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Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/botanyelementaryOObailuoft

BO tay

1. “From fragile mushrooms, delicate water-weeds and pond-scums, to floating leaves,

soft grasses, course weeds, tall bushes, slender climbers, gigantic trees, and
hanging moss.” See Chapter I.

B
BOTANY

aoe M BN TA EY Oe Xx 7
SEIS (eee OM s KOON Tyo)

BY

mt BATLEY

%
L 0
«Pe / | {|
j2Qew Work
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Lp.

1900

CopyriGHT, 1900

By L. H. BAILEY

Mount jOleasant JPrinterp

J. Horace McFarland Company
Harrisburg, Pa.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

THis book is made for the pupil: “Lessons with
Plants” was made to supplement the work of the
teacher.

There are four general subjects in this book: the
nature of the plant itself; the relation of the plant
to its surroundings; histological studies; determination
of the kinds of plants. From the pedagogical point of
view, the third is the least important. Each of the
subjects is practically distinct, so that the teacher may
begin where he will.

The schools and the teachers are not ready for
the text-book which presents the subject from the view-
point of botanical science. Perhaps it is better that

the secondary schools attempt only to teach plants.

A book may be ideal from the specialist’s point of
view, and yet be of little use to the pupil and the
school,

i: fe, Se ae

The pupil should come to the study of plants and
animals with little more than his natural and native
powers. Study with the compound microscope is a
specialization to be made when the pupil has had
experience, and when his judgment and sense of
relationships are trained,

(v)

vl PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

One of the first things that a child should learn
when he comes to the study of natural history is the
fact that no two things are alike. This leads to an
apprehension of the correlated fact that every animal
and plant contends for an opportunity to live, and this
is the central fact in the study of living things. The
world has a new meaning when this fact is under-

stood.

The ninety and nine cannot and should not be
botanists, but everyone can love plants and nature.
Every person is interested in the evident things, few
in the abstruse and reecondite. Education should train
persons to live, rather than to be scientists.

Now and then a pupil develops a love of science
for science’s sake. He would be an investigator. He
would add to the sum of human knowledge. He should
be encouraged. There are colleges and universities in

which he may continue his studies.

In the secondary schools botany should be taught
for the purpose of bringing the pupil closer to the
things with which he lives, of widening his horizon,
of intensifying his hold on life. It should begin
with familiar plant forms and phenomena. It should
be related to the experiences of the daily life. It
should not be taught for the purpose of making the
pupil a specialist: that effort should be retained for the
few who develop a taste for special knowledge. It is
often said that the high-school pupil should begin the

study of botany with the lowest and simplest forms of

a

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER vill

life. This is wrong. The microscope is not an intro-
duction to nature. It is said that the physiology of
plants ean be best understood by beginning with the
lower forms. This may be true: but technical plant
physiology is not a subject for the beginner. Other
subjects are more important.

The youth is by nature a generalist. He should
not be forced to be a_ specialist.

A great difficulty in the teaching of botany is to
determine what are the most profitable topies for con-
sideration. The trouble with much of the teaching is
that it attempts to go too far, and the subjects have

no vital connection with the pupil’s life.

Good botanical teaching for the young is_ replete
with human interest. It is connected with the common

associations.

The teacher often hesitates to teach botany because
of lack of technical knowledge of the subject. This
is well; but technical knowledge of the subject does
not make a good teacher. Expert specialists are so
likely to go into mere details and to pursue particu-
lar subjects so far, when teaching beginners, as_ to
miss the leading and emphatic points. They are so
cognizant of exceptions to every rule that they qualify
their statements until the statements have no force.
There are other ideals than those of mere accuracy. In

other words, it is more important that the teacher be

vili PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

a good teacher than a good botanist. One may be
so exact that his words mean nothing. But being a
good botanist does not spoil a good teacher.

An imperfect method that is adapted to one’s use
is better than a perfect one that cannot be used.
Some school laboratories are so perfect that they dis-
courage the pupil in taking up investigations when
thrown on his own resources. Imperfect equipment
often encourages ingenuity and originality. A good
teacher is better than all the laboratories and apparatus.

Good teaching devolves on the personality and
enthusiasm of the teacher; but subject-matter is a
prime requisite. The teacher should know more than
he attempts to teach. Every teacher should have
access to the current botanical books. The school
library should contain these books. By consulting the
new books the teacher keeps abreast of the latest
opinion.

When beginning to teach plants, think more of
the pupil than of botany. The pupil’s mind and sym-
pathies are to be expanded: the science of botany is
not to be extended. The teacher who thinks first of
his subject teaches science; he who thinks first of
his pupil teaches nature-study.

Teach first the things nearest to hand. When the
pupil has seen the common, he may be introduced to

the rare and distant. We live in the midst of common
things.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER 1X

The old way of teaching botany was to teach the
forms and the names of plants. It is now proposed
that only function be taught. But one cannot study
function intelligently without some knowledge of plant
forms and names. He must know the language of the
subject. The study of form and function should go
together. Correlate what a plant is with what it does.
What is this part? What is its office, or how did it
come to be? It were a pity to teach phyllotaxy with-
out teaching light-relation: it were an equal pity to

teach light-relation without teaching phyllotaxy.

Four epochs can be traced in the teaching of
elementary botany: (1) The effort to know the names
of plants and to classify. This was the outgrowth of
the earlier aspect of plant knowledge, when it was
necessary to make an inventory of the things in the
world. (2) The desire to know the formal names of
the parts of plants. This was an outgrowth of the
study of gross morphology. Botanies came to be dic-
tionaries of technical terms. (3) The effort to develop
the powers of independent investigation. This was
largely a result of the German laboratory system,
which developed the trained specialist investigator. — It
emphasized the value of the compound microscope
and other apparatus. This method is of the greatest
service to botanical science, but its introduction into
the secondary schools is usually unfortunate. (4) The
effort to know the plant as a complete organism
living its own life in a natural way. In the begin-

ning of this epoch we are now living.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER

A

There is a general protest against the teaching of
‘bie names” to pupils; but the pupil does not object
to technical terms if he acquires them when he learns
the thing to which they belong, as he acquires other
language. When a part is_ discovered the name
becomes a necessity, and is not easily forgotten. He
should be taught not to memorize the names. The
“hard” words of to-day are the familiar words of
to-morrow. There are no words in this book harder

than ehrysanthemum, thermometer, and hippopotamus.

The book should be a guide to the plant: the
plant should not be a guide to the book.

Plants should not be personified or endowed out-
right with motives; but figures of speech and_ para-
bles may often be employed to teach a lesson or to
drive home a_ point.

Excite the pupil’s interest rather than his wonder.
The better the teacher, the less will he confine him-
self to the questions at the end of the lesson.

Botany always should be taught by the “laboratory
method:” that is, the pupil should work out the sub-
jects directly from the specimens themselves.

Specimens mean more to the pupil when he collects
them.

No matter how commonplace the subject, a speci-
men will vivify it and fix it in the pupil’s mind.

A living, growing plant is worth a score of herba-
rium specimens.

PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER X1

Acknowledgements. —To hundreds of young people in
many places the author is under the profoundest
obligations, for they have instructed him in the point
of view. Specific aid has been given by many persons.
From the teacher’s point of view, proofs have been
read by Miss Julia E. Rogers, Minburn, Iowa; Miss
L. B. Sage, Norwich, N. Y.; Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller,
lecturer of the Bureau of Nature-Study in Cornell
University. From the botanist’s point of view, all the
proofs have been read by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, of
the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology,
United States Department of Agriculture, and his
suggestions have been invaluable. Chapters XI and
XII are adapted from two papers which were con-
tributed to a Farmer’s Reading-Course under the
author’s charge, by Dr. B. M. Duggar, of Cornell
University. Two specialists, with whom it has been
the author’s privilege to associate as teacher and
collaborator, have contributed particular parts: Dr.
K. C. Davis, the greater portion of Part III, and
H. Hasselbring, the most of Chapter XXV. On special
problems the author has had the advice of Dr. kK. M.

Wiegand, of Cornell University.
Preah BAILEY.
HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT,
CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.
October 1, 1900,

The common pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea.
The pitchers, or leaves, hold water, in which organic matter collects.
This decaying matter probably aids somewhat in nourishing the plant.

CONTENTS

PART I

THE PLANT ITSELF

CHAPTER

evil,
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.

The Plant as a Whole .

The Root .

The Stem . eet hE nares
Propagation by Means of Roots and Stems

. How the Horticulturist Propagates Plants by Means

of Roots and Stems

. Food Reservoirs .
. Winter Buds

. Plants and Sunlight .

Struggle for Existence amongst the Branches .

. The Forms of Plants

How the Plant Takes inthe Soil Water .
The Making of the Living Matter
Dependent Plants .

Leaves and Foliage

Morphology, or the Study of the Forms of

Members
How Plants Climb
Flower-Branches
The Parts of the Flower .
Fertilization and Pollination
Particular Forms of Flowers
Fruits
Dispersal of Seeds

(xiii)

Plant

PAGE

X1V CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XI Genminaionee neat se a en a oe ee LG
XXIV. Phenogams and Cryptogams . 7
RXV. Studies: in Cryptocams pe see) ee cae ee

PONT JO

THE PLANT IN Its ENVIRONMENT

XOX Vl. “Wihere: elantsiGuows. oases Sec = ee ee pan era
XXVII. Contention with Physical Environment. ...... 203
MEX VIL. Competition with Mellowsy meee wae feast
MONIES, IPI TA SOCIEMES 3 56 2 5 4 o . ect Se aa ae ah
VOOM, Weneieymorm anal Ihe 1veRiUnS) 4.6 8 = a 2 6 6 5 a 6 a o 7 Bes

PAR in

HIsToLoGy, OR THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

XOX. Whe Cell. = Saeeesa BD A ne ee noe, ee OO
Roo. Contents aud Products om Cellsm . 0 sc) eer
ORO UY SSUES eee ree BAe re eR mee ree gente NG)
NOOO. Structure Of Stems andy hOOtses elem cen cn t-un nnn OO,
NeNOve Structuresof eaves! = on a eee nee ee ee)

PART IV

THE KINDS oF PLANTS (p. 275)

BOTANY
PART I—THE PLANT ITSELF

CHAPTER I
THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

1. Aplant is a living, growing thing. It partakes of
the soil and air and sunshine. It propagates its kind and
covers the face of the earth. It has
much with which to contend. It makes
the most of every opportunity. We
shall learn its parts, how it lives, and
how it behaves.

2. THE PARTS OF A PLANT. — Our
familiar plants are made up of several
distinct parts. The most prominent of Soar
these parts are root, stem, leaf, flower, -« %y
fruit and seed. Fig.2. Familiar plants
differ wonderfully in size and shape,—
from fragile mushrooms, delicate water-
weeds and pond-scums, to floating leaves,
soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes,
slender climbers, gigantic trees, and
hanging moss. See frontispiece.

3. THE STEM PART.—In most plants
there is a main central part or shaft on

. 2. A buttercup plant,
which the other or secondary parts are snowing the various parts.

A (1)

2 THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

borne. This main part is the plant axis. Above ground,
in familiar plants, the axis bears the branches, leaves
and flowers; below ground, it bears the roots.

4. The rigid part of the plant, which persists over win-
ter and which is left after leaves and flowers are fallen, is
the framework of the plant. The framework is composed
of both root and stem. When the plant is dead, the
framework remains for a time, but it slowly decays. The
dry winter stems of weeds are the framework or skeleton
of the plant. Figs. 3 and 4. The framework of trees is
the most conspicuous part of the plant.

5. THE ROOT PART.—The root bears the stem at its
apex, but otherwise it normally bears only root-branches.
The stem, however, bears leaves, flowers and fruits.
Those living surfaces of the plant which are most exposed
to light are green or highly colored. The root tends to
grow downward, but the stem tends to grow upward toward
light and air. The plant is anchored or fixed in the soil by
the roots. Plants have been called “earth parasites.”

6. THE FOLIAGE PART.— The leaves precede the flowers

in point of time or in the life of the plant. The flowers
always precede the fruits and seeds. Many plants die when
the seeds have matured. The whole mass of leaves of any
plant or any branch is known as its foliage.
7. THE PLANT GENERATION.— The course of a plant’s
life, with all the events through which the plant naturally
passes, is known as the plant’s life-history. The life-
history embraces various stages or epochs, as dormant seed,
germination, growth, flowering, fruiting. Some plants run
their course in a few weeks or months, and some live
for centuries.

8. The entire life-period of a plant is called a genera-
tion. It is the whole period from birth to normal death,

without reference to the various stages or events through
which it passes.

THE PLANT GENERATION 3

9. A generation begins with the young seed, not with
germination. Jt ends with death — that is, when no life is
left in any part of the plant, and only the seed or spore
remains to perpetuate the kind. In a bulbous plant, as a
lily or an onion, the generation
does not end until the bulb dies,
even though the top is dead.

10. When the generation is
of only one season’s duration,
the plant is said to be annual.
When it is of two seasons, it is
biennial. Biennials usually bloom
the second year. When of three
or more seasons, the plant is
perennial. Examples of annuals
are pigweed, bean, pea, garden
sunflower; of biennials, fox-
glove, mullein, teasel, parsnip,
carrot; of perennials, dock,
meadow grass, cat-tail, and
all shrubs and trees.

11. DURATION OF THE
PLANT BODY.— Plant strue-
tures which are more or less
soft and which die at the
close of the season are said to be herbaceous, in contra-
distinction to being ligneous or woody. A plant which is
herbaceous to the ground is called an herb; but an herb
may have a woody or perennial root, in which case it is
called an herbaceous perennial. Annual plants are classed
as herbs. Examples of herbaceous perennials are butter-

| ,

Ve
Vite
(A.

te) Ww Se

3. Plant of a wild 4. Framework
sunflower, of No. 3.

cup (Fig. 2), bleeding heart, violet, water-lily, many
grasses, dock, dandelion, golden rod, asparagus, rhubarb,
many wild sunflowers (Figs. 3, 4).

12. Many herbaceous perennials have short generations.

+ THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

They become weak with one or two seasons of flowering
and gradually die out. Thus red clover begins to fail after
the second year. Gardeners know that the best bloom of
hollyhock, larkspur, pink, and many other plants, is
secured when the plants are only two or three years old.

13. Herbaceous perennials which die away each season
to bulbs or tubers, are sometimes called pseud-annuals
(that is, false annuals). Of such are lily, crocus,
onion, potato.

i

sayy Se 272° |-
Peo a7 ok
Bes

este uf
Cone Tce oa

5. A shrub or bush. Dogwood osier.

14. Plants which are normally perennial may become
annual in a shorter-season climate by being killed by frost,
rather than by dying naturally at the end of a season of
growth. Such plants are called plur-annuals in the short-
season region. Many tropical perennials are plur-annuals
when grown in the north, but they are treated as true an-
nuals because they ripen sufficient of their crop the same
season in which the seeds are sown to make them worth
cultivating, as tomato, red pepper, castor bean.

HOW PLANTS ARE MODIFIED 5

15. Woody or ligneous plants are usually longer lived
than herbs. Those which remain low and produce several
or many similar shoots from the base are called shrubs, as
lilac, rose, elder, osier. Fig.5. Low and thick shrubs are
bushes. Plants which produce one main trunk and a
more or less elevated head are trees. Fig. 6.

16. PLANTS ARE MODIFIED BY THE CONDITIONS IN
WHICH THEY GROW.—In most plants, the size, form and
general appearance vary or change with the conditions in
which the plant grows. That is,
there is no uniform or necessary
form into which plants shall grow.
No two plants are exactly alike.
Observe plants of the same kind
and age, and see how they differ
or vary. The farmer and gar-
dener can cause plants to be large
or small of their kind, by chang-
ing the conditions or circumstan-
ces under which they grow. ‘

17. No two parts of the same EEG af

Kee

&
the.
Leas 4,
SOOT ARES ings
Re hos . ; ie
<i ies Ga a

plant are exactly alike. No two SG eae

: PH Pera ee ;
parts grow in the same conditions, ) at a oe Pas lb:
for one is nearer the main stem, _. ais

one nearer the light, and another
has more room. Try to find two

6. A tree, The weeping birch.

leaves or two branches on the same plant which are exactly
aluxey Fic. T:

18. Every plant makes an effort to propagate or to per
petuate its kind; and as far as we can see, this is the end
for which the plant itself lives. The seed or spore is
the final product of the plant.

19. Every plant,—and every part of a plant,—under-
goes vicissitudes. It has to adapt itself to the condi-
tions in which it lives. It contends for place in which to

6 THE PLANT AS A WHOLE

erow, and for air and light. Its life is eventful. Every
plant, therefore, has a history and a story to tell.

Review. — Of what
parts is a plant com-
posed? What is the
axis? What parts are
borne on the stem? On
the root ?. On what part
are the most highly col-
ored parts found? What
direction does the root
take? The stem? How
are plants anchored in
the soil? In what order
do the different parts ap-
pear? What is meant by
the life-history? What are some of the stages or events in the life-
history? At what point does a generation begin? When end? By what
means does the next generation begin? What is an Annual? Biennial?
Perennial? Herbaceous perennial? Pseud-annual? Shrub? Bush?
Tree? Give three examples of each of these classes, not mentioning
any given in the book. What is a plur-annual? Why are no two parts
or plants exactly alike? What is the final effort of every plant? Why
is the life of a plant eventful?

Norre.—The teacher may assign each pupil to one plant in the
school yard, field, or in a pot, and ask him to bring out the points in
the lesson.

7. There are no two branches alike.

Winter-time brings out the framework of the plants.

CHAPTER II

THE ROOT

20. THE ROOT SYSTEM.—The offices of the root are to
hold the plant in place, and to gather food. Not all the
food materials, however, are gathered by the roots.

21. The entire mass of roots of any plant is called its
root system. The root system may be annual, biennial or
perennial, herbaceous or
woody, deep or shallow,
large or small. eee

22. KINDS OF ROOTS.— “AA SSXaa
A strong leading central ORS
root, which runs directly
downwards, is a tap-root. E
The side or spreading roots are usually i Vos Yip
smaller. Plants which have such a ey, |), aes

—7 GW
root system are said to be tap-rooted. ee ;
Examples are red clover, beet, turnip,
‘adish, burdock, dandelion. Fig. 8.

23. A fibrous root system is one -» _At ye
which is composed of many nearly Af\ e
equal slender branches. The greater + i Bi,
number of plants have fibrous roots. an m
Examples are many common grasses, {I
wheat, oats, corn, and most trees. 4 8. Tap-root

\ of the

The buttereup in Fig. 2 has a fibrous
root system.

24. SHAPE AND EXTENT OF THE ROOT SYSTEM. — ‘The
depth to which roots extend depends on the kind of plant,
and the nature of the soil. Of most plants the roots

(7)

dandelion,

8 THE ROOT

extend far in all
directions and lie
comparatively near
the surface. The
roots usually radi-
ate from a common
point just beneath
the surface of the
ground

25; Uhe. sroots
go here and_ there
in search of food,

9. The crooked roots exposed where the soil has Ouet en extending
been washed away.

much farther in all
directions than the spread of the top of the plant. Roots
tend to spread farther in poor soil than in rich soil. The
root has no such definite form as the stem has. Roots are
usually very crooked, because they are constantly turned
aside by obstacles. Fig. 9. Examine
roots in stony or gravelly soil.

26. The extent of root surface is usu-
ally very large, for the feeding roots
: are fine and very
numerous. An
ordinary plant of
Indian corn may
have a total length
of root (measured 10. The bracing buttresses of
as if the roots were a
placed end to end) of several hundred feet.

27. The fine feeding roots are most abun-
dant in the richest soil. They are attracted by
the food materials. Roots often will completely
LL. Root-haire SUtround a bone or other morsel. When roots
of the radish, Of trees are exposed, observe that most of

THE ROOT-HAIRS

them are horizontal and he near the top
Some roots, as of willows, go far in search
often run into wells and drains, and into
the margins of ereeks and ponds. Grow
plants in a long narrow box, in one end of
which the soil is kept very dry and in the
other moist: observe where the roots grow.
28. The feeding surface of the roots is
near their ends. As the roots become
old and hard, they serve only as channels
through which food passes and as hold-fasts
or supports for the plant. The root-hold
of a plant is very strong. Slowly pull
upwards on some plant, and note how
firmly it is anchored in the soil. With the
increase in diameter, the upper roots often
protrude above the ground and become
bracing buttresses. These buttresses are
usually largest in trees which always have
been exposed to strong winds. Fig. 10.
29. THE ROOT-HAIRS.— The larger part
of the nourishment gathered by the root
is taken in through root-hairs. Fig. 11.
These are very delicate tubes prolonged
from the surface cells of the roots. They
are borne for a short distance just back
of the tip of the root.
30. The root-hairs are very small, often
invisible. They, and the young roots, are
usually broken off when the plant is
pulled up. They are best seen when
seeds are germinated between layers of
dark blotting paper or flannel. On the
young roots, they will be seen as a mould-
like or gossamer-like covering. Root-

of the ground.
of water. They

2. Aérial roots of

trumpet creeper

or tecoma

10 THE ROOT

hairs soon die: they do not grow into roots. New ones
form as the root grows.

31. AERIAL ROOTS.— Although most roots bury them-
selves in the soil, there are some which grow above ground.
These usually oeceur on climbing plants, the roots becoming

14. Indian corn, showing the
13. Aérial roots of an orchid. aérial roots at oo.

supports or fulfilling the office of tendrils. These aérial
_voots usually turn away Jrom the light, and therefore enter
the crevices and dark places of the wall or tree over which
the plant climbs. The trumpet creeper (Fig. 12), true or
English ivy, and poison ivy, climb by means of roots.
32. In some plants, all the roots are aérial; that is, the
plant grows above ground, and the roots gather food from
the air. Such plants usually grow on trees. They are

15. A banyan tree in India. The old trunk is seen (at the left), together with
many trunks formed from the aérial roots.

16. Banyan tree covering several acres, India,

12 THE ROOT

known as epiphytes or air-plants (Chapter XIII). The
most familiar examples are some of the tropical orchids;
which are grown in glasshouses. Fig. 13.

33. Some plants throw
out aérial roots, which
propagate the plant or
act . as 0 TACES,. | kne
roots of Indian corn are
familiar. Fig.14. Many
ficus trees, as the banyan
of India (Figs. 15, 16),
send out roots from their
branches; when these
roots reach the ground
they take hold and_ be-
come great trunks, thus
spreading the top of the
parent tree over great
areas. The mangrove
tree (Pio 1%) “iors the
tropics grows along sea-
shores and sends down
roots from the overhanging branches into the shallow
water, and thereby gradually marches into the sea. The
tangled mass behind catches the drift, and soil is formed.

TOT

i?
.
ae
.

jag
s

17. Mangroves marching into the sea.

REviIEw.— What is the root for? What isa root system? Define
tap-root. Fibrous root. What determines how deep the root may go?
How far does the root spread? Explain what form the root sys-
fom may assume; also what extent. Where are the greatest num-
her of fine roots found? Where is the feeding surface of roots? Of
what use to the plant are the old woody roots? What are root-
hairs? What do they do and what becomes of them? What are aérial
roots? Where found? What are epiphytes, and where do their
roots grow? What are brace roots? How do the banyan and man-
grove spread (aside from seeds) ?

Norre.—The pupil should see the root-hairs. A week before this

REVIEW a

lesson is studied, have the pupil place seeds of radish, turnip or cab-
bage between folds of thick cloth or blotting paper. Keep the cloth
or paper moist and warm. The hairs show best against a dark back-
ground. In some of the blotting papers, sprinkle sand : observe how
the root-hairs cling to the grains (compare Chapter XI).

The pupil also should study the root-hold of a plant. Let him
earefully pull up a plant. If a plant grow alongside a fence or other
rigid object, he may test the root-hold by securing a string to the
plant, letting the string haug over the fence and then adding weights
to the string. Willa stake of similar size to the plant and extending
no deeper in the ground, have such firm hold on the soil ?

Garden along the school-yard fence, where pupils may
grow the plants for study

CHAPTER III
THE STEM

34. THE STEM SYSTEM.—The stem of a plant is the
part which bears the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. Its
office is to hold these parts up to the light and air; and
through its tissues the various food-materials and the life-
giving fluids are distributed to
the growing and working parts.

35. The entire mass or fabric
of stems of any plant is called
its stem system. Figs. 4, 18.
The stem system may be her-
baceous or woody, annual, bien-
nial, or perennial; and it may
assume many different sizes and
shapes.

36. Stems are of many forms.
The general way in which a
18, Stem system of an apple tree. plant grows is called its habit.

Deliquescent trunk. A es
The habit is the appearance or
looks. Its habit may be open or loose, dense, straight,
crooked, compact, straggling, climbing, erect, weak, strong,
and the like. The roots and leaves are the important
functional or working parts: the stem merely connects
them, and its form is exceedingly variable.

37. KINDS OF STEMS.— The stem may be so short as to
be scarcely distinguishable. In such cases the crown of the
plant—that part just at the surface of the ground—bears
the leaves and flowers; but this crown is really a very short
stem. The dandelion, Fig. 8, is an example. Such plants

(14)

KINDS OF STEMS 1

are often said to be stemless, however, in order to dis-
tinguish them from plants which have long or conspicuous
stems. These so-called stemless plants die to the ground
every year.

38. Stems are erect when they grow straight up. Figs.
1, 2, 3. They are trailing or creeping when they run
along on the ground. Fig. 19. They are decumbent
when they lop over to the ground. They are ascending
when they he mostly or in part on the ground but stand
more or less upright at their ends. They are climbing
when they cling to other objects for support. Figs. 12, 20.

39. Trees in which the main trunk or the “leader”
continues to grow from its tip are said to be excurrent in
growth. The branches are borne along the sides of the
trunk, as in common pines (Fig. 21) and spruces. Excur-
rent means running out or running up.

40. Trees in which the main trunk does not continue
are said to be deliquescent. The branches arise from one
common point or from each other.
The stem is lost in the branches. The
apple tree (Fig. 18), maple, elm, oak,
are familiar examples. Deliquescent
means dissolving or melting away.

41. Each kind of plant has its
own peculiar
habit or direc-
tion of growth.
Spruces always
grow to a single

stem or trunk,
19. A trailing plant (Abronia). pear trees are

always deliques-
cent, morning-glovies are always climbing, strawberries
are always creeping. We do not know why each plant
has its own habit; but the habit is in some way asso-

16 THE STEM
ciated with the plant’s genealogy or with the way im
which it has been obliged to live.

42. The stem may be simple or branched. A simple
stem usually grows from the terminal bud, and _ side
branches either do
not start, or, if they
start, they soon per-
ish. Mulleins (Fig.
22) are usually sim-
ple. So are palms.

48. Branched
stems may be of very
different habit and
shape. Some stem
systems are narrow
and erect: these are
said to be strict.
‘Others are déf-
fuse, open, branchy,
twiggy.

44, STEMS vs.
ROOTS. — Roots
sometimes grow
above ground (31-

20. Grape vine climbing on a tree. Illustrating 33) ; SO, also, stems

SUGGS ie reat sometimes grow wn-

derground, and they are then known as subterranean stems,
rhizomes, or rootstocks (Fig. 23).

45. Stems normally bear leaves and buds, and thereby
are they distinguished from roots. The leaves, however,
may be reduced to mere seales, and the buds beneath
them may be seareely visible. Thus the “eyes” on an Irish
potato are cavities with a bud or buds at the bottom (Fig.
24). Sweet potatoes have no evident “eyes” when first
dug (but they may develop buds before the next growing-

HOW STEMS ELONGATE 17

season). The Irish potato is a stem: the
sweet potato is probably a root.

46. HOW STEMS ELONGATE.— Roots elongate
by growing near the tip. Stems elongate by
growing more or less throughout the young
or soft part or “between joints.” But any
part of the stem soon reaches a limit beyond
which it cannot grow, or becomes Shixedinw

and the new parts beyond
elongate until they, too,
become rigid. When a part
of the stem once becomes
fixed or hard, it never in-
creases in length: that is,
the trunk or woody parts
never grow longer or higher;
»- branches do not become far-

ther apart or higher from

the ground. 22, Old mullein

is ~ atten stalk, with

47. The different re- * strict habit of
Behe tasaen ; erowth:
jweed. an, gions of growth in stems said lek

pj 2 Exeurrent trunk, and roots mav be observed in seedling

A pine. - ‘ i
plants. Place seeds of radish or cabbage
between layers of blotting-paper or thick cloth. Keep

them damp and warm. When stem and root have frown
an inch and a half long each, with waterproof ink
mark spaces exactly one-quarter inch apart. Keep the
plantlets moist for a day or two, and it will be found that

on the stem some or all of the marks are more than one-

on the root the marks De Fd

OO Ea
have not separated. P- ee Pa =
: ae 3

quarter inch apart ; aes

The root has grown

pang!

beyond the last mark. DL cas

| Cheat 5 | = as Sia
Figs. 25 and 26. 93. Rhizome. A

,
|

B

18 THE STEM

REviIEw. — What is the stem
system? What does the stem do?
How long may the stem persist ?
What is meant by the habit of a
plant? Name some kinds of habit.
What are so-called stemless plants?
Whatisthe crown? What becomes
of the tops of stemless plants?
What are erect, trailing, decum-
bent, ascending, climbing stems?
What are excurrent trunks? Deli-
quescent? What is a simple stem?

—— = What are strict stems? What
24. A thickened stem, bearing buds are subterranean
or “eyes.”—Potato.

stems? How are a)
stems distinguished from roots? What is the differ- - | ¥
ence in mode of growth between stems and roots? V

Note. —The pupil should make marks with water-
proof ink (as Higgins’ ink or indelible marking ink)
on any soft growing stems—as geranium, fuchsia,
grass, the twigs of trees. Note that the separation of
the marks is most evident on the youngest shoots.

The pupil should observe the fact that a stem of
a plant has wonderful strength. Compare the pro-
portionate height, diameter and weight of a grass stem
with those of the slen-
derest tower or steeple.
Which has the greater
strength? Which the
greater height? Which
will withstand the most
wind? Note that the
grass stem will regain its
position even if its top % 4 :
is bent to the ground. S LAK
Split a corn stalk and “4.
observe how the joints or
are tied together and
braced with fibers. Note
how plants are weight-
ed down after a heavy

1

25. The marking
s of the stem and
rain, root. 26. The result,

CHAPTER IV

PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS

48. The primary office of roots and stems is to support
and maintain the plant; but these parts may also serve to
propagate the plant, or to produce new individuals.

49. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF RHIZOMES.— One office
of subterranean stems or rhizomes is to propagate the plant.
Each stem has a bud at its end, and from this bud a
shoot arises. By the dying away of the older part of
the rhizome, this shoot becomes a separate plant, although
the rhizome maintains its connection for years in some
plants. Shoots may also arise from the intermediate or
lateral buds, but the strongest shoots usually
arise from the end or near the end of the
rhizome. Fig. 28.

50. Each successive plant is farther re-
moved from the original plant or the start-
ing-point of the colony. Thus the colony
or “patch” grows larger. Familiar examples

are the spreading patches of mandrakes or
hi May apples, quack-grass, Solomon’s seal,
+ lily-of-the-valley, ferns. Cannas propagate
* by means of rhizomes; so does ginger, and
the “roots” can be purchased at the drug
store. Fig. 27 illustrates the spread of a
colony of wild sunflower. On the right the
rhizomes have died away:
note the frayed ends. On
— the left, the strong up-turned
buds show where the shoots

(19)

27. Creeping rhizomes of wild sunflower.

20 PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

will arise next spring. The old stems in the middle
show where the buds were at the close of the last season.
Fig. 23 shows one of the terminal buds.

51. When rhizomes are cut in pieces, each piece having
at least one bud or “eye,” the pieces may grow when planted.
A familiar example is the practice of dividing tubers of
potato. A severed piece of plant designed to be used to
propagate the plant is a cutting. See Fig. 28.

28. Cuttings of canna rhizome.

52. Cuttings of rhizomes are often made undesignedly
or accidentally when land is cultivated. The cultivator or
harrow breaks up the rhizomes of quack-grass, Canada
thistle, toad flax, and other weeds, and scatters them over
the field.

53. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS.— Roots some-
times make buds and throw up shoots or new plants.
Severed roots, or root cuttings, often grow. Blackberries,
raspberries, and many plums and cherries, throw up shoots
or “suckers” from the roots; and this propensity is usu-

CUTTINGS AND LAYERS Dit

ally inereased when the roots are broken, as by a plow.
Broken roots of apples often sprout. Plants may propa-
gate by means of root cuttings.

54. The buds which appear on roots are unusual or
abnormal,— they occur only oceasionally and in no definite
order. Buds appearing in unusual places on any part of
the plant are called adventitious buds. Such are the buds
which arise when a large limb is eut off, and from which
suckers or watersprouts arise.

55. LAYERS.—fRoots sometimes arise from aérial stems
that are partially buried. If a branch touches the ground
and takes root, it is called a
layer. Gardeners often bend a
limb to the ground and cover it
for a short distance, and when
roots have formed on the cov-
ered part, the branch is severed
from its parent and an_ inde-

pendent plant is obtained. See
Fig. 29.

56. There are several kinds of
layers: a creeper, when a trail- 4. 4 javer of dewberry. The
ing shoot takes root throughout new plant has arisen at
its entire length; «a runner, when ee

the shoot trails on the ground and takes root at the
joints, as the strawberry; a stolon, when a more or less
strong shoot bends over and takes root, as the black
raspberry or the dewberry (Fig. 29); an offset, when a
few very strong plants form close about the base of the
parent, particularly in suceulent or bulbous plants, as
house-leek (old-hen-and-chickens) and some lilies. The
rooting branches of the mangrove and banyan (Figs.
15, 17) may be likened to layers.

57. NATURAL CUTTINGS. — Sometimes cuttings occur
without the aid of man. Some kinds of willows shed

22 PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS

their twigs, or the storms break them off: many of these
twigs take root in the moist earth where willows grow, and
they are often carried down the streams and are washed
along the shores of lakes. Observe the willows along a
brook, and determine whether any of them may have come
down the stream.

58. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF LEAVES.—Even leaves
may take root and give rise to new plants. There are
examples in warm countries. The lake-cress of northern
streams also propagates in this way: the leaves with little
plants attached may often be seen floating down stream.
Gardeners propagate some kinds of begonias by means

: of leaf cuttings; also gloxinias and bryophyllums.

59. PRCPAGATION BY MEANS OF BUDS.— Buds often
become detached and propagate the plant. Familar
examples are the bulblets of tiger lies, borne

amongst the foliage; for all bulblets and
bulbs are only special kinds of buds. Fig. 30.
Some water plants make heavy winter buds,
which become detached on the approach of
\ cold weather and sink to the bottom. In
HN *spring, they give rise to new plants.
i 60. GRAFTS.— Sometimes a branch may
ee unite with another plant. A branch or a
; trunk may lie against another plant of the
same kind, or of a very closely related kind, and grow fast
to it; and if its original trunk die away, the part will be
growing on an alien root. A branch which grows fast
to a branch of another plant, the wood of the two knit-
ting together, is called a graft. Fig. 31. It is necessary
to distinguish between a graft and a parasite: a parasite
preys upon another plant, robbing it of its food, but a
graft becomes an integral part of the stock on which it
grows, and does its full work in elaborating food for
itself and for the stock.

REVIEW 23

REVIEW.— What are primary and sec-
ondary offices of roots and stems? What
are the offices of rhizomes? How does
propagation by rhizomes proceed? Why
does the colony spread? Name some
plants which propagate by means of rhi-
zomes. What is a cutting? May cuttings
be made of rhizomes? How are rhizom-
atous weeds often spread ? How do roots
serve to propagate the plant? Name in-
stances. What are adventitious buds?
What is a layer? Define some of the
kinds of layers,—runner, creeper, stolon,
offset. Explain how cuttings may occur
without the aid of man. How may leaves
serve to propagate the plant? Explain
how plants propagate themselves by
means of detachable buds. What is a
graft? How may grafting take place
without the aid of man?

Norrt.—If there is an accessible
“patch” of toad-flax, Canada thistle,

31. A native graft.

May apple, or other perennial plant, the pupil should determine by

what means it enlarges from year to year. “Patches” are always
instructive when considered with reference to propagation and dis-

semination.

A patch or colony of May apple.

CHAPTER V

HOW THE HORTICULTURIST PROPAGATES PLANTS
BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS

61. CUTTINGS IN GENERAL.—A Dit of a plant stuck
into the ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit
is a cutting. (Compare 51.) Plants have preferences,
however, as to the kind of a bit which shall be used,
but there is no way of telling what this preference is
except by trying. In some instances this preference has
not been discovered, and we say that the plant cannot
be propagated by cuttings.

62. Most plants prefer that the eutting be made of
the soft or growing parts (called “wood” by gardeners),
of which the “slips” of geranium and coleus are examples.
Others grow equally well from euttings of the hard or
mature parts or wood, as currant and grape; and in
some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in
the blackberry. Pupils should make cuttings now and
then. If they ean do nothing more, they can make ecut-
tings of potato, as the farmer does; and they ean plant
them in a box in the window.

63. THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING.—The softwood eutting
is made from tissue which is still growing, or at least
from that which is not dormant. Jt comprises one or
two joints, with a leaf attached. Figs. 32, 33, 34. It
must not be allowed to wilt. Therefore, it must be
protected from direct sunlight and dry air wntil it is
well established; and if it has many leaves, some of them
should be removed, or at least cut im two, in order to
reduce the evaporating surface. The soil should be uni-

(24)

THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING 25

formly moist. The pictures show the depth to which
the cuttings are planted.

64. For most plants, the proper age or maturity of
wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by
giving the twig a quick
bend: if it snaps and
hangs by the bark, it is
in proper condition ; if
it bends without break-
ing, it is too young and
soft or too old; if it
splinters, it is too old
and woody. The tips of
strong upright shoots
usually make the best
euttings. Preferably, each eutting should have a joint
or node near its base; and if the internodes (or spaces
between joints) are very short, it may comprise two or
three joints.

65. The stem of the cutting is inserted one-third or more
its length in clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed
firmly about it. A newspaper may be laid over the bed
to exclude the light—if the sun strikes it—and to prevent
too rapid evaporation. The soil
should be moist clear through, not
on top only.

66. Loose sandy or gravelly soil

is used. Mason’s sand is good

33. Carnation

32. Geranium cutting. eutting.

earth in which to start most ecut-
tings; or fine gravel—sifted of
most of its earthy matter—may
be used. Soils are avoided which

contain much decaying organic matter, for these soils are
breeding places of fungi, which attack the soft eutting
and cause it to “damp off,” or to die at or near the

26 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

surface of the ground. If the cuttings are to be grown
in a window, put three or four inches of the earth in
a shallow box or a pan. A soap re
box cut in two lengthwise, so that ;
it makes a box four or five inches
deep —like a gardener’s flat—is
excellent. Cuttings of common
plants, as geranium, coleus, fuch-
sla, carnation, are kept at a living- 5
room temperature. As long as the © 35. eens ce ae
cuttings look bright and green, for transplanting
they are in good condition. It may be a month before
roots form. When roots have formed, the plants begin
to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be trans-
planted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in
Fig. 35 is just ready for transplanting.

67. It is not always easy to find growing shoots from
which to make the euttings. The best practice, in that
ease, 1s to cut back an
old plant, then keep it
warm and well watered, and
thereby force it to throw out
new shoots. The old geran-
ium plant from the win-
dow-garden, or the one
taken up from the lawn
bed, may be treated this
way. See Fig. 36. The
best plants of geranium
and coleus and most win-
dow plants are those which
are not more than one year
= a old. The geranium and
36. Old geranium plant cut back to make Suchsia cuttings which are

it throw out shoots from which eut-

tings can be made. made in January, Febru-

THE GRAFT pt |

ary, or March will give compact blooming plants for the
next winter; and thereafter new ones take their places.
Micah

68. THE HARDWOOD CUTTING.— best results are secured
when the cuttings are made in the fall and then buried
until spring in sand in the cellar. These euttings are
usually 6 to 10 inches long. They are not idle while they
rest. The lower end ealluses or heals, and the roots
form more readily
when the cutting
is planted in the
spring. But if the
proper season has
passed, take cut-
tings at any time in
winter, plant them
in adeep box in the
window,and watch.
They will need no
shading or special
eare. Grape, cur-
rant, gooseberry

and poplar readily

take root from the

Early winter geranium, from a spring cutting.

hardwood. Fig. 38 37.
shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above the
ground.

69. THE GRAFT.— When the cutting is inserted in a
plant rather than in the soil, we have a graft; and the
eraft may grow. In this ease the eutting grows fast
to the other plant, and the two become one. When the
cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a
cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is inserted
is called the stock. Fruit trees are grafted in order that

a certain variety or kind may be perpetuated.

28 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

70. Plants have preferences as to the stocks on which
they will grow; but we can find out what their choice is
only by making the experiment. The pear grows well
on the quince, but the quince does not
erow so well on the pear. The pear grows
on some of the hawthorns, but it is an un-
willing subject on the apple. Tomato
plants will grow on potato plants and
potato plants on tomato plants. When
the potato is the root, both tomatoes and
potatoes may be produced; when the to-
mato is the root, neither potatoes nor
tomatoes will be produced. Chestnut will
erow on some kinds of oak.

71. The forming, growing tissue of the
stem (on the plants we have been dis-
cussing) is the cambium, lying on the out-
side of the woody cylinder, beneath the
bark. In order that union may take place,
the cambium of the cion and of the stock
must come together. Therefore the cion
is set in the side of the stock. There are
many ways of shaping the cion and of
preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated
largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, although
many of them are matters of mere personal preference.
The underlying principles are two: securing close con-
tact between the ecambiums of cion and stock; covering
the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to
protect the parts from disease.

72. On large stocks the commonest form of erafting Is
the cleft-graft. The stock is cut off and split; and in one
or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted.
Fig. 39 shows the cion; Fig. 40, the cions set in the stock;
Fig. 41, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower

38. Currant cutting.

THE GRAFT 29

bud—that lying in the wedge—is covered by the wax; but
being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather,
it is the most likely to grow: it will push through the
wax.

73. Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins.
The cions are cut previously, when perfectly dormant, and

39. Cion of apple. 40. The cion inserted. 41. The parts waxed.

from the tree which it is desired to propagate. The cions
are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. Limbs of various
sizes may be eleft-grafted,—from one-half inch up to four
inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most
convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a
tree-top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the
top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the
entire top will be changed over to the new variety.

ReEvIEW.—How do we determine how a plant may be propagated ?
Mention any plants that grow from euttings. What are softwood
euttings? Hardwood? Describe a geranium eutting. What is the
proper condition of wood for making a softwood cutting? How is it
planted? Where? In what kind of soil? Give directions for water-
ing. How may ecutting-wood be secured? Deseribe a hardwood cut-

30 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

ting. When is it made? Name plants which can be propagated easily
by means of hardwood cuttings. Whatis a cion? Stock? How do
we find out what stocks are congenial to the cion? Describe a cleft-
graft. When is cleft-grafting performed? Why do we graft?

Nore.—The cutting-box may be set in the window. If the box
does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane of
glass to prevent evaporation. Take care that the air is not kept
too close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and
they will rot at the surface of the ground. See that the pane is
raised a little at one end to afford ventilation; and if water collects
in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time.

Grafting wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The hands
are greased, and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to
spread. For the little grafting which any pupil would do, it is
better to buy the wax of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly tc
be recommended as a general school diversion, as the making of eut-
tings is; and this account of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the
general curiosity on the subject. But now and then a pupil may
make the effort for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to
make a graft grow all by one’s self.

The pictures of the cuttings (Figs. 32-35, 38) and the grafts
(Figs. 39-41) are one-third natural size.

Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses.

CHAPTER VI
FOOD RESERVOIRS

74. STOREHOUSES.— All greatly thickened or congested
parts are reservoirs for the storage of plant-food. This
food is mostly starch. Potatoes, beets, turnips, thick
rhizomes, seeds, are examples. Recall how potatoes sprout

42. Potato sprouts. The sprouts have used the food stored in the tuber

and the tuber has shrivelled

in the cellar (Fig. 42): the sprouts are produced from the
stored food.
(ay st Wir. presence of starch can be determined by apply

ing diluted tincture of iodine to the part: if a blue or

32

FOOD RESERVOIRS

purplish brown color appears, starch is present. Cut the
part open and moisten the fresh surface with iodine (to
be had at the drug store). The test will usually give

43. A winter branch bearing leaves inside a window, while still

attached to the tree outside.

the best reaction when the part is perfectly dormant.
Starch may be found in nearly all twigs in fall and
winter. Test them.

76. This stored plant-food enables the plant to start
quickly in the spring, without waiting for full root-action

44. Crown tuber.—
Turnip.

to begin; and it enables the plantlet in the
seed to grow until it establishes itself in the
soil. The flowers of early-blooming trees are
developed mostly from the nourishment
stored in the twigs, not from the materials
taken in at the time by the roots. This can
be demonstrated by bringing branches of
peach, apple, and other early - blooming
plants into the house in the winter and
keeping them in water; they will bloom and
sometimes even make leaves. Study Fig. 48.

ID.

KINDS OF STOREHOUSES rays)

77. KINDS OF STOREHOUSES.— Short and much thick-
ened or swollen parts of roots or stems are known as
tubers. These may be stem tubers, as ene potato, om
root tubers, as the sweet po-
tato (45). Most tubers are sub-
terranean.

78. Many tubers are stem at
the top and root in the remain-
ing part: these are called crown
tubers, because the upper part
comes to the surface of the
ground, or is a crown. Leaves
and stems arise from the upper
part. Beet, radish, parsnip,
turnip, salsify, carrot, dahlia
roots, are examples. These
tubers are usually much longer
than broad, and generally taper downwards. Fig. 44.

79. A much thickened part which is composed of scales
or plates is a bulb. The bulb may be scaly, as in the
lily; or it may be tuni-
cated,—made up of plates
or layers within layers,

45. A multiplier onion.

as the onion.

80. Small bulbs which
are borne amongst the
foliage or flowers are
known as bulblets. Such
are the “top onions,” and
the little bulbs which the
i dnaattane al afsnulticlle® onlon. tiger lily (Fig. 380) bears

Natural size. on its stem. Bulbs which

grow around the main bulb or which are formed by the
breaking apart of the main bulb, are known as bulbels.
Many bulbous plants propagate by means of bulbels. The

C

34 FOOD RESERVOIRS

multiplher or potato onion
(Fig. 45) is an example.
If the bulb is cut across,
it is found to have two or
more “hearts” or cores
(Fig. 46). When it has
been planted a week, each
core or part begins to
separate (Fig. 47), and
there are soon as many
onions as there are cores.
Potato onions can be
bought of seedsmen. They
are used for the raising of
early onions.

81. Solid bulb-like parts are known as corms. These
usually have a loose covering, but the interior is not
made up of seales or plates. Of such are gladiolus and
crocus corms (Figs. 48, 49). Corms multiply by cormels

47. Beginning to separate into its parts.
Each part will be a little onion.

48. Corm of crocus. Nat. size. 49. Section of a crocus corm.

or small corms, as bulbs do by bulbels. Fig. 50 shows
an old gladiolus corm on which three new corms have
grown.

82. We have seen that thickened parts may serve one

USE OF THE STORED FOOD 355

or both of two purposes: they may be storehouses for
food; they may be means of propagating the plant.
The storage of food carries the plant over a dry or cold
season. By making bulbs or tubers, the plant persists
until spring. A lunch is put up
for a future day. Most bulbous
plants are natives of dry countries.
Review.—What do you understand
by food reservoirs? How is the presence
of starch determined? Where may starch
be found? Of what service to the plant
is this stored food? How are the flow-
ers and leaves enabled to start so early ° Three corms growing on
in spring? Define tuber. Root tuber. a le aa

Stem tuber. Crown tuber. Give examples. Define bulb. Sealy
bulb. Tuniecated bulb. Bulblet. Bulbel. Give examples. Define
corm. Cormel. What two purposes do congested parts serve ?
Note.—The pupil should examine various kinds of bulbs and
tubers. If these are not at hand, many kinds can be bought of
seedsmen or florists. Secure onion, narcissus, hyacinth, gladiolus,
crocus, potato. Cut them in two. Study the make-up. Test them
for starch. Plant some of them in pots or boxes. Observe how they
grow. In the onion and some other plants most of the stored food
is sugar.

Potato tuber set in a glass of water and kept in a window

CHAPTER VII

WINTER BUDS

83. WHAT BUDS ARE.— Because of cold or dry weather,
the plant is forced into a period of inactivity. We have
seen that it stores food, and is ready to make a quick
start in the spring. It also makes embryo branches and
packs them away underneath close-fitting scales: these
branchlets and their coverings are winter buds. The
growing points of the plant are at rest for a time. In
the warm season, the growing point is active, and the
covering of scales is not so pronounced. A winter bud
may be defined as a resting covered growing point.

84. A dormant bud, therefore, is a shortened axis or
branch, bearing miniature leaves or flowers, or both, and
protected by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of
the horse-chestnut or other plant which has large buds.
With a pin, separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Ex-
amine the big bud of the rhubarb
as it lies under the ground in winter
or early spring. Dissect large buds
of the apple and pear. Figs. 51, 52.

85. The bud is protected by firm
and dry scales; but these seales are

51.
Bud of ‘avri’ only modified leaves. The scales fit

cot showing

the minia- close. Often the bud is protected *2.,Bud of pear

showing both
r arnic ‘ ney WE x leaves and
by varnish (see horse - chestnut nk a

¢ Qs are / a . latter are the
and. the ~balsam -poplars)2)sMfost winter latter srt
buds are more or less woolly. Examine ‘be center.

them under a lens. As we might expect, bud-coverings

are most prominent in cold and dry climates.
(36)

ture leaves.

WHERE BUDS ARE Bi

86. WHERE BUDS ARE.—Buds are borne in the axils
of the eaves; the acute angle which the leaf makes
with the stem. When the leaf is
erowing in the summer, a bud is
forming above it. When the leaf
falls, the bud remains, and a scar
marks the place of the leaf. Fig.
53 shows the large leaf-scars of
allanthus. Observe those on the
horse-chestnut, maple, apple, pear,
basswood, or any tree or bush.

87. Sometimes two or more
buds are borne in one axil: the
extra ones are accessory Or 54. Termi-
, supernumerary buds. Observe tetween
53, Leafsears them in the Tartarian honeysuckle A

Ailanthus. (common in yards), walnut, but- mg
ternut, red maple, honey locust, and sometimes in the

apricot and peach.

88. Shoots of many plants bear a bud at the tip:
this is a terminal bud. J¢ continues the growth of the
aris in a direct line. Very often three or more buds
are clustered at the tip
(Fig. 54); and in this
case there may be more
buds than leaf - scars.
Only one of them, how-
ever, is strictly terminal.

89. Bulbs and cabbage
heads may be likened to
buds: that is, they are

condensed stems, with

55. A gigantic bud.—Cabbage,

scales or modified leaves
densely overlapping and forming a rounded body. Fig.
55. They differ from true buds, however, in the fact

38

WINTER BUDS

that they are condensations of main stems rather than
embryo stems borne in the axils of leaves. But bulblets

56.

/

Willow.
The “ pus-
sies” are
pushing
out, and
a large
black bud-
scale is
ready to
fall from
the base
of each,

may be searcely distinguish-
able from buds on the one
hand and from bulbs on the
other. Cut a cabbage head in
two lengthwise, and see what
iteas: like?

90. WHAT BUDS DO.—A bud
is a growing point. In the
growing season it is small,
and persons do not notice it.

yi

58.
The open-
‘ 3 ; * B ing of
In the winter it is dormant 5: Fruit- — the pear

? bud of pear. bud.
and wrapped up and is plainly

seen: it is waiting. All branches spring from
buds.

91. All winter buds give rise to branches,
not to leaves alone: that is, the leaves are borne
on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis,
or branch, remains very short,— so short that it
may not be noticed. Some-
times it grows several
feet long.

92. Whether the
branch grows long
or not depends on
the chance it has,

— position on the plant, soil,
rainfall, and many other things.
The new shoot is the unfold-
ing and enlarging of the tiny
axis and leaves which we saw
in the bud. Wigs. 51, 9220

4}

59. Hickory 60. Growth is
buds. progressing.

the conditions are congenial, the shoot may form more
leaves than were tucked away in the bud, but commonly

HOW BUDS OPEN 39

it does not. The length of the shoot usually depends more
on the lengths between joints than on the number of leaves.
93. HOW BUDS OPEN.— When the bud
swells, the scales are pushed apart, the
little axis elongates and pushes out. In
most plants, the outside scales fall very
soon, leaving a little ring of scars. Notice
peach, apple, plum, willow, and_ other
plants. Fig.56. In others, all the scales
grow for a time, as in the pear, Figs.

Avis 57, 58. In other plants, the in-
qi), ner bud-scales become green and
(207%

RS almost leaf-like. See the maple
and hickory. Fig. 59 shows a
hickory bud. Two weeks later, 61. Opening of the

pear bud.

62. A singl
flower in the young shoot had pushed out

the pear 5 ;
cluster as and the enlarged scales were hanging (Fig. 60).
seen at 7 - ° :

A. M. on 94. Sometimes flowers come out of the buds.

the day of
its open. Leaves may or may not accompany the flowers.

ing. At 10 : . - =<
oulock it We saw the embryo flowers in Fig. 52. The

fly ee bud is shown again in Fig. 57. In Fig. 58 it is

panded. opening. In Fig. 61 it is
more advanced, and the woolly un-
formed flowers are appearing. In
Fig. 62 the growth is more advanced.
In Fig. 63 the flowers are full blown;
and the bees have found them.

95. Buds which contain or pro-
duce only leaves are leaf-buds. Those
which contain only flowers are flower-
buds or fruit-buds. The latter occur
on peach, almond, apricot, and many

very early spring-flowering plants. . Fear in full bloom.

Fig. 64. The single flower is emerging from the apricot
bud in Fig. 65. Those which contain both leaves and

40 WINTER BUDS

flowers are mixed buds, as in pear, apple, and most late
spring-flowering plants.
gr 96. Fruit-buds are usually thicker
j or stouter than leaf-buds. They are
borne in different positions on differ-
ent plants. In some plants
(apple, pear) they are on the
ends of short branches or
spurs; in others (peach, red
maple) they are along the
sides of the last year’s
y Theueenne growths. In Fig. 66 are
oi AOA Howes the. “HU nS Ora ee fruit-buds and
sole occupant of a bud. of apricot. one leaf-bud on EK, and leaf-
buds on A. In Fig. 67 a fruit-bud is at the left, and a
leaf-bud at the right. fu
97. THE “BURST OF SPRING” ;
means chiefly the opening of the
buds. Everything was made
ready the fall before. The embryo
shoots and flowers were tucked
away, and the food was stored. The
warm rain falls, and the shutters
open and the sleepers wake: the
frogs peep and the birds come.

REVIEW. — What are dormant buds?
What are they for? What is their cover-
ing? Where are they borne? When are
they formed? What is a leaf-scar? What
are accessory buds? What other name is
applied to them? Define terminal bud.
What does it do? What are bulbs and
cabbages? How do they differ from
buds? What do buds do? From what do
branches arise? To what do winter buds

A : a i 66. Fruit-buds and leaf- buds
give rise? What determines whether the of pear.

WINTER TWIGS IN THE H

OUSE 41

branch shall be long or short? Describe the opening of a bud.
What are flower-buds? Leaf-buds? Mixed buds? How may fruit-

buds be distinguished ? What is the “burst of
spring”?

Note.—It is easy to see the swelling of
the buds in a room in winter. Secure branches
of trees and shrubs, two to three feet long, and
stand them in vases or jars, as you would flow-
ers. Renew the water frequently and cut off
the lower ends of the shoots occasionally. Ina
week or two the buds will begin to swell. Of
red maple, peach, apricot, and other very early-
flowering things, flowers may be obtained in
ten to twenty days. Try it.

The shape, size, and color of the winter
buds are different in every kind of plant. By
the buds alone botanists are often able to dis-
tinguish the kinds of plants. Even such similar

plants as the different kinds of willows have g

67. Fruit-bud and leaf-bud
of apple.

good bud characters.

The study of the kinds of buds affords excellent training of the

powers of observation.

The burst of spring in the lilac.

CHAPTER VIII

PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

98. EACH PLANT LOOKS FOR LIGHT.— Green plants live
and grow only in sunlight. The gradual withdrawal of
light tends to weaken the plant; but the plant makes an

68. Sufficient light.

effort to reach the light and there-
fore grows towards it. The whole
habit of a plant may be changed by
its position with reference to sun-
light. Select two similar plants.
Place one near the window and
the other far from it. Watch the
behavior from day to day. Fig.
68 shows a fern which grew near
the glass in a conservatory: Fig.

69 shows one which grew on the floor of a conservatory.
Fig. 69 also teaches another lesson, which is to be ex-
plained in another chapter (Chapter XXVI).

99. Plants grow towards the light. The most vigor-
ous branches, as a rule, are those which receive most light.
Climb a tree and observe where the thriftiest shoots are;

or observe any bush.

100. When plants or their
parts are not stiff or rigid, they
turn towards the light if the light
comes mostly from one direction.
The geraniums and fuchsias in
turned around

the window are

occasionally so that they will grow

ee : : : “ 69. In need of light.
Symmetrical. Plant radish in a Same kind of fern as No. 68.

(42)

AD

EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT 4:

~

pot or pan. When the plants are three or four inches
high, place the pan in a tight box which has a hole on
one side. The next day it will look like those in Fig. 70.
This turning towards the lght is called heliotropism
(helios is Greek for “sun.” )

101. Hven under natural con-
ditions, plants become misshapen
or unsymmetrical if the light comes
mostly from one direction. On the
edge of a forest, the branches
reach out for light (Fig. 71).
Trees tend to grow away froma

building. Branches become fixed
in their position, so that even
in winter they tell of the search
70. Searching for light. for lieht ( Fic. 72) ,

102. Some plants climb other plants in order to reach
the sunlight; or they climb rocks and buildings. Notice
that the vine on the house luxuriates where it is lightest.
Climbing plants sometimes choke and smother the plant
on which they climb. This they may do by throwing
their mantle of foliage over it, and smothering it, or by
sending their roots into its trunk and robbing it of food.
Sometimes they do both, as in Fig. 74. Every plant has
a story to tell of the value of sunlight.

103. EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT.— The plant is
made up of branches. There is a struggle amongst the
branches for sunlight. We have seen (Fig. 7) that no
two branches are alike: we now know one reason why.
Notice that the small branches die in the center of the
tree. Look on the inside of a pine, spruce or other dense
tree. Every branch has a story to tell of the value of
sunlight.

104. EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT.—Leaves are borne
towards the ends of the branches. This is_ particu-

44 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

larly marked when the struggle is severe. If the out-
side of a plant is densely thatched with leaves, the
inside will be found to be comparatively bare. Con-

71. Branches of the cedar reaching for light.

trast Figs. 75 and 76, both being views of one tree.
We know the tree as seen in Fig. 75: the squirrel
knows it as seen in Fig. 76.

105. Leaves are usually largest where the light is
best. Note the sizes of leaves from the base towards

EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT 45

the tip of a branch.
Leaves which grow
in full sunhght
tend to persist later
in the fall than
those which grow
in poor light (Fig.
77): This fact is
sometimes. ob-
seured beeause the 72. The branches have grown towards the light.

outermost leaves are most exposed to autumn winds.

106. Plants which start in cellars, from seeds, bulbs,
or tubers, grow until the stored food is exhausted and
then die: the leaves do not develop to full size in
darkness. Figs. 78 and 79 show this. Fig. 78 is rhu-
barb forced in a cellar for the winter market; Fig. 79
is a plant grown out-of-doors. Compare Fig. 42.

107. The position or direction of leaves is determined
largely by exposure to sun-
light. In temperate c¢li-
mates, they usually hang
in such a way that they
receive the greatest
amount of light. Ob-
serve the arrangement
of leaves in Fig. 80.
One leaf shades the other
to the least possible de-
gree. If the plant were
placed in a new position
with reference to light,
the leaves would make
an effort to turn their

7 blades, Observe the

3. Mantle of clematis, The leaves, and later . F
the flowers, spread themselves to the light. shingle -like arrangement

46 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

in Fig. 75. If the pupil were to-examine the leaves on the
Norway maple, which is photographed in Fig. 75, he would
find that leaves which are not on the outside lengthen
their leaf-stalks in order to get the light. See Fig. 144.
Norway maple is common on lawns and roadsides.

108. We have seen (84) that a large part of the
leaves of any one vear are packed away in the buds of
the previous winter.
It is almost impossi-
ble that these leaves
should be packed
away hit or miss.
They are usually ar-
ranged in a mathe-
matical order. We
can see this order
when the shoot has
grown. We ean see
it by studying the
buds on recent shoots,
since there was a leaf
for each bud. The
leaves (or buds) may
be opposite each other
on the stem, or alter-
nate. Fig. 81.

109. When leaves
are opposite, the pairs
usually alternate.
That is, if one pair stands north and south, the next
pair stands east and west. See the box-elder shoot, on
the left in Fig. 81. One pair does not shade the pair
beneath. The leaves are in four vertical ranks.

110. There are several kinds of alternate arrangement.
In the elm shoot in Fig. 81, the third bud is verti-

74. A climbing fig choking a palm.

75. Looking at the top of a Norway maple.—As the bird sees it.

76. Looking up into the same tree.—As the squirrel sees it

48 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

77. A maple tree on the south side
of a grove. On the south side
the leaves hung four weeks
longer than on the north side,
because of more sunlight and
perhaps more food.

cally above the first. This is true,
no matter which bud is selected as
the starting point. Draw a thread
around the stem until the two buds
are joined. Set a pin at each bud.
Observe that two buds are passed
(not counting the last) and that
the thread makes one cireuit of
the stem. Representing the num-
ber of buds by a denominator,
and the number of cireuits by a
numerator, we have the fraction
%, which expresses the part of the
circle which lies between any two
buds. That is, the buds are one-

: half of 360 degrees apart, or 180

degrees. Looking endwise at the
stem, the leaves are seen to be 2-
ranked. Note that in the apple
shoot (Fig. 81, right), the thread

makes two circuits and five buds are passed: two-fifths
represents the divergence between the buds. The leaves

are 5-ranked.

78. Rhubarb grown in the dark. The leaf-blades do not develop.

PHYLLOTAXY 49

111. Every plant has its own arrangement of leaves.
For opposite leaves, see maple, box-elder, ash, lilac,
honeysuckle, mint, fuchsia. For 2-ranked arrangement,
see all grasses, Indian corn, basswood, elm. For 3-ranked
arrangement, see all sedges. For 5-ranked (which is
one of the commonest), see apple, cherry, pear, peach,
plum, poplar, wil-
low. For 8-ranked,
see holly, osage
orange. More com-
plicated arrange-
iments occur in
bulbs, house leeks,
and other condensed
parts. The arrange-
ment of leaves on the
stem is known as
phyllotaxy (literally
“leaf - arrange-
ment”.) Make out
the phyllotaxy on
any plant.

Pa. In > some
plants, several leaves

occur at one level,

79. Rhubarb grown in the light.

being arranged in a

circle around the stem. Such leaves are said to be ver-
ticillate or whorled. Leaves arranged in this way are
usually narrow.

113. Although a definite arrangement of leaves is the
rule in most plants, it is subject to modification. On
shoots which receive the light only from one side or which
grow in difficult positions, the arrangement may not be
definite. Examine shoots which grow on the under side
of dense tree-tops or in other partially lighted positions.

D

50 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT

114. The direction or “hang”
of the leaf is usually fixed, but
there are some leaves which change
their direction between daylight
and darkness. Thus, leaves of
clover (Fig. 82), bean, locust, and
many related plants, “sleep” at
night; also oxalis. It is not asleep
inthe sense in which animals sleep,
however; but its function is not
well understood.

115. Leaves usually expose one — x80. Ali the leaves are exposed
particular surface to the light. fp ent
This is because their internal structure is such that light
is most efficient when it strikes this surface, as we shall
learn later on. Some
plants, however, expose both
surfaces to the light, and
their leaves stand vertical.
Others endeavor to avoid
the intense light of mid-
day and to turn in the
direction of least light.

Leaves standing edgewise
are said to exhibit polar-
ity. They are “compass
plants” if they point north
and south. The famous
compass plant or silphium
| eee. of the prairies and the
Ba aerate & wild lettuce are examples
A of plants having polar
81. Phyllotaxy of box-elder, elm, apple. leaves. (Wild lettuce
[Lactuea Seariola] isa common plant on roadsides; p. 356.)
Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of sunlight.

THE WINTER BUDS SHOW EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT 51

116. WINTER BUDS SHOW WHAT HAS BEEN THE EFFECT

OF SUNLIGHT.—Buds are borne in the axils of the leaves
(86), and the size or vigor of the leaf determines to a large
extent the size of the bud.

a Notice that, in most instances,
the largest buds are nearest the
tip (Fig. 83). If the largest
ones are not near the tip, there
is some special reason for it.
Examine the shoots on trees

82. Day and night positions of and bushes.

the clover leaf. 117. The largest buds usu-

ally start first in spring, and the branches which arise

from them have the advantage in the struggle for exis-

tence. Plants tend to grow most vigorously from their
ends. Observe that only the terminal 4

bud grew in the hickory twig in Fig. @

60. Every bud has a story to tell of
the value of sunlight.

REvIEw.— What is the relation of the plant
to sunlight ? Does its form ever depend on its
relation to light? In what direction do the tops
of plants grow? Where are the most vigorous
branches? What is heliotropism! Why are
trees sometimes unsymmetrical? Do you know
any instances yourself? What is one way in
which plants profit by the climbing habit? Is
there struggle amongst branches? Explain.
Where are leaves borne in reference to light?
Where are leaves usually largest? Do they
develop in darkness? Are leaves borne di-

rectly above one another? How may leaves

83. The big terminal
buds.—Hickory,

be arranged? Explain what phyllotaxy is. Are
leaves always arranged definitely? Explain the
arrangement in some plant which is not mentioned in this lesson.
What is the “sleep” of leaves? Which surface of the leaf is ex-
posed? What are compass plants? How do buds show what the
effect of sunlight has been? What buds start first in spring?

CHAPTER IX
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONGST THE BRANCHES

118. NO TWO BRANCHES ARE ALIKE.— Hvery twig has a
history. It has to contend for air and sunlight, and a place
in which to grow. Its size and shape, therefore, depend on
the conditions under which it lives. Observe the long,
straight, big-leaved shoots on the top of the plant, and
the short, weak, crooked ones on the inside or under side.

119. There is struggle for existence for every twig and
every leaf. Those finding the best conditions live and

ee ae ee

84. The struggle for life.—Mulberry shoot.

thrive; those finding the poorest die. The weak are
overpowered and finally perish: this prunes the tree, and
tends to make the strong the stronger. Observe the
competition in the branch photographed in Fig. 84. Pick
out the dead twigs, the weak ones, the strong ones.

120. THE BUDS MAY NOT GROW.— There is not room in
a tree-top for all the buds to grow into branches. Some buds

(52)

THE BUDS MAY
are suppressed. Branches
die. So it comes that

branches are not arranged
regularly, although the
buds may be. In the Tar-
tarlan “tree” honey-
suckle the buds are oppo-
Fig. 85 shows how

or

site ;
the branches are.

121. The results of the
struggle for existence in the
be expressed
Consider that

tree-top can
in figures.

every bud is the germ or starting point of a branch.

any

Willow.

86. Scars of the dormant buds

bears.

of the number of branches:

if
New!

NOT GROW

CQ

erooked

85. The branching is
and irregular,

Ob-

serve at what distances apart
the buds are usually borne on
plant,
number of buds which the plant

“

and estimate the

has borne: count the number of
branches which the tree actually

It will be found that the

number of buds is far in excess

the
difference between the
numbers shows how
many buds or branches

have failed. Or, count

the buds on any
branch, and figure up
the possibilities, A
branch 12 inches lone,
for instance, has 10
buds. If eaeh bud
erows, at the end of
the next season there

54 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

will be 10 branches, each of which may have 10 buds.
At the end of the second year there will be 100 branches ;
at the end of the third, 1,000. Can 1,000 branches be
borne on a 4-year-old branch 12 inches long? Or, count
the old bud-sears on the branches — for the places of
the buds persist as wrinkles in the bark, often for many
years (Fig. 86). One ean often locate these bud-sears
on old branches with his eyes closed by running his fingers
over the bark.

122. Buds which fail to grow are ealled dormant
buds. They are usually the weakest ones,—those which
grew im the most uncongenial conditions. They are to-
wards the base of the shoot. We have seen (117) that it
is the terminal or uppermost buds which are most likely
to grow. The dormant buds gradually die. They may
live four or five years on some plants. If the other buds
or branches fail or are injured, they may grow, but usu-
ally they die.

123. Dormant buds must not be confounded with ad-
ventitious buds. We have learned (54) that adventitious
buds are those which are formed at unusual times or places,
because of some disturbance of the part. If a large branch
is cut off, suckers or watersprouts are thrown out near the
wound: these arise from buds which are made for the occa-
sion. These buds did not exist there. In many countries
it is a custom to “pollard” or eut off the tops of trees
every few years for the firewood; and strong adven-
titious shoots arise along the trunk. Fig. 87.

124. WHERE THE BRANCHES GROW.— Because new shoots
tend to arise from the top of the twigs, the branches of
most trees are in tiers or layers. These tiers often can
be traced in trees 50 and 100 years old. Try it in any
oak, maple, ash, or other tree. For practice, begin with
young, vigorous trees (Figs. 88 and 89).

125. When part of a top is removed, the remaining

pollard willow

A

mun hus added to the struggle for existence

Italy

In this case,

56 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

branches fill the space. The branches are attracted by the
light and air, and grow in that direction. A pruned or
injured top always tends
to come back to equi-
librium.

126. A mangled or
broken plant tends to
regain its former posi-
tion. From fallen trees,
upright shoots arise.
In Fig. 90 observe the
new trunk arising from
the center of the arch;
see that the main trunk
is smaller beyond that
point.

REVIEW.— What is meant

88. Tiers of 89. Even in old trees
branches on the tiers can be by the statement that every
young tree. traced.

twig has a history? Upon
what does the shape and size of a branch depend? Explain what
you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all buds grow?
If buds are arranged in mathematical order, why are not branches?
How may the effect of struggle for existence be expressed in
figures? Select some braneh and explain. Define dormant buds.
Adyvyentitious buds. Why are branches in tiers, or borne at intervals?
How do plants tend to re-
gain their form and posi-
tion, when injured ?
Notre.—Let the pupil
work out the history of
some branch. It is better
to select a branch which
is vigorous. He should

first determine, if the
shoot is dormant, how
much grew the previous

season. The last year’s

growth bears buds on the 90. The erect bole on the fallen trunk.

‘SS
in — we 714° ~~

a
uw ;
> o
’ 05, October 18th,

58 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES

main axis, not on side branches ; and the“ ring” (sears of bud-seales)
marks the junction between the different years’ growth. Notice this
ring in Fig. 83. The teacher will find many twigs worked out in “ Les-
sons with Plants.” Figs. 91-95 show an actual case. These drawings
were all made with the greatest care from one elm twig. The twig
(Fig. 91) shows three years’ growths. The side branch is evidently
only one year old, for it did not arise until the twig which bears it
was one year old. Note that only one of the buds made a branch.
There are five blossom buds. Fig. 92 shows the twig in bloom.
Fig. 93 shows it in fruit and leaf. Fig. 95 shows the net result. The
side branch grew from a to s and made two blossom buds. The tip
of the main shoot (Fig. 91) was broken in a storm. The two buds
next in succession grew. Each made flower buds. Observe how
many buds on this elm shoot have failed.

Crushed by storm, the tree still shoots upward.

CHAPTER X

THE FORMS OF PLANTS

127. Although the form of the branch, and to some
extent the entire plant, is determined by a struggle with
the conditions in which it grows, nevertheless each hind
of plant has its own peculiar habit of growth. The lum-

96. Different forms of trees.

berman distinguishes the kinds of trees by their “looks,”
rather than by their leaves or flowers, as the botanist
does. The farmer usually does the same with his culti-

vated plants.

128. The habit of a plant is determined by its size,

general style or direction of growth, form
of head, and method of branching. The
general style or stature of plants has
been mentioned in Chapter III[—they may
be erect, strict, creeping, decumbent, and
the like. The shape of the top or head
is well illustrated in trees. Note the
general effect of the mass, as seen at a
distance. The elm is vase-form or
round-headed (Fig. 96, which is cited
again to teach another lesson, p.223). So

(59)

=
97.

Round-headed and
fastigiate trees,

60 THE FORMS OF PLANTS

are maple, beech, and apple trees. The Lombardy poplar
(Fig. 97) is columnar or fastigiate. Young spruces and
firs are conical. Heads
may be narrow, wide,
flat, symmetrical, irreg-
ular or broken.

129. The general leaf-
age or furnishing of the
top is different for each
kind. The top may be
dense or thin. The foli-
age may be heavy, light,
large, small. Compare
maples and elms, apples
and peaches, and other
trees.

130. The trunk or
bole of the tree is one
of its most conspicuous

98. The unbranched trunks of palms. features. Observe the
strict straight trunk of the palm (Fig. 98), and the fork-
ing trunks of elms and maples. Observe that no two
trees have trunks which
are quite alike. The
bark is different for each
kind of plant.

131. Plants awaken
certain thoughts or feel-
ings: they are said to
have expression. This
expression is the source

of much of our pleasure

. 99. f in wi .—Russiz istle.
in them i Trees are The plant form in winter.—Russian thistle
particularly expressive. One suggests restfulness, because

of its deep shady top; another gaiety, from its moving,

EXPRESSIONS OF PLANTS 61

small, light-colored leaves; another heaviness, from its
very large, dull foliage; another strength, from the massive
branches; another grace, from the flowing outline or flexile
growth. We think of the oak as strong, the willow as
lithe, the aspen as weak, and the like. Irregular or

100. The many trunks of an old olive tree. Italy.

gnarly trees suggest struggle. Jf all plants, or even all
trees, were alike, we should have little pleasure in them.
132. The expression of a plant depends to some extent
on the character of the shadows in the top. These
shadows (or lights and shades) are best seen by looking
at the plant when the sun is low and behind the observer.

62 THE FORMS OF PLANTS

Stand at some distance. Look at the dark places in the
old pasture maple: they are lumpy and irregular. In the
pasture beech they are in layers or strata. The shadows
depend mostly on the method of branching. Those who
take photographs know how the “high lights” and shadows
develop on the plate.

133. The habit of a plant is usually most apparent

101. A pear tree of the Kieffer variety. 102. A pear tree of the Hardy variety.

when it is leafless. The framework is then revealed.
Woody plants are as interesting in winter as in summer.
Observe their forms as outlined against the sky—every
one different from every other. Notice the plant forms
as they stand in the snow. Fig. 99. How do stems of
the pigweed differ from those of burdock and grasses?
Observe how the different plants hold snow and ice.
134. The more unusual the shape of any tree or other

INTEREST IN PLANT FORMS 63

plant, the greater is our interest in it, because our curiosity
is awakened. Some unusual circumstance or condition has
produced the abnormal form. Such plants should be pre-
served whenever possible. Fig. 100.

REVIEW.— What do you mean by the statement that each kind of
plant has its own habit (36)? How do plants differ in habit? Name
some of the forms of tree-tops. How may plants differ in the furnish-
ing of the top? Is the trunk characteristic? Bark? Bring in and
describe the bark of three kinds of trees. What is the expression of
a tree? What are some of the expressions? Explain what you under-
stand by the shadows in the top. On what do the shadows chiefly
depend? What is there to see in plants in winter? Why are we
interested in plants of unusual form? Tell how any two trees differ
in “looks.”

Nore.—One of the first things the pupil should learn about
plants is to see them as a whole. He should get the feeling of
mass. Then he should endeavor to determine why the mass is so
and so. Trees are best to begin on. No two trees are alike. How
do they differ? The pupil can observe as he comes and goes from
school. An orchard of different kinds of fruits shows strong con-
trasts. Even different varieties of the same fruit may be unlike in
habit. This is especially true in pears (Figs. 101, 102).

A honey locust tree,

CHAPTER XI

HOW THE PLANT TAKES IN THE SOIL WATER

135. PLANT-FOOD.— Having learned what a plant is and
having seen it as a whole, we may now inquire how it
secures food with which to live. We can discuss only the
outlines of the subject here: the pupil may consider the
question again when he takes up Part HI. The plant
obtains food materials from the soil. We know this to
be true, because the plant dies if removed from the soil.
In this discussion, we use the word food to designate any
material which the plant takes in to incorporate with its
tissues or to aid in promoting its vital activities. The word
is sometimes used to denote only some of the products (as
starch) which the plant manufactures from the raw ma-
terials, but it is unfortunate to press a common-language
word into such technical use.

136. ROOT STRUCTURE.— Roots divide if srg
into the thinnest and finest fibrils : (a Oe
there are roots and there are rootlets. 3x 5
The large, fleshy root of the radish
(Fig. 103) terminates in a common-sized
root to which little rootlets are at-
tached. Then there are little rootlets
attached to the fleshy root at various
places near the base. But the rootlets
which we see are only intermediary,
and there are numerous yet smaller
structures.

137. The rootlets, or fine divisions, are clothed with root-
hairs (29), which are very delicate structures. Carefully

(64)

103. Root and rootlets.

ROOT STRUCTURE 65

germinate radish or other seed, so that no delicate
parts of the root will be injured. For this purpose, place
a few seeds in packing-moss or in the folds of cloth or
blotting paper, being careful to
keep them moist. In a few days
the seed has germinated, and the
root has grown an inch or two
long. Notice that, excepting at a
distance of about a quarter of
an inch behind the tip, the root
is covered with minute hairs
(Figs. 11, 104). They are actu-
ally hairs, that is, root-hairs.
Touch them and they collapse, they are
so delicate. Dip one of the plants in
water, and when removed the hairs are
not to be seen. The water mats them
together along the root and they are no
longer evident. Root-hairs usually are
destroyed when a plant is pulled out of

the soil, be it done ever so carefully.
spleen LD ga They cling to the minute particles of
covering of root-hairs. gj], Under a microscope, observe how
they are flattened when they come in contact with grains
of sand (Chapter II). These root-hairs clothe the young
rootlets, and a great amount of soil is thus brought into
actual contact with the plant. Moot-hairs are not young
roots: they soon die.

138. The rootlet and the root-hair differ. The rootlet
is a solid, compact structure. The root-hair is a delicate
tube (Fig. 105), within the cell-wall of which is contained
living matter (protoplasm); and the lining membrane of
this wall permits water and substances in solution to pass

a

in. Being long and tube-like, these root-hairs are espe-
cially adapted for taking in the largest quantity of solu-

1D)

66 FOOD FROM THE SOIL

tions; and they are the principal means by which plant-
food is absorbed from the soil, although the surfaces of
the rootlets themselves do their part. Water-plants do
not need an abundant system of root-hairs, and such
plants depend largely on their rootlets.

139. OSMOSIS.—In order to understand how the water
enters the root-hair, it is necessary that we study the
physical process known as os-
mosis. A salt solution sepa-
rated by a membrane from
water absorbs some of the water
and increases its own volume.
First dissolve one ounce of
saltpeter, which we may use as
a fertilizer solution, in one
pint of water, calling this so-
lution No. J. For use in ex-
periments later on, also dis-
solve a piece of saltpeter not

105. Cross section of root, enlarged, larger than a peach pit (about
pp asta emit one-seventh ounce) in about

one gallon of water, calling this solution No. II. Now fill
the tube, C in Fig. 106, almost full of the strong solution
I, and tie a piece of animal membrane (hog’s bladder is
excellent for this purpose) over the large mouth. A small
funnel, with a long stem, may be used if one cannot obtain
a tube like C. Then sink the tube, bladder-part down-
wards, into a large bottle, A, of water until the level of
liquid in the tube stands at the same height as that in the
bottle. The tube may be readily secured in this position
by passing it through a hole in the cork of the bottle.
In a short time, we notice that the liquid in N begins to
rise, and in an hour or so it stands as at F, say. This
is an important result. The facts are that the liquids
tend to diffuse, but the strong solution in N cannot pass

OSMOSIS 67

through the bladder as rapidly as the water outside can
pass in. Then there is evidently absorption of water and
pressure in N which forces the liquid higher than in
the bottle. The liquid in N continues to stand higher
than in the bottle while this absorption goes on.

140. The cell-sap of the root-hair absorbs water from the
soil by osmotic action. The above experiment enables
us to understand how the countless
little root-hairs act,— each one like
the tube N, if only the whole surface
of the tube were a bladder membrane,
or something acting similarly. The
soil water does not contain much of
the land’s fertility: that is, it is a
very weak solution. The active little
root-hair, on the other hand, is always
filled with cell-sap, a more concen-
trated solution: hence soil water must
come in, and along with it come also
small quantities of dissolved food
materials. Some of these materials
may be fertilizers which have been
applied to the land.

141. The plant absorbs these solu-
tions as long as they are used for
the growth of the plant. The salts
which are dissolved in the soil water 16. To illustrate osmosis.
also diffuse themselves through the membrane of the
root-hairs, each ingredient tending independently to be-
come as abundant inside the root-hair as outside in the
soil water. Once inside the root-hair, these absorbed
solutions pass on to root and stem and leaf, to be
utilized in growth. As long as they are used, how-
ever, more must come into the root-hairs, in order to
restore the equilibrium. Thus those substances which are

68 FOOD FROM THE SOIL

needed must come in as long as the land can furnish them
in soluble form. Absorption was illustrated before by an
artificial arrangement because the root-hairs are so small
that they cannot be seen readily. But all parts of the
root can absorb some water.

142. Fleshy pieces of root or stem will absorb water
from weak solutions and become rigid; im strong solutions
such fleshy parts will give up their water and become flexi-
ble. To experiment further with this principle of absorp-
tion, cut several slices of potato tuber about one-eighth of
an inch in thickness, and let them le in the air half an
hour. Place a few of these slices in some of the strong
fertilizer solution I. Place similar pieces in the weak
solution II. In half an hour or more, those pieces in the
weak solution will be very rigid or stiff (turgid). They
will not bend readily when held lengthwise between the
fingers. Compare these slices with those in the strong
solution, where they are very flexible (flaccid). This
bending is evidently due to the fact that those in the
strong brine have actually lost some of their water. So
the potato tuber could take in soil water con-
taining a small amount of food; but if the
water contained much food material the potato
would actually lose some of the water which
it held.

143. These experiments not only demonstrate
how the roots absorb water containing plant-

\/// | food, but they emphasize the fact that the out-
<== 5) side solution must be very dilute in order to
107. Killeaby De absorbed at all. The root-hairs absorb water

hood ww which has dissolved only a small amount of plant-
tion. food from the richness of the soil, and not such
rich solutions as the sap of the plant itself.

144. The plant may be wilted, and even killed by at-
tempting to feed it food solutions which are too strong.

ROOT-PRESSURE 69

To test this matter, secure a young radish plant (or almost
any seedling with several leaves) and insert the roots into
a small bottle containing some of the saltpeter solution I.
In another bottle place a similar plant with
some of the weak solution II. Support the
plant in the mouth of the bottle with cotton
batting. After standing for a few hours or
less it will be noticed that the leaves of the
plant in the strong solution begin to wilt, as
in Fig. 107. The plant in the weak solu-
tion, Fig. 108, is rigid and normal. This
further indicates that the growing plant is
so constituted as to be able to make use of
very dilute solutions only. If we attempted
to feed it strong fertilizer solutions, these :
strong solutions, instead of being absorbed jog, The plant
by the plant, take water from the latter, thrives’ in 8

. : weak solution.
causing the plant to wilt.

145. The farmer or gardener knows that he can injure
or even kill his plants by adding too much plant-food.
Everyone recognizes the value of wood ashes as a ferti-
lizer; but no one would dare water his valuable plants
with lye, or sow his choice vegetable seeds on an ash

bank, however well it might be watered. If there is a
potted plant at hand which is of no value, remove some
of the soil, add considerable wood ashes, water well,
and await the result; or give it a large lump of nitrate
of soda.

146. ROOT-PRESSURE.— The activity of the root in absorb-
ing water gives rise to considerable force. This force is
known as root-pressure. The cause of this pressure
is not well understood. The pressure varies in different
plants and in the same plant at different times. ‘To
illustrate root-pressure, cut off a strong-growing small
plant near the ground. By means of a bit of rubber tube,

70 FOOD FROM THE SOIL

attach a glass tube with a bore of approximately the diam-
eter of the stem. Pour in a little water. Observe the rise
of the water due to the pressure from below (Fig. 109).
ae Some plants will force the column of water
several feet. The water ascends chiefly in
the young wood, not between the bark and
wood, as commonly supposed. To illustrate
yi the path of water-ascent, insert a growing
eh shoot in water which is colored with eosin :
alt) note the path which the color takes. (Hosin

| \ dye may be had of dealers in microscope
| i supplies. Common aniline may answer very
1 well. )

147. HOW THE SOIL HOLDS MOISTURE.— The
water which is valuable to the plant is not the
free water, but the thin film of moisture
which adheres to each little particle of soil.
The finer the soil, the greater the number
of particles, and therefore the greater is the
quantity of film moisture which it ean hold.
This moisture surrounding the grains may
not be perceptible, yet the plant can
use it. Root absorption may continue in
a soil which seems to be dust dry.

148. THE ROOTS NEED AIR. — Corn
on land which has been flooded by heavy
rains loses its green color and turns
yellow. Besides diluting plant-food, the
water drives the air from the soil, and
Z this suffocation of the roots ¢s very soon

109. apparent in the general ill health of the
To show root-pressure. HIant, Stirring or tilling the soil aérates
it. Water-plants and bog-plants have adapted themselves
to their particular conditions. They either get their air
by special surface roots, or from the water.

PROPER TEMPERATURE—ROOTS EXCRETE vial

149. PROPER TEMPERATURE.—The root must be warm
in order to perform its functions. Should the soil of fields
or greenhouses be much colder than the air, the plant
suffers. When in a warm atmosphere, or in a dry atmos-
phere, plants need to absorb much water from the soil,
and the roots must be warm if the root-hairs are to
supply the water as rapidly as it is needed. Jf the roots
are chilled, the plant may wilt or die. Try this with two
potted plants, as radish, coleus, tomato, ete. Put one pot
in a dish of ice water, and the other in a dish of warm
water, and keep them in a warm room. ¥¢
In a short time notice how stiff and
vigorous is the one whose roots are
warm, whereas the other may show
signs of wilting.

150. ROOTS EXCRETE. — The plant
not only absorbs what is already solu-
ble, but dt is capable of rendering
soluble small quantities of the insoluble
substances present in the soil, and which
may be needed for plant-food. The
plant accomplishes this result by
means of certain acid excretions from
the roots. These acids may even etch
marble. On a polished marble block,
place a half-inch of sawdust or soil,
in which plant seeds. After the plants
have attained a few leaves, turn the
mass of sawdust over and observe the

? 110. The rootlets and root-
prints of the roots on the marble. hairs cling to the particles

These prints will be very faint. An ° sel.
illustration of this experiment is given on page 73. Care-

fully pull up a young seedling which is growing in soft
soil, and notice how tenaciously the soil particles are held
to the root (Fig. 110).

ip FOOD FROM THE SOIL

151. THE FOOD MATERIALS.—We have seen that all
food materials must be in solution in water in order to be
taken in by the roots. Different kinds of plants require
different kinds and proportions of the food materials, but
ordinary green plants are supposed to require at least
eleven of the elementary substances in order to live.
These are:

Carbon, C. Potassium, K.
Oxygen, O. Calcium, Ca.
Nitrogen, N. Magnesium, Mg.
Hydrogen, H. Phosphorus, P.

Sulfur, S.

Iron, Fe.

Chlorine, Cl. (in some

plants).

All these elements must be in combinations, not in their
elemental form, in order to be absorbed by roots.

152. Usually all of these except carbon and oxygen are
taken in only through the roots. Some of the oxygen is
taken in by the roots in the form of water (which is H20),
and in other compounds. Some carbon is probably taken
in by the roots in the form of carbonates, but it is doubt-
ful whether this source of carbon is important to the plant.
Water is not only a earrier of plant-food: it is itself a
plant-food, for some of it is used in the building up of
organic materials. The seven elements in the right-hand
column are ealled the mineral elements: they remain in
the ash, when the plant is burned. The mineral elements
come from the soil.

153. The ash is a small part of the total weight of
the plant. In a eorn plant of the roasting-ear stage, the
ash (what remains after ordinary burning) is about 1 per
cent of the total substance.

154. Water is the most abundant single constituent
or substance of plants. In the corn plant of the roasting-

ld)

WATER IN THE PLANT fo

ear stage, about 80 per cent of the substance is water.
A fresh turnip is over 90 per cent water. Fresh wood of
the apple contains about 45 per cent of water. The plant
secures its water from the soil.

Review.—What is plant-food? Where does some of it come
from? Describe the feeding root. Describe root-hairs. What is
their function? How does the root-hair differ from the rootlet ?
What is osmosis? Describe the experiment. How does the soil water
get into the root-hair? For how long does this absorption continue?
Under what conditions may the root-hair lose its sap? In what condi-
tion must the soil water be in order to be absorbed? What may result
if the food solutions are too strong? Has this fact any interest to the
plant-grower? What is root-pressure? How is the water held in the
soil when it is most valuable to the plant? How are plants able to
live in dry soil? Why do roots need air? How do they get it? Deseribe
what effect a cold soil has on roots. How do roots secure the plant-
food in the soil particles? What elements are necessary to plants?
In what forms must these elements be in order to be absorbed by the
roots? About what percentage of the whole substance is ash? What
is the most abundant constituent in plants? Whence does it come?

Notre.—Examine soil under a lens, to see the odd and miscel-
laneous particles of which it is composed.

Not all kinds of plants exhibit strong root-pressure. The grape
vine is a good subject to show it. If pot plants are used, choose a
well-rooted one with a straight stem. Coleus, begonia and Impatiens
Sultani are good subjects. These can be had at greenhouses.

a4

=)
a

,
)

Root excretions may etch a marble surface,

CHAPTER XII

THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

155. SOURCES OF FOOD.—The ordinary green plant has
but two sources from which to obtain food,—the air and the
soil. When a plant is thoroughly dried in an oven, the
water passes off: this water came from the soil (154).
The remaining part is called the dry substance or dry
matter. If the dry matter is burned in an ordinary fire,
only the ash remains: this ash came from the soil (152)..
The part which passed off as gas in the burning contained
the elements which came from the air: it also contained
some of those which came from the soil—all those (as
nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine) which are transformed into
gases by the heat of a common fire.

156. CARBON.—Carbon enters abundantly into the com-
position of all plants. Note what happens when a plant
is burned without free access of air, or smothered, as in a
chareoal pit. A mass of charcoal remains, almost as large
as the body of the plant. Charcoal is almost pure carbon,
the ash present being so small in proportion to the large
amount of carbon that we look on the ash as an im-
purity. Half or more of the dry substance of a tree
is carbon. When the tree is charred (or incompletely
burned), the carbon remains in the form of chareoal. The
carbon goes off as a gas when the plant is burned in air.
It does not go off alone, but in combination with oxygen,
and in the form ealled carbon dioxid gas, COsz.

157. The green plant secures its carbon from the air.
In other words, much of the solid matter of the plant
comes from one of the gases. By volume carbon diorid

(74)

ae
(-

CHLOROPHYLL

forms only about three-hundredths of 1 per cent of the air.
It would be very disastrous to animal life, however, if this
percentage were much increased, for it excludes the life-
giving oxygen. Carbon dioxid is often called “foul-gas.”
It may accumulate in old wells, and an experienced person
will not descend into such wells until they have been tested
with atoreh. If the air in the well will not support com-
bustion, that is, if the torch is extinguished, it usually
means that carbon dioxid has drained into the place. The
air of a closed school-room often contains far too much
of this gas along with little solid particles of waste matters.
Carbon dioxid is often known as carbonic acid gas.

158. APPROPRIATION OF THE CARBON.— The carbon di-
oxid of the air readily diffuses into the leaves and other
green parts of the plant. The leaf is delicate in texture,
and often the air can enter directly into the leaf tissues.
There are, however, special inlets provided for the admis-
sion of gases into the leaves and other green parts. These
inlets consist of numerous pores (stomates or stomata),
which are especially abundant on the under surface of
the leaf. The apple leaf contains about one hundred
thousand of these pores to each square inch of the under
surface. Through these breathing pores the outside air
enters into the air-spaces of the plant, and finally into the
little cells containing the living matter. In Part III these
breathing pores will be studied.

159, CHLOROPHYLL.— The green color of leaves is due to
a substance called chlorophyll. Purchase at the drug store
about a gill of wood aleohol. Secure a leaf of geranium,
clover, or other plant which has been exposed to sun-
light for a few hours and, after dipping it for a minute
in boiling water, put it in a white eup with sufficient
aleohol to cover the leaf. Place the cup on the stove
Where it is not hot enough for the aleohol to take fire.
After a time the chlorophyll is dissolved by the alcohol,

76 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

which has become an intense green. Save this leaf for
a future experiment. Without chlorophyll, the plant can
not appropriate the carbon dioxid of the air.

160. In most plants this chlorophyll or leaf-green
is seattered throughout the green tissues in little oval
bodies, and these bodies are most abundant near the upper
surface of the leaf, where they can secure the greatest amount
of light. Without this green coloring matter, there would
be no reason for the large flat surfaces which the leaves
possess, and no reason for the fact that the leaves are
borne most abundently at the ends of branches, where the
light is most available. Plants with colored leaves, as
coleus, have chlorophyll, but it is masked by other color-
ing matter. This other coloring matter is usually soluble
in hot water: boil a coleus leaf and notice that it becomes
green and the water becomes colored.

161. Plants grown in darkness are yellow and slender,
and do not reach maturity. Compare the potato sprouts
which have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar
with those which have grown normally in the bright light
(Fig. 42). The shoots have reached out for that which
they cannot find; and when the food which is stored in
the tuber is exhausted, these shoots will have lived useless
lives. A plant which has been grown in darkness from the
seed will soon die, although for a time the little seedling
will grow very tall and slender. Light makes possible the
production of chlorophyll. Sometimes chlorophyll is found
in buds and seeds, but it is probable that these places are
not perfectly dark. Notice how potato tubers develop
chlorophyll, or become green, when exposed to lght.

162. PHOTOSYNTHESIS.—Carbon dioxid is absorbed by
the leaf during sunlight, and oxygen is given off. We
have seen (157) that carbon dioxid will not support animal
life. Experiments have shown that carbon diorid is ab-
sorbed and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaces

STARCH ea

of plants during the hours of sunlight. How the ear-
bon dioxid which is thus absorbed may be used as food
is a complex question, and need not be studied here.

163. Chlorophyll absorbs the heat of the sun’s rays, and
the energy thus obtained is used by the living matter in unit-
ing the carbon dioxid absorbed from the air with some of the
water brought up by the roots. The process by which these
compounds are united is a complex one, but the ultimate result
usually is starch. No one knows all the details of this
process; and our first definite
knowledge of the product be-
gins when starch is deposited
in the leaves. The process of
using the carbon dioxid of
the air has been known as
carbon-assimilation, but the
term now most used is photo-
synthesis (from Greek words,
meaning light and to put to-
gether).

164. STARCH.—AI] starch
is composed of carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen (Ce6HwOs).
The sugars and the woody
substances are very similar to
it in composition. All these
substances are called carbo-
hydrates. In making this
starch from the carbon and
oxygen of carbon dioxid and

lll. To show the escape of
oxygen.

from the hydrogen and oxygen
of the water, there is a sur-
plus of orygen. It is this oxygen which is given off into
the air. To test the giving off of oxygen by day, make the
experiment illustrated in Fig. 111. Under a funnel in a

78 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

deep glass jar containing fresh spring or stream water,
place fresh pieces of the common water-weed elodea (or
anacharis). Invert a test tube over the stem of the fun-
nel. In sunlight bubbles of oxygen will arise and collect
in the test tube. When a sufficient quantity of oxygen
has collected, a lighted taper inserted in the tube will glow
with a brighter flame, showing
the presence of oxygen. <A sim-
pler experiment is to immerse an
active leaf of lettuce or other
plant in water, and to observe
the bubbles which arise. From
a leaf in sunlight the bubbles
often arise in great numbers; but
from one in shadow, the bubbles
= usually are comparatively few.
112. To show that the leaf gives Fig. 112. The water catches or

one yeen. holds the oxygen in bubbles and
thereby makes the process visible. Observe the bubbles
on pond scum and water weeds on a bright day.

165. Starch is present in the green leaves of plants which
have been exposed to sunlight; but in the dark no starch can
be formed from carbon dioxid. Apply iodine to the leaf
from which the chlorophyll was dissolved in a previous
experiment (159). Note that the leaf is colored purplish
brown throughout. The leaf contains starch (75). Se-
cure a leaf from a plant which has been in the darkness
for about two days. Dissolve the chlorophyll as before,
and attempt to stain this leaf with iodine. No purplish
brown color is produced.

166. The starch manufactured in the leaf may be entirely
removed during darkness. Secure a plant which has been
kept in darkness for twenty-four hours or more. Split
a small cork and pin the two halves on opposite sides of
one of the leaves, as shown in Fig. 113. Place the plant

Ss

DIGESTION 79

in the sunlight again. After a morning of bright sun-
shine dissolve the chlorophyll in this leaf with alcohol;
then stain the leaf with the iodine. Notice that the leaf
is stained deeply in all
parts except in that part
over which the cork was
placed, as in Fig. 114.
There is no starch in the
covered area.

167. Plants or parts
of plants which have de-
veloped no chlorophyll can
form no starch. Secure

a variegated leaf of co- 13. Excluding light
: from part of a leaf. 114. The result.

leus, ribbon grass, gera-
nium, or of any plant showing both white and green areas.
On a day of bright sunshine test one of these leaves
by the aleohol and iodine method for the presence of
starch. Observe that the parts devoid of green color
have formed no starch. However, after starch has once
been formed in the leaves, it may be changed into solu-
ble substances and removed to be again converted into
starch in other parts of the living tissues.

168. DIGESTION.—Starch is in the form of insoluble gran-
ules. Whenever the material is carried from one part of the
plant to another for purposes of growth or storage, it is
made soluble before it can be transported. When this
starchy material is transferred from place to place, it is
usually changed into sugar by the action of a ferment.
This is a process of digestion. It is much like the change
of starchy foods to sugary foods by the saliva.

169. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIGESTED FOOD.— After being
changed to the soluble form, this material is ready to be
used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, or in the
roots. With other more complex products it is then dis-

80 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

tributed throughout all of the growing parts of the plant;
and when passing down to the root it seems to pass more
readily through the inner bark, in plants which have a defi-
nite bark. This gradual downward diffusion of materials
suitable for growth through the inner bark is the process
referred to when the “descent of sap” is mentioned. Starch
and other products are often stored in one growing season
to be used in the next season (Chapter VI). If a tree is
constricted or strangled by a wire around its trunk, the
digested food cannot readily pass down and it is stored
above the girdle, causing an enlargement.

170. ASSIMILATION.— The food obtained from the air and
that from the soil unite in the living tissues. The sap
which is constantly passing upward from the roots during
the growing season is made up largely of the soil- water
and the salts which have been absorbed in diluted solu-
tions. This upward-moving water is conducted largely
through certain tubular cells of the young wood. These
cells are never continuous tubes from root to leaf; but the
water passes readily from one cell to another in its upward
course.

171. The upward-moving water gradually passes to the
growing parts, and everywhere in the living tissues it
meets the liquid product returning from the leafy parts.
Under the influence of the living matter of the plant, this
product from the leaves first selects the nitrogen. A sub-
stance more complex than sugar is then formed, and grad-
ually compounds are formed which contain sulfur, phospho-
rus, potassium, and other elements, until finally protoplasm
is manufactured. Protoplasm is the living matter in plants.
It is in the cells, and is usually semi-fluid. Starch is not
living matter. The complex process of building up the
protoplasm is called assimilation.

172. RESPIRATION.—Plants needs oxygen for respira-
tion just as animals do. We have seen that plants need the

RESPIRATION 81

earbon dioxid of the air. To most plants the nitrogen of
the air is inert, and serves only to dilute the other ele-
ments; but the orygen is necessary for all life. We know
that all animals need this oxygen in order to breathe or
respire. In fact, they have become accustomed to it in
just the proportions found in the air; and this is now best
for them. When animals breathe the air once they make
it foul, because they use some of the oxygen and give off
earbon dioxid. Likewise, all living parts of the plant
must have a constant supply of oxygen. Roots also need
it (148).

173. The oxygen passes into the air-spaces and into the
living protoplasm, performing a function of purification as
in animals. The air-spaces in the leaf are equal in bulk to
the tissues themselves (Fig. 115). Asa result of the use
of this oxygen alone at night, plants give off carbon dioxid
as animals do. Plants respire; but since they are station-
ary, and more or less
inactive, they do not
need as much oxygen
as animals, and they
do not give off so much
carbon diorid. Dur-
ing the day plants
use so much more
carbon dioxid than
oxygen that they are tne ore Ob EGtiE EN GPAD EG ORIGGHS called
said to purify the air. chiefly contain the chlorophyll are at b. Epider-
The carbon dioxid gs
which plants give off at night is very slight in compari-
son with that given off by animals; so that a few plants
inasleeping room need not disturb one more than a family

115. Section of a leaf, showing the air-spaces. Breath-

of mice. Plants usually grow most rapidly in darkness.
174. TRANSPIRATION.—We have found that the plant
takes its food from the soil in very dilute solutions.

F

82 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

Much more water is absorbed by the roots than is used in
growth, and this surplus water is given off from the leaves
into the atmosphere by an evaporation process known as
transpiration. The transpiration takes place more abun-
dantly from the under surfaces of leaves, and through the
pores or stomates. It has been found that a sunflower
plant of the height of a man, during an active period of

116. To illustrate transpiration.

growth, gives off more than a quart of water per day. A
large oak tree may transpire 150 gallons per day during the
summer. For every ounce of dry matter produced, it is
estimated that from fifteen to twenty-five pounds of water
must pass through the plant. Cut off a succulent shoot of
any plant, stick the end of it through a hole in a cork and
stand it ina small bottle of water. Invert over this bottle
a large-mouthed bottle (as a fruit-jar), and notice that a

TRANSPIRATION 83

mist soon accumulates on the inside of the glass. In time
drops of water form. The experiment may be varied as
shown in Fig. 116. Or invert the fruit-jar over an entire
plant, as shown in Fig. 117, taking
care to cover the soil with oiled
paper or rubber cloth to prevent
evaporation from the soil. Even
in winter moisture is given off by
leafless twigs. Cut a twig, seal the
severed end with wax, and allow
the twig to lie several days: it
shrivels. There must be some up-
ward movement of water even in
winter, else plants would shrivel

and die. fon
=< = ’ eee
175. When the roots fail to sup- ~>~* : A)
ply to the plant sufficient water to a

equalize that transpired by the 117. To illustrate transpiration.
leaves, the plant wilts. Transpiration from the leaves and
delicate shoots is increased by all of the conditions which
would increase evaporation, such as higher temperature, dry
air or wind. The breathing pores are so constructed that
they open and close with the varying conditions of the
atmosphere, and thereby regulate transpiration. However,
during periods of drought or of very hot weather, and
especially during a hot wind, the closing of these stomates
cannot sufficiently prevent evaporation. The roots may be
very active and yet fail to absorb sufficient moisture to
equalize that given off by the leaves. The plant wilts.
Any injury to the roots or even chilling them (149) may
cause the plant to wilt. Ona hot, dry day note how the
leaves of corn “roll” towards afternoon, Early the fol-
lowing morning note how fresh and vigorous the same
leaves appear. Water is also forced up by root-pressure
(146). Some of the dew on the grass in the morning

84 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER

may be the water forced up by the roots; some of it is
the condensed vapor of the air.

176. The wilting of a plant is due to the loss of water
from the cells. The cell walls are soft, and collapse. <A
grain bag will not stand alone, but it will stand when
filled with wheat. In the woody parts of the plant the
cell walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even
though the cell is empty. Measure the contraction due to
wilting and drying by tracing a fresh leaf, and then trac-
ing the same leaf after it has been dried between papers.
The softer the leaf, the greater will be the contraction.

REVIEw.— Whence comes the food of plants? What is meant by
the dry substance? What is charcoal? How is it obtained? How
much of the dry substance is carbon? What becomes of it when
the plant is burned in air? Whence comes the carbon? What is
earbon dioxid? How abundant is it in the air? How does the COs
get into the leaf? What is chlorophyll? What function has it?
Where are the chlorophyll bodies located? What relation has light
to chlorophyll? When is CO, absorbed? What is formed after CO»
is taken in? Define photosynthesis. What is starch? What is
given off when starch is made by photosynthesis? In what part of
the plant is starch first made? When? What are carbohydrates ?
What is digestion of starch? How is the digested food distributed?
Explain assimilation. What is the product of assimilation? Explain
respiration. When are O and CO2 given off? Define transpiration.
Why do plants wilt?

An egg-shell farm for the pupil’s desk.

CHAPTER XIII
DEPENDENT PLANTS

177. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT PLANTS.— Plants
with roots and foliage usually depend on themselves. They
collect the raw materials and make them over into assimil-
able food. They are independent. Plants without green
foliage cannot make food: they must have it made for them
or they die. They are dependent.
The potato sprout (Fig. 42) cannot
collect and elaborate carbon dioxid.
It lives on the food stored in the
tuber.

178. All plants with naturally
white or blanched parts are dependent.
Their leaves do not develop. They
live on organic matter —that which
has been made by a plant or an ani-
mal. The Indian pipe, aphyllon
(Fig. 118), beech drop, coral root
(Fig. 119) among flower-producing
plants, also mushrooms and other
fungi (Figs. 120, 121) are examples.

179. PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES
—A plant which is dependent on a
living plant or animal is a parasite,
and the plant or animal on which it
lives is the host. The dodder is a

true parasite. So are the rusts and “seems
mildews which attack leaves and 15. 4 parasite, growing in

ne woods,— Aphyllon. It is
shoots and injure them. in bloom

( 85 )

86 DEPENDENT PLANTS

180. The threads of the parasitic fungus usually creep
through the intercellular spaces in the leaf or stem and
send suckers (or haustoria) into the cells
(Fig. 122). These threads (or hyphe)

, clog the breathing spaces of
\, 4c the leaf and often plug the

SIR stomata, and they also appro-

Deso/iPy1

ae

Se
K.

<=
ve

~ Jee priate and disorganize the
Zan by OF ee 5 MIMI, Rt 4
J cell fluids: thus they injure DM
i ov kill their host. The mass j
: APS of hyphe of a fungus is called
Q 120. A mushroom, exam-

myce My um. Some of the ple of a saprophytic

I \ hyphe finally grow out of ?@™
il 1 y the leaf and produce spores or reproductive cells
i j) N which answer the purpose of seeds in distribu-
Wal S ting the plant (b, Fig. 122).
ri ( 181. A plant which lives on dead or decaying

matter is a saprophyte. Mushrooms are ex-
amples: they live on the decaying matter in
the soil. Mould on bread and cheese is an
example. Lay a piece of moist bread on a plate
and invert a tumbler over it. In a few days it
will be mouldy. The spores were in the air, or
perhaps they had already fallen on the bread
but had not had opportunity to grow. Most
| plants are able to make use of the humus or
| vegetable mould in the soil, and to that extent
( b might be ealled saprophytic.
th : s 182. Some parasites spring from
Ne a sé ) the ground (Figs. 118, 119), as
Annes 6% other plants do, but they are para-
TAK AY as HN sitic on the roots of their hosts.
; R Some parasites may be partially
Ses oa eee parasitic and partially saprophytic.
showing the mycorrhizas. | Many (perhaps most) of these root-

PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES 87

parasites are aided in securing their food by soil fungi,
which spread their delicate threads over the root-like
branches of the parasite and act as intermediaries be-
tween the food and the parasite. The roots of the
coral-root (Fig. 119) are covered with this fungus, and
the roots have practically lost the power of absorbing
food direct. These fungous-covered roots are known as
mycorrhizas (meaning “fungus root”). Mycorrhizas are
not peculiar to parasites. They are found on many
wholly independent plants as, for example, the heaths,
oaks, apples, and pines. It is probable that the fungous
threads perform some of the offices of root-hairs to the
host. On the other hand, the fungus obtains some nour-
ishment from the host. The association seems to be
mutual.

183. Saprophytes break down or decompose organic
substances. Chief of these saprophytes are the microscopic
organisms known as
bacteria (Fig. 123).
These innumerable
bodies are immersed in
water or in animal and
plant juices, and absorb
food over their entire
surface. By breaking
down organic combina-
tions, they produce decay.

Largely through their
agency, and that of yo)
many true. but micro- (Polyporus) growing on dead trunks and logs.

Saprophytic fungus. One of the shelf fungi

scopie fungi

DP

all things pass into soil and gas. Thus are
the bodies of plants and animals removed and the con-
tinuing round of life is maintained.

184. Some parasites are green-leaved. Such is the
mistletoe. They anchor themselves on the host and

88

absorb its juices,
earbon ie of

on

soe)

. A parasitic fungus,
magnified. The my-
celium, or vegetative
part, is shown by the
dotted - shaded parts
ramifying in the leaf
tissue. The rounded
haustoria projecting
into the cells, are also
shown. The long
fruiting parts of the
fungus hang from the
under surface of the
leaf.

DEPENDENT PLANTS

but they also appropriate and use the
the air. In some groups of colored
bacteria the process of photosynthesis.
or something equivalent to it, takes
place.
185.
are usually
that is, as

Parasitism and saprophytism
regarded as degeneration,
a loss of independence.
The ancestors of these plants might
have been independent. Thus, the
whole class of fungi is looked upon as
a degenerate evolution. The more a
plant depends on other plants, the
more it tends still further to lose its
independence.

186. EPIPHYTES.— To be distin-
guished from the dependent plants are
those which grow on other plants with-
out taking food from them. These are
green-leaved plants whose roots burrow
in the bark of the host plant and per-
haps derive some food from it, but which

subsist chiefly on materials which they secure from air-

dust, rain-water and the air.

These plants are epiphytes

(meaning “upon plants”) or air-plants.

187. Epiphytes abound in the tropics. Orchids are
amongst the best known examples (Fig. @ So
13). The Spanish moss or tillandsia of the Sen &
South is another. Mosses and _ lichens oot: Sao
which grow on trees and fences may also be “eS
called epiphytes. In the struggle for exis- 123. Bacteria, much

magnified.

tence, the plants probably have been driven
special places
erow where they must,

to these
grow. Plants

will.

in which to find opportunity to
not where they

REVIEW ON DEPENDENT PLANTS 89

Revyiew.— What is an independent plant? Dependent? Give
examples. How are dependent plants distinguished from others in
looks? Define parasite. Saprophyte. Give examples. What is a
host? How does a parasitic fungus live on its host? What are
hyphe? What is mycelium? What are root-parasites? Give
examples. What is a mycorrhiza? What is the relation of the soil
fungus to its host? What is the role or office of saprophytes in
nature? Are parasites ever green? Explain. What has probably
been the evolution of most parasites and saprophytes? What is an
epiphyte? Give examples. How do they live? Why may they
have become epiphytes?

Notre — Usually, the most available parasite is the dodder. It
is common in swales from July until autumn, winding its coral-
yellow stems about herbs and soft-growing bushes. It is a degraded
member of the morning-glory family. It produces true flowers and
seeds. These seeds germinate the following spring. The slender
young vine grows from the ground for a time, but if it fails to finda

host, it perishes.

The cultivated mushroom, « saprophytic plant.

CHAPTER XIV
LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

188. Leaves may be studied from two points of view
—with reference to their function, or what they do;
and with reference to their form, or their shapes and
kinds.

189. FUNCTION.—Leaves, as we have seen, make or-
ganic matters from carbon dioxid and water; they respire,
throwing off carbon dioxid as waste; they digest the
starch, that it may be transported; and they perform
other vital activities. Functions which require both lungs
and stomach in animals (respiration and digestion) are
performed by leaves; and in addition to these functions,
they appropriate the carbon of the air (process of photo-
synthesis), a work which is peeuliar to plants. Any part
of the plant, however, may bear chlorophyll and perform
the functions of leaves. Even aérial
roots, as of orchids, are sometimes green.

190. The general form and structure
of leaves is intimately associated with
their function: they are thin and much-
expanded bodies, thereby exposing the
greatest possible surface to light and
air. The position of the leaves usually
has relation to light, as we have seen
(Chapter VIII). Leaves usually hang
in such a way that one easts the least
shade on the other; those die and
fall which have the least favorable po-

124. Simple leaf. One
of the eupatoriums ee
or bonesets. sitions.

(90)

FORM OF LEAVES OL

191. FORM.—Leaves are simple or unbranched (Fig.
124), and compound or branched (Fig. 125). The
method of compounding or branching follows the style
of veining. The veining, or venation, is of two general
kinds: in most plants
the main veins di-
verge, and there is a
conspicuous network
of smaller veins: such
leaves are netted-
veined. In other
plants the main veins
are parallel, or nearly
so, and there is no

125. Compound or branched leaf of brake conspicuous network:
(which is a fern).

these are parallel-
veined leaves (Fig. 136). The venation of netted-veined
leaves is pinnate or feather-like, when the veins arise from
the side of a continuous midrib (Fig. 124); palmate or
digitate (hand-like), when the veins arise from the apex
of the midrib (Fig. 126). If the leaf were divided be-
tween the main veins, it would
be pinnately or digitately com-
pound,

192. It is customary to speak
of a leaf as compound only when
the parts or branches are com-
pletely separate blades, as when
the division extends to the midrib
(Figs. 125, 127, 128). The parts 126. Digitate-veined peltate leat

of nasturtium,

or branches are known as leaf-
lets. Sometimes the leaflets themselves are compound, and
the whole leaf is then said to be bi-compound ovr twice-
compound (Fig. 125). Some leaves are three-compound,
four-compound, or five-compound. Decompound is a

92 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

general term to express any degree of compounding be-
yond twice-compound.

193. Leaves which are not divided to the midrib are
said to be:

lobed, openings or sinuses

not more than half the
depth of the blade
(Pig. 129).

cleft, sinuses deeper than

the middle.

parted, sinuses two-thirds

or more to the midrib 127. Pinnately compound leaf of ash.
(Fig. 130).

divided, sinuses nearly or quite to the midrib.

The parts are called lobes, divisions, or segments, rather
than leaflets. The leaf may be pinnately or digitately
lobed, parted, cleft, or divided. A pin-
nately parted or cleft leaf is sometimes
said to be pinnatifid.

194. Leaves may have one or all of
three parts—blade or expanded part, pet-
iole or stalk, stipules or appendages at
the base of the petiole. All these parts
are shown in Fig. 131. A leaf which has
all three of these
parts is said to be
128. Digitately com- Com phew rhe
pound leaf of rasp- Stipules are often
Berry: green and leaf-like
and perform the function of foliage,
as in the pea and Japanese quince
(the latter common in yards).

195. Leaves and leaflets which
have no stalks are said to be ses-
sile (Fig. 137), 1 Cs, sitting. The 129. Lobed leaf of sugar maple.

FORM OF LEAVES 93

same is said of flowers and fruits. The blade of a sessile
leaf may partly or wholly surround the stem, when it is
said to be clasping (Fig.
132). In some cases the
leaf runs down the stem,
forming a wing: — such
leaves are said to be de-
current (Fig. 133). When
opposite sessile leaves are
joined by their bases, they
are said to be connate
(Fig. 134).

196. Leaflets may have
one or all of these three
parts, but the stalks of leaflets are called petiolules and
the stipules of leaflets are called stipels. The leaf of the
garden bean has leaflets, petiolules, and stipels.

197. The blade is usually attached to
the petiole by its lower edge. In pinnate-
veined leaves, the petiole seems to continue
through the leaf as a midrib (Fig. 124).
In some plants, however, the
petiole joins the blade inside
or beyond the margin (Figs.
126, 135). Such leaves are
said to be peltate or shield-
shaped. This mode of attach-

130. Digitately parted leaves of begonia.

ment is particularly common
in floating leaves (e. g@., the

131. Complete leaves 152. Clasping leaf water lilies). Peltate leaves
Sebel of wild aster. are usually digitate-veined.
198. SHAPE.—Leaves and leaflets are infinitely variable
in shape. Names have been given to some of the mort
definite or regular shapes. These names are a part of the
language of botany. These names represent ideal or typi-

94 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

cal shapes, but there are no two leaves alike and very
few which perfectly conform to the definitions. The
shapes are likened to those of familiar objects or of geo-
metrical figures. Some of the commoner shapes are as
follows :

Linear, several times longer than broad, with the sides
nearly or quite parallel. Spruces and most grasses
are examples. Fig. 136. In linear leaves, the main
veins are usually parallel to the midrib.

Oblong, twice or thrice as long as broad, with the sides
parallel for most of their length. Fig. 137 shows the
short-oblong leaves of the box, a plant which is much
used for edgings in gardens.

Elliptic differs from the oblong in having the sides gradu-
ally tapering to either end from the middle. The Eu-
ropean beech, Fig. 138, has elliptic leaves. (This tree
is often planted.)

Lanceolate, four to six times longer than broad, widest
below the middle and tapering to each end. Some of
the narrow-leaved willows are examples. Most of
the willows and the peach have oblong-lanceolate
leaves.

Spatulate, a narrow leaf which is broadest towards the
apex. The top is usually rounded. It is much like
an oblong leaf.

Ovate, shaped somewhat like the longitudinal section of
an egg: twice as long as broad, tapering from near

® the base to the apex. This is one of the commonest
leaf forms. Fig. 139.

Obovate, ovate inverted,—the wide part towards the apex.
Leaflets of horse-chestnut are obovate. This form is
commonest in leaflets of digitate leaves.

Reniform, kidney-shaped. This form is sometimes seen in

& wild plants, particularly in root-leaves. Leaves of
wild ginger are nearly reniform.

Orbicular, circular in general outline. Very few leaves are
perfectly circular, but there are many which are nearer
circular than any other shape. Fig. 140.

SHAPE OF LEAVES 95

The shape of many leaves is described in combinations
of these terms, as ovate-lanceolate, lanceolate-oblong.

. 199. The shape of the base
and apex of the leaf or leaflet
is often characteristic. The
base may be rounded (Fig.
124), tapering (Fig. 127), cor-
date or heart-shaped (Fig. 139),
truncate or squared as if cut
off. The apex may be blunt or
133. Decurrent Obtuse, acute or sharp, acum-
oe mul inate or long-pointed, truncate
CHige= 14ae

200. The shape of the mar-
gin is also characteristic of each kind of leaf. The mar-
gin is entire when if is not indented or cut in any way
(Fig. 137). When not entire, it may be undulate or wavy
(Fig. 126), serrate or saw-toothed (Fig. 139), dentate or
more coarsely notched (Fig.
124), crenate or round-

toothed, lobed, etc.

201. Leaves often differ
greatly in form on the same
plant. Observe the differ-
ent shapes of leaves on the
young growths of mulberries
and wild grapes; also on

vigorous squash and pumpkin
vines. In some cases there

may be simple and compound 434. two pairs of connate leaves
leaves on the same plant. of honeysuckle,

This is marked in the so-called Boston ivy or ampelopsis
(Fig. 142), a vine which is used to cover brick and stone
buildings. Different degrees of compounding, even in
the same leaf, may often be found in honey locust and

96

Kentucky coffee tree. Remark-
able differences in forms are
seen by comparing seed-leaves
with mature leaves of any plant
(Fig. 143).

136. Linear-
acuminate
leaf of
grass.

leaf to the light (Fig. 144).
204. On the approach of win-
ter the leaf ceases to work, and

LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

202. THE LEAF AND
ITS ENVIRONMENT. —
The form and _ shape
of the leaf often have 135. Peltate leaves of so-called
direct relation to the Egyptian lotus.
place in which the leaf grows. Floating leaves
are usually expanded and flat, and the petiole
varies in length with the depth of the water.
Submerged leaves are usually linear or thread-like,
or are cut into very narrow divisions. Thereby is
more surface exposed, and possibly the leaves are
less injured by moving water.

203. The largest leaves on a sun-loving plant
are usually those which are fully exposed to light.
Compare the sizes of the leaves on the ends of
branches with those at
the base of the branches
or in the interior of the
tree-top. In dense foli-
age masses, the petioles
of the lowermost or
undermost leaves tend to
elongate —to push the

often dies, It: may drop, awhem tie @@yeherteblens teaver eS ies
is said to be deciduous; or it may remain on the plant,
when it is said to be persistent. If persistent leaves re-
main green during the winter, the plant is said to be

FALLING OF THE LEAF 97

evergreen. Most leaves fall by breaking off at the lower
end of the petiole with a distinct joint or articulation.
There are many leaves, however, which wither and hang

138. Elliptic leaf 139. Ovate serrate leaf
of purple beech. of hibiscus. 140. Orbicular lobed leaves.

cn the plant until torn off by the wind: of such are the
leaves of grasses, sedges, lilies, orchids, and other plants
known as monocotyledons (Chap. XXIII). Most leaves
of this character are parallel-veined. Consult 439.

205. Leaves also die and fall from lack of light. Ob-
serve the yellow and weak leaves in a dense tree-top or in
any thicket. Why do the lower leaves
die on house-plants? Note the carpet
of needles under the pines. All ever-
greens shed their leaves after a time.
Counting back from the tip of a pine
or spruce shoot, determine how many
years the leaves persist (Fig. 145).
In some spruces a few leaves may be
found on branches ten or more years
old. Leaves usually persist longest
in the lightest positions (Fig. 77). 41. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree.

206. Although the forms and positions of leaves often

have direct relation to the places and conditions in which

98 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

the leaves grow, it is not known that all forms and shapes
have been developed to adapt the plant to its environment.
It is probable that the
toothing or lobing of the
leaf-margins is due to the
same causes which produce
compounding or branching
of leaves, but what these
causes are is not known.
It has been suggested that
leaves have become com-
pound in order to increase
their surface and thereby
to offer a greater exposure
to light in shady places,
142. Different forms of leaves from one but Wer nay, sun-loving

plant of ampelopsis. species have compound
leaves, and many shade-loving species have simple and
even small leaves. Again, it has been suggested that com-
pound leaves shade underlying leaves less than simple
‘leaves do.

207. HOW TO TELL A LEAF.—It is often difficult to dis-
tinguish compound leaves from leafy branches and leaflets
from leaves. Asa rule, leaves can be told by the follow-
ing tests: (1) Leaves are temporary structures, sooner
or later falling. (2) Usu- >
ally buds are borne in
their axils. (3) Leaves are
usually borne at joints or
nodes. (4) They arise on
wood of the current-year’s

143. Muskmelon seedlings, with the un-
growth. (5) They have a like seed-leaves and true leaves.

more or less definite arrangement. When leaves fall, the
twig which bore them remains; when leaflets fall, the main
petiole which bore them falls also.

144. A leaf mosaic of Norway maple. Note the varying

lengths of petioles.

145. Shoot of the common white pin

, one-third natural size.

The picture shows the falling of the leaves from the different years’
growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last
season’s growth; between A and B it is two years old; the part
between B and © is three years old; it has few leaves, The part that
grew four seasons ago—beyond C—has no leaves,

100 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

ReEvViEw.—How may leaves be studied? What is meant by func-
tion? What do leaves do? What other parts may perform the function
of leaves? How is form of leaves associated with
their function? What are simple leaves? Com-
pound? What is venation? What are the types or
kinds of venation? What are the two types of
compound leaves? What is a leaflet? Define bi-
compound ; deecompound. What are lobed, cleft,
parted, and divided leaves? Pinnatifid leaf ? Com-
plete leaf? Complete leaflet? What is a sessile
leaf? How may the petiole join the blade? How
are the shapes of leaves named or classified? De-
fine the shapes described in 198. Describe com-
116. Oblique leaf of | mon shapes of the base of the leaf. Of the apex.

UBSGIDS. Of the margin. How are the forms and sizes of
leaves ever related to theiplace in which they grow? Why do leaves
fall? Define deciduous. Persistent. Evergreen. When do pine
leaves fall? How can you distinguish leaves? Describe the leaf in
Fig. 146.

The same lilac bushes in January and July.—Framework and foliage.

CHAPTER XV

MORPHOLOGY, OR THE STUDY OF THE FORMS OF
PLANT MEMBERS

208. Botanists interpret all parts of the plant in terms
of root, stem, and leaf. That is, the various parts, as
thorns, flowers, fruits, bud-scales, tendrils, and abnormal
or unusual members, are supposed to represent or to stand
in the place of roots, stems (branches), or leaves.

209. The forms of the parts of plants are interesting,
therefore, in three ways: (1) merely as forms, which may
be named and deseribed; (2) their relation to function, or
how they enable the part better to live and work; (3) their
origin, as to how they came to be and whether they have
been produced by the transformation of other parts. The
whole study of forms is known as morphology (literally,
the “science of forms”). We may consider examples in
the study of morphology.

210. It is customary to say that the various parts of
plants are transformed or modified root, stem, or leaf, but
the words transformation and modification are not used in
the literal sense. It is meant that the given part, as a ten-
dril, may occupy the place of orrepresent a leaf. It was
not first a leaf and then a tendril, but was a tendril from
the first: the part develops into a tendril instead of into a
leaf: it stands where a leaf normally might have stood.

211. It is better to say that parts which have similar
origins, which arise from the same fundamental type, or
which are of close genealogical relationship, are homolo-
gous. Thus the tendril, in the instance assumed above,
is homologous with a leaf. Parts which have similar fune-

(101)

102 MORPHOLOGY

tions or perform similar labor, without respect to origins,
are analogous. Thus a leaf-tendril is analogous to a
branech-tendril, but the two are not homo-
logous.

212. There are five tests by means of which
we may hope to determine what a given part
is: (1) by the appearance or
%, looks of the part (the least reli-
~~ able test); (2) by the position

of the part with relation to other

parts —its place on the plant;
(3) by comparison with similar
147. Leaf and clad- ;
ophyllaofaspar. Parts on other plants (compara- 18. Leaves of
agus, tive morphology); (4) by study of **P#"#8"5-
intermediate or connecting parts; (5) by study of the
development of the part in the bud or as it originates,
by means of the microscope (embryology). The last
test can be applied only by the trained investigator, but
it often gives the most conclusive evidence. Even with

149. Fern-like leaf-branches of a
greenhouse asparagus.

the appheation of all these tests, it is sometimes im-
possible to arrive at a definite conelusion as to the
origin or morphology of a part. For example, it is not
yet agreed whether most cactus spines represent leaves or

CLADOPHYLLA _ 103

branches, or are mere outgrowths of the epidermis (as
hairs are).

213. The foliage
of asparagus is com-
posed of modified
branches. The true
leaves of asparagus
are minute whitish

seales (a, Fig. 147). V

The green foliage is

produced in the axils

of these scales. On
the strong spring SZ —

shoots of asparagus,
which are eaten,
the true leaves
appear as large 151, Phyllodia of aea-
seales (a, a, Fig. 148). These large Gily Dee vere an
scales persist on the base of ayaa etaas nTBes,
the asparagus plant, even in the fall. In the spe-
cies of greenhouse or ornamental asparagus, the
\ delicate foliage is also made up of green leaf-like
\ branches (Fig. 149). In some cases the true leaves
fall after a time, and there is little evidence left.
The strong new shoots usually show the true
leaves plainly (as in Fig. 150). Branches which
simulate leaves are known as cladophylla
(singular, cladophyllum). The broad flat
leaves of florists’ smilax (common in glass-
houses) are cladophylla.
214. In the study of morphology,
it is not enough, however, merely to

150. Strong
new shoot of
Asparagus
Sprengeri,
showing the
true leaves
and the branches
springing from
their axils.

determine whether a part represents
root, stem, or leaf: one must determine
what part or kind of root, stem, or leaf

104

MORPHOLOGY

it stands for. For example, the foliage in Fig. 151
represents green expanded petioles. These leaf-like mem-

bers bear buds (which produce
branches) in their axils, and they
have the arrangement or phyllo-
taxy of leaves; therefore they are
considered to be true leaf parts.
But they stand edgewise as if

152. The thorns are in the axils they might be petioles; sometimes

of leaves.

cias have compound expanded leaves;
there are intermediate forms or grada-
tions between different acacias; young
seedlings sometimes show intermediate
forms. From all the evidence, it is now
understood that the foliage of the simple-
leaf acacias represents leaf-like petioles.
Such petioles are known as phyllodia

they bear leaf-blades; other aca-

(singular, phyllodium) : 153. Two or more buds

154. Some of the buds pro-
duce leafy branches.

normal leafy branches (Fig. 154); sometimes
the thorn itself bears leaves (Fig. 155).
The thorns of wilding pears, apples, and
plums are short, hardened branches. In
well-cultivated trees there is sufficient vigor

915. Thorns are borne in the axils.
and strong spines are usually
branches. The spines of hawthorns
or thorn-apples are examples: they
are borne in the axils of leaves as
branches are (Fig. 152); hawthorns
usually bear two or more buds in each
axil (Fig. 153), and one or two of
these buds often grow
the following year into

= : 155. The thorn
to push the main branch into longer and may bearieaves.

PRICKLES AND BRISTLES 105

softer growth, so that the side buds do not have a chance
to start. The thorns of osage orange and honey locust
are also branches. Those of the honey locust usually
arise from supernumerary buds which are
borne somewhat above the axils.

216. Prickles, bristles, and weak spines,
which have a definite arrangement on the
stem, are usually modified leaves or parts
of leaves. The spines of 156. Leaf-spine of
thistles are hardened BAUBeEy,
points of leaf-lobes. The spines of the
barberry are reduced leaves; in their axils
are borne short branches or leaf-tufts
(Fig. 156); in spring on young shoots
may be found almost complete gradations
from spiny leaves to spines. In the prickly
ash the prickles are stipules and stipels.
The reasons for interpreting them so are
apparent in Fig. 157. Stipular prickles
may also be seen in the common or aca-
cia locust (robinia).

217. Prickles, bristles, and hairs, which

are scattered or

157. Stipular prickles Wave no definiie ar- AN
of prickly ash. = rangement, are USU- f \4,
ully mere out-growths of the epi- pw \\\/

dermis. They usually are re-
moved with the bark. Of such are
the prickles of squashes, briars
(Fig. 158), and roses.

218. The reason for the exis-

2 aa
tence of spines is difficult to de- ray
158. Prickles of dewberry.

termine. In many or most cases
they seem to have no distinct use or function. In some
way they are associated with the evolution of the plant,

106 MORPHOLOGY

and one cannot determine why they came without know-
ing much of the genealogy of the plant. In some
cases they seem to be the result of
the contraction of the plant-body,
as in the cacti and other desert
plants; and they may then serve a
purpose in lessening transpiration.
It is a common notion that spines and
prickles exist for the purpose of keep-
ing enemies away, and that hairs
keep the plant warm, but these ideas
usually lack scientific accuracy. Even
if spines do keep away browsing ani-
mals in any plant, it is quite another
question why the spines came to be. 159, The diminishing leaves
To answer the question what spines of ponescl:

and hairs are for demands close scientific study of each
particular case, as any other problem does.

219. Leaves are usually
smaller as they approach the
flowers (Fig. 159). They
often become so much reduced
as to be mere scales, losing
their office as foliage. In
their axils, however, the
flower-branches may be borne
(Fig. 160). Much-reduced
leaves, particularly those
which are no longer green
and working members, are
called bracts. In some cases,
160, The uppermost flowers are Pomme’ lanes colored. bracts are wore

in the axils of bracts.—Fuchsia. just beneath the flowers and
look like petals: the flowering dogwood is an example ;
also the bougainvillea, which is common in glasshouses

SCALES OF BUDS AND. BULBS 107

(Fig. 161); also the scarlet sage of gardens and the
flaming poinsettia of greenhouses.

220. The scales of buds are special kinds of bracts. In
some cases each scale represents an entire leaf; in others,
it represents a petiole or stipule. In the expanding pear,
maple, lilac, hickory, and
horse-chestnut buds, note the
gradation from dry scales to
green leaf-like bodies. When
the winter scales fall by the
pushing out of the young
shoot, scars are left: these
scars form “rings,” which
mark the annual growths.
See Chap. VII. The scales
of bulbs are also special
kinds of leaves or bracts.
In some cases they are merely
protective bodies; in others j¢

. In the bougainvillea three gaudily
they are storehouses. We colored bracts surround each clus-

ter of three small flowers.

have found (45) that the
presence of scales or bracts is one means of distinguish-
ing underground stems from roots.

Review.— What are considered to be the fundamental or type
forms from which the parts of plants are derived? How do the forms
of plants interest us? What is morphology? What is meant by trans-
formation and modification as used by the morphologist ? What is
meant by homologous parts? Analogous parts? Tell how one may
determine the morphology of any part. What is a cladophyllum ?
Phyllodium? Show a specimen of one or the other, or both
(canned asparagus can always be had in the market). What is
the morphology of most thorns? Explain the thorns of hawthorn.
What are bristles, prickles, and hairs? Why do spines and bristles
exist? Explain what a bract is. A bud-seale. A bulb-seale.

CHAPTER XVI
HOW PLANTS CLIMB

221. We have seen that plants struggle or contend for
a place in which to live. Some of them become adapted to
grow in the forest shade, others to grow on other plants
as epiphytes, others to climb to the light. Observe how
woods grapes, and other forest climbers, spread their foli-
age on the very top of the forest tree, while their long
flexile trunks may be bare.

222. There are several ways in which plants climb, but
most climbers may be classified into four groups: (1) scram-
blers, (2) root-climbers, (3) tendril-climbers, (4) twiners.

223. SCRAMBLERS.— Some plants rise to ight and air
by resting their long and weak stems on the tops of
bushes and quick-growing herbs. Their stems are ele-
vated by the growing twigs
of the plants on which they
recline. Such plants are
seramblers. Usually they
are provided with prickles
or bristles. In most weedy
swamp thickets, scramb-
ling plants may be found.
Briars, some roses, bed-
straw or galium, bitter-
sweet (Solanum Duleamara,
not the celastrus), the tear-thumb polygonums, and other
plants are familiar examples of scramblers.

224. ROOT-CLIMBERS.— Some plants climb by means of
true roots, as explained in paragraph 31. These roots

(108)

162. A root-climber.—The English ivy.

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS 109

seek the dark places and therefore enter the chinks in
walls and bark. Fig. 12, the trumpet creeper, is a fa-
miliar example. The true or English ivy, which is often
grown to cover buildings, is another instance (Fig. 162).
Still another is the poison ivy. Roots are distinguished
from stem tendrils by their irregular or indefinite posi-
tion as well as by their mode of growth.

225. TENDRIL-CLIMBERS.— A slender coiling part which
serves to hold a climbing plant to a support is known as a

AY

163. Tendril of Virginia creeper. The direction of the coil changes near the middle

tendril. The free end swings or curves until if strikes
some object, when it attaches itself and then coils and
draws the plant close to the support. The spring of the coil
also allows the plant to move in the wind, thereby enabling
the plant to maintain its hold. Slowly pull a well-ma-
tured tendril from its support, and note how strongly it
holds on. Watch the tendrils in a storm. ‘To test the
movement of a free tendril, draw an ink line lengthwise
of it, and note that the line is now on the coneave side
and now on the convex side. Of course this movement is
slow, but it is often evident in an hour or so. Usually
the tendril attaches to the support by coiling about it, but
the Virginia ereeper and Boston ivy attach to walls by
means of disks on the ends of the tendrils.

226. Since both ends of the tendril are fixed, when it

110 HOW PLANTS CLIMB

finds a support, the coiling would tend to twist it in two.
It will be found, however, that the tendril coils in differ-
ent directions in different parts of its length. In Fig.
163 the change of direction in the coil occurs at the
straight place near the middle. In long tendrils of cueum-
bers and melons there may be several changes of direction.

227. Tendrils may be either branches or leaves. In

164. The fruit-cluster and tendril of grape are homologous.

the Virginia creeper and grape they are branches; they
stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit-clusters
(Fie. 164), and sometimes one branch of a fruit-cluster
is a tendril. These tendrils are therefore homologous
with fruit-clusters, and fruit-clusters are branches.

228. In some plants tendrils are leaflets. Examples
are the sweet pea (Fig. 165) and common garden pea.
In Fig. 165, observe the leaf with its two stipules, petiole,

TENDRIL - CLIMBERS Bel

two normal leaflets, and two or three pairs of leaflet-
tendrils and a terminal leaflet-tendril. The cobea, a
common garden elimber, has a similar arrangement. In
some cases tendrils are stipules, as probably in the green-
briars (smilax).

229, The petiole or midrib may act as a tendril, as in
various kinds of clematis. In Fig. 166, two opposite leaves

165. In the sweet pea (and garden pea) the leaflets are tendrils.

are attached at a. Each leaf is pinnately compound and
has two pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet. At ) and
¢ the midrib or rachis has wound about a support. The
petiole and the petiolules may behave similarly. Examine
the tall-growing nasturtiums in the garden,

230. TWINERS.—The entire plant or shoot may wind
about a support. Such a plant is a twiner. Examples
are bean, hop, morning-glory, moon-flower, false bitter-

112 HOW PLANTS CLIMB

sweet or wax-work (celastrus), some honeysuckles, wis-
taria, Dutchman’s pipe, dodder. The free tip of the
twining branch sweeps about in curves, much as the tendril
does, until it finds support or becomes old and rigid.

231. Hach kind of plant usually coils in only one

pay

166. Clematis climbs by means of its leaf-stalks

direction. Most plants coil against the sun, or from the
observer’s left across his front to his right as he faces the
plant. Such plants are said to be dextrorse (right-handed )
or antitropic (against the sun). Examples are bean, morn-
ing-glory. The hop twines from the observer’s right
to his left. Such plants are sinistrorse (left-handed) or

REVIEW ON CLIMBING

167. Dextrorse and sinistrorse twiners.—False

bitter-sweet and hop.

understand why the branch (as tendril and

stands opposite the bud in the grape and Virginia creeper.

Note that a grape-shoot ends in a tendril

The tendril represents the true axis of the shoot.
side a leaf is borne, from the axil of which the
branch grows to continue the shoot, This branch

ends in a tendril, b}. Another leaf has a branch in

its axil, and this branch ends in the tendril ¢.

real apex of the shoot is successively turned

until it appears to be lateral. Thatis, the morpho-
logically terminal points of the successive shoots are

the tendrils, and the order of their appearing is a,

b,c. The tendrils branch: observe the minute

representing a leaf at the base of each branch.

type of branching—the axial growth being continued
by suecessive lateral buds—is sympodial, and the

branch is a sympode. Continuous growth from the

PLANTS 113

eutropic (with the
sun). Fig.167 shows
the two directions.

REVIEW.— Why do
plants climb? How do
they climb? Explain
what is meant by scram-
blers. By roct-climbers.
What is a tendril? How
does it find a support?
Why and how does it
coil? How does it grasp
itssupport? What is the
morphology of the ten-
dril of Virginia creeper?
Why? Of the pea? Of
the clematis? What is
a twiner? How does it
find asupport?
What is a dex-

trorse twiner?
Sinistrorse?
NOTE.- -The
: d e
pupil may not
flower-cluster)

(a, Fig. 168).
On the

The

aside

seale

This

L168. Sympode

of the grape

terminal bud is monopodial, and the branch is a monopode.

H

CHAPTER XVII

FLOWER-BRANCHES

932. We have (86) seen that branches arise from the
axils of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to

bracts and yet branches

169. Terminal flowers of the white-
weed (in some places called ox-eye
daisy).

are borne in theiraxils. Some of
the branches grow into long limbs;
others become short spurs; others
bear flowers.

233. Flowers are usually borne
near the top of the plant, since
the plant must grow before it
blooms. Often they are produced
in great numbers. It results,
therefore, that flower - branches
usually stand close together, form-
ing a cluster. The shape and
arrangement of the flower-cluster
differ with the kind of plant, since
each plant has its own mode of
branching.

234. Certain definite or well-
marked types of flower-clusters
have received names. Some of
these names we shall discuss, but
the flower-clusters which perfectly
match the definitions are the ex-
ception rather than the rule. The
determining of the kinds of flow-
er-clusters is one of the most per-

(114)

SOLITARY FLOWERS—CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS 115

plexing subjects in descriptive botany. We may classify
the subject around three ideas: solitary flowers, corym-
bose clusters, cymose clus-
ters.

235. SOLITARY FLOWERS. —
In many eases flowers are borne
singly. They are then said to
be solitary. The solitary flower
may be either at the end of the
main shoot or axis (Fig. 169),
when it is said to be terminal,
or from the side of the shoot
(Fig. 170), when it is said to
be lateral. The lateral flower
is also said to be axillary.

236. CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS.—
If the flower-bearing axils were
rather close together, an open
or leafy flower-cluster might re-
sult, as in Fig. 171. The fuchsia continues to grow from
the tip, and the older flowers are left farther and farther
behind. If the cluster were so ay
short as to be flat or convex on Mh
top, the outermost flowers would |
be the older. A flower-cluster |
in which the lower or outer flow-
ers open first is said to be a
corymbose cluster. It is some-
times said to be an indetermi-
nate cluster, since it is the re-

170. Lateral flower of abutilon.

sult of a type of growth which
may go on more or less contin- | ‘ |
uously from the apex. 171. Leaty tlower-cluster of fuchsia

237. The simplest form of a definite corymbose cluster
is a raceme, which is an unbranched open cluster in which

116 FLOWER - BRANCHES

the flowers are borne on short stems and open from below
(that is, from the older part of the shoot) upwards. The
raceme may be terminal to the
main branch, as in Fig. 172, or
it may be lateral to it, as in
Fig. 178. Racemes often bear
the flowers on one
side of the stem, or
in a single row.

238. When a
corymbose flower-
cluster is long and dense
and the flowers are sessile
or nearly so, it is called
a spike. (Migs) 74, 2145)
Common examples of spikes
are plantain, mignonette,
mullein.

239. A very short and
dense spike is a head. Clover
(Fig. 176) is a good exam-
ple. The sunflower and re-
lated plants bear many small
flowers in a very dense head. This special kind of head
of the sunflower, thistle, and aster tribes has been called
an anthodium, but 4 Bs

{

r
this word is little NG iss aR y
used. Note that We SAF

YANG

172. Terminal racemes of dicentra.

in the sunflower
(Fig. 177) the out-
side or. exterior ’ fp
flowers open first. AS GY 9

Another gs pee lal 173. Lateral racemes (in fruit) of barberry.

form of spike is the catkin, which usually has scaly bracts
and the whole cluster is deciduous after flowering or fruit-

CORYMBOSE CLUSTERS 117

ing, and the flowers (in | vs nT

‘| tt
tava)

typical cases) have only
one sex. Examples are
the“ pussies” of willows
(Fig. 213) and flower-
clusters of oaks (Fig.
212), hickories, poplars.

240. When a loose,
elongated corymbose
flower-cluster branches,
or is compound, it is
called a panicle. Be-
cause of the earler

175. Loose spikes of false
dragon’s head or physo-

growth of the lower

branches, the panicle is seal
usually broadest at the base or conical in out-

174. Spike of
hyacinth.

~ . 4 P sel cic eters - 7 Note, also,
line. True panicles are not common. Pree aie

flowers and
foliage are
pro d uced
from the
stored food

a corymb (Fig. 178). The outermost flowers oo nt
open first. Fig. 179 shows many corymbs of — ?uly, water
the bridal wreath, one of the spireas.

242. When the branches of an indeterminate

941. When an indeterminate flower-cluster
is short, so that the top is convex or flat, it is

cluster arise from a common point, like the
frame of an um-
brella, the clus-
ter is an umbel
(Fig.180). Typi-
cal umbels occur
in carrot, par-
snip, parsley and
other plants of
the parsley fam-

ily: the family
Head of crimson

clover, 177 Head of sunflower, Is known is the

118 TLOWER- BRANCHES

Umbellifere, or umbel-
bearing family. In the
carrot and many other Um-
belliferee, there are small
or secondary umbels, called
umbellets, at the end of
each of the main branches.
(In the center of the wild
carrot umbel one often
finds a single, blackish,
often aborted flower,
comprising a 1- flowered
umbellet. )

243. CYMOSE CLUSTERS. USAR Nav Mp
— When the terminal or 179. Corymbs of the bridal wreath (spirea).

central flower opens first, the cluster is said to be cymose.
The growth of the shoot or cluster
is determinate, since the length
is definitely determined or stopped
by the terminal flower. Fig. 181
shows a determinate or cymose
mode of flower-bearing.

244. Dense cymose clusters are
usually flattish on top because of
the cessation of growth in the
main or central axis. These com-
pact flower-clusters are known as
cymes. Apples, pears (Fig. 182)
and cherries bear flowers in
cymes. Some cymes look very
like umbels (as in Fig. 183). A
head-like cymose eluster is a
glomerule: it blooms from the
top downwards rather than from
178. Corymb of eandytutt, the base upwards.

MIXED CLUSTERS — INFLORESCENCE 119

245. MIXED CLUSTERS .—
Often the cluster is mixed, being <3
determinate in one part and in-
determinate in another part of
the same cluster. This is the
case in Fig. 184. The main clus-
ter is indeterminate, but the
branches are determinate. The es Seek
cluster has the appearance of a

wild carrot.

panicle, and is usually so called,
but it is really a thyrse. Lilac is
a familiar example of a thyrse. In

See?

some eases, the main cluster is de-
terminate and the branches are in-
determinate, as in hydrangea and
elder. Such clusters are corym-
bose cymes.

246. INFLORESCENCE.—The mode
or method of flower arrangement is
known as the inflorescence. That
is, the inflorescence is cymose,
corymbose, paniculate, spieate, soli-
tary. sy custom, however, the
word inflorescence has come to be
used for the flower-cluster itself in
works on descriptive botany. Thus
a cyme or a :

181. Determinate or cymose panicle may
arrangement, — Wild geranium. be called an
inflorescence. It will be seen that
even solitary flowers follow either
indeterminate or determinate meth-
ods of branching.

247, THE FLOWER-STEM.— The

182. Cyme of pear.

stem of a solitary flower is known as Compare Fig. 63,

120 FLOWER-BRANCHES

183, An umbel-like cyme.—Geranium.

a peduncle; also the
general stem of a flower-
cluster. The stem of
the individual flower in
a cluster is a pedicel.

248. In the so-ealled
stemless plants (37) the
peduncle may arise di-
rectly from the ground,
or crown of the plant,
as in dandelion, hya-
einth (Fig. 174), gar-
den daisy (Fig. 185).
This kind of peduncle
is; Calledtal scapes: —
scape may bear one or
many flowers. It has
no foliage leaves, but it
may have bracts.

Revyirw.— What is the homology of flower-branches? How is it

that flowers are often borne in
clusters? Explain what may be
meant by a solitary flower. What
are the two types of flower-clus-
ters? What are corymbose clus-

ters? Define raceme. Spike.
Head and anthodium. Catkin.
Panicle. Umbel. Umbellet.

Corymb. What are eymose clus-
ters? What is a cyme? Glome-
rule? Contrast indeterminate and
determinate modes of branching.
Explain mixed elusters. What
is a thyrse? What is meant by
Define

peduncle, pedicel, and scape.

the word inflorescence?

Note.—In the study of flower-
clusters, it is well to select first

184. Thyrse of horse-chestnut.

REVIEW

ON

185. Scapes of the true or English daisy.

and determine the method of this inflorescence,
In some eases the flower-cluster

ends in a leaf, suggesting that
the cluster is morphologically ¢
leaf; but see whether there is
not a joint between the cluster
and the leaf, showing that the
attached to
The flower-cluster of the tomato

leaf is a branch.
has been greatly modified by
cultivation. It was originally
distinetly racemose.

FLOWER-BRANCHES

121

those which are fairly typical of the
the various classes discussed in the
preceding paragraphs. As soon as
the main types are well fixed in
the mind, random clusters should
be examined, for the pupil must
never receive the impression that
all flower-clusters follow the defini-
tions Clusters
of the commonest plants are very
puzzling, but the pupil should at
least be able to discover whether
the inflorescence is determinate or
indeterminate.

In the tomato (Fig. 186) the
flower-cluster is opposite the leaf.
Examine blooming tomato plants,

in books. of some

Compare the grape.

186. Tomato shoot.

Geraniums in the s¢

hool-room window

CHAPTER XVIII

THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

249. The flower exists for the purpose of producing
seed. It is probable that all its varied forms and colors
contribute to this supreme end. These forms and colors
please the human faney and make living the happier, but
the flower exists for the good of the plant, not for the
good of man. The parts of the flower are of two general
kinds — those which are directly concerned in the produc-
tion of seeds, and those which act as covering and pro-
tecting organs. The former parts are known as the essen-
tial organs; the latter as the floral envelopes.

250. ENVELOPES.—The floral envelopes usually bear a
close resemblance to leaves. These envelopes are very
commonly of two series or kinds —the outer and the inner.
The outer series, known as the calyx, is usually smaller
and green. It usually comprises the outer cover of the
flower-bud. The calyx is the lowest
whorl in Fig. 187. The inner series,
known as the
corolla, is usually
colored and more
special or irregular
in shape than the

187. Flower of a buttercup calyx. It 1S the bs
in section. showy part of the 188. Flower of buttercup.

flower, as a rule. The corolla is the second or large
whorl in Fig. 187. It is the large part in Fig. 188.
251. The calyx may be composed of several leaves.
Each leaf is a sepal. If it is of one piece, it may be
(122)

FLORAL ENVELOPES BR:

lobed or divided, in which ease the divisions are called
calyx-lobes. In lke manner, the corolla may be com-
posed of petals, or it may be of
one piece and variously lobed. A
calyx of one piece, no matter how
deeply lobed, is gamosepalous. A
corolla of one piece is gamopetal-
ous. When these series are of
separate pieces, as in Fig. 187, the
flower is said to be polysepalous
and polypetalous. Sometimes both
series are of separate parts, and
sometimes only one of them is so
formed.

252. The floral envelopes are
homologous with leaves. Sepals and
petals, at least when more than
three or five, are each in more than
one whorl, and one whorl stands below
another so that the parts overlap.
They are borne on the expanded or
thickened end of the flower-stalk: this

SPS end is the torus. In Fig. 187 all the
ya Pease eee parts are seen as attached to the torus.
fe ho nection chase This part is sometimes called recep-
the single compartment. tacle, but this word is a common-
language term of several meanings, whereas torus has no
( C

(Fig. 189) in whieh the petals are borne ©

on the calyx-tube. af

953. ESSENTIAL ORGANS.—The essential 191. Simple pistils of

buttereu p, one in

organs are of two series. They are also longitudinal section,

189. Flower of fuchsia in section,

other meaning. Sometimes one part is at-
tached to another part, as in the fuchsia

homologous with leaves. The outer series is composed of
the stamens. The inner series is composed of the pistils.

124 THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

254. Stamens bear the pollen, which is made up of
grains or spores, each spore usually being a single plant
cell. The stamen is of two parts, as readily
seen in Figs. 187, 188, 189,— the enlarged
terminal part or anther, and the stalk or
filament. The filament is often so
short as to seem to be absent, and
the anther is then said to be
sessile. The anther bears the Pact Cote
pollen spores. It is made up gue Se
of two or four parts (known pels.
as sporangia or spore-cases), which burst
and discharge the
pollen. When
the pollen is shed,
the stamen dies.

255. Pisitls bear
193. Knotweed, a very common but inconspicuous plant the seeds. The pis-

along hard walks and roads. Two flowers, en- 5
Se ee au eo Ce eee
part or compart-
ment, or of many parts. The different units or parts of
which it is composed are carpels. Each carpel is homo-
logous with a leaf. Each
earpel bears one or more
seeds. A pistil of one carpel
is simple; of two or more
carpels, compound. Usually
the structure of the pistil
may be determined by cut-
ting across the lower or seed-

bearing part. Figs. LOO} 19 194. The structure of a plum blossom
se. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens;

192 explain. <A flower may 0. ovary; 8. style; st. stigma. The
: f pistil consists of the ovary, style,
contain one carpel (simple and stigma. It contains the seed
ons ci part. The stamens are tipped with
pistil) as the pea (Fig. 190) ; anthers, in which the pollen is

borne. The ovary, 0, ripens into
several separate carpels or the fruit.

CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER 125

simple pistils, as the buttercup; or a compound pistil, as
the St. John’s-wort (Fig. 192).

256. The pistil, whether simple or compound, has three
parts: the lowest or seed-bearing part,
which is the ovary; the stigma at the
upper extremity, which is a flattened or
expanded surface, and usually roughened
or sticky; the stalk-like part or style,
connecting the ovary and stigma. Some-
times the style is apparently wanting,
and the stigma is said to be sessile on
the ovary. These parts are shown in the
fuchsia, Fig. 189. The ovary or seed
vessel is at a. A long style, bearing a
large stigma, projects from the flower.
See, also, Figs. 191 and 194.

257. CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER.— |. yc or warden
A flower which has calyx, corolla, sta- nasturtium, | Separate
mens, and pistils is said to be complete; prolonged into a spur.
all others are incomplete. In some flowers both the floral
envelopes are wanting: such are
naked. When one of the floral
envelope series is wanting, the

remaining series is said to be
calyx, and the flower is therefore
apetalous§ ( without
petals). The knotweed
(Fig. 193), smart-
weed, buckwheat, elm
(Fig. 92), are ex-
amples. Some flow-

196. The five petals of the pansy, €@I'S lack the pistils S100, Flower of
detached to show the form. these are staminate, catnip,
whether the envelopes are missing or not. Others lack
the stamens: these are pistillate. Others have neither

126 THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER

stamens nor pistils: these are sterile (snowball and hy-
drangea). Those which have both stamens and pistils are
perfect, whether or not the envelopes are
missing. Those which lack either sta-
mens or pistils are imperfect or diclinous.
Staminate and pistillate flowers are im-
perfect or diclinous.

258. Flowers in which the parts of
each series are alike are said to be regular

™ (as in Figs. 187, 188, 189). Those
in which some parts are unlike iy
other parts of the same series are 198, Improvised stand
irregular. The irregularity may be EE TOUS:
in calyx, as in nasturtium (Fig. 195); in corolla
(Fig. 196, 197); in the stamens (com-
pare nasturtium, catnip Fig. 197, sage) ;
in the pistils. Irregularity is most fre-
quent in the corolla.

ReEvIEw.— What is the flower for? What
are the two general kinds of organs in the
flower? What is the homol-
ogy of the flower-parts ?
What are floral envelopes ?
Calyx? Sepals? Calyx-
lobes? Corolla? Petals ?
Corolla-lobes ? Gamosepal-
lous flowers ? Gamopetalous? Poly-
sepalous? Polypetalous? Define torus.
What are the essential organs? Sta-

199. “i men? Filament? Anther? Pollen?
asec Pistil? Style? Stigma? Ovary? Car-
ing needle.

1 natural pel? Define a complete flower. In
size. 200. Dissecting glass.

Explain perfect and imperfect (or diclinous) flowers.
In what ways may flowers be irregular?

flowers.

what ways may flowers be incomplete?
Define regular

Note.— One needs a lens for the examination of the flower. It
is best to have the lens mounted on a frame, so that the pupil has

both hands free for pulling the flower in pieces.

An ordinary pocket

REVIEW ON FLOWERS 127

lens may be mounted on a wire in a block, as in Fig. 198. A cork is
slipped on the top of the wire to avoid injury to the face. The pupil
should be provided with two dissecting needles (Fig. 199), made by
securing an ordinary needle in a
pencil-like stick. Another con-
venient arrangement is shown in
Fig. 200. A small tin dish is used
for the base. Into this a stiff wire
standard is soldered. The dish is
filled with solder, to make it heavy
and firm. Into a cork slipped on
the standard, a cross-wire is in-
serted, holding on the end a

201. Dissecting stand.

jeweler’s glass. The lens can be moved up and down and sidewise.
This outfit can be made for about seventy-five cents. Fig. 201 shows
a convenient hand-rest or dissecting stand to be used under this lens.
It may be 16 in. long, 4 in. high, and 4 or 5 in. broad. Various kinds
of dissecting microscopes are on the market, and these are to be
recommended when they can be afforded.

Odd blossom of one of the passion-flowers.

Calyx-lobes and petals are 5. A fringe of hairs (or crown) grows from
the petals. The club-shaped stigmas project. The stamens, 5 in number,

stand inside the crown.

CHAPTER XIX

FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

259. FERTILIZATION.— Seeds result from the union of two
elements or parts. One of these elements, a nucleus of a
plant cell, is borne in the pollen-grain. The other element,
an egg-cell, is borne in the ovary. The pollen-grain falls
on the stigma (Fig. 202). It absorbs the juices exuded
by the stigma and grows by sending out a tube (Fig. 203).
This tube grows downward through the style, absorbing
food as it goes, and finally reaches the egg-cell in the
interior of an ovule in the ovary, and fertilization, or
union of the two nuclei, takes place. The ovule then
ripens into a seed. The growth of the pollen-tube is
often spoken of as germination of the pollen, but it is not
germination in the sense in which the word is used when
speaking of seeds.

260. Better seeds—that is, those
which produce stronger and more
fruitful plants — usually result
when the pollen comes from another
flower. Fertilization effected be-
tween different flowers is cross-
fertilization; that resulting from
the application of pollen to pis-
202. B, pollen of plum escaping tils in the same flower is close-

aang ee Apo" fertilization or self-fertilization.
alent. It will be seen that the cross-ferti-
lization relationship may be of many degrees—between two
flowers in the same cluster, between those in different clus-
ters on the same branch, between those on different plants.

(128)

eee
i.

POLLINATION 129

Usually fertilization takes place only between plants of
the same species or kind.

261. In many cases the pistil has the power of select-
ing pollen when pollen from two or more sources is applied
to the stigma. Usually the foreign pollen, if
from the same kind of plant, grows and per-
forms the office of fertilization, and pollen from
the same flower perishes. If, however, no
foreign pollen arrives, the pollen from the
same flower may finally grow and _ fertilize
the germ.

262. In order that the pollen may grow, the

203.

stigma must be ripe. At this stage the stigma Hollen, grein
. . . . . germinating.
is usually moist and sometimes sticky. A ripe © Greatly mag-

- - - > : nified.
stigma is said to be receptive. The stigma

may remain receptive for several hours or even days,
depending on the kind of plant, the weather, and how soon
pollen is received. When fertilization takes place, the
stigma dies. Observe, also, how soon the petals wither
after the stigma has received pollen.

263. POLLINATION.—The transfer of the pollen from an-
ther to stigma is known as pollination. The pollen may
fall of its own weight on the adjacent stigma, or it may be
carried from flower to flower by wind, insects, or other
agents. There may be self-pollination or cross-pollination.

264. Usually the pollen is discharged by the bursting
of the anthers. The commonest method of discharge is
through a slit on either side of the anther (Fig. 202).
Sometimes it discharges through a pore at the apex, as in
azalea (Fig. 204), rhododendron, huckleberry, winter-
green. In some plants a part of the anther wall raises or
falls as a lid, as in barberry (Fig. 205), blue cohosh, May
apple. The opening of an anther (as also of a seed-pod)
is known as dehiscence. When an anther or seed-pod
opens it is said to dehisce.

I

130 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

265. Most flowers are so constructed as to increase the
chances of cross-pollination. We have seen (261) that
the stigma may have the power of selecting foreign pol-
len. The commonest means of insuring cross- .@
pollination is the different times of maturing of = s
stamens and pistils in the same flower.
In most cases the stamens mature first :
the flower is then proterandrous. When
the pistils mature first the flower is
proterogynous. (Aner, andr, is a Greek |
root often used, in combinations, for 204. 205.
stamen, and gyne for pistil.) The dif- Any, of Barberry
ference in time of ripening may be an (P?oamme theron
hour or two,-or it may be-a day. The “2s wetyie
ripening of the stamens and pistils at different times is
known as dichogamy, and flowers of such character are
said to be dichogamous. There is little chance for dicho-
gamous flowers to pollinate themselves. Many flowers are
imperfectly dichogamous—some of the anthers mature simul-
taneously with the
pistils, so that there
is chance for self-
pollination in ease
foreign pollen does
not arrive. Even
when the stigma re-
ceives pollen from
its own flower,
eross-fertilization
may result (261).
The hollyhock is
proterandrous.
Fig. 206 shows a flower recently expanded. The center is
occupied by the column of stamens. In Fig. 207, showing
an older flower, the long styles are conspicuous.

206. Flower of hollyhock; proterandrous.

POLLINATION

vo

266. Some flowers have so developed as to prohibit self-
pollination. Very irregular flowers are usually of this cate-

©

207. Older flower of hollyhock.

gory. Regular flow-
ers usually depend

on dichogamy and
the selective power

of the pistil to in-
sure crossing. Flow-
which
irregular
vided with nectar and

ers are very

and pro-

strong perfume
usually pollinated by
Gaudy col-
ors probably attract

are

insects.

insects in many eases, but perfume appears to be a greater

attraction.

The insect visits the flower for the nectar (for

the making of honey) and may unknowingly carry the

pollen. Spurs and

are nectaries, but in spurless flowers
the nectar is usually seereted in the
bottom of the flow

which are polli-
nated by insects
are said to be

entomophilous
(“insect-loving”’).
Fig. 208 shows a
larkspur. The en-
velopes are sepa-
rated in Fig. 209.
The long spur at
once suggests in-
sect pollination.

project into this

sacs in the flower

er-cup. Flowers

200

208. Flower of larkspur.

The spur is a sepal.

spur, apparently se

Envelopes of a larkspur
There are five wide sepals, the
upper
There are four small petals.

one being spurred

Two hollow petals

‘rving to guide the

132 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

bee’s tongue. The two smaller petals, in front, are differ-
ently colored and perhaps serve the bee in locating the
nectary. The stamens ensheath the pistils
PZ (Fig. 210). As the insect stands on the
“23 flower and thrusts his head into its center,
the envelopes are pushed downward and
outward and the pistil and stamens come
in contact with his abdomen. Since the
flower is pro-
terandrous, the
pollen which the
pistils receive
We from the bee’s
AA abdomen must
210. Stamens of lark-

spur, aianounding COMMC- le Oml>seagIh=
DOS THU: other flower.
Note a somewhat similar ar-
rangement in the toad-flax or

butter-and-eggs (Fig. 211).
267. Many flowers are polli-
nated by the wind. They are said \
to be anemophilous (“ wind-
loving”). Such flowers produce
great quantities of pollen, for
much of itis wasted. They usu-
ally have broad stigmas, which
expose large surface to the
wind. They are usually lacking
in gaudy colors and in perfume.
Grasses and pine trees are typi-
cal examples of anemophilous

211. Toad-flax is an entomophilous
plants. flower.

268. In many eases cross- pollination is insured
because the stamens and pistils are in different flowers
(diclinous, 257). When the staminate and _ pistillate

POLLINATION $353

flowers are on the same plant, e. g., oak (Fig. 212), beech,
chestnut, hazel, walnut, hickory, the plant is moncecious
(in one house”). When
they are on different plants
(poplar and willow, Fig.
213), the plant is dicecious
(“in two houses”). Mone-
cious and dicecious plants
may be pollinated by wind
or insects, or other agents.
They are usually wind-polli-
nated, although willows are
mA s 212. Staminate catkins of oak. The pistil-

often, if not mostly, insect- lita Thecus aes Gat har Toate aces
pollinated. The Indian corn ESSE PONY a ees
(Fig. 214) is a moncecious plant. The staminate flowers
are in a terminal panicle (tassel). The pistillate flow-
ers are in a dense spike (ear), inclosed in a sheath or
husk. Each “silk” is a style. Each pistillate flower pro-
duces a kernel of corn. Sometimes a few pistillate flowers
are borne in the tassel and a
few staminate flowers on the
tip of the ear.

269. Although most flowers
yen, are of such character as to

insure or increase the chances
of cross-pollination, there are
some which absolutely forbid
crossing. These flowers are
usually berne beneath or on

the ground, and they lack
213. Catkins of a willow. A staminate 4
flower is shown at s,andapisti showy colors and perfumes.

late flower at p. The staminate — py hea i : te °
and pistillate are on different I hey are know nh as cleis-
plants. togamous flowers (meaning

“hidden flowers”). The plant has normal showy flowers

which may be insect-pollinated, and in addition is provided

134 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

with these degenerate flowers. Only a few
plants bear cleistogamous flowers. Hog-
peanut, common blue violet, frimged win-
tergreen, and dalibarda are the best
subjects in the northern states. Fig. 215
shows a cleistogamous flower of the hog-
peanut at a. Above the true roots, slen-
der rhizomes bear these flowers, which are
provided with a calyx and a curving
corolla which does not open. Inside are
the stamens and pistils. The pupil must
not confound the nodules on the roots of
hog-peanut with the cleistogamous flow-
ers: these nodules are concerned in the
appropriation of food. Late in summer
the cleistogamous flowers may be found
just underneath the mould. They never
rise above ground. The following sum-
mer one may find a seedling plant with
aM onda Some the remains of the old cleistogamous
with Staminate flower still-adhering to the root.” Whe
he ee oyent = hog-peanut is a common low twiner in
borne in the ear. woods. It also bears racemes of small
pea-like flowers. Cleistogamous flowers usually appear
after the showy flowers have passed. They seem to insure
a crop of seed by a
method which expends
little of the plant’s
energy. See Fig. 216.

REVIEW.— What is fer-
tilization? Pollination ?
Define eross- and self-pol- 215. Hog-peanut, showing a leaf, and a
lination. Which gives the eleistogamous'’ flower at a.
better results, and how? What is meant by the selective power of the
pistil? Describe a receptive pistil. Exhibit one. By what agents is
cross-pollination secured? Howis pollen discharged? What is meant

REVIEW ON POLLINATION 35

by the word dehiscence? What do you understand by dichogamy?
What is its office? How frequent is it? What areentomophilous flow-
ers? Anemophilous? Exhibit
or explain one of each. What
is the usual significance of ir-
regularity in flowers? Where is
the nectar borne? What are
moneecious and diecious plants?
Cleistogamous flowers?

_ Nore.—The means by which
cross-pollination is insured are
absorbing subjects of study.
It is easy to give so much time
and emphasis to the subject,
however, that an inexperienced
observer comes to feel that per-
fect mechanical adaptation of
means to end is universal in
plants, whereas it is not. One
is likely to lose or to overlook
the sense of proportions and to
form wrong judgments.

In studying cross-pollina-

216. Common blse violet. The familiar
tion, one is likely to look first flowers are shown, natural size. The
corolla is spurred. Late in the season,

for devices which prohibit the cleistogamous flowers are often borne

. : ae Sali on the surface of the ground. <A small
stigma from receiv Ing pollen one is shown at a. A nearly mature
from its own flower, but the pod is shown at b. Both @ and b are

i one-third natural size.
better endeavor is to determine

whether there is any means to insure the application of foreign pol-
len; for the stigma may receive both but utilize only the foreign
pollen, Bear in mind that irregular and odd forms in flowers, strong
perfume, bright colors, nectar, postulate insect visitors; that incon-
spicuous flowers with large protruding stigmas and much dry powdery
pollen postulate wind-transfer; that regular and simple flowers de-
pend largely on dichogamy, whether wind- or insect-pollinated. Most
flowers are dichogamous.

CHAPTER XX

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

270. GENERAL FORMS. — Flowers vary wonderfully in
size, form, color, and in shapes of the different parts. These
variations are characteristic of the species or kind of
plant. The most variable part is the corolla. In many
cases, the disguises of the parts are so great as to puzzle
botanists. Some of the special forms, notably in the
orchids, seem to have arisen as a means of adapting the
flower to pollination by particular kinds of insects. A few
well-marked forms are discussed below in order to illus-
trate how they may differ among themselves.

271. When in doubt as to the parts of any flower, look
first for the pistils and stamens. Pistils may be told by
the ovary or young seed-case. Stamens may be told by the
pollen. If there is but one series in the floral envelope,
the flower is assumed to lack the corolla: it 1s apetalous
(257). The calyx, however, in such eases, may look like a
corolla, e. g., buckwheat, elm, sassafras, smartweed, knot-
weed (Fig. 193). The parts of flowers usually have a
numerical relation to each other,—they are oftenest in 3’s
or 5’s or in multiples of these numbers. ‘The pistil is
often an exception to this order, however, although its
compartments or carpels may follow the rule. Flowers on
the plan of 5 are said to be pentamerous; those on the
plan of 3 are trimerous (merous is Greek for “order” or
“plan”). In deseriptive botanies these words are often
written 5-merous and 3-merous.

272. The corolla often assumes very definite or distinct
forms when gamopetalous. It may have a long tube with

(136)

GENERAL FORMS ae

a wide-flaring limb, when it is said to be trumpet-shaped,
as in morning-glory (Fig. 217) and pumpkin. If the tube
is very narrow and the limb stands
at right angles to it, the corolla is
salverform, as in phlox (Fig. 218).
If the tube is very short and the limb
wide-spreading and nearly circular in
outline, the corolla is rotate or wheel-
shaped, as in potato (Fig. 219).

273. A gamopetalous corolla or,
gamosepalous calyx is often cleft in
such way as to make two prominent
parts. Such parts are said to be 217, Trumpet-shaped flower
lipped or labiate. Each of the lips of momung glory.
or lobes may be notched or toothed.
In 5-merous flowers, the lower lip is
usually 3-lobed and the upper one
2-lobed. lLabiete flowers are char-
acteristic of the mint family (Fig.
197), and the family therefore is
called the Labiatz. (Properly, labi-
ate means merely lipped, without
specifying the number of lips or
lobes; but it is commonly used to

Rotate flowers of
potato,

designate 2-lipped flowers.) Strongly 2-parted Pag
polypetalous flowers may be said to be labiate; “
but the term is oftenest used for gamopetalous y
corollas. })

274. Labiate gamopetalous flowers which are
closed in the throat (or entrance to the tube) f
are said to be grinning or personate (personate
means masked, or person-like). Snapdragon is a Salver. form
typical example (Fig. 220); also toad-flax or Phos:
butter-and-eggs (Fig. 211), and many related plants.
Personate flowers usually have definite relations to insect

138 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

pollination. Observe how a bee forees his head into the
closed throat of the toad-flax.

275, LILY FLOWERS.— In plants of the lily
family (liliaceze) the flowers are typically
3-merous, having three sepals, three petals,
six stamens and a 3-carpelled pistil. The
parts in the different series are distinet from
each other (excepting the carpels,) and mostly
free from other series. The sepals and petals
are so much alike that they are distinguished
chiefly by position, and for this reason the
" words calyx and corolla are not used, but
the floral envelopes are called the perianth
and the parts are segments. Flowers of lilies
and trilliums (Fig. 221) answer these details.
Not all flowers in the lily family answer in all
ways to this deseription. The term perianth
is used in other plants than the Liliacee.

276. PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS. — In the

220.

Personate flowers pea and bean tribes the flower has a special

of snapdragon. form (Fig. 299) : The

calyx is a shallow 5-toothed tube.
The corolla is composed of four
pleces,—the large expanded part
at the back, known as the stand-
ard or banner; the two hooded
side pieces, known as the wings ;
the single boat-shaped part be-
neath the wings, known as the keel.
The keel is supposed to represent
two united petals, since the ealyx
and stamens are in 5’s or multi-
ples of 5; moreover, it is com-
posed of two distinct parts in cassia (Fig. 223) and
some other plants of the pea family. Flowers of the

221. Flower of trillium.

PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS 1359

pea shape are said to be papil-
ionaceous (Latin papilio, a but-
terfly).

277. Flowers of the pea and
its kind have a pecu-
liar arrangement of
stamens. The sta- 4 :
mens are 10, of which Gf?)
9 are united into a a

Cassia flower,
tube which incloses sowing the
the pistil. “The tenth, “2! v=
stamen lies on the upper edge
of the pistil. The remains of
these stamens are seen in Fig.
190. The stamens are said to
be diadelphous ("in two brother-
hoods”) when united into two
groups. Stamens in one group
would

299. Papilionaceous flowers.—
Sweet pea. be called

monadelphous, and this arrange-
ment occurs in some members of
the Leguminos or pea family.
278. MALLOW FLOWERS. — The
flowers of the mallow family are
well represented in single holly-
liocks (Figs. 206, 207) and in the
little plant (Fig. 224) known as
" cheeses.” The peculiar structure
is the column formed by the united
filaments, the inclosed styles, and
the ring of ovaries at the bottom

of the style-tube. The flower is 224. Common mallow, a trailing
< ‘. : plant to which the cirele of
5-merous. Count the ovaries. fruits, a, gives the names

" cheeses” and “shirt button

They sit on the torus, but are plant.”

140 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

united in the center by the base of the style-tube, which
forms a cone-shaped body that separates from the torus
when the fruit is ripe. Do all of the ovaries develop, or
are some crowded out in the struggle for existence? The
calyx is often reinforced by bracts, which look like an
extra calyx. These bracts form an involucre. An in-
voluere is a circle or whorl of bracts standing just below
a flower or a_ flower-
cluster. The umbel of
wild carrot (Fig. 180)
has an involucre below
it. A large family of
plants, known as the
Malvacee or Mallow
family, has flowers simi-
lar to those of the holly-
hock. To this family
belong marsh mallow,
althea, okra, cotton. Ob-
serve that even though
the hollyhock is a great
tall-growing showy plant
and the “cheeses” is a
weak trailing inconspic-
uous plant, they belong
to the same family, as
shown by the structure
orchid family, of the flowers.

279. ORCHID FLOWERS.— The flowers of orchids vary
wonderfully in shape, size, and color. Most of them are
specially adapted to insect pollination. The distinguish-
ing feature of the orchid flower, however, is the union of
stamens and pistil in one body, known as the column. In
Fig. 225 the stemless lady’s-slipper is shown. The flower
is 3-merous. One of the petals is developed into a great

ORCHID AND SPATHE FLOWERS 141

sae or “slipper,” known as the lip. Over the opening of
this sae the column hangs. The column is shown in de-
tail: @ is the stigma; d is an anther, and there is another
similar one on the opposite side, but not
shown in the picture; pis a petal-like sta-
men, which does not produce pollen. In
most other orchids there are three good
anthers. In orchids the pollen is usually
borne in adherent masses, one or two
masses occupying each sporangium of the
anther, whereas in most plants the pollen
is in separate grains. These pollen-masses
are known technically as pollinia. Orchids
from the tropics are much grown in choice

oree ses. Several species are cc :
greenhouses. Several species are common ,,.. qed aah

in woods and swamps in the northern pit. "Jacky is the
states and Canada. pit” is the spathe.

280. SPATHE FLOWERS.— In many plants, very simple
(often naked flowers) are borne in dense, more or less
fleshy spikes, and the spike is inelosed in or attended by a
large corolla -like leaf, known as a
spathe. The spike of flowers is teclni-
cally known as a spadix. This type of
flower is characteristic of the great arum
family, which is chiefly tropical. The
commonest wild representatives in the
North are Jack-in-the-pulpit or Indian
turnip (Fig. 226) and skunk cabbage.
In the former the flowers are all
diclinous and naked. The pistillate

flowers (comprising only a 1-loculed

227. Wild aster, with six 7
heads, each contain- ovary ) are borne at the base of the
ing several florets. nadix, and the staminate flowers (each

of a few anthers) are above them. The ovaries ripen

into red berries. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers

142 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

are perfect and have four sepals. The common ealla lily
is a good example of this type of inflorescence.

281. COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS.— The head (anthodium)
or so-called “flower” of sunflower (Fig. 177), thistle, aster
(Fig. 227), dandelion, daisy,
chrysanthemum, golden-rod, is
composed of several or many
little flowers, or florets. These
florets are inclosed in a more
or less dense and usually green

228. Head of pasture thistle, showing 229. Longitudinal section 230. Floret of
the high prickly involuere. of thistle head. thistle.

involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 228) this involucre is
prickly. A longitudinal section (Fig. 229) discloses the
florets, all attached at bottom to a common torus, and
densely packed in the involuere. The pink tips of these
florets constitute the showy part of the head.

282. Hach floret of the thistle (Fig. 230) is a complete
flower. At ais the ovary. At d is a much-divided plumy
calyx, known as the pappus. The corolla is long-tubed,
rising above the pappus, and is enlarged and 5-lobed at

COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS 143

the top, c. The style projects at e.
The five anthers are united about
the style in a ring at d. Such
anthers are said to be synge-
nesious. These are the various
parts of the florets of the Com-
posite. In some cases the pappus
is in the form of barbs, bristles, or
seales, and sometimes it is want-
ing. The pappus, as we shall see
later, assists in distributing the
seed. Often the florets are not all
alike. The corolla of those in the

outer circles

may be devel- 231. Cornflower or Gaghelor'n but-
- : ton, in which the outer flo-
oped evakince yf) rets are large and showy.
long, strap-like or tubular part, and
the head then has the
appearance of being one
flower with a border of
petals. Of such is the
sunflower (Fig. 177),
aster (Fig. 227), bache-
lor’s button or corn

232. Double dahlias. In one, the florets have de- flower (Fig. 231 ) ’ and
veloped flat rays. In the other, the florets

uppear as inrolled tubes. field daisy (Fig. 169).
These long corolla-limbs are called a as

5 ‘ aS a)
rays. In some cultivated composites, A h

all the florets may develop rays, as in be Ee - VEAL
the dahlia (Fig. 232), and chrysan- :
themum. In some species, as dande- BATE x, F
lion, all the florets naturally have a re

: Wy) AQ
‘ays. Syngenesious arrangement of /; y WY pr
anthers is the most characteristic sin- .

233. Double larkspur

gle feature of the composites. Compare with Fig. 208.

144 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

283, ATTACHMENT OF THE FLOWER PARTS.—The parts
of the flower may all be borne directly on the torus, or

one part may be borne on another.

With reference to

234. Narcissus or daffodil. Single flower at the right; double flowers at the left.

the pistil or ovary, the stamens and envelopes may be at-
tached in three ways: hypogynous, all free and attached
under the ovary, as in Fig. 187; perigynous, or attached
to a more or less evident cup surrounding the ovary, as

235. Petals arising from the staminal column of holly-
hock; and accessory petals in the corolla-whorl.

in Fig. 194; epigy-
nous, some or all of
them apparently
borne on the ovary,
as in Fig: 189.

284. DOUBLE FLOW-
ERS.— Under the
stimulus of cultiva-
tion and increased
food-supply, flowers
tend to become dou-
ble. True doubling
arises In two ways,

DOUBLE

FLOWERS

145

morphologically: (1) stamens or pistils may change to petals
(Fig. 235); (2) adventitious or accessory petals may arise

in the circle of pet-
als. Both of these
categories may be
present in the same
flower, as in Figs.

Noy se 99°
233, 234, and 235.

In the full-double
hollyhoeck, the pet-
als derived from the
staminal column are
and
a rosette in the cen-
ter of the
Other modifications

shorter make

flower.

236. The wild or original form of the snowball.—

Outer flowers larger.

of flowers are sometimes known as doubling. For ex-

ample, double dahlias

237. Cultivated snowball, in which all the
flowers in the cluster have become

large and showy.
3-merous flowers?
petalous corollas?
Papilionaceous flower.

(Hig. 232)",

What are some

Describe alabiate flower.

chrysanthemums and
sunflowers are forms in
which the disk flowers have
The snow-
In the

wild plant (Fig. 236) the ex-

developed rays.

ball is another case.

ternal flowers of the cluster
are large and. sterile. In
the cultivated plant (Fig.
237) all the flowers have be-
come large and sterile. Hy-

drangea is a similar case.

REVIEW. How do flowers

vary inform? How are the var-
ious parts determined in disguised
flowers? What are 5-merous and
of the common forms of gamo-

Personate. Lily flower.

What are monadelphous and diadelphous sta-

146

PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS

mens? Describe a mallow flower. Orchid flower. Spathaceous flower.
‘Compositous flower.

238. Spikes and flowers of wheat.
a. beardless wheat ; d, bearded
wheat ; b,spikeletin bloom; ce,
grain; e, single spikelet on a ma-
ture head. The beards in d are
awns on the flowering glumes.

The entire spikelet is also subtended by two bracts

What do you understand by the terms hypo-

gynous, perigynous, epigynous? How do
flowers become double? What is meant
by doubling in compositous flowers? In
snowball and hydrangea?

Note.—The flowers of grasses are
too difficult for the beginner, but if the
pupil wishes to understand them he may
begin with wheat or rye. The “head” or
spike of wheat is made up of flowers
and bracts. The flowers are in little
clusters or spikelets (often called * breasts”
by farmers). One of the spikelets is
shown at D, in Fig. 238. Each spikelet
contains from 1-4 flowers or florets. The
structure of the flower is similar to that
of rye (Fig. 239) and other grasses. The
pistil has 2 feathery pro-
truded stigmas (wind-
pollinated) shown at a,
Fig. 239. There are 3
stamens, b, b, b. There
are minute scales in the
base of the flower (not
shown in the eut) which
probably represent true
floral envelopes. These
are lodicules. The larger
parts, c, d, are bracts.
The larger one, d, is the
flowering glume, and the

smaller, ¢, is a palet.

or glumes; these are the two lowermost parts in D, Fig.

238. The glumes of the spikelet, and flowering glumes
and palets of the flowers, constitute the chaff when

wheat is threshed.

239. Flower of rye.
a, stigma; b, b, b,
stamens; (i
palet; d, flower-
ing glume.

CHAPTER XXI
FRUITS

285. The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known
as the fruit. Jt contains the seeds. If the pistil is simple,
or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment.
If the pistil is compound, or of more than one carpel, the
fruit usually has an equal number of compartments. The
compartments in pistil and fruit are known as locules
(from Latin locus, meaning “a place”).

286. The simplest kind of fruit is a ripened 1-loculed
ovary. The first stage in com-
plexity is a ripened 2- or
many -loculed ovary. Very
complex forms may arise by
the attachment of other parts
to the ovary. Sometimes the
style persists and becomes a
beak (mustard pods, dentaria,
Fig. 240) or a tail as in clema-
tis; or the calyx may be at-
tached to the ovary; or the
ovary may be imbedded in the
receptacle, and ovary and re-
ceptacle together constitute
the fruit; or an involucre
may become a part of the
fruit, as in the husk of the
walnut and hickory, and cup 49 -Dentaria, or tooth-wort, in fruit.
of the acorn. The chestnut (Fig. 241) and the beech bear
a prickly involucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not

(147)

148 FRUITS

grown fast to it, and the involuere ean seareely be called
a part of the fruit. A ripened ovary is a pericarp. A
pericarp to which other parts adhere, has been called an
accessory or rein-
forced fruit.
287. Some fruits
are dehiscent, or split
open at maturity(264)
and liberate the seeds;
others are indehis-
cent, or do not open.
A dehiscent pericarp
is called a pod. The
parts into which such
a pod breaks or splits
are known as valves.

241. Chestnuts are ripened ovaries. They are borne in In indehiseent fruits

a prickly involucre. The remains of the catkin 3 re iberate
of staminate flowers is seen in the picture. the seed tS hi berated

by the decay of the
envelope, or by the rupturing of the envelope by the ger-
minating seed. Indehiscent winged pericarps are known
as samaras or key-fruits (consult Chapter XXII). Maple,
elm (Fig. 93), and ash (Fig. 127) are examples.

288. PERICARPS.—The simplest pericarp is a dry, one-
seeded, indehiscent body. It is known as an akene. A
head of akenes is shown in Fig. 242, and the
structure is explained in Fig. 191. Akenes may
be seen in buttereup, hepatica, anemone,
smartweed, buckwheat.

289. A 1-loculed pericarp which dehisces
along the front edge (that is, the inner edge,

. - 242. Akenes
next the center of the flower) is a follicle. The ~ cr tutter-

fruit of the larkspur (Fig. 243) is a follicle. ‘
There are usually five of these fruits (sometimes three
or four) in each larkspur flower, each pistil ripening into

248. Capsules of datura or jimson weed.

Septicidal and loculicidal.

214. Young follicles of
larkspur. Normal-
ly, the flower has 5

949
243, pistils, but some are

Follicle of lost in the struggle

larkspur. for existence,

cence in capsule
of bouncing Bet.
Four columns of
seeds are attached
to a central shaft

245. Follicles ¢
swamp mil}
weed, not yet
dehisced,

246. Legumes of perennial

or everlasting pea M7. Legumes of Lin

251. Three-carpelled fruit of horse-chestnut.
Two loeules are closing by abortion

of the ovules.

257. Two-valved pods of ecatalpa,

252. Daa:
St. John’s wort. Loculicidal pod
Septicidal. of day-lily.

255. Toad-flax

256.
Basal dehiscence of
campanula capsule.

259.
Shepherd’s purse.
Silicle.

958. Large 2-valved
pods or capsules of
tecoma or trumpet-
creeper.

PERICARPS 154

a follicle (Fig. 244). If these pistils were united, a single
compound pistil would be formed. Columbine, peony, nine-
bark also have folli-
cles; milkweed, also
(Fig. 245).

290. A 1-loculed
pericarp which de-
hisces on both edges
is a legume. Peas
and beans are typi-
eal examples (Figs.
246, 247): in fact,
this character gives
name to the pea-fam-
ily, — Leguminose.

260, Berries of the snowberry.

Often the valves of the legume twist foreibly and expel
the seeds, throwing them some distance. The word pod
is sometimes restricted to legumes, but it is better to use
it generically (as in 287) for all dehiscent pericarps.
291. A compound pod—dehiscing pericarp of two or
more carpels—is a capsule (Figs. 248, 249). There are

some capsules of one locule, but

they were compound when young
(in the ovary stage) and the
partitions have vanished (Fig.
250). Sometimes one or more
of the ecarpels are uniformly
crowded out by the exclusive

erowth of other carpels (Fig.

YAS De The seeds or parts whieh

261. Eggplant fruits. Kxamples of

are crowded out are said to be
aborted.

292. There are several ways in which capsules dehisee or

large berries.

open. When they break along the partitions (or septa)
the mode is known as septicidal dehiscence; ig. 252

152 FRUITS

shows it. In septicidal dehiscence the fruit separates into
parts representing the original carpels. These carpels
may still be entire, and they then
dehisece individually, usually along
the inner edge as if they were folli-
cles. When the compartments split
in the middle, between the partitions,
the mode is loculicidal dehiscence |
(Fig. 253). In some eases the dehis- —
cence is at the top, when it is said to
be apical (although several modes of 262 Plum; example of a

, 3 drupe.
dehiscence are here included). When
the whole top comes off, as in purslane and garden portu-
laca (Fig. 254) the pod is known asa pyxis. In some cases
apical dehiscence is by means of a hole or clefts (Fig.
255). In pinks and their allies the dehiscence does not
extend much below the apex (Fig. 250). Dehiscence may
be basal (Fig. 256). Two-loculed capsules which resem-
ble legumes in external appearance are those of catalpa
and trumpet-creeper (Figs. 257, 258).

293. The peculiar capsule of the mustard family, or
Crucifere, is known as a silique when it is distinctly
longer than broad (Fig. 240), and a silicle when its
breadth nearly equals or exceeds its length (Fig. 259).
A eruciferous capsule is 2-carpelled, with a thin par-
tition, each locule containing seeds in two rows. The
two valves detach from below
upwards. Cabbage, turnip, mus-
tard, cress, radish, shepherd’s
purse, sweet alyssum, wallflower,

honesty, are examples.

294. The pericarp may be
263. Aggregate fruits of raspberry. fleshy and indehiscent. A pulpy
pericarp with several or many seeds is a berry (Fig. 260).
To the hortieulturist a berry is a small, soft, edible fruit,

PERICARPS 153

without particular reference to its strueture. The botani-
eal and horticultural conceptions of a berry are, therefore,
unlike. In the botanical
sense, gooseberries, cur-
rants, grapes, tomatoes,
potato- balls and = even
egoplant fruits (Fig. 261)
are berries; strawberries,
raspberries, blackberries
are not.

295. A fleshy pericarp
containing one relatively
large seed or stone is a

264, Strawberries. The edible part is torus.

drupe. Examples are plum (Fig. 262), peach, cherry,
apricot, olive. The walls of the pit in the plum, peach,
and cherry are formed from the inner coats of the ovary,
and the flesh from the outer coats. Drupes are also
known as stone fruits.

296. Fruits which are formed by the subsequent union
of separate pistils are aggregate fruits. The carpels in
aggregate fruits are usually more or less fleshy. In the
‘raspberry and blackberry flower, the pistils are essentially
distinet, but as the pistils ripen they cohere and form

one body. Fig. 268. Each of the carpels or

pistils in the raspberry and blackberry is a

little drupe, or drupelet. In the raspberry the —/~'
entire fruit separates from the ae pins / |

the torus on the plant. In the — CS ae
blackberry and dewberry the fruit
adheres to the torus, and the two x ‘
are removed together when the Y /} x, Diner of
fruit is picked. receptacle is

297, ACCESSORY. FRUITS.—When ®- Hipof rose. perlearp 0.
the pericarp and some other part grow together, the fruit
is said to be accessory or reinforced (286). An example

268. Young apple fruits.

ACCESSORY FRUITS 155

is the strawberry (Fig. 264). The edible part is a greatly
enlarged torus, and the pericarps are akenes imbedded
in it. These akenes are commonly ealled seeds.

298. Various kinds of reinforced fruits have received
special names. One of these is
the hip, characteristic of roses,
Fig. 265. In this case, the torus
is deep and hollow, like an urn,
and the separate akenes are borne
inside it. The mouth of the re-
ceptacle may close, and the walls
sometimes become fleshy: the
fruit may then be mistaken for
a berry. The fruit of the pear,
apple, and quince is known as a pome. In this case the
five united carpels are completely buried in the hollow
torus, and the torus makes most of the edible part of the
ripe fruit, while the pistils are represented by the core
(Fig. 266). Fig. 267 shows the apple in bloom; Fig. 268
shows young fruits, only one having formed in each clus-
ter. In the lower lefthand flower of Fig. 267, note that the
sepals do not fall. Observe the sepals on the top of the

269. Pepo of squash.

torus (apex of the fruit) in Fig. 268. In the plum flower
(Fig. 194), note that the pistil sits free in the hollow
torus: imagine the pistil and torus grown together, and
something like a pome might result. The fruit of fi
pumpkin, squash (Fig. 269), melon and cucumber \j
y
270. Winged
ripens). goed of
299, GYMNOSPERMOUS FRUITS.— In pines, spruce. —
spruces, and their kin, there is no fruit in the sense in

isa pepo. The outer wall is torus, but the sepals
do not persist, and the fruit is normally 3-loculed
(although the partitions may disappear as the fruit

which the word is used in the preceding pages, because
there is no ovary. The ovules are naked or uncovered, in

156 FRUITS

the axils of the seales of the young cone, and they have
neither style nor stigma. The pollen falls directly on the
mouth of the ovule. The ovule ripens into a seed (Fig.
270) which is usually winged. Because the
ovule is not borne in a sae or ovary, these
plants are called gymnosperms
(Greek for “naked seeds”).
All the true cone-bearing plants
are of this class; also certain
other plants as red cedar, juni-
per, yew. The plants are mone-
cious or sometimes dicecious.
The staminate flowers are mere
naked stamens borne beneath
seales, in small yellow catkins
971. Pistillate cone Which soon fall. The pistillate

of Norway spruce. eel Bisa -Ac
eee flowers are naked ovules beneath ond pane

(a.

the commonest of geales on cones which persist cone of white
planted ever-

: oa pine.
greens. (Figs. Daele Ze

REVIEW.—What is a fruit, as understood by the botanist ? What
is alocule? What are simple, compound, and accessory or reinforced
fruits ? Define pericarp. Pod. What are dehiscent and indehiscent
fruits? What is a samara or key-fruit? Define akene. Follicle.
Legume. Capsule. Explain septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence.
Apical dehiscence. Basal dehiscence. What is a pyxis? Silique ?
Silicle? Berry? Drupe? Drupelet? Explain an aggregate fruit.
Explain the fruit of strawberry, rose, apple, squash. What is the
fruit of pines and spruces?

Note.—Fully mature fruits are best for study, particularly if it is
desired to see dehiscence. For comparison, pistils and partially
grown fruits should be had at the same time. If the fruits are not
ripe enough to dehisce, they may be placed in the sun to dry. In the
school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The speci-
mens may be kept in glass jars.

The following diagram will aid the pupil to remember some of
the fruits to which particular names have been given. He must be
warned, however, that the diagram does not express the order of evo-
lution of the various kinds. He should also remember that there are

REVIEW ON FRUITS 157

many common fruits which answer to no definition, and these should
be studied and compared with the forms which have received definite
names.

[epene (indehiscent)
Simple . follicle (dehiscent)
Ly legume (dehiscent)
Dry pericarps. .
septicidal dehiscence
Compound inaulierdal dehi
ARICA Poe oculicidal dehiscence
PERICARPS + (capsule)
apical dehiscence.
[Pyxis.
fee ;
Fleshy pericarps drupe
Al drupelet

Aggregate pericarps

strawberry

hip

| pome
pepo

ACCESSORY FRUITS

GYMNOSPERMOUS OR CONE FRUITS

Autumn fruits.

CHAPTER XXII

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

300. It is to the plant’s advantage to have its seeds
distributed as widely as possible. It has a better chance
.@ of surviving in the struggle for exis-
} tence. It gets away from competition.
Many seeds and fruits are of such
character as to increase
their chances of wide dis-
persal. The commonest
means of dissemination
may be classed under four
273, Hxplosive fruits of Heads: explosive fruits:;

oxalis. in exploding transportation by wind;

pod is shown atc. The

dehiscence is shown at 19), eNN 10) q S56
A Mike Meceteroetite transportation by birds;

pod is seen at a. b US

301. EXPLOSIVE FRUITS.— Some pods
open with explosive force and scatter the
seeds. Even beans and everlasting peas (Fig.
246) do this. More marked }
examples are the locust, ie
witeh hazel, garden balsam, a
wild jewel weed or impa- //
tiens, violet, and the oxalis /
(Fig. 273). The oxalis ig 274. Winged seeds
common in several species ° “**#!P#
in the wild and in cultivation. One
of them is known as wood-sorrel.
Fig. 273 shows the common yellow
ee aainetoa oe oxalis. The pod opens loculicidally.

(158)

WIND - TRAVELERS 159
The elastic tissue suddenly contracts when dehiscence
takes place, and the seeds are thrown violently. The
squirting cucumber is easily grown in a garden (procure
seeds of seedsmen), and the fruits discharge the seeds
with great force, throwing them many feet.

In a gentle wind 1t rides high in the air

276. Thistle-down ready for a journey
5302. WIND-TRAVELERS.— Wind-transported seeds are
of two general kinds ;—those which are provided with

wings, as the flat seeds of catalpa (Fig. 274) and cone
trees (Fig. 270) and the samaras of ash, elm,

bearing

160 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

277. The expanding balloons of the milkweed.

tulip-tree, ailanthus, and maple; those which have feathery
buoys or parachutes to enable them to float in the air.
Of the latter kind are the fruits of many composites, in
which the pappus is copious and soft. Dandelion (Fig.

DISPERSAL BY BIRDS 161

275) and thistle (Fig. 276) are examples. The silk of
the milkweed (Fig. 277) has a similar office, and also the
wool of the cat-tail (Fig. 278). Reeall the cottony seeds
of the willow and poplar.

303. DISPERSAL BY BIRDS.— Seeds of berries and of
other small fleshy fruits are carried far and wide by
birds. The pulp is digested, but the seeds are not
injured. Note how the cherries, raspberries, blackberries,

The fruits of the cat wg bd 5 jude fy.
Gai: fi

tail are carried in the Wy

late autumn winds,

and Juneberries spring up in the fenece-
rows, where the birds rest. Some ber-
ries and drupes persist far into winter, when they sup
ply food to cedar birds, robins, and the winter birds. Fig.
279. Red cedar is distributed by birds. Many of these
pulpy fruits are agreeable as human food, and some of
them have been greatly enlarged or “improved” by the
arts of the cultivator. Consult paragraph 879 for the
process by which such result may have been attained
304, BURS.— Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks,
and hairs which adhere to the coats of animals and to

Ix

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS

clothing. The burdock has an
involuere with hooked scales,
containing the fruits inside.
Fig. 280. The clotbur is also
an involuecre. Both are compos-
itous plants, allied to thistles,
but the whole head, rather than
the separate fruits, is trans-
ported. In some compositous
fruits the pappus takes the form
of hooks and spines, as in the
“Spanish bayonets” and “ pitch-
forks.” Fruits of various kinds
are known as “stick tights,” as
of the agrimony and hound’s
tongue. Those who walk in
the woods in late summer and
fall are aware that plants have
means of disseminating them-

279. Drupes of the black haw, loved selves.

of robins in winter.

Pigs 261, TE at as; ame

possible to identify the burs

which one finds on clothing, the seeds may be planted and

specimens of the plant may
then be grown.

REVIEW. — What advantage is it
to the plant to have its seeds
widely dispersed? What are the
leading ways in which fruits and
seeds are dispersed? Name some ex-
plosive fruits. Describe wind-travel-
ers. What seeds are carried by birds?
Deseribe some bur with which you
are familiar.

Note.—This lesson will suggest
other ways in which seeds are trans-
ported. Nuts are buried by squirrels

A NO GAY Mc Wilh Metra -
RT MTS inlhih in ree" -

280. The cow is carrying burdocks.

REVIEW ON SEED DISPERSAL 163

for food, but if they are not eaten they may grow. The seeds of
many plants are blown onthe snow. ‘The old stalks of weeds, stand-

WY, ; ing through the winter, may serve to dis-
, Yee seminate the plant. Seeds are carried by
water down the streams and along shores.
About woolen mills strange plants often
spring up from seed brought in the fleeces.
Sometimes the entire plant is rolled for
miles before the winds. Such plants are
“tumble-weeds.” Examples are Russian
thistle (Fig. 99), hair-grass or tumble-grass
(Panicum eapillare), cyclone
plant (Cycloloma platyphyl-
lum), and white amaranth
(Amaranthus albus). About
seaports strange plants are

281.
Stealing a ride

often found, having been
introduced in the earth
which is used in ships for
ballast. These plants are usually known as “ballast plants.” Most

of them do not persist long.

A zine-lined box may be fitted to the school-room window and used
as a receptacle for plants, A faucet under one corner will drain off the
accumulated water. Geranium, colens, grevillea, some begonias, and
other plants may be grown in the conditions which are present in most
school-rooms. If the plants become sick, take them to the florist's,

CHAPTER XXIII
GERMINATION

305. THE SEED.—We have found (259) that by the pro-
cess of fertilizationaseed is formed. The seed contains a
miniature plant or embryo. The embryo usually has three
parts which have received names: the little stemlet or
caulicle; the seed-leaf or cotyledon (usually 1 or 2); the
bud or plumule lying between or above the cotyledons.
These parts are well seen in the common bean (Fig. 282),
particularly when the seed has been soaked
for a few hours. One of the large cotyledons
—comprijsing half of the bean—is shown at r.

The ecaulicle is at ¢. The plumule is at a.
eas cotyle, The cotyledons are attached to the caulicle
dons creaniicles at f: this point is the first node, and the
Brea ae plumule is at the second node.

306. Every seed is provided with food, to support the
germinating plant. Commonly this food is starch. The
food may be stored in the cotyledons, as in bean, pea,
squash; or outside the cotyledons, as in castor bean, pine,
Indian corn. When the food is around the embryo, it is
usually called endosperm.

307. The embryo and endosperm are inclosed within a
covering made of two or more layers and known as the
seed-coats. Over the point of the caulicle is a minute hole
or a thin place in the coats known as the micropyle.
This is the point at which the pollen-tube entered the
forming ovule and through which the caulicle breaks in
germination. The micropyle is shown at m in Fig. 283.
The sear where the seed broke from its funiculus or stalk

(164)

THE SEED 165

is the hilum. It oceupiesa third of the length of the bean
in Fig. 283. The hilum and micropyle are always present
in seeds, but they are not always close together. In many
cases it is difficult to identify the micropyle in the dormant
seed, but its location is at once shown by
the protruding ecaulicle as germination be-
gins. Opposite the micropyle in the bean

: — ; =o te ay 283.
(at the other end of the hilum) is an eleva- pysernal parts of
bean.

tion known as the raphe. This is formed
by aunion of the funiculus or seed-stalk with the seed-
coats and through it food was transferred for the develop-
ment of the seed, but it is now functionless.

308. Seeds differ wonderfully in size, shape, color, and
other characteristics. They also vary in longevity. These
characteristics are peculiar to the species or kind. ‘Some
seeds maintain life only a few weeks or even days, whereas
others will “keep” for ten or twenty years. In special
cases, seeds have retained vitality longer than this limit,
but the stories that live seeds, several thousand years old,
have been taken from mummies are unfounded.

309. GERMINATION.—The embryo is not dead: it is
only dormant. When supplied with moisture, warmth, and
oxygen (air), it awakes and grows: this growth is germina-
tion. The embryo lives for a time on the stored food,
but gradually the plantlet secures a foothold in the soil
and gathers food for itself. When the plantlet is finally
able to shift for itself, germination is complete.

310. The germinating seed first absorbs water, and
swells, The starchy matters gradually become soluble. The
seed-coats are ruptured, the caulicle and plumule emerge.
During this process the seed respires freely, throwing off
carbon diorid (COs). Filla tin box or large-necked bottle
with dry beans or peas, then add water; note how much
they swell. Seeure two fruit-jars. Fill one of them a
third full of beans and keep them moist. Allow the

166 GERMINATION

other to remain empty. In a day or two insert a lighted
splinter or taper into each. In the empty jar the taper
burns: it contains oxygen.
In the seed jar the taper
goes out: the air has been
replaced by carbon dioxid.
Usually there is a percepti-
ble rise in temperature in a
mass of germinating seeds.
311. The eaulicle usually
elongates, and from its lower
284. The young roots are not able to gain end roots are emitted. The
foe elongating caulicle is known
as the hypocotyl (‘below the cotyledons”). That is, the
hypocotyl is that part of the stem of the plantlet lying
between the roots and the coty- :
ledon. The general direction of
the young hypocotyl or emerging
caulicle is downwards. As soon
as roots form it becomes fixed,
and its subsequent growth tends
to raise the cotyledons above the
ground, as in the bean. When
cotyledons rise into the air, germ-
ination is said to be epigeal
(“above the earth”). Bean and as
pumpkin are examples. When 286. Germination of bean.

— the hypocotyl does not elongate greatly

i and the cotyledons remain under

ground, the germination is hypogeal
285. Cotyledons of germi-

(“beneath the earth”). Pea and
nating bean spread apart gcarlet runner bean are examples.
to show elongating cauli-
ele and plumule. When the germinating seed lies on a

hard surface, as on closely compacted soil, the hypo-

cotyl and rootlets may not be able to secure a foothold,

GERMINATION OF BEAN 167

and they assume grotesque forms. Fig. 284. Try this
with peas and beans.

312. The first internode above the cotyledons — be-
tween the cotyledons and the plumule —is
the epicotyl. It elevates the plumule into the
air, and the plumule-leaves expand into the y.- syrouting of
first true leaves of: the °*tor bean.
plant. These first true leaves, however,
may be very unlike the later leaves.

313. GERMINATION OF BEAN. — The
common bean, as we have seen (Fig.
282) has cotyledons which oceupy all
the space inside the seed-coats. When
the hypocotyl or elongating caulicle

rr og 2.x CMEL ECS, the plumule-leaves have begun
tor bean. Endosperm to enlarge and to
cas unfold (Fig. 285).
The hypocotyl elongates rapidly. One
end of it is held by the roots. The
other is held by the seed-coats in the
soil. It, therefore, takes the form of
a loop, and its central part “comes
up” first (a, Fig. 286). Presently
it draws the cotyledons out of the
seed-coats, and then it straightens
and the cotyledons expand. These 99,

Germination complete
in castor bean

cotyledons or “halves of the bean,”
persist for some time, (b, Fig. 286).
They often become green and probably
perform some function of foliage. Be-
cause of its large size, Lima bean shows
all these parts well.

j 314. GERMINATION OF CASTOR BEAN.
089. Castor bean, Endo. —1n the castor bean the hilum and

sper AT tyle- ‘ : .
em ty Oo” =micropyle are at the smaller end (Fig.

168 GERMINATION

287). The bean “comes up” with a loop, which indicates
that the hypocotyl greatly elongates. On examining a
germinating seed, however, it will be found
that the cotyledons are contained inside a fleshy
body or sac (a, Fig. 288). This sac is the en-
dosperm. To its inner surface the
thin, veiny cotyledons are very closely
appressed, absorbing its substance
(Fig. 289). The cotyledons increase

in size as they reach the air (Fig.
£91. Sprout- 292. Kernel of

ingIndian Indiancorn, 290), and become functional leaves.
corn. Hi- Caulicle at

lum at h; bd; cotyledon 315. GERMINATION OF
micropyle a; plumule 2

at d. p. INDIAN CORN.—Soak kernels
of corn. Note that the micropyle and hilum
are at the smaller end (Fig. 291).
Make a longitudinal section through e — m

the narrow diameter; Fig.292 shows 7
ie : 293. Indi:
it. The single cotyledon is at a, the tiie aie mete

The emerging at m; plumule at p.

eaulicle at b, the plumule at p.
cotyledon remains in the seed. The food is stored
both in the cotyledon and as endosperm, chiefly the lat-
ter. The emerging shoot is the plumule, with a sheath-

ing leaf (p, Fig. 293). The root is emitted from
} the tip of the ecaulicle, ¢. The eaulicle is held in a
/ sheath (formed mostly from the seed-coats), and
(|

\ some of the roots eseape through the
Ne + upper end of this sheath (m, Fig.
See ~/Sy~ 298). The epicotyl elongates, par-

ticularly if the seed is
Sy a planted deep or if it
a is kept for some time
If 2994. Indian corn. o. plumule;

n to p, epicotyl. eonfined. In Fig. 294
the epicotyl has elon-
gated from » to p. The true plumule-leaf is at 0, but
other leaves grow from its sheath. In Fig. 295 the roots

REVIEW ON GERMINATION 169

are seen emerging from the two ends of the caulicle-
sheath, c, m; the epicotyl has grown to p; the first
plumule-leaf is at o.

REVIEw.—What does a seed contain? What do you understand
by the embryo? What are its parts? Where is the food in the seed?
What are the seed-coats? What is ff
h icropyle? Hilum? ay \y
the micropyle ilum? How may “ ;

the position of the micropyle be yf
determined? How do seeds differ? \ /
With what are these differences as- N /
sociated? What is germination? \
Under what conditions does a seed
germinate? When is germination
complete? What is the first phenom-
enon of germination? Explain the
relation to Oand COs. Define hypo-
cotyl. Epicotyl. Hypogeal and epi-
geal germination. What becomes
of the plumule? Explain germina-
tion in a seed which you have
studied.

Notre.—Few subjects connected
with the study of plant-life are so
useful in school-room demonstra-
tions as germination. The pupil
should prepare the soil, plant the
seeds, water them, and care for the
plants. Plant in pots or shallow
boxes. Cigar-boxes are excellent.
The depth of planting should be
two to three times the diameter of
the seeds. It is well to begin the

planting of seeds at least ten days Ls od ee
in advance of the lesson, and to ~” a pr a on a
make four or five different plantings roots; ¢, lower roots,
at intervals. A day or two before the study is taken up, put seeds to
soak in moss or cloth. The pupil then has a series from swollen
seeds to complete germination, and all the steps can be made out.
Dry seeds should be had for comparison.

Good seeds for study are those detailed in the lesson,—bean,
eastor bean, corn. Make drawings and notes of all the events in the

297. The beginning.

Le 300. The wing cast off ;
298. A later stage. 299. Another position. the seed-coats still adhering.

301. Casting 302. Free from the
the seed-coats. seed-coats. 303. Free.

NOTE ON GERMINATION Gy

germination. Note the effects of unusual conditions, as planting too
deep and too shallow and different sides up. For hypogeal germina-
tion, use the garden pea, scarlet runner or Dutch case-knife bean,
acorn, horse-chestnut. Squash seeds are excellent for germination
studies, because the cotyledons become green and leafy and germina-
tion is rapid. Its germination, as also that of the scarlet runner
bean, is explained in “Lessons with Plants.” Onion is excellent,
except that it germinates too slowly. In order to study the root
development of germinating plantlets, it is well to provide a
deeper box with a glass side against which the seeds are planted.

Observe the germination of any seed which is common about the
premises. Where elms and maples are abundant, the germination of
their seeds may be studied in Jawns and along fences. Figs. 296 to
303 suggest observations on the Norway maple, which is a common
ornamental tree.

When studying germination, the pupil should note the differences
in shape between cotyledons and plumule-leaves and between plu-
mule-leaves and the normal leaves of the plant. Fig. 143. Make
drawings.

Germination of beans and pens,

CHAPTER XXIV
PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

316. The plants thus far studied produce flowers; and
the flowers produce seeds by means of which the plant.
is propagated. There are other plants, however, which
produce no seeds, and these plants are more numerous
than the seed-bearing plants. These plants propagate by
means of spores, which are usually simple generative cells
containing no embryo. These spores are very small, and
sometimes are not visible to the naked eye.

317. Prominent amongst the spore-propagated plants
are ferns. The common Christmas fern (so-called be-
cause it remains green during winter) is shown in Fig.
304. The plant has no trunk. The leaves spring di-
rectly from the ground. The leaves of ferns are called
fronds. They vary in shape, as
other leaves do. Compare Fig.
125 and the pictures in this chap-
ter. Some of the fronds are seen
to be narrower at the top. If
these are examined more closely
(Fig. 305) it will be seen that the
leaflets are contracted and are
densely covered beneath with
Tut Geena feck Dee brown bodies. These bodies are

acrostichoides; known also as collections of sporangia or spore-
Aspidium. cases.

318. The sporangia are collected into little groups,
known as sori (singular, sorus) or fruit-dots. Hach
sorus is covered with a thin seale or shield, known as an

(172)

STRUCTURE OF FERNS WE:

indusium. This indusium separates from the frond at
its edges, and the sporangia are exposed. Not all ferns
have indusia. The polypode (Figs.
306, 307) does not: the sori are
naked. In the brake (Fig. 308) and
maiden-hair (Fig. 309) the edge of
the frond turns over and forms an
indusium. In some ferns (Fig. 310)
an entire frond becomes contracted
to cover the sporangia. In other ¢,
cases the indusium is a sac-like coy-
ering, which splits (Fig. 3i1).

319. The sporangium or spore-
case of a fern is a more or less

. 305. Fruiting frond of Christ-
globular body and usually with a “yhas fern. Sori ata. One

stalk (Fig. 307). Jt contains the *™* with its indusium, at dD.
spores. When ripe it bursts and the spores are set
free. Lay a mature fruiting frond of any fern on white
paper, top side up, and allow it to remain in a dry, warm
place. The spores will discharge on the paper.

320. In a moist, warm place the spores germinate.
They produce a small, flat, thin, green, more or less
heart-shaped membrane (Fig.
312). This is the prothallus.
g¢ Sometimes the prothallus is
a an inch or more
across, but oft-
ener it is less
than one-fourth
this size. It is
commonly un-

306. Common polypode fern.— 307. Sori and sporan known except
Polypodium vulgare. gium of polypode. to botanists.

Prothalli may often be found in greenhouses where ferns
are grown. Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or

174 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

on the firm soil of undisturbed pots and beds. Or spores
may be sown in a damp, warm place.

321. On the under side of the prothallus two kinds
of organs are borne. These are the archegonium and
the antheridium. These organs are mi-
nute specialized parts of the prothallus.
Their positions on a particular prothal-
Pe eR. bat lus are shown at a and 0 in Fig. 312,

underneath the revo. Dut in some ferns they are on separate

lute edges of theleaf- prothalli (plant dicecious). The sperm-
cells escape from the antheridium and in the water which
collects on the prothallus are carried to the archegonium,
where fertilization takes place. From a fertilized arche-
gonium a plant grows, and this plant becomes the “fern.”
In most cases the prothallus dies soon after the fern
plant begins to grow.

322. The fern plant, arising from the fertilized egg in
the archegonium, becomes a perennial plant, each year
producing spores from its fronds, as we have seen; but
these spores—which are merely detached special kinds of
cells—produce the prothallic phase of the fern plant, from
which néw individuals
arise... A fern is fer-
tilized but once in its
lifetime. This alterna-
tion of phases is ealled
the alternation of gen-
erations. The first or
fertilized plant is the
gametophyte; the sec-
ond or non- fertilized 309. Reflexed margins of a maidenhair frond.

plant is the sporophyte (phyton is Greek for “ plant”).
323. The alternation of generations runs all through

the vegetable kingdom, although there are some groups

of plants in which it is very obscure or apparently want-

WHAT A FLOWER IS Ei

ing. It is very marked in ferns and mosses. In alge
(including the seaweeds) the gametophyte makes the
“plant,” as the non-botanist knows
it. There is a general tendency, in
the evolution of the vegetable kingdom,
for the gametophyte to lose its rela-
tive importance and for the sporophyte
to become larger and more highly de-
veloped. In the seed-bearing plants
the sporophyte generation is the only
one seen by the non-botanist. The
gametophyte stage is of short dura-
tion and the parts are small: it is
confined to the time 310. Fertile and sterile fronds
of fertilization. ee a
324. The sporophyte of seed-plants,
or the “plant” as we know it, produces
spores — one kind being called pollen-
grains and the other kind embryo-sacs.
. The pollen-spores are borne in sporan-
sil. Asaclike indusium. 5i4, which are united into what are
called anthers. The embryo-sac, which contains the egg-

cell, is borne in a sporangium known as an ovule. A
gametophytie stage is present in
both pollen and embryo-sae: fer-
tilization takes place, and a sporo-
phyte arises. Soon this sporo-
phyte becomes dormant, and is
then known as an embryo. The
embryo is packed away within
tight-fitting coats, and the entire

body is the seed. When the con- 312. Prothallus of a fern. Enlarged
Archegonia at a; antheridia at b

ditions are right the seed grows,
and the sporophyte grows into herb, bush, or tree. The
utility of the alternation of generations is not understood.

176 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS

325. It happens that the spores of seed-bearing plants
are borne amongst a mass of specially developed leaves
known as flowers ; therefore these plants have been known
as the flowering plants. Some of the leaves are devel-
oped as envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as spore-
bearing parts, or sporophylls (stamens, pistils). But the
spores of the lower plants, as of ferns and mosses, may
also be borne in specially developed foliage, so that the
line of demarcation between flowering plants and flower-
less plants is not so definite as was once supposed. The
one definite distinction between these two classes of plants
is the fact that one class produces seeds and the other
does not. The seed-plants are now often called sperma-
phytes, but there is no single codrdinate term to set off
those which do not bear seeds. It is quite as well, for
popular purposes, to use the old terms, phenogams for
the seed-bearing plants and cryptogams for the others.
These terms have been objected to in recent years be-
cause their etymology does not express literal facts (phe-
nogam refers to the fact that the flowers are showy, and
cryptogam to the fact that the parts are hidden), but the
terms represent distinct ideas in classification. Nearly
every word in the language has grown away from its
etymology. The ecryptogams inelude three great series
of plants—the Thallophytes or alge, lichens and fungi,
the Bryophytes or moss-like plants, the Pteridophytes or
fern-like plants. In each of these series there are many
families. See Chapter XXV.

REVIEW.—What is a spore? Describe the appearance of some
fern plant which you have studied. What are the spores and spor-
angia? What is a sorus? Indusium? What grows from the spore?
How does the new “fern” plant arise? What is meant by the phrase
“alternation of generations” ? Define gametophyte and sporophyte.
Describe the alternation in flowering plants. Explain the flower from
this point of view. What is the significance of the word sperma-
phyte? Contrast phenogam and eryptogam.

NOTE ON CRYPTOGAMS LTT

Note.—All the details of fertilization and of the development of
the generations are omitted from this book, because they are subjects
for specialists and demand more training in research methods than
the high-school pupil can properly give to plant study. Cryptogams
are more numerous than phenogams, and for this reason it has been
urged that they are more proper subjects for study in the school.
This position is untenable, however, for the best plant subjects for
youth are those which mean most to his life. It is said, also, that
they are best for the beginner because their life-processes are rel-
atively simple in many eases; but the initial study of plants should
be undertaken for the purpose of quickening the pupil’s perception
of common and familiar problems rather than for the purpose of
developing a technical knowledge of a given science.

ip
ays sat ‘ Goer:
—.

Tree ferns are inhabitants of the tropics

They are often grown in choice greenhouses,

L

CHAPTER XXV
STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

The special advanced pupil who has acquired skill in
the use of the compound microscope, may desire to make
more extended excursions into the eryptogamous orders.
The following plants, selected as examples in various
groups, will serve as a beginning.

ALGAE

The alge comprise most of the green floating “scum” which
covers the surface of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of
plants are often called “frog spittle.” Others are attached to stones,
pieces of wood, and other objects submerged in streams and lakes,
and many are found on moist ground and on dripping
rocks. Aside from these, all the plants commonly known
as seaweeds belong to this category. They are inhab-
itants of salt water.

The simplest forms of alge consist of a single
spherical cell, which multiplies by repeated division or
fission. Most of the forms found in fresh water are fila-
mentous, i. e., the plant-body consists of long threads,
either simple or branched. Such a plant-body is termed
a thallus. This term applies to the vegetative body of
all plants which are not differentiated into stem and
leaves. Such plants are known as thallophytes (325). All
algee contain chlorophyll, and are able to assimilate car-
bon dioxid from the air. This distinguishes them from

313. Strand of the fungi.
SD Oe yaa Spirogyra.—One of the most common forms of the
showing . : :
the chloro- green alge is spirogyra (Fig. 313). This plant usually
phyll bands. -
There is a forms the greater part of the floating green mass on
nucleusat@. ponds, The filamentous character of the thallus can be
seen with the naked eye or with a hand-lens, but to study it care-

fully a microscope magnifying two hundred diameters or more should

(178)

ALGE 179

be used. The thread is divided into long cells by eross-walls which,
according to the species, are either straight or curiously folded (Fig.
314). The chlorophyll is arranged in beautiful spiral bands near
the wall of each cell. From the character of these bands the plant
takes its name. Each cell is provided with a nucleus
and other protoplasm. The nucleus is suspended near
the center of the cell, a, Fig. 313, by delicate strands
of protoplasm radiating toward the wall and terminat-
ing at certain points in the chlorophyll band, The
remainder of the protoplasm forms a thin layer lining
the wall. The interior of the cell is filled with
cell-sap. The protoplasm and nucleus cannot be
easily seen, but if the plant is stained with a dilute
alcoholic solution of eosin (146) they become clear.

Spirogyra is propagated vegetatively by the break-
ing off of parts of the threads, which continue to grow
as new plants. Resting-spores, which may remain
dormant for a time, are formed by a process known as
conjugation. Two threads lying side by side send out
short projections, usually from all the cells of a long
series (Fig. 314). The projections or processes from 14. pgs aol
opposite cells grow toward each other, meet and fuse, Ripe zy gospores
forming a connecting tube between the cells. The pio apap
protoplasm, nucleus, and chlorophyll band of one cell tubes.
now pass through this tube, and unite with the contents of the other
cell. The entire mass then becomes surrounded by a thick cellulose
wall, thus completing the resting-spore, or zygospore (Fig. 314, 2).

Vaucheria is another alga common in shallow water and on damp
soil. The thallus is much branched, but the threads are not divided
by cross-walls as in spirogyra. The plants are attached by means of
colorless root-like organs which are much like the root-hairs of the
higher plants: these are rhizoids. The chlorophyll is in the form of
grains scattered through the thread.

Vaucheria has a special mode of vegetative reproduction by means

of swimming spores or swarm-spores. These are formed singly in a
short, enlarged lateral branch known as the sporangium. When the
sporangium bursts the entire contents escape, forming a single large
swarm-spore, Which swims about by means of numerous lashes or cilia
on its surface, The swarm-spores are so large that they can be seen
with the naked eye. After swimming about for some time they come
to rest and germinate, producing a new plant,

The formation of resting-spores of vaucheria is accomplished

180 , STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

by means of special organs, odgonia Fig. 315. 0, and antheridia Fig.
315, a. Both of these are specially developed branches from the
thallus. The antheridia are nearly cylindrical, and curved toward
the odgonia. The upper part
of an antheridium is cut off
by a eross-wall, and within
it numerous ciliated sperm-
cells are formed. These escape
by the ruptured apex of the
315, Thread of vaucheria with odgonia antheridium. The odgonia are
OOS RSI more enlarged than the an-

theridia and have a beak-like projection turned a little to cne side
of the apex. They are separated from the thallus-
thread by a ecross-wall, and contain a single large
green cell, the egg-cell. The apex of the odgonium
is dissolved, and through the opening the sperm-cells
enter. Fertilization is thus accomplished. After ferti-
lization the egg-cell becomes invested with a thick wall

and is thus converted into a resting-spore, the odspore _ 316.
; Ripe odspore
(Fig. 316). of vaucheria.
FUNGI

Some forms of fungi are familiar to every one. Mushrooms and
toadstools, with their varied forms and colors, are common in fields,
woods, and pastures. In every household the common moulds are
familiar intruders, appearing on old bread, vegetables, and even within
tightly sealed fruit jars, where they form a felt-like layer dusted over
with blue, yellow, or black powder (181). The
strange occurrence of these plants long mysti-
fied people, who thought they were produe-
tions of the dead matter upon which they grew,
but now we know that a mould, like any other
plant, cannot originate spontaneously; it must
start from something which is analogous to a
seed. The seed in this case is a spore. The
term spore is applied to the minute reprodue-
tive bodies of all flowerless plants. A spore is
a very simple structure, usually of only one
plant cell, whose special function is to repro-
duce the plant. A spore may be produced by a vegetative process
(growing out from the ordinary plant tissues), or it may be the re-
sult of a fertilization process (316).

317. Mucor mucedo, show-
ing habit.

FUNGI . 181

Mould.— One of these moulds, Mucor mucedo, which is very com-
mon on all decaying fruits and vegetables, is shown in Fig. 317, some-
what magnified. When fruiting, this mould appears as a dense mass
of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect from the

a fruit or vegetable upon which it is growing.
The life of this mucor begins with a minute

02
o ~ rounded spore (a, Fig. 318), which lodges on the
LE decaying material. When the spore germinates,
it sends out a delicate thread which grows rapidly

318. Spores of mucor; in length and forms very many branches which

some germinating. soon permeate every part of the substance on which
the plant grows (b, Fig.318). One of these threads is termed a hypha.
All the threads together form the mycelium of the fungus (180). The
mycelium disorganizes the material in which it grows, and thus nour-
ishes the mucor plant (Fig. 317). It corresponds physiologically to
the roots and stems of other plants.

When the mycelium is about two days old it begins to form the
long fruiting stalks which we first noticed. To study them, use a
compound microscope magnifying about two hundred diameters. One
of the stalks, magnified, is shown in Fig. 319, a. It consists of a
rounded head, the sporangium, sp, supported on a long, delicate stalk,
the sporangiophore, st. The stalk is separated from the sporangium
by a wall which is formed at the base of the sporangium. This wall,
however, does not extend straight across
the thread, but it arches up into the spor-
angium like an inverted pear. It is known
as the columella, c. When the sporangium
is placed in water, the wall immediately
dissolves and allows hundreds of spores,
which were formed in the cavity within
the sporangium, to escape, b. All that is
left of the fruit is the stalk, with the pear-
shaped columella at its summit, ec. The
spores which have been set free by the
breaking of the sporangium wall are now
seattered by the wind and other agents.
Those which lodge in favorable places be- 419. Mucor, 4, sporangium,

4 P A b, sporangium bursting;
gin to grow immediately and reproduce ¢, columella,
the fungus. The others soon perish.

The mucor may continue to reproduce itself in this way indefi-
nitely, but these spores are very delicate and usually die if they do not
fall on favorable ground, so that the fungus is provided with another

Ww

182 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

means of carrying itself over unfavorable seasons, as winter. This is
accomplished by means of curious thick-walled resting-spores or zygo-
spores. The zygospores are formed on the mycelium buried within
the substance on which the plant grows. They originate in
the following manner: Two threads which lie near to-
gether send out short branches, which grow toward each
other and finally meet (Fig. 320). The walls at
the ends, a, then disappear, allowing the contents
to flow together. At the same time, however, two
other walls are formed at points farther back, b, b,
separating the short section, ¢, from the remainder
of the thread. This section now increases in size
and becomes covered witha thick, dark brown wall
ornamented with thickened tubercles. The zygo-
spore is now mature and, after a period of rest,
it germinates, either producing a sporangium di-
rectly or growing out as mycelium.

The zygospores of the mucors form one of the
most interesting and instructive objects among the
390. Mucor showing lower plants. They are, however, very difficult to

formation of zygo- obtain. One of the mucors, Sporodinia grandis,

spore on the right;

germinating zygo- may be frequently found in summer growing on

Spore pane ee. toadstools. This plant usually produces zygospores,
which are formed on the aérial mycelium. The zygospores are large
enough to be recognized with a hand-lens. The material may be
dried and kept for winter study, or the zygospores may be prepared
for permanent microscopic mounts in the ordinary way.

Willow mildew. —Most of the moulds are saprophytes (181).
There are many other fungi which are parasitic on living plants and
animals. Some of them have interesting and complicated life-his-
tories, undergoing many changes before the original spore is again
produced. The willow
mildew and the common
rust of wheat will serve
to illustrate the habits of
parasitie fungi.

The willow mildew,

Uncinula salicis, forms 321. Colonies of willow mildew.
white downy patches on

the leaves of willows (Fig. 321). These patches consist of numer-
ous interwoven threads which may be recognized as the mycelium
of the fungus. The mycelium in this case lives on the surface of the

FUNGI 183

leaf and nourishes itself by sending short branches into the cells of
the leaf to absorb food-materials from them.

Numerous summer-spores are formed on short erect branches all
over the white surface. One of these branches is shown in Fig. 322.
When it has grown to a certain length, .
the upper part begins to segment or di-
vide into spores which fall and are seat-
tered by the wind. ‘Those falling on
other willows reproduce the fungus there.

This process continues all summer,
but in the later part of the season pro-
vision is made to maintain the mildew
threugh the winter. If some of the white
patches are closely examined in July or 322. Summer-spores of willow
August, a number of little black bodies mildevr.
will be seen among the threads. These little bodies are called peri-
thecia, shown in Fig. 323. To the naked eye they appear as minute
specks, but when seen under a magnification of 200 diameters they
present a very interesting appear-
ance. They are hollow spherical
bodies decorated around the out-
side with a fringe of crook-like
hairs. The resting-spores of the
willow mildew are produced in
sacs or asci inclosed within the
leathery perithecia. Fig. 324
shows a cross-section of a peri-

thecium with the asei arising
from the bottom. The spores
remain securely packed in the
perithecia. They do not ripen in
the autumn but fall to the ground
with the leaf and there remain
securely protected among the dead foliage. The following spring
they mature and are liberated by the decay of the
perithecia. They are then ready to attack the un-
folding leaves of the willow and repeat the work
of the summer before.

Wheat rust.—The development of some of the , -
rusts, like the common wheat rust (Puccinia gra-
minis), is even more interesting and complicated S24. Section through

. 7 . sritheel of wil-
than that of the mildews. Wheat rust is also a aa iar se

323. Perithecium of willow mildew.

fF

184 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

true parasite, affecting wheat and a few other grasses. The mycelium
here cannot be seen by the unaided eye, for it consists of threads
which are present within the host plant, mostly in the intercellular
spaces. These threads also send short
branches, or haustoria (180), into the
neighboring cells to absorb nutriment.

The resting-spores of wheat rust are
produced in late summer, when they may
be found in black lines breaking through
the epidermis of the wheat-stalk. They
are formed in masses, called sori (Fig.
325), from the ends of numerous crowded
mycelial strands just beneath the epider-
mis of the host. The individual spores
are very small and can be well studied
only with high powers of the microscope
Sori containing telen- (XX about 400). They are brown two-

tospores of wheat celled bodies with a thick wall (Fig.
aR 326). Since they are the resting- or win-
ter-spores, they are termed teleutospores
(“completed spores”). They usually do not fall, but remain in the
sori during winter. The following spring each eell of the teleutospore
puts forth a rather stout thread, which does not grow more than sey-
eral times the length of the spore and terminates in a blunt
extremity (Fig. 327). This germ-tube, or basidium, now
becomes divided into four cells by cross-walls, which are
formed from the top downwards. Each cell gives rise to a
short, pointed branch which, in the course of a few hours,
forms a single small spore at its summit. In Fig. 327 a
germinating spore is drawn to show the basidimm, b, divided
into four cells, each producing a short branch
with a little spore, s.

A most remarkable cireumstance in the
life-history of the wheat rust is the fact that
the mycelium produced by the teleutospore
ean live only in barberry leaves, and it fol-
lows that if no barberry bushes are in the Be pa
neighborhood the teleutospores finally perish. Teleutospore of wheat
Those which happen to lodge on a barberry ©! Wheatrust. rust.
bush germinate immediately, producing a mycelium which enters the
barberry leaf and grows within its tissues. Very soon the fungus
produces a new kind of spores on the barberry leaves. These are

3827. Germi-

FUNGI 185

called @ecidiospores. They are formed in long chains in little fringed
cups, or ecidia, which appear in groups on the lower side of the leaf
(Fig. 328). These orange or yellow ecidia are termed cluster-cups.
In Fig. 329 is shown a cross-section of one of the cups, outlining
the long chains of spores, and the
mycelium in the tissues.

The wcidiospores are formed in
the spring, and after they have been
set free some of them lodge on wheat
or other grasses, where they germi-
nate immediately. The germ-tube
enters the leaf through a stomate,
whence it spreads among the cells of the wheat plant. During sum-
mer one-celled wredospores (“blight spores”) are produced in a man-
ner similar to the teleutospores. These are capable of germinating
immediately and serve to disseminate the fungus during the summer
on other wheat plants or grasses (Fig. 330). Late in the season,
teleutospores are again produced,
completing the life cycle of the
plant.

Many rusts beside Puecinia
graminis produce different spore-
forms on different plants. The
phenomenon is called heterwcism,
and was first shown to exist in
the wheat rust. Curiously enough,
the peasants of Europe had ob-
served and asserted that barberry
bushes cause wheat to blight long
before science explained the rela-
tion between the cluster-cups on

» barberry and the rust
OO on wheat. The true
63 relation was actually 320, Section through a cluster-cup on
j 930, demonstrated, as has barberry leaf.

Uredospores of sinee been done for many other rusts on their respective
wheat rust.

328. Leaf of barberry with cluster-cups.

hosts by sowing the ecmwidiospores on healthy wheat
plants and thus producing the rust. The cedar apple is another rust,
producing the curious swellings often found on the branches of red
cedar trees. In the spring the teleutospores ooze out from the
“apple” in brownish yellow masses. It has been found that these
attack various fruit trees producing wcidia on their leaves.

186 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

LICHENS

Lichens are so common everywhere that the attention of the
student is sure to be drawn to them. They grow on rocks (Fig. 346),
trunks of trees, old fences, and on the earth. They are too difficult
for beginners, but a few words of explanation may be useful.

Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate tribe
of plants, and many species have been described. They are now known
to be the green cells of various species of alge, overgrown and held
together (imprisoned) by the mycelium of various kinds of fungi.
The result is a growth unlike either component. This association of
alga and fungus is usually spoken of as symbiosis, or mutually help-
ful growth, the alga furnishing some things, the fungus others, and
both together being able to accomplish work which neither could do
independently. By others this union is considered to be a mild form
of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga.
As favorable to this view, the facts are cited that each component is
able to grow independently, and that under such conditions the algal
cells seem to thrive better than when imprisoned by the fungus.

Lichens propagate by means of soredia, which are tiny parts
separated from the body of the thalius, and consisting of one or more
algal cells overgrown with fungous threads. These are readily
observed in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually asco-
spores, which are always the product of the fungous element, and
which reproduce the lichen by germinating in the presence of algal
cells, to which the hyphe immediately cling.

Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places and, by means
of acids which they secrete, they attack and slowly disintegrate even
the hardest rocks. By making thin sections of the thallus with a
sharp razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is
easy to distinguish the two components in many lichens,

LIVERWORTS

The liverworts are peculiar, flat, green plants usually found grow-
ing on wet cliffs and in other moist, shady places. They frequently
occur in greenhouses where the soil is kept constantly wet. One of
the commonest liverworts is Marchantia polymorpha, two plants of
which are shown in Figs. 331, 332. The plant consists of a flat ribbon-
like thallus which creeps along the soil, becoming repeatedly forked
as it grows. The end of each branch is always conspicuously notched.
There is a prominent midrib extending along the center of each

LIVERWORTS 187

branch of the thallus. On the under side of the thallus, especially
along the midrib, there are numerous rhizoids which serve the pur-
pose of roots, absorbing nourishment from the earth and holding the
plant in its place. The upper surface of the thallus is divided into
minute rhombie areas which can be seen with the naked eye. Each
of these areas is perforated by asmall breathing pore or stomate which

Plants of marchantia.

leads into a cavity just beneath the epidermis. This space is sur-
rounded by chlorophyll-bearing cells, some of which stand in rows
from the bottom of the cavity (Fig. 333). The delicate assimilating
tissue is thus brought in close communication with the outer air
through the pore in the thick protecting epidermis.

At various points on the midrib are little eups which contain
small green bodies. These bodies are buds or gemma which are
outgrowths from the cells at the bottom of the cup. They become
loosened and are then dispersed by the rain to other places where

they take root and grow into new ey.

plants. ‘ (he Fie Y Bi ee
’ “ys as Por] .
The most striking organs on the y Heyy ea % v}

thallus of marchantia are the peculiar I / 3 SS)

stalked bodies shown in Figs. 351, os Y | a

332. These are termed archegonio- ‘ .

ry J

phores and antheridiophores or recepla- I 4 {

cles. Their structure and function are <i oo ne

very interesting, but their parts are so wn

minute that they ean be studied only 333. Section of thallus of marchantia

with the aid of a microscope magnify - Stomate at a,

ing from 100 to 400 times. Enlarged drawings will guide the pupil.
The antheridiophores are fleshy lobed disks borne on short stalks

(Fig. 331). The upper surface of the disk shows openings scarcely

188 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

visible to the naked eye. However, a section of the disk, such as is
drawn in Fig. 334, shows that the pores lead into oblong cavities in
the receptacle. From the base of each cavity there arises a thick
club-shaped body, the antheridium. Within the antheridium are
formed many sperm-cells which are capable of swimming about in

334. Section through antheridiophore of marchantia, showing antheridia.
One antheridium more magnified.
water by means of long lashes or cilia attached to them. When the
antheridium is mature, it bursts and allows the ciliated sperm-cells
to escape.

The archegoniophores are also elevated on stalks (Fig. 332). In-
stead of a simple disk, the receptacle consists of nine or more finger-
like rays. Along the under side of the rays. between delicately fringed
curtains, peculiar flask-like bodies, or archegonia, are situated. The
archegonia are not visible to the naked eye. They can be studied only
with the microscope (X about 400). One of them much magnified is
represented in Fig. 335. Its principal parts are the long neck, a, and
the rounded vente, b, inclosing a large free cell—the egg-cell.

We have seen that the antheridium at maturity discharges its
sperm-cells. These swim about in the water provided by the dew and
rain. Some of them finally find their way to the arche-
gonia and egg-cells, which are thus fertilized, as pollen
fertilizes the ovules of higher plants.

After fertilization the egg-cell develops into the
spore-capsule or sporogonium. The
mature spore-capsules may be seen
in Fig. 336. They consist of an
oval spore-case on a short stalk, the
base of which is imbedded in the
tissue of the receptacle from which
it derives the necessary nourishment

for the development of the sporo-
335. Archegon- gonium. At maturity the sporo- 336. Archegoniophore
ium of mar- with sporogonia of
chantia. gonium is ruptured at the apex, marchantia.

MOSSES 189

o 337. Spores and elaters of marchantia.

setting free the spherical spores together with numerous filaments
having spirally thickened walls (Fig. 337). These filaments are
ealled elaters. When drying, they exhibit rapid movements by
means of which the spores are scattered. The spores germinate
and again produce the thallus of marchantia.

MOSSES

If we have followed carefully the development of marchantia, the
study of one of the mosses will be comparatively easy. The mosses
are more familiar plants than the liverworts. They grow on trees,
stones, and on the soil both in wet and dry places. One of the com-
mon larger mosses, known as Polytrichum commune, may serve as an
example. This plant grows on rather dry knolls, mostly in the borders
of open woods, where it forms large beds. In dry weather these beds
have a reddish brown appearance, but when moist they form beautiful
green cushions. This color is due, in the first instance, to the color
of the old stems and leaves and, in the second instance, to the peculiar
action of the green living leaves under the influence of changing mois-

yes
Lg:
Thy MOPS
a > SF '
Be ( phi g es en,
RO tat I
aN ase
5 Sst

ei ie i
no i + y “ i
ee Tea it nS cen

Ou
\

338. Section of leaf of Polytrichum commune,

ture-conditions. The inner surface of the leaf is covered with thin,
longitudinal ridges of delicate cells which contain chlorophyll. These
are shown in cross-section in Fig. 338. All the other tissue of the
leaf consists of thick-walled, corky cells which do not allow moisture
to penetrate. When the air is moist the green leaves spread out,
exposing the chlorophyll cells to the air, but in dry weather the mar-

190 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

gins of the leaves roll inward, and the leaves fold closely against
the stem, thus protecting the delicate assimilating tissue.

The antheridia and archegonia of polytrichum are borne in groups
at the ends of the branches on different plants (many mosses bear
= ox Naat both organs on the same branch). They
MON “Zz are surrounded by involucres of charac-
teristic leaves termed perichetia or peri-
chetal leaves. Multicellular hairs known
as paraphyses are scattered among the
339. Section jeans a receptacle of archegonia and antheridia, The invo-

Polytrichum commune, showing lucres with the organs borne within

paraphyses and antheridia. them are called receptacles or, less ap-
propriately, “moss flowers.” Asin marchantia, the organs are very
minute and must be highly magnified to be studied.

The antheridia are borne in broad cup-like receptacles on the
antheridial plants (Fig. 339). They are much like the antheridia of
marchantia, but they stand free among the para-
physes and are not sunk in cavities. At maturity
they burst and allow the sperm-cells or spermat-
ozoids to escape. In polytrichum when the re-
ceptacles have fulfilled their
function the stem continues
to grow from the center of
the cup (Fig. 340, m). The
archegonia are borne in other
receptacles on different plants.
They are like the archegonia
of marchantiaexcept that they
stand erect on the end of the
branch.

The sporogonium which
develops from the fertilized
egg is shown in Fig. 340, a, b.
It consists of a long, brown
stalk bearing the spore-case at
its summit. The base of the
stalk is embedded in the end
of the moss stem by which
it is nourished. The capsule
is entirely inclosed by a hairy
cap, the calyptra, b. The ealyptra is really the remnant of the
archegonium, which, for a time, inereases in size to accommodate

340. Polytrichum commune; f, f. fertile plants,
one on the left in fruit; m, antheridial plant.

MOSSES—FERNS 191

and protect the young growing capsule. It is finally torn loose and
carried up on the spore-case. The mouth of the capsule is closed by
a circular lid, the operculum, having a conical projection at the center.
The operculum soon drops, or it may be removed, displaying a fringe
of sixty-four teeth guarding the mouth of the capsule.

This ring of teeth is known as the peristome. In most mosses
the teeth exhibit peculiar hygroscopic movements, i. e., when moist
they bend outwards and upon drying curve in toward the mouth of
the capsule. This motion, it will be seen, serves to disperse the
spores gradually over a long period of time.

Not the entire capsule is filled with spores. There are no elaters,
but the center of the capsule is occupied by a columnar strand of tis-
sue, the columella, which expands at the mouth into a thin, mem-
branous disk, closing the entire mouth of the capsule except the

narrow annular chink guarded by the teeth. In this
moss the points of the teeth are attached to the margin 5
of the membrane, allowing the spores to sift out through
the spaces between them.

When the spores germinate they form a_ green, \
branched thread, the protonema. This gives rise directly
to moss plants, which appear as little buds on the thread.
When the moss plants have sent their little rhizoids into F
the earth, the protonema dies, for it is no longer neces-
sary for the support of the little plants.

FERNS

The adder’s tongue fern, Ophioglossum vulgatum,
shown in Fig. 341, is one of a peculiar type of ferns be-
longing to the family Ophioglossacew. This plant has a
short, subterranean stem from which a single frond un-
folds each year. The roots arise near the bases of the
leaves. The leaves are curiously divided into a sterile
and a fertile part, the latter being a sporophyll. The

sterile part has a tongue-shaped blade which is narrowed

OAL.
to a petiole. The young leaves are inclosed by the Ophioglossum

sheathing base of the petiole. The growth is very Ywlsstum,

slow, so that it takes several years for each leaf to develop before it
is ready to unfold, During its development each leaf is sheathed by
the one preceding it.

The sporophyll is elevated on a stalk arising near the base of the
sterile part of the frond, The upper part consists of a spike bearing

192 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

two rows of large spore-cases or sporangia sunk in the tissue. At
maturity the sporangia open by transverse slits and discharge the
inclosed spores.

When the spores germinate they produce subterranean tuberous
prothallia which, however, are rarely found, and of whose history
little is known. They develop archegonia and antheridia beneath the
surface of the ground, and the fertilized egg produces the young fern
plant.

The generations of the true ferns are explained in Chapter XXIV.

EQUISETUMS, OR HORSETAILS

There are about twenty-five species of equisetum, constituting
the only genus of the unique family Equisetacew. Among these E.
arvense is common on clayey and sandy soils.

In this species the work of nutrition and that of spore-production
are performed by separate shoots from an underground rhizome. The
fertile branches appear early in spring. The stem, which is 3 to 6
inches high, consists of a number of cylindrical, furrowed internodes
each sheathed at the base by a circle of scale-leaves. The shoots are
of a pale yellow color. They contain no chlorophyll, and are nour-
ished by the food stored in the rhizome (Fig. 342).

The spores are formed on specially developed fertile leaves or
sporophylls which are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the
stalk (Fig. 342, a). A single sporophyll is shown at b. It consists
of a short stalk expanded into a broad, mushroom-like head. Several
large sporangia are borne on its under side.

The spores formed in the sporangia are very interesting and beau-
tiful objects when examined under the microscope (XX about 200).
They are spherical, green bodies each surrounded by two spiral bands
attached to the spore at their intersection, s. These bands exhibit
hygroscopic movements by means of which the spores become entan-
gled, and are held together. This is of advantage to the plant, as we
shall see.

All the spores are alike, but some of the prothallia are better
nourished and grow to a greater size than the others. The large pro-
thallia produce only archegonia while the smaller ones produce
antheridia. Both of these organs are much like those of the ferns,
and fertilization is accomplished in the same way. Since the pro-
thallia are usually dicecious the special advantage of the spiral bands
holding the spores together so that both kinds of prothallia may be in

EQUISETUMS—ISOETES 193

close proximity, will be easily understood. As in the fern, the fertil-
ized egg-cell develops into an equisetum plant.

The sterile shoots, Fig. 342, sf, appear much later in the season.
They give rise to repeated whorls of angular or furrowed branches.
The leaves are very much reduced scales, situated at the internodes.
The stems are provided with chlorophyll and act as assimilating

342. Equisetum arvense; st, sterile shoot; f, fertile shoot showing the
spike at a; b, sporophyll, with sporangia; 8, spore.

tissue, nourishing the rhizome and the fertile shoots. Nutriment
is also stored in special tubers developed on the rhizome.

Other species of equisetum have only one kind of shoot—a tall,
hard, leafless, green shoot with the spike at its summit. Equisetum
stems are full of silex and they are sometimes used for scouring floors
and utensils: hence the common name “ scouring rush.”

ISORTES
Isoétes or quillworts are usually found in water or damp soil on
the edges of ponds and lakes. The general habit of a plant is seen
in Fig. 343, a. It consists of a short, perennial stem bearing numer-
ous erect, quill-like leaves with broad sheathing bases, The plants
are commonly mistaken for young grasses.

M

194 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS

Isoétes bears two kinds of spores, large roughened ones, the
macrospores, and small ones or microspores. Both kinds are formed
in spor angia borne in an excavation in the expanded base of the leaf.
The macrospores are formed on the outer, and the
microspores on the inner leaves. A sporangium in
the base of a leaf is shown at b. It is partially
covered by a thin membrane, the velum. The mi-
nutetriangular appendage at the upper end of the
sporangium is ealled the ligule.

The spores are liberated by the decay of the
sporangia. They form rudimentary prothallia of
two kinds. The microspores produce prothallia
with antheridia, while the macrospores produce
prothallia with archegonia. Fertilization takes
place as in the mosses or liverworts, and the fer-
tilized egg-cell, by continued growth, gives rise
again to the isoétes plant.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

In Chapter XXIV the alternation of
generations and the terms gametophyte and
sporophyte were explained. In many of
the plants just studied, this alternation
is more clearly and beautifully marked
than in any other groups of plants. In
B49). [goates valowinigh Habitmes each generation, the reproductive body

plant at a; b, base of leaf (egg or spore) gives rise to a new plant-
showing sporangium, vel- form or generation different from the
um, and ligule.
parent generation. In the liverworts the
thallus produces the egg. The fertilized egg-cell is the beginning of
anew plant, but this new plant is not like the thallus which produced
the egg, nor does it lead an independent existence. It is the sporo-
gonium, which, although it is attached to the thallus, is not a mor-
phological part thereof. The sporogonium produces spores. It is the
sporophyte generation of the plant, and not until the spores germinate
is the thallus again produced. The same is true in the mosses. The
“moss plant” produces the egg-cells. It is the gametophyte. The
fertilized egg-cell develops into the sporophyte—the spore-case and
its stem. We can pull the stem of the capsule out of the moss plant
and thus separate the sporophyte from the gametophyte.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS 195

The fungi and algzw are omitted from these remarks. In the
former there is nothing analogous to the sporophyte and the gameto-
phyte. In alge like spirogyra, evidently the whole plant is a ga-
metophyte and, since the zygospore germinates directly “into a new
gametophyte, there is probably no sporophyte. In some other alge
traces of a sporophyte have been found, but the discussion of these
would lead too far for the present purpose.

In the ferns the egg-cells are developed on the prothallus.
This then is the gametophyte. It corresponds to the thallus of mar-
chantia and to the “moss plant,” but it has become much reduced.
The plant developing from the fertilized egg-cell is the large and
beautiful “fern plant” differentiated into stems and leaves. Since the
fern plant produces the spores directly, it is the sporophyte and
corresponds to the shaft and capsule of the mosses. Both sporophyte
and gametophyte lead an independent existence.

As we pass on to equisetum and isoétes, the sporophyte is still
more conspicuous in comparison with the gametophyte. In isoétes the
prothallus (gametophyte) is very rudimentary, consisting only of a
few cells remaining within the spore, which merely bursts to expose
the archegonia or to allow the sperm-cells to escape. Moreover, the
spores have become differentiated into micro- and macrospores corre-
sponding to the pollen and embryo-sae of higher plants.

This gradual increase of the sporophyte and reduction of the
gametophyte can be traced on through the flowering plants in which
“the plant” is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is represented
simply by a few cells in the germinating pollen grain, and in the

embryo-sae.

One of the tuft-mosses (Leucobryum)

Outside and inside views of a tuft, the latter showing the radiating

stems extending to the light

344. Desert vegetation.
ucti grow only in special regions.

Arizona.

‘

The tree @

of the Hudson.

ides

d

Palis

row.

first opportunity to g

ize the

ants se

li

15, P

9
Vv

PART II—THE PLANT IN ITS
ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER XXVI
WHERE PLANTS GROW

326. ENVIRONMENT.—The circumstances and surround-
ings in which an organism lives constitute its environ-
ment. The environment comprises effects of sail, mois-
ture, temperature, altitude, sunlight, competition with
animals and other plants, and the like. An organism is
greatly influenced by the environment or conditions in
which it lives. Not only must a plant live and grow and
multiply its kind, but it must adapt itself to its environ-
ment.

327. The particular place in which a plant grows is
known as its habitat (i. e., its “habitation”). The habi-
tat of a given plant may be a swamp, hill, rock, sand
plain, forest, shore. The plant inhabitants of any region
are known collectively as its flora. Thus we speak of the
flora of a meadow or a hill or a swamp, or of a country.
The word is also used for a book describing the plants of
a region (as in Part IV).

328. PLANTS GROW WHERE THEY MUST.—The plant is
not able to choose its environment. It has no volition.
Its seeds are scattered: only a few of them fall in pleas-
ant places. The seeds make an effort to grow even
though the places are not favorable; and so it happens

(197)

198 WHERE PLANTS GROW

that plants are often found in places which are little adapted
to them. See the fern growing on a brick in Fig. 69.
Plants must grow in unoccupied places.

329. Not only do the seeds fall in unfavorable places,
but most places are already occupied. So it comes that
plants grow where they must, not where they will.
There are, of course, certain limits beyond which plants
cannot grow. Water lilies can thrive only in water,
and white oaks only on dry land, but it is seldom that
either the water lily or the oak finds the most congenial
place in which to grow. Fine large plants of the lily
and strong giant trees of the oak are so infrequent, as
compared with the whole number, that we stop to
admire them.

330. Originally, plants were aquatic, as animals were.
Much of the earth was sea. Many plants are now aquatic,
and the larger number of these—as alge and their kin—
belong to the lower or older forms of plant life. Many
plants of higher organization, however, as the water lilies,
have taken to aquatie life. True aquatie plants are those
which always live in
water, and which die
when the water dries
up. They are to be
distinguished from
those which live on
shores or in swamps.
Aquatic plants may
be wholly dmmersed
or under water, or
partly emersed or
standing above the water. Most flowering aquatic plants
come to the surface to expand their flowers or to ripen
their fruits. Some aquatie plants are free-swimming, or
not attached to the bottom. Of this kind are some utric-

316. The lichen grows on the hard rock.

’

AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS 199

ularias, or bladder-worts. In some waters, particularly
in the ocean, there are enormous quantities of free-swim-
ming microscopic life, both animal and vegetable, which
is carried about by eurrents: this is known under the
general name of plankton (Greek for “wandering” or
“roaming ”’).

331. The general tendency has been for plants to
become terrestrial, or land-inhabiting. Terrestrial plants

>

°

347. Sphagnum bog, green and living on top, but dead and dying nnderneath

Sphagnum moss is used by nurserymen and florists as packing material for plants.

often grow in wet places, but never in water throughout
their entire life; of such are swamp, bog, and marsh
plants. Some plants have the ability to grow in standing
water when young and to become terrestrial as the water
dries up. Such are amphibious. Some buttercups are
examples.

332. Some plants grow in very special soils or special
localities, and consequently are infrequent or are confined
to certain well-marked geographical regions. Fig. 344,

Common plants are those which are able to accommodate

200 WHERE PLANTS GROW

themselves to widely different environments. Weeds are ex-
amples. Many plants have become so specialized in habitat
as to be parasitic, saprophytic, or epiphytic. Chap. XIII.

333. Common plants often grow in most unusual
and difficult places. Note that some weeds grow not only
in fields, but often gain a foothold in chinks in logs, on
rotting posts, in crotches of trees, on old straw stacks, in
clefts and crannies of rocks. In moist climates, as Eng-
land, plants often grow on thatched roofs.

334. Plants may be said to be seeking new places in
which to grow. Whenever ground is cleared of vegeta-
tion, plants again spring up. The farmer plows the
meadow or pasture, and immediately a horde of weeds
appears. Any breach or break in the earth’s surface
makes room for a new group of plants. Note how the
‘allway embankments and the newly graded roadsides take
on a covering of vegetation. Observe the ragweed. When-
ever soil is formed at the base of a cliff, plants at once
secure a foothold. Fig. 345.

335. PLANTS AID IN THE FORMATION OF SOIL. — This
they do in two ways: by breaking down the rock; by
passing into earth when they decay. Even on the
hardest rocks, lichens and mosses will grow. Fig. 346.
The rhizoids eat away the rock. A little soil is formed.
Ferns and other plants gain a foothold. The crevices are
entered and widened. Slowly the root acids corrode the
stone. Leaves and stems collect on the rock and deeay.
Water and frost lend their aid. As the centuries pass, the
rock is eaten away and pulverized. Note the soil which
collects on level rocks in woods where wind and rain do
not remove the accumulations.

336. In bogs and marshes and on prairies the remains
of plants form a deep black soil. In bogs the vegetable
matter is partially preserved by the water, and it slowly
becomes solidified into a partially decayed mass known as

348. A landscape devoid of vegetation. Western United States.

O49. A landscape with vegetation Belgium

202 WHERE PLANTS GROW

peat. When dug out and dried, peat may be used as fuel.
Finally it may decay and make a vegetable soil known as
muck. When thoroughly decayed, plants become vege-
table mold or humus. New plants grow on peat or
muck, and the accumulations year by year tend to raise the
level of the bog, and the surface may finally become so
high as to support plants of the high lands. The chief
agent in the formation of peat bogs is sphagnum moss.
New moss grows on the old, and the bog becomes higher
as time goes on. Fig. 347.

337. PLANTS CONTRIBUTE TO SCENERY. — Aside from
sky and air, natural scenery depends chiefly on two things:
the physical contour of the earth; the character of the
vegetation. Attractive landscapes have a varied vegeta-
tion. Imagine any landseape with which you are familiar
to be devoid of plants. Compare Figs. 348 and 349.

REVIEW.— What is meant by environment? By habitat? Flora?
What determines where plants shall grow? What is an aquatie plant?
Explain immersed, emersed, free-swimming. Whatis plankton? Ex-
plain terrestrial. Amphibious. Why are some plants rare or local?
Why are some plants common? Name some unusual places in which
you have seen plants growing. Give examples of how plants occupy
the new places. Howdo plants aid in the formation of soil? Explain
what is meant by peat, muck, humus. How are peat bogs formed ?
What relation have plants to scenery ?

The same landscape 1n winter and summer.

CHAPTER XXVII

CONTENTION WITH PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

338. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.— We have seen
(326) that the environment in which a plant grows is
made up of two sets of factors—the physical environ-
ment of climate and soil, and the organic environment
of competing animals and plants.

339. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE IN GENERAL. — Every
particular climate causes particular modifications in its
plants. There are two general ways, however, in which
plants are modified or adapted to climate: modification
in the length of the period of growth; modification in
stature. Any modification of the plant, visible or invis-
ible, which adapts it to grow in a climate at first inju-
rious to it, is acclimatization.

340. In short-season climates, plants hasten their
growth. They mature quickly. Indian corn may re-
quire five or six months in which to mature in warm
countries, but only three months in very cold countries.

Nearly all garden vegeta-

bles mature quicker from

the time of planting in the 5 W ANY, ft}
when they are raised from —™ ———

North than in the South

seeds grown in their respec- $50. Germination of corn grown in
Heniitestion, “Geeaemien are eee
aware of this and they like to raise seeds of early varieties
in the North, for such seeds usually give “early” plants.
Many plants which are perennials in warm countries be-
come annuals or plur-annuals in cold countries(14).

(203 )

204 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

341. Even germination is usually more rapid from
northern-grown seeds than from southern-grown seeds
of the same kind. The plants “come up” quicker. Se-
cure seeds of the same variety of corn or bean grown
in the Gulf states and in the northern states or Canada
and make the experiment (Fig. 350). The same results
often show in
the vegetation
of cuttings of
trees and grape
vines from the
South and
North. Vege-
tation is quick
in the North:
the “burst of
spring” is usu-
ally more rapid.

342. Plants
are usually
dwarf or smal-
ler in stature in

short-season eli-
351. Evergreen trees on wind-swept heights of the mates Indian
Rocky Mountains.

corn is a con-
spicuous example. As one ascends high mountains or
travels in high latitudes, he finds the trees becoming smal-
ler and smaller, until finally he passes beyond the regions
in which the trees can -grow. Many of the HEsquimaux
doubt the statements of travelers that there are plants as
high as a man. In these high altitudes and high latitudes,
plants tend also to become prostrate.
343. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY WIND.—In regions of
strong prevailing winds, as on lake and sea shores and on
hills and mountains, tree-tops develop unsymmetrically

holl

One-sided

206 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

and are heaviest on the leeward side. Figs. 351, 352. Ob-
serve this fact in orchards in windy regions, and note that
the most unsymmetrical trees are those on the exposed side
of the plantation.

‘ ve 344. Trees often
lean away from
the prevailing
winds. . Fig: 353.
The tips of the
branches of ex-
posed trees usually
indicate whether
there are strong
prevailing winds.
Fig. 854. Observe
trees in pastures
and along road-
sides, particularly
in high places and
within a few miles
of exposed shores.
Note the tip-top
spray of hemlock
trees.

345. PLANTS ARE PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY SOIL.—
The food supply varies with the kind of soil; and the
food supply determines to a large extent the character
of the individual plant. On poor soils plants are small;
on rich soils they are large. The difference between poor
and good yields of wheat, or any other erop, is largely ¢
question of soil. The farmer reinforces his poor soils by
the addition of fertilizers, in order to make his plants vary
into larger or more productive individuals.

346. The moisture-content of the soil exerts a marked
influence on plants. We have found (154) that a large

304. A tree which shows which way the wind blows.
Oklahoma.

PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY SOIL 207

part of the plant-substance is water. The water is not
only itself plant-food, but it carries other foods into the
plant and transports them from tissue to tissue. However
rich a soil may be in mineral plant-foods, it is inert if it
contains no moisture. The character of the plant is often
determined more by the moisture in the soil than by all the
other food materials, Note how rank the plants are in low
places. Observe how the weeds grow about the barn where

EOE

355. “Lodged” oats. On rich ground the grain is often broken by wind and rain,

the plants having grown so heavy asto be unable to support themselves,

the soil is not only rich but where moisture is distributed
from the eaves. Contrast with these instances the puny
plants whieh grow in dry places. In dry countries irriga-
tion is employed to make plants grow vigorously. — In
moist and rich soil plants may grow so fast and so tall
as not to be able to withstand the wind, as in Fig, 355.
347. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THE EXPOSURE OF THE
PLACE IN WHICH THEY GROW.—The particular site or out-
look is known as the exposure or aspect. The exposure,
for instance, may be southward, eastward, bleak, warm,

208 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

eold. <A favorable exposure for any plant is one which
supplies the requisite amount of warmth, room, sunlight,
moisture, and plant-food, and immunity from severe winds
and other destructive agencies. Against the edge of a
forest (Fig. 356) or at the base of a cliff, certain plants
thrive unusually well. Note the plants of any kind grow-

356. The flowering dogwood is seen at its best along the margins of the wood.

ing in different exposures: observe that they vary in
stature, time of maturity, color of foliage and flowers,
produetiveness, size of leaves and flowers, longevity.

REVIEwW.—Contrast physical and organie environments. How are
plants modified by climate? Define acclimatization. Explain how time
of maturity is influenced by climate. How is germination influenced ?
Explain how climate influences stature. How do winds affect plants ?
Tlow are plants influenced by soil? By soil moisture ? Exposure ?

CHAPTER XXVIII
COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS

348. THE FACT OF STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.—We
have seen (Chapter IX) that branches contend amongst
themselves for opportunity to live and grow. Similarly,
separate plants contend with each other. We shall ob-
serve that this is true; but we are compelled to believe it
by considering the efforts which all plants make to propa-
gate themselves. The earth is filled with plants. It is
chiefly when plants die or are killed that places are
made for others. Every one of these plants puts forth
its utmost effort to perpetuate its kind. It produces seeds
by the score or even by the thousand. In some instances
it propagates also by means of vegetative parts. If the
earth is full and if every plant endeavors to multiply its
kind, there must be struggle for existence.

349. The effects of struggle for existence are of three
general categories: (1) the seed or spore may find no
opportunity to grow; (2) sooner or later the plant may
be killed; (3) the plant may vary, or take on new char-
acters, to adapt itself to the conditions in which it grows,
Consider the crop of seeds which any plant produces: how
many germinate? how many of the young plants reach
maturity? Note the profusion of seedlings under the
maples and elms, and then consider how few maple and
elm trees there are. Count the seeds on any plant and
imagine that each one makes a plant: where will all
these new plants find a place in which to grow?

390. WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS. Struggle
for existence with fellows is competition for room or

N (209)

358. Divergence of character in a cornfield.

WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS 211

space, for food
and moisture in
the soil, for
light. We may
consider exam-
ples in each of
these three cate-
gories,

dol. If the
earth is filled
with plants,
359. The tree has appropriated the food and moisture,so there must be

that a large area remains bare of vegetation. sharp competi-
tion for every inch of its surface. If any good soil is
not populated with plants it is usually because it has re-

cently been moved. If the farmer does not move or till
his soil frequently, various
eet a foothold, and

>

plants
these plants he ealls weeds.
Determine how much room
anapple tree, or other plant,
occupies: then ecaleulate
how much space would be
required for all the seed-
lings of that tree or plant.
The greater the population
of any area, the less chances
have other plants to gain a
foothold. When the wheat
completely covers the
ground, as in Fig. 357,

there are no weeds to be

seen.
352. Plants of different
: “i 360, The clematl limbing into the sunlight

form and habit may grow Compare Fig. 73.

on the forest floor.

aunts

“

|
=
i
0

61. Low shade-

3

forest.

imeval pine

362. A pr

g the roadway for

ichigan.

ale

in

as come

gn vegetation h

el

DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER 215

together, and thereby the area may support more plants than
would be possible if only one kind were growing on it. This
principle has been called by Darwin the divergence of
character. When an area is occupied by one kind of

363. On the top of an evergreen forest

plant, another kind may grow between or beneath, Only

rarely do plants of close botanical relationship grow to-

gether in compact communities. A field which is full of
corn may grow pumpkins between. Fig. 3858. <A full
meadow may grow white clover in the bottom. In a dense

wood herbs may grow on the forest floor, When an

214 COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS

orchard can support no
more trees, weeds may grow
beneath.

303. We have learned
(25, 26) that roots go fur and
wide for food and moisture.
The plant that is first es-
tablished appropriates the
food to itself and new-
comers find difficulty in
gaining a foothold. Note
the bare area near the elm
tree in- Fig. 359. Recall
how difficult it is to make
plants grow when planted
under: trees. This is partly due to the intercepting of
the rain by the tree-top, partly to shade, and partly to
lack of available food and moisture in the soil. The
farmer knows that he can-
not hope to seeure good
crops near large trees, even
beyond the point at which
the trees intercept the rain
and light. It is difficult to
establish new trees in the
vacancies in an old orchard.

304. In Chapter VIII
we studied the relation of
the plant and its parts to
sunlight. Plants also com-
pete with each other for
light. Plants climb to get
to the light (Chapter XVI).

Fie. 360. Some plants 365. The forest center. Looking from tho
= : woods, with the forest rim shown in
have become adapted to Fig. 366 seen in the distance.

364. The tell-tale pine.

eis

ies te em

Rt
ia
]

Ail

ee

STRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT 215

subdued or transmitted light, but no green plants can grow
in darkness. The low plants in forests are shade-lovers.
Fig. 361. Note the plants which seem to be shade-lovers
and those which prefer full sunlight. Some plants adapt
themselves to both sun and shade. Most ferns are shade-
lovers.

399. In the midst of dense plant populations, each
individual grows upwards for sunlight. Thus are for-

366. The forest rim. Looking towards the woods

ests made: the competing trees become long slender boles
with a mantle of foliage at the top. The side branches die
for lack of light and food, and they fall from deeay or are
broken by storm; the wounds are healed, and the bole
becomes symmetrical and trim. Fig. 362 shows the inte-
rior of a primeval pine forest. Note the bare trunks and
the sparse vegetation on the dim forest floor. Fig. 363 is
the top of a great forest. With these pietures compare
Figs. 75 and 76. Fig. 357 shows a deep wheat forest.

A lone survivor of a primeval forest is shown in Fig. 364,

367. The foliage bank of a tangle.

368. View just inside the tangle. "

STRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT 217

In dense plantations, plants tend to grow to a single stem.
When these same plants are grown in open or cultivated
grounds, they often become bushy or develop more than
one trunk. In what places have you seen trees with
more than one trunk ?

356. On the margins of dense populations, each indi-
vidual grows outwards for sunlight. Note the dense
forest rim: then plunge through it, and stand by the
tall bare trunks. Figs. 365 and 3866 show these two
views of the same forest. Note the kinds of trees and
other plants that grow in areas similar to those depicted
in these illustrations. Note the dense wall of foliage in
Fig. 367, and the thin brushy area just behind it in Fig.
368. Observe the denser and greener foliage on the out-
side rows in thick orchards. Consider how the plants
extend over the borders in dense flower-beds. Note
where the best foliaged plants are in the greenhouse.
Notice the foliage on the outer rows in a very thick
cornfield,

REVIEW.—Why is there struggle for existence? How does it
affect plants? Tell what it is. How do plants compete for space?

What is meant by the phrase “divergence of character”?

Give ex
amples. How do plants compete for food from the soil? In what
respects have plants become adapted to the light relation? How do

plants grow in dense plantations?

On the margins of these planta
tions? You know some tree or other plant: deseribe how it has

adapted itself to competition with its fellows.

A dandelion knoll in shade and sun

369. A hydrophytic society. New York.

aaa) Wy Aes) a 4

ty a r , f 4 is
ati TRA } Reh alias’
vaNiaunee AM

» i
pa ¥ \ ‘iti Na ey
tine. ii cid AN alah vi

270. A mesophytie society. Michigan.

CHAPTER XXIX
PLANT SOCIETIES

357. WHAT PLANT SOCIETIES ARE.—In the long course
of evolution, in which plants have been accommodating
themselves to the varying conditions in which they are
obliged to grow, plants have become adapted to every
different environment, Certain plants, therefore, may live
together or near each other, all enjoying the same con-
ditions and surroundings. These aggregations of plants
which are adapted to similar conditions are known as
plant societies.

358. Moisture and temperature are the leading factors
in determining plant societies. The great geographical
societies or aggregations of the plant world are for con-
venience associated chiefly with the moisture supply.
These are: (1) hydrophytic or wet-region societies,
comprising aquatic and bog vegetation (Tig. 369); (2)
xerophytic or arid-region societies, comprising desert and
most sand-region vegetation (Fig. 544); (3) mesophytic
or mid-region societies, comprising the vegetation in
intermediate regions (Fig. 370). Mesophytie vegetation
is characteristic of most regions which are fitted for
agriculture. The halophytic or salt-loving societies are
also distinguished, comprising the seashore and salt-area
vegetation (Fig. 371). Much of the characteristic
scenery of any place is due to its plant societies (337).
Xerophytie plants usually have small and hard leaves,
apparently to prevent too rapid transpiration, Usually,
also, they are characterized by stiff growth, hairy cover-
ing, spines, or a much-contracted plant-body, and often

(219)

20 PLANT SOCIETIES

by large underground parts for the storage of water.
Halophytie plants are usually fleshy.

359. Plant societies may also be distinguished with
reference to latitude and temperature. There are tropi-

371. A halophytie or seashore society. New Jersey.

cal societies, temperate-region societies, boreal or cold-
region societies. With reference to altitude, societies
might be classified as lowland (which are chiefly hydro-
phytie), intermediate (chiefly mesophytic), subalpine or
mid-mountain (which are chiefly boreal), alpine or high-
mountain.

360. The above classifications have reference chiefly to
great geographical floras or societies. But there are socie-
ties within societies. There are small societies coming
within the experience of every person who has ever seen
plants growing in natural conditions. There are roadside,
fenece-row, lawn, thicket, pasture, dune, woods, cliff, barn-
yard societies. Every different place has its character-
istic vegetation. Note the smaller societies in Figs. 369

PLANT COLONIES 221

and 370. In the former is a water-lily society and a ¢at-
tail society. In the latter there are grass and bush and
woods societies.

361. SOME DETAILS OF
PLANT SOCIETIES.—Socie-
ties may be composed of
scattered and intermin-
gled plants, or of dense
clumps or groups of
plants. Dense clumps

or groups are usually

72. A colony of weeds in a barnyard

made up of one kind of
plant, and they are then called colonies. Fig. 872. Colo-
nies of most plants are transient: after a short time other
plants gain a foothold amongst them, and an intermingled
society is the outcome, Marked. exceptions to this are
grass colonies and forest colonies, in which one kind of

plant may hold its own for years and centuries.

373. The beginning of a forest on a lawn

Grass and weeds, and here and there a young bush and a forest tree

The border } ilready forested

D2, PLANT ‘SOCIETIES

374. The return to forest. Bushes and trees now begin to crowd.

362. In a large newly cleared area plants usually first
establish themselves in dense colonies. Note the
great patches of nettles, jewel-weeds, smart-weeds, clot-
burs, fire-weeds in recently cleared but neglected swales,
also the fire-weeds in’ recently burned areas, the rank
weeds in-the neglected garden, and the ragweeds and
May-weeds along the recently worked highway. The com-
petition amongst themselves and with their neighbors
finally breaks up the colonies, and a mixed and intermin-
gled flora is gener-
ally the result.

363. In most parts
of the world the
general tendency of
neglected areas is
to run into forest.
All plants rush for
the cleared area.
Here and there
bushes gain a foot-
hold. Young trees
come up: in time

875. Sod and tree societies. About the building the
trees find refuge from the mowing machine. these shade the

ROTATION OF FORESTS 9293

bushes and gain the mastery. Sometimes the area grows
to poplars or birches, and people wonder why the origi-
nal forest trees do not return; but these forest trees may
be growing unobserved here and there in the tangle, and in
the slow processes
of time the poplars
perish—fortheyare
short - lived — and
the original forest
may be replaced.
Whether one kind
of forest or another
returns will depend

largely on the kinds
which are most
seedful in that
vicinity and which,
therefore, have
sown themselves
most profusely.
Much depends,
also, on the kind

of undergrowth

which first springs

up, for some young

376. The farmer mows part of his road

trees can endure
more or less shade than others. Figs. 8738 and 3874 show
two stages in the return to forest.

564. Pasturing and mowing tend to keep an area in
grass. This is because the grass will thrive when the tops
are repeatedly taken off, whereas trees will not. Note
that the wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the
fences and about old buildings, where animals and mowing
machines do not take them off. A sed society means gra

ing or mowing. Consider Figs. 96, 375, 376, The farmer

224 PLANT
keeps his wild pastures
“clean”? ~ by turning? in
sheep: the sheep are fond
of browsing.

365. Some plants as-
sociate. They grow to-
gether. This is possible

largely because they di-
verge or differ in character
(352). Plants associate in
two ways: by growing side
by side; by growing above
or beneath.

SOCIETIES

377. An aquatic society in which several
kinds of plants grow side by side,

In sparsely populated societies (as in Fig.
377) plants may grow along-side each other.

In most

cases, however, there is overgrowth and undergrowth:

one kind grows beneath another.

378. Grasses and narrow-leaved plants
grow between the cat-tail flags.

Plants which have
become adapted to shade
(354) are usually under-

growths. ima cat =tarl
swamp (Fig. 378), grasses
and other narrow - leaved
plants grow in the bottom,
but they are usually unseen

by the casual observer.
Search the surface of the

ground in any swale or ina
meadow. Note the under-
growth in woods or under
trees (Fig. 379). Observe
that in pine and_ spruce
forests there is almost no
undergrowth, because there
is very little light. Fig. 362.

366. On the same area
the societies may differ at

AUTUMN COLORS oon

different times of the year. There are spring, summer, and
fall societies. The knoll which is cool with grass and
strawberries in May may be aglow with goldenrod in
September. If the bank is examined in May, look for the
young plants which are to cover it in July and October; if
in September, find the dead stalks of the flora of May.
What succeeds the skunk cabbage, hepaticas, trilliums,
phlox, violets, buttercups of spring? What precedes the
wild sunflowers, ragweed, asters, and goldenrod of fall?
367. In lands which gradually rise from wet to dry,
the societies may take the form of belts or zones. Start-
ing at a shore, walk back into the high land: note the
changes in the flora. Three zones are shown in Fig. 3880,
368. To a large extent the color of the landscape is
determined by the character of the plant societies. Ever-
green societies remain green, but the shade of green varies
from season to sea-
son: it is’ bright
and soft in spring,
becomes dull in
midsummer and
fall, and usually
assumes a dull yel-
low-green in win-
ter. Deciduous
societies vary re-
markably in’ color
—from the dull

browns and grays 379. Overgrowth and undergrowth in three serk

trees, bushes, gra

of winter to the
brown-greens and olive greens of spring, the staid
greens of summer, and the brilliant colors of autumn.
The autumn colors are due to intermingled shades
of green, yellow, and red. The coloration varies with
the kind of plant, the special location, and the season,

O

2296 PLANT SOCIETIES

Even in the same species or kind, individual plants differ
in color; and this individuality usually distinguishes the
plant year by year. That is, an oak which is maroon-
red this autumn is hkely
to exhibit that color every
year. The autumn color
is associated with the
natural maturity and
death of the leaf, but it is
most brilliant in long and
open falls — largely be-
cause the foliage ripens
more gradually and per-
sists longer in such sea-
sons. It is probable that
the autumn tints are of
no utility to the plant.
The yellows seem to be
due to the breaking down
and disorganization of the
chlorophyll. Some of the
intermediate shades are
probably due to the un-
masking or liberating of
normal cell color-bodies
which are covered with or
obscured by chlorophyll in the growing season. The reds
are due to changes in the color of the cell sap. Autumn
colors are not caused by frost. Because of the long, dry
falls and the great variety of plants, the autumnal color of
the American landscape is phenomenal.

369. ECOLOGY.—The study of the relationships of
plants and animals to each other and to seasons and envi-
ronments is known as ecology (still written @cology in
the dictionaries). All the discussions in Part II of this

380. Three society zones—bog, forest rim, forest.

ECOLOGY 29

book are really different phases of this subject. It con-
siders the habits, habitats, and modes of life of living
things—the places in which they grow, how they migrate
or are disseminated, means of collecting food, their times
and seasons of flowering, producing young, and the like.

REvIEW.— What is a plant society? Why do plants grow in so-
cieties ? Name societies that are determined chiefly by moisture.
What societies are most abundant where you live? Name those de-
termined by latitude and altitude. Name some small or local socie-
ties. What are colonies? Where are they most marked? Why do
they tend finally to break up? How are societies made up when colo-
nies are not present? How do forests arise on cleared areas? What
effect have pasturing and mowing? How do plants associate? What
is undergrowth and overgrowth? Explain how societies may differ at
different times of the year. What are zonal or belt societies? Discuss
autumn colors. What is ecology?

Nore.— One of the best of all subjects for school instruction in
botany is the study of plant societies. It adds definiteness and zest
to excursions. Let one excursion be confined to one or two societies,
Visit one day a swamp, another day a forest, another a pasture or
meadow, another a roadside, another a weedy field, another a cliff or
ravine, ete. Visit shores whenever possible. Each pupil should be
assigned a bit of ground—say 10 or 20 ft. square—for special study.
He should make a list showing (1) how many kinds of plants it con-
tains, (2) the relative abundance of each. The lists secured in differ-
ent regions should be compared. It does not matter if the pupil does
not know all theplants. He may count the kinds without knowing the
names. It is a good plan for the pupil to make a dried specimen of
each kind for reference. The pupil should endeavor to discover why
the plants grow as they do. Challenge every plant sociely.

Everyone should learn to grow planta.

CHAPTER XXX

VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS

370. THE FACT OF VARIATION.—No two plants are
alike (16). In size, form, color, weight, vigor, produc-
tiveness, season, or other characters, they differ. The
most usual form of any plant is considered to be its
type, that is, its representative form. Any marked de-
parture from this type is a variation, that is, a difference.

371. THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS.—Variations are of
many degrees. The differences, in any case, may be so
shght as to pass unnoticed, or they may be so marked as
to challenge even the casual observer. If a red-flowered
plant were to produce flowers in different shades of red,
the variation might not attract attention; but if it were
to produce white flowers, the variation would be marked.
Whenever the variation is so marked and so constant as
to be worth naming and describing, it is called a variety
in descriptive botany. If the variation is of such charac-
ter as to have value for cultivation, it is called an agri-
cultural or horticultural variety. There is no natural
line of demarcation between those variations which chance
to be named and deseribed as varieties and those which do
not. Varieties are only named variations.

372. Variations may arise in three ways: (1) directly
from seeds; (2) directly from buds; (3) by a slow
change of the entire plant after it has begun to grow.

373. Variations arising from seeds are seed-variations ;
those which chance to be named and described are seed-
varieties. Never does a seed exactly reproduce its parent:
if it did, there would be two plants alike. Neither do any

228)

THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS 229

two seeds, even from the same fruit, ever produce plants
exactly alike. Even though the seedlings resemble each
other so closely that people say they are the same, never-
theless they will be found to vary in size, number of
leaves, shape, or other fea-
tures. Figs. 381 and 382
illustrate seed-variation.
374. Variations arising
directly from buds, rather
than from seeds, are bud-
variations, and the most
marked of them may _ be
described and named as bud-
varieties. We have learned
in Chapter V how the horti-
culturist propagates plants

by means of buds: not one 351. An arbor-vite tree. from which seeds
of these buds will reproduce hai ie Ne

exactly the plant from which it was taken. We have
already discovered (17, 118) that no two branches are
alike, and every branch springs from a bud. Bud-varia-
tion is usually less marked than seed-variation, however,

' TAA inde aaee

382. The progeny of the

seeds of the tree shown in Fig, 381

alike

No two plant

yet now and then one branch on a plant may be so un-
like every other branch that the horticulturist seleets buds
from it and endeavors to propagate it. “Weeping” or

pendent branches sometimes appear on upright trees; nee-

230 VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS

tarines sometimes are borne on one or more branches of
a peach tree, and peaches may be borne on _ nectarine
trees; russet apples are sometimes borne on Greening ap-
ple trees; white roses are sometimes found on red-fiowered
plants.

375. Frequently a plant begins a new kind of varia-
tion long after birth, even after it has become well es-
tablished. It is on this fact that suecessful agriculture
depends, for the farmer makes his plants better by giving
them more food and care: and betterment (like deterio-
ration) is only a variation as compared with the average
plant. Plants which start to all appearances equal may
end unequal: some may be tall and vigorous, others may
be weak, others may be dwarf: some will be worth har-
vesting and some will not.

376. THE CAUSES OF VARIATIONS.— Variations are due
to several and perhaps many causes. One class of causes
lies in the environment, and another lies in the tendencies
derived from parents. Of the environmental causes of
variation, the chief is food supply. Good agriculture”
consists largely in inereasing the food supply for plants
—by giving each plant abundant room, keeping out com-
peting plants, tilling the soil, adding plant-food. Fig.
383. Another strong environmental factor is climate
(Chapter XXVITI). It is very difficult to determine the
exact causes of any variation. There is much difference
of opinion respecting the causes of variation in general.
The extent of variation due to food supply is well illus-
trated in Fig. 383. The two pigweeds grew only five
feet apart, one in hard soil by a walk, the other near a
compost pile. They were of similar age. One weighed
% oz.; the other 4/4 lbs., or 136 times as much.

377. HEREDITY.— Marked variations tend to be per-
petuated. That is, offspring are likely to retain some
of the peculiarities of their parents. This passing over

SELECTION—EVOLUTION 93

of characteristics from parent to offspring is heredity.
sy “selecting the best” for seed the farmer maintains and
improves his erops.
It is said that “like
produces like.” This
is true of the general
or average features,
but we have seen that
the reproduction is
not exact. It is truer
to say that similar
produees - similar.
Fig. 384 represents a
marked case of he-
redity of special char-

acters. The plants on
the right grew from a 383. Variation.—Big and little pigweeds of
parent 24 in. high and the same kind.

30 in. broad. Those on the left grew from one 12 in. high
and 9 in. broad. (For a history of these parents see
“Survival of the Unlike,” p. 261.)

378. SELECTION.— There is intense struggle for existence:
there is universal variation: those variations or kinds live
which are best fitted to live under the particular condi-
tions. This persistence of the best adapted and loss of the
least adapted is the process designated by Darwin’s phrase
“natural selection” and by Spencer's “survival of the
fittest.” Natural selection is also known as Darwinism.
379. By a similar process, the cultivator modifies his
plants. He chooses the variations which please him, and
from their offspring constantly selects for seed-bearing
those which he considers to be the best. In time he has a
new variety. Plant-breeding consists chiefly of two
things: producing a variation in the desired direction;
selecting, until the desired variety is secured,

EP) VARIATION AND IIS RESULTS

380. ‘-EVOLUTION.— Variation, heredity, natural selec-
tion, and other agencies bring about a gradual change in
the plant kingdom: this change is evolution. The hy-
pothesis that one form may give rise to another is now
universally accepted amongst investigators ; but whether
the vegetable kingdom has all arisen from one starting
point is unknown. Only afew of the general lines of
the unfolding of the vegetable kingdom, with numberless

384. The progeny of little and big plants.

details here and there, have been worked out. Not every
form or kind of plant ean be expected ever to vary into
another kind. Some kinds have nearly run their course
and are undergoing the age-long process of extinction.
It is believed, however, that every kind of plant now hy-
ing has been derived from some other kind. Evolution
is still in progress. Variation and heredity are the most
important facts in organic nature.

REviEw.—What is a variation? A variety? Agricultural vari-
ety? How may variations arise? Explain each of the three catego-
ries. What are some of the causes of variation? What is heredity?
Selection? What are essentials in plant-breeding? What is evolution?

PART III— HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE
STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

CHAPTER XXXI
THE CELL

381. THE CELL AS A WHOLE.—Al]l of the higher plants
are made up of a large number of bodies or parts called
cells. These are so minute that, in most cases, they are
invisible to the naked eye.

382. CELLS ARE OF MANY FORMS.—In general, plant
cells may be assigned to some one of the following
forms :

spherical, as in protococcus (a minute alga to be found

on damp walls and rocks), and apple flesh ;
polyhedral, or many-sided, as in pith of elder;
tabular or flat, as in epidermis of leaves;

cylindrical, as in vaucheria, spirogyra;

fibrous, as cotton fibers;

vascular, as the ducts of wood;

stellate, as in the interior of leaves of lathyrus (sweet

pea) and other plants.

383. PARTS OF A CELL.—EHEvery living, growing cell
contains protoplasm (171), a colorless, semi-fluid sub-
stance, which is usually inclosed within a cell-wall.
Within the wall, also, and sometimes closely surrounded
by protoplasm, is a dense body known as the nucleus.
The nucleus usually contains a smaller central part, or

(233)

TBA THE CELL

nucleolus. Cell-walls are so often absent that it is quite
as well to think of a cell as a single nucleus with its attend-
ant protoplasm. The nucleus is an essential part of every
cell, and is intimately connected with the wonderful process
of cell-division. In some very low forms of plants, as in
some of the bacteria, no nucleus has yet been clearly
made out.

384. NATURE OF PROTOPLASM.—Protoplasm, with its
nucleus, forms the essential part of all living, acting
cells. It is possible in many eases to find a small mass
of living protoplasm with a nucleus but without a cell-
wall. Protoplasm is not entirely homogeneous, for when
examined with a microscope of very high power it is often
found to be of a foamy or honeycomb nature. This mesh
or network contains many minute granules, called micro-
somes, and lies in a clear “ground mass” composed of cell-
sap. Ona glass slip mount in a drop of water some com-
pressed or brewer’s yeast which has been growing in a thin
syrup of white sugar for twenty-four hours; place over the
drop a thin cover-glass, and examine with the compound
microscope, first with the low power and then with the
high. The individual cells should be visible. Note the
shape and contents of the cells, and make a sketch of a
few of them. A similar study may be made of the soft
pulp seraped from a celery stem; of hairs
seraped from the surface of a begonia leaf;
of threads of spirogyra; cells of protocoe-
cus; soft white cells of an apple; the thin
om yoann leaves of various mosses; the epidermis of

Vacuoles atv. Waxy plants.

eons eer 385. VACUOLES.— Protoplasm often does
PRES OE not entirely fill the cell. There may be a
number of cavities or vacuoles in a single cell. These
vacuoles are filled with cell-sap (v., Fig. 385). In some
parts, as in buds and root-tips, where the cells are most

MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM 235

actively dividing, the protoplasm may entirely fill the
space and no vacuoles be present.

386. MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM.—Within the ecell-
wall, many times the protoplasm shows a tendency to move
from place to place. This movement is
chiefly of two kinds: (1) circulation, or
movement not only along the walls Lut
also across the cell-body, as seen in the
long, thin-walled cells of celandine; in
the staminal hairs of tradeseantia (Fig.
386); in the bristles of squash vines; in
the stinging hairs of nettle; in stellate
hairs of hollyhock. (2) rotation, or
movement along the walls only, well seen
in the cells of many water plants, as
elodea, chara, and nitella (Fig. 387).

387. Besides these and other move-
ments of protoplasm within the cell-wall,
there are also movements of naked proto-
plasm, of two main types: (1) amceboid
or creeping movements, such as may be
seen in a plasmodium of myxomycetes, or
in an amaba; (2) swimming by means
of cilia or flagella, illustrated in the
swarm-spores of water fungi, and of some

alge, and in motile bacteria. By the last
type of movement the unicellular bodies 6. Cireulation of pro
= . : toplasm in a cellofa
(swarm-spores and bacteria) are often — stamen hair of trad

. escantia or spider
moved very rapidly. To see movement ort. Magnified ovo

in protoplasm, carefully mount in water ‘me

a few hairs from the stamens of tradescantia (spider-wort).
The water should not be too cold. Examine with a power
high enough to see the granules of protoplasm. Make a
sketch of several cells and their contents. It may be
necessary to make several trials before success is attained

236 THE CELL

in this experiment. If the microscope is cold, heat the
stage gently with an alcohol lamp, or by other means;
or warm the room. See Fig. 386.

388. NATURE OF CELL-WALL.—The cell-wall of very
young cells is a delicate film or membrane. As a cell
grows in size the wall remains thin and does not begin to
thicken until the cell has ceased to enlarge. The funda-
mental substance of cell-walls is a carbohydrate known as
cellulose. The cellulose generally stains blue with hema-
toxylin. Often by incrustations or deposits of one kind
or another, the cellulose reaction is lost or obscured. Two

387. Rotation of protoplasm in Elodea Canadensis (often known as
Anacharis). Common in ponds.

of the most common additions are lignin, forming wood,
and suberin, forming cork. The walls then are said to be
hgnified or suberized.

389. In all the cells studied in the above experiments
the walls are thin and soft. In general, those cells which
have thin walls are called parenchymatous cells. Some
cells, as those of nuts and the grit of pear fruit, have
very thick walls, and are called sclerenchymatous cells.
In many eases the cell-walls are intermediate between
these extremes.

390. Cell-walls often thicken by additions to their
inner surface. This increase in thickness seldom takes
place uniformly in all parts. Many times the wall re-
mains thin at certain places, while the most of the wall
becomes very thick. Again the walls may thicken very
much in angles or along certain lines, while most of the
wall remains thin. As aresult of this uneven thickening

MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS ; 237

the walls of cells take on certain definite markings. Some
of the names applied to these markings are:
Pitted, with little holes or depressions, forming very
thin places, as seen in seeds of sun- yl
flower, and in the large vessels in () (>

the stem of the cucumbér. a
Bordered pits, when the pits are in- mall A

closed in the cell-wall, as in wood of ©) ee
pines and other conifers. Fig. 388. sss. Bordered pits in

Spiral, with the thickening in a spiral pine wood.
band, as in the primary wood of most woody plants
and in the veins of leaves. Fig. 389.

Annular, with thickening in the form of rings; seen
in the large vessels of the bundles in stem of Indian
corn. Fig. 389.

Scalariform, with elongated thin places in the wall,
alternating with the thick ridges which appear like
the rounds of a ladder. Fig. 389. These are well
shown in a longitudinal section of the root of the
brake fern (Pteris).

391. MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS.—Cells give rise to
new cells. Thus does the plant grow. The most com-
mon method by which cells are multiplied is that called
cell division. A modified form of cell an so
division is called budding. Cell di- [&
vision is a process by which two
(or more) cells are made from one

original cell. Cells which have an a
abundance of protoplasm are usually

l},, 380. Markings in cell-walls
Phe sp, spiral; an, annular;
process is at first an internal one, — s, sealwriform,

most active in cell division,

The nueleus gradually divides into two masses and
the protoplasm of the cell is apportioned between
these two nuclei; a new. cell-membrane, or partition
wall, is usually thrown across and the cell is completely

238 THE CELL

divided into two cells. Fig. 390. In some eases, however,
the nucleus divides many times without the formation of a
cell-wall. The cell which began to divide is called the
mother cell, and the resulting cells are daughter cells.
392. Cell bud-
ding is a variety of
cell division in which
the cell is not di-
vided in the mid-
dle. The mother
cell pushes out a

390. Four steps in process of cell-division. 3
Mother cell at left, far advanced in division; daughter protuberance, which

BUS ED SE becomes separated by

a constriction of the walls. Cells of the yeast plant and
the spores of many fungi multiply in this way.

393. In no ease, so far as we yet know, can the cell
divide without a division of the nucleus and the protoplas-
mic mass. There are two methods of nuclear division: (1)
direct, as found in the old cells of nitella, tradescantia, and
others, in which the mass of the nucleus divides by simple
constriction; (2) indirect, as found in all actively growing
tissue, in pollen grains, spores, ete. There are several
stages in the latter process. The nucleus divides in intri-
cate methods, giving rise to odd forms known as nuclear
figures. Mitosis and karyokinesis are names sometimes
given to indirect nuclear division. The study of this pro-
cess is a very difficult one, as it requires a very high power
microscope to see the different stages. They are easily
seen in cells found in buds of convallaria and in pollen
grains of that plant, but may be studied in all plants. The
process is too difficult for the beginner to trace, but it is
outlined in the note on next page. Fig. 390 is not intended
to represent all the stages in indirect nuclear division.

ReEview.— What are some of the forms of cells? Name the parts
of a living cell. What part or parts are essential in all cases? Give

KARYOKINESIS 239

your idea of the nature of protoplasm. What differences did you find
between the cells of yeast and those of green alga? In what ways do
they resemble each other? Tell the same of cells of protococcus and
of apple, or of other material studied. What is a vacuole? What
does it usually contain? Name two kinds of movements of protoplasm
within the cell-wall, and explain how each may be observed. . Name
and describe two movements of naked protoplasm. Tell something
of the texture of cell-walls. What causes the markings found on cell-
walls? Name five types of markings. Draw two figures to show
structure of bordered pits. Make a sketch of spiral, annular, and
sealariform markings. Name two methods of cell-multiplication.
Describe the process of cell-division. How does cell-budding differ
from cell-division? Name two methods of nuclear division. Which
is the more common method ?

Nore TO PARAGRAPA 393.—Karyokinesis (the indirect or mitotic
process of nuclear division) is an intricate subject. The details vary
in different plants, but the essential stages are as follows:

During the resting stage the nucleus is surrounded by a very deli-
cate but distinct membrane. Within this inclosure is an intricate net-
work of colorless (linin ) threads bearing very numerous granules, which
in stained preparations are highly colored, and for this reason have
received the name chromatin. The network is surrounded by nuclear-
sap, and often incloses within its meshes a large body called the
nucleolus. As the time for division approaches the chromatin network
changes into a definite, much-coiled, deeply stained ribbon, in which
the granular structure is much less noticeable, and this in turn seg-
ments transversely into a number of parts called chromosomes, The
pretoplasmie fibrils immediately surrounding the nucleus now grad-
ually converge towards two points lying on opposite sides of the
nucleus and at a slight distance from the membrane. This is accom-
plished in such a way that a spindle of nearly colorless threads is
produced, with the two previously mentioned points of convergence
acting as poles. Meanwhile both the nuclear membrane and the nu-
cleolus have disappeared, but whether these structures take part in
the formation of the spindle is yet an open question. Radiations
of protoplasmie threads called asfers sometimes occur around the
poles, and in a few lower plants, as well as in most animals, the pole
is occupied by a small spherical body termed a centrosphere, The
steps so far are known as the prophase stages, The chromosomes now
move to the equator of the spindle, where they arrange themselves in
a definite manner, forming the so-called nuclear-plate (metaphase
stage). Each segment splits longitudinally, apparently on account of

240 THE CELL

the contractive action of the spindle fiber to which it is attached; and
one daughter-segment passes to each pole (anaphase stage). Each of
the two groups of daughter-segments very soon becomes surrounded by
a new membrane, the chromosomes gradually fuse end to end, the
nucleolus reappears, and at length two resting nuclei are produced
similar in every respect to the parent nucleus (telophase stage).
Meanwhile each spindle fiber becomes swollen at the equator, thus
producing a series of dots all arranged in one plane. These at length
fuse, forming a delicate transverse cell-membrane, which by the pe-
ripheral expansion of the spindle at length reaches the lateral walls, and
cell-division is thus complete. This process of indirect nuclear
division is one of the most wonderful phenomena yet discovered in
organic development, not only on account of its intricacy and beauty,
but also because it has been found that hereditary characteristies are
in all probability transmitted solely through the chromosomes. The
longitudinal division and separation seem to be for the purpose of
insuring equal apportionment of the hereditary substance to each
daughter-nuecleus. The subject, however, is still in its infaney, and
authors disagree both as to details and as to theoretical considerations.

NoTe ON Score, APPARATUS, AND METHODS.—The work outlined
in Part III is sufficient, if well done, to occupy one period of the
pupil’s time each school day for six weeks. These chapters are
intended only as laboratory guides. The pupil should work out each
structure or part for himself before taking up the succeeding subject.
The work in this Part deals with only the elements of the subject, but
it is as much as the high school pupil ean hope to take up with profit.

Apparatus.—The apparatus necessary for the work outlined in
these chapters on histology may be obtained from dealers in micro-
scopes and laboratory supplies at a low figure. Schools should obtain
catalogues from the following and other reliable dealers:

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y.

Eimer & Amend, New York.

The Franklin Edueational Co., Boston.

Queen & Co., Philadelphia.

Richards & Co., Chicago and New York.

Speneer Lens Co., Buffalo.

Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia.

Geneva Optical Co., Chicago.

Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York.

Chas. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia.

Richard Kny & Co., New York.

Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass.

APPARATUS AND METHODS 241

The microscope should have a one-inch and perhaps a two-inch
eye-piece and two objectives of say $- and }-inch focal lengths.
By arranging the laboratory study of the pupils at different times
each microscope may be used by three, four, or even more pupils.

There should be a microtome or section-cutter for use by the
class.

Each pupil should have his own individual tools and bottles of
reagents, as follows:

1 good razor (hollow-ground on one side only),

1 small sealpel,

1 pair forceps,

2 sharp needles mounted in handles (as penholders) (Fig. 199),
1 medicine dropper,

1 small camel’s hair brush,

A number of slides and cover-glasses.

Of reagents, stains, and other chemicals, there should be the
following:
Glycerine,
Ninety-five per cent alcohol,
Formalin (40 per cent formaldehyde ).
Clearer (made of three parts turpentine and two parts melted
crystals of carbolie acid),
Canada balsam,
Ether,
2 per cent and 5 per cent collodion,
Iodine dissolved in water,
ie he ‘* aleohol,
Hematoxylin,
Copper sulfate solution,
Potassium hydroxide solution,
Fehling’s solution (see paragraph 397),
Aleanin (henna root in alcohol).

The two per cent collodion is made of forty-nine parts aleohol,
forty-nine parts ether, two parts soluble cotton. This strength is
suitable to use in sticking sections to the glass slide to prevent
their escape during the staining and clearing process. It need not
be used unless desired. Collodion is often useful for imbedding
material, as indicated under the head “Imbedding” on page 245,
Pupils must exereise great care in using carbolie acid, as it burns

the flesh.
Hematoxylin stain may be obtained of dealers in a condition

1c

242 THE CELL

ready for use, or may be prepared by this recipe (Gage’s Hematoxry-
lin): Distilled water 200 ec. and potash alum 73 grams, boil together
for five minutes in glass dish or agate ware. Add enough boiled
water to bring the volume back to 200 ce. When cool add 4 grams
of chloral hydrate and > gram of hematoxylin erystals which have
been dissolved in 20 ce. of ninety-five per cent alcohol. This is
quite permanent, and becomes of a deeper color after standing for
some time if left in a light place and frequently shaken. It stains
the tissues which bear protoplasm and cellulose walls, causing them
to stand out in contrast with the other tissues.

Preparing and Keeping Laboratory Material.—In preparing material
for the experiments outlined in Part III., the pupil or teacher will
find it best to get much of the material during the growing season
and preserve it until the time for use. Soft material should be
dehydrated and hardened by placing it in about 40 per cent alcohol
for several hours to two days, according to its size, and then plac-
ing it in about 70 per cent for the same length of time. It can then
be placed in 80 per cent alcohol, and is ready for use at any time.
When thus preserved, the tissues containing protoplasm are some-
times much shrunken. For this reason it is well to preserve some
of the material in a liquid containing a great deal of water. One of
the best liquids is a 2 per cent or 244 per cent solution of formalin.
This preserves material well but does not dehydrate it. Formalin
burns the flesh.

Free-hand Cutting and Mounting.—To eut sections, the material
may often be held between pieces of pith or smooth cork in the
microtome or fingers. The material and sections should be kept wet
with aleohol during the time of cutting.

The sections when cut should be wet in water, then stained
with hematoxylin for a few minutes; drain off the hematoxylin and
rinse with water; then use ninety-five per cent alcohol to extract
all the water from the sections; then pour on clearer for a few
minutes. Put a drop of Canada balsam on the sections, and they
are ready for the thin cover glass. Monnts thus made are permanent.

Some reasons for the steps in the process may be understood
from the fact that hematoxylin does not mix readily with alcohol,
and balsam does not mix with water nor with alcohol. Sections
mounted before<they are freed from water become cloudy and
worthless.

Fixing and Microtome Sectioning.—For the purpose of preparing
permanent miscroscopie sections of leaves, wood, or any other plant-
tissues, select typical specimens of the part desired and cut them

FIXING AND MICROTOME SECTIONING 943

into pieces as small as can be conveniently handled. These may
then be prepared by the following processes:

1. Fixing: Ifthe material is to be used simply for the study of
tissue-arrangement, cell-structure, etc., the treatment with alcohol
described in the paragraph relating to the preparing and keeping of
laboratory material is sufficient preparation for the imbedding process.
Protoplasmie structures, however, are likely to be distorted or disin-
tegrated after this treatment, due to the slow process of killing. Some
method of quickly killing or “ fixing” the protoplasm is therefore neces-
sary. With hematoxylin staining only a few methods are available,
among which the following is perhaps the best. Cut the fresh material
into very small pieces (the smaller the better) and drop into so-called
absolute alcohol (96 per cent or stronger); after a few hours preserve
in 90 or 95 per cent alcohol. With other stains more accurate fixing
agents may be used, such as chromic acid, osmie acid, acetic acid,
ete., either separately or in combination. The treatment, however,
is in these cases rather complicated.

2. Imbedding: The pieces must be imbedded in some substance
in which they can be held and sectioned. For this purpose col-
lodion is generally used. Pour off the aleohol, and add enough 2
per cent collodion to cover the material about three-fourths of an
inch. After twenty-four hours this may be poured back into the
stock bottle, and an equal amount of 5 per cent collodion put on the
material. The collodion contains ether and alcohol, both of which
are volatile; therefore these operations must be performed as quickly
as possible, and the corks of collodion bottles should always be
sealed by holding the bottle neck down for a few seconds. Leave
the material in 5 per cent collodion twenty-four hours, and then
pour the contents of the vial into a paper box, which may be made
by folding a piece of writing paper. The size of the box must be
judged so that each piece of material will be surrounded by a
quantity of collodion, and the inside of the box should be greased
with vaseline to prevent the collodion from sticking. The pieces
will sink to the bottom, where they may be arranged with a needle.
If there is not enough collodion in the box add some from the stock
bottle. The box should then be placed in a shallow vessel on the
bottom of which a little alcohol has been poured, and covered with
a pane of glass leaving a very small opening on one side. In about
twenty-four hours the collodion will have hardened into a cake hav-
ing the consistency of cheese. The material may now be cut into
small blocks and stored in 85 per cent aleohol,

3. Cutting: For cutting sections, either a hand microtome or a

244 THE CELL

small sliding microtome and a sharp razor are necessary. Cut one
of the pieces of collodion into an oblong block with the imbedded
material near one end. This can be clamped in the microtome, be-
ing held in place by a flat piece of cork on either side. The collodion
must project above the cork. The razor should be adjusted in such
a manner that the whole length of the blade is used in cutting. The
blade should be tilted downwards so that only the cutting edge
comes in contact with the block which should not be scraped by the
lower flat surface of the razor back of the edge. Both the collodion
block and the razor must be kept flooded with alcohol during the
process of cutting. When several sections have been cut they may
be floated out on a slide and arranged near the center. Then with
a pipette place a drop of ether on the sections. This partially dis-
solves the vollodion and thus sticks the sections to the slide. The
slide is then covered with water to remove the alcohol, after which
it is ready for staining. Sections are ruined if allowed to become
dry at any time after cutting.

4. Stain with hematoxylin for from three to five minutes, and
wash off the surplus stain with water.

5. Drain off the water and dehydrate by keeping the slide flooded
with aleohol for ten minutes, or by placing it in a vessel of alcohol.

6. Pour off the aleohol and cover the slide with a clearing mix-
ture (see p. 241) and allow it to stand for ten minutes. The clearer
removes the alcohol which cannot mix with balsam.

7. Drain and wipe off as much of the clearer as possible with-
out touching the sections. Then place a small drop of prepared
Canada balsam on the sections near the center of the slide, and with
a pair of forceps lay on a clean cover-glass. If the proper amount
of balsam has been used it will spread out to the edge of the cover-
glass without exuding. The slide is now ready to be examined. It
should be cleaned and labelled and put away in a small wooden box
which is furnished by dealers in microscopical supples.

Box of microscope slides, and a packet of collodion drying in a glass vessel.
2

CHAPTER XXXII
CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

394. THE LIVING CELL IS A LABORATORY.—In nearly all
cells are found one or more non-protoplasmie substances
which are produced by the plant. Some of these are very
useful to the plant, and others seem to be discarded or
excretory products. There is considerable division of labor
among the cells of higher plants, one cell or group of cells
producing one product and another cell producing another
product.

395. CHLOROPHYLL. — Cells may contain chlorophyll
bodies if they are exposed to the sunlight. Chlorophyll
is a green substance infiltrated in a protoplasmic ground-
mass. It imparts color to all the green parts of the plant.
Its presence is absolutely necessary in all plants which have
to secure their nourishment wholly or in part from the air
and from mineral matter of soil. Review Chapter XII.
Most parasites and saprophytes do not bear chlorophyll,
but live on organie matter (Chapter XIII). The oval
bodies in the cell of Figs. 411, 4138, 414, are chlorophyll
bodies.

396. CELL-SAP.—Often the most abundant of the differ-
ent cell-contents is cell-sap. It may contain a number of
different substances, many of which are in solution and ean
be detected by the use of chemical reagents, Some of these
substances are:
| milk (lactose).
| grape (glucose or dextrose, Collet Ye).
| fruit Clevulose).

cane (saccharose, CwHxOn).

Sugar,

malt (maltose).
(245)

246 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

Inulin, which takes the place of starch in composite
and others.

Fats and oils, as in flaxseed and castor bean.

Mucus or mucilage, as in orchid roots, onions, quince
seed, ducts of some plants, as cyeads.

Tannins, as in oak, hemlock bark, and many other

plants.
Atropin, in belladonna.

Nicotin, in tobacco.
Emetin, in ipecae root.
Caffein, in coffee.
Alkaloids, ; Strychnin, in nux vomiea.
Morphin, in Papaver somniferum (opium
poppy).
Quinin, in cinchona or Peruvian bark
“EEE:
Resins, as in Conifere.
Gum-resins, Caoutchouc, as in India-rubber plant.
Formic, as in stinging’ nettles.
Acetic, as in fermented cider.
Oxalic, mostly in form of ealeium
Vegetable acids, - oxalate (see crystals, Fig. 385).
Malic, as in apple.
Citric, as in lemon.
And many others.

397. Sugar is found in almost all parts of the plant
and at all periods of growth. In a few it is crystallized,
as in date-seeds, squills, and others. Sugar serves as a
reserve material in such plants as beet, cane, corn, onion.
Being readily soluble, sugar is a convenient form for the
transportation of the food store from one part of the plant
to another, as from leaves to roots during the fall season
and from roots to stems and leaves during the spring’ sea-
son. It results from the digestion of starch (168). See
note p. 251. Sugar in fruits attracts many animals, and in

TESTS FOR SUGARS AND OIL 247

nectar of flowers it attracts insects. To test for glucose:
Make a thick section of a bit of the edible part of a
pear and place it ina bath of Fehling’s solution. After
a few moments boil the liquid containing the section for
one or two minutes. It will turn to an orange color,
showing a deposit of an oxide of copper and perhaps
a little copper in the metallic form. A thin section
treated in like manner may be examined under the micro-
scope, and the fine particles, precipitated from the solution
by the sugar of the pear, may be clearly seen. (Fehling’s
solution is made by taking ene part each of these three
solutions and two parts of water: (1) Copper sulfate, 9
grams in 250 ¢.e. water; (2) sodium hydroxide, 30 grams
in 250 ¢.e. water; (3) rochelle salts, 43 grams in 250 e.e.
water.) To test for cane sugar: (1) Make a thin section
of sugar beet and let it stand a few minutes in a strong
solution of copper sulfate. Then carefully rinse off all
the salt. (2) Heat in a very strong solution of potassium
hydroxide. There will be seen a blue coloration in the
section, gradually washing out into the liquid.

To test for oil: Mount a thin section of the endosperm
of castor-oil seed in water and examine with high power.
Small drops of oil will be quite abundant. Treat the
mount with aleanin (henna root in alcohol). The drops
of oil will stain red, This is the standard test for fats
and oils.

To examine gum-resin: Mount a little of the “milky”
juice of the leaf stem of the garden poinsettia (Huphorbia
pulcherrima). It is of a creamy consistency. Examina-
tion under the microscope shows that it is not white, as
it seems to the naked eye. The particles are yellowish
or colorless and are insoluble. These particles are gum
resin. They have been emulsified by the plant, making
the juice appear white.

398. CONTENTS NOT IN SOLUTION.—Starch is the most

248 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

abundant of the solid products of the cell. Starch grains
have a definite form for each group of plants, and groups
ean be determined by the form of their starch grains.
Detection of adulteration of various products containing
starch is accomplished by the aid of the microscope. In
potato starch the grains are ovate, with a “nucleus” near
one end, as shown in Fig. 391. In poinsettia they are dumb-
bell-shaped, with two nuclei (Fig. 391).
In corn they have equal diameters, with
radial fissures. In Egyptian lotus they
are forked or branched. So far as
known all starch grains are marked
with rings, giving a striated appearance,
due to the difference in density of the
layers. When all water is driven out of

391. Starch grains. ,
a, potato; b, poinsettia;
esate: the stareh the rings disappear. The

layers are more or less concentric, and are formed about
a starch nucleus.

399. Starch grains may be simple, as found in potato,
wheat, arrow-root, corn, and many others; or they may be
in groups called compound grains, as in oats, rice (Fig.
391), and many of the grasses.

400. Starch may be found in all parts of the plant.
It is first formed in presence of chlorophyll, mostly in
the leaves, and from there it is carried to some other part
of the plant, as to the roots or tubers, to be stored or to
be used. When found in the presence of chlorophyll it is
called transitory starch, because it is soon converted into
liquid compounds to be transported to other parts of the
plant. When deposited for future use, as in twigs and
tubers, it is stored starch.

401. The composition of starch is in the proportion of
Co6HwO;s. The grains are insoluble in cold water, but by
saliva they are changed to sugars, which are soluble. Great
heat converts them into dextrine, which is soluble in water.

STARCH — PROTEIN 249

Starch turns blue with iodine (75). The color may be
driven away by heat, but will return again as the tempera-
ture lowers. To test for starch: Make pastes with wheat
flour, potato starch, and corn starch. Treat a little of each
with a solution of rather dilute iodine. Try grains from
erushed rice with the same solution. Are they the same
color? Cut a thin section from a potato, treat with iodine
and examine under the microscope. To study starch
grains: Mount in cold water a few grains of starch from
each of the following: potato, wheat, arrow-root (buy
at drug store), rice, oats, corn, euphorbia. Study the sizes,
forms, layers, fissures, and location of nuclei, and make ¢
drawing of a few grains of each.

402. Amylo-dextrine is a solid product of the cell
much resembling starch in structure, appearance, and use.
With the iodine-test the grains change to a wine-red color.
Seeds of rice, sorghum, wild rice, and other plants contain
amylo-dextrine. Amylo-dextrine is a half-way stage in
the conversion of starch into maltose and dextrine. These
latter substanees do not react with iodine.

403. Protein or nitrogenous matter oceurs largely in
the form of aleurone grains, and is most abundant in
seeds of various kinds. The grains are very small, color-
less or yellowish in most plants, rarely red or green. In
the common cereals they occupy the outer

f cell | Fig. 392 as

ayer of cells of the endosperm. Fig. 392. Daa! ee

y E Paper ry ee str

In many other cases they are distributed J. Jersey!

throughout the seed. The grains vary in “eh a
Ls

size and form in different species, but
: ‘4 302, Aleurone grains
are rather constant within each group. (al) in kernel of
. . heat
They are entirely soluble in water unless | """
certain hard parts or bodies, known as inclusions, are
present, and these may remain undissolved, The in-
clusions may be (a) erystaloids, as in potato, castor-oil
seed; (b) globoids, as in peach, mustard ; («) caleium oxra-

200 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS

late crystals, as in grape seed. To study aleurone grains
and their inclusions: Cut a thin cross-section of the
peripheral cells of a grain of wheat and mount in alcohol.
Stain with an alcoholic solution of iodine to color the grains
yellow, and examine with the highest power. Make a
sketch of a few layers of cells, Just beneath the epidermis.
Make a sketch of a few of the grains removed from the
eells. While looking at the mount run a little water under
the cover glass and watch the result. Make a similar
mount and study of the endosperm of eastor-oil seed, or
of grape seed. In the castor-oil seed look for inclusions
of large erystaloids and small globoids. In the grape seed
eloboids should be found with erystals of calcium oxalate
within them. This experiment will require the power of
4. or t-inch objective.

404. Cells may contain crystals. Besides the erys-
tals which are found as inclusions of aleurone grains,
many others may be found in many plants. In onion
skin they are prisms; in night-shade they
are in the form of erystal flour; in the
petioles of the peach they are roundish, with
many projecting angles; in the rootstock of
skunk cabbage and the bulbs of hyacinth they
are needle-shaped and are called raphides 5, pasniaes of
(Fig. 393). In the leaf of rhizome ofskunk
the India-rubber plant (com- “”?***
mon in greenhouses) are found compound
clusters resembling bunches of grapes,
which are called cystoliths (Fig. 394).
These are concretions and not true erys-
ce Ee eae tals. In saxifrage mineral matter appears

Ficus elastica. as inerustations on the surface of the
plant. Towards autumn, erystals of calcium oxalate be-
come very abundant in the leaves of many deciduous trees:

examine cross-sections of peach petiole in June and again

REVIEW ON CELL-CONTENTS 251

in October. To study crystals and cystoliths : section the
rootstock of skunk cabbage or Jack-in-the-pulpit, the leaf
of Ficus elastica, the leaf of ivy (Hedera helix); make a
separate méunt of each in water, and examine with the
high power. When the erystals are found, draw them,
with a view of the adjacent cells. Make a similar study
of a bit of thin onion skin.
405. Summary of cell-contents and products:

1. Chlorophyll.

2. Cell-sap, and substances found in solution,

3. Starch.

4. Amylo-dextrine.

5. Aleurone grains (erystaloids and globoids).

6. True erystals, and other mineral matter.

REVIEW.—Name six classes of contents or products of the cell.
Where found? Of what use? What is chlorophyll? What is its
use? What is assimilation(170)? Give outline of the products of cells
found dissolved in cell-sap. What are the uses of sugar to plants?
Name some kinds of sugar found in plants. Describe an experiment
to test for glucose. Same for cane sugar. How may we find the oil
in plants? Deseribe an experiment for the study of gum-resin. Why
does the juice containing it appear white? Describe starch grains of
potato. Tell how starch grains of other plants studied differ from
those of potato. What are the uses of starch to the plant? Where
is the plant’s starch factory? Describe an experiment to test for
starch. Name some plants in which we may find amylo-dextrine.
How does its test differ from that for starch? What are aleurone
grains? In what cells are they found in kernels of wheat? Name
some of the forms in which we find true erystals in plant cells.

Nore T0 PARAGRAPH 397.— The digestion of starch is produced
by means of enzyms or unorganized ferments (i. e., ferments which
are not bacterial or fungal, but are chemical substances). These
ferments, as diastase, are present in seeds and other living tissues
containing starch. During dormant periods the enzyms either are
not present, or their action is prohibited by the presence of other
substances. There are various specific enzyms, each producing
definite chemical changes.

Grape sugar and its associate, fruit sugar, appear to be the forms
most generally useful to plants. Cane sugar is readily inverted into

these sugars.

CHAPTER XXXII

TISSUES

406. The lowest plants are unicellular or composed of
only one cell. Of sueh are bacteria (Fig. 123). All the
higher plants are composed of collections or aggregations
of innumerable cells: they are multicellular. If we ex-
amine the cells of the stem, the leaves, and the roots of any
common garden plant we find that they differ very widely
from each other in shape, size, and texture.

407. Any group of similar cells is called a tissue.
Kach of the different tissues of a plant has its own type of
cells, although the cells in a tissue may differ from each
other in various minor ways.

408. PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.—Thin- walled cells are
known as parenchyma cells. When they unite they form
parenchymatous tissue. These may or may not be elon-
gated in form, and they usually contain protoplasm.
Parenchymatous tissue is found at the growing point
of a shoot or root (Fig. 395); in the mesophyll (soft
pulpy part) of the leaves (Fig. 411); around the vaseular
bundles of stems and roots (Fig. 402 /), and in a few other
places, as pith, medullary rays, ete. The cells of this tis-
sue may be meristematic—in a state of active division and
erowth; or they may be permanent, no longer able to
divide.

409. One important use of this tissue is to form other
tissues, as in growing points. Near the end of any young
root or shoot the cells are found to differ from each other
more or less, according to the distance from the point.
This differentiation takes place in the region just back of

(252

PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE 253

the growing point. In the mesophyll (or middle soft
part) of leaves the elaboration of plant-food takes place.
Intercellular spaces filled with air and other gases are com-
mon in this tissue of leaves, as well as in parenchyma of
other parts of the plant.

410. To study growing points,
use the hypoeotyl of Indian corn
which has grown about one-half
inch. The material should be placed
in 40 per cent alcohol for a few
hours, then in 70 per cent for the
same length of time, and then in 95
per cent until ready for use. Make
a series of longitudinal sections,
stain with hematoxylin, mount, and
then select the middle or median
one for study with the high power.
Note these points (Fig. 395): («)

Root-cap beyond the growing point. ip Brean R grep ences
(b) The shape of the end of the Seni PoP. a Se
root proper and the shape of the ial group of cells, or growing
cells found there. (c) The group °° ™ ProPer © Toobcap.

of cells in the middle of the first layers beneath the
root-cap. This group is the growing point. (d) Study

the slight differences in the tissues a short distance
back of the growing point. There are four regions: the
plerome, several rows of cells in the center; the endo-
dermis, composed of a single layer on each side; the
periblem, of several layers outside the endodermis, and
the dermatogen, on the outer edges. Make a drawing of
the section. If a series of the cross-sections of the hypo-
cotyl should be made and studied, beginning near the
growing point and running back some distance, it would
be found that these four tissues become more distinetly
marked. The central cylinder of plerome will contain the

254 GA Bitsy Ola

ducts and vessels ; the endodermis remains as endodermis;
periblem becomes the cortex of parenchyma; the derma-
togen becomes the epidermis of the root.

411. EPIDERMAL TISSUE.—This is a special modification
of parenchyma, comprising the thin layers on the exterior
of leaves and stems. The cells are often tabular or plate-
like in form, as in the epidermis of leaves (Fig. 115);
and their outer surface bears a layer of cuticle, a protec-
tive substance which is insoluble even in sulfuric acid.
They do not bear chlorophyll and often contain only cell-
sap, with a little protoplasm. Their walls are much thick-
ened in some eases, as in Figs. 394 and 414. Hairs and
bristles are considered to be modified epidermal tissue.

412. COLLENCHYMATOUS TISSUE. — Tis-
sue composed of cells thickened at the
angles, not much elongated and _ not
lapping at the ends, is known as collen-
chyma (Fig. 396). It is strengthening
tissue. Good examples are found in
396. Collenchyma in wila SUCh vines as pumpkin, cucumber and

jewel-weed or touch-me- gourd. The tissue is slightly elastic
not (impatiens). 5

and allows of some stretching. Cut a
few thin cross-sections of large stems of jewel- weed, and
mount in water. Study with high power.

413. SOFT BAST OR SIEVE TISSUE.—In the higher plants
is a tissue known as soft bast or sieve tissue (this also
forms part of the bundle; 424). It is composed of two
types of cells which almost always accompany each other.
These are sieve tubes and companion cells (Fig. 397).
Both are elongated, thin-walled and blunt at the ends.
The sieve tubes are so called because of the sieve-like
areas Which they bear in various parts. These areas, called
sieve plates, are commonly at the ends (as partitions) but
may be in the lateral walls. Fig. 397. They serve to
connect the cell-cavities with each other, and through

PROSENCHYMATOUS TISSUE 255

them the protosplasm strands extend, as shown in the
figure. Their exact function is not known.

414. PROSENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.—Several elongated
and strong tissues, which greatly strengthen the stems in
which they are found, are

: p
collectively known as pros- SELON °
enchyma. The cells of seas

these tissues become much
thickened by the addition
of layers to the inner sur-
face, and finally lose their
protoplasm. They may, at
times, serve as store-rooms
for starch and other nu-
trients, and take an im-
portant part in the trans-
fer of the plant juices.
Some writers call this
group of tissues scleren-
chyma.

415. There are four
main varieties of tissues
which may be ineluded

under prosenchyma. ( ] ) 397. Bast-tissue. 9s, 8, sieve tubes; ¢, com
Fibrous tissue, composed — Palen cell: p, shows a top view of a

sieve plate, with a companion cell, ¢, at

of very thiek- walled cells the side; 0, shows sieve plates in the

; side of the cell In s, & the proto:
with Very small central plasm is shrunken from the walls by

dawihsed, & Wie: 401..."

They are very long and tapering at the ends, which lap.
Such tissue is found in many plants where it often
wholly or in part surrounds the fibro-vascular bundles.
It is more often but not always found near the soft
bast: hence the cells are sometimes called bast fibers or
hard bast. (2) Wood tissue, or wood fibers. This is
composed of cells much like the preceding in structure,

256 TISSUES

but with thinner walls and the central cavity not so
nearly closed. In some cases such fibers have transverse
walls. Wood cells constitute a large part of the wood of
some plants and are in other cases found scattered only
among the other prosenchyma. (3) Tracheids. Cells of
this tissue differ from ordinary cells in being supplied with
numerous bordered pits or other characteristic markings.

398. Longitudinal tangential section of Scotch pine wood, highly magnified.

It shows tracheids with bordered pits. The dark cells are ends of medullary rays.
They constitute the largest part of the wood of the pines
and other gymnosperms. Fig. 398. (4) Vascular tissue,
composed of large cells which become confluent end to end,
forming long tubes or ducts. TT’, Fig. 401. From the
thickened markings which these cells bear they are named
spiral, annular, pitted, scalariform, ete. Fig. 389. These
vessels are often of considerable length, but are never con-
tinuous through the entire plant. Cut a grape-vine stem
2 or 8 feet long. Place one cut end in a glass of water and
with the other end in the mouth, try to force air through
the stem. If not successful, shorten the stem a little.

TISSUE SYSTEMS 257

416. SCLERENCHYMATOUS OR _ SCLEROTIC TISSUE.—
Sclerenchyma cells are hard, not elongated, often some-
what spherical, and their thickened walls are provided
with simple or branching canals. The cells of this tissue
are illustrated by the common grit cells of the pear and
some other fruits. They are also found in the coats of
many seeds, in nut shells, in the pith of some plants.
Hold a large gritty part of a pear between two pieces of
smooth elder pith or cork and make free-hand sections.
Mount in water. Make a drawing of a single cell showing
thickness of wall, size of central cavity, wall markings.
Note the general shape of the cells.

417. LATICIFEROUS TISSUE.—That tissue found in many
plants which contain a milky liquid is called laticiferous
tissue. There is no fixed type for the vessels which carry
this fluid, as they vary greatly in different plants, being
simple in the aselepias (milk weed), and complex in the
dandelion.

418. TISSUE SYSTEMS.—The parts of complex plants
may be conveniently grouped into three tissue systems :
(1) Fibro-vascular tissue system. This is composed of
fibro-vascular bundles. The fibrous framework of roots,
stems, and leaves is made of fibro-vascular bundles.
(Fibro-vascular means fibrous or long and slender, and
having long openings or channels.) Each bundle is
composed of two fundamental parts: phloem and xylem,
The bast fibers may or may not be present. Phloem is
another name for the soft bast or sieve tissue, while xylem
is the name of the lignified or woody part and is com-
posed chiefly of the wood cells, tracheids, and ducts, In
stems of dicotyledons (exogens), these two parts of the
bundle are separated by cambium, a meristematic layer giv-
ing rise to xylem on one side and to phloem on the other,
For types of bundles, see next chapter, (2) Fundamen-
tal tissue system. This is composed of the parenchyma-

Q

258 REVIEW ON TISSUES

tous tissue already described. The fibro-vascular system
may be said to be imbedded in the fundamental tissue.
(3) Epidermal tissue system. This is the covering of
the other systems, and is composed of epidermal tissue,
already described. It should be borne in mind that the
types of cells and tissues as defined in this chapter are
not all that may be found in plants. There are many inter-
mediate forms, e. g., tracheids and ducts blend the one into
the other; and the same is true of wood eells and tracheids.
419. Summary of tissues studied:
1. Parenchymatous tissue.
a. meristematic.
b. permanent.

2. Epidermal tissue.
3. Collenchymatous tissue.
4. Soft bast or phloem (sieve tissue).
5. Prosenchymatous tissue.

a. Fibrous tissue or bast fibers.

b. Wood tissue or wood fibers.

c. Tracheids.

d. Vascular tissue or ducts.
6. Selerenchymatous or sclerotic tissue.
7. Laticiferous tissue.

8. Tissue systems.

REVIEW.— What is a tissue? How may two tissues differ? What
is parenchymatous tissue? Name three places where this is found.
Distinguish between meristematic and permanent tissue. Name two
uses of parenchymatous tissue. Of what use are the intercellular
spaces of leaves? Describe the parts studied in the section of root
tip. What part of this tip will become vascular? Describe epidermal
tissue. Collenchyma. Sieve tissue. Of what use are the sieve areas?
What are the chief uses of prosenchyma? Describe fibrous tissue,
wood cells or wood fibers; tracheids; ducts. What does your ex-
periment in blowing air through a grapevine stem indicate? De-
scribe cells of sclerotic tissue. Laticiferous tissue. Name three tissue
systems. What are fibro-vascular bundles? What two classes of
tissue are found in each bundle? Of what is phloem composed ?
Xylem.

CHAPTER XXXIV
STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

420. There are two main types of stem structure found
among flowering plants, which have their differences
based upon the arrangement of the fibro-vascular bundles.
These types are endogenous and erogenous.

421. ENDOGENOUS STEMS.—Plants with this form of
stem are the monocotyledons. The vascular bundles are
irregularly scattered through the fundamental tissue of the
stem (Fig. 399), and are not arranged in cireles about a
common center. The bundles are not parallel with each
other and are not of the same size throughout their length.
Fig. 400 shows the direction often taken by the bundles
in the stem. On the exterior there is either an epidermis
ora false rind. The only trees which have this kind of
stem are natives of the tropics or of warm countries. The
palm is one of them, and
these stems are sometimes
called the palm type. In
our own climate we find
many examples, such as
greenbrier, Indian corn,
asparagus, grasses, or-
chids, iris, and cat-tail.
To study arrangement of
bundles in corn: Cut thin

399. Cross-section of corn-stalk, showing -
the seattered fibro-vaseular bundles sections of a small corn

eughtly enlarges. stem which has been pre-
served in alcohol. Stain with hematoxylin, Examine
with the low power, and make a sketch showing the

(259)

260 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

arrangement of the bundles. The sections, if
mounted in a permanent way, as in balsam,
may be kept for further study of the bun-
dles. Compare with Fig. 401.

422, EXOGENOUS STEMS.—The fibro-vas-
cular bundles in exogenous (or dicotyledon-
ous) stems are arranged in a circle around
the center, which is usually filled with pith.
Outside the ring of bundles is a cortex of
fundamental tissue. Around this is either a
layer of cork or an epidermis. Layers of
parenchyma cells, called medullary rays, are
found between the bundles and often extend-
ing from the central pith to the outer cor-

400. Diagram to
show the course
of fibro-vascular
bundles in mono-

401. Fibro-vascular bundles of Indian corn, much
magnified. A, annular vessel; A’, annular
or spiral vessel; TIT’, thick-walled vessels;
w, tracheids or woody tissue; F, sheath of
fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; FT,
fundamental tissue or pith; §, sieve tissue;
P, sieve plate; Cc, companion e¢ell; I, inter-
cellular space, formed by tearing down of
adjacent cells; w’, wood parenchyma.

tex. These cotyledons.

usually are prominent in
young stems of woody
plants and invines. Fig.
404. All trees and
nearly all other woody
plants of the temperate
regions, as well as many
herbaceous plants, show
this plan of stem. The
medullary rays are very
prominent in oak wood.
These rays are lignified
in the xylem part of the
bundle and non-lignified
in the phloem part. To
study arrangement of
bundles in exogens: Pre-
pare thin cross-sections
of the stems of meni-
spermum (moonseed),

OTHER STEMS—THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES 261

one year old. Stain with hematoxylin. Make a permanent
mount. Study with low power, and make a sketch show-
ing the shape and location of the fibro-vascular bundles.
Fig. 402. Save the mount for further study. If meni-
spermum stems are not easily ob-
tained, ivy (Hedera helix) or clem-
atis may be substituted.

423. OTHER STEMS.—Besides the
two types of stems studied above,
which are prevalent among pheno-
gams, there are other structures of
stems found among the cryptogams.
A common arrangement of the bun-
dles is in the form of a cirele some
distance from the center, with a few
other bundles within the cirele.
Within the circle also are sometimes occ pene hanerrdey
found large areas of fibrous tissue, ee teeta res
Fig. 403. There are, however, wide vascular bundles are very
variations from this arrangement, nica,
but this mode of arrangement is often called the fern
type of stem.

424, THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES.—It has already been
said (418) that every fibro-vascular bundle is made up of
two parts: (1) phloem or soft bast; (2) xylem or wood.
The relative position of these two strands of tissue is very

important. There are three plans of arrangement, on
which three types of bundles are based. These plans
are collateral, concentric, and radial.

425. In collateral bundles, the phloem and xylem are
placed side by side, the xylem being nearer the center
of the stem and the phloem outside or nearer the cir-
cumference of the stem. We find this plan in the stems of
phenogams. The collateral bundles may be either open or
closed. Open bundles are those which continue to increase

262 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

in size during life by the presence of a growing layer at
the line of union of the phloem and xylem. This layer
of growing cells is called cambium. Dicotyledonous stems
have open collateral bundles. Fig. 402. Closed bundles
are those which cease growing very early and have no
eambium or growing layer. They are called closed, per-
haps from the fact that there is no means by which they
may become larger. Stems of monocotyledons have
bundles of the closed collateral type. Examine with high

403. Cross-section of root of brake (Pteris aquilina), showing 12 concentrie fibro-
vascular bundles. The two long dark strands are composed of fibrous tissue.
power cross-sections of menispermum stems and corn
stems (see Figs. 401, 402, 404), which have been stained
with hematoxylin. Study the tissues found in a single

bundle of each, with the aid of the illustrations.

426. In concentric bundles, the xylem is centrally
placed in the bundle and the phloem is all around it,
as in club mosses and ferns (Fig. 403); or the phloem is
in the center of the bundle and the xylem surrounds it,
as in the underground stems of some monocotyledons, as
asparagus. Figs. 405, 406. To see concentric bundles:

SECONDARY

THICKENING OF STEMS 263

Prepare cross-sections of the stem of pteris or aspidium.
They should be eut very thin and stained with hema-

404, Cross-section of fibro-vas-
cular bundle of moonseed (see
Fig. 402). f, f, crescent-shaped
sheaths of bast fibre; p, phloem;
cp, crushed phloem; ec, cam-
bium; d, xylem ducts; t, xylem
tracheids; m, medullary rays
of fundamental tissue; from
ec tof (at bottom), xylem; 1,
end of first year’s growth; 2,
end of second year’s growth of
wood,

toxylin. Make a sketch showing
the arrangement of bundles. Then
with the highest power study a
single bundle and the sheath sur-
rounding it. Draw.

427. Radial bundles are charac-
terized by having several strands
of xylem tissue radiating from
near the center, and each strand
is separated from the next by a
mass of phloem. This plan is
typical of young
lets, in which there
bundle.

428. SECONDARY THICKENING OF
STEMS. — Dicotyledonous (or exo-
genous) stems with open collateral
bundles may increase in diameter
each year. If they are perennial

roots and root-
but

is one

they may adda ring of growth each spring (Fig. 407).

These rings may be
counted on the smooth
cross-cut surface of a
tree, and the exact age
of the tree usually can
be very closely deter-
mined,
thickness due to the
formation of new cells
outside of the primary
wood is called second-
ary thickening.

429. As we have

All growth in —

Part of cross-section of root-atock of aspar
agus, showing a few fibro-vascular bundles,

264 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

seen (425), there is a cambium or growing layer in every
open collateral bundle just between the xylem and phloem.
Each spring the cells of this layer divide many times and
form new cells both inside and outside the cambium ring.
Those formed inside become thick walled and are xylem.
Those formed to the outside of the ring are gradually
changed into phloem. The crowding of the cells within
the cambium ring causes the ring itself to enlarge its

406. Enlargement of a single concentric bundle from Fig. 405.

circumference and move outward by this growth. To
study secondary thickening: Cut thin cross-sections of
basswood stems of different ages (one to three years old).
Stain and mount. Examine with low power and sketch
the arrangement of bundles in the oldest and youngest.
Note the effect of growth on the medullary rays. Test
them with iodine for starch. Now with the high power
study the peculiar character of the bast tissue. Note the
abundance of fibrous tissue found all through it. Draw
a single bundle from the stem one year old, carefully

BARK 965

showing the location of the cambium and the different
tissues found in the xylem and phloem strands (Fig. 408),
It may be thought best to precede this experiment with a
similar study of two-year-old stem of moonseed, ivy or
other vines.

430. BARK.—In most woody plants that part of the
stem which is outside the cambium ring is ealled bark.

107. White pine stem 5 years old. The outermost layer is bark

At first it contains the epidermis or outer layer of cells,
the phloem and the cortex lying between the epidermis and
the phloem. The eradual erowth of the stem causes the
outer dead layers of bark to erack more or less irregularly
and finally to split off. Examples of this can be seen on
the trunks of any large trees. Before the tree is many
years old the cortical cells of the bark become much
erushed and are lost to view. The epidermis is shed

rather early in the life of the tree

266 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

431. Usually very early in the life of the stem a corky
layer of bark is produced. This is the product of an active
layer of cells called phellogen. This layer is first found
at those places
where the stomates
or breathing pores
were located. The
epidermis is first
crowded off at these
places, and the
rough corky spots
are called lenticels.
Phellogen is very
active in the cork
oak of Spain, but
we find it in nearly
all woody plants.

408. Section of basswood stem, 5 years old. In such plants as
The cone-shaped growths of phloem are plainly seen. buttonwood (syca-
more), in which the bark peels off in thin, flat layers,
the phellogen layer is nearly uniformly active in all
parts, while in many other cases there is very little unifor-
mity. In wahoo (burning bush) it is in four bands, giving
rise to four corner wings. In the section of menispermum
already studied, it is found only under the lenticel spots
where the stomates have been located.
Fig. 409 shows structure of the outer
bark as found in the whole cireum-
ference of the three-year-old stem are
of red currant. To study phellogen 409. Cross-section of red eur-
and corky tissue: Cut thin eross- fcorky’ eens ee
sections of red currant from ©? 237enchumacrmote
stems two or three years old which have been kept in
aleohol at least several hours. The sections should be
stained. With the highest power make a careful study of

STRUCTURE OF ROOTS 267

the phellogen and the corky tissue outside of it. Draw.
The relation of bark to woody tissue in pine is shown in
Fig. 410. Cork tissue may be studied to advantage in
the skin of the potato.

432. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS.— At the growing point
the root has a cap (of small compact cells) which
protects the delicate tissues from injury (Fig. 395).
Such a protection is not found in growing points (buds)
of stems. In their internal structure. roots differ from

410. White pine stem in radial longitudinal section

Tracheids on the left with medullary rays crossing them. Next to the wood »
is the phloem, then fundamental tissue, then the dark bark

stems, especially when very young. Young roots have
the radial type of bundles, and there is then usually
only one bundle in the root. The number of strands
of xylem radiating from the center differs with the
plant. In roots also there is almost uniformly present
a true endodermis. This layer is found just within the
cortex and is composed of rather thick-walled cells. TLow
ever, many rhizomes and stems have a true endodermis,
To study corn roots: From the roots of Indian corn a few
weeks old cut thin cross-sections; stain and mount. With

the aid of the low power make a sketch showing the

268 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS

arrangement of the strands of wood and bast, and also
the amount of fundamental tissue. Use the highest power
and draw a portion including one strand of wood and two
of bast. In this portion draw the tissues from the center
out beyond the endodermis. Sections may also be made
of the roots of germinating pumpkins or squashes.

ReEviEw.—Name two types of stems found among flowering
plants. Describe each and give examples to illustrate them. Give
the plan of arrangement of bundles in fern stems. How many types
of bundles are there? Upon what do their differences depend ?
Describe and give examples of collateral bundles. What difference
is there between open and closed collateral bundles? Give examples
of each. Deseribe and give examples of concentric bundles. Radial
bundles. What is secondary thickening? What plants show it?
What is the layer called which forms the new eells in a bundle?
When is this layer most active? Describe the work of this layer.
What part of each bundle of a dicotyledon is found in the bark?
What are lenticels? What is phellogen? Describe the work of phel-
logen in any plant you have studied. Where is the root cap?
What is its use? Deseribe fully the structure of roots, telling how
they differ from stems.

Nore TO PARAGRAPH 422.—In woody stems the compression is
such that the student is usually puzzled to understand the bundle
structure. The subject will be simplified if he compares (on ecross-
section), the bundles in such a plant as the eucumber with that
part of the vaseular ring which lies between any two medullary
rays in one-year old stems of peach, elm, oak, ete.

All material and apparatus should be kept under cover when not in use.

CHAPTER XXXV
STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

433. Besides the framework or system of veins found
in blades of all leaves, there is a soft tissue (408) called
mesophyll or leaf-parenchyma, and an epidermis which
covers the entire outside part.

434. MESOPHYLL.— The mesophyll is not all alike or
homogeneous. The upper layer of it is composed of
elongated cells placed perpendicular to the surface of the
leaf. These are called palisade cells. The chlorophyll
grains are most abundant in them, because they are on the
side of the leaf most directly exposed to the sunlight.
Below the palisade cells is the spongy parenchyma com-
posed of cells more or less spherical in shape, irregularly
arranged, and provided with many intercellular air cavi-
ties. Fig. 411; also Fig. 115. In leaves of some plants
exposed to strong light there may be more than one layer
of palisade cells, as in
the India-rubber plant
and oleander. Ivy when
grown in bright light
will develop two such
layers of cells, but in
shaded places it may be

411. Cross-section of ivy leaf, which grew in

found as in Fig. 411. shade and has only one layer of palisade
: eh cells, u, upper epidermis; p, palisade cells
Such plants as Iris and ¢, werystal; sp, spongy parenchyma; ¢, In
. tercellular space; 1, lower epidermis, The

compass plant, which plant here intended is the true or English

have both surfaces of ivy, Hedera helix.

the leaf equally exposed to sunlight, usually have a palisade
layer beneath each epidermis.
(269)

2710 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

435, EPIDERMIS.—The outer or epidermal cells of leaves
do not bear chlorophyll, but are usually so transparent that
the green mesophyll can be seen through them. They
often become very thick-walled, and are in most plants
devoid of all protoplasm except a thin layer lining the
walls, the cavities being filled with cell-sap. This sap is
sometimes colored, as in the under surface of begonia
leaves. It is not common to find more than one layer of
epidermal cells on each surface of a leaf. The epidermis
serves to retain moisture in the leaf. In desert plants
the epidermis as a rule is very thick and has a dense
cuticle.

436. There are various outgrowths of the epidermis.
Hairs are the chief of these. They may be (1) simple, as
on priunula, geranium,
negelia; (2) once
branched, as on wall-
flower ; (3) com-
pound, as on verbas-
eum or mullein; (4)
disk-like, as on shep-
herdia (Fig. 412); (5)
stellate, or star-
shaped, as in certain
erucifers. In some
eases the hairs are
glandular, as in Pri-
mula Sinensis and
certain hairs of pump-
kin flowers. To study
epidermal hairs: For this study use the leaves of the
plants mentioned above or others which may be substi-
tuted. Cross-seetions may be made so as to bring hairs
on the edge of the sections. Or in some eases the hairs
may be peeled or scraped from the epidermis and placed

412. Disk-like or radial hairs of shepherdia.

STOMATES 271

in water on a slide. Make sketches of the different kinds
of hairs.

437. STOMATES.— Stomates or breathing-pores are
small openings or pores in the epidermis
-of leaves and soft stems to allow the
passage of air and other gases and vapors.
They are placed near the large intercel-
lular spaces of the mesophyll. Fig. 413 433. stomate of ge-
shows the usual structure. There are two — ranium leaf, show-
guard cells at the mouth of each stomate, sara a

which may in most cases open
or close the passage as the condi-
tions of the atmosphere may re-
quire. In Fig. 414 is shown a
case in which there are compound
guard cells, that of ivy. On the

414. Stomate of ivy, showing

margins of certain leaves, as of
compound guard cells. , 5 S ,
fuchsia, impatiens, cabbage, are
modified stomates known as water-pores.
488. Stomates are very numerous, as will be seen from
the numbers giving the pores to each square inch of leaf
surface:

Lower surface. Upper surface,
PGGUWI ct ats eM ke. 9 re) ee OL OL None
Holly Se aL Co el ace ere ee te
PAG nese) Scenes hs wees ares EGS UG ah
WTRULELOR eam cus eee cored 200 200
Tradescantia . «. » « sf. < ~2:000 2 000
Garden Tidee i.) 2 ween ww Gaeta 11,572

The arrangement of stomates on the leaf differs with
each kind of plant. Figs. 415 and 416 show stomates on
two plants, and also the outlines of contiguous epidermal
cells. The guard cells contain chlorophyll.

439. FALL OF THE LEAF.—In most common deciduous
plants, when the season’s work for the leaf is ended, the
nutritious matter is withdrawn into the stem, and a layer

Lie STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

of corky cells is completed over the surface of the_
stem where the leaf is attached. The leaf soon falls. It
often falls even before killed by frost. Deciduous leaves
begin to show the surface line of articulation in the early
growing season. This articulation may be observed at
any time during the summer. The area of the twig once
covered by the petioles is called the leaf-scar after the leaf
has fallen. Figs. 53, 83, 86 show a number of leaf-sears.

415. Stomates of geranium leaf. 416. Grouped stomates on a begonia leaf.

Fig. 417 shows the leaf-sear in the form of a ring sur-
rounding the bud, for in the plane tree the bud is covered
by the hollowed end of the petiole; sumae is a similar
case. Examine with a hand-lens leaf-scars of several
woody plants. Note the number of bundle-scars in each
leaf-scar.. Sections may be cut through a leaf-sear and
examined with the microscope. Note the character of cells
which cover the leaf-sear surface. Compare 204.

REviEW.—Name three tissues found in leaves. On the board
draw a sketch showing the structure of a leaf as seen in cross-section.
What cells of leaves bear protoplasm and chlorophyll? Why do
some leaves have palisade cells near both surfaces? Deseribe
epidermal cells. Why are their walls much more thickened in
some plants than others? What is the purpose of epidermis? What
are stomates? Draw on the board a section through a stomate
showing epidermis and mesophyll. What is the work of guard cells?
Give some idea of number of stomates in various plants. Name five

REVIEW ON STRUCTURE OF LEAVES Py ks

types of epidermal hairs. What use could be suggested for the
dense coat of hairs on leaves of shepherdia? Fig, 412.

Note.—To study leaf tissues: A number of leaves can be com-
pared by making free-hand cross-sections of leaves held between
two pieces of pith or cork, and mounting the material in water.
Study such leaves as ivy (Hedera
helix), begonia, cycas, geranium,
and corn. Note the number of
layers of palisade cells, the spongy
parenchyma, the epidermal lay-
ers. Which cells bear chlorophyll?
Write a brief description of the
tissues of each leaf and make a

ve r] , rere 1
drawing of the geranium. (17. Peat-sear of the plane :tres oF

sycamore. The scar surrounds
the bud, which was covered by
the hollow base of the petiole.

To study stomates in cross-
section: In the cross-sections of
leaves of geranium, corn, ivy, lily,
or spider-lily prepared for the above experiment, look for the stomates
and make a careful drawing from the one you can see best.

Study of stomates in surface view: From the under surface of
leaves of geranium and impatiens peel bits of epidermis by tearing
the leaf. Mount these in water and examine under low power. Are
the stomates scattered or in grcups? With aid of a higher power
draw a few stomates showing their guard cells and the surrounding
epidermal cells. Make a similar study and sketch of the epidermis
‘torn from the under surface of a Begonia sanguinea leaf.

Breathing-pores are known as slomata, singular stoma; also as

stomates, singular sfomate.

’

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THE KINDS OF PLANTS

NUMBER OF PLANTS.—Above 125,000 distinet kinds or
species of seed-bearing plants are known and described.
Probably little more than one-half of the total number now
existing on the earth are known. Even in the older coun-
tries and regions, seed-bearing plants heretofore unknown
to science are discovered now and then. Outlying regions
are relatively little known botanically. The larger part
of Africa, South America, Central Ameriea, China, Cen-
tral Asia, and the tropical islands are only imperfectly
explored for plants. Cryptogamous plants are far more
numerous in kinds than seed-plants, and many kinds—as,
for example, various bacteria—are almost infinite in
numbers of individuals. In the lower ranges of eryptog-
amous plants, as in fungi and bacteria, many new kinds
are constantly being described even in countries in which
they have been most carefully studied.

SPECIES.—Each kind of plant is called a species,
There is no absolute mark or characteristic of a species.
Between many kinds there are intermediate forms, and
some kinds vary immensely under different conditions.
What one botanist considers as a distinct species, another
botanist may regard as only a variety or form of another
species. No two botanists agree as to the number of
species in any region. Species are not things in them-
selves. In practice, any kind of plant which is distinet
enough to be recognized by a description, and which is
fairly constant over a considerable territory, is called a

(275)

MAG) THE KINDS OF PLANTS

species. We make species merely to enable us to talk
and to write about plants: we must have names to eall
them by. The different kinds of plants are the results
of evolution. Probably none of them were created in the
beginning as we now find them.

NAMES OF SPECIES.—For one hundred and fifty years
(since Linneeus published his “ Species Plantarum” in
1753), species have been known by two names, the generic
and the specific. The generic name is the name of the
genus or group to which the plant belongs: it corresponds
to a surname. The specific name belongs only to the
particular species or kind: it corresponds to a given or
Christian name. Both names are necessary, however, to
designate the species. Thus Quercus is the generic name
of all the oaks. Quercus alba is one of the oaks (the
white oak), Q. virens (the live oak) another. All maples
belong to the genus Acer, and all elders to Sambucus.
The same specific name may be used in any genus, as the
same Christian name may be used in any family. Thus,
there is a Quercus nigra, Sambucus nigra, Acer nigrum,
“niger” meaning black.

By common consent, the oldest proper name of any
species must stand. If a species happens to have been
named and described twice, for example, the first name, if
in the proper genus, must hold; the later name becomes a
synonym. It sometimes happens that the same specific
name has been given to different plants of the same genus.
Of course this name can be allowed to stand for only one
species, and the other species must receive another name.
In order to avoid confusion of this and other kinds, it is
customary to write the author’s name with the species-
name which he makes. Thus, if Gray describes a new
Anemone, his name is written after the plant name: <Ane-
mone cylindrica, Gray. The author’s name thus becomes
an index to the history of the species-name.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT NAMES PAT ie 4

Plant-names are thrown into the forms of the Latin
language. When plants first were studied seriously,
knowledge was preserved in Latin, and Latin names were
used for plants. The Latin form is now a part of the
technical system of plant and animal nomenclature, and is
accepted in all countries; and the Latin language is as
good as any other. As in the Latin language, all plant-
names have gender, and the termination of the word is
usually different in each gender. The species-name must
agree with the genus-name in gender. Acer is neuter: so
is A. rubrum and A. nigrum. Quercus and Sambucus are
feminine: so are Q. nigra and S. nigra. Maseuline, femi-
nine, and neuter endings are seen in Rubus sativus, Pasti-
naca sativa, Pisum sativum. “Sativus” means cultivated.

The name of a species not only identifies the species, but
classifies it. Thus, if a plant is named in the genus Acer,
it belongs to the maples; if it is named in Fragaria, it
belongs to the strawberries; if it is named in Pyrus, it is
allied to apples and pears; if it is Helianthus, it is one of
the sunflowers.

USE OF KNOWING PLANT-NAMES.—The name is an
introduction to the plant, as it is to a person. It is an
index to its history and literature. It enables us to think
and to speak about the plant with directness and pre-
cision. It brings us nearer to the plant and increases our
interest in it.

The name is a means, not an end. Merely to know the
name is of little use or satisfaction. Knowing the name
should be only one step in knowing the plant. Of late
years, the determining of the names of plants has been
discouraged as a school-exercise. This is because all in-
quiry stopped when the name was secured, A name was a
stone wall when it should have been a gate,

HOW TO FIND OUT THE NAMES OF PLANTS.—'There can
be no short-cut to the names of plants, for names cannot

278 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

be known accurately until the plant is known. The name
and the plant should be indissolubly associated in the
mind. Study first the plant. If one does not know the
plant there is no occasion for knowing its name.

Learn first to classify plants: names will follow. Look
for resemblances, and group the plants around some well-
known kind. Look for sunflower-like, lily-like, rose-like,
mint-like, mustard-like, pea-like, carrot-like plants. These
great groups are families. The families of plants are bet-
ter recognized by studying a few representative plants than
by memorizing technical descriptions. Go to the botany
and use the keys in these families, in order to run the
plant down to its genus and species. If the family is not
recognized, use the key to find the family. Use the keys
at first: gradually discard them. When one looks for
relationships, the vegetable kingdom comes to have con-
tinuity and meaning. Merely to know names of plants
here and there is of little use.

It is unwise for the beginner to try first to find the name
of any plant. Let him first examine familiar plants or those
which seem to be related to other plants which he knows.
Let him get in mind the bold characteristies of the families
which are most dominant in his locality. Names are secon-
dary and incidental. After a time, in ease of each new
plant, he should be able to give a shrewd guess as to its
family; then he may go to the book to verify the guess.

In the following flora, twenty-five well-marked families
are chosen for study. Some of them are not the most
characteristic of the American vegetation, but they are
such as afford easily accessible species, either in the wild
or in cultivation, and which are not too difficult for the
beginner. The pupil should begin with plants of which he
knows the common names or with which he is familiar.
Several plants should be studied in each family, in order
to enable him to grasp the characteristics of the family

MAKING A COLLECTION 279

and thereby to lead him to compare plant-groups and to
clarify his perception and widen his horizon. When
these families, or the larger part of them, are understood,
if the pupil desire further knowledge of species, he may go
to the regular manuals in which species are grouped or
classified according to their natural affinities. It is well to
study more than one plant in a genus whenever possible,
for then close comparisons can be made.

MAKING A COLLECTION.—The making of a collection of
plants focuses one’s attention, defines one’s ideas, and
affords material for study at any season. The collecting
and preserving of plants should be encouraged. Not until
one searches for himself, and collects with his own hands,
can he know plants. The collection should not be an end,
however. It should be only a means of knowing plants
as they live and grow. Too often the pupil thinks it
sufficient merely to have made a collection, but the col-
lection of itself is scarcely worth the while.

Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure.
The collection, when properly arranged and labelled, is an
herbarium. Each species should be represented by suffi-
cient specimens to display the stems, foliage, flowers,
fruits. If the plant is an herb, its root should be shown.
There should be several or many specimens of each
species to show the different forms which it assumes. It
is less important to have an herbarium of many species
than to have one showing the life-phasés of a few species.
First make specimens of the common species: later one
may include the rare ones if he choose, although an her-
barium which selects plants merely because they are rare
is of little account except as a collection of curiosities.
The commonest plants are usually the least represented
in herbaria.

Dry the plants between blotters which are 12 inches
wide and 18 inehes long. These blotters are called

280 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

“ driers.” They may be purchased of dealers in botanical
supplies, or they can be cut from felt “carpet paper.” It
is well to place the specimen in a folded sheet of news-
paper, and then lay the newspaper between the driers. If
the specimens are large or succulent, three or four driers
should be laid between them. The sheets may be piled
one above another, until the pile becomes so high (12-18
in.) that it tends to tip over. On the top place a board
of the dimensions of the drier, and apply twenty to
thirty pounds of stones or other weight. Change the driers
—but not the newspapers—once a day at first, laying the
driers in the sun fora time. In a dry, warm place, most
plants will dry in a week or ten days. When thoroughly
dried, they retain no soft, sappy, fresh-green areas, and
they usually break if bent sharply. They will be per-
feetly flat.

The specimen may now be secured to strong white
paper, known as “mounting paper.” The regulation size
of the sheets is 11%x16% inches. It is the quality of
heaviest ledger paper. By the ream, it can be bought
for one cent or less a sheet. The specimen should be large
enough nearly or quite to cover the sheet, unless the
entire plant is smaller than this. It may be glued down
tight, as one pastes pictures in a secrap-book, or it may
be held in place by strips of gummed paper. The
former is the better way, because the plants are not so
easily broken. Only one species should go on a sheet.
In one corner, glue the label. This label should give the
place and date of collecting, name of collector, and any
information as to height, color, nature of soil, and the
like. Sooner or later, the label should contain the name
of the plant; but the name need not be determined until
after the plant is mounted.

The sheets of one genus are laid together in a folded
sheet of strong straw-colored paper. This folded sheet is

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA 281

the “genus cover.” Its size when folded is 11°4x16%
inches. On the lower left-hand corner the name of the
genus is written. If one has many sheets in one genus
—say more than 20—it may be necessary to have more
than one cover for them. The covers are laid in cup-
boards flatwise, one on the other, and the sheets then
retain their shape and are always ready for use.

EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA.— The following flora con-
tains 300 species of plants in 139 genera and 25 families.
These species are selected from common and representative
plants, in the hope that 50 to 100 of them may be secured
by any pupil. The pupil should collect his own specimens
as far as possible, and he should press and preserve them
after he has studied the structure. Familiarity with 100
plants will give the pupil a good grasp of plant forms,
provided he does not stop with merely acquiring the names
and pressing the specimens. He should know how the
plants look, where they grow, how they associate with
other plants, how long they live, and the like.

Avoid the use of keys as much as possible: learn to
see the plant as a whole: go directly to the family, if
possible. But it may be necessary to use keys at first.
In this book coérdinate parts of the key are marked by
the same letter: e.g., P, FF, FFF, are three coordinate
entries. Codrdinate entries are also introduced by the
same catch-word, as “flowers,” “leaves,” “fruit.” Using
akey isa process of elimination. First try the plant in
A: if it does not belong there, go to AA. Then repeat
the search in B, BB, ete., until the family is found.

Synonyms are placed in parenthesis immediately fol-
lowing the accepted name. ‘Thus “Impatiens biflora,
Walt. (7. fulva, Nutt.)” means that the accepted name is
Walter’s I. biflora, but that the plant is also known by
Nuttall’s name, I. fulva.

Proper pronunciation is suggested by the aecent, which

a

po

AP:
ef) ——

282 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

indicates both the emphatic syllable and the length of the
vowel. The grave accent (‘) indicates a long vowel; the
acute (’), a short vowel. Terminal vowels are pro-
nounced in Latin words. The word officinale is pronounced
officin-ay-ly; aurea with au as in Laura; Virginiana with
the a as in hay; alba, with a as in had; acutiloba with 7
as in hill; minor with 7 as in mine; halimifolia with o as
in hole; Japdénica with o as in con; rumex with w as in
tune; finkia with w as in run.

Key to the twenty-five families as represented in the following pages

A. CRYPTOGAMS: no flowers or seeds: propagating by means of
SPOLESE,. peici-cseiee se Suatoreteyetekcievevers toxcYeloia sieReveteleFelevainicsotats I. Filices, p. 284
AA. PHENOGAMS: bearing flowers and seeds. +
___B-GYMNOSPERMS: seeds naked (not in ovaries), borne in cones
or berries: no conspicuous flowers: lvs. needle-shaped
or secale-like: plants usually evergreen....... Il. Coniferw, p. 286
BB. ANGIOSPERMS: seeds borne in ovaries: flowers usually showy:
lvs. very various, mostly deciduous.
c. Monocotyledons: cotyledon one: lvs. mostly parallel-veined,
not falling with a distinct articulation: stem with scat-
+ tered fibro-vascular bundles (endogenous) and no separ-
able bark: fis. mostly 3-merous. +
p. Flowers small and inconspicuous, borne on a spadix
attended by a corrolla-like spathe...... Ill. Avacew, p. 289
pp. Flowers large and showy, not on spadices.
E. Stamens 6, or rarely 4.

Me OvaLy, LLC, OL SMpPerlOrecmristsiteiei eer IV. Liliacew, p. 290
HES Ovanryalnteniotemecem acre sinners V. Amaryllidacew, p. 295
EEL, OLAMENMS voiererein gs steveciore let areioieislaretele uae pensteieys VI. Iridacew, p. 296

cc. Dicotyledons: cotyledons 2 or more: lvs. mostly netted-
veined, usually falling with a distinct joint or articula-
tion: stem with concentric layers of wood when more
than one year old (exogenous), and a distinct separable
bark: fis. mostly 5-merous or 4-merous.
p. Choripetale: petals distinct or wanting (i. e., flowers
polypetalous, apetalous, or naked).
E. Flowers characteristically apetalous or even naked,
mostly small and often greenish (Apetale).

F. Blossoms moncecious or dicecious, staminate and
sometimes pistillate in slender catkins: fruit a

1-seeded nut: trees or shrubs.. VII. Cupuliferw, p. 298

KEY TO THE FAMILIES 283

FF. Blossoms perfect and not in catkins, or sometimes
imperfect and in short catkins, but the fruit
not a nut: trees, shrubs, or herbs.............

VIL. Urticacee, p. 301
FFF. Blossoms perfect, not in catkins: fruit an akene:
IED Bipot eyo wane < Rae ia arta . IX. Polygonacee, p. 304
EE. Flowers characteristically polypetalous, mostly larger
and often showy (Polypetalw). Some of the Ra-
nunculacee here described are apetalous, but
there is a calyx-like involucre underneath the
flower.
F. Petals and stamens borne on the not-enlarged torus
(hypogynous): ovary superior.
G. Leaves opposite at swollen nodes, very narrow,
often grass-like ......... X. Caryophyllacee, p. 306
GG. Leaves alternate or opposite, mostly broad, not
grass-like, the nodes usually not conspicu-
ously swollen.
H. Carpels solitary or distinet (i. e., ovary sim-
212) eee secceeees Xl. Ranunculacee, p. 308
HH. Carpels variously united (ovary compound).
1. Stamens 6: fruit a silique or silicle........ ;
XII. Cruciferw, p. 310
11, Stamens numerous: fruit various..........
XII. Malvacew, p. 312

FF. Petals and stamens borne on a disk or rim sur-
rounding the pistil: ovary superior.

CortORDS eat cee menela we o vcenvecumlV. Gerantacee, p. 313
aac. Trees or shrubs ........ seeeeee XV. Sapindacew, p. 315
FFF. Petals and stamens borne on the calyx or on a hol-
low calyx-like torus.

G. Ovary superior, except in the pear tribe ( Rosacem)
H. Fruit a legume..... weeeee XVI, Leguminosae, p. 316

HH. Fruit not a legume: stamens 20 or more......
XVII. Rosacea, p. 319

aa. Ovary distinetly inferior,
H. Flowers corymbose or paniculate, showy......

XVIII. Sarifragacew, p.
HH. Flowers in umbels, small..XIX. Umbellifera, p.

B25

pp. Gamopetalie: corolla in one piece, at least towards the
base (as if petals were more or less united),
gE. Ovary superior.
F. Fruit of 4 nutlets, produced from a 4d-lobed ovary...

XX. Labiate, p. 8265

FF. Fruit not anutlet,usually capsular( sometimes a berry).
a. Corolla regular,

284 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

H. Plant twining: corolla twisted in bud.........
XXI. Convolvulacew, p. 328

HH. Plant not twining: corolla plaited or folded in
the bUde Fete cisie estoer XXII. Solanacee, p. 329

eq@. Corolla irregular (nearly regular in verbascum).

XXIII. Scrophulariacee, p. 331
EE. Ovary inferior.

Fr. Anthers distinct: fis. not in heads..........--...-.
XXIV. Caprifoliacee, p. 333

FF. Anthers syngenesious: fis. in dense heads.........
XXV. Composite, p. 334

Ae CR eR AIO) GeAeMES ©

I. FILICES. Ferns.

Herbaceous and leafy plants, ours without stems or trunks
above ground, but producing perennial rootstocks : plants flowerless
and seedless, but bearing spores in sporangia, the latter collected
into sori which are usually borne on the under side or margins of
the fronds and which are sometimes covered with an indusium.—
Most abundant in warm countries, of about 4000 species, of which
about 165 are native to the United States. The leaflets of fern-
fronds are pinne ; the secondary leaflets are pinnules.

A. Fruit borne in contracted panicles or on specially con-
tracted parts of the frond, these parts being devoid
of resemblance to green leaves.
B. Sporangia large and globose, without a ring of special
cells running around their margin................ 1. Osmunda
BB. Sporangia with a ring of prominent elastic cells run-
ning around the margin, and which are concerned
: in the dehiscence (as in Fig. 307)..............---. 2. Onoclea
AA. Fruit borne on the back of green fronds (the fruiting
pinne sometimes narrowed but still leaf-like, as in
Fig. 305): sporangia with a ring of elastic cells.
ig fekopel Toe esol (av) shovslomspnbbaN)) 45556 G5onanoeoaosoaooDooOSC 3. Polypodium
BB. Sori borne under the reflexed margins of the frond.
c. Pinne entire on the lower edge, somewhat trian-
Pane he Tha OVMbINES oo cons con Hamdan ondbaecuaaesec 4. Adiantum
cc. Pinne toothed on both margins, oblong in outline...5. Pteris
BBB. Sori covered with a distinct secale-like indusium.
Gyshape Ol sOnmoplon pee seth title tertile eti-lrat errs 6. Asplenium

cc. Shape circular, indusium peltate or nearly so...... 7. Dryopteris

FILICES 285

1. OSMUNDA. FLowerine Fern.

Strong ferns from stout creeping rootstocks, with large pinnate fronds:
sporangia covered with interwoven ridges, but wanting the elastic ring of
most ferns. Inhabitants of bogs and wet woods.

O. regalis, Linn. Royal fern. Top of the frond contracted into a
fruiting panicle: frond 2-pinnate, the pinnw oblong, obtuse, and nearly entire.

O. Claytoniana, Linn.
Fig. 418. Two to four pairs
of pinne near the middle of
the frond contracted into
fruit-bearing parts: pinne
linear-lanceolote and acute,
deeply lobed.

O. cinnamomea, Linn.
Cinnamon fern. Fig. 419.
Some fronds entirely con-

418. Osmunda Clay-
toniana.

tracted into fruiting parts,

419. Osmunda cinnamomea.

and these cinnamon color
(whence the vernacular name): sterile form with the fronds much like
those of O. Calytoniana in shape except more acute at top.
2. ONOCLEA. Sensitive FERN.

Mostly rather strong ferns, with broad sterile fronds and with the fer-
tile fronds rolled into hard contracted fruiting bodies, which remain after
the sterile leafy fronds have perished: sporangia with an elastic marginal
ring of cells. Bogs and old springy fields.

QO. sensibilis, Linn. Sensitive fern. Brake. Fig. 310. Sterile frond
triangular-ovate, the pinn# not extending quite to the midrib and toothed:
fertile frond usually lower than the other (1-2 ft. high), with a few pinnm.
Common in old pastures.

O, Struthidpteris, Hoffm. Ostrich fern. Very tall (2-5 ft.), the sterile
fronds narrow, once-pinnate, with long-lanceolate acute lobed pinnm: fer-
tile fronds much shorter, blackish, with many pinnae.

3. POLYPODIUM. Potypopy.

Small ferns, with simple or once-pinnate fronds from slender creeping
rootstocks: sori round, borne at the ends of little veins. On dry cliffs.

P. vulgare, Linn. Common polypody or polypode. Figs. 306, S07.
Fronds a foot or less tall, narrow-oblong in outline, pinnatifid, the lobes
nearly or quite entire: fertile pinnw® not contracted,

1, ADIANTUM. Maipennain Fern. Fig. 309.

Small ferns with compound forking fronds and wedge-shaped or some
what triangular pinnmw, shining stipes or petioles, and sori borne at the
ends of the veins under the reflexed margins of the pinnme,

A. pedatum, Linn. Common maidenhair, Plant 2 ft, or less high,
the leaves forking into several or many long pinnmw which bear broad pin
nules notched on the upper margin. Cool, shady woods. Very graceful,

286 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

5. PTERIS. Brake.

Coarse ferns of mostly dryish places, with long pinne#: sporangia borne
beneath the reflexed margin of the pinnules, on small, transverse veins.

P. aquilina, Linn. Common brake. Figs. 125, 308. Fronds broadly
triangular, twice- or thrice-pinnate, the pinnules long-lanceolate, acuminate,
and lobed. Common in sunny places: perhaps our commonest fern. Two
to 3 ft. high, growing in patches, particularly in burned areas.

6. ASPLENIUM. Spieenwort.

Middle-sized ferns, mostly with pinnate leaves: sori oblong or linear,
borne on the upper side of a veinlet, or back to back on opposite sides of
the veinlet, these veinlets not interwoven.

A. Filix-femina, Linn. Lady-fern. Large, the fronds 2-3 ft. tall,
growing many together, twice-pinnate, the pinnules oblong-pointed and
sharp-toothed: sori short and close together, at maturity becoming more
or less continuous. A very common fern in moist woods and copses.

7, DRYOPTERIS. SuHrep-rern.

Much like the last in general appearance, but the sori cireular and
covered with peltate or reniform indusia.

D, acrostichoides, Kuntze. (Aspidium acrostichoides, Swartz).
Christmas fern. Figs. 304, 305. Fronds 2 ft. or less tall, narrow, once-
pinnate, the pinne serrate and bearing a larger tooth on the upper side
near the base, the terminal part of the frond
somewhat contracted in fruit. “Common in
woods. Nearly or quite evergreen.

D. Thelypteris, Gray. (Aspidium The-
lypteris, Swartz). Marsh shield-fern. Fronds
standing 2 ft. high, long-pointed, once-pin-
nate, the pinne many-lobed, the margins of
the fertile fronds revolute.

D. marginalis, Gray. Fig. 420. Large,
handsome fern growing in woods and ravines,
2 ft. high: fronds once-pinnate, the pinne pinnatified and lance-acuminate:
sori large and close to the margin of the frond: petiole chaffy.

420. Dryopteris marginalis.

AA. PHENOGAMS: GYNOSPERMS.

r

Kp Il. CONIFER. CoNnr-BEARING or PINE FaMILy.

Woody plants, mostly trees, with resinous sap and stiff needle-
shaped or scale-like, mostly evergreen leaves: plants bearing no
ovaries, the ovules lying naked and receiving the pollen directly:
flowers diclinous (usually monecious), generally in sealy catkins,
those catkins bearing the pistillate flowers maturing into cones but

CONTFER®

287

sometimes becoming berry-like (as in junipers). Above 300 species,

one-third of which inhabit North America
elevated and mountainous regions.

A. Cone dry, with overlapping scales.
B. Scales many and cones 1 in. or more lo

: particularly abundant in

ng.

c. Leaves long and needle-like, in sheaths or bundles of

ZetOno ss POrsistent st a alad oatslsinc nats win A cigr, ize ene 1. Pinus
cc. Leaves short, scattered, persistent.
p. In cross-section, lvs. 4-sided: sessile..............2. Picea
pp. In cross-section, lvs. flat: short-petioled.......... 3. Tsuga
ccc. Leaves short but very slender, in clusters, deciduous.4. Larix
BB. Seales few (3-12), the cones about % in. long.......... 5. Thuja
AA. Cone modified into a fleshy, berry-like body............ ..6. Juniperus

1. PINUS. Pie.

Trees with long, persistent, needle-shaped,

angled leaves, in bundles of

2 to 5, and with scale-like deciduous leaves on the young branchlets: sterile

catkins usually borne at the base of the
new shoot: fertile cones maturing the
second year, often hanging on the tree
for years: cotyledons several.

P, Strobus, Linn. White pine. Figs.
145, 272. Large forest tree, much used
for lumber: leaves long and soft, light
green, in 5’s: cones long and symmetri-
cal, with thin-edged scales, terminal on
the shoots and falling after shedding the
seeds. Grows as far south as Georgia.

P, palustris, Mill. Long-leaved pine.
Very tall tree, with nearly smooth bark:
leaves very long and slender (usually a
foot or more), clustered at the ends of
the branches, in 3’s: cones 6 in, or more long, t

P. rigida, Mi
Medium sized or

cone 2-3 in. long
short spine. Gr

421. Pinus rigida,
Old open cone at the left.

he seales tipped with a short

curved spine. Lumber tree. Virginia, south.

ll. Pitch pine. Fig. 421.
small tree with rough dark

bark: leaves short and stiff, usually in 3's:

. conical, the scales with a
ows as far south as Va.;

422. Pinus sylvestris.

common in pine barrens of the north Atlantic
coast. An eastern species.

P, sylvéstris, Linn. Scotch pine. Pig, 422.
Medium-sized tree, with glaucous-green leaves
in 2's: cone short, the scales tipped with a
prickle or point. Europe; very commonly
planted.

288 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

P, Austriaca, Hiss. Austrian pine. Fig. 423. Large tree with very
rough bark, and long, dark green stiff leaves (about 6 in. long) in 2’s: cone
about 3 in. long, the scales not prickly. Europe, commonly planted; a
coarser tree than the Scotch pine.

2. PICEA. Spruce.

Trees of medium or large size, with short, scat-
tered leaves : cones maturing the first year, hanging at
.. maturity, their scales thin.

P. excélsa, Link. Norway spruce. Figs. 270, 271.
Becoming a tall tree: cones 5-7 in. long, the large
scales very thin-edged. Eur., but the commonest of
planted evergreens. Until 25 to 40 years old, the trees
are symmetrical cone-shaped specimens, holding their
lower branches.

P. nigra, Link. Black spruce. Fig. 424. Becom-
ing a middle-sized tree, with dull, dark foliage : cones 11¢ in. or less long,
usually hanging for several years, the edges of the scales often irregular.
Cold woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains.

423. Pinus Austriaca.

3. TSUGA. HemuocKk SPRUCE.

Differs from Picea in having flat
2-ranked petioled leaves : cones hang-
on the end of last year’s branches. :

T. Canadénsis, Carr. Hemlock. 424, Picea nigra.

Fig. 425. Large forest tree, with deep-furrowed, dark bark and coarse
wood: leaves whitish beneath : cones not an inch long, compact. Common
lumber tree. Bark much used in tanning.

4, LARIX. Larcu.

Trees of medium size: leaves soft, short, in fascicles or clusters on
short branchlets, falling in autumn: cones much like those of Picea, but
standing erect at maturity.

L. decidua, Mill. (L. Huropea,
DC.). European larch. Leaves 1
in. long: cones of many scales,
about 1 in. long. Planted for orna-
ment and timber.

L. Americana, Michx. Yama-
rack. Hackmatack. Leaves shorter
and pale in color: cones of few
seales, % in. or less long. Swamps.

i WZ Wy OM 27 M1

425, Tsuga Canadensis.

5. THUJA. ARBoR-vIT&.

Trees, becoming large: leaves opposite, closely appressed to the branch-
lets, the latter frond-like: cones small, oblong or globular, of few scales.
Leaves awl-like on new growths and scale-like on the older growths.

T. occidentalis, Linn. Arbor-vite. White cedar of some places. Fig.

CONIFEREZ—ARACEX 289

426. Cones 14 in. or less long, bearing 2-winged seeds. Swamps and cold
woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains. Very commonly
planted as a hedge evergreen and as single specimens, but in the wild be-
coming very large trees and much used
for telegraph poles.

6. JUNIPERUS. Juniper.

Small trees or shrubs, with opposite £ oom:
or whorled awl-like leaves (often of two a é
kinds): fertile catkin of 3-6 fleshy scales
which cohere and form a berry-like fruit
containing 1-3 hard seeds.

J.communis, Linn. Common juniper.
Shrub, erect or usually spreading and lying close to the ground, with leaves
in whorls of 3 and all alike (awl-like): berries large-and smooth. Banks
and sterile ground.

J. Virginiana, Linn. Red cedar. Savin. Small tree or large shrub,
usually narrow pyramidal in growth, with leaves of two kinds (scale-like
and awl-like, the former small and lying close to the branch): berry glaucous:
heart-wood red and highly scented. Common on banks and in old fields.

426. Thuja occidentalis.

B. PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: MONO-COTYLEDONS.
Ill. ARACE. Arum Famity.

Perennial herbs, with rhizomes or corm-like tubers and acrid
juice: flowers minute, often diclinous and naked, borne on a spadix
and surrounded or attended by a spathe: fruit usually a berry, the
entire spadix usually enlarging and bearing the coherent berries in a
large head or spike. Many tropical plants, and some of temperate
regions, many of them odd and grotesque, Genera about 100; species
about 1000. Representative plants are skunk cabbage, jack-in-the-
pulpit, calla, caladium, anthurinm. Leaves often netted-veined,

A. Leaves compound.......... Sdtindevas Vouk ue Munya tia ss 1. Arisaema
AA. Leaves simple.
B. Spathe hooded or roofed at the top.........ceee eens 2. Symplocarpus
BB. Spathe open or spreading at the top............+.+..5. Bichardia
BBB. Spathe open and spreading for its whole length..... 4. Calla

1. ARISEMA. INpIAN TuRNIP. JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT,

Stem arising from a corm-like tuber, and bearing 1 or 2 compound
leaves with sheathing petioles: Mowers naked and diclinous, the pistillate
at the base ef the spadix and the staminate above them, the top of the
spadix not flower-bearing: staminate flowers of a few sessile anthers, and

8

290 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

the pistillate with 1 sessile ovary which ripens into a red few-seeded
berry. Plants of spring or early summer, in rich woods. Tuber very
pungent, often used in domestic medicine.

A. triphyllum, Torr. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. Common Indian Turnip.
Fig. 226. Leaves usually 2, each bearing 3 oblong-elliptic pointed leaflets :
spathe purple-striped, curving over the spadix.

A Dracéntium, Schott. Dragon-root. Leaf usually 1, with 7-11 narrow
oblong leaflets: spathe greenish, shorter than the spadix.

2. SYMPLOCARPUS. Skunk CABBAGE.

Leaves and flowers arising from a strong rootstock, the lvs. very large
and appearing after the spathes: fils. perfect, each with 4 sepals, 4 stamens
and single ovary which is sunk in the fleshy spadix: fruit made up of the
fleshy spadix with imbedded fleshy seeds: spathe pointed and arching, in-
closing the spadix. Common in wet meadows in the north-
eastern states.

S. foetidus, Salisb. Spathes purple, arising in the
earliest spring: leaves very large (often 2 ft. long), simple
and entire, ovate, in tufts. The tufted leaves and fetid
odor give the plant the name of skunk cabbage.

3. RICHARDIA. Catua Lity.

Leaves several from each short rootstock, their peti-
oles sheathing the flower-scape: flowers naked and diclin-
ous, the stamens above and the 3-loculed ovaries below on 427. Richardia
the spadix: spathe large and showy, the top flaring and the Africana.
base rolling about the spadix, Several species are
cultivated, but the following is the only common one:

R. Africana, Kunth. Calla or Calla lily of gar-
dens. Fig. 427. Leaf-blades broadly arrow-shaped,
simple and entire, cross-veined, glossy: spathe white
and wax-like. Cape of Good Hope.

4. CALLA.

Differs from the above in having a spathe which
does not inclose the spadix, and mostly perfect flowers
(the upper ones sometimes staminate), each of 6 sta-
mens and 1 ovary: fruit a red berry. One species:

C. palustris, Linn. Zrwe Calla. Fig. 428. Leaves
about 1 ft. high, the blades arrow-shaped: spathe about 2 in. long, white on
the upper face. In cold bogs, north.

IV. LILIACEZ. Liny Famity.

Herbs, with bulbs, corms, or large rootstocks: fis. mostly regular
and showy, the perianth of six separate or coherent parts, the stamens
usually six and standing in front of the parts of the perianth: ovary

LILIACE® 291

superior, usually 3-loculed, ripening into a eapsule or berry. About
200 genera, including more than 2,000 widely distributed species.
Characteristic plants are lily, lily-of-the-valley, onion, Solomon’s
seal, tulip, trillium, hyacinth, asparagus, yueea.

A. Fruit a loculicidal capsule: style 1.
B. Plant bulbous: root-leaves not in large clumps.

CG. Sena tal lang lea hye wanes 2 one o alacinainielclawietetsien en's 1. Lilium
cc. Stem shorter, with only 2 to 6 leaves.
Prep WO WEIS CLOG t tea tary ctaials aia eters ain clare aloe ier eats 2. Tulipa
Dies LOWER MOO OI Piinnstorac sic n'a atateerae cintearaie cieiaients 3. Brythronium
ccc. Stem naked, bearing many flowers......... «-.. 4. Hyacinthus

BB. Plant with a rootstock, and large clumps of ree
c. Flowers yellow, paniculate on a somewhat branch-
ing scape......... Shoo enmeercdict oc ae arate eters 5. Hemerocallis
cc. Flowers white or blue, mostly in a simple raceme. 6. Funkia
AA. Fruit an angled berry: styles or stigmas 3: leaves
broad and netted-veined « . s..<000+ce0 cncelesivaicisics's 7. Trillium
AAA. Fruit a globular berry: style 1: fils. small, white, or
greenish.
B. Foliage made up of cladophylla, the true leaves
being mere scales: stamens borne on the base
of the small corolla............ aialaaidia ste atdrectats 8. Asparagus
BB. Foliage of ordinary leaves: stamens borne on the
corolla-tube.

c. Perianth of 6 separate parts......... Senaech ee sin 9. Smilacina
cc. Perianth gamopetalous, with 6 lobes.
p. Flowers racemose on a scape...... Siteip ate pat 10. Convallaria

pp. Flowers hanging from the axils of leaves...11. Polygonatum

1, LILIUM. Liny.

Strong-growing bulbous herbs, with leafy stems usually bearing sev-
eral or many flowers: perianth bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 divisions
nearly or quite separate and spreading or recurving and having a honey-
bearing groove at the base: anthers attached by the middle (versatile).

a. Flowers white.

L. longiflorum, Thunb. aster lily. One to 4 ft., with scattered long-
lanceolate pointed leaves: flowers 5-8 in. long, horizontal, scarcely widened
from the base to the middle, fragrant. Japan and China, now much cul-
tivated under glass. Many of the bulbs are grown in the Bermuda Islands,
whence the name “Bermuda lily.”

L. candidum, Linn. Common white lily. Leaves broad-lanceolate,
scattered: flowers numerous, 5 in. or less long, widening gradually from
the base. Europe. Common in gardens,

292 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

aa. Flowers in shades of yellow or orange.

L. Philadélphicum, Linn. Fig. 429. Flowers 1 to 3, erect, 2-3 in. long,
orange-red and spotted, the divisions separate: leaves whorled. Dry soil.

L, Canadénse, Linn. Two to 5 ft., with leaves in whorls
and bulbs producing rhizomes or runners: fis. several or
many, erect or horizontal on long stalks, the divisions
spreading above the middle, orange or red and spotted.
Meadows and swales.

L. supérbum, Linn. Fig. 430. Very tall, bearing several
or many nodding red-orange spotted flowers in a panicle,
the segments all pointing backwards. Meadows and low
grounds.

L. tigrinum, Andr. Viger lily. Fig. 30. Four to 5 ft.,
bearing a loose cottony covering on the stems: leaves ses-

429. Lilium sile, scattered, lanceolate: Howers many,
Philadelphicum. y54qding in a panicle, orange-red and black-
spotted, the divisions about 4 in. long and rolled back.
China and Japan; old gardens.

2. TULIPA. Tuuie.

Low bulbous plants with a few leaves near the ground
on the 1-flowered stem: flower large, erect, the 6 divisions
erect or flaring: capsule triangular.

T. Gesneriana, Linn. Common tulip. Leaves 3-6,
broad: peduncle glabrous: divisions of the flower broad 430. Lilium
at the end, with a very short point in the center: late- superbum.
blooming tulips, originally from Asia Minor,

T, suavéolens, Roth. Due Vun TVhol tulip. Early and dwarf, with
fewer leaves, downy peduncle, and acuminate segments. Caspian Sea; com-
mon in cultivation.

ae 3, ERYTHRONIUM. Doa’s-rootH VIOLET.

Low herbs with deep-seated conical bulbs, and scape
with 2 leaves near the ground: flower nodding, the 6 divi-
sions wide-spreading or recurved, the style long and club-
shaped. Blooming in earliest spring.

E. Americanum, Smith. Common dog’s-tooth violet, or
adder’s tongue. Fig. 431. Leaves thickish, oblong-lance-
olate, mottled with purple: flower light yellow, nodding
on a stem 3-6 in. tall. Low grounds.

431, Erythronium E. albidum, Nutt. White adder’s tongue. Leaves
Americanum, scarcely mottled: flowers whitish. Low grounds.

4. HYACINTHUS. Hyacintu.

Low plants, with large bulbs, producing many flowers in spikes or dense
racemes on a short scape, the leaves arising directly from the bulb: flowers
bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 lobes spreading or curling back.

LILIACEX 293

H. orientalis, Linn. Common hyacinth. Fig. 174. Early spring, the
flowers of many colors and sometimes double, the perianth-tube swollen, the
oblong-spatulate lobes as long as the tube. Greece to Asia Minor.

Var. albulus, Baker. Roman hyacinth. Flowers fewer and usually
smaller, white or nearly so, the perianth-tube scarcely swollen and the lobes
shorter. France. Much cultivated.

5. HEMEROCALLIS. Yeiuow Day-tity.

Strong-growing plants from tuberous roots, producing clumps of long
sword-shaped leaves: flowers yellow or orange, erect, large and lily-like, in
clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions widely spread-
ing at the top. Old World, but common in gardens.

H. fulva, Linn. Orange day-lily. Flowers tawny
orange, produced in early summer, the inner perianth di-
visions nearly or quite obtuse. The commonest species,
and often escaped along roadsides.

H. flava, Linn. Yellow day-lily. Plant somewhat
smaller, early-blooming: flowers fragrant, pure lemon-yel-
low, inner divisions acute.

6. FONKIA. Wuirte and Buvr Day-uity.

Medium-sized plants, producing dense clumps of broad-
bladed leaves from rootstocks: flowers blue or white, in

racemes on scapes, each flower sheathed at the base by 1

432. Funkia sub-
cordata.

or 2 bracts, the perianth-tube long and the limb some-
times irregular. Chinaand Japan;
planted by houses and along walks.

F. subcordata, Spreng. White day-lily. Fig.
432. Leaves broadly cordate-ovate : flowers large
and white, in a short raceme, not drooping.

F. ovata, Spreng. (F. cawrttlea, Sweet). Blue
day-lily. Fig. 433, Leaves broadly ovate: flowers
deep blue, in a long raceme, nodding.

7. TRILLIUM. WakeE-RoBIN.

Low herbs from deep-seated corm-like tubers:

433, Funkia ovata.

leaves 3 in a whorl, broad and netted-veined: flower
single, of 3 colored petals and 3 green sepals, the latter persistent until the
angled, many-seeded berry ripens: stigmas 3, often sessile, Plants of earli-
est spring, growing in rich woods.

a. Flower sessile in the leaf-awhorl,

T. séssile, Linn. Flowers dull purple, the parts narrow, pointed, and
nearly erect: leaves sessile, ovate, often blotched with purple, Pa.,W. ands.

an. Flower stalked in the leaf-whort,

T. grandiflorum, Linn. Common wake-robin, or birthroot. Pig. 221.
Flowers large and white, the peduncle standing ereet or nearly so, the

294 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

petals broadest above the middle (obovate) and 2-2) in. long: leaves broad-
ovate, sessile or nearly so. Flowers become rose-pink with age.

T. eréctum, Linn. Flowers smaller, ill-scented, varying from white to
pink and purple, the peduncle erect or declined, the petals ovate or lanceolate
and spreading: leaves broad-ovate. Frequent north, and south to Tenn.

T. cérnuum, Linn. Flowers not large, white, the peduncle declined under
the broad leaves; petals ovate-lanceolate, rolled back. Range of the last.

8. ASPARAGUS. ASPARAGUS.

Mostly tall, often climbing plants with cladophylla and very small
scale-like true leaves: flowers white or greenish, small, bell-shaped, seat-
tered or in groups of 2 or 3: fruit a 3-loeculed and 1-6-seeded small berry.

A. officinalis, Linn. Common asparagus.
Figs. 147, 148. Erect and branchy, the strong young
shoots thick and edible: berries red. Eur.

A. plumésus, Baker. Fig. 149. Twining, with
dark, frond-like foliage, small white flowers and

~ black berries. S. Africa; greenhouses.
Asparagus medeoloides. A. medeoloides, Thunb. Smilax of florists (but
not of botanists). Fig. 434. Twining: foliage broad and leaf-like: fis. soli-
tary and fragrant: berries dark green. S. Africa; much grown by florists.

9. SMILACINA. Fatsre Sotomon’s SEAL.

Low, erect plants with many small white flowers in racemes or pani-
cles: perianth 6-parted: fruit a 3-loculed berry: rootstock creeping.

S. racemosa, Desf. alse spikenard. About 2 ft., tall, somewhat
downy, with many oblong or oval leaves: flowers in a panicle: berries pale
red, speckled. Spring and early summer. Rich woods.

S. stellata, Desf. Nearly or quite smooth: leaves narrower: flowers in
a simple raceme. Forms patches in low ground.

10. CONVALLARIA. Lity-or-THE-VALLEY.

Low, spring-flowering herbs from branching rootstocks: flowers gam-
opetalous, white and waxy, nodding in a 1-sided receme, the 6 short lobes
recurying: fruit a red berry.

C. majalis, Linn. Leaves oblong, numerous from the rootstocks, form-
ing mats, and about 2 with each scape: flowers very fragrant. One of the
best known garden flowers. Europe. The only species.

11. POLYGONATUM. Sonomon’s SEAL.

Mostly strong plants from long running rootstocks on which the scars
of preceding stalks are very evident (whence the common name): stems
leafy, bearing nodding gamopetalous flowers in the axils: fruit a globular,
dark-colored berry. Rich woods; spring,

P. gigantéum, Dietr. ‘Three to 5 ft. tall: leaves ovate, somewhat clasp-
ing: peduncles in each axil 2-8 flowered: filaments not roughened.

P. biflorum, Ell. One-3-ft.: leaves oblong, nearly sessile, somewhat
glaucous: peduncles usually 2-flowered: filaments roughened.

AMARYLLIDACE® 295

V. AMARYLLIDACEA. AMARYLLIS FAMILY.

Differs from Liliacew chiefly in having an inferior ovary and in
bearing its flowers more uniformly on scapes. More than 600 species
in nearly 70 genera, widely dispersed. Representative plants are
narcissus, daffodil, snowdrop, tuberose, amaryllis lilies. Plants of
the first three genera may be grown from bulbs in the school-room.

A. Stem a leafless scape.

B. Perianth with a crown or cup in its center.............-. 1. Narcissus
BB. Perianth with no cup.
CovAMiNersrAnd (Shyla spOmted an = marc cies cote claim ae ee otal eta ans 2. Galanthus
co. Anthers and style blunt............-----<----0++++-d» DEUCOTUM
AA. Stem tall and leafy..............- A Spee ete ne i ees, ary 4. Polianthes

1. NARCISSUS. Narcissus. Darropiu.

Low plants producing from 1 to many 6-parted flowers on a scape which
arises from a tunicated bulb: perianth with a long tube and bearing a cup
or crown in its center. Old World, but frequently cultivated.

a. Crown as long as, or longer than, the divisions of the perianth.

N. Psetdo-Narcissus, Linn. Trumpet narcissus. Common daffodil.
Fig. 234. Scape 1-flowered, the flower large and yellow with a relatively
short tube and a wavy-edged crown. Leaves flat and glaucous. Double
forms are common in gardens.

aa. Crown half or more as long as the divisions of the perianth.

N. incomparabilis, Curt. Scape 1-flowered. the flower about 2 in. or
more across, yellow, the cylindrical tube 1 in. long, the crown plaited and
usually a deeper yellow: leaves flat and glaucous.

aaa. Crown less than half the length of the division.

N. Tazétta, Linn. Polyanthus narcissus. Chinese
sacred lily. Fig. 435. Flowers several to many in an
umbel, yellow or white, small, the crown usually darker
colored and usually somewhat scalloped: leaves flat and
somewhat glaucous. One of the commonest kinds.
The narcissus known to florists as " Paper-white” is a
white-flowered form of this species.

N. poéticus, Linn. Poet's narcissus. Seape rather
slender, usually 1-flowered, the flower white with the
thick rim of the very short crown margined with red; 139,
leaves flat, glaucous. Narcissus Tazetta,

N. Jonquilla, Linn. Jonquil. Scape 2-5-flowered, the flowers small and
yellow, the tube slender and the segments wide-spreading: leaves linear,
somewhat cylindrical.

bo

96 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2. GALANTHUS. Snowprop.

Small, spring-blooming plants, with a single white flower nodding from
the top of the scape, followed by grass-like leaves: perianth divisions 6,
oblong ands more or less concave, the three inner ones shorter, some of
them usually green-blotched at the tip: anthers and style
pointed.
G. nivalis, Linn. Snowdrop. Fig. 436. One of the earli-
est of spring flowers, appearing as soon as the snow is gone,
the flower and leaves arising from a small bulb: scape 6 in.
or less high: inner divisions of the bell-shaped flower tipped
with green. Europe.

3. LEUCOIUM. Snowruake.

Flowers often more than 1: divisions of the perianth all
alike: anthers and style blunt: otherwise very like Galanthus.
L. vérnum, Linn. Snowflake. Taller than the snow-
436. Galanthus GOP (about 1 ft.), the scape usually 1-fiowered, blooming
nivalis, later, the flowers larger. Europe.

4. POLIANTHES. Tvuserrose.

Leafy-stemmed lily-like plants, with a thick, tuberous rootstock (whence
the name tuber-ose not tube-rose), bearing an erect spike of white flowers:
perianth with a short slightly curved tube and 6 spreading nearly equal
divisions: stamens included in the tube (not projecting).

P. tuberdsa, Linn. Zuberose. Two to 3 ft., bearing long-linear, chan-
nelled, many-ranked leaves: flowers very fragrant, sometimes tinted with
rose. A popular garden plant from Mexico, blooming in the open in late
summer and autumn; some forms are double.

VI. IRIDACEA. Iris FAmtty.

Differs from Amaryllidacew and Liliacew in its inferior ovary,
three stamens which are opposite the outer parts of the perianth,
and 2-ranked equitant (bases overlapping) leaves: stigmas some-
times large and petal-like. About 60 genera and 700 species. Rep-
resentative plants are iris or blue flag, crocus, gladiolus, freesia.
Crocuses and freesias are easily grown in window-boxes for winter
and spring bloom.

A. Lobes of the style flat and colored, looking like petals......1. Iris
AA. Lobes of the style thread-like.
B. Plant stemless, the leaves and flowers arising directly

from: the :COrm). 5... ssteiseleceiei teen ne eee I OTOCIES
BB. Plant with a leaf-bearing and flower-bearing stem.
c. Flowers in a short 1-sided cluster: plant small.......3. Freesia

cc. Flowers in a terminal spike: plant large.............. 4. Gladiolus

TRIDACE® 297

1. IR{S. Fuevur-pe-uis. Fuaa.

Mostly strong plants, with rhizomes or tubers: flowers mostly large and
showy, the three outer segments recurving and the three inner ones usually
smaller and more erect or sometimes incurving: the three long divisions of
the style petal-like and often more or less hairy, covering the stamens:
stigma on the under side of the style: leaves long and sword-shaped. Several
wild and many cultivated species. The following species have rhizomes.

a. Flowers yellow.

I. Pseudacorus, Linn. Common yellow flag. One to 3 ft., with several-
flowered, often branching stamens: outer divisions of the perianth with no
hairs or crests: flowers bright yellow. Europe.

aa. Flowers in shades of blue (sometimes varying to white).

I. versicolor, Linn. Common wild blue flag. Two to 3 ft., stout: leaves
34-in. wide, flat: flowers about 3 in. long, short-stalked, violet-blue, the tube
shorter than the ovary, the inner petals small
and the outer ones with no hairs. Swamps.

I, levigata, Fisch. & Mey. (J. Kaempferi,
Sieb.). Japan iris. Two to 3 feet, the stem
much overtopping the thin, broad leaves: flowers

437. Lris Germanica. 138. Crocus vernus. 39. Freesia refracta

large (sometimes several inches across), flat, the inner lobes spreading, the
outer ones very large and rounded, with no hairs or crests: color mostly in
shades of blue and purple. Japan; now one of the choicest of garden irises.

I. Germanica, Linn. Common blue flag of gardens (sometimes runs wild).
Fig. 437. Two to 3 feet, with long sword-shaped leaves: flowers few or
several to each stem, about 3 to 4 in. across, the drooping outer segments

with yellow hairs, the inner segments erect and arching inwards. Europe.

2, CROCUS. Crocus.

Small, stemless plants, the long-tubed flowers and the grass-like leaves
arising directly from the coated corm: flowers with the 6 obovate divisions
all alike and erect-spreading or the inner ones a little the smaller, opening
only in sunshine. The following, from Europe, blooms in earliest Spring.

C. vérnus, Linn. Common crocus. Fig. 438. Leaves 2-4 to each flower,
glaucous on the under side: flower rising little above the ground; color in

shades of lilac and variously striped, sometimes white.

298 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

3. FREESIA. FREESIA.

Small cormous plants with flat leaves: flowers white or yellowish, tubu-
lar, with a somewhat spreading limb, the tube generally curved: stem about
1 ft. high, bearing several erect flowers on a sidewise cluster. Popular
florists’ plants of easy culture and quick growth.

F. refracta, Klatt. Fig. 439. Leaves narrow: flower usually somewhat
2-lipped or irregular, white in the most popular forms but yellowish in some,
often with blotches of yellow; fragrant. Cape of Good Hope.

4. GLADIOLUS. Guapiouus.

Tall, erect plants, with flat, strong-veined leaves, the stem
arising from a corm (Fig. 50): flowers in a more or less 1-sided
terminal spike, short-tubed, the limb flaring and somewhat
unequal: stamens separate (united in some related genera): 440, Gladiolus
style long, with three large stigmas. Gandavensis.

G. Gandavénsis, Van Houtte. Fig. 440. Upper segments of the peri-
anth nearly horizontal: colors various and bright: spikes long. Hybrid of
two or more species from the Cape of Good Hope. Summer and fall.

BB. PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: DICOTYLEDONS.
c. CHORIPETALA.

VII. CUPULIFERA. Oak Famity.

Monecious trees and shrubs with staminate flowers in catkins
and the fertile in catkins or solitary: lvs. alternate, with stipules
early deciduous (mostly scale-like), and the side-veins straight or
nearly so: stamens 2 to many: fruit a 1-seed nut, sometimes inclosed
in an involucre. Ten or a dozen genera and upwards of 450 species.
Representative plants are oak, chestnut, beech, birch, hazel, ironwood.

A. Sterile flowers in a hanging head: fruits 2 three-cornered
nuts in a small, spiny involucre or bur................. 1. Fagus
AA. Sterile flowers in cylindrical catkins.
B. Fruit 1 to 4 rounded or flat-sided nuts in a large, sharp-
Soran? soon oho verds) Ore WHR sanoagnocooode0 voodaDDODdOnIASS 2. Castanea
BB. Fruit an acorn—a nut sitting in a scaly or spiny cup..... 3. Quercus
BBB. Fruit flat and often winged, thin and seed-like, borne
under scales in a cone
c. Fertile flowers naked: mature cone-scales thin......... 4. Betula
cc. Fertile flowers with a calyx: cone-scales thick........ 5. Alnus

1. FAGUS. Brecu.

Tall forest trees with light bark, and prominent parallel side-veins in
the leaves: sterile flowers in a small, pendulous head, with 5-7-cleft calyx

CUPULIFERZ 299

and 8-16 stamens: fertile flowers 2, in a close involucre, ripening into 2
three-cornered “beech nuts” in a 4-valved bur.

F. Americana, Ait. A merican beech. Close-grained, hard-wood tree,
with light colored bark: leaves ovate-oblong and acuminate, coarsely serrate,
usually with 9 or more pairs of nerves: nuts ripening in the fall, and much
sought by boys and squirrels. A common forest tree.

F. sylvatica, Linn. Huropean beech. Fig. 138. Often planted, particularly
in the form of the Purple-leaved and Weeping beech: foliage differs in being
mostly smaller, ovate or elliptic, small-toothed, with 9 or less pairs of nerves.

2. CASTANEA. CHESTNUT.

Forest trees, with rough, furrowed bark: sterile flowers with 4-7-lobed
calyx and 8-20 stamens in very long, erect or spreading catkins, which
appear in clusters in midsummer: fertile flowers about 3 in an involucre,
producing “chestnuts ” in a spiny bur.

C. Americana, Raf. American chestnut. Fig. 241. Tall, straight-
grained tree, with large, broad and thin, oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are
taper-pointed, and have large teeth with spreading spines: nuts usually 1 in.
or less across, sweet. Grows as far west as Mich., and south to Miss.

C. sativa, Mill. Huropean chestnut. Less tall: leaves smaller and
narrower, more pubescent when young, not long-acuminate, the teeth smaller
and their spines more incurved: nuts 1 in. or more across, not so sweet as
those of the American chestnut. Europe. Very commonly planted.

3. QUERCUS. Oak.

Strong, close-grained trees, with mostly laterally-lobed leaves: sterile
flowers in clustered hanging catkins, with a 4-7-lobed calyx, and 3-12 sta-
mens: fertile one in a shallow involucre which becomes the cup of the
acorn, the stigma 3-lobed: fruit an acorn. See Fig. 212, which represents
the English oak (Q. Aobur) often planted in choice grounds.

a. White oak group, distinguished by its light gray scaly bark, rounded
lobes or teeth of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the first year.
(Q. virens has nearly or quite entire leaves.)

Q. alba, Linn. White oak. Fig. 441. Leaves obovate, 5 or 6 inches
long, the lobes usually 7 and at equal distances apart, and the sinuses
deep or shallow: acorn small, with a rather shal-
low and not fringed cup. The commonest species.

441. Quereus alba. 442, Quereus macrocarpa. 443. Quercus Prinus,

Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Bur oak. Fig. 442. Leaves obovate, downy
or pale on the lower surface, toothed towards the tips and irregularly and

300 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

often deeply lobed toward the base: acorn cups heavily fringed on the
margins: young branches corky. More common west.

Q. Prinus, Linn. . Chestnut oak. Fig. 443. Leaves rather long-obo-
vate, toothed, with rounded teeth and yellow-ribbed: acorn long and the cup
hard-sealed: bark dark with broad, deep furrows. Eastern.

444, Quercus bicolor. 445, Quercus rubra. 446. Quercus coccinea.

Q. bicolor, Willd. Swamp white oak. Fig. 444. Leaves obovate,
white-downy on their lower surface, toothed with squarish teeth, the bases
wedge-shaped: acorn small, with the margin of the cup finely fringed.
Common in low grounds and along ravines.

Q. virens, Ait. Live oak. Leaves small, oblong, entire or sometimes
spiny-toothed, thick and evergreen: acorn oblong, the nut about one-third
eovered with its scaly cup. Virginia, south.

aa. Blaek oak group, distinguished by its dark furrowed bark, pointed lobes
of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the second year.

Q. rubra, Linn. Red oak. Fig. 445. Leaves obovate or sometimes
shorter, the 7-9 lobes triangular and pointing toward the tips: acorn large,
flat-eupped. Common.

Q. coccinea, Wang. Scarlet oak. Fig. 446. Leaves obovate, bright
scarlet in autumn, thin, smooth on the lower surface, the sinuses deep,

wide, and rounded: margin of the acorn cup
fh)
;

rounding inwards and the seales close: inner bark
reddish. Common.

Q. tinctoria, Bartr. Black oak. Fig. 447.
Leaves obovate, coarser, downy on the lower
surface until midsummer or later, wider towards
the tip, the sinuses shallow (or sometimes as in
the scarlet oak): margin of the acorn cup not
rounding inwards and the scales looser: inner
bark orange. Common.

447. Quercus tinctoria.

4. BETULA. Bircu.

Small to medium-sized trees, with sterile flowers in drooping, cylindrical
catkins, 3 flowers with 4 short stamens being borne under each bract: fertile
flowers in short, mostly erect catkins which become cones at maturity, 2 or 3
naked flowers being borne under each 3-lobed bract: fruit winged and seed-
like: leaves simple, toothed or serrate: bark often aromatic.

CUPULIFERZ—URTICACEX 301

a. Brown-barked birches: leaves ovate.

B. lénta, Linn. Cherry birch. Sweet birch. Tall tree, the bark tight
(not peeling in layers), the twigs very aromatic: leaves oblong-ovate, some-
what cordate at base, doubly serrate, becoming glossy above: bracts of the
oblong-cylindrie fruiting catkins with wide-spreading lobes. Rich woods.

B. lutea, Michx. Yellow or gray birch. Bark grayer or silvery, peel-
ing in layers: leaves scarcely cordate, dull, more downy: bracts of the
short-oblong fruiting catkins with scarcely spreading scales: tree less aro-
matic than the other. Same range.

aa. White-barked birches: leaves triangular or broad-ovate.

B. papyrifera, Marsh. Paper birch. Canoe birch. ‘Tree of medium
to rather large size, with the bark peeling in very large plates or layers:
leaves broad-ovate and often somewhat cordate, dull green. Penn., north.

B, populifolia, Ait. American white birch. Small and slender tree with
rather tight, glistening, white bark: leaves triangular-acuminate, toothed,
dangling, and moving incessantly in the wind. Northeastern states.

B. alba, Linn. Huropean white birch. A larger tree, with triangular-
ovate leaves which are pointed but not long-acuminate. Europe; the com-
mon cultivated white birch.

4. ALNUS. Awper.

Much like Betula, but smaller trees or bushes: flowers with a 3-5-
parted calyx, and the small, short, fertile catkins composed of thickened,
woody scales. In the following, the flowers appear before the leaves in
earliest spring, from catkins formed the previous year and remaining partly
developed during winter. Common along streams.

A. incana, Willd. Speckled alder. Shrub or small tree, with pubescent
branches: leaves oval to oblong-ovate, acute, doubly serrate, glaucous and
downy underneath: cones about }g in. long, mostly sessile.

A. rugosa, Spreng. (A. serrulata, Willd.). Smooth alder. Leaves
elliptic or obovate, acute or rounded at the apex, finely serrate, the under side
of the leaves smooth or pubescent only on the veins: cones short-stalked.

A. glutinosa, Gertn. Black alder. Leaves orbicular or very broadly
obovate, not acute, irregularly serrate, dull and nearly smooth beneath:
cones peduncled. Europe; planted, some varieties with divided leaves.

VIII. URTICACEA. Nerrie FAmIny.

Trees and herbs, with small apetalous flowers in small clusters or
solitary: leaves mostly straight-veined, with stipules: plants dimcious
or moncecious, or flowers perfect in the elms: stamens usually as many
as the lobes of the calyx and opposite them: ovary superior, ripening
into al-seeded indehiscent, often winged fruit. A very polymorphous
association, by some botanists divided into two or three codrdinate

302 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

families. More than 100 genera and 1500 species. Representatives
are elm, hackberry, mulberry, osage orange, nettle, hop, hemp.

A. Trees. :
B. Wut a; SAMAL AL eerie ecko errors slgctacoraraaratetoveer haters -l. Ulmus
Bish Namen Snel ChAT cog cncodacosnenaond obaoc0 aebeceneoae 2. Celtis
BBB. Fruit as large as an orange, formed of the whole mass of
the pistillatetiower-cluster =... sess eee eee ee eeeee 3. Toxrylon
BBBB. Fruit resembling a blackberry, formed of the pistillate
Nower-cluster: a osassese ae Node seston eee Teen ee 4. Morus

AA. Herbs.
B. Leaves digitately lobed or divided.

c:. Plant standing erect .--...-.....-.. bobodoccanDaaoonoCS 5. Cannabis
oO: Plantutwinit gue cose seni cute cieitinc eee ee ae oni 6. Humulus
BB. Leaves not lobed: plant with stinging hairs..... aiistseharsieis 7. Urtica

1. ULMUS. Exum.

Trees, mostly large and valuable for timber, with rough-furrowed bark:
leaves alternate (2-ranked), ovate and straight-veined, dentate: flowers small
and not showy, appearing in earliest spring, sometimes diclinous, the calyx
4-9-parted, the anthers 4-9 on long filaments: ovary generally 2-loculed,
ripening into a l-seeded wing-fruit.

a. Leaves large, rough on the upper surface: fruit large, nearly orbicular.
U. fulva, Michx. Slippery elm. Fig. 448. Middle-sized or small tree

with inner bark mucilaginous or “slippery” in spring : leaves 6-8 in. long
and half or more as broad, ovate elliptic and unequal-sided, doubly serrate,

448. Ulmus fulva. 449. Ulmus Americana. 450. Ulmus racemosa.

very rough above and softer beneath: samara %-%4 in. long, orbicular or

nearly so, with the seed in the center: flowers in dense clusters. Common.
aa. Leaves not very rough above: fruit oval, deeply notched at the apex.

U. Americana, Linn. Common or whiteelm. Figs. 91-95, 146, 449. Talland
graceful tree: leaves elliptic-oval, serrate: samara small, more or less hairy
on the thin wing, the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed: flowers
hanging on slender stalks. One of the finest of American trees.

URTICACE 303

U. racemésa, Thomas. Cork elm. Fig. 450. Smaller tree than the last,
with corky-winged branches: leaves with straighter veins: samara with
sharp incurved points at the apex: flowers in racemes. Less common.

U. alata, Michx. Wahoo elm. Small tree, with wide, corky ridges on
the branches: leaves small and rather thick, almost sessile, ovate to nearly
lanceolate and acute: samara downy, at least when young. Virginia, south
and west.

2. CELTIS. Netrie-TREE. HACKBERRY.

Elm-like in looks, but the fruit a 1-seeded, berry-like drupe: flowers
greenish, in the leaf axils, mostly diclinous; calyx 5-6-parted; stamens 5 or
6: stigmas 2, very long.

C. occidentalis, Linn. Common hackberry. Middle-sized tree with
rough-furrowed bark: leaves ovate-pointed, oblique at base, serrate: fruit
purplish, as large as a pea, edible in the fall when ripe. Low grounds.

3. TOXYLON. Osace ORANGE.

Small tree, with dicecious flowers in catkins, and alternate, simple
leaves: sterile flowers in raceme-like, deciduous catkins: fertile flowers
densely crowded in a head, with 4 sepals and 2 stigmas, the ovary ripening
into an akene, the whole flower-cluster becom-
ing fleshy and ripening into an orange-like
mass.

T. pomiferum, Raf. ( Maclura aurantiaca,
Nutt.). Osage orange. Fig. 451. Spiny, low
tree, much used for hedges, but not hardy in
the northernmost states: leaves narrow-ovate and entire, glossy: flowers
in spring after the leaves appear, the fruit ripening in autumn. Mo.
and Kan., south.

4. MORUS, Mvuveerry.

Small to middle-sized trees, with broad, alternate toothed or lobed
leaves and moncecious flowers, with 4-parted calyx: stamens 4, with fila-
ments at first bent inward, the staminate catkins soon falling: fertile flow-
ers ripening a single akene, but the entire catkin become
fleshy and blackberry-like, and prized for eating.
Leaves very variable, often lobed and not lobed on the
same branch.

M. rubra, Linn. Common wild mulberry. Often
a large tree in the south: leaves ovate-acuminate,
oblique at the base, rough and dull on the upper surface
and softer beneath, dentate: fruit ‘% in. to 1 in. long,
black-red, sweet. Wood yellow. Most abundant south,
but growing as far north as Mass.

M. alba, Linn. White mulberry. Fig. 452. Leaves
light green and usually glossy above, the veins prominent and whitish beneath,
the teeth usually rounded or obtuse: fruit of variable size, often 1‘4 in. long,
whitish, violet, or purple. China; planted for ornament and for its fruit, also
for feeding silkworms. The much-planted Russian Mulberry is a form of it.

451. Toxylon pomiferum,

452, Morus alba.

304 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

5. CANNABIS. Hemp.

Tall, strong, dicecious herbs with 5 to 7 leaflets: fertile flowers in clus-
ters, with 1 sepal surrounding the ovary, and 2 long, hairy stigmas: sterile
flowers in racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens.

C. sativa, Linn. Hemp. Six to 10 ft., strong-smelling, blooming all
summer: leaflets lanceolate, large toothed. Old World; cultivated for fiber
and sometimes escaped in waste places.

6. HUMULUS. Hop.

Twining dicecious herbs of tall growth, with 5 sepals in the sterile
flowers, the stamens erect: fertile flowers with 1 sepal, 2 flowers under each
seale of a short, thin catkin which becomes a kind of cone or * hop.”

H. Lupulus, Linn. Common hop. Perennial, rough-hairy: leaves broad-
ovate, deeply 3-lobed (only rarely 5-7-lobed): sterile flowers in panicles
2-6 in. long: pistillate catkin enlarging into a “hop” often 2 in. or more
long. A native plant, cultivated for hops and sometimes for ornament.

H. Japénicus, Sieb. & Zuce. Japanese hop. Fig. 167. Annual: leaves
not less than 5-lobed: fertile catkin not enlarging into a hop. Japan; much
cultivated for ornament.

7. URTICA. Nervie.

Erect herbs with opposite simple leaves and stinging hairs, and mon-
cecious or dicecious flowers in racemes or dense clusters, the calyx of 4
separate sepals: stamens 4: stigma sessile: fruit an ovate flat akene. The
following are perennials with flowers in panicled spikes.

U. gracilis, Ait. Common nettle. Two to 6 ft.: leaves ovate-lanceolate,
serrate, on long petioles. Common in low grounds.

U, didica, Linn. Not so tall: leaves ovate-cordate and deeply serrate, on
rather short petioles, downy underneath. Weed from Europe, very stinging.

IX. POLYGONACEA. BuckwHrat Famity.

Herbs, mostly with enlarged joints or nodes and sheaths (repre-
senting stipules) above them: leaves simple and usually entire,
alternate : flowers small, apetalous, usually perfect and generally
borne in spikes or dense clusters: stamens 4-12, attached to the
very base of the 3-5-merous calyx: ovary 1-loculed, ripening into a
3-4-angled akene. Thirty or more genera and about 600 widely dis-
persed species. Characteristic plants are buekwheat, rhubarb, dock,
sorrel, smartweed.

A. Root-leaves 1 ft. or more across, rounded .............--. 1. Rheum
AA. Root-leaves narrow or not prominent.
B. Calyx of 6 sepals, often of two kinds ..................2. Rumex
BB. Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) sepals, all alike.
c. Flowers white and fragrant..............-..-.--.---3. Magopyrum

cc. Flowers greenish or pinkish, not distinctly fragrant.4. Polygonum

POLYGONACE® 305

1. RHEUM. Ravears.

Very large-leaved perennials, sending up stout hollow flower-stalks in
early summer which bear smaller leaves with sheathing bases: sepals 6, all
alike, withering rather than falling, and persisting beneath the 3-winged
akene: stamens 9: styles 3. Old World.

R. Rhaponticum, Linn. Rhubarb. Pie-plant. Figs. 78, 79. Leaves
1 ft. or more across, the thick petioles eaten: fils. white, in elevated panicles.

2. RUMEX. Dock. SorreEu.

Perennial often deep-rooted plants with herbage bitter or sour: sepals 6,
the 3 outer large and spreading, the 3 inner (known as “valves”) enlarging
after flowering and one or more of them often bearing a grain-like tubercle
on the back: stamens 6,styles 3: flowers in pan-
icles or interrupted spikes.

a. Docks: herbage bitter: valves often grain-
bearing: flowers mostly perfect: leaves
not arrow-shaped.

R. obtusifélius, Linn. Bi/ter dock. Lower leaves

oblong-cordate and obtuse, not wavy: one valve

usually grain-bearing. Weed from Europe.
R. crispus, Linn. Curly dock. Leaves lanceo-
late, wavy or curled: all valves usually grain-bear-

453. Rumex Acetosella. ing, Weed from Europe.

aa. Sorrels: herbage sour: valves not grain-bearing: flowers diwcious:
leaves arrow-shaped.

R. Acetosélla, Linn. Common or sheep sorrel. Fig. 453. Low (1 ft.
or less): leaves mostly arrow-shaped at base: flow-
ers brownish, small, in a terminal panicle. Common
in sterile fields. Europe.

3. FAGOPYRUM. BuckwHear.

Fast-growing annuals, with somewhat triangu-
lar leaves, and fragrant flowers in flattish, panicle-
like clusters: calyx of 5 parts: stamens 8: fruit a
triangular akene. Old World.

F. esculéntum, Mench. Common buckwheat,
Fig. 454. Leaves triangular-arrow-shaped, long-peti-
oled: flowers white, in a compound cluster: akene

with regular angles. Flour is made from the grain. ,
F, Tatdricum, Gaertn. Jndia wheat. Slen- | i.

derer, the leaves smaller and more arrow-shaped Fagopyrum esculentum

and short-petioled: flowers greenish or yellowish, in simple racemes; akene

notched on the angles. Somewhat cultivated.

4. POLYGONUM. KnNorweep. SMARTWEED.

Low weedy plants, or some exotic ones tall and cultivated, blooming in
summer and fall, the small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes or

Ah

9

306 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

spikes (in the Knotweeds in the leaf-axils): calyx usually 5-parted: stamens
4-9: stigmas 2 or 3: black akene lenticular or triangular.

a. Knotweeds: flowers sessile in the axils of the leaves, greenish and
very small.

P, aviculare, Linn. Common knotweed. Doorweed. Fig. 193. Pros-
trate or creeping, bluish green wiry plant, growing along the hard edges of
walks and in yards, and commonly mistaken for sod: leaves small, mostly
oblong, entire: sepals very small, green with a broad white margin: sta-
mens 5 or more: stigmas usually 3. Annual.

P. eréctum, Linn. Zaller knotweed. One ft. or more high:
leaves three or four times larger, oblong or oval and obtuse,
Common annual.

aa. Smartweeds; flowers in terminal spikes, mostly pinkish.

b. Sheaths of leaves (surrounding stem) hairy on the

edge, or the margin with a spreading border.

P. orientale, Linn. Prince’s feather. Several feet tall,
Me soft-hairy: flowers in long cylindrical nodding spikes: leaves
ovate: stamens 7. India; cultivated. Annual.

P. Persicaria, Linn. Smartweed. Lady’s thumb (from the
dark blotch near the center of the leaf). Fig. 455. About 1 ft.:
leaves lanceolate: spikes oblong, dense and erect: stamens
usually 6: stigmas 2. Weed from Europe.

P. Hydropiper, Linn. Smartweed. Herbage very pungent
or “smarty:” leaves oblong-lanceolate : spikes short and nod-
ding, the flowers greenish: stamens 6: stigmas 3. Low
grounds. Annual.

mens P. hydropiperoides, Michx. Smartweed. Herbage not
Persicaria. pungent: spikes slender and erect, the flowers whitish: sta-
mens 8: stigmas 3. In very wet places. Perennial.
P. acre, HBK. Smartweed. Herbage pungent: leaves linear or lanceo-
late, long-pointed: spikes slender and erect: flowers white or blush: sta-
mens 8: stigmas 3. Low grounds. Perennial.

bb. Sheaths of leaves not hairy, nor the margin bordered.
P. Pennsylvdnicum, Linn. Smartweed. Pungent: plant with conspicuous
glandular hairs above: leaves lanceolate: spikes short-oblong and erect, the
flowers purplish: stamens 8: stigmas 2. Low ground. Annual.

x CARYOPHYLLACEZ. PINK FAMILY.

Herbs, with opposite, mostly narrow, entire leaves without conspic-
uous veins : flowers 4-5-merous, sometimes apetalous, with stamens
twice or less the number of sepals or petals, and 2 to 5 styles which
may be wholly separate or partially united: pod usually a 1-loculed

CARYOPHYLLACE® 307

capsule commonly inclosed in the calyx, mostly splitting from the
top, the seeds usually attached to a central column. Genera between
30 and 40, species about 1000. Representative plants are pink,
carnation, bouncing Bet, catchfly, chickweed, corn-cockle, lychnis,
spurrey.

A. Flowers polypetalous, with sepals united into a tube.

B. Bracts at the base of the calyx.............. siecncwceccce le DIGNtIhNUS
BB. No bracts at base of calyx.
CG. Styles: 20... -:..2' Saooenceae arent na ig alte celeste cateonts wseeee. 2. Saponaria
COs Styles 47005 cae =r, aa Boce Dine werd hegce clotweree se ahead 3. Lychnis
AA. Flowers often apetalous, the sepals nearly or quite distinct.
By MODWIGS 5) Oli ac ee eens te ctoaea ab oe ioiona cme ana cietateratarte 4. Stellaria
BES OUPLOS Hos concen es mistanalese ia a se.a. du orceise anice eae ae eae aoe oe 5. Cerastium

1. DIANTHUS. Pink.

Showy-flowered small herbs, with striate. many-furrowed calyx and
sepal-like bracts at its base: petals with slender claws or bases, the limb
usually toothed or fringed: styles 2.

a. Flowers single on ends of branches.

D. Chinénsis, Linn. China or florists’ pink. Leaves short-lanceolate,
not grass-like: calyx-bracts linear-acute and as long as the calyx: petals in
white and shades of red, very showy. China. Perennial, but grown as an
annual (mostly under the florists’ name D. Heddewigi).

D. plumarius, Linn. Grass or Scotch pink. Common pink
of old gardens, from Europe. Low, growing in mats, glau-
cous-blue: leaves grass-like: flowers very fragrant, deep-
fringed, white or pink. Perennial.

D. Caryophyllus, Linn. Carnation. Two ft. or more, with
wiry stems, glaucous-blue: leaves grass like: calyx-bracts
short and broad: petals more or less toothed but not fringed:
flowers fragrant. Europe.

aa. lowers in compact clusters.

D. barbatus, Linn. Sweet William. Fig. 456. One ft.
or more, erect, green: flowers small, in dense clusters in red (
and white. Old World; common in old gardens.

16, Dianthus

2, SAPONARIA. Soaprworr. barbatus,

Calyx cylindrical or angled, 5-toothed, with no bracts at its base:
stamens 10: styles 2: pod 4-toothed at top (Fig. 250).

8. officinalis, Linn. Bouncing Bet. Perennial, forming colonies in old
yards and along roads, 1-2 ft. high, glabrous, with ovate or oval leaves:
flowers 1 in. across, white or rose, in dense clusters, often double, the

petals with acrown, Europe. Common,

308 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

3. LYCHNIS. Lycunis. Cockue.

Annual or perennial, with styles usually 5, and pod opening by 5 or more
teeth: calyx 5-toothed and 10- or more-nerved, naked at the base: stamens 10.
L. Githago, Scop. (or Agrostemma Githago, Linn.). Corn cockle,
because it is a common weed in wheat fields (wheat is known as corn in
Europe), its seeds not being readily separated from wheat because of their
similar size and its seasons corresponding with those of wheat: annual, 2-3
ft., hairy: flowers purple-red and showy, on very long stalks, the petals
crowned and the calyx-lobes long and leafy: leaves very narrow. Europe.
L. Coronaria, Desv. Dusty miller. Mullein pink.
Biennial or perennial, white-woolly all over: leaves ob-
fy long: flowers rose-crimson, showy, Europe. Old gar-
dens and along roads.

4, STELLARIA. Cuickweep.
Small, weak herbs with sepals 4-5, petals of equal
D number and deeply cleft or sometimes wanting: sta-
a mens 10 or less: styles usually 3: pod opening by twice
SS as many valves as there are styles.
aha a ; S. média, Smith. Common chickweed. Fig. 457.
pies deen see = Little prostrate annual, making a mat in cultivated
grounds, with ovate or oblong leaves mostly on hairy petioles: flowers soli-
tary, minute, white, the 2-parted petals shorter than the calyx, the peduncle
elongating in fruit. Europe; very common. Blooms in cold weather.

5. CERASTIUM. Movusr-EAR CHICKWEED.

Differs from Stellaria chiefly in having 5 styles and pod splitting into
twice as many valves. The two following gray herbs grow in lawns. From
Europe.

C. viscdsum, Linn. Annual, about 6 in. high: leaves ovate to spatulate:
flowers small, in close clusters, the petals shorter than the calyx, and the
pedicels not longer than the acute sepals.

C. vulgatum, Linn. Perennial and larger, clammy-hairy: leaves oblong:
pedicels longer than the other obtuse sepals, the flowers large.

XI. RANUNCULACEZ. Crowroor or BurrERcUP FaMILy.

Mostly herbs, with various habits and foliage: parts of the
flower typically all present, free and distinct, but there are some
apetalous and diccious species: stamens many: pistils many or
few, in the former case becoming akenes and in the latter usually
becoming follicles. Upwards of 30 genera and 1,000 to 1,200 species.
Characteristic plants are buttereup, anemone, meadow-rue, marsh-
marigold or cowslip, adonis, clematis, larkspur, aconite, columbine,
baneberry, peony. Known from Rosacewe by the hypogynous flowers.

RANUNCULACEX 309

A. Fruits akenes, several or many from each flower.
B. True petals none, but sepals petal-like (and involucre
often simulating a calyx).
c. Involucre of 2 or more leaves much beneath the flower 1. Anemone
cc. Involucre of 3 sepal-like leaves close to the flower. .2. Hepatica

BB. True petals present, yellow...............0 Ae ae 3. Ranunculus
AA. Fruits follicles.
B. Petals not spurred, mostly yellow......... sesdcinnscose 4. Caltha
BB. Petals spurred........... acoate SAnce er aereers scictata ane 5. Aquilegia

1. ANEMONE. ANEMONY. WIND-FLOWER.

Low perennial herbs with mostly showy apetalous flowers and an invo-
lucre of 2 or more mostly divided leaves standing some distance below the
flower: pistils ripening into a head of akenes.

a. Akenes woolly or silky.

A. Japonica, Sieb & Zuce. Japanese anemony. Three ft., blooming in
fall, with pink or white flowers 2-3 in. across: leaves with 3 cordate-ovate
notched leaflets. Much planted.

A.Virginiana, Linn. Two ft., with involucre of three 3-parted leaves:
flowers on long stalks arising in succession from succeeding nodes: sepals 5,
acute, greenish-white: head of fruit oblong, % in. long. Woods.

aa. Akenes not woolly or silky.
A. quinquefolia, Linn. (A. nemorosa of some). Common wind-flower.
Low, about 6 in., blooming in rich woods in early spring: involucral leaves 3,
each with 3 or 5 long leaflets: flowers white, purplish outside, pretty.

2. HEPATICA, Livertear. Mayriower of some places.

Differs from Anemone chiefly in having 3 simple sepal-like bracts be-
neath the flower (but they are sometimes a half-inch removed from it):
flowers in earliest spring, white, blush or blue, on simple hairy scapes:
leaves broad, 3-lobed. Woods.

H. triloba, Chaix. Leaves with rounded lobes.

H. acutiloba, DC. Leaves with acute lobes.

3. RANUNCULUS. Crowroor. Burrercur. Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191, 242.

Perennials or annuals, with mostly yellow flowers: sepals 5: petals 5,
and bearing a little pit or scale at the base inside: leaves alternate: akenes
many in a head.

R. acris, Linn. Tall buttercup. Two to 3 ft., from a fibrous root:
leaves 3-parted, all the divisions sessile and again 3-cleft: flowers bright
yellow. Europe, but now a common weed, Summer,

R. bulbésus, Linn. Earlier, and only half as tall, from a bulbous base:
leaves 3-parted, the lateral divisions sessile and the terminal one stalked:
peduncles furrowed; flowers bright yellow. Europe; common eastward,

R. septentrionalis, Poir. Stems more or less prostrate at base, often
forming long runners: leaves 3-divided, divisions all stalked and S-lobed or
-parted: petals obovate, yellow. Wet places,

al THE KINDS OF PLANTS

4. CALTHA. Marsu Maricoutp. Cows.ip (in America).

Low tufted herbs with undivided leaves, and clusters of yellow butter-
cup-like flowers: sepals 5-9, petal-like: petals none: pistils 5-10, ripening
into several-seeded follicles.

C. palustris, Linn. About 1 ft. high: leaves rounded or kidney-shaped,
erenate or nearly entire. Wet places, in early spring. Used for “greens.”

5. AQUILEGIA. CoLumBINeE.

Upright herbs, with compound leaves which have petioles expanded
at the base: sepals 5, somewhat petal-like: petals 5, each one produced
into a long nectary spur; pistils 5: fruit a several-
seeded follicle. Delphinium or larkspur is an allied
genus.

a. Spurs straight.

A. Canadénsis, Linn. Common wild columbine.
Often incorrectly called honeysuckle. Fig. 458. About
2 ft.: leaflets rounded or obovate, toothed at top: flowers
about 2 in. long, drooping, scarlet and orange or nearly
yellow, the stamens projecting. Common on rocks.

A. chrysantha, Gray. Yellow columbine. Flowers

458. bright yellow, erect or becoming so. New Mexico and
Aquilegia Canadensis. Arizona, but frequent in gardens.

aa. Spurs hooked at the end.

A. vulgaris, Linn. Blue columbine. A European species, common in
gardens, and often full double: flowers varying from blue and purple to
white, with rather short and thick hooked spurs.

XII. CRUCIFERA. Mustarp Famity.

Herbs, mostly of small stature, with alternate mostly simple
leaves: flowers 4—merous as to envelopes, the four petals usually
standing 90 degrees apart and thereby forming a eross (whence
the name Crucifere or “cross-bearing”): stamens usually 6, two
of them shorter: fruit a silique or silicle. A very natural or
well-marked family, with about 180 genera and nearly 2,000 species.
Familiar plants are mustard, shepherd’s purse, honesty, cress,
pepper-grass, wallflower, stock, cabbage, turnip, radish, horse-radish.

A. Fruit a silique (much longer than broad).
B. Silique tipped with a long point or beak, extending
beyond the valves, the latter often more than
ISOM A Amo nmiercucsooagcn bopdadanooooodUdooDonogS 36 1. Brassica
BB. Silique not prominently beaked beyond the valves, each
Valve -Stromp liv sl mere Were teyetetete rie etsleteler= relents =tiaraletarelet= 2, Barbarea

CRUCIFER® ait

AA. Fruit a silicle (short and broad).
B. Partition in the pod parallel to the sides.................3. Alyssum
BB. Partition crosswise the pod.
G:-Pod obcordate, many-Seeded .......0'.cesic seta aves e's ose .4. Capsella
cc. Pod orbicular, 2-seeded......... alta atest tact otare arate ata ee 5. Lepidium

1. BRASSICA. Musrarp.

Erect branchy herbs, mostly annual, with more or less lyrate lower
leaves, and small yellow flowers in racemes or panicles: petals clawed or
narrowed below, the limbs spreading horizontally: silique narrow,
cylindrical or 4-angled, the valves 1-5-nerved and the seeds in 1
row in each locule. Cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip also belong to
this genus. The three following are common weeds introduced from
Europe.

B. nigra, Koch. Black mustard. Fig. 459. Leaves pinnatifid,
somewhat hairy: pod short, strongly 4-angled, not hairy. Mustard
(flour) comes largely from this species.

B. alba, Boiss. White mustard. Leaves pinnatifid and rough-
hairy: pods rather slender, hairy,but only the lower part seed-bearing.

B. Sinapistrum, Boiss. Charlock. Leaves strongly toothed: pod
knotty, hairy or smooth, the upper third indehiscent and 2-edged.

2, BARBAREA. WINTER CREsS.

Low herbs, blooming in early spring, with many small light 40
yellow flowers, and lyrate leaves with the terminal division much the pyacsica
largest: pod cylindrical or somewhat 4-angled, the valves having nigra.
a strong midvein: seeds in a single row.

B. vulgaris, R. Br. Common winter cress. Yellow rocket. Biennial,
about 1 ft. high, with smooth foliage and flowers in elongating clusters:
lower leaves lyrate, upper ones cut or merely toothed. Low grounds.

3. ALYSSUM. Atyssum.

Small plants, mostly trailing, with entire and small
leaves: pod small, orbicular, one or two seeds in each
locule: flowers in elongating racemes.

A. maritimum, Linn. Sweet alyssum of the gardens
(from Europe). Fig. 460. Annual, producing a profusion
of small white, fragrant flowers.

4. CAPSELLA. Snernenpn’s Purse.

Low short-lived annuals, with very small white flow-
ers in racemes: pod obcordate or inversely triangular, the
partition running across the narrow diameter, containing

several seeds.
C. Bursa-pastoris, Mench. Common shepherd's

maritimum, a s
purse. Fig. 259. One of the commonest little weeds:

460, Alyssum

root leaves pinnatifid or strong-toothed, in a rosette, the stem leaves arrow-

shaped, Europe.

312 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

5. LEPIDIUM. Pepper Grass.

Small stiffish annuals (or biennials), which shed their leaves late in the
season: flowers very small, white or greenish, in elongating racemes: pod
small and roundish, the partition running across the narrow diameter.
Plant peppery to the taste.

L. Virginicum, Linn. Common pepper grass. About 1 ft. high, much
branched, glabrous: leaves linear to lanceolate, tapering to the base, the
lower.mostly pinnatifid. Common weed; often fed to canary birds.

XII. MALVACE. Matiow Famtity.

Herbs or shrubs (trees in the topics) with alternate, mostly
simple leaves which have stipules: flowers perfect and regular,
5-merous, often subtended by a calyx-like involucre, the petals
5: stamens many, united in a column which closely surrounds
the several styles: ovaries several, connivent into a ring or some-
times united into a compound pistil, in fruit making 1-seeded
1-loculed more or less indehiscent carpels or a several-loculed eap-
sule. About 60 genera and 700 species. Representative plants are
mallow, hollyhock, abutilon, hibiscus, althea, okra, cotton.

A. Anthers borne only at the top of the stamen-tube.
B. Fruits 1-seeded, forming a ring at the base of the styles.

Op Involucreiof 3ibiactSaad. eerie eerie eter once eecre 1. Malva
COninyvolucrevorG—-lbracisears seer Ce creer eee nee 2. Althea
BE. HEuibiorseveral-seededecatpel sae perrrroeineteeeeerenoes 3. Abutilon
AA. Anthers borne all along the side of the stamen-tube......... 4. Hibiscus

1. MALVA. Mattow.

Herbs, with a 3-leaved involucre like an extra calyx: petals obecordate:
carpels many in a ring, separating at maturity, 1-seeded and indehiscent:
leaves usually nearly orbicular in general outline.

M. rotundifdlia, Linn. Common mallow. Cheeses. Fig. 224. Trail-
ing biennial or perennial, rooting: leaves orbicular, indistinctly lobed,
toothed: flowers small, white or pinkish, clustered in the axils. Yards
and roadsides; from Europe. A common weed.

2. ALTHHA, Marsa Matuow.

Differs from Malva chiefly in having a 6-9-cleft involucre.

A. rosea, Cay. Hollyhock. Figs. 206, 207, 235. Tall perennial, with
angled or 5-7-lobed cordate leaves, and large flowers in many colors. China.
3. ABUTILON. InpIAn Matiow. Fig. 170.

Mostly shrubs, often with maple-like leaves, and no involuere to the
flower: ovaries and fruits several-seeded. Contains conservatory plants.

MELVACE#—GERANIACE 313

A, striatum, Dicks. Flowering maple. Fig. 461. Shrub: leaves 3-5-
lobed, green: flowers drooping, on long solitary axillary peduncles, bell-
shaped, veiny-orange or red. Brazil. A conservatory and
house plant.

A. Thoémpsoni, Hort. Spotted flowering maple. Like the
last, but the leaves spotted with yellow, and the column of
stamens strongly projecting from the flower. Common in
cultivation.

4. HIBISCUS. Rose Matiow.

Herbs or shrubs, with an involucre of many narrow bracts:
stamen-column anther-bearing most of its length: styles 5,
united: pod 5-loculed, loculicidal: flowers large and showy. 461, Abutilon

H. Syriacus, Linn. Althea of cultivated grounds. Rose ‘“*tiatum.,
of Sharon. Shrub 10 ft.: leaves wedge-ovate and 3-lobed: flowers showy,
in various colors, in the leaf-axils in summer and fall, often double. Asia.

XIV. GERANIACEAE. GerrRANiuM FAMILY.

Herbs, chiefly with simple leaves: flowers perfect, in most genera
nearly regular (but sometimes very irregular), 5-merous: stamens as
many or twice as many as the sepals, hypogynous: ovary single, the
locules usually as many as the sepals: fruit capsular. A most diverse
family, often divided into several. There are about 20 genera and 700
species. Common examples are geranium, pelargonium, nasturtium,
balsam, jewel-weed or touch-me-not, oxalis,

A. Flowers regular or very nearly so.
B. Leaves simple (often deeply lobed).

c. Anther-bearing stamens 10......- sig atte ice eae eeeeeeel. Geranium
coc. Anther-bearing stamens about 7..... SOE OCP 2. Pelargonium
BCR VER COM DOUG ys pis wanlaile had « ouwinu eens mesa sxsensO. COSQIS
AA. sh dae very irregular.
. Flower with one very long spur..... shalt oe Re a er oe 2 4. Tropwolum

BB. Flower hanging by its middle,with a short hooked spur. 5. Impatiens

1. GERANIUM. Cranespi.u.

Small herbs with forking stems and 1-3-flowered peduncles: sepals and
petals 5: glands on the torus 5, alternating with the petals: stamens 10,
usually all of them with perfect anthers: fruit 5 l-seeded carpels separat-
ing from the axis from the base upwards and curling outwards.

G. maculatum, Linn. Common wild cranesbill. Pig. 181. Perennial,
1-2-ft., hairy erect: leaves orbicular, deeply 5-7-parted: petals entire, hairy
on the claw: flower rose-purple, 1 in. across. Common; spring.

G. Robertianum, Linn. Herb Robert. Annual or biennial, 1 ft, or some-
times less, somewhat hairy, spreading: leaves 3- or 5-divided into pinnatifid
divisions: fils. % in. or less across, pink-red. Moist places; common,

314 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

2. PELARGONIUM. Geranium of gardens.
Somewhat fleshy, strong-scented plants, differing from Geranium in
having a somewhat 2-lipped corolla, and stamens with anthers less than 10.
P. hortorum. Garden geranium. Fish geranium. Fig. 183. Stem
somewhat succulent and hairy: leaves orbicular or reniform, crenate-lobed,
often with bands of different colors: flowers in umbel-like clusters, deflexed
in bud, of many colors, often double. South Africa, but of hybrid origin.

3. OXALIS. Oxatis. Woop-sorREL.

Low often tuberous herbs with small flowers which have no glands on
the torus-disk: leaves digitate, of 3 or more leaflets, usually mostly radical:
flowers (opening in sun) with 5 sepals and petals and 10 somewhat mona-
delphous stamens, the alternate ones shorter: pod 5-loculed, often opening
elastically. The following have 3 obcordate leaflets, closing at night.

0. stricta, Sav. Common yellow oxalis. Fig. 273. Stem leafy and
branching: peduncles bearing 2-6 small yellow flowers. Common in fields.

0. Acetosélla, Linn. Wood-sorrel. Scape 2-5 in. high, from a creeping
rootstock: flowers white and pink-veined. Deep woods.

0. violacea, Linn. Scape 5-10 in. high with an umbel of several bright
violet flowers, from a scaly bulb. Woods south, and a common window-
garden plant.

4. TROPHOLUM. Nasrvurtium of gardens.

Tender, mostly climbing herbs (by means of leafstalks), with one of the
5 petals extended into a long, nectar-bearing yellow spur: petals usually 5,
with narrow claws, often bearded: stamens 8, of different shapes: carpels
3, indehiscent in fruit. The following (from Peru) have peltate orbicular
leaves (Fig. 126). tL

T. majus, Linn. Climbing nasturtium. Tall-climbing: flowers yellow,
red, cream-white, and other colors: petals not pointed.

T. minus, Linn. Dwarf nasturtium. Fig. 195. Not climbing: petals
with a sharp point.

5. IMPATIENS. Tovcu-me-nNot. JEWEL-WEED

Soft or succulent tender herbs with simple alternate or opposite leaves
and very irregular flowers: sepals 3 to 5, usually 4, one of them produced
into a large curving spur: petals apparently 2, but each
consisting of a united pair: stamens 5: fruit 5-valved,
elastically discharging the seeds (whence the names *Im-
patiens” and “touch-me-not”).

I, Balsdmina, Linn. Garden balsam. Erect and stout,
1-2% ft.: leaves lanceolate, toothed: flowers in the axils,
of many colors, often full double.

I. biflora, Walt. (7. fulva, Nutt.). Orange jewel-weed.
Fig. 462. Tall branching plant (2-4 ft.) with alternate oval
or long-oval blunt-toothed long-stalked leaves: flowers %4 in. long, horizon-
tal and hanging, orange-yellow with a red-spotted lower lip, the upper lip
less spotted and of one piece, the two green sepals at the apex of the pedicel

Impatiens biflora.

GERANIACE®—SAPINDACE 315

closely appressed to the tube, the tail of the spur curled under the spur:
pod opening elastically when ripe, throwing the seeds (the 5 valves quickly
curling from above downwards). Common in swales.

I. atrea, Muhl. (J. pallida, Nutt.). Yellow jewel-
weed. Fig. 463. Leaves usually stronger-toothed, the
teeth usually ending in sharp points: flowers 1 in. long
and much broader than those of I. biflora, clear yellow,
the upper lip of two parts, the lower also of two parts
and nearly horizontal, the 2 sepals at apex of pedicel
large and not closely appressed, tail shorter: pods as
in the other. Less common than the other, but often
growing with it. 463. Impatiens aurea.

XV. SAPINDACE.R. SoapBERRY or MAPLE FAMILy.

Trees or shrubs, of various habit: flowers polypetalous or apeta-
lous, often inconspicuous, 4- or 5-merous: stamens 10 or less, borne
on a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the single 2-3-loculed pistil: fruit
a pod or samara. A various family, largely tropical. Genera about
75, and species about 600 to 700. Maple, box-elder, buckeye, horse-
chestnut, bladder-nut, are familiar examples.

1. ACER. Marie. Box-ELDER.

Trees or shrubs, with opposite lobed or parted leaves (pinnate in box-
elder): flowers small and greenish or reddish, in early spring and often
from winter buds, in box-elder diccious, in true maples
perfect (or imperfectly diclinous): calyx about 5-cleft:
petals 5 or none: stamens usually 3-8: fruit a samara
with 2 seeds and 2 wings. Two shrubby woods maples
are common in some parts of the country.

a. Maples: leaves simple, palmate ly lobed.
b. Flowers from lateral winter buds, preceding the
leaves: fruit maturing very early.

A. saccharinum, Linn. (A. dasycarpum, Wangh).

464. White or silver maple. Fig. 464. Fow-
Acer saccharinum erg greenish, with no petals: leaves

very deeply 5-lobed, silvery white beneath, the narrow
divisions lobed and toothed: fruit with large spreading
wings, downy when young. Common along streams and in
low grounds; much planted. There is a eut-leaved form
known as Wier'’s maple, popular as a lawn tree. Wood
white. Linnwus thought it to be the sugar maple, hence

his name “saccharinum.” 4105,
A. rubrum, Linn. ed, soft, or swamp maple, Fig, 465, Acre rubrum,
Tree usually of only medium size: flowers red, with narrow-oblong petals;

316 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

leaves rather small, not deeply 3-5-lobed, whitish beneath, the lobes serrate
and toothed: fruit with nearly parallel or slightly spreading wings, not
downy. Low grounds.

bb. Flowers in clusters, with the leaves, some or all on shoots of
the season.

A. saccharum, Marsh. (4. saccharinum of some). Sugar, hard, or rock
maple. Figs. 129, 466. Flowers greenish, drooping, on long pedicels, the
petals none and the calyx hairy at the top: leaves
bright green, firm, cordate-orbicular in outline,
3-lobed and the side lobes again lobed, all lobes
and teeth ending in points, the basal sinus broad
and open: wings of fruit somewhat spreading.
Commonest of maples east.

A. nigrum, Michx. Black sugar maple. 466. Acer saccharum.
Fig. 467. Foliage dark and limp, the lobes broad and shallow, little toothed
and with only blunt points, the basal sinus nearly or quite closed: wings of
fruit nearly parallel, large. Eastern Central
States; by some regarded as a form of A. sac-
charum.

A. platanoides, Linn. Vorway maple. Figs.
75, 76, 77, 144, 296-303. Flowers late, in umbel-
like clusters, yellowish green, large, with both
sepals and petals: leaves large and heavy, 3-5-
lobed and much toothed, all parts ending in points: fruit with wide-spread-
ing wings. Europe. Commonly planted: has milky juice and a round,
dense head,

467. Acer nigrum.

aa. Box-elder: leaves pinnate.

A. Negundo, Linn. (Negundo aceroides, Moench). Box-elder. Tree
with green glaucous twigs and leaf-bases covering the buds: flowers in long
racemes, dicecious, with 4-5-cleft calyx and no corolla, and 4-5-stamens, the
sterile flowers on long, slender pedicels: leaves pinnate, with 3-5 ovate-
pointed toothed leaflets: fruit with somewhat incurving wings. Common:
much planted in cold and dry regions west.

XVI. LEGUMINOS:E. PutsE or PEA FAMILy.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees, mostly with pinnately compound alter-
nate leaves: flower papilionaceous in the species described below:
fruit typically a legume. A vast family and widely dispersed, with
many tropical species. Genera about 400, and species about 6,500.
By some authors, the species with papilionaceous flowers are separated
into the family Papilionacew, and those of the acacia tribes, with
regular flowers, as the Mimosacew. Familiar leguminous plants are
pea, bean, lupine, clover, alfalfa, vetch, wistaria, locust, red-bud.

LEGUMINOS © hy

.
PACES LINER ET Oe E WLETIN] Deetatey sale Svoflowsiala aver siciais;2isss oieisraMia.¥ wee ietan gic duis eee 1. Wistaria
AA. Herbs.
B. Plant climbing by tendrils.

em avers CR EVELOUEG syar-linic a) aieieisieisl-teln = cin wcicis(aace sistas set cas 2. Pisum

CALE Gt LOA ye LODE Gem ctetaicinicis ~ ai «:x'cinleis'e cin cites ace a eines) LACLAUAMES
BB. Plant not tendril-bearing.

Gulieaves:dicitate, of 3 leaflets. .- ....0-. 6 acwdccaceaeese 4. Trifolium

cc. Leaves pinnate (terminal one-stalked, and the stalk
jointed), of 3 leaflets.
p. Flowers small, in very slender racemes............ 5. Melilotus
pp. Flowers small to medium, in heads or short spikes.6. Medicago
ppp. Flowers medium to large, clustered at the joints of

raceme.
E. Keel of corolla coiled into a spiral.............. 7. Phaseolus
EE. Keel curved but not coiled...........cscccesens 8. Vigna

1. WISTARIA.

Tall shrubby twiner, producing long, dense racemes of showy flowers:
leaves pinnate, with several or many leaflets: 2 upper calyx-teeth shorter:
standard large and roundish: pod knotty, several-seeded.

W. Chinénsis, DC. Wistaria. Popular climber for porches, from
China, with large drooping racemes of bright blue (sometimes white) pea-
like flowers in spring and summer.

2. PISUM. Pra.

Slender herbs, climbing by tendrils which are homologous with leaflets:
leaves pinnate, with 1-3 pairs of foliar leaflets, and very large leafy stipules:
lobes of calyx leafy: flowers large, white or pink, on axillary peduncles:
pod a typical legume, several-seeded.

P, sativum, Linn. Garden pea. Figs. 190, 284. Smooth and glaucous:
leaflets usually 2 pairs, broad-oval: peduncles 2- or more-flowered. Old
World,

3. LATHYRUS. Verenuina.

Much like Pisum, differing chiefly in very technical characters, but best
told in general by the narrow leaflets and pods, and not leafy calyx.

L. odoratus, Linn. Sweet pea. Figs. 165, 222. Annual, the stem hairy:
leaflets one pair, narrow-oval or oblong: flowers 2 or 3 on a long pedunele,
very fragrant, in many colors. Southern Europe.

L. latifolius, Linn. MHverlasting pea. Fig. 246. Perennial of long
duration, smooth, the stems winged: leaflets one pair, long-oval: flowers
many in a dense cluster on long peduncles, rose-purple and white. Europe.

4. TRIFOLIUM. Crover.

Annual or perennial herbs with digitate leaves of 3 leaflets (all 3 leaflets
joined directly to top of petiole): flowers small, with bristle-form calyx-
teeth, in dense heads: fruit a 1- to few-seeded little pod which does not
exceed the calyx.

318

THE KINDS OF PLANTS

a. Flowers sessile in the dense heads.

T. praténse, Linn. Common red clover. Fig. 82. Erect, 1-2 ft., with
oval or obovate leaflets which have a pale spot or band near the center and

468.

Trifolium ©ommon; native, also European.
incarnatum.
Fig. 468. Stout, hairy, erect plant, 1-24 ft., with ob-
ovate-oblong leaflets and brilliant crimson flowers in a
long stalked head. Europe; now frequently cultivated.

5. MELILOTUS. Sweer CLover.

Tall erect annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented
herbage and small white or yellow flowers in numerous
open racemes: leaflets 3, oblong: pod ovoid, somewhat
exceeding the calyx, 1-2-seeded.

M.

clover.

flowers white, the standard longer than other petals.
Europe; common on roadsides.

M. officinalis, Linn. Yellow sweet clover. Fig. 469.
Leaflets obtuse: flowers yellow. Less common than

470. Medicago sativa.

usually a notch at the end: flowers rose-red, honey-sweet, the
heads closely surrounded by leaves. Europe, but common every-
where in the North.

T. médium, Linn. Medium red clover. Larger, the stem less
straight, the leaflets oblong, entire and with a spot: head stalked
above the uppermost leaves. Otherwise like the last.

aa. Flowers short-stalked in the heads.

T. hybridum, Linn. Alsike clover. Slender, from a prostrate
base, 1-3 ft.: leaflets obcordate: head small and globular, light
rose-colored. Europe.

T. répens, Linn. White clover. Small, the stems long-creep-
ing and sending up flowering stems 3-12 in.
high: leaflets obcordate: heads small, white.

T. incarnatum, Linn. Cvimson clover.

alba, Linn. White sweet clover. Bokhara
Two to 5 ft. tall, smooth: leaflets truncate:

the other.
6. MEDICAGO. Mepicx.

Clover-like plants with small flowers in heads or
short spikes and toothed leaflets: particularly dis-
tinguished by the curved or coiled pod.

M. sativa, Linn. Alfalfa. Lucerne. Fig. 470.
Erect perennial, with ovate-oblong leaflets and short
spikes or dense racemes of blue-purple flowers. Eu-
rope, but grown for forage.

M. lupulina, Linn. Hop clover. Black medick.

469. Melilotus alba.

Trailing clover-like plant, with obovate leaflets and yellow flowers in heads
or very short spikes: pod black when ripe. Europe; common weed East.

LEGUMINOS=—ROSACE 319

7. PHASEOLUS. Beay.

Tender herbs, often twining, the flowers never yellow, and the pinnate
leaves of 3 leaflets: flowers usually in clusters on the joints of the raceme
or at the end of the peduncle, the keel (in-
closing the essential organs) coiling into
a spiral: fruit a true legume.

P. vulgaris, Linn. Common bean.
Figs. 282-3, 285-6, 471. Annual: twining
(the twining habit bred out in the “bush
beans”): leaflets ovate, the lateral ones 472. Phaseolus
unequal-sided: flowers white or purplish, ™™#tus.
the racemes shorter than the leaves: pods narrow and
nearly straight. Probably from tropical America.

P, lunatus, Linn. Lima bean. Fig. 472. Annual:
tall-twining (also dwarf forms): leaflets large: flowers
whitish, in racemes shorter than the leaves: pods flat and curved, with a
few large flat seeds. South America.

P, multiflorus, Willd. Scarlet runner bean. Peren- Se SS WW
nial in warm countries from a tuberous root, tall-twin- ) —.
SiS fy Ey
es eR BF

471. Phaseolus vulgaris.

ing: leaflets ovate: flowers bright scarlet (white in
the “Dutch Case-knife bean”) and showy, the racemes Zz

exceeding the leaves: pod long and broad but not flat.
Tropical America; cultivated for ornament and for food.

8. VIGNA. Cow-pea. 473.
Vigna
Differs from Phaseolus chiefly in technical charac- Rieennin
ters, one of which is the curved rather than coiled keel
of the flower.
V. Sinénsis, Endl. Cow-pea. Black pea. Stock
pea. Fig. 473. Long-trailing or twining, tender annual: leaflets narrow
ovate: flowers white or pale, 2 or 3 on the apex of a very long pedunele, the
standard rounded: pod slender and long, cylindrical: seed (really a bean
rather than pea) small, short-oblong. China, Japan; much grown South

for forage.

XVII. ROSACEA. Rose Famiy.

Herbs, shrubs and trees, much like the Saxifragacem: leaves
alternate, mostly with stipules (which are often deciduous): flowers
mostly perfect and polypetalous, the stamens usually perigynous:
stamens mostly numerous (more than 20): pistils 1 to many: fruit
an akene, follicle, berry, drupe, or accessory. A very mixed or
polymorphous family, largely of temperate regions, of about 75 genera
and 1,200 species. By some writers divided into three or four families,

320 | THE KINDS OF PLANTS

Common rosaceous plants are rose, strawberry, apple, pear, plum,
peach, cherry, blackberry, raspberry, spirea, cinquefoil.

A. Herbs (those described below).
B. Torus not enlarging: flowers from stems................1. Potentilla
BB. Torus becoming fleshy: flowers directly from the crown
i) a KOOL raocmUGL ooGodade coda aoa Comet Dud bas Cddadoacds 2. Fragaria
AA. Shrubs or trees. ;
B. Ovary 1, free from the calyx and torus, becoming a drupe.3. Prunus
BB. Ovaries many, free from the calyx and torus, becoming

ATUpelets: siercierc's wisvers Soe eae ae rcle rosie Oe sete sia aus ene Shee 4, Rubus
BBB. Ovaries many, becoming akenes inside a hollow torus....5. Rosa
BBBB. Ovaries 5, immersed in the torus........0cccccs cece cece 6. Pyrus

1, POTENTILLA. Five-Fincer. CrnqueEFrorn.

Herbs (sometimes shrubby) with flat deeply 5-cleft calyx and 5 bracts
beneath it, and 5 obtuse, mostly yellow or white petals: stamens many:
fruit an akene, of which there many in a little head on the small dry
torus: leaves compound.

P. Norvégica, Linn. An erect (1-2 ft. tall) very hairy and coarse an-
nual, with 3 obovate or oblong serrate leaflets and small flowers in which
the yellow corolla is usually not so large as the calyx. Common weed.

P. Canadénsis, Linn. Common five-finger. Trail-
ing, strawberry-like, with 3 narrow leaflets, but the
lateral ones deeply lobed: flowers solitary on axillary
peduncles, bright yellow. Fields: common.

2, FRAGARIA. SrrawBeERRY.

Low perennials with 3 broad-toothed leaflets and
a few flowers on radical peduncles: torus enlarging in
fruit, usually becoming fleshy.

F, vésca, Linn. Fig. 474. Small, very sparsely
hairy, the leaves thin and rather light green, very
sharply toothed: flower-cluster overtopping the foliage, small and erect, fork-
ing: fruit slender and pointed, light colored
(sometimes white), the akenes not sunk in the
flesh. Cool woods; common North.

F, Virginiana, Duch. Common field straw-
berry. Fig.475. Stronger, darker green, loose- S
hairy, the leaves with more sunken veins and :
larger and firmer: flower-cluster slender but not
overtopping the leaves, in fruit with drooping
pedicels: fruit globular or broad-conical, with
akenes sunk in the flesh, light colored. Very-
common.

F. Chiloénsis, Duch. Garden strawberry. Fig. 264. Low and spread-
ing but stout, the thick leaves somewhat glossy above and bluish white

474. Fragaria vesca.

475. Fragaria Virginiana.

ROSACE® 321

beneath, rather blunt-toothed: flower-clusters short, forking, the pedicels
strong and long: fruit large and firm, dark colored, with sunken akenes,
Chile.

3. PRUNUS. Preacu. Pium. CHERRY.

Trees and shrubs, mostly flowering in early
spring: sepals, petals and stamens borne on the rim
of a saucer-shaped torus, the calyx with 5 green
spreading lobes and the petals 5 and obovate: pis-
til 1, sitting in the bottom of the flower, the ovary ripen-
ing into a drupe: leaves alternate.

ft

\ gee

a. Peach and apricot: flowers solitary from lateral win-
ter buds, usually appearing before the leaves.

P. Pérsica, Sieb. & Zuce. Peach. Fig. 476. Small
tree, with oblong-lanceolate pointed serrate leaves and sol-
itary fuzzy fruits on last year’s wood. China. The nec-

477. Prunus tarine is a smooth-fruited form.

Armeniaca. P, Armeniaca, Linn. Apricot. Fig. 477. Leaves ovate
to round-ovate, serrate: fruits solitary, on last year’s shoots or on spurs,

smooth or nearly so. China,

aa. Plums: flowers in umbel-like clusters: fruit large and smooth, usually
with a distinct suture (or “crease”) on one side and covered with a
“bloom,” the stalk short.

P, doméstica, Linn. Common plum. Figs. 194, 262. Small tree, usually
with young shoots downy: leaves thick and relatively large, dull dark green,
ovate, oval or obovate, very rugose or veiny, somewhat pubescent beneath,
coarsely and unevenly serrate: flowers large: fruits various, usually thick-
meated and with heavy “bloom.” Europe, Asia.

P, Americana, Marsh. Wild plum of the North. Fig. 478. Twiggy

small tree, often thorny, the young shoots usually not downy: leaves obo-

478. Prunus Americana, i79. Prunus angustifolia,

vate, dull green, abruptly pointed, coarsely toothed or jagged, not pubescent
beneath: fruit small, red or yellow, tough-skinned and glaucous, the pit
large and flattened. Common in thickets: improved forms are in cultivation,

U

322 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

P, angustifolia, Marsh. Chickasaw plum. Mountain cherry. Fig. 479.
Smaller, the young growths smooth and zigzag and usually reddish: leaves
lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, often trough-shaped, shining, finely serrate,
cherry-like: fruit a small thin-fleshed shining plum on
a long pedicel. Delaware, south ; also in cultivation.

aaa. Cherries: flowers in umbel-like clusters: fruit
small and nearly globular, early-ripening, usu-
ally without a prominent suture and “bloom,” the
stalk slender.

P, Cérasus, Linn. Sour cherry. Round-headed

~ tree, with flowers in small clusters from lateral buds:

480, Prunus Avium, leaves hard and stiffish, short-ovate or obovate, gray-
ish green, serrate: fruit small, sour. Europe.

P, Avium, Linn. Sweet cherry. Fig. 480. Straight grower, the “leader”
prominent in young trees, with flowers in dense clusters from lateral spurs:
leaves oblong-ovate, dull and soft, on the young growths hanging: fruit
usually rather large, sweet. Europe.

4. RUBUS. BRAMBLE.

Shrubs, usually thorny, the canes or shoots dying after fruiting, with
alternate digitately compound leaves: flowers white, in clusters, with
5-parted calyx and 5 petals: ovaries many, ripening into coherent drupelets.

a. Raspberries: drupelets or berry separating from the torus.

R. occidentalis, Linn. Black raspberry. Figs. 128, 263. Canes long
and thorny, glaucous, rooting at the tips late in the season: leaves of mostly
3 ovate doubly-toothed leaflets: flowers in close, umbel-like clusters: fruits,
firm, black (sometimes amber-color). Woods, and common in cultivation.

R. strigosus, Michx. Red raspberry. Canes erect and weak-prickly,
more or less glaucous, not rooting at tips, leaflets oblong-ovate: flowers in -
racemes: fruits soft, red. Woods, and cultivated.

aa. Blackberries: drupelets adhering to the torus (the torus forming the
“core” of the berry).

R. nigrobaccus, Bailey (R. villosus of some). Common blackberry.
Tall, very thorny: leaflets 3 or 5, ovate and pointed, toothed, hairy beneath:
flowers large, in open racemes: fruit thimble-shaped and firm, black when
ripe. Woods, and cultivated.

R. villésus, Ait. (#. Canadensis of some). Northern dewberry. Trail-
ing and rooting at tips, prickly: leaflets 3-7, ovate-acuminate or oblong-ovate,
toothed: flowers 1-3, on erect, short peduncles, large: fruit like a small and
shining blackberry. Sterile fields, and in cuftivation.

R. trivialis, Michx. Southern dewberry. Fig. 158. Long-trailing,
very thorny and bristly: leaves 3-5, more or less evergreen, mostly lance-
oblong and small, strong-toothed: flowers 1-3: fruit black. Sands, Vir-
ginia, south; also in cultivation.

ROSACEH SAXIFRAGACEX 323

5. ROSA. Rose.

More or less thorny erect or climbing shrubs with pinnate wing-petioled
leaves, and flowers with 5 calyx-lobes and 5 large rounded petals: pistils
many, becoming more or less hairy akenes which are inclosed in a hollow
torus (fruit becoming a hip. Fig. 265). Most of the garden roses are too
difficult for the beginner: they are much modified by the plant-breeder.

R, Carolina, Linn. Swamp rose. Tall, often as high as a man, the few
spines usually nearly or quite straight: stipules (petiole wings) long and
narrow: leaflets 5-9, narrow-oblong and acute, finely serrate: flowers rather
large, rose-color. Swamps.

R. lucida, Ehrh. Usually low, with stout hooked spines: stipules rather
broad: leaflets about 7, smooth and mostly shining above: flowers large,
rose-color. Moist places.

R. humilis, Marsh. Three feet or less tall, with straight, slender spines:
stipules narrow: foliage usually less shining. Dry soils.

6. PYRUS. Pear. APPLE.

Small trees or shrubs with alternate leaves, and flowers in clusters in
spring: flowers 5-merous: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the torus, the
styles free.

P. communis, Linn. Pear. Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266. Leaves ovate,
firm and shining, smooth, close-toothed: fruit tapering to the pedicel.
Europe.

P, Malus, Linn. Apple. Figs. 67, 267, 268. Leaves ovate, soft, hairy
beneath, serrate: fruit hollowed at the base when ripe. Europe.

XVIII. SAXIFRAGACES. SAxirraGe Famizy.

Herbs or shrubs of various habit, with opposite or alternate
leaves that usually do not have stipules: flowers with ovary mostly
inferior, 5-merous, the stamens usually 10 or less (in a few cases
as many as 40): pistils 10 or less, either separate or the carpels
united, the fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. A polymorphous family
comprising some 600 species in about 75 genera, Comprises saxifrage,
mitre-wort, hydrangea, mock orange, currant and gooseberry.

MPR ERUOM OUTORILE sich act dence siesvunaxuds ateuueasisen teanye 1. Philadelphus
eT CAMOS BICOMIOLA | s.0 cs.) Os sols a obin Ca bik ae eainla en bee be canes 2. Ribes

1. PHILADELPHUS. Mock ORANGE (from the flowers). SyRINGA.
Shrubs with showy corymbose or paniculate white flowers and opposite
simple leaves: petals 4 or 5: stamens 20 or more: ovary 3-5-loculed, becom-

ing a capsule.
P. coronarius, Linn. ‘Tall shrub with erect branches: leaves oblong-
ovate and smooth: flowers cream-white, fragrant, in close clusters, in late

spring. Europe.

324 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

P, grandiflorus, Willd. Tall, with long recurvying branches: leaves
ovate-pointed and somewhat downy beneath: flowers pure white, scentless,
in loose clusters. Virginia, south, and planted.

2. RIBES. GoosEBERRY and CURRANT.

Low shrubs, often prickly, with alternate digitately lobed leaves:
flowers small: sepals 5 and petal-like, on the ovary: petals and stamens 5,
borne on the calyx: fruit a small globular berry.

a. Gooseberries: flowers 1-3: usually spines below the leaves.

R. oxyacanthoides, Linn. Small bush, with long, graceful branches
and very short thorns or none: leaves thin, orbicular-ovate, about 3-lobed,
the edges thin and round-toothed: flowers on very short peduncles, the
calyx-lobes longer than the calyx-tube, the ovary and berry smooth, the
fruit reddish or green. Swamps N.; parent of Houghton and Downing
gooseberries.

R. Grossularia, Linn. Hnglish gooseberry. Stiffer and denser bush,
with firm and thickish more shining leaves, which have revolute margins:

481. Ribes rubrum. 482. Ribes Ameri¢canum. 483. Ribes aureum.

ovary downy and the large fruit pubescent or bristly. Europe; parent of
the large-fruited gooseberries.

R, Cynosbati, Linn. Tall, open, prickly bush, with thickish bluntly
3-lobed downy leaves and long peduncles bearing 3 or more flowers with
calyx-lobes shorter than the tube: leaves rounded and 3-lobed: fruit dull
purple, either prickly or smooth. Common in dry places.

aa. Currants: flowers in long racemes: no spines.

R. rubrum, Linn. Red and white currant. Fig. 481. Erect bush, with
broad-cordate 3-5-lobed leaves with roundish lobes and not strong-smelling:
racemes drooping, the flowers greenish and nearly flat open: berries (cur-
rants) red or white. Europe.

R. nigrum, Linn. Black currant. Stronger bush, with strong-scented
leaves and larger oblong or bell-shaped flowers with bracts much shorter
than the pedicels: berries black and strong-smelling. Europe.

R. Americanum, Marsh. (RF. floridum, L’Her). Wild black currant.
Fig. 482. Straggling bush, with heart-shaped 3-5-lobed doubly serrate some-

SAXIFRAGACEX! — UMBELLIFERE 325

what scented leaves: flowers in long racemes, whitish, with bracts longer
than the pedicels: fruit black, scented. Woods.

R. atreum, Pursh. Golden, buffalo, or flowering currant, Fig. 483.
Large bush, with racemes of long-tubular yellow very fragrant flowers: fruit
blackish. Missouri, west, but common in gardens for its flowers.

XIX. UMBELLIFER. Parsiey FAMILY.

Herbs, mostly strong-scented and with compound alternate
leaves with petioles expanded or sheathing at the base: flowers
small, mostly perfect, 5-merous, epigynous, in umbels or umbel-like
clusters: stamens 5: fruit consisting of two carpels, which are dry
and seed-like and indehiscent. A well-marked natural family of
about 1,500 species in about 160 genera. Some of the species are poi-
sonous. Here belong parsley, parsnip, carrot, celery, caraway, sweet
cicely. Rather difficult for the beginner.

APE UL GS IDYISULY cs clers> 6 clas eiers'ele eo ACCC EAGAL a een AA ae 1. Daucus
AA, Fruits not bristly.
B. Carpels or “seeds” winged............. BOCES ree Pastinaca

BB. Carpels wingless.
c. Axis from which the carpels separate not splitting in
TWO... ss sc00 sla eimrates ate o viene swespesviedss cues pasvucds A DUUM
co. Axis splitting in two when the carpels or “seeds” fall. 4. Carum

1. DAUCUS. Carxor.

Annuals or biennials, bristly, slender and branching, with small white
flowers in compound umbels, the rays of which become inflexed in fruit; the
fruit oblong, ribbed and bristly.

D, Cardta, Linn. Carrot. Fig. 180. Leaves pinnately decompound, the
ultimate segments lanceolate: outer flowers with larger petals. Europe;
cultivated for the root, and extensively run wild.

2. PASTINACA. Paxsnip.

Tall, smooth biennials of strict habit and with pinnately compound
leaves: flowers yellow, in compound umbels with scarcely any involucres:
fruit oval, very thin, wing-margined.,

P. sativa, Linn. Parsnip. Flowering stem 2-4 ft. tall, grooved, hol
low: leaflets ovate or oblong, sharp-toothed. Europe; cultivated for its
roots and also run wild.

3. APIUM. Crery,

Annuals or biennials, with large pinnate leaves: flowers white, in small
umbels: fruit small, usually as broad as long, each carpel S-ribbed: axis
from which the carpels fall not splitting in two,

326 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

A. gravéolens, Linn. Celery. Biennial, smooth: leaflets 3-7, wedge-
shaped or obovate, the lower ones about 3-divided, round-toothed. Europe;
cultivated for its petioles, which have become greatly enlarged.

4. CARUM. Caraway.

Slender and erect, smooth annual and biennial herbs with pinnate
leaves: flowers white or yellowish, in compound umbels provided with in-
volucres: axis bearing the carpels splitting in two at maturity.

CG. Carui, Linn. Caraway. Stem furrowed, 1-2 ft.: leaves cut into
thread-like divisions: flowers white. Europe. Cultivated for its fruits,
known as “Caraway seed,” and also run wild.

C. Petroselinum, Benth. Parsley. One to 3 ft.: leaflets ovate and 3-cleft,
often much cut or “curled” in the garden kinds: flowers yellowish. Europe.

cc. GAMOPETALA.

XX. LABIATA. Minr Famity.

Herbs, usually of aromatic scent, with 4-cornered stems and
opposite usually simple leaves: flowers typically 2-lipped: stamens
4 in 2 pairs, or only 2: ovary deeply 4-lobed, forming 4 indehiscent
nutlets in fruit. A well-marked family of some 2,700 species, dis-
tributed in about 150 genera, of both temperate and tropical regions.
To this family belong the various mints, as peppermint, spearmint,
catnip, hyssop, thyme, pennyroyal, savory, rosemary, sage, hore-
hound, balm, basil. Flowers mostly in whorls in the axils of leaves
or bracts, sometimes forming interrupted spikes.

A. Stamens 2.

B. Calyx about equally toothed, hairy within ............. 1. Monarda
BIE (ObIiyps Baliye) devel ENR! \iaqN ON 666 oo0 Goooa noo oondoDsedos 2. Salvia
AA. Stamens 4.
B. Corollarscarcelys2-lippedcenmer- =e ee le tlt eC TILIORe
BB. Corolla strongly 2-lipped.
Cie A© silty ex (2 UD COS pepe ote oka < eeliol oetfereteleVora clo rstiena abel (ol stra baat p-tai 4. Brunella
cc. Calyx nearly or quite regular.
bp. Upper or inner pair of stamens longer............5. Wepeta
pp. Lower or outer pair longer.
E. Tube of corolla including the stamens.........6. Marrubium
EE. Tube with stamens projecting ................. 7. Leonurus

1. MONARDA. Hoxrse-minv.

Rather stout, mostly perennials, with flowers in close terminal heads:
ealyx tubular, 15-nerved, hairy in the throat, the teeth nearly equal: corolla
strongly 2-lipped, the upper lip erect, the lower spreading and 3-lobed.

LABIAT® B27.

M. fistulosa, Linn. Two to 5 ft., in clumps: leaves ovate-lanceolate:
flowers in a clover-like flattish head: calyx slightly curved: corolla about 1
in. long, purple. Common in dry places.

2. SALVIA. Sace.

Annuals or perennials, mostly with large and showy flowers: calyx and
corolla 2-lipped: upper lip of corolla large and usually arched, entire or
nearly so, the lower lip spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 2, short, the anther
locules separated by a transverse bar.

S. officinalis, Linn. Common sage. Erect low perennial, with gray
pubescent foliage: leaves oblong-lanceolate, crenulate, very veiny: flowers
blue, in spiked whorls. Europe; used for seasoning.

S. spléndens, Sell. (S. coccinea of gardens). Scarlet
sage. Tender perennial from Brazil, but much cultivated
for its bright scarlet floral leaves, calyx, and corolla: leaves
ovate-pointed.

3. MENTHA. Mint.

Low perennials: calyx with 5 similar teeth: corolla
nearly or quite regular, 4-cleft: stamens 4, equal: flowers
in heads or interrupted spikes, purplish or white.

M. piperita, Linn. Peppermint. Straggling, 1-3 ft.
tall, the plant dark colored (stems purplish): leaves ovate-
oblong, or narrower, acute, sharply serrate: flowers light
purple, in thick spikes 1-3 in. long. Europe. Cultivated
and escaped.

M. spicata, Linn. (M. viridis, Linn.). Spearmint. Fig.
481. Erect and smooth, 1-2 ft., green: leaves lanceolate
and sharply serrate: flowers whitish or tinted, in long, in-

terrupted spikes. Europe. Along roadsides, and cultivated.
M, Canadénsis, Linn. Wild mint. One to 2 ft., pubes-
cent: leaves lanceolate: flowers tinted, in whorls in the

484,
Mentha spicata.

axils of the leaves. Low grounds,

4. BRUNELLA. Sevr-neat.

Low, usually unbranched perennials without aromatic odor: calyx about
10-nerved, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip arched and entire, the
lower one 3-lobed: stamens 4, in pairs, ascending under the upper lip.

B, vulgaris, Linn. Self-heal. Three to 10 in. tall, with ovate or oblong
usually slightly toothed leaves: flowers small, violet (rarely white), in a
dense, oblong, clover-like head or spike. Common in grassy places.

5. NEPETA. Carmint.

Perennials, mostly sweet-scented: calyx nearly equally 5-toothed: co-
rolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and somewhat concave, the lower 3-lobed:
stamens 4, in pairs under the upper lip, the outer pair the shorter.

N. Cataria, Linn. Common catmint or catnip. Fig. 197. Erect, 2-8 ft.,
pubescent: leaves cordate-ovate, crenate, grayish: corolla tinted: flowers in
interrupted spikes, Introduced from Europe.

328 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

6. MARRUBIUM. Horenounp.

Erect perennials, with white-woolly aspect: calyx nearly equally 5-10-
toothed, the teeth very sharp: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and
notched, the lower one spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, included in the
corolla-tube.

M. vulgare, Linn. Common horehound. Leaves broad-ovate and cre-
nate: flowers small, white, in dense whorls. Europe, but common,

7. LEONURUS. Mornerwort.

Erect perennials with green aspect: calyx about equally 5-toothed, the
teeth becoming spine-like: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arched
and entire, the lower spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, ascending under the
upper lip: nutlets 3-angled.

L. Cardiaca, Linn. Common motherwort. Tall: leaves rounded and
lobed: corolla purple, the upper lip bearded: flowers in axillary whorls.
Introduced from Europe. Common.

XXI. CONVOLVULACEZ. Convotvunus Famity.

Herbs, mostly twining, with alternate chiefly simple leaves:
flowers regular, 5-merous, the tubular or trumpet-shaped corolla
mostly twisted in the bud, the stamens 5 and borne on the corolla:
ovary commonly 1-, mostly 2-loeuled, with 2 ovules in each loecule,
becoming a globular capsule in fruit (which is sometimes 4-loculed
by the insertion of a false partition). The family contains between
30 and 40 genera, and nearly 1,000 species. Common convolvulaceous
plants are morning-glory, cypress vine, sweet potato, bindweed,
dodder.

AC Elan tsa wabhenonrnialleto liale eneretertetelatettctels st tetetelelheleieteitaste iterate 1. Ipomea
AA. Plants leafless; parasitics. cj... 2c. «c/cls <ecveieis elaine stslsvells «1 sti 2. Cuscuta

1. IPOM@A. Mornina-cuory.

Mostly twining, with showy flowers on axillary peduncles:
corolla with a long tube and a flaring limb: pistil 1, with one
style, and the stigma 2-3-lobed: fruit a capsule, with 1-seeded
locules.

a. Leaves compound, with thread-like divisions.

I. Quémoclit, Linn. Cypress vine. Fig. 485. Leaves pin-
nate: flowers solitary, red, small, narrow-limbed, with pro-
jecting style and stamens. Tropical America, but run wild
South; also cultivated. Annual.

aa. Leaves simple or deeply lobed, broad.

I. Bona-N6x, Linn. White moonflower. Fig. 486. Tall: 495. igen
leaves heart-shaped, or angled or lobed: flowers 1 to few, Quamoclit.

CONVOLVULACEE — SOLANACE: 329

white, opening once at night, with a slender tube and a large limb 4-6 in.
across. Trop. Amer. Perennial.

I, purpurea, Roth. Morning-glory. Fig. 217. Leaves
broadly cordate-ovate, entire: flowers 2-4, large and funnel-
shaped, 2-3 in. long, purple to streaked and
white. Trop. Amer. Annual.

I, hederacea, Jacq. Leaves heart-shaped,
3-5 lobed: flowers 1-3, rather smaller than those V

of I. purpurea. Trop. Amer. Annual.
I. Batatas, Poir. Sweet potato. Creeping:
leaves heart-shaped to triangular, usually lobed:
486. Ipomea flowers (seldom seen) 3 or 4, light purple,
Bona-Nox. funnelform, 1% in. long. Tropics;
grown for its large edible root-tubers.

2. CUSCUTA. Dopper.
Parasitic twiners without foliage (leavesreduced 4 ,
to scales): flowers in clusters, the calyx and corolla
with 4-5 lobes: fruit 2-loculed, 4-seeded. (See p. 89.)
C. Gronovii, Willd. (Fig. 487), is the common- ra
est species, twining its slender coral-yellow stems
over coarse herbs in swales: corolla bell-shaped, 487. Cuseuta
the tube longer than the blunt and spreading lobes. | Gronovii.

XXII. SOLANACEA. Nigursuape FAmity.

Herbs or shrubs, with alternate often compound leaves: flowers
perfect and regular, 5-merous, mostly rotate or open-bell-shaped
in form and plaited in the bud: stamens 5, often connivent around
the single 2-loculed pistil, borne on the corolla: fruit a berry or
capsule (the latter sometimes 4-loculed by a false partition), the
seeds borne on a central column, Some 70 genera and 1,500 species,
Common representatives are nightshade, potato, tomato, husk tomato,
tobacco, jimson-weed, petunia.

A. Fruit a fleshy berry.

B. Stamens with anthers equaling or exceeding the fila
ments,
c. Anthers separate, opening at top..........eeeeee: 1, Solanum
cc, Anthers united, opening lengthwise ...........065 2, Lycopersicum

BB. Stamens with anthers much shorter than filaments. .3. Capsicum
AA. Fruit a capsule.
B. Calyx 5-parted to near the DAaSC......sesseceesccceess 4. Petunia
BB. Calyx toothed, not deep-parted.
Gr FOU USUALLY PrIGKlY, INTHO. cas wevnnncwcen dvs sseessBe DOUMIG
Cee He OU DIORIU MIM ina y evaVed he pees eaaN wes aee ee 6. Nicotiana

330 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

1. SOLANUM. Nicursnape.

Perennials or annuals: calyx and corolla 5-parted, the latter rotate :
stamens 5, exserted, the anthers separate and opening by a pore in the top:
berry 2-loculed.

a. Plants not prickly.

8. tuberdsum, Linn. Potato. Figs. 42, p. 35, 219. Low, diffuse-growing
perennial, producing stem-tubers on slender underground rootstocks: leaves
pinnate, the leaflets differing in size and ovate: flowers bluish: berries globu-
lar, yellowish green. Warm temperate elevations of tropical America.

8. nigrum, Linn. Common nightshade. Branchy annual, 1-2 ft., nearly
smooth: leaves ovate, wavy-margined: flowers small, white: berries small,
black. Waste places.

S. Duleamara, Linn Bittersweet. Tall, loosely climbing: leaves cor-
date-ovate, sometimes 3-lobed, often with 2 or 4 small leaflets at the base:
flowers small, violet-purple: berries oval, red. Perennial. Common.

aa. Plants prickly.

S. Meléngena, Linn. Hygplant. Guinea squash. Fig. 261. Stout annual
with large, ovate, somewhat angled pubescent leaves: flower large, purplish,
the calyx prickly: fruit a very large purple or white berry (often weighing
several pounds). India.

2, LYCOPERSICUM. Tomato.
Differs from Solanum chiefly in having the anthers united at their
tips by a membrane and opening by lengthwise slits.

L. esculéntum, Mill. Common tomato. Fig. 186.
Tall, hairy, strong-smelling herb, with pinnate leaves,
the leaflets ovate and unequal-sided and of different
3 sizes: flowers small, yellow, in short forked racemes:
ae fruit a large red or yellow berry. South America.

yA ~e 3. CAPSICUM. Rep Pepper.
DP Erect, branchy, smooth herbs: stamens with slen-
1 der filaments which are much longer than the separate
488. Capsicum annuum. anthers, the latter opening by lengthwise slits: fruit

globular, long or irregular, firm.

C. annuum, Linn. Common red pepper. Fig. 488. Annual or biennial,
with ovate entire leaves: flowers white, with very short-toothed or trun-
cate calyx: fruit very various in the cultivated varieties. Trop. Amer.

4. PETUNIA. Perunta.

Clammy-hairy diffuse herbs: calyx-lobes leaf-
like and much longer than the tube: corolla fun-
nel-form, showy, the stamens not projecting :
fruit 2-loculed, capsular. South America.

P, nyctagiiiflora,Juss. White petunia. Fig.
489. Corolla white, very long-tubed: leaves
oval oblong, narrowed into a petiole. Old
gardens. 489, Petunia nyctaginiflora.

SOLANACE®—SCROPHULARIACE® 331

P. violacea, Lindl. Fig. 490. Weaker and more diffuse: corolla purple
or rose, the tube short and broad: leaves ovate or oval, nearly or quite
sessile. The garden petunias are mostly hybrids of the two species.

5. DATURA. JamMESTOWN-WEED or JIMSON-WEED. a
Very strong bushy herbs, with large, long-tubu-
lar, short-lived flowers from the forks of the
branches: stigma 2-parted: fruit a globular usually
prickly capsule, opening by 4 valves.
D, Stramonium, Linn. Fig. 248. Annual, 3-5
ft., the stem green: leaves ovate, sinuate or angled:
p corolla white. Tropics; com-
2 mon weed.
D. Tatula, Linn. Stem
and corolla purple.

“* 6, NICOTIANA. Toxacco. 490. Petunia.

Tall herbs, with large Very near the original
——=<* usually pubescent leaves: P. violacea.
corolla funnelform or salverform, the tube usually
long: stigma not lobed: pod 2-4-valved, not very
large, contained within the persistent calyx.

N. Tabacum, Linn. Vobacco. Robust annual, 4-6
ft., with very large ovate decurrent entire leaves and
rose-purple panicled flowers. Trop. Amer.

N. alata, Link & Otto (.V. affinis of gardens).
Fig. 491. Slender but tall (2-4 ft.) plant with clammy-pubescent herbage:
leaves lanceolate or obovate, entire: flowers white, with very slender tube

491. Nicotiana alata.

5-6 in. long, the limb unequal. Brazil; common in gardens.

XXIII. SCROPHULARIACE.®. Fraworr Famiy.

Herbs (trees in warm countries), of various habit: flowers per-
fect, irregular, usually imperfectly 5-merous: corolla usually 2-lipped
and personate: stamens 4 in 2 pairs, inserted on the corolla, with
sometimes a rudiment of a fifth: ovary single, 2-loculed, ripening
into a several- or many-seeded capsule. About 160 genera and 2,000
species. Representative plants are figwort, snapdragon, toad-flax,
foxglove, mullein, pentstemon, monkey-flower or musk-plant.

A. Corolla shallow and nearly regular..........essseeeeeses l. Verbaseum
AA. Corolla very irregular, often personate.
ULOWvOr. Witt @10DM BPUlevcovevcsance svevedesveres ...2. Linaria
BB. Flower spurless.
Dp. Blossoms erect, swollen at the base ...............0. Antirrhinum

pp. Blossoms drooping, not swollen, with narrow limb. .4. Digitalis
ppp. Blossoms not drooping, with 2-lipped limb........5. Mimulus

aoe THE KINDS OF PLANTS

1. VERBASCUM. Mu.tern.

Tall biennials, with alternate decurrent leaves: calyx and corolla
5-parted, the latter shallow and nearly or quite rotate: stamens 5, some or
all of the filaments woolly.

V. Thapsus, Linn. Common mullein. Figs. 22, 133. Two to 5 ft., stout
and usually unbranched, white-woolly: leaves oblong and acute, felt-like:
flowers yellow, in a very dense spike. Weed from Europe.

V. Blattaria, Linn. Moth mullein. Slender and
branching, green and nearly smooth: leaves oblong, ser-
rate, often laterally lobed, somewhat clasping: flowers
yellow or cream-colored, in a loose raceme. Weed from
Europe.

2. LINARIA. Toap-Fuax.

Low herbs, of various habit:
corolla personate, the throat nearly
or entirely closed, spurred from the
lower side: stamens 4: capsule opening by
apical pores.

L. vulgaris, Mill. TYoad-flax. Butter-
and-eggs. Figs. 255, 492. Common perennial
weed (from Europe), 1-2 ft., with linear
leaves and yellow flowers in racemes.

L. Cymbalaria, Mill. Menilworth ivy. .
Fig. 493. Trailing: leaves orbicular, 5-7- 493. Linaria Cymbalaria.
lobed: flowers solitary on long peduncles, lilac-blue. Europe; very com-
mon in greenhouses and sometimes runs wild.

Linaria vulgaris.

3. ANTIRRHINUM. SnappRaacon.

From Linaria differs chiefly in having no spur, but only a swelling at
the base of the corolla.

A. majus, Linn. Snapdragon. Fig. 220. Erect biennial or perennial:
leaves oblong, smooth, entire: flowers erect or ascending, 2 in. long, purple

or white, in a raceme with downy axis. Europe.

4. DIGITALIS. FoxGuove.

Stem simple and strict: leaves alternate: flow-
ers with a long expanding tube and a very short
indistinetly lobed limb, the throat wholly open:
stamens 4.

D. purptrea, Linn. Common foxrglove. Usu-
ally biennial, tall and stout (2-4 ft.): leaves oblong,
nearly or quite entire, rough and downy: flowers
many, drooping in a long, erect raceme, 2 in. long,
white to purple and spotted inside. Old garden

494. Mimulus luteus. plant from Europe.

SCROPHULARIACE®—CAPRIFOLIACEX oes

5. MIMULUS. MonxkeEy-FLOWER.

Small herbs with opposite leaves, with usually showy solitary flowers
on axillary peduncles: calyx 5-angled and 5-toothed: corolla tubular, the
2-lobed upper lip erect or spreading: stamens 4: stigma 2-lobed.

M. ringens, Linn. Wild monkey-flower. Erect perennial, with square
stem and oblong or lanceolate clasping serrate leaves: flowers blue or light
purple, somewhat personate. Wet places.

M. luteus, Linn. Monkey-flower. Tiger-flower. Fig. 494. Annual,
with ovate serrate leaves: flowers large, yellow, blotched with brick-red or
brown. Western America, and commonly cultivated. To gardeners often
known as WM. tigridioides.

XXIV. CAPRIFOLIACE2. Honeysuckie Famity.

Erect or twining shrubs, or sometimes herbs, with opposite mostly
simple leaves: flowers epigynous, 5-merous, regular or irregular,
tubular or rotate: stamens usually as many as the lobes of the corolla
and inserted on its tube: ovary 2-5-loculed, ripening into a berry,
drupe, or capsule. About 15 genera and 200 species. Characteristic
plants are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, snowberry, weigela,
twin-flower.

Aa Corolla lon g-tnDUlar sci. cc0cclcs'e o0ele ma aeens a ateaels na ee aetcls wd 1. Lonicera
AA. Corolla shallow, usually rotate.
B. Leaves simple... ...cseessn MA OSS OCIA SAOC IED eeeeeeede Viburnum
BB. Leaves pinnately compound.............-ceceeesceecseseae SAMBUCUS
1. LONICERA. Honeysvck.e.

Erect or twining shrubs, with tubular, funnelform, more or less irregular
flowers (often 2-lipped): corolla bulging on one side near the base: stamens
5: fruit a berry, usually 2 }
together from 2 contiguous
flowers.

a. Hrect.

L. ciliata, Muhl. Open,
smooth bush, 3-5 ft.: leaves
cordate - oblong, not sharp-
pointed, entire: flowers less
than 1 in. long, soft yellow»
the lobes nearly equal : ber-
ries red. Common in woods.
Blooms in very early spring.

L. Tatdrica, Linn. Tartarian honeysuckle. Fig. 85. Tall shrub (to
12 ft.): leaves cordate-oval, not long-pointed, entire: flowers pink or red

495. Lonicera Japonica,

(sometimes nearly white), 2-lipped, all the lobes oblong. Asia, but com-
mon in yards. Spring,

334 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

aa. Twining.

L. Japonica, Thunb. (lL. Halliana of gardens). Fig. 495. Weak twiner,
with oblong or ovate entire nearly evergreen leaves: flowers small, on short
pedicels, fragrant, opening white or blush but changing to yellow. Japan;
much cultivated.

L. Periclymenum, Linn. Probably the commonest of the old-fashioned
climbing honeysuckles (from Old World): strong and woody: leaves oblong-
ovate, not joined by their bases, entire, dark green above and pale beneath:
flowers large, reddish outside and yellow inside, very fragrant, in a dense,
long-stalked cluster.

2. VIBURNUM. Arrowwoop.

Erect shrubs, with simple leaves and small whitish flowers in broad
cymes: stamens 5: stigmas 1-3: fruit a small 1-seeded drupe

a. Flowers all alike in the cyme.

V. Lentago, Linn. Black haw. Sheepberry. Fig. 279. Tall shrub
(to 20 ft.): leaves ovate-pointed, finely and sharply serrate, shining above,
on long margined petioles: fruit % in. or more long, black. Common.

V. acerfolium, Linn. Dockmackie. Arrowwood. Six ft. or less: leaves
3-lobed and maple-like, downy beneath: cyme small and slender-stalked :
fruit flat and small. Woods.

aa. Flowers larger on the margin of the cyme.

V. Opulus, Linn. High-bush cranberry. Erect, 10 ft. or less: leaves 3-
lobed and toothed: outer flowers sterile and large: fruit an acid red edible
drupe. Swamps. In cultivation all the flowers have become sterile, result-
ing in the “snowball.” Compare Figs. 236, 237.

V. tomentosum, Thunb. (V. plicatum of gardens). Japanese snowball.
Leaves not lobed, shallow-toothed, thickish, plicate: heads of sterile flowers
axillary, globular. Japan.

3. SAMBUCUS. Exper.

Strong shrubs, with pinnate leaves and sharp-serrate leaflets: flowers in
dense corymbose cymes: calyx-teeth very small or none: corolla shallow,
open: stamens 5: stigmas 3: pith prominent in the stems. Common.

S. racemosa, Linn. ed elder. Pith and berries red: flowers in spring
in pyramidal clusters: leaflets lanceolate, downy beneath.

S. Canadénsis, Linn. Common elder. White elder. Pith white: berries
black-purple, in late summer, edible: flower-clusters convex or nearly flat,
in summer: leaflets oblong, smooth.

XXV. COMPOSIT 2. COMPOSITE or SUNFLOWER FAMILY.

Mostly herbs, many of them very large, very various in foliage:
flowers small, densely packed into an involucrate head, 5-merous,
the corolla of the outer ones often developed into long rays: stamens

COMPOSIT® aoD

5, the anthers united around the 2 styles: fruit dry and 1-seeded,
indehiscent, usually crowned with a pappus which represents a
ealyx. The largest of all phenogamous families, comprising about
one-tenth of all flowering plants,—about 800 genera and 11,000 to
2,000 species. Common composites are sunflower, aster, goldenrod,
boneset, dahlia, chrysanthemum, marigold, compass plant, thistles,
dandelion, lettuce.

A. Head with all the flowers strap-shaped (with rays) and
perfect: juice milky: leaves alternate.
Eva EL OER MELO WY in itei ait alisiaiclp (e/aizte/ ai aimic a/sialsle’e.cimip = « och + Taraxacum
BB. Flowers blue or pink .......... Se BORE OOM Ce Oye Cichorium
AA. Head with tubular and mostly perfect disk flowers, the
rays, if any, formed of the outer strap-shaped and
imperfect flowers. In cultivated species, all the
flowers may become strap-shaped (head “ double”):
juice not milky.
B. Fruit a completely closed and bur-like involucre,
containing one or two small akenes: flowers

imperfect.
c. Involucre-bur large and sharp-spiny..........-. 3. Xanthium
cc. Involuecre-bur small, not sharp-spiny........... 4. Ambrosia

BB. Fruit not formed of aclosed and hardened involucre
(although the involucre may be spiny, as in
Arctium and Cnicus).

c. Pappus none.

p. Leaves opposite, simple.....1.......-.sse00e 5. Ageratum
pp. Leaves alternate.
E. Foliage finely divided-...............+00 6. Achillea

EE. Foliage entire, toothed or broad-lobed.
F. Akenes curved or horseshoe-shaped.... 7. Calendula
FF. Akenes straight.

G. Torus flat or slightly convex......... 8.Chrysanthemium

GG OUUAIGODIOR 5 deca cescpcievses c+ seee 9. Rudbeckia

cc, Pappus of 2 thin early deciduous scales........ 10. Helianthus
GCC. Pappus & SHOE CLOWN... 6 cose cceccccecceynceses ll. Tanacetum

ecoec, Pappus of many bristles.
DIANE VOUT DICK Vrcise ms nersine asp tisinapseavns'e 12. Cnicus
pp. Plant not prickly.
E. Involucre prickly and bur-like............ 13. Aretinum

EE. Involucre not a bur nor prickly.
F. Torus bristly (chaff or bracts amongst
PUGIMOVPUS sc cehiviaicmarannanes eves l4. Centaurea
FF. Torus naked.
G. Rays present.
H. Color yellow, the heads very small,.15. Solidago
HH. Color not yellow.

1. Seales of involucre unequal....16. Aste
u. Scales equal in length.......... 17. Krigeron
1. Seales in several rows, more or
1O88 JOALY vcvsecasesccssues 18. Callistephus

GG. RAYS NONE ..,..ceccoencerenevnvevers 10, Kupatorium

336 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

1. TARAXACUM. DanpeEtion.

Stemless herbs, the 1-headed scape short, leafiess and hollow: florets all
perfect and strap-shaped: fruit ribbed, the pappus raised on a long beak.

T. officinale, Weber (7. Dens-leonis, Desf.). Common dandelion. Figs.
8, 275. Perennial, introduced from the Old World: leaves long, pinnate or
lyrate: heads yellow, opening in sun.

2. CICHORIUM. Curcory.

Tall, branching perennials, with deep, hard roots: florets perfect and
strap-shaped: fruit lightly grooved, with sessile pappus of many small,
chaffy scales. j

C. Intybus, Linn. Common chicory, run. wild
along roadsides (from Europe): 2-3 ft.: leaves ob-
long or lanceolate, the lowest pinnatifid: flowers
bright blue or pink, 2-3 together in the axils on long
nearly naked branches.

3. XANTHIUM. Cuorsur.

Coarse homely annual weeds with large alter-
nate leaves, flowers moncecious: in small involucres:
sterile involucres composed of separate scales, in
short racemes: fertile involucres of united scales
forming a closed body, clustered in the leaf axils, becoming spiny burs.

X. Canadénse, Mill. Common clotbur. Fig. 496. One to 2 ft., branch-
ing: leaves broad-ovate, petioled, lobed and toothed: burs oblong-conical,
1 in. long, with 2 beaks. Waste places.

a X. spindsum, Linn. Spiny clotbur. Pubescent, with
=, three spines at the base of each leaf: bur % in. long,
with 1 beak. Tropical America.

4. AMBROSIA. RacGweep.

Homely strong-smelling weeds, moncecious: sterile
involueres in racemes on the ends of the branches, the
scales united into a cup: fertile involueres clustered in
the axils of leaves or bracts, containing 1 pistil, with
4-8 horns or projections near the top. Following are
annuals:

A. artemisiefolia, Linn. Common ragweed. Fig.
497. One to3 ft., very branchy: leaves opposite or al-
CEES ~ ternate, thin, once- or twice-pinnatifid: fruit or bur
oe globular, with 6 spines. Roadsides and waste places.

: A. trifida, Linn. Great ragweed. Three to 12 ft.,
497, Ambrosia artem- with opposite 3-lobed serrate leaves: fruit or bur ob-
el ovate, with 5 or 6 tubercles. Swales.
5. AGERATUM. AcGERATUM.
Small diffuse mostly hairy herbs, with opposite simple leaves: heads
small, blue, white or rose, rayless, the involucre cup-shaped and composed
of narrow bracts: torus flattish: pappus of a few rough bristles.

496. Xanthium Canadense.

COMPOSIT 337

A. conyzoides, Linn. (Ad. Mericanum of gardens). Annual pubescent
herb, with ovate-deltoid serrate leaves: cultivated (from tropical America)
for its small and numerous clustered soft heads.

6. ACHILLEA. Yarrow.

Low perennial herbs: heads small, corymbose, many-flowered, white or
rose, with fertile rays: scales of involucre overlapping (imbricated): torus
flattish, chaffy: pappus none.

A. Millefolium, Linn. Yarrow. Stems simple below, but branchin® at
the top into a large rather dense umbel-like flower cluster: leaves very dark
green, twice-pinnatifid into very fine divisions: rays 4-5. Fields everywhere.

7. CALENDULA. Por Mariaotp.

Erect, quick-growing annuals, with terminal large yellow or orange heads
with pistillate rays: involucre of many short green scales: torus flat: pap-
pus none: akenes of the ray florets (those of the disk florets do not mature)
eurved or coiled.

C. officinalis, Linn. Common pot marigold. A common garden annual
from the Old World, with alternate entire sessile oblong leaves: 1-2 ft.

8. CHRYSANTHEMUM. CurysanTHEeMum.

Erect herbs, annual or perennial, with alternate lobed or divided leaves:
rays numerous, pistillate and ripening seeds: torus usually naked, flat or
convex: pappus none.

a. Akenes of ray florets winged.

C. morifolium, Ram. ((. Sinense, Sabine). Greenhouse chrysanthemum.
Tall and mostly strict, with lobed, firm and long-petioled alternate leaves:
flowers exceedingly various. China.

aa. Akenes not winged.

C. Leucanthemum, Linn. Whiteweed. Ox-eye daisy. Fig. 169. Peren-
nial, with many simple stems from each root, rising 1-2 ft., and bearing al-
ternate oblong sessile pinnatifid leaves: heads terminating the
stems, with long white rays and yellow disks. Fields everywhere
in the East, and spreading West.

9. RUDBECKIA. Cone-FLOWER.

Perennial or biennial herbs, with alternate leaves and showy
yellow-rayed terminal heads: ray florets neutral: scales of in- ,

volucre in about 2 rows, leafy and spreading: torus long or coni-
cal, with a bract behind each floret: akenes S-angled, with no
prominent pappus.
R. hirta, Linn. Brown-eyed Susan. Ox-eye daisy in the East.
Fig. 498. Biennial, 1-2 ft., coarse-hairy, leaves oblong or oblanceo-
late, nearly entire, 3-nerved: rays as long as the involucre or
longer, yellow, the disk brown: torus conical. Dry flelds. \
R. laciniata, Linn. Two to 7 ft., perennial, smooth, branch-
ing: leaves pinnate, with 5-7-lobed leaflets, or the upper ones 3-5. 498, Rud
parted: rays 1-2 in. long: torus becoming columnar. Low places. beckiahirta

Vv

338 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

10. HELIANTHUS. Sunruower.

Stout, often coarse perennials or annuals, with simple alternate or
opposite leaves and large yellow-rayed heads: ray florets neutral: scales of
involucre overlapping, more or less leafy: torus flat or convex, with a bract
embracing each floret: akene 4-angled: pappus of two scales (sometimes
2 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe.

a. Disk brown.

H. annuus, Linn. Common sunflower. Tall, rough, stout annual, with
mostly alternate stalked ovate-toothed large leaves: scales of involucre ovate-
acuminate, ciliate. Minnesota to Texas and west, but everywhere in gardens.
: H. rigidus, Desf. Prairie sunflower. Stout perennial (2-6 ft.), rough:
leaves oblong-lanceolate, entire or serrate, rough and grayish, thick and
rigid: heads nearly solitary, with 20-25 rays. Prairies, Michigan, west.

aa. Disk yellow (anthers sometimes dark).

H. gigantéus, Linn. Tall, to 10 ft., rough or hairy: leaves mostly
alternate, lanceolate-pointed, finely serrate or quite entire, nearly sessile :
seales linear-lanceolate, hairy: rays pale yellow, 15-20. Low grounds.

H. divaricatus, Linn. Figs 3, 4, 23,27. Small for the genus, 1-4 ft.:
leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, 3-nerved, sessile, serrate, rough and
thickish : rays 8-12, 1 in. long. Common in dry thickets.

H. tuberdsus, Linn. Jerusalem artichoke. Bearing edible stem-tubers
below ground: 5-10 ft.: leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, toothed, long-petioled:
scales not exceeding the disk: rays 12-20, large. Penn. west, and cultivated.

11. TANACETUM. Tansy.

Tufted perennials, with finely divided leaves and strong odor: involucre
of overlapping dry scales: torus convex: heads small, nearly or quite ray-
less, the flowers all seed-bearing: akenes angled or ribbed, bearing a short
crown-like pappus.

T. vulgare, Linn. Common tansy from Europe, but run wild about old
houses: 2-4 ft.: leaves 1-3-pinnately cut: heads yellow, pappus-crown 5-lobed.

12. CNICUS. TuistTLe.

Perennial or biennial herbs, with pinnatifid, very prickly leaves: florets
all tubular and usually allperfect: scales of theinvolucre prickly: torus bristly:
pappus of soft bristles, by means of which the fruit is carried in the wind.

C. lanceolatus, Hoffm. Common thistle, Figs. 228-230, 276. Strong,
branching biennial: leaves pinnatifid, decurrent, woolly beneath: heads
large, purple, with all the involuere-scales prickly. Europe.

C. arvénsis, Hoffm. Canada thistle. Lower, perennial and a pestiferous
weed: leaves smooth or nearly so beneath: flowers rose-purple, in small,
imperfectly dicecious heads, only the outer scales prickly. Europe.

13. ARCTIUM. Burvock.

Coarse biennials or perennials, strong-scented, with large dock-like
simple leaves: head becoming a bur with hooked bristles, the florets all
tubular and perfect: torus bristly: pappus of short, rough, deciduous bristles.

COMPOSIT® 338

A. Lappa, Linn. Common burdock. Fig. 280. Common weed from
Europe, with a deep, hard root and bushy top 2-3 ft. high: leaves broad-
ovate, somewhat woolly beneath, entire or angled.

14. CENTAUREA. Srar-rHistLe. CENTAUREA.
Alternate-leaved herbs, the following annuals, with single

heads terminating the long branches: heads many-flowered,
the florets all tubular but the outer ones usually much larger

and sterile: seales of involucre over-lapping: torus bristly:
akenes oblong, with bristly or chaffy pappus. Cultivated.

499. Centaurea Cyanus. At the left is an outer or ray tloret; then follow three
details of a disk floret; then follows the fruit.

C. Cyanus, Linn. Corn-flower. Bachelor's button. Figs. 231,499. Gray
herb: leaves linear and mostly entire: heads blue, rose or white. Europe.
C. moschata, Linn. Sweet sultan. One-2 ft., smooth: leaves pinnatifid:
pappus sometimes wanting: heads fragrant, white, rose or yellow, large.
Asia.
15. SOLIDAGO. GoLpENnKop.

Perennial herbs, with narrow, sessile leaves: heads yellow, rarely
whitish, few-flowered, usually numerous in the cluster, the ray-florets 1-16
and pistillate: seales of involucre close, usually not green and leaf-like:
torus not chaffy: akene nearly cylindrical, ribbed, with pappus of many
soft bristles. Of goldenrods there are many species. They are characteristic
plants of the American autumn. They are too critical for the beginner,

16. ASTER. Aster. Fig. 227.

Perennial herbs, with narrow or broad leaves: heads with several to
many white, blue or purple rays in a single series, the ray florets fertile
scales of involucre overlapping, usually more or less green and leafy: torus
flat: akenes flattened, bearing soft, bristly pappus, Asters are conspicuous
plants in the autumn flora of this country. ‘The kinds are numerous, and it
is difficult to draw specific lines. The beginner will find them too eritical,

340 THE KINDS OF PLANTS

17. ERIGERON. FLEaBane.

Annual, biennial or perennial erect herbs, with simple, sessile leaves:
heads few- to many-flowered: rays numerous in several rows and pistillate:
scales of involucre narrow and equal, scarcely overlapping, not green-tipped:
torus flat or convex, naked: pappus of soft bristles.

a. Rays very inconspicuous.

E. Canadénsis, Linn. Horse-weed. Mare’s-tail. Fig. 500.
Tall, erect, weedy, hairy annual, with strong scent: leaves
linear and mostly entire or the root-leaves lobed: heads small
and very numerous in a long panicle, the rays very short.

aa. Rays prominent: common fleabanes.

E. annuus, Pers. Usually annual, 3-5 ft., with spreading
hairs: leaves coarsely and sharply toothed, the lowest ovate
and tapering into a margined petiole: rays numerous, white or
tinged with purple, not twice the length of the involucre.

E. strigoésus, Muhl. Usually annual, with oppressed hairs
or none: leaves usually entire and narrower: rays white and
numerous, twice the length of the involucre.

18. CALLISTEPHUS, Curva AsTER.

Erect, leafy annuals, with large solitary heads bearing nu-
merous white, rose or purple rays: scales in several rows or
series, usually leafy: torus flat or nearly so, naked: pappus of
long and very short bristles.

C. horténsis, Cass. Common China aster, now one of the commonest of
garden annuals, in many forms: leaves sessile and coarsely toothed. China.

19. EUPATORIUM. Bonsser.

Erect perennials, with simple leaves: heads small and rayless, clustered,
all the florets perfect : scales not leafy : torus flat or low-conical, naked :
akene 5-angled: pappus a single row of soft bristles. Low grounds.

E. purptreum, Linn. Joe Pye weed. Tall, with purplish stem and lan-
ceolate toothed leaves in whorls of 3-6: heads flesh-colored, in dense
corymbs. Swamps, growing 3-10 ft.

E. perfoliatum, Linn. Boneset. Thoroughwort. Fig. 159. Two to 4
ft., hairy: leaves opposite and sessile, lanceolate, flowers white, in clusters.

500. Erigeron
Canadensis.

—Ke omhe t/a ne
act on sel pe
pad | row We UG

il

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Numbers in parenthesis refer to paragraphs

Aborted: crowded out, (291).

Abronia, Fig. 19.

Absorption by roots, 70.

Abutilon striatum, 313, Fig. 461; Thomp-
soni, 313.

Acacia, 104, 105, Fig. 151.

Accessory buds: more than one in an
axil, (87).

Accessory fruit: other parts grown to
the pericarp, (286), 153.

Acer, 316, Figs. 464-7.

Acetic acid, 246.

Achillea Millefolium, 337.

Acids, 246.

Acclimatization: adaptation to a climate
at first injurious, (339).

Acorn, 147.

Acuminate: taper-pointed, (199).

Acute: sharp-pointed, (199).

Adder’s-tongue, 292 ; fern, 191, Fig. 341.

Adiantum pedatum, 285, Fig. 309.

Adventitious buds: those appearing on
occasion, (54, 123).

Ecidia, 185. cidiospore, 185.

Aérial roots, 10.

Ageratum conyzoides, 337.

Aggregate fruit: one formed by the co-
herence of pistils which were distinct
in the flower, (296).

Agrimony, 162.

Ailanthus buds, Fig. 53; fruits, 160.

Air-plants, 12, 88.

Akene: dry, indehiscent 1-seeded peri-
carp, (288).

Aleanin, 241.

Alcohol, 241.

Alder, black, 301; smooth, 301; speckled,
301.

Aleurone grains, 249.

Alfalfa, 318, Fig. 470.

Alge, 176, 178, 235.

Alkaloids, 246.

Almond bud, 39, Fig. 64.

Alnus’‘glutinosa, 301; incana, 301; rugosa,

Alpine plants, 220. (301.

Alsike clover, 318.

Alternation of generations, 174, 194.
Althsea rosea, 312, Figs. 206, 207, 235.
Alyssum maritimum, 152, 311, Fig. 460.
Amarantus, 163.

Amaryllidacese, 295.

Ambrosia, 336, Fig. 497.

Amoeboid, 235.

Ampelopsis, leaves of, 95, Fig. 142.

Amphibious, 199.

Amzylo-dextrine, 249.

Anacharis, experiment with, 78, 235.

Analogy; related in function or use, (211).

Anaphase, 240.

Anemone, 309 fruit, 148.

Anemophilous: pollinated by wind, (267).

Annual: of one season’s duration, (10).

Anther: pollen-bearing part of the sta-
men, (254).

Antheridia, 174, 180. Antheridiophore, 187.

Anthodium: flower-head of the Com-
posite, 116.

Antirrhinum majus, 332, Fig. 220.

Antitropic: against the sun, (231).

Apetalous: petals missing, (257).

Aphyllon, 85, Fig. 118.

Apical: at the apex or top, (292).

Apium graveolens, 326.

Apparatus, 240.

Apple, 323, Figs. '267, 268; acid, 246; an-
ther, 129; bud, 36, 40, Fig. 67; bud-vari-
ation, 229; cells, 233, 234; fruit, 155,
Fig. 268; inflorescence, 118, Fig, 207;
leaf-scar, 37; -pear graft, 28; phyllotaxy,
48, 49; thorns, 104; tree, 15, Fig. 18

Apricot bud, 37, 39, 321, Figs. 51, 65, 477.

Aquatic, 198.

Aquilegia, 310, Fig, 458

Arbor-vitm, 288, Fig, 426.

Archegoniophore, 187. Archegonium, 174

Arctium Lappa, 339, Fig, 280

Ariswma, 290, Fig. 226

Arrow-root atarch, 249

Arrow-wood, 34,

Artichoke, Jerusalem, 338,

Arums, 141

A ascending, 15,

(341)

342 INDEX AND

Ash, branching, 54; fruit, 148, 159; leaf,
Fig. 127; phyllotaxy, 49.

Ash in plants, 72.

Asparagus, 3, 103, 259, 294, Figs. 147-150,
434.

Aspen (poplar), expression, 61.

Aspidium, 172, Figs. 304, 305.

Asplenium Filix-foemina, 286.

Assimilation: making of protoplasm,
(170, 171).

Aster, China, 340; flowers, 142, Fig. 227;
society, 225; (in cell), 239.

Atropin, 246.

Attachment of flowers, 144.

Autumn leaves, 225, 271.

Axil: upper angle which a petiole or
peduncle makes with the stem which
bears it, (86).

Azalea anther, 129, Fig. 204.

Bachelor’s button, 143, 339, Figs. 231, 499.

Bacterium (pl. bacteria), 87, Fig. 123.

Ballast plants, 163.

Balsam, 158, 241, 314.

Banyan, 12, 21, Figs. 15, 16.

Barbarea vulgaris, 311.

Barberry anther, 129, Fig. 205; inflores-
cence, Fig. 173; rust, 184; spines, 105,
Fig. 156.

Bark, 265; form of, 60.

Basal: at the base or bottom, (292).

Basidium, 184,

Basswood, 37, 49, 264.

Bast, 254, 255.

Bean, common, 8, 204, 319, Figs. 471, 472;
flowers, 188; germination, 164, 167, 171,
Figs. 282, 283, 285, 286; legume, 151;
Lima, pod, Fig. 247; sleep of, 50; twi-
ner, 111, 112.

Beech, 299; drop, 85; fruit, 147; leaf,
Fig. 1388; moneecious, 133.

Beet, 7; starch in, 31; sugar, 246.

Begonia, hairs, 234; leaf, Fig. 130; eut-
tings, 22; root-pressure, 73; stomates,
PARE

Berry: pulpy indehiscent few- or many-
seeded fruit, (294).

Betula, 301.

Bi-compound, 91.

Biennial: of two seasons’ duration, (10).

Birch, 300, Fig. 6.

Birth, variation after, 229.

Birthroot, 293, Fig. 221.

GLOSSARY

Bittersweet, 330; climbing, 108; twiner,
111.

Blackberry, 20, 322; euttings, 24; fruit,
153; and birds, 161.

Black haw, 334, Fig. 279.

Blade: expanded part of leaf or petal,(194).

Bleeding heart, 3.

Blue flag, 297, Fig. 437.

Bog plants, 199, 219.

Boneset, 340, Fig, 159; bracts, 106, Fig.

Boreal plants, 220. [159.

Boston ivy leaves, 95, Fig. 142; tendril,

Bougainvillea, 106, Fig. 161. (109.

Bouncing Bet, 307; fruit, Fig. 250.

Box, leaf of, Fig. 137.

Box-elder, 316; phyllotaxy, 46, 49.

Brace roots, 9, 12.

Bracts: much reduced leaves, (219).

Brake, 173, 237, 286, Figs. 125, 308, 310.

Bramble, 322.

Brassica, 311.

Briats, climbing, 108, prickles, 105.

Bridal wreath, Fig. 179.

Bristles, 105; nature of, 254.

Brown-eyed Susan, 337, Fig. 498.

Brunella vulgaris, 327.

Bryophyllum, leaf cuttings, 22.

Bryophyte, 176.

Buckwheat, 305, Fig. 454; flower, 125, 136;
family, 304; fruit, 148.

Bud, winter, 36; and light, 51; and seeds,
161; dormant, 54; propagation by, 22;
struggle for, 52; -seales, 36, 107; -scars,
old, 54, Fig. 86.

Bud-variations, 229.

Bulb: thickened part made up of scales
or plates, (79), 37, 49.

Bulbel: bulb arising from a mother
bulb, (80).

Bulblet: aérial

Bulb stales, 107.

Bundles, 257.

Burdock, 7, 62, 162, 339,

Burning bush, 266.

BUS) Lok

Burst of spring, 40, 204.

Butter-and-eggs,132, 137,332, Figs. 255, 492.

Buttercup, 1, 309, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191, 242;
akene, 148, Figs. 191, 242; flower, Figs.
187, 188; pistil, Fig. 191;society, 225.

Butternut buds, 37.

Buttresses, 9.

b, 22, (80).

280.

Wh. ¢ sarin

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Cabbage, 13, 17; fruit, 152; head, 38, Fig.
55; skunk, 290; water pores, 271.

Cacti, Fig. 344.

Caffein, 246.

Calcium, 72; oxalate, 246, 249, 250.

Calendula officinalis, 337.

Calla, 290, Figs. 427, 428; inflorescence,
142; lily, 290, Fig. 427.

Callus, 27.

Callistephus hortensis, 340.

Caltha palustris, 310.

Calyptra, 190. [(250).

Calyx: outer cirele of floral envelopes,

Cambium: the growing or nascent tissue
lying between the xylem and phloem of
the fibro-vascular bundle (418), and
therefore on the outside of the woody
trunk, since the active fibro-vase
bundles are in the young outer
(71); 257, 262, 264.

Campanula capsule, Fig. 256¢

Canada balsam, 241.

Canada thistle, 20, 23, 338.

Candytuft, Fig. 178.

Cane sugar, 245-247.

Cannabis sativa, 304.

Canna, 19, Fig. 28.

Canoe birch, 301.

Caoutchoue, 246.

Caprifoliacew, 333.

Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 311, Fig. 259.

Capsicum annuum, 330, Fig. 488..

Capsule: compound pod, (291).

Caraway, 326.

Carbohydrate, 77.

Carbon, 72, 74; dioxid, 74, 76.

Carnation, 307; cutting, Fig. 33.

Carpe]: a simple pistil; one of the units
of a compound pistil, (255).

Carrot, 3, 325, Fig. 180; umbel, 117, 118.

Carum Carui, 326; Petroselinum, 326.

Caryophyllaces, 306.

Cassia flower, 138, Fig. 223. (299.

Castanea Americana, 299, Fig. 241; sativa,

Castor bean germination, 167, Figs. 287-

Castor-oil, 247; inclusions, 249. [200,

Catalpa seeds, 159, Fig. 274.

Catkin: scaly-bracted deciduous spike
with diclinous flowers, (230).

Catnip, 126, 327, Fig. 197.

Cat-tail, 3; seeds, 161, Fig. 278;
259; swamp, 224, Fig. 378.

stems,

3438

Caulicle: stemlet of the embryo, (305).

Cedar, 161; and light, Fig. 71; fruit, 156.

Celandine, 235.

Celastrus, twiner, 112, Fig. 167.

Celery, 326; stem, 234.

Cell, 233; budding, 238; multiplication,
237; sap, 245; wall, 233, 234, 236.

Cellulose, 236.

Celtis occidentalis, 303.

Centaurea Cyanus, 339; moschata, 339.

Centrosphere, 239.

Cerastium viscosum, 308; yulgatum, 308.

Chara, 235.

Charcoal, 74.

Charlock, 311.

es and birds, 161.

rry, 20, 322, Fig. 479; fruit, 153; in-
florescence, 118; vhyllotaxy, 49.

Chestnut, 299, Fig. 241; fruit, 147, Fig.
241; moneecious, 133; -oak graft, 28.

Chicory, 336.

Chickweed, 308, Fig. 457.

Chinese sacred lily, 295, Fig. 435.

Chlorine, 72.

Chlorophyll, 75, 245.

Chromatin, 239. Chromosome, 239.

Chrysanthemum, 142, 145, 337, Fig. 169.

Cichorium Intybus, 336.

Cider acid, 246.

Cilia, 235.

Cinquefoil, 320.

Cion: the bud or branch used in grafting,

Citric acid, 246. [ (69).

Cladophyllum : leaf-like branch, (215)

Clearer, 241.

Cleft, 92. Cleft-graft, 28.
Cleistogamous flowers: small
self-fertilized flowers, (269),
Clematis, Fig. 360; and light, Fig. 73;

tendril, 111, Fig, 166,
Climate and plants, 203,
Climbing, 15; nasturtium, 314, Fig. 105;
plants, 108; plants and light, 43.
Close fertilization; secured
from same flower; self-fertillzation,
(260). [a0
Clotbur, common, 356, Fig, 4960; spiny,
Clover, 7, 318; Bokhara, 318, Figs, 408,
469; chlorophyll, 75; inflorescence, 116

closed

by pollen

sleep of, 50, Fig, &
Cnieus, 338, Figs. 228-290, 276
Cockle, 308,

o44

Coffee, 246; tree, 96.

Cohosh anther, 129.

Coleus, chlorophyll, 76; cuttings, 24, 26;
in window, 163; root-pressure, 73.

Collateral, 261.

Collection, making a, 279.

Collenchyma, 254.

Collodion, 241, 243.

Colonies, 221.

Color of foliage, 225.

Columbine, 310; Fig. 458; fruit, 151.

Columella, 181.

Column: body formed of union of sta-
mens and pistil in orchids, (279).

Companion cells, 254.

Compass plant, 50, 269.

Complete flower: all parts present, (257).

Complete leaf: having blade, petiole,
stipules, (194), Fig. 131.

Composite, 334. Compositous flowers, 142.

Compound leaves, 91.

Compound pistil: of more than one ear-
pel united, (255).

Concentrie, 261.

Cone-flower, 337.

Cones, 156, Figs. 271, 272.

Conifer cells, 237.

Coniferee, 286.

Conjugation, 179.

Connate, 63, Fig. 134.

Convallaria majalis, 294,

Convolvulacesx, 328.

Copper sulfate, 241.

Coral root, 85, Fig. 119.

Cork elm, 303, Fig. 450.

Corm: a solid bulb-like part, (81).

Cormel: a corm arising from a mother
corm, (81).

Corn, ash in, 72; cells, 237; field, 213, 217,
Fig. 358; germination, 168, Figs. 291-295;
moneecious, 138, Fig. 214; North and
South, 203; phyllotaxy, 49; root cap,
253, Fig. 395; roots of, 8, 12, Fig. 14;
water in, 72; wilting, 83; roots, 267;
stalk, 18; starch, 248, 249; stems, 259;
suffocated, 70; sugar, 246.

Corn cockle, 308.

Cornflower flowers, 143, Figs. 231, 499.

Corolla: inner circle of floral envelopes,

Cortex, 260. [(250).

Corymb: short and broad more or less

flat-topped indeterminate cluster, (241).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Corymbose inflorescence: outer flowers
opening first; indeterminate, (236).

Cotton, 146; fibers, 233.

Cotyledon: seed-leaf (305).

Cowslip, 310.

Cow-pea, 319, Fig, 473.

Cranberry, high-bush, 334.

Cranesbill, wild, 313, Fig. 181.

Creeper: a trailing shoot which takes
root throughout its length, (56), 15.

Crenate: shallowly round-toothed, (200).

Cress fruit, 152; winter, 311.

Crocus, 34, 35, Figs. 48, 49, 297, Fig. 438.

Cross-fertilization: secured by pollen
from another flower, (260).

Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen
from flower to flower, (263).

Crowfoot, 309, Figs. 2, 187, 188, 191, 242.

Crown: that part of the stem at the sur-
face of the ground, (37); tuber, 33.

Cruciterx, 310; hairs, 270.

Cryptogam: flowerless plant, as fern,
moss, fungus, 178, 284, (325).

Crystals, 250. Crystaloids, 249.

Cucumber collenchyma, 254; fruit, 155;
pits, 237; squirting, 159.

Cupulifersx, 298.

Currant, 324, 325, Figs. 481, 482, 483; bud,
Fig. 54; cuttings, 24, 27, Fig. 38; fruit,
153; stem, 266, Fig. 409.

Cuseuta Gronovii, 329, Fig. 487.

Cutting: severed piece of a plant de-
signed to propagate the plant, (51), (61).

Cutting-box, 26, 30.

Cutting sections, 242, 243.

Cycloloma platyphyllum, 163.

Cyme: broad more or less flat-topped
determinate cluster, (244).

Cymose inflorescence: central flowers
opening first: determinate, (243).

Cypress vine, 328, Fig. 485.

Cystolith, 250.

Daffodil, 295, Fig. 234.

Dahlia, double, 145, Fig. 232.

Daisy flowers, 142; ox-eye, 337, Fig. 169;
rays, 143; scape, 120, Fig. 185.

Dalibarda, 134.

Damping-off, 25, 30.

Dandelion, 3, 7, 14, 257, 3386, Figs. 8, 275;
flowers, 142; rays, 148; scape, 120; seeds,
158, 160, Fig. 275.

Darwin, quoted, 213, 231.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Datura, 331, Fig. 248.

Daucus Carota, 325, Fig. 180.

Daughter cell, 238.

Day-lily, 293. Fig. 253, 433; Fig. 432.

Deciduous: falling (204).

Decompound, 91.

Decumbent, 15.

Decurrent: running down the stem, (195),
Fig. 133.

Dehiscence: opening of seed-pod or an-
ther, (264), (287).

Deliquescent: trunk or leader lost in the
branches, (40).

Dentaria pod, 147, Fig. 240.

Dentate: sharp-toothed, (200).

Dependent plants, 85.

Dermatogen, 253.

Desert vegetation, Fig. 344.

Determinate: definite cessation of growth
at the apex, (243).

Dew, 83.

Dewberry, 21, Fig. 29, 158; fruit, 153.

Dextrose, 245, (231).

Diadelphous; in two groups, (277).

Dianthus, 307, Fig. 456.

Dicentra inflorescence, Fig. 172.

Dichogamy: stamens and pistils matur-
ing at different times, (265).

Diclinous: imperfect; having either sta-
mens or pistils, (257).

Digestion: changing of starchy materials
into soluble and transportable forms,
(168).

Digitalis purpurea, 332.

Digitate, 91.

Diewcious: staminate and pistillate flow-
ers on different plants, 133.

Dispersal of seeds, 158.

Divergence of character, 213.

Divided, 92.

Dock, 3; bitter, 305; curly, 305.

Dockmackie, 334.

Dodder, 85, 89, 112, 329, Fig. 487.

Dog's-tooth violet, 292, Fig. 431.

Dogwood bracts, 106; tree, Fig. 356.

Doorweed, 306, Fig. 193.

Dormant buds, 4.

Double flowers, 144.

Dragon-root, 290,

Dragon's head inflorescence, Fig. 175.

Drupe: fleshy l-seeded indehiscent fruit;
stone fruit, (205).

O45

Drupelet: one drupe in a fruit made up
of aggregate drupes, (296).

Dryopteris, 172, 286, Figs. 304, 305, 420.

Ducts, 233, 257.

Dusty miller, 308.

Dutchman's pipe, 112.

Dwarf plants, 204.

Earth parasites, 2.

Ecology: habits and modes of life of ani-
mals and plants, (369).

Egg-cell, 180.

Eggplant, 153, 330, Fig. 261.

Elater, 189.

Elder, 119, 334; red, 334; pith, 233.

Elliptic, 94.

Elm, 15, 302, Figs. 448-450; flower, 125,
136; fruit, 148, 159; germination, 171;
leaf, Fig. 146; phyllotaxy, 46, 49; trunk
of, 60; shoot, history, 58, Figs. 91-95.

Elodea, 78, 235, Fig. 387.

Embryo: the plantlet in the seed, (305).

Embryology, 102.

Embryo-sac, 175.

Emersed, 198.

Emetin, 246.

Endodermis, 253.

Endogenous stems, 259.

Endosperm: food in the seed outside the
embryo, (306).

Entire: margin not indented, (200).

Entomophilous: pollinated by insects,

Envelopes, floral, 122. (266)

Environment: surroundings; conditions
in which organisms grow 203, (S26).

Eosin for staining, 70.

Epicotyl: that part of the caulicle lying
above the cotyledons, (S12).

Epidermis, 254, 250, 260; of leaf, 270.

Epigeal ; cotyledons rising into the air
in germination, (311).

Epigynous: borne on the ovary, (253)

Epiphyte, 88, 200.

Equisetum, 192, Fig, 342.

Erigeron, 340, Fig. 500,

Erythronium, 202,Pig. 451.

Esquimanux, 204,

Essential organs:

Ether, 241.

Eupatorium, 90, 340, Pig, 160

Euphorbia puleherrima, 247

Eutropic; in the direction of the sun's

stamens and pistils,

1 (250)

course, (231).

346 INDEX

Evergreen: remaining green, (204).

Everlasting pea, 317, Fig. 246.

Evolution, 232.

Excretion by roots, 71.

Excurrent: the trunk or leader continued
through the top, (39).

Exogenous stems, 260.

Explosive fruits, 158.

Exposure, 207.

Expression, 60.

Fagopyrum, 305, Fig. 454.

Fagus Amerieana, 299; sylvatica, 299.

Fall of leaf, 97, 271.

Fastigiate trees, 60, Fig. 97.

Fats, 246.

Fehling’s solution, 241, 247.

Fern, 19; cells, 237; Christmas, 286, Figs.
304, 305; cinnamon, 285, Fig. 419; flow-
ering, 285; maidenhair, 285, Fig. 309;
ostrich, 285 ; royal, 285; sensitive, 285,
Fig. 310; fronds, 172; in good and poor
light, 42, Figs. 68, 69; stem, 261; 284;
discussed, 172, 191.

Fertilization: impregnation of the ovule,
(259).

Fertilizer, 69.

Fibrous root, 7; tissue, 255.

Fibro-vascular bundles, 257.

Ficus elastica, 251.

Fig, climbing, Fig. 74.

Figwort family, 331.

Filament: stalk part of the stamen, (254).

Filices, 284.

Five-finger, 320.

Fixing sections, 242, 243.

Flag, 297, Fig. 437.

Flagella, 235.

Fleabane, 340.

Fleur-de-lis, 297.

Flora: plant population of a country or
place; also a book describing this
population, (327).

Floral envelopes, 122.

Florets: individual flowers of composites
and grasses, 146, (281).

Flower, parts of, 122; -branches,
-bud, 39; -cluster, 114; -stem, 119.

Foliage, (6), 90.

Follicle: dry dehiscent pericarp opening
on the front suture, (289).

Food materials, 72; reservoirs, 31;
ply, 230.

114;

sup-

AND GLOSSARY

Forest, Figs. 361-368, 373, 374; and light,
43; beginning of, 222.

Formalin, 241. Formic acid, 246.

Forms of plants, 59.

Foul-gas, 75.

Foxglove, 3, 332.

Fragaria, 320, Figs. 264. 474, 475.

Framework, 2, 62, 100, Figs. 3, 4.

Free-swimming, 198.

Freesia refracta, 298, Fig. 439.

Fringed wintergreen, 134.

Frog spittle, 178.

Frond: leaf of fern, (317).

Fruit-bud, 39; -dot, 172; sugar, 245.

Fruits, 147.

Fuchsia, 18; and light, 42; bracts, 106,
Fig. 160; cuttings, 26; flower, 123, Fig.
189; inflorescence, 115: phyllotaxy, 49;
water pores, 271.

Function: what a plant or a part does;
its vital activities.

Fundamental tissue, 257.

Fungi, 85, 176, 180.

Funiculus, 164.

Funkia, 293, Figs. 432, 433.

Galanthus nivalis, 296, Fig. 436.

Galium, climbing, 108.

Gametophyte, 174, 194.

Gamopetalous: corolla of one piece, (251).

Gamosepalous: calyx of one piece, (251).
Gemme, 187.
Genealogy, 16, 106. [(g).

Generation: period from birth to death,

Geranium, 18; chlorophyll, 75; cuttings,
24, 26, Figs. 32, 36, 37; family, 313; fish,
314; inflorescence, Figs. 181, 183; and
light, 42; kinds of, 318; in window,
121, 163.

Germination, 164, 165.

Ginger, 19.

Glabrous: not hairy.

Gladiolus, 34, 35, 298, Figs. 50, 440.

Glaucous: covered with a“bloom” or a
whitish substance.

Globoid inelusions, 249.

Glomerule: dense head-like cyme, (244).

Gloxinia, leaf cuttings, 22.

Glucose, 245, 247.

Glume, 146.

Glycerine, 241.

Goldenrod, 3, 142, 225, 339.

Gooseberry, 27, 158, 324.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY 347

Gourd, collenchyma, 254.

Graft: a branch or bud made to grow on
another plant, 27, (60), Figs, 31, 39-41.

Grafting wax, 30.

Grape crystals, 250; cuttings, 24, 27; fruit,
153; leaves of, 95; sugar, 245; tendrils,
110, 113, Figs. 164, 168.

Grass, 3, 18; flowers, 146; pepper, 312;
pink, 307; stems, 259.

Grasses, framework, 62; phyllotaxy, 49;

Grazing, 223. [ pollination, 132.

Greenbriar tendril, 111; tissue, 259.

Grevillea in window, 163.

Guard cells, 271, Figs. 413, 414.

Guinea squash, 330, Fig. 261.

Gum-resin, 246, 247.

Gymnosperm: seed naked (not in an
ovary); applied to pines, spruces, etc.,
(299), 155, 286.

Habit: the looks, appearance, general
style of growth, (36).

Habitat: particular place in which a
plant grows, (327).

Hackberry, 303.

Hackmatack, 288.

Hair-grass, 163.

Hairs, 105; nature of, 254, 270.

Halophytie societies, 219, Fig. 371.

Hardwood cutting, 27.

Haustoria, 86.

Haw, black, 334, Fig. 279.

Hawthorn, 104, Figs. 152-155; graft, 28.

Hazel, 133, 158.

Head: short dense spike, (239), Fig. 176.

Hedera Helix, 251, 261, 269, Fig. 162.

Helianthus, 338. [(100).

Heliotropism: turning towards the light,

Hemerocallis flava, 293; fulva, 293.

Hemlock, 288, Fig. 425.

Hematoxylin, 241.

Hemp, 304.

Henna root, 241.

Hepatica, 148, 309.

Herbaceous: not woody, (11).

Herbarium, 279.

Herb Robert, 313.

Heredity, 230.

Heterm@cism, 185.

Hibiseus, 313, Fig. 139.

Hickory, 39, 51, 147, Figs. 59, 60, 83; in-
florescence, 117, 143.

Hilum or seed-scar, 165,

Hip: fruit of the rose, 155, Fig. 265.

Hog-peannt, 134, Fig. 215.

Hollyhock, 312, Figs. 206, 207, 235; flower,
130, 139, Figs. 206, 207, 235; hairs, 25.

Holly, phyllotaxy, 49; tree, Fig. 352.

Homology: related in origin or structure,

Honesty fruit, 152. {(211).

Honey locust buds, 37; leaves, 95; thorns,
105; tree, 63.

Honeysuckle buds, 37, 53, Fig. 85; family,
333; leaves, Fig. 134: phyllotaxy, 49;
Tartarian, 333, Fig. 85; twiner, 112.

Hop clover, 318.

Hop, 111, 112, 304, Fig. 167.

Horehound, 328.

Horse-chestnut bud, 36: fruit, Fig. 251;
leaf-scar, 37; thyrse, Fig. 184.

Horse mint, 326.

Horsetails, 192, Fig. 342.

Horse-weed, 340, Fig. 500.

Host, 85.

Hound's tongue, 162.

House-leek, 21; phyllotaxy, 49.

Huckleberry anther, 129,

Humulus Japonicus, 304.

Humus, 202.

Hyacinth, 35, 293; crystals, 250;
cence, Fig. 174; scape, 120.
Hydrangea, 119; doubling, 145.

Hydrogen, 72.

Hydrophytie society, 219, Figs. 369, 377

Hypocotyl: that part of the caulicle lying
below the cotyledons, (311).

Hypogeal: cotyledons remaining beneath

inflores-

the ground in germination, (S11).

Hypogynous: borne on the terus, or un-
der the ovary, (283).

Imbedding, 243.

Immersed, 198,

Impatiens, 314, 315, Fig. 462, 409;
chyma, 254 ;
pores, 271; seeds, 128.

Imperfect flower: having either stamens

collen

root-pressure, 7u; water

or pistils, (257).
Inclusions, 249. :
Incomplete flower: any parts wanting,
Indehiscent: not opening, (287)
Independent plants, 55
Indeterminate growing on from the

apex, (200).

Indian pipe, 85
Indian turnip, 141, 200, Pig. 220

348

India-rubber plant, 246, 250, 251,269.

India wheat, 305.

Indusium, 173.

Inflorescence: mode of flower-bearing :
less properly, a flower-cluster, (246).

Insects and flowers, 131.

Internode: space between two joints or
nodes, (64).

Inulin, 246.

Involucre: a whorl of small leaves or
bracts standing close underneath a
flower or flower-cluster, (278)

Iodine test for starch, 31, 249.

Tpecue, 246.

Ipomeea, 328, Figs. 217, 485, 486.

Iris, 297, Fig. 437; leaf, 269; stems, 259.

Irregular flower: some parts in one
series different, (258).

Trrigation, 207.

Tron, 72.

Isoétes, 193.

Ivy, 251, 261, 269, Figs. 162, 411; Kenil-
worth, 332, Fig. 493.

Jack-in-the-Pulpit, 141, 251, 290, Fig. 226.

Jamestown-weed, 331, Fig. 248.

Jerusalem artichoke, 338.

Jewel-weed, 158, 314, Fig. 462, 463.

Jimson-weed, 331, Fig. 248,

Joe Pye weed, 340.

Jonquil, 295.

Juneberries and birds, 161.

Juniper, 156, 289.

Karyokinesis: indirect division or trans-
formation of the nucleus, being one
means of cell multiplication ; mitosis,
239, (393).

Kentucky coffee tree, 96.

Knotweed, 125, 136, 306, Fig. 193.

Labiate, 326. Labiate, 137.

Laboratory advice, 240.

Lactose, 245.

Lactuca Seariola, 50, 356.

Lady’s-slipper, 140, Fig. 225.

Lanceolate, 94.

Landscape and plants, 202.

Larch, 288; European, 288.

Larix Americana, 288; decidua, 288.

Larkspur, double, Fig. 233; flower, 131,
Figs. 208-210; fruit, 148, Figs. 243, 244.

Lathyrus, 233, 317, Figs. 222, 246.

Layer: a branch which takes root and
gives rise to an independent plant, (55).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Leaf, fall of, 97; how to tell, 98.

Leaflet: one part in a compound leaf,
(192).

Leaf-scars, 37, 273.

Leaves, arrangement of, 46; fall of, 225,
271; general account, 90; propagation
by, 22; structure, 269.

Legume: simple pericarp dehiscing on
both sutures, (290).

Leguminose, 316.

Lemon acid, 246.

Lens, 126, Figs. 198, 200.

Lenticels, 266.

Leonurus Cardiaea, 328.

Lepidium Virginicum, 312.

Lettuce, experiment with,78; wild, 50, 356.

Leucoium vernum, 296.

Leyulose, 245.

Lichen, 88, 176, 186.

Life-history: sum of the events in the
life of a plant, (7).

Light and plants, 42, 215.

Ligneous : woody, (11).

Lignin, 236.

Ligule of isoétes, 194.

Lilae bushes, 100; bud, 41; inflorescence,
119; phyllotaxy, 49.

Lilies, bulblets, 22, Fig. 30; offsets, 21.

Lilium, 291, 292, Figs. 30, 429.

Lily, 291; bulb, 33; calla, 290, Fig. 427;
Chinese sacred, 295, Fig. 435; Easter,
291; tiger, 292, Fig. 30; white, 291;
flowers, 138.

Lily-of-the-valley, 19, 294.

Linaria, 332, Fig. 493.

Linear, 94.

Linin, 2389.

Linnzeus, 276.

Liverleaf, 309. Liverworts, 186.

Living matter, making of, 74.

Lobed, 92.

Loecule: compartment of a pistil, (285).

Loculicidal: dehiscence between the par-
titions, (292).

Locust buds, 37; honey,
honey, tree, 63; sleep of, 50;

Lodicule, 146.

Lonicera, 333, 334, Figs. 85, 495.

Lotus, Fig. 1385; starch, 248.

Lucerne, 318, Fig. 470.

Lychnis Coronaria, 308; Githago, 308.

Lycopersicum esculentum, 330, Fig. 186.

leaves, 95;
thorns,
{105.

ros wa

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Macrospore, 194.

Magnesium, 72.

Maidenhair, 173, 285, Fig. 309.

Malice acid, 246.

Mallow, 139, 312, Figs. 170, 224.

Malt sugar, 245; Maltose, 245.

Malva rotundifolia, 312, Fig. 224.

Malvacee, 312.

Mandrake, 19.

Mangrove, 12, 21, Fig. 17. -

Maple, 15, 46, Figs. 75, 76, 144; kinds of,
316; branching, 54; buds, 37, 39, 40;
dissemination, 160; phyllotaxy, 49;
trunk of, 60; family, 315; fruit, 148;
germination, 171, Figs. 296-303; leaf,
Fig. 129; leaf-scar, 37.

Marble etched by roots, 71.

Marchantia polymorpha, 186, Figs. 331-

Mare’s-tail, 340, Fig. 500. (337.

Marigold, marsh, 310; pot, 337.

Marrubium vulgare, 328.

Marsh mallow, 140, 312.

Marsh marigold, 310.

Marsh plants, 199, 219.

May apple, 19, 23. Mayflower, 309.

Mayweed, 222.

Medicago lupulina, 318; sativa, 318, Fig.

Medullary rays, 260. {470.

Melilotus alba, 318, Fig. 469; officinalis,

Melon fruit, 155. (318.

Menispermum stem, 260, 262, 266.

Mentha, 327, Fig. 484.

Meristematic, 252, 257.

Mesophyll, 253, 269.

Mesophytie society, 219, Fig. 370.

Metaphase, 239.

Micropyle, 164.

Microscope, compound, 241;
126, Figs. 198-200.

Microsome, 234.

Microspore, 194

Microtome, 242.)

Midrib, 93.

Mignonette, inflorescence, 116,

Mildew, 85, 182.

Milk sugar, 245.

Milkweed fruit, 151, Fig. 245; seeds, 161,
Fig. 277; tissue, 257.

Mimulus, 333, Fig. 494.

Mint family, 326; phyllotaxy, 49.

Mistlesoe, 87,

Mitosis, 268, 239.

dissecting,

549

Mock orange, 323.

Monadelphous: in one group, (277).

Monecious: staminate and _ pistillate
flowers on the same plant, 133.

Monarda fistulosa, 327.

Monkey-flower, 333, Fig. 494; wild, 333.

Monocotyledons, 97.

Monopodial: axial growth continued by
growth from terminal bud or persis-
tence of the leader, 113.

Moonflower, 111; 328, Fig. 486.

Moonseed stem, 260, 262, 266.

Morning-glory, 329, Fig. 217; corolla, 137,
Fig. 217; twiner, 111, 112.

Morphin, 246.

Morphology, 101.

Morus alba, 303, Fig. 452;

Mosses, 88, 189, 234.

Mother cell, 238.

Motherwort, 328.

Mould, 86, 180, 181.

Mountain plants, 220.

Mounting sections, 242.

Mowing and plants, 223, Figs., 375, 376.

Mucilage, 246.

Muck, 202.

Mucor, 180, Figs. 318-320.

Mueus, 246.

Mulberry, leaves of, 95; shoot, Fig. 84;
white, 303, Fig. 452; wild, 303.

Mullein, 3, 16, 332, Fig. 22; hairs, 270;
inflorescence, 116; pink, 308.
Mushroom, 85, 180, Figs. 120, 121.

Muskmelon seedlings, Fig. 145.

Mustard, 311, Fig. 459; fruit, 152;
sions, 249; pod, 147.

Mycelium: vegetative part of a fungus,

Mycorrhiza, 87. ((180), 181.

Myxomycetes, 235,

Naked flower: no floral envelopes, (257)

double, Figs, 24, 45

flower, 126, Fig, 105

rubra, 303,

inclu:

Narcissus, 35, 205;

Nasturtium, 314;
tendril, 110.

Natural selection, 251.

Nectarine, origin of, 220

Nectary, 151,

Needle for dissecting, 126, Fig. 100

Nepeta Cataria, $27, Fig. 107

Netted-veined, 01,

Nettle, 304; acid, 246; hairs, 295

Nettle-tree, 905, at

Nicotiana alata, 391, Fig, 491; Tabacum,

300

Nicotin, 246.

Nightshade, 330.

Nine-bark fruit, 151.

Nitella, 235.

Nitrogen, 72, 249.

Node: a joint;
joints is an internode.

Nuclear-plate, 239.

Nucleolus, 234, 239.

Nucleus, 233, 248.

Nux vomica, 246.

Oak, 15, 117, 147, 299, Fig. 212; branching,
54; expression, 61; moncecious, 133;
transpiration in, 82; where grows, 198;
kinds 299, 300.

Oats lodged, Fig. 355; starch, 249.

Oblong, 94.

Obovate, 94.

Obtuse: blunt, (199).

(cology: see ecology.

Offset: a plant arising close to the base
of the mother plant, (56).

Oils, 246, 247.

Okra, 140.

Oleander leaf, 269.

Olive tree, Fig. 100.

Onion bulb, 33, 35, Figs, 45, 46; germina-
tion, 171; sugar, 246.

Onoclea, 285, Fig. 310.

Odégonia, 180.

Odspore, 180.

Operenlum, 191.

Ophioglossum, 191, Fig. 341,

Opium, 246.

Orange, mock, 328; Osage, 308, Fig. 451,

Orbiecular, 94.

Orchard, 63, 206, 214, 217.

Orchid flowers, 140, Fig. 225; rocts, 90;
stems, 259; epiphytes, 88.

Osage orange, 49, 105, 3038, Fig. 451.

Osmosis, 66, Figs. 106-108.

Osmunda, 285, Figs. 418, 419.

Ovary: seed-bearing part of a pistil,

Ovate, 94. [(256}.

Overgrowth, 224.

Oxalie acid, 246.

Oxalis, 50, 158, 314, Fig. 273.

Ox-eye daisy, 115, 337, Fig. 169.

Oxygen, 72; liberation of, 77, Figs. 111,112.

Palet, 146.

Palisade cells, 269.

Palisades of Hudson, Fig. 345,

the space between two

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Palm, 60, 259, Fig. 98.

Palmate, 91.

Panicle: branching raceme, (240).

Panicum eapillare, 163.

Pansy flower, Fig. 196.

Papaver somniferum, 246.

Papilionaceous flowers, 138. erase

Pappus: peculiar calyx of composites,

Parallel-veined, 91. [(282).

Paraphyse, 190.

Parasite, 85, 200; vs. graft, 22.

Parenchyma, 236, 252.

Parsley, 117, 326.

Parsnip, 3, 117, 325.

Parted, 92.

Parts of flower, 122.

Passion flower, 127.

Pastinaea sativa, 325.

Pasturing, 223.

Patches, 19, 23.

Pea, 3; black, 319, Fig. 473; Everlasting,
817, Fig. 246; garden, 317, Figs. 190,
284; stock, 319, Fig. 473; sweet, 317,
Fig. 222; flowers, 138, Fig. 222; fruit,
Fig. 246; germination, 166, 171, Fig. 284;
legume, 151; tendril, 110.

Peach, 321, Fig. 476; phyllotaxy, 49; and
nectarine, 229; bud, 37, 40; erystals, 250;
fruit, 153; inclusions, 249.

Pear, 323, Figs. 63, 101, 102, 182, 266;
phyllotaxy,49; sclerenchyma,257; -apple
graft, 28; bud, 36, 40, Figs. 52, 57, 58,
61-63,66; fruit, 155, Fig. 266; -hawthorn
graft, 28; inflorescence, 108, Fig. 182;
leaf-sear, 37; -quince graft, 28; thorns,
104; tree, 15; form of, 63, Figs. 101, 102,

Peat, 202. [ (247).

Pedicel: stem of one flower in a cluster,

Peduncle: stem of a flower-eluster or of
a solitary flower, (247).

Pelargonium hortorum, 314, Fig. 183.

Peltate: attached to its stalk inside the
margin, (197), Figs. 126, 135.

Pentamerous: in 5’s, (271).

Peony fruit, 151.

Pepo: fruit of pumpkin, squash, ete.,

Pepper-grass, 312. [ (298).

Pepper, red, 330, Fig. 488.

Peppermint, 327.

Perennial: of three or more seasons’ du-
ration, (10). [pistils, (257).

Perfect flower: having both stamens and

INDEX AND

Perianth: floral envelopes of lily-like
plants (more properly of monocoty-
ledonous plants), (275).

Periblem, 253.

Pericarp: ripened ovary, (286).

Perichetia, 190.

Perigynous: borne around the ovary,

Peristome, 191. [(283).

Perithecium, 183.

Persistent: remaining attached, (204).

Personate, 137.

Petal: one of the separate leaves of a
corolla, (251).

Petiolule: stalk of a leaflet, (196).

Petiole: leaf-stalk, (194).

Petunia, 330, Figs. 489, 490.

Phaseolus, 319, Figs. 471, 472.

Phellogen, 266.

Phenogam: seed-bearing or flowering
plant, (325), 286.

Philadelphus, 323.

Phloem, 257.

Phlox, 137, 225, Fig. 218.

Phosphorns, 72.

Photosynthesis: the making of organic
matter from COz and water, in the
presence of light, (163).

Phyllodium: leaf-like petiole, (214).

Phyllotaxy: arrangement of leaves and
flowers on the stem, (111).

Physostegia inflorescence, Fig. 175.

Picea, 288, Figs. 270, 271, 424.

Pie plant, 305, Figs. 78, 79.

Pigweed, 3, 62, Figs. 372, 383, 384.

Pine, 15, 287, Figs. 10, 21, 145, 272, 421-3;
cone, Fig. 272; foliage, Fig. 145; stem,
Fig. 407; tell-tale, Fig. 364; trees, Fig.
353; pollination, 132.

Pink, 307; dehiscence, 152, Fig. 250.

Pinnate, 91.

Pinnatifid, 92.

Pinus, 287, Fig. 421-423. (gan, (253),

Pistil: ovule-bearing or seed-bearing or-

Pistillate: having pistils and no stamens,

Pisum sativum, 317, Figs. 190, 284, | (257).

Pitchforks, 162.

Pits, 237.

Plankton, 199.

Plantain inflorescence, 116.

Plant-breeding, 251.

Plant-food defined, 64.

Plasmodium, 235,

GLOSSARY 351

Plerome, 253.

Plum, 20, 321, Figs. 194, 262, 478, 479;
phyllotaxy, 49; pollination, Fig, 202;
blossom, Fig. 194; drupe, 153, Fig. 262;
thorns, 104.

Plumule: bud in the embryo, (305).

Plur-annual: of one season’s duration
because killed by frost, (14).

Pod: dehiscent pericarp, (287).

Poinsettia bracts, lu7; starch, 247-249.

Polarity, 50.

Polianthes tuberosa, 296.

Pollards, 54, Fig. 87.

Pollen germinating, Fig. 203. [175.

Pollen: spores borne by the stamen, (254),

Pollination: transfer of pollen from sta-
men to pistil, (263). [(279).

Pollinium: pollen in a coherent mass,

Polygonatum, 204. r108.

Polygonum, 306, Figs. 193, 455; climbing,

Polyhedral, 233.

Polypetalous : corolla of separate parts
or petals, (251).

Polypode, 173, 285, Figs. 306, 307.

Polyporus, Fig. 121.

Polysepalous: calyx of separate parts or
sepals, (251).

Polytrichum commune, 189, Pigs. 338-340.

Pome: fruit of apple, pear, ete., (208).

Poplar bud, 36; cuttings, 27;

133; inflorescence, 117; phyllotaxy, 49;
shape, 60, Fig. 97; seeds, 161.

Poppy, opium, 246.

Portulaca fruit, Fig. 24.

Pot marigold, 337.

Potassium, 72; hydroxide, 241.

Potato, 16, 35, 153, 330, Figs. 24, 42, 219;
and osmosis, 68; cuttings, 24;
137, Fig. 219; inclusions, 249
Figs. 45,46; sprouts, 31, 76, 85, Pig. 42
starch, 31, 35, 248, M0, Fig. 42;

Potato-tomato graft, 28, {16, S20

Potentilla, 320,

Prickles, 105,

Prickly ash, 105, Fig. 157. -

Primrose fruit, Pig. 249.

Primula Sinensls, 270,

Prince's feather, 900,

Propagation by buds, 22; leaves, 22;

dicecious,

flower,
onion, 4,

aweet,

roots,
Prophase, 230, [20
Prosenchyma, 235

Prostrate plants, 204.

do2

Protein, 249.

Proterandrous :

Proterogynous :

Prothallus, 173, Fig. 312.

Protococeus, 233, 234.

Protonema, 191.

Protoplasm, 80, 233.

Prunus, 321, Figs. 476-480.

Pseud-annual: perennial by means of
tubers, bulbs, ete., (13).

Pteridophyte, 176.

Pteris aquilina, 173, 237, 286, Figs. 125, 308.

Puccinia graminis, 183, Figs. 325-330.

Pulse family, 316.

Pumpkins and corn, 213, Fig. 358; flower,
137; collenchyma, 254; fruit, 155; hairs,
270; roots, 268.

Pussies of willow, 117, Fig. 213.

Pyrus, 323.

Pyxis: pod opening around the top, (292),

Quack-grass, 19, 20. [Fig. 254.

Quereus, 299, Figs. 441-447.

Quillwort, 193.

Quince fruit, 155. Quince-pear graft, 28.

Raceme: simple elongated indeterminate
cluster with stalked flowers, (295), Fig.

Radial, 261; bundles, 267. WS [173.

Radish and light, 42, Fig. 70; fruit, 152;
root, 7, 13, 17, 64, Figs. op

Ragweed, 222, 225, 336, Fig. 497; great, 336.

Ranunculus, 309.

Raphides, 250.

Raspberry, 20, 21, 161, 322, Fig. 263; fruit,
153; leaf, Fig. 128.

Ray; outer modified florets of some com-
posites, (282).

Reagents, 241.

Receptacle, 123; of liverwort, 187.

Regular flower: the parts in each series
alike, (258).

Reinforced fruit: other parts grown to
the perigarp, 153, (286).

Reniform, 94.

Resins, 246.

Resgiration: taking in O, giving off
COz2, (172, 173); in seeds, 165.

Resting-spore, 179.

Pheum Rhaponticum, 305, Figs. 78, 79.

Rhizome: underground stem; rootstock,
(44), 19; starch in, 31.

Rhododendron anther, 129.

Rhubarb, 3, 36, 45, 305, Figs. 78, 79.

[ (265).
anthers maturing first,

pistils maturing first,
[ (265).

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Ribes, 324, Figs. 481-483.

Rice starch, 249.

Richardia Africana, 290, Fig. 427.

Rind, 259. le

Rings of annual growth, 107, 263.

Robinia spines, 105.

Root-climbers, 108; eutting, 21; -hairs, 9,
12, 64, Figs. 11, 103-105, 110; -pressure,
69, 73, Fig. 109; system, 7; excrete, 71;
how elongate, 17; need air, 70; propa-
gation by, 20; structure, 259, 267.

Rootstock: subterranean stem; rhi-
zome, 19, (44). [323.

Rosa Carolina, 323; humilis, 323; lueida,

Rose cutting, Fig. 34; family, 319; hip,
155, Fig. 265; mallow, 313; -moss, Fig.
254; of Sharon, 313; swamp, 323 ;
climbing, 108; prickles, 105.

Rotate, 137.

Rubus, 322, Figs. 158, 263.

Rudbeckia hirta, 337, Fig. 498; laciniata,

Rumex, 305, Fig. 453. (337.

Runner: a trailing shoot taking root at
the nodes, (56).

Russian thistle, 163, Fig. 99.

Rust, 85, 183.

Rye flower, 146, Fig. 239.

Saccharose, 245.

Sacred lily, Chinese, 295, Fig. 435.

Sage, common, 107, 327; scarlet, 327.

St. John’s-wort, 125, Figs. 192, 252.

Salt-loving societies, 219, Fig. 371.

Saltpeter, in osmosis, 66.

Salverform, 137.

Salvia officinalis, 327; splendens, 327.

Samara: indehiscent winged pericarp
(287).

Sambucus Canadensis, 334; racemosa, 334.

Sapindacesx, 315.

Saponaria officinalis, 307.

Saprophyte, 85, 86, 200.

Sassafras, 136.

Saxifragacez, 323; crystals, 250. [(390).

Sealariform: with elongated markings,

Scape: leafless peduncle arising from the
ground, (248).

Scenery and plants, 202.

Sclerenchyma, 236, 257.

Scouring rush, 193.

Seramblers, 108.

Scrophulariacex, 331.

Secondary thickening, 263.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Sedges, phyllotaxy, 49.

Seed: a reproductive body containing an |

embryo plant, 5.

Seed, coats, 164; starch in, 31; dispersal,

158; -variations, 228.

Selection, 231.

Self-fertilization: secured by pollen from
same flower; close-fertilization, (260).

Self-heal, 327.

Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from
stamen to pistil of same flower; close-
pollination, (263).

Sepal: one of the separate leaves of a
calyx, (251).

Septicidal: dehiscence along the parti-
tions, (292).

Serrate: saw-toothed, (200).

Sessile: not stalked, (195).

Shade and leaves, 98; and plants, 215.

Shadows in trees, 61.

Sharon, Rose of, 313.

Sheep and plants, 224.

Sheepberry, 334, Fig. 279.

Sheep sorrel, 305, Fig. 453.

Shepherdia, hairs, 270.

Shepherd’s purse capsule, 152, 311, Fig.

Sieve tissue, 254. (259.

Silicle: short fruit of Crucifers, (293).

Silique: long fruit of Crucifers, (293).

Silphium, 50.

Simple pistil: of one carpel, (255).

Sinistrorse; left-handed, (231).

Skunk cabbage, 141, 225, 250, 290.

Sleep of leaves, 50.

Slips, 24.

Smartweed, 125, 136, 148, 305, 306.

Smilacina racemosa, 294; stellata, 204.

Smilax of florists, 103, 204, Fig. 434.

Smilax tendril, 111.

Snapdragon, 137, 332, Fig. 220.

Snowball, 145, Figs. 236, 237, 334.

Snowberry, Fig. 260.

Snowdrop, 296, Fig. 436.

Snowflake, 296.

Soapberry family, 315.

Soapwort, 307.

Societies, 219.

Softwood cutting, 24.

Soil and plants, 200; and variation, 206;
holds moisture, 70; water from, 64.

Solanum, 108, 330, Figs. 42, 219, 261.

Solidago, 339.

Ww

Solitary flowers, 115.

Solomon's seal, 294; false, 294.

Soredia, 186.

Sori, 172, 184.

Sorrel, 305, Fig. 453.

Spadix: thick or fleshy spike of certain
plants, (280).

Spanish bayonet, 162; moss, 88.

Spathe: bract surrounding or attending
a spadix, (280), 141.

Spatulate, 94.

Spearmint, 327, Fig. 484.

Species, 275.

Spencer, quoted, 231.

Spermatozoids, 190.

Sperm-cell, 180.

Spiderwort, 235.

Spike: compact more or less simple, in-
determinate cluster, with flowers ses-
sile or nearly so, (238), Figs. 174, 175.

Spikelet: a secondary spike; one of a
compound spike, M6.

Spikenard, false, 294

Spines, 104, 105.

Spirea inflorescence, 117, Fig. 179.

Spirogyra, 178, 233, 234, Fig. 313, 314.

Spleenwort, 286.

Sporangia of ferns, 172;

Sporangio, 181,

Spore: a simple reproductive body, usu-
ally composed of a single detached cell,
containing no embryo, 5, 86, 172, 180,

Spore-case, 172. ‘

Sporogonium, 188,

Sporophyll, 176.

Sporophyte, 174, 194.

Spruce, 15, 288, Figs. 270, 271, 424.

Spruce cone, Fig 271; seed, Fig. 155.

Squash fruit, 155, Fig. 260; germination,
171; Guinea, 330, Fig. 261; hairs, 105,
235; roots, 268.

Squirrels and birds, 47, 162.

Stains, 241.

Stamen: pollen-bearing organ, (255),

having stamens and no pla-

stamens, 124.

Staminate:
tils, (257).

Stand, dissecting, 127, Fig, 201.

Starch and sugar, 246; a8 plant-food, G4;
discussed, 247-249; how made, 77, 78;
storage of, S1.

Steeple, compared with planta, 18,

Stellaria media, 308, Pig. 457.

354 INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Stellate, 233.

Stem, how elongates, 17; structure, 259;
system, 14; tuber, 33.

Stemless plants, 15.

Sterile flower: no stamens or pistils,

a5 |
Stick-tight, 162. [(257).
Stigma: part of the pistil which receives |

the pollen, (256).

Stipel: stipule of a leaflet, (196).

Stipule: a certain basal appendage of a
leaf, (194); as spines, 105.

Stock: the part on which the cion is
grafted, (69).

Stolon: a shoot which bends to the
ground and takes root, (56)

Stomate, 75, 271, 273.

Stone fruit, 153.

Storehouses, 31.

Strawberry, 320, Fig. 475; plant, 15, 21;
fruit, 153, 155, Fig. 264.

Struggle for existence, 52, 209.

Strychnin, 246.

Style: elongated part of the pistil be-
tween the ovary and stigma, (256).

Suberin, 236.

Suckers, 54; of fungi, 86.

Sugar, 245, 246.

Sulfur, 72.

Summer-spore, 183.

Sunflower, 3, 19, 338, Figs. 3, 4, 23, 27;
doubling, 145; family, 334; inflores-
cence, 116, Fig. 177; rays, 143; society
225; transpiration in, 82.

Sunlight and plants, 42, 214.

Supernumerary buds: more than one in
an axil, (87).

Survival of the fittest, 231.

Swamp plants, 199, 219.

Swarm-spore, 179,

Sweet alyssum, 311, Fig. 460,

Sweet pea, 110, 317, Figs. 165, 222.

Sweet potato, 16, 329.

Sweet William, 307, Fig. 456.

Sycamore, 273, Fig. 417.

Symbiosis, 186.

Symphoricarpus foetidus, 290.

Sympodial: axial growth continued by
successive lateral shoots, 113.

Syngenesious: anthers united in a ring,

Syringa, 323. [(282).

Tabular, 233.

Tamarack, 288,

Tanacetum vulgare, 338.

Tannin, 246.

Tansy, 338.

Tap-root, 7.

Taraxacum officinale, 336, Figs. 8, 275.

Teasel, 3.

Tecoma, 10; capsule 152, Fig. 258.

Teleutospore, 184.

'Yelophase, 240.

Tendril, 109; roots as, 10.

Terrestrial, 199.

Thallophyte, 176,178. Thallus, 178.

Thistle, 142, 338, Figs. 228-230, 276; down,
161, Fig. 276; Russian, Fig. 99.

Thorn spines, 104, Figs. 152-155.

Thoroughwort, 340, Fig. 159.

Thyrse: compound cluster with main
axis indeterminate and branches de-
terminate, (245).

Thuja, 288.

Tiers of branches, 54.

Tiger-flower, 333, Fig 494; lily,292, Fig. 30.

Tillandsia, 88.

Tissues, 252; systems, 257.

Toad-fiax, 20, 23, 332, Figs. 255, 492;
flower, 137; pollination, 132, Fig. 211.

Toadstools, 180,

Tobacco, 331; cell-sap, 246. [28.

Tomato, 121, 330, Fig. 186; fruit, 153; graft,

Torus: part or organ to which the parts
of the flower are attached; upper end
of the flower-stalk, (252).

Touch-me-not, 314.

Toxylon pomiferum, 303, Fig. 451.

Tracheids, 256.

Tradescantia, 235, 238.

Transpiration, giving off of water, (174).

Trees, forms of, 59; struggle in, 53.

Trifolium, 317, Figs. 82, 468.

Trillium, 138, 293, Fig. 221; society, 225.

Trimerous: in 3’s, (271).

Tropzolum, 314, Fig. 195.

Trumpet-creeper, 10, 152, Fig. 258.

Trumpet-shaped, 137.

Truncate: as if cut off, (199), Fig. 141.

Tsuga Canadensis, 288, Fig. 425.

Tuber: short congested part, (77).

Tuberose, 296.

Tulipa Gesneriana, 292; suaveolens, 292.

Tulip-tree fruits, 160; leaf, Fig. 141.

Tumble-weeds, 163. [226.

Turnip, 7,13; fruit, 152; Indian, 290, Fig.

ina coe’

INDEX

Turnip, starch in, 31, Fig. 44.

Twigs, history of, 56; starch in, 22, Fig.
Twiners, 108, 111. [43.

Ulmus, 302, Figs. 146, 448, 449, 450.

Umbel: corymbose cluster with branches
of about equal length and arising from
a common point, (242).

Umbellet: secondary umbel, (242).

Umbellifere, 325.

Undergrowth, 224.

Undulate: wavy, (200).

Uredospore, 185.

Urtica dioica, 304; gracilis, 304.

Vacuole, 234.

Valves: separable parts of a pod, (287).

Variation, 228.

Vascular, 233, 256.

Vaucheria, 179, 233, Figs. 315, 316.

Vegetable mould, 202.

Velum, 194.

Venation: veining, (191).

Verbascum, 332, Fig. 22; hairs, 270.

Verbena cutting, Fig. 35.

Verticillate: with three or more leaves or
flowers at one node, (112).

Viburnum, 334, Fig. 279.

Vigna Sinensis, 319, Fig. 473.

Vine, cypress, 328, Fig. 485.

Violet, 3; cleistogamous, 134, Fig. 216;
seeds, 158; society, 225.

Virginia creeper tendril, 109, 113, Fig.

Wake-robin, 293. 1163.

Wallflower fruit, 152; hairs, 270.

AND GLOSSARY 355

Walnut buds, 37, 133, 147.

Water, how the plant takes, 64; -lily, 3
198; pores, 27

Watersprout, 21, 54.

Wax for grafting, 30.

Wax-work, twiner, 112.

Weeds, 214, 222.

Wheat field, Fig. 357; flower, 146, Fig.
238; India, 305; rust, 183, Figs. 325-330;
starch, 249.

Whiteweed, 337, Fig. 169.

Whorl: three or more leaves or flowers at
one node, (112).

William, Sweet, 307, Fig. 456.

Willow buds, 41, Fig. 86;
dicecious, 133; expression, 61; inflores-
cence, 117, Fig. 213; mildew, 182, Figs.
321, 324; phyllotaxy, 49; pollard, Fig.
87; pussies, Fig. 56; seeds, 161.

Wilting, 68, 71, 83, 84.

Wind and plants, 204; travelers, 159.

Wind-flower, 309.

Window box, 163.

Winter bud, 36.

Wintergreen anther, 129.

Wistaria, 112, 317.

Xanthium, 336, Fig. 496.

Xerophytic society, 219, Fig. 344.

Xylem, 257.

Yeast, 234.

Yew fruit, 156.

Zone societies, 225, Fig. 380

Zygospore, 17%.

’

; roots search for, 9,

cuttings, 21;

The enlargin:
means of rootstocks

Sucaline, a plant reeen

ring of a plant which propagates itself by
tly introduced from Asia;

allied to docks and amartweeds

(See page 50.)

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