®I]e ^. ^. pm ^ibrarg

^ortI[ (Harolina ^ate ffloUeae

QK4r
1)153

STATE UNIVERSIT

S00202580 H

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE
INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB-
JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS
POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION
DLoK..

EXCEPTION:

edfiierifthisitcln

)ate due will t>e
is RECALLED

BOTANY

'M

f^^y^^^'

1 "From fragile mushrooms, delicate water - weeds and pond scums, to tloating lenves.
soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes, slender olimbers, gigantic trees and
hanging moss." See Chapter I.

BOTANY

AJV ELEMENTARY TEXT
FOR SCHOOLS

BY

L. H| BAILEY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDOX: MACMILLAN & CO.. Ltd.

1909

All rights reserved

Copyright 1900, 1907.
By L. H. bailey

Set up and eleetrotyped October, 1900

Reprinted with corrections Jiuiuary, July, October, moi

July, 1903, June, 1904, March, July, 19U5

January, June, 1906, September, 1907

New edition with additions, October, ]fl07

January and Sepiember, 1909

JDSount {pleasant Press

J. Horace Mcharland Cunipariy
Harrisburg, Pa.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

{Revised for second edition.)

This book is made for the pupil: "Lessons with
Plants" was made to supplement the work of the
teacher.

There are four general subjects in this book : . the
nature of the plant itself; the relation of the plant
to its surroundings; histological studies; determination
of the kinds of plants. From the pedagogical point
of view, the third is the least important: the writer
has inserted it because so many schools want it. Each
of the subjects is practically distinct, so that the
teacher may begin where he will. Few schools will
desire to pursue all the four parts

The notes in small type at the ends of the chap-
ters are intended as suggestions and to supply infor-
mation to teachers: they are not necessarily for class
use. The explanation of karyokinesis, for example, on
page 239, is intended to answer frequent inquiries
from teachers; it is not to be taught to beginners.
The main object of the "Notes," however, is to sug-
gest experiments and corollary observations.

The schools and the teachers are not ready for
the text -book which presents the subject from the
view -point of botanical science. Perhaps it is better

' ^J>^ iV. C. State Loiuge

VI PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

tliat the secondary schools attempt only to teach
plants.

A book may be ideal from the specialist's point of
view, and yet be of little use to the pupil and the
school.

Every statement in an elementary text -book has
two values, — the teaching value and the scientific
value. An elementary text -book exists primarily for
the purpose of teaching; and good teaching results in
quickened perception rather than in absorption of
facts.

The pupil should come to the study of plants and
animals with little more than his natural and native
powers. Study with the compound microscope is a
specialization to be made when the pupil has had
experience, and when his judgment and sense of
relationships are trained.

One of the first things that a child should learn
when he comes to the study of natural history is the
fact that no two things are alike. This leads to an
apprehension of the correlated fact that every animal
and plant contends for an opportunity to live, and this
is the central fact in the study of living things. The
world has a new meaning when this fact is under-
stood.

The ninety and nine cannot and should not be
botanists, but everyone can love plants and nature.
Every person is interested in the evident things, few
in the abstruse and recondite. Education should train
persons to live, rather than to be scientists.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER Vll

Now and theu a pupil develops a love of science
for science's sake. He would be an investigator. He
would add to the sum of human knowledge. He should
be encouraged. There are colleges and universities in
which he may continue his studies.

In the secondary schools botany should be taught
for the purpose of bringing the pupil closer to the
things with which he lives, of widening his horizon,
of intensifying his hold on life. It should begin
with familiar plant forms and phenomena. It should
be related to the experiences of the daily life. It
should not be taught for the purpose of making the
pupil a specialist: that effort should be retained for the
few who develop a taste for special knowledge. It is
often said that the high -school pupil should begin the
study of botany with the lowest and simplest forms of
life. This is wrong. The microscope is not an intro-
duction to nature. It is said that the physiology of
plants can be best understood by beginning with the
lower forms. This may be true: but technical plant
physiology is not a subject for the beginner. Other
subjects are more important.

The youth is by nature a generalist. He should
not be forced to be a specialist.

A great difficulty in the teaching of botany is to
determine what are the most profitable topics for con-
sideration. The trouble with much of the teaching is

VIU PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

that it attempts to go too far, and the subjects have
no vital connection with the pupil's life.

Good botanical teaching for the young is replete
with human interest. It is connected with the common
associations.

The teacher often hesitates to teach botany because
of lack of technical knowledge of the subject. This
is well ; but technical knowledge of the subject does
not make a good teacher. Expert specialists are so
likely to go into mere details and to pursue particu«
lar subjects so far, when teaching beginners, as to
miss the leading and emphatic points. They are so
cognizant of exceptions to every rule that they qualify
their statements until the statements have no force.
There are other ideals than those of mere accuracy. In
other words, it is more important that the teacher be
a good teacher than a good botanist. One may be
so exact that his words mean n/)thing. But being a
good botanist does not spoil a good teacher.

An imperfect method that is adapted to one's use
is better than a perfect one that cannot be used.
Some school laboratories are so perfect that they dis-
courage the pupil in taking up investigations when
thrown on his own resources. Imperfect equipment
often encourages ingenuity and originality. A good
teacher is better than all the laboratories and apparatus.

Good teaching devolves on the personality and
enthusiasm of the teacher; but subject-matter is a

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER IX

prime requisite. The teacher should know more than
he attempts to teach. Every teacher should have
access to the current botanical books. The school
library should contain these books. By consulting the
new books the teacher keeps abreast of the latest
opinion.

When beginning to teach plants, think more of
the pupil than of botany. The pupil's mind and sym-
pathies are to be expanded: the science of botany is
not to be extended. The teacher who thinks first of
his subject teaches science ; he who thinks first of
his pupil teaches nature-study.

Teach first the things nearest to hand. When the
pupil has seen the common, he may be introduced to
the rare and distant. We live in the midst of common
things.

The old way of teaching botany was to teach the
forms and the names of plants. It is now proposed
that only function be taught. But one cannot study
function intelligently without some knowledge of plant
forms and names. He must know the language of the
subject. The study of form and function should go
togethei*. Correlate what a plant is with what it does.
What is this part? What is its office, or how did it
come to be? It were a pity to teach phyllotaxy with-
out teaching light -relation: it were an equal pity to
teach light -relation without teaching phyllotaxy.

X PAKAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

Four epochs can be traced in the teaching of
elementary botany: (1) The effort to know the names
of plants and to classif3^ This was the outgrowth of
the earlier aspect of plant knowledge, when it was
necessary to make an inventory of the things in the
world. (2) The desire to know the formal names of
the parts of plants. This was an outgrowth of the
study of gross morphology. Botanies came to be dic-
tionaries of technical terms. (3) The effort to develop
the powers of independent investigation. This was
largely a result of the German laboratory system,
which developed the trained specialist investigator. It
emphasized the value of the compound microscope
and other apparatus. This method is of the greatest
service to botanical science, but its introduction into
the secondary schools is usually unfortunate. (4) The
effort to know the plant as a complete organism
living its own life in a natural way. In the begin-
ning of this epoch we are now living.

There is a general protest against the teaching of
"big names" to pupils; but the pupil does not object
to technical terms if he acquires them when he learns
the thing to which they belong, as he acquires other
language. When a part is discovered the name
becomes a necessity, and is not easily forgotten. He
should be taught not to memorize the names. The
"hard" words of to-day are the familiar words of
to-morrow. There are no words in this book harder
than chrysanthemum, thermometer, and hippopotamus

PAKAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER XI

The book should be a guide to the plant : the
plant should be a guide to the book.

Plants should not be personified or endowed out-
right with motives ; but figures of speech and para-
bles may often be employed to teach a lesson or to
drive home a point.

Excite the pupil's interest rather than his wonder.

The better the teacher, the less he will confine him-
self to the questions at the end of the lesson.

Botany always should be taught by the "laboratory
method:" that is, the pupil should work out the sub-
jects directly from the specimens themselves. It is
easy, however, to carry the laboratory method too
far. With beginners, it is rarely good teaching merely
to set a young pupil a task, expecting him to work
it out. The pupil needs suggestions, help, and the
enthusiasm inspired by a good teacher.

Specimens mean more to the pupil when he collects
them.

No matter how commonplace the subject, a speci-
men will vivify it and fix it in the pupil's mind.

A living, growing plant is worth a score of herba-
rium specimens.

Acknoivledgements. — To hundreds of young people in
many places the author is under the profoundest
obligations, for they have instructed him in the point
of view. Specific aid has been given by many persons.
From the teacher's point of view, proofs have been
read by Miss Julia E. Rogers, Minburn, Iowa; Aliss

Xll PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

L. B. Sage, Norwich, N. Y.; Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller,
lecturer of the Bureau of Nature -Study in Cornell
University. From the botanist's point of view, all the
proofs have been read by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, of
the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology,
United States Department of Agriculture, and his
suggestions have been invaluable. Chapters XI and
XII are adapted from two papers which were con-
tributed to a Farmer's Reading-Course under the
author's charge, by Dr. B. M. Duggar, of Cornell
University. Two specialists, with whom it has been
the author's privilege to associate as teacher and
collaborator, have contributed particular parts: Dr.
K. C. Davis, the p-i-eater portion of Part III, and
H. Hasselbring, the most of Chapter XXV. On special
problems the author has had the advice of Dr. K. M.
Wiegand, of Cornell Universit3^

L. H. BAILEY.

Horticultural Department,

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

October 1, 1900.

CONTENTS

PART I

The Plant Itself

CHAPTER

PAGK

I. The Plant as a Whole 1

II. The Eoot 7

III. The Stem 14

IV. Propagation by Means of Roots and Stems 19

V. How the Horticulturist Propagates Plants by Means

of Roots and Stems 24

VI. Food Reservoirs . 31

VII. Winter Buds 36

VIII. Plants and Sunlight 42

IX. Struggle for Existence amongst the Branches .... 52

X. The Forms of Plants 59

XI. How the Plant Takes in the Soil Water 64

XII. The Making of the Living Matter 74

XIII. Dependent Plants 85

XIV. Leaves and Foliage 90

XV. Morphology, or the Study of the Forms of Plant

Members 101

XVI. How Plants Climb 108

XVII. Flower- Branches 114

XVIII. The Parts of the Flower 122

XIX. Fertilization and Pollination 128

XX. Particular Forms of Flowers 136

XXL Fruits 147

XXII. Dispersal of Seeds 158

(xiii)

XIV CONTENTS

CHAPTKR PAflB

XXIII. Germination 164

XXIV. Phenogams and Cryptogams 172

XXV. Studies in Cryptogams 178

PART II

The Plant in Its Environment

XXVI. Wliere Plants Grow 197

XXVII. Contention with Physical Environment 203

XXVIII. Competition with Fellows 209

XXIX. Plant Societies 219

XXX. Variation and Its Results 228

PART III
Histology, or the Minute Structure of Plants

XXXI. The Cell 23o

XXXII. Contents and Products of Cells 245

XXXIII. Tissues 252

XXXIV. Structure of Stems and Roots 259

XXXV. Structure of Leaves 269

PART IV
The Kinds of Plants (p. 275)

BOTANY

FART I— THE PLANT ITSELF

CHAPTER I

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

1. A plant is a living, growing thing. It partakes of
the soil and air and sunshine. It propagates its kind and
covers the face of the earth. It has

much with which to contend. It makes
the most of every opportunity. We
shall learn its parts, how it lives, and
how it behaves.

2. THE PARTS OF A PLANT. — Our
familiar plants are made up of several
distinct parts. The most prominent of
these parts are root, stem, leaf, flower, ^ ^.
fruit and seed. Fig. 2. Familiar plants " ^^s^
differ wonderfidhj in size and shape,^
from fragile mushrooms, delicate water-
weeds and pond-scums, to floating leaves,
soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes,
slender climbers, gigantic trees, and
hanging moss. See frontispiece.

3. THE STEM PART.— In most plants
there is a main central part or shaft on
which the other or secondary parts are

A (1)

2. A buttercup plant,
showing the various parts

N. C. State Coiiegl

2 THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

borne. This main part is the plant axis. Above ground,
in familiar plants, the axis bears the branches, leaves
and flowers ; below ground, it bears the roots.

4. The rigid part of the plant, which persists over win-
ter and which is left after leaves and flowers are fallen, is
the framework of the plant. The framework is composed
of both root and stem. When the plant is dead, the
framework remains for a time, but it slowly decays. The
dry winter stems of weeds are the framework or skeleton
of the plant. Figs. 3 and 4. The framework of trees is
the most conspicuous part of the plant.

5. THE ROOT PART. — The root bears the stem at its
apex, but otherwise it normally bears only root-branches.
The stem, however, bears leaves, flowers and fruits.
Those living surfaces of the plant which are most exposed
to light are green or highly colored. The root tends to
grow dowmvard, but the stem tends to grow upivard toward
light and air. The plant is anchored or fixed in the soil by
the roots. Plants have been called "earth parasites."

6. THE FOLIAGE PART. — The leaves precede the floivers
in point of time or in the life of the plant. The floivers
alivays precede the fruits and seeds. Many plants die when
the seeds have matured. The whole mass of leaves of any
plant or any branch is known as its foliage.

7. THE PLANT GENERATION. — The course of a plant's
life, with all the events through which the plant naturally
passes, is known as the plant's life-history. The life-
history embraces various stages or epochs, as dormant seed,
germination, growth, flowering, fruiting. Some plants run
their course in a few weeks or months, and some live
for centuries.

8. The entire life -period of a plant is called a genera-
tion. It is the whole period from birth to normal death,
without reference to the various stages or events through
which it passes.

THE PLANT GENERATION

9. A generation begins with the ijoung seed, not with
germination. It ends with death — that is, when no life is
left in any part of the plant, and only the seed or spore
remains to perpetuate the kind. In a bulbous plant, as a
lily or an onion, the generation
does not end until the bulb dies,
even though the top is dead.

10. When the generation is
of only one season's duration,
the plant is said to be annual.
When it is of two seasons, it is
biennial. Biennials usually bloom
the second year. When of three
or more seasons, the plant is
perennial. Examples of annuals
are pigweed, bean, pea, garden
sunflower; of biennials, evening
primrose, mullein, teasel, par-
snip, carrot ; of perennials,
dock, meadow grass, cat-tail,
and all shrubs and trees.

11. DURATION OF THE
PLANT BODY. — Plant struc-
tures which are more or less
soft and which die at the

close of the season are said to be herbaceous, in contra-
distinction to being ligneous or woody. A plant which is
herbaceous to the ground is called an herb; but an herb
may have a woody or perennial root, in which case it is
called an herbaceous perennial. Annual plants are classed
as herbs. Examples of herbaceous perennials are butter-
cup (Fig. 2), bleeding heart, violet, water-lily, many
grasses, dock, dandelion, golden rod, asparagus, rhubarb,
many wild sunflowers (Figs. 3, 4).

12. Many herbaceous perennials have short generations.

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

They become weak with one or two seasons of flowering
and gradually die out. Thus red clover begins to fail after
the second year. Gardeners know that the best bloom of
hollyhock, larkspur, pink, and many other plants, is
secured when the plants are only two or three years old.

13. Herbaceous perennials which die away each season
to bulbs or tubers, are sometimes called pseud-annuals
(that is, false annuals). Of such are lily, crocus,
onion, potato

5 A shrub or bush Dogwood osier

14. Plants which are normally perennial may become
annual in a shorter -season climate by being killed by frost,
rather than by dying naturally at the end of a season of
growth. Such plants are called plur-annuals in the short-
season region. Many tropical perennials are plur-annuals
when grown in the north, but they are treated as true an-
nuals because they ripen sufficient of their crop the same
season in which the seeds are sown to make them worth
cultivating, as tomato, red pepper, castor bean.

HOW PLANTS ARE MODIFIED

15. Woody or ligneous plants are usually longer lived
than herbs. Those which remain low and produce several
or many similar shoots from the base are called shrubs, as
lilac, rose, elder, osier. Fig. 5. Low and thick shrubs are
bushes. Plants which produce one main trunk and a
more or less elevated head are trees. Fig. 6.

16. PLANTS ARE MODIFIED BY THE CONDITIONS IN
WHICH THEY GROW.— In most plants, the size, form and
general appearance vary or change with the conditions in
which the plant groivs. That is, ,

there is no uniform or necessaij ,'"_''' h

form into which plants shall grow "^^i^^^-^ ,

No two plants are exactly alike.

Observe plants of the same kind

and age, and see how they differ

or vary. The farmer and gai

dener can cause plants to be large

or small of their kind, by chang

ing the conditions or circumstan

ces under which they grow,

17. No two parts of the same
plant are exactly alike. No two
parts grow in the same conditions,
for one is nearer the main stem,
one nearer the light, and another
has more room. Try to find two

leaves or two branches on the same plant which are exactly
alike. Fig. 7.

18. Every plant makes an effort to propagate or to per-
petuate its kind; and as far as we can see, this is the end
for which the plant itself lives. The seed or spore is
the final product of the plant.

19. Every plant, — and every part of a plant, — under-
goes vicissitudes. It has to adapt itself to the condi-
tions in which it lives. It contends for place in which to

^i

6. A tree. The weeping birch.

THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

grow, and for air and light. Its life is eventfnl. Every
flant, therefore, has a history and a story to tell.

Review. — Of what
parts is a plant com-
posed? What is the
axis? What parts are
borne on the stem ? On
the root ? On what part
are the most highly col-
ored parts found ? What
direction does the root
take? The stem? How
are plants anchored in
the soil? In what order
do the different parts ap-
pear? What is meant by
the life-history? What are some of the stages or events in the life-
history? At what point does a generation begin? When end? By what
means does the next generation begin? What is an Annual? Biennial?
Perennial? Herbaceous perennial? Pseud-annual? Shrub? Bush?
Tree? Give three examples of each of these classes, not mentioning
any given in the book. What is a plur-annual? Why are no two parts
or plants exactly alike? What is the final effort of every plant? Why
is the life of a plant eventful?

Note. — The teacher may assign each pupil to one plant in the
school yard, field, or in a pot, and ask him to bring out the points in
the lesson.

There are no two branches alike

Wintertime brings out the framework of the plants.

CHAPTER II

THE ROOT

20. THE ROOT SYSTEM.— The offices of the root are to
hold the plant in place, and to gather food. Not all the
food materials, however, are gathered by the roots.

21. The entire mass of roots of any plant is called its
root system. The root system may be annual, biennial or
perennial, herbaceous or
woody, deep or shallow,
large or small.

22. KINDS OF ROOTS.—
A strong leading central
root, which runs directly
downwards, is a tap-root.
The side or spreading roots are usually
smaller. Plants which have such a
root system are said to be tap -rooted.
Examples are red clover, beet, turnip,
radish, burdock, dandelion. Fig.

23. A fibrous root system is one
which is composed of many nearly
equal slender branches. The greater
number of plants have fibrous roots.
Examples are many common grasses,
wheat, oats, corn, and most trees.
The buttercup in Fig. 2 has a fibrous
root system.

24. SHAPE AND EXTENT OF THE ROOT SYSTEM. — The
depth to which roots extend depends on the kind of plant,
and the nature of the soil. Of most plants the roots

(7)

8

THE KOOT

9. The crooked roots exposed where the soil has
been washed away.

extend far in all
directions and lie
comparatively near
the surface. The
roots usually radi-
ate from a common
point just beneath
the surface of the
ground

25. The roots
go here and there
in search of food,
often extending
much farther in all
directions than the spread of the top of the plant. Roots
tend to spread farther in poor soil than in rich soil. The
root has no snch definite form as the stem has. Roots are
usually very crooked, because they are constantly turned
aside by obstacles. Fig. 9. Examine
roots in stony or gravelly soil.

2G. The extent of root surface is usu-
allij vert/ large, for the feeding roots
are fine and very
numerous. An
ordinary plant of
Indian corn may
have a total length
of root (measured
as if the roots were
placed end to end) of several hundred feet.

27. The fine feeding roots are most abun-
dant in the richest soil. They are attracted by
the food materials. Roots often will completely
, . surround a bone or other morsel. When roots

11. Root-hairs

of the radish, of trccs are exposed, observe that most of

10. The bracing buttresses of
a field pine.

THE ROOT -HAIRS

9

them are horizontal and lie near the top of the ground.

Some roots, as of willows, go far hi search of water. They

often run into wells and drains, and into

the margins of creeks and ponds. Grow ^,

plants in a long narrow box, in one end of

which the soil is kept very dry and in the

other moist: observe where the roots grow. _

28. The feeding surface of the roots is
near their ends. As the roots become
old and hard, they serve only as channels
through ivhich food passes and as hold -fasts
or supports for the plant. The root -hold
of a plant is very strong. Slowly pull -
upwards on some plant, and note how
firmly it is anchored in the soil. With the
increase in diameter, the upper roots often
protrude above the ground and become
Iracwg buttresses. These buttresses are
usually largest in trees which always have
been exposed to strong winds. Fig. 10.

29. THE ROOT-HAIRS.— The larger part
of the nourishment gathered by the root
is taken in through root-hairs. Fig. 11.
These are very delicate x>rolonged surface
cells of the roots. They are borne for a
short distance just back of the tip of the
root.

30. The root -hairs are very small, often
invisible. They, and the young roots, are
usually broken off when the plant is
pulled up. They are best seen when
seeds are germinated between layers of l^ji
dark blotting paper or flannel. On the i
young roots, they will be seen as a mould- ^-- '^''"*'^ ^°°^^ °^

•,., -., . .^ trumpet creeper

like or gossamer - like covering. Root- or tecoma.

, „.«,^_— vsv

f^^"^*

10

THE ROOT

hairs soon die : they do not grow into roots. New ones
form as the root grows.

31. AERIAL ROOTS.— Although most roots bury them-
selves in the soil, there are some which grow above ground.
These usually occur on climbing plants, the roots becoming

13. Aerial roots of an orchid.

14. Indian com, showing the
aerial roots at oo.

supports or fulfilling the office of tendrils. These aerial
roots usually turn away from the light, and therefore enter
the crevices and dark places of the wall or tree over which
the plant climbs. The trumpet creeper (Fig. 12), true or
English ivy, and poison ivy, climb by means of roots.

32. In some plants, all the roots are aerial; that is, the
plant groivs above ground, and the roots gather food from
the air. Such plants usually grow on trees. They are

fuvcriut: severul acres, ludiu.

12

THE ROOT

known as epiphytes or air- plants (Chapter XIII). The
most familiar examples are some of the tropical orchids,
which are grown in glasshouses. Fig. 13.

33. Some plants throw

out aerial roots, which
propagate the plant or
act as braces. The
roots of Indian corn are
familiar. Fig. 14. Many
ficus trees, as the banyan
of India (Figs. 15, 16),
send out roots from their
branches ; when these
roots reach the ground
they take hold and be-
come great trunks, thus
spreading the top of the
parent tree over great
areas The mangrove
tree (Fig. 17) of the
tropics grows along sea-
shores and sends down
roots from the overhanging branches into the shallow
water, and thereby gradually marches into the sea. The
tangled mass behind catches the drift, and soil is formed.

Mangroves marching into the sea.

Review. — What is the root for? What is a root system? Define
tap-root. Fibrous root. What determines how deep the root may go?
How far does the root spread ? Explain what form the root sys-
tem may assume; also what extent. Where are the greatest num-
ber of fine roots found ? Where is the feeding surface of roots? Of
what use to the plant are the old woody roots? What are root-
hairs? What do they do and what becomes of them? What are aerial
roots? Where found ? What are epiphytes, and where do their
roots grow? What are brace roots? How do the banyan and man-
grove spread (aside from seeds)?

Note. — The pupil should see the root-hairs. A week before this

REVIEW

13

lesson is studied, have the pupil place seeds of radish, turnip or cab-
bage between folds of thick cloth or blotting paper. Keep the cloth
or paper moist and warm. The hairs show best against a dark back-
ground. In some of the blotting papers, sprinkle sand : observe how
the root-hairs cling to the grains (compare Chapter XI).

The pupil also should study the root-hold of a plant. Let him
carefully pull up a plant. If a plant grow alongside a fence or other
rigid object, he may test the root-hold by securing a string to the
plant, letting the string hang over the fence and then adding weights
to the string. Will a stake of similar size to the plant and extending
no deeper in the ground, have such firm hold on the soil ?

Garden along the scliool-yanl fence, wliere pupils may
grow the plants for study

CHAPTER III

THE STEM

34. THE STEM SYSTEM.— The stem of a piaut is the
part which hears the huds, leaves, flowers and fruits, its,
office is to hold these parts up to the light and air ; and
throvigli its tissues the various food -materials and the life-
giving fluids are distributed to
the growing and working parts.

35. The entire mass or fabric
of stems of any plant is called
its stem system. Figs. 4, 18
The stem system may be her-
baceous or woody, annual, bien-
nial, or perennial; and it may
assume many different sizes and
shapes.

36. Stems are of many forms.
The general way in which a
plant grows is called its habit.
The habit is the appearance or

Its habit may be open or loose, dense, straight,
crooked, compact, straggling, climbing, erect, weak, strong,
and the like. The roots and leaves are the important
functional or working parts : the stem merely connects
them, and its form is exceedingly variable.

37. KINDS OF STEMS.— T/ie stem may be so short as to
be scarcely distinguishable. In such cases the crown of the
plant — that part just at the surface of the ground — bears
the leaves and flowers; but this crown is really a very short
stem. The dandelion, Fig. 8, is an example. Such plants
(14)

18. Stem system of an apple tree
Deliquescent trunk.

looks.

KINDS OF STEMS

15

are often said to be stemless, however, in order to dis-
tinguish them from plants which have long or conspicuous
5teras. These so-called stemless j>lants die to the ground
every year.

38. Stems are erect when they grow straight up. Figs.
1, 2, 3. They are trailing or creeping when they run
along on the ground. Fig. 19. They are decumbent
when they lop over to the ground. They are ascending
when they lie mostly or in part on the ground but stand
more or less nprignt at their ends. They are climbing
when they cling to other objects for support. Figs. 12, 20.

39. Trees in which the main trunk or the "leader"
continues to grow from its tip are said to be excurrent in
growth. The branches are lorne along the sides of the
trunk, as in common pines (Fig. 21) and spruces. Excur-
rent means running out or running up.

40. Trees in which the main trunk does not continue
are said to be deliquescent. The branches arise from one

common point or from each other.
The stem is lost in the branches. The
apple tree (Fig. 18), maple, elm, oak,
are familiar examples. Deliquescent
means dissolving or melting away.
41. Each kind of plant has its
own peculiar
habit or direc-
tion of growth.
Spruces always
grow to a single
stem or trunk,
pear trees are
always deliques-
cent, morning-glories are always climbing, strawberries
are always creeping. We do not know why each plant
has its own habit ; but the habit is in some way asso-

trailing plant ( AbroniaJ ,

16

THE STEM

dated tvith the plant's genealogy or tvith the tvay in

which it has been ohliged to live.

42. The stem may be simple or branched. A simple

stem usually grows from the terminal bud, and side

branches either do
not start, or, if they
start, they soon per-
ish. Mulleins (Fig.
22) are usually sim-
ple. So are palms.

43. Branched
stems may he of very
different habit and
sha2)e. Some stem
systems are narrow
and erect : these are
said to be strict.
Others are dif-
fuse, open, branchy,
twiggy.

44. STEMS vs.
ROOTS. — Roots
sometimes grow
above ground (31-
33) ; so, also, stems
sometimes grow un-
derground, and they are then known as subterranean stems,
rhizomes, or rootstocks (Fig. 23).

45. Stems normally bear leaves and buds, and thereby
are they distinguished from roots. The leaves, however,
may be reduced to mere scales, and the buds beneath
them maybe scarcely visible. Thus the "eyes" on an Irish
potato are cavities with a bud or buds at the bottom (Fig.
24). Sweet potatoes have no evident "eyes" when first
dug (but they may develop buds before the next growing-

r;ipe vine climbing on a tree,
two kinds of stems.

HOW STEMS ELONGATE

17

season). The Irish potato is a stem: the
sweet potato is probably a root.

46. HOW STEMS ELONGATE.— Eoo^s elongate
by growing near the tip. Stems elongate by
growing more or less throughout the young
or soft part or "between joints." But any
part of the stem soon reaches a limit beyond
which it cannot grow, or becomes "fixed;"
and the new parts beyond
elongate until they, too,
become rigid. When a part
of the stem once becomes
fixed or hard, it never in-
creases in length: that is,
the trunk or woody parts
never groiv longer or higher;
branches do not become far-
ther apart or higher from
the ground.

47. The different re-
gions of growth in stems
and roots may be observed in seedling-
plants. Place seeds of radish or cabbage
between layers of blotting-paper or thick cloth. Keep
them damp and warm. When stem and root have grown
an inch and a half long each, with waterproof ink
mark spaces exactly one -quarter inch apart. Keep the
plantlets moist for a day or two, and it will be found that
on the stem some or all of the marks are more than one-
quarter inch apart ;
on the root the marks
have not separated.
The root has grown ^.i
beyond the last mark .
Figs. 25 and 26.

. 01(1 mullein
stalk, with
strict habit of
growth.

21. Exeurreut trunk.
A pine.

18

THE STEM

Eeview. — What is the stem
system ? What does the stem do ?
How long may the stem persist ?
What is meant by the habit of a
plant? Name some kinds of habit.
What are so-called stemless plants?
What is the crown ? What becomes
of the tops of stemless plants ?
What are erect, trailing, decum-
bent, ascending, climbing stems?
What are exeurrent trunks? Deli-
quescent? What is a simple stem?
What are strict stems ? What
are subterranean
stems ? How are "

What is the differ-

stems aistinguished from roots?

ence in mode of growth between stems and roots?

Note. — The pupil should make marks with water-
proof ink (as Higgins' ink or indelible marking ink)
on any soft growing stems — as geranium, fuchsia,
grass, the twigs of trees. Note that the separation of
the marks is most evident on the youngest shoots.

The pupil should observe the fact that a stem of
a plant has wonderful strength. Compare tlie pro-
portionate height, diameter and weight of a grass stem
with those of the slen-
derest tower or steeple.
Which has the greater
strength ? Which the
greater height ? Which
will withstand the most
wind ? Note that the
grass stem will regain its
position even if its top
is bent to the ground.
Split a corn stalk and
observe how the joints
are tied together and
braced with fibers. Note
how plants are weight-

ed down after a heavy -''■ ^^^T "J^''^'^^,

'' of the stem and

rain- root.

26. The result.

CHAPTER IV

PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS

48. The primary office of roots and stems is to support
and maintain the plant; hut these parts may also serve to
propagate the plant, or to produce new individuals.

49. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF RHIZOMES.— 0«e office
of subterranean stems or rhizomes is to propagate the plant.
Each stem has a bud at its end, and from this bud a
shoot arises. By the dying away of the older part of
the rhizome, this shoot becomes a separate plant, although
the rhizome maintains its connection for years in some
plants. Shoots may also arise from the intermediate or

lateral buds, but the strongest shoots usually
arise from the end or near the end of the
rhizome. Fig. 23.

50. Each successive plant is farther re-
moved from the original plant or the start-
ing-point of the colony. Thus the colony
or "patch" grows larger. Familiar examples
are the spreading patches of mandrakes or
May apples, quack -grass, Solomon's seal,
lily -of -the -valley, ferns. Cannas propagate
b}' means of rhizomes ; so does ginger, and
the "roots" can be purchased at the drug
store. Fig. 27 illustrates the spread of a
colony of wild sunflower. On the right the
rhizomes have died away :
note the frayed ends. On
the le^t, the strong up-turned
buds show where the shoots
(19)

27. Creeping rhizomes of wild sunflower.

20

PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

will arise next spring. The old stems in the middle
show where the buds were at the close of the last season.
Fig. 23 shows one of the terminal buds.

51. When rhizomes are cut in pieces, each piece having
at least one hud or "e^e," the pieces may grow ivhen planted.
A familiar example is the practice of dividing tubers of
potato. A severed piece of plant designed to be used to
propagate the plant is a cutting. See Fig. 28.

28. Cuttings of eann.i rhizome.

52. Cuttings of rhizomes are often made undesignedly
or accidentally when land is cultivated. The cultivator or
harrow breaks up the rhizomes of quack -grass, Canada
thistle, toad flax, and other weeds, and scatters them over
the field.

53. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS.— Roots some-
times make buds and throiv up shoots or new plants.
Severed roots, or root cuttings, often grow. Blackberries,
raspberries, and many plums and cherries, throw up shoots
or " suckers " from the roots ; and this propensity is usu-

CUTTINGS AND LAYEKS

21

ally increased when the roots are broken, as b}' a plow.
Broken roots of apples often sprout. Plants may propa-
gate by means of root cuttings.

54. The buds which appear on roots are unusual or
abnormal, — they occur only occasionally and in no definite
order. Buds appearing in unusual places on any part of
the plant are called adventitious buds. Such are the buds
which arise when a large limb is cut off, and from which
suckers or watersprouts arise.

55. LAYERS. — Roots sometimes arise from^ aerial stems
that are partially huried. If a branch touches the ground
and takes root, it is called a
layer. Gardeners often bend a
limb to the ground and cover it
for a short distance, and when
roots have formed on the cov-
ered part, the branch is severed
from its parent and an inde-
pendent plant is obtained. See
Fig. 29.

56. There are several kinds of
layers: a creeper, when a trail-
ing shoot takes root throughout
its entire length ; a runner, when
the shoot trails on the ground and takes root at the
joints, as the strawberry; a stolon, when a more or less
strong shoot bends over and takes root, as the black
raspberry or the dewberry (Fig. 29) ; an offset, when a
few very strong plants form close about the base of the
parent, particularly in succulent or bulbous plants, as
house-leek (old -hen -and -chickens) and some lilies. The
rooting branches of the mangrove and banyan (Figs.
15, 17) may be likened to layers.

57. NATURAL CUTTINGS. — Sometimes cuttings occur
without the aid of man. Some kinds of willows shed

A layer of dewberry. The
new plant has arisen at
the left.

22 . PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

their twigs, or the storms break them off : many of these
twigs take root in the moist earth where willows grow, and
they are often carried down the streams and are washed
along the shoi-es of lakes. Observe the willows along a
brook, and determine whether any of them may liave come
down the stream.

58. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF LEAVES.— Even leaves
may take root and give rise to neiv plants. There are
examples in warm countries. The lake -cress of northern
streams also propagates in this way: the leaves with little
plants attached may often be seen floating down stream.
Gardeners propagate some kinds of begonias by means
of leaf cuttings; also gloxinias and bryophyllums.

59. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF BVDS.— Buds often

become detached and j^ropagate the ])lant. Familiar

examples are the bulblets of tiger lilies, borne

amongst the foliage ; for all bulblets and

bulbs are only special kinds of buds. Fig. 30.

Some water plants make heavy winter buds,

which become detached on the approach of

cold weather and sink to the bottom. In

* spring, they give rise to new plants.

60. GRAFTS. — Sometimes a branch may
30. Buibiet of unite with another plant. A branch or a
trunk may lie against another plant of the
same kind, or of a very closely related kind, and grow fast
to it; and if its original trunk die away, the part will be
growing on an alien root. A branch which grotvs fast
to a branch of another plant, the wood of the two knit-
ting together, is called a graft. Fig. 31. It is necessary
to distinguish between a graft and a parasite: a parasite
prej's upon another plant, robbing it of its food, but a
graft becomes an integral part of the stock on which it
grows, and does its full work in elaborating food for
itself and for the stock.

REVIEW

23

Keview. — What are primary and sec-
ondary offices of roots and stems? What
are the offices of rhizomes ? How does
propagation by rhizomes proceed ? Why
does the colony spread ? Name some
plants which propagate by means of rhi-
zomes. What is a cutting? May cuttings
be made of rhizomes? How are rhizom-
atous weeds often spread ? How do roots
serve to propagate the plant? Name in-
stances. What are adventitious buds?
What is a layer? Define some of the
kinds of layers, — runner, creeper, stolon,
offset. Explain how cuttings may occur
without the aid of man. How may leaves
serve to propagate the plant? Explain
how plants propagate themselves by
means of detachable buds. What is a
graft? How may grafting take place
without the aid of man?

Note. — If there is an accessible
"patch" of toad-flax, Canada thistle,

May apple, or other perennial plant, the pupil should determine by
what means it enlarges from year to year. "Patches" are always
instructive when considered with reference to propagation and dis-
semination.

31. A native graft.

i;oluuy of ilay applt

CHAPTER V

HOW THE HORTICULTURIST PROPAGATES PLANTS
BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS

61. CUTTINGS IN GENERAL.— A hit of a plant stuck
into the ground stands a chance of groiving; and this bit
is a cutting. (Compare 51.) Plants have preferences,
however, as to the kind of a bit which shall be used,
but there is no ivay of telling what this preference is
except by trying. In some instances this preference has
not been discovered, and we say that the plant cannot
be propagated by cuttings.

62. Most plants prefer that the cutting be made of
the soft or growing parts (called "wood" by gardeners),
of which the "slips" of geranium and coleus are examples.
Others grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or
mature parts or wood, as currant and grape ; and in
some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in
the blackberry. Pupils should make cuttings now and
then. If they can do nothing more, they can make cut-
tings of potato, as the farmer does ; and they can plant
them in a box in the window.

63. THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING.— The softwood cutting
is made from tissue which is still growing, or at least
from that which is not dormant. It comprises one or
two joints, with a leaf attached. Figs. 32, 33, 34. It
must not be allowed to wilt. Therefore, it must be
protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it is
irell established; and if it has many leaves, some of them
should be removed, or at least cut in two, in order to
reduce the evo.Dorating surface. The soil should be uni-

(24) ,,^

THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING

25

forraly moist. The pictures show the depth to which
the cuttings are planted.

64. For most plants, the proper age or maturity of
wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by
giving the twig a quick
bend: if it snaps and ^^
y the bark, it is

cutting

in proper condition ; if
it bends tvithout break-
ing, it is too young and
soft or too old; if it
splinters, it is too old
and woody. The tips of
strong upright shoots
usually make the best
cuttings. Preferably, each cutting should have a joint
or node near its base ; and if the internodes (or spaces
between joints) are very short, it may comprise two or
three joints.

65. The stem of the cutting is inserted one -third or more
its length in clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed
firmly about it. A newspaper may be laid over the bed
to exclude the light — if the sun strikes it — and to prevent
too rapid evaporation. The soil
should be moist clear through, not
on top only.

66. Loose sandy or gravelly soil
is used. Mason's sand is good
earth in which to start most cut-
tings ; or fine gravel — sifted of
most of its earthy matter — may
be used. Soils are avoided which
contain much decaying organic matter, for these soils are
breeding places of fungi, which attack the soft cutting
and cause it to "damp off," or to die at or near the

26

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

surface of the ground. If the cuttings are to be grown
in a window, put three or four inches of the earth in
a shallow box or a pan. A soap
box cut in two lengthwise, so that
it makes a box four or five inches
deep — like a gardener's flat — is
excellent. Cuttings of common
plants, as geranium, coleus, fuch-
sia, carnation, are kept at a living-
room temperature. As long as the
cuttings look bright and green,
they are in good condition. It maj^ be a month before
roots form. When roots have formed, the plants begin
to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be trans-
planted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in
Fig. 35 is just ready for transplanting.

67. It is not always easy to find growing shoots from

Verb.:nu cutting readj'
for transplanting

which to make the cutting?

30. Old geranium plant cut back to make
it throw out shoots from which cut-
ting! can be made.

The best practice, in that
case, is to cut back an
old plant, then keep it
irarm and ivell ivatered, and
thereby force it to throiv out
neio shoots. The old geran-
ium plant from the win-
dow-garden, or the one
taken up from the lawn
bed, may be treated this
way. See Fig. 36. The
best plants of geranium
and coleus and most win-
dow plants are those which
are not more than one year
old. The geranium and
fuchsia cuttings which are
made in January, Febru-

THE GKAFT

27

ary, or March tvill give compact blooming plants for the
next tvinter ; and thereafter new ones take their places.
Fig. 37.

68. THE HARDWOOD CUTTING.— Best results are secured
ivhen the cuttings are made in the fall and then buried
until spring in sand in the cellar. These cuttings are
usually 6 to 10 inches long. They are not idle while they
rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots
form more readily
when the cutting
is planted in the
spring. But if the
proper season has
passed, take cut-
tings at any time in
winter, plant them
in a deep box in the
window, and watch.
They will need no
shading or special
care. Grape, cur-
rant, gooseberry
and poplar readily
take root from the

hardwood. Fig 38 ^^' ^^^^^ winter geranium, from a spring cutting.

shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above the
ground.

69. THE GRAFT.— T^7ieM the cutting is inserted in a
plant rather than in the soil, ive have a graft ; and the
graft may grow. In this case the cutting grows fast
to the other plant, and the two become one. When the
cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a
cutting, but a cion ; and the plant in which it is inserted
is called the stock. Fruit trees are grafted in order that
a certain variety or kind may he perpetuated.

28 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATlOxN

70. Plants have preferences as to the stocks on which
they will grow ; hut we can find out what their choice is
only by making the experiment. The pear grows well
on the quince, but the quince does not
grow so well on the pear. The pear grows
on some of the hawthorns, but it is an un-
willing subject on the apple. Tomato
plants will grow on potato plants and
potato plants on tomato plants. When
the potato is the root, both tomatoes and
potatoes may be produced ; when the to-
mato is the root, neither potatoes nor
tomatoes will be produced. Chestnut will
grow on some kinds of oak.

71. The forming, growing tissue of the
stem (on the plants we have been dis-
cussing) is the cambium, lying on the out-
side of the woody cylinder, beneath the
bark. In order that union may take place,
the cambium of the cion and of the stock
must come together. Therefore the cion
is set in the side of the stock. There are

38. Currant cutting. j? i • . i ■ j »

many ways ot shaping the cion and or
preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated
largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, although
many of them are matters of mere personal preference.
The underlying principles are two : securing close con-
tact between the cambiums of cion and stock ; covering
the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to
protect the parts from disease.

72. On large stocks the commonest form of grafting is
the cleft-graft. The stock is cut off and split; and in one
or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted.
Fig. 39 shows the cion; Fig. 40, the cions set in the stock;
Fig. 41, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower

THE GRAFT

29

bud — that lying in the wedge — is covered by the wax; but
being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather,
it is the most likely to grow : it will push through the
wax.

73. Cleft -grafting is done in spring, as growth begins.
The cions are cut previously, when perfecthj dormant, and

Cioii of apple. 40. The cioii inserted.

41. The parts waxed.

from the tree which it is desired to propagate. The cions
are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. Limbs of various
sizes may be cleft -grafted, — from one -half inch up to four
inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most
convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a
tree -top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the
top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the
entire top will be changed over to the new variety.

Review. — How do we determine how a plant luay be propagated?
Mention any plants that grow from cuttings. What are softwood
cuttings? Hardwood? Describe a geranium cutting. What is the
proper condition of wood for making a softwood cutting? How is it
planted? Where? In what kind of soil? Give directions for water-
ing. How may cutting- wood be secured? Describe a hardwood cut-

30

AKTLFICIAL PKOPAGATION

ting. When is it made? Name plants which can be propagated easily
by means of hardwood cuttings. Wnat is a cion? Stock? How do
we find out what stocks are congenial to the cion? Describe a cleft-
graft. When is cleft-grafting performed? Why do we graft?

Note. — The cutting-box may be set in the window. If the box
does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane of
glass to prevent evaporation. Take care that the air is not kept
too close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and
they will rot at the surface of the ground. See that the pane is
raised a little at one end to afford ventilation ; and if water collects
in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time.

Grafting wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The liands
are greased, and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to
spread. For the little grafting which any pupil would do, it is
better to buy the wax of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to
be recommended as a general school diversion, as the making of cut-
tings is ; and this account of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the
general curiosity on the subject. But now and then a pupil may
make the effort for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to
make a graft grow all bj' one's self.

The pictures of the cuttings (Figs. 32-3.'), 38) and the grafts
(Figs. 39-41) are one-third natural size.

Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses.

CHAPTER VI

FOOD RESERVOIRS

74. STOREHOUSES. — All greathj thickened or congested
parts are reservoirs for the storage of plant-food. This
food is mostly starch. Potatoes, beets, turnips, thick
rhizomes, seeds, are examples. Recall how potatoes sprout

42. Potato spi-uuls

Tlie sprouts have used tlie food stored in the tuber,
and the tuber has shrivelled.

in the cellar (Fig. 42) : the sprouts are produced from the
stored food.

75. The presence of starch can he determined by apply-
ing diluted tincture of iodine to the part: if a blue or

(31)

32

FOOD RESERVOIRS

purplish brown color appears, starch is present. Cut the
part open and moisten the fresh surface with iodine (to
be had at the drug store). The test will usually give

43. A winter branch bearing leaves inside a window, while still
attached to the tree outside.

the part is perfectly dormant.
11 nearly all twigs in fall and

the best reaction when

Starch may be found i

winter. Test them.

76. This stored plant- food enables the plant to start

quickly in the ^^ving, without tvaiting for full root- action
to begin ; and it enables the plantlet in the
seed to groiv until it establishes itself in the
soil. The flowers of early-blooming trees are
developed mostl}' from the nourishment
stored in the twigs, not from the materials
taken in at the time by the roots. This can
be demonstrated by bringing branches of
peach, apple, and other early - blooming
plants into the house in the winter and
keeping them in water; they will bloom and
**■ ^'^ip"*"*""" sometimes even make leaves. Study Fig. 43.

KINDS OF STOREHOUSES

33

45. A multiplier oniou.

77. KINDS OF STOREHOUSES.— Short and much thick-
ened or swollen parts of roots or stems are known as
tubers. These may be stem tubers, as the potato, or
root tubers, as the sweet po-
tato (45). Most tubers are sub-
terranean .

78. Many tubers are stem at
the top and root in the remain-
ing part: these are called crown
tubers, because the upper part
comes to the surface of the
ground, or is a crown. Leaves
and stems arise from the upper
part. Beet, radish, parsnip,
turnip, salsify, carrot, dahlia
roots, are examples. These
tubers are usually much longer
than broad, and generally taper downwards. Fig. 44.

79. A much thickened part which is composed of scales
or plates is a bulb. The bulb may be scaly, as in the

lily; or it may be tuni-
cated, — made up of plates
or layers within layers,
as the onion.

80. Small bulbs which
are borne amongst the
foliage or flowers are
known as bulblets. Such
are the "top onions," and
the little bulbs which the
tiger lily (Fig. 30) bears
on its stem. Bulbs which
grow around the main bulb or which are formed by the
breaking apart of the main bulb, are known as bulbels.
Many bulbous plants propagate by means of bulbels. The

46. Section of a multiplier onion.
Natural size.

34

FOOD RESERVOIRS

multiplier or potato onion

(Fig. 45) is an example.

If the built is eut across,

it is found to have two or

more "hearts" or cores

(Fig. 46). When it has

been planted a week, each

core or part begins to

separate (Fig. 47), and

there are soon as many

onions as there are cores.

Potato onions can be

bought of seedsmen. They

are used for the raising of

early onions.

81. Solid bulb-like parts are known as corms. These

usually have a loose covering, but the interior is not

made up of scales or plates. Of such are gladiolus and

crocus corms (Figs. 48, 49). Corms multiply by cormels

47. Beginning to separate into its parts
Each part will be a little onion.

48. Corm of crocus. Nat. size.

49. Section of a crocus corm.

or small corms, as bulbs do by bulbels. Fig. GO shows
an old gladiolus corm on which three new corms have
grown.

82. We have seen that thickened parts may serve one

USE OF THE STORED FOOD 35

or both of two purposes : they may be storehouses for
food; they may be means of propagating the plant.
The storage of food carries the plant over a dry or cold
season. By making bulbs or tubers, the plant persists
until spring. A lunch is put up
for a future day. Most bulbous
plants are natives of dry countries.

Review. — What do j-ou understand
by food reservoirs? How is the presence
of starch determined? Where may starcli
be found ? Of what service to the plant
is this stored food ? How are the flow-
ers and leaves enabled to start so early ■'"■ Three conns growing on

a r, n i 1 Tj i i. V, an old one. — Oladiohis.

in spring T Define tuber. Root tuber.

Stem tuber. Crown tuber. Give examples. Define bulb. Scaly
bulb. Tunicated bulb. Bulblet. Bulbel. Give examples. Define
corm. Cormel. What two purposes do congested parts serve ?

Note. — The pupil should examine various kinds of bulbs and
tubers. If these are not at hand, many kinds can be bought of
seedsmen or florists. Secure onion, narcissus, hyacinth, gladiolus,
crocus, potato. Cut them in two. Study the make-up. Test them
for starch. Plant some of them in pots or boxes. Observe how they
grow. In the onion and some other plants most of the stored food
is sugar.

i kept in a window.

CHAPTER VII

WINTER BUDS

83. WHAT BUDS ARE. — Because of cold or dry weather,
the plant is forced into a period of inactivitj-. We have
seen that it stores food, and is ready to make a quick
start in the spring. It also makes embryo branches and
packs them away underneath close-fitting scales : these
branchlets and their coverings are winter buds. The
growing points of the plant are at rest for a time. In
the warm season, the growing point is active, and the
covering of scales is not so pronounced. A ivinter hud
may be defined as a resting covered growing point.

84. A dormant hnd, therefore, is a shortened axis or
branch, bearing miniature leaves or flowers, or both, and
protected by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of
the horse-chestnut or other plant which has large buds.
With a pin, separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Ex-
amine the big bud of the rhubarb
as it lies under the ground in winter
or early spring. Dissect large bud.s
of the apple and pear. Figs. 51, 52.

85. The bud is protected by firm

and dry scales ; but these scales are

only modified leaves. The scales fit

close. Often the bud is protected

by varnish ( see horse - chestnut

balsam poplars). Most winter

more or less woolly. Examine

them under a lens. As we might expect, bud-coverings

are most prominent in cold and dry climates.

(36)

51.
Bud of apri-
cot showing
the minia-
ture leaves.

and
buds

the
are

WHEKE BUDS ARE

37

53. Leaf-sc;ii>
Ailanthus.

or 54. Termi-
nal bud
betw e e n
two other
buds .—
Currant.

86. WHERE BUDS ARE. — Buds (ire borne in the axils
of the leaves, — in the acute angle which the leaf makes
with the stem. When the leaf is
growing in the summer, a bud is
forming above it. When the leaf
falls, the bud remains, and a scar
marks the place of the leaf. Fig.
53 shows the large leaf -scars of
ailanthus. Observe those on the
horse-chestnut, maple, apple, pear,
basswood, or any tree or bush.

87. Sometimes two or more
buds are borne in one axil : the
extra ones are accessory
supernumerary buds. Observe
them in the Tartarian honeysuckle
(common in yards), walnut, but-
ternut, red maple, honey locust, and sometimes in the
apricot and peach.

88. Shoots of many plants bear a bud at the tip:
this is a terminal bud. It continues the growth of the
axis in a direct line. Very often three or more buds
are clustered at the tip
(Fig. 54) ; and in this
case there may be more
buds than leaf -scars.
Only one of them, how-
ever, is strictly terminal.

89. Bulbs and cabbage
heads may be likened to
buds : that is, they are
condensed stems, with
scales or modified leaves
densely overlapping and forming a rounded body. Fig.
55. They differ from true buds, however, in the fact

55. A gigantic bud.— Cabbage.

38

WINTEK BUDS

The open-
i n g of
the pear
bud of pear. bud.

Fruit-

that the}' are eoudeusations of main stems rather than
embryo stems borne in the axils of leaves. But bulblets
iji. .,:^ may be scarcely distinguish-
^^^ able from buds on the one
^ hand and from bulbs on the
other. Cut a cabbage head iia
two lengthwise, and see what
0 it is like.

90. WHAT BUDS DO.— A hud
is a growing point. In the
growing season it is small,
and persons do not notice it.
In the winter it is dormant
and wrapped up and is plainly
seen : it is waiting. All hranvhes spring from
buds.

91. All winter buds give rise to branches,
not to leaves alone : that is, the leaves are borne
on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis,
or branch, remains very short,— so short that it

56. Willow, may not be noticed. Some-

The" pus-
sies" are timcs it grows Several

pushing

out, and teet long.

biacifbud^ 92. Whether the

scale is

ready to branch grows long

fall from

the base or uot depends on

of each.

the chance it has,
— position on the plant, soil,
rainfall, and many other things.
The new shoot is the unfold-
ing and enlarging of the tiny
axis and leaves which we saw
in the bud. Figs. 51, 52. If
the conditions are congenial, the shoot may form more
leaves than were tucked away in the bud, but commonly

Growth is
progressing.

HOW BUDS OPEN

39

Opening of the
pear bud.

it does not. The length of the shoot usually depends more
on the lengths betireen joints than on the mimber of leaves.

93. HOW BUDS OVEJU.— When the bud
swells, the scales are pushed apart, the
little axis elongates and pushes out. In
most plants, the outside scales fall very
soon, leaving a little ring of sears. Notice
peach, apple, plum, willow, and other
plants. Fig. 56. In others, all the scales
grow for a time, as in the pear. Figs.

57, 58. In other plants, the in-
ner bud-scales become green and

almost leaf -like. See the maple

and hickory. Fig. 59 shows a

hickory bud. Two weeks later,

the young shoot had pushed out

and the enlarged scales were hanging (Fig. 60).
94. Sometimes floivers come out of the buds.

Leaves may or may not accompany the flowers.

We saw the embryo flowers in Fig. 52. The

bud is shown again in Fig. 57. In Fig. 58 it is

opening. In Fig. Gl it is
more advanced, and the woolly un-
formed flowers are appearing. In
Fig. C2 the growth is more advanced.
In Fig. 63 the flowers are full blown ;
and the bees have found them.

95. Buds which contain or pro-
duce only leaves ai-e leaf-buds. Those
which contain only flowers are flower-
buds or fruit-buds. The latter occur

on peach, almond, apricot, and many

very early spring-flowering plants. ''^^ ^^''■^' '" '"" ''"""i-
Fig. 64. The single flower is emerging from the apricot
bud in Fig. 65. Those which contain both leaves and

40

WINTER BUDS

flowers are mixed buds, as in pear, apple, and most late
spring- flowering plants.

96. Fruit-buds are usually thicker
or stouter thaii leaf -buds. They are
borne in different positions on differ-
ent plants. In some plants
(apple, pear) they are on the
ends of short branches or
spurs ; in others (peach, red
maple) they are along the

04. Almond flower— tlu
sole occupant of a bud.

65.
The open-
ing of the
flower-bud
of apricot.

sides of the last year's
growths. In Fig. 66 are
shown three fruit -buds and
one leaf -bud on E, and leaf-

buds on A. In Fig. 67 a fruit-bud is at the left, and a

leaf-bud at the right.

97. THE "BURST OF SPRING"

means chiefly the opening of the

buds. Everything was made

ready the fall before. The embryo "^M^M^ \M

shoots and flowers ivere tucJced

away, and the food was stored. The

warm rain falls, and the shutters

open and the sleepers wake : the

frogs peep and the birds come.

Review. — What are dormant buds?
What are they for? What is their cover-
ing? Where are they borne? When are
they formed ? What is a leaf -sear? What
are accessory buds? What other name is
applied to them? Define terminal bud.
What does it do? What are bulbs and
cabbages? How do they differ from
buds? What do buds do? From what do

branches arise? To what do winter buds ^^ t. -^ , , ^ , r v ^

. „ ,^. , . , ,, ,, 66. Fruit-buds and leaf- buds

give rise? What determines whether the of pear.

WINTER TWIGS IN THE HOUSE

41

branch shall be long or short? Describe the opening of a bud
What are flower-buds? Leaf-buds? Mixed buds? How may fruit
buds be distinguished ? What is the "burst of
spring"?

Note. — It is easy to see the swelling of
the buds in a room in winter. Secure branches
of trees and shrubs, two to three feet long, and
stand them in vases or jars, as you would flow-
ers. Renew the water frequently and cut oft"
the lower ends of the shoots occasionally. In a
week or two the buds will begin to swell. Of
red maple, peach, apricot, and other very early-
flowering things, flowers may be obtained in
ten to twenty days. Try it.

The shape, size, and color of the winter
buds are different in every kind of plant. By
the buds alone botanists are often able to dis-
tinguish the kinds of plants. Even such similar
plants as the different kinds of willows have good bud characters.
The study of the kinds of buds affords excellent training of the
powers of observation.

Fruit-bud and leaf-bud
of apple.

J^AV,

The burst of spring in the lilac.

CHAPTER VIII
PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

98. EACH PLANT LOOKS FOR LIGHT.— Green plants live
only in sunlight, direct or indirect, Tlie gradual with-
drawal of light tends to weaken the plant; but the plant

makes an effort to reach the light
and therefore grows towards it. The
irJiole habit of a plant may he chan<jed
' bij its 2)osition with reference to sun-
light. Select two similar plants.
Place one near the window and
the other far from it. Watch the
behavior from day to day. Fig.
C8 sliows a fern which grew near

08. Sullif'iriil li';lit. ^ i i • i ttt

the glass in a conservatory : h ig,
69 shows one which grew on the floor of a conservatory.
Fig. 69 also teaches another lesson, which is to be ex-
plained in another chapter (Chapter XXVI).

99. Plants grow towards the light. The most vigor-
ous branches, as a rule, are those which receive most light.
Climb a tree and observe where the thriftiest shoots are;
or observe any bush.

100. When plants or their
parts are not stiff or rigid, they
turn towards the light if the light
comes mostly from one direction.
The geraniums and fuchsias in
the window are turned around
occasionally so that they will grow
symmetrical. Plant radish in a

(42)

69. In need of light.
Same kind of fern as No. 68.

EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT

43

pot or pan. When the plants are three or four inches
high, place the pan in a tight box which has a hole on
one side. The next day it will look like those in Fig. 70.
This turning towards the light is called heliotropism
(helios is Greek for "sun.")

101. Even under natural con-
ditions, 2)lants become misshapen
or unsymmetrical if the light comes
mostly from one direction. On the
edge of a forest, the branches
reach out for light (Fig. 71)
Trees tend to grow away from a
building. Branches become fixed
in their position, so that even
in winter they tell of the search

70. Searching for li?ht. f^j, Jighj- [Y\g. 72).

102. Some plants climh other plants in order to reach
the sunlight; or they climh rocks and buildings. Notice
that the vine on the house luxuriates where it is lightest.
Climbing plants sometimes choke and smother the plant
on which they climb. This they may do by throwing
their mantle of foliage over it, and smothering it, or by
sending their roots into its trunk and robbing it of food.
Sometimes they do both, as in Fig. 74. Every plant has
a story to tell of the value of sunlight.

103. EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT.— The plant is
made up of branches. There is a struggle amongst the
branches for sunlight. We have seen (Fig. 7) that no
two branches are alike : we now know one reason why.
Notice that the small branches die in the center of the
tree. Look on the inside of a pine, spruce or other dense
tree. Every branch has a story to tell of the value of
sunlight.

104. EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT.— Leaves are borne
towards the ends of the branches. This is particu-

44

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

larly marked when the struggle is severe. If the out-
side of a plant is densely thatched with leaves, the
inside will be found to be comparatively bare. Con-

71. Branehes of the cedar reaching for light.

trast Figs. 75 and 76, both being views of one tree.
We know the tree as seen in Fig. 75 : the squirrel
knows it as seen in Fig. 76.

105. On any branch in a very thick -topped tree or
bush, leaves of equal age usually tend to be largest where

EACH LEAF LOOKS FOE LIGHT

45

the light is best.
Leaves which grow
in full sunlight
tend to persist later
in the fall than
those which grow
in poor light (Fig.
77). This fact is
sometimes ob-
scured because the ''''^' '^^^ branches have grown towards the light.

outermost leaves are most exposed to autumn winds.

106. Plants which start in cellars, from seeds, bulbs,
or tubers, grow until the stored food is exhausted and
then die: the leaves do not develop to full size in
darkness. Figs. 78 and 79 show this. Fig. 78 is rhu-
barb forced in a cellar for the winter market; Fig. 79
is a plant grown out-of-doors. Compare Fig. 42.

107. The position or direction of leaves is determined

largely by exposure to sun-
light. In temperate cli-
mates, they usually hang
in such a way that they
receive the greatest
amount of light. Ob-
serve the arrangement
of leaves in Fig. 80.
One leaf shades the other
to the least possible de-
gree. If the plant were
placed in a new position
with reference to light,
the leaves would make
an effort to turn their
,., „ ., , , . ^, , , blades. Observe the

VJ. Mantle of clematis. The leaves, and later

the flowers, spread themselves to the light. shiugle -like arrangement

46

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

in Fig. 75. If the pupil were to examine tlie leaves on the
Norway maple, which is photographed in Fig. 75, he would
find that leaves Avhich are not on the outside lengthen
their leaf-stalks in order to get the light. See Fig. 144.
Norwa}^ maple is common on lawns and roadsides.

108. We have seen (84) that a large part of the
leaves of any one year are packed away in the buds of

the previous winter.
It is almost impossi-
ble that these leaves
should be packed
away hit or miss.
They are usnalhj ar-
ranged in a mathe-
matical order. We
can see this order
when the shoot has
grown. We can see
it by studying the
buds on recent shoots,
since there was a leaf
for each bud. The
leaves (or buds) may
be opposite each other
on the stem, or alter-
nate. Fig. 81.

109. When leaves
are ojyposite, the j^it's
nsuaUy alternate .
That is, if one pair stands north and south, the next
pair stands east and west. See the box -elder shoot, on
the left in Fig. 81. One pair does not shade the pair
beneath. The leaves are in four vertical ranks.

110. There are several kinds of alternate arrangement.
In the elm shoot in Fig. 81, the third bud is verti-

i

^

w&

^1

^

^Hg^

V ¥rm

ftlMiiW-^l

■5*^

^^1

Wim

11

1

if

^f^

■%'^j^

nBtl''

^

■ N

fcLfVi

■.%,^ti

fii

^

y-'j-if

^^m

|if^''H

n

74. A climbing fig choking a palm.

75. Looking at the top of a Norway maple.— As the bird sees it.

76. Looking up into the same tree. — As the squirrel se«8 it

48

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

cally above the first. This is true,
no matter which bud is selected as
the starting point. Draw a thread
around the stem until the two buds
are joined. Set a pin at each bud.
Observe that two buds are passed
(not counting the last) and that
the thread makes one circuit of
the stem. Representing the num-
ber of buds by a denominator,
and the number of circuits bj' a
numerator, we have the fraction
X, ivhich expresses the part of the
circle ivhich lies between any two
buds. That is, the buds are one-
half of 360 degrees apart, or ISO
degrees. Looking endwise at the
stem, the leaves are seen to be 2-
Note that in the apple
shoot (Fig. 81, right), the thread
makes two circuits and five buds are passed : two- fifths
represents the divergence between the buds. The leaves
are 5-ranked.

I. A miiiii I ' ' <' ^niit

the leiives hung four weeks
longer than on the north side, yovilT-p/I
because of more sunlight and idUJieu.
perhaps more food.

78. Rhubarb growTi in the dark. The leaf-blades do not develop.

PHYLLOTAXY

49

111. Every plant has its own arrangement of leaves.
For opposite leaves, see maple, box-elder, ash, lilac,
honeysuckle, mint, fuchsia. For 2-ranked arrangement,
see all grasses, Indian corn, basswood, elm. For 3 -ranked
arrangement, see all sedges. For 5-ranked (which is
one of the commonest), see apple, cherry, pear, peach,
pluir. poplar, wil-
low. For 8- ranked, ,^4^
see holly, osage
orange. More com-
plicated arrange-
ments occur in
bulbs, house leeks,
and other condensed
parts. The arrange-
ment of leaves on the
stem is Icnown as
phyllotaxy (literally
"leaf - arrange-
ment".) Make out
the phyllotaxy on
any plant.

112. In some
plants, several leaves
occur at one level,
being arranged in a
circle around the stem.
ticillate or whorled.
usually narrow.

113. Although a definite arrangement of leaves is the
rule in most plants, it is subject to modification. On
shoots which receive the light onl}^ from one side or which
grow in difficult positions, the arrangement may not be
definite. Examine shoots which grow on the under side
of dense tree -tops or in other partially lighted positions.

79. Rhubarb grown in the light.

Such leaves are said to be ver-
Leaves arranged in this way are

50

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

80. All the leaves are exposed
to light.

114. The directiou or "hang"
of the leaf is usually fixed, but
there are some leaves ivMcli change
their direciion between daylight
and darkness. Thus, leaves cf
clover (Fig. 82), bean, locust, aud
many related plants, "sleep" at
night; also oxalis. It is not a sleep
in the sense in which animals sleep,
however ; but its function is not
well understood.

115. Leaves usually expose one
particular surface to the light.
This is because their internal structure is such that light
is most efficient when it strikes this surface, as we shall

learn later on. Sohie
plants, however, expose both
surfaces to the light, and
their leaves stand vertical.
Others endeavor to avoid
the intense light of mid-
day and to turn in the
direction of least light.
Leaves standing edgewise
are said to exhibit polar-
ity. They are "compass
plants" if they point north
and south. The famous
compass plant or silphium
of the prairies and the
wild lettuce are examples
of plants having polar

81. Phyllotaxy of box-elder, elm, apple. IcaVCS. (Wild IcttUCG

[Lactuca Scariolaj is a common piant on roadsides; p. 356.)
Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of sunlight.

THE WINTER BUDS SHOW EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT 5]

Day and uight positions of
the clover leaf.

ally start first in spring.

116. WINTER BUDS SHOW WHAT HAS BEEN THE EFFECT
OF SUNLIGHT. — Buds are borne in the axils of the leaves
(86), and the size or vigor of the leaf determines to a large
extent the size of the bud.
Notice that, in most instances,
the largest buds are nearest the
tip (Fig. 83). If the largest
,ones are not near the tip, there
is some special reason for it.
Examine the shoots on trees
and bashes.

117. The largest huds usu-
and the branches which arise
from them have the advantage in the strnggle for exis-
tence. Plants tend to grow most vigoroushj from their
ends. Observe that only the terminal
bud grew in the hickory twig in Fig,
60. Every bud has a story to tell of
the value of sunlight.

Review. — What is the relation of the plant
to sunlight ? Does its form ever depend on its
relation to light? In what direction do the tops
of plants grow? Where are the most vigorous
branches? What is heliotropism? Why are
trees sometimes unsymmetrical? Do you know
any instances yourself ? What is one way in
which plants profit by the climbins' habit I Is
there struggle amongst brancnes ? Explain.
Where are leaves borne in reference to light?
Where are leaves usually largest ? Do they
develop in darkness ? Are leaves borne di
rectly above one another? How may leaves
be arranged? Explain what phyllotaxy is. Are
leaves always arranged definitely? Explain the
arrangement in some plant which is not mentioned in this lesson
What is the "sleep" of leaves? Which surface of the leaf is ex
posed ? What are compass plants ? How do buds show what the
effect of sunlight has been? What buds start first in spring?

83. The big termina.
buds.— Hickory.

CHAPTER IX
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONGST THE BRANCHES

118. NO TWO BRANCHES ARE ALIKE— Every tu'uj has a
history. It has to contend for air and sunlight, and a place
in which to grow. Its size and shape, therefore, depend on
the conditions under which it lives. Observe the long,
straight, big-leaved shoots on the top of the plant, and
the short, weak, crooked ones on the inside or under side.

119. There is struggle for existence for every ttviq and
every leaf. Those finding the best conditions live and

84. The struggle for life.— Mulberry shoot.

thrive ; those finding the poorest die. The weak are
overpowered and finally perish : this prunes the tree, and
tends to make the strong the stronger. Observe the
competition in the branch photographed in Fig. 84. Pick
out the dead twigs, the w^eak ones, the strong ones.

120. THE BUDS MAY NOT GROW.— There is not room in
a tree-top for all the buds to grow into branches. Some buds
(52)

THE BUDS MAY NOT GKOW

53

85. The branching is crooked
and irregular.

are suppressed. Branches
die. So it comes that
branches are not arranged
regularly, although the
buds may be. In the Tar-
tarian or "tree" honey-
suckle the buds are oppo-
site ; Fig. 85 shows how
the branches are.

121. The results of the
struggle for existence in the
tree -top can be expressed
in figures. Consider that
every bud is the germ or starting point of a branch. Ob-
serve at what distances apart
the buds are usually borne on
any plant, and estimate the
number of buds which the plant
has borne: count the number of
branches which the tree actually
bears. It will be found that the
number of buds is far in excess
of the number of branches : the
difference between the
numbers shows how
many buds or branches
have failed. Or, count
the buds on any
branch, and figure up
the possibilities. A
branch 12 inches long,
for instance, has 10
buds. If each bud
grows, at the end of

86. Scar* of tb« dormant buds.-WiUow, the Uext SeaSOU there

54 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

will be 10 branches, each of which may have 10 buds.
At the end of the second year there will be 100 branches ;
at the end of the third, 1,000. Can 1,000 branches be
borne on a 4-year-old branch 12 inches long ? Or, count
the old bud - scars on the branches — for the places of
the buds persist as wrinMes in the hark, often for many
years (Fig. 86). One can often locate these bud-scars
on old branches with his eyes closed by running his fingers
over the bark.

122. Buds which fail to grow are called dormant
buds. They are usually the weakest ones, — those ichich
grew in the most uncongenial conditions. They are to-
wards the base of the shoot. We have seen (117) that it
is the terminal or uppermost buds which are most likely
to grow. The dormant buds gradually die. They may
live four or five j-ears on some plants. If the other buds
or branches fail or are injured, they may grow, but usu-
ally they die.

123. Dormant buds must not be confounded with ad-
ventitious buds. We have learned (54) that adventitious
buds are those which are formed at unusual times or j^laces,
because of some disturbance of the part. If a large branch
is cut off, suckers or wjitersprouts are thrown out near the
wound : these arise from buds which are made for the occa-
sion. These buds did not exist there. In many countries
it is a custom to "pollard" or cut off the tops of trees
every few years for the firewood ; and strong adven-
titious shoots arise along the trunk. Fig. 87.

124. WHERE THE BRANCHES GROW.— Because new shoots
tend to arise from the top of the twigs, the branches of
most trees are in tiers or layers. These tiers often can
be traced in trees 50 and 100 ye.rs old. Try it in any
oak, maple, ash, or other tree. For practice, begin with
young, vigorous trees (Figs. 88 and 89).

125. When part of a top is removed, the remaining

87. A pollard tree

In this case, m;ui has added to the struggle for existence. An ash tree in Algeria,

The ohoots are cut for forage.

56

STKUGGLE AMONGST BKANCHES

branches fill the space. The branches are attracted by the
light and air, and grow in that direction. A pruned or

injured top always tends
io come hack to equi-
librium.

126. A mangled or
hroJien plant tends to
regain its former posi-
tion. From fallen trees,
upright shoots arise.
In Fig. 90 observe the
new trunk arising from
the center of the arch;
see that the main trunk
is smaller beyond that
point.

Tiers of
branches on
young tree.

89. Even in old trees
the tiers can be
traced.

Review.— What is meant
by the statement that every
twig has a history? Upon
what does the shape and size of a branch depend ? Explain what
you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all buds grow?
If buds are arranged in mathematical order, why are not branches?
How may the effect of struggle for existence be expressed in
figures? Select some branch and explain. Define dormant buds.
Adventitious buds. Why are branches in tiers, or borne at intervals?
How do plants tend to re-
gain their form and posi-
tion, when injured ?

Note. — Let the pupil
work out the history of
some branch. It is better
to select a branch which
is vigorous. He should
first determine, if the
shoot is dormant, how .
much grew the previous
season. The last year's
growth bears buda on the 90. The erect bole on the fallen tnmk.

95. October 18th.

58

STKUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

main axis, not on side branches ; and the "ring" (scars of bud-scales)
marks the junction between the different years' growth. Notice this
ring in Fig. 83. The teacher will find many twigs worked out in "Les-
sons with Plants." Figs. 91-95 show an actual case. These drawings
were all made with the greatest care from one elm twig. The twig
(Fig. 91) shows three years' growths. The side branch is evidently
only one year old, for it did not arise until the twig which bears it
was one year old. Note that only one of the buds made a branch.
There are five blossom buds. Fig. 92 shows the twig in bloom.
Fig. 93 shows it in fruit and leaf. Fig. 95 shows the net result. The
side branch grew from a to s and made two blossom buds. The tip
of the main shoot (Fig. 91) was broken in a storm. The two buds
next in succession grew. Each made flower buds. Observe how
many buds on this elm shoot have failed.

Crushed by storm, the tree still shoots upward.

CHAPTER X

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

127. Although the form of the branch, and to some
extent the entire plant, is determined by a struggle with
the conditions in which it grows, nevertheless each lind
of plant has its own peculiar habit of growth. The lum-

96. Diflferent forms of trees.

berman distinguishes the kinds of trees by their "looks,"
rather than by their leaves or flowers, as the botanist
does. The farmer usually does the same with his culti-
vated plants.

128. The habit of a plant is determined by its size,
general style or direction of growth, form
of head, and method of branching. The
general style or stature of plants has
been mentioned in Chapter III — they may
be erect, strict, creeping, decumbent, and
the like. The shape of the top or head
is well illustrated in trees. Note the
general effect of the mass, as seen at a
distance. The elm is vase-form or
round-headed (Fig. 96, which is cited
again to teach another lesson, p. 223). So

(59).

07. Round-headed and
fastlgiate trees,

60

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

are maple, beech, and apple trees. The Lombardy poplar
(Fig. 97) is columnar or fastigiate. Young spruces and

firs are conical. Heads

may be narrow, wide,
flat, symmetrical, irreg-
ular or broken.

129. The general leaf -
age or furnishing of the
top is different for each
kind. The top may be
dense or thin. The foli-
age may be heavy, light,
large, small. Coujpare
maples and elms, apples
and peaches, and other
trees.

130. The trunk or
bole of the tree is one
of its most conspicuous

98. The uubranched trunks of palms. features. ObsCrve the

strict straight trunk of the palm (Fig. 98), and the fork-
ing trunks of elms and maples. Observe that no two
trees have trunks which '- ^

are quite alike. The '

bark is different for each
kind of jilant.

131. Plants awaken
certain thoughts or feel-
ings: they are said to
have expression. This
expression is the source
of much of our pleasure
in them. Trees are
particularly expressive. One suggests restfulness, because
of its deep shady top ; another gaiety, from its moving.

The plaut form m Winter.— Russian ihisile.

EXPRESSIONS OF PLANTS

61

small, light -colored leaves ; another heaviness, from its
very large, dull foliage; another strength , from the massive
branches; another grace, from the flowing outline or flexile
growth. We think of the oak as strong, the willow as
lithe, the aspen as weak, and the like. Irregular or

*^^mM

inn. Tlie many trunks of an old olive tree. Italy.

gnarly trees suggest struggle. If all plants, or even all
trees, were alike, we shonld have little pleasure in them.

132. The exjJression of a plant depends to some extent
on the character of the shadows in the top. These
shadows (or lights and shades) are best seen by looking
at the plant when the sun is low and behind the observer.

62

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

Stand at some distance. Look at the dark places in the
old pasture maple: they are lumpy and irregular. In the
pasture beech they are in layers or strata. The shadows
depend mostly on the method of branching. Those who
take photographs know how the "high lights" and shadows
develop on the plate.

133. The habit of a plant is nsiially most apparent

-^^^

101. A pear tree of the Kieffer variety.

102. A pear tree of the Hardy variety.

■when it is leafless. The framework is then revealed.
Woody plants are as interesting in winter as in summer.
Observe their forms as outlined against the sky — every
one diiferent from every other. Notice the plant forms
as they stand in the snow. Fig. 99. How do stems of
the pigweed differ from those of burdock and grasses?
Observe how the different plants hold snow and ice.
134. The more unusual the shape of any tree or other

INTEREST IN PLANT FORMS

63

plant, the greater is our interest in it, because our curiosity
is awakened. Some unusual circumstance or condition has
produced the abnormal form. Such plants should be pre-
served whenever possible. Fig. 100.

Review. — What do you mean by the statement that each kind of
plant has its own habit (36)? How do plants differ in habit? Name
some of the forms of tree-tops. How may plants differ in the furnish-
ing of the top? Is the trunk charaeteristie? Bark? Bring in and
describe the bark of three kinds of trees. What is the expression of
a tree? What are some of the expressions? Explain what you under-
stand by the shadows in the top. On what do the shadows chiefly
depend? What is there to see in plants in winter? Why are we
interested in plants of unusual form? Tell how any two trees differ
in "looks."

Note.— One of the first things the pupil should learn about
plants is to see them as a whole. He should get the feeling of
mass. Then he should endeavor to determine why the mass is so
and so. Trees are best to begin on. No two trees are alike. How
do they differ? The pupil can observe as he comes and goes from
school. An orchard of different kinds of fruits shows strong con-
trasts. Even different varieties of the same fruit may be unlike in
habit. This is especially true in pears (Figs, 101, 102).

W *

A bouey locust tree.

CHAPTER XI

HOW THE PLANT TAKES IN THE SOIL WATER

135. PLANT-FOOD. — Having learned what a plant is and
having seen it as a whole, we may now inquire how it
secures food with which to live. We can discuss onl}^ the
outlines of the subject here : the pupil may consider the
question again when he takes up Part HI. The plant
obtains food materials from the soil. We know this to
be true, because the plant dies if removed from the soil.
In this discussion, we use the word food to designate amj
material which the plant talies in to incorporate ivith its
tissues or to aid in promoting its vital activities. The word
is sometimes used to denote only some of the products (as
starch) which the plant manufactures from the raw ma-
terials, but it is unfortunate to press a common-language
word into such technical use.

136. ROOT STRVCTTJRE.— Roots divide
into the thinnest and finest fibrils :
there are roots and there are rootlets.
The large, fleshy root of the radish
(Fig. 103) terminates in a common-sized
root to which little rootlets are at-
tached. Then there are little rootlets
attached to the fleshy root at various

>«^ places near the base. But the rootlets
x-which we see are only intermediary,
and there are numerous 3'et smaller
structures.

137. The rootlets, or fine divisions, are clothed with root-
hairs (29), ivhich are very delicate structures. Carefully

(64)

103. Root and rootlets.

ROOT STRUCTURE 65

germinate radish or other seed, so that no delicate

parts of the root will be injured. For this purpose, place

a few seeds in packing -moss or in the folds of cloth or

blotting paper, being careful to

keep them moist. In a few days

the seed has germinated, and the

root has grown an inch or two

long. Notice that, excepting at a

distance of about a quarter of

; an inch behind the tip, the root

is covered with minute hairs

, ' (Figs. 11, 104). They are actu-

t \ ally hairs, that is, root -hairs.

I Touch them and they collapse, they are

^ so delicate. Dip one of the plants in

I \ water, and when removed the hairs are

''\ not to be seen. The water mats them

1 together along the root and they are no

longer evident. Root-hairs usually are

* destroyed when a plant is pulled out of

t . — i^ the soil, be it done ever so carefully.

'..'...ii'm"'" ■^ilnwi',','-''t'i'ie They cling to the minute particles of
covering of root-hairs. ^qW Under a microscopc, observe how
they are flattened when they come in contact with grains
of sand (Chapter II). These root-hairs clothe the young
rootlets, and a great amount of soil is thus brought into
actual contact with the plant. Root-hairs are not young
roots : they soon die.

138. The rootlet and the root-hair differ. The rootlet
is a solid, connpact structure. The root -hair is a delicate
tube (Fig. 105), tvithin the cell- tv all of which is contained
living matter {protoplasm); the ivall and the lining mem-
brane permit water and substances in solution to pass
in. Being long and tube-like, these root-hairs are espe-
cially adapted for taking iu the largest quantity of solu-

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

tions ; and the}' are the principal means by which plant-
food is absorbed from the soil, although the surfaces of
the rootlets themselves do their part. Water-plants do
not need an abundant system of root-hairs, and such
plants depend largely on their rootlets.

139. OSMOSIS.— In order to understand how the water
enters the root -hair, it is necessary that we study the
physical process known as os-
mosis. A salt solution sepa-
rated by a memhrane from
ivater absorbs some of the water
and increases its own volume.
First dissolve one ounce of
saltpeter, which we may use as
a fertilizer solution, in one
pint of water, calling this so-
lution No. I. For use in ex-
periments later on, also dis-
solve a piece of saltpeter not
105. Cross section of root, enlarged, larger tliau a peach pit (about

showing root-liairs. . i \ • i j

one -seventh ounce) in about
one gallon of water, calling this solution No. II. Now fill
the tube, C in Fig. 106, almost full of the strong solution
I, and tie a piece of animal membrane (hog's bladder is
excellent for this purpose) over the large mouth. A small
funnel, with a long stem, may be used if one cannot obtain
a tube like C. Then sink the tube, bladder -part down-
wards, into a large bottle, A, of water until the level of
liquid in the tube stands at the same height as that in the
bottle. The tube may be readily secured in this position
by passing it through a hole in the cork of the bottle.
In a short time, we notice that the liquid in N begins to
rise, and in an hour or so it stands as at F, say. This
is an important result. The liquids diffuse. The salt
solution diffuses more slowly than the water. If water

OSMOSIS

67

were on both sides of the membrane, it would diffuse
equally both wuys and there would be no rise of liquid.
The presence of salt in N diminishes the amount of fluid
passing out, and more water comes in than water and
salt go out; hence there is pressure in the tube.

140. The cell-sap of the root -hair absorbs wafer from the
soil by osmotic action. The above experiment enables
us to understand how the countless
little root-hairs act, — each one like
the tube N, if only the whole surface
of the tube were a bladder membrane,
or something acting similarly. The
soil water does not contain much of
the land's fertility* : that is, it is a
very weak solution. The active little
root- hair, on the other hand, is always
tilled with cell -sap, a more concen-
trated solution : hence soil water must
come in, and along with it come also
small quantities of dissolved food h
materials. Some of these materials
may be fertilizers which have been
applied to the land.

141. The plant absorbs these solu-
tions as long as they are used for
the growth of the plant. The salts
which are dissolved in the soil water ^^^- t° illustrate osmosis
diffuse themselves through the tiny membrane of the
root-hairs, each ingredient tending independently to be-
come as abundant inside the root-hair as outside in the
soil water. Once inside the root-hair, these absorbed
solutions pass on to root and stem and leaf, to be
utilized in growth. As long as they are used, how-
ever, more must come into the root -hairs, in order to
restore the equilibriuni. Thus those snhsiance.s which are

A-

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

needed must come in as long as the land can furnish them
m soluble form. Absorption was illustrated before by an
artificial arrangement because the root -hairs are so small
that they cannot be seen readily. But all parts of the
root can absorb some water.

142. Fleshy pieces of root or stem will absorb water
from iveak solutions and become rigid; in strong solutions
such fleshy parts ivill give up their water and become flexi
ble. To experiment further with this principle of absorp-
tion, cut several slices of potato tuber about one-eighth of
an inch in thickness, and let them lie in the air half an
hour. Place a few of these slices in some of the strong
fertilizer solution I. Place similar pieces in the weak
solution II. In half an hour or more, those pieces in the
weak solution will be very rigid or stiff (turgid). They
will not bend readily when held lengthwise between the
Compare these slices with those in the strong
where they are very flexible (flaccid). This
is evidently due to the fact that those in the
strong brine have actually lost some of their water. So
the potato tuber could take in soil water con-
taining a small amount of food ; but if the
water contained much food material the potato
would actually lose some of the water which
it held.

143. These experiments not only demonstrate
how the roots absorb water containing plant-
food, but they emphasize the fact that the out-
side solution must be very dilute in order that
water may be absorbed at all. The root-hairs ab-
sorb water which has dissolved only a small amount
of plant -food from the richness of the soil, and
not from such rich solutions as the sap of the plant itself.

]44. The plant may be wilted, and even killed by at-
tempting to feed it food solutions which are too strong.

fingers.

solution,

bending

107. Killed by
too strong
food solu-
tion.

ROOT-PRESSUKE

The plant
thrives in a
weak solution.

To test this matter, secure a young radish plant (or almost
any seedling with several leaves) and insert the roots into
a small bottle containing some of the saltpeter solution I,
In another bottle place a similar plant with
some of the weak solution II. Support the
plant in the mouth of the bottle with cotton
batting. After standing for a few hours or
less it will be noticed that the leaves of the
plant in the strong solution begin to w41t, as
in Fig, 107. The plant in the weak solu-
tion, Fig. 108, is rigid and normal. This
further indicates that the growing plant is
so constituted as to be able to make use of
very dilute solutions only. If we attempted
to feed it strong fertilizer solutions, these
strong solutions, instead of being absorbed
by the plant, take water from the latter.
causing the plant to tvilt.

145, The farmer or gardener knows that he can injure
or even kill his plants by adding too much plant-food.
Everyone recognizes the value of wood ashes as a ferti-
lizer ; but no one would dare water his valuable plants
with lye, or sow his choice vegetable seeds on an ash
bank, however well it might be watered. If there is a
potted plant at hand which is of no value, remove some
of the soil, add considerable wood ashes, water well,
and await the result ; or give it a large lump of nitrate
of soda.

146. ROOT-PRESSURE.— TAe activity of the root in absorb-
ing water gives rise to considerable force. This force is
known as root-pressure. The cause of this pressure
is not well understood. The pressure varies in different
plants and in the same plant at different times. To
illustrate root -pressure, cut off a strong -growing small
plant near the ground. By means of a bit of rubber tube,

70

FOOD FROM THE SOIL

attach a glass tube with a bore of approximately the diam-
eter of the stem. Pour in a little water. Observe the rise
of the water due to the pressure from below (Fig. 109).
• - Some plants will force the column of water
several feet. The water ascends chiefly in
ihe young wood, not between the bark and
41 wood, as commonly supposed. To illustrate
the path of water-ascent, insert a growing
shoot in water which is colored with eosin :
note the path which the color takes. (Eosin
dye may be had of dealers in microscope
supplies. Common aniline may answer very
well.)

147. HOW THE SOIL HOLDS MOISTURE.— The
water which is valuable to the plant is not the
free water, but the thin film of moisture
ivMcli adheres to each little particle of soil.
The finer the soil, the greater the number
of particles, and therefore the greater is the
quantity of film moisture which it can hold.
This moisture surrounding the grains may
not be perceptible, yet the plant can
use it. Root absorption may continue in
a soil which seems to he dust dry.
f^L, ^^^- ^^^ ROOTS NEED AIR. — Corn

on land which has been flooded by heavy
rains loses its green color and turns
yellow. Besides diluting plant -food, the
water drives the air from the soil, and
this suffocation of the roots is very soon
109. apparent in the general ill health of the

To show root-pressure, ^j^^^ Stirring or tilling the soil aerates
it. Water-plants and bog-plants have adapted themselves
to their particular conditions. They either get their air
by special surface roots, or from the water.

PROPER TEMPERATURE ROOTS EXCRETE

71

149. PROPER TEMPERATURE. — T/?e root must l)f warm
in order to perform its functions. Should the soil of fields
or greenhouses be much colder than the air, the plant
suffers. When in a warm atmosphere, or in a dry atmos-
phere, plants need to absorb much water from the soil,
and the roots must be warm if the root -hairs are to
supply the water as rapidly as it is needed. If the roots
are chilled, the plant may wilt or die. Try this with two
potted plants, as radish, coleus, tomato, etc. Put one pot
in a dish of ice water, and the other in a dish of warm
water, and keep them in a warm room.
In a short time notice how stiff and
vigorous is the one whose roots are
warm, whereas the other may show
signs of wilting.

150. ROOTS EXCRETE. — The plant
not only absorbs what is already solu
ble, but it is capable of rendering
soluble small quantities of the insoluble
substances present in the soil, and ivhich
may be needed for plant-food. The
plant accomplishes this result by
means of substances excreted by the
roots. These substances may even etch
marble. On a polished marble block,
place a half-inch of sawdust or soil,
in which plant seeds. After the plants
have attained a few leaves, turn the
mass of sawdust over and observe the
prints of the roots on the marble.
These prints will be very faint. An
illustration of this experiment is given on page 73. Care-
fully pull up a young seedling which is growing in soft
soil, and notice how tenaciously the soil particles are held
to the root (Fig. 110).

110. The rootlets auil root-
hairs cling to the particles
of soil.

72 FOOD FROM THE SOIL

151. THE FOOD MATERIALS.— We have seen that all
food materials must he in solution in water in order to be
taken in hij the roots. Different kinds of plants require
different kinds and proportions of the food materials, but
ordinary green plants are supposed to require at least
eleven of the elementary substances in order to live.
These are :

Carbon, C. Potassium, K.

Oxygen, O. Calcium, Ca.

Nitrogen, N. Magnesium, Mg.

Hydrogen, H. Phosphorus, P.

Sulfur, S.
Iron, Fe.

Chlorine, CI. (in some
plants) .
All these elements must be in combinations, not in their
elemental form, in order to be absorbed by roots.

152. Usually all of these except carbon and oxygen are
taken in only through the roots. Some of the oxygen is
taken in by the roots in the form of water (which is H2O),
and in other compounds. Some carbon is probably taken
in by the roots in the form of carbonates, btit it is doubt-
ful whether this source of carbon is important to the plant.
Water is not only a carrier of plant-food: it is itself a
plant-food, for some of it is used in the building up of
organic materials. The seven elements in the right-hand
column are called the mineral elements: they remain in
the ash, when the plant is burned. The mineral elements
come from the soil.

153. The ash is a small part of the total weight of
the plant. In a corn plant of the roasting -ear stage, the
ash (what remains after ordinary burning) is about 1 per
cent of the total substance.

154. Water is the most abundant single constituent
or substance of plants. In the corn plant of the roasting-

WATER IN THE PLANT 73

ear stage, about 80 per cent of the substance is water.
A fresh turnip is over 90 per cent water. Fresh wood of
the apple contains about 45 per cent of water. The plant
secures its water from the soil.

Review.— What is pi ant- food ? Where does some of it come
from? Describe the feeding root. Describe root-hairs. What is
their function? How does the root-hair differ from the rootlet ?
What is osmosis? Describe the experiment. How does the soil water
get into the root-hair? For how long does this absorption continue?
Under what conditions may the root-hair lose its sap? In what condi-
tion must the soil water be in order to be absorbed ? What may result
if the food solutions are too strong? Has this fact any interest to the
plant-grower? What is root-pressure? How is the water held in the
soil when it is most valuable to the plant? How are plants able to
live in dry soil? Why do roots need air? How do they get it? Describe
what effect a cold soil has on roots. How do roots secure the plant-
food in the soil particles? What elements are necessary to plants?
In what forms must these elements be in order to be absorbed by the
roots? About what percentage of the whole substance is ash ? What
is the most abundant constituent in plants? Whence does it come?

Note. — Examine soil under a lens, to see the odd and miscel-
laneous particles of which it is composed.

Not all kinds of plants exhibit strong root -pressure. The grape
vine is a good subject to show it. If pot plants are used, choose a
well-rooted one with a straight stem. Coleus, begonia and Impatiens
Sultani are good subjects. These can be had at greenhouses.

Koot eicretions may etch a marble svirfaca.

CHAPTER XII
THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

155. SOURCES OF FOOD.— The ordinary green plant has
but two sources from tvhich to obtain food, — the air and the
soil. When a plant is thoroughly dried in an oven, the
water passes off: this water came from, the soil (154).
The remaining part is called the dry substance or dry-
matter. If the dry matter is burned in an ordinary fire,
only the ash remains: this ash came from the soil (152).
The part which passed off as gas in the burning contained
the elements which came from the air: it also contained
some of those which came from the soil — all those (as
nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine) which are transformed into
gases by the heat of a common fire.

156. CARBON. — Carbon enters abundantly into the com-
position of all plants. Note what happens when a plant
is burned without free access of air, or smothered, as in a
charcoal pit. A mass of charcoal remains, almost as large
as the body of the plant. Charcoal is almost pure carbon,
the ash present being so small in proportion to the large
amount of carbon that we look on the ash as an im-
purity. Half or more of the dry substance of a tree
is carbon. When the tree is charred (or incompletely
burned), the carbon remains in the form of charcoal. The
carbon goes off as a gas when the plant is burned in air.
It does not go off alone, but in combination with oxygen,
and in the form called carbon cUoxid gas, COj.

157. The green plant secures its carbon from the air.
In other words, much of the solid matter of the plant
comes from one of the gases. By volume carbon fliorid

(74)

CHLOROPHYLL 75

forms only about three -hundredths of 1 j)er cent of the air.
It would be very disastrous to animal life, however, if this
percentage were much increased, for it excludes the life-
giving oxygen. Carbon dioxid is often called "foul -gas."
It may accumulate in old wells, and an experienced person
will not descend into such wells until they have been tested
with a torch. If the air in the well will not support com-
bustion, that is, if the torch is extinguished, it usually
means that carbon dioxid has drained into the place. The
air of a closed school -room often contains far too much
of this gas along with little solid particles of waste matters.
Carbon dioxid is often known as carbonic acid gas.

158. APPROPRIATION OF THE CARBOff.— The carbon di-
oxid of the air readily diffuses into the leaves and other
green parts of the plant. The leaf is delicate in texture,
and often the air can enter directly into the leaf tissues.
There are, however, special inlets provided for the admis-
sion of gases into the leaves and other green parts. These
inlets consist of numerous pores (stomates or stomata),
ivhich are esj^ecially abundant on the under surface of
the leaf. The apple leaf contains about one hundred
thousand of these pores to each square inch of the under
surface. Through these breathing pores the outside air
enters into the air-spaces of the plant, and finally into the
little cells containing the living matter. In Part III these
breathing pores will be studied.

159. CHLOROPHYLL.— TAe green color of leaves is due to
a substance called chlorophyll. Purchase at the drug store
about a gill of wood alcohol. Secure a leaf of geranium,
clover, or other plant which has been exposed to sun-
light for a few hours and, after dipping it for a minute
in boiling water, put it in a white cup with sufficient
alcohol to cover the leaf. Place the cup on the stove
where it is not hot enough for the alcohol to take fiie.
After ft time the chlorophyll is dissolved by the alcohol,

76 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

which has become an intense green. Save this leaf for
a future experiment. Without chlorophyll, the jAant can
not appropriate the carbon dioxid of the air.

160. In most plants this chlorophyll or leaf -green
is scattered throughout the green tissues in little oval
bodies, and these bodies are most abundant near the upper
surface of the leaf, where they can secure the greatest amount
of light. Without this green coloring matter, there would
be no reason for the large flat surfaces which the leaves
possess, and no reason for the fact that the leaves are
borne most abundantly at the ends of branches, where the
light is most available. Plants with colored leaves, as
coleus, have chlorophyll, but it is masked by other color-
ing matter. This other coloring matter is usually soluble
in hot water: boil a coleus leaf and notice that it becomes
green and the water becomes colored.

161. Plants groivn in darkness are yellow and slender,
and do not reach inaturity. Compare the potato sprouts
which have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar
with those which have grown normally in the bright light
(Fig. 42). The shoots have reached out for that which
they cannot find ; and when the food which is stored in
the tuber is exhausted, these shoots will have lived useless
lives. A plant which has been grown in darkness from the
seed will soon die, although for a time the little seedling
will grow very tall and slender. Light favors the produc-
tion of chlorophyll . Sometimes chlorophyll is found in
buds and seeds, but it is probable that these places are not
perfectly dark. Notice how potato tubers develop chloro-
phyll, or become green, when exposed to light.

162. PHOTOSYNTHESIS.— Carbon dioxid is absorbed by
the leaf during sunlight, and oxygen is given off. We
have seen (157) that carbon dioxid will not support animal
life. Experiments have shown that carbon dioxid is ab-
sorbed and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaces

STARCH

77

of -plants during the hours of sunlight. How the car-
bon dioxid which is thus absorbed may be used as food
is a complex question, and need not be studied here.

163. Chlorophyll absorbs the energy oj t/ie sun's rays, and
the energy thus obtained is used by the living matter in unit-
ing the carbon dioxid absorbed from the air with some of the
ivater brought up by the roots. The process by ivhich these
compounds are united is a complex one, but the ultimate result
usually is starch. No one knows all the details of this
process ; and our first definite

knowledge of the product be-
gins when starch is deposited
in the leaves. The process of
using the carbon dioxid of
the air has been known as
carbon -assimilation, but the
term now most used is photo-
synthesis (from Greek words,
meaning light and to put to-
gether) .

164. STARCH.— All starch
is composed of carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen (C6H10O5).
The sugars and the woody
substances are very similar to
it in composition. All these
substances are called carbo-
hydrates. In making this
starch from the carbon and
oxygen of carbon dioxid and
from the hydrogen and oxygen
of the water, there is a sur-
plus of oxygen. It is this oxygen which is given off into
the air. To test the giving off of oxygen by day, make the
experiment illustrated in Fig. Ill, Under a funnel in a

To show the escape of
oxygen.

78 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

deep gluNS jar containing tVesli spring or stream water-
place fresh pieces of the common water -weed elodea (or
anacharis). Invert a test tube over the stem of the fun-
nel. In sunlight bu})bles of oxygen will arise and collect
in the test tube. When a sufficient quantity of oxygen
has collected, a lighted taper inserted in the tube will elow

^ with a brighter flame, showing

^1''' , ^i'.ljlK^ , , the presence of oxygen. A sim-

^B^E^StBjii^' pier but less accurate experiment

c:^^^^^^^^ is ^^ immerse an active leaf of a

-^H^hH^^ ^^'^ter plant, and to observe the

|BB^^- .. bubbles which arise. From a

^^HjP^"' JHmm§- leaf in sunlight the bubbles often

^^Kf ^^K" arise in great numbers; but from

^^^^^^^^^^^^' one in shadow, the bubbles usu-

"~^ - ^" ^ ' ally are comparatively few. Fig.

U2. To show that a leaf may 112. Somc of the bubblcs may

give off oxygea. |,g ^j^jy ^^^ ^ particularly if

marked changes in temperature occur. Observe the bub-
bles on pond scum and water weeds on a bright day.

165. Starch is present in the green lecwes of plants which
have been exposed to sunlight; tut in the dark no starch can
be formed from carbon dioxid. Apply iodine to the leaf
from which the chlorophyll was dissolved in a previous
experiment (159). Note that the leaf is colored purplish
brown throughout. The leaf contains starch (75). Se-
cure a leaf from a plant which has been in the darkness
for about two days. Dissolve the chlorophyll as before,
and attempt to stain this leaf with iodine. No purplish
brown color is produced.

166. The starch manufactured in the leaf may he entirely
removed during darkness. Secure a plant which has been
kept in darkness for twenty -four hours or more. Split
a small cork and pin the two halves on opposite sides of
one of the leaves, as shown in Fig. 113. Place the plant

DIGESTION

79

113. Excluding light
from part of a leaf.

114. The result.

in the sunlight again. After a niorning of bright sun-
shine dissolve the chlorophyll in this leaf with alcohol;
then stain the leaf with the iodine. Notice that the leaf
is stained deeply in all
parts except in that part
over which the cork was
placed, as in Fig. 114.
There is no starch in the
covered area.

167. Plants or parts
of plants which have de-
veloped no chlorophyll can
form no starch. Secure
a variegated leaf of co-
leu s, ribbon grass, gera-
nium, or of any plant showing both white and green areas.
On a day of bright sunshine test one of these leaves
by the alcohol and iodine method for the presence of
starch. Observe that the parts devoid of green color
have formed no starch. However, after starch has once
been formed in the leaves, it may be changed into solu-
ble substances and removed to be again converted into
starch in other parts of the living tissues.

168. DIGESTION. — Starch is in the form of insoluble gran-
ules. Whenever the material is carried from one part of the
plant to another for purposes of groivth or storage, it is
made soluble before it can be transported. When this
starchy material is transferred from place to place, it is
usually changed into sugar by the action of a ferment.
This is a process of digestion. It is much like the change
of starchy foods to sugary foods by the saliva.

169 . DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIGESTED FOOD.— After being
changed to the soluble form, this material is ready to be
used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, or in the
roots. With other luore complex products it is then r^'--

80 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

tributed throughout all of the growing parts of the plant ;
and when passing down to the root it seems to pass more
readily through the inner bark, in plants which have a defi-
nite bark. This gradual downward diffusion of materials
suitable for growth through the inner bark is the process
referred to when the "descent of sap" is mentioned. Starch
and other products are often stored in one growing season
to be used in the next season (Chapter VI). If a tree is
constricted or strangled by a wire around its trunk, the
digested food cannot readily pass down and it is stored
above the girdle, causing an enlargement.

170. ASSIMILATION.— T/ie food from the air and that
from the soil unite in the living tissues (see photosyn-
thesis, 162, 163). The sap that passes upwards from the
roots in the growing season is made up largely of the soil-
water and the salts which have been absorbed in the diluted
solutions. This upward-moving water is conducted largely
through certain tubular cells of the yoiDuj wood. These cells
are never continuous tubes from root to leaf; but the water
passes readily from one cell to another in its upward course.

171. The upward-moving water gradually- passes to tlie
growing parts, and everywhere in the living tissues, par-
ticularly in the leaves, it meets the products of assimilation
from the leafy parts. Under the influence of the living
matter of the plant, this product from the leaves first
forms combinations with the nitrogen. A substance more
complex than sugar is then formed, and gradually com-
pounds are formed tvhich contain sulfur, j^^iosphorus, jwtas-
sium, and other elements, until finally protoplasm is manu-
factured. Protoplasm is the living matter in plants. It is
in the cells, and is usually semi-fluid. Starch is not living
matter. The complex process of building up the proto-
plasm is called assimilation.

172. RESPIRATION. — Plants need oxygen for respira-
tion just as animals do. We have seen that plants need the

RESPIKATION

81

carbon dioxid of the air. To most plants the nitrogen of
the air is inert, and serves only to dilute the other ele-
ments; but the oxygen is necessary for all life. We know
that all animals need this oxygen in order to breathe or
respire. In fact, they have become accustomed to it in
just the proportions found in the air; and this is now best
for them. When animals breathe the air once they make
it foul, because they use some of the oxygen and give off
carbon dioxid. Likewise, all living parts of the plant
must have a constant supply of oxygen. Roots also need
it (148).

173. The oxygen passes into the air-spaces and into the
protoplasm, entering into combinations the final products of
which are carbon dioxid and water. The air-spaces may be
equal in bulk to the tissues (Fig. 115) . As a result of the use
of this oxygen alone at night, plants give off carbon dioxid
as animals do. Plants respire; but since they are station-
ary, and more or less

inactive, they do not
need as much oxygen
as animals, and they
do not give off so much
carbon dioxid. Dur-
ing the day plants
use so much more
carbon dioxid than

OXVffen that thev are ^^^' ^^^'''°" "^ ^ l^at, showing llie air-spaces. Breatli-
' _ ° , "^ ing pore or stoma at a. The palisade cells -which

said to purify the air. chiefly contain the chlorophyll are at 6. Epider-

The carbon dioxid ^^i «eUs at c.

which plants give off at night is very slight in compari-
son with that given off by animals; so that a few plants
in a sleeping room need not disturb one more than a family
of mice. Plants usually grow most rapidly in darkness.

174. TRANSPIRATION.— We have found that the plant
takes its food from the soil in very dilute solutions.

82 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

Much more water is absorbed by the roots than is used ia
growth, and this surplus icater is given off from the leaves
into the atmosphere by an evaporation process known as
transpiration. The transpiration takes place more abun-
dantly from the under surfaces of leaves, and througrh the
pores or stomates. It has been found that a sunflower
plant of the height of a man. during an active period of

^^^^^1^^^

!H

■^H

^^^^K^^r

i^^^^^^B

^^r '^ '

\^H

y ^^^1

^^kfen^^^^a

ijl^^^^^H

{p;»»<!lf|' ^^1

^^^^^^^HUHnMll|H||l|| p ,

lyll^l

116. To illustrate transpiration.

growth, gives off more than a quart of water per day. A
large oak tree may transpire 150 gallons per day during the
summer. For every ounce of dry matter produced, it is
estimated that from fifteen to twenty -five pounds of water
must pass through the plant. Cut off a succulent shoot of
any plant, stick the end of it through a hole in a cork and
stand it in a small bottle of water. Invert over this bottle
a large-mouthed bottle (as a fruit-jar), and notice that a

TRANSPIRATION

83

mist soon accumulates on the inside of the glass. In time
drops of water form. The experiment may be varied as
shown in Fig. 116. Or invert the fruit-jar over an entire
plant, as shown in Fig. 117, taking
care to cover the soil with oiled
paper or rubber cloth to prevent
evaporation from the soil. Even
in winter moisture is given off by
leafless twigs. Cut a twig, seal the
severed end with wax, and allow
the twig to lie several days: it
shrivels. There must he some up-
ward movement of water even in
winter, else plants would shrivel
and die.

175. When the roots fail to sup-
ply to the plant sufficient water to
equalize that transpired by the
leaves, the plant wilts. Transpiration from the leaves and
delicate shoots is increased by all of the conditions which
would increase evaporation, such as higher temperature, dry
air or wind. The breathing pores are so constructed that
they open and close with the varying conditions of the
atmosphere, and thereby regulate transpiration. However,
during periods of drought or of very hot weather, and
especially during a hot wind, the closing of these stomates
cannot sufficiently prevent evaporation. The roots may be
very active and yet fail to absorb sufficient moisture to
equalize that given off by the leaves. The plant wilts.
Any injury to the roots or even chilling them (149) may
cause the plant to wilt. On a hot, dry day note how the
leaves of corn "roll" towards afternoon. Early the fol-
lowing morning note how fresh and vigorous the same
leaves appear. Water is also forced up by root-pressure
(146). Some of the dew on the grass in the morning

To illustrate transpiratioji.

84 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

may be the water forced up by the roots; some of it is
the condensed vapor of the air.

176. The uHlting of a plant is due to the loss of water
from the cells. The cell walls are soft, and collapse.
A toy balloon will not stand alone until it is inflated
with air or liquid. In the woody parts of the plant the
cell walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even
though the cell is empty. Measure the contraction due to
wilting and drying by tracing a fresh leaf, and then trac-
ing the same leaf after it has been dried between papers.
The softer the leaf, the greater will be the contraction.

Eeview. — Whence comes the food of plants? What is meant by
the dry substance? What is charcoal? How is it obtained? How
much of the dry substance is carbon? What becomes of it when
the plant is burned in air? Whence conies the carbon? What is
carbon dioxid? How abundant is it in the air? How does the CO2
get into the leaf? What is chlorophyll? What function has it?
Where are the chlorophyll bodies located? What relation has light
to chlorophyll? When is CO2 absorbed? What is formed after CO2
is taken in? Define photosynthesis. What is starch? What is
given off when starch is made by photosynthesis? In what part of
the plant is starch first made? When? What are carbohydrates ?
What is digestion of starch? How is the digested food distributed?
Explain assimilation. What is the product of assimilation? Explain
respiration. When are O and CO2 given off? Define transpiration.
Why do plants wilt?

All egg-sheil farm for the pupil's desK.

CHAPTER XIII

DEPENDENT PLANTS

177. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT PLANTS.— Plants
with roots and foliage usually depend on themselves. They
collect the raw materials and make them over into assimil-
able food. They are independent. Plants without green
foliage cannot make food: they must have it made for them
or they die. They are dependent.
The potato sprout (Fig. 42) cannot
collect and elaborate carbon dioxid.
It lives on the food stored in the
tuber.

178. All plants with natumlhj
white or blanched parts are dependent.
Their leaves do not develop. They
live on organic matter — that which
has been made by a plant or an ani-
mal. The Indian pipe, aphyllon
(Fig. 118), beech drop, coral root
(Fig. 119) among flower -producing
plants, also mushrooms and other
fungi (Figs. 120, 121) are examples.

179. PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES
— A plant which is dependent on a
living plant or animal is a parasite,
and the plant or animal on which it
lives is the host. The dodder is a
true parasite. So are the rusts and
mildews which attack leaves and
shoots and injure them.

(85)

118. A parasite, growing in
woods.— Aphyllon. It ii
in bloom.

86

DEPENDENT PLANTS

0. A mushroom, exam-
ple of a saprophytic
plant.

180. The threads of the parasitic fungus usually creep
through the intercellular spaces in the leaf or stem and
send suckers (or haustoria) into the cells
(Fig. 122). These threads (or hyphse)
clog the breathing spaces of
the leaf and often plug the
stomata, and they also appro-
priate and disorganize the
cell fluids : thus they injure
or kill their host. The mass
of hyphae of a fungus is called
mycelium. Some of the
hypha? finally grow out of
the leaf and produce spores or reproductive cells
which answer the purpose of seeds in distribu-
ting the plant (b, Fig. 122).

181. A plant which lives on dead or decaying
matter is a saprophyte. Mushrooms are ex-
amples: they live on the decaying matter in
the soil. Mould on bread and cheese is an
example. Lay a piece of moist bread on a plate
and invert a tumbler over it. In a few days it
will be mouldy. The spores were in the air, or
perhaps they had already fallen on the bread
but had not had opportunity to grow. Most
plants are able to make use of the humus or
vegetable mould in the soil, and to that extent
might be called saprophytic.

182. Some parasites spring from
the ground (Figs. 118, 119), as
other plants do, but they are para-
sitic on the roots of their hosts.
Some parasites may be partially
parasitic and partially saprophytic.

119. CoraUorhiza or coral-root, \' '^ \ - T

showing the mycorrhiias. Many (pcrhaps most) of these root-

PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES

87

saprophytes are aided iu securing their food by soil fungi,
which spread their delicate threads over the root -like
branches of the plant and act as intermediaries be-
tween the food and the saprophyte. The roots of the
coral -root (Fig. 119) are covered with this fungus, and
the roots have practically lost the power of absorbing
food direct. These fungous-covered roots are known as
mycorrhizas (meaning ''fungus root")- Mycorrhizas are
not peculiar to saprophytes. They are found on many
wholly independent plants as, for example, the heaths,
oaks, apples, and pines. It is probable that the fungous
threads perform some of the offices of root -hairs to the
host. On the other hand, the fungus obtains some nour-
ishment from the host. The association seems to be
mutual.

183. Saprophytes break down or decompose organic
substances. Chief of these saprophytes are the microscopic
organisms known as
bacteria (Fig. 123).
These innumerable
bodies are immersed in
water or iu animal and
plant juices, and absorb
food over* their entire
surface. By breaking
down organic combina-
tions, they jJroduce decay.
Largely through their
agency, and that of
many true but micro-
scopic fungi, all things pass into soil and gas. Thus are
the bodies of plants and animals removed and the con-
tinuing round of life is maintained.

184. Some parasites are green- leaved. Such is the
mistletoe. They anchor themselves on the host and

121. Saprophytic fungus. One of tlie shelf fungi
(Polyporus) growing on dead trunks and logs.

88

DEPENDENT PLANTS

absorb its juices, but they also appropriate and use the
carbon dioxid of the air. In some groups of colored
bacteria the process of photosynthesis,
or something equivalent to it, takes
place.

185. Parasitism and saprophytism
are usually regarded as degeneration,
that is, as a loss of independence.
The ancestors of these plants might
have been independent. Thus, the
whole class of fungi is looked upon as
a degenerate evolution. The more a
plant depends on other plants, the
more it tends still further to lose its
,„„ . .^. „ independence.

122. A parasitic fungus,

magnifled. The my- ^gG. EPIPHYTES. — To be distiu -

celium, or vegetative

dotted^- shaded ^parts g^^ishcd from the dependent plants are
ramifying in the leaf thosc which grow ou othcr plants with-

tissue. The rounded = ^

haustoria projecting q^^ taking food from them. These are

into the cells, are also "

fi^ti^"' arts*'of^'thf green -leaved plants whose roots burrow

MdCT%^ffel^*o? the ^^ *^® hdiV^ of the host plant and per-

leaf- haps derive some food from it, but which

subsist chiefly on materials which they secure from air-

dust, rain-water and the air. These plants are epiphytes

(meaning "upon plants") or air-plants.

187. Epiphytes abound in the tropics. Orchids are
amongst the best known examples (Fig. & ^^

13). The Spanish moss or tillandsia of the ^ ^©o<i
South is another. Mosses and lichens &^^ oT
which grow on trees and fences may also be
called epiphytes. In the struggle for exis- 123. Bacteria, much
tence, the plants probably have been driven magnified.
to these special places in which to find opportunity to
grow. Plants grow where they must, not where they
will.

'^^

REVIEW ON DEPENDENT PLANTS 89

Review. — What is an independent plant? Dependent? Give
examples. How are dependent plants distinguished from others in
looks? Define parasite. Saprophyte. Give examples. What is a
host? How does a parasitic fungus live on its host? What are
hyphse? What is mycelium? What are root-parasites? Give
examples. What is a mycorrhiza? What is the relation of the soil
fungus to its host? What is the role or office of saprophytes in
nature? Are parasites ever green ? Explain. What has probably
been the evolution of most parasites and saprophytes? What is an
epiphyte? Give examples. How do they live? Why may they
have become epiphytes?

Note — Usually, the most available parasite is the dodder. It
is common in swales from July until autumn, winding its coral-
yellow stems about herbs and soft-growing bushes. It is a degraded
member of the morning-glory family. It produces true flowers and
seeds. These seeds germinate the following spring. The slender
young vine grows from the ground for a time, but if it fails to find a
host, it perishes.

The cultivated mushroom, a saprophytic plant.

CHAPTER XIV

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

188. Leaves may be studied from two points of view
— with reference to their function, or what they do ;
and with reference to their form, or their shapes and
kinds.

189. FUNCTION. — Leaves, as we have seen, make or-
ganic matters from carbon dioxid and water; they respire,
throwing off carbon dioxid as waste; they digest the
starch, that it may be transported; and they perform
other vital activities. Functions which require both lungs
and stomach in animals (respiration and digestion) are
performed by leaves; and in addition to these functions,
they appropriate the carbon of the air (process of photo-
synthesis), a work which is peculiar to plants. Any part
of the plant, however, may bear chlorophyll and perform

the functions of leaves. Even aerial
roots, as of orchids, are sometimes green.
190, The general form and structure
of leaves is intimately associated with
their function : they are thin and much-
expanded bodies, thereby exposing the
greatest possible surface to light and
air. The position of the leaves usually
has relation to light, as we have seen
(Chapter VIII). Leaves usually hang
in such a way that one casts the least
shade on the other ; those die and

124. Simple leaf. One f^n which havc the Icast favorable po-
of the eupatoriums . .
or boneseU. SltlOnS.

(90)

FORM OF LEAVES

91

125. Compound or branched leaf of brake
(which is a fern).

191. FORM. — Leaves are simple or unbraiiched (Fig.
124), aud compound or branched (Fig. 125). The
method of compounding or branching follows the style
of veining. The veining, or venation, is of two general

kinds: in most plants
the main veins di-
verge, and there is a
conspicuous network
of smaller veins: such
leaves are netted-
veined. In other
plants the main veins
are parallel, or nearh'
so, and there is no
conspicuous network :
these are parallel-
veined leaves (Fig. 136). The venation of netted-veined
leaves is pinnate or feather -like, when the veins arise from
the side of a continuous midrib (Fig. 124); palmate or
digitate (hand-like), when the veins arise from the apex
of the petiole (Fig. 126). If the leaf were divided be-
tween the main veins, it would
be pinnately or digitately coui-
pound.

192. It is customary to speak
of a leaf as compound only when
the parts or branches are com-
pletely separate blades, as when
the division extends to the midrib

(Figs. 125, 127, 128). The parts 126. Digitate-veined peltate leaf

or branches are known as leaf- ° ^^^ ^ '^™'

lets. Sometimes the leaflets themselves are compound, and
the whole leaf is then said to be hi- compound or twice-
compound (Fig. 125). Some leaves are three-compound,
four - compound, or five - compound. Decompound is a

92

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

Pinnately compouud leaf of ash.

general term to express any degree of compounding be-
yond twice -compound.

193. Leaves which are not divided to the midrib are
said to be :

lobed, openings or sinuses

not more than half the

depth of the blade

(Fig. 129).

cleft, sinuses deeper than

the middle.
parted, sinuses two-thirds
or more to the midrib
(Fig. 130).
divided, sinuses nearly or quite to the midrib.
The parts are called lohes, divisions, or segments, rather
than leafleis. The leaf may be pinnately or digitately
lobed, parted, cleft, or divided. A pin-
nately parted or cleft leaf is sometimes
said to be pinnatifid.

194. Leaves may have one or all of
three parts — blade or expanded part, pet-
iole or stalk, stipules or appendages at
the base of the petiole. All these parts
are shown in Fig. 131. A leaf which has
all three of these
parts is said to be
complete. The
stipules are often
green and leaf- like
and perform the function of foliage,
as in the pea and Japanese quince
(the latter common in yards).

195. Leaves and leaflets which
have no stalks are said to be ses-
sile (Fig. 137), i.e., sitting. The 129. Lobed leaf of sugar maple,

128. Digitately
pound leaf of rasp
berry.

FOKM OF LEAVES

93

130. Digit ately parted leaves of begoi:

same is said of flowers and fruits. The blade of a sessile
leaf may partly or whollj^ surround the stem, when it is
said to be clasping (Fig.
132). In some cases the
leaf runs down the stem,
forming a wing : such
leaves are said to be de-
current (Fig. 133) . When
opposite sessile leaves are
joined by their bases, they
are said to be connate
(Fig. 134).

196. Leaflets may have
one or all of these three
parts, but the stalks of leaflets are called petiolules and
the stipules of leaflets are called stipels. The leaf of the
garden bean has leaflets, petiolules, and stipels.

197. The blade is usually attached to
the petiole by its lower edge. In pinnate -
veined leaves, the petiole seems to continue
through the leaf as a midrib (Fig. 124).
In some plants, however, the
petiole joins the blade inside
or beyond the margin (Figs.
126, 135). Such leaves are
said to be peltate or shield -
shaped. This mode of attach-
ment is particularly common
in floating leaves (e. g., the
132. Clasping leaf water Hlics) . Pcltatc leaves
wi aster. ^^,^ usuall}^ digitate- vcincd.
198. SHAPE. — Leaves and leaflets are infinitely variable
in shape. Names have been given to some of the more
definite or regular shapes. These names are a part of the
language of botany. These names represent ideal or typi-

131. Complete leaves
of willow.

94 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

cal shapes, but there are no two leaves alike and very
few which perfectly conform to the definitions. The
shapes are likened to those of familiar objects or of geo-
metrical figures. Some of the commoner shapes are as
follows :
Linear, several times longer than broad, with the sides

\nearl3^ or quite parallel. Spruces and most grasses
are examples. Fig. 136. In linear leaves, the main
veins are usually parallel to the midrib.
Oblong, twice or thrice as long as broad, with the sides

% parallel for most of their length. Fig. 137 shows the
short- oblong leaves of the box, a plant which is much
used for edgings in gardens.

Elliptic differs from the oblong in having the sides gradn-

Vally tapering to either end from the middle. The Eu-
ropean beech. Fig. 138, has elliptic leaves. (This tree
is often planted.)

Lanceolate, four to six times longer than broad, widest

\ below the middle and tapering to each end. Some of
the narrow -leaved willows are examples. Most of
the willows and the peach have oblong-lanceolate
leaves.

Spatulate, a narrow leaf which is broadest towards the

Vapex. The top is usually rounded. It is much like
an oblong leaf.

Ovate, shaped somewhat like the longitudinal section of
^ an egg: twice as long as broad, tapering from near
^ the base to the apex. This is one of the commonest
^ leaf forms. Fig. 139.

Obovate, ovate inverted, — the wide part towards the apex.
^ Leaflets of horse-chestnut are obovate. This form is
^^ commonest in leaflets of digitate leaves.

Reniform, kidney -shaped. This form is sometimes seen in
^^ wild plants, particularly in root -leaves. Leaves of
^W wild ginger are nearly reniform.

Orbicular, circular in general outline. Very few leaves are
^^ perfectly circular, but there are many which are nearer
^tl circular than any other shape. Fig. 140.

SHAPE OF LEAVES

95

The shape of many leaves is described in combinations
of these terms, as ovate -lanceolate, lanceolate-oblong.

199. The shape of the base
and apex of the leaf or leaflet
is often characteristic. The
base may be rounded (Fig.
124), tapering (Fig. 127), cor-
date or heart-shaped (Fig. 139),
truncate or squared as if cut
off. The apex may be blunt or
obtuse, acute or sharp, acum-
inate or long -pointed, truncate
(Fig. 141).

200 The shape of the mar-
gin is also characteristic of each kind of leaf. The mar-
gin is entire when it is not indented or cut in any way
(Fig. 137). When not entire, it may be undulate or wavy
(Fig. 126), serrate or saw -toothed (Fig. 139), dentate or
more coarsely notched (Fig.
124), crenate or round -
toothed, lobed, etc.

201. Leaves often differ
greatly in form on the same
plant. Observe the differ-
ent shapes of leaves on the
young growths of mulberries
and wild grapes ; also on
vigorous squash and pumpkin
vines. In some cases there
may be simple and compound
leaves on the same plant.
This is marked in the so-called Boston ivy or ampelopsis
(Fig. 142), a vine which is used to cover brick and stone
buildings. Different degrees of compounding, even in
the same leaf, may often be found in honey locust and

134. Two pairs of connate leaves
of honeysuckle.

96

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

l.i:>. I'ult.ite ka\eb ot ho-cilled
Egyptian lotus.

Kentucky coffee tree. Remark-
able differences in forms are
seen by comparing seed-leaves
with mature leaves of any plant
(Fig. 143).

202. THE LEAF AND
ITS ENVIRONMENT. —
The form and shape
of the leaf often have
direct relation to the

place in which the leaf grows. Floating leaves
are usualli/ expanded and flat, and the petiole
varies in length with the depth of the water.
Submerged leaves are usually linear or thread- lil-e,
or are cut into very narrow divisions. Thereby is
more surface exposed, and possibly the leaves are
less injured by moving water.

203. The largest leaves on a sun -loving plant
are usually those which are fulhj exposed to light.
Compare the sizes of the leaves on the ends of
branches with those at

136. Linear-
acuminate
leaf of

:>

the base of the branches

or in the interior of the , \ //c

tree -top. In dense foli- f^

age masses, the petioles ^^-

of the lowermost or ^^^ j

undermost leaves tend to
^'^^^' elongate — to push the
leaf to the light (Fig. 144).

204. On the approach of win- ^^^^

ter the leaf ceases to work, and V

often dies. It may drop, when it ^^t. Short-obiong leaves of box.
is said to be deciduous ; or it may remain on the plant,
when it is said to be persistent. If persistent leaves re-
main green during the winter, the plant is said to be

FALLING OF THE LEAF

97

evergreen. Most leaves fall by breaking off at the lower
end of the petiole with a distinct joint or articulation.
There are many leaves, however, which wither and hang

138. Elliptic leaf
of purple beech.

Ovate serrate leaf

cf hibiscus.

140. Orbicular lobed leaves.

on the plant nntil torn off by the wind : of snch are the
leaves of grasses, sedges, lilies, orchids, and other plants
known as monocotyledons (Chap. XXIII). Most leaves
of this character are parallel -veined. Consult 439.

205. Leaves also die and fall from lack of light. Ob-
serve the yellow and weak leaves in a dense tree -top or in
any thicket. Why do the lower leaves
die on house-plants? Note the carpet
of needles under the pines. All ever-
greens shed their leaves after a time.
Counting back from the tip of a pine
or spruce shoot, determine how many
years the leaves persist (Fig. 145).
In some spruces a few leaves may be
found on branches ten or more years
old. Leaves usually persist longest

in the lightest positions (Fig. 77). ^^^- Tmucate leaf of tulip-tree

206. Although the forms and positions of leaves often
have direct relation to the places and conditions in which

98

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

li2. Different forms of leaves from one

the leaves grow, H is not known that all forms and shapes
have been developed to adapt the plant to its environment.

It is probable that the
toothing or lobing of the
leaf -margins is due to the
same causes which produce
compounding or branching
of leaves, but what these
causes are is not known.
It has been suggested that
leaves have become com-
pound in order to increase
their surface and thereby
to offer a greater exposure
to light in shady places,
but very many sun -loving

plant of ampelopsis. SpCCicS liaVC COmpOUnd

leaves, and many shade-loving species have simple and
even small leaves. Again, it has been suggested that com-
pound leaves shade underlying leaves less than simple
leaves do.

207. HOW TO TELL A LEAF.— It is often difficult to dis-
tinguish compound leaves from leafy branches and leaflets
from leaves. As a rule, leaves can be told by the follow-
ing tests- (1) Leaves are temporary structures, sooner
or later falli-g (2) Usu-
ally buds are borne in
their axils. (3) Leaves are
usually borne at joints or
nodes. (4) They arise on
wood of the current-year's
growth. (5) They have a
more or less definite arrangement. When leaves fall, the
twig which bore them remains; when leaflets fall; the main
petiole which bore them falls also.

143. Muskmelon seedlings, with the un-
like seed-leaves and true leaves.

144. A leaf mosaic of Norway maple. Note the
lengths of petioles.

Shoot of the common white pine, one-third natural size.

The PiPture shows the falling of the leaves from the different years
growth, rho part of the liranch between the tip and A is the last
season s growtli ; between A and B it is two years old ; the part
Detween B and C is three years old; it has few leaves. The part that
grew four seasons ago— beyond C— has no leaves.

100

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

Review. — How m:iy leaves be studied ? What is meant by fune-
timi ? "Whiit do leaves do? What other parts may perform the function
of leaves? How is form of leaves associated with
their function ? What are simple leaves ? Com-
pound? What is venation? What are the types or
kinds of venation? What are the two types of
compound leaves? What is a leaflet? Define bi-
compound ; decompound. What are lobed, cleft,
parted, and divided leaves? Pinnatifid leaf ? Com-
plete leaf? Complete leaflet? What is a sessile
leaf? How may the petiole join the blade? How
are the shapes of leaves named or classified? De-
fine the shapes described in 198. Describe com-
mon sliapes of the base of the leaf. Of the apex.
Of the margin. How are the forms and sizes of
leaves ever related to the place in which they grow? Why do leaves
fall ? Define deciduous. Persistent. Evergreen. When do pine
leaves fall ? How cnn you distinguish leaves? Describe the leaf in
Fig. 14n.

14G. Oblique leaf of
the elm.

luae bushes in January and July.— Framework and foliage.

CHAPTER XV

MORPHOLOGY, OR THE STUDY OF THE FORMS OF
PLANT MEMBERS

208. Botanists interpret all parts of the plant in terms
of root, stem, and leaf. That is, the various parts, as
thorns, flowers, fruits, bud-scales, tendrils, and abnormal
or unusual members, are supposed to represent or to stand
in the place of roots, stems (branches), or leaves.

209. The forms of the parts of plants are interesting,
therefore, in three ways: (1) merely as forms, which may
be named and described; (2) their relation to function, or
how they enable Uie part better to live and work; (3) their
origin, as to how they came to be and whether they have
been produced by the transformation of other parts. The
whole study of forms is known as morphology (literally,
the "science of forms"). We may consider examples in
the study of morphology.

210. It is customary to say that the various parts of
plants are transformed or modified root, stem, or leaf, but
the words transformation and modification are not used in
the literal sense. Itismeant that the given part p,s a tendril,
may occupy the place of or represent a leaf. It was not
first a leaf and then a tendril: the part develops into a ten-
dril instead of into a leaf,- it stands where a leaf normally
might have stooa; it is the historical descendant of the leaf.

211. It is better to say that parts which have similar
origins, which arise from the same fundamental type, or
which are of close genealogical relationship, are homolo-
gous. Thus the tendril, in the instance assumed above
is homologous with & leaf. Parts which have similar func-

(101)

102

MOKPHOLOGY

tious or perform siiDilar labor, without respect to origins,
are analogous. Thus a leaf -tendril is analogous to a

branch -tendril
logons.
212.
we may

but

a

the two

are not homo-

There are five tests by means of which
hope to determine what a given part
is : ( 1 ) by the appearance or
looks of the part (the least reli-
able test) ; (2) by the position
of the part with relation to other
parts — its place on the plant ;
(3) by comparison with similar
parts on other plants (compara-
tive morphology) ; (4) by study of
intermediate or connecting parts ; (^"3) by study of the
development of the part in the bud or as it originates,
by means of the microscope (embryology). The last
test can be applied only by the trained investigator, but
it often gives the most conclusive evidence. Even with

147. Leaf and clad
ophyllaofaspar

agus.

1-J8. Leaves of
asparagus.

'^<:^

149. Fern-like leaf-oranehes of
greenhouse asparagus.

the application of all these tests, it is sometimes im-
possible to arrive at a definite conclusion as to the
origin or morphology of a part. For example, it is not
yet agreed whether most cactus spines represent leaves or

CLADOPHYLLA

103

branches, or are mere outgrowths of the epidermis (as
hairs are).

213. The foliage
of asparagus is com-
posed of modified
branches. The true
leaves of asparagus
are minute whitish
scales {a, Fig. 147) .
The green foliage is
produced in the axils
of these scales. On
the strong spring
shoots of asparagus,
which are eaten,
the true leaves
appear as large
scales (a, o, Fig. 148) . These large
scales persist on the base of

the asparagus plant, even in the fall. In the spe-
cies of greenhouse or ornamental asparagus, the
delicate foliage is also made up of green leaf-like
branches (Fig. 149). In some cases the true leaves
fall after a time, and there is little evidence left.
The strong new shoots usually show the true
leaves plainly (as in Fig. 150). Branches which
simulate leaves are known as cladophylla
(.singular, cladophyllum). The broad flat
leaves of florists' smilax (common in glass-
houses) are cladophylla.
Strong N\ 214. In the study of morphology,

new shoot of ^ 1 • l • j. i i i x

Asparagus m-- it IS not cuough, howcvcr, merely to

sh^^n|7he %. determine whether a part represents

and^the^Yranches^y root, stcm, or leaf: ouc must determine

their'afos.^ *°"^ ^ what part or kind of root, stem, or leaf

U. Phyllodia of acf,-
eia. These Australian
trees are sometimes
grown in glasshouses.

104

MORPHOLOGY

152. The tliorus are ia the axils
of leaves.

it stands for. For example, the foliage in Fig. 151
represents green expanded petioles. These leaf -like mem-
bers bear buds (which produce
branches) in their axils, and they
have the arrangement or phyllo-
taxy of leaves ; therefore they are
considered to be true leaf parts.
But they stand edgewise as if
they might be petioles ; sometimes
they bear leaf -blades; other aca-
cias have compound expanded leaves;
there are intermediate forms or grada-
tions between different acacias; young
seedlings sometimes show intermediate
forms. From all the evidence, it is now
understood that the foliage of the simple-
leaf acacias represents leaf -like petioles.
Such petioles are known as phyllodia
(singular, phyllodium).

215. Thorns
and strong spines are usually
branches. The spines of hawthorns
or thorn-apples are examples: they
are borne in the axils of leaves as
branches are (Fig. 152) ; hawthorns
usually bear two or more buds in each
axil (Fig. 153), and one or two of
these buds often grow
the following year into
normal leafy branches (Fig. 154) ; sometimes
the thorn itself bears leaves (Fig. 155).
The thorns of wilding pears, apples, and
plums are short, hardened branches. In
well -cultivated trees there is sufficient vigor

. . * 155. The thorn

to push the main branch into longer and may bear leaves.

153. Two or more bud;^
are borne in the axils.

154. Some of the buds pro-
duce leafy branches.

PRICKLES AND BRISTLES

105

156. Leaf-spine of
barberry.

softer growth, so that the side buds do not have a chance
to start. The thorns of osage orange and honey locust
are also branches. Those of the honey locust usually
arise from supernumerary buds which are
borne somewhat above the axils.

216. Prickles, bristles, and tveaJc spines,
which have a definite arrangement on the
stem, are tisually modified leaves or parts
of leaves. The spines of
thistles are hardened
points of leaf-lobes. The spines of the
barberry are reduced leaves; in their axils
are borne short branches or leaf -tufts
(Pig. 156) ; in spring on young shoots
may be found almost complete gradations
from spiny leaves to spines. The prickly
ash has prickles that simulate stipules and
stipels, but the irregularity of position in-
dicates that they are not homologous with
stipules. The prickles of the common locust
(robinia) are usually interpreted as stipules.
217. Prickles, bristles, and hairs, which
are scattered or
have no dofintie ar-
rangement, are usu-
ally mere out-grow^ths of the epi-
dermis. They usually are re-
moved with the bark. Of such are
the prickles of squashes, briars
(Fig. 158), and roses.

218. The reason for the exis-
tence of spines is difficult to de-
termine. In many or most cases
they seem to have no distinct use or function. In some
way they are associated with the evolution of the plant,

57. Small prickles of
the prickly ash.

158. Prickles of dewberry.

106

MORPHOLOGY

and one cannot determiue wh}- they came without know-
ing much of the genealogy of the plant. In some
cases they seem to be the result of
the contraction of the plant -body,
as in the cacti and other desert
plants; and they may then serve a
purpose in lessening transpiration.
It is a common notion that spines and
prickles exist for the purpose of keep-
ing enemies away, and that hairs
keep the plant warm, but these ideas
usually lack scientific accuracy. Even
if spines do keep away browsing ani-
mals in any plant, it is quite another
question why the spines came to be. 159. The diminishiug leaves
To answer the question what spines °^ boneset.

and hairs are for demands close scientific study of each
particular ease, as any other problem does.

219. Leaves are usually
smaller as they approach the
flowers (Fig. 159). They
often become so much reduced
as to he mere scales, losing
their office as foliage. In
their axils, however, the
flower-branches may be borne
(Fig. 160). Much-reduced
leaves, particularly those
which are no longer green
and working members, are
called bracts. In some cases,
large colored bracts are borne
just beneath the flowers and
look like petals : the flowering dogwood is an example ;
also the bougainvillea, which is common in glasshouses

160. The uppermost flowers are borne
in the axils of bracts.— Fuchsia.

SCALES OF BUDS AND BULBS

107

(Fig. 161) ; also the scarlet sage of gardens and the
flaming poinsettia of greenhouses.

220. The scales of buds are special kinds of bracts. In
some cases each scale represents an entire leaf; in others,
it represents a petiole or stipule. In the expanding pear,
maple, lilac, hickory, and
horse-chestnut buds, note the
gradation from dry scales to
green leaf -like bodies. When
the winter scales fall by the
pushing out of the young
shoot, scars are left : these
scars form "rings," which
mark the annual growths.
See Chap. VII. The scales
of bulbs are also special
kinds of leaves or bracts.
In some cases they are merely
protective bodies ; in others
they are storeJiouses . We
have found (45) that the
presence of scales or bracts is one means of distinguish
ing underground stems from roots.

161. In the bougaiuvillea three gaudily
colored bracts surround each clus-
ter of three small flowers.

Review. — What are considered to be the fundamental or type
forms from which the parts of plants are derived? How do the forms
of plants interest us? What is morphology? What is meant by trans-
formation and modification as used by the morphologist ? What is
meant by homologous parts ? Analogous parts? Tell how one may
determine the morphology of any i>art. What is a cladophyllum ?
Pliyllodium ? Show a specimen of one or the other, or both
(canned asparagus can always be had in the market). What is
the morphology of most thorns? Explain the thorns of hawthorn.
What are bristles, prickles, and hairs? Why do spines and bristles
exist! Explain what a bract is. A bud-scale. A bulb-scale.

CHAPTER XVI

HOW PLANTS CLIMB

221. We have seen that plants struggle or contend for
a place in which to live. Some of them become adapted to
grow in the forest shade, others to grow on other plants
as epiphytes, others to climb to the light. Observe how
woods grapes, and other forest climbers, spread their foli-
age on the very top of the forest tree, while their long
flexile trunks may be bare.

222. There are several ways in which plants climb, but
most climbers may be classified into four groups: (1) scram-
blers, (2) root-chmbers, (3) tendril-climbers, (4) twiners.

223. SCRAMBLERS.— Some plants rise to light and air
by resting their long and weak stems on the tops of
bushes and quick-growing herbs. Their stems are ele-
vated by the growing twigs
of the plants on which they
recline. Such plants are
scramblers. Usually they
are provided with prickles
or bristles. In most weedy
swamp thickets, scramb-
ling plants may be found.
Briars, some roses, bed-
straw or galium, bitter -
sweet (Solanum Dulcamara,

not the celastrus), the tear-thumb polygonums, and other
plants are familiar examples of scramblers.

224. ROOT-CLIMBERS.— Some plants climb by means of
true roots, as explained in paragraph 31. These roots

(108)

A root-climber.— The English ivy.

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS 109

seek the dark places and therefore enter the chinks in
walls and bark. Fig. 12, the trumpet creeper, is a fa-
miliar example. The true or English ivy, which is often
grown to cover buildings, is another instance (Fig. 162).
Still another is the poison ivy. Roots are distinguished
from stem tendrils by their irregular or indefinite posi-
tion as well as by their mode of growth.

225. TENDRIL-CLIMBERS.— A slender coiling part which
serves to hold a climbing plant to a support is known as a

103, Tendril of Virginia, creeper. The direction of tlie coil changes near tlie middle.

tendril. The free end swings or curves until it strikes
some object, when it attaches itself and then coils and
draws the plant close to the support. The spring of the coil
also allows the plant to move in the toind, thereby enabling
the plant to maintain its hold. Slowly pull a well -ma-
tured tendril from its support, and note how strongly it
holds on. Watch the tendrils in a storm. To test the
movement of a free tendril, draw an ink line lengthwise
of it, and note that the line is now on the concave side
and now on the convex side. Of course this movement is
slow, but it is often evident in an hour or so. Usually
the tendril attaches to the support by coiling ahotit it, but
the Virginia creeper and Boston ivy attach to walls by
means of disks on the ends of the tendrils.

226. Since both ends of the tendril are fixed, when it

110

HOW PLANTS CLIMB

finds a support, the coiling would tend to twist it in two.
It will be found, however, that the tendril coils in differ-
ent directions in ditiferent parts of its length. In Fig.
163 the change of direction in the coil occurs at the
straight place near the middle. In long tendrils of cucum-
bers and melons there may be several changes of direction.
227. Tendrils may be either branches or leaves. In

164. The fruit-cluster and tendril of grape are homologous.

the Virginia creeper and grape they are branches ; they
stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit -clusters
(Fig. 164), and sometimes one branch of a fi-uit- cluster
is a tendril. These tendrils are therefore homologous
with fruit -clusters, and fruit -clusters are branches.

228. In some plants tendrils are leaflets. Examples
are the sweet pea (Fig. 165) and common garden pea.
In Fig. 165, observe the leaf with its two stipules, petiole,

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS

111

two norma) leaflets, and two or three pairs of leaflet-
Tendrils and a terminal leaflet -tendril. The cobea, a
common garden climber, has a similar arrangement. In
some cases tendrils are stipules, as probably in the green-
briars (smilax).

229. The petiole or midrib may act as a tendril, as in
various kinds of clematis. In Fig. 166, two opposite leaves

165. Ill the sweet pea (and garden pea) the leaflets are tendrils.

are attached at a. Each leaf is pinnately compound and
has two pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet. At h and
c the midrib or rachis has wound about a support. The
petiole and the petiolules may behave similarly. Examine
the tall -growing nasturtiums in the garden.

230. TWINERS.— The entire plant or shoot may wind
about a support. Such a plant is a twiner. Examples
are bean, hop, morning-glory, moon-flower, false bitter-

112

HOW PLANTS CLIMB

sweet or wax- work Ccelastrus), some honeysuckles, wis-
taria, Dutchman's pipe, dodder. The free tip of the
twining branch sweeps about in curves, much as the tendril
does, until it finds support or becomes old and rigid,

231. Each kind of plant usually coils in only one

166. Clematis climbs by means of its leaf-stalks.

direction. Most plants coil against the sun, or from the
observer's left across his front to his right as he faces the
plant. Such plants are said to be dextrorse (right-handed)
orantitropic (against the sun). Examples are bean, morn-
ing-glory. The hop twines from the observer's right
to his left. Such plants are sin^'strorse (left-handed) or

REVIEW ON CLIMBING PLANTS

113

107. Dextrorse .-ind siiiisti

bitter-sweet and hop.

eutropic (witli the
sun). Fig. 167 shows
the two directions.

Review. — Why do
plants climb? How do
they climb? Explain
what is meant by scram-
blers. By root-climbers.
What is a tendril? How
does it find a support?
Why and how does it
coil? How does it grasp
its support? What is the
morphology of the ten-
dril of Virginia creeper?
Why? Of the pea? Of
the clematis? What is
a twiner? How does it
find a support ? (^

What is a dex-
trorse twiner?
Sinistrorse?
Note. — The

pupil may not
understand why the branch (as tendril and flower- cluster)
stands opposite the bud in the grape and Virginia creeper.
Note that a grape-shoot ends in a tendril (a, Fig. 168).
The tendril represents the true axis of the shoot. On the
side a leaf is borne, from the axil of which the
branch grows to continue the shoot. This branch
ends in a tendril, &. Another leaf has a branch in
its axil, and this branch ends in the tendril c. The
real apex of the shoot is successively turned aside
until it appears to be lateral. That is, the morpho-
logically terminal points of the successive shoots are
the tendrils, and the order of their appearing is a,
h, c. The tendrils branch: observe the minute scale
representing a leaf at the base of each branch. This
type of branching — the axial growth being continued
by successive lateral buds — is sympodial, and the
branch is a sympode. Continuous growth from the
terminal bud is monopodial, and the branch is a monopode

:i

r

^
^

1()8. Sympode
of tlie grape.

CHAPTER XVII

FLOWER- BRANCHES

232. We have (86) seen that branches arise from the
axils of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to
bracts and yet branches are borne in their axils. Some of

the branches grow into long limbs;

others become short spurs; others

hear flowers.

233. Flowers are usually borne
near the top of the plant, since
the plant must grow before it
blooms. Often they are produced
in great numbers. It results,
therefore, that flower - branches
usually stand close together, form-
ing a cluster. The shape and
arrangement of the flower-cluster
differ with the kind of plant, since
each plant has its own mode of
branching.

234. Certain definite or well-
marked types of flower -clusters
have received names. Some of
these names we shall discuss, but
the flower-clusters which perfectly
match the definitions are the ex-
ception rather than the rule. The

169. Terminal flowers of the white- determining of the kiuds of flow-
weed (in some places called ox-eye

daisy). er- clusters is one of the most per-

du)

SOLITARY FLOWERS — CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS 115

plexing subjects iu descriptive botany. We may classify
the subject around three ideas: solitary flowers, corym-
bose clusters, cymose clus-
ters.

235. SOLITARY FLOWERS.—
In many cases flowers are borrve
singly. They are then said to
be solitary. The solitary flower
may be either at the end of the
main shoot or axis (Fig. 169),
when it is said to be terminal,
or from the side of the shoot
(Fig. 170), when it is said to
be lateral. The lateral flower
is also said to be axillary.

236. CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS.—
If the flower -bearing axils were
rather close together, an open
or leafy flower-cluster might re-
sult, as in Fig. 171. The fuchsia continues to grow from
the tip, and the older flowers are left farther and farther
behind. If the cluster were so
short as to be flat or convex on
top, the outermost flowers would
be the older. A flower -cluster
in which the lower or outer flow-
ers open first is said to be a
corymbose cluster. It is some-
times said to be an indetermi-
nate cluster since it is the re-
sult of a type of growth which
may go on more or less contin-
uously from the apex.

237. The simplest form of a definite corymbose cluster
is a raceme, which is an unbranched open cluster in which

170. Lateral flower of abutilon.

116

FLOWER - BRANCHES

the flowers are borne on short stems and open from below
(that is, from the okler part of the shoot) upwards. The

raceme may be terminal
to the main branch, as in
Fig. 172, or it may be
lateral to it, as in Fig.
173. Racemes often bear
the flowers on one side
of the stem, or in a sin-
gle row.

238. When a corym-
bose flower -cluster is long
id dense and the flowers
e sessile or nearly so, it is
lied a spike (Figs. 174,
o). Common examples of
pikes are plantain, migno-
lette, mullein.

239. A very short and
dense spike is a head. Clover
(Fig. 176) is a good exam-
ple. The sunflower and re-
lated plants bear many small
. This special kind of head

ITJ.
le of Chinese Wistaria.

has been calk

flowers in a very dense head,
of the sunflower, thistle, and
an antJiodiuni, but
this word is little
used. Note that
in the sunflower
(Fig. 177) the out-
side o r exterior
flowers open first.
Another special
form of spike is the catkin, which usually has scaly bracts
and the whole cluster is deciduous after flowering or fruit-

s (in fruit) of barberry.

COKYMBOSE CLUSTERS

117

75. Loose spikes of fal«e
dragon's heart or pliyso-
stegia.

ing, and the flowers (in
typical cases) have only
one sex. Examples are
the " pussies" of willows
(Fig. 213) and flower-
clusters of oaks (Fig.
212), hickories, poplars.

240. When a loose,
elongated corymbose
flower-cluster branches,
or is compound, it is
called a panicle. Be-
cause of the earlier
growth of the lower
branches, the panicle is

usually broadest at the base or conical in out-
line. True panicles are not common.

241. When an indeterminate flower- cluster
is short, so that the top is convex or flat, it is
a corymb (Fig. 178). The outermost flowers
open first. Fig. 179 shows many corymbs of

the bridal wreath, one of the spireas.

242. When the branches of an indeterminate

cluster arise from a common point, like the

frame of an um-
brella, the clus-
ter is an umbel
(Fig. 180). Typi-
cal umbels occur
in carrot, par-
snip, parsley and
other plants of
the parsley fam-
ily: the family

Head of crimson "- r' -^ _

clover. 177. Head of •unflower. IS knOWn AS tne

174. Spike of
h y acintb.
Note, also,
that the
flowers and
foliage are
pro d uced
from the
stored food
in the bulb,
only water
being given.

118

FLOWEE- BRANCHES

Umbelliferaj, or umbel-
bearing family. In the
carrot and many other Um-
belliferae, there are small
or secondary umbels, called
umbellets, at the end of
each of the main branches.
(In the center of the wild
carrot umbel one often
finds a single, blackish,
often aborted flower,
comprising a 1 - flowered
umbellet.)

243. CYMOSE CLUSTERS.
— When the terminal or 1"9- Corymks of the bridal wreath (spirea).

central flower opens first, the cluster is said to be cymose.
The growth of the shoot or cluster
is determinate, since the length
is definitely determined or stopped
by the terminal flower. Fig. 181
shows a determinate or cyraose
mode of flower-bearing.

24 i. Dense cymose clusters are
usually flattish on top because of
the cessation of growth in the
main or central axis. These com-
pact flower -clusters are known as
cymes. Apples, pears (Fig- 182)
and cherries bear flowers in
cymes. Some cyme -forms are like
umbels in general appearance. A
head -like cymose cluster is a
glomerule : it blooms from the
top downwards rather than from

Corymb of candytuft. the baSB UpwardS.

MIXED CLUSTERS — INFLORESCENCE

119

180. Compound umbel of
wild carrot.

245. MIXED CLUSTERS.—
Often the cluster is mixed, being
determinate in one part and in-
determinate in another part of
the same cluster. This is the
case in Fig. 184, The main clus-
ter is indeterminate, but the
branches are determinate. The
cluster has the appearance of a

panicle, and is usually so called,
but it is really a thyrse. Lilac is
a familiar example of a thyrse. In
some cases, the main cluster is de-
terminate and the branches are in-
determinate, as in hydrangea and
elder. Such clusters also are mixed
clusters.

246 . INFLORESCENCE. —The mode
or method of flower arrangement is
known as the inflorescence. That
is, the inflorescence is cymose,
corymbose, paniculate, spicate, soli-
tary. By custom, however, the
word inflorescence has come to be
used for the flower-cluster itself in
works on descriptive botany. Thus
a cyme or a
panicle may
be called an
inflorescence. It will be seen that
even solitaiy flowers follow either
indeterminate or determinate meth-
ods of branching.

247. THE FLOWER-STEM.— The
stem of a solitary flower is known as compa^e'Fig.'w"'

181. Determinate or cymose
arrangement. — Wild geranium,

120

FLOWER -BRANCHES

pparently f.vniose.

a peduncle ; also the
general stem of Sifloicer-
cluster. The stem of
the individual flower in
a cluster is a pedicel,

248. In the so-called
stemless plants (37) the
peduncle may arise di-
rectly from the ground,
or crown of the plant,
as in dandelion, hya-
cinth (Fig. 174), gar-
den daisy (Fig. 185).
This kind of peduncle
is called a scape. A
scape may bear one or
many flowers. It has
no foliage leaves, but it
mav have bracts.

Review. — What is the homology of flnwor-hranehes? He
that flowers are often borne in
clusters? Explain what may be
meant by a solitary flower. What
are the two types of flower-clns-
ters? What are corymbose clus-
ters? Define raceme. Spike.
Head and anthodium. Catkin.
Panicle. Umbel. Umbellet.
Corymb. What are cymose clus-
ters? What is a cyme? Glome-
rule? Contrast indeterminate and
determinate modes of branching.
Explain mixed clusters. What
is a thyrse? What is meant by
the word inflorescence? Define
peduncle, pedicel, and scape.

Note. — In the study of flower-
clusters, it is Well to select first im. Xhyise of hor>.e-chestuut

REVIEW ON FLOWER-BRANCHES

121

185 Scapej of thetiueoi Liifjlibb daisy.

and determine the method of th
In some cases the flower-cluster
ends in a leaf, suggesting that
the cluster is morphologically a
leaf; but see whether there is
not a joint between the cluster
and the leaf, showing that the
leaf is attached to a branch.
The flower- cluster of the tomato
has been greatly modified by
cultivation. It was originally
distinctly racemose.

those which are fairly typical of the
the various classes discussed in the
preceding paragraphs. As soon as
the main types are well fixed in
the mind, random clusters should
be examined, for the pupil must
never receive the impression that
all flower-clusters follow the defini-
tions in books. Clusters of some
of the commonest plants are very
puzzling, but the pupil should at
least be able to discover whether
the inflorescence is determinate or
indeterminate.

In the tomato (Fig. 186) the
flower-cluster is opposite the leaf.
Examine blooming tomato plants,
is inflorescence. Compare the grape.

186. Tomato shoot.

Llt*45

CJerauiums iu the school-room wiiidov

CHAPTER XVIII
THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

249. The flower exists for the purpose of producing
seed. It is probable that all its varied forms and colors
contribute to this supreme end. These forms and colors
please the human fancy and make living the happier, but
the flower exists for the good of the plant, not for the
good of man. The parts of the flower are of two general
kinds — those which are directly concerned in the produc-
tion of seeds, and those which act as covering and pro-
tecting organs. The former parts are known as the essen-
tial organs ; the latter as the floral envelopes.

250. ENVELOPES. — The floral envelopes usually bear a
close resemblance to leaves. These envelopes are very
commonly of two series or kinds — the outer and the inner.
The outer series, known as the calyx, is usually smaller
and green. It usually comprises the outer cover of the
flower-bud. The calyx is the lowest
whorl in Fig. 187. The inner series,

known as the
corolla, is usually
colored and more
special or irregular
in shape than the

187. Flower of a buttercup ^alyX. It is thc

in section. showy part of the ^^^- ^^°^'''" "^ buttercup.

flower, as a rule. The corolla is the second or large
whorl in Fig. 187. It is the large part in Fig. 188.

251. The calyx may be composed of several leaves.
Each leaf is a sepal. If it is of one piece, it may be

(122)

FLOKAL ENVELOPES

123

lobed or divided, in which case the divisions are called

calyx -lobes. In like manner, the corolla may be com-
posed of petals, or it may be of

one piece and variously lobed. A

calyx of one piece, no matter how

deeply lobed, is gamosepalous. A

corolla of one piece is gamopetal-

ous. When these series are of

separate pieces, as in Fig. 187, the

flower is said to be polysepalous .

and polypetalous. Sometimes both

series are of separate parts, and

sometimes only one of them is so

formed.

252. The floral envelopes are

Jiottwlogous with leaves. Sepals and

petals, at least when more than

three or five, are each in more than

one whorl, and one whorl stands below
another so that the parts overlap.
They are borne on the expanded or
thickened end of the flower-stalk: this
end is the torus. In Fig. 187 all the
parts are seen as attached to the torus.
This part is sometimes called recep-
tacle, but this word is a common-
language term of several meanings, whereas torus has no

other meaning. Sometimes one part is at-
tached to another part, as in the fuchsia

(Fig. 189) in which the petals are borne

on the calyx -tube.

189. Flower of fuchsia in section.

190. Pistil of garden pea.
the stamens being pulled
down in order to disclose
it; also a section, showing
the single compartment.

253. ESSENTIAL ORGANS.— The essential

Simple pistils of
;ercup, one in

organs are of two series. They are also longitudinal section,
homologous with leaves. The outer series is composed of
the stamens. The inner series is composed of the pistils.

124

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

J2. Coiupouud pis-
til of a St. John's-
wort. It has 5 ear-
pels.

254. Stamens bear the pollen, which is made up of
grains or spores, each spore usually being a single plant
cell. The stamen is of two parts, as readily
seen in Figs. 187, 188, 189,— the enlarged
terminal part or anther, and the stalk or
filament. The filament is often so
short as to seem to be absent, and
the anther is then said to be
sessile. The anther bears the
pollen spores. It is made up
of two or four parts (known
as sporangia or spore -cases), which burst
and discharge the
pollen. When
the pollen is shed,
the stamen dies.

255. Pistils hear
the seeds. The pis-
til may be of one
part or compart-
ment, or of many parts. The different units or parts of
which it is composed are carpels. Each carpel is homo-
logous with a leaf. Each
carpel bears one or more
seeds. A pistil of one carpel
is simple; of two or more
carpels, compound. Usually
the structure of the pistil
may be determined by cut-
ting across the lower or seed-
bearing part. Figs. 190, 191,
192 explain. A flower may
contain one carpel (simple
pistil) as the pea (Fig. 190) ;
several separate carpels or

Knotweed, a very common but inconspicuous plant
along hard walks and roads. Two flowers, en-
larged, are shown at the right. These flowers are
very small and borne in the axils of the leaves.

The structure of a plum blossom.
se. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens;
o. ovary; s. style; st. stigma. The
pistil consists of the ovary, style,
and stigma. It contains the seed
part. The stamens are tipped with
anthers, in which the pollen is
borne. The ovary, o, ripens into
the fruit.

CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER

125

simple pistils, as the buttercup ; or a compound pistil, as
the St. John's- wort (Fig. 192).

256. The pistil, whether simple or compound, has three
parts: the lowest or seed -bearing part,
which is the ovary; the stigma at the
upper extremity, which is a flattened or
expanded surface, and usually roughened
or sticky ; the stalk -like part or style,
connecting the ovary and stigma. Some-
times the style is apparently wanting,
and the stigma is said to be sessile on
the ovary. These parts are shown in the
fuchsia, Fig. 189. The ovary or seed
vessel is at a. A long style, bearing a
large stigma, projects from the flower.
See, also. Figs. 191 and 194.

257. CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER.—
A flower which has calyx, corolla, sta-
mens, and pistils is said to be complete ;
all others are incomplete. In some flowers both the floral

envelopes are wanting: such are
naked. When one of the floral
envelope series is wanting, the
remaining series is said to be
calyx, and the flower is therefore
apetalous ( without
petals). Theknotweed
(Fig. 193), smart-
weed, buckwheat, elm
(Fig. 92), are ex-
amples. Some flow-
ers lack the pistils : i9
these are staminate,
whether the envelopes are missing or not. Others lack
the stamens : these are pistillate. Others have neither

Flower of giirden
nasturtium. Separate
petal at a. The calyx Is
prolonged into a spur.

196. The five petals of the pansy,
detached to show the form.

126

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

stamens nor pistils : these are sterile (snowball and hy-
drangea). Those which have both stamens and pistils are
perfect, whether or not the envelopes are
missing. These which lack either sta-
mens or pistils are imperfect or diclinous.
Staminate and pistillate flowers are im-
perfect or diclinous.

258. Flowers in which the parts of
each series are alike are said to be regular
f) (as in Figs. 187, 188, 189). Those
in which some parts are unlike
other parts of the same series are
irregular. The irregularity may be

as in nasturtium (Fig. 195) ; in corolla
(Fig. 196, 197) ; in the stamens (com-
pare nasturtium, catnip Fig. 197, sage);
in the pistils. Irregularity is most fre-
quent in the corolla.

198. Improvised stand
for lens.

calyx

3

^^^<;

^

Review.— What is the flower for? What
are the two general kinds of organs in the
flower? What is the homol-
ogy of the flower- parts ?
What are floral envelopes ?
Calyx ? Sepals ? Calyx-
lobes ? Corolla ? Petals ?
Corolln-lobes ? Gamosepnl-
lous flowers ? Gamopetalous ? Poly-
sepalous? Polypetalous? Define torus.
What are the essential organs? Sta-
men? Filament? Anther? Pollen?
Pistil? Style? Stigma? Ovary? Car-
pel ? Define a complete flower. In
what ways may flowers be incomplete?
Explain perfect and imperfect (or diclinous) flowers. Define regular
flowers. In what ways may flowers be irregular?

Note. — One needs a lens for the examination of the flower. It
is best to have the lens mounted on a frame, so that the pupil has
both hands free -for pulling the flower in pieces. An ordinary pocket

199.
Dissect-
ing needle.
K natural

size. 200. Dissecting gl

REVIEW ON FLOWERS

127

lens may be mounted on a wire in a block, as in Fig. 198, A cork is
slipped on the top of the wire to avoid injury to the face. The pupil
should be provided with two dissecting needles (Fig. 199), made by
securing an ordinary needle in a
pencil-like stick. Another con-
venient arrangement is shown in
Fig. 200. A small tin dish is used
for the base. Into this a stiff wire
standard is soldered. The dish is
filled with solder, to make it heavy
and firm. Into a cork slipped on
the standard, a cross-wire is in-
serted, holding on the end a
jeweler's glass. The lens can be moved up and down and sidewise.
This outfit can be made for about seventy-five cents. Fig. 201 shows
a convenient hand-rest or dissecting stand to be used under this lens.
It may be 16 in. long, 4 in. high, and 4 or 5 in. broad. Various kinds
of dissecting microscopes are on the market, and these are to be
recomm'^nded when they can be afforded.

201. Dissecting stand.

Odd bios

of one of the passi

Calyx-lobes and petals are 5. A fringe of hairs (or crown) grows from
the petals. The club-shaped stigmas project. The stamens, ,5 in number,
stand inside the crown.

CHAPTER XIX

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

259. FERTILIZATION.— ^^ee(^5 result from the union of two
slements or parts. One of these elements, a nucleus of a
plant cell, is borne in the pollen-grain. The other element,
an egg-cell, is borne in the ovary. The pollen -grain falls
on the stigma (Fig. 202). It absorbs the juices exuded
by the stigma and grows by sending out a tube (Fig. 203) .
This tube grows downward through the style, absorbing
food as it goes, and finally reaches the egg -cell in the
interior of an ovule in the ovary, and fertilization, or
union of the two nuclei, takes place. The ovule then
ripens into a seed. The growth of the pollen -tube is
often spoken of as germination of the pollen, but it is not
germination in the sense in which the word is used when
speaking of seeds.

260. Better seeds — that is, those
which produce stronger and more
fruitful plants — usually result
when the pollen comes from another
flower. Fertilization effected be-
tween different flowers is cross-
fertilization ; that resulting from
the application of pollen to pis-
202. B, pollen of plum escaping tils in the samc flowcr is close-
Sratinf^nV^'sll^'n.! fertilization or self-fertilization.
Enlarged. ^ ^jQ j^g sccu that the cross- ferti-

lization relationship may be of many degrees — between two
flowers in the same cluster, between those in different clus-
ters on the same branch, between those on different plants.
(128)

^

POLLINATION 129

Usually fertilization takes place only between plants of
the same species or kind.

261. In many cases the pistil has the power of select-
ing pollen when pollen from two or more sources is applied
to the stigma. Usually the foreign pollen, if
from the same kind of plant, grows and per-
forms the office of fertilization, and pollen from
the same flower perishes. If, however, no
foreign pollen arrives, the pollen from the
same flower may finally grow and fertilize
the germ.

262. In order that the pollen may grow, the 203
stigma must he ripe. At this stage the stigma PoUen gram
is usually moist and sometimes sticky. A ripe Greatly mag-
stigma is said to be receptive. The stigma

may remain receptive for several hours or even days,
depending on the kind of plant, the weather, and how soon
pollen is received. When fertilization takes place, the
stigma dies. Observe, also, how soon the petals wither
after the stigma has received pollen.

263. POLLINATION.— The transfer of the pollen from an-
ther to stigma is known as pollination. The pollen may
fall of its own weight on the adjacent stigma, or it may be
carried from flower to flower by wind, insects, or other
agents. There may be self-pollination or cross-pollination.

264. Usualh^ the pollen is discharged by the bursting
of the anthers. The commonest method of discharge is
through a slit on either side of the anther (Fig. 202).
Sometimes it discharges through a pore at the apex, as in
azalea (Fig. 204), rhododendron, huckleberry, winter-
green. In some plants a part of the anther w^all raises or
falls as a lid, as in barbei-ry (Fig. 205), blue cohosh, May
apple. The opening of an anther (as also of a seed -pod)
is known as dehiscence. When an anther or seed -pod
opens it is said to dehisce.

130

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

I

204.

205.

Luther of

Barberry

azalea,

stamen

opening

with an-

by termi-

ther open-

nal pores.

ing by lids.

265. Most floivers are so constructed as to increase the
chances of cross-pollination. We have seen (261) that
the stigma may have the power of selecting foreign pol-
len. The commonest means of insuring cross-
pollination is the different times of maturinf/ of
stamens and pistils in the same floiver.
In most cases the stamens mature first :
the flower is then proterandrous. When
the pistils mature first the flower is
proterogynous. {Aner, atidr, is a Greek
root often used, in combinations, for
stamen, and gyne for pistil.) The dif-
ference in time of ripening may be an
hour or two, or it may be a day. The
ripening of the stamens and pistils at different times is
known as dichogamy, and flowers of such character are
said to be dichogamous. There is little chance for dicho-
gamous flowers to pollinate themselves. Many flowers are
imperfect ly dichoga moHS — some of the anthers mature simul-
taneously with the
pistils, so that there
is chance for self-
pollination in case
foreign pollen does
not arrive. Even
when the stigma re-
ceives pollen from
its own flower,
cross -fertilization
may result (261).
The hollyhock is

206. Flower of hollyhock ; proterandrous. nrotcrandrOUS

Fig. 206 shows a flower recently expanded. The center is
occupied by the column of stamens. In Fig. 207, showing
an older flower, the long styles are conspicuous.

POLLINATION

131

266. Some flowers have so developed as to prohibit self-
pollinatio)). Very irregular flowers are usually of this cate-
gory. Regular flow-
ers usually depend
on dichogamy and
the selective power
of the pistil to in-
sure crossing. Floiv-
ers ivhich are very
irregular and pro-
vided with nectar and
strong perfume are
usually pollinated by
insects. Gaudy col-
oider flower of hoUyhock. qys probably attract

insects in many cases, but perfume appears to be a greater
attraction. The insect visits the flower for the nectar (for
the making of honey) and may unknowingly carry the
pollen. Spurs and sacs in the flower
are nectaries, but in spurless flowers
the nectar is usually secreted in the
bottom of the flower-cup. Flowers
which are polli-
nated by insects
are said to be
entomophilous
("insect loving").
Fig. 208 shows a
larkspur. The en-
velopes are sepa-
rated in Fig. 209.
The long spur at
once suggests in-
sect pollination.
project into this spur, apparently serving to guide th^

208. Flower of larkspur.

The spur is a sepal

19. Envelopes of a larkspur.
There are five wide sepals, the
upper one being spurred.
There are four small petals.

Two hollow petals

132

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINAl ION

bee's tongue. The two smaller petals, in front, are differ-
ently colored and perhaps serve the bee in locating the
nectary. The stamens ensheath the pistils
^^^^%^^ (Fig. 210). As the insect stands on the
""* ' flower and thrusts his head into its center,

the envelopes are pushed downward and
outward and the pistil and stamens come
in contact with his abdomen. Since the

210. stamens of lark
spur, surrouiuliiit
the pistils.

flower is pro-

terandrous, the

pollen which the

pistils receive

from the bee's

abdomen must

come from an-
other flower.
Note a somewhat similar ar-
rangement in the toad -flax or
butter -and -eggs (Fig. 211).

267. Many flowers are polli-
nated hy the ivhul. They are said
to be anemophilous ( " wind-
loving"). Such flowers produce
great quantities of pollen, for
much of it is wasted. They usu-
ally have broad stigmas, which
expose large surface to the
wind. They are usually lacking
in gaudy colors and in perfume.
Grasses and pine ti-ees are typi-
cal examples of anemophilous
plants.

268. In many cases cross - pollination is insured
because the stamens and pistils are in different flowers
(diclinous, 257). When the staminate and pistillate

Toad-flax is an entomophilous
flower.

POLLINATION

133

n2. 8tamin;ite catkins of oak. Tlie pist
late flowers are in tlie leaf axi
and not shown in this picture.

flowers are on the same plant, e. g., oak (Fig. 212), bcocli,
chestnut, hazel, walnut, hickory, the plant is moncecious
("in one house")- When
they are on different plants
(poplar and willow, Fig.
213), the plant is dioecious
("in two houses"). Mona'-
cious and dioecious plants
may be pollinated by wind
or insects, or other agents.
They are usually wind -polli-
nated, although willows are
often, if not mostly, insect-
pollinated. The Indian corn
(Fig. 214) is a monoecious plant. The staminate flowei-s
are in a terminal panicle (tassel). The pistillate flow-
ers are in a dense spike (ear), inclosed in a sheath or
husk. Each "silk" is a style. Each pistillate flower pro-
duces a kernel of corn. Sometimes a few pistillate flowei-s
are borne in the tassel and a
few staminate flowers on the
tip of the ear.

269. Although most flowers
are of such character as to
insure or increase the chances
of cross -pollination, there are
some ivJiich absolutely forbid
crossing. These flowers are
usually borne beneath or on
the ground, and they lack
showy colors and perfumes.
They are known as cleis-
togamous flowers (meaning
lilt has normal showy flowers
which maybe inseet-pollinated, and in addition is provided

2i:j. Catkins of a willow. A staminate
flower is shown at s, and a pistil-
late flower at p. The staminate
and pistillate are on different
plants.

"hidden flowers"). The i

134

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

21) Iiiibni rem i
iii()ii(F( Kms pi lilt
\vi t li stciininate
rtoweis borne in
the tassel and
pistillate tlowers
borne in the ear.

with these degenerate flowers. Only a few
plants bear cleistogamous flowers. Hog-
peanut, common blue violet, fringed win-
tergreen, and dalibarda are the best
subjects in the northern states. Fig. 215
shows a cleistogamous flower of the hog-
peanut at a. Above the true roots, slen-
der rhizomes bear these flowers, which are
provided with a cal^'x and a curving
corolla which does not open. Inside are
the stamens and pistils. The pupil must
not confound the nodules on the roots of
hog -peanut with the cleistogamous flow-
ers : these nodules are concerned in the
appropriation of food. Late in summer
the cleistogamous flowers may be found
just underneath the mould. They never
rise above ground. The following sum-
mer one may flnd a seedling plant with
the remains of the old cleistogamous
flower still adhering to the root. The
hog-peanut is a common low twiner in
woods. It also bears racemes of small
Cleistogamous flowers usually appear
They seem to insure

pea -like flowers

after the showy flowers have passed

a crop of seed by a

method which expend

little of the plant'

energy. See Fig. 216

Review. — "What is fer-
tilization ? Pollination?
Define cross- and self-pol-
lination. Which gives the
better results, and how? What is meant by the selective power of the
pistil? Describe a receptive pistil. Exhibit one. By what agents is
cross-pollination secured? How la pollen discharged? What is meant

215. Hog-peannt, showing a leaf, and a
cleistogamous tiower at o.

KEVIEW ON POLLINATION

135

by the word dehiscence? What do you understand by dichogamy'
What is its oflfice? How frequent is it? What aieentomophilous flow-
ers ? Anemophilous ? Exhibit

or explain one of each. What
is the usual significance of ir-
regularity in flowers? Where is
the nectar borne ? What are
monoecious and dioecious plants?
Cleistogamous flowers?

Note. — The means by which
cross-pollination is insured are
absorbing subjects of study.
It is easy to give so much time
and emphasis to the subject,
however, that an inexperienced
observer comes to feel that per-
fect mechanical adaptation of
means to end is universal in
plants, whereas it is not. One
is likely to lose or to overlook
the sense of proportions and to
form wrong judgments.

In studying cross-pollina-
tion, one is likely to look first
for devices which prohibit the
stigma from receiving pollen
from its own flower, but the
better endeavor is to determine
whether there is any means to insure the application of foreign pol-
len ; for the stigma may receive both but utilize only the foreign
pollen. Bear in mind that irregular and odd forms in flowers, strong
perfume, bright colors, nectar, postulate insect visitors; that incon-
spicuous flowers with large protruding stigmas and much dry powdery
pollen postulate wind-transfer; that regular and simple flowers de-
pend largely on dichogamy, whether wind- or insect-pollinated. Most
flowers are dichogamous.

ne. C )tninon blue violet. The fnmUiar
flowers are shown, iiiitural size. Tlie
corolla is spurred. Late in the season,
eleistogamous flowers are often borne
on the surface of the ground. A small
one is shown at a. A nearly mature
pod is shown at 6. Both a and b are
one-third natural size.

Funuelform corollas

CHAPTER XX
PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

270. GENERAL FORMS. — Flowers vary wonderfully in
size, form, color, and in shapes of the different parts. These
variations are characteristic of the species or kind of
plant. The most variable part is the corolla. lu many
cases, the disguises of the parts are so great as to puzzle
botanists. Some of the special forms, notably in the
orchids, seem to have arisen as a means of adapting the
flower to pollination by particular kinds of insects. A few
well-marked forms are discussed below in order to illus-
trate how they may differ among themselves.

271. When in doubt as to the parts of any flower, look
first for the pistils and stamens. Pistils may be told by
the ovary or young seed -case. Stamens may be told by the
pollen. If there is but one series in the floral envelope,
the flower is assumed to lack the corolla: it is apetalous
(257). The calyx, however, in such cases, may look like a
corolla, e. g., buckwheat, elm, sassafras, smartweed, knot-
weed (Fig. 193). The parts of flowers usually have a
numerical relation to each other, — they are oftenest in 3's
or 5's or in multiples of these numbers. The pistil is
often an exception to this order, however, although its
compartments or carpels may follow the rule. Flowers on
the plan of 5 are said to be pentamerous ; those on the
plan of 3 are trimerous {merons is from Greek, signifying
"member"). In descriptive botanies these words are often
written 5-merous and 3 -merons.

272. The corolla often assumes very definite or distinct
forms when gamopetflous. It may have a long tube with

(136)

GENERAL FORMS

137

Fuunelform flower of
morning-glory.

a wide- flaring limb, when it is said to be funnelform,
as in morning-glory (Fig, 217) and pumpkin. If the tube
is very narrow and the limb stands
at right angles to it, the corolla is
salverform, as in phlox (Fig. 218).
If the tube is very short and the limb
wide -spreading and nearly circular in
outline, the corolla is rotate or wheel-
shaped, as in potato (Fig. 219).

273. A gamopetalous corolla or
gamosepalous calyx is often cleft in
such way as to make two prominent
parts. Such parts are said to be
lipped or labiate. Each of the lips

or lobes may be notched or toothed.
In 5-merous flowers, the lower lip is
usually 3-lobed and the upper one
2-lobed. Labiate flowers are char-
acteristic of the mint family (Fig.
197), and the family therefore is
called the Labiatae. (Properly, labi-
ate means merely lipped, without
specifying the number of
lobes; l^ut if is commonly

designate 2-lipped flowers.) Strongly 2-parted

polypetalous flowers may be said to be labiate;

but the term is oftenest used for gamopetalous

corollas.

274. Labiate gamopetalous flowers which are
closed in the throat (or entrance to the tube)
are said to be grinning or personate (personate
means masJied, or person-lil-e) . Snapdragon is a
typical example (Fig. 220); also toad-flax or
butter -and -eggs (Fig. 211), and many related plants.
Personate flowers usually have definite relations to insect

Rotate flowers of
potato.

lips or
used to

138

PAETICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

pollination. Observe how a bee forces his head into the
elosed throat of the toad-fiax.

275. LILY FLOWERS.— In plants of the lily
family (Liliace^) the flowers are typically
3-merous, having three sepals, three petals,
six stamens and a 3-carpelled pistil. The
parts in the different series are distinct from
I ^^^-"^ each other (excepting the carpels,) and mostly
I if/^ free from other series. The sepals and petals
M**V^^ are so much alike that they are distinguished
W n^/k c^^^^fiy ^y position, and for this reason the
/ /-^Sm^ words calyx and corolla are not used, but
f'miw tli^ floral envelopes are called the perianth

and the parts are segments. Flowers of lilies
and trilliums (Fig. 221) answer these details.
Not all flowers in the lily family answer in all
ways to this description. The term perianth
1^ is used in other plants than the Liliacea?.

■ 276. PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS. — In the

pea and bean tribes the flower has a special
form (Fig. 222). The
calyx is a shallow 5 -toothed tube.
The corolla is composed of four
pieces, — the large expanded part
at the back, known as the stand-
ard or banner ; the two hooded
side pieces, known as the wiitg^ ;
the single boat -shaped part be-
neath the wings, known as the Ixevl.
The keel is supposed to represent
two united petals, since the calyx
and stamens are in 5's or multi-
ples of 5; moreover, it is com-
posed of two distinct parts in cassia (Fig. 223) and
some other plants of the pea family. Flowers of the

220.

Personate flowers

of snapdragon.

221. Flower of trillium.

PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS

139

223.

Cassia flower,

showing the

separate

keel petals.

pea shape are said to be papil-
ionaceous (Latin papilio, a but-
terfly).

277. Flowers of the pea and
its kind have a pecu-
liar arrangement of
stamens. The sta-
mens are 10, of which
9 are united into a
tube which incloses
the pistil. The tenth
stamen lies on the upper edge
of the pistil. The remains of
these stamens are seen in Fig.
190. The stamens are said to
be diadelphous ( " in two brother-
hoods") when united into two
groups. Stamens in one group
w o u 1 d
be called

monadelphous, and this arrange-

nient occurs in some members of

the Leguminosa^ or pea family.

278. MALLOW FLOWERS. — The

flowers of the mallow family are

well represented in single holly-
hocks (Figs. 20G, 207) and in the

little plant (Fig. 224) known as

" cheeses." The peculiar structure

is the column formed by the united

filaments, the inclosed styles, and

the ring of ovaries at the bottom

of the style -tube. The flower is 224. comraon maiiow, a tr

5-merous. Count the ovaries. ?ruul'rii:es'u,:'na:nes'

They sit on the torus, but are ;eheeses"an.l" shirt button

222. Papilionaceous flowers
Sweet pea.

140

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

united in tlie center bj' tlie base of the style-tube, which
forms a cone-shaped body that separates from the torus
when the fruit is ripe. Do all of the ovaries develop, or
are some crowded out in the struggle for existence? The
calyx IS often reinforced by bracts, which look like an
extra calyx. These bracts form an involucre. An in-
volucre is a circle or whorl of bracts standing just below

a flower or a flower -
cluster. The umbel of
wild carrot (Fig. 180)
has an involucre below
it. A large family of
plants, known as the
Malvaceae or Mallow
family, has flowers simi-
lar to those of the holly-
hock. To this family
belong marsh mallow,
althea, okra, cotton. Ob-
serve that even though
the hollyhock is a great
tall- growing showy plant
and the "cheeses" is a
weak trailing inconspic-
uous plant, they belong
to the same family, as
shown by the structure

orchid family. of the floWCrS.

279. ORCHID FLOWERS.— The flowers of orchids vary
wonderfully in shape, size, and color. Most of them are
specially adapted to insect pollination. The distinguish-
ing feature of the orchid flower, however, is the union of
stamens and pistil in one body, known as the column. In
Fig. 225 the stemless lady's -slipper is shown. The flower
is 3-merons, One of the petals is developed into a great

225. A l!i(ij

OltCniD AND SPATIIE FLOWERS

141

22G. Jaek-inthe-pnl-
pit. -'Jack" is the
spjidix ; the "pul-
pit " is the spatlie.

sac or "slipper," known as the lip. Over the opening of
this sac the column hangs. The column is shov^n in de-
tail: a is the stigma; d is an anther, and there is another
similar one on the opposite side, but not
shown in the picture; & is a petal -like sta-
men, which does not produce pollen. In
most other orchids there is one good
anther. In orchids the pollen is usuallj^
borne in adherent masses, one or two
masses occupying each sporangium of the
anther, whereas in most plants the pollen
is in separate grains. These pollen -masses
are known technically as pollinia. Orchids
from the tropics are much grown in choice
greenhouses. Several species are common
in woods and swamps in the northern
states and Canada.

280. SPATHE FLOWERS.— In many plants, very simple
(often naked flowers) are borne in dense, more or less
fleshy spikes, and the spike is inclosed in or attended by a
leaf, sometimes coi'olla-like, known as a
spathe. The spike of flowers is techni-
cally known as a spadix. This type of
flower is characteristic of the great arum
family, which is chiefly tropical. The
commonest wild representatives in the
North are Jack -in -the -pulpit or Indian
turnip (Fig. 226) and skunk cabbage.-
In the former the flowers are all
diclinous and naked. The pistillate
flowers (comprising only a 1-loculed

227. Wild aster, with six . , , , , , „ ,

heads, each contain- ovary) are bomc at the base of the

ing several florets, gp^dix, and the stamiuate flowers (each

of a few anthers) are above them. The ovaries ripen

into red berries. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers

142

PARTICULAll FORMS OF FLOWERS

are perfect and have four sepals. The common calla lily
is a good example of this type of inflorescence.

281. COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS.— The head (anthodium)
or so-called "flower" of snnflower (Fig. 177), thistle, aster
(Fig. 227), dandelion, daisy,
chrysanthemum, golden -rod, is
composed of several or many
^^f^^, little floivers, or florets. These

^M4uV//m', florets are inclosed in a more

or less dense and nsualh- green

228. Head of pasture thistle, showiutj
the high prickly involucre.

•JJi). LouKitudinal section 230. Floret of
of thistle head. thistle.

involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 228) this involucre is
prickly. A longitudinal section (Fig. 229) discloses the
florets, all attached at bottom to a common torus, and
densely packed in the involucre. The pink tips of these
florets constitute the showy part of the head.

282. Each floret of the thistle (Fig. 230) is a complete
flower. At a is the ovary. At 6 is a much -divided plumy
calyx, known as the pappus. The corolla is long-tubed,
rising above the pappus, and is enlarged and 5-lobed at

COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS

the top, c. The style projects at e.
The five anthers are united about
the style in a ring at d. Such
anthers are said to be synge-
nesious. These are the various
parts of the florets of the Com-
positae. In some cases the pappus
is in the form of barbs, bristles, or
scales, and sometimes it is want-
ing. The pappus, as we shall see
later, assists in distributing the
seed. Often the florets are not all
alike. The corolla of those in the
„ outer circles

maybe devel- 2'51. cornflower or bachelor's but-
ton, in which the outer flo-
Oped into a rets are large and showy.

Jong, strap- lil-e or tuhular part, and
the head then has the
appearance of being one
flower with a border of
petals. Of such is the
sunflower (Fig. 177),
aster (Fig. 227), bache-
lor's button or corn
flower (Fig. 231), and
field daisy (Fig. 169).
These long corolla -limbs are called -^
rays. In some cultivated composites, v^
all the florets may develop rays, as in "^ ^ j'? ? =^j
the dahlia (Fig. 232), and chrysan- %V^lv>Jxi^
themum. In some species, as dande- ^PW/^>^!*^^ ^V
lion, all the florets naturally have
rays. Syngenesious arrangement of
anthers is the most characteristic sin-

„, » , £ -1 •- -^^- double larkspur

gle teature of the composites. compare with Fie. aoa.

2.')2. Double dahlias. In one, the florets have de-
veloped flat rays. In the other, the florets
appear as inroUed tubes.

144

PAKTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

283. ATTACHMENT OF THE FLOWER PARTS.— The parts
of the flower may all be borne directly on the torus, or
one part may be borne on another. With reference to

234. Narcissus or daffodil. Single flower at the rlglit ; double flowers at the left.

the pistil or ovary, the stamens and envelopes may be at-
tached in three ways : hypogynous, all free and attached
under the ovary, as in Fig. 187 ; perigynous, or attached
to a more or less evident cup surrounding the ovary, as

in Fig. 194; epigy-
nous, some or all of
them apparently
borne on the ovary,
as in Fig. 189.

284. DOUBLE FLOW-
ERS. — Under the
stimulus of cultiva-
tion and increased
food -supply, flowers
tend to become dou-
„ , . , , , , „ ble. True doubling

235. Petals arising from the staminal column of holly-
hock; and accessory petals in the corolla- whorl, arises in two ways,

DOUBLE FLOWEES

145

morphologically : (1) stamens or pistils may change to petals
(Fig. 235); (2) adventitious or (iceessori/ petals ma if arise
in the circle of pet-
als. Both of these
categories may be
present in the same
flower, as in Figs.
233, 234, and 235.
lu the full -double
hollyhock, the pet-
als derived from the
staminal column are
shorter and make
a rosette in the cen-
ter of the flower.
Other modifications
of flowers are sometimes known as doubling. For ex-
ample, double dahlias (Fig. 232), chrysanthemums and

sunflowers are forms in
which the disk flowers have
developed rays. The snow-
ball is another case. In the
wild plant (Fig. 236) the ex-
tei'iial flowers of the cluster
are large and sterile. In
t])(^ cultivated plant (Fig.
237) all the flowers have be-
come large and sterile. Hy-
drangea is a similar case.

236. The wild or original form of the snowball.
Outer flowers larger.

Review. — How do flowers
vary in form? How are the var-
ious parts determined iiv disguised
flowers? "What are 5-merong and
3-meron3 flowers? What are some of the common forms of gamo-
petalous corollas? Describe a labiate flower. Personate. Lily flower.
Papilionaceous flower. What are monadelpnous and diadelphous sta-

237. CnlMv.atpd sTiowball, in which nil the
flowprs in the clnstor ha'.'<> hocome
larae and showy.

146

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

lueus? Describe a mallow flower. Orcliid flower. Spathaeeous flower.

Compositous flower.

Spikes and flowers of
a. beardless wheat ; (I. I
wheat ; i.spikelet in liU

What do you understand by the terms hypo-
gynous, perigynous, epigynous? How do
flowers become double? What is meant
by doubling in compositous flowers? In
snowball and hydrangea?

Note. — The flowers of grasses are
too difiieult for the beginner, but if the
pupil wishes to understand them he may
begin with wheat or rye. The "head" or
spike of wheat is made up of flowers
and bracts. The flowers are in little
clusters or spifce?e^s( often called "breasts"
by farmers). One of the spikelets is
shown at b, in Fig. 238. Each spikelet
contains from 1-4 flowers or florets. The
structure of the flower is similar to that
of rye ( Fig. 239) and other grasses. The
pistil has 2 feathery pro-
truded stigmas (wind-
pollinated) shown at a,
Fig. 239. There are 3
stamens, b, b, b. There
are minute scales in the
base of the flower (not
shown in the ctit) which
probably represent true
floral envelopes. These
aie lodicules. The larger
parts, c, (1, are bracts.
The larger one, d, is the

wheit.
)earded
)oni : c.

Krain; f>, single spikelet on a ma „ . , i ..

ture head. The beards in d are noiccring ghtnte, and the

awns on the flowering ghimes. gjuaUgr, c, Is a palet.

The entire spikelet is also subtended by two brads
or gluDies; these are the two lowermost parts in h, Fig.
238. The glumes of the spikelet, and flowering glumes
and palets of the flowers, constitute the chaff when
•wheat is threshed.

so. Flower of rye.
a, stigma; b, b, b,
stamens; c
palet; d, flower-
ing glume.

CHAPTER XXI

FRUITS

285. The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known
as the fruit. It contains the seeds. If the pistil is simple,
or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment.
If the pistil is compound, or of more than one carpel, the
fruit usually has an equal number of compartments. The
compartments in pistil and fruit are known as locules
(from Latin locus, meaning "a place").

286. Tlie simplest kind of fruit is a ripened l-locided
ovary. The first stage in com-
plexity is a ripened 2- or
many - loculed ovary. Very
complex forms may arise by
the attachment of other parts
to the ovary. Sometimes the
style persists and becomes a
beak (mustard pods, dentaria,
Fig. 240) or a tail as in clema-
tis ; or the calyx may be at- ,
tached to tlie ovary; or the
ovary may \)v iinlx'dded in the
receptacle, and ovary and re-
ceptacle together constitute
the fruit ; or an involucre
may become a part of the
fruit, as possibly in the w;il-

nut and lliekory. and cup 24U. Ikntaria, or loothwort, iufruil.

of the acorn. The chestnut (Fig. 241) and the beech bear

a prickly involucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not

(147)

148

FRUITS

grown tast to it, and the involucre can scarcely be calit^d

a part of the fruit. A ripened ovary is a pericarp. A

pericarp to which other parts adhere, has been called an

,^^,^ accessory or rein-

^"'^'■' 287. Some fruits

are dehiscent, or split
open at maturity(264)
and liberate the seeds;
others are indehis-
cent, or do not open .
A dehiscent pericarp
is called a pod. The
parts into which such
a pod breaks or splits
are known as valves.
In indehiseent fruits
the seed is liberated
by the decay of the
envelope, or bj' the rupturing of the envelope by the ger-
minating seed. Indehiseent winged pericarps are known
as samaras or key-fruits (consult Chapter XXII). Maple,
elm (Fig. 93), and ash (Fig. 127) are examples.

288. PERICARPS. — The simplest pericarp is a dry, one-
seeded, indehis(ient body. It is known as an akene. A
head of akenes is shown in Fig. 242, and the
structure is explained in Fig. 191. Akenes may
be seen in buttercup, hepatica, anemone,
smartweed, buckwheat.

289. A 1-loculed pericarp which dehisces
along the front edge (that is, the inner edge,
next the center of the flower) is a follicle. The
fruit of the larkspur (Fig. 243) is a follicle.
There are usually five of th«se fruits (sometimes three
or four) in each larkspur flower, each pistil ripening into

241. Chestnuts are ripened ovaries. They are borne in
a prickly involucre. The remains of the catkin
of staminate flowers is seen in the picture.

242. Akenes
of butter-
cup.

248. Capsuies of datura or jlmson weed.
Septicidal and loeulicidal.

244. Young follicles ot
larkspur Normal
ly, the flower has 5
pistils, but some are
lost in the struggle
for existence.

2i,0. Apical dehis-
cence in capsule
of bouncing Bet.
Four columns of
seeds are attached
to a central shaft.

245. Follicles of
swamp m i ] k-
weed, not yet
dehisced.

un^^ I

3^8. Leeumeg nf perennial
or evtrlMtiUk iwa.

347. Legumee uf Lima beau,

49, Capsuies of
evening prim-
rose. Locali-

251. Three-carpelled fruit of horsechestniit.
Two locules are closing by abortion
of the ovules.

'2.')2. 253.

St. John's vort. Looulicidal poi

.septieidal. of day-lily.

i.'iS. Toad-flax
capsule.

Ha.sal dehiscence of
campanula capsule.

259. I ^

Shepherd's purse.

Silicle.

Wl. Two-yalvca pods of catalpOi

258. Large 2-valved
pods or capsules of
tecoma or truiupot-
oreeper.

PERICAEPS

151

lidU. lierries of the siiowberry.

a follicle (Fig. 244). If these pistils were united, a single
compound pistil would be formed. Columbine, peony, nine-
bark also have folli-
cles; milkweed, also
(Fig. 245).

290. A 1-loculed
pericarp which de-
hisces on both edges
is a legume. Peas
and beans are typi-
cal examples (Figs.
246, 247): in fact,
this character gives
name to the pea-fam-
ily, — Leguminosfe.
Often the valves of the legume twist forcibly and expel
the seeds, throwing them some distance. The word pod
is sometimes restricted to legumes, but it is better to use
it generically (as in 287) for all dehiscent pericarps.

291. A compound pod— dehiscing pericarp of two or
more carpels — is a capsule (Figs. 248, 249). There are

some capsules of one locule, but
they may have been compound
when young (in the ovary stage)
and the partitions may have
vanished. Sometimes one or
more of the carpels are uniformly
crowded out by the exclusive
growth of other carpels (Fig.
251) . The seeds or parts which
are crowded out are said to be
aborted.

292. There are several ways in which capsules dehisce or
open. When they break along the partitions (or septa),
the mode is known as septicidal dehiscence ; Fig. 252

Eggplant fruits. Kxamples of
large berries.

152

FRUITS

Plum ; example of a
dnipe.

shows it. In septicidal dehiscence the frnit separates into
parts representing the original carpels. These carpels
may still be entire, and they then
dehisce individually, usually along
the inner edge as if they were folli-
cles. When the compartments split
in the middle, between the partitions,
the mode is" loculicidal dehiscence
(Fig. 253). In some cases the dehis-
cence is at the top, when it is said to
be apical (although several modes of
dehiscence are here included). When
the whole top comes off, as in purslane and garden portu-
laca (Fig. 254) the pod is known as a pyxis. In some cases
apical dehiscence is by means of a hole or clefts (Fig.
255). In pinks and their allies the dehiscence does not
extend much below the apex (Fig. 250). Dehiscence may
be basal (Fig. 256). Two-loculed capsules which resem-
ble legumes in external appearance are those of catalpa
and trumpet -creeper (Figs. 257, 258).

293. The peculiar capsule of the mustard family, or
Cruciferae, is known as a silique when it is distinctly
longer than broad (Fig. 240), and a silicle when its
breadth nearly equals or exceeds its length (Fig. 259).
A cruciferous capsule is 2-carpelled, with a thin par-
tition, each locule containing seeds in two rows. The
two valves detach from below
upwards. Cabbage, turnip, mus-
tard, cress, radish, shepherd's
purse, sweet alyssum, wallflower,
honesty, are examples,

294. The pericarp may be
263. Aggregate fruits of raspberry, fleshy and indeJiiscent. A pulpy
pericarp with several or many seeds is a berry (Fig. 260).
To the horticulturist a J)erry is a small, soft, edible fruit,

PEKICAKPS

153

J6i. Strawberries. I'he edible part is ton

without particular reference to its structure. The botani-
cal and horticultural conceptions of a berry are, therefore,

unlike. In the botanical
\. /\^^tiGam^^L. sense, gooseberries, cur-

rants, grapes, tomatoes,
potato - balls and even
eggplant fruits (Fig. 261)
are berries; strawberries,
raspberries, blackberries
are not.

295. A fleshy pericarp
containing one relatively
large seed or stone is a
drupe. Examples are plum (Fig. 262), peach, cherry,
apricot, olive. The walls of the pit in the plum, peach,
and cherry are formed from the inner coats of the ovary,
and the flesh from the outer coats. Drupes are also
known as stone fruits.

296. Fruits whicli ai-e formed by the subsequent union
of separate pistils are aggregate fruits. The carpels in
aggregate fruits are usually more or less fleshy. In the
raspberry and blackberry flower, the pistils are essentially
distinct, but as the pistils ripen they cohere and form
one body. Fig. 263. Each of the carpels or
pistils in the raspberry and blackberry is a
little drupe, or drupelet. In the raspberry the
entire fruit separates from the torus, leaving
the torus on the plant. In the
blackberry and dewberry the fruit
adheres to the torus, and the two
are removed together when the
fruit is picked. ^^^---'

297. ACCESSORY FRUITS.— When ^es. Hip of rose.

the pericarp and some other part grow together, the fruit
is said to be accessory or reinforced (2^6). An example

266. Diagram of
a pear. The
reeeptacle is
a, and the
pericarp b.

267. Apple flowers.

268. Young »ppl» fruiti.

ACCESSORY FRUITS

155

269. Pepo of squash.

is the strawberry (Fig. 264). The edible part is a greatly
enlarged torus, and the pericarps are akenes imbedded
ill it. These akenes are commonly called seeds.

298. Various kinds of reinforced fruits have received
special names. One of these is
the hip, characteristic of roses,
Fig. 2C5. In this case, the torus
is deep and hollow, like an urn,
and the separate akenes are borne
inside it. The mouth of the re-
ceptacle may close, and the walls
sometimes become flesh}^ : the
fruit may then be mistaken for
a berry. The fruit of the pear,

apple, and quince is known as a pome. In this case the
five united carpels are completely buried in the hollow
torus, and the torus makes most of the edible part of the
ripe fruit, while the pistils are represented by the core
(Fig. 266). Fig. 267 shows the apple in bloom; Fig. 268
shows young fruits, only one having formed in each clus-
ter. In the lower lefthand flower of Fig. 267, note that the
sepals do not fall. Observe the sepals on the top of the
torus (apex of the fruit) in Fig. 268. In the plum flower
(Fig. 194), note that the pistil sits free in the hollow
torus: imagine the pistil and torus grown together, and
something like a pome might result. The fruit of
pumpkin, squash (Fig. 269), melon and cucumber
is a pepo. The outer wall is torus, but the sepals
do not persist, and the fruit is normally 3-loculed
(although the partitions may disappear as the fruit

. . 270. Winged

ripens). seed of

299. GYMNOSPERMOUS FRUITS. — In pines, sp^cl^^
spruces, and their kin, there is no fruit in the sense in
which the word is used in the preceding pages, because
•there is no ovary. The ovules are naked or uncovered, in

156

FRUITS

the axils of the scales of the young cone, and they have
neither style nor stigma. The pollen falls directly on the
month of the ovule. The ovule ripens into a seed (Fig
270) which is usually winged. Because the
ovule is not borne in a sac or ovary, these
plants are called gymnosperms
(Greek for "naked seeds").
All the true cone-bearing plants
'/C-fVc^ "• are of this class; also certain
"," -'''i. other plants as red cedar, juni-
-'!-' ^;i^ per, yew. The plants are monoe-
-*"": cious or sometimes dioecious.
\^ rs^^ The staminate flowers are mere
; v^-" naked stamens borne beneath
1^ scales, in small yellow catkins

soon fall. The pistillate
are naked ovules beneath
on cones which persist
271, 272).

71. Pistillate cone
of Norway spruce.
This tree is one of
the commonest of
planted ever-
greens.

scales,

which

flowers

scales

(Figs.

Pistillate

cone of white
pine.

Review. — What is a fruit, as understood by the botanist ? What
is a loeule ? What are simple, compound, and accessory or reinforced
fruits ? Define pericarp. Pod. What are dehiscent and indehiscent
fruits? What is a samara or key-truit ? Define akene. Follicle.
Legume. Capsule. Explain septicidal and loculieidal dehiscence.
Apical dehiscence. Basal deniscenee. What is a pyxis? Silique ?
Silicle ? Berry? Drupe? Drupelet? Explain an aggregate fruit.
Explain the fruit of strawberry, rose, apple, squash. What is the
fruit of pines and spruces?

Note. — Fully mature fruits are best for study, particularly if it is
desired to see dehiscence. For comparison, pistils and partially
grown fruits should be had at the same time. If the fruits are not
ripe enough to dehisce, they may be placed in the sun to dry. In the
school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The speci-
mens may be kept in glass jars.

The following diagram will aid the pupil to remember some of
the fruits to which particular names have been given. He must be
warned, however, that the diagrnin does not express the order of evo-
ViUon of the various kinds. He should nlso remember that there are

REVIEW ON FRUITS

157

many common fruits which answer to no definition, and these slioiild
be studied and compared with the forms which have received definite
names.

I>ry pericarps . .

Pericarps -

Simple

Compound
(capsufe)

r berry
Flesluj pericarps \ drupe

[ drnpelet
-^fjfn'eiia te pericarj)s

akene (indehiscent)
follicle (dehiscent)
legume (dehiscent)

septicidal dehiscence
loeulicidal dehiscence
apical deliiscencc.

[Pyxis

ArcEssoRY Fruits

r strawberry
J hip
I Dome

Gymnospermous or Cone Fruits

Autumn fruits.

CHAPTER XXII

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

300. It is to the plant's advantage to have its seeds
distributed as widely as possible. It has a better chance
of surviving in the struggle for exis-
tence. It gets away from competition.
Many seeds and fruits are of such
character as to increase (
their chances of wide dis- »\
persal. The commonest Vi
means of dissemination l| \ ,

may be classed under four w A

Explosive fruits of l^eads : explosive fruits ; /|

pod\'s%hownaT?.''Thf transportation Inj wind; /f

6\'^ThTsr™ltx'?e°of\he transportation Inj hirds ; \J

pod is seen at a. \)UTS *^V

801. EXPLOSIVE FRUITS.— Some pods >k

open with explosive force and scatter the ^^s

seeds. Even beans and everlasting peas (Fig. %,

246) do this. More marked ^

examples are the locust, ^/^/

witch hazel , garden balsam , AM^
wild jewel weed or impa- /^/f
tiens, violet, and the oxalis JF
(Fig. 273). The oxalis is 274. winsed seeds

1 • of catalpa.

common in several species
in the wild and in cultivation. One
of them is known as wood -sorrel.
Fig. 273 shows the common yellow
oxalis. The pod opens loculicidally
(158)

Wind-blown fruits
of dandelion.

WIND - TRAVELERS

159

The elastic tissue suddenly contracts when dehiscence
takes place, and the seeds are thrown violently. The
squirting cucumber is easily grown in a garden (procure
seeds of seedsmen), and the fruits discharge the seeds
with great force, thj-owing them many feet.

276. Thistledo

liifjh in tlie air.

302. WIND-TRAVELERS.— Wind-transported seeds are
of two general kinds; — those which are provided with
wings, as the flat seeds of catalpa (Fig, 274) and cone-
bearing trees (Fig. 270) and the samaras of ash, elm,

160

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

277. Tlie expanding balloons of the milkweed.

tulip-tree, ailanthus, and maple; those which have feathery
buoys or parachutes to enable them to float in the air.
Of the latter kind are the fruits of many composites, in
which the pappus is copious and soft. Dandelion (Fig.

DISPERSAL BY BIRDS

161

275) and thistle (Fig. 27G) are examples. The silk of
the milkweed (Fig. 277) has a similar office, and also the
wool of the cat-tail (Fig. 278). Recall the cottony seeds
of the willow and poplar.

303. DISPERSAL BY BIRDS.— Seeds of berries and of
other small fleshy fruits are carried far and wide by-
birds. The pulp is digested, but the seeds are not
injured. Note how the cherries, raspberries, blackberries,

and Juueberries spring up in the fence-
rows, where the birds rest. Some ber-
ries and drupes persist far into winter, when they sup-
ply food to cedar birds, robins, and the winter birds. Fig.
279. Red cedar is distributed by birds. Many of these
pulpy fruits are agreeable as human food, and some of
them have been greatly enlarged or "improved" by the
arts of the cultivator. Consult paragraph 379 for the
process by which such result may have been attained

304. BURS.— Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks,
and hairs which adhere tc the coats of animals and to

162

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

clothing. The burdock has an
involucre with hooked scales
containing the fruits inside
Fig. 280. The clotbur is also
an involucre. Both are compos
itous plants, allied to thistles
but the whole head, rather than
the separate fruits, is trans
ported. In some compositous
fruits the pappus takes the form
of hooks and spines, as in the
" Spanish bayonets " and " pitch-
forks." Fruits of various kinds
are known as "stick tights," as
of the agrimony and hound's
tongue. Those who walk in
the woods in late summer and
fall are aware that plants have
means of disseminating them-
selves. Fig. 281. If it is im-
possible to identify the burs

which one finds on clothing, the seeds may be planted and

specimens of the plant may

then be grown.

Review. — "What advantage is it
to the plant to have its seeds
widely dispersed ? What are the
leading ways in which fruits and
seeds are dispersed? Name some ex-
plosive fruits. Describe wind-travel-
ers. "What seeds are carried by birds t
Describe some bur with which you
are familiar.

Note. — This lesson will suggest
other ways in which seeds are trans- ■"''''WJ^(«raWwl?Bl^^
ported. Nuts are buried by squirrels 280. The cow is carrying burdocks

,iiiil:-''"''l'"

"' ' " ''"' ' ' ' ;l;.

1

\

/ ,

/ [

\

: ii

m

:

,,,

\

. \ Ub. I

270. Drupes of the blaek haw, loved
of robins in winter.

fiEVlEW ON SEED DISPERSAL

163

for food, but if they are not eaten they may grow. The seeds of
nnnv yilants aie blown on the snow. The old stalks of weeds, stand-
ing through the winter, may serve to disseminate the
plant. Seeds are carried by water down the streams
and along shores. About woollen mills strange plants
often spring up from seed brought in the fleeces.
Sometimes the entire plant is rolled for miles before
the winds. Such plants are "tumble-weeds." Exam-
are Eussian thistle (Fig. 99), hair-grass or
tumble-grass (Panieum capillare), cyclone plant (Cy-
clolomaplatyphyllum), and white amai'anth
(Amaranthus albus). About seaports
strange plants are often found, having been
JM sti. ilui^ I luk-. introduced in the earth that is used in sliips

for ballast. These plants are usuallv known as "ballast plants." Most
of them do not persist long.

A ziiK' lined box may be fitted to the school-room window and used
us a receptacle for plants. A faucet under one corner will drain off the
accmnnlated water. Geranium, coleus, grevillea, some begonias, and
other plants may be grown in the conditions which are present in most
schoolrooms. If the plants become sick, take them to the florist's

CHAPTER XXIIl
GERMINATION

305. THE SEED.— We have found (259) that by the pro-
cess of fertilization a seed is formed. The seed contains a
miniature plant or embryo. The embryo usually has three
parts which have received names: the little steralet or
caulicle; the seed-leaf or cotyledon (usually 1 or 2) ; tlie
bud or plumule lying between or above the cotyledons.
These parts are well seen in the common bean (Fig. 282),

particularly when the seed has been soaked
for a few hours. One of the large cotyledons
— comprising half of the bean — is shown at r.
The caulicle is at c. The plumule is at a.
bean*^r,cotyie^ The cotyledons are attached to the caulicle
a^'piuinuye'^ ^ at /: tMs poitit IS the first node, and the
hrstno e. plumule IS ttt the second node.

306. Every seed is provided with food, to support the
germinating plant. Commonly this food is starch. Tlie
food may be stored in the cotyledons, as in bean, pea,
squash; or outside the cotyledons, as in castor bean, pine,
Indian corn. When the food is around the embryo, it is
usually called endosperm.

307. The embryo and endosperm are inclosed within a
covering made of two or more la3'ers and known as the
seed-coats. Over the point of the caulicle is a minute hole
or a thin place in the coats known as the micropyle.
This is the point at which the pollen -tube entered the
forming ovule and through which the caulicle breaks in
germination. The micropyle is shown at m in Fig. 283.
The scar where the seed broke from its funiculus or stalk

(164)

THE SEED 165

is the hilum. It occupies a third of the length of the bean
in Fig. 283. The hilum and micropyle are always present
in seeds, but they are not always close together. In many
cases it is difficult to identify the micropyle in the dormant
seed, but its location is at once shown by
the protruding caulicle as germination be-
gins. Opposite the micropyle in the beau
(at the other end of the hilum) is an eleva- Extemaf parts of
tion known as the raphe. This is formed •^®*"-

by a union of the funiculus or seed -stalk with the seed-
coats and through it food was transferred for the develop-
ment of the seed, but it is now functionless.

308. Seeds differ wonderfully in size, shape, color, and
other characteristics. They also vary in longevity. These
characteristics are peculiar to the species or kind. Some
seeds maintain life only a few weeks or even days, whereas
others will "keep" for ten or twenty years. In special
cases, seeds have retained vitality longer than this limit,
but the stories that live seeds, several thousand years old,
have been taken from mummies are unfounded.

309. GERMINATION.— The embryo is not dead: it is
only dormant. WJicn supplied until moisture, warmth, and
oxygen (air), it awakes and groivs: this growth is germina-
tion. The embryo lives for a time on the stored food,
but gradually the plantlet secures a foothold in the soil
and gathers food for itself. When the plantlet is finally
able to shift for itself, germination is complete.

310. The germinating seed first absorbs wafer, and
swells. The starchy matters gradually become soluble. The
seed-coats are ruptured, the caulicle and plumule emerge.
During this process the seed respires freely, throwing off
carbon dioxid (CO2). Fill a tin box or large -necked bottle
with dry beans or peas, then add water; note how much
they swell. Secure two fruit- jars. Fill one of them a
third full of beans and keep them moist. Allow the

166

GEEMINATION

^^^i^

other to remain empty. In a day or two insert a lighted
splinter or taper into each. In the empty jar the taper
burns: it contains oxygen.
In the seed jar the taper
goes out: the air has been
replaced by carbon dioxid.
Usually there is a percepti-
ble rise in temperature in a
mass of germinating seeds.

311. The caulicle usually
elongates, and from its lower

284. The youug roots are not able to gain end rOOtS are emitted. The

a foothold. elongating caulicle is known

as the h3T)ocotyl ("below the cotyledons"). That is, the
hypocotyl is that part of the stem of the plantlet lying
between the roots and the coty-
ledon. The general direction oj
the young hypocotyl or emerging
caulicle is downwards. As soon
as roots form it becomes fixed,
and its subsequent growth tends
to raise the cotyledons above the
ground, as in the bean. When
cotyledons rise into the air, germ-
ination is said to be epigeal
("above the earth"). Bean and
pumpkin are examples. When 286. Gemiiiuitiouof beau.

the hypocotyl does not elongate greatly
and the cotyledons remain under
ground, the germination is hypogeal
( " beneath the earth " ) . Pea and
runner bean are examples.
When the germinating seed lies on a
liard surface, as on closely compacted soil, the hypo-
cot vl and rootlets mav not be able to seeiire a foothol<l

285. Cotyledons of g
rating bp;\n spread apart gCQ^lgt

to show elongating cauli-
cle and plumule.

GERMINATION OF BEAN

167

Fig. 284. Try this

be-

288. Germination of eas
tor bean. Endospern

and they assume grotesque forms,
with peas and beans.

312. The first internode above the cotyledons
tweeu the cotyledons and the plumule — is
the epicotyl. It elevates the plumule into the
air, and tlie pi immle- leaves expand into the ^^j sprouting of
first true leaves of the ^ castor bean.
plant. These first true leaves, however,
may be very unlike the later leaves.

313. GERMINATION OF BEAN. — The
common bean, as we have seen (Fig.
282) has cotyledons which occupy all
the space inside the seed -coats. When
the hypocotyl or elongating caulicle
emerges, the plumule-leaves have begun
to enlarge and to
unfold (Fig. 285).

The hypocotyl elongates rapidly. One

end of it is held by the roots. The

other is held by the seed -coats in the

soil. It, therefore, takes the form of

a loop, and its central part "comes

up" first (a, Fig. 286). Presently

it draws the cotyledons out of the

seed-coats, and then it straightens

and the cotyledons expand. These

cotyledons or "halves of the beau,"

persist for some time, (&, Fig. 286).
They often become green and probably
perform some function of foliage. Be-
(tause of its large size, Lima bean shows
all these parts well.

314. GERMINATION OF CASTOR BEAN.
— In the castor beau the hilum and
niicropyle are at the smaller end (Fig.

290. Germination complete
in castor bean

istor l,ean. Endo-
sperm at o, o ; cotyle-
<li>n» at b.

168

GERMINATION

291. Sprout-
ing Indian
corn. Hi-
lum at h ;
mieropyle
at d.

!I2. Kernel of
Indian corn.
Caulicle at
b; cotyledon
a ; plumule

287). The beau "comes up" with a loop, which indicates
that the hypocotj-l greatly elongates. On examining a
germinating seed, however, it will be found
that the cotyledons are contained inside a fleshy
body or sac («, Fig. 288). This sac is the en-
dosperm. To its inner surface the
thin, veiny cotyledons are ver}" closely
appressed, absorbing its substance
(Fig. 289). The cotyledons increase
in size as they reach the air (Fig,
290), and become functional leaves.

315. GERMINATION OF
INDIAN CORN.— Soak kernels
of corn. Note that the mieropyle and hilum
are at the smaller end (Fig. 291).
Make a longitudinal section through
the narrow diameter ; Fig. 292 shows
it. The single cotyledon is at a, the
caulicle at b, the plumule at p. The
cotyledon remains in the seed. The food is stored
both in the cotyledon and as endosperm, chiefly the lat-
ter. The emerging shoot is the plumule, with a sheath-
ing leaf ip, Fig. 293). The root is emitted from
the tip of the caulicle, c. The caulicle is held in a
sheath (formed mostly from the seed -coats), and
some of the roots escape through the

^_ upper end of this sheath {m, Fig.

tp^^V^^^'" 293). The epicotyl elongates, par-
'^f(^w^ ticularly if the seed is

planted deep or if it
is kept for some time
confined. In Fig. 294
the epicotyl has elon-
gated from n to p. The true plumule -leaf is at o, but
other leaves grow from its sheath. In Fig. 295 the roots

293. Indian corn.
Caulicle at c : roots
emerging at m; plumule at p.

204. Indian corn. o. plumule;
n to p, epicotyl.

KEVIEW ON GERMINATION

169

are seen emerging from the two ends of the eaulicle-
sheath, c, w; the epicotyl has grown to 2^; the first
plumnle-leaf is at 0.

Eeview. — What does a seed contain? What do you understand
by the embryo? What are its parts? Where is the food in the seed?
What are the seed-coats? What is
the micropyle? Hilum? How may
the position of the micropyle be
determined? How do seeds differ?
With what are these differences as-
sociated? What is germination?
Under what conditions does a seed
germinate? When is germination
complete? What is the first phenom-
enon of germination? Explain the
relation to O and CO2. Define hypo -
cotyl. Epicotyl. Hypogeal and epi-
geal germination. What becomes
of the plumule? Explain germina-
tion in a seed which you have
studied.

Note. — Few subjects connected
with the study of plant-life are so
useful in school -room demonstra-
tions as germination. The pupil
should prepare the soil, plant the
seeds, water them, and care for the
plants. Plant in pots or shallow
boxes. Cigar-boxes are excellent.
The depth of planting should be
two to three times the diameter of
the seeds. It is well to begin the
planting of seeds at least ten days
in advance of the lesson, and to
make four or five different plantings
at intervals. A day or two before the study is taken up, put seeds to
soak in moss or cloth. The pupil then has a series from swollen
seeds to complete germination, and all the steps can be made out.
Dry seeds should be had for comparison.

Good seeds for study are those detailed in the lesson, — bean,
Cftstor bean, cor^. Make drawings and notes of all the events in the

Germination is complete, p, top
of epicotyl ; o, phimiile-leaf ; m,
roots; c, lower roots.

. Natural planting of the fruits of Norway maple. 297. The beginning

NOTE ON GERMINATION

17]

srermination. Note the effects of unusual conditions, as planting too
deep and too shallow and different sides up. For hypogeal germina-
tion, use the garden pua, scarlet runner or Dutch case-knife bean,
acorn, horse-chestnut. Squash seeds are excellent for germination
studies, because the cotyledons become green and leafy and germina-
tion is rapid. Its germination, as also that of the scarlet runner
boan, is explained in "Lessons with Plants." Onion is excellent,
except that it germinates too slowly. In order to study the root
development of germinating plantlets, it is well to provide a
deeper box with a glass side against which the seeds are planted.

Observe the germination of any seed which is common about the
premises. Where elms and maples are abundant, the germination of
tiieir seeds may be studied in lawns and along fences. Figs. 296 to
303 suggest observations on the Norway maple, which is a common
ornamental tree.

When studying germination, the pupil should note the bifferences
in shape between cotyledons and plumule-leaves and between plu-
mule-leaves and the normal leaves of cbe plant. Fig. 143. Make
drawings.

Germinatiou of beans and peas.

CHAPTER XXIV

PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

316. The plants thus far studied produce flowers; and
the flowers produce seeds by means of which the plant
is propagated. There are other plants, however, which
produce no seeds, and these plants are more numerous
than the seed -bearing plants. These plants propagate by
means of spores, which are generative cells, usually simple,
containing no emhryo. These spores are very small, and
sometimes are not visible to the naked eye.

317. Prominent amongst the spore -propagated plants
are ferns. The common Christmas fern (so-called be-
cause it remains green during winter) is shown in Fig.
304. The plant has no trunk. The leaves spring di-
rectly from the ground. The leaves of ferns are called

fronds. They vary in shape, as

'V %. ftlh other leaves do. Compare Fig.

. v^"^ «h- ^ Jfflll "'■^^ ^^^ ^^® pictures in this chap-

•'v^^^^^^^^^m}. ter. Some of the fronds are seen

' *■ to be narrower at the top. If

these are examined more closely

(Fig. 305) it will be seen that the

leaflets are contracted and are

densely covered beneath with

■^ciA rv, • ♦^.o f^ T^^ t.^ brown bodies. These bodies are

304. Christmas fern.— Dryoptens
acrostichoides ; known also as COllcctioUS of Sporangia Or SpOrC^

^''"^'^'^- cases.

318. The sporangia are collected into little groups,
known as sori (singular, sorus) or fruit -dots. Each
sorus is covered with a thin scale or shield, known as an

(172)

STRUCTUKE OF FERNS

173

indusium. This indusium separates from the frond at
its edges, and the sporangia are exposed. Not all ferns
have indusia. The polypode (Figs.
306, 307) does not: the sori are
naked. In the brake (Fig. 308) and
maiden -hair (Fig. 309) the edge of
the frond turns over and forms an
indusium. In some ferns (Fig. 310)
an entire frond becomes contracted
to cover the sporangia. In other
cases the indusium is a sac -like cov-
ering, which splits (Fig. 311).

319. The sporangium or spore -
case of a fern is a more or less

IT, IT J 1, .,1 305. Fruiting frond of Christ-

globular body and usually with a „,as fern. Sori at a. One

stalk (Fig. 307). If contains fJte somswitii its indusium, at t.
spores. When ripe it bursts and the spores are set
free. Lay a mature fruiting frond of any fern on white
paper, top side up, and allow it to remain in a dry, warm
place. The spores will discharge on the paper.

320. In a moist, warm place the spores germmate.
They produce a small, flat, thin, green, more or less

heart-shaped membrane (Fig.

312) . This is the prothallus.

Sometimes the prothallus is

an inch or more

/ across, but oft-

1 ener it is less

than one-fourth

this size. It is

commonly un-

307. Sori and sporan- knOWU CXCCpt
gium of polypode. ^q botauists.

Prothalli may often be found in greenhouses where ferns
are grown. Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or

306. Common polypode fern.-
Polypodium vulgare.

174 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

on the firm soil of undisturbed pots and beds. Or spores
may be sown in a damp, warm place.

321. On the under side of the prothallus two kinds
of organs are borne. These are the archegonium and

the antheridium. These organs are mi-
nute specialized parts of the prothallus.
Their positions on a particular prothal-
lus are shown at a and h in Fig. 312,

3u8. The brake fniits , . r. i

underneath the revo- but lu somc lems tlicy are OH Separate
lute edges of the leaf. prothalU (plant dioBcious) . The sperm-
cells escape from the antheridium and in the water which
collects on the prothallus are carried to the archegonium,
tvhere fertilization taJces place. From a fertilized arche-
gonium a plant grows, and this plant becomes the "fern."
In most cases the prothallus dies soon after the fern
plant begins to grow.

322. The fern plant, arising from the fertilized egg in
the archegonium, becomes a perennial plant, each year
producing spores from its fronds, as we have seen; but
these spores — which are merely detached special kinds of
cells — produce the prothallic phase of the fern plant, from
which new individuals
arise. A fern is fer-
tilized but once in its
lifetime. This alterna-
tion of phases is called
the alternation of gen-
erations. The first oi-
fertilized plant is the
gametophyte ; the sec-
ond or non - fertilized '^''^' ^®''^^®'^ margins of a maidenhair frond.

plant is the sporophyte {phyton is Greek for "plant").

323. The alternation of generations runs all through
the vegetable kingdom, although there are some groups
of plants in which it is very obscure or apparently want-

WHAT A FLOWER IS

175

mg. It is very marked in ferns and mosses. In alga?
(including the seaweeds) the gametophyte makes the
"plant," as the non-botanist knows
it. There is a general tendency, In
the evolution of the vegetable lingdoni,
for the gametophyte to lose its rela-
tive importance and for the sporophyte
to hecome larger and more highly de-
veloped. In the seed -bearing plants
the sporophyte generation is the only
one seen by the non -botanist. The
gametophyte stage is of short dura-
tion and the parts are small : it is

confined to the time SIO. Fertile and sterile froml?
„ p ..,. .. of the sensitive fern.

or fertilization.

324. The sporophyte of seed -plants,
or the "plant" as we know it, produces
spores — one kind being called pollen-
grains and the other kind embryo-sacs.
The pollen -spores are borne in sporan-
A sac like indusium. ^.-^^ ^ff\nQh. are United into what are
en lied anthers. The embryo -sac, which contains the egg-
cell, is borne in a sporangium known as an ovule. A
gametophytic stage is present in
both pollen and embryo -sac: fer-
tilization takes place, and a sporo-
phyte arises. Soon this sporo-
phyte becomes dormant, and is
then known as an embryo. The
embryo is packed away within
tight-fitting coats, and the entire
body is the seed. When the con-
ditions are right the seed grows,
and the sporophyte grows into herb, bush, or tree. The
utility of the alternation of generations is not understood.

(fllnp'^tm

312. Prothallus of a fern. Enlarged.
Archegonia at a; antheridia at 6.

176 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

325. It happens that the spores of seed-beariug plants
are borne amongst a mass of specially developed leaves
known as floivers : therefore these plants have been known
as the flowering plants. Some of the leaves are devel-
oped as envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as spore-
bearing parts, or sporophylls (stamens, pistils). But the
spores of the lower plants, as of ferns and mosses, may
also be borne in specially developed foliage, so that the
line of demarcation between flowering plants and flower-
less plants is not so definite as was once supposed. The
one definite distinction between these two classes of plants
is the fact that one class produces seeds and the other
does not. The seed -plants are now often called sperma-
phytes, but there is no single coordinate term to set off
those which do not bear seeds. It is quite as well, for
popular purposes, to use the old terms, phenogams for
the seed -bearing plants and cryptogams for the others.
These terms have been objected to in recent years be-
cause their etymology does not express literal facts {phe-
nogam refers to the fact that the flowers are showy, and
cryptogam to the fact that the parts are hidden), but the
terms represent distinct ideas in classification. Nearly
every word in the language has grown away from its
etymology. The cryptogams include three great series
of plants — the Thallophytes or algee, lichens and fungi,
the Bryophytes or moss -like plants, the Pteridophytes or
fern -like plants. In each of these series there are many
families. See Chapter XXV.

Review. — What is a spore? Describe the appearance of some
fern plant which you have studied. What are the spores and spor-
angia? What is a sorus? Indusium? What grows from the spore?
How does the new "fern" plant arise? What is meant by the phrase
"alternation of generations"? Define gametophyte and sporophyte.
Desci'ibe the alternation in flowering plants. Explain the flower from
this point of view. What is the significance of the word sperma-
phytet Contrast phenogam and cryptogam.

NOTE ON CKYPTOGAMS

177

Note. — All the details of fertilization and of the development of
the generations are omitted from this book, because they are subjects
for specialists and demand more ti-ainiug in research methods than
the high-school pupil can properly give to plant study. Cryptogams
are perhaps as many as phenogams, and for this reason it has been
urged thnt they are most p.roper subjects for study in the school.
Thia position is untenable, however, for the best plant subjects for
youth are those which mean most to his life. It is said, also, that
they are best for the beginner because their life-processes are rel-
atively simple in many eases; but the initial study of plants should
be undertaken for the purpose of quickening the pupil's perception
of common and familiar problems rather than for the purpose of
developing a technical knowledge of a given science

Tree ferns are iiiluibitants of the tropics.
They are often grown in choice greenhouses.

CHAPTER XXV

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

The special advanced pupil who has acrinired skill in
the use of the compound microscope, may desire to make
more extended excursions into the cryptogaraous orders.
The following plants, selected as examples in various
groups, will serve as a beginning.

ALG^

The algae comprise most of the green floating "st-um" which
3overs the surface of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of
plants are often called "frog spittle," Others are attached to stones,
pieces of wood, and other objects submerged in streams and lakes,
and many are found on moist ground and on dripping
rocks. Aside from these, all the plants commonly known
as seaweeds belong to this category. They ai-e iiiliab-
itants of salt water.

The simplest forms of algas consist of a single
spherical cell, which multiplies by repeated division or
fission. Most of the forms found in fresh water are fila-
mentous, i. e., the plant-body consists of long threads,
either simple or branched. Such a plant-body is termed
a thallus. This term applies to the vegetative body of
all plants which are not differentiated into stem and
leaves. Such plants are known as tliullophytes (325). All
algae contain chlorophyll, and are able to assimilate car-
bon dioxid from the air. This distinguishes them from
813. Strand of the fungi.

spirogyra, Sniroqiira. — One of the most common forms of the

snowing ^ *'''

the ehloro- green algae is spirogyra (Fig. 313). This plant usually

There"*^ a forms the greater part of the floating green mass on
nueleusata. ponds. The filamentous character of the thallus can be
seen with the naked eye or with a hand-lens, but to study it care-
fully a microscope magnifying two hundred diameters or more should

(178)

A LGiE

179

be used. Tlie thread is divided into long cells by cross-walls wbieh,
according to the species, are either straight or curiously fokled (Fig.
314). The chlorophyll is arranged in beautiful spiral bands near
the wall of each cell. From the character of these bands the phint
takes its name. Each cell is provided with a nucleus
and other protoplasm . The nucleus is suspended near
the center of the cell, a. Fig. 313, by delicate strands
of protoplasm radiating toward the wall and terminat-
ing at certain points in the chlorophyll band. The
remainder of the protoplasm forms a thin layer lining
the wall. The interior of the cell is filled with
cell-sap. The protoplasm and nucleus cannot be
easily seen, but if the plant is stained with a dilute
alcoholic solution of eosin (146) they become clear.

Spirogyra is propagated vegetatively by the break-
ing off of parts of the threads, which continue to grow
as new plants. Resting- spores, which may remain
dormant for a time, are formed by a process known as
cunjugation. Two threads lying side by side send out
short projections, usually from all the celis of a long
series (Fig. 314). The projections or processes from
opposite cells grow toward each other, meet and fuse,
forming a connecting tube between the cells. The
protoplasm, nucleus, and chlorophyll band of one cell
now pass througli this tube, and unite with the contents of the other
cell. The entire mass then becomes surrounded by a thick cellulose
wall, thus completing the resting -spore, or zygospore (Fig. 314, s).

Vancheria is another alga common in shallow water and on damp
soil. The tliallus is much branclied, but the threads are not divided
by cross-walls as in spirogyra. The plants are attached by means of
colorless root-like organs which are much like the root-hairs of the
higher plants: these are rhizoids. The chlorophyll is in the form of
grains scattered through the thread.

Vaucheria has a special mode of vegetative reproduction by means
of swimming spores or swarm-spores. These are formed singly in a
short, enlarged lateral branch known as the sporangium. When the
sporangium bursts the entire contents escape, forming a single large
swarm-spore, which swims about by means of numerous lashes or cilia
on its surface. The swarm-spores are so large that they can be seen
with the naked eye. After swimming about for some time they coma
to rest and germinate, producing a new plnnt.

The formation of resting- spores of vaucheria is accomplished

1. Conjugation
of spirogyra.
Ripe zygospores
on the left; a,
connecting
tubes.

180

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

thallus.

by means of special organs, oogonia Fig. 315. o, and antheridia Fig.
315, a. Both of these are specially developed branches from the
The antheridia are nearly cylindrical, and curved toward
the oogonia. The upper part
of an autheridium is cut off
by a cross-wall, and within
it numerous ciliated sperm-
cells are formed. These escape
by the ruptured apex of the
antheridium. The oogonia are
more enlarged than the an-
theridia and have a beak-like pro,iection turned a little to cne side
of the apex. They are separated from the thallus-
thread by a cross-wall, and contain a single large
green cell, the egg-cell. The apex of the oogonium
is dissolved, and through the opening the sperm-cells
enter. Fertilization is thus accomplished. After ferti-
lization the egg-cell becomes invested with a thick wall
and is thus converted into a resting- spore, the oospore 316.

/ T7I- 0 1/.V Kipe oospore

(Fig. 316), of vaufheriu.

^15. Thread of vauclieria with oogouia
and antheridia.

FUNGI

Some forms of fungi are familiar to every one. Mushrooms and
toadstools, with their varied forms and colors, are common in fields,
woods, and pastures. In every household the common moulds are
familiar intruders, appearing on old bread, vegetables, and even within
tightly sealed fruit jars, where they form a felt-like layer dusted over
with blue, yellow, or black powder (181). The
strange occurrence of these plants long mysti-
fied people, who thought they were produc-
tions of the dead matter upon whicii they grew,
but now we know that a mould, like any other
plant, cannot originate spontaneously; it must
start from something which is analogous to a
seed. The "seed" in this ease is n, spore. Tiie
term spore is applied to the minute reproduc-
tive bodies of all flowerless plants. A spore is
a very simple structure, usually of only one
plant cell, whose special function is to repro-
duce the plant. A spore may be produced by a vegetative process
(^ growing out from the ordinai-y plant tissues), or it may be the re-
sult of a fertilization process (316).

317. JIucor mucedo, show
ing habit.

FUNGI

181

318. Spores of nmcor
some germinating.

Mould. — One of these moulds, Mucor mucedo, which is very com-
mon on all decaying fruits and vegetables, is shown in Fig. 317, some-
what magnified. When fruiting, this mould appears as a dense mass
of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect from the
fruit or vegetable upon which it is growing.

The life of this mueor begins with a minute
rounded spore [a, Fig. 318), which lodges on the
decaying material. When the spore germinates,
it sends out a delicate thread which grows rapidly
in length and forms very many branches which
soon permeate every part of the substance on which
the plant grows {b, Fig. 318). One of these threads is termed a hypha.
All the threads together form the mycelinm of the fungus (180). The
mycelium disorganizes the material in which it grows, and thus nour-
ishes the mucor plant (Fig. 317). It corresponds physiologically to
the roots and stems of other plants.

When the mycelium is about two days old it begins to form the
long fruiting stalks which we first noticed. To study them, use a
compound microscope magnifying about two hundred diameters. One
of the stalks, magnified, is shown in Fig. 319, a. It consists of a
rounded head, the sporangium, sp, supported on a long, delicate stalk,
the sporangiophore, st. The stalk is separated from the sporangium
by a wall which is formed at the base of the sporangium. This wall,
however, does not extend straight across
the thread, but it arches up into the spor-
angium like an inverted pear. It is known
as the columella, c. When the sporangium
is placed in water, the wall immediately
dissolves and allows hundreds of spores,
which were formed in the cavity within
the sporangium, to escape, 6 All that is
left of the fruit is the stalk, with the pear-
shaped columella at its summit, c. The
spores which have been set free by the
hreaking of the sporangium wall are now
scattered by the wind and other agents.
Those which lodge in favorable places be-
gin to grow immediately and reproduce
the fungus. The others soon perish.

The mucor may continue to reproduce itself in this way indefi-
nitely, but these spores are very delicate and usually die if they do not
tall on favorable ground, so that the fungus is provided with another

Mupor. a, sporangium;

b, sporangium bursting;

c, columella.

182

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

means of carrying itself over unfavorable seasons, as winter. Tliis is
accomplished by means of curious thick- walled resting- spores or zygo-
spores. The zygospores are formed on the mycelium buried within
the substance on which the plant grows. They originate in
the following manner : Two threads which lie near to-
gether send out short branches, which grow toward each
other and finally meet (Fig. 320). The walls at
the ends, a, then disappear, allowing the contents
to flow together. At the same time, however, two
other walls are formed at points farther back, h, b,
separating the short section, c, from the remainder
of the thread. This section now increases in size
and becomes covered with a thick, dark brown wall
ornamented with thickened tubercles. The zygo-
spore is now mature and, after a period of rest,
it germinates, either producing a sporangium di-
rectly or growing out as mycelium.

The zygospores of the mucors form one of the
most interesting and instructive objects among the
lower plants. They are, however, very difficult to
obtain. One of the mucors, Sporodinia grandis,
may be frequently found in summer growing on
toadstools. This plant usually produces zygospores,
which are formed on the aerial mycelium. The zygospores are large
enough to be recognized with a hand-lens. The material may be
dried and kept for winter study, or the zygospores may be prepared
for permanent microscopic mounts in the ordinary way.

fVillow mildew.— Most of the moulds are saprophytes (181).
There are many other fungi which are paras'tic on living plants and
animals. Some of them have i-nteresting and complicated life-his-
tories, undergoing many changes bofore the original spore is again
produced. The willow
mildew and the common
rust of wheat will serve
to illustrate the habits of
parasitic fungi.

The willow mildew,
Uncinula salicis, forms
white downy patches on
the leaves of willows (Fig. 321). These patches consist of numer-
ous interwoven threads which may be recognized as the mycelium
of the fungus. The mycelium in this case lives on the surface of the

320. Muoor showing
formation of zygo-
spore on the riglit ;
germinating zygo-
spore on the left.

321. Colonies of willow mildew.

FUNGI

183

Summer-spores of
mildew.

illow

leaf and nourishes itself by sending short branches into the cells of
the loaf to absorb food-materials from them.

Numerous sunrnier-sjwrcs are formed on short erect branches all
over the white surface. One of these branches is shown in Fig. 322.
When it has grown to a certain length,
the upper part begins to segment or di-
vide into spores which fall and are scat-
tered by the wind. Those falling on
other willows reproduce the fungus there.
This process continues all summer,
but in the later pai-t of the season pro-
vision is made to maintain the mildew
through the winter. If some of the white
patches are closely examined in July or
August, a number of little black bodies
will be seen among the threads. These little bodies are called peri-
thecia, shown in Fig, 323. To the naked eye they appear as minute
specks, but when seen under a magnification of 200 diameters they

present '. very interesting appear-
ance. They are hollow spherical
bodies decorated around the out
side wilh a fringe of crook-like
hairs. The resting-spores of the
willow mildew are produced in
sacs or asci inclosed within the
leathery perithecia. Fig. 324
shows a cross -section of a peri-
thecium with the asci arising
from the bottom. The spores
remain securely packed in the
perithecia. They do not ripen in
the autumn but fall to the ground
with the leaf and there remain
securely protected among the dead foliage. Tiie following spring
they mature and are liberated by the decay of the
perithecia. They are then ready to attack the un-
folding leaves of the willow and repeat the vork
of the summer before.

Wheat rust. — The development of some of the
rusts, like the common wheat rust (Puecinia gra-
minis), is even more interesting and complicated •''-■♦. Section through

,, ii i. » i, -ij TT-i i. x • 1 jierithepinm of wxi-

than thnr of tlie mildews. \\ heat rust is also a low mildew.

323. Perithecium of willow mildew.

184

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

325.
ori containing teleu-
tospores of wheat

true parasite, affecting wheat and a few other grasses. The mycelium
here cannot be seen by the unaided eye, for it consists of threads
which are present within the host plant, mostly in the intercellular
spaces. These threads also send short
branches, or haustoria (180), into the
neighboring cells to absorb nutriment.

The resting- spores of wheat rust are
produced in late summer, when they may
be found in black lines breaking through
the epidermis of the wheat-stalk. They
are formed in masses, called sori (Fig.
325), from the ends of numerous crowded
mycelial strands just beneath the epider-
mis of the host. The individual spores
are very small and can be well studied
only with high powers of the microscope
(X about 400). They are brown two-
celled bodies with a thick wall (Fig.
326). Since they are the resting- or win-
ter-spores, they are termed teleutospores
("completed spores")- They usually do not fall, but remain in the
sori during winter. The following spring each cell of the teleutospore
puts forth a rather stout thread, which does not grow more than sev-
eral times the length of the spore and terminates in a blunt
extremity (Fig. 327). This germ-tube, pi-nmiicclium, now
becomes divided into four cells by cross-walls, which are
formed from the top downwards. Each cell gives rise to a
short, pointed branch which, in the course of a few hours,
forms a single small spore at its summit. In Fig. 327 a
germinating spore is drawn to show the basidium, h, divided
into four cells, each producing a short branch
with a little sporidium, s.

A most remarkable circumstance in the
life-history of the wheat rust is the fact that
the mycelium produced by the teleutospore
can live only in barberry leaves, and it fol-
lows that if no barberry bushes are in
the neighborhood the sporidia finally perish.
Those which happen to lodge on a barberry
bush germinate immediately, producing a mycelium which enters the
barberry leaf and grows within its tissues. Very soon the fungus
procluces a qew kind of spores on the barberry leaves. These are

326.
Teleutospore
of wheat rust.

FUNGI

185

328. Leaf of barberry with cluster-cups.

called cecidiospores. They are formed in long ehnins in little fringed
cups, or cecidia, which appear in groups on the lower side of the leaf
(Fig. 328). These orange or yellow eeeidia are termed cluster-cups.
In Fig. 329 is shown a cross-section of one of the cups, outlining
^^,,,^ the long chains of spores, and the

mycelium in the tissues.

The a?eidiospores are formed in
the spring, and after they have been
set free some of them lodge on wheat
or other grasses, where they germi-
nate immediately. The germ-tube
enters the leaf through a stomate,
whence it spreads among the cells of the wheat plant. During sum-
mer one-celled wedospores ("blight spores") are produced in a man-
ner similar to the teleutospores. These are capable of germinating
immediately and serve to disseminate the fungus during the summer
on other wheat plants or grasses (Fig. 330). Late in the season,
teleutospores are again produced,
completing the life cycle of the
plant.

Many rusts beside Puecinia
graminis produce different spore-
forms on different plants. The
phenomenon is called hetcroecism,
and was first shown to exist in
the wheat rust. Curiously enough,
the peasants of Europe had ob-
served and asserted that barberry
bushes cause wheat to blight long
before science explained the rela-
tion between the cluster-cups on
barberry and the rust
on wheat. The true
relation was actually
.j.jQ demonstrated, as has

Uredospores of since been done for many other rusts on their respective
wheat rust. j^^^^g ^^ sowing the jecidiospores on healthy wheat
plants and thus producing the rust. The cedar apple is another rust,
producing the curious swellings often found on the branches of red
cedar trees. In the spring the teleutospores ooze out from tbe
"apple" in brownish yellow masses. It has been found that these
attack various fruit trees oroducing aecidia on their leaves.

3L'n. Sect

througli a cluster-cup on
barberry leaf.

186 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

LICHENS

Lichens are so coiniuon everywhere that the attention of the
student is sure to be drawn to them. They grow on rocks (Fig. 346),
trunks of trees, old fences, and on the earth. They are too difficult
for beginners, but a few words of explanation may be useful.

Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate tribe
of plants, and many species have been described. They are now known
to be the green cells of various species of algse, overgrown and held
together (imprisoned) by the mycelium of various kinds of fungi.
The result is a growth unlike either component. This association of
alga and fungus is usually spoken of as syvibiosis, or mutually help-
ful growth, the alga furnishing some things, the fungus others, and
both together being able to accomplish work which neither could do
independently. By others this union is considered to be a mild form
of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga.
As favorable to this view, the facts are cited tliat each component is
able to grow independently, and that under such conditions the algal
cells seem to thrive better than when imprisoned by the fungus.

Lichens propagate by means of soredia, which are tiny parts
separated from the body of the thalhis, and consisting of one or more
algal cells overgrown with fungous threads. These are readily
observed in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually asco-
spores, which are always the product of the fungous element, and
which reproduce the lichen by germinating in the presence of algal
cells, to which the hyphse immediately cling.

Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places and, by means
of acids which they secrete, they attack and slowly disintegrate even
the hardest rocks. By makitig thin sections of the thallus with a
sharp razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is
easy to distinguish the two components in many lichens.

LIVERWORTS

The liverworts are peculiar, flat, green plants usually found grow-
ing on wet cliffs and in other moist, shady places. They frequently
occur in greenhouses where the soil is kept constantly wet. One of
the commonest liverworts is Marchantia polymorpha, two plants of
which are shown in Figs. 331, 332. The plant consists of a flat ribbon-
like thallus which creeps along the soil, becoming repeatedly forked
as it grows. The end of each branch is always conspicuously notched.
There is a prominent midrib extending nlong the center of each

LIVERWORTS

187

branch of the thallus. On the under side of the thallus, especially
along the midrib, there are numerous rhizoids which serve the pur-
l>ose of roots, absorbing nourishment from the earth and holding the
jilaiit in its place. The upper surface of the thallus is divided into
minute rhombic areas which can be seen with the naked eye. Each
of these areas is perforated by a small breathing pore or stomate which

Plants of mareliantia.

leads into a cavity just beneath the epidermis. This space is sur-
rounded by clilorophyll-bearing cells, some of which stand in rows
from the bottom of the cavity (Fig. 333). The delicate assimilating
tissue is thus brought in close communication with the outer air
through the pore in the thick protecting epidermis.

At various points on the midrib are little cups which contain
small green bodies. These bodies are buds or gemmcB which are
outgrowths from the cells at the bottom of the cup. They become
loosened and are then dispersed by the rain to other places where

they take root and grow into new ^

plants.

The most striking organs on the
thallus of marchantia are the peculiar
stalked bodies shown in Figs. 331,
332. These are termed archegonio-
phores and antheridiophores or recepta-
cles. Their structure and function are
very interesting, but their parts are so r:::$^=^

minute that they can be studied only 333. Section of thallus of marchantia.
with the aid of a microscope magnify- Stomate at a.

ing from 100 to 400 times. Enlarged drawings will guide the pupil.

The antheridiophores are fleshy lobed disks borne on short stalks
(Fig. 331). The upper surface of the disk shows openings scarcely

188

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

visible to the naked eye. However, a section of the disk, such as is
drawn in Fig. 334, shows that the pores lead into oblong cavities in
the receptacle. From the base of each cavity there arises a thick
club-shaped body, the antheridium. Within the antheridium are
formed many sperm-cells which are capable of swimming about in

334. Section through antheridiophore of marchantia, showing antheridia.
One antheridium more magnified.

water by means of long lashes or cilia attached to them. When the
antheridium is mature, it bursts and allows the ciliated sperm-cells
to escape.

The archegoniophores are also elevated on stalks (Fig. 332). In-
stead of a simple disk, the receptacle consists of nine or more finger-
like rays. Along the under side of the rays, between delicately fringed
curtains, peculiar flask-like bodies, or archegonia, are situated. The
archegonia are not visible to the naked eye. They can be studied only
with the microscope (X about 400). One of them much magnified is
represented in Fig. 335. Its principal parts are the long vccJc, a, and
the rounded venter, b, inclosing a large free cell — the egg-cell.

We have seen that the antheridium at maturity discharges its

sperm-cells-

335. Archegon-
ium of mar-
chantia.

These swim about in the water provided by the dew and
rain. Some of them finally find their way to the arche-
gonia and egg-cells, which are thus fertilized, as pollen
fertilizes tiie ovules of higher plants.

After fertilization the egg-cell develop? into the
spore -capsule or sporogonium. The
mature spore-capsules may be seen
in Fig. 336. They consist of an
oval spore-case on a short stalk, the
base of which is imbedded in the
tissue of the receptacle from which
it derives the necessary nourishment
for the development of the sporo-
gonium. At maturity the sporo-
gonium is ruptured at the apex,

336. Arehegoniophore
with sporogonia of
marchantia.

MOSSES

337. Spores and elaters of marchantia.

setting free the spherical spores together with numerous filaments
having spirally thickened walls (Fig. 337). These filaments are
called elaters. When drying, they exhibit rapid movements by
means of which the spores are scattered. The spores germinate
and again produce the thallus of marchantia.

MOSSES

If we have followed carefully the development of marchantia, the
study of one of the mosses will be comparatively easy. The mosses
are more familiar plants than the liverworts. They grow on trees,
stones, and on the soil both in wet and dry places. One of the com-
mon larger mosses, known as Polytrichum commune, may serve as an
example. This plant grows on rather dry knolls, mostly in the borders
of open woods, where it forms large beds. In dry weather these beds
have a reddish brown appearance, but when moist they form beautiful
green cushions. This color is due, in the first instance, to the color
of the old stems and leaves and, in the second instance, to the peculiar
action of the green living leaves under the influence of changing mois-

'^^'li

Section of leaf of Polytrichum commune.

ture -conditions. The inner surface of the leaf is covered with thin,
longitudinal ridges of delicate cells which contain chlorophyll. These
are shown in cross-section in Fig. 338. All the other tissue of the
leaf consists of thick-walled, corky cells which do not allow moisture
to penetrate. When the air is moist the green leaves spread out,
exposing the chlorophyll cells to the air, but in dry weather the mar-

190

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

3;!9. Section through a receptacle of
Polytrichum commune, showing
paraphyses and antheridia.

propriately, "moss flowers.

gins of the leaves roll iuward, and the leaves fold closely against

the stem, thus protecting the delicate assimilating tissue.

The antheridia and archegonia of polytrichum are borne in groups

at the ends of the branches on different plants (many mosses bear
both organs on the same branch). They
are surrounded by involucres of charac-
teristic leaves termed pcriduL'lia or peri-
ch(etal leaves. Multicellular hairs known
as paraphyses are scattered among the
archegonia and antheridia. The invo-
lucres with the organs borne within
them are called receptacles or, less ap-
As in marchantia, the organs are very

minute and must be highly magnified to be studied.

The antheridia are borne in broad cup-like receptacles on the

antheridial plants (Fig. 339). They are much like the antlieridia of

marchantia, but they stand free among the para-
physes and are not sunk in cavities. At maturity

they burst and allow the sperm-cells or spermat-

ozoids to escape. In polytrichum when the re-
ceptacles have fulfilled their

function the stem continues

to grow from the center of

the cup (Fig. 340, m). Tlie

archegonia are borne in otlier

receptacles on different plants.

They are like the archegonia

of marchantia except that they

stand erect on the end of the

branch.

The sporogonium which

develops from the fertilized

egg is shown in Fig. 340, a, h.

It consists of a long, brown

stalk bearing the spore-case at

its summit. The base of the

stalk is embedded in the end

of the moss stem by which

it is nourished. The capsule

is entirely inclosed by a hairy

cap, the calypira, h. The ealyptra is really the

archegonium, which, for a time, increases in size

340. Polytrichum commune; ^ A fertile plants,
one on the left in fruit; m, antheridial plant.

remnant of tho
to aceommodale

MOSSES — FERNS

191

and protect the young {^rowing capsule. It is finally torn loose and
carried up on the spore-case. The mouth of the capsule is closed by
a circular lid, the operculum, having a conical projection at the center.
The operculum soon drops, or it may be removed, displaying a fringe
of sixty-four teeth guarding the mouth of the capsule.

This ring of teeth is known as the peristome. In most mosses
the teeth exhibit peculiar hygroscopic movements, i. e., when moist
they bend outwards and upon drying curve in toward the mouth of
the capsule. This motion, it will be seen, serves to disperse tne
spores gradually over a long period of time.

Not the entire capsule is filled with spores. There are no elaters,
but the center of the capsule is occupied by a columnar strand of tis-
sue, the columella, which expands at the mouth into a thin, mem-
branous disk, closing the entire mouth of the capsule except the
narrow annular chink guarded by the teeth. In this
moss the points of the teeth are attached to the margin
of the membrane, allowing the spores to sift out through
the spaces between them.

When the spores germinate they form a green,
branched thread, the jn-otonema. This gives rise directly
to moss plants, which appear as little buds on the thread-
When the moss plants have sent their little rhizoids into
the earth, the protonema dies, for it is no longer neces-
sary for the support of the little plants.

FERNS

The adder's tongue fern, Ophioglossum vulgatuni,
shown in Fig. 341, is one of a peculiar type of ferns be-
longing to the family Ophioglossaeete. This plant has a
short, subterranean stem from which a single frond un-
folds each year. The roots arise near the bases of the
leaves. The leaves are curiously divided into a sterile
and a fertile part, the latter being a sporophyll. The
sterile part has a tongue-shaped blade which is narrowed
to a petiole. The young leaves are inclosed by the Opiiio :lossum
sheathing base of the petiole. The growth is very vulgutum-
slow, so that it takes several years for each leaf to develop before it
is ready to unfold. During its development each leaf is sheathed by
the one preluding it.

The sporopiiyll is elevated on a stalk arising near the base of the
sterile part of the frond. The upper part consists of a spike bearing

192 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

two rows of large spore-cases or sporangia sunk in the tissue. At
maturity the sporangia open by transverse slits and discharge the
inclosed spores.

When the spores germinate they produce subterranean tuberous
prothallia which, however, are rarely found, and of whose history
little is known. They develop archegonia and antheridia beneath the
surface of the ground, and the fertilized egg produces the young fern
plant.

The generations of the true ferns are explained in Chapter XXIV.

EQUISETUMS, OR HORSETAILS

There are about twenty-five species of equisetum, constituting
the only genus of the unique family Equisetacese. Among these E.
arvense is common on clayey and sandy soils.

In this species the work of nutrition and that of spore-production
are performed by separate shoots from an underground rhizome. The
fertile branches appear early in spring. The stem, which is 3 to G
inches high, consists of a number of cylindrical, furrowed internodes
each sheathed at the base by a circle of scale-leaves. The shoots are
of a pale yellow color. They contain no chlorophyll, and are nour-
ished by the food stored in the rhizome (Fig. 342).

The spores are formed on specially developed fertile leaves or
sporophylls which are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the
stalk (Fig. 342, a). A single sporophyll is shown at i. It consists
of a short stalk expanded into a broad, mushroom-like head. Several
large sporangia are borne on its under side.

The spores formed in the sporangia are very interesting and beau-
tiful objects when examined under the microscope (X about 200).
They are spherical, green bodies each surrounded by two spiral bands
attached to the spore at their intersection, s. These bands exhibit
hygroscopic movements by means of which the spores become entan-
gled, and are held together. This is of advantage to the plant, as we
shall see.

All the spores are alike, but some of the prothallia are better
nourished and grow to a greater size than the otheis. The large pro-
thallia produce only archegonia while the smaller ones produce
antheridia. Both of these organs are much like those of the ferns,
and fertilization is accomplished in the same way. Since the pro-
thallia are usually dioecious the special advantage of the spiral bands
holding the spores together so that both kinds of prothallia may be in

EQUISETUMS — IROETES

193

close proximity, will be easily understood. As in the fern, the fertil-
ized egg-cell develops into an equisetum plant.

The sterile shoots, Fig. 342, st, appear much later in the season.
They give rise to repeated whorls of angular or furrowed branches.
The leaves are very much reduced scales, situated at the internodes.
The stems are provided with chlorophyll and act as assimilrting

342. Equisetum urvense; s<, sterile slioot ; /, fertile shoot showing the
spike at rt; i, sporophyll, with sporangia; s, spore.

tissue, nourishing the rhizome and the fertile shoots. Nutriment
is also stored in special tubers developed on the rhizome.

Other species of equisetum have only one kind of shoot — a tall,
hard, leafless, green shoot with the spike at its summit. Equisetum
stems are full of silex and they are sometimes used for scouring floors
and utensils: hence the common name " scouring rush."

ISOETES

Isoetes or quillworts are usually found in water or damp soil on
the edges of ponds and lakes. The general habit of a plant is seen
in Fig. 343, a. It consists of a short, perennial stem bearing numer-
ous erect, quill-like leaves witli broad sheathing bases. The plants
are commonly mistaken for young grasses.

194

STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

Isoetes bears two kinds of spores, large roughened ones, the
mac7-osporcs, and small ones or microspores. Both kinds are formed
in sporangia Lome in an excavation in the expanded base of the leaf.
The macrospores are formed on the outer, and the
microspores on the inner leaves. A sporangium in
the base of a leaf is shown at h. It is partially
covered by a thin membrane, the velum. The mi-
nute triangular appendage at the upper end of the
sporangium is called the ligule.

The spores are liberated by the decay of the
sporangia. They form rudimentary prothallia of
two kinds. The microspores produce prothallia
with autheridia, while the macrospores produce
prothallia with archegonia. Fertilization takes
place as in the mosses or liverworts, and the fer-
tilized egg-cell, by continued growth, gives rise
again to the isoetes plant.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

In Chapter XXIV the alternation of
generations and the terms gametophyte and
sporoplujte were explained. In many of
the plants just studied, this alternation
is more clearly and beautifully marked
than in any other groups of plants. In
each generation, the reproductive body
[egg or spore) gives rise to a new plant-
form or generation different from the
parent generation. In the liverworts the
thallus produces the egg. The fertilized egg-cell is the beginning of
a new plant, but this new plant is not like the thallus which produced
the egg, nor does it lead an independent existence. It is the sporo-
gonium, which, although it is attached to the thallus, is not a mor-
phological part thereof. Tiie sporogonium produces spores. It is the
sporophyte generation of the plant, and not until the spores germinate
is the thallus again produced. The same is true in the mosses. The
"moss plant" produces the egg-cells. It is the gametophyte. The
fertilized egg-cell develops into the sporophyte — the spore-case and
its stem. We can pull the stem of the capsule out of the moss plant
and thus separate the sporophyte from the gametophyte.

Isoetes showing habit of
plant at a; b, base of leaf
showing sporangium, vel-
um, and ligule.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS 195

The fungi and algfe are omitted from these remarks. In the
former there is nothing analogous to the sporophyte and the gamete -
phyte. In algas lil^e spirogyra, evidently the whole plant is a ga-
metophyte and, since the zygospore germinates directly into a new
gametophyte, there is probably no sporophyte. In some other algfe
traces of a sporophyte have been found, but the discussion of these
would lead too far for the present purpose.

In the ferns the egg- cells are developed on the prothallus.
Tliis then is the gametophyte. It corresponds to the thallus of mar-
chantia and to the "moss plant," but it has become much reduced.
The plant developing from the fertilized egg-cell is the large and
beautiful " fern plant " differentiated into stems and leaves. Since the
u ru plant produces the spores directly, it is the sporophyte and
corresponds to the shaft and capsule of the mosses. Both sporophyte
and gametophyte lead an independent existence.

As we pass on to equisetum and isoetes, the sporophyte is still
more conspicuous in comparison with the gametophyte. In iso6tes the
prothallus (gametophyte) is very rudimentary, consisting only of a
few cells remaining within the spore, which merely bursts to expose
the archegonia or to allow the sperm-cells to escape. Moreover, the
spores have become differentiated into micro- and macrospores eorre-
si)onding to the pollen and embryo-sac of higher plants.

This gradual increase of the sporophyte and reduction of the
gametophyte can be traced on through the flowering plants in which
"the plant" is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is represented
simply by a few cells in the germinating pollen grain, and in the
embryo -sac.

One of the tuft-mosses (Leucobryum).

Outside and inside views of a tuft, the latter showing the radiating

siems extending to the light.

344. Desert vegetation.
The tree eaoti grow only in special regions. A

315. Plants seize the tirs.1 opijortuiiily to irrow. Palis:i<les of tlie Hud

PART II— THE PLANT IN IIS
ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER XXVI
WHERE PLANTS GROW

326. ENVIRONMENT. — The circuinstancps and surround
ings in which an organism lives constitute its environ-
ment. The environment comprises effects of soil, vtois-
fitrc, teiuperature, altitmle, sunligJd, competition with
(iiiiiiHils and other plants, and tlie like. An organism is
greatly influenced by the environment or conditions in
which it lives. Not only must a plant live and grow and
multiply its kind, but it must adapt itself to its environ-
ment.

327. The particular place in which a plant grows is
known as its habitat (i. e., its "habitation"). The habi-
tat of a given plant may be a swamp, hill, rock, sand
phiin, forest, shore. The plant inhabitants of any region
are known collectively as its flora. Thus w^e speak of the
flora of a meadow or a hill or a swamp, or of a country.
The word is also used for a book describing the plants of
a region (as in Part IV).

328. PLANTS GROW WHERE THEY MUST.— The plant is
not able to choose its environment. It has no volition.
Its seeds are scattered : only a few of them fall in pleas-
ant places. The seeds make an effort to grow even
though the places are not favorable; and so it happens

(197)

198

WHERE PLANTS GROW

that plants are often found in places which are little adapted
to them. See the feni growing on a brick in Fig. G9.
Plants must grow in unoccupied places.

329. Not only do the seeds fall in unfavorable places,
but most places are already occupied. So it comes that
plants grow where they must, not where they will.
Thei-e are, of course, certain limits beyond which plants
cannot grow. Water lilies can thrive only in water,
and white oaks onl}^ on dry land, but it is seldom that
either the water lily or the oak finds the most congenial
place in which to grow. Fine large plants of the lily
and strong giant trees of the oak are so infrequent, as
compared with the whole number, that we stop to
admire them.

330. Originally, plants were aquatic, as animals w^re.
Much of the earth was sea. Many plants are now aquatic,
and the larger number of these — as algas and their kin —
belong to the lower or older forms of plant life. Many
plants of higher organization, however, as the water lilies,
have taken to aquatic life. True aquatic plants are those

which always live in
water, and which die
^^ ii'hfn the water dries

''^•~ri:\ I'P- They are to be

-s-i;;^^^ distinguished from
those which live on
shores or in swamps.
Aquatic plants may
be wholly immersed
or under water, or
partly emersed or
standing above the water. Most flowering aquatic plants
come to the surface to expand their flowers or to ripen
their fruits. Some aquatic plants are free-swimming, or
not attached to the bottom. Of this kind are some utric-

K^i^l>s?p^'

346. The lichen grows on the hard rocli.

AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS 199

ularias, or bladder -worts. In some waters, particularly
in the ocean, there are enormous quantities of free -swim-
ming microscopic life, both animal and vegetable, which
is carried about by currents : this is known under the
general name of planMon (Greek for "wandering" or
"roaming").

331. The general tendency has been for plants to
become terrestrial, or land- inhabiting. Terrestrial plants

347. Sphasnum bog, green anil living on top, but dead anil dying underneath.
Sphagnum moss is used l)y luirserymen and florists as packing materi.al for plants.

often grow in wet places, but never in water throughout
their entire life ; of such are swamp, hog, and marsh
plants. Some plants have the ability to grow in standing
water when young and to become terrestrial as the water
dries up. Such are amphibious. Some buttercups are
examples.

332. Some plants grow in very special soils or special
localities, and consequently are infrequent or are confined
to certain well-marked geographical regions. Fig. 344.
Common plants are those ivMch are able to accommodate

200 WHERE PLANTS GROW

themselves to widely different environments. Weeds are ex-
amples. Many plants have become so specialized in habitat
as to be parasitic, saprophytic, or epiphytic. Chap. XIII.

333. Common plants often grow in most unusual
and difficult places. Note that some weeds grow not. only
in fields, bnt often gain a foothold in chinks in logs, on
rotting posts, in crotches of trees, on old straw stacks, in
clefts and crannies of rocks. In moist climates, as Eng-
land, plants often grow on thatched roofs.

334. Plants may be said to be seeking new places in
which to grow. Whenever ground is cleared of vegeta-
tion, plants again spring up. The farmer plows the
meadow or pasture, and immediately a horde of weeds
appears. Any breach or break in the earth's surface
makes room for a new group of plants. Note how the
railway embankments and the newly graded roadsides take
on a covering of vegetation. Observe the ragweed. When-
ever soil is formed at the base of a cliff, plants at once
secure a foothold. Fig. 345.

335. PLANTS AID IN THE FORMATION OF SOIL. — This
they do in two ways : by breaking down the rock ; by
passing into earth when they decay. Even on the
hardest rocks, lichens and mosses will grow. Fig. 34G.
The rhizoids eat away the rock. A little soil is formed.
Ferns and other plants gain a foothold. The crevices are
entered and widened. Slowly the root acids corrode the
stone. Leaves and stems coPect on the rock and decay.
Water and frost lend their aic.. As the centuries pass, the
rock is eaten away and pub erized. Note the soil which
collects on level rocks in woods where wind and rain do
not remove the accumulations.

336. In bogs and marshes and on prairies the remains
of plants form a deep black soil. In bogs the vegetable
matter is partially preserved by the water, and it slowly
becomes solidified into a partially decayed mass known as

348. A landscape devoid of vegetiitiou. W'eslcnii United tjlates.

34U. A l;ui.lM-apo WilU VuiielHtimi. ]l„U:ii,d.

202

WHEKE PLANTS GROW

peat. When dug out and dried, i)eat may be used as fuel.
Finally it may decay and make a vegetable soil known as
muck. When thoroughly decayed, plants become vege-
table mold or humus. New plants grow on peat or
muck, and the accumulations year by year tend to raise the
level of the bog, and the surface may finally become so
high as to support plants of the high lands. The chief
agent in the formation of peat bogs is sphagnum moss.
New moss grows on the old, and the bog becomes higher
as time goes on. Fig. 347.

337. PLANTS CONTRIBUTE TO SCENERY. — Aside from
sky and air, natural scenery depends chiefly on two things:
the physical contour of the earth ; the character of the
vegetation. Attractive landscapes have a varied vegeta-
tion. Imagine any landscape with which you arc familiar
to be devoid of plants. Compare Figs. 348 and 349.

Eeview. — What is meant by environment? By habitat? Flora?
What determines where plants shall grow? What is an aquatic plant?
Explain immersed, emersed, free-swimming. What is plankton? Ex-
plain terrestrial. Amphibious. Why are some plants rare or local ?
Why are some plants common? Name some unusual places in which
you have seen plants growing. Give examples of how plants occupy
the new places. How do plants aid in the formation of soil ? Explain
what is meant by peat, muck, humus. How are peat bogs formed ?
Wliat relation have plants to scenery ?

CHAPTER XXVII

CONTENTION WITH PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

388. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. — We have seen
(326) that the environment in whieli a plant grows is
made up of two sets of faetors — the physical environ-
ment of climate and soil, and the orgriDir mrironment
of competing aninials and plant.s.

339. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE IN GENERAL. — Every
particular climate causes particular modifications in its
plants. There are two general ways, however, in which
plants are modified or adapted to climate: modification
in the length of the period of groivth; modification in
stature. Any modification of the plant, visible or invis-
ible, which adapts it to grow in a climate at first inju-
rious to it, is acclimatization.

340. In short -sedsoit cliitiafes, plants hasten their
growth. They mature quickly. Indian corn may re-
quire five or six months in which to mature in warm
countries, but only three months in very cold countries.
Nearly all garden vegeta-
bles mature quicker from AM^>C^^^^^^S \.>....h\'.i,J.<
till' time of planting in the ^i
North than in the South I
when they are raised from =^*'**'*
seeds grown in their respec- "" (.uiMi.ntKMi ..i ,,.rn « """ m
tive localities. Seedsmen are ^""'"^^ ^"'^ ^"" '^'^ '^''^ ■'"'^ '" -''''^=''"*-
aware of this and they like to i-aise seeds of early varieties
in the North, for such seeds usually give "early" plants.
Many plants which are perennials in warm countries be-
come annuals or plur-annuals in cold countries(14).

1203)

204

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

341. Even germination is usually more rapid from
northern-grown seeds than from soutlieni- grown seeds
of the same kind. The plants "come up" quicker. Se-
cure seeds of the same varietj^ of corn or bean grown
in the Gulf states and in the northern states or Canada
and make the experiment (Fig. 350). The same results

often show in
t h e vegetation
of cuttings of
trees and grape
vines from the
South a n d
North. Vege-
tation is quick
in the North :
the "burst of
spring" is usu-
ally more rapid.
'342. Plants
a re u s u a 1 1 y
dwarf or smal-
ler in stature in
short-season cli-
mates. Indian
corn is a con-
spicuous example. As one ascends high mountains or
travels in high latitudes, he finds the trees becoming smal-
ler and smaller, until finally he passes beyond the regions
in which the trees can grow. Many of the Esquimaux
doubt the statements of travelers that there are plants as
high as a man. In these high altitudes and high latitudes,
plants tend also to become prostrate.

343. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY WIND.— In regions of
strong prevailing winds, as on lake and sea shores and on
hills and mountains, tree-tops develop unsymmetrically

.xjS?i

-^i^*"^^

351. Evergreen trees on windswept heights of the
Rocky Mountains.

352. Oue-sided holly tree growing near the ocean. New Jersey.

353. Pines probably bent by winds fallinc from mountains

206

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

and are heaviest on the leeward side. Figs. 351, 352. Ob-
serve this fact in orchards in windy regions, and note that
the most unsymraetrical trees are those on the exposed side

of the plantation.

344. Trees often
lean away from
the prevailing
winds. Fig. 353.
The tips of the
branches of ex-
posed trees usuall}'
indicate whether
there are strong
prevailing winds.
Fig. 354. Observe
trees in pastures
and along road-
sides, particularly
in high places and
Avithin a few miles
of exposed shores.
Note the tip -top
spraj' of hemlock
trees.
345. PLANTS ARE PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY SOIL.—
The food supply varies with the kind of soil; and the
food supply determines to a large extent the character
of the individual plant. On i)oor soils plants are small;
on rich soils they are large. The difference between pojjr
and good yields of wheat, or any other crop, is largely a
question of soil. The farmer reinforces his poor soils by
the addition of fertilizers, in order to make his plants vary
into larger or more productive individuals.

34G. The moisture-content of the soil exerts a marked
influence on plants. We have found (154) that a large

354. A tree tliat sliows wlii

Oklahoma.

;iy t)io wiiid blows.

PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY SOIL 207

part of the plant -substance is watei-. The water is not
only itself plant-food, but it carries other foods into the
plant and transports them from tissue to tissue. However
rich a soil may be in mineral plant-foods, it is inert if it
contains no moisture. The cJiaracter of the plant is often
determined more hi/ the moisture in the soil than by all the
other food materials. Note how rank the plants are in low
places. Observe how the weeds grow about the barn where

355. "Lodged" oats. On ri(di gi-ouTid the grain is often broken by wind and rain,
the plants having grown so hea\'y as to be unable to support themselves.

the soil is not ouly rich but where moisture is distributed
from the eaves. Contrast with these instances the puny
plants which gi-ow in dry places. In dry countries irriga-
tion is employed to make plants grow vigorously. In
moist and rich soil plants may grow so fast and so tall
as not to be able to withstand the wind, as in Fig. 355.

347. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THE EXPOSURE OF THE
PLACE IN WHICH THEY GROW.— The particular site or out-
look is known as the exposure or aspect. The exposure,
for instance, may be southward, eastward, bleak, warm,

208

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

cold. A favorable exposure for any plant is one which
supplies the requisite amount of warmth, room, sunlight,
moisture, and plant-food, and immunity from severe winds
and other destructive agencies. Against the edge of a
forest (Fig. 356) or at the base of a cliff, certain plants
thrive unusually well. Note the plants of any kind grow-

356. Tlie flowering dogwood is seen ;it its best along tlie margins ol the

ing in different exposures: observe that they vary in
stature, time of maturity, color of foliage and flowers,
productiveness, size of leaves and flowers, longevity.

Review. — Contrast physical and organic environments. How are
plants modified by climate? Define acclimatization. Explain how time
of maturity is influenced by climate. How is germination influenced ?
Explain how climate influences stature. How do winds affect plants ?
How are plants influenced by soil t By soil moisture T Exposure ?

CHAPTER XXVIII
COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS

348. THE FACT OF STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.— We
have seen (Chapter IX) that branches contend amongst
themselves for opj)ortunity to live and grow. Similarly,
separate plants contend with each other. We shall ob-
serve that this is true; but we are compelled to believe it
by considering the efforts which all plants make to propa-
gate themselves. The earth is filled tvith plants. It is
chiefly when plants die or are killed that places are made
for others. Every one of these plants puts forth its
utmost effort to perpetuate its kind. It produces seeds
by the score or even by the thousand. In some instances
it propagates also by means of vegetative parts. If the
earth is full and if every plant endeavors to multiply its
kind, there must be struggle for existence.

349. The effects of struggle for existence are of three
general categories: (1) the seed or spore may find no
opportunity to grow; (2) sooner or later the plant may
be killed; (3) the plant may vary, or take on new char-
acters, to adapt itself to the conditions in which it grows.
Consider the crop of seeds which any plant produces: how
many germinate ? how many of the young plants reach
maturity ? Note the profusion of seedlings under the
maples and elms, and then consider how few maple and
elm trees there are. Count the seeds on any plant and
imagine that each one makes a plant: where will all
these new plants find a place in which to grow ?

350. WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS.— Struggle
for existence with fellows is competition for room or

N (209)

357. There is no opportunity tor

I tield of good whea

^P^^^s?^^^^'^-

•^^sSs^ j^,j^> Aiti

...,--^^ri

IH^^^I

& |§*.*V

^|^»^;4r:'

•-i^m-*-

. *„ .T, f ^"^MEiSfeT^ '

*^'^'l^^&^

■,x*i5^r#5^

Divergence of character in a cornfield.

WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS

211

The tree hns appropriated the food
that a large area remains hare of

tion for every inch of its
not populated with plants
cently been moved. If the
his soil frequently', various
plants get a foothold, and
these plants he calls weeds.
Determine how much room
an apple tree, or other plant,
occupies : then calculate
how much space would be
required for all the seed-
lings of that tree or plant.
The (jreafer Hip popnhition
"/«>'!/ (it'''<i, fhc less rJi(i)ire
hare other phmfs fo </(iin a
foothold. When tlie wheat
completely covers the
ground, as in Fig. 3.") 7,
there are no weeds to l)e
seen.

352. Plants of different
form and habit may grow

space, for food
and moisture in
the soil, for
light. We may
consider exam-
ples in each of
these three cate-
gories.

351. If the
earth is filled
with plants ,
there must be
sharp competi-
surface. If any good soil is
it is usually because it has re-
farmer does not move or till

and moisture, so
vegetation.

3G0. Tlie clematis elimhing into the sunlight.
Compare Fig. 73,

361. Low shade-loving plants on the forest floor.

riG2. A primeval pine forest.
Along the roadway foreign vegetation has cniiio in. MidiiKJi

DTVEEGENCE OF CHARACTER 213

together, and thereby the area may support more plants than
iroiild be possible if only one kind ivere growing on it. This
principle has been called by Darwin the divergence of
character. When an area is occupied by one kind of

303. On the top of an evergreen forest.

plant, another kind may grow between or beneath. Oulj'
rarely do plants of close botanical relationship grow to-
gether in compact communities. A field which is full of
corn may grow pumpkins between. Fig. 358. A full
meadow may grow white clover in the bottom. In a dense
wood herbs may grow on the forest floor. When au.

214

COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS

orchard can support no
more trees, weeds may grow
beneath.

353. We have learned
(25, 26) that roots go far and
wide for food and moisture.
The plant that is first es-
tablished appropriates the
food to itself and new-
comers find difficulty in
gaining a foothold. Note
the bare area near the elm
tree in Fig. 359. Recall
how difificult it is to make
phmts grow when planted

under trees. This is partly due to the interceptmg of

the rain by the tree-top, partly to shade, and partly to

lack of available food and moisture in the soil. The

farmer knows that he can-
not hope to secure good

crops near large trees, even

beyond the point at which

the trees intercept the rain

and light. It is difiBcult to

establish new trees in the

vacancies in an old orchard.
354. In Chapter VIII

we studied the relation of

the plant and its parts to

sunlight. Plants also com-
pete with each other for

light. Plants climb to get

to the light (Chapter XVI) .

Fig. 360. Some plants

have become adapted to

The forest centpr. Looking from the
woods, with the forest rim shown in
fig. 3C6 seen io tUe distasce.

STRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT 215

subdued or transmitted light, but no green plants can grow
in darkness. The low plants in forests are shade -lovers.
Fig. 361. Note the plants which seem to be shade -lovers
and those which prefer full sunlight. Some plants adapt
themselves to both sun and shade. Most ferns are shade-
lovers.

355. In the midst of dense plant populations, each
individual grows upwards for sunlight. Thus are for-

366. The forest rim. Lodking tow.

ests made : the competing trees become long slender boles
with a mantle of foliage at the top. The side branches die
for lack of light and food, and they fall from decay or are
broken by storm ; the wounds are healed, and the bole
becomes symmetrical and trim. Fig. 362 shows the inte-
rior of a primeval pine forest. Note the bare trunks and
the sparse vegetation on the dim forest floor. Fig. 363 is
the top of a great forest. With these pictures compare
Figs. 75 and 76. Fig. 357 shows a deep wheat forest.
A lone survivor of a primeval forest is shown in Fig 364.

367. The foliage bank of a tangle.

368. View just inside the tangle.

BTRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT 217

In dense plantations, plants tend to grow to a single stem.
When these same phmts are grown in open or cultivated
grounds, thoj often become bushy or develop more than
one trunk. In what places have you seen trees with
more than one trunk f

356. On the margins of dense populations, each indi-
vidual grows outwards for sunlight. Note the dense
forest rim : then plunge through it, and stand by the
tall bare trunks. Figs. 365 and 366 show these two
views of the same forest. Note the kinds of trees and
other plants that grow in areas similar to those depicted
in these illustrations. Note the dense wall of foliage in
Pig. 367, and the thin brushy area just behind it in Fig.
368. Observe the denser and greener foliage on the out-
side rows in thick orchards. Consider how the plants
extend over the borders in dense flower-beds. Note
where the best foliaged plants are in the greenhouse.
Notice the foliage on the outer rows in a very thick
cornfield.

Review. — Why is there struggle for existeut-e ? How docs it
affect plants? Tell what it is. How do plants compete for space?
What is meant by the phrase "divergence of character"? Give ex-
amples, flow do plants compete for food from the soil ? In what
respects have plaiits become adapted to the light relation? How do
plants pjrow in dense plantations? On the margins of these planta-
tions? You know some tree or other plant : describe how it has
adapted itself to competition with its fellows.

A danileiiou knoll in stiade and sun.

369. A hydrophytic society. New York,

370. A mesophytic society. Michigan.

CHAPTER XXIX
PLAN! SOCIETIES

357. WHAT PLANT SOCIETIES ARE.— In the long course
of evolution, in which plants have been accommodating
themselves to the varying conditions in which they are
obliged to grow, plants have become adapted to erenj
different environment. Certain plants, therefore, may live
together or near each other, all enjoying the same con-
ditions and surroundings. These aggregations of plants
which are adapted to similar conditions are known as
plant societies.

358. Moisture and temperature are the leading factors
in determining plant societies. The great geographical
societies or aggregations of the plant world are for con-
venience associated chiefl}' with the moisture su])ply.
These are: (1) hydrophytic or wet-region societies,
comprising aquatic and bog vegetation (Fig. 3G9) ; (2)
xerophytic or arid-region societies, comprising desert and
most sand-region vegetation (Fig. 344); (3) mesophytic
or mid-region societies, comprising the vegetation in
intermediate regions (Fig. 370). Mesophytic vegetation
is characteristic of most regions which are fitted for
agriculture. The halophytic or salt-loving societies are
also distinguished, comprising the seashore and salt -area
vegetation (Fig. 371). Much of the characteristic
scenery of any place is due to its plant societies (337).
Xerophytic plants usually have small and hard leaves,
appai-ently to prevent too rapid transpiration. Usually,
also, they are characterized by stiff growth, hairy cover-
ing, spines, or a much -contracted plant-body, and often

(219)

220

PLANT SOCIETIES

by large underground parts for the storage of water.
Halophytic plants are often fleshy.

359. Plant societies may also be distinguished with
reference to latitude and temperature. There are tropi-

cal societies, temperate-region societies, boreal or cold-
region societies. With reference to altitude, societies
might be classified as lowland (which are chiefly hydro-
phytic), intermediate (chiefly mesophytic), subalpine or
mid-mountain (which are chiefly boreal), alpine or high-
mountain.

3G0. The above classifications have reference chiefly to
great geographical floras or societies. But there are socie-
ties within societies. There are small societies coming
within the experience of every person tvho has ever seen
plants groiving in natural conditions. There are roadside,
fence-row, lawn, thicket, pasture, dune, woods, cliff, barn-
yard societies. Every different place has its character-
istic vegetation. Note the smaller societies in Figs. 3G9

PLANT COLONIES

221

and 370. In the former is a water-lily society and a cat-
tail society. In the latter there are grass and l)iisli and
woods societies.

3G1. SOME DETAILS OF
PLANT SOCIETIES.— Socie-
ties may be composed of
scattered and intermin-
gled plants, or of dense
clumps or groups of
plants. Dense clumps
or groups are usually
made up of one kind of
plant, and they are then called colonies. Fig. 372. Colo-
nies of most plants are transient: after a short time other
plants gain a foothold amongst them, and an intei'mingled
society is the outcome. Marked exceptions to this are
grass colonies and forest colonies, in which one kind of
plant may hold its own for years and centuries.

A colony of weeds in a barny

37:i. The l)ef,'iiiiiinf» of a forest, on a la'
weeds, and here and there a young bush and a forest tree.
The border is already forested.

222

PLANT SOCIETIES

374. Tlie return to forest. Bushes and trees now begin to crowd.

362. Ill a large newly cleared area plants usnally first
establish themselves in dense colonies. Note the
great patches of nettles, jewel-weeds, smart-weeds, clot-
burs, fire-weeds in recently cleared but neglected swales,
also the fire -weeds in recently burned areas, the rank
weeds in the neglected garden, and the ragweeds and
May-weeds along the recently worked highway. The com-
petition amongst themselves and with their neighbors
finally breaks up the colonies, and a mixed and intermin-

fjU'd flora is gener-
al J y the result.

oG3. In most parts
of the world the
general tendency of
neglected areas is
to run into forest.
All plants rush for
the cleared area.
Here and there
bushes gain a foot-
hold. Young trees
come up : in time
these shade the

ROTATION OF FORESTS

223

bushes and gain tbe mastery. Sometimes the area grows
to poplars or birclies, and people wonder why the origi-
nal forest trees do not return; but these forest trees may
be growing unobserved here and there in the tangle, and in
the slow processes
of time the poplars
perish — for they are
short - lived — and
the original forest
may be replaced.
Whether one kind
of forest or another
returns will depend
largely on the kinds
which are most
seedful in that
vicinity and which,
therefore, have
sown themselves
most profusely.
Much depends,
also, on the kind
of undergrowth
which first springs
up, for some young

trees can endure ^"''- '""' '"""'■ "'^"^^ ^^""^ °^ '''' roadside.

more or less shade than others. Figs. 373 and 374 show
two stages in the return to forest.

364. Pasturing and mowing tend to keep an area in
grass. This is because the grass will thrive when tlie tops
are repeatedly taken off, whereas trees will not. Note
that the wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the
fences and about old buildings, where animals and mowing
machines do not take them off. A sod society means graz-
ing or moiving. Consider Figs. 96, 875, 37G. The farmer

224

PLANT SOCIETIES

J An .mu.itK s(KRtj 111 wliKh hi\i
kinds of plants grow side by side,

keeps his wild pastures
"clean" by turning in
sheep: the sheep are fond
of browsing.

365. Some plants as-
sociate. They grow to-
gether. This is possible
largely because they di-
verge or differ in character
(352). Plants associate in
two ways: hy grotving side
by side; hy growing above
or beneath. In sparsely populated societies (as in Fig.
377) plants may grow along- side each other. In most
cases, however, there is overgrowth and undergrowth :
one kind grows beneath another. Plants which have

become adapted to shade
(354) are usually under-
growths. In a cat - tail
swamp (Fig. 378), grasses
and other narrow - leaved
plants grow in the bottom,
but they are usually unseen
by the (casual observer.
Search the surface of the
ground in any swale or in a
meadow. Note the under-
growth in woods or under
trees (Fig. 379). Observe
that in pine and spruce
forests there is almost no
undergrowth, because there
is very little light. Fig. 362.
366. On the same area

378. Grasses and narrow-leaved plants . .

grow between the cat-tail flags. the socicties may differ at

AUTUMN COLOKS

225

different times of the year. There are spring, summer, and
fall societies. The knoll which is cool with grass and
strawberries in June may be aglow with goldenrod in
September. If the bank is examined in May, look for the
j-oung plants which are to cover it in Julj^ and October; if
in September, find the dead stalks of the flora of May.
What succeeds the skunk cabbage, hepaticas, trilliums,
phlox, violets, buttercups of spring? What precedes the
wild sunflowers, ragweed, asters, and goldenrod of fall?

367. In lands which gradually rise from wet to dry,
the societies may take the form of belts or zones. Start-
ing at a shore, walk back into the high land ; note the
changes in the flora. Thi-ee zones are shown in Fig. 380.

368. To a large extent the color of the landscape is
determined by the character of the plant societies. Ever-
green societies remain green, but the shade of green varies
from season to sea-
son ; it is bright
and soft in spring,
becomes dull in
midsummer and
fall, and usually
assumes a dull yel-
low-green in win-
ter. Deciduous
societies vary re -
markably in color
— from the dull
browns and grays
of winter to the
brown -greens and
greens of summer
The autumn colors
of green, yellow and

Overgrowth and undergrowth in three series,
—trees, bushes, grass.

olive - greens of spring, the staid-
and the brilliant colors of autumn,
are due to intermingled shades
red. The coloration varies with
the kind of plant, the special location, and the season.

226

PLANT SOCIETIES

Even in the same species or kind, individual plants differ
in color; and this individuality usually distinguis;lies the
plant year by year. That is, an oak Avhich is maroon-
red this autumn is likely
to exhibit that color every
year. The autumn color
is associated with I he
natural maturity and
death of the leaf, but it is
most brilliant in lonj^'and
open falls — largely be-
cause the foliage ripens
more gradually and i)er-
sists longer in such sea-
sons. It is probable that
the autumn tints are of
no utility to the plant.
The yellows seem to be

due to the breaking down

f ^^^p^ffi and disorganization of the

I'hlorophyll. Some of the

intermediate shades are

*L '>'j'mM pi'obably due to the un-

^ T^W^ masking or liberating (jf

normal cell color -bodies
which are covered with oi-
obscured bj^ chlorophyll in the growing season. The reds
are due to changes in the color of the cell sap. Autumn
colors are not caused by frost. Because of the long, dry
falls and the great variety of plants, the autumnal color of
the American landscape is phenomenal.

369. ECOLOGY.— The study of the relationships of
plants and animals to each other and to seasons and envi-
ronments is known as ecology (still written occology in
the dictionaries). All the discussions in Part II of this

ECOLOGY

221

book are really different phases of this subject. It con-
siders tlie habits, habitats, and modes of life of living
things— the places in which they grow, how they migrate
or are disseminated, means of collecting food, their times
and seasons of flowering, producing young, and the like.

Review. — What is a plant society? Wliy do plants grow in so-
cieties ? Name societies that are determined chiefly by molstnre.
What societies are most aluiiidant where you live? Name those de-
termined by latitude and altitude. Name some small or local socie-
ties. What are colonies ? Where are they most marked ? Why do
they tend finally to break up? How are societies made up when colo-
nies are not present? How do forests arise on cleared areas? What
effect have pasturing and mowing? How do plants associate? What
is undergrowth and overgrowth? Explain how societies may differ at
different times of the year. What are zonal or belt societies? Discuss
autumn colors. What is ecology?

Note. — One of the best of all subjects for school instruction in
botany is the study of plant societies. It adds deflniteness and zest
to excursions. Let one excursion be confined to one or two societies.
Visit one day a swamp, another day a forest, another a pasture or
meadow, another a roadside, another a weedy field, another a cliff or
ravine, etc. Visit shores whenever possible. Each pupil should be
assigned a bit of ground — say 10 or 20 ft. square — for special study.
He should make a list showing (1) how many kinds of plants it con-
tains, (2) the relative abundance of each. The lists secured in differ-
ent regions should be compared. It does not matter if the pupil does
not know all the plants. He may count the kinds without knowing the
names. It is a good plan for tiie pupil to make a dried specimen of
each kind for reference. The pupil should endeavor to discover why
the plants grow as they do. Challenge every plaid society.

rj

',-jigiiv.-y •?

i^.

i^

Everj'oue should learn to grow plauts.

CHAPTER XXX
VARIATION AMD ITS RESULTS

370. THE FACT OF VARIATION.— No two plants are
alike (IG). la size, form, color, weight, vigor, produc-
tiveness, season, or other characters, they differ. The
most usual form of anj^ plant is considered to be its
type, that is, its representative form. Any marked de-
parture from this type is a variation, that is, a difference.

371. THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS.— Variations are of
many degrees. The differences, in any case, may be so
slight as to pass unnoticed, or they may be so marked as
to challenge even the casual observer. If a red-flowered
plant were to produce flowers in different shades of red,
the variation might not attract attention ; but if it were
to produce white flowers, the variation would be marked.
Whenever the variation is so marked and so constant as
to be worth naming and describing, it is called a variety
in descriptive botany. If the variation is of such charac-
ter as to have value for cultivation, it is called an agri-
cultural or horticultural variety. There is no natural
line of demarcation between those variations which chance
to be named and described as varieties and those which do
not. Varieties are only named variations.

372. Variations may arise in three ways: (1) directly
from seeds; (2) directly from buds; (3) by a slow
change of the entire plant after it has begun to grow.

373. Variations arising from seeds are seed-variations;
those which chance to be named and described are seed-
varieties. Never does a seed exactly reproduce its pni-eiit-
if it did, there would be two plants alike. Neither do any

1228)

THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS

229

two seeds, even from the same fruit, ever produce plants
exactly alike. Even though the seedlings resemble each
other so closely that people say they are the same, never-
theless they will be found to vai-y in size, number of
leaves, shape, or other fea-
tures. Figs. 381 and 382
illustrate seed -variation.

374. Variations arising
directly from buds, rather
than from seeds, are bud-
variations, and the most
marked of them may be
described and named as bud-
varieties. We have learned
in Chapter V how the horti-
culturist propagates plants
by means of buds: not one
of these buds will reproduce
exactly the plant from which it was taken. We have
already discovered (17, 118) that no two branches are
alike, and every branch springs from a bud. Bud-varia
tion is usually less marked than seed- variation, however,

!lrllOl■-vita^ tree. Imiii whuli seeds
were taken oue day

382. The progeny of the

seeds of the tree shown in Fig. 381.—

No two plants alike.

yet now and then one branch on a plant may be so un-
like every other branch that the horticulturist selects buds
from it and endeavors to propagate it. "Weeping" or
pendent branches sometimes appear on upright trees; nee-

230 VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS

tarines sometimes are borne on one or more branches, of
a peach tree, and peaches may be borne on nectarine
trees; rnsset apples are sometimes borne on Greening ap-
ple trees; white roses are sometimes found on red-flowered
plants.

;37r). Frequently a plant begins a new kind of varia-
tion long after birth, even after it has become well es-
tablished. It is on this fact that successful agriculture
depends, for the farmer makes his plants better by givdng
them more food and care: and betterment (like deterio-
ration) is only a variation as compared with the average
plant. Plants which start to all appearances equal may
end unequal: some may be tall and vigorous, others may
be weak, others may be dwarf : some will be worth har-
vesting and some will not.

376. THE CAUSES OF VARIATIONS.— rr//vV///o».s ate due
to several aiul perhaps many causes. One class of causes
lies in the environment, and another lies in the tendencies
derived from parents. Of the environmental causes of
variation, the chief is food supply. Good agriculture
consists largely in increasing the food supply for plants
— by giving each plant abundant room, keeping out com-
peting plants, tilling the soil, adding plant-food. Fig.
383. Another strong environmental factor is climate
(Chapter XXVII). It is very difficult to determine the
exact causes of any variation. There is much difference
of opinion respecting the causes of variation in general.
The extent of variation due to food supply is well illus-
trated in Fig. 383. The two pigweeds grew only five
feet apart, one in hard soil by a walk, the other near a
compost pile. They were of similar age. One weighed
% oz.; the other 4% lbs., or 136 times as much.

377. HEREDITY.— Marked variations tend to be per-
petuated. That is, offspring are likely to retain some
of the peculiarities ot their parents. This passing over

SELECTION — EVOLUTION

231

of characteristics from parent to offspring is heredity.
By "selecting the best" for seed the farmer maintains and
improves his crops.
It is said that "like
jn-oduces like." This
is true of the general
or average features,
but we have seen that
the reproduction is
not exact. It is truer
to say that similar
produces similar.
Fig. 384 represents a
marked case of he-
redity of special char-
acters. The plants on
the right grew from a
parent 24 in. high and
30 in. broad. Those on the left grew from one 12 in. high
ami 9 in. broad. (For a history of these parents see
"Survival of the Unlike," p. 261.)

378. SELECTION. — There is intense struggle for existence:
there is universal variation: those variations or kinds Hve
which are best fitted to live under the particular condi-
tions. This persistence of the best adapted and loss of the
least adapted is the process designated by Darwin's phrase
"natural selection" and by Spencer's "survival of the
fittest." Natural selection is also known as Darwinism.

379. By a similar process, the cultivator modifies his
plants. He chooses the variations which please him, and
from their offspring constantly selects for seed -bearing
those which he considers to be the best. In time he has a
new variety. Plant-breeding consists chiefly of two
things: producing a variation in the desired direction;
selecting, until the desired variety is secured.

:i8;!. Variation. — Big and little pigweeds of
the same kind.

232

VAKIATION AND ITS RESULTS

380. EVOLUTION. — Variation, heredity, natural selec-
tion, and other agencies bring about a gradual change in
the plant kingdom; this change is evolution. The hy-
pothesis that one form may give rise to another is now
universally accepted amongst investigators; but whether
the vegetable kingdom has all arisen from one starting
point is unknown. Only a few of the general lines of
the unfolding of the vegetable kingdom, with numberless

384. The progeny of little and big plants.

details here and there, have been worked out. Not every
form or kind of plant can be expected ever to vary into
another kind. Some kinds have nearly run their couix
and are undergoing the age-long process of extinction.
It is believed, however, that every kind of plant now liv-
ing has been derived from some other kind. Evolution
is still in progress. Variation and heredity are the wosi
important facts in organic nature.

Review. — What is a variation? A variety? Agricultural vari-
ety? How may variations arise? Explain each of the three cate-
gories. What are some of the causes of variation? What is heredity?
Selection? What are essentials in plant-breeding? Wliat is evolution?

PART III— HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

CHAPTER XXXI
THE CELL

381. THE CELL AS A WHOLE.— All of the higher plants
are made up of a large number of bodies or parts called
cells. These are so minute that, in most cases, they are
invisible to the naked eye.

382. CELLS ARE OF MANY FORMS.— In general, plant
cells may be assigned to some one of the following
forms :

spherical, as in protococcus (a minute alga to be found
on damp walls and rocks), and apple flesh;

polyhedral, or many-sided, as in pith of elder;

tabular or flat, as in epidermis of leaves;

cylindrical, as in vaucheria, spirogyra;

fibrous, as cotton fibers;

vascular, as the ducts of wood ;

stellate, as in the interior of leaves of lathyrus (sweet
pea) and other plants.

383. PARTS OF A CELL. — Every living, growing cell
contains protoplasm (171), a colorless, semi-fluid sub-
stance, which is usually inclosed within a cell-wall.
Within the wall, also, and sometimes closely surrounded
by protoplasm, is a dense body known as the nucleus.
The nucleus usually contains a smaller central part, or

(233)

234 THE CELL

nucleolus. Cell- walls are so often absent that it is quite
as well to think of a cell as a single nucleus with its attend-
ant protoplasm. The nucleus is an essential part of every
cell, and is intimately connected with the wonderful process
of cell -division. In some very low forms of plants, as in
some of the bacteria, no nucleus has yet been clearly
made out.

384. NATURE OF PROTOPLASM. — Protoplasm, with its
nucleus, forms the essential part of all living, acting
cells. It is possible in many cases to find a small mass
of living protoplasm ivlth a nucleus hut vnthout a rell-
wall. Protoplasm is not entirely homogeneous, for when
examined with a microscope of very high power it is often
found to be of a foamy or honeycomb nature. This mesh
or network contains many minute granules, called micro-
somes, and lies in a clear "ground mass" composed of cell-
sap. On a glass slip mount in a drop of water some com-
l)ressed or brewer's yeast which has been growing in a thin
syrup of white sugar for twent3'-four hours; place over the
drop a thin cover-glass, and examine with the compound
microscope, first with the low power and then with the
high. The individual cells should be visible. Note the
shape and contents of the cells, and make a sketch of a
few of them. A similar study may be made of the sol't
pulp scraped from a celery stem; of hairs
scraped from the surface of a begonia leaf;
of threads of spirogyra; cells of protococ-
cus ; soft white cells of an apple; the thin
385. Cells in petiole leavcs of various mosses; the epidermis of

of begonia leaf.

Vacuoles at w. waxy plauts.

l^yl'^uTl^. 385. VACUOLES.- Protoplasm often does

cium oxalate. „„(- entirely fill the cell. There may be a

number of cavities or vacuoles in a single cell. These

vacuoles are filled with cell- sap {v., Fig. 385). In some

parts, as in buds and root -tips, where the cells are most

MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM

235

actively dividing, the protoplasm may entirely fill the
space and no vacuoles he j>i-e8ent.

886. MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM.— Within the cell-
wall, many times the profopltisni shoirs a tt'ti(Je)\('y to move
from place to place. This movement is
chiefly of two kinds: (1) circulation, or
movement not onl}' along the walls but
also across the cell -body, as seen in the
long, thin- walled cells of celandine; in
the staminal hairs of tradescantia (Fig.
386); in the bristles of squash vines; in
the stinging hairs of nettle; in stellate
hairs of hollyhock. (2) rotation, or
movement along the walls only, well seen
in the cells of many water plauts, as
elodea, chara, and nitella (Fig. 387).

387. Besides these and other move-
ments of protoplasm within the cell -wall,
there are also movements of naked vroro-
plasm, of two main types: (1) amoeboid
or creeping movements, such as may be
seen in a Plasmodium of myxomycetes. or
in an amoeba; (2) swimming by means
of cilia or flagella, illustrated in the
swarm -spores of water fungi, and of some
algaB, and in motile bacteria. By the last
type of movement the unicellular bodies 386. circulation of pro-

, 1 1 i • \ n toplasm in a cell of a

(swarm-spores and bacteria) are often stamen hair of trad-
moved very rapidly. To see movement 7^t!\7J^eamo
in protoplasm, carefully mount in water *^™®*-
a few hairs from the stamens of tradescantia (spider-wort).
The water should not be too cold. Examine with a power
high enough to see the granules of protoplasm. Make a
sketch of several cells and their contents. It may be
necessary to make several trials before success is attained

236 THE CELL

in this experiment. If the microscope is cold, heat the
stage gently with an alcohol lamp, or by other means;
or warm the room. See Fig. 386.

388. NATURE OF CELL-WALL.— The cell -wall of very
young cells is a delicate film or membrane. As a cell
grows in size the wall remains thin and does not begin to
thicken until the ceil has ceased to enlarge. The funda-
mental substance of cell -walls is a carbohydrate known as
cellulose. The cellulose generally stains blue with hema-
toxylin. Often by incrustations or deposits of one kind
or another, the cellulose reaction is lost or obscured. Two

:; 'a>-- '.'a. .^ ®:-^ >)^ '.«^B--@ '^; S ^ ^> ®'^

387. Rotation of protoplasm in Elodea Canadensis (often known as
Anacharis). Common in ponds.

of the most common additions are lignin, forming wood,
and suberin, forming cork. The walls then are said to be
lignified or suberized.

389. In all the cells studied in the above experiments
the ivalls are thin and soft. In general, those cells which
have thin walls are called parenchymatous cells. Some
cells, as those of nuts and the grit of pear fruit, have
very thick ivalls, and are called sclerenchymatous cells.
In many cases the cell -walls are intermediate between
these extremes.

390. Cell -walls often thicken by additions to their
intier surface. This increase in thickness seldom takes
place uniformly in all parts. Many times the wall re-
mains thin at certain places, while the most of the wall
becomes very thick. Again the walls may thicken veiy
much in angles or along certain lines, while most of the
wall remains thin. As a result of this uneven thickening

MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS

237

388. Bordered pits in
pine wood.

the walls of cells take on certain definite markings. Some
of the names applied to these markings are:

Pitted, with little holes or depressions, forming very
thin places, as seen in seeds of sun-
flower, and in the large vessels in
the stem of the cucumber.
Bordered pits, when the pits are in-
closed in the cell-wall, as in wood of
pines and other conifers. Fig. 388.
Spiral, with the thickening in a spiral

band, as in the primary wood of most woody plants
and in the veins of leaves. Fig. 389.
Annular, with thickening in the form of rings; seen
in the small vessels of the bundles in stem of Indian
corn. Fig. 389.
Scalariform, with elongated thin places in the wall,
alternating with the thick ridges which appear like
the rounds of a ladder. Fig. 389. These are well
shown in a longitudinal section of the root of the
brake fern (Pteris).
391. MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS.— Cells give rise to
new cells. Thus does the plant grow. The most com-
mon method by which cells are multiplied is that called
cell division. A modified form of cell
division is called budding. Cell di-
vision is a process by which two
(or more) cells are made from one
original cell. Cells which have an
abiDidance of protoplasm are usually
most active in cell division. The
process is at first an internal one.
The nucleus gradually divides into two masses and
the protoplasm of the cell is apportioned between
these two nuclei; a new cell -membrane, or partition
wall, is usually thrown across and the cell is completely

^

s

^

an

80

^

o

fe^

^

—='-

te^

'^'"'

^^

a. Markings in cell-walls.
sp, spiral; an, annular;
«c, scalariform.

238

THE CELL

liUO. Four stt-ps ill procos.s of cell-iJivisiuii.

Mother cell at left, far advanced In division; daughter

cells at right.

divided into two cells. Fig. 390. In some cases, however,
the nucleus divides many times without the foruiatiou of a
cell-wall. The cell which began to divide is called the
mother cell, and the resulting cells are daughter cells.

'' <-■ '^ 392. Cell bud-

) ^ / \ I ' \ ding is a variety of
cell division in which
I he cell is not di-
vided in the mid-
dle. The mother
cell pushes our a
protuberance, which
becomes separated hy
a constriction of the ivalls. Cells of the yeast plant and
the spores of many fungi multiply in this way.

393. lu no case, so far as we yet know, can the cell
divide without a division of the nucleus and the protoplas-
mic mass. There are two methods of nuclear division: (1)
direct, as found in the old cells of nitella, tradescantia, and
others, in which the mass of the nucleus divides by simple
constriction; (2) indirect, as found in all actively growing
tissue, in pollen grains, spores, etc. There are several
stages in the latter process. The nucleus divides in intri-
cate methods, giving rise to odd forms known as nnclear
figures. Mitosis and karyokinesis are names sometimes
given to indirect nuclear division. The study of this pro-
cess is a very difficult one, as it requires a very high power
microscope to see the different stages. They are easily
seen in cells found in buds of convallaria and in pollen
grains of that plant, but may be studied in all plants. The
process is too difficult for the beginner to trace, but it is
outlined in the note on next page. Fig. 390 is not intended
to represent all the stages in indirect nuclear division.

Review.— What are some of the forms of cells? Name the parts
of a living cell. What part or parts are essential in all cnses? Give

KAKYOKINESIS 239

your idea of the naiui-e of piotoplasin. What differences did you find
between the cells of yeast and those of green alga? In what ways do
they resemble each other? Tell the same of cells of protococeus and
of apple, or of other material studied. What is a vacuole? What
does it usually contain? Name two kinds of movements of protoplasm
within the cell -wall, and explain how each may be observed. Name
and describe two movements of naked protoplasm. Tell something
of the texture of cell-walls. What causes the markings found on cell-
walls ? Name five types of markings. Draw two figures to show
structure of bordered pits. Make a sketch of spiral, annular, and
scalariform markings. Name two methods of cell-multiplication.
Describe the process of cell-division. How does cell-budding differ
from cell-division? Name two methods of nuclear division. Which
is the more common method ?

Note to PARAGRAPrf 393. — Karyokinesis (the indirect or mitotic
process of nuclear division) is an intricate subject. The details vary
in different plants, but the essential stages are as follows:

Duringthe restingstage the nucleus is surrounded by a very deli-
cate but distinct membrane. Within this inclosure is an intricate net-
work of colorless {linin) threads bearing very numerous granules, which
in stained preparations are highly colored, and for this reason have
received the name chromatin. The network is surrounded by nuclear-
sap, and often incloses within its meshes a large body called the
nucleolus. As the time for division approaches the chromatin network
changes into a definite, much-coiled, deeply stained ribbon, in which
tlie granular structure is much less noticeable, and this in turn seg-
ments transversely into a number of parts called chromosomes. The
protoplasmic fibrils immediately surrounding the nucleus now grad-
ually converge towards two points lying on opposite sides of the
nucleus and at a slight distance from the membrane. This is accom-
plished in such a way that a spindle of nearly colorless threads is
produced, with the two previously mentioned points of convergence
acting as poles. Meanwhile both the nuclear membrane and the nu-
cleolus have disappeared, but whether these structures take part in
the formation of the spindle is yet an open question. Radiations
of pi-otoplasmic threads called asters sometimes occur around the
poles, and in a few lower plants, as well as in most animals, the pole
is occupied by a small spherical body termed a centrosphere. The
steps so far are known as the prophase stages. The chromosomes now
move to the equator of the spindle, where they an-ange themselves in
a definite manner, forming the so-called nuclear-plate {metaphase
stage). Each segment splits longitudinally, apparently on account of

240 THE CELL

the contractive action of the spindle fiber to which it is attached ; and
one daughter- segment passes to each pole {anaphase stage). Each of
the two groups of daughter- segments very soon becomes surrounded by
a new membrane, the chromosomes gradually fuse end to end, the
nucleolus reappears, and at length two resting nuclei are produced
similar in every respect to the parent nucleus [telophase stage).
Meanwhile each spindle fiber becomes swollen at the equator, thus
producing a series of dots all arranged in one plane. These at length
fuse, forming a delicate transverse cell-membrane, which by the pe-
ripheral expansion of the spindle at length reaches the lateral walls, and
cell-division is thus complete. This process of indirect nuclear
division is one of the most wonderful phenomena yet discovered in
organic development, not only on account of its intricacy and beauty,
but also because it has been found that hereditary characteristics are
in all probability transmitted solely through the chromosomes. The
longitudinal division and separation seem to be for the purpose of
insuring equal apportionment of the hereditary substance to each
daughter-nucleus. The subject, however, is still in its infancy, and
authors disagree both as to details and as to theoretical considerations.

Note on Scope, Apparatus, and Methods. — The work outlined
in Part III is sulficient, if well done, to occupy one period of the
pupil's time each school day for six weeks. These chapters are
intended only as laboratory guides. The pupil should work out each
structure or part for himself before taking up the succeeding subject.
The work in this Part deals with only the elements of the subject, but
it is as much as the high school pupil can hope to take up with profit.

Apparatus. — The apparatus necessary for the work outlined in
these chapters on histology may be obtained from dealers in micro-
scopes and laboratory supplies at a low figure. Schools should obtain
catalogues from the following and other reliable dealers:

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y.

Eimer & Amend, New York.

The Franklin Educational Co., Boston.

Queen & Co., Philadelphia.

Richards & Co., Chicago and New York.

Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo.

Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia.

Geneva Optical Co., Chicago.

Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York.

Chas. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia.

Richard Kny & Co., New York.

Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass.

APPARATUS AND METHODS 241

The microscope should have a one-inch and perhaps a two-inch
eye-piece and two objectives of say |- and i-inch focal lengths.
By arranging the laboratory study of the pupils at different times
each microscope may be used by three, four, or even more pupils.

There should be a microtome or section-cutter for use by the
class.

Each pupil should have his own individual tools and bottles of
reagents, as follows:

1 good razor (hollow-ground on one side only),

1 small scalpel,

1 pair forceps,

2 sharp needles mounted in handles (as penholders) (Fig. 199),
1 medicine dropper,

1 small camel's hair brush,

A number of slides and cover -glasses.

Of reagents, stains, and other cheinicals, there should be the
following:

Glycerine,

Ninety-five per cent alcohol.

Formalin (40 per cent formaldehyde).

Clearer (made of three parts turpentine and two pai-ts melted

crystals of carbolic acid),
Canada balsam.
Ether,

2 per cent and 5 per cent collodion,
Iodine dissolved in water,

" " " alcohol.

Hematoxylin,
Copper sulfate solution.
Potassium hydroxide solution,
Fehling's solution (see paragraph 397),
Alcanin (henna root in alcohol).

The two per cent collodion is made of forty-nine parts alcohol,
forty -nine parts ether, two parts soluble cotton. This strength is
suitable to use in sticking sections to the glass slide to prevent
their escape during the staining and clearing process. It need not
be used unless desired. Collodion is often useful for imbedding
material, as indicated under the head "Imbedding" on page 243.
Pupils must exercise great care in using carbolic acid, as it burns
the flesh.

Hematoxylin stain may be obtained of dealers in a condition

242 THE CELL

ready for use, or may be prepared by this recipe {Gage's Hematoxij-
Uu]: Distilled water 200 cc. and potash alum 7^ grams, boil together
for five minutes in glass dish or agate ware. Add enough boiled
water to bring the volume back to 200 cc. When cool add 4 grams
of chloral hydrate and nf gram of hematoxylin crystals which have
been dissolved in 20 cc. of ninety-five per cent alcohol. This is
quite permanent, and becomes of a deeper color after standing for
some time if left in a light place and frequently shaken. It stains
the tissues which bear protoplasm and cellulose walls, causing them
to stand out in contrast with the other tissues.

Preparing and Keeping Laboratory Material. — In preparing material
for the experiments outlined in Part III., the pupil or teacher will
find it best to get much of the material during the growing season
and preserve it until the time for use. Soft material should be
dehydrated and hardened by placing it in about 40 per cent alcohol
for several hours to two days, according to its size, and then plac-
ing it in about 70 per cent for the same lensrth of time. It can then
be placed in 80 per cent alcohol, and is ready for use at any time.
When thus preserved, the tissues containing protoplasm are some-
times much shrunken. For this reason it is well to preserve some
of the material in a liquid containing a great deal of water. One of
the best liquids is a 2 per cent or 2% per cent solution of formalin.
This preserves material well but does not dehydrate it. Formalin
burns the flesh.

Free-hand Cutting and Mounting. — To cut sections, the material
may often be held between pieces of pith or smooth cork in the
microtome or fingers. The material and sections should be kept wet
with alcohol during the time of cutting.

The sections when cut should be wet in water, then stained
with hematoxylin for a few minutes; drain off the hematoxylin and
rinse with water; then use ninety-five per cent alcohol to extract
all the water from the stetions; then pour on clearer for a few
minutes. Put a drop of Canada balsam on the sections, and they
are ready for the thin cover glass. Mounts thus made are permanent.

Some reasons for the steps in the process may be understood
from the fact that hematoxylin does not mix readily with alcohol,
and balsam does not mix with water nor with alcohol. Sections
mounted before they are freed from water become cloudy and
worthless.

Fixing and Microtome Sectioning. — For the purpose of preparing
permanent miscroscopic sections of leaves, wood, or any other plant-
tissues, select typical specimens of the part desired and cut them

FIXING AND MICKOTOME SECTIONING 243

into pietH's as small as cau be convenieutly handled. These may
theu be prepared by the following processes:

1. Fixing: If the material is to be used simply for the study of
tissue-arrangement, cell-structure, etc., the treatment with alcohol
described in the paragraph relating to the preparing and keeping of
laboratory material is sufficient preparation for the imbedding process.
Protoplasmic structures, however, are likely to be distorted or disin-
tegrated after this treatment, due to the slow process of killing. Some
method of quickly killing or" fixing" the protoplasm is therefore neces-
sary. With hematoxylin staining only a few methods are available,
among which the following is perhaps the best. Cut the fresh material
into very small pieces (the smaller tlie better) and drop into so-called
absolute alcohol (96 per cent or stronger) ; after a few hours preserve
in 90 or 95 percent alcohol. With otiier stains more accurate fixing
agents may be used, such as chromic acid, osmic acid, acetic acid,
etc., either separately or in combination. The treatment, however,
is in these cases rather complicated.

2. Imbedding: The pieces must be imbedded in some substance
in which tliey cau be held and sectioned. For this, collodion is
used for harder tissues. Pour off the alcoliol, and add enough 2
per cent collodion to cover the material about three -fourths of an
inch. After twenty-four hours tiiis may be poured back into the
stock bottle, and an equal amount of 5 per cent collodion put on the
material. The collodion contains ether and alcohol, both of which
are volatile; therefore these operations must be pei'formed as quickly
as possible, and the corks of collodion bottles should always be
sealed by holding the bottle neck down for a few seconds. Leave
the material in 5 per cent collodion twenty-four hours, and then
pour the contents of the vial into a paper box, which may be made
by folding a piece of writing paper. The size of the box must be
judged so that each piece of material will be surrounded by a
quantity of collodion, and the inside of thd box should be greased
with vaseline to prevent the collodion from sticking. The pieces
will sink to the bottom, where they may be arranged with a needle.
If there is not enough collodion in the box add some from the stock
bottle. The box should then be placed in a shallow vessel on the
bottom of which a little alcohol has been poured, and covered with
a pane of glass leaving a very small opening on one side. In about
twenty-four hours the collodion will have hardened into a cake hav-
ing the consistency of cheese. The material may now be cut into
small blocks and stored in 85 per cent alcohol.

3. Cutting: For cutting sections, either a hand microtome or a

244

THE CELL

small sliding microtome and a sharp razor are necessary. Cut one
of the pieces of collodion into an oblong block with the imbedded
material near one end. This can be clamped in the microtome, be-
ing held in place by a flat piece of cork on either side. The collodion
must project above the cork. The razjr should be adjusted in such
a manner that the wiiole length of the blade is used in cutting. The
blade should be tilted downwards so tha*-, only the cutting edge
comes in contact with the block which should not be scraped by the
lower flat surface of the razor back of the edge. Both the collodion
block and the razor must be kept flooded with alcohol during the
process of cutting. When several sections have been cut they may
be flouted out on a slide and arranged near the center. Then with
a pipette place a drop of ether on the sections. This partially dis-
solves the collodion and thus sticks the sections to the slide. The
slide is then covered with water to remove the alcohol, after which
it is ready for staining. Sections are ruined if allowed to become
dry at any time after cutting.

4. Stain with hematoxylin for from three to five minutes, and
wash off the surplus stain with water.

5. Drain off the water and dehydrate by keeping the slide flooded
witn alcohol for ten minutes, or by placing it in a vessel of alcohol.

6. Pour off the alcohol and cover the slide with a clearing mix-
ture (see p. 241) and allow it to stand for ten minutes. The clearer
removes the alcohol which cannot mix with balsam.

7. Drain and wipe off as much of the clearer as possible with-
out touching the sections. Then place a small drop of prepared
Canada balsam on the sections near the center of the slide, and with
a pair of forceps lay on a clean cover-glass. If the proper amount
of balsam has been used it will spread out to the edge of the cover-
glass without exuding. The slide is now ready to be examined. It
should be cleaned and labelled and put away in a small wooden box
which is furnished by dealers in microscopical supplies.

Box of microscope slides, aud a packet of collodion drying iu a glass vessel.

CHAPTER XXXII
CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

394. THE LIVING CELL IS A LABORATORY.— In nearly all
cells are found one or more non- protoplasmic substances
which are produced by the plant. Some of these are very
useful to the plant, and others seem to be discarded or
excretory products. There is considerable division of labor
among the cells of higher plants, one cell or group of cells
producing one product and another cell producing another
product.

395. CHLOROPHYLL. — Cells may contain chlorophyll
bodies if they are exposed to the sunlight. Chlorophyll
is a green substance infiltrated in a protoplasmic ground -
mass. It imparts color to all the green parts of the plant.
Its presence is absolutely necessary in all plants which have
to secure their nourishment wholly or in part from the air
and from mineral matter of soil. Review Chapter XII.
Most parasites and saprophytes do not bear chlorophyll,
but live on organic matter (Chapter XIII). The oval
bodies in the cell of Figs. 411, 413, 414, are chlorophyll
bodies.

396. CELL-SAP.— Often the most abundant of the differ-
ent cell-contents is cell-sap. It may contain a number of
different substances, many of which are in solution and can
be detected by the use of chemical reagents. Some of these
substances are:

[ milk (lactose).
gra'pe (glucose or dextrose, Cell i-jOe).
Sugar, ] fruit (levulose).

cane (saccharose, C12H22O11).
malt (maltose).

(246)

246

CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

Inulin, which takes the place of starch in compositae

and others.
Fats and oils, as in flaxseed and castor bean.
Mucus or mucilage, as in orchid roots, onions, quince

seed, ducts of some plants, as cycads.
Tannins, as in oak, hemlock bark, and many other
plants.

Afropin, in belladonna.
Nicotin, in tobacco.
Emetin, in ipecac root.
Caffein, in coffee.
Alkaloids, Strychnin, in nux vomica.

MorpMn, in Papavcr somniferum (opium

poppy).
(Jiiinin, in cinchona or Peruvian bark
tree.
Resins, as in Conifera}.

Gum-resins, Caoutchouc, as in India-rubber plant.
Formic, as in stinging nettles.
Acetic, as in fermented cider.
Oxalic, mostly in form of calcium
Vegetable acids, oxalate (see crystals. Fig. 383).

Malic, as in apple.
Citric, as in lemon.
I And many others.
397. Sugar is found in almost all parts of the plant
and at all periods of growth. In a few it is crystallized,
as in date-seeds, squills, and others. Sugar serves as a
reserve material in such plants as beet, cane, corn, onion.
Being readily soluble, sugar is a convenient form for the
transportation of the food store from one part of the plant
to another, as from leaves to roots during the fall season
and from roots to stems and leaves during the spring sea-
sou. It results from the digestion of starch (168). See
iiote p. 251. Su{;ar in fruits attracts many animals, and in

TESTS FOR SUGARS AND OIL 247

nectar of flowers it attracts insects. To test for f/lHcose :
Make a thick section of a bit of the edible part of a
pear and place it in a bath of Fehling's solution. After
a few moments boil the liquid containing the section for
one or two minutes. It will turn to an orange color,
showing a deposit of an oxide of copper and perhaps
a little copper in the metallic form. A thin section
treated in like manner may be examined under the micro-
scope, and the fine particles, precipitated from the solution
by the sugar of the pear, may be clearly seen. (Fehling's
solution is made by taking one part each of these three
solutions and two parts of water: (1) Copper sulfate, 9
grams in 250 c.c. water; (2) sodium hydroxide, 30 grams
in 250 c.c. water; (3) rochelle salts, 43 grams in 250 c.c.
water.) To test for cane sugar: (1) Make a thin section
of sugar beet and let it stand a few minutes in a strong
solution of copper sulfate. Then carefully rinse off all
the salt. (2) Heat in a very strong solution of potassium
hydroxide. There will be seen a blue coloration in the
section, gradually washing out into the liquid.

To test for oil: Mount a thin section of the endosperm
of castor-oil seed in water and examine with high power.
Small drops of oil will be quite abundant. Treat the
mount with alcanin (henna root in alcohol). The drops
of oil will stain red. This is the standard test for fats
and oils.

To examine gum-resin : Mount a little of the "milky"
juice of the leaf stem of the garden poinsettia (Euphorbia
pulcherrima). It is of a creamy consistency. Examina-
tion under the microscope shows that it is not white, as
it seems to the naked eye. The particles are yellowish
or colorless and are insoluble. These particles are gum
resin. They have been emulsified by the plant, making
the juice appear white.

398. CONTE^^TS NOT IK SOLUTION.— Starch is the most

248 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

abundant of the solid products of the cell. Starch grains
have a definite form for each group of plants, and groups
can be determined by the form of their starch grains.
Detection of adulteration of various products containing
starch is accomplished by the aid of the microscope. In
potato starch the grains are ovate, with a "nucleus" near
one end, as shown in Fig. 391, In poinsettia they are dumb-
bell-shaped, with two nuclei (Fig. 391).
In corn they have equal diameters, with
radial fissures. In Egyptian lotus they
are forked or branched. So far as
known all starch grains are marked
with rings, giving a striated appearance,
due to the difference in density of the
a. potato ;TpoTnsettia; laycrs. When all water is driven out of
''•"'^'^- the starch the rings disappear. The

layers are more or less concentric, and are formed about
a starch nucleus.

399. Starch grains may be simple, as found in potato,
wheat, arrow-root, corn, and many others; or they may be
in groups called compound grains, as in oats, rice (Fig.
391), and many of the grasses.

400. Starch may be found in all parts of the plant.
It is first formed in presence of chlorophyll, mostly in
the leaves, and from there it is carried to some other part
of the plant, as to the roots or tubers, to be stored or to
be used. When found in the presence of chlorophyll it is
called transitory starch, because it is soon converted into
liquid compounds to be transported to other parts of the
plant. When deposited for future use, as in twigs and
tubers, it is stored starch.

401. The composition of starch is in the proportion of
CeHioOs. The grains are insoluble in cold water, but by
saliva they are changed to sugars, which are soluble. Great
heat converts them into dextrine, which is soluble in water.

STARCH — PROTEIN 249

Starch turns blue with iodine (75). The color may be
driven away by heat, but will return again as the tempera-
ture lowers. To test for starch : Make pastes with wheat
flour, potato starch, and corn starch. Treat a little of each
with a solution of rather dilute iodine. Try grains from
crushed rice with the same solution. Are they the same
color? Cut a thin section from a potato, treat with iodine
and examine under the microscope. To study starch
grains : Mount in cold water a few grains of starch from
each of the following : potato, wheat, arrow -root (buy
at drug store) , rice, oats, corn, euphorbia. Study the sizes,
forms, layers, fissures, and location of nuclei, and make a
drawing of a few grains of each,

402. Amylo-dextrine is a solid product of the cell
much resembling starch in structure, appearance, and use.
With the iodine -test the grains change to a wine -red color.
Seeds of rice, sorghum, wild rice, and other plants contain
amylo-dextrine. Amylo-dextrine is a half-way stage in
the conversion of starch into maltose and dextrine. These
latter substances do not react with iodine.

403. Protein or nitrogenous matter occurs largely in
the form of aleurone grains, and is most abundant in
seeds of various kinds. The grains are very small, color-
less or yellowish in most plants, rarely red or green. In
the common cereals they occupy the outer
layer of cells of the endosperm. Fig. 392.
In many other cases they are distributed
throughout the seed. The grains vary in
size and form in different species, but

. 392. Aleurone grains

are rather constant within each group. (ai) in kernel of
They are entirely soluble in water unless ^^®'**"
certain hard parts or bodies, known as inclusions, are
present, and these may remain undissolved. The in-
clusions may be (a) crystaloids, as in potato, castor-oil
seed-, (.h) globoids, as in peach, mustard ; (c) calcium oxa-

250 CONTENTS AND TRODUCTS OF CELLS

late crystals, as in gmpe seed. To stud)/ aleurone grains
and their inclusions: Cut a thin cross-seetion of the
peripheral cells of a grain of wheat and mount in alcohol.
Stain with an alcoholic solution of iodine to color the grains
yellow, and examine with the highest power. Make a
sketch of a few layers of cells, just beneath the epidermis.
Make a sketch of a few of the grains removed from the
cells. While looking at the mount run a little water under
the cover glass and watch the result. Make a similar
mount and study of the endosperm of castor -oil seed, or
of grape seed. In the castor-oil seed look for inclusions
of large crystaloids and small globoids. In the grape seed
globoids should be found with crystals of calcium oxalate
within them. This experiment will require the power of
i- or i-inch objective.

404. Cells may contain crystals. Besides the crys-
tals which are found as inclusions of aleurone grains,
many others may be found in many plants. In onion
skin they are prisms; in night -shade they
are in the form of crystal flour; in the
petioles of the peach they are roundish, with
many projecting angles ; in the rootstock of
skunk cabbage and the bulbs of hyacinth they
are needle -sliaped and are called raphides g^. R^phides of
(Fig. 393). In the leaf of rhizome of skunk
the India-rubber plant (com- '^^ ^^^'
mou in greenhouses) are found compound
clusters resembling bunches of grapes,
which are called cystoliths (Fig. 394).
These are concretions and not true crys-
391. cystoiithiuieaf |.^jg In saxifragc mineral matter appcars

"f rubber plant.— . ° „

ficus eiastica. as lucrustations on the surface of the
plant. Towards autumn, crystals of calcium oxalate be-
come very abundant in the leaves of many deciduous trees:
examine cross -sections of peach petiole in June and again

REVIEW ON CELL -CONTENTS 251

in October. To study crystals and cystoliths : section the
rootstock of skunk cabbage or Jack-in-the-pulpit, the leaf
of Ficns elastica, the leaf of ivy (Hedera helix) ; make a
separate mount of each in water, and examine with the
high power. When the crystals are found, draw them,
with a view of the adjacent cells. Make a similar study
of a bit of tliin onion skin.

405. Summary of cell-contents and products:

1. Chlorophyll.

2. Cell-sap, and substances found in solution.

3. Starch.

4. Amylo-dextrine.

5. Alenrone grains (crystaloids and globoids).

6. True crystals, and other mineral matter.

Review. — Name six classes of contents or products of the cell.
Where found ? Of what use? What is chlorophyll ? What is its
use? What is assimilation (170)? Give outline of the products of cells
found dissolved in cell-sap. What are the uses of sugar to plants?
Name some kinds of sugar found in plants. Describe an experiment
to test for glucose. Same for cane sugar. How may we find the oil
in plants? Describe an experiment for the study of gum-resin. Why
does the juice containing it appear white? Describe starch grains of
potato. Tell how starch grains of other plants studied differ from
those of potato. What are the uses of starch to the plant ? Where
is the plant's starch factory? Describe an experiment to test for
starch. Name some plants in which we may find amylo-dextrine.
How does its test differ from that for starch ? What are aleurone
grains? In what cells are they found in kernels of wheat? Name
some of the forms in which we find true crystals in plant cells.

Note to Paragraph 397. — The digestion of starch is produced
by means of enzyms or unorganized ferments (i. e., ferments which
are not bacterial or fungal, but are chemical substances). These
ferments, as diastase, are present in seeds and other living tissues
containing starch. During dormant periods the enzyms either are
not present, or their action is prohibited by the presence of other
substances. There are various specific enzyms, each producing
definite chemical changes.

Grape sugar and its associate, fruit sugar, appear to be the forms
most generally useful to plants. Cane sugar is readily inverted into
these sufirars

CHAPTER XXXIII
TISSUES

406. The lowest plants are unicellular or composed of
only one cell. Of such are bacteria (Fig. 128). All the
higher plants are composed of collections or aggregations
of innumerable cells: they are multicellular. If we ex-
amine the cells of the stem, the leaves, and the roots of any
common garden plant we find that they differ very widely
from each other in shape, size, and texture.

407. Any group of similar cells is called a tissue.
Each of the different tissues of a plant has its own type of
cells, although the cells in a tissue may differ from each
other in various minor ways.

408. PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.— Thin -walled cells are
known as parenchyma cells. When they unite they form
parenchymatous tissue. These may or may not be elon-
gated in form, and they usually contain protoplasm.
Parenchymatous tissue is found at the growing point
of a shoot or root (Fig. 395); in the mesophyll (soft
pulpy part) of the leaves (Fig. 411); around the vascular
bundles of stems and roots (Fig. 402/), and in a few other
places, as pith, medullary rays, etc. The cells of this tis-
sue may be meristematic — in a state of active division and
growth ; or they may be permanent, no longer able to
divide.

409. One important use of this tissue is to form other
tissues, as in growing points. Near the end of any young
root or shoot the cells are found to differ from each other
more or less, according to the distance from the point.
This differentiation takes place in the region just back of

(362)

PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE

253

the growing point. In the mesophyll (or middle soft
part) of leaves the elaboration of plant-food takes place.
Intercellnlar spaces filled with air and other gases are com-
mon in this tissue of leaves, as well as in parenchyma of
other parts of the plant.

410. To study growing points,
use the hypocotyl of Indian corn
which has grown about one -half
inch. The material should be placed
in 40 per cent alcohol for a few
hours, then in 70 per cent for the
same length of time, and then in 95
per cent until ready for use. Make
a series of longitudinal sections,
stain with hematoxylin, mount, and
then select the middle or median
one for study with the high power.
Note these points (Fig. 395): (a)
Root-cap beyond the growing point.
(h) The shape of the end of the
root proper and the shape of the
cells found there, (c) The group
of cells in the middle of the first layers beneath the
root-cap. This group is the growing point, (d) Study
the slight differences in the tissues a short distance
back of the growing point. There are four regions: the
plerome, several rows of cells in the center; the endo-
dermis, composed of a single layer on each side ; the
periblem, of several layers outside the endodermis, and
the dermatogen, on the outer edges. Make a drawing of
the section. If a series of the cross -sections of the hypo-
cotyl should be made and studied, beginning near the
growing point and running back some distance, it would
be found that these four tissues become more distinctly
marked. The central cylinder of plerome will contain the

395. Growing point of root of
Indian corn, d, d, dermato-
gen; p, p, periblem; e, e, en-
dodermis; p J, plerome; i,. init-
ial group of cells, or growing
point proper; c, root-cap.

254 TISSUES

ducts and vessels ; the endodermis remains as endodermis;
periblem becomes the cortex of parenchyma; the derma-
togen becomes the epidermis of the root.

411. EPIDERMAL TISSUE.— This is a special modification
of parenchyma, comprising the thin layers on the exterior
of leaves and stems. The cells are often tabular or plate-
like in form, as in the epidermis of leaves (Fig. 115);
and their outer surface bears a layer of cuticle, a protec-
tive substance which is insoluble even in sulfuric acid.
They do not bear chlorophyll and often contain only cell-
sap, with a little protoplasm. Their walls are much thick-
ened in some cases, as in Figs. 394 and 414. Hairs and
hrisfles are considered to be modified epidermal tissue.

412. COLLENCHYMATOUS TISSUE. — Tis-
sue composed of cells thickened at the
angles, not much elongated and not
lapping at the ends, is known as coUcn-
chyma (Fig. 396). It is strengthening
tissue. Good examples are found in
396. CoUenchyma in wild such vlucs as pumpkiu, cucumbcr and
jewel-weed Of touch-.ne- gourd. The tissuc is slightly elastic
and allows of some stretching. Cut a
few thin cross -sections of large stems of jewel -weed, and
mount in water. Study with high power.

413. SOFT BAST OR SIEVE TISSUE.— In the higher plants
is a tissue known as soft bast or sieve tissue (this also
forms part of the bundle; 424). It is composed of two
types of cells which almost always accompany each other.
These are sieve tubes and companion cells (Fig. 397;.
Both are elongated, thin -walled and blunt at the ends.
The sieve tubes are so called because of the sieve -like
areas which they bear in various parts. These areas, called
sieve plates, are commonl.y at the ends (as partitions) but
may be in the lateral walls. Fig. 397. They serve to
connect the cell-cavities with each other, and through

PROSENCHYMATOllS TISSUE

25S

them the protosplasra strands extend, as shown m the
figure.

414. PROSENCHYMATOUS TISSUE. — Several elongated
and strong tissues, which greatly strengthen the stems in
which they are found, are
collectively known as pros-
enchyma. The cells of
these tissues become much
thickened by the addition
of layers to the inner sur-
face, and finally lose their
protoplasm. They may, at
times, serve as store-rooms
for starch and other nu-
trients, and take an im-
portant part in the trans-
fer of the plant juices.
Some writers call this
group of tissues scleren-
chyma.

415. There are four
main varieties of tissues {3||illl^l~^
which may be included
under proseuchyma. (1)
Fibrous tissue, composed
of very thick -walled cells
with very small central
3a vities. F, Fig. 401.
They are very long and tapering at the ends, which lap.
Sucli tissue is found in man^^ plants where it often
wholly or in part surrounds the fibro-vascular bundles.
It is more often but not always found near the soft
bast: hence the cells are sometimes called hast fibers or
iiiird bast. (2) Wood tissue, or wood fibers. This is
composed of cells much like the preceding in structure.

3'J7. Biist-tissue. s, s, sieve tubes; c, com-
IJunion cell ; p, shows a top view of u
sieve phite, with a fonipaiiion cell, c. at
the side; o, shows sieve plates in the
side of the cell. In s, s, the proto-
plasm is shrunken from the walls liy
reagents.

256

TISSUES

but with thinner walls and the central cavity not so
nearly closed. In some cases such fibers have transverse
walls. Wood cells constitute a large part of the wood of
some plants and are in other cases found scattered only
among the other prosenchyma. (3) Tracheids. Cells of
this tissue differ from ordinary cells in being supplied with
numerous bordered pits or other characteristic markings.

398. Longitudinal tangentiiil section of Scotch pine wood, liighly magnified.
It shows tracheids with bordered pits. The dark cells are ends of medullary rays.

They constitute the largest part of the wood of the pines
and other gymnosperms. Fig. 398. (4) Vascular tissue,
composed of large cells which become confluent end to end,
forming long tubes or ducts. TT', Fig. 401. From the
thickened markings which these cells bear they are named
spiral, annular, pitted, scalariform, etc. Fig. 389. These
vessels are often of considerable length, but are never con-
tinuous through the entire plant. Cut a grape-vine stem
2 or 3 feet long. Place one cut end in a glass of water and
with the other end in the mouth, try to force air through
the stem. If not successful, shorten the stem a little.

TISSUE SYSTEMS 257

416. SCLERENCHYMATOUS OR SCLEROTIC TISSUE.—
Sclerenchyma cells are hard, not elongated, often some-
what spherical, and their thickened walls are provided
with simple or branching canals. The cells of this tissue
are illustrated by the common grit cells of the pear and
some other fruits. They are also found in the coats of
many seeds, in nut shells, in the pith of some plants.
Hold a large gritty part of a pear between two pieces of
smooth elder pith or cork and make free-hand sections.
Mount in water. Make a drawing of a single cell showing
thickness of wall, size of central cavity, wall markings.
Note the general shape of the cells.

417. LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.— That tissue found in many
plants which contain a milky liquid is called laticiferous
tissue. There is no fixed type for the vessels which carry
this fluid, as they vary greatly in different plants, being
simple in the asclepias (milk weed), and complex in the
dandelion.

418. TISSUE SYSTEMS.— The parts of complex plants
may be conveniently grouped into three tissue systems :
(1) Fibro-vascular tissue system. This is composed of
fibro-vascular bundles. The fibrous framework of roots,
stems, and leaves is made of fibro-vascular bundles.
(Fibro-vascular means fibrous or long and slender, and

.having long openings or channels.) Each bundle is
composed of two fundamental parts: phloem and xylem.
The bast fibers may or may not be present. Phloem is
another name for the soft hast or sieve tissue, while xylem
is the name of the lignified or woody part and is com-
posed chiefly of the ivood cells, tracheids, and ducts. In
stems of dicotjdedons (exogens), these two parts of the
bundle are separated by cambium, a meristematic layer giv-
ing rise to xylem on one side and to phloem on the other.
For types of bundles, see next chapter. (2) Fundamen-
tal tissue system. This is composed of the parenchyma-

258 REVIEW ON TISSUES

tous tissue already described. The fibro- vascular system
may be said to be imbedded in the fundamental tissue.
(3) Epidermal tissue system. This is the covering of
the other systems, and is composed of epidermal tissue,
already described. It should be borne in mind that the
types of cells and tissues as defined in this chapter are
not all that may be found in plants. There are many inter-
mediate forms, e. g., tracheids and ducts blend the one into
the other; and the same is true of wood cells and tracheids,
419. Summary of tissues studied:

1. Parenchymatous tissue.

a. meristematic.
6. permanent.

2. Epidermal tissue.

3. Collenehymatous tissue.

4. Soft bast or phloem (sieve tissue).

5. Prosenchymatous tissue.

a. Fibrous tissue or bast fibers.
h. Wood tissue or wood fibers.

c. Tracheids.

d. Vascular tissue or ducts.

6. Sclerenchymatous or sclerotic tissue.

7. Laticiferous tissue.

8. Tissue systems.

Review. — What is a tissue? How may two tissues differ? What
is parenchymatous tissue? Name three places where this is found..
Distinguish between meristematic and permanent tissue. Name two
uses of parenchymatous tissue. Of what use are the intercellular
spaces of leaves? Describe the parts studied in the section of root
tip. What part of this tip will become vascular? Describe epidermal
tissue. Collenchyma. Sieve tissue. Of what use are the sieve areas?
What are the chief uses of prosenchyma? Describe fibrous tissue,
wood cells or wood fibers; tracheids; ducts. What does your ex-
periment in blowing air through a grapevine stem indicate? De-
scribe cells of sclerotic tissue. Laticiferous tissue. Name three tissue
systems. What are fibro-vascular bundles? What two classes of
tissue are found in each bundle ? Of what is phloem composed f
Xylem.

CHAPTER XXXIV

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

420. There are two main types of stem structure found
among flowering plants, which have their differences
based upon the arrangement of the flbro- vascular bundles.
These types are endogenous and exogenous.

421. ENDOGENOUS STEMS. — Plants with this form of
stem are the monocotyledons. The vascular bundles are
irregularly scattered through the fundamental tissue of the
stem (Fig. 399), and are not arranged in circles about a
common center. The bundles are not parallel with each
other and are not of the same size throughout their length.
Fig. 400 shows the direction often taken by the bundles
in the stem. On the exterior there is either an epidermis
or a false rind. The only trees which have this kind of
stem are natives of the tropics or of warm countries. The

palm is one of them, and
these stems are sometimes
called the palm type. In
our own climate we find
many examples, such as
greenbrier, Indian corn,
asparagus, grasses, or-
chids, iris, and cat -tail.
To study arrangement of
bundles in corn: Cut thin
sections of a small corn
stem which has been pre-
served in alcohol. Stain with hematoxylin. Examine
with the low power, and make a sketch showing the
(259)

390. Cross-section of corn-stalk, showing
the scattered fibro-vascular bundles.
Slightly enlarged.

260

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

arrangement of the bundles. The sections, if
mounted in a permanent way, as in balsam,
may be kept for further study of the bun-
dles. Compare with Fig. 401.

422. EXOGENOUS STEMS.— The fibro- vas-
cular bundles in exogenous (or dicotyledon-
ous) stems are arranged in a circle around
the center, which is usually filled with pith.
Outside the ring of bundles is a cortex of
fundamental tissue. Around this is either a
layer of cork or an epidermis. Layers of
parenchyma cells, called medullary rays, are
found between the bundles and often extend- '^^^^J'lhf course
ing from the central pith to the outer cor- l{^^il°'i^^^tJ.

tex. These cotyledons.

usually are prominent in
young stems of woody
plants and in vines. Fig.
404. All trees and
nearly all other woody
plants of the temperate
regions, as well as many
herbaceous plants, show
this plan of stem. The
medullary rays are very
prominent in oak wood.
These rays are lignified
in the xylem part of the
bundle and non-lignified
in the phloem part. To
study arrangement of
bundles in exogens: Pre-
pare thin cross -sections
of the stems of meni-
spermum (moonseed),

401. Fibro-vasciilar bundles of Indian corn, much
magnified. A, annular vessel; a', annular
or spiral vessel; XT', thick- walled vessels:
W, tracheids or woody tissue; F, sheath of
fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; ft,
fundamental tissue or pith; s, sieve tissue;
p, sieve plate; c, companion cell; I, inter-
cellular space, formed by tearing down of
Adjacent cells; w', wood parenchyma.

OTHER STEMS — THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES 261

one year old. Stain with hematoxylin. Make a permanent
mount. Study with low power, and make a sketch show-
ing the shape and location of the fibro- vascular bundles.
Fig. 402. Save the mount for further study. If meni-
spermum stems are not easily ob-
tained, ivy (Hedera helix) or clem-
atis may be substituted.

423. OTHER STEMS.— Besides the
two types of stems studied above,
which are prevalent among pheno-
gams, there are other structures of
stems found among the cryptogams.
A common arrangement of the bun-
dles is in the form of a circle some
distance from the center, with a few
other bundles within the circle.

-^,,.,, • ,1 • , 1 ,. 402. Arrangement of tissues in

Within the circle also are sometimes 2year-oid stem of moonseed.
found large areas of fibrous tissue. l^jf^/J^^^^^i^:.

Fig. 403. There are, however, wide vascular bundles are very

prominent.

variations from this arrangement,

but this mode of arrangement is often called the fern

type of stem.

424. THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES.— It has already been
said (418) that every fibro-vascular bundle is made up of
two parts: (1) phloem or soft bast; (2) xylem or tvood.
The relative position of these two strands of tissue is very
important. There a-re three plans of arrangement, on
which three types of bundles are based. These plans
are collateral, bi-collateral and concentric.

425. In collateral bundles, the phloem and xylem are
placed side by side, the xylem being nearer the center
of the stem and the phloem outside or nearer the cir-
cumference of the stem. We find this plan in the stems of
phenogams. The collateral bundles may be either open or
closed. Open bundles are those which continue to increase

262 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

in size during life by the presence of a growing layer at
the line of union of the phloem and xjlem. This layer
of growing cells is called cambium. Dicotyledonous stems
have open collateral bundles. Fig. 402. Closed bundles
are those which cease growing very early and have no
cambium or growing layer. They are called closed, per-
haps from the fact that there is no means by which they
may become larger. Stems of monocotyledons have
bundles of the closed collateral type. Examine with high

403. Cross-section of root of brake (Pteris aquilina), showing 12 concentric fibro-
vascular bundles. The two long dark strands are composed of fibrous tissue.

power cross -sections of menispermum stems and corn
stems (see Figs. 401, 402, 404), which have been stained
with hematoxylin. Study the tissues found in a single
bundle of each, with the aid of the illustrations.

426. In concentric bundles, the xylem is centrally
placed in the bundle and the phloem is all around it,
as in club mosses and ferns (Fig. 403); or the phloem is
in the center of the bundle and the xylem surrounds it,
as in the underground stems of some monocotyledons, as
asparagus. Figs, 405, 406. To see concentric bundles:.

SECONDARY THICKENING OF STEMS 2G3

Prepare cross -sections of the stem of pteris or aspidium.

They shoukl be cut very thin and stained with hema-

'^~^,cc> toxyliu. Make a sketch showing

f the arrangement of bundles. Bicol-

( V- -^ lateral bundles differ from the col-

{^^ s ^v> lateral in having additional phloem

M ^^ on the inner side of the xvlem

'^ ,' I strand; well marked in pumpkins

' i d and squashes.

T^\- ;fc 427. In roots the phloem and

^ ,* xylem are not definitely arranged

^' in bundles, but in alternating

radial strands or plates. This

f plan is typical in young roots and

rootlets, but is more or less ob-

404. Cross-section ot tibro-viis-
cularUmdle of moonseed (.see sCUred lU oldcr OUCS.
Fig. 402). f, f, crescent-shaped

sheaths of hast fibre;i). phloem; 428. SECONDARY THICKENING OF

cp, crushed phloem ; c, eam-

biuinjd, xylem ducts: «, xylem STEMS. — DicotvIedoUOUS (or 6X0-
tracheids; m, medullary rays

of fundamental tissue; from geUOUs) stcmS witll OpCU Collateral
c to / (at bottom), xylem; 7, "^ '

end of first year's growth; 2 buudlcs may Increasc in diameter

end of second year s growth of ''

wood. each year. If they are perennial

they may add a ring of growth each spring (Fig. 407).
These rings may be .^KKM~

counted on the smooth j^^^^^^m.-
cross-cut surface of a J^^^^^^B^" ^ '
tree, and the exact age /^9H|pH|^:
of the tree usually can ^^n-r-r^S ^ ' . \.
be very closel}' deter- --^^^ -.
mined. All growth in ' ;i .

thickness due to the
formation of new cells
outside of the primary \
wood is called second-
ary thickening.

.QQ . 1 405. Part of cross-sectiiMi (f rni.t stock of aspar-

4ZJ. As we Iiave agus, showing a few til.io-v^iMuhir bundles.

264 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

seen (425), there is a cambium or growing layer in every
open collateral bundle just between the xylem and phloem.
Each spring the cells of this layer divide many times and
form new cells both inside and outside the cambium ring.
Those formed inside become thick walled and are xylem.
Those formed to the outside of the ring are gradually
changed into phloem. The crowding of the cells within
the cambium ring causes the ring itself to enlarge its

406. Enlargement of a single concentric bundle from Fig. 405.

circumference and move outward by this growth. To
study secondary thicJiening : Cut thin cross -sections of
basswood stems of different ages (one to three years old).
Stain and mount. Examine with low power and sketch
the arrangement of bundles in the oldest and youngest.
Note the effect of growth on the medullary rays. Test
them with iodine for starch. Now wdth the high power
study the peculiar character of the bast tissue. Note the
abundance of fibrous tissue found all through it. Draw
a single bundle from the stem one year old, carefully

B A K K 265

showing the location of the cambium and the different
tissues found in the xylem and phloem strands (Fig. 408).
It may be thought best to precede this experiment with a
similar study of two-year-old stem of moonseed, ivy or
other vines.

430. BARK.— In most woody plants that part of the
stem which is outside the cambium ring is called bark.

407. White pine stem 5 years old. The outermost layer is bark.

At first it contains the epidermis or outer layer of cells,
the phloem and the cortex lying between the epidermis and
the phloem. The gradual growth of the stem causes the
outer dead layers of bark to crack more or less irregularly
and finally to split off. Examples of this can be seen on
the trunks of any large trees. Before the tree is many
years old the cortical cells of the bark become much
crushed and are lost to view. The epidermis is shed
rather early in the life of the tree.

266

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

431. Usually very early iu the life of the stem a corhj
layer of bark is produced. This is the product of an active
layer of cells called phellogen. This layer is first found

at those places
where the stomates
or breathing pores
were located. The
epidermis is first
crowded off at these
places, and the
rough corky spots
are called lenticels.
Phellogen is very
active in the cork
oak of Spain, but
we find it in nearly
all woody plants.
In such plants as
button wood (syca-
more), in which the bark peels off in thin, flat layers,
the phellogen layer is nearly uniformly active in all
parts, while in many other cases there is very little unifor-
mity. In wahoo (burning bush) it is in four bands, giving
rise to four corner wings. In the section of menispermum
already studied, it is found only under the lenticel spots
where the stomates have been located.
Fig. 409 shows structure of the outer
bark as found in the whole circum-
ference of the three -year -old stem
of red currant. To study phellogen
and corky tissue : Cut thin cross -
sections of red currant from
stems two or three years old which have been kept in
alcohol at least several hours. The sections should be
stained. With the highest power make a careful study of

408. Section of basswood stem, j years old.
The cone-shaped growths of phloem are plainly i

Cross-section of red cur-
rant twig, showing bari.
c, corky tissue; p, phellogen;
g, parenchyma or cortex.

STEUCTURE OF ROOTS 267

the phellogen and the corky tissue outside of it. Draw.
The relation of bark to woody tissue in pine is shown in
Fig. 410. Cork tissue may be studied to advantage in
the skin of the potato.

432. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS.— At the growing point
the root has a cap (of small compact cells) which
protects the delicate tissues from injury (Fig. 395).
Such a protection is not found in growing points (buds)
of stems. In their internal structure roots differ from

410. White pine stem in radial longitudinal section.

Traclieids on tlie left with medullary rays crossing them. Next to the wood

is the phloem, then fundamental tissue, then the dark hark.

especially when very young. Young roots have
the radial arrangement of phloem and xylem (427). The
number of xylem strands radiating from the center differs
with the plant. In roots also tljere is almost uniforml\
present a true endodermis. This layer is found just
within the cortex and is composed of rather thick-
walled cells. However, many rhizomes and stems have
a trne endodermis. To sfiuh/ corn roots: From the roots
of Indian corn a few weeks old cut thin cross-sections;
stain and mount. With the aid of the low power make
a sketch showing the arrangement of the strands of

268

STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

wood and bast, and also the amount of fundament al
tissue. Use the highest power and draw a portion includ-
ing one strand of wood and two of bast. In this por-
tion draw the tissues from the center out beyond the
endodermis. Sections may also be made of the roots of
germinating pumpkins or squashes.

Review. — Name two types of stems found among flowenug
plants. Describe each and give examples to illustrate them. Give
the plan of arrangement of bundles in fern stems. How many types
of bundles are there? Upon what do their differences depend?
Describe and give examples of collateral bundles. What difference
is there betwpen open and closed collateral bundles? Give examples
of each. . Describe and give examples of concentric bundles. Radial
arrangement. What is secondary thickening ? What plants show it ?
What is the layer called which forms the new cells in a bundle?
When is this layer most active? Describe the work of this layer.
What part of each bundle of a dicotyledon is found in the bark?
What are lenticels? What is phellogen? Describe the work of phel-
logen in any plant you have studied. Where is the root cap?
What is its use? Describe fully the structure of roots, telling how
they differ from stems.

Note to Paragraph 422. — In woody stems tiie compression is
such that the student is usually puzzled to understand the bundle
structure. The subject will be simplified if he compares (on cross-
section), the bundles in such a plant as the cucumber with that
part of the vascular ring which lies between any two medullary
rays in one-year old stems of peach, elm, oak, etc.

All material and apparatus should be kept under cover when not in

CHAPTER XXXV

STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

433. Besides the framework or system of veins found
in blades of all leaves, there is a soft tissue (408) called
mesophyll or leaf-parenchyma, and an epidermis which
covers the entire outside part.

434. MESOPHYLL.— The mesophyll is not all alike or
homogeneous. The upper layer of it is composed of
elongated cells placed perpendicular to the surface of the
leaf. These are called palisade cells. The chloropJiyll
grains are most abundant in them, because they are on the
side of the leaf most directly exposed to the sunlight.
Below the palisade cells is the spongy parenchyma com-
posed of cells nior^ or less spherical in shape, irregularly
arranged, and provided with many intercellular air cavi-
ties. Fig. 411 ; also Fig. 115. In leaves of some plants
exposed to strong light there may be more than one layer
of palisade cells, as in
the India-rubber plant
and oleander. Ivy when
grown in bright light
will develop two such
layers of cells, but in
shaded places it may be
found as in Fig. 411.
Such plants as iris and
compass plant, which
have both surfaces of
the leaf equally exposed to sunlight, usually have a palisade
layer beneath each epidermis.

(269)

411. Cross-section of ivy leaf, which grew in
shade and has only one layer of palisade
cells, w, upper epidermis; p, palisade cells;
c. a crystal ; sp, spongy parenchyma ; i, in-
tercellular space ; ?, lower epidermis. The
plant here intended is the tnie or English
ivy, Hedera helix.

270

STBUOTCRE OF LEAVES

435. EPIDERMIS.— The outer or epidermal cells of leaves
do not bear chlorophyll, but are usually so transparent that
the green mesophyll can be seen through them. They
often become very thick -walled, and are in most plants
devoid of all protoplasm except a thin layer lining the
walls, the cavities being filled with cell -sap. This sap is
sometimes colored, as in the under surface of begonia
leaves. It is not common to find more than one layer of
epidermal cells on each surface of a leaf. The epidermis
serves to retain moisture in the leaf. In desert plants
the epidermis as a rule is very thick and has a dense
cuticle.

436. There are various outgrowths of the epidermis.
Hairs are the chief of these. They may be (1) simple, as

on primula, geranium,
naegelia ; (2) once
branched, as on wall-
flower ; (3) com-
pound, as on verbas-
, . , >aj|^^«B»i&jp^N.ife^l^K» cum or mullein; (4)

^S-. ,^--''flpE^^^^I^^pr^J^^aB| disk-like, as on shep-
■r.' ' "^>r^^^^yf^!^^ herdia(Fig.412); (5)

stellate, or star-
shaped, as in certain
crucifers. In some
cases the hairs are
glandular, as in Pri-
mula Sinensis and
certain hairs of pump-
kin flowers. To study
epidermal hairs : For this study use the leaves of the
plants mentioned above or others which may be substi-
tuted. Cross -sections may be made so as to bring hairs
on the edge of the sections. Or in some cases the hairs
may be peeled or scraped from the epidermis and placed

412. Disk-like or radial hairs of shepherdi:

STOMATES

271

in water on a slide. Make sketches of the different kinds
of hairs.

437. STOMATES. — Stomates or breathing-pores are
small openings or pores in the epidermis
of leaves and soft stems to allow the
passage of air and other gases and vapors.
They are placed near the large intercel-
lular spaces of the mesophyll. Fig. 413 413. stomate of ge-
shows the usual structure. There are two ranium leaf, show
guard cells at the mouth of each stomate, '""^ ''^''''^

which may in most cases open
or close the passage as the condi-
tions of the atmosphere may re-
quire. In Fig. 414 is shown a
case in which there are compound
guard cells, that of ivy. On the
414. stomate of ivy, showing niargius of ccrtaiu leaves, as of

compound guard cells. ...

fuchsia, impatieus, cabbage, are
modified stomates known as ivater- pores.

438. Stomates are very numerous, as will be seen from
the numbers giving the pores to each square inch of leaf
surface :

Lower surface. Upper surface.

Peony 13,790 None

Holly 63,600

Lilac 160,000

Mistletoe 200 200

Tradescantia 2,000 2,000

Garden Flag 11,572 11,572

The arrangement of stomates 01: the leaf differs with
each kind of plant. Figs. 415 and 416 show stomates on
two plants, and also the outlines of contiguous epidermal
cells. The guard cells contain chlorophyll.

439. FALL OF THE LEAi<", — In most common deciduous
plants, when the season's work for the leaf is ended, the
nutritious matter is withdrawn into the stem, and a layer

272 STRUCTUKE OF LEAVES

of corky cells is completed over the surface of the
stem where the leaf is attached. The leaf soon falls. It
often falls even before killed by frost. Deciduous leaves
begin to show the surface line of articulation in the early
growing season. This articulation may be observed at
any time during the summer. The area of the twig once
covered by the petioles is called the leaf-scar after the leaf
has fallen. Figs. 53, 83, 86 show a numl)er of leaf-scars.

415. Stomates of geranium leaf. 416. Grouped stomates on a begonia leaf.

Fig. 417 shows the leaf -scar in the form of a ring sur-
rounding the bud, for in the plane tree the bud is covered
by the hollowed end of the petiole; sumac is a similar
case. Examine with a hand-lens leaf-scars of several
woody plants. Note the number of bundle -scars in each
leaf-scar. Sections may be cut through a leaf-scar and
examined with the microscope. Note the character of cells
which cover the leaf- scar surface. Compare 204.

Review. — Name three tissues found in leaves. On the board
draw a sketch showing the structure of a leaf as seen in cross-section.
What cells of leaves bear protoplasm and chlorophyll? Why do
some leaves have palisade cells near both surfaces? Describe
epidermal cells. Why are their walls much more thickened in
some plants than others? What is the purpose of epidermis? What
are stomates? Draw on the board a section through a stomate
showing epidermis and mesophyll. What is the work of guard cells?
Give some idea of number of stomates in various plants. Name five

KEVIEW ON STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

273

types of epidermal hairs. What use could be suggested for the
dense coat of hairs on leaves of shepherdia? Fig. 412.

Note. — To study leaf tissues : A number of leaves can be com-
pared by making free-hand cross-sections of leaves held between
two pieces of pith or cork, and mounting tiie material in water.
Study such leaves as ivy (Hedera
helix), begonia, cyeas, geranium,
and corn. Note the number of
layers of palisade cells, the spongy
parenchyma, the epidermal lay-
ers. Which cells bear chlorophyll?
Write a brief description of the
tissues of each leaf and make a
drawing of the geranium.

To study stomates in cross -
section : In the cross-sections of
leaves of geranium, corn, ivy, lih^,
or spider-lily prepared for the above experiment, look for the stomates
and make a careful drawing from the one you can see best.

Study of stomates in surface vieto : From the under surface of
leaves of geranium and impatiens peel bits of epidermis by tearing
the leaf. Mount these in water and examine under low power. Are
the stomates scattered or in grcups? With aid of a higher power
draw a few stomates showing their guard cells and the surrounding
epidermal cells. Make a similar study and sketch of the epidermis
torn from the under surface of a Begonia sangulnea leaf.

Breathing-pores are known as siomata, singular stoma; also as
stomates, singular stomate.

417. Leaf-scar of the plane tree or
sycamore. The scar surrounds
the bud, which was covered by
the hollow base of the petiole.

Looking for light.

PART IV
THE KINDS OF PLANTS

NUMBER OF PLANTS.— Above 125,000 distinct kinds or
species of seed -bearing plants are known and described.
Probably little more than one -half of the total number now
existing on the earth are known. Even in the older coun-
tries and regions, seed -bearing plants heretofore unknown
to science are discovered now and then. Outlying regions
are relatively little known botanically. The larger part
of Africa, South America, Central America, China, Cen-
tral Asia, and the tropical islands are only imperfectly
explored for plants. Crjptogamous plants are far more
numerous in kinds than seed- plants, and many kinds — as,
for example, various bacteria — are almost infinite in
numbers of individuals. In the lower ranges of cryptog-
amous plants, as in fungi and bacteria, many new kinds
are constantly being described even in countries in which
they have been most carefully studied.

SPECIES.— Each kind of plant is called a species.
There is no absolute mark or characteristic of a species.
Between many kinds there are intermediate forms, and
some kinds vary immensely under different conditions.
What one botanist considers as a distinct species, another
botanist may regard as only a variety or form of another
species. No two botanists agree as to the number of
species in any region. Species are not things in them-
selves. In practice, any kind of plant which is distinct
enough to be recognized by a description, and which is
fairly constant over a considerable territory, is called a
(275)

276 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

species. We make species merely to enable us to talk
and to write about plants : we must have names to call
them by. The different kinds of plants are the results
of evolution. Probably none of them were created in the
beginning as we now find them.

NAMES OF SPECIES.— For one hundred and fifty years
(since Linn»us published his "Species Plantarum " in
1753), species have been known by two names, the generic
and the specific. The generic name is the name of the
genus or group to which the plant belongs: it corresponds
to a surname. The specific name belongs only to the
particular species or kind : it corresponds to a given or
Christian name. Both names are necessary, however, to
designate the species. Thus Querctis is the generic name
of all the oaks. Quercus alba is one of the oaks (the
white oak), Q. virens (the live oak) another. All maples
belong to the genus Acer, and all elders to Satnbucus.
The same specific name may be used in any genus, as the
same Christian name may be used in any family. Thus,
there is a Quercus nigra, Sambncus nigra, Acer nigrum,
"niger" meaning black.

By common consent, the oldest proper name of any
species must stand. If a species happens to have been
named and described twice, for example, the first name, if
in the proper genus, must hold; the later name becomes a
synonym. It sometimes happens that the same specific
name has been given to different plants of the same genus.
Of course this name can be allowed to stand for only one
species, and the other species must receive another name.
In order to avoid confusion of this and other kinds, it is
customary to write the author's name with the species-
name which he makes. Thus, if Gray describes a new
Anemone, his name is written after the plant name: Ane-
mone cylindrica, Gray. The author's name thus becomes
an index to the history of the species -name.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT NAMES 277

Plant -names are thrown into the forms of the Latin
hmguage. When plants first were studied seriously,
knowledge was preserved in Latin, and Latin names were
used for plants. The Latin form is now a part of the
technical system of plant and animal nomenclature, and is
accepted in all countries; and the Latin language is as
good as any other. As in the Latin language, all plant-
names have gender, and the termination of the word is
usually different in each gender. The species -name must
agree with the genus -name in gender. Acer is neuter: so
is A. ruhrum and A. nigrum. Quercus and Sa^bucus are
feminine: so are Q. nigra and 8. nigra. Masculine, femi-
nine, and neuter endings are seen in Buhus sativus, Pasti-
naca sativa, Pisum sativum. "Sativus" means cultivated.

The name of a species not only identifies the species, but
classifies it. Thus, if a plant is named in the genus Acer,
it belongs to the maples ; if it is named in Fragaria, it
belongs to the strawberries; if it is named in Pyrus, it is
allied to apples and pears; if it is HeliantJius, it is one of
the sunflowers.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT- NAMES.— The name is an
introduction to the plant, as it is to a person. It is an
index to its history and literature. It enables us to think
and to speak about the plant with directness and pre-
cision. It brings us nearer to the plant and increases our
interest in it.

The name is a means, not an end. Merely to know the
name is of little use or satisfaction. Knowing the name
should be only one step in knowing the plant. Of late
years, the determining of the names of plants has been
discouraged as a school -exercise. This is because all in-
quiry stopped when the name was secured. A name was a
stone wall when it should have been a gate.

HOW TO FIND OUT THE NAMES OF PLANTS.— There can

be no short -cut to the names of plants, for names cannot

278 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

be known accurately until the plant is known. The name
and the plant should be indissolubly associated in the
mind. Study first the plant. If one does not know the
plant there is no occasion for knowing its name.

Learn first to classify plants: names will follow. Look
for resemblances, and group the plants around some well-
known kind. Look for sunflower- like, lily-like, rose-like,
mint-like, mustai'd-like, pea-like, carrot-like plants. These
great groups are families. The families of plants are bet-
ter recognized by studying a few representative plants than
by memoiizing technical descriptions. Go to the botany
and use the keys in these families, in order to run the
plant down to its genus and species. If the family is not
recognized, use the key to find the family. Use the keys
at first: graduall}^ discard them. When one looks for
relationships, the vegetable kingdom comes to have con-
tinuity and meaning. Merel}^ to know names of plants
here and there is of little use.

It is unwise for the beginner to try first to find the name
of any plant. Let him first examine familiar plants or those
which seem to be related to other plants which he knows.
Let him get in mind the bold characteristics of the families
which are most dominant in his locality. Names are secon-
dary and incidental. After a time, in case of each new
plant, he should be able to give a shrewd guess as to its
family; then he may go to the book to verify the guess.

In the following flora, twenty-five well-marked families
are chosen for study. Some of them are not the most
characteristic of the American vegetation, but they are
such as afford easily accessible species, either in the wild
or in cultivation, and which are not too difficult for the
beginner. The pupil should begin with plants of tvhich he
knows the common names or ivith tvhich he is familiar.
Several plants should be studied in each family, in order
to enable him to grasp the characteristics of the family

MAKING A COLLECTION 279

and thereby to lead luiu to compare plant -groups and to
clarify his perception and widen his horizon. When
these families, or the larger part of them, are understood,
if the pupil desire further knowledge of species, he may go
to the regular manuals in which species are grouped or
classified according to their natural affinities. It is well to
study more than one plant in a genus whenever possible,
for then close comparisons can be made.

MAKING A COLLECTION.— The making of a collection of
plants focuses one's attention, defines one's ideas, and
affords material for study at any season. The collecting
and preserving of plants should be encouraged. Not until
one searches for himself, and collects with his own hands,
can he know plants. The collection should not be an end,
however. It should be only a means of knowing plants
as they live and grow. Too often the pupil thinks it
sufficient merely to have made a collection, but the col-
lection of itself is scarcely worth the while.

Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure.
The collection, when properly arranged and labelled, is an
herbarium. Each species should be represented by suffi-
cient specimens to display the stems, foliage, flowers,
fruits. If the plant is an herb, its root should be shown.
There should be several or many specimens of each
species to show the different forms which it assumes. It
is less important to have an herbarium of many species
than to have one showing the life -phases of a few species.
First make specimens of the common species: later one
may include the rare ones if he choose, although an her-
barium which selects plants merely because they are rare
is of little account except as a collection of curiosities.
The commonest plants are usually the least represented
in herbaria.

Dry the plants between blotters which are 12 inches
wide and 18 inches long. These blotters are called

280 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

" driers." The}' may be purchased of dealers in botanical
supplies, or thej^ can be cut from felt "carpet paper." It
is well to place the specimen in a folded sheet of news-
paper, and then lay the newspaper between the driers. If
the specimens are large or succulent, three or four driers
should be laid between them. The sheets may be piled
one above another, until the pile becomes so high (12-18
in.) that it tends to tip over. On the top place a board
of the dimensions of the drier, and apply twenty to
thirty pounds of stones or other weight. Change the driers
— but not the newspapers — once a day at first, laying the
driers in the sun for a time. In a dry, warm place, most
plants will dry in a week or ten days. When thoroughly
dried, they retain no soft, sappy, fresh -green areas, and
they usually break if bent sharply. They will be per-
fectly flat.

The specimen may now be secured to strong white
paper, known as "mounting paper." The regulation size
of the sheets is 11/2x16% inches. It is the quality of
heaviest ledger paper. By the ream, it can be bought
for one cent or less a sheet. The specimen should be large
enough nearly or quite to cover the sheet, unless the
entire plant is smaller than this. It may be glued down
tight, as one pastes pictures in a scrap-book, or it may
be held in place by strips of gummed paper. The
former is the better way, because the plants are not so
easily broken. Only one species should go on a sheet.
In one corner, glue the label. This label should give the
place and date of collecting, name of collector, and any
information as to height, color, nature of soil, and the
like. Sooner or later, the label should contain the name
of the plant; but the name need not be determined until
after the plant is mounted.

The sheets of one genus are laid together in a folded
sheet of strong straw-colored paper. This folded sheet is

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA 281

the "genus cover." Its size when folded is ll%xl6%
inches. On the lower left-hand corner the name of the
genus is written. If one has many sheets in one genus
— say more than 20 — it may be necessary to have more
than one cover for them. The covers are laid in cup-
boards flatwise, one on the other, and the sheets then
retain their shape and are always ready for use.

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA.— The following flora con-
tains 025 species of plants in 294 genera and 51 families.
These species are selected from common and representative
plants, in the hope that 50 to 100 of them may be secured
by any pupil. The pupil should collect his own specimens
as far as possible, and he should press and preserve them
after he has studied the structure. Familiarity with 100
plants will give the pupil a good grasp of plant forms,
provided he does not stop with merely acquiring the names
and pressing the specimens. He should know how the
plants look, where they grow, how they associate with
other plants, how long they live, and the like.

Avoid the use of keys as much as possible: learn to
see the plant as a whole: go directly to the family, if
possible. But it may be necessary to use keys at first.
In this book coordinate parts of the key are marked by
the same letter: e.g., f, ff, fff, are three coordinate
entries. Coordinate entries are also introduced by the
same catch-word, as "flowers," "leaves," "fruit." Using
a key is a process of elimination. First try the plant in
A; if it does not belong there, go to aa. Then repeat
the search in b, bb, etc., until the family is found.

Synonyms are placed in parenthesis itn mediately fol-
lowing the accepted name. Thus "Impatiens biflora,
Walt. (7. /»ii'fl, Nutt.)" means that the accepted name is
Walter's I. biflora, but that the plant is also known by
Nuttall's name, I. fulva.

Proper pronunciation is suggested by the accent, which

282 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

indicates both the emphatic syllable and the length of the
vowel. The grave accent (^) indicates a long vowel; the
acute (/ ) , a short vowel. Terminal vowels are pro-
nounced in Latin words. The word officinale is pronounced
officin-dy-ly; aiirea with cm as in Laura; Virginiana with
the a as in hay; alba, with a as in had; acutiloba with i
as in hill; minor with i as in mine; halimifblia with o as
in hole; Japonica with o as in coti; rumex with u as in
tune; fiinkia with u as in run.

Key to the families as represented in the following pages

A. CRYPTOGAMS: no true flowers or seeds: propagating by means

of spores Filice.s, p. 290

AA. PHENOCtAMS: bearing flowers and seeds.

B. Gysinosperms: seeds naked (not enclosed in ovaries), borne
in cones or berries: no conspicuous flowers: Ivs. needle-
shaped or scale like: plants usually evergreen Coniferce, p. 292

BB. Angiosperms: seeds borne in ovaries: flowers usually showy:
leaves very various, mostly deciduous.
c. Monocotyledons: cotyledon one: leaves mostly parallel-
veined, not falling with distinct articulation: stem
with scattered flbro -vascular bundles (endogenous)
and no separable bark: fls. mostly 3-merous.
D. Flowers without true perianth, except sometimes small
scales, or bracts, or bristles, but encloi^ed by green
alternate glumes, or chaffy bracts: arranged in
spikes or spikelets: grass-like plants.
E. Glumes in pairs, of 2 sorts (glumes andpalets) : culms
round, hollow: leaf-sheaths usually split on one

side opposite blade

Gramineoi, or Grass Family, not treated here.

EE. Glume or scale single, with flower in axil: perianth

none or replaced by bristles: culm triangular,

solid, sheath entire or closed

Cyperace(e, or Sedge Family, not treated here.
(For grass-like plants having flowers with 6 similar, green
or chaffy bracts [glumaceous segments], culms solid.
See Jnncacew, or Rush Family, not included here.)
DD. Flowers without glumes, borne on spadix, small, incon-
spicuous, usually attended by spathe Araeew, p. 294

DDD. Flowers not on spadices, mostly conspicuous.
E. Perianth free from ovary.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES 283

F. The periiinth with all parts similiarly colored.
G. Parts of perianth 6, similar, green or chaffy
(bract-like) or glume-like (glumaceous seg-
ments) Juncacem.

GG. Parts of perianth 6, regular, colored

Lillacece, p. 296
FF. The perianth with parts differently colored.

G. Leaves verticillate : stigmas 3

Trillium in Liliacece, p. 300

GG Leaves alternate: stigma 1 Connnelinacea;, p. 302

EE. Perianth-tube adherent to ovary wholly or partly:
flowers perfect.

F. Anthers 3 Iridacece, p. 305

FF. Anthers C Amaryliidacece, p. 303

FFP. Anthers 1 or 2, united with pistil, gynandrous. ..

Orchiducece, p. 307
OC. Dicotyledons: cotyledons 2 or more: leaves mostly netted-
veined, usually falling with a distinct joint or articula-
tion: stem with concentric layers of wood when more
than one year old (exogenous), and a distinct separable
bark: flowers mostly 5-merous or 4-merous (comprising
the remainder of this key).
D. Choripetalse: petals distinct or wanting (i e., flowers
polypetalous, apetalous or naked, in distinction
from gamopetalous, dd, p. 287).
le. Flowers characteristically apetalous; mostly small
and often greenish, inconspicuous.
F. Plants woody.

G. The flDwers monoecious or dioecious, one or
both sorts in catkins.
H. Fertile flowers in short catkins or heads;
calyx regular in the pistillate flower, be-
coming fleshy or juicy in the fruit (juice

milky) Urticacew, p. 313

HH. Fertile flowers 1-3 in a cup-like involucre :

or 2 or 3 at each scale of the pistillate

■ catkin: fruit dry, often winged, or a

: l-seeded nut: sterile fls. in elongated

catkins Cupulifeui', p. 310

«a. The flowers not in catkins.

H. Calyx-tube adherent to ovary: climbing

Arisiolochiacea', p. 316
HH. Calyx-tube hypogynous.
I. Leaves opposite.

J Fruit a double samara, 2-winged

Sapindacete, p. 343

284 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

JJ. Fruit a single-winged samara or 1-

seeded drupe: stamens 2

Oleacew, p. 388
JJJ. Fruit not winged : 3-seeded : stamens 4

Euphorhiacece, p. 319
II. Leaves alternate.

J. Styles or stigmas 2 or 2-cleft: stamens
equal the calj-x-lobes and opposite

to tliem Urticacew. p. 313

JJ. Styles or stigmas 3, each 2-cleft: pod
3-celIed and 3-seeded: flowers 3-
parted: fruit a dry capsule: sta-
mens 8 to many .. .Eiiphorbiucece, p. 319
S'F. Plants herbaceous: fls. not in catkins or aments.

G. Ovary inferior, 6-celled: stamens 6 or 12

Aristolochiacece, p. 310
GG. Ovary superior, 1 -celled.

H. Stamens indefinite Hanunciilacece, p. 323

HH. Stamens few (4-12).

I. Styles 2-3: stipules sheathing stem at

nodes of the alternate leaves

Poljjgonaceo', p. 317
II. Style single : stipules not sheathing

stem Urficacece, p. 313

GGG. Ovary superior, 3-celled Euphorhiaceif, p. 319

Flowers characteristically polypetalous, generally

showy.
F. Plants woody.

G. The stamens numerous (more than 10).
H. Leaves alternate.

I. Ovary 1, simple or compound, or ovaries
numerous: fruit a drupe or fleshy:
stamens distinct, inserted on the

cup-shaped receptacle Rosacew, p. 353

II. Ovaries many or numerous: stamens

many, mouodelphous Malvacece, p. 340

H. Leaves opposite: ovary single, 2-5-celled:

fruit a dry capsule Sarifragacece, p. 301

GG. The stamens 10, or less than 10.

H. Stamens 2 (rarely or accidentally 3 or 4):
fruit a drupe, or 2-celled berry or 2-

celled pod Oleacece, p. 388

IIH. Stamens 5, alternate with petals: fruit a

berry Saxifragacew, p. 361

KEY TO THE FAMILIES 285

HHH. Stamens 5 or 10 united at base, some
sterile : leaves simple : fruit 5-lobed,
carpels separating from central axis

when ripe GeraniacecK, p. 341

HHIIH. Stamens 5-10: leaves compound: fruit a
leathery 1-3-valved pod and liower
irregular: or, fruit a 3-celled inflated

(bladdery) pod and flowers regular

Sapindaceae, p. 343
HHHHH. Stamens usually 10, monadelphous, diadel-

phous, or distinct : fruit a legume

Legnniinosce, p. 347
FF. Plants herbaceous.

G, The stamens 10 or more.

H. Ovary 1, simple: fruit a 1-2-seeded berry..

Berberidaceoe, p. 328
HH. Ovaries several, simple.

I. Stamens indefinite, hypogynous

Hanunculacea, p. 323
II. Stamens indefinite, inserted on cup-like

receptacle Bosaeexe, p. 353

HHH. Ovary compound.

I. Water plants: leaves flat and floating, or

heart-shaped and erect

Nymph(eace(v, p. 329
II. Land plants.

J. Ovary compound and 1-celled.

K. With central placentae, many-
ovuled: plants juicy (watery).

PortuJacacecB, p. 339
KK. With 2 or more parietal placentae:

colored or milky juice

Papaveracece, p. 330
KKK. With 3 or more parietal placentae:
leaves opposite: juice not
milky: flowers yellow, cymose.

HypericaceiK, p. 338
jj. Ovary compound, several-celled: sta-
mens monadelphous.. .ilfaZfrtcecp, p. 340
GG. The stamens 10 or less in number.

H. Ovary single, 1-celled, simple or compound.
I. Corolla regular or nearly so.
J. Sepals and petals 4-5 each.
K. Leaves alternate.

L. Stigma 1 Leguniinosiv , p. 347

LL. Stigmas 4 Saxifragacece, p. 361

286 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

KK. Leaves opposite, punctate: flowers

yellow Hypericace(e, p. 338

KKK. Leaves opposite not punctate:

flowers pink, red, white

Caryopliyllacew, p. 320

J J. Sepals 2: petals 4-5 Portulacacece, p. 339

JJJ. Sepals 6: stamens Lj-pogynous, oppo-
site petals Berheridacew , p. 328

II. Corolla irregular.

J. Fruit a legume Leguminosce, p. 347

j.T. H ruit a capsule.

K. Petals 5: stamens 5: pod 1-celled,

3-valved Violacece, p. 337

KK. Petals 4: stamens 6, diadelphous:
fruit 2-valved (globular, 1-
seeded, indehiscent in Fuma-

ria) Fiimariacece, p. 331

HH. Ovary 2-5 celled: fruit dry.

I. Fruit of 2 dry seed-like carpels: flowers
small, umbelled or in heads : stamens

5 VmbelUferce, p. 366

II. Fruit a 2-celled pod, silique or silicle, or

sometimes loment; or indehiscent and

nut-like: flowers not truly umbelled,

but solitary or in racemes.

J. Stamens 6: sepals 4: petals (0 or) 4..

Cruciferce, p. 333

jj. Stamens 4-8, distinct or nionadej-

phous: fls. very irregular: sepals 5,

unequal and some of them colored :

petals 3 (or 5, with 2 scale-like):

pods 2-seeded Polygnlacece, p. 346

III. Fruit (or ovary) a 4-celled capsule: sta-
mens 2, 4 or 8: petals 0, 2 or 4

Onagracece, p. 364
iiii. Fruit (or ovary) a 5-eelled capsule.

J. Leaves simple, evergreen : seeds min-
ute, innumerable: plants white,
or yellowish parasitic or sapro-

pliytic about the roots of trees

Ericaceae, p. 391
JJ. Leaves simple, more or less lobed or
divided, capsule 5-10 seeded; or
stem succulent and translucent:
pod walls elastic, each cell sev-
eral-seeded Geraniacece, p. 341

KEY TO THE FAMILIES 287

■Tjj. Leaves conipouud, palmately S-folio-

late Oxalis in Geraniacea, p. 342

mil. Fruit of 2 follicles, seeds hairy tufted:

juice milky Asclepiadacect', p. 386

DD. Gamopetal^: corolla in oiie piece, at least toward the
base (as if the petals were more or less united):
calyx and corolla both present.
E. Stamens more numerous than corolla-lobes.

F Ovary 1-celled, 1 parietal placenta: fruit a

legume Legiiviinosce, p. M7

FF. Ovary 3, several-celled.

G. The stamens nearly or quite free from corolla:

style 1 Uricace'e, p. 391

GG. The stamens free from corolla: style.s 5

Oxalis in Gernaiacece, p. 342
GGG. The stamens on base of corolla-tube: filaments

monadelphous Malvacece p. 340

EE. Stamens as many in number as the lobes of the corolla
and inserted opposite to the lobes: ovary 1-celled:
style and stigma 1: pod several- to many-seeded.

PrimulacecK , p. 390
EEE. Stamens equal in number to lobes of corolla and alter-
nate with them, or fewer in number.
F. Ovary inferior.

G. The stamens distinct, inserted on corolla, 4 or
5: ovary 2-5 celled.

I. Leaves whorled or opposite with stip-

ule.s ". Hubiacece, p. 334

II. Leaves opposite, without true stipules..

Caprifoliacece, p. 39G
GG. The stamens inserted on corolla and united by
anthers.
H. Flowers in a head with involucre subtend-
ing Compositoe, p. 400

HH. Flowers not in involucrate heads, but

separate : corolla irregular :

Loheliacew, p. 399
G<GG. The stamens not inserted on corolla and not
united to each other: no stipules: juice

milky Campanulaceit , p. 398

FF. Ovary superior.

G Corolla irregular: stamens 4, in 2 pairs: or 2
stamens: the ovary deeply 41obed around
the style : fruits 4 dry nutlets : stem
square Lahiatw, p. 368

288 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

GG. Corolla somewhat irregular: stamens 5, in-
serted on corolla.
H. The ovary deeply 4-lobed about the style . .

Echium in Borraginacece, p. 383
HH. The ovary not lobed: pod many-seeded: fila-
ments all or some woolly

Verbascum in ScropJniUiridceie, j . 373
QG(i. Corolla regular: stamens equal in number to
the lobes of the corolla.
H. Ovaries 2, distinct: Ivs. opposite: juice
milky: styles or stigmas united Into 1.
I. Stamens separate, inserted on corolla:
corolla bell-shaped, funnel- or salver-
formed: pollen granular, as usual..

Apocynacece, p. 387
11. Stamens monadelphous, anthers attached
to stigma: a crown of hood-like
appendages each containing an in-
curved horn, borne on the stamen
tube: pollen cohering in masses
(waxy or grunular) . .Asclepiadacece, p. 386
HH. Ovary 1, deeply 4-lobed around style (2-lobed
in Heliotropium).
I. Leaves alternate: plants usually rougli-

hairy Borraginaceie, p. .381

ir. Leaves opposite: stems square

Mentha in Liihiuf(t>, p. 370
HHH. Ovary 1, not deeply lobed, 1-celled: ovules
parietal, or 2 parietal placentae.
1. Leaves simple, entire, opposite, exstipa-

late Gentianacew, p. 385

II. Leaves toothed, lobed or pinnately com-
pound, mostly alternate

Hydrophyllaceie, p. 383
HHHH. Ovary not deeply lobed, 2-10 celled.

I. Leaves none: parasites, twining

Cuscuta in Convolvulacece, p. 381
II. Leaves opposite, without stipules.

J. Stamens free from corolla but inserted

with it: style 1 Ericacew, p. 391

jj. Stamens inserted on tube of corolla.

K. Number of stamens 4 in 2 sets:

ovary 2-4 celled (cells 1-seeded)

Verbenactw, p. 372
KK. Number of stamens 5 or i rarely)
more.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES 289

L. Fruit 2 or 4 nutlets

Borraginacew, p. 381
LL. Fruit a pod, few seeded.

M. Calyx 5-lobed: styles 3-cleft.

Polemoniacew, p. 384
MM. Calyx 5-lobed: style 1 or 2,
or2-cleft: ovary 2-celled
(rarely 3-celled): seeds
good -sized, 1 or 2 per
cell: generally twining
herbs . . . Convolviilacece, p. 379
LLL. Fruit a pod, many-seeded, or a

berry: style 1 ., Solan aceo', p. 377
jr.oG. Corolla regular or irregular: stamens fewer
than the corolla-lobes.
H. Stamens 2: oviiry 4-lobed: corolla nearly

equally 4-lohed Lycopus in Labiahe, p. 3G9

HH. Stamens 2 (rarely 3): ovary 2-celled.

I. Woody plants, shrubs or trees: corolla

regular, 4-eIeft Oleacece, p. 388

II. Herbs: corolla wheel-shaped or salver-
sliaped, with a 4-parted (rarely 5-
parted) bonier, or somewhat irregu-
lar Veronica in Scrophulariacece , p. 370

A. CRYPTOGAMS.

I. FILICES. Ferns.

Herbaceous and leafy plants, ours without stems or trunks
above ground, but producing perennial rootstoeks : plants flowerless
and seedless, but bearing spores in sporangia, the latter collected
into sori which are usually borne on the under side or margins of
the fronds and which are sometimes covered with an indusium. —
Most abundant in warm countries, of about 4000 species, of which
about 165 are native to the United States. The leaflets of feru-
frouds are pinnoe ; the secondary leaflets are jnnnules.

A. Fruit borne in contracted panicles or on specially con-
tracted parts of the frond, these parts being devoid
of resemblance to green leaves.
B. Sporangia large and globose, without a ring of special

cells running around their margin 1. Osmunda

S

290

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

BB. Sporangia with a ring of prominent elastic cells run-
ning around the margin, and which are concerned

in the dehiscence (as in Fig. 307) 2. Onoclea

AA. Fruit borne on the back of green fronds (the fruiting
pinnae sometimes narrowed but still leaf-like, as in
Fig. 305): sporangia with a ring of elastic cells.

B. Sori naked (no indusium) 3. Pohjijodium

BB. Sori borne under the reflexed margins of the frond,
c. FinnfB entire on the lower edge, somewhat trian-
gular in outline 4. Adiantum

cc. Pinnae toothed on both margins, oblong in outline. ..5. Pteris
BBB. Sori covered with a distinct scale-like indusium.

c. Shape of sori oblong C. Asplenium

CO. Shape circular, indusium peltate or nearly so 7. Dryopteris

1. 0SMl3'NDA. Flowering Fern.

Strong ferns from stout creeping rootstocks, with large pinnate fronds:
sporangia covered with interwoven ridges, but wanting the elastic ring of
most ferns. Inhabitants of bogs and wet woods.

0. regMis, Linn. Eoyal fern. Top of the frond contracted into a

fruiting panicle: frond 2-piunate, the pinnaa oblong, olituse, and nearly entire.

0. Claytoniana, Linn.

Fig. 418. Two to four pairs

of pinnae near the middle of

the frond contracted into

^' Awijy ^,;^-, fruit-bearing parts : pinnae '^^f^W( -^ ,p-^^!^^^*^

'^^^^^ J^S\'J^T^ linear-lanceolote and acute, '^i#4,^^llllC!?\ £i/-?'6't*ak.

<»^.*^^M|^ deeply lobed. W^JFIlvC.^'^"^^^

^^'" 0. cinnamdmea, Linn. '^'^^?^^^^^},'^^'^

Cinnamon fern. Fig. 419.

,, , ^ , ^, Some fronds entirely con-

418. Osmiinda Clay- . a ■ ^ t •4.-

..■„„„ tracted into fruiting parts, , „ ^ , .

and these cinnamon color

(whence the \ernacular name): sterile form with the fronds much like

those of O. Calytoniana in shape except more acute at top.

2. ONOCLfiA. Sensitive Fern.

Mostly rather strong ferns, with broad sterile fronds and with the fer-
tile fronds rolled into hard contracted fruiting bodies, which remain after
the steril3 leafy fronds have perished: sporangia with an elastic marginal
ring of cells. Bogs and old springy fields.

0. sensibilis, Linn. Sensitive fern. Brake. Fig. 310. Sterile frond
triangular-ovate, the pinnae not extending quite to the midrib and toothed:
fertile frond usually lower than th3 other (1-2 ft. high), with a few pinnae.
Common in old pastures.

0. 8trutlii6pteris, Hofifm. Ostrich fern. Very tall (2-5 ft.), the sterile
fronds narrow, once-pinnate, with long-lanceoUite acute lobed pinnaj: fer-
tile fronds much shorter, blackish, with many pinnae.

FILICES 291

3. POLYPODIUM. Polypody.

Small ferns, with simple or ouce-pinnate fronds from slender creeping
rootstocks: sori round, borne at the ends of little veins. On dry cliffs.

P. vnlg^re, Linn. Common polypody or pohjpode. Figs. ,300, .307.
Fronds a foot or less tall, narrow-oblong in outline, pinnatifid, the lobes
nearly or quite entire: fertile pinnse not contracted.

4. ADIANTUM. Maidenhair Fern. Fig. 309.

Small ferns with compound forking fronds and wedge-shaped or some-
what triangular pinnsB, shining stipes or petioles, and sori borne at the
ends of the veins under the reflexed margins of the pinnae.

A. pedd.tum, Linn. Common maideyihair. Plant 2 ft. or less high,
the leaves forking into several or many long pirnae which bear broad pin-
nules notched on the upper margin. Cool, shady woods. Very graceful.

5. PT£:RIS. Brake.

Coarse ferns of mostly dryish places, with long pinnae: sporangia borne
beneath the reflexed margin of the pinnules, on small, transverse veins.

P. aquillna, Linn. Common brake. Figs. 125, 308. Fronds broadly
triangular, twice- or thrice-pinnate, the pinnules long-lanceolate, acuminate,
and lobed. Common in sunny places: perhaps our commonest fern. Two
to 3 ft. high, growing in patches, particularly in burned areas.

6. ASPLfiNIUM. Spleen WORT.

Middle-sized ferns, mostly with pinnate leaves: sori oblong or linear,
borne on the upper side of a veinlet, or back to back on opposite sides of
the veinlet, these veinlets not interwoven.

A. Filiz-foeiuiiia, Linn. Lady-fern. Large, the fronds 2-3 ft. tall,
growing many together, twice-pinnate, the pinnules oblong-pointed and
sharp-toothed: sori short and close together, at matiirity becoming more
or less continuous. A very common fern in moist woods and copses.

7. DRYOPTERIS. Shield-fekn.

Much like the last in general appearance, but the sori circular and
covered with peltate or reniform indusia.

D. acrostichoides, Kuntze. (Aspidinm acrostichoides, Swartz).
Christmas fern. Figs. 304, 305. Fronds 2 ft. or less tall, narrow, once-
pinnate, the pinnae serrate and bearing a larger tooth on the upper side
near the base, the terminal part of the frond
somewhat contracted in fruit. [Common la
woods. Nearly or quite evergreen.

D. Thelypteris, Gray. (Aspidium The-
lypteris, Sv^&rtz). Marsh shield-fern. Fronds
standing 2 ft. high, long-pointed, once-pin-
nate, the pinnae many-lobed, the margins of
the fertile fronds revolute.

420. Dryopteris^mTrginalis. , ^- ^^^^i^^^^^, Gray. Fig. 420. Large,
handsome fern growing in woods and ravines,
2 ft. high: fronds once-pin-nate, the pinnte pinna*itied and lance-acuminate:
sori large and close to the margin of the frond: petiole chaflfy.

292

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

AA. PHENOGAMS: GYNOSPERMS.

II. CONIFERyE. Cone-bearing or Pine Family.

Woody plants, mostly trees, with resinous sap and stiff needle-
shaped or scale-like, mostly evergreen leaves: plants bearing no
ovaries, the ovules lying naked and receiving the pollen directly:
flowers diclinous (usually monoecious), generally in scaly catkins,
those catkins bearing the pistillate flowers maturing into cones but
sometimes becoming berry-like (as in junipers). Above 300 species,
one-third of which inhabit North America: particularly abundant in
elevated and mountainous regions.

a. Cone dry, with overlapping scales.

B. Scales many and cones 1 in. or more long.

C. Leaves long and needle-like, in sheaths or bundles of

2 to 5, persistent 1. Pinus

cc. Leaves short, scattered, persistent.

D. In cross-section, Ivs. 4-sided : sessile 2. Picea

DD. In cross-section, Ivs. flat: short-petioled 3. Tsitga

ccc. Leaves short but very slender, in clusters, deciduous. 4. Larix

BB. Scales few (3-12), the cones about }4 in. long 5. Thuja

AA. Cone modified into a fleshy, berry-like body 6. Juniperus

1. PlNUS. Pine.

Trees with long, persistent, needle-shaped, angled leaves, in bundles of
2 to 5, and with scale-like deciduous leaves on the young branchlets-. sterile
catkins usually borne at the base of the

new shoot: fertile cones maturing the v\'V/' '/ '^^^^

second year, often hanging on the tree \ \\\ j CJ 'i h; fW^ ^

for years: cotyledons several. ■^^0!^\^\ f'n'y^-^ ^"

P. Strdbus, Linn. WJiite pine. Figs. ^^'^s^ '^ //.«?

145, 272. Large forest tree, much used ^\A I

for lumber : leaves long and soft, light
green, in 5's: cones long and symmetri-
cal, with thin-edged scales, terminal on ^!'^^j^l(^'^''^^^y^ ^. -^
the shoots and falling after shedding the t^^llj^-' /;' "ON-

seeds. Grows as far south as Georgia.

P. paliistris. Mill. Long-leaved pine.
Very tall tree, with nearly smooth bark :
leaves very long and slender (usually a '*"^- P^^^is rigida.

foot or more), clustered at the ends of '^^^ "'^^'^ '°"^ ^* ^^^ ^^"•

the branches, in 3's: cones 6 in. or more long, the scales tipped with a short
curved spine. Lumber tree. Virginia, south.

P. rigida, Mill. Pitch pine. Fig. 421. Medium sized or small tree with

CONIFEKJeJ

293

422.— Pinus sylvest

rough dark liark : leaves short and stiff, usually in 3's: cone 2-3 in. long,

conical, the scales with a short spine. Grows

as far south as Va. ; common in pine barrens

of the north Atlantic coast. An eastern

species.

P. 8ylv6stris. Linn. Scotch pine. Fig. 422.
Medium-sized tree, with glaucous green leaves
in2's: cone short, the scales tipped with a
prickle or point. Europe; very commonly
planted.

P. Austriaca, Hoss. Austrian pine. Fig.
423. Large tree with very rough bark, and
long, dark green stiff leaves (about 6 in. long)
in 2's: cone about 3 in. long, the scales
not prickly. Europe, commonly planted; a

coarser tree than the Scotch pine.

2. PlCEA. Spruce.

Trees of medium or large size, with short, scat-
tered leaves : cones maturing the first year, hanging at
maturity, their scales thin.

P. exc61sa, Link. Norway spruce. Figs. 270, 27L
Becoming a tall tree : cones 5-7 in. long, the large
scales very thin-edged. Eur., but the commonest of
planted evergreens. Until 25 to 40 years old, the trees
are symmetrical cone-shaped specimens, holding their
lower branches.

P. nigra, Link. Black spruce. Fig. 424. Becom-
ing a middle-sized tree, with dull, dark foliage : cones 1% in. or less long,
usually hanging for several years, the edges of the scales often irregular.
Cold woods, as far south as North
Carolina in the mountains. .MfMMMk:^^^^?^^^-^-

3. TStGA. Hemlock Spkuce.

Differs from Picea in having
flat 2-ranked petioled leaves: cones
hanging on the end of last year's
branches.

T. Canad6n8is, Carr. Hemlock.
Fig. 425. Large forest tree, with
deep -furrowed, dark bark and
coarse wood: leaves whitish be-
neath: cones not an inch long,
compact. Coiiinion lumber tree,
Bark much used in tanning.

423. Pinus Austriaca.

424. Picea nigra.

>f

.■; '^^%

J

423. Tsuga CauaJeusis,

294 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4. LARIX. Larch.

Trees of medium size: leaves soft, short, in fascicles or clusters oti
short branchlets, falling in autumn: cones much like those of Picea, bu-t
standing erect at maturity.

L. decidua. Mill. {L. J^uropivn, DC.) European larch. Leaves 1 in.
long: cones of many scales, about 1 in. long. Planted for ornament and
timber.

L. Americana, Michx. Tamarack. Hackmatack. Leaves shorter and
pale ill color: cones of few scales, \i in. or less long. Swamps.

5. THUJA. Arbok-vit^.

Trees, becoming large: leaves opposite, closely appressed to the branch-
lets, the latter frond-like: cones small, oblong or globular, of few scales.
Leaves awl-like on new growths and scale-like on the older growths.

T. occidentalis, Linn. Arbor-vitw. White cedar ot some places. Fig.
42G. Cones >^ in. or less long, bearing 2-winged seeds. Swamps and cold
woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains. Very commonly
planted as a hedge evergreen and as single specimens, but in the wild be-
coming very large trees and much used
for telegraph poles.

6. JUNtPERUS. Juniper.

Small trees or shrubs, with opposite

or whorled awl-like leaves (often of two

kinds) : fertile catkin of 3-6 fleshy scales

which cohere and form a berry-like fruit

containing 1-3 hard seeds. ,„^. _ . ■ , ^ ,.

, . , . ^ . . 426. Thuja occidentabs.

J. commtuns, Lmn. Common jumper.

Shrub, erect or usually spreading and lying close to the ground, with leaves

in whorls of 3 and all alike (awl-like): berries large and smooth. Banks

and sterile ground.

J. Virginillna, Linn. l?ed cedar. Savin. Small tree or large shrub,

usually narrow pyramidal in growth, with leaves of two kinds (scale-like

and awl-like, the former small and lying close to the branch ) : berry glaucous :

heart-wood red and highly scented. Common on banks and in old fields.

B. PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: MONO-COTYLEDONS,
in. ARACE^. Arum Family.

Perennial herbs, with rhizomes or corm like tubers and acrid
juice : flowers minute, often diclinous and naked, borne on a spadix
and surrounded or attended by a spathe: fruit usually a berry, the
entire spadix usually enlarging and bearing the coherent berries in a

ARACE^ 295

large head or spike. Miiny tropical plants, and some of temperate
regions, many of them odd and grotesque. Genera about 100; species
about 1,000. Representative plants are skunk cabbage, jack-in-the-
pulpit, ealla, caladium, anthurium. Leaves often cetted-veined.

A. Leaves eonipouiid 1. A risiema

AA. Leaves simple.

B. Spathe hooded or roofed at the top 2. Symvlocarpus

BB. Spathe open or spreading at the top 'A. liichardia

BBB. Spatlie open and spreading for its whole length 4. Calla

BBBB. Spathe separated from spadix, appearing lateral ...5. Acorus

1. AEIS^MA. Indian Turnip. Jack-in-the-Pulpit.

Steiu arisinj; from a corn-like tuber, and bearing 1 or 2 compound leaves
with sheathing petioles: flowers naked and diclinous, the pistillate at the
base of the spadix and the staminate above them (or the plant dioecious),
the top of the spadix not flower-bearing: staminate flowers of a few sessile
anthers, and the pistillate with 1 sessile ovary, -which ripens into a red few-
seeded berry. Plants of spring or early summer, in rich woods. Tuber
very pungent, often used in domestic medicine.

A. triph^llum, Torr. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. Common Indian Turnip.
Fig. 226. Leaves usually 2, each bearing 3 oblong-elliptic pointed leaflets :
spathe purple-striped, curving over the spadix.

A Dracdntium, Schott. Dragon-root. Leaf usually \, with 7-11 narrow
olilong leaflets: spathe greenish, shorter than the spadix.

2. SYMPLOCARPUS. Skunk Cabbage.

Leaves and flowers arising from a strong rootstock, the Ivs. very large
and appearing after the spathes : fls. perfect, each with 4 sepals, 4 stamens
and single ovary which is sunk in the fleshy spadix: fruit made up of the
fleshy spadix with imbedded fleshy seeds: spathe pointed and arching, in-
closing the spadix. Common in wet meadows in the north-
eastern states. »x -^svi^v .

S. foetidus, Salisb. Spathes purple, arising in the iSv~--^!;>jL-!!li
earliest spring: leaves very large (often 2 ft. long), simple
and entire, ovate, in tufts. The tufted leaves and fetid
odor give the plant the name of skunk cabbage.

3. RICHARDIA. Calla Lily.

Leaves several from each short rootstock, their peti-
oles sheathing the flower-scape: flowers naked and diclin-
ous, the stamens above and the 3-loculed ovaries below on ^27. Richardia
the spadix : spathe large and showy, the top flaring and the Africana.
base rolling about the spadix. Several species are cultivated, but the fol-
li)wing is the only common one.

296 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

R. Africana, Kunth. Valla or Calla lily of gardens. Fig. 427. Leaf-
blades broadly arrow-shaped, simple and entire, cross-veined, glossy: spathe
white and wax-like. Cape of Good Hope.

4. CALLA.

Differs from the above in having a spathe which
d()( > not inclose the spadix, and mostly perfect flowers
(tiie upper ones sometimes staminate), each of 6 sta-
niLii^ and 1 ovary: fruit a red berry. One species.

C palustris, Linn. True Calla. Fig. 428. Leaves
about 1 ft. high, the blades arrow-shaped: spathe about
2 in lung, white on the upper face. In cold bogs, north

5 ACORUS. Sweet Flag. Calamus.

Erect, having long, horizontal, branching root-
stocKs, thick and aromatic: leaves sword-shaped, rising
428. Calla palustris. j^.^,^, ^j^g rootstocks: scapes 3-angled, bearing each a
cylindric spadix, but much prolonged and leaf-like, causing the spadix to
appear as if borne on the side of the leaf-like scape: flowers on a very
dense spadix: ovary oblong, 2-4celled, with 2-8 ovules in each cell.

A. Calamus, Linn. Sweet flag. Calamus-root. Along the margins of
streams, in swamps and wet soils. Leaves 2 to .3 ft.: flowers greenish-
yellow, very small. May to July. The rootstocks supply "sweet flag roots"
of the druggists.

IV. LILIACE.E. Lily Family.

Herbs, with bulbs, corms, or large rootstocks: fls. mostly regular
and showy, the perianth of six separate or coherent parts, the stamens
usually six and standing in front of the parts of the perianth: ovary
superior, usually 3-loculed, ripening into a capsule or berry. About
200 genera, including more than 2,000 widely distributed species.
Characteristic plants are lily, lily-of-the-valley, onion, Solomon's
seal, tulip, trillium, hyacinth, asparagus, yucca.

A. Fruit a loculicidal capsule.
B. Style 1, undivided.

C. Plant bulbous: root leavss not in large clumps.

D. Stem tall and leafy L Lilium

DD, Stem short, with only 2 to G leaves.

E. Flower erect 2. Tulipa

EE. Flower nodding ."5. Erythroninw

DDD. Stem naked, bearinir many flowerf.
E. Perianth tubular.

LiLiACE.i: 297

F. Flowers fuiinel-fonii, throat open:
lobes spreading: or recurved, as

long as the tube 4. Eyacinthns

FF. Flowers urn-shaped, constricted at
throat: lobes much shorter than

tube 5. Muxcari

EE. Perianth parted nearly to base 6. Ornifhogahiiii

cc. Plant with a rootstock, and large clumps of
leaves.
D. Flowers yellow and paniculate on a some-
what branching scape 7. Remerocallis

Di). Flowers white or bkie, mostly in a simple

raceme 8. Fioikia

BB. Style 1 at base, but 3-cleft or S-parted: liowers

bell-like, drooping, yellow 9. UrnUtria

AA. Fruit an angled berry: styles or stigmas 3: leaves

broad and netted-veined 10. Trillium

AAA. Fruit a globular berry: style 1: fls. small, white, or
greenish.
B. Foliage made up of cladophylls, the true leaves
being mere scales: stamens borne on the base

of the small corolla 11. Asparagus

BE. Foliage of ordinary leaves: stamens borne on the
corolla-tube.

c. Perianth of 6 parts, separate 12. Smilavina

cc. Perianth of 4 parts 13. Maiunthcmion

occ. Periantli gamosepalous, with 6 lobes.

D. Flowers racemose on a scape 14. Cotivallaria

DD. Flowers hanging from the axils of the leaves. 15. Polygonal urn

1. LlLIUM. Lily.

Strong-growing bulbous herbs, with leafy stems usually bearing sev-
eral or many flowers: perianth bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 divisions
nearly or quite separate and spreading or recurving and having a honey-
l)earing groove at the base: anthers attached by the middle (versatile).

a. Flowers white.

L. longifldrum, Thunb. Faster lily. One to 4 ft., with scattered long-
lanceolate pointed leaves: flowers 5-8 in. long, horizontal, scarcely widened
from the base to the middle, fragrant. Japan and China, now much cul-
tivated under glass. Many of the bulbs are grown in the Bermuda Islands,
whence the name "Bermuda lily."

L. cAndidum, Linn. Common white lily. Leaves broad-lanceolate,
scattered: flowers numerous, 5 in. or less long, widening gradually from
the base. Europe. Common in gardens.

298

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

429. Liliuni
Philadelphicu

aa. Flowers in shades of yellow or orange.

L. Pliilad61pliicum, Linn. Fig. 429. Flowers 1 to 3, erect, 2-3 in. long,

orange-red and spotted, the divisions separate: leaves whorled. Dry soil.

L. Caiiad§nse, Linn. Two to 5 f t , with leaves in whorls

and bulbs producing rhizomes or runners: fls. several or

many, erect or horizontal on lone: stalks, the divisions

spreading above the middle, orange or red and spotted.

Meadows and swales.

L. sup6rbum, Linn. Fig. 430. Very tall, bearing several
or many nodding red-orange spotted flowers in a panicle,
the segments all pointing backwards. Meadows and low
grounds.

L. tigrinum, Andr. Tiger Vdij. Fig. 30. Four to 5 tt.,
bearing a loose cottony covering on the stems: leaves ses-
sile, scattered, lanceolate : flowers many,
nodding in a panicle, orange-red and black-
spotted, the divisions about 4 in. long and rolled back.
China and Japan ; old gardens.

2. TtTLIPA. Tulip.

Low bulbous plants with a few leaves near the ground
on the 1-flowered stem: flower large, erect, the G divisions
erect or flaring: capsule triangular.

T. Gesneri^na, Linn. Common tulip. Leaves 3-6,
broad : peduncle glabrous : divisions of the flower broad
at the end, with a very short point in the center : late-
blooming tulips, originally from Asia Minor.

T. suav^olens, Roth. Due Van Thol tulip. Early and dwarf, with
fewer leaves, downy peduncle, and acuminate segments. Caspian Sea; com-
mon in cultivation.

3. ERYTHRdNIUM. Dog's-tooth Violet.

Low herbs with deep-seated conical bulbs, and scape
with 2 leaves near the ground : flower nodding, the 6 divi-
sions wide-spreading or recurved, the style long and club-
shaped. Blooming in earliest spring.

E. Americ^num, Smith. Common dog's-tooth violet, or
adder's tongue. Fig. 43L Leaves thickish, oblong-lance-
olate, mottled with purple : flower light yellow, nodding
on a stem 3-6 in. tall. Low grounds.

E. ilbidum, Nutt. White adder's tongue. Leaves
Americjinum. scarcely mottled : flowers whitish. Low grounds.

4. HYAClNTHUS. nvACiNTH.

Low plants, with large bulbs, producing many flowers in spikes or dense
racemes on a short scape, the leaves arising directly from the bulb: flowers
bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 lobes spreading or curling back.

431. Erythroiiium

LILIACE^ 299

H. orieiitd,lis, Linn. Common hi/acinfh. Fig. 174. Early spring, tlie
flowers of many colors and sometimes double, the perianth-tube swollen, the
oblong-spatulate lobes as long as the tube. Greece to Asia Minor.

Var. dlbulus, Baker. Moman hyacinth. Flowers fewer and usually
smaller, white or nearly so, the perianth-tube scarcely swollen and the lobes
shorter. France. Much cultivated.

'). MUSCARI. Gkape Hyacinth.

Low herbs, with very narrow, somewhat fleshy leaves and sm vU flowers
in a raceme: perianth deep blue or white, the tube ventricose or urn-shaped,
with () short l)lunt teeth.

M. botryoides, Mill. Gmpe hynciuth. Flowers faintly odorous, nod-
ding, deep blue: scape 4-10 in. : leaves linear, obtuse, erect, becoming longer
than scapes. In grass about gardens and lawns in very early spring; also
escaped in some places to meadows and along roadsides. Asia.

6. ORNITHOGALUM. Star of Bethlehem.

Stemless low herbs, with narrow linear, fleshy, channelled leaves:
flowers in terminal clusters, usually with conspicuous bracts: perianth
of G parts, white, spreading, veined: stamens G, hypogynous: filaments
flattened, subulate: ovary sessile, 3-celled: capsule roundish, 3 angled:
seeds few, black.

0. umbellatum, Linn. Scape 4-10 in.; flowers 5-8, on long spreading
pedicels: sepals white, each with green band outside. Common about
gardens. Introduced from Europe. Early spring.

7. HEMEROCALLIS. Yellow Day-lily.

Strong-growing plants from tuberous roots, producing clumps of long
sword-shaped leaves: flowers yellow or orange, erect, large and lily-like, in
clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions widely spread-
ing at the top. Olil World, but common in gardens,

H. fulva, Linn. Orange day-lily. Flowers tawny
orange, produced in early summer, the inner perianth di-
visions nearly or quite obtuse. The commonest species,
and often escaped along roadsides.

H. fiava. Linn. Yellotv day-lily. Plant somewhat
smaller, early-blooming: flowers fragrant, pure lemon-yel-
lew, inner divisions acute.

8. FUNKIA. White and Blue Day-lily.

Medium-sized plants, producing dense clumps of broad-
bladed leaves from rootstocks: flowers blue or white, in
racemes on scapes, each flower sheathed at the base by 1 432. Funkia sud-
or 2 bracts, the perianth-tube long and the limb sometimes eordata.

irregular. China and Japan; planted by houses and along walks.

F. subcordata. Spreng. White day-lily. Fig. 432. Leaves broadly
cordate-ovate; flowers large and white, in a short raceme, not drooping.

300 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

F. ovata, Sprena:. {F. aerulea, Sweet). Blue dui) - lily . Fig. 433.
Leaves broadly ovate: Howers deep blue, in a long raceme, nodding.

!). UVULARIA. Bellwort. "Wild Oats."

Low, erect plants, with short rootstocks: stems
with leaves alternate above, sessile or perfoliate,
parallel-veined: flowers yellow, drooping, solitary
at the end of the forking stems, the perianth
elongated, bell-shaped, of 6 similar, distinct, nar-
row sepals, each bearing a nectar gland at inside
base. Spring-flowering wood plants.

U. grandifldra. Smith. Large-flowered Bell-
wort. Commonly 1-2 ft. tall: leaves oblong, whitish-
4J3. Funkia ovata. pubescent beneath, and perfoliate: perianth smooth
on inner surfaces. Common in rich woods. Blooms a little earlier than U.
perfoliata.

U. perfoliata, Linn. Smaller than the preceding: glaucous, leaves per-
foliate: perianth segments twisted, covered on inner surface with shining
grains (papillose): flowers somewhat fragrant, pale yellow. Common in
moist woods.

U. sessilifolia, Linn. Strnw lilies. {OKki^sio .^e.'<.'<ilifdlin). Leaves
sessile, lance-oval, thin, smooth, pale beneath: stem angled, slender and
zigzag: flower greenish-yellow, about 1 in. long. Woods.
10. TRILLIUM. Wake-robin

Low herbs from deep-seated corm-like tubers: leaves 3 in a whorl, broad
and netted-veined: flower single, of 3 colored petals and 3 green sepals, the
latter persistent until the angled, many-seeded berry ripens: stigmas 3,
often sessile. Plants of earliest spring, growing in rich woods.

a. Flower sessile in the leaf-whorl.
T. sessile, Linn. Flowers dull purple, the parts narrow, pointed, and
nearly erect: leaves sessile, ovate^ often blotched with purple. Pa.,W. and S.

aa. Flower stalked in the leaf-whorl.

T. grandiflbmm, Linn. Common wake-robin, or birthroot. Fig. 221.
Flowers large and white, the peduncle standing erect or nearly so, the
petals broadest above the middle (obovate) and 2-2J^ in. long: leaves broad-
ovate, sessile or nearly so. Flowers become rose-pink with age.

T. er6ctum, Linn. Flowers smaller, ill-scented, varying from white to
pink and purple, the peduncle erect or declined, the petals ovate or lanceolate
and spreading: leaves broad-ovate. Frequent north, and south to Tenn.

T. c6rnuum, Linn. Flowers not large, white, the peduncle declined under
the broad leaves; petals ovate-lanceolate, rolled back. Range of the last.

T. erythrocarpum, Michx. Painted wake-robin. Flowers on peduncles,
erect, or partly declined: segments ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, margined,
l!iiti, widely spreading, white, penciled with purple stripes at base: sepals

LILIACE^ 301

half as long as petals: leaves ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly petioled,
obtuse or rounded at the base. Cool damp woods, from New Brunswick to
Georgia, and west.

11. ASPAEAGUS. ASPARAGU.S.

Mostly tall, often climbing plants with cladophylla and very small
scale-like true leaves: flowers white or greenish, small, bell-shaped, scat-
tered or in groups of 2 or 3: fruit a 3-loculed and 1-G-seeded small berry.

A. oiiicinalis, Linn. Common asparagus.
Figs. 147, 148. Erect and branchy, the strong young
shoots thick and edible: berries red. Eur.

A. plumdsus, Baker. Fig. 149. Twining, with
dark, frond-like foliage, small white flowers and
434. >» black berries. S. Africa; greenhouses.

Asparagus medeoloides. ^ medeololdes, Thunb. Smilax of florists (but

not of botanists). Fig. 434. Twining: foliage broad and leaf -like: fls. soli-
tary and fragrant: berries dark green. S. Africa; much grown by florists.

12. SMILACiNA. False Solomon's Seal.

Low, erect plants with many small white flowers in racemes or pani-
cles: perianth 6-parted: fruit a 3-loculed berry: rootstock creeping.

S. racemdsa, Desf. False s])ikenafd. About 2 ft., tall, somewhat
downy, with many oblong or oval leaves: flowers in a panicle: berries pale
red, speckled. Spring and early summer. Rich woods.

S. stelld.ta, Desf. Nearly or quite smooth: leaves narrower: flowers in
a simple raceme. Forms patches in low ground.

13. MAIANTHEMUM. Two-leaved Solomon's Seal.

Neat little herbs, with slender rootstocks: stems unbranched, few-
leaved: flowers small, in an open raceme, with usually 2 or 3 pedicels
together: perianth of 4 ovate, obtuse, spreading segments, united at base:
fruit a globular 1-2 seeded berr}'. One species in eastern North America.

M. Canadense, Desf. Slender stem, 3-6 in. high, terminated by the
many-flowered raceme: flowers white: leaves ovate, cordate at base, short-
stalked. Common in moist woods and on shaded banks, making mats or
patches. May to July.

U. CONVALLABIA. Lily -of-the valley.

Low, spring-rtowering herbs from brandling rootstocks: flowers ganio-
petalous, white and waxy, nodding in a 1-sided raceme, the (J short lobes
recurving: fruit a red berrj'.

C. majalis, Linn. Leaves obloug, numerous from the rootstocks, form-
ing mats, and about 2 with each scape: flowers very fragrant. One of the
best-known garden flowers. Europe. The only species.

15. POLYGONATUM. Solomon's Seal.

Mostly strong plants from long running rootstocks on which the scars
of preceding stalks are very evident (whence the common name): stems

^>02 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

leafy, bearing nodding gamosepalous flowers in the axils: fruit a globular,
dark-colored berry. Rich woods, spring.

P. giganteum, Dietr. Three to 5 ft. tall: leaves ovate, somewhat clasp-
ing: peduncles in each axil, 2-8 flowered: filaments not roughened.

P. bifldrum, Ell. One-:^ ft.: leaves oblong, nearly sessile, somewhat
glaucous, hairy: iieduiicles usually 2-ttowered: filaments roughened.

V. COMMELINACE^. Spiderwort Family.

Herbs, annual or perennial, with flat, narrow leaves, sheathing at
base: roots fibrous, sometimes thickened: flowers regular or irregular,
perfect, usually showy, in terminal cymes, usually borne above a
leafy or spathe-like bract: sepals 3: petals 3, soon decaying or
falling; stamens 6, hypogynous, some of them often deformed or
abortive: ovary 2-3-celled, style single, stigma entire or somewhat
lobed: juice slimy or mucilaginous. More than 300 species, mainly
belonging to tropical regions.

A. Flowers irregular, enclosed in cordate spathe-like

floral leaf : perfect stamens 3 (rarely 2) 1. Commelina

AA. Flowers regular, or nearly so: bracts leaf- like;

stamens 6 2. Tradescantia

AAA. Flowers somewhat irregular, tubular, usually in pairs:

trailing habit, easily rooting at nodes .S. Zebrina

1. COMMELlNA. Day Flower.

Plants ei-ect or partly procumbent and rooting at joints, succulent,
branching: leaves petioled or sessile, the floral leaf or spathe cordate:
flowers recurved on their pedicels and hooded by the floral leaf before and
after flowering, open for a short time only.

C. Virginica, Linn. Stem glabi-ous or somewhat downy, ascending 1-2
ft.: leaves lanceolate to linear, acuminate: flowers 1 in. wide, the odd petal
very small. In moist soil.

2. TRADESCANTIA. Spiderwort.

Mucilaginous herbs, with stout, succulent stems, simple, or branched:
leaves elongated, narrow, keeled, sometimes purple-veined: flowers in ter-
minal and axillary umbelled clusters, with leaf-like bracts, not tubular:
filaments glabrous or bearded.

T. Virginica, Linn. Plant green, erect, with linear leaves; flower
clusters showy, terminal: corolla over 1 in. broad: the 3 petals deep blue
(rarely white), longer than sepals: filaments blue, and clothed with hairs.
Cultivated and wild; mostly in rich soil. Very variable. Flowers quickly
fading by becoming mucilaginous, but produced all summer.

COMMELINACE^ — AMARYLLIDACE^ 303

T. pilbsa, Lehm. Stout, more or less zigzag, stems soft-hairy or
nearly smooth : leaves lanceolate, tapering at apex, narrowed at base, hairy
on both sides: cymes terminal and axillary, or on short axillary branches:
flowers ■%-! in. wide. In rich moist soil, woods and thickets, or iu shaded
places.

T. flumiii6nsis, Veil. One of the greenhouse plants known as Wander-
ing .Jew (see Zehrin.d), but leaves usually green and flowers white. S.
Amer.

.'!. ZEBRiNA. Wandering Jew.

Low, trailing or partially climbing, rooting readily at the nodes, and
branching: leaves often striped with purple, green, white, thick and ovate:
Howers small, more or less irregular, tubular, usually in pairs.

Z. p6ndala, Schnitzl. Stems trailing, perennial: corolla 3-parted,
roseate: calyx with short tube, 3-parted: ovary 3-celled, 3-6 ovuled:
leaves ovate or oblong, heavy or succulent, green and silver stripes above,
purple beneath. Much used for vases and baskets. A native of Mexico.

VI. AMARYLLIDACE^. Amaryllis Family.

DifEers from Liliacefe chiefly in having an inferior ovary and in
bearing its flowers more uniformly on scapes. More than 600 species
in nearly 70 genera, widely dispersed. Representative plants are
narcissus, daffodil, snowdrop, tuberose, amaryllis lilies. Plants of
the first three genera may be grown from bulbs in the school-room.

A. Plants from coated bulbs; stem a leafless scape.

B. Perianth with a crown or cup in its centre 1. Narcissus

BB. Perianth with no cup.

c. Anthers and style pointed 2. GaUintlius

cc. Anthers and style blunt 3. Leucoium

AA. Plants from tuberous rootstocks or corms.

B. Stem tall and leafy 4. PotiantJies

BB. Stem a low, leafless scape 5. Hypoxis

1. NARCISSUS. Narcissus. Daffodil.

Low plants producing from 1 to many 6-parted flowers on a scape which
arises from a tunicated bulb: Derianth with a long tube and bearing a cup
or crown in its center. Old World, but frequently cultivated.

a. Crown as long as, or longer than, the divisions of the perianth.

N. Pseddo-Narcissus, Linn. Trumpet narcissus. Common daffodil.
Fig. 234. Scape 1-flowered, the flower large and yellow with a relatively
short tube and a wavy-edged crown. Leaves fiat and glaucous. Double
forms are common in gardens.

304

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

435.
Narcissus Tazetia.

aa. CrotvH half or more as long as the divisions of the perianth.
N. incomparibilis, Curt. Scape 1-flowered. the flower about 2 In. or
more across, yellow, the cylindrical tube 1 in. long, the crown plaited and
usually a deeper yellow: leaves flat and glaucous.

aaa. Crown less than half the length of the division.

N. Taz6tta, Linn. Polyanthus narcissus. Chinese
sacred lily. Fig. 435. Flowers several to many in an
umbel, yellow or white, small, the crown usually darker
colored and usually somewhat scalloped: leaves flat and
somewhat glaucous. One of the commonest kinds.
The narcissus known to florists as " Paper-white " is a
white-flowered form of this species.

N. posticus, Linn. Poet^s narcissus. Scape rather
slender, usually 1-flowered, the flower white with the
thick rim of the very short crown margined with red :
leaves flat, glaucous.

N. Jonquilla, Linn. Jonquil. Scape 2-5-flowered, the flowers small and
yellow, the tube slender and the segments wide-spreading: leaves linear,
somewhat cylindrical.

2. GALANTHUS. Snowdrop.

Small, spring-blooming plants, with a single white flower nodding from

the top of the scape, followed by grass-like leaves: perianth divisions C,

oblong and more or less concave, the three inner ones shorter, some of

y them usually green-blotched at the tip : anthers and style

/ pointed.

/ G. nivalis, Linn. Snowdrop. Fig. 43G. One of the earli-

\\ M est of spring flowers, appearing as soon as the snow is gone,

^ }fe the flower and leaves arising from a small bulb: scape 6 in.

\ si or less high: inner divisions of the bell-shaped flower tipped

vrfilf with green. Europe.

3. LEUCOIUM. Snowflake.

Flowers often more than 1 : divisions of the perianth all
alike: anthers and style blunt: otherwise very like Galanthus.

L. v6rnum, Linn. Snowflake. Taller than the snow-
drop (about 1 ft.), the scape usually 1-flowered, blooming
later, the flowers larger. Europe.

4. POLIANTHES. Tuberose.

Leafy-stemmed lily-like plants, with a thick, tuberous rootstock (whence
the name tuber-ose not tube-rose), bearing an erect spike of white flowers:
perianth with a short slightly curved tube and G spreading nearly equal
divisions: stamens included in the tube (not projecting).

P. tuberdsa, Linn. Tuberose. Two to 3 ft. bearing long-linear, chan-
nelled, many-ranked leaves: flowers very fragrant, sometimes tinted with

IRIDACE.1: 305

rose. A popular garden plant from Mexico, blooming in the open in late
summer and autumn; some forms are double.

r>. HYPCXIS. Star-grass.

Steuile.ss, with grass-lilie. hairy leaves, growing from a corm-like root-
stock: Howers yellow on filiform scapes: perianth 6-parted.

H. er6cta, Linn. Scape 3-8 in., not so long as the grassy leaves, soft-
hairy; flowers 1-4, yellow, greenish without, about % in. in diameter.
Common in dry soils.

VII. IRIDACE.^. Iris Family.

Differs from Amaryllidacese and Liliaceas in its inferior ovary,
three stamens which are opposite the outer parts of the perianth,
and 2-ranked equitant (bases overlapping) leaves: stigmas some-
times large and petal-like. About 60 genera and 700 species. Rep-
resentative plants are iris or blue flag, crocus, gladiolus, freesia.
Crocuses and freesias are easily grown in window-boxes for winter
and spring bloom.

A. Lobes of the style expanded and colored, looking like

petals 1. Iris

AA. Lobes of the style thread-like.

B. Plant steraless: flowers borne on scapes.

c. From corms: spathe 1-flowered: flower large,

and perianth tube long and slender 2. Crocus

CO. From mostly fibrous roots : perianth tube scarcely
perceptible, if at all: fls. small: spathe 2- or

more flowered 3. Sisi/rincJiium

BB. Plants with a leaf-bearing and flower-bearing stem.

c. Flowers in a short 1-sided cluster: plant small ..4. Freesia
rr. Flowers in a terminal spike: plant large 5. Gladiolus

1. IRIS. Fleur-de-lis. Flag.

Mostly strong plants, with rhizomes or tubers: flowers mostly large and
showy, the three outer segments recurving and the three inner ones usually
smaller and more erect or sometimes incurving: the three long divisions of
the style petal-like and often more or less hairy, covering the stamens:
stigma on the under side of the style : leaves long and sword-shaped. Several
wild and many cultivated species. The following species have rhizomes,
a. Flouers yellow.

1. Pseudacorus, Linn. Common yellow flag. One to 3 ft., with several-
flowered, often branching stamens: outer divisions of the perianth with no
hairs or crests: flowers bright yellow. Europe.

T

306

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

:i;i. Flowers in shades of blue (sometimes varying to icJiife).
I. versicolor, Linn. Common wild blue flag. Two to 3 ft., stout: leaves
^-in. wide, flat: flowers about 3 in. long, short-stalked, violet-blue, the tube
shorter than the ovary, the inner petals small
and the outer ones with no hairs. Swamps.

I. laevigata, Fisch. & Mey. (/. Kcempferi,
8ieb.). Japan iris. Two to 3 feet, the stem
much overtopping the thin, broad leaves : flowers

437. Iris Germanica. 438. Crocus vernus. 439. Freesia refracta.

large (sometimes several inches across), flat, the inner lobes spreading, the
outer ones very large and rounded, with no hairs or crests : color mostly in
shades of blue and purple. Japan; now one of the choicest of garden irises.
I. Germdnica, Linn. Common blue flag of gardens (sometimes runs wild).
Fig. 437. Two to 3 feet, with long sword-shaped leaves: flowers few or
several to each stem, about 3 to 4 in. across, the drooping outer segments
with yellow hairs, the inner segments erect and arching inwards. Europe.

2. CROCUS. Crocus.

Small, stemless plant-, the long-tubed flowers and the grass-like leaves
arising directly from the coated corm : flowers with the G obovate divisions
all alike and erect-spreading or the inner ones a little the smaller, opening
only in sunshine. The following, from Europe, blooms in earliest spring.

C. vernus, Linn. Common crocus. Fig. 438. Leaves 2-4 to each flower,
glaucous on the under side: flower rising little above the ground; color in
shades of lilac and variously striped, sometimes white.

3. SISYRlNCHIUM. Blue-eyed Grass.

Low, slender, perennial herhs with grass-like, linear, or lanceolate
leaves and fibrous roots: scapes or stems erect, compressed, 2-edged or
winged, often branched: flowers small, usually blue or bluish, soon wither-
ing, in terminal 2-5-flowered umbels in a 2-leaved spathe: perianth seg-
ments spreading, bristle-pointed: stamens 3, monadelphous: style 1 long;
stigmas very slender; ovary 3-celled.

S. angustifdlium, Mill. Grassy plants in tufts or clumps: scape 4 in. to 1
ft., spathe single, sessile: flowers blue to purple, "arely white; petals notched
and mucrouate. In moist meadows, among grass. Summer. Common.

IRIDACE^— ORCHIDACEiE 307

4. FKEfiSIA. Freesia.

Small cormous plants with flat leaves: flowers white or yellowish, tubu-
lar, with a somewhat spreading limb, the tube generally curved: stem about
1 ft. high, bearing several erect flowers on a sidewise cluster. Popular
florists' plants of easy culture and quick growth.

F. refrdcta, Klatt. Fig. 439. Leaves narrow: flower usually somewhat
2-lipped or irregular, white in the most popular forms but yellowish in some,
often with blotches of yellow; fragrant. Cape of Good Hope.

5 GLADIOLUS. Gladiolus.

Tall, erect plants, with flat, strong-veined leaves, the stem "
arising from a conn (Fig. 50) : flowers in a more or less l-sidet
terminal spike, short-tubed, the limb flaring and somewhat
unequal: stamens separate (united in some related genera): 440. Gladiolus
style long, with three large stigmas. ' Gandavensis.

G. Gandav6nsis, Van Houtte. Fig. 440. Upper segments of the peri-
anth nearly horizontal: colors various and bright: spikes long. Hybrid of
two or more species from the Cape of Good Hope. Summer and fall. The
common gladioli of gardens are greatly hybridized.

Vlir. ORCHID ACE.5]. Orchid Fa.mily.

Perennial herbs, distinguished by singular and extremely irregu-
lar perfect flowers, among the most ornamental and interesting of
native and exotic plants, curiously adapted, in most cases, to insect
pollination; many air-plants (epiphytes) of the tropics and warmer
regions also belong to this family. Leaves usually alternate, simple,
entire, sheathing: perianth in 6 divisions, adnate to the 1 -celled
ovary: sepals 3, the outer segments of the perianth usually colored
and similar or nearly so, appearing petal-like, the 2 lateral petals
generally alike; third petal, the lip (the upper petal and, morpho-
logically, next to axis, but apparently next to bract, by a peculiar
twisting of the ovary), very unlike the others, usually larger and
frequently lobed, spurred, or saccate: stamens one or two fertile,
variously conherent with the style or with a thick, fleshy stigma, all
together forming the column : pollen in waxy or powdery masses : ovary
inferior. About 5,000 species and over 400 genera, of wide distri-
bution but most abundant in the tropics; species rather difficult to
determine, and therefore not described here in detail. Ours usually
found in cool, damp woods, bogs, and meadows. Some of the rarest
of greenhouse plants, and often very difficult to grow, are members of
this family.

308 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

A. Lip sac-like or inflated, larger than the other p;irts.
B. Anthers 2, one on each side of the stjle: a spread-
ing sterile stamen over the summit of the
style: flowers generally large and droop-
ing 1 . Cypripedium

AA. Lip not saccate, but spurred, and sometimes fringed:
flowers in a terminal spike.

B. Sepals more or less spreading 2. Hahenaria

BB. Sepals and petals somewhat arching together 3. Orchis

AAA. Lip not noticeably saccate or spurred.

B. Flowers in spikes, appearing more or less twisted
about the spike, in one or several rows: flow-
ers small.

C. Leaves not variegated 4. Spiranthes

cc. Leaves variegated with white veins 5. Goody era

BB. Flowers 1 to several, in a spike-like loose raceme:
or terminal on a leaf-bearing stem,
c. Stem (scape) from one grass-like leaf: lip

crested with colored hairs 6. Ca lopogon

CC. Stem 1-3-leaved 7. Pogonia

1. CYPKIPfiDIUM. Lady's Supper. Moccasin Flower.

Distinguished by having 2 fertile anthers: pollen sticky, as though var-
nished on suiface, powdery beneath: lip a large, inflated, spurless sac,
toward which the column bends: leaves, large, broad, manv-nerved: flowers
large, showy. Fig. 225.

C. spect&bile, Swartz. Stem leafy, 1-2 ft., or more: flower solitary or
two or three together; lip a globular sac, white, colored with purplish-pink,
l>2-2 in. long. In swamps, bogs and woods, north, and south in mountains.
June to September. One of our rare and beautiful wild flowers.

C. acaMe, Ait. Scape 1 ft. tall, with two leaves at base, 1-flowered:
sepals greenish -purple, spreading: lip pink, veined with rose-purple, about
2 in. long, fragrant, split down the front, but edges closed. Woods and
bogs. May to June.

C. pub^scens, Willd. Stem slender, leafy, 1-2 ft., usually clustered,
1- to several-flowered: flowers yellow, lip much inflated, with purplish stripes
or spots, lK-2 in. long: low woods, meadows. May to July.

C. parvifldrum, Salisb. Stem 1-2 ft. high, leafy, 1- to several-flowered:
flowers yellow, fragrant: lip usually more marked with purplish spots or
lines than preceding and smaller, about 1 in. long. Low woods and
thickets. May to July.

C. cindidum, Willd. Lip white, with purple veins and stripes, not 1 in.
long. A very rare species, found in bogs and wet meadows, New York and
New Jersey to Minnesota, Missouri, Kentucky.

ORCHIDACE^ 309

C. arietlnum, K. Br. Slender, less than 1 ft., leafy stemmed: flower 1,
drooping, the 3 sepals separate and very narrow and greenish, the lip some-
what shorter than sepals one-half in. long, red with lighter veins. Cold
woods. North.

2. HABENARIA. Fringed or Ragged Orchids.

Flowers several or numerous, in open terminal spikes, each flower in
the axil of a foliaceous bract: corolla white, purplish or yellow, with lip
variously fringed or 3-parted and cut-toothed, spur longer than lip: 1
anther: pollen-mass stalked, cohering. Growing, for most part, in wet
places, borders of ponds, etc., through eastern United States. Several
species, rather too critical for the beginner and therefore not described
here By some, the genus is broken up into several genera.

3. Orchis.

Very similar to Habenaria, differing in having the glands attached to
the pollen masses, and enclosed in a kind of pocket: the petals are arched
and somewhat connivent over the column.

0. Bpectdbilis, Linn. Stem short, from 2 large and glossy root leaves,
and carrying 1 or 2 lanceolate bracts, with several flowers above, in a
raceme: lip white, spurred at base: other petals purplish-pink, arching up
over the flower. Woods.

4. SPIRANTHES. Ladies' Tresses.

Generally characterized by small flowers, whitish, yellowish or greenish-
white, bent horizontally and arranged in 1-3 rows spirally in a spike,
appearing as if twisted: stem usually bearing leaves below, or at the base:
lip of the little flowers not saccate but erect, oblong, recurved, channelled,
the base embracing the column and bearing 2 callous protuberances: anther
1-2 celled: 1 powdery pollen mass in each cell. Several species.

S. cernua, Richard. Six to 20 in. high, having leafy bracts with the
flowers; spike dense, with flowers in 3 rows, inflorescence appearing but
slightly twisted: leaves lance-linear. Common in moist meadows and
swamps. Late summer and early autumn.

S. gracilis, Bigelow. Spike and scape slender, with flowers in one
straight oi' spiral row: leaves all radical, ovate to oblong, commonly wither-
ing away at or before flowering. Common in dry or sandy fields, open or
billy woods. July to October.

5. G00D7£:RA. Rattlesnake Plantain.

In spike and perianth similar to Spiranthes, but without the 2 lateral
callous protuberances on the lip: leaves basal, tufted, thickish, petioled,
dark-green, usually blotched or veined with white. A few species widely
distributed, but not common, with handsome leaves. The genus is also
known as Peramium.

310 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

G. CALOPOGON. Grass Pink.

Scapes from round solid bulbs bearing several flowers in loose terminal
spikes or racemes; leaf 1, grass-like. Distinguished b}- having the lip on
the upper side (ovary or stalk not twisting), bearded.

C. pulch611u8, R. Br. Scape 1 ft. high, 2-6 flowered: flowers 1 in. across,
pink-purple; the lip, triangular at apex, created with colored hairs (yellow,
orange, purple), club-shaped: anther lid-like: pollen-masses 4, powdery.
Wet meadows and bogs. Very pretty.

7. POGONIA.

Low, with solitary, terminal, odd flowers; alternate leaves: lip spurless,
crested or hooded or 3-lobed; column not attached: calyx spreading: fertile
anther lid-liko: two pollen masses, granular.

P. ophioglossoides, Nutt. Stem G-9 in. from a fibrous root; leaf sessile,
oval near middle of stem: lip erect, bearded and fringed: flower 1 in.
long, sweet-scented, pale rose color, slightly nodding, with a leafy bract.
Marshes or swampy places. Eastern United States. June to July.

BB. PHENOGAxMS: ANGIOSPERMS: DICOTYLEDONS.
D. CHORIPETALiE.

IX. CUPULIFER^. Oak Family.

Monoecious trees and shrubs with staminate flowers in catkins
and the fertile in catkins or solitary : Ivs. alternate, with stipules
early deciduous (mostly scale-like), and the side-veins straight or
nearly so: stamens 2 to many: fruit a 1-seed nut, sometimes inclosed
in an involucre. Ten or a dozen genera and upwards of 450 species.
Representative plants are oak, chestnut, beech, birch, hazel, ironwood.

A. Sterile flowers in a hanging head: fruits 2 three-cornered

nuts in a small, spiny involucre or bur 1. Fagus

AA. Sterile flowers in cylindrical catkins.

B. Fruit 1 to 4 rounded or flat-sided nuts in a large, sharp-
spiny involucre or bur 2. Castanea

BB. Fruit an acorn — a nut sitting in a scaly or spiny cup 3. Quercus

BBB. Fruit flat and often winged, thin and seed-like, borne
under scales in a cone

C. Fertile flowers naked: mature cone-scales thin 4. Betula

CO. Fertile flowers with a calyx: cone-scales thick 5. Alrms

1. FAGUS. Beech.

Tall forest trees with light bark, and prominent parallel side-veins in
the leaves: sterile flowers in a small, pendulous head, with 5-7-cleft calyx

CUPULIFEK^ 311

and 8-16 stamens: fertile flowers 2, in a close involucre, ripening into 2
three-cornered "beech nuts" in a 4-valved bur.

F. Americana, Ait. American beech. Close-grained, hard-wood tree,
with light colored bark: leaves ovate-oblong and acuminate, coarsely serrate,
usually with 9 or more pairs of nerves: nuts ripening in the fall, and much
sought by boys and squirrels. A common forest tree.

r. sylvdtica, Linn. A'urojieanbeecli. Fig. 138. Often planted, particularly
in the form of the Purple-leaved and Weeping beech : foliage differs in being
mostly smaller, ovate or elliptic, small-toothed, with 9 or less pairs of nerves.

2. CASTANEA. Chestnut.

Forest trees, with rough, furrowed bark: sterile flowers with 4-7-lobed
calyx and 8-20 stamens in very long, erect or spreading catkins, which
appear in clusters in midsummer: fertile flowers about 3 in an involucre,
producing "chestnuts " in a spiny bur.

C. Americana, Raf. American chestnut. Fig. 241. Tall, straight-
grained tree, with large, broad and thin, oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are
taper-pointed, and have large teeth with spreading spines : nuts usually 1 in.
or less across, sweet. Grows as far west as Mich., and south to Miss.

C. sativa, Mill. European chestnut. Less tall: leaves smaller and
narrower, more pubescent when young, not long-acuminate, the teeth smaller
and their spines more incurved: nuts 1 in. or more across, not so sweet as
those of the American chestnut. Europe. Very commonly planted.

3. QUfiKCUS. Oak.

Strong, close-grained trees, with mostly laterally-lobed leaves: sterile
flowers in clustered hanging catkins, with a 4-7-lobed calyx, and 3-12 sta-
mens: fertile one in a shallow involucre which becomes the cup of the
acorn, the stigma 3-]obed: fruit an acorn. See Fig. 212, which represents
the English oak {Q. Bobur) often planted in choice grounds.

a. White oak group, distinguished by its light gray scaly bark, rounded
lobes or teeth of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the first year.
(Q. virens has nearly or quite entire leaves.)

Q. dlba, Linn. White oak. Fig. 441. Leaves obovate, 5 or 6 inches
long, the lobes usually 7 and at equal distances apart, and the sinuses
deep or shallow : acorn small, with a rather shal-
low and not fringed cup. The commonest ^ipccics. 5 ^

\L w

441. Quereus alba. 412. Quercus ia;icrocarp;i . 443. Quercus Prinus.

Q. macrocirpa, Michx. Bur oak. Fig. 442. Leaves obovate, downy
or pale on the lower surface, toothed towards the tips and irregularly and

312

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

often deeply lobed toward the base: acorn cups heavily fringed on the
margins : young branches corky. More common west.

Q, Prinus, Linn. Chestnut oak. Fig. 443. Leaves rather long-obo-
vate, toothed, with rounded teeth and yellow-ribbed: acorn long and the cup
hard-scaled: bark dark with broad, deep furrows. Eastern.

», s.^

444. Quercus bicolor. 445. Quereus rubr

446. Quercus coccinea.

Q. bicolor, Wilkl. Swamp wJiite oak. Fig. 444. Leaves obovate,
white-downy on their lower surface, toothed with squarish teeth, the bases
wedge-shaped: acorn small, with the margin of the cup finely fringed.
Common in low grounds and along ravines.

Q. virens, Ait. I/ive oak. Leaves small, oblong, entire or sometimes
spiny-toothed, thick and evergreen: acorn oblong, the nut about one-third
covered with its scaly cup. Virginia, south.

aa. Blatk oak group, distinguished by its dark furrowed bark, pointed lobes
of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the second year.
Q. rilbra, Linn. Bed oak. Fig. 445. Leaves obovate or sometimes
shorter, the 7-9 lobes triangular and pointing toward the tips: acorn large,
flat-cupped. Common.

Q. coccinea, Wang. Scarlet oak. Fig. 446. Leaves obovate, bright
scarlet in autumn, thin, smooth on the lower surface, the sinuses deep,
wide, and rounded : margin of the acorn cup
rounding inwards and the scales close: inner bark
reddish. Common.

Q. tinctdria, Bartr. Black oak. Fig. 447.
Leaves obovate, coarser, downy on the lower
surface until midsummer or later, wider towards
the tip, the sinuses shallow (or sometimes as in
the scarlet oak): margin of the acorn cup not
447. Quercus tinctoria. ^o^^^'^^S inwards and the scales looser: inner
bark orange. Common.
4. BfiTULA. Birch.

Small to medium-sized trees, with sterile flowers in drooping, cylindrical
catkins, 3 flowers with 4 short stamens being borne under each bract: fertile
flowers in short, mostly erect catkins which become cones at maturity, 2 or 3
naked flowers being borne under each 3-lobed bract: fruit winged and seed'
lik«: leftvas simple, toothed or serrate: bark often aromatic.

CUPULIFER^-UKTICACE^ 313

a. Brown-barked birches : leaves ovate.

B. 16nta, Linn. Cherri/ birch. Sweet birch. Tall tree, the bark tight
(not peeling in layers), the twigs very aromatic: leaves oblong-ovate, some-
what cordate at base, doubly serrate, becoming glossy above: bracts of the
oblong-cylindric fruiting catkins with wide-spreading lobes. Rich woods.

B. Idtea, Michx. Yellow or gray birch. Bark grayer or silvery, peel-
ing in layers: leaves scarcely cordate, dull, more downy: bracts of the
short-oblong fruiting catkins with scarcely spreading scales: tree less aro-
matic than the other. Same range.

aa. White-barked birches: leaves triangular or broad-ovate.

B. papyrifera, Marsh. Paper birch. Canoe birch. Tree of medium
to rather large size, with the bark peeling in very large plates or layers:
leaves broad-ovate and often somewhat cordate, dull green. Penn., north.

B. populifdlia, Ait. American ivhite birch. Small and slender tree with
rather tight, glistening, white bark: leaves triangular-acuminate, toothed,
dangling, and moving incessantly in the wind. Northeastern states.

B. dlba, Linn. European white birch. A larger tree, with triangular-
ovate leaves which are pointed but not long-acuminate. Europe; the com-
mon cultivated white birch.

5. ALNUS. Alder.

Much like Betula, but smaller trees or bushes: flowers with a 3-5-
parted calyx, and the small, short, fertile catkins composed of thickened,
woody scales. In the following, the flowers appear before the leaves in
earliest spring, from catkins formed the previous year and remaining partly
developed during winter. Common along streams.

A. inc^na, Willd. Speckled alder. Shrub or small tree, with pubescent
branches: leaves oval to oblong-ovate, acute, doubly serrate, glaucous and
downy underneath: cones about }4 i°- long, mostly sessile.

A. rugdsa, Spreng. (A. serrulata, Willd.). Smooth alder. Leaves
elliptic or obovate, acute or rounded at the apex, finely serrate, the under side
of the leaves smooth or pubescent only on the veins: cones short-stalked.

A. glutindsa, Gaertn. Black alder. Leaves orbicular or very broadly
obovate, not acute, irregularly serrate, dull and nearly smooth beneath:
cones peduncled. Europe; planted, some varieties with divided leaves.

X. UKTICACE^. Nettle Family.

Trees and herbs, with small apetalous flowers in small clusters or
solitary: leaves mostly straight-veined, with stipules, plants dioecious
or monoecious, or flowers perfect in the elms: stamens usually as many
as the lobes of the calyx and opposite them: ovary superior, ripening
into a 1 -seeded indehiscent, often winged fruit. A very polymorphous
association, by some botanists divided into two or three coordinate

14

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

families. More than 100 genera and 1500 species. Eepresentatives
are elm, hackberry, mulberry, osage orange, nettle, hop, hemp.

A. Trees.

B. Fruit a samara 1 . Ulmus

BB. Fruit a small drupe 2. Celtis

BBB. Fruit as large as an orange, formed of the whole mass of

the pistillate flower-cluster 3. ToxyJon

BBBB. Fruit resembling a blackberry, formed of the pistillate

flower-cluster 4. Morus

AA. Herbs.

B. Leaves digitately lobed or divided.

C. Plant standing erect 5. Cannabis

cc. Plant twining 6. ffumulus

Bb. Leaves not lobed : plant with stinging hairs 7. Urtica

\. tLMUS. Elm.

Trees, mostly large and valuable for timber, with rough-furrowed bark:
leaves alternate (2-ranked), ovate and straight-veined, dentate: flowers small
and not showy, appearing in earliest spring, sometimes diclinous, the calyx
4-9-parted, the anthers 4-9 on long filaments: ovary generally 2-loculed,
ripening into a 1-seeded wing-fruit.

a Leaves large, roitgh on the upper surface: fruit large, nearly orbicular.

U. fiilva, Michx. Slippery elm. Fig. 448. Middle-sized or small tree

with inner bark mucilaginous or " slippery " in spring: leaves 6-8 in. long

and half or more as broad, ovate elliptic and unequal-sided, doubly serrate,

448. Ubnus fulva.

449. Ulmus Americana.

450. Ulmus racemosa.

very rough above and softer beneath: samara ]4-% in. long, orbicular or
nearly so, with the seed in the center: flowers in dense clusters. Common,
aa. Leaves not very rough above: fruit oval, deeply notched at the apex.
IT. Americd,na, Linn. Common or white elm . Figs. 91-95, 146, 449. Tall and
graceful tree: leaves elliptic-oval, serrate: samara small, more or less hairy
on the thin wing, the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed: flowers
banging on slender stalks. One of the finest of American trees.

URTIOACE^

315

V. racemdsa, Thomas. Cork elm. Fig. 450. Smaller tree than the last,
with corky-winged branches : leaves with straighter veins: samara with
sharp incurved points at the apex: flowers in i-acemes. Less common.

XT. ald,ta, Michx. Wahoo elm. Small tree, with wide, corky ridges on
the branches: leaves small and rather thick, almost sessile, ovate to nearly
lanceolate and acute: samara downy, at least when young. Virginia, south
and west.

2. CflLTIS. Nettle-Tree. Hackbeery.

Elm-like in looks, but the fruit a 1-seeded, berry-like drupe: flowers
greenish, in the leaf axils, mostly diclinous; calyx 5-6-parted; stamens 5 or
6: stigmas 2, very long.

C. occident^lis, Linn. Common hackberry . Middle-sized tree with
rough- furrowed bark: leaves ovate-pointed, oblique at base, serrate: fruit
purplish, as large as a pea, edible in the fall when ripe. Low grounds.

3. TOXYLON. Osage Orange.

Small tree, with dioecious flowers in catkins, and alternate, simple
leaves: sterile flowers in raceme-like, deciduous catkins : fertile flowers
densely crowded in a head, with 4 sepals and 2 stigmas, the ovary ripening
into an akene, the whole flower-cluster becom-
ing fleshy and ripening into an orange-like
mass.

T. pomifenim, Raf. (Madura aurantiaca,
Nutt.). Osage orange. Fig. 451. Spiny, low
tree, much used for hedges, but not hardy in
the northernmost states: leaves narrow-ovate and entire, glossy: flowers
in spring after the leaves appear, the fruit ripening in autumn. Mo.
and Kan., south.

4. MORUS. Mulberry.

Small to middle-sized trees, with broad, alternate toothed or lobed
leaves and monoecious flowers, with 4-parted calyx: stamens 4, with fila-
ments at first bent inward, the staminate catkins soon falling: fertile flow-
ers ripening a single akene, but the entire catkin become
fleshy and blackberry-like, and prized for eating.
Leaves very variable, often lobed and not lobed on the
same branch.

M. rtibra, Linn. Common wild mulberry. Often
a large tree in the south : leaves ovate-acuminate,
oblique at the base, rough and dull on the upper surface
and softer beneath, dentate: fruit % in. to 1 in. long,
black-red, sweet. Wood yellow. Most abundant south,
hut growing as far north as Mass.

M. Alba, Linn. WTiite mulberry. Fig. 452. Leaves
light green and usually glossy above, the veins prominent and whitish beneath,
the teeth usually rounded or obtuse: fruit of variable size, often 1% in. long,
whitish, violet, or purple. China; planted for ornament and for its fruit, also
<or feeding silkworms. The much-planted Russian Mulberry is a form of it.

451. Toxylou pomifer

452. Moms alba.

316 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

5. CANNABIS. Hemp.

Tall, strong, dioecious herbs with 5 to 7 leaflets: fertile flowers in clus-
ters, with 1 sepal surrounding the ovary, and 2 long, hairy stigmas: sterile
flowers in racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens.

C. sativa, Linn. Hemp. Six to 10 ft., strong-smelling, blooming all
summer: leaflets lanceolate, large toothed. Old World; cultivated for fiber
and sometimes escaped in waste places.

6. HtMULUS. Hop.

Twining dioecious herbs of tall growth, with 5 sepals in the sterile
flowers, the stamens erect: fertile flowers with 1 sepal, 2 flowers under each
scale of a short, thin catkin which becomes a kind of cone or " hop."

H. Lilpulus, Linn. Common hop.' Perennial, rough -hairy: leaves broad-
ovate, deeply 3-lobed (only rarely 5-7-lobed) : sterile flowers in panicles
2-6 in. long: pistillate catkin enlarging into a "hop" often 2 in. or more
long. A native plant, cultivated for hops and sometimes for ornament.

H. Jap6nicU8, Sieb. & Zuec. Japanese hop. Fig. 107. Annual: leaves
not less than 5-lobed : fertile catkin not enlarging into a hop. Japan; much
cultivated for ornament.

7. tRTICA. Nettle.

Erect herbs with opposite simple leaves and stinging hairs, and mon-
oecious or dioecious flowers in racemes or dense clusters, the calyx of 4
separate sepals: stamens 4: stigma sessile: fruit an ovate flat akene. The
following are perennials with flowers in panicled spikes.

U. gracilis, Ait. Common nettle. Two to G ft. : leaves ovate-lanceolate,
serrate, on long petioles. Common in low grounds.

U. dibica, Linn. Not so tall: leaves ovate-cordate and deeply serrate, on
rather short petioles, downy underneath. Weed from Europe, very stinging.

XI. AKISTOLOCHIACE^.
BiRTHWORT Family. Dutchman's Pipe Family.

Low aeaulescent herbs, or tall twining vines : leaves basal or alter-
nate, without stipules, petiolate, roundish or kidney-shnped: flowers
regular or irregular, perfect: perianth-tube brown or dull, valvate in
bud, adherent to ovary: stamens 6-12, epigynous, and adherent to
base of the styles: ovary 6-celled, pistil 1. A small family of about 200
species, sparingly represented in this country. Many of the members
have aromatic or bitter-tonic properties.

A. Low stemless herbs 1. Asariim

aa. Leafy-stemmed herbs, or woody climbers 2. Aristolochia

I. ASARUM. Wild Ginger.

Perennial spreading herbs: leaves large, kidney-shaped, pubescent:

AKIRTOLOCHIACE.E — POLYGONACE^ 317

flower brown, iuconspli'uous, borne on a short peduncle arising from lietween
the petioles: rootstocks creeping, elongated, very aromatic.

A. Canadense, Linn. Leaves in pairs, large, reniform, but more or less
pointed at tip, soft-hairy with a silky finish: flower greenish outside,
purple-brown within, consisting of a '!-lobed calyx, adnate to ovary:
stamens 12, the tilanients longer than the anthers. Common in rich woods.
April, May.

2. ARISTOLOCHIA. Dutchman's Pipe.

Herbs or tall vines, with alternate, petiolate leaves, cordate, entire
and palmately nerved: flowers irregular, the calyx tubular, the lube oddly
inflated above ovary and contracted at throat, shaped like a much-bent
pipe, the margin reflexed or spreading, 3-6-Iobed or appendaged: sta-
mens 6.

A. macrophylla, Lam. (.4. Siplio, L'Her.) Calyx-tube about 1-1% in.
long, curved to resemble a Dutch pipe, the margin spreading, brownish-
purple: leaves large, smooth, dark green, round kidney-shaped. Wild in
rich woods; May; often cultivated.

XII. POLYGONACEJi:. Buckwheat Family.

Herbs, mostly veith enlarged joints or nodes and sheaths (repre-
senting stipules) above them : leaves simple and usually entire,
alternate : flowers small, apetalous, usually perfect and generally
borne in spikes or dense clusters : stamens 4-12, attached to the
very base of the 3-5-merous calyx : ovary 1-loculed, ripening into a
3-4- angled akene. Thirty or more genera and about 600 widely dis-
persed species. Characteristic plants are buckwheat, rhubarb, dock,
sorrel, smartwsed.

A. Root-leaves 1 ft. or more across, rounded 1. Jilieum

AA. Root-leaves narrow or not prominent.

B. Calyx of 6 sepals, often of two kinds 2. Bumex

BB. Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) sepals, all alike.

C. Flowers white and fragrant .3. Fagopyrutn

cc. Flowers greenish or pinkish, not distinctly fragrant. 4. Polygonum

1. EHl:UM. Rhl'bakb.

Very large-leaved perennials, sending up stout hollow flower-stalks in
early summer which bear smaller leaves with sheathing bases: sepals G, all
alike, withering rather than falling, and persisting beneath the 3-winged
akens: stamens 9: styles .3. Old World.

R. Rhap6nticum, Linn. lihuhnrb. Pie-pJaut. Figs. 78, 79. Leav<»s
1 ft. or more across, the thick petioles eaten: fls. white, in elevated
panicles.

318

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2. RtTMEX. Dock. Sorrel.

Perennial often deep-rooted plants with herbage bitter or sour: sepals 6,
the 3 outer large and spreading, the 3 inner (kn»wn as "valves") enlarging
after flowering and one or more of them often bearing a grain-like tubercle
on the back: stamens 6, styles 3: flowers in pan-
icles or interrupted spikes.

a. Docks: herbage hitter : valves often grain-
hearing : floivers mostly perfect : leaves
not arroiv -shaped.
R, obtusifdlius, Linn. Bitter dock. Lower leaves
long-cordate and obtuse, not wavy: one valve
usually grain-bearing. Weed from Europe.

R. crispus, Linn. Curly dock. Leaves lanceo-
late, wavy or curled: all valves usually grain-bear-
453. Rumex Acetosella. ing. Weed from Europe.

aa. Sorrels: herbage sotir: valves not grain-bearing: flowers dioecious:
leaves arrow-shaped.
R. Acetos611a, Linn. Common or sheep sorrel. Fig. 453. Low (1 ft.
or less): leaves mostly arrow-shaped at base: flow-
ers brownish, small, in a terminal panicle. Common
in sterile fields. Europe.

3. FAGOPtRUM. Buckwheat.

Fast-growing annuals, with somewhat triangu-
lar leaves, and fragrant flowers in flattish, panicle-
like clusters: calyx of 5 parts: stamens 8: fruit a
triangular akene. Old World.

F. escul^ntum, Moench. Common hucktvheat.
Fig. 454. Leaves triangular-arrow-shaped, long-peti-
oled: flowers white, in a compound cluster: akene
with regular angles. Flour is made from the grain.

F. Tatdricum, Gaertn. India ivheat. Slen-
derer, the leaves smaller and more arrow-shaped
and short-petioled: flowers greenish or yellowish, in simple racemes: akene
notched on the angles. Somewhat cultivated.

4. POL'tGONUM. Knotweed. Smartweed.

Low weedy plants, or some exotic ones tall and cultivated, blooming in
summer and fall, the small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes or
spikes (in the Knotweeds in the leaf -axils) : calyx usually 5-parted: stamens
4-9: stigmas 2 or 3: black akene lenticular or triangular.

a. Knotweeds: flowers sessile in the axils of the leaves, greenish and
very small.
P. avicul&re, Linn. Common knotweed. Dcorweed. Fig. 193. Pros-
trate or creeping, bluish green wiry plant, growing along the hard edges of

454.
Fagopyrum esculentum.

POLYGONACE.E — EUPHOEBIACE^

319

walks and in yards, and commonly mistaken for sod: leaves small, mostly
oblong, entire: sepals very small, green with a broad white margin: sta-
mens 5 or more: stigmas usually 3. Annual.

P. er6ctum, Linn. Taller knotivecd. One ft. or more high:

leaves three or four times larger, oblong or oval and obtuse.

Common annual.

aa. Smartweeds; flowers in terminal spikes, mostly pinkish.
b. Sheaths of leaves (surrounding stem) hairy on the

edge, or the margin with a spreading border,
P. orientals, Linn. Prince's feather. Several feet tall,
soft-hairy: flowers in long cylindrical nodding spikes: leaves
ovate: stamens 7. India; cultivated. Annual.

P. Persicaria, Linn. Smartweed. Lady's thumb (from the
dark blotch near the center of the leaf). Fig. 455. About 1 ft. :
leaves lanceolate: spikes oblong, dense and erect: stamens
usually 6: stigmas 2. Weed from Europe.

P. Hydropiper, Linn. Smartweed. Herbage very pungent
or"smarty:" leaves oblong-lanceolate: spikes short and nod-
ding, the flowers greenish : stamens 6: stigmas 3. Low
455 grounds. Annual.

Polygonum ^- iiydropiperoides, Michx. Smartweed. Herbage not

Persicaria. pungent: spikes slender and erect, the flowers whitish: sta-
mens 8: stigmas 3. In very wet places. Perennial.
P. &cre, HBK. Smartweed. Herbage pungent: leaves linear or lanceo-
late, long-pointed: spikes slender and erect: flowers white or blush: sta-
mens 8: stigmas 3. Low grounds. Perennial.

bb. Sheaths of leaves not hairy, nor the margin bordered.
P. Pennsylvdnicum, Linn. Smartweed. Pungent: plant with conspicuous
glandular hairs above : leaves lanceolate : spikes short-oblong and erect, the
flowers purplish: stamens 8: stigmas 2. Low ground. Annual.

XIII. EUPHORBIACE.E. Spurge Family,

Trees, shrubs or herbs, often with milky, pungent juice, some-
times poisonous: flowers monoecious or dioecious, mostly apetalous,
usually small and inconspicuous. The family is large, in warmer
parts of the world. The determination of the genera and species is
difficult. Euphorbia and Rieinus will explain the flower structure.

A. Flowers in a cup-like involucre, wliich imitates a perianth:

flowers dioecious, without calyx or corolla 1. Euphorbia

AA. Flowers dioecious, not in an involucre, but in a terminal

panicle: calyx present, but no corolla 2. Rieinus

320 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

). EUPHORBIA. Spurge.

Flowers monoecious enclosed in au involucre, which is 4-5 lobed and
often showj', resembling a perianth: starainate flowers each consisting of
a stamen jointed to filament-like pedicel, subtended by a minute bract,
attached on the inner surface of the involucre: the solitary pistillate flower,
standing at tlie bottom of the involucre, is at length protruded on a stalk:
capsule 3-lobed and 3 celled: styles 3, each 2-cleft: stigmas 6. Many of the
species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, as E. splendens, Crown of
Thorns; £. Cyparissias, Cypress Spurge.

E. corollata, Linn. Flowering spurge. Perennial, 2-3 ft., slender-
branclied: leaves mostly alternate, or the uppermost ones, or those on
the branches opposite, whorled, oval, rather thick, usually pale beneath:
flowering branches much forked: involucres terminal, or on peduncles, from
the forks of the branches, the lobes snowy white, appearing like petals with
oblong yellowish-green glands at base of each. In drj' or sandy soil,
common. July to October.

E. maculata, Linn. Small plant, prostrate or spreading, the branches
slender and radiating, dark green, often dark red: leaves oblong-linear,
usually with red-brQwn spots in centre: involucre minute, the corolla-like
appendages narrow, white or red. A common inconspicuous weed through-
out North America, except the extreme north.

E. pulch6rrima, Willd. Poinsettia. Floralleaves brilliant red: flowers
in a greenish involucre, with a large yellow gland on sujnmit. A Mexican
species, well known as an ornamental greenhouse plant.

2. FtCINUS. Castor-oil Plant. Figs. 288, 289, 290.

Tall stately, perennial heib (annual N.),with large, alternate, palmately-
cleft leaves: flowers monoecious, apetalous, greenish, in terminal racemes
or panicled clusters, the pistillate flowers above the others; styles large,
reddish.

B. commiinis, Linn. Caxtor bean. Palma Christi. Stem erect from
3-12 ft., somewhat branched: leaves very large, peltate, lobes acute,
pointed, toothed: seeds smooth, black, mottled or variegated with gray and
brown. Grown for medicinal and ornamental purposes. Tropical.

XIV. CARYOPHYLLACE^. Fink Family.

Herbs, with opposite, mostly narrow, entire leaves without conspic-
uous veins: flowers 4-5-merous, sometimes apetalous, with stamens
twice or less the nutnber of sepals or petals, and 2 to 5 styles which
may be wholly separate or partially united: pod usually a 1-loculed
capsule commonly inclosed in the calyx, mostly splitting from the
top, the seeds usually attached to a central column. Genera between
30 and 40, species about 1,000. Representative plants are pink,

CARYOPHYLLACE^ 321

carnation, bouncing Bet, catchfly, chickweed, corn-cockle, lychnis,
Bpurry.

A. Flowers polypetalous, with sepals united into a tube.

B. Bracts at tlie base of tbe calyx 1. Dianthus

BB. No bracts at base of calyx.

c. Styles 2 2. Saponaria

CO. Styles 4 to 5 3. Lychnis

ccc. Styles 3 4. Silene

AA. Flowers often apetalous, the sepals nearly or quite distinct.

B. Styles 3 or 4 5. ShUaria

BB. Stjies 5 6. Cerastium

1. DIANTHUS. Pink.

Showy-flowered small herbs, with striate, many-furrowed calyx and
sepal-like bracts at its base: petals with slender claws or bases, the limb
usuafly toothed or fringed : styles 2.

a. Flowers single on ends of branches.

D. Chin^nsis, Linn. China or florists' pink. Leaves short-lanceolate,
not Rrass-like: calyx-bracts linear-acute and as long as the calyx: petals in
white and shades of red, very showy. China. Perennial, but grown as an
annual (mostly under the florists' name D. Heddewigi).

D. plum^rius, Linn. Grass or Scotch pink. Common pink
of old gardens, from Europe. Low, growing in mats, glau-
cous-blue : leaves grass-like : flowers very fragrant, deep-
fringed, white or pink. Perennial.

D. Caryophyllus, Linn. Carnation. Two ft. or more, with
wiry stems, glaucous-blue : leaves grass like: calyx-bracts
short and broad : petals more or less toothed but not fringed :
flowers fragrant. Europe.

aa. Flowers in compact clusters.

D. barbitus, Linn. Sweet William. Fig. 456. One ft. /^-::^-^Z

or more, erect, green: flowers small, in dense clusters in red /^"

and white. Old World: common in old gardens. .-„ V.

" 4o6. Diantlms

2. SAPONARIA. SOAPWORT. barbatus.

Calyx cylindrical or angled, 5-toothed, with no bracts at its base:
stamens i^: styles 2: pod 4-toothed at top (Fig. 250).

S. oHicin&.lis, Linn. Bouncing Bet. Perennial, forming colonies in old
yards and along roads, 1-2 ft. high, glabrous, with ovate or oval leaves:
flowers 1 in. across, white or rose, in dense clusters, often double, the
petals with a crown. Europe. Common.

3. Lt'CHNIS. Lychnis. Cockle.

Annual or perennial, with styles usually 5, and pod opening by 5 or more
teeth: calyx 5-toothed and 10- or more-nerved, naked at the base: stamens 10.

u

'f

322 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

L. Githilgo, Scop, (or Agrostemma Githago, Linn.). Corn cockle,
because it is a common weed in wheat fields (wheat is known as corn in
Europe), its seeds not being readily separated from wheat because of
tlieir similar size and its seasons corresponding with those of wlieat:
annual, 2-.T ft., hairy: fiowers purple-red and showy, on very long stalks,
the petals crowned and the calyx-lobes long and leafy: leaves very narrow.
Europe.

L. Coron^ria, Desv. Dusty miller. Mullein pink. Biennial or per-
ennial, white-woolly all over: leaves oblong: flowers rose-crimson, showy,
Europe. Old gardens and along roads.

4. SIL£N£. Campion. Catchfly.

Annual or perennial, herbs, with white, pink, or red flowers, solitary or
in cymes: calyx often inflated, 5-toothed, 10- to many-nerved, with no
bracts at base: petals 5, clawed, sometimes with crown or scale at base of
blade: stamens 10: styles 3 (rarely 4 or 5) : ovary 1-celled (or incompletely
2-4-celled): fruit a capsule, or pod, 1-celled or 3-celled at base, dehiscent by
3 or G teeth at apex, many-seeded. A viscid secretion covers the calyx and
stems of certain species, by which creeping insects are caught, whence the
name, "catchfly."

S. Btell&ta, Ait. Starry campion. Perennial, 2-3 ft. high: leaves ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate, in whorls of 4, (at least the upper ones): flowers in
panicled cymes, calyx bell-shaped, loose and inflated: petals fringed,
crownless, white. July, open woods.

S. Cucilbalus, Wibel. Bladder campion. Perennial, 1-2 ft.: leaves
ovate lanceolate, acute, opposite: flowers in panicles, inclined or drooping:
calyx globular, thin and much inflated, conspicuously veined: petals 2-cIeft,
white. Roadsides, fields and waste places. Common eastward. Natural-
ized from Europe.

8. Fennsylvdnica, Michx. Wild pink. Perennial, viscid-pubescent
above, 4-10 in.: I)rtsal leaves spatulate or cuneate, narrowed into petioles;
stem leaves lanceolate, sessile, opposite: flowers in terminal, few-flowered
eymes: calyx narrow: petals wedge-shaped, slightly emarginate (or eroded)
on edge, pink-red, crowned. In dry soil in eastern states.

S. Virginica, Linn. Fire pink. Perennial, 1-8 ft.: lower leaves thin,
spatulate, the cauline oblong or lanceolate, sessile: flowers few in a loose
cyme, peduncled, showy, 1^2-2 in. broad: calyx bell-like, enlarged as pod
matures: petals 2-cleft, crowned, bright crimson: stem viscid-pubescent.
Open, dry woods. May-Sept.

S. noctifldra, Linn. Niglit-flowe>ing catchfly. Annual: lower leaves
spatulate or obovate, the upper linear: flowers large, few, pedicelled,
in loose panicle, opening at dusk for the night: very fragrant: calyx-tube
elongated, noticeably veined, with awl-like teoth : petals 2-cleft; white,
crowned. Weed introduced from Europe. July-Sept.

CARYOPHYLLACE^— RANUNCULACE^ 323

5. STELLARIA. Chickweed.

Small, weak herbs with sepals 4-5, petals of equal number and deeply
cleft or sometimes wanting: stamens 10 or less: styles usually 3: pod
opening by twice as many valves as there are styles.

S. media, Smith. Common chickweed. Fig. 457. Little prostrate
annual, making a mat in cultivated grounds, with ovate or oblong leaves
mostly on hairy petioles: flowers solitary, minute, white, the 2-parted petals
shorter than the calyx, the peduncle elongating in fruit.
Europe: very common. Blooms in cold weather.

G. CERASTIUM, Mouse-eak Cnit.KVk'EED.

Differs from Stellaria chiefly in having 5 styles and
pod splitting into twice as many valves. The two fol-
lowing gray herbs grow in lawns. From Europe.

C.viscdsum, Linn. Annual, about 6 in. high: leaves \^:i_0^
ovate to spatulate: flowers small, in close clusters, the ""T" "^ ""
petals shorter than the calyx, and the pedicels not longer CO
than the acute sepals. 457. Stellaria media.

C. vulgd,tum, Linn. Perennial and larger, clammy-hairy: leaves oblong:
pedicels longer than the obtuse sepals, the flowers larger.

XV. RANUNCULACE^. Crowfoot, or Buttercup, Family.

Mostly herbs, with various habits and foliage: parts of the flower
typically all present, free and distinct, but there are some apetalous
and dicEcious species: stamens many: pistils many or few, in the
former case becoming akenes and in the latter usually becoming folli-
cles. Upwards of 30 genera and 1,000 to 1,200 species. Characteristic
plants are buttercup, anemone, meadow-rue, marsh-marigold or
cowslip, adonis, clematis, larkspur, aconite, columbine, baneberry,
peony. Known from Rosacete by the hypogynous flowers.

A. Herbs: not climbing.

B. Fruits akenes, several or many from each flower,
c. True petals none, but the sepals petal-like (and
involucre often simulating a calyx).
D. Penduneles 1-flowered, or fls. in umbels.

E. Involucre of 2 or more Ivs. some distance

below the flower 1. Anemone

EE. Involucre of 3 sepal-like leaves close to the

flower 2. Bepatica

EEE. Involucre of 3 compound Ivs., sessile at
base of umbel: pistils fewer than in
Anemone 3. Anemonella

324 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

DD. Flowers in panicles or corj'inbs 4. ThaUctriim

cc. True petals present: yellow 5. Banuiiculus

BB. Fruit, follicles.

c. Flowers regular.

D. Petals each spurred 6. AqiiiJegia

DO. Petals none: sepals petal-like, j-ellow 7. Caltha

DDD. Many petals: fls. very large and of shades of

red : plant bushy 8. Pa'ou ia

cc. Flowers irregular: upper sepal spurred: 2 petals

spurred 9. Delphinium

BBB. Fruit, berries, red or white.

o. Flowers with petals and 3-5 petal-like sepals: fls.

small, white, in a short raceme 10. A ctcea

AA. Plants climbing by the leaf-stalks: stem woody 11. Clematis

1. ANEMONE. Anemony. Wind-flower.

Low perennial herbs with mostly showy apetalous flowers and an invo-
lucre of 2 or more mostly divided leaves standing some distance below the
flower: pistils ripening into a head of akenes.

a. Akenes woolly or silky.

A. Japdnica, Sieb & Zucc. Japanese anemony. Three ft., blooming in
fall, with pink or white flowers 2-3 in. across: leaves with 3 cordate-ovate
notched leaflets. Much planted.

A.Virgini^na, Linn. Two ft., with involucre of three 3-parted leaves:
flowers on long stalks arising in succession from succeeding nodes: sepals 5,
acute, greenish- white: head of fruit oblong, ^i in. long. Woods,
aa. Akenes not woolly or silky.

A. quinquefdlia, Linn. (A. nemorosa of some). Common tvind- flower.
Low, about 6 in., blooming in rich woods in early spring: involucral leaves 3,
each with 3 or 5 long leaflets: flowers white, purplish outside, pretty.

2. HEPATICA. Liverleaf. Mayflower of some places.

Differs from Anemone chiefly in having 3 simple sepal-like bracts be-
neath the flower (but they are sometimes a half-inch removed from it):
flowers in earliest spring, white, blush or blue, on simple hairy scapes:
leaves bread, 3-lobed. Woods.

H. triloba, Chaix. Leaves with rounded lobes.

H. acutiloba, DC. Leaves with acute lobes.

3. ANEMONllLLA. Rue Anemone.

Attractive slender perennial herb, resembling Anemone: basal leaves
2 or 3 times compound : involucre of 3 compound leaves at base of the
umbel: leaflets petioled: flowers in a terminal umbel, on slender pedicels:
petals wanting: sepals 5-10, white or pinkish, 1 in. broad, petal-like: pistils
4-1,5: stigma broad, sessile on carpels, glabrous and deeply grooved,

A. thalictroldefl, Spach. Hue anemone. Stem slender &-10 in., appear-

KANUNCULACE^ 325

ing in earliest spring before the 2-3 ternately compound basal leaves, rising
from a cluster of tuberous roots: sepals 5-10, bright, quite lasting. A com-
mon spring flower of the woodland, appearing with the Wood Anemone or
Wind-flower and easily confused with it.

4. THALtCTEUM. Meadow Rue.

Mostly smooth perennial herbs, erect, sometimes several feet high:
panicled flowers small, greenish and inconspicuous, often dioecious, or
polygamous: foliage light, graceful, the alternate leaves being 2— t ternately
compound, with the leaflets and divisions stalked: calyx of 4-5 petal-like
greenish sepals, soon falling: stamens many: ovaries 4-15, one-seeded.

T. didicum, Linn. Early meadoiv rue. Flowers dioecious, green or pur-
plish, in loose panicles: leaflets thin and delicate, 15-7-loljed, pale beneath,
somewhat drooping on the petiolules: anthers yellow, drooping on thread-
like tilaments: akenes about 8, sessile or nearly so: 1-2 ft. high. Common
in woodlands. April and May.

T. polygamum, Muhl. Tall meadoiv rue. Coarser, ranker and later than
T. dioicuni, 4-8 ft. high: filaments of stamens broad, spatulate: akenes
.stalked: flowers polygamous, sepals white.

T. purpurascens, Linn. Purplish meadow rue. Stem 2-5 ft. high usu-
ally purplish: stem leaves almost sessile: leaflets thick, dark green above,
pale and waxy or downy beneath, margins slightly rolled or thickened:
flowers polygamous or dioecious, greenish and purplish: anthers drooping
on filiform filaments. June-August.

5. KANtNCULUS. Crowfoot. Buttercup. Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191, 242.

Perennials or annuals, with mostly yellow flowers: sepals 5: petals 5,
and bearing a little pit or scale at the base inside: leaves alternate: akenes
many in a head.

E. icris, Linn. Tall buttercup. Two to 3 ft., from a fibrous root:
leaves 3-parted, all the divisions sessile and again 3-cleft: flowers bright
yellow. Europe, but now a common weed. Summer.

E. bulbbsus, Linn. Earlier, and only half as tall, from a bulbous base:
leaves 3-parted, the lateral divisions sessile and the terminal one stalked:
peduncles furrowed: flowers bright yellow. Europe; common eastward.

R. septentrionilis, Poir. Stems more or less prostrate at base, often
fox-ming long runners : leaves 3-divided, divisions all stalked and 3-lobed or
-parted: petals obovate, yellow. Wet places.

R. abortivus, Linn. Glabrous, biennial herb; 6 in. to 2 ft., branching:
basal leaves heart-shaped or kidney-form, crenate (S)metimes lobed), on
long stalks: later leaves, often 3-5-lobed or parted, and sessile or nearly so:
petals small, yellow, not equal to the sepals: styles very short, curved.
Shady woods and along stream-sides. April to June.

R. micr&nthus, Nutt. Pubescent, smaller than preceding and basal
leaves ovate, but not heart-shaped, some 3-parted: fairly common.

326 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

K. recurv4tU8, Foir. Usually pubescent, erect, branching, 1-2 ft.: leaves
ail petiolerl and similarly S-parted : sepals longer than the pale yellow petals
and recurved: l)eaks of akenes strongly hooked. Common. S[)ring.

6 AQUILfiGIA. CoiAMBiNE.

Upright herbs, with compound leaves which have petioles expanded
at the base: sepals 5, somewhat petal-like: petals 5, each one produced
into a long nectary spur; pistils 5: fruit a several-
seeded follicle. Delphinium or larkspur is an allied
genus.

a. Spurs straight.

A. Canadensis, Linn. Common wild columbine.
Often incorrectly called honeysucJcle. Fig. 458. About
2 ft. : leaflets rounded or obovate, toothed at top: flowers
about 2 in. long, drooping, scarlet and orange or nearly
yellow, the stamens projecting. Common on rocks.
A. chrysdntha, Gray. Yelloiv columbine. Flowers
458. bright yellow, erect or becoming so. New Mexico and

AquUegia Canadensis. Arizona, but frequent in gardens.

aa. Spurs hooked at the end.
A. Yulg&ris, Linn. Bhie columbine. A European species, common in
gardens, and often full double: flowers varying from blue and purple to
white, with rather short and thick hooked spurs.

7. CALTHA. Marsh Marigold. Cowslip (in America).

Low tufted herbs with undivided leaves, and clusters of yellow butter-
cup-like flowers: sepals 5-9, petal-like: petals none: pistils 5-10, ripening
into several-seeded follicles.

C. palustris, Linn. About 1 ft. high: leaves rounded or kidney-shaped,
crenate or nearly entire. Wet places, in early spring. Used for "greens."

8. P.ffiONIA. Paeony. Piney.

Stems shrubby and perennial or, as in the commoner garden forms, her-
baceous, from thick, fleshy roots: leaves ternately and pinnalely compound:
flowers large, terminal, solitary: sepals 5, unequal, leafy, persistent: pet-
als 5 to indefinite in number: ovaries 3-5, surrounded by a disk: fruit,
many-seeded follicles. Oriental.

P. o!ficind.lis, Linn. Common gat-den pceony. Large flowers, double:
red, pink, flesh-colored to white: carpels 2, pubescent, forming 2 erect,
many-seeded follicles. June.

9. DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. Figs. 208, 209, 210, 233, 243, 244.

Stems erect, simple or branching, with alternate leaves, petioled, pal-
mately-divided or-lobed: flowers in a terminal raceme or panicle, white, blue,
purple and showy, with irregular sepals and petals: sepals 5, colored, the
upper spurred behind; petals 4 (rarely 2), the upper pair spurred, and en-

KANUNCULACE^ 327

closed in the spur of the sepal: carpels 1-5, sessile, forming many- seeded
follicles. Several wild and cultivated species.

D. Aj^cis, Linn. Annual, 1-2 feet: Howers purple, roseate or white,
sometimes double, many, in crowded racemes; pistil 1: follicle pubescent,
with short, stout beak. Cultivated and a showy garden plant: sometimes
escaped from giirdens.

D. tric6rne, Michx. Perennial, 6 in. to 1 or 2 ft.: flowers blue or white,
in few-flowered racemes (6-12): leaves 5-parted, the divisions 3-5-cleft:
pistils 3: follicles widely diverging, short-beaked. In rich soil, west of
Alleghanies. April to June.

10. ACT.SA. Baneberry.

Erect, perennial plants, in rich woods, 2-3 ft., with conspicuous red or
white berries: steins mostly simple, bearing large, ternately compound
leaves, the leaflets ovate but sharply cut- lobed or toothed: flowers small,
white, in thick terminal racemes: sepals 3-5, soon falling; petals 4-10, long-
clawed, flat, spatulate: stamens many, filaments white and slender: ovary
1, with a broad, sessile, 2-lobed stigma, manyovuled.

A. &lba, Bigel. White, haneherrtj. Raceme oblong: petals truncate,
pedicels thickened, and usually red: berries white, ellipsoid. Common in
woods. April to June.

A. spicata var. rubra, Ait. Eed baneberry. Raceme ovate or hemi-
spherical: petals acute: pedicels slender: berries cherry -red (sometimes
white), oval or ellipsoid. Common in woods, especially northward. In bloom,
April, May.

11. CLEMATIS. Virgin's Bower. Figs. 73, 166, .%0.

Herbs, or somewhat woody, generally climbing by clasping petioles*
leaves opposite, simple or compound : flowers apetalous, or petals very small :
sepals 4 (rarely more) and colored: stamens many, a number of them (some-
times all) usually sterile: pistils many in a head, bearing the persistent,
plumose or silky styles. Many large-flowered cultivated forms.

C. verticill&riB, DC. A woody climber, nearly smooth: leaves in whorls
of 4's, each 3-foliolate: large, purple flowers 2-3 in. across, at each node.
Not common, belonging mainly to the North and to mountainous districts:
May, June.

C. Vi6rna, Linn. Leaves mostly pinnately compound, with .3-7 leaflets,
entire, or 3-lobed: flowers solitary and usually nodding on long peduncles.
bell-shaped, having peculiarly thick sepals, with their points reourvcd:
purplish-red color: the long akenes plumose. Climbing, Penn., W. May
to August.

C. Virginid,na, Linn. Common virgin^s bower. Old-man vine (from
the heads of hairy styles). A common climbing plant, along fences, streams
and in low woodlands: leaves compound, glabrous, with 3 leaflets cut or
lobed and nearly heart-shaped at base: flowers small, in leafy panicles, poly-
gamo-dioecious : petals none, but sepals whitifh, thin, spreading: styles
long-pluroed io fruit, making a feathery cluster. July, August.

328 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

XVI. BERBERIDACE^. Barberry Family.

Herbs and shrubs with alternate or radical leaves, sometimes with
stipules: flowers regular, perfect (except 1 genus), hypogynous, soli-
tary or racemed: sepals and petals usually in several rows of 3 each,
and calyx colored: stamens as many as petals (rarely more) and one
opposite to each petal: anthers opening at the top by two valves or
lids (except in Podophyllum) : pistil 1 : fruit a berry or pod. About 20
genera and 100 species.

A. Shrubs: flowers yellow: berries red or orange, remain-
ing on branches into the winter 1. Berberis

AA. Herbs.

B. Flowers on leafless scapes: leaves radical, each

2-parted: fruit a pod, opening at the top by a lid. 2. Jeffersoiiia
BB. Flower on short pedicel, in fork between 2 large

leaves: fruit a large, oval, edible berry 3. Podophyllum

1. BfiRBERIS. Barberry. Figs. 156, 173, 205.

Slirubs, often spiny: flowers yellow, in drooping racemes: sepals C-9,
colored, bracted: petals 6, each with 2 basal glandular spots: stamens G,
irritable, bending inward when touched: pistil 1: stigma circular, sessile:
berries sour, 1-few-seeded: leaves simple or compound, bases dilated and
jointed on short petioles, usually spiny-toothed, sometimes reduced to
cleft spines.

B. vulgaris, Linn. Common barberry. Leaves with repandly-toothed
margins, teeth spinous-pointed or represented by branched (3-pronged)
spines: berries oblong, scarlet, acid. Europe: but cultivated and naturalized
in eastern and middle states.

B. Canadensis, Pursh. Shrub 1-3 ft., native to southern mountains,
with oval berries and few-flowered racemes.

B. Thunb6rgii, DC. Cultivated, low shrub with small entire leaves and
handsome horizontal sprays: flowers solitary or in pairs, on slender pedii-els,
from leaf-axils: berries bright red, remaining on the twigs into the winter:
leaves K-1 in. long, also red in fall. Japan.

2. JEFFERSONIA.. Twin-leaf. Rheumatism Root.

Perennial glabrous herb, from roots of matted, blackish fibers, with
ample 2-parted leaves, rising on long petioles from the roots: scape bearing 1
terminal large white flower: sepals 4, soon falling: petals usually 8, oblong:
stamens 8, with linear anthers on slim filaments: stigma peltate, with many
ovules on lateral placentae: pod green, leathery, becotning pear-shaped and
dehisces by a lid, opening half-way round the upper part, from which the
many, rounded seeds, arilled on one side, spill forth.

J. diphyila, Pers. Scape erect to 8 or 12 inches: leaves divided longitu-
dinally into two parts, with usually entire margins. Very interesting little
plant in rich woods, spring: sometimes cultivated.

BEKBERIDACE^ — NYMPH^ACE^ 329

3. PODOPHYLLUM. May Apple Mandrake.

Smooth perennials from creepin;^ horizontal rootstocks, and thick,
flbrou.s roots: stems smooth, smpie, carrj'ing 'arge, peltate, glossy-green
leaves and a solitary white flower: sepals 6, petal-like, soon falling: petals
6-!), concave, broad and large: stamens as many or twice as many as petals:
pistil 1, with sessile, large, thick, stigma: fruit a large, fleshy, oval, 1-celled
berry, filled by many seeds, each seed enclosed in a pulpy aril, edible.

P. peltEltum, Linn. Leaves 2, large, orbicular, peltate, deeply 5-9-lobed
and few toothed: flowers fragrant, solitary from the common axil of the two
stem leaves, borne on a short, recurved peduncle: petals, large, white, wax-
like: common in rich, shady, woodland, often in large patches. May, June.
(See tail-piece, p. 23.)

XVII. NYMPH.EACE^. Water- Lily Family.

Aquatic, perennial herbs, with very large rootstocks under water:
leaves large, peltate or heart-shaped, often floating: flowers solitary,
on axillary peduncles : sepals 3-5 or 6 : petals 5 to many : stamens 5 to
many, with large, erect anthers: carpels 3 to many, distinct, or united
in a circle or with the receptacle: fruit indehiscent, or group of
distinct carpels. Eight genera, of wide distribution in fresh water.
The great Victoria Regia of the Amazon, and often cultivated, belongs
here.

A. Flowers white: sepals 4 1. JSymplupa

AA. Flowers yellow: sepals 5 or more 2. Ktiphar

1. NYMPHa;A. Water-Lilv.

Herbs with floating leaves and beautiful, large, many-petaled flowers:
sepals 4, white within, green without: petals large, wax-like, gradually
becoming smaller, and passing into the yellow stamens which are adherent
to the many-celled ovary: stignuis radiate (as in a poppy head) from a
center: fruit ripens under water.

N. odor^lta, Ait. White water-lily. Flower 2-6 in. across, very sweet-
scented: petals oftenest white, sometimes tinged with pinkish. Common.

2. NtJPHAR. Yellow Pond-lily.

Distinguished from the water-lily by the leaves, which are more or less
heart-shaped, floating or erect: also by the flowers, which are 2-3 in. in
diameter, with small, linear, yellow or purplish petals, becoming stamen-like
toward center: fruit ripens above water. The name Nymphsea is sometimes
applied to this genus, Castalia being then used for the Water-Lily.

N. Advena, Ait. Spalterdock. Leaves oval, thick, 6 in. to 1 ft., long,
floating or erect: flowers yellow, sepals 6 or more, not equal: petals thick,
truncate, resembling stamens.

330 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

XVIII. PAPAVERACE.E. Poppy Family.
Herbs with milky or colored juice (acrid and narcotic), alternate
or radical exstipulate leaves, the upper rarely opposite: flowers mostly
single, regular or irregular, perfect: sepals 2 (rarely 3 or 4), falling as
the flower opens: petals 4-6 (or more), imbricated, often crumpled in
the bud, and early falling: stamens usually many: ovary 1- to many-
ovuled, l-cel!ed: fruit a dry pod or capsule, 1 -celled or, in Poppy,
imperfectly many-celled, generally dehiscing by a pore or by valves.
Small family of mostly small but usually showy herbs.

A. Plants with white (milky) juice 1. Papaver

A A. Plants with colorless juice (watery) 2. iJ.schschnlzia

AAA. Plants with red or orange juice.

B. Flower-bud erect: flowers white, in earliest spring. .3. Savguinaria
BB. Flower-buds generally nodding; flowers yellow.

C. Stigma 3- to 4-Iobed, on a short style. Capsule

ovoid 4. Stylophomm

CC. Stigma 2-lobed, about sessile: capsule long 5. CheUdoninm

1. PAPAVER. Poppy.

Herbs with white juice: stems smooth or hairy, erect, and the terminal
buds nodding, but erect in flower and fruit: sepals 2 (or3) soon falling: petals
4-6: sessile stigmas united to form a rayed disk.

P. somniferum, Linn. Opium poppy. Annual, erect to \^A to 2 ft.,
branching, glaucous, with large, white or purplish-centered flowers on long
peduncles: leaves sessile, clasping, variously incised: capsule smootli.
Cultivated for opium and for ornament.

P. Rhoeas, Linn. Corn poppy. Shirley poppy. Annual, bristly, hairy,
the leaves deeply lobed: flowers mostly red or scarlet with a dark center,
varying in cultivation: pod small.

P. orientd,le, Linn. Stem rough-hairy, l-flowered: flowers very large,
brilliant, sca'let: leaves scabrous, deep green, about pinnate. A favorite
|)ereiinial in gardens.

P. nudicaille, Linn. Icihind poppy. Rather delicate, hairy, with leaves
radical, pale green, and pinnately incised: flowers single, on slender, hairy
scapes, orange or white. Gardens.

2. ESCHSCHOLZIA.

Annual or perennial herbs: leaves glaucous, finely pinnatifled: sepals 2,
cohering as a pointed cap, falling as flower opens: petals 4, yellow or orange
or cream-colored: stamens many, adherent to petals: stigmas 2-G, sessile:
pods long, cylindric, grooved, many-seeded.

E. Calif6rnica, Cham. California poppy. Cultivated in flower-gar
dens: stem branching, leafy: flowers showy and large, receptacle

PAPAVERACE.E— FUMARIACE^ 331

funnel-form, with a broadly dilated rim:- pod long and slender. Cali-
fornia.

3. SANGUINARIA. Bloodroot.

Low, acaulescent perennial, from thick, horizontal, pointed and scarred
rootstocks, with juice red and acrid: in very early spring a naked scape,
carrying 1 terminal white Hower, enfolded at first by long-petioled kidney-
shaped or cordate, glaufous, palmately veined leaf, sepals 2, soon falling:
petals 8-12, unequal, in 2 rows, not lasting: stamens many: fruit a capsule,
oblong, swollen, 1-celled, many-seeded, 2-valved, dehiscent at base.

8. Canadensis, Linn. Flower large, white, fragile, on a scape about 6
in. tall: glabrous and glaucous: leaves with rounded lobes and sinuses.
Common in rich, open woods and on sunny banks; early spring.

4. STYLOPHOBUM. Celandine Poppy.

Hairy herbs with yellow juice, and pinnately divided leaves: flowers
large, yeliow: style 1: the stigma 3-4-lobed.

S. diph^Uum, Nutt. Low perennial, usually with two opposite, pin-
nately parted leaves on the stem: leaves often marked with white, 5-7-lobed:
flowers few, in umbels, large, 1)4-2 in. across, clear yellow. Frequent in
rich woods in central states. May.

5. CHELIDONIUM. Celandine.

Rather weak, branching herbs: perennial: leaves alternate, pinnatified:
juice deep yellow: flowers yellow, small, the bud nodding: sepals 2: petals
4: stamens many.

C. majus, Linn. Along roadsides, about fences, as a weed, growing 1-4
ft. high: leaves thin, once or twice pinnatified: flowers in loose umbels,
soon perishing, about >2-% in, in diameter.

XIX. FUMARIACE^

Smooth, succulent herbs with noticeably delicate, finely dissected,
or lace-like leaves, alternate or radical, exstipulate: flowers small,
irregular, racemose: 2 very small sepals, scale-like: petals 4, small,
partially united : 6 diadelphous stamens (2 sets of 3 each): ovaries 1-
celled, fruit a pod, 1-eelled, 1-seeded and indehiscent, or several-
seeded with 2 parietal placentse.

A. Corolla 2- spurred at base, or heart-shaped: fis. pendent .A. Bicentra
AA. Corolla with 1 spur at base.

B. Pod slender, several-seeded: seeds arilled, or crested... 2. Conjdalis
BB. Pod globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent 3. Fumaria

332 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

1. dic£ntba.

Low, acaulescent perennials, among the earliest and most delicate of
spring flowers : leaves compound in threes, finely dissected (lace-like), on
tender pinkish petioles from the roots: the racemose, nodding flowers, borne
on leafless, flesh-colored scapes: pedicels 2-bracted: corolla peculiarly
irrejjular — 4 petals in 2 pairs, the 2 outer spurred at base, somewhat united
to form a 2-spurred corolla, the inner pair of petals spoon-shaped, crested,
meeting over the pistil and stamens: stamens G, in two sets, opposite the
outer petals.

D. CucuU&ria, DC. Dutchman's hre<-ches. Leaves from a cluster of
little pinkish tubers, forming a bulb: flowers with straight spurs, longer
than pedicel, and diverging, mostly creamy with yellow tips to petals, not
fragrant.

D. Canadensis, DC. Squirrel corn. Fig. 172. Similar to the preceding,
but leaves usually glaucous: root tubers yellow, resembling grains of Lidian
corn: flowers differing in shape fromX>. Cucnlluria in being more elongated,
spurs short and rounded, and the crests of the inner 2 petals prominent:
fragrant. Blooms a little later than preceding, but found in same situa-
tions.

D. spectdbilis, DC. Bleeding-heart. A smooth, leafy-stemmed plant of
many gardens; stems much branching; leaves large, twice ternately com-
pound: flowers many and showy in long racemes drooping from the
curving stems, heart-shaped, bright rose or pink: no sepals when in full
flower. Siberia.

2. CORtDALIS.

Biennial or perennial herbs with leafy stems, pale or glaucous: leaves
much divided or decompound : flowers small, in racemes: corolla 4-petal«'d,
irregular: one of the outer pair of petals spurred at the base, a 1 erect and
somewhat united.

C. glailca, Pursh. Stem, slender, erect, 6 in. to 2 ft. : leaves small, sessile
above, all finely dissected: flowers horizontal in terminal racemes: spurs
short and blunt: corolla rosy, yellow-tipped: outer petals sharp-pointed: pods
erect, slender. May to June.

C. atirea, Willd. Low, diffuse or spreading: flowers yellow, % in. long:
outer petals keeled, not crested: spur shorter than pedicel (M in.), decurved:
pods hanging or spreading, knotty. March to May.

3. FUMARIA. Fumitory.

Annuals, branched and leafy-stemmed : leaves compound, finely dissected :
flowers small, in dense racemes or spikes: petals 4, unequal, 1-spurred at
base: stamens 6, diadelphous: fruit small, globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent,
the style falling.

F. officinalis, Linn. Low, ranch branched, erect to 1 ft., glabrous : flowers
purple-tipped, pinkish, minute, in loose spikes: sepals acute, sharply toothed,
shorter than corolla. Waste places. Summer. Introduced.

CRUCIFEK^ 333

XX. CRUCIFER^. Mustard Family.

Herbs, mostly of small stature, with alternate mostly simple
leaves: flowers 4-merous as to envelopes, the four petals usually stand-
ing 90 degrees apart and thereby forming a cross (whence the name
Cruciferte, or "cross-bearing"): stamens usually 6, two of them
shorter: fruit a silique or silicle. A very natural or well-marked
family, with about 180 genera and nearly 2,000 species. Familiar
plants are mustard, shepherd's purse, honesty, cress, pepper-grass,
wallflower, stock, cabbage, turnip, radish, horse-radish.

A. Fruit a silique (much longer than broad).

B. Silique tipped with a long point or beak, extending

beyond the valves, the latter more than 1-nerved. 1. Brassica
BB. Silique not prominently beaked beyond the valves.

o. Flowers yellow 2. Barharea

cc. Flowers white or purple.

u. Valves with a midrib, or seeds in 2 rows.

E. Stigma deeply 2-lobed: flowers large 3. Matfhiola

EE. Stigma but slightly, if at all 2-lobed 4. Arabis

DD. Valves without midrib.
E. Seeds in 1 row.

F. Stems leafless below, with 2 or 3 leaves

near middle: rootstock scaly 5. Dentaria

FF. Stems leafy: roots more fibrous 6. Cardamine

EE. Seeds in 2 rows in each cell. (Water plants.
See Nastiirfium).
AA. Fruit a silicle (short and broad).

B. Partition in the pod parallel to the sides.

c. Fruit not much compressed: seeds minute, in 2

rows in each cell 7. Nasturtium

CC. Fruit quite flattened, 2-8 seeded 8. Alyssum

BE. Partition crosswise the pod.

c. Pod obcordate, many-seeded 9. Capsella

oc. Pod orbicular, 2-seeded: corolla regular 10. Lepidium

ccc. Pod rounded or ovate: corolla irregular with un-
equal petals 11. Iberis

AAA. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, constricted between the

seeds 12. Baphanus

1. BRASSICA. Mustard.

Erect branchy herbs, mostly annual, with more or less lyrate lower
leaves, and small yellow flowers in racemes or panicles: petals clawed or
narrowed below, the limbs spreading horizontally . silique narrow, cylindrical
or 4-angled, the valves 1-5-nerved and the seeds in 1 row in each locule.

334 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip also belong to this genus. The three fol-
lowing are common weeds introduced from Europe.

B. nigra, Koch. Black mustard. Fig. 459. Leaves pinnatitid, some-
what hairy: pod short, strongly 4-angled, not hairy. Mustard (flour) comes
largely from this species.

B, dlba, Boiss. White mustard. Leaves pinnatifid and rough-
hairy: pods rather slender, hairy, but only the lower part seed-
bearing.

B. Sinapistrum, Boiss. Charlock. Leaves strongly toothed:
pod knotty, hairy or smooth, the upper third indehiscent and
2-edged.

2. BABBAII£;A. Winter-cress.

Low herbs, blooming in early spring, with many small light

yellow flowers, and lyrate leaves with the terminal division much the

largest: pod cylindrical or somewhat 4-angled, the valves having a

strong midvein: seeds a single row.

459. B. vulg£lris, R. Br. Common winter cress. Yellow rocket.

Brassica Biennial, about 1 ft. high, with smooth foliage and flowers in elon-

nigra. gating clusters: lower leaves lyrate, upper ones cut or merely

toothed. Low grounds.

3. MATTHlOLA. Stock. Gilliplower.

Cultivated garden or house plants from Europe: stems and leaves hoary-
pubescent: flowers showy, single or double, of many colors, fragrant, in
terminal racemes: stigma deeply 2-lobed: silique nearly cylindrical, with
prominent midrib on each of the two valves: seeds winged.

M, incitiia, Br. Biennial or perennial with stout, rather woody stem:
l":ives lanceolate, entire: flowers white, varied shades of red, purple, etc.
]\Iuch grown in gardens and greenhouses.

4. AKABIS. Rock Cress.

Mostly very small herbs with purple or white flowers: stems leafy: rad-
ical leaves spatulate, the stem leaves sessile: siliques very narrow, elongated,
flat, the valves smooth, keeled or one-nerved in the middle, or veined length-
wise: seeds in 1 or 2 rows in each cell, flattened, usually margined or
winged.

A. Canadensis, Linn. Sickle-pod. Biennial with stems erect, 1-3 ft.:
leaves lanceolate, pointed at both ends, simple, toothed or entire, sessile,
pubescent: flowers small, white, petals twice as long as sepals: pods long,
flat, sickle-shaped, pendent on hairy pedicels: seeds broadly winged. Com-
mon in woods and rocky ravines.

A. perfolid,ta, Lam. Biennial; tall, 2-4 ft., glaucous above, but pubescent
at base, with many stem leaves, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, sagittate-clasping
at base; petals yellowish white, scarcely longer than the calyx: pods narrow,
erect: seeds in 2 rows, marginless. Fields and rocky places.

CRUCIFER^ 335

5. DENTARIA. Toothwokt.

Low herbs, perennial, found in damp woodland, blooming with the early
spring flowers, bearing flowers in corymbs, white, roseate or purplish,
larger than the similar flowers of Cardamine: rootstocks long, horizontal,
scaly or toothed, aromatic or with cress-like taste: stems erect, unbranched,
leafless below, with 2 or 3 palmately divided or compound leaves on petioles,
near the middle: fruit a linear silique, flattened, valves not nerved, with 1
row of seeds in each cell: seeds not winged.

D. diphylla, Linn. Crinkle -root. Pepper-root. Stem erect, from a
toothed rootstoek: leaves usually 2: leaflets three-parted, wide-ovate, with
margins dentate: flowers white.

D. laciniata, Muhl. Fig. 240. Rootstoek deep, short, tuberous, con-
Btricted in several places (necklace-like): stem leaves 3, nearly verticillate,
deeply 3-parted into lanceolate, linear or oblong leaflets, which are lobed or
toothed, and some 2-cleft: flowers white or pinkish, smaller than preceding.

6. CABDAMINE. Bitter-cress.

Very similar to Dentaria, the chief difference being in the stem, which
is leafy, and the leaves simple, usually more or less lobed, alternate on stem.
Glabrous perennials, growing in wet places and along waterways, from
fibrous roots or tubers (not scaly rootstocks), the flowers white or purple in
terminal racemes.

C. rhomboldea, DC. Stem simple, erect, 9-18 in., from a tuber: leaves
simple, petioled below, ovate or rhombic-oblong in shape: petals white,
small, much longer than calyx. A variety purpurea, not so tall (4-6 in.),
with rose-colored flowers, appears even earlier than the type.

7. NASTTJRTIUM. Water-cre<s. Horseradish.

Low, mostly aquatic or marsh plants, with pinnate or pinnatifled leaves,
(sometimes simple); flowers small, white or yellow, with spreading sepals:
stamens 1-6: fruits various, short and broad (siliele) or short-cylindrical:
valves convex, nerveless or 1-nerved.

N. officinale, R. Br. Water-cress. Glabrous, growing in or about water:
stems spreading, rooting at the nodes: leaves pinnately lobed, with 3-11
lobes, the terminal segment largest: flowers small in racemes, which
elongate as the fruits mature: petals white and twice as long as the sepals.
A favorite plant for salads.

N. palustre, DC. Marsh-cress. Annual or biennial, with simple,
fibrous roots: stem erect, 1-2 ft., glabrous or slightly pubescent: pinnately
lobed leaves, the upper sessile: flowers small, yellow; pods oblong or ovoid,
turgid, little if any lunger than the pedicels. Weed in marshy places.

N. Armor&cia, Fries. Horse-radish. Cultivated, but sometimes escaped
into waste grounds: perennial, the roots long and thick: root leaves large,
coarse, glabrous, oblong, crenate, rarely pinnatifled, on thick petioles,
the stem leaves sessile, lanceolate: flowers small, petals white, longer than
calyx.

336

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

460. Alyssum
maritimum.

8. ALtSSUM. Alyssum.

Small plants, mostly trailing, with entire and small leaves: pod small,
orbicular, one or two seeds in each locule: flowers in elongating racemes.

A. maritimum, Linn. Sweet alyssum of the gardens
(from Europe). Fig. 460. Annual, producing a profu-
sion of small white, fragrant flowers,

9. CAPSELLA. Shepherd's Purse.
Low short-lived annuals, with very small white

flowers in racemes: pod obcordate or inversely triangu-
lar, the partition running across the narrow diameter,
containing several seeds.

C. Biirsa-pastdris, Moench. Common shepherd's
V/^c5t^l<i^^ ;j((r.se. Fig. 259. One of the commonest little weeds:
^^-~^)^^ ^ root leaves pinnatiftd or strong-toothed, in a rosette, the

stem leaves arrow-shaped. Europe.

10. LEPlDIUM. Pepper Grass.
Small stifiish annuals (or biennials ) , which shed their

leaves late in the season: flowers very small, white or greenish, in elongat-
ing racemes: pod small and roundish, the partition running across the
narrow diameter. Plant peppery to the taste.

L. Virginicum, Linn. Common pepper grass. About 1 ft. high, much
branched, glabrous: leaves linear to lanceolate, tapering to the base, the
lower mostly pinnatifld. Common weed; often fed to canary birds.

IL IBfiRIS. Candytuft. Fig. 178.

Herbs with white or purple flowers in flat or elongated clusters: 2 outer
petals larger than 2 inner: silicles flattened, truncate, cells 1-seeded.
Cultivated.

I. umbellElta, Linn. Annual, 1 ft. or more: lower leaves lanceolate, the
upper linear and entire: flowers mostly purple or lilac in flat clusters:
silicles, acutely 2-lobed. June and July.

I. corond,ria, Don. Jiocket candytuft. Leaves somewhat toothed; flowers
white in spike-like racemes.

12. RAPHANUS. Radish.

Annual or biennial herbs, with lyrate, pinnately-lobed root leaves:
flowers rather showy in long racemes: calyx erect: petals clawed: style long
and slender: pod linear, indehiscent, constricted between the seeds, pithy:
seeds spherical. Europe.

R. Raphanistrum, Linn. White charlock. A weed, common in the
East: tap-root slender: petals yellow, fading to white or purplish: pod 4- to
10-seeded, long-beaked, constricted between seeds when dry.

R. sativus, Linn. Garden radish. Flowers pink or white: root fleshy,
spindle- or turnip-shaped, red or white: silique 2-3-aeeded, short and
pointed, with fleshy partitions between seeds: seeds round and blackish.

VIOLAOE^ 337

XXI. VIOLACE^. Violet Family.

Ours herbs with or without stems, and simple, entire or cleft leaves,
radical or alternate, with stipules: flowers showy, irregular, solitary
on penduneles: sepals persistent: petals unequal, the lower one larger
or spurred at base: stamens with filaments short, broad, continued
beyond the anthers, usually coherent, joining over and around the
pistil: ovary simple, 1-celled, 3 parietal placentae: fruit a 3-valved
capsule, loeulicidal, and, after dehiscence, edges strongly inrolled in
drying, thus dispersing the seeds. One genus is well-known.
VlOLA.. Violets. Heart's-ease. Johnny Jump-up. Fig. 216.

Early flowers conspicuous and petaliferous, but frequently sterile: some-
times later flowers cleistogamous, concealed under the leaves, apetalous
and self fertilized, usually developing seeds: sepals eared at base: petals
unequal, the lower spurred or saccate at base: stamens 5, 2 with spurs which
project into the corolla spur.

a. Sfemlesn: leaves basal: flowers on penducles from roofsfocks.

1. Flowers blue or violet: side petals beardless.

V. pedi,ta, Linn. Bird'' s -foot violet. Not stoloniferous, rootstock short,
stout, nearly smooth: leaves orbicular in outline, but palmately 3- or 5-11-
lobed or divided, segments linear not lanceolate: flowers large, 1 in. broad,
pale violet or deep purple (varying to white): stigma large, not beaked.
Sandy soil. Var. bicolor has 2 upper petals deep velvety violet, 3 lower pale
blue.

2. Flowers blue or violet: side petals bearded.

V. palmata, Linn. Common, or early blue violet. Pubescent to nearly
glabrous: rootstock stout and scaly: earlj- leaves rounded, cordate or kidney-
shaped, margin crenate, the later leaves various, palmately or pedately
lobed or parted, on long stalks: flowers deeper pale blue': the spur short,
saccate: stigma beaked.

V. cucullata, Ait. Common blue violet. A common form, variable and
grading into I', palmata: leaves not lobed or toothed at base, merely crenate
or dentate, kidney-form to broadly ovate.

V. sagittata, Ait. Leaves sagittate-lanceolate, or often cordate, toothed
near base: scapes bearing the flowers shorter than the leaves, 3 to 5 in.:
sometimes all petals bearded: stigma beaked: flowers usually large.

V. odorata, Linn. Sweet violet. English violet. Hardy, cultivated
species from Europe: stoloniferous by creeping runners: leaves downy or
glabrous, rounded or heart-shaped or broadly ovate: flowers fragrant, single
or double, sometimes white.

3. Flowers white.

V. lanceolata, Linn. Rootstock smooth, creeping: stoloniferous: leaves
lanceolate to linear, erect, tlie blade decurrent on the long petioles : flowers

338 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

small white, the lower and side petals purplish-veined: petals beardless:
cleistoganious flowers on erect pedicels, frequently from stolons. Wet
places.

V. bl4nda, Willd. Sweet wild violet. Stoloniferous from slender root-
stock: flowers fragrant: petals beardless or nearly so, white veined with
purple: leaves cordate or rounde<I: few cleistogamous flowers on curved
stalks. Wet places. Plant small.

4. Flowers yellow.

V. rotundifdiia, Michx. Stoloniferous: leaves rounded to cordate, rpar-
gin somewhat crenate, finally growing large, glossy and lying flat on the
ground: flowers small: lateral petals bearded, and with brown lines: sepals
hluiVo-pointed. Cool M'oodlauds.

b. Stems evident, leafy: flowers showy on axillary stalks.
1. Flowers blue or violet

V. rostrata, Pursh. Plant 3-8 in.: leaves rounded heart-shaped, serrate,
the upper acuminate: stipules fringe-toothed, lanceolate: flowers pale violet,
darker-veined: petals beardless: spur slender, longer than corolla. Moist
woodland and shaded hillsides.

v. canina, Linn. Stems weak, 0-8 in., glabrous: leaves heart-shaped
or kidney-form, margin crenate: stipules lanceolate, somewhat fringe-
toothed: spur slender, % as long as corolla. Swamps and wet places. Pale
purple. American forms differ from the European.

2. Flowers white, tinged with pink or violet.

V. Canadensis, Linn. Upright, G in. to 2 ft.: stems leafy, stipules
broad-lanceolate, entire: leaves large, heart-shaped, serrate: petals white
inside, pinkish or violet beneatli : lateral petals bearded. Common. Rich
woods. All summer.

3. Flowers yellow.

V. pub6scens. Ait. Downy yellow violet. Pubescent: stems erect 5-20
in., leafy: leaves broadly heart-shaped, toothed: stipules large, entire: root
leaves soon wither up: lower petals veined, more or less obscurely, with
purple: spur short: stigma beakless: pod downy. Dry woods.

c. Anmial, biennial, or short-lived perennial: various colors.
V. tricolor, Linn. Garden pansy. Stems angula ■, branching, leafy:
leaves roundish to cordate: stipules leaf like, incised: flowers widely varied
in colors. Europe, Var. arvensis, in fields, is slender, and petals scarcely
exceeding sepals.

XXn. HYPERICACE^. St. John's-wort Family.

Herbs or shrubs (in our species), with leaves chiefly sessile, sim-
ple, opposite, some with translucent or black dots: flowers regular,
usually in terminal cymes, and yellow: sepals and petals 4 or 5:

HYPERICACEiE — PORTULACACE^ 339

stamens few to many, often in clusters of 3 or 5, hypogynous: pod

1- to 7-celled.

HYPERICUM. St. John's wort. Figs. 192, 259.

Mojstly biiuiching plants with yellow flowers in cymes: leaves sessile,
usiiall.v (lotifd: sepals and petals 5: stamens many, mostly in 3-5 groups.

H. perforatum, Linn. A common introduced species: stems upright,
1-3 ft., branching, 2-edged: leaves linear to oblong, dotted, sessile: flowers
about 1 in. iu diameter, the petals dotted with black and much exceeding the
lanceolate se[>als: stamens grouped in 3 sets: capsule 3-celled. Spreads
l)y running shoots from base.

H. macul^tum, Walt. Much like preceding, but leaves more broadly-
ol)long, sepals more ovate, and the petals often lined, as well as dotted, with
black.

XXIII. PORTULACACE.^. Purslane Family.

Herbs succulent or fleshy, with entire leaves, alternate or oppo-
site, and dry stipules: flowers regular but not symmetrical: sepals 2:
petals 4-5 or none: stamens equal to number of petals and opiiosite,
or fewer, or more", ovaries free, each 1-celled: style 2-3-cleft, or
divided, stigmatic on inner surfaces: fruit a 1-eelled pod, opening
loeulicidally, or a pyxis, opening by a lid: seeds small, kidney-
shaped, few or many.

A. Stamens more numerous than petals: flowers opening once

only, in sunshine 1. Porfitlaca

AA. Stamens 5: flowers open for some time 2. Cluytonia

1. PORTULACA. Purslane. Fig. 254.

Low, fleshy annuals, diffuse or ascending: terminal flowers, which open
once only, in sunshine: sepals 2, joined at base and partially adherent to
ovary: petals 4-G on calyx, not lasting: stamens 7-many, on calyx: style
3-8 parted.

P. oleracea, Linn. Common purslane. Pusley. A very common weed.
Smooth, fleshy, prostrate: stems cylindrical, reddish: leaves obovate or
wedge-form, thick, nearly sessile: flowers small, yellow, sessile, open iu
morning sunshine. Sometimes used for greens.

P. grandifldra, Lindl. Bose-moss. Stems erect 3-6 in., fleshy, smooth
or hairy: leaves alternate, cylindrical, 3^-1 in. long: flowers open in morn-
ing: very gay colors, white, yellow, reds, 1-2 in. wide. South America.
Gardens.

2. CLAYTONIA. Spring Beauty.

Low, glabrous, perennial herbs, from small tubers: flowers lasting some
time: sepals 2: petals 5, distinct or slightly united: stamens 5, one on base

340 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

of each petal: style 3-lol)ed: ovary 1-celled: capsule S-valved, few-seeded:
stem erect, usually bearing 2 leaves and terminating in a raceme. Among
the first spring flowers in open woods.

C. Virginica, Linn. Leaves thickish, linear-lanceolate, 3-6 in. long,
nearly sessile: stem about 3 in. from tuberous root, bearing 2 (3 or 4 occa-
sionally) leaves: petals white or pink with darker veins, emarginate }4-%
in. long: sepals and petals obtuse.

C. Caroliniana. .^lichx. Leaves 1-2 in. long, oblong or oval to spatulate,
short-petioled: Howers fewer than in preceding, white or pinkish, veined.

XXIV. MALVACE^. Mallow Family.

Herbs or shrubs (trees in the tropics) with alternate, mostly
simple leaves whicU n;ive stipules : flowers perfect and regular,
5-merous, often subtended by a calyx-like involucre, the petals
5: stamens many, united in a column which closely surrounds
the several styles: ovaries several, eonnivent into a ring or some-
times united into a compound pistil, in fruit making 1- seeded
1-loculed more or less indehiscent carpels or a several -loculed cap-
sule. About 60 genera and 700 species. Representative plants are
mallow, hollyhock, abutilon, hibiscus, althea, okra, cotton.

A. Anthers borne only at the top of the stamen-tube.

B. Fruits 1-seeded, forming a ring at the base of the styles.

0. Involucre of 3 bracts 1. Malva

cc. Involucre of 6-9 bracts 2. Althcea

BB. Fruit of several-seeded carpels 3. Abutilon

AA. Anthers borne all along the side of the stamen-tube .4. Hibiscus

1. MALVA. Mallow.

Herbs, with a 3-leaved involucre like an extra calyx: petals obcordate:
carpels many in a ring, separating at maturity, 1-seeded and indehiscent:
leaves usually nearly orbicular in general outline.

M. rotundiJolia, Linn. Common mallow. Cheeses. Fig. 224. Trail-
ing biennial or perennial, rooting: leaves orbicular, indistinctly lobed,
toothed : flowers small, white or pinkish, clustered in the axils. Yards
and roadsides; from Europe. A common weed.

2. ALTHJEA. Marsh Mallow.

Differs from Malva chiefly in having a 6-9-cleft involucre.
A. rbsea, Cav. Hollyhock. Figs. 206, 207, 235. Tall perennial, with
angled or 5-7-lobed cordate leaves, and large flowers in many colors. China.

3. ABtTTILON. Indian Mallow. Fig. 170.

Mostly shrubs, often with maple-like leaves, and no involucre to the
flower: ovaries and fruita several-seeded. Contams conservatory plaats.

MALVACE^— GERANIACE^ 341

A. Btri&tum, Dicks. Flowering maple. Fig. 4ol. Shrub: leaves 3-5-
lobed, green: flowers drooping, on long solitary axillary peduncles, bell-
shaped, veiny-orange or red. Brazil. A conservatory and
house plant.

A. Thbrnpsoni, Hon. Spotted flowering maple. Like 1
last, but the leaves spotted veith yellow, arid the column
stamens strongly projecting from the flower. Common in
cultivation.

A. Avic6nn8B, Gaertn. Velvet leaf. Indian mallow. Stout
annual, 3 or 4 ft., densely pubescent: flowers yellow, erect,
on peduncles shorter than the long petioles: leaves large,
roundish heart-shaped, taper - pointed, and velvety: calyx 461.
5-cleft: carpels 12-15, united, pubescent, beaked, 2-valve
with 3-9 seeds in each cell. August to October. Weed, from Asia.
4. HIBISCUS. Rose Mallow.

Herbs or shrubs, with an involucre of many narrow bracts: stamen-
column anther-bearing most of its length: styles, 5, united: pod 5-loculed,
loculicidal: flowers large and showy.

H. Syrlacus, Linn. AltJiea of cultivated grounds. Hose of Sharon.
Shrub 10 ft.: leaves wedge-ovate and 3-lobed: flowers showy, in various
colors, in the leaf-axils in summer and fall, often double. Asia.

XXV. GERANIACE^. Geranium Family.

Herbs, chiefly with simple leaves: flowers perfect, in most genera
nearly regular (but sometimes very irregular), 5-merous : stamens as
many or twice as many as the sepals, hypogynous: ovary single, the
locules usually as many as the sepals: fruit capsular. A most diverse
family, often divided into several. There are about 20 genera and 700
species. Common examples are geranium, pelargonium, nasturtium,
balsam, jewel-weed or touch-me-not, oxalis.

A. Flowers regular or very nearly so.
B. Leaves simple (often deeply lobed).

C. Anther-bearing stamens 10 1. Geranium

CO. Anther-bearing stamens about 7 2. Pelargonium

BB. Leaves compound 3. Oxalis

AA. Flowers very irregular.

B. Flower with one very long spur 4. Tropceolum

BB. Flower hanging by its middle, with a short hooked spur. 5. Impatiens

1. GESANIUM. Cranesbill.

Small herbs with forking stems and 1-3-flowered peduncles: sepals and
petals 5 : glands on the torus 5, alternating with the petals : stamens 10,
usually all of them with perfect anthers : fruit 5 1-seeded carpels separat-
ing from the axis from the base upwards and curling outwards.

342 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

G. maculatum, Linn. Common wild cranesbill. Fig. 18L Perennial,
1-2-ft., hairy erect: leaves orbicular, deeply 5-7-parted: petals entire, hairy
on the claw: flower rose-purple, 1 in. across. Common; spring.

Q. Koberti^num, Linn. Herb Robert. Annual or biennial, 1 ft. or some-
times less, somewhat hairy, spreading: leaves 3- or 5-divided into pinnatifid
divisions: fls. % in. or less across, pink-red. Moist places; common.

2. PELARGONIUM. Geranium of gardens.

Somewhat fleshy, strong-scented plants, differing from Geranium in
having a somewhat 2-lipped corolla, and stamens with anthers less than 10.

P. hortdrum, Bailey. Garden geranium. Fish geranium. Fig. 183.
Stem somewhat succulent and hairy: leaves orbicular or reniform, crenate-
lobed, often with bands of different colors: flowers in umbel-like clusters,
deflexed in bud of many colors, often double. South Africa, but of hybrid
origin.

P. peltatum, Ait. Ivy-leaved geranium. Trailing: filaments 10, some
being sterile: petals pink or white, nearly equal: leaves more or less peltate,
nearly or quite smooth, 5-angled or -lobed.

P. odoratlssimum. Ait. Nutmeg geranium. Stems somewhat shrubby,
and the branches straggling, thick, and softly hairy: leaves small, rounded,
very downy, fragrant: flowers small, white.

P. gravdolens. Ait. Sose geranium. Somewhat shrubby : filaments 10,
some sterile: leaves divided palmately, the 5 or 7 lobes more or less toothed,
revolute and rough-edged: petals not equal, but 2 upper larger: flow-
ers umbelled, small, pinkish lavender, veined with darker: plant very
fragrant.

3. OXALIS. OxALis. Wood-sorrel.

Low often tuberous herbs with small flowers which have no glands on
the torus-disk: leaves digitate, of 3 or more leaflets, usually mostly radical:
flowers (opening in sun) with 5 sepals and petals and 10 somewhat mona-
delphous stamens, the alternate ones shorter : pod 5-loculed, often opening
elastically. The following have 3 obcordate leaflets, closing at night.

0. stricta, Sav. Common yellow oxalis. Fig. 273. Stem leafy and
branching: peduncles bearing 2-6 small yellow flowers. Common in fields.

0. Acetos611a, Linn. Wood-sorrel. Scape 2-5 in. high, from a creeping
rootstock- flowers white and pink-veined. Deep woods.

0. viol^cea, Linn. Scape 5-10 in. high with an umbel of several bright
violet flowers, from a scaly bulb. Woods south, and a common window-
garden plant.

4. TROPJSOLUM. Nasturtium of gardens.

Tender, mostly climbing herbs (by means of leafstalks), with one of the
5 petals extended into a long, nectar-bearing yellow spur: petals usually 5,
with narrow claws, often bearded: stamens 8, of different shapes: carpels
3, indehiscent in fruit. The following (from Peru) have peltate orbicular
leaves (Fig. 126).

GEEANIACEiE— SAPINDACE^ 343

T. m&jus, Linn. Climbing nasturtium. Tall-climbing: flowers yellow,
red, cream-white, and other colors: petals not pointed.

T. minus, Linn. Dwarf nasturtium. Fip:. 195. Not climbing : petals
with a sharp point.

5. IMPATIENS. Touch-me-not. Jewel-weed

Soft or succulent tender herbs with simple alternate or opposite leaves

and very irregular flowers: sepals 3 to .5, usually 4, one of them produced

into a large curving spur : petals apparently 2, but each

consisting of a united pair : stamens 5 : fruit 5-valved,

elastically discharging the seeds (whence the names "Im-

patiens"and "touch-me-not").

I. Balsdmina, Linn. Garden balsam. Erect and stout,

\-2}4. ft.: leaves lanceolate, toothed: flowers in the axils,

of many colors, often full double.

- ,. ,.^ I. bifldra, Walt. (/. Adva, Nutt.l. Orange jewel-weed.

Impatiens biflora.

Fig. 462. Tall branching plant (2^ ft.) with alternate oval

or long-oval blunt-toothed long-stalked leaves: flowers % in. long, horizon-
tal and hanging, orange-yellow with a red-spotted lower lip, the upper lip
less spotted and of one piece, the two green sepals at the apex of the pedicel
closely appressed to the tube, the tail of the spur curled under the spur:
pod opening elastically when ripe, throwing the seeds (the .l valves quickly
curling from above downwards). Common in swales.
I. ailrea, Muhl. (I. pallida, Nutt. ). Yellow jewel-
weed. Fig. 4G3. Leaves usually stronger-toothed, the
teeth usually ending in sharp points : flowers 1 in. long
and much broader than those of I. biflora, clear yellow,
the upper lip of two parts, the lower also of two parts
and nearly horizontal, the 2 sepals at apex of pedicel
large and not closely appressed, tail shorter : pods as <^^^

in the other. Less common than the other, but often ""

growing with it. 463. Impatiens aurea.

XXVI. SAPINDACE^. Soapberry or Maple Family.

Trees or shrubs, of various habit: flowers polypetalous or apeta-
lous, often inconspicuous, 4- or5-merous: stamens 10 or less, borne
on a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the single 2-3-loculed pistil: fiuit
a pod or samara. A various family, largely tropical. Genera about
75, and species about 600 to 700. Maple, box-elder, buckeye, horse-
chestnut, bladder-nut, are familiar examples.

A. Herb: climbing by hook-like tendrils among the

flowers in the cluster: fruit an inflated pcd 1. C'ardiospermum

AA. Trees and shrubs.

344

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

B. Trees (or tall shrubs).

C. Leaves simple (more or less palmately lobed)
or (in 1 species) 3-5 pinnately compound:

fruit a samara (with 2 winged seeds) 2. Acer

CC. Leaves digitately compound, 5-9 leaflets 3. ^sculus

BB. Shrubs: leaves pinnately 3-7 compound: fruit a

large bladdery pod 4. Staphylea

1. CAEDIOSPfiRMUM. Balloon-vine. Heart-seed.

Vines climbiugiby axillary, hook-like tendiils among flower clusters:
leaves alternate, biternate, leaflets toothed : flowers dioecious, or some per-
fect: sepals 4, 2 of them smaller: petals 4, irregular, each with an appen-
dage at inner base: stamens 8, filaments unequal: style short, 3-cleft: ovary
triangular, S-cplled, I ovule to each cavity: capsule membranous, much
inflated.

C. Halicacabum, Linn. Climbing or spreading herb, delicate and
slender: leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acute, cut and toothed: flowers small,
•white: fruit large, balloon-like, decorative: seeds black with white scar,
hard, round. Cultivated. Summer.

2. ACER. Maple. Box-elder.

Trees or shrubs, with opposite lobed or parted leaves (pinnate in box-
elder) : flowers small and greenish or reddish, in early spring and often
from winter buds, in box-elder dicecious, in true maples
perfect (or imperfectly diclinous) : calyx about 5-cleft:
petals 5 or none: stamens usually 3-8: fruit a samara
"^i^mlSe £^f^J' with 2 seeds and 2 wings. Two shrubby woods maples
are common in some parts of the country.

a. Maples: leaves simple, palmately lobed.
b. Flowers from lateral winter huds, preceding the
leaves: fruit ricAuring very early.
A. saccharinum, Linn. (A. dasycarpnm, Waugh).
*64. White or silver maple. Fig. 4G4. Flow-

Acer saccharinum. ^^^ greenish, with no petals: leaves
very deeply 5-lobed, silvery white beneath, the narrow iv>^>
divisions lobed and toothed: fruit with large spreading f ,^
■wings, downy when young. Common along streams and in
low grounds; much planted. There is a cut-leaved form
known as Wier's maple, popular as a lawn tree. Wood
white. Linnaeus thought it to be the sugar maple, hence
his name "saccharinum."

A. rtbrum, Linn. Bed, soft, or swamp maple. Fig. 465. -^.oer rubrum.
Tree usually of only medium size: flowers red. with narrow-oblong petals:
leaves rather small, not deeply 3-5-lobed, whitish beneath, the lobes serrate
and toothed: fruit with nearly parallel or slightly spreading wings, not
downy. Low grounds.

SAPINDACE^ 345

bb. Flowers in rlnsters, with the leaves, some or all on shoots of

the season.
A. slccharum, Marsh. (A. saccharintim of some). Sugar, hard, or rock
maple. Figs. 129, 4GG. Flowers greenish, drooping, on long pedicels, the
petals none and the calyx hairy at the top: leaves
bright green, firm, cordate-orbicular in outline,
3-Iobed and the side lobes again lobed, all lobes
and teeth ending in points, the basal sinus broad
and open: wings of fruit somewhat spreading.
Commonest of maples east.

A. nigrum, Michx. Black sugar maple. ^^- ^"^"^ saccharum.
Fig. 467. Foliage dark and limp, the lobes broad and shallow, little toothed
and with only blunt points, the basal sinus nearly or quite closed: wings of
fruit nearly parallel, large. Eastern Central
States; by some regarded as a form of ^. sac-
chartim.

A. platanoides, Linn. Norway maple. Figs,
75, 76, 77, 144, 296-303. Flowers late, in umbel-
like clusters, yellowish green, large, with both
sepals and petals: leaves large and heavy, 3-5-
lobed and much toothed, all parts ending in points : fruit with wide-spread-
ing wings. Europe. Commonly planted: has milky juice.

A. Psetido-Platanus, Linn. Si/cainore maple. Tree from Europe, and
many varieties cultivated: leaves broad, 3-7-lobed, glabrous above, whitish
and downy below: lobes acute, unequally toothed: racemes terminal, droop-
ing: flowers yellowish-green : ovaries woolly: fruit downy, the wings
rather spreading.

bbb. Flowers appearing after the leaves, in racemes: large hushes or bush-
like small trees in cool woods and ravines.
a.. Pennsylvd,nicum. Linn. Striped maple. Moose-ivood. Bark smooth-
ish, light green, striped: flowers greenish, in terminal drooping loose
racemes: leaves simple, thin, 3-lobed near apex, the lobes acuminate, with
finely toothed margin all round: fruit greenish, smooth, with large, widely
diverging wings. Small tree.

A. 8picS,tum, Lam. Mountain maple. Shrub, 5-10 ft., usually forming
clumps: bark green, not striped: flowers appearing after leaves, in dense
racemes, upright, compound, small, greenish, leaves slightly 3-5-lobed,
coarsely serrate: fruit with narrow, somewhat divergent wings.
aa. Box-elder; leaves pinnate.
A. Negundo, Linn. {Negundo aceroides, Moench). Box-elder. Tree
with greeu glaucous twigs and leaf-bases covering the bubs: flowers in long
racemes, dioecious, with 4-5-cleft calyx and no corolla, and 4-5 stamens, the
sterile flowers on long, slender pedicels: leaves pinnate, with 3-5 ovate-
pointed toothed leaflets: fruit with somewhat incurving wings. Common:
much planted in cold and dry regions west.

346 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

3. ^SCULUS. Horse Chestnut. Buckeye.

Trees: leaves opposite, on long petioles, palmately compound, 5-7-folio-
liate: flowers irregular, in a terminal panicle, some often imperfect, most of
them with some imperfect pistils and stamens: calyx 5-toothed: corolla
irregular, with 4 or 5 clawed petals: stamens 5-8, usually 7: fruit a leathery
capsule, smooth or spiny, 2-3-valved, each valve containing, usually, one
seed only: seed large, with shiny brown coat and a large, round, pale scar,
not edible.

JE. Hippocdstanum, Linn. Common horse-cliesfiint. See Figs. 18^, 2 1.
Buds noticeably large and resinous: leaf-scars large, horseshoe-shaped:
leaves large, palmately compound, usually with 7 leaflets: leaflets obovate,
abruptly pointed at tip: corolla of 5 petals, white, spotted with purple and
yellow: stamens long, exserted: fruit prickly. Blooms June to July.

S. rubicunda, Lois. Hed horse chestnut. Small, round-headed tree,
I'.ultivated: leaflets 5-7: petals 4: broad, on slender claws, ro-e-red: stamens
usually 8.

M. glabra, Willd. Ohio buckeye. Tall tree, native in woods and along
river banks, west of Alleghanies: bark rough and ill-scented when peeled or
bruised: leaflets 5, oval or oblong: acuminate: flowers small, in short panicle:
petals 4, narrow, on claws, nearly equal, erect, pale yellow: stamens longer
th.'in petals: fruit prickly at first. April, May.

M. flS,va, Ait. Sweet buckeye. Large tree, rarely shrubby: bark dark
brown, scaly: leaflets usually 5, sometimes 7: flowers yellow: calyx oblong:
petals 4, very unequal, long-clawed, connivent, longer than stamens: fruit
glabrous. Rich woods West and South. April and May.

M. Pavia, Linn. Hed buckeye. Shrub or small tree, 3-10 ft., found in
fertile soil West and South: flowers red: calyx tubular: petals 4, unequal,
longer than the stamens: fruit nearly smooth.

4. STAPHYLfiA. Bladder-nut.

Upright shrubs with opposite leaves, pinnately compound, with 3-7 leaf-
lets, stipulate: flowers small, white, in drooping clusters: sepals, petals and
stamens 5: styles 2-3: capsule a large bladdery pod,2-3-lobed, 2-3celled,
each cell several-seeded.

S. trifdlia, Linn. Shrub 6-10 ft., in thickets, in moist soil: leaflets 3,
ovate, acuminate, serrate, stipules deciduous: flowers bell-like, white, in
clusters at ends on branchlets.

XXVII. POLYGALACE^. Milkwort Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with leaves mostly simple, entire, without
stipules, and flowers irregular and perfect. Represented by the
genus

POLYGALACE^ — LEGUMINOS^ 347

POLYGALA. Milkwort.

Mostly herbs, with bitter juice: flowers very irregular, some often
cleistogamous: sepals 5, unequal, 2 of them winged and colored (petal like) :
petals 3, usually united into a tube, the middle petal hooded or crested, or
otherwise appendaged: stamens 6 or 8, the filaments usually monadelphous,
but the sheath split, more or less connate, within or hidden in the middle
petal: ovary 2-celled. The irregularity of the flowers makes some of the
species conspicuous, but others have very minute flowers, difficult to
examine.

i . paucifdlia, Willd. Frivged pohjqala. Flowering wintergreen. The
most striking of the common milkworts, the flower being large (about 1 in.
long) and showy, rose-purple, with a fine, fringed crest on the central
corolla lobe: plant low, 3-4 in. high, branching, from a creeping rootstock,
with oval petiolate leaves clustered near the tips of the stems, the lower
leaves scale-like: there are small, whitish and fertile (cleistogamous) flowers
on the rootstock. In moist, rich woodland. East and North.

P. S6nega, Linn. Seneca snakeroot. Flowers small in terminal, slender,
spike-like racemes: stem erect, 8-15 in., simple and leafy: leaves lanceolate,
alternate: flowers white, or greenish, on very short pedicels: corolla with
small crest. Perennial.

XXVIII. LEGUMINOS^. Pulse, or Pea Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees, mostly with pinnately compound alter-
nate leaves: flower papilionaceous in the species described below,
fruit typically a legume. A vast family and widely dispersed, with
many tropical species. Genera about 400, and species about 6,500.
By some authors, the species with papilionaceous flowers are separated
into the family Papilionacea?, and those of the acacia tribes, with
regular flowers, as the Mimosacese. Familiar leguminous plants are
pea, bean, lupine, clover, alfalfa, vetch, wistaria, locust, red- bud.

A. Shrubs, twining 1. Wistaria

AA. Trees, or erect shrubs.

B. Leaves once or twice pinnately compound: flowers

in racemes: often large trees.

C. Flowers truly papilionaceous, rather large and

showy, usually fragrant: leaves with sharp

spines or prickles often in place of stipules... 2. Rohinia

cc. Flowers small, greenish and inconspicuous, not

truly papilionaceous: tree usually armed with

large pronged thorns 3. Gleditschia

BB. Leaves simple, entire: corolla not truly papilionace-
ous: fls. in umbel-like clusters, before the leaves 4. Cercis

348 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

AAA. Herbs

B. Plant climbing by tendrils.

c. Calyx leafy-lobed 5. Pisum

CC. Calyx not leafy-lobed.

D. Style flattened, bearded down 1 side 6. Lathijrus

DD. Style slender, with a tuft of hairs at apex only,

or about the upper part 7. Vicia

BB. Plant not tendril-bearing: leaves compound.

D. The leaves 3-foliolate (sometimes simple in
No. 9).
E. Leaves digitately compound.

F. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 10), and the

flowers in heads, or spikes 8. Trifolium

FF. Stamens 10, distinct: flowers in racemes. 9. Baptisia
EE. Leaves pinnately compound (terminal 1-
stalked, and the stalk jointed), 3 leaflets.
F. Flowers small, in a long raceme.

G. Pod straight, exceeding calyx: flowers

small, in very slender racemes. .10. Melilotus
GG. Pods curved or coiled : fls. small to

medium, in heads or short spikes. 11. Medicago
FF. Flowers medium to large, clustered at the
ends of the raceme.
G. Keel of the corolla coiled into a spiral. 12. Phaseolus

GG. Keel curved but not coiled 13. Vigna

DD. The leaves more than 3-folioliate, or digitately
compound.

E. Digitately compound, 5-7 leaflets 14. Lupinus

EE Pinnately compound.

F. Even-pinnately compound: many leaflets:

flowers yellow 15. Cassia

FF. Odd-pinnate (sometimes 3 leaflets) of .5-7

leaflets: flowers purplish or lavender. 16. Apios

1. WISTARIA.

Tall shrubby twiner, producing long, dense racemes of showy flowers:
leaves pinnate, with several or many leaflets: 2 upper calyx-teeth shorter:
standard large and roundish: pod knotty, several-seeded.

W. Chin^nsis, DC. Wistaria. Popular climber for porches, from
China, with large drooping racemes of bright blue (sometimes white) pea-
like flowers in spring and summer.

2. ROBlNIA. Locust.

Trees or large shrubs with compound, odd-pinnate leaves, with stipules
or stipular spines, the base of the leaf-stalk covering the next year's bud:
fliwers showy, pea-like, hanging in axillary racemes: calyx 5-cleft: standard
of the corolla large, turned back, enclosing side petals in bud.

LEGUMINOS^ 349

K. Pseudacd,cia, Linn. Common black locust. Tree, native West and
Soutli, everj'wliere introduced and valuable for timber. Bark nearly black,
very rough: stiff spines at base of each leaf: leaflets 9-19, ovate or oval,
somewhat mucronate at tip, on short stalks: racemes 3-5 in. long, from
axils, pendulous, slender and loose, the flowers white, very fragrant: pod
smooth, 4-7-seeded.

R. viscdsa, Vent. Small tree, native to southern states: cultivated: leaf-
stalks, branchlets and pods grandular-viscid (clammy): prickles short:
flowers roseate, in dense, erect racemes. April to June.

R. hispida Linn. Bose acacia. A straggling shrub, to 10 ft.: branches,
stalks, and pods bristly with flexible red spines: flowers pink, handsome, in
loose pendulous racemes. Native of southern mountains. Cultivated. May
to June.

3. GLEDlTSCHIA. Honey Locust.

Trees, thorny with stout branching spines on branches and usually on
trunk: leaves abruptly pinnate, frequently bi-pinnate, and all gradations
often on same leaf: flowers in axillary, spicate racemes, greenish, inconspicu-
ous, some imperfect, not papilionaceous: calyx-tube short, 3-5 cleft: petals
3-5, nearly equal, inserted on calyx-tube: stamens 3-10, distinct, inserted on
petals: fruit a large, leathery, flat pod, elongated, containing 1-many seeds.

G. triacdnthos, Linn. Large tree with hard and heavy wood: pods, 6-18
in. long, an inch or so wide, twisted or hoop-like, filled with sweetish pulp
between the several- to many-smooth, shiny seeds.

4. CfiRCIS. Redbitd.

Small trees with simple, rounded, heart-shaped leaves and tiny stipules
soon falling: flowers roseate-purple, in numerous small clusters along
branches, even on trunk, before leaves, thus giving the tree a striking
appearance: calyx 5-toothed, canipanulate: corolla irregular, not papil o-
naceous; petals 5 and standard enclosed by wings: stamens 10, distinct:
legume oblong, flat, many-seeded, margined on one edge.

C. Canadensis, Linn. Bedbud. Judas tree. Native small tree of Middle
and Southern states, 10-30 ft. high, irregularly branching: bark smooth and
dark. Cultivated as ornamental tree, April, May.

5. PlSUM. Pea.

Slender herbs, climbing by tendrils which are homologous with leaflets:
leaves pinnate, with 1-3 pairs of foliar leaflets, and very large, leafy stipules:
lobes of calyx leafy; flowers large, white, or pink, on axillary peduncles: pod
a typical legume, several-seeded.

P. sativum, Linn. Garden pea. Figs. 190, 284. Smooth and glaucous:
leaflets usually 2 pairs, broad-oval: peduncles 2- or more-flowered. Old
World.

6. LATHYRUS. Vetchling.

Much like Pisum, differing chiefly in very technical characters, but best
told in general by the narrow leaflets and pods, and not leafy calyx.

350 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

L. odoritus, Linn. Sweet pea. Figs. 165. 222. Annual, the stem hairy:
leaflets one pair, narrow-oval or oblong: flowers 2 or 3 on a long peduncle,
very fragrunt, in many colors. Southern Europe.

L. latifolius, Linn. Everlasting pea. Fig 246. Perennial of long dura-
tion, sniootli, the slems winged; leaflets one pair, long-oval: flowers many
in a dense cluster on long peduncles, rose-purple and white. Europe.

7. VlCIA. Vetch. Tare.

Herbs, mostly trailing or climbing by tendrils from the ends of pin-
nately compound leaves: leaflets usually many, entire or emarginate:
stipules half-sagittate: flowers in axillary racemes or pairs: calyx somewhat
oblique, 5-toothed: wings adhering to keel: style slender, bent, hairy or with
hairy ring beneath stigma: pods flat, 2-valved, 2-several-seeded.

V. Americana, Mulil. Perennial, smooth: leaflets 10-M, oblong, blunt:
peduncles 4-8-flowered: flowers purplish-blue, %-% in. long. Moist soil.

V. Cricca, Linn. Perennial, more or less pubescent, with weak stems:
leaflets 12-24, oblong to linear, mucronate: racemes: many-flowered,
1-sided, spike-like, on axillary peduncles: flowers blue to purple, %-K in.
long. Dryish soil.

V. sativa, Linn. Spring vetch. Annual, rather pubescent, not climbing:
leaflets, 5-7 pairs, oblong or obovate, to linear, obtuse or retuse or mucro-
nate: flowers in pairs, from axils, nearly sessile, violet-purple, %-l in.
long: pod smooth, linear, 5-10-seeded. Cultivated or wild: from Europe.

V. villosa, Roth. Hairy or winter vetch. Difl'use, very hairy: flowers
showy in long axillary racemes, deep purple: seeds small and black. Culti-
vated and escaped. Europe. Annual and biennial, perhaps sometimes
perennial.

8. TRIFOLIUM. Clover.

Annual or perennial herbs with digitate leaves of 3 leaflets (all 3 leaflets
joined directly to top of petiole): flowers small, with bristle-form calyx-
teeth, in dense heads: fruit a 1- to few-seeded little pod which does not
exceed the calyx.

a. Flowers sessile in the dense heads.

T. prat6nse, Linn. Common red clover. Fig. 82. Erect, 1-2 ft., with
oval or obovate leaflets, which have a pale spot or band near the center
and usually a notch at the end: flowers rose-red, honey-sweet, the heads
closely surrounded by leaves. Europe, but common everywhere in the
North.

T. medium, Linn. Medium red clover. Larger, the stem less straight,
the leaflets oblong, entire and with a spot: head stalked above the upper-
most leaves. Otherwise like the last.

T. arv^nse, Linn. Rahhit- foot clover. Annual; 5-10 in., erect: flowers
sessile in dense, cylindrical heads, which become very soft and grayish,
fur like, from the silky plumose calyx-teeth: corolla insignificant, whitish.
Dry, sandy soils: introduced from Europe.

LEGUMINOSiE

351

aa. Flowers short-stalked in the heads.

T. h^bridum, Linn. Alsike clover. Slender, from a prostrate base, 1-3

fr. : leaflets obcorclate: head small and globular, liglit rose-colored. Europe.

T. rdpens, Linn. White clover. Small, the stems long-creeping and

sending up flowering stems 3-12 in. high: leaflets obeordate: heads small,

white. Common; native, also European.

T. incarnatum, Linn. Crimson clover. Fig. 408. Stout,
hairj', erect plant, I-'IY^ ft., with obovate-oblong leaflets and
brilliant crimson flowers in a long stalked head. Europe; now
frequently cultivated.

T. refl6xum, Linn. Buffalo clover. Annual or biennial,
pubescent, ascending 8-18 in.: standard purple, keel and wings
whitish: leaflets oval or obovate, tinely toothed. Most common
in (Central States, from Western New York.

T. prociimbens, Linn. Hop clover. Annual, slender, procum-
bent or upright to 6 or 12 in. : flowers yellow, turning brown and
dry when old, finally reflexing: standard striate: heads small,
rounded, 20-40 flowered: leaflets wedge-shaped and notched at
end, terminal one stalked, stipules ovate. June. Dry soil,
■108. introduced.

Trifolium x. agfrarium. Linn. Hop clover. Larger: leaflets ovate-

incaniatura. oi,i,„)g.^ t|,j, terminal one not stalked, and stipules narrow and
joined for half their length to the petiole. Introduced.

9. BAPTtSIA. False Indigo.

Perennial herbs: leaves palmately 3-foliolate, with stipules, (or, simple,
sessile, exstipulate, perfoliate leaves) : flowers racemed:
calyx 4-5-toothed: standard erect, rounded, the sides
rolling back: keel and wings oblong, nearly straight:
stamens 10, distinct: pod stalked in a persistent calyx,
pointed, inflated, many-seeded. Plants usually black-
ened in drying.

B. tinctdria, R. Br. Bushy, erect to 2 ft., some-
what glaucous: leaves sessile or nearly so, with tiny
deciduous stipules; leaflets small, entire, wedged-ovate:
racemes many, terminal, loosely few flowered : flowers
yellow, about K in. long, papilionaceous. Dry soil in
woods.

10. MELILOTUS. Sweet Clover.
Tall erect annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented

herbage and small white or yellow flowers in numerous
open racemes: leaflets 3, oblong: pod ovoid, somewhat
exceeding the calyx, 1-2-seeded.

M. ilba, Linn. White sweet clover. Bokhara
clover. Two to 5 ft. tall, smooth : leaflets truncate:

352

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

470. Medicago sativa.

flowers white, the standard longer than other petals. Europe; common on
roadsides.

M. officinalis, Linn. Yellow sweet clover. Fig. 469. Leaflets obtuse:
flowers yellow. Less common than the other.

11. MEDICAGO. Medick.
Clover like plants with small flowers in heads or

short spikes and toothed leaflets: particularly dis-
tinguished by the curved or coiled pod.

M. sativa, Linn. Alfalfa. Lucerne. Fig. 470.
Erect perennial, with ovate-oblong leaflets and short
spikes or dense racemes of blue purple flowers. Eu-
rope, but grown for fc rage.

M. lupulina, Linn. Hop clover. Black medick.
Trailing clover like plant, with obovate leaflets and yel-
low flowers in heads or very short spikes: pod black
when ripe. Europe; common weed East.

12. PHASfiOLTJS. Bean.

Tender herbs, often twining, the flowers never yellow, and the pinnate
leaves of 3 leaflets: flowers usually in clusters on the joints of the raccnio
or at the end of the peduncle, the keel (in-
closing the essential organs) coiling into
a spiral: fruit a true legume.

P. Vlilg&,ris, Linn. Common beau.

Figs. 282-3, 285-G, 471. Annual: twining

(the twining habit bred out in the "bush

beans"): leaflets ovate, the lateral ones 472. Phuscolus

unequal-sided: flowers white or purplish, iunatus.

the racemes shorter than the leaves: pods narrow and

nearly straight. Probably from tropical America.

471. Phaseolus vulgaris. P. lunatus, Linn. Lima bean. Fig. 472. Annual:

tall-twining (also dwarf forms): leaflets large: flowers

whitish, in racemes shorter than the leaves: pods flat and curved, with a

few large flat seeds. South America.

P. multifldrus, Willd. Scarlet runner bean. Peren-
nial in warm countries from a tuberous root, tall-twin-
ing : leaflets ovate : flowers bright scarlet (white in
the "Dutch Case-knife bean") and showy, the racemes
exceeding the leaves: pod long and broad but not flat.
Tropical America; cultivated for ornament and for food.

13. VlGNA. Cow-pea. 47

Vigna
Differs from Phaseolus chiefly in technical charac- Sinensis,

ters, one of which is the curved rather than coiled keel
of the flower.

LEGUMINOS^— ROSACEA 353

V. Sinensis, Endl. Cow-pea. Black pea. Sto:k pea. Fig. 473. Long-
trailing or twining, tender annual: leaflets narrow-ovate; flowers white or
pale, 2 or 3 on the apex of a very long peduncle, the standard rounded; pod
slender and long, cj'lindrical: seed (really a beau raiher tbau pea; small,
short-oblong. China, Japan; much grown South for forage.

14. LUPIN US. Lupine.

Low herbs: leaves palmately compound, 5-15-folioliate, rarely simple:
flowers showy, in terminal spikes or racemes: calyx decidedly 2 -lipped:
standard round, sides rolled backward: keel incurved, sickle-like: wings
lightly united above keel: stamens inonadelphous, with 3 alternate an-
thers, dift'erent in size and shape from others: pod oblong, flattened, often
knotty.

L. per^nnis, Linn. Perennial, somewhat downy: stem erect to 1 or IK
ft.: leaflets 7-11, large, radiating, nearly sessile, oblanceolate, mucronate:
stipules small: flowers blue or whitish, in loose racemes: pod linear-oblong,
hairy, 5-6-seeded. Sandy soil. May to June.

1.'). CASSSIA. Senna. Fig. 223.

Ours herbs with odd-pinnate, compound leaves and yellow flowers: sepals
5, nearly equal: coi-oUa not paplionaceous, nearly regular: petals 5: stamens
5-10, some anthers usually imperfect: pod often curved, many-seeded.

U. Marilindica, Linn. Smooth perennial, 3-4 ft. : leaflets 6-9 pairs, lance-
olate-oblong, mucronate, with a gland at or near base of petiole: stipules
deciduous: stamens 10, 3 imperfect, with deformed anthers, the anthers
black: flowers showy yellow, short, axillary racemes. Summer.

16. APIOS. Groundnut,

Perennial, twining herb, with edible underground tubers: leaves pin-
nately 3-7-foliate: flowers in short, dense, often branching axillary racemes:
calyx rather 2-lipped: standard broad and reflexed : keel strongly incurved,
pushing into the standard, and finally coiled or twisted.

A, tuberdsa, Moench. Flowers brownish purple, sweet-scented, in dense
racemes about 1-3 in. long: no tendrils: juice milky. Summer. In low,
moist ground and shady woods.

XXIX. ROSACE.E. Rose Family

Herbs, shrubs and trees, much like the Saxifragaccas: leaves
alternate, mostly with stipules (which are often deciduous): flowers
mostly perfect and polypetalous, the stamens usually perigynous,
mostly numerous (more than 20) : pistils 1 to many: fruit an akene,
follicle, berry, drupe, or accessory. A very mixed or polymorphous
family, largely of temperate regions, of about 75 genera and 1,200
species. By some writers, divided into three or four families. Common

W

354 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

rosaceous plants are rose, strawberry, apple, pear, plum, peach,
cherry, blackberry, raspberry, spirea, cinquefoil.

A. Herbs.

B. Torus not enlarging.

c. Carpels many, in a head.

D. Style deciduous 1. Potentilla

DD. Style persistent on akene, usually jointed and

plumose 2. Geum

cc. Carpels 2: calyx prickly and lobes closing over

the fruit : 1 or 2 akenes 3. Agrimonia

BB. Torus becoming fleshy: flowers directly from the

crown or root 4. Fragaria

AA. Shrubs or trees.

B. The ovary 1, superior: fruit a drupe 5. Prunus

BB. The ovaries more than 1.

0. Fruit 1-seeded drupes aggregated, or akenes.
D. Ovaries many, free from calyx and torus, be-
coming drupelets (i. Bitbiis

DD. Ovaries 5-8: shrubs not prickly: leaves sim-
ple : flowers yellow : fruit akenes 7. Kerria

cc. Fruit akenes inside a hollow torus 8. Rosa

ccc. Fruit a pome: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the
torus.
D. Petals oblong-spatulate: carpels 3-5-eelled, but

appearing about 10-celled 9. Amelanchier

DD. Petals rounded: ovaries 5.

E. Pome with 2-seeded carpels 10. Pyrus

EE. Pome with many-seeded carpels 11. Cydonia

EEE. Pome with 1-5 stony kernels 12. Cratitgus

cccc. Fruit 2-8 dry follicles, each several-seeded IH. Spircea

1. POTENTlLLA. Five Finger. Cinquefoil,

Herbs (sometimes shrubby) with flat deeply 5-cleft calj'x and 5 bracts
beneath it, and 5 obtuse, mostly yellow or white petals: stamens many: fruit
an akene, of which there are many in a little head on the small, dry torus:
leaves compound.

P. Norv6gica, Linn. An erect (1-2 ft. tall) very hairy and coarse annual,
with 3 obovate, or oblong serrate leaflets and small flowers in which the yel-
low corolla is usually not so large as the calyx. Common weed.

P. Canad6ii8i8, Linn. Common five-finger. Trailing, strawberry - like,
with five narrow leaflets, but the lateral ones deeply lobed: flowers solitary,
on axillary peduncles, bright yellow. Fields: common.

P. arg^ntea, Linn. Perennial, with stem prostrate, branching above,
white- woolly: leaflets 5, wedge -oblong, green above, white - pubescent
beneath, with a few large, incised teeth, and margins revolute: flowers
small, cymose, yellow: stamens about 20. June to September, in dry soil.

ROSACEA 355

p. frnticdsa, Linn. Stem erect (1-2 ft.), shrubby, diffusely branched:
leaves pinnate, with 5-7 sessile leaflets, margins entire, revolnte: flowers
axillary: petals yellow, orbicular, and longer than calyx, 1 in. broad.
Marshy and wet ground. June to September.

2. GfiUM. AvENS.

Perennial, erect herbs, with odd-pinnate or lyrate leaves, with stipules:
flowers resembling those of Potentilla: calyx 5-cleft with five alternate
bracts: stamens, many: akenes numerous, aggregated on a conical recep-
tacle, with long persistent styles jointed, or bent, or plumose.

G. rivals, Linn. Stems erect, 1 to 2 ft., several-flowered: root leaves
lyrate, and irregularly pinnate, petioled: stem leaves few, usually of 3
leaflets, or 3-lobed: flowers few, large, nodding, the calyx purplish, the
petals clawed, erect, yellowish-purple: styles purplish, jointed and bent in
middle, stigmas plumose: fruit stalked in the calyx. May to July. Bogs.

G. Alburn, Gmelin. From 2 to 3 ft., with stem erect, branching, smooth
or downy: root leaves of 3-5 leaflets, or simple with smaller leaflets at
base: stem leaves few, simple, lobed, or 3-divided or toothed and short-
petioled: flowers whitish, the petals not longer than sepals: head of
fruits sessile in the calyx: styles jointed and bent near middle, the upper
part hooked: torus bristly. Late spring and summer,

G. Virgini&,num, Linn. Differs from preceding in being hirsute: root-
leaves various, but pinnate, with a very large rounded terminal leaflet; the
upper leaves mostly 3-parted: flowers white or pale yellow: receptacle
not bristly: heads of fruits on short, stout, hairy stalks. Low ground.
Summer.

3. AGRIMONIA. Agrimony.

Perennial, erect herbs, with alternate odd-pinnately compound leaves,
and slender, spike-like racemes, with yellow flowers: leaves wiib small
segments intersposed, and large dentate stipules: calyx-tube contracted at
the throat with a 5-eleft limb, and bristly on upper part: petals 5: stamens
slender, 5-15, carpels 2, styles terminal: fruit dry, included in the prickly
calyx-tube.

A. Eupatdria, Linn. Spicate raceme terminating the stem (G in. to 2
ft. higli): petals yellow and twice longer than the
calyx. Dryish soils. Summer.

4. FRA6ARIA. Strawberry. ^-^--^'S

Low perennials with 3 broad-toothed leaflets and ^^^^^Sm
a few flowers on radical peduncles: torus enlarging in -,
fruit, usually becoming fleshy.

F. v6sca, Linn. Fig. 474. Small, very sparsely
hairy, the leaves thin and rather light green, very
sharply toothed: flower-clusters overtopping the foli-
age, small and erect, forking: fruit slender and pointed, 474. Fragaria vesca.

356

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

^5

476. Prunns Persica.

light colored (.sometimes white), the akenes
not sunk in the flesh. Cool woods; common
North.

r. Virgini^na, Duch. Common field straw-
berry. Fig. 475. Stronger, darker green, loose-
hairy, the leaves with more sunken veins and
larger and firmer: flower-cluster slender but not
overtopping the leaves, in fruit with drooping
pedicels: fruit globular or broad-conical, with
akenes sunk in the flesh, light colored. Very
475. Fragaiia Virginiana. common.

F. CMlo^nsis, Duch. Garden strawberry. Fig. 204. Low and spread-
ing but stout, the thick leaves somewhat glossy above and bluish white
beneath, rather blunt-toothed: flower-clusters short, forking, the pedicels
strong and long: fruit large and firm, dark colored, with sunken akenes.
Chile.
5. PEtNTTS. Peach. Plum. Cherry.

Trees and shrubs, mostly flowering in early
spring: sepals, petals and stamens borne on the rim
of a saucer-shaped torus, the calyx with 5 green
spreading lobes and the petals 5 and obovate: pis-
til 1, sitting in the bottom of the flower, the ovary ripen-
ing into a drupe: leaves alternate.

a. Peach and apricot : flowers solitary from lateral win-
ter buds, visually appearing before the leaves.
P. P6rBica, Sieb. & Zucc. Peach. Fig. 476. Small
tree, with oblong-lanceolate pointed serrate leaves and sol-
itary fuzzy fruits on last year's wood. China. The nec-
tarine is a smooth-fruited form.

P. Armeniaca, Linn. Apricot. Fig. 477. Leaves ovate
to round-ovate, serrate: fruits solitary, on last year's shoots or on spurs,
smooth or nearly so. China.

aa. Plums: flowers in umbel-like clusters: fruit large and smooth, usually

with a distinct suture (or "crease") on one side and covered tcith a

"bloom," the stalk short.

P. dom^stica, Linn. Common plum. Figs. 194, 262. Small tree, usually

with young shoots downy: leaves thick and relatively large, dull dark green,

ovate, oval or obovate, very rugose or veiny, somewhat pubescent beneath,

coarsely and unevenly serrate: flowers large: fruits various, usually thick-

meated and with heavy "bloom." Europe, Asia.

P. Americana, Marsh. Wild plum of the North. Fig. 478. Twiggy
small tree, often tiiorny, the young shoots usually not downy: leaves obo-
vate, dull green, abruptly pointed, coarsely toothed or jagged, not pubescent
beneath: fruit small, red or yellow, tough-skinned and glaucous, the pit
large and flattened. Common in thickets: improved forms are in cultivation.

I

ROSACEA

357

478. Prunus Americana. 47y. Prunus angustifolia.

F. angiiBtildlia, Marsh. Chickasaw plum. Mountain cherry. Fig. 479.
Smaller, the young growths smooth and zigzag and usually reddish: leaves
lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, often trough-shaped, shining, finely serrate,
cherry-like: fruit a small thin-fleshed shining plum on
a long pedicel. Delaware, south ; also in cultivation.

Cherries : fla-ers in umbel-like clusters : fruit
small and nearly globular, early -ripening, usu-
ally without a prominent suture and '^bloom," the
stalk slender.
' P. C6ra8U8, Linn. Sour cherry. Round-headed
tree, with flowers in small clusters from lateral buds:
480. Prunus Avium leaves hard and stifiBsh, short-ovate or obovate, gray-
ish green, serrate: fruit small, sour. Europe.
P. Avium, Linn. Siceet cherry. Fig. 480. Straight grower, the "leader"
prominent in young trees, with flowers in dense clusters from lateral spurs:
leaves oblong-ovate, dull and soft, on the voung growths hanging : fruit
usually rather large, sweet. Europe.

aaaa. Wild cherries, with small, scarcely edible fruits:
flowers umbellate or racemed.

P. Pennsylvdnicum, Linn. Wild red cherry. Pin or bird cherry. Small
tree, 20-30 ft. high, with red-brown, peeling bark: flowers small, white, on
long pedicels in umbel-like clusters, from lateral scaly buds, in early spring,
before or with the leaves: fruit very small, globose, red, smooth, with thin,
sour flesh.

P. Virginiana, Linn. Choke cherry. Small tree or shrub, 5-20 ft., with
grayish spotted bark: leaves thin, oval or obovate, abruptly acute at tip,
sharp-serrate: flowers white, in short racemes, terminating leafy branches,
appearing after leaves in late spring: fruit small, globose, red changing to
dark crimson (nearly black), very astringent: usually found along banks
and in thickets.

P. serdtina, Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Tree 50-80 ft., with black, rough
bark and reddish brown branches; leaves thickish, oblong or oblong-lanceo-

358 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

late, acute or tapering at tip, serrate with incurving or bluntish teetb : flow-
ers later than preceding, white, in elongated, drooping or spreading, termi-
nal racemes: fruit deep purple or black {% in. in diameter) with a sweetish,
bitter taste.

6. RtBUS. Bramble,

Shrubs, usually thorny, the canes or shoots dying after fruiting, with
alternate digitately compound leaves : flowers white, in clusters, with
5-parted calyx and 5 petals: ovaries many, ripening into coherent drupelets.

a. Ifaxpherrii's: drupelets or berry separating from the torus.

R. occident^lis, Linn. Black raspberry. Figs. 128, 263. Canes long
and thorny, glaucous, rooting at the tips late in the season: leaves of mostly
3 ovate doubly-toothed leaflets: flowers in close, umbel-like clusters: fruits,
firm, black (sometimes amber-color). Woods, and common in cultivation.

R. Btrigdsus, Miehx. Med raspberry. Canes erect and weak-prickly,
more or less glaucous, not rooting at tips, leaflets oblong-ovate: flowers in
racemes: fruits soft, red. Woods, and cultivated.

R. odoratus, LiTin. Flowering raspberry . Flotveriyuj " mulberry ."
Shrubby and erect, branching, 3-5 ft., not prickly, but rather bristly and
sticky-hairy: leaves large, 3-5-lobed: flowers large, 1-2 in. broad, in terminal
corymbs, the petals orbicular and purplish rose (rarely whitish): fruit red,
ripe in August, flattened, sweetish but scarcely edible. Common in woods

aa. Blackberries: drupelets adhering to the torus (the torus forming the
"core" of the berry.

R. nigrobdccus, Bailey (R. villosus of some). Common blackberry.
Tall, very thorny: leaflets 3 or 5, ovate and pointed, toothed, hairy beneath:
flowers large, in open racemes: fruit thimble-shaped and firm, black when
ripe. Woods, and cultivated.

R. villdsus, Ait. {B. Canadensis of some). Northern dewberry. Trail-
ing and rooting at tips, prickly: leaflets 3-7, ovate-acuminate or oblong-ovate,
toothed: flowers 1-3, on erect, short peduncles, large: fruit like a small and
shining blackberry. Sterile fields, and in cultivation.

R. triviilis, Michx. Southern dewberry. Fig. 158. Long-trailing,
very thorny and bristly: leaves 3-5, more or less evergreen, mostly lance-
oblong and small, strong-toothed: flowers 1-3: fruit black. Sands, Vir-
ginia, south; also in cultivation.

7. E^RRIA. Globe Flower. ".Iapan Rose."

ShruVjby plants with calyx of 5 acuminate, nearly distinct sepals: petals
5 (or flowers double): ovaries 5-8, smooth, globose: leaves simple, ovate,
acuminate, doubly serrate, with stipules: flowers terminal on branches, soli-
tary or a few together.

K. Japdnica, DC. Bush 3-8 ft. with green winter twigs: flowers orange-
yellow, usually double: leaves sometimes variegated. Late May and June.
Cultivated.

ROSACEA 359

8. BOSA. Rose.

More or less thorny erect or climbing shrubs with pinnate wing-petioled
leaves, and flowers with 5 calj'x-lobes and 5 large, rounded petals: pistils
many, becoming more or less hairy akenes which are enclosed in a hollow
torus (fruit becoming a hip, Fig. 265). Most of the garden roses are too
difficult for the beginner: they are much modified by the plant-breeder.

R, Carolina, Linn. Swamp rose. Tall, often as high as a man, the few
spines usually somewhat hooked: stipules (petiole wings) long and narrow:
leaflets 5-9, narrow-oblong and acute, finely serrate: flowers rather large,
rose-color. Swamps.

R. lilcida, Ehrh. Usually low, with stout hooked spines: stipules rather
broad: leaflets about 7, smooth and mostly shining above: flowers large,
rose-color. Moist places.

R. hiiinilis. Marsh. Three feet or less tall, with straight, slender spines:
stipules narrow: foliage usually less shining. Dry soils.

R. rubigindsa, Linn. Sweet briar. Eglantine. Erect, 4-8 ft., curving,
armed with stout recurved prickles, with weaker ones intei'mixed: leaflets
5-9, ovate or oval, coarsely and doubly serrate and resinous or glandular,
pubescent beneath, very aromatic: flowers small, pink or white, solitary,
single or double. Naturalized from Europe and in cultivation.

9. AMELANCHIER. Service Berry. June Berry.

Small tress or shrubs, with smooth, grayish bark: leaves simple, peti-
oled, serrate: flowers white, in racemes, or rarely solitary: calyx-tube 5-
cleft: petals 5: stamens many, short, inserted on calyx-throat: ovaiy
inferior, apparently 10-celled, with 1 ovule in each cavity: styles 5, united
below: fruit a l)erry-like pome, 4-10-celled.

A. Canadensis, Torr. & Gray. Shadbtish. Small tree or bush 5-50 ft.
high, with showy white flowers in very early spring before the foliage:
leaves ovate to oblong, sharply serrate, acute at apex, base cordate, soon
smooth: stipules long and silky-hairy: fruit red or purple pomes, on slender
pedicels, sweet and edible. Woods, common.

10. PtRUS. Pear. Apple.

Small trees or shrubs with alternate leaves, and flowers in clusters in
spring: flowers 5-merous: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the torus, the
styles free.

a. Leaves simple: pear and apple.

P. commilnis, Linn. Pear. Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266. Leaves ovate,
firm and shining, smooth, close-toothed: fruit tapering to the pedicel.
Europe.

P. M&IuB, Linn. Apple. Figs. (!7, 267, 268. Leaves ovate, soft, hairy
beneath, serrate: fruit hollowed at the base when ripe. Europe.

P. coron&ria, Linn. Wild crab. Bushy tree to t.bout 20 ft., somewhat
thorny: leaves ovate-triangular to heart-shaped, cut-serrate, or somewhat
lobed, soon sraoothish: flowers large, strikingly fragrant, rose-colored, few

360 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

in a corymb or cluster: pome flattened at the ends, long-stemmed, indented
at the attachment to stalk, green, becoming yellowish, fragrant but sour.
Open glades, from New York, West and South.

P. Io6nsi8, Bailey. Prairie crab. Pubescent: leaves oblong or ovate,
notched or parted along the sides, the petioles short: pome globular or
oblong, short-stemmed, with light dots. Mostly west of Great Lakes.

aa. Leaves compound; mountain-ashes. (Sorbus.)

P. Americana, DC. American mountain ash. Treeor large shrub, native
to mountain woods in the east, but sometimes cultivated: leaves odd-pin-
nately compound, with 1,3-15 leaflets that are lanceolate, taper-pointed, ser-
rate, bright-green above: flowers numerous, small, white, in compound, flat
cymes: style 3-5: berry-like pomes globose, bright red, or orange, about the
size of peas.

P. Aucupd,ria. Gaertn. English mountain-ash. Ifowan. Leaves pubes-
cent on both sides when young, the leaflets blunt: fruit larger than that of
preceding, about % in. in diameter.

11. CYDONIA. Quince.

Small trees or shrubs: flowers and leaves much as in Pyrus: ovary flve-
celled, with many seeds in each: fruit a pome, usually hollowed at top end,
globose, or pyriform.

C. vulgaria, Pers. Quince. Six to 15 ft. high, with crooked branches;
flower solitary, large, pale pink or roseate, on shoots of the season: leaves
oblong-ovate, acute at apex, with obtuse base, entire.

C. Jap6iiica, Pers. Japan Quince. Shrub 3 to 6 ft., cultivated for
hedges and flowers: branches armed with short, straight spines: leaves
glabrous and shining, acute at each end, serrulate, the stipules conspicuously
reniforra: flowers in axillary clusters, nearly sessile, crimson or scarlet.
Fruit globose, fragrant.

12. CRATiEGUS. Hawthorn. Figs. 152 to 155.

Large bushes or small trees, much branched, the wood tough and hard,
usually very thorny: flowers white or pink, in dense umbel-like clusters:
petals 5, entire: stamens 5-10-many: fruit a small red or yellow drupe con-
taining large bony stones: leaves simple, mostly toothed or lobed. Many
species wild in North America, and some cultivated, too difficult of determi-
nation for the beginner.

13. SPIRilA. Fig. 179.

Hardy perennial herbs and many ornamental shrubs: leaves alternate:
flowers white or roseate, usually small but many: calyx 5-cleft, short and
open: petals 5: stamens many: fruit of about, 5 follicles, not inflated.
Following are small shrubs:

S. salicifdlia, Linn. Meadow-sweet. Glabrous or nearly so, erect to 3
or 4 feet, stem often purplish: leaves simple, oblong-ovate to lanceolate,
serrate, with stipules deciduous: flowers in terminal erect panicles, white

SAXIFRAGACE^ 361

or pinkish-tinged, small, with pods (follicles) 5, smooth, many-seeded.
Moist or swampy ground. Summer.

S tomentdsa, Linn. Hardliack. Erect, 2 to 4 ft. high, with pubescent
stems, rusty or hairy: leaves simple, oblong or ovate, serrate, woolly on
lower surface, without stipules: flowers in terminal thyrse-like dense
panicles, pink or purple (rarely white), the follicles 5, pubescent or woolly:
pastures and low grounds. Late summer.

S. trilobata, Linn. Bridal irreath. Large bush with long recurving
branches and bearing a profusion of showy flowers in flat-toi)ped clusters:
leaves round ovate, crenately cut and 3-lobed. S. Van Houttei is an
improved form.

S. hypericifdlia, St. Peter's wreath. From 3 to 6 ft., leaves obovate-
oblong or wedge-shaped, obscurely toothed or lobed : flowers white, in many
small lateral sessile clusters, on short branches. Cultivated.

S. Thunb^rgii, Sieb. Compact bush with very narrow leaves, sharply
serrate and very light green: flowers umbellate, small, white. Handsome
species from Japan.

XXX. SAXIFRAGACE^. Saxifrage Family.

Herbs or shrubs of various habit, with opposite or alternate
leaves that usually do not have stipules: flowers with ovary mostly
inferior, 5-merous, the stamens usually 10 or less (in a few cases
as many as 40): pistils 10 or less, either separate or the carpels
united, the fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. A polymorphous family
comprising some 600 species in about 75 fjenera. Comprises saxifrage,
mitre-wort, hydrangea, mock orange, curi*ant and gooseberry.

A. Herbs.

B. Stamens twice as many as petals.
C. Petals entire: stamens usually 10.

D. Flowers in cymes or panicles (rarely solitary) :

capsule 2-beaked : ovary usually 2-celled. . . 1 . Saxifraga
DD. Plowf^rs in racemes: ovary 1-celled: capsule

2-beaked, with 1 beak the longer and larger 2. Tiarella

cc. Petals with edges fringed or cleft .'5. Mitella

BB. Stamens (fertile) 5, or equal in number to the petals:

clusters of sterile stamens opposite each petal ... 4. Parnassia
AA. Shrubs.

B. Jjeaves opposite,
c. Stamens 8 or 10.

D. Flowers all alike : sepals 5 5. Deutzia

DD. Flowers usually of 2 kinds: the marginal ones

enlarged and neutral, apetalous C. ITijdrangen.

CO. Stamens many: petals, 4 or 6, large, white 7. Philadelphus

BB. Leaves alternate b. Hibes

362 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

1. SAXtFBAGA. Saxifrage.

Herbs, with root-leaves in rosette: flowers perfect, small, whitish, in
cjmes or panicles, on leafy stems or leafless scapes: sepals 5, more or le«s
united: petals 5, entire, inserted on calyx-tube: stamens mostly 10: styles
2 and capsule 2-beaked, or of nearly separate divergent pods.

S. Virgini^nsis. Michx. Little perennial herb with spatulate or obovate,
petioled, crenate, thick leaves: scape 3-12 inches, erect, viscid-pubescent,
bearing many small, white flowers in a loose cyme, the petals exceeding the
calyx. In early spring, on moist banks and rocks.

2. TIABtLLA. False Mitrewort.

Perennials, with small white flowers in racemes: calyx white, campan-
ulate, 5-lobed: petals 5, entire on claws: stamens 10, with long filaments
from the calyx-tube: ovary 1-celIed, nearly superior: styles 2, long and
slender: capsule with two very unequal beaks.

T. cordifdlia, Linn. Scape slender, pubescent, leafless or with 1 or 2
leaves: stoloniferous from rootstocks: leaves cordate, lobed or toothed,
petioled, slightly hairy or downy beneath: flowers white, in short raceme.
Spring. Handsome.

3. MITELLA. Mitrewort. Bishop's Cap.

Delicate little perennials, with small, white flowers in a raceme or spike,
the basal leaves heart-shape or reniform: scape with two opposite leaves, or
one or none: calyx short, 5-cleft, adherent to base of ovary: petals 5, white
edges daintily fringed, inserted on calyx: stamens 5 or 10, with short
filaments, on petals: styles 2, short.

M diphylla, Linn. About one foot tall: root leaves in a cluster, cordate,
ovate, somewhat 3-5-lobed, toothed, hairy: scape rather hairy, with two
opposite nearly sessile leaves near middle: flowers tiny, many, white. May
to early June, in rich woods.

M. nuda, Linn. Very delicate and slender: scape usually leafless: basal
leaves reniform, crenate: flowers few, greenish, very sniall, pedicelled; not
common. Damp, cold woods, northward. Late spring and early summer.

4. PARNASSIA. Grass op Parnassus.

Low, glabrous perennials, belonging mostly to marshy or wet situations:
root leaves in rosettes, rounded, entire: stem leaves 1 or few, alternate:
flowers solitary, terminal, on a scape-like stem, white or greenish: calyx
5-'obed to near base: fertile stamens 5, alternating with the five whitish
petals, a cluster of sterile filaments at base of each petal: ovary superior
l-celled, with four parietal placentae, and usually four stigmas.

P. Caroliniana, Michx. One flower with sessile petals, white, with green-
ish veins, 1-1^ inches broad: root-leaf thickish, ovate or cordate, one leaf
usually near liase of scape: 6-15 inches high. Wet places. Summer.
.5. DEtTZIA.

Shrubs, having opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves: flowers pauicled or
racemed, numerous, white or pinkish: calyx lobes 5: petals 5 to many: sta-

SAXIFRAGACE^ 363

mens 10, five long and five short, the filaments flat, commonly with three
prongs, the middle prong antlieriferous: ovary inferior, styles 3-5.

D. grdcilis. Sieb & Zucc. Grows to 2 or 3 ft. : flowers many, white, single
or double: leaves oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate, green and smooth.
June. Cultivated from Japan.

D. scabra, Thunb. Tall, pubescent: leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, finely
crenate or serrate: flowers pinkish. Later blooming than preceding, and
much larger. China and Japan.

G. HYDRANGEA.

Shrubs, with opposite, stalked exstipulate leaves, and flowers of two
kinds in terminal corymbs or cymes, the outer ones usually sterile, often
apetaious, consisting merely of a showy, flat or spreading 5-lobed calyx, the
fertile flowers small, with calyx-tube 4-5 toothed: petals 4 or 5: stamens
8 to 10, filaments slender: ovary inferior, 2-eelled (rarely 3- or 4-celled):
styles 2-4.

H. arbor6scens, Linn. Leaves ovate, obtuse or cordate at base, acumi-
nate, serrate, green on both surfaces, nearly or quite smooth: flowers in
flat cymes, often all fertile, but sometimes with many large, white, sterile
flowers. Along streams. June to July.

H. Hortensia, DC. Smooth, with large, toothed, bright green oval leaves,
and flowers nearly all neutral, pink, blue or whitish, in great roundish clus-
ters. China and Japah. Cultivated in greenhouses.

H. paniculata, Sieb. Somewhat pubescent, with oblong-ovate, long-
pointed, dull, sharp-toothed leaves, and whitish flowers in great elongated
panicles. Japan. The common hydrangea of lawns.

7. PHILADfiLPHUS. Mock Orange (from the flowers). Syringa.

Shrubs with showy corymbose or paniculate white flowers and opposite
simple leaves: petals 4 or 5; stamens 20 or more: ovary 3-5-loculed, becom-
ing a capsule.

P. coron^rius, Linn. Tall shrub with erect branches ; leaves oblong-
ovate and smooth: flowers cream-white, fragrant, in close clusters, in late
spring. Europe.

P. grrandifldirus, Willd. Tall, with long recurving branches : leaves
ovate-pointed and somewhat downy beneath : flowers pure white, scentless,
in loose clusters. Virginia, south, and planted.

8. RIBES. Gooseberry and Currant.

Low shrubs, often prickly, with alternate digitately lobed leaves:
flowers small: sepals 5 and petal-like, on the ovary: petals and stamens 5,
borne on the calyx: fruit a small globular berry.

a. Gooseberries: flowers 1-3: usually spines heloiv the leaves.
R. oxyacantholdes, Linn. Small bush, with long, graceful branches
and very short thorns or none: leaves thin, orbicular-ovate, about 3-lobcd,
the edges thin and round-toothed; flowers on very short peduncles, the

364 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

calyx-lobes longer than the calyx-tube, the ovary and berry smooth, the
fruit reddish or green. Swamps N.; probable parent of Houghton and
Downing gooseberries.

R. GroBBuliiria, Linn. Ettglish gooseberry. Stiffer and denser bush,
■with firm and thickish more shining leaves, which have revolute margins:

Amerisanum. 483. Ribes aureum.

ovary downy and the large fruit pubescent or bristly. Europe; parent of
the large-fruited gooseberries.

B. Cyndsbati, Linn. Tall, open, prickly bush, with thickish bluntly
3-lobed downy leaves and long peduncles bearing 3 or more flowers with
calyx-lobes shorter than the tube: leaves rounded and 3-lobed: fruit dull
purple, either prickly or smooth. Common in dry places.

aa. Currants: florvers in long racemes: no spines.

B. rilbruin, Linn. Med and white currant. Fig. 48L Erect bush, with
broad-cordate 3-5-lobed leaves with roundish lobes and not strong-smelling:
racemes drooping, the flowers greenish and nearly flat open: berries (cur-
rants) red or white. Europe.

B. nigrrum, Linn. Black currant. Stronger bush, with strong-scented
leaves and larger oblong or bell-shaped flowers with bracts much shorter
than the pedicels: berries black and strong-smelling. Europe.

B. Americinum, Marsh. [R. floridum, L'Her). Wild black currant.
Fig. 482. Straggling bush, with heart-shaped 3-5-lobed doubly serrate some-
what scented leaves: flowers in long racemes, whitish, with bracts longer
than the pedicels: fruit black, scented. Woods.

E. ailreum, Rursh. Golden, buffalo, or flowering currant. Fig. -18:!.
Large bush, with racemes of long-tubular yellow very fragrant flowers:
fruit blackish. Missouri, west, but common in gardens for its flowers.

XXXI. ONAGRACE.E. Evening Primrose Family.

Mostly herbs: leaves various, alternate or opposite, without
stipules: flowers perfect, usually 4-parted, with calyx-tube joined to
ovary and often prolonged, the margin 4-lobed, lobes valvate in the

ONAGRACE^ 365

bud, usually reflexed in flower: petals 4 1,2 to 9), on throat of calyx-
tube: stamens as many or twice as many as petals: style one, slen-
der, the stigma 4-lobed (sometimes 2-lobed): ovary 2 to 4-celled.
More than 300 species and 40 genera, of wide distribution.

A. Calyx-tube much prolonged beyond the ovary

B. Lobes generally reflexed : fruit a dry capsule, dehiscent. 1. (Enothera
BB. Lobes large and spreading: calyx-tube highly colored:

fruit a 4-celled berry : flowers drooping 2. Fuchsia

AA. Calyx-tube not much prolonged.

B. Stamens 8: petals 4 3. L'pilobinm

BB. Stamens 2: petals 2 4. Circteu

1. (ENOTHfiRA, Evening Primrose.

Herbs, stems usually erect: leaves alternate: flowers brightly colored,
regular, axillary or in terminal spikes: calyx-tube prolonged beyond ovary,
the 4 lobes usually reflexed, sometimes soon falling: petals 4: stamens 8:
stigma 4-lobed: capsule usually narrow and long, 4-celled, many-seeded.

(E. biennis, Linn. Common evening primrose. Fig. 249. Stem erect 2
to 5 feet, hairy and leafy: leaves lance-oblong, somewhat repandly-toothed;
flowers pure yellow, fragrant, in terminal, leafy spikes, not remaining open
in broad sunshine: calyx-tube 2 to 3 times longer than ovary and lobes
reflexed: petals obcordate: pod oblong bluntly 4-angled. A very common
biennial of roadside and pasture, opening quickly at nightfall.

(E. fruticosa, Linn. Sundrops. Biennial or perennial: stem erect, 1 to
3 ft., leafy, more or less hairy: flowers yellow, 1 to 2 in. in diameter, in
corymbed racemes, open in daytime: pod decidedly 4-angled and 4-ribbed,
rather downy, shortly stalked. Dry soil.

(E. pvimila, Linn. Resembles preceding, but smaller, 5 to 12 inches high:
corolla yellow, about J^in. across: pod smooth, 4-angled, sessile or short
stalked. Dry soil.

2. FtrCHSIA. Figs. 160, 189.

Herbs or shrubby plants (some trees) : leaves opposite, or 3 in a whorl:
flowers drooping, axillary: calyx-tube colored, extended beyond ovary:
margin 4-lobed, spreading: petals4 on throat of calyx: stamens 8, projecting:
style long: fruit a 4-celled berry. A number of species of these ornamental
plants in cultivation. Mainly native to South America.

r. Magelldnica, Lam. Smooth and tender: leaves simple, toothed,
slender-petioled : flowers hanging on long peduncles from leaf axils: calyx
red, lobes long, exceeding the tube and the petals: petals blue or purple or
red, obovate, notched, convolute about the bases of the long filaments and
style. The common window-garden fuchsias {F. speciosa) have descended
from this species, more or less hybridized with others.

3. EPILOBIUM. Willow-herb.

Mostly perennials, with leaves nearly sessile, alternate or opposite:
flowers white or puiple, spicate, racemed, or solitary: calyx-tube little

366 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

if any longer than ovary, limb 4-cleft: petals 4: stamens 8: stigma 4-lobed:
fruit linear, 4-sided, dehiscent by 4 loculicidal valves, many-seeded: seeds
■with tuft of lent?, silky hair attached to tip.

E. angustifdlium, Linn. Purple fireiveed. Stem simple, erect, 4-7 ft.:
lower leaves alternate, lanceolate, nearly entire: racemes long, terminal,
showy: flowers large, about 1 in. across, reddish purple. Common in woods.
4. CIRCSA. Enchanter's Nightshade.

Low, delicate, and insignificant perennial herbs, with creeping root-
stocks: leaves opposite, very thin, petioled: flowers very small, in terminal
and lateral racemes: calyx-tube slightly prolonged beyond ovary: parts of
the flower in twos. Damp, shady places. Summer.

C. Luteti^na, Linn. Stem erect, 1-2 ft. tall, pubescent: leaves ovate,
slightly repand-toothed: flowers white or pink, about ]/g inch in diameter, on
slender pedicels, bractless: fruit small, round, 2-celled, bristly. The com-
mon species in damp, shady places in summer.

XXXn. UMBELLIFER.^. Parsley Family.

Herbs, mostly strong-scented and with compound alternate
leaves with petioles expanded or sheathing at the base: flowers
small, mostly perfect, 5-merous, epigynous, in umbels or umbel-like
clusters: stamens 5: fruit consisting of two carpels, which are dry
and seed-like and indehiscent. Oil-tubes, in the form of stripes, one
or several in the intervals of the ribs on the fruits, also sometimes
under the ribs and on both faces of the fruit, are characteristic features
of the Umbelliferte. A well-marked natural family of about 1,500
species in about 160 genera. Some of the species are poisonous.
Here belong parsley, parsnip, carrot, celery, caraway, sweet cicely.
Rather difficult for the beginner.

A. Fruits bristly 1. Daucns

AA. Fruits not bristly.
B. The fruits winged.

c. Wing single, surrounding the margin: flowers

yellow 2. Pastinaca

CO. Wing double on margin : flowers while 3. Angelica

BB. The fruits wingless.

c. Fruit long and slender, tapering at base: no appar-
ent oil-tubes: flowers white 4. Osmorrhiza

OC. Fruit ovate or orbicular.

D. Plant low and delicate: blooms in earliest spring:

stem with 1 or 2 leaves, if any 5. Erigenia

DD. Plant tall, stems leafy.

E. Axis not splitting in two when the carpels

fall from it 6. Apium

EE. Axis splitting in two when the carpels or

" seeds " fall 7. Carum

UMBELLIFER^ 367

1. DAttCUS. Carrot.

Annuals or biennials, bristly, slender and branching, with small white
flowers in compound umbels, the rays of which become inflexed in fruit: the
fruit oblong, ribbed and bristly.

D. Cardta, Linn. Carrot. Fig. 180. Leaves pinnately decompound, the
ultimate segments lanceolate: outer flowers with larger petals. Europe;
cultivated for the root, and extensively run wild.

2. PASTINACA. Parsnip.

Tall, smooth biennials of strict habit and with pinnately compound
leaves: flowers yellow, in compound umbels with scarcely any involucres:
fruit oval, very thin, wing-margined.

P. satlva, Linn. Parsnip. Flowering stem 2-A ft. tall, grooved, bol-
low: leaflets ovate or oblong, sharp-toothed. Europe; cultivated for its
roots and also run wild.

3. ANGELICA.

Strong, tall, perennial weeds, with great compound leaves and large
umbels of small white flowers, with involucre and involucels none, or only a
few small bracts: fruit ovate or oval, flattened, with rather broad, marginal
wings: oil-tubes many.

A. atropurpilrea, Linn. A great weed, 3-8 ft. tall, in moist, rich soil or
swampy ground, with stem stout, smooth, strong- scented, often purple:
leaves large, 3-compound, on petioles with broad, inflated bases: umbels
large, flowers greenish white.

4. OSMOKRHlZA. Sweet Cicely.

Herbs 1-2 feet or more, perennial, glabrous or pubescent, from thick-
clustered, aromatic roots: leaves two or three times pinnately compound:
leaflets variously toothed, — the whole leaf fern-like: flowers many, small,
white, in compound, rayed umbels: fruit linear to linear-oblong, attenuate
at base, short-beaked, compressed, with 5 bristly ribs: no oil-tubes.

0. brevistylia. DC. Stout, downy, 1-2 or 3 f*^. : style conical, shorter
than the ovary.

0. longistylis, DC. Glabrous or nearly so, otherwise much like the pre-
ceding: style slender and about as long as the ovary: root aromatic.

5. ERIGfiNIA.

Little, glabrous perennial, early flowering: simple stem, springing from
a rounded tuber: leaves finely compound: flowers in small clusters, in
leafy bracted umbels, small, white: calyx-teeth wanting: petals obovate or
spafulate: fruit nearly orbicular, compressed on sides, glabrous, notched
at both ends.

£. bulbdia, Nutt. Harbinger of spring. A delicate and pretty but incon-
spicuous plant, 4 to 10 inches high, springing from the ground in earliest
spring, on sunny slopes of woodlands. The little white petals and brown or
purplish anthers give a "pepper-and-salt" appearance.

368 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

6. APIUM. Celery.

Annuals or biennials, with large pinnate leaves: flowers white, in small
umbels: fruit small, usually as broad as long, each carpel 5-ribbed: axis,
from which the carpels fall, not splitting in two.

A. gravfiolens, Linn. Celery. Biennial, smooth: leaflets 3-7, wedge-
shaped or obovate, the lower ones about 3-divided, round-toothed, Europe:
cultivated for its petioles, which have become greatly enlarged.

7. CAKUM. Caraway.

Slender and erect, smooth annual and biennial herbs with pinnate leaves;
flowers white or yellowish, in compound umbels provided with involucres:
axis bearing the carpels, splitting in two at maturity.

C. Carui, Linn. Caraway. Stem furrowed, 1-2 ft. : leaves cut into
thread-like divisions: flowers white. Europe. Cultivated for its fruits,
known as "Caraway seed," and also run wild.

C. Petroselinum. Benth. Parsley. One to 3 ft. : leaflets ovate and 3-cleft,
often much cut or "curled" in the garden kinds: flowers yellowish. Europe,

cc. GAMOPETAL^.

XXXin. LABIATE. Mint Family.

Herbs, usually of aromatic scent, with 4-eornered stems and
opposite usually simple leaves: flowers typically 2-lipped: stamens
4 in 2 pairs, or only 2: ovary deeply 4-lobed, forming 4 indehiscent
nutlets in fruit. A well-marked family of some 2,700 species, dis-
tributed in about 150 genera, of both temperate and tropical regions.
To this family belong the various mints, as peppermint, spearmint,
catnip, hyssop, thyme, pennyroyal, savory, rosemary, sage, hore-
hound, balm, basil. Flowers mostly in whorls in the axils of leaves
or bracts, sometimes forming interrupted spikes.

A. Stamens 2.

B. Calyx nearly equally toothed.

C. Lobes 5: throat hairy 1. Monarda

CO. Lobes 4-5: throat naked 2. Lycopus

BB. Calyx 2-lipped.

C. Throat naked within 3. Salvia

CC. Throat hairy: plants very pungent-scented 4. Hedeoma

AA. Stamens 4.

B. Corolla scarcely 2-lipped: lobes nearly equal.

C. Border of corolla 4-lobed: upper lobe broadest

and emarginate 5. Mentha

00. Border of corolla 4-lobed, with a deep fissure be-
tween the two upper lobes 6. Teucriiiin

LABIATE

369

BB. Corolla strongly 2-lipped.
c. Calyx 2-lipped.

D. Lips of calyx toothed : flowers in dense terminal

spikes or heads 7. Brunella

DD. Lips of calyx entire, the upper humped, or
appendaged: flowers axillary in bracts or

leaf axils, solitary or raceraed 8. Scutellaria

cc. Calyx nearly or quite regular.

D. Upper pair of the stamens the longer 9. Nepeta

DD. Upper pair of the stamens the shorter.

E. Stamens short, included in the tube of the

corolla 10. Mnrrubium

EE. Stamens long, projecting from the corolla-
tube 11. Leonurus

1. MONARDA. Horse-mint.

Rather stout, mostly perennials, with flowers in close terminal heads:
calyx tubular, 15-nerved, hairy in the throat, the teeth nearly equal: corolla
strongly 2-lipped, the upper lip erect, the lower spreading and 3-lobed.

M. fistuldsa, Linn. Two to 5 ft., in clumps: leaves ovate-lai.eeolate:
flowers in a clover-like flattish head: calyx slightly curved: corolla about

1 in. long, purple. Common in dry places.

M. didyma, Linn. Oswego tea. Bee halm. Stem 4-angled and branch-
ing: leaves petioled, shortly ovate to lanceolate, those about the terminal
Lead tinged with red: not very common wild, but cultivated.

2. L"?COPUS, Water Hoarhound.

Low perennials, with stolons or suckers, much like the mints (Mentha)
and growing in similar moist or shady places: not aromatic: flowers
small, white clustered in leaf axils: calyx bell-shaped, 4- to 5-toothed:
corolla campanulate, with 4 nearly equal lobes: fertile stamens 2, the other

2 rudimentary or wanting: flowers small, white or purplish, braeted and
whorled in axillary clusters.

L. Virginicus, Linn. Stem G in. to 2 ft., obtusely 4-angled, green or
often purplish: Stoloniferous: leaves oblong or ovate-lanceolate, serrate,
except at base, short-petioled or nearly sessile. In moist places. Summer.

?,. SALVIA. Sage.

Annuals or perennials, mostly with large and showy flowers: calyx and
corolla 2-lipped: upper lip of corolla large and usually arched, entire or
nearly so, the lower lip spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 2, short, the anther
locules separated by a transverse bar.

S. officinalis, Linn. Common sage. Erect low perennial, with gray
pubescent foliage: leaves oblong-lanceolate, crenulate, very veiny: flowers
blue, in spiked whorls. Europe; used for seasoning.

S. splendens, Sell. (5. coccinea of gardens). Scarlet sage. Tender
l>erennial from Brazil, but much cultivated for its bright scarlet floral
leaves, calyx, and corolla: leaves ovate-pointed.

370

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4. HE DEO MA. Mock Pennvroval.

Low, aromatic-fragrant lierbs, with small bluish flowers in loose axillary
clusters, often forming terminal racemes or spikes: calyx tubular 13-nerve(l,
swollen on lower side, hairy in throat, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, upper lip
er^et, flat, emarginate, the lower spreading and 3-cleft, 2 perfect stamens:
two shorter sterile stamens sometimes present.

H. pulegioldes, Pers. Small annuals of pungent fragrance and taste,
with slender stem 6 to 12 in. tall, erect, branching, pubescent: leaves ovate
to oblong, about 1 in. long, few-toothed, petiolate: whorls few-flowered, the
corolla bluisli, pubescent. In dry fields and woods. Summer.

5. MflNTHA. Mint.

Low perennials: calyx with 5 similar teeth: corolla
nearly or quite regular, 4-cleft: stamens 4, equal: flowers
in heads or interrupted spikes, purplish or white.

M. piperita, Linn. Peppermint. Straggling, 1-3 ft.
tall, the plant dark colored (stems purplish): leaves ovate,
oblong, or narrower, acute, sharply serrate: flowers light
purple, in thick spikes 1-3 in. long. Europe. Cultivated
and escaped.

M. spic^ta, Linn. {M. viridis, Linn.). Spearmint.
Fig 484. Erect and sniootli, 1-2 ft., green: leaves lanceo-
late and sharply serrate: flowers whitish or tinted, in
long, interrupted spikes, Europe. Along roadsides, and
cultivated.
ir^^ M. Canadensis, Linn. Wild mint. One to 2 ft., pubes-

»-f— ^^ cent: leaves lanceolate: flowers tinted, in whorls in the
axils of the leaves. Low grounds.

484. 6. TEtrCRIUM. Germander.

Mentha spicata. Perennial herbs (or shrubs) with small, pinkish, rather

irregular flowers, in terminal bracted spkes (or heads) or verticillate in
the upper axils of the stem leaves: calyx 5-toothed, 10-nerved: corolla
.51obed, with 4 upper lobes oblong, somewhat equal, and turned forward, the
lowest lobe large, rounded: stamens 4, in 2 pairs, projecting from a deep
fissure between the two upper lobes of the corolla.

T. Canad6nse, Linn. Erect, pubescent. 1-3 ft.: leaves ovate-lanceo-
late, irregularly serrate, short-petioled : bracts under the flowers linear-
lanceolate, about as l'>ng as calyx: spike long and slender, the few oMd-
looking purplish or pinkish flowers in crowded verticels. Damp ground.
Late summer.
7. BRUNI&LLA. Self-heal.

Low, usually unbranched perennials without aromatic odor: calyx about
10-nerved, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip arched and entire, the
lower one 3-lobed: stamens 4, in pairs, ascending under the upper lip.

B. vulgaris. Linn. Self-heal. Three to ten in. tall, with ovate or oblong,

LABIATE 371

usually slightly toothed leaves: flowers small, violet (rarely white), in a
dense, oblong, clover-like head or spike. Common in grassy places.

8. SCUTELLARIA. Skullcap.

Perennials, bitter, not aromitic: flowers solitary or in pairs, axillary or
in bracted spike-like racemes: calyx bell-shaped, two-lipped, the lips closed
in fruit, the upper one appendaged on the back (at maturity the calyx splits
to the bottom, the upper lip usually falling off): corolla-tube elongated,
curved and ascending, swollen above the throat, 2-lipped, the upper lip
arched and notched: stamens 4, ascending in pairs under the upper lip, the
upper pair shorter.

S. laterifolia, Linn. Mad-dog skullcap. Smooth, 1-2 ft. high: stem
nearly or quite erect, much branched, slender, leafy: leaves thin, ovate-
lanceolate, pointed, serrate, petioled: flowers blue (rarely white), small,
^-i^ in. long, in axillary, one-sided racemes (some terminal). Wet, shaded
places. Summer. Several related species in bogs and along slow streams,
but most of them will not be likely to attract the attention of the beginner.

9. N^PETA. Catmint.

Perennials, mostly sweet-scented: calyx nearly equally 5-toothed: corolla
2 lipped, the upper lip erect and somewhat concave, the lower .3-Iobed :
stamens 4 in pairs under the upper lip, the outer pair the shorter.

N. Cataria, Linn. Common catmint ov catnip. Pig. 197. Erect, 2-3 ft.,
pubescent: leaves cordate-ovate, crenate, grayish: corolla tinted: flowers
ill interrupted spikes. Introduced from Europe.

N. Glechoma, Benth. Ground ivy. Gill-over-the-c/round. A weed from
Europe, but familiar almost everywhere: creeping, with rounded, crenately
margined, petioled leaves: flowers bluish purple, small.

10. MARKtBIUM. Horehound.

Erect perennials, with white-woolly aspect: calyx nearly equally 5-10-
toothed, the teeth very sharp: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and
r.fitched, the lower one spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, included in the
corolla-tube. There are a numlter of Old World species, but only the
following seems to have run wild in this country:

M. vulg^re, Linn. Common horehound. Leaves broad-ovate and cre-
nate: flowers small, white, in dense whorls. Europe, but common.

11. LEONtRUS. Motherwort.

Erect perennials with green aspect: calyx about equally 5-toothed, the
teeth becoming spine-like: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arclud
and entire, the lower spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, ascending under the
upper lip: nutlets 3-angled.

L. Cardiaca, Linn. Common motherwort. Tall: leaves rounded and
lobed: corolla purple, the upper lip bearded: (li)wers in axillary whorls.
Introduced from Europe. Coiumon. Other introduced species may now and
then be found.

372 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

XXXIV. YERBENACE/E. Vervain Family.

Herbs, shrubs or trees: leaves opposite or whorled (in our spe-
cies), exstipulate: flowers monopetalous, often irregular, in bracted
cymes or panicles: calyx free from the ovary, 4-5- cleft: corolla some-
times regular, but often more or less tvvo-llpped: stamens 4 (rarely
2), in unequal pairs, inserted on corolla, alternate with lobes: style
1: ovary mostly 2- to 4-celled (not lobed\ with style from summit:
fruit dry or drupe-like. About 1,200 species, mostly tropical.
VERBENA. Vervain.

Herbs with simple, opposite, serrate or pinnately-Iobed leaves: flowers
usually sessile, bracted, in terminal spikes: corolla salver- or funnel-form,
with border somewhat unevenly 5-cleft.

V. urtlcaBfolia, Linn. Perennial, common coarse weed in waste ground:
4-6 ft. tall: leaves oval, coarsely serrate, stalked: flowers minute, white, in
slender spikes.

V. angustifdlia, Michx. A perennial, roughish weed, with stems 6 in.
to 2 ft., mostly simple, leafy: leaves sessile, narrow-lanceolate, tapering to
sessile base: flowers small, in spikes: corolla purple: fruits overlapping on
spike. Dry fields.

V. stricta. Vent. Perennial, hoary-hairy: stem 1-3 ft., very leafy:
leaves obovate or oblong, serrate and nearly sessile: spikes thick and
densely flowered; flowers blue-purple, rather larger than in other common
Vervains, %-'m. across, but few open at one time. Westward.

V. hastata, Linn. A common, rather pubescent weed of the waysides:
stem 2-6 ft. tall, branching with many slender spikes of the small, bracted,
blue-purple flowers, few flowers in bloom at one time: leaves lanceolate,
acuminate, petioled.

V. Aubl6tia, Linn. One of the species from which the garden Verbenas
have come: stems rather prostrate and creeping: flowers in a corymb or
pedancled spike and showy, of various colors and considerable size: leaves
on petioles, ovate in outline, but pinnately cut or 3-parted. Wild from
Indiana west.

XXXV. SCROPHULARIACE^. Figwort Family.

Herbs (trees in warm countries), of various habit: flowers perfect,
irregular, usually imperfectly 5-merous: corolla usually 2-lipped and
personate: stamens 4 in 2 pairs, inserted on the corolla, with some-
times a rudiment of a fifth: ovary single, 2-loculed, ripening into a
several- or many-seeded capsule. About 160 genera and 2,000 species.
Representative plants are figwort, snapdragon, toad-flax, foxglove,
mullein, pentstemon, monkey-flower or musk-plant.

SCROPHULARIACE^

373

A. Corolla very shallow and nearly regular 1. Verbascum

AA. Corolla very irregular, often personate.

B. Flowers with long spur 2. Linaria

BB. Flowers spurless, but saccate or swollen at the

base 3. Antirrhinum

BBB. Flowers not spurred, saccate, or much swollen.

c. Stamens 5, hut the fifth sterile, often a scale only.
D. Sterile filament a little scale on th.e upper
side of the corolla: flowers small and dull-
colored 4. Scrofjhtilaria

DD. Sterile filament elongated: corolla 2-lipped
E. Filament shorter than the others: the 2
lips of the corolla but slightly open:

seeds winged 5. Chelone

EE. Filament about the same length as the
others: corolla lip open: seeds wing-
less 6. Penfstemon

DDD. Sterile filament, not conspicuous: corolla al-
most 2-parted, the middle lobe of the
lower lip keeled, enclosing the 4 stamens. 7. Collinsia
cc. Stamens plainly 4.

D. Corolla 2-lipped: calyx 5-angled : flowers not

drooping 8. MimnJus

DD. Corolla slightly 2-Iipped, irregularly 5-lobed:

flowers drooping 9. Digitalis

DDD. Corolla with upper lip narrow and erect, much
longer than the lower, and keeled : anther-
sacs not alike: floral leaves colored like

petals 10. Castilleia

ccc. Stamens 2 (or 2 others rudimentary or want-
ing).

D. Corolla 2-lipped 11. Gratiola

DD. Corolla rotate, lobes unequal 12. Veronica

1. VERBASCUM. Mullein.

Tall biennials, with alternate decurrent leaves : calyx and corolla
5-parted, the latter shallow and nearly or quite rotate: stamens 5, some or
all of the filaments woolly.

V. ThApsus, Linn. Common mullein. Figs. 22, 133. Two to 5 ft., stout
and usually unbranched, white-woolly: leaves oblong and acute, felt-like:
flowers yellow, in a very dense spike. Weed from Europe.

V. Blattiria, Linn. Moth mullein. Slender and branching, green and
nearly smooth: leaves oblong, serrate, often laterally lobed, somewhat clasp-
ing: flowers yellow or cream-colored, in a loose raceme. Weed from Europe.

2. LINARIA. Toad-Flax.

Low herbs, of various habit: corolla personate, the throat nearly or
entirely closed, spurred from the lower side: stamens 4: capsule opening
by apical pores.

374

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

L. vulgaris, Mill. Toad-flax. Bntter-and-eggs. Figs. 255, 485. Com-
mon perennial weed (from Europe), 1-2 ft., with linear leaves and yellow
flowers in racemes.

L. Cymbalaria, Mill. Kenilworth ivy. Fig. 486.
Trailing : leaves orbicular, o-7-lobed : flowers solitary
on long peduncles, lilac-blue. Europe; very common
in greenhouses and sometimes
runs wild.

L. Canadensis, Duinont. Com-
mon annual or biennial in dry
or sandy soil : flowering stems
slender and erect, gener-
Linaria vulgaris. ^Uy gj^^pig ^nd few-
leaved: also prostrate shoots, more leafy:
leaves narrow, flat, entire, sessile, opposite
or wliorled: flowers small, blue, in a terminal,
loose, slender raceme.

3. ANTIRRHINUM. Snapdragon.

From Linaria differs chiefly in having

486. Linar

no spur, but only a swelling at the base of the corolla.

A. m^jus, Linn. Snapdragon. Fig. 220. Erect biennial or perennial:
leaves oblong, smooth, entire: flowers erect or ascending, 2 in. long, purple
or white, in a raceme with downy axis. Europe.

4. SCROPHULARIA. Fiowort.

Herbs perennial, rank and generally ill-smelling, with opposite leaves,
and very odd-looking small, greenish-purple flowers, in simple or compound
loose terminal cymes: calyx deeply 5-parted: corolla irregular, with a globu-
lar tube, the limb 5-lobed, 4 upper lobes erect, but the lower one hori-
zontal or reflexed: stamens 5, 4 fertile, in two pairs, the fifth sterile and a
mere rudiment at the top of the corolla-tube.

S. noddsa, Linn. var. Marildndica, Gray. Smooth, 3-6 ft., much branch-
ing, in thickets and damp woods, blooming in late summer and early fall;
stems 4-angled: leaves ovate, oblong or lanceolate, coarsely toothed, 3-9 in.
long, on slender petioles: flowers small, ilull-colored.

5. CHELONE. Turtlehead. Snakeheau.

Smooth, erect perennials, with opposite, serrate and stalked leaves:
flowers large, sessile, white or rose-tinged, of curious shape, in the upper
leaf axils, forming a terminal spike: calyx 5-parted, segments acute, brac-
ted at base: corolla irregular, with inflated and elongated tube concave
underneath, the limb two-lipped, but lips only slightly open, the upper lip
broad, usually emarginate, lower lip 3-lobed, bearded within: stamens
5, the fifth sterile and smaller, the filaments woolly.

C. gUbra, Linn. Two to four feet high, in swamps and by brooks or in
^et places. Late summer.

SCKOPHULARIACE^

375

6. P£NTST£M0N. Beard-Tongue.

Perennial herbs, with opposite leaves, the upper sessile or clasping:
flowers showy: calyx 5-parted: corolla irregular, with tube more or less
inflated and two-lipped, the lower lip 3-lobed: stamens 5, 4 in two pairs
each bearing an anther, the fifth filament conspicuous but sterile, sometimes
longer than the others and bearded: fruit a globose capsule with many wing-
less seeds.

P. pub6scenB, Solander. Stems hairy, rather viscid above, 1-2 feet:
leaves narrow-oblong to lanceolate, minutely toothed or entire; panicle open:
corolla about 1 in. long, two-lipped, with a bearded palate in the throat, dull
bluish violet or purplish. Dry situations. May to July.

7. COLLtN()IA. Innocence. Blue-eyed Mary

Pretty little annuals or biennials, branching and diffuse with opposite
or verticillate leaves, and irregular flowers, blue and white, on pedicels,
whorled or solitary in the axils of the upper leaves: corolla two-lipped with
the upper lip 2-cleft, the lower lip 3-cleft, with the middle lobe keeled and
saccate, enclosing the 4 stamens and the style: a fifth stamen reduced to a
mere rudiment.

C. v6ma, Nutt. Stem 8-16 in., branching: leaves small, various, the lower
ovate, the upper more lanceolate and clasping, margins crenate or toothed:
flowers on long peduncles, in whorls of 4-6: corolla K to % in., twice
longer than calyx: 3 lower petals sky-blue or pink, upper two petals, white.
An extremely attractive plant in woods, blooming April to June.

8. MfMITLUS. Monkey-flower.

Small herbs with opposite leaves, with usu-
ally showy solitary flowers on axillary pedun-
cles: calyx 5-angled and 5-toothed: corolla tubu-
lar, the 2 lobed upper lip erect or spreading:
stamens 4: stigma 2-lobed.

M. ringens, Linn. Wild monlcey -floiver.
Erect perennial, with square stem and oblong or
lanceolate clasping serrate leaves: flowers blue
or light purple, somewhat personate. Wet places.

M. Idteus, Linn. Motikey-flower. Tiger-
flower. Fig. 487. Annual, with ovate serrate
leaves : flowers large, yellow, blotched with
brick-red or brown. Western America, and coni-

Mimulus luteus.

monly cultivated. To gardeners often known as M. tigridioides. '■■'

9. DIGITALIS. Foxglove.

Stem simple and strict: leaves alternate: flowers with a long expanding
tube and a very short indistinctly lobed limb, the throat wholly open:
stamens 4.

D. purpurea, Linn. Common foxglove. Usually biennial, tall and stout
(2-4 ft.): leaves oblong, nearly or quite entire, rough and downy: flowers

376 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

many, drooping in a Ions, erect raceme, 2 in. long, white to purple and
spotted inside. Old garden plant from Europe.

10. CASTILLfilA. Painted-cup.

Herbs, at least partially parasitic on roots of other plants: flowers
sessile in leafy, often brilliantly colored bracts: calyx tubular, 2-4-cleft;
corolla very irregular, tubular, the tube included in the calyx, the upper
lip very long, arched and keeled, enfolding 2 pairs of stamens; lower lip
short, 3-lobed. Late spring and summer. Four or five species in our
territory.

C. cocclnea, Spreng. Annual or biennial, 8-12 in., with very striking
inflorescence, of scarlet or yellow 3-cleft bracts surrounding the flowers.
Damp meadows or thickets, not common but conspicuous.

IL GKATiOLA. Hedge Hyssop.

Low, mostly perennial herbs, found in damp situations: leaves opposite:
peduncles axillary, I-flowered each: calj-x 5-parted, segments scarcely
equal: corolla 2-lipped, upper lip emarginate or 2-cleft, lower 3-lobed:
fertile stamens 2.

G. Virginiina, Linn. Stems branching, or creeping at base, more or
less viscid, 4-6 in. tall: leaves oblong or lanceolate, few-toothed, sessile:
flowers with yellowish corolla, Yz-Vt. in. long: sterile filaments not present.
Wet places. All summer.

12. VEBONICA. Speedwell.

Ours herbs with leaves mostly opposite or whorled, blue or white flowers
solitary or in racemes from the leaf axils, or terminal: corolla wheel-shaped,
the border irregularly 4-lobed: stamens 2, inserted on corolla tube, with
slender long filaments: ovary 2-celIed, style slender: capsule flattened,
notched at apex, 2-celled, few-numerous-seeded.

V. Americana, Schw. Perennial, weak and decumbent at base, rooting
at nodes, finally erect: leaves opposite at base, mostly petioled, thickisb,
oblong to lance-ovate, serrate racemes axillary, opposite, 2-3 in. long:
flowers small, pale blue, on slender pedicels: capsule swollen, many-seeded.
Common in and about brooks and swampy ground. June through summer.

V. officinalis, Linn. Little pubescent prostrate perennial, 6 in. to 1 ft.,
in dry fields and woods: leaves wedge-oblong, or obovate, short-petioled,
serrate: racemes spike-like, longer than leaves: flowers pale blue. July.

V. peregrina, Linn. Annual, glabrous, erect 4-9 in., branched: lower
leaves thick, oval, toothed, petioled; others sessile, entire: flowers very
small, whitish, axillary and solitary: capsule orbicular, slightly notched. A
common weed. April to June.

V. serpyllifdlia, Linn. Perennial, creeping; leaves small, rounded,
almost entire: flowering stems, smooth, simple, ascending 2-6 in.: flowers
very small, in terminal racemes: corolla pale blue or whitish with purple
stripes, exceeding calyx. Common in lawns and grassy fields. May through
?ummer,

SOLANACEJE 377

XXXVI. SOLANACE^. Nightshade Family.
Herbs or shrubs, with alternate often compound leaves: flowers
perfect and regular, 5-merous, mostly rotate or open-bell-shaped
in form and plaited in the bud: stamens 5, often connivent around
the single 2-loculed pistil, borne on the corolla: fruit a berry or
capsule (the latter sometimes 4-Ioculed by a false partition^ the
seeds borne on a central column. Some 70 genera and 1,500 species.
Common representatives are nighshade, potato, tomato, husk tomato,
tobacco, jimson-weed, petunia.

A. Fruit a fleshy berry.

B. Fruiting calyx bladdery-inflated and wholly enclosing
the fruit: anthers not connected, opening length-
wise 1. Physalis

BB. Fruiting calyx not inflated.

c. Stamens with anthers equaling or exceeding the
filaments.
D. Anthers separate or barely connected, open-
ing at the top 2. Solan um

DD. Anthers united, opening lengthwise 3. Lycopersicnm

cc. Stamens withanthersmuchshorterthan filaments. 4. Capsicum
AA. Fruit a capsule.

B. Calyx 5-parted to near base 5. Petunia

BB. Calyx toothed, not deep-parted.

c. Pod usually prickly, large 6. Datura

cc. Pods not prickly, small 7. Nicotiana

1. PHtSALIS. Ground Cherry.

Herbs, flowering through the summer: flowers solitary, nodding on
axillary peduncles: leaves alternate or often somewhat paired, margins
entire or sinuate: calyx enlarging after flowering, and finally enclosing the
pulpy berry as a much-inflated papery sac: corolla yellowish or white, often
with dark center, wheel-shaped, with short tube, the border obscurely 5-
lobed, plaited in bud.

P. Virginid,na, Mill. Perennial by rootstocks, viscid: fruiting calyx
pyramidal, closed, more or less 5-angled and indented at base: berry reddish
yellow, edible, not filling the loosely inflated calyx: corolla yellow, nearly
an inch in diameter, with brown center, and edge 5- to 10-angled: anthers
yellow. Open places, in rich soil. Summer.

P. pub^scens. Linn. Low annual, more or less pubescent and clammy:
stem generally difl'use in branching, 9-18 in. tall, often somewhat swollen at
nodes: corolla small, about J^ in. across, yellow or greenish, with a dark,
spotted center: anthers purple: the green or yellow berry does not fill the
closed, 5-angled calyx. In low or damp places.

378

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2. SOLANUM. Nightshade.

Perennials or annuals : calyx and corolla 5-parted, the latter rotate :
stamens 5, exserted, the anthers separate and opening by a pore in the top:
berry 2-loculed.

a. Plants not prickly.

S. tuberdsum, Linn. Potato. Figs. 42, p. 35, 219. Low, diffuse-gro'^^ing
perennial, producing stem-tubers on slender underground rootstocks: /eaves
pinnate, the leaflets differing in size and ovate: flowers bluish: berries globu-
lar, yellowish green. Warm temperate elevations of tropical Ameri<3a.

S. nigrunii Linn. Common nightshade. Branchy annual, 1-2 ft., nearly
smooth: leaves ovate, wavy-margined: flowers small, white: berries small,
black. Waste places.

S. Dulcamara, Linn Bittersweet. Tall, loosely clirabiug: leaves cor-
date-ovate, sometimes 3-lobed, of ten with 2 or 4 small leaflets at the base:
flowers small, violet-purple: berries oval, red. Perennial. Common,
aa. Plants prickly.

S. MeWngena, Linn. Egfjplant. Guinea squash. Fig. 201. Stout annual
with large, ovate, somewhat angled pubescent leaves: flower large, purplish,
the calyx prickly: fruit a very large purple or white berry (often weighing
several pounds). India.

3. LYCOPfiRSICUM. Tomato.

Differs from Solanum chiefly in having the anthers united at their
tips by a membrane and opening by lengthwise slits.

L. escul6ntum, Mill. Common tomato. Fig. 186.
Tall, hairy, strong-smelling herb, with pinnate leaves,
the leaflets ovate and unequal-sided and of different
sizes: flowers small, yellow, in short forked racemes:
fruit a large red or yellow berry. South America.

"^4. CAPSICUM. Red Pepper.

Erect, branchy, smooth herbs: stamens with slen-
der filaments which are much longer than the separate
488 Capsicum aunuum. anthers, the latter opening by lengthwise slits : fruit
globular, long or irregular, firm.
C. innuum, Linn. Common ted pepper. Fig. 488. Annual or biennial,
with ovate entire leaves: flowers white, with very short -toothed or trun-
caie calyx : fruit very various in the cultivated varieties. Trop. Amer.

5. PETtTNIA. Petunia.

Clammy-hairy diffuse herbs : calyx-lobes leaf-
like and much longer than the tube; corolla fun-
nel-form, showy, the stamens not projecting :
fruit 2-loculed, capsular. South America.

P. nyctaginillbra.Juss. White petunia. Fig.
489. Corolla white, very long-tubed : leaves
oval-oblong, narrowed into a petiole. Old
gardens. 489. Petunia njctaginiflora.

SOLANACE^ — CONVOLVULACE^

379

p. violJlcea, Lindl. Fig. 490. Weaker and more diffuse: corolla purple
or rose, the tube short and broad: leaves ovate or oval, nearly or quite
sessile. The garden petunias are mostly hybrids of the two species.

6. DAT&RA. Jamestown-weed or Jimson-weed.

Very strong bushy herbs, with large, long-tubu-
lar, short-lived flowers from the forks of the
branches: stigma 2-parted: fruit a globular usually
prickly capsxile, opening by 4 valves.

D. Stramdnium, Linn. Fig. 248. Annual, 3-5
ft., the stem green: leaves ovate, sinuate or angled:
corolla white. Tropics; com-
mon weed.

D. Tdtula, Linn. Stem
and corolla purple.

7. NICOTIANA.

Tobacco.

Tall herbs, with large

"^'--^'^-^^s^ usually pubescent leaves:

490. Petunia.

Very near the original

P. violaeea.

corolla funnelform or salverform, the tube usually
long: stigma not lobed: pod 2-4-valved, not very
large, contained within the persistent calyx.

N. Tabdcum, Linn. Tobacco. Robust annual, 4-6
ft., with very large ovate decurrent entire leaves and
rose-purple panicled flowers. Trop. Amer.

N. al^ta, Link & Otto (^V. affinis of gardens).
Fig. 491. Slender but tall (2-4 ft.) plant with clammy-pubescent herbage:
leaves lanceolate or obovate, entire: flowers white, with very slender tube
5-6 in. long, the limb unequal. Brazil; common in gardens.

491. Nieotiaua alata.

XXXVII. CONVOLVULACE^. Convolvulus Family.

Herbs, mostly twining, with alternate chiefly simple leaves:
flowers regular, 5-merous, the tubular or trumpet-shaped corolla
mostly twisted in the bud, the stamens 5 and borne on the corolla:
ovary commonly 1-, mostly 2-loculed, with 2 ovules in each locale,
becoming a globular capsule in fruit (which is sometimes 4-loculed by
the insertion of a false partition). The family contains between 30 and
40 genera, and nearly 1,000 species. Common convolvulaceous plants
are morning-glory, cypress vine, sweet potato, bindweed, dodder.

A. Plants with normal foliage.

B. Stigma 2-3-lobed, knobbed: calyx not bracted 1. Ipomaea

BB. Stigmas 2, thread-form: calyx sometimes enclosed by 2

leafy bracts 2. Coitroh'i<h<s

AA. Plants leafless, parasitic 3. Cuscuta

380

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

492. Ipomoea
Quamoclit.

1. IFOM^A. Morning-glory.

Mostly twining, with showy flowers on axillary peduncles :
corolla with a long tube and a flaring limb: pistil 1, with one
Btyle, and the stigma 2-3-lobed : fruit a capsule, with 1-seeded
locules.

a. Leaves compound, with thread-like divisions.

I. Qu&moclit, Linn. Cypress vine. Fig. 492. Leaves pin-
nace: flowers solitary, red, small, narrow-limbed, with pro-
jecting style and stamens. Tropical America, but run wild
South; also cultivated. Annual.

aa. Leaves simple or deeply lobed, broad.

I. Bdna-N6x, Linn. White moonflower.
Fig. 493. Tall: leaves heart-shaped, or
angled or lobed: flowers 1 to few, white, opening once at
night, with a slender tube and a large limb 4-6 in. across.
Trop. Amer. Perennial.

I. purpiirea. Roth. Morning glory. Fig. 217. Leaves
broadly cordate-ovate, entire: flowers 2-4, large and fun-
nel-shaped, 2-3 in. long, purple to streaked and white.
Trop. Amer. Annual.

I. heder^cea, Jacq. Leaves heart-shaped, 3-5-lobed:
flowers 1-3, rather smaller than those of /. purpurea
Annual.

I. Batatas, Poir. Sweet potato. Creeping: leaves heart-shaped to tri-
angular, ustially lobed: flowers (seldom seen) 3 or 4, light pur-
ple, funnel-form, 1}4 in. long. Tropics; grown for its large edible
root-tubers.

2. CONVOLVULUS. Bindweed.

Herbs (or shrubs) twining or erect: flowers large, on axillary
peduncles: sepals 5: corolla funnel form or bell-form, limb entire,
5-angled or .Globed: stamens inserted on corolla-tube, included:
style 1: stigmas 2, long: ovary and pod 2-celled, 4seeded.

C. B^pium, Linn. Rutland beauty, perennial:
twining or trailing stem: leaves heart-shaped or
arrow-shaped, auricles often toothed: flowers axil-
lary and solitary^on a peduncle: calyx with 2 large
bracts at base, enclosing it: corolla morning-glory-
like, white or pink, 3^-2 in. long, margin quite en-
tire. Wild in low grounds. Summer.

C. arv6nsi8, Linn. Bindweed. Perenniai, nearly
glabrous, prostrate or climbing : leaves entire,
arrow-shaped, with basal ears acute-lobed, but vari-
able: calyx not bracted at base: corolla pink, nearly white, small,
not over 1 in. long. Europe. Bad weed. May to September,

493. IpomcBa
Bona-Nox.

Trop. America.

CONVOLVULACE^ — BORRAGINACE^ 381

3. CCSCUTA. Dodder.

Parasitic twiners without foliage (leaves reduced to scales): flowers in
clusters, the cai.yx and corolla with 4-5 lobes: fruit 2-loculed, 4-seeded. (See
p. 89.)

C. Grondvii, Willd. (Fig. 494), is the commonest species, twining its
slender coral-yellow stems over coarse herbs in swales: corolla bell-shaped,
the tube longer than the blunt and spreading lobes.

XXXVIII. BORRAGINACE^. Borage Family.

Generally rough herbs, with round stems, leaves usually alternate
and hairy, exstipulate: inflorescence commonly one-sided, in coiled
terminal racemes, straightening as flowers open: sepal 1-lobe 5:
lobes of corolla 5, usually regular: stamens 5, on corolla-tube: ovary
deeply 4-bbed, with style in center: stigmas 1 or 2: fruit usually 4
separate 1-seeded nutlets at bottom of persistent calyx. About 1,500
species and 80 genera.

A. Ovary entire, style terminal : fruit dry nutlets

(2 or 4) 1. HeJiotropium

AA. Ovary deeply 4-parted, or 4-divided, the style rising
from the center.
B. Corolla and stamens regular.

c. Fruits (nutlets) bur-like, priclily or spiny.
D. Nutlets oblique, fixed by apex, or laterally,
to style, covered all over by hooked

prickles 2. Cynoglossum

DD. Nutlets erect, fixed by base or side to the
central column: prickles in one or more

rows on the surface 3. Ech inospernnim

cc. Fruits (nutlets) not armed with prickles.

D. Nutlets attached laterally to the receptacle:

flowers rather large 4. Mertensia

DD. Nutlets attached by bases to receptacle.

E. Flowers not bracted, in racemes 5. Myosotis

EE. Flowers bracted, in racemes G. Lithospermum

BB. Corolla irregular: stamens unequal 7. Ecliium

1. HELIOTROPIUM. Heliotrope.

Perennial or annual herbs (or shrubs) with white or purplish, small
flowers in 1-sided spikes: flowers alternate, usually entire: stamens short,
antliers nearly sessile: style short, with conical stigma: ovary 4-celled:
fruit, 4 nutlets or two 2-celied nutlets.

H. Peruvianum, Linn. Common garden heliotrope. Pubescent or rough,
often rather slirubby: leaves lance-ovate to oblong, short-petioled, veiny
and wrinkled: flowers very fragrant, white to lilac.

382 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2. CYNOGLCSSUM. Hound's Tongue. Stick-tight.

Tall, coarse, usually rough and unpleasantly scented hairy weeds, with
large entire alternate leaves: flowers small, inconspicuous, in racemes or
forked cymes, some bracted: corolla short, nearly wheel form, with Scon-
verging, blunt scales closing the throat: ovary deeply 4-parted, with style
from center: fruit of bur-like nutlets, covered with hooked prickles.

C. oKicin&le. Linn. A coarse, pubescent, troublesome dock-like weed
from Europe, dull green, smelling like mice, grows to 1 or 2 ft., leafy to
the top: leaves softlj' pubescent, lance-oblong, mostly sessile: corolla dull
reddish-purple, not K in. across: nutlets margined. Biennial.

C. Virginicum, Linn. Stem stout, 2 to 3 feet tall, bristly hairy, leafless
above: leaves oblong oval with clasping bases; flowers pale blue, bractless,
on short pedicels in terminal short spikes: nutlets not margined. Peren-
nial.

3. ECHINOSPfiKMUM. Stick-seed. Bur-seed.

Anniial or biennial weeds in dry soils, grayish with hairs: leaves alter-
nate, narrow, entire: flowers small, blue or white, in terminal, leufy-
bracted racemes: corolla with 5 scales in throat: nutlets erect, bearing 1 to
3 rows of stout prickles, and fixed by side to the central column.

E. Virginicum, Lehm. A troublesome biennial or annual weed of thick-
ets and open woods, 2 to 4 ft., slender and branching: leaves thin, oblong-
ovate, tapering at both ends: flowers small, whitish or bluish, on pedicels,
in racemes 1 to 3 in. long, reflexing in fruit: nutlets small, globose, covered
with barbed prickles.

4. MERTENSIA, Lungwort.

Perennial, usually glabrous herbs, with leaves, entire, pale green and
often dotted, the radical ones many-veined and the stem leaves sessile:
flowers in tei'minal racemes: calyx short, 5-eleft: corolla funnel form or
trumpet-shape, often with 5 small folds in throat, and stamens inserted
between: style long and slender: nutlets erect, smooth, finely wrinkled.

M. Virginica, DC. Leaves entire, obovate, sessile on stem: flowers large,
trumpet-shaped, 1 in. long, spreading or hanging on slender pedicels, light
blue or pinkish: corolla throat not crested, limb entire. Perennial. Rich
soil. May, June.

5. MYOSdTIS. Forget-me-not.

Low, usually villous herbs, with stems erect or reclining, branching:
leaves small, alternate, entire: flowers small in bractless racemes: corolla
salver-form, 5-lobed, lobes spreading, rounded with appendages at base:
nutlets smooth or hard, fixed by base. Several species.

M. paliistris. With. True forget-me-not. A favorite garden-plant intro-
duced from Europe, but also escaped to field and moist spots: racemes
1-sided: leaves lance-oblong, obtuse: calyx open in fruit, the lobes shorter
than the tube: corolla light-blue, with yellow center. Perennial, native.

BORRAGINACE^ — HYDROPHYLLACE^ 383

M. Idxa, Lehm. Flowers smaller, paler, on long pedicels: calyx-lobes
long: habit lax. Swamps.

M, arv6n8i8, Hoflf. Hairy: leaves lance-oblong, acute: calyx closing in
fruit and beset with minutely hooked bristles. Fields, native.

C. LITHOSPfiRMUM. Gromwell. Puccoon.

Hairy herbs with roots usually red: leaves alternate, entire: flowers in
1-^ fy-bracted racemes or spikes: calyx-segments 5, narrow: corolla funriel-
cr salver-form, 5-lobed, sometimes crested in throat: stamens 5, with short
filinients, included on corolla-throat: stigma 2-lobed: nutlets 4, smooth
or wrinkled, usually stony.

L. arv6nse, Linn. Rough weed from Europe, 8-12 in.: leaves small, lan-
ceolate to linear: flowers insignificant: corolla white, hardly as long as calyx,
without appendages in throat: nutlets roughly wrinkled, dull gray.

L. hirtum, Lehm. A rough, native perennial, with simple stem, 8 in. to
2 ft., on dry, sterile ground: leaves lanceolate or linear, hairy: flowers
densely crowded in short terminal leafy racemes: corolla bright orange-
yellow, showy, longer than calyx, with little appendages in throat, and
woolly. June.

L. can68cens, Lehm. Not so rough as preceding, but hoary (also native),
6-18 in. high : flowers smaller and corolla-throat appendaged, but not
bearded: yellow flowers axillary.

7. £CHinM. Viper's Bugloss.

Stout and coarse herbs: leaves alternate, entire: flowers rather large,
i»»ually blue or purplish, in spicate or panic'ed racemes: calyx-segments 5,
narrow: corolla irregular, with 5 unequal lobes, short-tubed, and throat not
bearded: stamens 5, unequal, and long-exserted: stigmas 2 or 2-lobed:
nutlets 4, erect, rough-wrinkled.

E. vulgare. Linn. Stems 1-3 ft. erect, leafy, very bristly hairy: leaves
lanceolate, sessile on stem, 4-8 in. long: flowers showy, purplish, changing
to bright blue in one-sided spikes. Biennial; early summer. Naturalized
from Europe.

XXXIX. HYDROPHYLLACE^. Waterleaf Family.

Mostly hirsute or scabrous herbs, with good -sized mostly alter-
nate, simple or compound leaves: flowers regular, 5-parted, in 1-sided
cymes, spikes or racemes: ovary superior, 1-celled, with 2 parietal
placentae, or apparently 2-celled: styles 2 or 2-cleft: capsule usually
loculicidally 2-valved. Nearly 200 species, but only 1 genus frequent
in northeastern states.
HYDROPH'S'LLUM. Waterleaf.

Perennial, usually found in rich, low woods: leaves large, petioled:
cymes more or less coiled: calyx often with small appendages at the notches

384 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

of the lobes: corolla bell-shape, 5-cleft, usually convoluted in bud and
bearing 5 folds or scales inside the tube: stjie and stamens (with hairy
filaments) projecting.

H. macrophyllum, Nutt. A hoary-hairy plant, about 1 ft. tall, branching:
leaves pinnately cut: flower-cluster on long stout peduncle: corolla white
or bluish, about 1 in. across: sepals not appendaged at base: stamens longer
than corolla.

H. appendicuUtum, Michx. Hairy, 1-1 J^ ft. tall: leaves large, mostly
5-lobed or angled, some of the lower ones pinnately parted: flower clusters
loose: corolla blue: sepals appendaged at bases, bristly hairy: stamens not
much if any longer than corolla.

H. Canad6nse, Linn. About 1 ft. high, smoothish: leaves all rounded,
with 5-9 shallow lobes, and heart-shaped bases, or with small leaflets on the
petioles: corolla white or purplish.

XL. POLEMONIACE^. Phlox Family.

Herbs, mostly annuals or perennials: flowers regular, in ternoinal
clusters, 5 -parted, with corolla monopetalous: stamens on corolla-
tube, alternate with lobes: ovary 3-eelled: style simple and 3-lobed:
capsule 3-celled, with 3, mostly loeulicidal, valves. About 200
species in several genera. Phlox is the leading genus.

A. Leaves entire, mostly opposite: stamens unequally in-
serted on tube of the corolla 1. Phlox

AA. Leaves pinnately compound, alternate: stamens equally

inserted on the corolla-tube 2. PoJeynonium

\. PHL6X. Fig. 218.

Erect or diffuse herbs, stems leafy: leaves without stipules, entire,
mostly sessile, opposite, or alternate above: flowers of different colors, in
terminal clusters : corolla salver-form, tube long ; stamens 5, unequal,
included in tube. P. Drummondii is annual; the others perennial.

P. paniculita, Linn. Stems 2-4 ft. high, usually stout and in clumps:
leaves ovate-lanceolate, or oblong: flowers on short pedicels in many-flow-
ered panicled cymes, terminal, white to various pinks and reds: calyx-teeth
sharp-pointed: lobes of corolla rounded and entire.

P. macul^ta, Linn. One to 2 ft. high: stem spotted with purple: lower
leaves the heavier, lanceolate-linear: upper taper-pointed with a heart-
shaped sessile base: panicle elongated, pyramidal, of many pink-purple
flowers: calyx-teeth less pointed than in preceding: corolla lobes entire.
All summer. This and the preceding species are the originals of the common
perennial phloxes of gardens.

P. divaric&ta, Linn. Ascending or diffuse to 1 ft., or more, terminating
in loose corymb, rather sticky-pubescent: leaves ovate-oblong or broad-Ian-

POLEMONIACE^ — GENTIANACE^ 385

ceolate, rounded at base, acute at tip, sessile, pubescent: corolla large, gray-
ish blue or lilac, the lobes notched: calyx-teeth slender and longer than
tube. Moist woods. Spring.

P. Bubul^ta, Linn. Ground or moss pink. Stems creeping, tufted, much
branclied and leafy, forming a moss-like carpet over the ground: leaves
about /^ in. long, rigid, linear to awl-shaped, spreading in clusters: flowers
3 to 6 in depressed clusters, white to pinkish-purple: lobes of corolla shorter
than tube. Spring.

P. Drummbndii, Hook. From Texas, now the common annual phlox in
gardens: stems branching, spreading, about 1 ft. high, rather <lowny-
clamray: flowers showy, in corymbs; various colors and patterns on the
corolla and lobes variously notched.

2. POLEMdNIUM.

Perennial herbs, with alternate pinnately compound leaves: calyx com-
panulate, segments erect over fruit: corolla bell-form or rotate: stamens
slender, declined, hairy at base, inserted on corolla base. The following
native perennials are often cultivated:

P. r^ptans, Linn. Greek valerian. Stems rather weak, diffusely branch-
ing (not creeping), 6 in. to l}4 ft.: leaves smooth, of 7 to 13 leaflets, occa-
sionally a simple one: leaflets lance-ovate or oblong, about 1 in. long, with
entire margins: flowers nodding, light blue: corolla three times as long as
calyx, not over >^ in. broad.

P. caeriileum. Linn. Jacob's ladder. Tall, erect to 1 to 3 ft., smooth or
hairy: leaflets 9 to 17, lanceolate, crowded: flowers bright blue, in erect
long panicles: stamens and style longer than corolla lobes: corolla 1 in,
broad.

XLI. GENTIANACE^. Gentian Family

Generally smooth herbs, with bitter, colorless juice (tonic proper-
ties): entire leaves mostly opposite, sessile and without stipules:
flowers regular, solitary or in clusters : calyx persistent ; corolla mono-
petlaous, with 4- to 8- lobed margin, and with 4 to 8 stamens, inserted
on tube: capsule 2-valved, many-seeded. Some 600 species, many
very showy.

GENTIANA. Gentian.

Herbs in low woods and damp grounds, flowering mostly in autumn :
flowers solitary or in clusters and showy, usually blue: corolla tubular,
lobes 4 to 7, open or closed, some having a membranous fold in each of the
notches of the limb: stamens 4 to 7: style short or wanting.

G. crinlta, Froel. Fringed gentian. Annual, in moist soil, blooming in
September and October: distinguished by the beautiful flowers, solitary and
terminal on erect stems (stems about 1 ft. tall), pure blue, 1]^ to

386 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2 in. long, funnel-foriu, with 4 spreading lobes, having the margins cut into
a fringe all around: leaves clear green, lanceolate, acute, sessile.

G. serr^ta. Gunner. Similar to the preceding, but smaller and corolla
less fringed: leaves linear.

G. Andr6w8ii, Griseb. Closed gentian. Perennial: stems simple, smooth,
to about 1% to 2 ft.: leaves ovate to lanceolate, with narrow base: flowers
in terminal, sessile clusters: corolla blue with notched folds or appendages
on the margin, never opening.

XLII. ASCLEPIADACE.5:. Milkweed Family.

Perennial herbs or shrubs, often vines, with milky juico: leaves
opposite or sometimes whorled, e.xstipulate: flowers generally in umbels,
regular and 5-parted, but very peculiar in the structure and connection
of stamens, stigma and pollen: hood-like appendages are borne
behind the anthers, forming a corona about the stigma: stamens 5
with very short filaments, and mostly monadelphous: the anthers press
against the fleshy 5-angled stigma, and the pollen coheres in waxy or
granular masses, one or two to each anther sac: fruit of one or two
follicles: seeds bearing long silk (Fig. 277). About two thousand
species and two hundred genera.
ASCLilPIAS. Milkweed. Silkweed.

Erect perennial herbs, with mostly opposite, thick simple leaves
and flowers in simple umbels: calyx and corolla each with 5 lobes, bent
downward, leaving the crown of 5 hood-like appendages, each bearing a horn,
conspicuously surrounding the stamens: filaments generally united, and
the anthers adherent to the fleshy stigma: anther 2-celIed and each cell con-
taining a firm, waxy, elongated mass of pollen: adjacent pairs of the pollen
masses are connected and suspended from one of 5 glands resembling a pair
of saddle-bags. The flower is peculiarly adapted to insect pollination, the
pollen masses being carried on the feet of insects.

A. tuberosa, Linn. Butterfly weed. Pleurisy root. About 2 ft., with most
conspicuous erect clusters of brilliant orange flowers: leaves irregularly scat-
tered on stems, or alternate, linear or lance-oblong, hairy, sessile: pods
nearly erect, finely pubescent. Dry fields and hillsides. Summer.

A. incarnata, Linn. Swamp milkweed. Fig. 245. A handsome milk-
weed of wet grounds: stems leafy, 2-5 ft.: leaves lanceolate or lance-oblong,
acuminate, rather smooth, opposite: flowers rose-colored to white, sweet-
scented, in somewhat paniculate umbels: follicles erect, smooth.

A. Cornuti, Decaisne. Common milkweed. Fig. 277. Stems 3-4 ft. high,
stout, very milky, usually simple, leafy: leaves large, oblong, downy beneath,
stiff', 4-8 in. long, opposite, short-petioled : flowers }4 in. long, greenish-
lavender to la ender, with strong, sweet, but unpleasant odor: pods rough
or warty.

ASCLEPIADACE^ — APOCYNACE^ 387

A. purpurdscens, Linn. Stems erect, 1-3 ft., leafy, simple or brandling:
leaves oblong or ovate-oblong to elliptical, pointed, short-petioled, ,'{-0 in.
long: flowers large {% in.) deep dull purple: pods smooth.

A. varieg^ta, Linn. Stems simple, smooth, leafy: leaves oval, to lance-
oval, opposite or whorled, petioled, pale beneath, umbels on downy pedun-
cles: corolla white, hoods roundish, sometimes purplish. Dry woods.

A. quadrifdlia, Linn. Stem 1-2 ft., nearly smooth, and leafy below:
one or two whorls of 4-ovate, taper pointed, petioled leaves near middle,
and above or below, a pair of smaller ones: umbels few, loose-flowered:
flowers small, crown white, corolla white, tinged with pink. Slender.

XLIII. APOCYNACE^. Dogbane Family.

Herbs and woody plants, some of the commoner ones resembling
Milkweeds, in having milky, acrid juice, and seeds crested with silky
hairs, but filaments distinct, pollen granular, and corolla twisted
(rather than volvate) in the bud: hairs: leaves chiefly opposite, entire,
simple, without stipules: flowers regular and monopetalous, solitary
or in cymes, 5-parted: ovary of 2 freo carpels: stigmas united. About
one thousand species and one hundred and twenty genera.

A. Herbs erect: flowers in terminal cymes or corymbs 1. Apocynum

AA. Half shrubby, trailing or erect plants: flowers solitary in

axils 2. Vinca

AAA. Cultivated house and garden shrubs: erect: leaves oppo-
site, or whorled in 3's '. Neriutn

1. APOCYNUM, Dogbane.

Upright branching herbs, with reddish, fibrous bark: flowers small,
white or pink, in terminal corymbs: leaves opposite, entire, acuminate:
corolla bell-shaped, 5-Iobed, with 5 small, triangular scale-appendages
within the tube, each alternating with one of the flve stamens attached at
base of tube: ovaries 2, distinct: stigma 2-lobed: pods long, slender and
full of seeds which are tufted with silky hairs at one end.

A. androssBiuifdlium, Linn. Smooth plants, 2 to 4 or 5 ft. tall, with
branches widely spreading, stems usually purplish : leaves 2 to 4 in. long,
ovate-acute, short-petioled: corolla small, % in. long, bell-form, with
lobes, spreading or recurving, the tube exceeding the calyx. A very common
weed along hedge-rows, in light woodlands and clearings.

A. cann^binum, Linn, Indian hemj). More erect: leaves oblong or
oblong-ovate: flowers erect, with the corolla lobes scarcely spreading, the
tube about the length of the calyx. Banks and shores.

2. VINCA. Periwinkle.

Herbs, creeping or erect, and more or less woody: leaves mostly ever-
green and opposite: flowers solitary, axillary, 5-parted: style 1: follicles 2,
erect, slender.

dao THE KINDS OF PLANTS

V. minor, Linn. Periwinkle. Myrtle (improperly.) A familiar trailing
plant of the garden, lawns and cemeteries, growing in shady places, and
spreading by creeping sterns: leaves evergreen, oblong-ovate, shiny: flowers
solitary in axils, blue (rarely white), the corolla salver-form, about 1 in.
across. Spring and early summer.

V. rdsea, Linn. Erect, often 20 to 30 in. high, rather woody at base:
leaves ovate, obtuse, on long petioles: flowers large, on slender axillary
pedicels, white, white with rose eye, or plain rose color: blooming all season
when grown in the house or conservatory, or all summer in the garden.
Trojdcs.

"A. NfiKIUM. Oleander.

Shrubs from warm climates, much cultivated in windows and green-
houses: leaves lanceolate, leathery and stiff: flowers in terminal cymes,
white or pink, single or double: corolla large, 1 to 2 in. salverform, the
throat bearing 5 fringed or toothed scales: ovary of 2 carpels: stamens 5,
the anthers tipped with awn-like bristles.

N. Olednder, Linn. Common oleander. Leaves lanceolate: flowers
large, rose-color or white, not fragrant, with crown segments not fringed.

N. oddrum, Soland. Sweet oleander. Flower fragrant, and bearing
crown segments which are more fringed, and long anther appendages.

XLIV. OLEACE^. Olive Family.

Trees or shrubs: leaves simple or pinnately compound, opposite:
flowers various, but regular: calyx free from ovary, usually small and
4-lobed, or none: corolla regular, 4-parted, or of 4 distinct petals, or
none: stamens 2, with separate filaments inserted on petals, or
hypogynous: ovary 2-celled: style one, if any.

A. Shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple: flowers perfect.

B. Flowers yellow 1 . Forsythia

^ BB. Flowers white or lilac.

c. Fruit a dry pod, loculicidal 2. Syringa

CO. Fruit berry-like.

D. Klowers practically polypetalous: petals long,

narrow: flowers drooping 3. Chionanthns

DD. H lowers gamopetalous: corolla tube funnel-
form. 4-lobed: flowers erect 4. Ligustrum

AA. Large forest trees: leaves pinnately compound: flowers

imperfect, mostly dioecious: fruit a samara 5. Fraxinus

1. FORSYTHIA.

Ornamental shrubs from the Orient, with opposite simple or trifoliolate
leaves: flowers perfect, the deciduous calyx and the bell-shaped corolla in 4
parts: stamens 2 on base of corolla: style short: pod 2-celled, many-seeded.

olleaceje 389

F. Tiridissima, Lindl. Strong hardy shrub, with green branches covered
with showy yellow flowers, separate on pedicels in early spring before
leaves appear: leaves simple, lance-oblong: corolla lobes narrow oblong' and
spreading: style twice as long as stamens.

F. susp6n8a, Vahl. Branches slender and drooping: corolla-lobes larger
and more spreading and style shorter than in preceding: leaves simple,
broadly-ovate, also frequently trifoliolate on same bush.

2. SYRlNGA. Lilac.

Common ornamental shrubs, usually tall, with leaves simple, entire,
opposite: many small fragrant flowers in close terminal panicles or thyrses:
calyx 4-toothed: corolla salver-form, tube long: limb 4-lobed: stamens 2, on
summit of corolla-tube: fruit a 4-seeded flattened pod, 2-valved: seeds flat-
tened, somewhat winged or margined. No native species. The name Syringa
is sometimes popularly applied to Philadelphus.

S. vulgS,ris, Linn. Common lilac. Well-known bushy shrub from
eastern Europe: flowers purple, lilac to white in dense upright thyrses, very
fragrant: leaves heart-shaped, entire, smooth.

S. P6rsica, Linn. Persian lilac. Less bushy, and more slender than
the common lilac: leaves lance-ovate, the bases tapering: and pale lilac
or white flowers in loose clusters, appearing later.

3. CHIONANTHUS. Fringe-tree.

Shrub or small tree with opposite, simple, entire, petioled leaves:
flowers in large loose axillary rather drooping panicles: calyx small, per-
sistent: corolla white, with 4 long, narrow petals, scarcely united at base:
stamens 2-4, but scarcely adherent to corolla bxse: drupe usually 1-seeded.

C. Virginica, Linn. Native to moist southern woods, but cultivated
for ornament: leaves oval to oblong, 3-5 in. long: panicles with some
leafy bracts: flowers conspicuous, in spring, appearing with leaves: petals
1 in. long.

4. LIGtSTRUM. Privet. Prim.

Stiff shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple, entire, firm and thickish,
short-petioled, opposite: flowers small, white, in terminal tliyrses or pan-
icles: calyx small, minutely tootlied or truncate: corolla funnel-form,
4-lobed, spreading: stamens 2, inserted on corolla-tube: ovary 2celled:
fruit a 1-4-seeded, black berry.

L. vulg&,re, Linn. Leaves thick, elliptic-lanceolate, abundant, persistent,
but deciduous: flowers i<i'-in. wide and white: calyx smooth: berries black.
Eastern Europe. Used mostly for hedges.

5. FRAXINUS. Ash. (Fig. 127.)

Deciduous trees, some of them valuable for timber: leaves odd-pinnate,
petiolate: flowers small, insignificant, dioecious (polygamous in some species),
racemed or panicled— the American species apetalous, appearing before or
with the leaves: calyx 4-toothed, small, seldom wanting: stigma 2-clett:
fruit a flat 1- (or 2-) celled key, winged. Several species.

990 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

F. Americana, Linn. White ash. Forest tree, 40-80 ft., with rough,
blackish bark, and gray, smooth branches: leaflets 5-9, ovate or lance-oblong
and acuminate, entire or sparingly serrate, pale or downy beneath, smooth
above, the lateral leaflets stalked: flowers mostly dia?cious, apetalous: calyx
present in fertile flowers, and persistent: fruit with lanceolate wing at apex,
base nearly cylindrical, the key l}^-2 in. long.

F. pub6scens, Lam. Ked ash. A smaller tree than the white ash: young
shoots and leaf petioles and lower leaf surfaces velvety -pubescent: calyx
persistent on fertile flowers: fruit narrow, flattened at base, the edges dilated
into the oblanceolate wing.

F. excelsior, Linn. European ash, often planted: leaflets 9-13, ovate-
lanceolate or oblong, acute, serrate: fruit oblong, often notched at end.

XLV. PRIMULACE^. Primrose Family.

Low herbs with leaves radical or opposite: flowers perfect, regu-
lar, 5 parted, monopetalous: stamens 5, inserted in corolla-tube, each
opposite a lobe: style and stigma 1: ovary 1-celled, superior, with
three central placentae. About 300 species in sonae 25 genera.

A. Plants with all leaves basal: flowers on a scape.

B. Corolla-lobes spreading 1. Primula

BB. Corolla-lobes reflexed.

C. Several fls. on the scape: stamens protruding 2. Dodecathi'on

cc. One flower on the scape: stamens included 3. Cyclamen

AA. Plants with leafy stems 4. Lysimachia

L PElMULA. Primrose. Cowslip (of England). Auricula.

Low perennial herbs, with radical leaves: flowers in an involucrate
umbel in most species, terminal on a scape: calyx 5-cleft: corolla salver-
sliaped, with 5 spreading lobes, entire or notched: stamens 5, with short
filaments included in corolla-tube, often of different lengths: capsules
ovoid, opening by valves or teeth at the top. Native species rare, but a
number of exotic primroses are much cultivated.

P. Sinensis, Sabine. Downy greenhouse plant: flowers in umbels, large .
and showy, of different colors, single or double: calyx large and inflated:
leaves cordate, 7-9-lobed, on long petioles. China.

P. obc6nica, Hance. Leaves ovate-cordate: scapes a foot high, bearijig
pink, purplish or whitish flowers in large clusters, the petals obconical and
notched at the end: tube twice longer than the shallow-spreading calyx.
The hairs on this plant are poisonous to some persons. Greenhouses. China.

P. Fdrbesi, Franch. Bahy primrose. Scapes many and very slender,
6-12 in., loosely hairy, bearing small lilac or rose flowers in successive
whorls on slender pedicels: leaves small and crowded at the crown, oblong,
somewhat sinuate-toothed. Greenhouses. China.

P. Poly^ntha, Hort. Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas, grown in borders foi

PRIMULACE^ — ERICACE^ 391

the early spring bloom, of hybrid origin : leaves upright, oblong, tapering into
a winged petiole, shallowly toothed, rugose beneath: flowers not much over-
topping the leaves, tubular with spreading limb, in shades of yellow and red.

2. DODECATHEON.

Smooth perennial herbs: leaves radical, simple, oblong or spatulate:
flowers nodding in a terminal umbel on erect, unbranching, leafless scapes,
with involucres of small bracts: calyx 5-cleft, lobes reflexed: corolla-tube
very short, 5-parted, and the segments strongly reflexed: stamens 5, with
shorts filaments, united at base, the anthers long, acute and uniting at tip,
forming a cone: style exserted.

D. Meadia, Linn. Shooting star. Wild in open woodland in Central States
and South and West, also cultivated: resembles Cyclamen in the flow-
ers, which are white or rose-purple, nodding on slender pedicels: scape 6 in.
to 2 ft. high.

3. CYCLAMEN.

Glabrous plants from fleshy corm : leaves all basal, rounded, cordate or
ovate: scapes bearing (each) one nodding flower: corolla-limb 5-parted,
lobes turning back: anthers 5, sessile, not exserted. Cultivated as house
plants, flowering in winter.

C. latifdlium, Sibth. & Sm. (C. Persicmn). Leaves ovate, crenate-den-
tate, thick, often marked with white: flowers large, white, rose or purple,
sometimes spotted, oblong. The florist's cyclamen.

4. LYSIMACHIA. Loosestrife.

Perennials with leaves opposite or whorled, entire, often glandular-
dotted: flowers yellow, solitary in axils, or panicled: calyx 5- to 7 parted :
corolla wheel-form: petals 5-7, nearly distinct: stamens 5-7, the filaments
somewhat connate at base. Wild in low grounds.

L. vulgaris, Linn. Erect 2-3 ft., downy: leaves 3 or 4 in a whorl:
flowers in terminal leafy .panicles; corolla-lobes glal)rous. Europe. Culti-
vated and escaped.

L. quadrifolia, Linn. Erect, 1-2 ft., hairy: leaves lanceolate-ovate, ses-
sile, dotted, commonly four in a whorl: flowers yellow, with dark lines, on
slender pedicels, solitary from axils of upper leaves. Damp soil.

L. nummul^ria, Linn. Moneywort. Trailing glabrous perennial: leaves
round, opposite, on short petioles: flowers pure yellow, axillary, solitary, on
short peduncles: stamen filaments glandular, connate at base. Running wild
in moist places, often a weed in lawns.

XLVI. ERICACE.5:. Heath Family

Plants of various kinds, many of them shrubs or shrubby herbs,
some trees, perennial herbs, and parasites: leaves simple and often
evergreen, or scale-like: flowers mostly perfect: corolla usually

392 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

monopetalous and 4- or 5-cleft: stamens hypogynous, as many or
twice as many as petals, anthers usually opening by terminal pores:
style 1 : ovary generally as many celled as corolla has lobes. A large
family, represented by Heaths, Cranberry, Azaleas, Arbutus, Laurel.

A. Shrubs, or creeping shrubby plants.
B. Ovary inferior: fruit a berry.

o. Berry lO-seeded 1. Gaylussacia

cc. Berry many-seeded 2. Vaccinium

BB. Ovary superior.

c. Low creeping or procumbent.

D. Fruit berry-lilse: leaves aromatic 3. GauUheria

DD. Fruit dry 4. Epigwa

cc. Shrubs, erect.

E. Corolla broadly open, with 10 little pouches

holding the anthers .5. Knlmia

EE. Corolla bell-shaped, no pockets: flowers

from terminal, scaly buds 6. Azalea

AA. Parasitic herbs, destitute of green fol'age, about the

roots of trees 7. Monotropa

1. GAYLUSSACIA. Low-bush Huckleberry.

Shrubs low and branching, leaves and branches sometimes witn resinous
dots: leaves alternate, entire or serrate: flowers in lateral racemes, small,
white or pink, nodding on bracted pedicels, in late spring: corolla bell-like
or ovoid, with 5 lobes erect or reflexing: stamens 10, usually included:
ovary 10-celled: fruit berry-like, containing 10 little stones, blue or black,
sweet and edible, ripe in late summer.

G. resindsa. Torr. & Gray. Highland huckleberrij. Shrub, 1 to 3 ft.,
with stiff branches and deciduous entire oval leaves, sprinkled with
resinous dots: flowers, in one-sided racemes: corolla white, tinged with
pink, cylindrical or somewhat 5-angled, and contracted at margin: berry
bhick, not glaucous.

G. fronddsa, Torr. & Gray. Tangle-berry. Shrub 1 to 3 ft., with stiff
spreading branches: leaves oblong to obovate, thin, smootli and pale below,
resinous-dotted: corolla white, tinged with pink, short: berry large, dark
blue, with a bloom.

2. VACClNIUM. Blueberry. Cranberry. Bilberry. High-bush Huckle-

berry.

Shrubs much resembling Gaylussacia, but the ovary only 4- to 5-celled,
although appearing to have twice as many cells by false partitions: fruit a
many-seeded berry, generally edible. Fruit ripe in summer and autumn.

V. Pennsylvinicum, Lam. Divarf earl;/ blueberry. Shrub, 6 to 20 in.,
with sinootli green warty branches: leaves deciduous, lance-oblong, smooth
and glossy, but edges serrated and tipped with little bristly spines: flowers

ERICACE^ 393

in clusters, with corolla cylindrical, wliito or pink-tinged, 5-toothed:
anthers 10, included: berry many seeded, blue-black with a bloom, edible.

V. corymbdsum, Linn. High-bush, or swamp, huckleberry. Blueberry.
Tiill busli, witli obloni^ or elliptical leaves: berries blue, sweei, usually with
a thick l)Iooiii.

V. macrocdrpon, Ait. Cranberry. Creeping, slender, scarcely woody:
leaves small, about }/i in. lonj;;, evergreen, oval or oblong and margins
rolled: flowers solitary, on slender erect pedicels, pale pinkish, deeper
colored within, with 4 narrow reflexed segments.

3. GAULTHfiRIA. Wintergreen. Checkerberry.

Stem procumbent, with leafy branches erect: leaves alternate, evergreen
and tasting spicj' and aromatic; flowers wliite or pink, nodding on axillary
pedicels: corolla oblong or short-cylindrical with 5 short lobes; anthers 10,
awned at top: fruit berry-like, with capsule inside the thickened calyx.

G. procumbens, Linn. Leaves oval or obovate, much sought for their
spicy Havor, as well as the edible red, mealj' berries, which last all winter.
In low and evergreen woods, 6 in. or less tall.

4. EPIG.ffiA. Trailing Arbutus. Mayflower.

Trailing close to the ground, with rusty-hairy stems, and alternate
evergreen rounded leathery leaves: flowers dimorphous, in clusters at
ends of branches, bracted, sessile: sepals 5, persistent but scale-like: corolla
salver-forra, with 5 lobes: stamens 10: ovary 5-lobed.

£. ripens, Linn. A favorite flower of very early spring, white to pink,
/4-in. broad, spicy-scented and wax-like, in small clusters from axils of the
rusty leaves. Mostly North.

5. KALMIA. American Laurel.

Shrubs, native (belonging to East and South), with entire evergreen
leaves: flowers in umbels: corolla open, saucer-like, 5-angIed with 10 little
pits in which the anthers of the 10 stamens are caught until mature, or
disturbed by insects, when the curved filaments spring upward, discharging
the pollen: style long and slender.

K. latifolia, Linn. Common mountain laurel. Stout shrub, 4-20 ft.:
often forming great patches on wild or rocky hillsides; also cultivated:
flowers about 1 in. across, rosy, or white and red-spotted, in terminal c( m-
pound corymbs: leaves mostly alternate, thick, acute, green on both sides,
lance-ovate: lilooms in early summer. East and North.

K. angustifblia, Linn. Sheep laurel. LambkiU. Low shrub with
flowers about >2-in. across, crimson or purplish, in lateral corymbs: leaves
narrow, obtuse, short petioled, opposite or in threes, pale beneath. Hillsides.

6. AZALEA.

Shrubs, with deciduous leaves: flowers showy, in terminal, umbel-like
clusters: calyx minute, 5-parted : corolla cylindrical-tubed: stamens usu-
ally 5: style long, slender, exserted. Rhododendron is closely allied,

394 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

having evergreen leaves, stamens usually 10, stamens and style usually not
exserted.

A, viscdsa, Linn. Swamp hnneysnckle. Stems 4-10 ft., branching:
leaves obovate, short-petioled, mostly smooth above and downy on under
veins: flowers in summer after the leaves, fragrant, white. 1-2 in. long,
with slender tubes rather sticky-coated, the tube longer tlian the lobes. A
swamp plant.

A. nudifldra, Linn. Plnrter floiver. Shrub .3-6 ft., in swamps: flowers
before or with leaves, rose-pink or white, fragrant, 1-2 in. across, the tube
about the length of the lobes.

Bhodbra Canadensis, Linn., or Bhodod6ndron ' Rhoddra, Don, of New
England, is a low shrub, 2-.'? ft., with fine large (1 in. wide) rose-colored
flowers appearing before leaves.
7. MONOTROPA. Indian Pipe. Pine-sap.

Low herbs, parasitic on roots or saprophytic, no green about them, but
stem bearing small scales: flowers solitary or in racemes: sepals 2, bract-
like : petals 4 or 5 erect or spreading, wedge-shaped: stamens 8-10, hypogynous,
anthers kidney-shaped: ovary 4-5-eelled, stigma radiate or disk-like.

M. unifldra, Linn. Indian pipe. Corpse plant. Odd fleshy waxy-
white little plants, turning black when drying: stem, 3-6 in. high, bent
over at the top with one nodding terminal flower.

M. Hypdpitys, Linn. Pine-sap. In oak and pine woods: stems scaly,
white or tawny red, 4-8 in. high, single or in groups: flowers several, small,
rather fragrant, in a scaly raceme.

XLVII. RUBIACE.E. Madder Family.

A large and important family of herbs, shrubs, trees (including
Cinchona or Peruvian Bark, and Coffee) : leaves opposite, or
in threes with stipules between, or apparently whorled without
stipules: flowers perfect, sometimes dimorphous (of two sorts) or
trimorphous: calyx-tube adherent to ovary, margin 3- to G-toothed:
corolla regular, inserted on calyx-tube, and of same number of lobes:
stamens of equal number as corolla- lobes and alternate with them:
ovary 1- to 10-celled: fruit a capsule, berry or drupe. A large family
(some 5,000 species), largely tropical.

A. Leaves 4-8 in a whorl: no apparent stipules: fruit 2

nutlets, bur-like, or sometimes berry-like 1. Galium

aa. Leaves opposite (or whorled), with stipules.

B. Flowers in pairs, axillary: fruit a double berry:

creeping 2. Mitchella

BB. Flowers solitary, or in terminal clusters: not creep-
ing 3. HnHston ia

BBB. Flowers in round heads 4. VephaUtnlhia,

RUBIACE^ 395

1. OALIUM. Cleavers. Bedstraw.

Frail herbs, with square stems, often priciily or roTig:h on angles and
edges of leaves, usually diffusely branching: leaves apparently whorled and
without stipules: flowers small or minute, sometimes dioecious, in cymes or
panicles, axillary or terminal: calyx minutely 4-Iobed: corolla 3- to 4-lobed:
stamens 3 to 4: ovary 2-ceiled: fruit small, double, dry or fleshy, berry-like,
indehiscent, or sometimes with only 1 carpel ripening. Many species.

G. aspr611um, Michx. Weak, reclining, or nearly erect branching
perennial, the angles of stems with backwark-pointing prickles: leaves
small, not 1 in. long, whorled in 4's or 5's on branches, usually 6 on stem:
edges and mid-ribs rough with prick es: flowers tiny, white, numerous,
loosely clustered at end of branches: fruit small, smooth.

G. circa^zans, Michx. Wild liquorice. Perennial, branching, ascending
stems with leaves in 4's, not prickly: leaves oval to oblong, obtuse, more
or less pubescent, an inch or more long: flower.s dull greenish or brownish,
on very short pedicels in branched cymes: fruit on reflexed pedicels,
bristly: root and leaves with sweetish taste. Dry woods. Common.

G. Aparine, Linn. Cleavers. Goose orass. Annual, stems weak, pros-
trate, scrambling, and diffuse, with backward-pointing barbs on angles:
small lanceolate leaves, 6 to 8 in a whorl, about 1 in. long, rough on edges
and midrib: peduncles axillary, 1- to 3-flowered: flowers tiny, white or
greenish: fruit a dry little bur, covered with hooked prickles, on erect
pedicels. Low ground or thickety woodland.

2. MITCHflLLA. Partridge-berry. Squaw-vine.

Trailing, evergreen-leaved herb: leaves opposite, round-ovate, dark-green,
smooth and glossy, entire, on short petioles: flowers small, dimorphous, in
pairs, on a double ovary (2 ovaries united) from leaf axils: corolla funnel-
form, 4-parted, bearded within, white with pink tips to lobes: stamens and
stigmas 4: fruit a double scarlet berry, each berry with 4 seeds or stones.

M. rdpens, Linn. A pretty little creeper of woods in the North: flowers
fragrant and delicate, in June, the double scarlet berries found all winter.

3. HOUSTONIA. Bluets.

Low, delicate little herbs, with stems erect, simple or branching; leaves
opposite, entire, stipules entire and short, or a mere line connecting bases
of the opposite leaves; flowers generally dimorphous in respect to anthers
and stigmas, small, solitary or clustered: calyx 4-toothed: corolla tubular,
rotate, 4-lobed: stamens 4 on corolla: fruit a short pod, 2-eelled, many-
seeded, opening at the top, upper part free from calyx.

H. coeriilea, Linn. Perennial, 3-6 in., the stems erect, very slender, in
tufts, from slender rootstocks: leaves sessile, oblong or spatulate, M-3^ in.
long, often hairy: flowers blue to white, with yellow centers, solitary on
peduncle. Early spring to summer, very floriferous.

4. CEPHALANTHUS. Button-bush.

Shriihs (or small trees): leaves entire, opposite or verticillate: flowers
small and many, white or yellow, m close round heads, on peduncles: calyx

396 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4-toothed: corolla tubular, with 4 short lobes: stamens 4 on corolla throat:
style long and exserted: fruit, small, dry, inversely pyramidal.

C. OCcidentEllis, Linn. Tall shrub with leaves in 2's or 3's, oval-pointed,
petioled. with stipules between: heads of whitish flowers about 1 inch in
diameter. Usually along streams and pond banks.

XLVIII. CAPRIFOLIACE^. Honeysuckle Family.

Erect or twining shrubs, or sometimes herbs, with opposite mostly
simple leaves: flowers epigynous, 5-merous, regular or irregular,
tubular or rotate: stamens usually as many as the lobes of the corolla
and inserted on its tube: ovary 2-5-loculed, ripening into a berry,
drupe, or capsule. About 15 genera and 200 species. Characteristic
plants are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, snowberry, weigela,
twin -flower,

A, Corolla long-tubular.

B. Fruit a berry (often two together) several-seeded: leaf

margins entire or wavy edged: sometimes connate. .1. Lonicera
BB. Fruit a linear-oblong capsule, 2-valved, many-seeded:

leaf margin serrate 2. Diervilla

AA. Corolla shallow, usually rotate.

B. Leaves simple 3. Viburnum

BB. Leaves pinnately compound 4. Sambucus

1. LONlCERA. Honeysuckle.

Erect or twining shrubs, with tubular, funnelform, more or less irregular
flowers (often 2-lipped) : corolla bulging on one side near the base: stamens
5: fruit a berry, usually 2 ^

together from 2 contiguous (7^^--

flowers. ^-^-^^ ^^^\%

^. Ere.i. C'"'^->P^ fX^T

L. ciliata, Muhl. Open, dfl^'^?^ "

smooth bush, 3-5 ft. : leaves '-' ^~

cordate - oblong, not sharp-
pointed, entire: flowers less
than 1 in. long, soft yellow
the lobes nearly equal : ber-

ries red. Common in woods. "95. Loniceia Japonica.

Blooms in very early spring.

L. TatArica, Linn. Tartarian honeysuckle. Fig. 85. Tall shrub (to
12 ft.): leaves cordate-oval, not long-pointed, entire: flowers pink or red
(sometimes nearly white), 2-lipped, all the lobes oblong. Asia, but com-
mon in yards. Spring.

CAPKIFOLIACE^ 397

aa. Twining.

L. Japbnica, Thunb. (L. Halliana of gardens). Fig. 495. Weak twiner,
with oblong or ovate entire nearly evergreen leaves: flowers small, on short
pedicels, fragrant, opening white or blush but changing to yellow. Japan;
much cultivated.

L. Pericl^menum, Linn. Probably the commonest of the old-fashioned
climbing honeysuckles (from Old World) : strong and woody: leaves oblong-
ovate, not joined by their bases, entire, dark green above and pale beneath:
flowers large, reddish outside and yellow inside, very fragrant, in a dense,
long-stalked cluster.

L. semp6rvirens, Ait. Trumpet or coral honeysuckle. Fig. 134. Gla-
brous twining shrub, with leaves evergreen, oblong, entire, glaucous, upper
pairs joined at base about the stem, appearing perfoliate: flowers nearly
sessile, in rather distant whorled clusters on terminal spikes, the corolla
trumpet-shape, tube almost regularly 5-lobed, lK-2 in. long, scarlet without,
yellowish within: stamens and style not much, if any projecting. Moist or
low ground, often cultivated.

2. DIERVlLLA. Pu.^h Honeysuckle.

Erect, low shrubs or bushes: leaves simple, opposite, ovate or oblong,
acute-pointed, serrate, deciduous: flowers in axillary or terminal cymes, or
solitary: calyx-tube slender, limb of 5 slender, persistent lobes: corolla
funnel-form, 5 lobes almost regular: stamens 5: ovary inferior, 2-celled,
1 filiform style: fruit slender 2-cened many-seeded pod, crowned with
calyx.

D. trifida, Moench. Bushy shrub, 1-4 ft.: leaves oval to ovate, taper-
pointed, on short petioles: peduncles terminal or in upper axils, mostly :i-
flowered: corolla slender, tubular, greenish-yellow {honey color), not over
% in. long. Banks. Summer.

D. h^brida, Hort. Weigela. Shrub, 2-8 ft.: leaves oval, acute coarsely
serrate, rather rough above and soft below, short-petioled: flowers funnel-
form, 1-1^ in. long: tube downy without: 5-lobed: the limb spreading. A
group of common garden shrubs, derived from two or more Japanese
species, with white, pink or red showy flowers.

3. VIBURNUM. Akrowwood.

Erect shrubs, with simple leaves and small whitish flowers in broad
cymes: stamens 5: stigmas 1-3: fruit a small 1-seeded drupe

a. Flowers all alike in the cyme.

V. Lentigo, Linn. Black haw. Sheepberrij. Fig. 279. Tall shrub
(to 20 ft.): leaves ovate-pointed, finely and sharply serrate, shining above,
on long margined petioles: fruit >^ in. or more long, black. Common.

V. acerfdlium, Linn. Dockmackie. Arrowwood. Six ft. or less: leaves
3 lobed and maple-like, downy beneath: cyme small and slender-stalked :
fruit flat and small. Woods.

398 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

aa. Flowers lanjer on (he margin of the cyme.

v. Opulus, Linn. Uigh-bush cranberry. Erect, 10 ft. or less: leaves 3-
lobed and toothed: outer flowers sterile and large: fruit an acid red edible
drupe. Swamps. In cultivation all the flowers have become sterile, result-
ing in the "snowball." Compare Figs. 23G, 237.

V. tomentdsum, Thunb. ( V. plicafum of gardens). Japanese snoxvbaU.
Leaves not lobed, shallow-toothed, thickish, plicate: heads of sterile flowers
axillary, globular. Japan.

V. lantanoides, Michx. Uohbhbush. About 5 ft., with straggling
branches, often arching to ground and rooting, thus making loops or
"liobbles": flowers resemble those of wild hj-drangea, in flat topped-eymes,
with marginal flowers larger, sterile and showy, white: leaves very large,
rounder heart-shaped, finely serrate, petioles and veinlets scurfy: drupes
coral-red, becoming purple, not edible. Cold woods and swamps.

4. SAMBtJCUS. Elder.

Strong shrubs, with pinnate leaves and sharp-serrate leaflets: flowers in
dense corymbose cymes: calyx- teeth very small or none: corolla shallow,
open: stamens 5: stigmas 3: pith prominent in the stems. Common.

S. racemdsa, Linn. Jfed elder. Pith and berries red- flowers in spring
in pyramidal clusters: leaflets lanceolate, downy beneatn.

S. Canad^nsiB, Linn. Common elder. White elder. Pith white: berries
black-purple, in late summer, edible: flower-clusters convex or nearly flat,
in summer: leaflets oblong, smooth.

XLIX. CAMPANULACE^. Bell-flower Family.

Herbs (with us): leaves alternate, simple, without stipules: flow-
ers regular and perfect, mostly bell-shaped corollas, 5-lobed or 5-
angled: calyx 5-lobed: stamens 5, distinct: ovary 2-5-celled: style 1:
stigmas 2 to 5: fruit a capsule. Some 1,200 or more species.

A. Corolla (of the conspicuous flowers) wheel-shape: early

flowers not opening (cleistogamous) 1. Specularia

AA. Corolla bell-form: flowers all alike 2. Campanula

\. SPECULARIA.

Animal herbs, with erect, angled stems, simple or branching: leaves
entire or toothed: flowers sessile or nearly so, axillary, solitary or clustered,
the early ones cleistogamous and small, the later expanding, light blue,
51obed, wheel-shaped corolla: stamens with flattened hairy filaments,
shorter than the anthers.

S. perfoli&ta, DC. Stems erect, simple or branched, 10 in. to 3 ft, tall,
leafy, the leaves rounded heart-shaped or broadly ovate, with clasping bases:
flowers solitary, 2 or 3 together in leaf axils. More or less weedy.

CAMPANULACE^ — LOBELIACE^ 399

S. Speculum, DC. Venus^ looking-glass. Low garden annual, with stem
branching diffusely: flowers purplish lilac to rose-colored or white, solitary
and terminal: leaves oblong, crenate.

2. CAMPANULA. Bell-flower. Harebell.

Flowers solitary or racemed or spiked, blue or white, not cleistogamous:
calyx 5-lobed: corolla bell-shaped: pod roundish, opening at sides (Fig. 25G;.

C. aparinoides, Pursh. A weak, reclining, perennial, Galium-like, found
among grasses in moist meadows: stem very slender, triangular, angles
bearing rough backward-pointing prickles: leaves snuill, lance-linear, entire:
flowers very small, about }4-m. long, white, on spreading pedicels.

C. rotundifdiia, Linn. Common harebell. Perennial from slender rooi
stocks, nearly or quite glabrous, 5-12 in. high: root-leaves rounded or
cordate, often withering before blooming season, the stem-leaves linear to
narrow lanceolate, entire: flowers few or solitary on slender pedicels, nod-
ding when open: corolla bell-shaped, with pointed lobes, J^-%-in. long, blue.
Rocky places, northward.

C. Medium. Linn. Canterhurg hell. Cultivated from Europe, annual
or biennial, erect to 3 ft., rather hairy, branching or simple: leaves lan-
ceolate, rather coarsely-toothed: flowers 2-3 in. long, single or double, blue:
ttigmas 5: sepals leafy-appendaged at base.

L. LOBELIACE^. Lobelia Family.

Herbs: leaves alternate or radical, simple: flowers scattered,
racemed or panieled, often leafy-bracted: calyx-tube adherent to
ovary: corolla irregular, monopetalous, 5-lobed, usually split on one
side: stamens 5, usually united, at least by anthers, about the one
style: stigma 2-lobed: fruit a capsule, loculicidally 2-valved.

LOBELIA.

Flowers often showy, axillary and solitary, or in terminal bracted
racemes: corolla as if 2-lipped: stamens generally unequal, monadelphous, 2
or all of the 5 anthers bearded at the top. Many species.

L. cardinalis, Linn. Cardinal flower. Indian pink. A showy plant
of swamp}- or moist soil, also cultivated: tall, simple stem, 2-4 ft., with
showy, deep-red flowers (rarely pale colored), about 1 in. long, bracted, in
terminal racemes: leaves sessile, lance-oblong, slightly toothed.

L. Erinus, Linn. The common, pretty, annual trailing or spreading
Lol)elia of gardens and greenhouses: flowers many, small, very blue,
usually with white throats (varying to whitish): lower leaves spatulate:
upper narrow, toothed.

L. syphilitica, Linn. Stem erect to 1-3 ft., angular, heavy: loaves
oblong-ovate, irregularly serrate: flowers in terminal, leafy raceme: flowers
intense blue (or white), 1 in. or more long: calyx hairy or hispid, lobes

400 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

auricled at base, dentate. Perennial, in low or marshy grounds or along
streams. Late summer.

L. spicita, Lam. Erect smoothish stems, 1-3 ft., sparingly leafy, the
terminal raceme with linear, small bracts: leaves oblong, upper small and
narrow: flowers small, pale blue: calyx-lobes not auricled at base, entire.
Dry, sandy soil.

L. inflata, Linn. Indian tobacco. Erect, 9-12 in., rather hairy, branching:
leaves ovate, toothed: flowers small, /^-in. long, pale blue, in loose, racemes,
leaf y-braeted : capsules inflated, large. Common in fields: juice purgent-
poisonous.

LL COMPOSITE. Composite or Sunflower Family.

Mostly herbs, many of them very large, very various in foliage:
flowers small, densely packed into an involucrate head, 5-merous:
the corolla of the outer ones often developed into long rays: stamens
5, the anthers united around the 2 styles: fruit dry and 1-seeded,
indehiscent, usually crowned with a pappus which represents a calyx.
The largest of all phenogamous families, comprising about one-tenth
of all flowering plants, — about 800 genera and 11,000 to 12,000
specie^. Common composites are sunflower, aster, goldenrod, bone-
set, dahlia, chrysanthemum, marigold, compass plant,
dandelion, lettuce.

A. Head with all flowers strap-shaped (with rays) and
perfect: juice milky: leaves alternate.
B. Flower heads terminal on leafless, hollow stalk

from radical leaves 1. Tarazacnm

BB. Flower-heads terminal on leafy stalks: leaves

parallel-veined 2. Tragopogoti

BBB. Flower-heads in corymbs or clusters.

c. Heads never yellow (usually blue or white):

pappus of blunt scales* 3. Cichorium

cc. Heads usually yellow (in one case blue),
u. Akeues beaked: pappus copious, white,
soft, hair-like : leaves sometimes bristly

or prickly edged 4. Lactuca

DD. Akenes not beaked.

E. Pappus soft, white: leaves usually aur-
icled and clasping at base, and

prickly on edges and under ribs 5. Sonchus

EE. Pappus stiff, brownish, leaves not spiny. 6. Hieracium
AA. Heads with tubular and mostly perfect disk flowers,
the rays, if any, formed of the outer strap-shaped
and imperfect flowers: in cultivated species, all
the flowers may become strap-shaped (head
"double "): juice not milky.

COMPOSITE 401

B. Fruit a completely closed and bur-like involucre,
containing 1 or 2 small akenes: flowers im-
perfect (see also No. 23).

c. Involucre-bur large, and sharp-spiny 7. Xantliium

cc. Involucre-bur small, not sharp-spiny 8. Ambrosia

IB. Fruit not formed of a closed and hardened in-
volucre (although the involucre may be spiny,
as in Arctium and Cnicus).
c. Pappm none: akenes not awned.
D. The leaves opposite.

E. Leaves simple: ttovver-heads small: flow-
ers blue or white 9. Ageratum

EE. Leaves compound: flower-heads large,

various colors, mostly of ray florets. 10. Dahlia

EEE. Leaves dissected: heads showy 11. Cosmos

EEEE. Leaves various: rays usually about 8,
neutral and yellow. (See Coreop-
sis 21).
DD. The leaves alternate.

E. Foliage finely divided.

F. Heads small (about K in.): akenes

flattened 12. Achillea

PF. Heads good - sized (about 1 in.):

akenes oblong, angled or ribbed. 13. Anthem is
BE. Foliage leaves entire, toothed, or broad-
lobed.
F. Akenes curved or horse-shoe-shaped. 14. Calendula
FF. Akenes straight.

G. Torus flat or slightly convex 15. Chrysanthemun)

GG. Torus conical.

H. Rays yellow: flowers large:

2-3 in ]G. Rudbeckia

HH. Rays not yellow: flowers abo.t

lin. acriss: plant low 17. Bellis

CO. Pappus of 2 thin early deciduous scales 18. Helianthus

ccc. Pappus a short crown, or akenes awned at the
top with 2 (or more) awns,
n. Akenes angled or ribbed, crowned with cup-
like or loKed pappus: foliage strongly

" tansy " scented 19. Tanacefum

DD. Akenes more or less flattened, and awned
at summit, with usually 2 or 4 awns.
E. Awns barbed downward : akenes various,
narrowed at top, and awned, but

not really beaked 20. Bidens

EE. Teeth not downwardly barbed: (some-
times akenes awnless) 21. Coreopsis

Z

402 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

cccc. Pappus of luauy bristles.

D. Plant very prickly 22. Cnicus

DD. Plant not prickly.

E. Involucre prickly and bur-like 23. Arcthim

EE. Involucre not bur-like or prickly.

F. Torus bristly (chaff or bracts amongst

the florets) 24, Centaurea

FF. Torus naked.

G. Rays present.
H. Flowers yellow.

I. Leaves all radical : rays

numerous and fertile ..25. Tiissilago
II. Leaves on stems, alternate.
J. Heads small, in large

clusters or panicles. 26. Solidago
jj. Heads large and broad:
leaves large on stem
and in a basal clump. 27. Inula
HH. Flowers not yellow.

I. Scales of the involucre un-
equal 28. Aster

II. Scales equal in length 29. £rigeron

III. Scales in several rows, more

or less leafy 30. CaUistephtts

GG. Rays none.

H. Plants cottony-white, or downy-
looking.
I. Heads mostly dicecious.
J. Leaves basal and also on
stem: pappus thick-
ened at sun)mit and
more or less barbed

or plumed ..31. Antennaria

JJ. Stems leafy: pappus not
thickened at summit :
some sterile flowers,
usually in center of

the fertile heads 32. Anaphalis

n. Heads not dioecious: outer
flowers pistillate, central

perfect 33. Onaphalium

HH. Plants not cottony-white.

I. Flower -heads showy, spi-
cate or racemed, rose-
purple: leaves alter-
nate 34. Liatris

COMPOSIT.E 403

II. Flower - heads small, in
cymes or corymbs,
J. Flowers white or pale
purple: leaves

mostly opposite 35. Hupatorium

33. Flowers purple : leaves

alternate 36. Vernonia

1. TABAXACUM. Dandelion.

Stemless herbs, the 1-headed scape short, leafless and hollow: florets
all perfect and strap-shaped: fruit ribbed, the pappus raised on a long beak.

T. officinale, Weber {T. Dens-leonis, Desf.). Common dandelion. Figs.
8, 275. Perennial, introduced from the Old World: leaves long, pinnate or
lyrate: heads yellow, opening in sun.

2. TKAGOPdGON. Goat's Beard.

Biennials or perennials, stout, smooth, often glaucous, with long, grass-
like leaves clasping the stem: flowers all ligulate, in large solitary heads,
purple or yellow, terminal on long peduncle, with single involucre of many
bracts, which are equal and lanceolate, joined at bases: pappus in one
series, long and plumose: akenes linear, mostly with long slender beaks,
5- to 10-ribbed or angled: flowers open in early morning, usually closed at
midday. .Juice milky.

T. porrifdliuB, Linn. Salsify. Oyster plant. Biennial; involucral bracts
much longer than the rays: stems 2 to 3 ft. high, hollow and thickened up-
ward: flowers purple. Europe. Cultivated for the edible tap-root. Some-
times wild.

T. prat^nsis, Linn. Similar to preceding, but flowers yellow and
involucral bracts not longer than rays. Europe. Fields and waste places,
Eastern and Middle States.

3. CICHORIUM. Chicory.

Tall, branching perennials, with deep, hard roots: florets perfect and
strap-shaped: fruit lightly grooved, with sessile pappus of many small,
chaffy scales.

C. tntybus, Linn. Common chicory. Runs wild along roadsides (from
Europe): 2 to 3 ft.: leaves oblong or lanceolate, the lowest pinnatifld:
flowers bright blue or pink, 2 to 3 together in the axils on long nearly naked
branches.

4. LACTtCA. Lettuce.

Coarse weedy plants: stems tall and leafy, simple or branching, car-
rying small panicled heads of insignificant flowers: juice milky: stem leaves
alternate, entire, or pinnately divided with lobes and margins and under
midrib often spine-tipped: involucre cylindrical, with bracts in 2 or more
unequal rows; flowers all lig\ilate and perfect, with the ligules truncate and
5-toothed : akenes oval to linear, flattened, 3- to 5-ribbed on each face, smooth,

404 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

abruptly narrowed into a beak: pappus abundant, white or brownish and
soft.

L. Canadensis, Linn. Common in rich soil, 3 to 9 ft. tall: leaves smooth,
lanceolate to spatulate, sessile or clasping, margins entire, sinuate, or
runcinately pinnatified, the radical leaves petiolate— all smooth and glaucous;
flowers pale yellow, in small heads (/4 to K in- long), the heads more or
less diffusely panicled. Biennial or annual.

L. acuminata, Gray. Three to 8 ft. : leaves ovate to lanceolate, pointed
and serrate, teeth mucronate, sometimes hairy on under midrib, the petioles
winged, more or less sinuate or clasping and arrow-shaped: inflorescence a
panicle of numerous small heads: rays bluish: akenes short-beaked or
beakless: pappus brownish. Biennial or annual.

L. Scariola, Linn. Prickly lettuce. Glabrous and rather glaucous-green,
with tall, stiff, erect stem, branching, usually somewhat prickly: leaves
oblong or spatulate, dentate or pinnatified, sessile, or auricled and clasping,
with margins and under midrib spiny: heads small, 6 to 12-flowered, but
numerous, the rays yellow: involucre narrow, cylindric: akenes flat, ovate-
oblong, with long filiform beak. Europe. A common coarse biennial weed.

L, sativa, Linn. Garden lettuce. Cultivated for the tender root-leaves
as a salad: flowers yellow on tall small-leaved stems.

5. S6NCHUS. Sow Thistle. Milk Thistle.

Coarse, succulent weeds, smooth and glaucous or spiny, with leafy stem,
resembling wild lettuce, but akenes truncate, not beaked, and the flowers
always yellow: involucre bell-shape in several unequal series: rays truncate,
5-toothed. All from Europe.

S. oleraceus, Linn. Annual, from fibrous roots, 1-5 ft., with pale yellow
flowers in heads %-l inch in diameter: leaves various, mostly on lower part
of stem, petiolate or clasping by an auricled base, the lobes acute: in shape
lanceolate to lyrate-pinnatified, margins spinulous.

S. arv6nsi8, Linn. Perennial with creeping rootstoeks: flowers bright
yellow in showy heads: leaves various, but spiny on nuirgins, and generally
with clasping, auricled bases: bracts of the involucre bristly.

8. dsper, Vill. Spiny -leaved sow thistle. Annual weed: resembles S'.
oleraceus closely, but the clasping auricles are rounded at base, stem leaves
not so divided and more spiny.

C. HIERACIUM. Hawkweed.

Hairy, or glandular-hispid, or glabrous perennials, with radical or alter-
nate entire leaves: head of 12-20 yellow or orange ligulate flowers, solitary
or panicled: involucre in one or several series, unequal: rays truncate and
5-toothed: akenes oblong, striate, not beaked: pappus single or double, deli-
cate, tawny, or brownish, stiff, not plumose. Large number of species widely
spread.

H vendsum, Linn. Rattlesnake-weed. Smooth, slender, leafless or with
1 or few leaves, 1-2 ft., forking into a loose, spreading corymb of heads:
leaves thin, glaucous, radical and tufted, or near base on stem, oblong or

COMPOSITE

405

oval, nearly entire, slightly petioled or sessile, sometimes purplish or
marked with purple veins: akenes linear, not nar-
rowing upward. Dry woods.

H. aurantiacum, Linn. Oroiige hawktveed. A
very bad weed in meadows east, from Europe:
hirsute and glandular: leaves narrow: heads deep
orange: akenes oblong, blunt.

7. XANTHIUM. Clotbur.

Coarse homely annual weeds with large alter-
nate leaves, flowers monoecious : in small involucres :

sterile involucres composed of separate scales, in ,„„ ^ ,, . ,, ,

, 496. Xanthium Canadense.

short racemes: fertile involucres of united scales

forming a closed body, clustered in the leaf axils, becoming spiny burs.

X. Canad6nse, Mill. Common clotbur. Fig. 496. One to 2 ft., branch-
ing: leaves broad-ovate, petioled, lobed and toothed: burs oblong-conical,
1 in. long, with 2 beaks. Waste places.

X. spindsum, Linn. Spiny clotbur. Pubescent, with
three spines at the base of each leaf: bur 3^ in, long,
with 1 beak. Tropical America.

8. AMBROSIA. Ragweed.

Homely strong-smelling weeds, monoecious: sterile
involucres in racemes on the ends of the branches, the
scales united into a cup: fertile involucres clustered in
the axils of leaves or bracts, containing 1 pistil, with
4-8 horns or projections near the top. Following are
annuals:

A. artemisiaefdlia, Linn. Common ragweed. Fig.
497. One to 3 ft., very branchy: leaves opposite or al-
ternate, thin, once- or twice-pinnatifid : fruit or but
globular, with 6 spines. Roadsides and waste places.

A. trifida, Linn. Great ragweed. Three to 12 ft.,
with opposite 3-lobed serrate leaves: fruit or bur ob-
ovate, with 5 or 6 tubercles. Swales.

9. AGERATTTM. Ageratum.

Small diffuse mostly hairy herbs, with opposite simple leaves: heads
small, blue, white or rose, rayless, the involucre cup-shaped and composed
of narrow bracts : torus flattish : pappus of a few rough bristles.

A. conyzoides, Linn. {A Mexicanum of gardens). Annual pubescent
herb, with ovate-deltoid serrate leaves: cultivated (from tropical America)
for small and numerous clustered soft heads.

10. DAHLIA.

Stout familiar garden herbs, tall and branching, from tuberous roots:
leaves opposite, pinnately divided: ray flowers in natural state are neutral
or pistillate and fertile: disk flowers perfect: involucre double, outer scales

497. Ambrosia artem
isisefolia.

406 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

distinct and leaf -like, the inner united at base: receptacle chaflfy: pappus
none. In the big cultivated dahlias, most of the flowers are rays.

D. variflbilis, Desf. Fig. 232. Several feet, with fine large heads of
flowers, colors various: heads solitary: leaves pinnate, leaflets unequal,
3-7, ovate acuminate, coarsely serrate. Mexico.

11. C6SM0S.

Handsome tall plants, 4-5 ft. high, cultivated for the fine foliage and late
flowers: leaves opposite, very finely dissected, thrice-compound, the leaflets
extremely narrow, and sessile: flower head with double involucre: the outer
bracts dark green, calyx-like, 8 in number, the inner scales erect, with
recurved tips: ray flowers, usually 8, neutral, white, pink: disk flowers per-
fect, tubular, yellow: receptacle chafi'y: akenes flattened, beaked. Mexico.

C. bipinn^tus, Cav. Rays 1 2 in. long, crimson, rose or white, the disk
yellow. The commonest species.

C. sulphureus, Cav. Both rays and disk yellow.

12. ACHILLEA. Yarrow.

Low perennial or annual herbs: heads corymbose, many-flowered, white
or rose, with fertile rays : scales of involucre overlapping ( imbricated) : torus
flattish, chaflfy: pappus none.

A. Millefdlium, Linn. Farrow. Stems simple below, but branching at
the top into a large rather dense umbel-like flower cluster: leaves very dark
green, twieepinnatified into very fine divisions : rays 4-5. Fields everywhere.

13. ANTHEMIS. Chamomile.

Strong-scented, branching herbs with finely pinnatified leaves and
raany-flowered heads, solitary on peduncles: ray flowers white or yellow,
pistillate or neutral, the edge of corolla entire or 2- to 3-toothed : disk flowers
perfect, fertile, yellow, corolla 5cleft: receptacle convex, partially chaflfy:
involucral bracts small, dry, in several series, outermost shortest: akenes
round or ribbed, smooth: pappus none or a slight border.

A. Cdtula, DC. May-weed. Annual, bushy, erect, 1-2 ft.: heads ter-
minal, corymbed, 1 in. broad: rays usually white, neutral: disk flowers yel-
low: leaves alternate, mostly sessile, finely pinnatified. Roadsides. Europe.

14. CALENDULA. Pot Marigold.

Erect, quick-growing annuals, with terminal large yellow or orange heads
with pistillate rays: involucre of many short green scales: torus flat: pap-
pus none: akenes of the ray florets (those of the disk florets do not mature)
curved or coiled.

C officinalis, Linn. Common pot marigold. A common garden annual
from the Old World, with alternate entire sessile oblong leaves: 1-2 ft.

15. CHRYSANTHEMUM. Chrysanthemum.

Erect herbs, annual or perennial, with alternate lobed or divided leaves i
rays numerous, pistillate and ripening seeds: torus usually naked, flat or
convex: pappus none,

COMPOSITiE 407

a. Akenes of ray florets winged.

C. morildlium, Ram. (C. Sinense, Sabine). Greenhouse chrysanthemum.
Tall and mostly strict, with lobed, firm and long-petioled alternate leaves:
flowers exceedingly various. China.

aa. Akenes not winged.

C. Leucdnthemum, Linn. Whiteweed. Ox-eye daisy. Fig. 169. Peren-
nial, with many simple stems from each root, rising 1-2 ft., and bearing al-
ternate oblong sessile pinnatifid leaves : heads terminating the
stems, with long white rays and yellow disks. Fields everywhere
in the East, and spreading West.

16. KUDBfiCKIA. Cone flower.
Perennial or biennial herbs, with alternate leaves and showy

yellow-rayed terminal heads: ray florets neutral: scales of in-
volucre in about 2 rows, leafy and spreading : torus long or coni-
cal, with a bract behind each floret: akenes 3-angled, with no
prominent pappus.

B. hirta, Linn. Brown-eyed Susan. Ox-eye daisy in the East.
Fig. 498. Biennial, 1-2 ft., coarse-hairy, leaves oblong or oblanceo-
late, nearly entire, 3-nerved : rays as long as the involucre or
longer, yellow, the disk brown: torus conical. Dry fields.

B. lacini^ta, Linn. Two to 7 ft., perennial, smooth, branch-
ing: leaves pinnate, with 5-7-lobed leaflets, or the upper ones 3-5. 493 jjy^.
parted: rays 1-2 in. long: torus becoming columnar. Low places, beckiahirta.

17. BfiLLIS. Garden Daisy.

Low tufted herbs with many-flowered heads, solitary on scapes: leaves
spatulate, petioled: flowers both radiate and tubular, mostly double, with
margins of the rays various, quilled, and otherwise modified in the cul-
tivated forms: ray flowers white or pink, pistillate: disk flowers yellow,
perfect with tubular corolla, limb 4- to 5-toothed: akenes flattened, wingless,
nerved near margins.

B. per^nnis, Linn. English daisy. European garden daisy. Fig. 185.
Flower-head on a scape 3 to 4 inches high, from radical leaves, % to 1 in. in
diameter with numerous linear rays, white, pink, bluish. Europe. Perennial.
Cultivated in gardens or on lawns. April to November.

18. HELIANTHUS. Sunflower.

Stout, often coarse perennials or annuals, with simple alternate or
opposite leaves and large yellow-rayed heads: ray florets neutral: scales of
involucre overlapping, more or less leafy: torus flat or convex, with a bract
embracing each floret: akene 4-angle(l: pappus of two scales (sometimes 2
other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe.

a. Disk broicn.
H. dnnuus, Linn. Common sunflower. Tall, rough, stout annual, with
mostly alternate stalked ovate-toothed large leaves: scales of involucre

408

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

ovate-acuminate, ciliate. Minnesota to Texas and west, but everywhere in
gardens.

H. rigidus, Desf. Prairie sunflower. Stout perennial (2-6 ft.), rough:
leaves oblong-lanceolate, entire or serrate, rough and grayish, thick and
rigid: heads nearly solitary, with 20-25 rays. Prairies, Michigan, west.
aa. Disk yellow {anthers sometimes dark).

H. ^gant^us, Linn. Tall, to 10 ft., rough or hairy : leaves mostly
alternate, lanceolate-pointed, finely serrate or quite entire, nearly sessile :
scales linear-lanceolate, hairy: rays pale yellow, 15-20. Low grounds.

H. divaricitus, Linn. Figs 3, 4, 23, 27. Small for the genus, 1-4 ft. :
leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, 3-nerved, sessile, serrate, rough and
thickish : rays 8-12, 1 in. long. Common in dry thickets.

H. tuberdsus, Linn. Jerusalem artichoke. Bearing edible stem-tubers
below ground: 5-10 ft.: leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, toothed, long-petioled:
scales not exceeding the disk: rays 12-20, large. Penn. west, and cultivated.

19. TANACfiTUM. Tansy.

/.■ Tufted perennials, with finely

divided leaves and strong odor: in-
volucre of overlapping dry scales:
torus convex : heads small, nearly
or quite rayless, the fiowers all seed-
bearing: akenes angled or ribbed,
bearing a short crown-like pappus.
T. vulgare, Linn. Common tansy from Eu-
rope, but run wild about old houses: 2 to 4 ft.:
leaves 1- to 3-pinnately cut: heads yellow, pap-
pus-crown 5-lobed.

20. BIDENS. Bur-marigold. Beggar's Ticks.

Pitchforks.

Annual or perennial, similar to Coreopsis,

including weeds known as Spanish-needles or

stick -tights : leaves opposite: flowers mostly

yellow: involucre double, outer scales large and

leaf -like: heads many-flowered: ray flowers 4 to

8, neutral, or none: disk flowers perfect, tubular:

akenes flattened or slender and 4-angled, crowned

with 2 or more rigid downwardly barbed awns.

fronddsa, Linn. Fig. 499. Smooth or sparsely

hairy, 2 to 6 ft. tall, branching: leaves 3- to 5-divided, or

upper simple: leaflets stalked, lanceolate, serrate: outer

involucre longer than head : bracts foliaceous : akenes

wedge-ovate, flat, 2-awned. In moist places. Annual.

B. chrysantbemoides, Michx. Smooth branching an-
nual, 6 in. to 2 ft., usually abundant along ditches: leaves

COMPOSITE 409

sessile, simple, lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, the bases sometimes united:
outer involueral bracts exceeding the inner, but shorter than the yellow,
oval or oblong raj-s: raj's about 1 in. long, 8 or 10 in number: akenes small,
wedge-shaped, truncate, prickly on margins, with 2 rigid downwardly
barbed awns.

B. bipinntlta, Linn. Annual: stem quadrangular, erect, branching
freely: leaves 1 to 3 times pinnate, leaflets lanceolate, pinnatified: heads
small on slender peduncles: rays short, pale yellow, 3, 4 or more: akenes
smooth, 3-4 grooved, 2- or 6-awned (awns barbed).

21. COREOPSIS. TicKSEED.

Low herbs with opposite, sometimes alternate leaves: heads of tubular
and ray flowers solitary, or corymbed on long peduncles: involucre double,
bracts all united at base, the 8 outer ones usually leafy: the inner erect:
receptacle chaffy: ray flowers neutral, usually yellow: disk flowers tubular,
perfect, yellow or purple: pappus of 2 short teeth or a crown-like border, or
none: akenes flat, often winged, 2-toothed or 2-armed. A number of rather
showy but somewhat weedy plants.

C. tinctdria, Nutt. Calliopsis. Annual or biennial, glabrous, erect, 1-3
ft.: disk flowers dark purple: ray flowers about 8, yellow with purple bases,
the edges coarsely 3-toothed: leaves alternate, 2 or 3 times pinnately-
divided: the lower petioled, the upper sessile and often entire: heads 1-1 K
in. wide, on slender peduncles. A favorite in gardens. Ray flowers variable
in shape and coloring.

C. tripteris, Linn. Tall and leafy stems, 4-9 ft.: disk and ray flowers
all yellow: heads small, numerous, l-lj^ in. broad, corymbed, giving a spicy
odor when bruised. Perennial. Weed, common.

C. lanceolita, Linn. Perennial, native and cultivated: nearly or quite
glabrous: leaves oblong or linear, mostly entire, obtuse: heads large, yellow
rayed, on very long stems.

22. CNlCUS. Thistle.

Perennial or biennial herbs, with pinnatified, very prickly leaves: florets
all tubular and usually all perfect: scales of the involucre prickly: torus
bristly: pappus of soft bristles, by means of which the fruit is carried in the
wind. Several species in our territory.

C. lanceol^tus, Ilollm. Common thistle. Figs. 228-230, 276. Stror.g,
branching biennial : leaves pinnatifid, decurrent, woolly beneath : neads
large, purple, with all the involucre-scales prickly. Europe.

C. arv6nsi8, Hoffm. Canada thistle. Lower, perennial and a pestiferous
weed: leaves smooth or nearly so beneath: flowers rose purple, in small,
imperfectly dioecious heads, only the outer scales prickly. Europe.
"3. ABCTIUH. Burdock.

Coarse biennials or perennials, strong-scented, with large dock-liko
■imple leaves: head becoming a bur with hooked bristles, the florets all
tubular and perfect: torus bristly: pappus of short, rough, deciduous bristles.

410

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

A. L&ppa, Linn. Common burdock. Fig. 280. Common weed from
Europe, with a deep, hard root and bushy top 2-3 ft. high; leaves broad-
ovate, somewhat woolly beneath, entire or angled.

24. CENTAURfiA. Star-thistle. Centaurea.

Alternate-leaved herbs, the following annuals, with single
heads terminating the long branches: heads many-flowered,
the florets all tubular but the outer ones usually much larger
and sterile: scales of involucre over-lapping: torus bristly:
akenes oblong, with bristly or chaffy pappus. Cultivated.

500. Centaurea Cyanus. At the left is an outer or ray floret; then follow three
details of a disk floret; then follows the fruit.

C. C^anus, Linn. Corn-flower. Bachelor's button. Figs. 231, 500. Gray
herb: leaves linear and mostly entire: heads blue, rose or white. Europe.

C. moshAta, Linn. Sweet sultan. One-2 ft., smooth: leaves pinnatified:
pappus sometimes wanting: heads fragrant, white, rose or yellow, large.
Asia.

25. TUSSILAGO. Coltsfoot.

Low stemless hairy perennials from rootstocks: scapes simple in early
spring, scaly-bracted, each bearing a single dandelion-like head: leaves
radical, appearing later, orbicular-angled or toothed, white-woolly at first:
ray flowers in several rows, pistillate, fertile: disk flowers tubular, stani-
inate, sterile: involucre nearly simple, or 1-rowed akenes of ray flowers,
cylindrical, 5-10-ribbed: pappus abundant, soft, hair-like, white.

T, F&rfara, Linn. Yellow heads in very early spring before the leaves.
A common weed East, found in low, damp places and along cool banks.
Europe.

26. SOLIDAGO. Goldenrod.

Perennial herbs, with narrow, sessile leaves: heads yellow, rarely
whitish, few-flowered, usually numerous in the cluster, the ray-florets 1-16

COMPOSITE

411

and pistillate: scales of involucre close, usually not green and leaf -like:
torus not chaffy: akene nearly cylindrical, ribbed, with pappus of many soft
bristles. Of goldenrods there are many species. They are characteristic
plants of the American autumn. They are too critical for the beginner.

27. Inula, elecampane.

Large and tall coarse perennial herbs, with large, showy yellow flower-
heads 2-4 in. diameter, sunflower-like: leaves large, simple, alternate,
and also radical in clumps: heads contain both perfect tubular, and pistil-
late ray florets, in one row: receptacle not chaffy: akenes 4-5-ribbed :
pappus in one row, bristles hair-like.

I. Hel6nium, Linn. Four to 6 ft., rising from a clump of large, ovate,
dock-like leaves on heavy petioles: stem leaves sessile or clasping; heads
solitary, terminal: involucre bracts ovate, leaf -like, woolly. Weed in damp
pasture and along roadside. Summer.

28. Aster, aster. Fig. 227.

Perennial herbs, with narrow or broad leaves: heads with several to
many white, blue or purple rays in a single series, the ray florets fertile:
scales of involucre overlapping, usually more or less green and leafy: torus
flat: akenes flattened, bearing soft, bristly pappus. Asters are conspicuous
plants in the autumn flora of the country. The kinds are numerous, and it'
is difficult to draw specific lines. The beginner will find them too critical.

29. ERlGERON. Fleabank.

Annual, biennial or perennial erect herbs, with simple, sessile leaves:
heads few- to many -flowered : rays numerous in several rows and pistillate:
scales of involucre narrow and equal, scarcely overlapping, not green-tipped:
torus flat or convex, naked: pappus of soft bristles.
a. Rays very inconspicuous.
E. Canadensis, Linn. Horse-weed. Mare's-tail. Fig. 501.
Tall, erect, weedy, hairy annual, with strong scent : leaves
linear and mostly entire or the root-leaves lobed: heads small
and very numerous in a long panicle, the rays very short,
aa. Rays prominent : common fleabanes.
E. dnnuus, Pers. Usually annual, 3-5 ft., with spreading
hairs: leaves coarsely and sharply toothed, the lowest ovate
and tapering into a margined petiole: rays numerous, white or
tinged with purple, not twice the length of the involucre.

E. strigosus, Muhl. Usually annual, with appressed hairs
or none: leaves usually entire and narrower: rays white and
numerous, twice the length of the involucre.

E. bellidifdlius, Muhl. Robin's plantain. Perennial leafy-
stemmed herb, softly hairy, producing stolons or rooting
601. Erigeron ^•'■'"''^fis from the base, the simple stems, from a cluster
Canadensis, o^ ratlier large, roundish, short-petioled, serrate, root leaves:

412 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

stem leaves few, entire, sessile and partially clasping: heads 1-7. on long
peduncles: rays numerous, linear or spatulate, purplish or pinkish: April
to June.

30. CALLtSTEPHUS. China Aster.

Erect, leafy annuals, with large solitary heads bearing numerous white,
rose or purple i-ays: scales in several rows or series, usually leafy: torus
flat or nearly so, naked: pappus of long and very short bristles.

C. hort^nsis, Cass. Common China aster, now one of the commonest of
garden annuals, in many forms: leaves sessile and coarsely toothed. China.

31. ANTENNARIA. Everlasting.

Perennial little herbs with cottony leaves and stems: flowers dioecious,
in many-flowered small heads, solitary or racemose or clustered (much
resembling Gnaphalium, but distinguished by the dioecious heads) : invo-
lucre with dry imbricated bracts in several rows, usually woolly-white or
colored: pappus in a single row, that of the sterile flowers thickened and
plumed at summit. Several confused species, or forms of one species.

A. plantaginifolia. Hook. Mouse-ear everlasting . Noticeable on dry
soil and in open places, as white cottony patches: stoloniferous root-leaves
soft-white when young, later green above but hoary beneath, oval to spatu-
late, petioled, 3-veined: flowering stem simple scape-like, 4 to 8 in. high,
bears small, bract-like, appressed leaves, and heads in a small, crowded,
terminal corymb: scales of involucre whitish.

32. ANAPHALIS. Everlasting.

Cottony-white herbs, very similar to the preceding, but pappus not
thickened at summit, and usually a few perfect but sterile flowers in center
of the head: stem leafy. Perennial.

A. margaritacea, Benth & Hook. Peart]! everlasting. One to 2 ft.:
heads in corymbs at summit, dioecious, but a few imperfect staminate
flowers in the center of the fertile heads: leaves sessile, taper-pointed,
broad ovate to linear lanceolate: involucre scale, pearly white, rounded.
Common in dry soil.

33. GNAPHALIUM. Everlasting. Cudweed.

Cottony-white herbs, with small head of many whitish flowers, sur-
rounded by involucre of white or colored scales, in many series: flowers all
fertile, outer pistillate, central perfect: no chaff on receptacle: pappus a
row of slender bristles. Common in dry fields.

G. polyc6phalum, Michx. Annual, with leaves lanceolate, margins wavy,
upper surface not very Cottony: scales of involucre white or yellowish-
white, a few perfect flowers in the center of each head.

G. deciirrens. Ives. Biennial or annual, with many perfect flowers in
center of each head: stem erect, 1 to 2 ft.: leaves lance-linear, both side*
cottony, bases partially clasping and running down the stem.

COMPOSITE 413

34. LIATRIS. Blazing Star. Button Snakeroot.

Perennial herbs, with simple erect stems from tuberous or corm-like
roots: leaves entire, alternate, rather rigid, sometimes vertical on the stem,
tmd resinous-dotted: flowers few to many, in raceraed or spicate heads:
flowers all alike, rose-purple, tubular: corolla 5-lobed, lobes long and
.slender: pappus of nianj' hair-like bristles, plumose or barbed: akene
slender, tapering to base: involucral bracts in several rows, unequal.

L. scaridsa, Willd. Stem stout, 2-5 ft. tall: leaves lanceolate, the lower
long-petioled, the upper more linear and rigid: heads few to man\-, 30-40
flowered, about 1 in. broad: scales of involucre numerous, with rounded
tips, often colored and rather rough on the margins: flowers bright purple.
Dry soil.

L. pycnostHchya, Michx. Heads 3-15-fio\vered: flowers rosy-purple on a
spike 3-4 ft. high: flowers begin to open at top of the spike and continue
opening downward: scales with purplish tips. A western species, cultivated;
very showy.

35. EUPATORIUM. Boneset.

Erect perennials, with simple leaves: heads small and rayless, clustered,
all the florets perfect: scales not leafy; torus flat or low-conical, naked:
ukene 5-angled: pappus a single row of soft bristles. Low grounds.

E. purpiireum, Linn. Joe Pye weed. Tall, with purplish stem and lan-
ceolate-toothed leaves in whorls of 3-G: heads flesh -colored, in dense
corymbs, Swamps, growing 3-10 ft.

E. perfoliatum, Linn. Boneset. Thorough wort. Fig. 159. Two to 4 ft.,
hairy: leaves opposite and sessile, lanceolate: flowers white, in clusters.

30. VERNONIA. Ironweed.

Coarse perennial herbs, with tall strong leafy stems: leaves alternate
(seldom opposite), sessile: flowers 15 to many in a head, heads eorymbed,
all tubular, perfect, purple (rarely white or pink): involucre shorter than
flowers, with several series of scales: receptacle not chaffy: pappus double,
the inner series bristle-like, the outer of short, small, scale-like bristles:
akenes cj'lindrical, several-ribbed.

V. Novaborac6nsis, Willd. A coarse weed, 3 to G ft.: heads about K in.
long: bracts of involucre, some or all, with slender long or awned flexuous
points, brownish-purple: leaves many, rough, lanceolate or lance-obloTig,
2 to 9 in. long, serrulate, sessile, all along stem: flowers deep purple in
spreading, flat-topped cymes: akenes somewhat hairy. Late summer.

V. fasciculElta, Michx. Tall, coarse weed, 3 to 10 feet, with deep purple
flowers in heads (20 to 30 flowered), eorymbed: involucre campanulate,
scales usually obtuse, not awn-like. Summer and autumn.

j'~.i

I

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Numbers in parenthesis refer to paragraphs

Aborted: crowded out, (291).

Abronia, Fig. 19.

Absorption by roots, 70.

Abutilon striatum. Fig. 461; Thorn psoni,
341; avicenna?, 341.

Acacia, 104, 105, Fig. 151.

Accessory buds: more than one in an
axil, (87).

Accessory fruit: other parts grown to
the pericarp, (286), 153.

Acer, 344, Figs. 464-7.

Acetic acid, 246.

Achillea millefolium, 406.

Acids, 246.

Acclimatization: adaptation to a cli-
mate at first injurious, (339).

Acorn, 147.

Acorus, 296.

Aetata, 327.

Acuminate: taper-pointed, (199).

Acute: sharp-poi'ited, (199).

Adder's-tongue, 298; fern, 191, Fig. 341.

Adiantum pedatum, 291, Fig. 309.

Adventitious buds: those appearing on
occasion, (54, 123).

jEcidia, 185. .^cidiospore, 185.

Aerial roots, 10.

.feculus, 346.

Ageratum conyzoides, 405.

Aggregate fruit: one formed by the co-
herence of pistils which were distinct
in the flower, (296).

Agrimonia, 355.

Agrimony, 162, 355.

Ailanthus buds. Fig. 53; fruits, 160.

Air-plants, 12, 88.

Akene: dry, indehiscent 1-seeded peri-
carp, (288).

Alcanin, 241.

Alcohol, 241.

Alder, black, 313; smooth, 313; specklsd
313.

Aleurone grains, 249.

Alfalfa, 352, Fig. 470.

Algae, 176, 178, 235.

Alkaloids, 246.

Almond bud, 39, Fig. 64.

Alnus glutinosa, 313; incana, 313; ru-
gosa, 313.

Alpine plants, 220.

Alsike clover, 351.

Alternation of generations, 174. 194.

Althffia rosea, 340, Figs. 206, 207, 235.

Alyssum maritimum, 152, 336, Fig. 460.

Amaranthus, 163.

Amaryllidacea?, 303.

Ambrosia, 405, Fig. 497

Amelanchier, 359.

Amceboid, 235.

Ampelopsis, leaves of, 95, Fig. 142.

Amphibious, 199.

Amylo-dextrine, 249.

Anacharis. experiment with, 78, 235.

Analogy, related in function or use,
(211).

Anaphalis, 412.

Anaphase, 240.

Anemone, 324; fruit, 148.

Anemonella, 324.

Anemophilous: pollinated by wind,
(267).

Angelica, 367.

Annual: of one season's duration, (10).

Angiosperms, 294.

Antennaria, 412.

Anther: pollen-bearing part of the sta-
men, (254).

Anthemus, 406.

Antheridia, 174, 180. .\ntheridiophore,
187.

Anthodium: flower-head of the Com-
posita>, 116.

Antirrhinum majus, 374, Fig. 220.

Antitropic: against the sun, (231").

Apetalous: petals missing, (257).

Aphyllon, 85, Fig. 118.

Apical: at the apex or top, (292).

Apios, 353.

Apocynaceae, 386.

Apparatus, 240.

Apple, 359, Figs. 267, 268; acid, 246; an-
ther, 129; bud, 36, 40, Fig. 67; bud-
variation, 229; cells, 233, 234; fruit,
155, Fig. 268; infloresence, 118, Fig.
267; leaf -scar, 37; -pear graft, 28;
phyllotaxy, 48, 49; thorns, 104; tree,
15, Fig. 18.

Apricot bud, 37, 39, 356, Figs. 51, 65,
477.

Aquatic, 198.

Aquilegia, 326, Fig. 458.

Arabis, 334.

(415)

416

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Araceae, 294.

Arbor-vitae, 294, Fig. 426.
Arbutus, trailing, 393.
Archegoniophore, 187. Archegonium,

174.
Arctium Lappa, 410, Fig. 280.
Arisffima, 295, Fig. 226.
Aristolochiaceae, 316.
Arrow-root, starch, 249.
Arrowwood, 397.
Artichoke, Jerusalem, 408.
Arums, 141.
Asarum, 316.
Ascending, 15.
Asclepiadaceae, 386.
Ash, 389, 390; branching, 54; fruit, 148,

159; leaf. Fig. 127; mountain, 360;

phyllotaxy, 49.
Ash in plants, 72.
Asparagus, 3, 103, 259, 301, Fig.'^. 147-

150, 434.
Aspen (poplar), expression, 61.
Aspidium, 172, Figs. 304, 305.
Asplenium Filix-fcemina, 291.
Assimilation: making of protoplasm,

(170, 171).
Aster, 411; China, 412; flowers, 142, Fig.

227; society, 225; (in cell), 239.
Atropin, 246.

Attachment of flowers, 144.
Autumn leaves, 225, 271.
Avens, 355.
Axil: upper angle which a petiole or

peduncle makes with the stem which

bears it, (86).
Azalea, 393; anther, 129, Fig. 204.
Bachelor's button, 143, 410, Figs. 231,

500.
Bacterium (pi. bacteria), 87, Fig. 123.
Ballast plants, 163.
Balloon-vine, 344.
Balsam, 158, 241,343.
Baneberry, 327.
Banyan, 12, 21, Figs. 15, 16.
Baptisia, 351.
Barbarea vulgaris, 334.
Barberry, 328; anther, 129, Fig. 205;

inflorescence. Fig. 173; riist, 184;

spines, 105, Fig. 156.
Bark, 265; form of, 60.
Basal: at the base or bottom, (292).
Basidium, 184.
Bass wood, 37, 49, 264.
Bast, 254, 255.
Bean, common, 3, 204, 352, Figs. 471,

472; flowers, 138; germination, 164,

167, 171, Figs. 282, 283, 285, 286;

legume, 151; Lima, pod. Fig. 247;

sleep of, 50; twiner, 111. 112.

Beard-tongue, 375.

Bedstraw, 395.

Bee palm, 369.

Beech, 310; drop, 85; fruit, 147; leaf.
Fig. 138; monoecious, 133.

Beet, 7; starch in, 31; sugar, 246.

Begonia, hairs, 234; leaf, Fig. 130; cut-
tings, 22; root-pressure, 73; stomates,
273.

Beggar's Ticks, 408, Fig. 499.

Bell-flower, 399.

Bellwort, 300.

Berberidaeeae, 328.

Berry: pulpy indehiseent few- or many-
seeded fruit, (294).

Betula, 312.

Bi-compound, 91.

Bidens, 408, Fig. 499.

Biennial: of two seasons' duration, (10).

Bilberry, 392.

Bindweed, 380.

Birch, 312, 313, Fig. 6.

Birth, variation after, 229.

Birthroot, 300, Fig. 221.

Bitter-cress, 335.

Bittersweet, 378; climbing, 108; twiner,
111.

Blacl >erry, 20, 358; cuttings, 24; fruit
153; and birds, 161.

Black haw, 397, Fig. 279.

Blade: expanded part of leaf or petal.

Bladder-nut, 346.
(194).

Bleeding heart, 3, 332.

Bloodroot, 3:30.

Blueberry, 392, 393.

Blue flag, 297, Fig. 437.

Bluets, 395.

Bog plants, 199, 219.

Boneset, 413, Fig. 159; bracts, 106, Fig.
159.

Boreal plants, 220.

Borraginacese, 380.

Boston ivy leaves, 95, Fig. 142; tendril
109.

Bougainvillea, 106, Fig, 161.

Bouncing Bet, 321, fruit. Fig. 250.

Box, leaf of. Fig. 137.

Box-elder, 345; phyllotaxy, 46, 49.

Brace roots, 9, 12.

Bracts: much reduced leaves, (219).

Brake, 173, 237, 290, 291, Figs. 125, 308.
310.

Bramble, 358.

Brassica, 333.

Briars, climbing, 108; prickles, 105.'

Bridal wreath, 361, Fig. 179.

Bristles, 105; nature of, 254.

Brown-eyed Susan, 407, Fig. 498.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

417

Brunella vulgaris, 370.

Bryophyllum, leaf cuttings, 22.

Bryophyte, 176.

Buckeye, 346.

Buckwheat, 318, Fig. 454; flower, 125,

136;family, 317; fruit, 148.
Bud, winter, 36; and light, 51; and seed.s,

161; dormant, 54; propagation, by 22;

struggle for, 52; -scales, 36, 107; -scars,

old, 54, Fig. 86.
Bud-variations, 229.
Bulb: thickened part, made up of scales

or plates, (79), 37, 49.
Bulbel: bulb arising from a mother bulb,

(80).
Bulblet: aerial bulb, 22, (80).
Bulb scales, 107.
Bundles, 257.

Burdock, 7, 62, 162, 410, Fig. 280.
Burning hush, 266.
Bur-marigold, 408, Fig. 499
Bur-seed, 382.
Burs, 161.

Burst of spring, 40, 204.
Butter-and-eggs, 132, 137, 374, Figs.

255, 485.
Buttercup, 1, 325, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191,

242; akene, 148, Figs. 191, 242; flower,

Figs. 187, 188; pistil, Fig. 191; society,

225.
Butterfly weed, 386.
Butternut Buds, 37.
Button-bush, 395.
Buttresses, 9.
Cabbage, 13, 17; fruit, 152; head, 38,

Fig. 55; skunk, 295; water pores, 271.
Cacti, Fig. 344.
Caffein, 246.
Calamus, 296.

Calcium, 72; oxalate, 246, 249, 250.
Calendula officinalis, 406.
Calla, 296, Figs. 427, 428; inflorescence,

142; lily, 296, Fig. 427.
Calliopsis, 409.
Callistephus hortensis, 340.
Callus, 27.
Caltha palustris, 326.
Calypogon, 309.
Calyptra, 190.
Calyx: outer circle of floral envelopes,

(250).
Cambium: the growing or nascent tissue

lying between the xylem and phloem

of the fibro-vascular bundle (418), and

therefore on the outside of the woody

trunk, since the active fibro-vascular

bundles are in the young outer tissues

(71); 257, 262, 264.
Campanula, 399; capsule, Fig. 256.

AA

CampanulaceiE, 398.

Campion, 322.

Canada balsam, 241.

Canada thistle, 20, 23, 409.

Candytuft, 336, Fig. 178.

Cane sugar, 245-247.

Cannabis sativa, 316.

Canna, 19, Fig. 28.

Canoe birch, 313.

Caoutchouc, 246.

Caprifoliaceae, 396.

Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 336, Fig. 259.

Capsicum annuum, 378, Fig. 488.

Capsule: compound pod, (291).

Caraway, 368.

Carbohydrate, 77.

Carbon, 72, 74; dioxid, 74, 76.

Cardamine, 335.

Cardinal flower, 399.

Cardiospermum, 344.

Carnation, 321; cutting. Fig. 33.

Carpel: a simple pistil; one of the units

of a compound pistil, (255).
Carrot, 3, 367, Fig. 180; umbel, 117, 118.
Carum Carui, 368; Petroselinum, 368.
Carophyllaceff, 320.
Cassia, 353; flower, 138, Fig. 223.
Castanea Americana, 311, Fig. 241;

sativa, 311.
Castilleia, 375.
Castor bean, 320; germination, 167, Figs

287-290.
Castor-oil, 247; inclusions, 249.
Catalpa seeds, 159, Fig. 274.
Catchfly, 322.
Catkin: scaly-bracted deciduous spike

with declinous flowers, (239).
Catmint, 371.
Catnip, 126, 371, Fig. 197.
Cat-tail, 3; seeds, 161, Fig. 278; stems,

259; swamp, 224, Fig. 378.
Caulicle; stemlet of the embryo, (305).
Cedar, 161; and light. Fig. 71; fruit, 156.
Celandine, 235, 331.
Celastrus, twiner, 112, Fig. 167.
Celery, 368; stem, 234.
Cell, 233; budding, 238; multiplication,

237; sap, 245; wall, 233, 234, 236.
Cellulose, 236.
Celtis occidentalis, 315.
Centaurea Cyanus, 410, Fig. 500; mos-

chata, 410.
Centrosphere, 2:i9.
Cephalanthus, 395.
Cerastium viscosum, 323; vulgatura,

323.
Cercis, 349.
Chamomile, 406.
Chara, 235.

418

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Charcoal, 74.

Charlock, 333. 336.

Oheledonium, 331.

Chelone, 37 .

Cherries and birds, 161.

Cherry, 20, 356, 357, Fig. 479; fruit, 153;

inflorescence. 118; phyllotaxy, 49.
Chestnut, 311, Fig. 241; fruit, 147. Fig.

241; monoecious, 133; -oak graft, 28.
Chicory, 403.
Chickasaw plum, 357.
Chickweed, 323, Fig. 457.
Chinese sacred lily, 304, Fig. 435.
Chionanthus, 389.
Chlorine, 72.
Chlorophyll, 75, 245.
Choke cherry, 357.
Choripetalae, 310.

Chromatin, 239. Chromosome, 239.
Chrysanthemum, 142, 145, 406, Fig. 169.
Cichorium Intybus, 403.
Cider acid, 246.
Cilia, 235.
Cinquefoil, 354.
Cion: the bud or branch used in grafting,

(69).
CircasB, 366.
Citric acid, 246.

Cladophyllum: leaf -like branch, (213).
Claytonia, 339.
Clearer, 241.

Cleft, 92. Cleft-graft, 28.
Cleistogamous flowers: small closed self-

fertilized flowers, (269).
Clematis, 327, Fig. 360; and light, Fig.

73; tendril. 111, Fig. 166.
Climate and plants, 203.
Climbing, 15; nasturtium, 314, P'ig. 195;

plants, 108; plants and light, 43.
Close fertilization: secured by pollen

from same flower; self-fertilization,

(260).
Clotbur, common, 405, Fig. 496; spiny,

336.
Clover, 7, 350, 351; Bokhara, 351, Figs.

468, 469; chlorophyll, 75; inflorescence

116; .sleep of, 50, Fig. 82.
Cnicus, 409, Figs. 228-230, 276.
Cockle, 321.
Coffee, 246; tree, 96.
Cohosh anther, 129.
Coleus, chlorophyll, 76; cuttings, 24, 26;

in window, 163; root-pressure, 73.
Collateral. 261 .
Collection, making a. 279.
CoUenchyma. 254.
Collodion. 241.243.
Colonies, 221.
Color of foliage, 225.

Coltsfoot. 410.

Columbine. 326. Fig. 458; fruit. 151.

Columella. 181.

Column: body formed of union of sta-
mens and pistil in orchids, (279).

CoUinsia, 375.

Commelinacese. 302.

Companion cells, 254.

Compass plant, 50, 269.

Complete flower: all parts present, (257) .

Complete leaf: having blade, petiole,
stipules, (194), Fig. 131.

Compositae, 400.

Compositous flowers, 142.

Compound leaves, 91.

Compound pistil: of more than one car-
pel united, (255).

Concentric, 261.

Cone-flower, 407.

Cones, 156, Figs. 271. 272.

Conifer cells. 237.

Conifers;. 292.

Conjugation. 179.

Connate. 93. Fig. 134.

Convallaria majalis, 301.

Convolvulaceffi, 379.

Convolvulus, 380.

Copper sulfate, 241.

Coral root, 85, Fig. 119.

Coreopsis, 409.

Cork elm, 315. Fig. 450.

Corm: a solid bulb-like part. (81).

Cormel: a corm arising from a mother
corm, (81).

Corn, ash in, 72; cells, 237; field, 213,
217, Fig. 358; germination, 168, Figs.
291-295; monoecious, 133, Fig. 214;
North and South, 203, phyllotaxy, 49;
root cap, 253, Fig. 395; roots of, 8, 12,
Fig. 14; water in, 72; wilting, 83; roots
267; stalk, 18; starch, 248, 249;
stems, 259; suffocated, 70; sugar, 246.

Corn cockle, 322.

Cornflower. 410; flowers. 143. Figs. 231.
500.

Corolla: inner circle of floral envelopes.
(250).

Corte.x. 260.

Corydalis. 332.

Corymb: short and broad more or less
flat-topped, indeterminate cluster,
(241).

Corymbose inflorescence: outer flowers
opening first; indeterminate, (236).

Cosmos, 406.

Cotton, 146; fibers, 233.

Cotyledon: seed-leaf, (305).

Cowslip, 326, 390.

Cowpea. 353. Fig. 473.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

419

Crab apple, 359, 360.

Cranberry, 393; high-bush, 398.

Cranesbill, wild, 342. Fig. 181.

Crataegus, 360.

Creeper: a trailing shoot which takes

root throughout its length, (56), 15.
Crenate: shaliowly round-toothed, (200).
Cress fruit, 152; winter, 311.
Crocus, 34, 35, 306; Figs. 48, 49, 438.
Cromwell, 383.
Cross-fertilization: secured by pollen

from another flower, (260).
Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen

from flower to flower, (263).
Crowfoot, 325, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191,

242;
Crown: that part of the stem at the

surface of the ground, (37); tuber,

33.
Crucifera;, 333; hairs, 270.
Cryptogam: flowerless plant, as fern,

moss, fungus, 178, 284, (325).
Crystals, 250. Crystaloids, 249.
Cucumber collenchyma, 254; fruit, 155;

pits, 237; squirting, 159.
Cupulifera>, 310.
Currant, 363, 364, Figs. 481, 482, 483;

bud. Fig. 54; cuttings, 24, 27, Fig. 38;

fruit, 153; stem, 266, Fig. 409.
Cuseuta Gronovii, 381, Fig. 494.
Cutting: severed piece of a plant de-
signed to propagate the plant, (51),

(61).
Cutting-box, 26, 30.
Cutting sections, 242, 243.
Cyclamen, 391.
Cycloloma platyphyllum, 163.
Cydonia, 360.
Cyme: broad more or less flat-topped

determinate cluster, (244).
Cymose inflorescence: central flowers

opening first: determinate, (243).
Cynoglossum, 382.
Cypress vine, 380, Fig. 492.
Cypripedium, 308.
Cystolith, 250.
Daffodil, 303, Fig. 234.
Dahlia, 405; double, 145, Fig. 232.
Daisy, 407; flowers, 142; ox-eye, 407,

Fig. 169; rays, 143; scape, 120, Fig.

185.
Dalibarda, 134.
Damping-off, 25, 30.
Dandelion, 3, 7, 14, 257, 403, Fig.s. 8,

275; flowers, 142; rays, 143; scape,

120; seeds, 158, 160, Fig. 275.
Darwin, quoted, 213, 231.
Datura, 379, Fig. 248.
Daucus Carota, 367. F-g. 180.

Daughter cell. 238.

Day-flower. 302.

Day-lily. 299, Figs. 253, 433; Fig. 432.

Deciduous: falling, (204).

Decompound, 91.

Decumbent, 15.

Decurrent: running down the stem,
(195), Fig. 133.

Dehiscence: opening of seed-pod or an-
ther, (264), (287).

Deliquescent: tnmk or leader lost in the
branches, (40).

Delphinium, 326.

Dentaria, 335; pod, 147, Fig. 240.

Dentate: sharp-toothed, (200).

Dependent plants, 85.

Dermatogen, 253.

Desert vegetation. Fig. 344

Determinate: definite cessation of
growth at the apex, (243).

Deutzia, 362.

Dew, 83.

Dewberry, 21, 358, Fig. 29, 158; fruit,
153.

Dextrose, 245, (231).

Diadelphous; in two groups, (277).

Dianthus, 321, Fig. 456.

Dicentra, 332.

Dicentra inflorescence. Fig. 172.

Dichogamy: stamens and pistils matur-
ing at different times, (265).

Diclinous: imperfect; having either sta-
mens or pistils, (257).

Dicotyledons, 310.

Diervilla, 397.

Digestion: changing of starchy materials
into soluble and transportable forms,
(168).

Digitalis purpurea, 375.

Digitate, 91.

Dioecious: staminate and pistillate flow-
ers on different plants, 133.

Dispersal of .seeds, 158.

Divergence of character, 213.

Divided, 92.

Dock, 3; bitter, 318; curly, 318.

Dockmackie, 397.

Dodecatheon, 391.

Dodder, 85, 89, 112, 381, Fig. 494.

Dogbane, 387.

Dog's-tooth violet, 298, Fig. 431.

Dogwood bracts, 106; tree. Fig. 356.

Doorweed, 318, Fig. 193.

Dormant buds, 54.

Double flowers, 144.

Dragon-root, 295.

Dragon's head inflorescence. Fig. 175.

Drupe, fleshy 1-seeded indehiscent fruit;
stone fruit. (295).

420

INDEX AND GLOSSAKY

Drupelet: one drupe in a fruit made up

of aggregate drupes, (296).
Dryopteris, 172, 291, Figs. 304, 305,

420.
Ducts, 233, 257.
Dusty miller, 322,
Dutchman's breeches, 332.
Dutchman's pipe, 112, 317.
Dwarf plants, 204.
Earth parasites, 2.
Echinospermum, 382.
Echium, 383.
Ecology: habits and modes of life of

animals and plants, (369).
Eglantine, 359.
Egg-cell, 180.

Eggplant, 153, 378, Fig. 261.
Elater, 189.

Elder, 119, 398; red; 39S; pith, 233
Elecampane, 411.
Elliptic, 94.
Elm, 15, 314, Figs. 448-450; flower,

125, 136; fruit, 148, 159; germination,

171; leaf. Fig. 146; phyllotaxy, 46, 49;

trunk of, 60; shoot, history, 58, Figs.

91-95.
Elodea, 78, 235, Fig. 387.
Embryo: the plantlet in the seed, (305).
Embryology, 102.
Embryo-sac, 175.
Emersed, 198.
Emetin, 246.
Endodermis, 253.
Endogenous stems, 259.
Endosperm: food in the seed outside

the embryo, (306).
Enchanter's nightshade, 366.
Entire: margin not indented, (200)
Entomophilous: pollinated by insects,

(266).
Envelopes, floral, 122.
Environment: surroundings; conditions

in which organisms grow, 203, (326).
Eosin for staining, 70.
Epicotyl: that part of the caulicle lying

above the cotyledons, (312).
Epidermis, 254, 259, 260; of leaf, 270.
Epigaea, 393.
Epigeal: cotyledons rising into the air

in germination, (311)
Epigynous: borne on the ovary, (283).
Epiphyte, 88, 200.
Epilobium, 365.
Equisetum, 192, Fig. 342.
Eregenia, 367.
Ericacese, 391.
Erigeron, 411, Fig. 501.
Erythronium, 298, Fig. 431.
Eschscholzia, 330.

Esquimaux, 204.

Essential organs: stamens and pistils,

(250).
Ether, 241.

Eupatorium, 90, 413, Fig. 159.
Euphorbia pulcherrima, 247.
Euphorbiacea'. 319
Eutropic; in the direction of the sun's

course, (231).
Evening primrose, 365.
Evergreen: remaining green, (204).
Everlasting, 412.
Everlasting pea, 350, Fig, 246.
Evolution, 232.
Excretion by roots, 71.
E.xcurrent: the trunk or leader contin-
ued through the top, (39).
Exogenous stems, 260.
Explosive fruits, 158.
Exposure, 207.
Expression, 60.
Fagopyrum, 318, Fig. 454.
Fagus Americana, 311; sylvatica, 311.
Fall of leaf, 97, 271.
Fastigiate trees, 60, Fig. 97.
Fats, 246.

Fehling's solution, 241, 247.
Fern, 19; cells, 237; Christmas, 291, Figs

304, 305; cinnamon, 290, Fig. 419;

flowering, 290; lady, 291; maidenhair,

291, Fig. 309; ostrich, 290; royal, 290;

sensitive, 290, Fig. 310; fronds, 172;

in good and poor light, 42, Figs. 68.

69; stem, 261, 2S4; discussed, 172,

191.
Fertilization: impregnation of the ovule,

(2.59).
Fertilizer, 69.

Fibrous root, 7; tissue, 255.
Fibro-vascular bundles, 257.
Ficus ela«iica, 251.
Fig, climbing. Fig. 74.
F^gwort, 374; family, 372.
Filament: stalk part of the stamen, (254).
Filiees, 284.
Fireweed, purple, 366.
Five finger, 354.
Fixing sections, 242, 243.
Flag, 305, Fig. 437.
Flagella, 235.
Flag, sweet, 296.
Fleabane, 411.
Fleur-de-lis. 305.
Flora: plant population of a country ot

place; also a book describing this

population, (327).
Floral envelopes, 122.
Florets: individual flowers of composites

and grasses, 146, (281).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

421

Flower, parts of, 122; -branches, 114;
-bud, 39; -cluster, 114; -stem, 119.

Foliage, (6), 90.

Follicle: dry dehiscent pericarp opening
on the front suture, (289).

Food materials, 72; reservoirs, 31; sup-
ply, 230.

Forest, Figs. 361-368, 373, 374; and
light, 43; beginning of, 222.

Forget-me-not, 382.

Formalin, 241. Formic acid, 246.

Forms of plants, 59.

Forsythia, 388.

Foul-gas 75.

Foxglove, 3, 375.

Fragaria, 355, Figs. 264, 474, 475.

Framework, 100, 262, Figs. 3, 4.

Fra-xinus, 389.

Free-swimming, 198.

Freesia refrarta, 307, Fig. 439.

Fringe-tree, 389.

Fringed wintergreen, 134.

Frog spittle, 178.

Frond: leaf of fein, (317).

Fruit-bud, 39; -dot, 172; sugar, 245.

Fruits, 147.

Fuchsia, 18, 365; and light, 42; bracts,
106, Figs. 160; cuttings, 26; flower,
123, Fig. 189; inflorescence, 115;
phyllotaxy, 49; water pores, 271.

Fumariacea>, 331.

Fumitory, 332.

Function: what a plant or a part does;
its vital activities.

Fundamental tissue, 257.

Fungi, 85, 176, 180.

Funiculus, 164.

Funkia, 299, Figs. 432, 433.

Galanthus nivalis, .304, Fig. 436.

Galium, 395; climbinc:, 108

Gametophyte, 174, 194.

Gamopetalus: corolla of one piece, (251).

Gamosepalous: calyx of one piece, (251)

Gaultheria, 393.

Gaylussacia, 392.

Gemmae, 187.

Genealogy, 16, 106.

Generation: period from birth to death,
(8).

Gentian, 385, 386.

Geraniaceae, 341.

Geranium, 18, 341, 342; chlorophyll, 75;
cuttings, 24, 26, Figs. 32, 36, 37; fami-
ly, 341; fish, 314; inflorescence. Figs.
181, 183; and light, 42; kinds of , 313;
in window, 121, 163.

Germander, 370.

Germination, 164, 165.

Geuni, 355.

Gilliflower, 334.

Gill-over-the-ground, 371.

Ginger, 19.

Ginger, wild. 316.

Glabrous: not hairy,!;

Gladiolus, 34, 35, 307, Figs. 50, 440.

Glaucous: covered with a "bloom" or a

whitish substance.
Gleditschia, 349.
Globe-flower, 358.
Globoid inclusions, 249.
Glomerule: dense head-like cyme, (244).
Gloxinia, leaf cuttings, 22.
Glucose, 245, 247.
Glume, 146.
Glycerine, 241.
Gnaphalium, 412.
Goat's-beard, 403.
Goldenrod, 3, 142, 225, 411.
Goodyera, 309.
Gooseberry, 27, 153, 363.
Gourd, collenchyma, 254.
Graft: a branch or bud made to grow on

another plant, 27, (60), Figs. 31, 39-

41.
Grafting wax, 30.
Grape crystals, 250; cuttings, 24, 27;

fruit, 153; leaves of, 95; sugar, 245;

tendrils, 100, 113, Figs. 164, 168.
Grass. 3, 18; flowers, 146; pepper, 312;

pink, 310, 321; stems, 259.
Grasses, framework, 62; phyllotaxy, 49;

pollination, 132.
Grass of Parnassus, 362.
Gratiola, 376.
Grazing, 223.
Greek valerian, 385.
Greenbriar tendril, 111; tissue, 259.
Grevillea in window, 163.
Ground cherry, 377.
Ground-nut, 353.
Ground pink, 385.
Guard cells, 271, Figs. 413, 414.
Guinea squash, 378, Fig. 261.
Gum-resin, 246, 247.
Gymnosperm: .seed naked (not in an

ovary); applied to pines, spruces, etc.,

(299), 155, 292.
Habenaria, 309.
Habit: the looks, appearance, general

style of growth, (36).
Habitat: particular place in which a

plant grows, (327).
Hackherry, 315.
Hackmatack, 294.
Hair-gra.ss, 163.
Hairs, J05; nature of, 254, 270.
Halophytic societies, 219, Fig. 371.
Harbinger of spring, 367.

422

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Hardback, 361 .

Hardwood cuttiiiK, 27.

Harebell, 399.

Hanstoria, 86

Haw, lilack, 397, Fig. 279.

Hawkweed, -404, 405.

Hawthorn. 104, 360, Figs. 152-155;

graft, 28.
Hazel, 133, 158.

Head: short dense spike, (239), Fig. 176.
Heart -seed, 344.
Heart's-ease, 337.

Hedera Helix, 251, 261, 269, Fig. 162.
Hedeoma, 370.
Hedge hyssop, 376.
Helianthus. 407.
Heliotrope, 381.
Heliotropism: turning towards the light,

(100).
Hemerocallis, 299.
Hemerocallis flava, 299; fulva, 299.
Hemlock, 293, Fig. 425.
Hematoxylin, 241.
Hemp, 316, 387.
Henna root, 241.
Hepatica, 148, 324.
Herbaceous: not woody, (11).
Herbarium, 279.
Herb Robert, 342.
Heredity, 230.
Heteropcism, 185.
Hibiscus, 341, Fig. 139.
Hickory, 39, 51, 147, Figs. 59, 60, 83; in-
florescence, 117, 133.
Hieracium, 404.
Ililum or seed-scar, 165.
Hip: fruit of the rose, 155, Fig. 265.
Ilobblebush, 398.
Hog-peanut, 134, Fig. 215.
Hollyhock, .340, Figs. 206, 207, 235;

flower, 130, 139, Figs. 206, 207, 235;

hairs, 2,35.
Holly, phyllotaxy, 49; tree, Fig. 352.
Homology: related in origin or structure,

(211).
Honesty fruit, 152.
Honey locust, 349; buds, 37; leaves, 95;

thorns, 105; tree, 63.
Honesuckle buds, 37, 53, Fig. 85; family,

396, 397; leaves. Fig. 134; phyllotaxy,

49; swamp, 394; Tartarian, 396; Fig.

85; trumpet, 397; twiner, 112.
Hop clover, 351, 352.
Hop, 111, 112, 316, Fig. 167.
Horehound, 371.
Horse-chestnut, 346; bud, 36; fruit, Fig.

251; leaf-scar, 37; thyrse, Fig'. 184.
Horsemint, 369.
Horseradish, 335.

Horsetails, 192, Fig. 342.

Horse-weed, 411, Fig. 501.

Host, 85.

Hound's tongue, 162, 382.

House-leek, 21; phyllotaxy, 49.

Houstonia, 395.

Huckleberry, 392; anther, 129.

Humulus Japonicus, 316; lupulus, 316.

Humus, 202.

Hyacinth, 35, 299; crystals, 250; grape,

299; inflorescence, Fig. 174; scape,

120.
Hydrangea, 119, 363; doubling, 145.
Hydrogen, 72.
Hydrophyllaces, 383.
Hvdrophytic society, 219, Figs. 369,

377.
Hypericacea>, 338.
Hypericum, 339.
Hypocotyl: that part of the caulicle

lying below the cotyledons, (311).
Hypogeal: cotyledons remaining be-
neath the ground in germination,

(311).
Hypogynous: borne on the torus, or un-
der the ovary, (283).
Hypoxis, 305.
Iberis, 336.
Imbedding, 243.
Immersed, 198.
Impatiens, 343, Figs. 462, 463; collen-

chyma, 254; root-pres.sure, 73; water

pores, 271; seeds, 158.
Imperfect flower, having either stamens

or pistils, (257).
Inclusions, 249
Incomplete flower: any parts wanting,

(257).
Indehiscent: not opening, (287).
Independent plants, 85.
Indeterminate: growing on from the

apex, (236).
Indian pink, 399.
Indian pipe, S5, 394.
Indian turnip, 141, 295, P'ig. 226.
India-rubber plant, 246. 250, 251, 269.
India wheat, 318.
Indigo, false, 351 .
Indusium, 173.
Inflorescence: mode of flower-bearing:

less properly, a flower-cluster, (246).
Innocence, 375.
Insects and flowers, 131.
Internode: space between two joints or

nodes, (64).
Inulin, 246.
Involucre: a whorl of small leaves or

bracts standing close tmderneath a

flower or flower-cluster, (278).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

423

Inula, 411.

Iodine test for starch, 31, 249.

Ipeoac, 246.

Ipomopa, 380, Figs. 217, 492, 493.

Iridacecn, 305.

Iris, 30o, Fig. 437; leaf, 269; stems, 2.59.

Iron, 72.

Ironweed, 413.

Irregular flower: some parts in one

series different, (258).
Irrigation, 207.
LsoiJtes, 193
Ivy, 251, 261, 269, Figs. 162,411; Kenil-

worth, 374, Fig. 486.
Jack-in-the-Pulpit, 141, 251, 295, Fig.

226.
Jacob's 1 dder, 385.
Jamestown-weed, 378, Fig. 248.
Japan quince, 360.
Japan rose, 358.
Jeffersonia, 328.
Jerusalem artichoke, 408.
Jewel-weed. 1.58, 343, Fig. 462, 463.
Jimson-weed. 378, Fig. 248.
Jos Pye weed, 413.
Johnny jump-up, 337.
Jonquil, 304.
Judas tree, 349.

Juneb?rries, 359; and birds, 161.
Juniper, 156, 294.
Kalniia, 393.

Karyokinesis: indirect division or trans-
formation of the nucleus, being one

means of cell multiplication; mitosis,

239, (.393).
Kentucky coffee tree, 96.
Kerria, 358.

Knotweed, 125, 136, 318, Fig. 193.
Labiat.T, 368. Labiate, 137.
Laboratory advice, 240.
Lactoso, 245.

Lactuca, 403; Scariola, 50, 404.
Ladys-slipper, 140, 308, Fig. 225.
Ladies' tresses, 309.
Lambkill, .393.
Lanceolate, 94.
Jiandscaps and plants, 202.
Larch, 294; European, 294.
Lari.ic .Xmericana, 294; decidua, 294.
Larkspur, 326.
Lirkspur, double. Fig. 233; flower, 131,

Fig?. 208-210; fruit, 148. Figs. 243,

244.
Lathyrus, 233, 349, Figs. 222, 246.
Laurel, 393; sheep, 393.
Layer: a branch which takes root and

gives rise to an independent plant

(55).
Leaf, fall of, 97; how to tell, 98.

Leaflet: one part in a compound leaf,

(192).
Leaf-scars, 37, 273.
Leaves, arrangement of, 46; fall of, 225

271; general account, 90; propagation

by, 22; structure, 260.
Legume: simple pericarp dehiscing on

both sutures, (290).
Leguminosce, 347.
Lemon acid, 246.
Lens, 126, Figs. 198, 200.
Lenticels, 266.
Leonurus Cardiaca, 371.
Lepidium \'iiginicum, 336
Lettuce, 404; experiment with, 78; wild,

50.
Leucoium vernum, 304.
Levulose, 245.
Liatris, 413.
Lichen, 88, 176, 186.
Life-history: sum of the events in the

life of a plant, (7).
Light and plants, 42, 215.
Ligneous: woody, (11).
Lignin, 236.
Ligule of isootcs, 194.
Ligustrum, 389.
Lilac, 3S9; bushes, 100; bud, 41; inflo-

res.'i'iir.. nO: plivlluia^v. 19.
Lilies bllll,l.■t^, ■_■■_'. lin :;(); o.lsets, 21.
Liliuni, ■_'lt7, I'lts, liiT.,, :;(), 42), 430.
Lily, 297; bulb, 33; calla, 296, lig 427;

Chinese sacred, 304, Fig. 435; Easter,

297; tiger, 298, Fig. 30; white, 297;

flowers, 138.
Lily-of-the-valley, 19, 301.
Lima bean, 352.
Linaria, 373, Fig. 485, 486.
Linear, 94.
Linin, 239.
LinnEeus, 276.
Liquorice, wild, 395.
Lithospermum, 383.
Liverleaf, 324. Liverworts, 186.
Living matter, making of, 74.
Lobsd, 92.
Lobeliacece, 399.

Locule: compartment of a pistil, (285).
Loeulicidal: dehiscence between the

partitions, f292).
Locust, 346, 347; buds, 37; honey, leaves

95; honey, tree, 63; sleep of 50; thorns,

105.
Lodicule, 146.

I-onicera, 396, 397, Figs. 85, 495.
Loosestrife, 391.
Lotus, Fig. 135; starch, 248.
L\icerne, 352, Fig. 470.
Lungwort, 382.

424

INDEX AND GLOSSAEY

Lupinus, 353.

Lychnis Coronaria, 322; Githago, 322.

Lycopersicum esculentum, 378, Fig. 186.

Lyeopus, 369.

Lysimachia, 391.

Macrospore, 194.

Magnesium, 72.

Maianthemum, 301.

Maidenliair, 173, 291, Fig. 309.

Malic acid, 246.

Mallow, 139, 340, Figs. 170, 224.

Malt sugar, 245; Maltose, 245.

Malva rotundifolia, 340, Fig 224.

Malvaceae, 340.

Mandrake, 19, 329.

Mangrove, 12, 21, Fig. 17.

Maple, 15, 46, Figs. 75, 76, 144; kinds of

316; branching, 54; buds, 37, 39, 40;

dissemination, 160; flowering, 341;

phyllotaxy, 49; trunk of, 60; family,

343; fruit, 148; germination, 171,

Figs. 296-303; leaf. Fig. 129; leaf -scar,

37.
Marble etched by roots, 71.
Marchantia polymorpha, 186, Figs. 331-

£37.
Mare's-tail, 411, Fig. 501.
Marigold, marsh, 326; pot, 406.
Marrubium vulgare, 371.
Marsh mallow, 140, 340.
Marsh marigold, 326.
Marsh plants, 199, 219.
Matthiola, 334.

May apple, 19, 23, 329. Mayflower. 393.
Mayweed, 222, 406.
Meadow rue, 325.
Meadow-sweet, 360.
Medicago lupulina, 352; sativa, 352,

Fig. 470.
Medick, 352.
Medullary rays, 260.
Melilotus alba, 351, Fig. 469; officinalis,

352.
Melon fruit, 155.

Menispermum stem, 260, 262, 266.
Mentha, 370, Fig. 484.
Meristematic, 252, 257.
Mertensia, 382.
Mesophyll, 253, 269.
Mesophytic society, 219, Fig. 370.
Metaphase, 239.
Micropyle, 164.
Microscope, compound, 241; dissecting,

126, Figs. 198-200.
Microsome, 234.
Microspore, 194.
Microtome, 242.
Midrib, 93.
Mignonette, inflorescence, 116.

Mildew, 85, 182.

Milk sugar, 245.

Milkweed, 386; fruit, 151, Fig. 245;
seeds, 161, Fig. 277; tissue, 257.

Milkwort, 347.

Mimulus. 375, Fig. 487.

Mint, 370; family 368; phyllotaxy, 49.

Mistletoe, 87.

Mitosis, 238, 239.

Mitchella, 395.

Mifrewort, 362.

Moccasin-flower, 308.

Mock orange, 363.

Mock pennyroyal, 370.

Monadelphous: in one group, (2771.

Monoecious: staminatc and pistillate
flowers on the same plant, 133.

Monarda fistulosa, 369; didyma, 369.

Moneywort, 391.

Monkey-flower, 375, Fig. 487; wild, 375.

Monocotyledons, 97, 294.

Monop dial: axial growth continued by
growth from terminal bud or persis-
tence of the leader, 113.

Monotropa, 394.

Moonflower, 111, 380, Fig. 493.

Moonseed stem, 260 262, 266.

Moose-wood, 345.

Morning-glory, 380, Fig. 217; corolla,
137, Fig. 217; twiner, 111, 112.

Morphin, 246.

Morphology, 101.

Morus alba, 315, Fig. 452; rubra, 315.

Mosses, 88, 189, 234.

Mother cells, 238.

Motherwort, 371.

Mould. 86, 180, 181.

Mountain ash, 360.

Mountain cherry, 357.

Mountain plants, 220.

Mounting .sections, 242.

Mowing and plants, 223, Figs. 375, 376.

Mucilage. 246.

Muck, 202.

Mucor, ISO, Figs. 318-320.

Mucus, 246.

Mulberry, flowering, 358; leaves of. 95;
shoot. Fig. 84; white, 315, Fig. 452;
wild, 315.

Mullein, 3, 16, 373, Fig. 22; hairs, 270;
inflorescence, 116; pink, 322.

Muscari, 299.

Mushroom, 85, 180, Figs. 120, 121.

Muskmelon seedlings. Fig. 143.

Mustard, 333, Fig. 459; fruit, 152; inclu-
sions, 249; pod, 147.

Mycelium: vegetative part of a fungus,
(180), 181.

Mycorrhiza, 87.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

425

Myosotis, 382.

Myrtle. 388.

Myxomycetes, 235.

Naked flower: no floral envelopes, (257).

Narcissus, 35, 303; double, Figs. 234,435.

Nasturtium, 335, 343; flower, 126, Fig.
195; tendril, 110

Natural selection, 231.

Nectarine, origin of, 229.

Nectary, 131.

Needle for dissecting, 126, Fig. 199.

Nerium, 388.

Nepeta Cataria, 371, Fig. 197.

Netted-veined, 91.

Nettle, 316; acid, 246; hairs, 235.

Nettle-tree, 315.

Nicotiana alata, 379, Fig. 491; Tabacum
379.

Nicotin, 246.

Nightshade, 378.

Nine-bark fruit, 151.

Nitella, 235.

Nitrogen, 72, 249.

Node: a joint; the space between two
joints is an internode.

Nuclear-plate, 239.

Nucleolus, 234, 239.'

Nucleus, 233, 248.

Nuphar, 329.

Nux vomica, 246.

Nymphseaceae, 329.

Oak, 15, 117, 147, 311, Fig. 212; branch-
ing, 54; expression, 61; m-onoccious,
133; transpiration in, 82; where grows,
198; kinds, 299, 300.

Oats, lodged. Fig. 355; starch, 249.

Oblong, 94.

Obovate, 94.

Obtuse: blunt, (199).

(Ecology: see ecology.

(I'^nothera, 365.

Off.set: a plant arising close to the base
of the mother plant, (56).

Oils, 246, 247.

Okra, 140.

01eacea>, 388.

Ol-ander, 388; leaf, 269.

Olive family, 388; tree. Fig. 100.

Onagraceae, 364.

Onion bulb, 33, 35, Figs. 45, 46; germi-
nation, 171; sugar, 246.

Onoclea, 290, Fig. 310.

Oogonia, 180.

Oospore, 180.

Operculum, 191.

Ophioglo.ssum, 191, Fig. 341.

Opium, 246; poppy, 330.

Orange, mock, 363; O.sage, 315, Fig. 451.

Orbicular, 94.

Orchard, 63, 206, 214, 217.

Orchid flowers, 140, Fig. 225; roots, 00;
stems, 259; epiphytes, 88.

Orchidacea", 307.

Orchis, 309.

Ornithogalum, 299.

Osage orange, 49, 105, 315, Fig. 451.

Osmorrhiza, 367.

Osmosis, 66, Figs. 106-108.

Osmunda, 290, Figs. 418, 419.

Oswego tea, 369.

Ovary: seed-bearing part of a pistil,
(256).

Ovate, 94.

Overgrowth, 224.

Oxalic acid, 246.

Oxaiis, J:0, 158, -342, Fig. 273.

Ox-eye daisy, 115, 407, Fig. 169.

Oxygen, 72; liberation, of 77, Figs. Ill,
112.

Oyster plant, 403.

Pwonia, 326.

Painted-cup, 376.

Palet, 146.

Palisade cells, 269.

Palisades of Hudson, Fig. 345.

Palm, 60, 259, Fig. 98.

Palmate, 91.

Palma Christi, 320.

Panicle: branching raceme, (240).

Panicum capillare, 163.

Pansy, 338; flower, Fig. 196.

Papaveracea", 330.

Papaver somniferum, 246, 330.

Papilionaceous flowers, 13S.

Pappus: peculiar calyx of composites,
(282).

Parallel-veined, 91.

Paraphyse, 190.

Parasite, 85, 200; vs. graft, 22.

Parenchyma, 236, 252.

Parnassia, 362.

Parsley, 117, 368.

Parsnip, 3, 117, 367.

Parted, 92.

Parts of flower, 122.

Passion flower, 127

Pastinaca sativa, 367.

Pasturing, 223.

Patches, 19, 23.

Pea, 3; black, 353, Fig. 473; everlasting,
350, Fig. 246; garden, 349, Figs. 190,
284; stock, 353, Fig. 473; sweet, 350,
Fig. 222; flowers. 138, Fig. 222; fruit.
Fig. 246; germination, 166, 171, Fig.
284; legume, 151; tendril, 110.

Peach, 356, Fig. 476; phyllofaxy, 49;
and nectarine, 229; bud, 37, 40; crys-
tals, 250; fruit, 153; inclusions, 249.

426

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Pear, 359, Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266;

phyllotaxy, 49; sclerenchyma, 2r)7;

-apple graft, 28; bud, 36, 40, Figs. C2,

57, 58, 61-63, 66; fruit, 155. Fig. 1:66;

-hawthorn graft, 28; inflorescence, 108,

Fig. 182; leaf-scar, 37; -quince graft,

28; thorns, 104; tree, 15; form of, 63,

Figs. 101. 102.
Peat. 202.
Pedicel: stem of one flower in a clus'cr.

(247).
Peduncle: stem of a flower cluster or of a

solitary flower, (247).
Pelargonium hortorum, 314, Fig. 183.
Peltate: attached to its stalk inside tlio

margin, (197), Figs. 126, 135.
Pentamerous: in 5's, (271).
Pentstemon. 375.
Peony fruit. 151.
Pepo: fruit of pumpkin, squash, etc,

(298).
Pepper-grass, 336.
Pepper, red, 378, Fig. 488.
Peppermint, 370.
Perennial: of three or more seasons'

duration, (10).
Perfect flower: having both stamens and

pistils. (257).
Perianth: floral envelopes of lily-like

plants (more properly of nionocoty-

ledonous plants), (275).
Periblem, 253.

Pericarp: ripened ovary, (286).
Perichatia, 190.
Perigynous: borne around the ovary,

(283).
Peristome, 191.
Peritherium, 183.
Periwinkle, 3S7, 388.
Persistent: remaining attached, (204).
Personate, 137.
Petal: one of the separate leaves of a

corolla, (251).
Petiolule: stalk of a leaflet, (196).
Petiole: leaf-stalk, (194)
Petunia, 378, Figs. 489, 490.
Phaseolus, 352, Figs. 471, 472.
Phellogen, 266.
Phenogam: seed-bearing or flowering

plant, (325), 292.
Philadelphus, 363.
Phloem, 257.

Phlox, 137, 225, 384, Fig. 218.
Phosphorus, 72.
Photosynthesis: the making of organic

matter from COo and water, in the

presence of light, (163).
Phyllotaxy: arrangement of leaves and

flowers on the stem, (111).

Phyllodiuni: leaf-like petiole, (214).

Phy.salis, 377.

Pliysostegia inflorescence. Fig. 175.

Picea, 293. Figs. 270. 271, 424.

Pie-plant. 317, Figs. 78, 79

Pigweed. 3, 62, Figs. 372 383 384.

Pine, 15, 292. Figs. 10 21 145, 272,
421-3; cone, Fi<;- 272: foliage, Fig.
145; stem. Fig. 407; tell-rale. Fig. 364:
trees. Fig 353; pollination, 132.

Pine-sap. 394.

Piney, 326.

Pink, 321; dehiscence, 152, Fig. 2.50.

Pinnate, 91.

Pinnatifid, 92.

Pinus, 292, Fig. 421-3.

Pinxter flower, 394.

Pistil: ovule-bearing or seed-bearing or-
gan, (253).

Pistillate: having [listils and no slaincns.
(257).

Pisum sativum, 349. Figs. ICO, 2St.

Pitchforks, 162, 40S, Fig. 499.

Pits, 237.

Plankton. 199.

Plantain infiorescence, 116.

Plant-breoiling, 231.

Plant-food, defined, 61.

Plasmodium, 235.

Plerome, 253.

Plum, 20, 356, Figs. 194, 262, 478, 479;
phyllotaxy, 49; pollination. Fig. 202;
blossom. Fig. 194; drupe, 153, Fig.
262; thorns, 104.

Plumule: bud in the embryo, (.305).

Plur-annual: of one .season's duration
because killed by frost, (14).

Pod: dehiscent pericarp, (287).

Podophyllum, 329.

Pogonia, 310.

Poinscttia, 320; bracts, 107; starch,
247-249.

Polarity, 50.

Polemoniacefp, 384.

Polianthes tuherosT, 301.

Pollards, 54, Fig. 87.

Pollen germinating. Fig. 203.

Pollen: spores borne by the stamen,
(254), 175.

Pollination: transfer of pollen from sta-
men to pistil, (263).

Pollinium: pollen in a coherent mass,
(279).

Polyanthus, 390.

Polygalaceffi, 346.

Polygonaeea', 317. •

Polygonatum, 301.

Polygonum, 318, Figs. 193, 4,55; climb-
ing, 108.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

427

Polyhedral, 233.

Polypetalous: corolla of separate parts

or petals, (251).
Polvpode. 173, 285, Fifis. 306, 307.
Polypodium, 291.
Polyporus, F!g. 121.
Polysepalous: caly.x of .separate parts or

sepals, (251).
Polytrichum commune, ISO, Figs. 33S-

340.
Pome: fruit of apple, pear, etc , (29S'>.
Pond-lily, 329.
Poplar bud, 36; cuttings, 27; dirrrioiis,

133; inflorescence, 117; phyllotaxy, 49

shape, 60, Fig. 97; seeds, 161.
Poppy, 330; opium, 246, 330.
Purtulaca, 339; fruit, Fig. 254.
Portulacacea>, 339.
Pot marigold, 406.
Potassium, 72; hydroxide, 241.
Potato, 16, 35, 153, 378, Figs. 24, 42,

219; and osmosis, 68; cuttings, 24;

flower, 137, Fig 219: inchi.sions, 249;

onion. 33, Figs. 45, 46; sprouts, 31. 76,

85, Fig. 42; starch, 31, 35, 248, 249,

Fig. 42; sweet, 16, 380.
Potato-tomato graft, 28.
Potentilla, 354.
Prickles, 105.
Prickly ash, 105, Fig. 157.
Primrose, 390; fruit. Fig. 249.
Primula Sinensis, 270, 390.
Primulacea?, 390.
Prince's feather, 319.
Privet, 389.
Propagation by buds, 22; leaves, 22;

roots, 20.
Prophase, 239.
Prosenchyma, 255.
Prostrate plants, 204.
Protein, 249.
Proterandrous: anthers maturing first,

(265).
Proterogvnous: pistils maturing first,

(265).
Prothallus, 173, Fig. 312.
Protococcus, 233, 234.
Protonema, 191.
Protoplasm, 80, 233.
Prunus, 356, Figs. 476-480.
Pseud-annual: perennial by means of

tubers, bulbs, etc., (13).
Pteridophyte, 176.
Pteris, 291.
Pteris aquilina, 173, 237, 291, Figs. 125,

308.
Puccinia graminis, 183, Figs. 325-

330,
Pulse family, 347.

Pumpkins and corn, 213, Fig. 358; flower,

137; collenchyma, 254; fiuit, 155;

hairs, 270; roots, 268.
Purslane, 339.
Pusley, 339

Pussies of willow, 117, Fig. 213.
Pyrus, 359.
Pyxis: pod opening around the top,

(292), Fig. 254.
Quack-grass, 19, 20.
Quercus, 311, Figs. 441-447.
Quillwort, 193.
Quince, 360; fruit, 155.
Quince-pear graft, 28.
Raceme: simple elongated indeterminate

cluster with stalked flowers, (237),

Fig. 173.
Radial, 261; bundles, 267.
Radish, 336; and light, 42, Fig. 70; fruit,

152; root, 7, 13, 17, 64, Figs. 11,

103.
Ragweed, 222, 225, 405, Fig. 497; great,

405.
Ranunculacesp, 323.
Ranunculus, 325.
Raphanus, 336.
Raphides, 250.
Raspberry, 20, 21, 161, 358, Fig 263;

fruit, 153; leaf. Fig. 128.
Rattlesnake plantain, 309.
Ray; outer modified florets of some com-
posites, (282).
Reagents, 241.

Receptacle, 123; of liverwort, 187.
Redbud, 349.
Regular flower: the parts in each series

alike, (258).
Reinforced fruit: other parts grown to

the pericarp, 153, (286).
Reniform, 94.
Resins, 246.
Respiration: taking in O, giving off

CO2, (172, 173); in seeds, 165.
Resting-spore, 179.
Rheumatism root, 328.
Rheum Rhaponticum, 317, Figs, 78,

79.
Rhizome: undergroimd stem; rootstock,

(44), 19, starch in, 31.
Rhododendron anther, 129.
Rhubarb, 3, 36, 45. 317, Figs. 78, 79.
Ribes, 363; Figs. 481-483.
Rice starch, 249.

Richardia Africana, 296, Fig. 427.
Ricinus, 320.
Rind, 2.59.

Rings of annual growth, 107, 263.
Robinia, 348, 349; spines, 105.
Rock cress, 334.

428

INDEX AND GLOSSAKY

Root -climbers, 108; cutting, 21; -hairs,
9, 12, 64, Figs. 11, 103-105, 110; -pres-
sure, 69, 73, P"ig. 109; system, 7; ex-
crete, 71; how elongate, 17; need air,
70; propation by, 20; structure, 259,
267.

Rootstock: subterranean stem; rhizome,
19, (U).

Rosa Carolina, 359; humilis, 359; lucida,
359; rubiginosa, 359.

Rosaceae, 353.

Rose acacia, 349.

Rose cutting. Fig. 34; family, 353; hip,
155, Fig. 265; mallow, 341; -mo.ss,
339, Fig. 254; of Shaion, 341; swamp,
359; climbing, 108; prickles, 105.

Rotate, 137.

Rowan, 360.

Rudbeckia hirta, 407, Fig. 498; laciniata
407.

Rubus, 358, Figs. 158, 263.

Rubicacese, 394.

Rue anemone, 324.

Rumex, 318, Fig. 453.

Runner: a trailing shoot taking root at
the nodes, (56).

Russian thistle, 163, Fig. 99.

Rust, 85, 183.

Rutland beauty, 380.

Rye-flower, 146, Fig. 239.

Saccharose, 245.

Sacred lily, Chine.se, 304, Fig. 435.

.Sage, common, 107, 369; scarlet, 369.

St. John's -wort, 125, :339, Figs. 192, 252.

St. Peter's wreath, 361.

Salsify, 403.

Salt-loving societies, 219, Fig. 371.

Saltpeter, in osmosis, 66.

Salverform, 137.

Salvia officinalis, 369; splendens, 369.

Samara: indehiscent winged pericarp,
(287).

Sambucus Canadensis, 398, racemosa;
398.

Sanguinaria, 330.

Sapindacese, 343.

Saponaria officinalis, 321.

Saphrophyte, 85, 86, 200

Sassafras, 136.

Saxifrage, 362.

Sa.xifragaceffi, 361; crystals, 250.

Scalariform: with elongated markings,
(390).

Scape: leafless peduncle arising from the
ground, (248).

Scenery and plants, 202.

Sclerenchyma, 236, 257.

Scouring rush, 193.

Scramblers, 108.

Scrophularia, 374.

Serophulariacece, 372.

Scutellaria, 371.

Sacondary thickening, 263.

S3dgHS, phyllotaxy, 49.

Seed: a reproductive body containing an

embryo plant, 5.
Seed, coats, 164; starch, in 31; dispersal,

l.'j8; -variations, 228.
Selection, 231.
Self-fertilization: secured by pollen from

same flower; close fertilization, (260).
Self-heal, 370.
Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from

stamen to pistil of sama flower; close-
pollination, (263).
Seneca snakeroot, 347.
Senna, 353.
Sepal: one of the separate leaves of a

calyx, (251).
Septicidal: dehiscence along the parti-
Serrate: saw-toothed, (200).
Service berry, 359.
Sessile: not stalked, (195).
Shadbush, 359.

Shade and leaves, 98; and plants, 215.
Shadows in trees, 61.
Sharon, Rose of, 341.
Sheep and plants, 224.
Sheepberry, 397, Fig. 279.
Sheep sorrel, 318, Fig. 453.
Shepherdia, hairs, 270,
Shepherd's purse capsule, 152, 336, Fig.

259.
Shooting star, 391.
Sieve tissue, 254.
Silene, 322.

Silicle: short fruit of Crucifera>, (293).
Silique: long fruit of Cruciferae, (293).
Silkweed, 386.
Silphium, 50.

Simple pistil: of one carpel, (255).
Sinistrorse; left-handed, (231).
Sisyrinchium, 306.
Skullcap, 371.

Skunk cabbage, 141, 225, 250, 295.
Sleep of leaves, 50.
Slips, 24.

Sn.artweed, 125, 136, 148, 31S, 319.
Smilacina racemosa, 301; stellata, 301.
Smilax of florists, 103, 301, Fig. 434.
Smilax tendril. 111.
Snakehead, 374.
Snapdragon, 137, 374, Fig. 220.
Snowball, 145, Figs. 236, 237, 334;

.Japanese, 398.
Snowberry, Fig. 260.
Snowdrop, 304, Fig. 436.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

429

Snowflake, 304.

Soapberry family, 343.

Soapwort, 321.

Societies, 219.

Softwood cutting, 24.

Soil and plants, 200; and variation, 206;
holds moisture, 70; water from, 64.

SolanacesB, 377.

Solanum, 108, 378, Figs. 42, 219, 261.

Solidago, 410.

Solitary flowers, 115.

Solomon's seal, 301; filse, 301; two-
leaved, 301.

Sonchus, 404.

Soredia, 186.

Sori 172, 184.

Sorrel, 318, Fig. 453.

Spadix: thick or fleshy spike of certain
plants, (280).

Spanish bayonet, 162; moss, 88.

Spathe: bract surrounding or attending
aspadi.x, (280), 141.

Spatterdock, 329.

Spatulate, 94.

Spearmint, 370, Fig. 484.

Species, 275.

Specularia, 398.

Speedwell, 376.

Spencer, quoted, 231

Spermatozoids, 190.

Sperm-cell, 180.

Spiderwort, 235, 302.

Spike: compact more or less simple, in-
determinate cluster, with flowers ses-
sile or nearly so, (238). Figs. 174, 175.

Spikelet: a secondary spike; one of a
compound spike, 146.

Spikenard, false, 301.

Spines, 104, 105.

Spiranthes, 309.

Spirea, 360; inflorescence, 117, Fig. 179.

Spring beauty, 339.

Spirogyra, 178, 233, 234, Fig. 313, 314.

Spleen wort, 291.

Sporangia of ferns, 172; stamens, 124.

Sporangiophore, 181.

Spore: a simple reproductive body, usu-
ally composed of a single detached cell
containing no embryo, 5, 86, 172, ISO.

Spore-case, 172.

Sporogonium, 188.

Sporophyll, 176.

Sporophyte, 174, 194.

Spruce, 15, 293. Figs. 270, 271. 424.

Spruce cone, Fig. 271; seed. Fig. 155.

Spurge, 320.

Squash fruit, 155, Fig. 269; germination.
171; Guinea, 378, Fig. 261; hairs, 105,
235; roots, 268.

Squirrel corn, 332.

Squirrels and birds. 47. 162.

Stains, 241.

Stamen: pollen-bearing organ, (253).

Staminate: having stamens and no pis-
tils, (257).

Stand, dissecting, 127, Fig. 201.

Staphylea, 346.

Star of Bethlehem, 299.

Starch and sugar. 246; as plant-food. 64;
discussed, 247-249; how made, 77, 78;
storage of, 31.

Star-grass, 305.

Steeple, compared with plants, 18.

Stick-seed, 382.

Stellaria media, 323, Fig. 457.

Stellate, 233.

Stem, how elongates, 17; structure, 259;
system, 14; tubers, 33.

Stemless plants, 15.

Sterile flower: no stamens or pistils,
(257).

Stick-tight, 162, 382.

Stigma: part of the pistil wliich receives
the pollen, (256).

Stipel: stipule of a leaflet, (196).

Stipule: a certain basal appendage of a
leaf, (194); as spines, 105.

Stock, 334.

Stock: the part on which the cion is
grafted, (69).

Stolon: a shoot which bends to the
ground and takes root, (56).

Stomate, 75, 271, 273.

Stone fruit, 153.

Storehouses, 31.

Strawberry, 355, 356, Fig. 475; plant.
15. 21; fruit. 153, 155, Fig. 264.

Straw lilies, 300.

Struggle for existence, 52, 209.

Strychnin, 246.

Style: elongated part of the pistil be-
tween the ovary and stigma, (256).

Stylophorum, 331.

Suberin, 236.

Suckers, 54; of fungi, 86.

Sugar, 245, 246.

Sulfur, 72.

Summer-spore, 183.

Sundrops, 365.

Sunflower, 3, 19. 407, Figs. 3, 4, 23, 27;
doubling, 145; family, 400; inflores-
cence, 116, Fig. 177; rays, 143; society
225; transpiration in, 82.

Sunlight and plants, 42, 214.

Supernumerary buds: more than one in
an axil, (87).

Suri'ival of the fittest, 231.

Swamp plants, 199, 219.

430

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Swarm-spore, 179.

Sweet alyssum, 336, Fig. 460.

Sweetbriar, 359.

Sweet Cicely, 367.

Sweet pea, 110, 350, Figs. 165, 222.

Sweet potato, 16, 380.

Sweet Williain, 321, Fig. 456.

Sycamore, 273, Fig. 417.

Symbiosis, 186.

Symplocarpus foetidus, 295.

Sympodial: axial growtii continued by

successive lateral shoots, 1 13
Syngenesious: anthers united in a rins,

(282).
Syringa, 363, 389.
Tabular, 233.
Tamaraclv 294.
Tanecetum vulgare, 408.
Tangle-berry, 392.
Tannin, 246.
Tansy, 408.
Tap-root, 7.

Tara.xacum officinale, 403, Figs. 8, 275.
Tare, 350.
Teasel, 3.

Tecoma, 10; capsule, 152, Fig. 258.
Teleutospore, 184.
Telophase, 240.
Tendril, 109; roots as, 10.
Terrestrial, 199.
Teucrium, 370.
Thalictrum, 325.

Thallophyte, 176, 178. Thallus, 178.
Thi-stle, 142, 404, 409, Figs. 228-230,

276; down, 161, Fig. 276; Rus.sian,

Fig. 99; star, 410.
Thorn spines, 104, Figs. 152-155.
Thoroughwort, 413, Fig. 159.
Thyrse: compound cluster with main

axis indeterminate and branches de-
terminate, (245).
Thuja, 294, Fig. 426.
Tiarella, 362.
Tiers of branches, 54.
Tiger-flower, 375, Fig. 487; lily, 298,

Fig. 30.
Tillandsia, 88.
Tissues, 252; systems, 257.
Toad-flax, 20, 23, 373, 374, Figs. 255,

485; flower, 137; poUination, 132, Fig.

211.
Toadstools, 180

Tobacco, 379; cell-sap, 246; Indian,400.
Tomato, 121, 378, Fig. 186; fruit, 153;

graft, 28.
Toothwort, 335.
Torus: part or organ to which the parts

of the flower are attached; upper end

of the flower-stalk. (252).

Touch-me-not, 343.

Toxylon pomiferum, 315, Fig. 451.

Tracheids, 256.

Tradescantia, 235, 238, 302.

Tragapogon, 403.

Transpiration, giving off' of water, (174).

Trees, forms of, 59; struggle in, 53.

Trifolium, 350, Figs. 82, 468.

Trillium, 138, 300, Fig. 221; society, 225.

Trimerous: in 3's, (271).

TropiEolum, 342, Fig. 195.

Trumpet-creeper, 10, 152, Fig. 258.

Truncate: appearing as if cut off;

squared, (199), Fig. 141.
Tsuga Canaden.sis, 293, Fig. 425.
Tuber: short congested part, (77).
Tuberose, 304.

Tulipa Gesneriana, 298; suaveolens. 298.
Tulip-tree fruits, 160; leaf. Fig. 141.
Tumble-weeds, 163.
Turnip, 7, 13; fruit, 152; Indian, 295.

Fig. 226.
Turnip, starch in, 31, Fig. 44.
Turtlehead, 374.
Tu.ssilago, 410.
Twigs, history of, 56; starch in, 32, Fig.

43.
Twiners, 108, 111.
Twin-leaf, 328.

Ulmus, 314, Figs. 146, 448, 449, 450.
Umbel: corymbose cluster with branches

of about equal length and arising from

a common point, (242).
Umbellet: secondary umbel, (242).
Umbelliferae, 366.
Undergrowth, 224.
Undulate: wavy, (200).
Uredospore, 185.
Urtica dioica, 316; gracilis, 316.
Urticaceae, 313.
Uvularia, 300.
Vacuole, 234.
Vaccinium, 392.

Valves: separable parts of a pod, (278).
Variation, 228.
Vascular, 233, 256.
Vaucheria, 179, 233, Figs. 315, 316.
Vegetable mould, 202.
Velum, 194.

Venation: veining, (191).
Verbascum, 373, Fig 22; hairs, 270.
Verbena, 372; cutting, Fig. 35.
Verbenacese, 372.
Vernonia, 413
Veronica, 376.
Verticillate: with three or more leaves or

flowers at one node, (112).
Vervain, 372.
Vetch, 360.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

431

Vetchling, 349.

Viburnum, 397, Fig. 279.

Vicia, 350.

Vigna Sinensis, 353, Fig. 473.

Vinca, 387.

Vine, cypress, 380, Fig. 492.

ViolaeeiB, 337.

Violet, 3, 337, 338; cleistogamous, 134,

Fig. 216; seeds, 158; society. 225.
Viper's Buglo.?s.
Virgin's bower, 327
Virginia creeper, tendril, 109, 113, Fig.

163.
Wake-robin, 300.
Wallflower fruit, 152; hairs, 270.
Walnut buds, 37, 133, 147.
Wandering Jew, 303.
Water, how the plant takes, 64; -lily, 3,

198; pores, 271; roots search for, 9.
Waterleaf, 383.
Watersprout, 21, 54.
Water cress, 335.
Water hoarhound, 369.
Water-lily, 329.
Wax for grafting, 30.
Wax-work, twiner, 112.
Weigela, 397.
Weeds, 214, 222.
Wheat field, Fig. 357; flower, 146, Fig.

238; India, 318; rust, 183, Figs. 325-

330; starch, 249.

Whiteweed, 407, Fig. 169.

Whorl: three or more leaves or flowers at
one node, (112).

Wild oats, 300.

William, Sweet, 321, Fig. 456.

Willow buds, 41, Fig. 86; cuttings, 21,
dioecious, 133; expression, 61; inflores-
cence, 117, Fig. 213; mildew, 182,
Figs. 321, 324; phyllotaxy, 49; pol-
lard. Fig. 87; pussies, Fig. 56; seeds,
161.

Willow-herb, 365.

Wilting, 68, 71, 83, 84.

Wind and plants, 204; travelers, 159.

Wind-flower, 324

Window box, 163.

Winter bud, 36.

Wmter-pre.=:«, 334.

Wmtergreen, 393; anther, 129; flower-
ing, 347.

Wistaria, 112, 347.

Wood sorrel, 342.

Xanthium, 405, Fig. 496.

Xerophytic society, 219, Fig. 344.

Xylem, 257.

Yarrow. 406.

Yeast, 234.

Yew fruit, 156.

Zebrin^i, 303.

Zone societies, 225, Fig. 380.

Zygospore, 179.

ihe cnKiigmii uii„' ot t i.l uit uhi li piopagites, its,elf

by means of rootstocks — feae.iline a plant recently introduced troni Asia

allied to docks and smartweeds.

M. C. SiaU

<See pa«o M.)i

CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN
HORTICULTURE

By L. H. BAILEY

Of Corn«ll University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many Expert
Cultivators and Botanists

FOUR VOLUMES - OVER 2800 ORIGINAL EN-
GRAVINGS—CLOTH- OCTAVO-$20 NET PER
SET - HALF MOROCCO, $32 NET PER SET

This great work coniprises directions for the cultiva-
tion of horticultural crops and original descriptions of
all the species of fruits, vegetables, fiowers and orna-
mental plants known to be in the market in the United
States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction of
presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged
and perfectly accessible form, the best knowledge of the
best specialists in America upon gardening, fruit-grow-
ing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the like, as Avell as
exact botanical information. . . . The contributors
are eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrange-
ment is very systematic, clear and convenient for ready
reference."

"We have here a work which every ambitious gimlenpr will wish to plftre
ou his shelf beside his Nicholson ;iiid liis Loiuimi, and for sncti users of it a too
advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last decree. Witli the
safe names here given there is little liability to serious perplexity. Tliere is a
growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning revision of names
of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those investigators who ;'re busied
witli the ecological aspects of organisms, atul also those who are chiefly concerned
with the application of plants to the arts of agriculture, horticulture, and so on,
care for the names of organisms under examination only so far as these aid in
recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious
blunder. Professor Baile.v has avoided the risk of confusion. In short in range,
treatment and editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful: ... a
work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary."— T/ic Nation.

This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and further
information may be had of the publishers.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE

On Selection of Land, etc.

Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm $1 75 net

E. W. Hiljrard's Soils : Thoir Formation, and Rela-

tions to Climatp and Plant (Irowth 4 00 net

Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead 1 oO net

On Tillage, Crops, etc.

F. H. King's The Soil

Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land ....

Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions

F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage

Wm. E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America . .

Edward B. Voorhces' Fertilizers

Edward B. ^'oorhees' Forage Crops

H. Snyder's Cliemistry of Plant and Animal Life . .
H. Snyder's Soils and Fertilizers. Third edition . . .

L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture

W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern

and "Western

J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools . .

On Plant Diseases, etc.

George Massee's Plant Diseases

J. G. Lipman'g Bacteria in Relation to Country Life

E. C. Lodeman's The Spraj'ing of Plants

H. M. ^^'ard's Disease in Plants (English) ....
A. S. Packanl's A Text-book on I^ntoinology . . .

On Production of New Plants

L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding

L. II. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike

L. II. Bailey's The Evolution of our Native Fruits .
W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life . . ,

On Garden Making

L. li. Bailey's Practical Garden-Book

L. H Bailey's Garden-Making

L. H. Bailey's ^■egetable-Gardewing

L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book

L. H. Bailey's Forcing-Book

A. French's Book of \egetables

.'A) net

.-)() net

2.") net

50 net

50 net

25 net

50 net

25 net

25 net

25 ne«

75 net

75 net

1

60 net

1

50 net

1

25 net

1

60 net

4

50 net

1

25 net

2

00 net

2

00 net

1

75 net

1

00 net

1

50 nfjt

1

50 net

75 net

1

25 net

1

75 net

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE, continued
On Fruit-growing, etc.

L. II. Bailey's Nursery-Book $1 50 net

L. II. Bailey's Fruit-growing 1 50 net

L. II. Bailey's The Pruning-Book 1 50 net

F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 net

On the Care of Live Stock

Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 50 net

W. II. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 50 net

I. P. Roberts' The Horse 1 25 net

George C. Watson's Farm Poultry 1 25 net

On Dairy Work

Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products 1 50 net

C. M. Aikman's Milk 1 25 net

Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry 1 00 net

W. I). Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary

Bacteriology 1 60 net

I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy 1 00 net

On Economics and Organization

L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer 1 25 net

Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Eeonomics 1 25 net

I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook . . 1 25 net

George T. Fairehild's Rural Wealth and Welfare . . 1 25 net

S. E. Sparling's Business Organization 1 25 net

In the Cilizen's Liln-ary. Includes ;i chapter on Farming.

Kate V. St. Maur's A Self- Supporting Home ... 1 75 net

Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty 1 75 net

On Everything Agricultural

L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:
Vol. 1. Farms, Climates, and Soils.
Vol. II. Faim Crops.
Vol. HI. Farm Animals.
Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.

Price of sets: Cloth, !)!120 net; half-raoiocco, $32 net.

For fio-llirr information as to ami of the above,
address the jruhlishers

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK

CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN
AGRICULTURE

Edited by L. H. BAILEY

Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American Horticultuie,"
Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of Agriculture," etc.

WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2,000 ILLUS-
TRATIONS IN THE TEXT - FOUR VOLUMES — THE SET ■
CLOTH, $20 NET-HALF-MOROCCO, $32 NET-CARRIAGE EXTRA

Volume I— Farms

The Airriciiltural R(-s;ions-The Projecting of a Fanii-Tlie Soil
Eiiviioimiciit — The Atmosphere Environment.

Volume II — Crops

Thf I'lrnit ami It-< R.-hitjons- The Maniifar-tnrH <,t ('v]> l'ro.lnr'>-
Norili Auiciifan Field Crops.

Volume III— Animals

Tlie Animal and Tts Relations-Tlie Mannfac-tnre of Animal Piod-
ticts-Xcirth American Farm Animals.

Volume IV— The Farm and the Community

Economies — Sfx'ial Questions — Organizations — History — Liter'^.
ture, ete.

"Indispensable to pnlilic and reference libraries . . . readily com preh»»
sible to ;vny peison of average education." — The Nation.

"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions o^
modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass
before it can be surpassed iti comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical value,
and mechanical excpllence. It ought to be in every library in the eonntry."
—Hi'fonl Herald. Chicago.

Published by

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK