our own
or in the principal foreign regions :

GENERAL SYSTEMATIC WORKS.

Ge?zera Planta?'um, by G. Bentham and Sir J. D.

Hooker, London, 1862-1S83, 8°, 3 vols.
Species Plantarum, by C. Linnasus, Vienna, 1764,

ed. 3, 8°.
Index Kewe?zsis, by Sir J. D. Hooker and B. D.

Jackson, London, 1893-1895, 4 vols., fol.
Prodromus Syste?natis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis,

by De Candolle, Paris, 1824-1873, 17 vols., 120.

Now continued by occasional monographs.
The Vegetable Kingdom, by John Lindley, London,

1853, 8°, ed. 3.
Genera Pla?itarum secundum Ordines Naturales

disposita, by A. L. de Jussieu, 1789, 8°.
A General System of Botany, by Le Maout and De

Caisne, translated by Mrs. J. D. Hooker, London,

1873, 8°.
Histoire des Plantes, par H. Baillon, Paris, 1S67-

1899, 8°, 13 vols, published.
Genera Plantarunt secundum Ordines Naturales

disposita, by Stephen Endlicher, 1S36-1850, 40.
Revisio Ge?tera Plantarum, by Otto Kuntze, 1891-

1898, 3 vols., S°.
Die 7iaturlichen Pjla?izcnfamilic?i, by A. Engler

and K. Prantl, Leipzig, 1SS7, 8°. In course of

publication.

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES 133

Thesaurus Literatures Botaniac, by G. A. Pritzel,
Leipzig, 1872, }°.

Iconum Botanicorum hid ex loeupletissimus, by G.

A. Pritzel, Berlin, 1855, 4°-
Nomenclator Botanicus, by L. Pfeiffer, Cassel, 1S73-

1874, 3 vols-> s°.

FLORAS.

NORTH AMERICA.

Manual of the Bo /any of the Northern United
States, by Prof. Asa Gray, revised or 6th edition,
New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago, 1890.

Synoptical Flora of North America, by Asa Gray,
concluding jDarts in preparation by B. L. Robinson,
New York, 1878, vol. 1, pt. 2, and vol. 2, pt. 1, 8°.
Vol. 1, pt. 1, fasc. 1 and 2, 1S95-1S97.

Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, by Asa Gray,
revised by Prof. L. H. Bailey, New York, Cincin-
nati, and Chicago, 1S95, 8°.

A Flora of North America, by Asa Gray and John
Torrey, 1S3S-1S42, 2 vols., 8°.

Flora of Northwestern America, by Thomas Howclls,
Portland, Ore., 1897- . In course of publication.

Illustrated Flora of Northern United States and
Canada, by N. L. Britton and Addison Brown,
with illustration, 3 vols., N.Y., 1S96-1S9S.

Bibliographical Index to North American Botany,
by Dr. Sereno Watson, Washington, 1S7S, 8°.

Flora of the Southern United States, by A. W.
Chapman, ed. 3, Cambridge, 1897.

Flora Boreali A?nericana, by W. J. Hooker, Lon-
don, 1840, 2 vols., 40.

134 BOTANIZING

Manual of the Botany of the Rocky Mountain

Region, by John M. Coulter, New York, 1885, 8°.
The Botany of California, by W. H. Brewer and

Sereno Watson, Cambridge, 1S76-1880, 2 vols., 8°.
The Botany of Western Texas, by John M. Coulter,

Washington, 1S91-1894, 8°.
A Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and

Georgia, by Stephen Elliott, Charleston, S.£.,

1821-1S24, 8°.

To the above list of North American floras should
be added the superb work on the silva of Norht
America, by Prof. C. S. Sargent, many government
reports of Pacific Railroad, of geological and other
surveys under the Engineer and Interior Departments,
together with the numerous reports of the Smithso-
nian Institution and the Agricultural Department. The
object in every case is to possess, or to have access to,
the necessary literature for determining the plants of
any particular region.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

Biologia Ce?itrali A?nerica?ia. The Botany by W.
B. Hemsley, 5 vols., 40, London, 1879-1888. Parts
of an important and extended work.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Flora Brasiliensis, by K. F. P. von Martius, 1829
et seq. A large and costly work, not yet completed.

Historia Fisica y Politica de Chile, by Claudio Gay,
Botany, Paris, 1845, 1852, 8 vols., 8°.

Plantce Biaphoniccc Florce Argentina^, by J. Hieron-
ymus, Buenos Aires, 1882, 8°.

Enumeration of Plants collected by Dr. Thomas

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES 1 35

Morong in Paraguay, 1SS8-1S90, by Thomas

Morong and N. L. Britton, New York, 1S92, 8°.

Plantce Lorentziance. A. Grisebach, Gottingen, 1S74,

4°-
Contribution a la Flore du Paraguay, by Mare
Micheli, Geneve, 1SS3-1S92, 5 parts, 40.

WEST INDIES.

Flora of the British West Indian Islands, by A. II.
R. Grisebach, London, 1S64, 8°.

EUROPE IN GENERAL.

Conspectus Florcc Europce, by C. F. Nyman. An
almost indispensable catalogue. Orebro, Suecica,
1S7S-1SS2. Suppl. 1 and 2, 18S3-4 and l889> s°-

Planter Europa, by K. Richter, Tomus I., Leipzig,
1890, 8°. From Gynosperma} through Moncoty-
ledonae. Tomus II., fasc. 1, 1S97, to ^e continued.

GREAT BRITAIN.

Manual of British Botany, by Chas. C. Babbington,
London, small S°.

Handbook of the British Flora, a description of the
flowering plants and ferns indigenous to, or natural-
ized in, the British Isles, for the use of beginners
and amateurs, by George Bentham, London, 1S87,
S°, 5th edition, revised by Sir J. D. Hooker.

The Student's 'Flora of the British Isles, by Sir J.
D. Hooker, late director of the Royal Gardens,
Kew, 3d edition, London, 1SS4, small 8°.

English Botany ; or Colored Figures of British
Plants, edited by John T. Boswell Syme. The

136 BOTANIZING

popular portion by Mrs. Lankester, figures by
Sowerby and others, 3d edition, London, 1S73-
1886, 12 vols., 8°.

THE NETHERLANDS.

Manuel de la Flore de Bclgique, by F. Crepin,

Brussels, 1 vol., 8°.
Co?npendiu?n Florce Belgicce, by A. Lejeune and R.

Courtois, 1828-1836, 3 vols., 120.
Flore de Namur, by A. Bellynck, Namur, 1855, 1

vol., 8°.

FRANCE.

Flore des Environs de Paris, by E. Cosson and E.

Germain, Paris, ed. 2, 1S61, 1 vol. and plates; ed.

3, 1876.
Flore de Centre de France, by A. Boreau, Paris,

1857, 2 vols-' 8°' ed- 3-
Flore de France, by Ch. Grenier and D. A. Go-

dron, Paris, 1848-1856, 3 vols., 8°.
Flore frangaise, by De Lamarck and De Candolle,

Paris, 1815, 6 vols., 8°, ed. 3.
Tableau analytique de la Flore parisienne, par L.

Boutier, Paris, 120.

SWITZERLAND.

Flore analytique de Suisse, Vade Mccu?n du Bota-
niste, by P. Morthier, Paris and Neuchatel, 120.

Guide de Botaniste dans le Canton de Vaud, by D.
Rapin, Geneva, 1 vol., 180.

Flore des Alpes de la Suisse et de la Savoie, by
Bouvier, 1878.

Flora Helvetica, by J. Gaudin, Turin, 1828.

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES 1 37

Guide de Botaniste en \ 'aim's, by Rion, 1S72.

La Flore dc la Suisse, by II. Christ, Basle, 1SS3, 1

vol., S°.
Flore du Jura, by C. II. Godet, Ncuchatel, 1853,

and supplement, 1S69, 2 vols., S°.
Excursions Jlora fur die Schweiz, by A. Gremli,

12°.

GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.

Sc/iu (flora von Osterreich, by Dr. Moritz Will-

homm, Wien, 1S92, S°, ed. 2.
Synopsis Florce Germaniccc et Helvetica:, by Koch,

Leipzig, 8°.
Flora von Nord- und Mittcl-Deutschland, by A.

Garcke, Berlin, 1S67, i vol., 8°, ed. iS, Illustrirte

Flora, etc., 189S.
Flore dc Loraine, by D. A. Godron, Paris, 1S57, 2

vols.
Flora vo?z Deutschland, Osterreich und dcr Schwciz

in Wort und Bild fiir Schule und Haus, by Prof.

Dr. OttoWilhelm Thome, Gera-Unterhans, 1886-

1SS9, 8°, 4 vols.

DENMARK.

Haandbogi den danskc Flora, by J. Lange, Copen-
hagen, 1S65, 1 vol., 8°.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Summa Vegetabilium Scandinavian, by E. Fries,

UpsaJ, 1846-1S49, 1 vol., 8°.
llandbok i Skainlinavieus Flora, by C. J. Ilartman,

Stockholm, 1S79, S°.

Under this heading the older works of Linnaeus on

38 BOTANIZING

Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Finland are inter-
esting.

Norges Flora, by M. N. Blytt, Christiania, 1847-
1876, 3 vols., 8°.

RUSSIA.

Flora Rossica, by C. Ledebour, Stuttgart, 1842-

1853, 4 vols., 8°.
Flora Ingrica sive Historia Plantar um Gubernii

Petropolitani, by F. J. Ruprecht, St. Petersburg,

160.

ITALY.

Flora Ilaliana, by F. Parlatore, Florence, 1855,
complete in 10 vols., with index, 1850-1896.

Prodromo delta Flora Toscana, by T. Caruel, Flor-
ence, 1 860- 1 864, 8°.

Florce Siculce Synopsis, by J. Gussone, Naples,
1842-1844, 2 vols., 8°.

Flora Italica, by A. Bertoloni, Verona, 1833- 1865,
12 vols., 8°.

Flora Pedmontana, by C. Allioni, 3 vols., 8°.

THE RIVIERA.

Flowering Plants and Ferns of the Riviera, by C.
Bicknell, London, 1885, 8°.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

Prodromus Florce Hispanicce, by M. Willkomm and
J. Lange, Stuttgart, 1S61-1877, 3 vols., 8°..

Plantes de Pyrcnnees, by Picotand La Peyrouse, 1S18.

Icones ct Descriptiones Plantar um, by Ant. J. Ca-
vanilles, 1791-1S01, 6 vols., S°.

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES. 1 39

CANARY ISLES, CAPE DE VERDE, AND ST. HELENA.

Histoire natu relic des lies Canaries. Tome III.,
deuxieme partie. Phytographia Canariensis. Sec.
1-4, Paris, 1S36-1S50, fol. By Philip Barker
Webb and Sabin Berthelot.

GREECE AND TURKEY.

Flora Grccca, by J. Sibthorpe, 1S06-1S40, 10 vols.,
fol.

SYRIA AND EGYPT.

Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai, by Geo. E.
Post, Beirut, 1S96, 8°.

INDIA.

Flora Oricntalis, by Edmund Boissier, Basle, 1867,
iSSS, 5 vols., S°, and supplement, 8°.

Flora of British India, by Sir J. D. Hooker, London,
1S72-9S, 7 vols., 8°.

Icones Plantarum India Orientalis, by R. Wight,
Madras, 1840-1S53, 6 vols., large 8°.

Forest Flora of British Burma, by S. Kurz, Cal-
cutta, 1877, 2 vols., 8°.

Compositcc Indicc, by C. B. Clarke, Calcutta, 1876,
1 vol., 8°.

JAPAN AND CHINA.

Flora Hongkongensis, by Geo. Bentham, London,

1S61, 1 vol., 8°.
Enumeratio Plantarum in faponia sponte cresccn-

tum, by A. Franchet and L. Savatier, Paris, 1S75-

1S76, 2 vols., 8°.

1 40 BOTANIZING

CEYLON.

Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon, by H. Trimen,
London, 1893-1S99, 4 vols., 8°. Supplementary vol.
to be issued.

Enmncratio Plantarum Zeylanice, London, 1864, by
G. H. K. Thwaites.

JAVA.

Publications of the Buitenzorg Botanic Garden,
Prof. Treub, Director.

MAURITIUS.

Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles, by J. G.
Baker, 1877, 1 voL> S°-

AFRICA.

Flora of Tropical Africa, by D. Oliver, London,
1868-1877, 3 vols., 8°, continued, Sir W. T. This-
elton-Dyer.

Flora Capensis, by W. H. Harvey and O. W. Son-
der, London, 1859-1S65, 3 vols., 8°. Vols. 6 and
7, pts. 1 and 2, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer,
1896-1898, to be continued.

Cofnpendium Florce Atla?zticcc. Flore desetata
Barbaresques, Algerie, Tunisie, et Maroc, by E.
Cosson, Paris, .8S1-1SS7, 2 vols., 8°.

Niger Flora, by W. T. Hooker, London, 1849, 8°.

Spicilegium Florce Maroccance, by John Ball, Lon-
don, 1878, 8°.

Flore de V Algerie, by J. A. Battandier and L. Tra-
but, Dicotyledones, Algiers, 188S-1S90, S°.

BOTANICAL LIBRARIES 141

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

Botany of United States Exploring Expedition,

under Captain Wilkes.
Flora of t lie Hawaiian /stands, by W. F. Hillebrand,

London, etc., iSSS, S°.

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

Handbook of the Flora of Extra-tropical South

Australia, by Ralph Tate, Adelaide, 1890, 8°.
Handbook of the New Zealand Flora, by J. D.

Hooker, London, 1864, 1 vol., 8°, 2 pts., 1864-67.
Flora Australiensis, by G. Bentham and F. Mueller,

London, 1S63-1S7S, 7 vols., 8°.
Synopsis of the Queensland Flora, by F. M. Bailey,

Brisbane, 1SS3, 8°.
Key to the System of Victorian Plants, by Baron

Ferdinand von Mueller, Melbourne, 1S85-1S88, 2

vols., 8°.
Flora Tasmania, by Sir J. D. Hooker, London,

1S60, 2 vols., 40.

It is impossible, within the prescribed limits of this
little book, to record even by title a half of the many
interesting and useful works relating to taxonomy.
It is well, however, to mention the magnificent mono-
graph by Francis Booth on the genus carex. Va-
rious pamphlets also by the late Dr. George Vasey
and his successors in the United States Agricultural
Department are indispensable in the study of grasses
and other forage plants. If one is engaged upon some
special order or genus it is easy to secure its special
literature, provided there be any such, always except-

42 BOTANIZING

ing certain costly and rare volumes treating, say, of
palmae or orchidaceae. Upon our American chara-
ceaB Dr. T. F. Allen is the authority. Any recog-
nized special student receives many letters of inquiry,
and usually answers them all, though it be but briefly,
provided the return postage is enclosed.

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