“Z£9BL LILO Lor ¢ UT OLNOHOL 4O ALI a _ 7 we on . ie a “— wv ¥ ad i ‘ bl Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/britishbarrowsre00greeuoft BRITISH BARROWS GREENWELL “= Te S ne 2 ei} oe ie iG D: = } Donvdon ae MACMILLAN AND CO. - aa Sede? oy, ; a EX ICLV [MEA j} PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF Oxford f BRITISH BARROWS A RECORD OF THE EXAMINATION OF SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF ENGLAND BY WILLIAM GREENWELL, M.A. F.S.A. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS GENERAL REMARKS ON PREHISTORIC CRANTA AND AN APPENDIX BY GEORGE ROLLESTON, M.D., F.R.S. Linacre Professor of Anatomy and Physiology and Fellow of Merton College, Oxford q - j iw >F| | | 4} \ J Orford as | AT THE CLARENDON PRESS M.DCCC.LXXVII [All rights reserved } _—— = ~ - i i ls | PREFACE, THE work now offered to the public will be found to contain a record of the examination of above two hundred and thirty sepul- chral mounds, belonging to a period before the occupation of Britain by the Romans. A considerable part of many years has been devoted to this examination; and, I trust I may say with confidence, the facts collected during this process have been care- fully and minutely observed and accurately recorded. Though numerous barrows have been opened throughout Britain, but few accounts have been given of what has thus, from time to time, been brought to light. Many have been destroyed by shep- herds and others, from motives of a mere idle curiosity, or in the ~ delusive hope of finding treasure; still more have been destroyed, under the influence of a curiosity almost as idle, by persons indeed of better education, but who have thought that enough was gained if they found an urn to occupy a vacant place in the entrance hall, or a jet necklace or a flint arrow-point for the lady of the house to show, with other trifles, to her guests requiring amusement. Naturally in none of such cases has any record of these openings been preserved, and hence what otherwise might have grown into an almost invaluable collection of facts has been entirely lost to archeological science. Notwithstanding this, however, some extensive series of barrow examinations have happily been undertaken and the results given to the public. Sir Richard Colt Hoare in his magnificent volumes ‘ Ancient Wilts’ was the first systematically to explore and publish a most valuable amount of discoveries in that county and some adjoining districts. Mr. Bateman also in Derbyshire, supplemented by Mr. Carrington in Staffordshire and Mr. Ruddock in the North Riding of Yorkshire, prosecuted a large number of investigations b vi PREFACE. in the barrows of those counties, a full account of which will be found in his ‘ Vestiges of the Antiquities of Derbyshire’ and ‘Ten Years’ Diggings.’ For Dorsetshire Mr. Warne has published, in his ‘Celtic Tumuli of Dorset,’ a record of many barrow-openings con- ducted by himself as well as by others in that county; and the same has been done for Cornwall by Mr. W. C. Borlase in ‘ Nenia Cornubie.’ Besides these larger works, many notices of the exam- ination of barrows will be found in various Archeological Journals, local as well as national. Nor would it be just to omit, though the places of sepulture there treated of belong to a period posterior to that with which my own researches have been connected, Douglas’s ‘Nenia Britannica,’ and that most admirable account of his ex- amination of Kentish cemeteries given by the Rev. Bryan Faussett in the ‘Inventorium Sepulchrale ;’ a work which it is much to be regretted remained in manuscript for nearly a century after the death of its author. The barrow-openings recorded in this book have eingeysill been made in the East Riding of Yorkshire, a district which possesses in the Wolds a locality abundant in such remains, and where the greater part fortunately had been left uninjured, except in so far as the cultivation of the land during a comparatively short period had to some extent destroyed the surface of the mounds. In the same district a large series of barrows has been most carefully and ex- haustively examined by Messrs. J. R. and R. Mortimer, of Driffield and Fimber, the results of whose labours will I hope before long be published. Accounts of a few of the Kattows more fully described in this work have already been given by me in the Journal of the Archzo- logical Institute and in the Transactions of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club, but it has been thought desirable to include these in order to render the series in each case more complete. To this history of the opening of British barrows are appended two essays by George Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the University of Oxford, under whose charge, in the New. Museum of that body, are deposited the skulls - obtained from the various sepulchral mounds herein described. One of these essays gives a minute ‘ Description of Figures of the Skulls,’ PREFACE, Vil the other ‘ General Remarks upon the Series of Prehistoric Crania,’ It would be impertinent in me to offer any remark upon their importance: the reputation of the author and his well-known intimate acquaintance with the subject make it self-evident how greatly they add to the value of this book. And here I cannot deny myself the pleasure of testifying how, during all the course of my diggings, I have met with the most cordial co-operation from the many landowners upon whose estates the various barrows were situated. It would be impossible to specify every name, but I am bound to mention the late Earl of Carlisle, Lord Londesborough, Sir Charles Legard, Bart., Sir. Henry Boynton, Bart., Sir Tatton Sykes, Bart., Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart., P. F. Clennell, Esq., and Alfred Sartoris, Esq. To the occupiers also I cannot fail in making my acknowledgments for much civility and help in many ways; amongst these I would particularly name Mr. William Lovel, of Weaverthorpe, who took a warm and constant interest in the various barrow-opening’s in his neighbourhood. I am indebted to John Evans, Esq., F.R.S., for the use of the following woodcuts,—Figs. 4, 10, 11, 14, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 37, 38, 42, 43, 47, 87, 93, 99, 100, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 115, 116, 128, 124, 126, 145, 156, 157; to the Society of Antiquaries for Figs. 6, 19, 32, 41, 55, 65, 66, 67, 68, 112; to the Royal Archzological Institute for Figs. 24, 54, 56, 75, 76, 137, 138, 139, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155; to J. B. Davis, M.D., F.RB.S., for Figs. 1, 160, 161; to Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., for Fig. 2. I must also express my thanks to Mr. Evans, who, to their profit, has read the sheets as they were passing through the press; also to the Rev. J.C. Atkinson, himself a diligent and careful digger in the Cleveland barrows, for revising this work in the manuscript, and for much valuable counsel; also to my neighbour the Rev. Henry Barrett, to whose critical supervision the book in its literary aspect is largely indebted for whatever of merit, in that respect, it may be thought to possess. For the drawings of many of the urns I am. greatly obliged to the Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., to whom I am sure the labour was one of love. b 2 Vill PREFACE. I cannot take leave of a work in which is recorded the results of the labour of many years without an expression of gratitude for the happy hours and pleasurable associations that labour has be- gotten. Old friendships have ripened, and new ones have grown, over the graves of the ancient dead; nor can I look back to any part of my life with less of regret or greater satisfaction than that which has been passed in an endeavour to revive, in however faint a form it may be, the almost forgotten past. WILLIAM GREENWELL. DvuruHam, October, 1877. en, i ii CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 1 BARROWS. YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING : ‘ : ° , é A 132 MOE TAP WOGMORIO gk ek, ee BS ” Langton 2 : ‘ : . . , ‘ ‘ : 136 es RUE INTER GON a Oe a ee Pr Heslerton , ; ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ‘ : 4 P 141 a Sherburn ‘ i ‘ ‘ . ; ‘ ; z 145 4 Ganton . : ; ; ‘ ‘ ; ¢ : : 155 sy Binnington . , ‘ : ; . : : : ; 179 rs Willerby ‘ z ; j , 3 ‘ : ‘ ; 180 99 Butterwick . ‘ : ‘ , ‘ : : ; ; 186 » Helperthorpe . ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . ; ‘ 191, 205 is Weaverthorpe ; ; ; j ; P me Langtoft .. F ‘ ; é 5 2 ‘ ‘ : 204 ms Cowlam . F 7 . ‘ , yi é ; 3 208 a Thwing . - ; : : : : : : i ; 226 se Rudstone ‘ a . ; : ‘ : ‘ : g 229 ‘e Folkton , ; 7 ; ; . ; : : . 271 * Cherry Burton : ; ; ‘ : : $58 = 279 a Etton . . : . - ‘. n , : ‘ ‘ 282 “s Goodmanham F Z j p : ‘ , ‘ 286 a Londesborough r . . , ‘ P ‘ ° a 331 — ie) bo YORKSHIRE. NORTH RIDING . : : . : ‘ ° ‘ 333 Parish of Egton . : : . ‘ . ‘ P ° : . 834 e Over Silton . 7 5 ; a ; r ; P 4 336 > Cold Kirby . : 5 : ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . ‘ 337 = - Kilburn , . ‘ : js ” . ‘ j : 339 » Gilling . ‘ ; . ‘ > : ; ‘ : : 343 = Slingsby ; : ‘ ; : é ; , F : 347 9 Welburn é , . : é ‘ - ; : 356 is Hutton Buscel : ‘ : 3 : . ; ‘ : 357 x CONTENTS. YORKSHIRE. WEST RIDING . : ° ° ° : Paes 371 Parish of Ferry Fryston PLA ed ae ; : ’ ee ¥, Rylston : ; > : ; 5 ; ; - ; 374 CUMBERLAND . : , ‘ , . ‘ - - . 3 378 Parish of Castle Carrock . , A ‘ r ; ; . : 379 WESTMORELAND . ; : . : ; : . : : : 381 Parish of Kirby Stephen ; ; ‘ , $ - j : * 382 rs Warcop : ‘ ; ; ; pe te 4 : : 385 a Asby A , ; ; ‘ ; : ; : : ; in Crosby Garrett : . : ; ; > Seer: - 386 AS Ravenstonedale 4 ; é ; : é ; : : 393 Pe Orton . - ; ; ; : ; ‘ ; . ; 394 ms Crosby Ravensworth ; ; > : : : ‘ . 396 is Askham ‘ ‘ ; ; ‘ ; ‘ : ; : 400 NORTHUMBERLAND . ‘ : : ; ; . ; . ; 402 Parish of Ford : : ‘ : ‘ ; : e . ; “ 403 . Doddington . ; ‘ . : . : : : ; 410 = Chatton A 5 ; . : : ; ; ‘ : 412 Bs Bamborough . ‘ ; ; : ; ; ° ‘ . 413 Fe Eglingham . ; . . ° : ; ‘ : ‘ 418 a Alwinton : ; ; 7 yew aes : S ‘ : 422 ss Rothbury . ; - : : ‘ : A : ‘ 428 s Kirk Whelpington ‘ : : pon a ’ ‘ : 433 ‘% Hartburn ; ; A ‘ ; : : : > ; 434 ‘> Chollerton . “ 4 ; ; - ; ; ; ; 435 a Ovingham . a : , Z ; ; > - : 437 DURHAM . A é 7 : A : ‘ Z : , 440 Parish of South Shields . s ; : A ‘ “ 3 5 : 442 GLOUCESTERSHIRE ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ; f y : ; 3 443 Parish of Nether Swell . : : ; r “ : : x : 445 TABLE OF BARROWS, INTERMENTS, AND ARTICLES DEPOSI- TED WITH INTERMENTS . : ; ° ° ; : 458 LONG BARROWS. Parish of Ebberston, North Riding : . ; ‘ ‘ ; : 484, , = Willerby, East Riding . > ; ; ; ; : , 487 es Westow, East Riding , ‘ ; ‘ : 2 - ; 490 is Rudstone, East Riding . see Pes | a ~ 497 . Kilburn, North Riding . : ; ; 5 aye 501 CONTENTS. Parish of Market Weighton, East Riding 39 Over Silton, North Riding Crosby Garrett, Westmoreland Nether Swell, Gloucestershire Eyford, Gloucestershire . _ Upper Swell, Gloucestershire . Gilling, North Riding Kilham, East Riding DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS BY DR. ROLLESTON . Weaverthorpe Flixton Wold Heslerton Wold Iiderton, Northumberland Cowlam Rudstone Castle Carrock, Cumberland . Langton Wold Sherburn Wold Helperthorpe Weaverthorpe _Ebberston 590, GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC | CRANIA BY DR. ROLLESTON ‘ . ‘ : APPENDIX Of the Prehistoric Flora of the Country Of the Prehistoric Fauna Index of Authors referred to in Dr. Rolleston’s Essays . INDEX Fin - qs oe 7 — 48 INTRODUCTION, - Tue almost universal custom of raising a mound, the so-called barrow 1, over the buried dead, to mark the place where they were laid in the grave, has been variously discussed, and by many different writers. Notices of the practice have been so often col- lected from the works of Greek and Latin authors and other sources, that it is not necessary for me to enter upon any general considera- tion of the subject, except in very brief terms. This form of memorial, monumentum are perennius, as ancient as it has been lasting, is found in almost all parts of the globe, from the extreme West of Europe to the Eastern limit of the continent of the New World. Barrows, under diverse names, line the coasts of the Mediterranean, the seats of ancient empires and civilisations, before whose rise they were in existence, and whose decay they have witnessed and outlived. So numerous are they, that they spread like a covering over the wide plains, the Steppes of Northern Asia, from the Euxine almost to the Icy Sea, where a few wandering nomads now feebly represent a population which was once large, wealthy, and powerful. The continent of India possesses them in abundance, and their buried contents present an identity in many particulars so close with those of Britain, that some have considered it as affording a proof of a near connection between the two peoples who erected them. Egypt knows them as the sepulchres of her early kings, and the Pyramids have remained, an unchanging legacy from the dead, when the wisdom of her learned exists only in the oft transmuted knowledge of many an alien race, and when her religion, her literature, her art, almost her language, the living expressions of a nation’s being, have all but passed away and been forgotten. The red man of America still places his dead beneath 1 I have preferred to use the English Jarrow rather than the Latin twmulus, on account of the word being in the vernacular, and because tumulus does not neces- sarily imply a sepulchral mound. ‘I B 2 INTRODUCTION. them, and the huge mounds, so common in some parts of that con- tinent, are the evidences of an early civilisation, to-which the marvellous ruined cities of Central America bear a stronger wit- ness ; cities which, in their elaborate and profuse though strange sculpture, give indications of an art developement so distinctive in its character, that it could scarcely have had its origin in the mind of any of the races of the Old World. They abound in Great Britain and Ireland, differing in shape and size, and made of various materials; and are known as barrows (mounds of earth), and cairns (mounds of stone)!, and popularly in some parts of England as lows, houes, and tumps. They vary ‘in size from ,a few feet in diameter to a miniature mountain, like Sil- bury Hill in Wiltshire, which covers above five acres of ground, and measures 130 ft. in perpendicular height ?. The manner in which the dead have been disposed within them differs very considerably. Sometimes the body, whether burnt or unburnt, has been placed in the mound without anything to protect it from the surrounding earth or stones. Sometimes it has been placed in a small box of stone, a cist; at other times in the hollowed trunk of a tree, or in a grave sunk below the surface of the ground ; and, when a burnt body, often in an urn; whilst in some instances: the mound encloses a large structure, suggestive rather of an abode for the living than of a resting-place for the dead*. Of this last ? Barrows and cairns often occur in close proximity, there being nothing in the mode of interment or in the remains found in them to imply that there was any difference in point of time between the two kinds of mound. .? Silbury Hill has been twice examined with the view of ascertaining whether it was sepulchral or not. First in 1777, when a shaft was sunk from the top to the bottom ; and again in 1849, when a tunnel was carried up to the present centre, as nearly as it could be ascertained, at the level of the surface of the ground. Though it was satisfactorily proved to be artificial, no remains, which indicated that a burial had taken place beneath it, were discovered. These examinations cannot, however, be con- sidered satisfactory as affording any conclusive evidence that it is not a sepulchral mound. The area which it covers is very large, and the primary burial, even if it was at the centre, might very easily have been missed, and by many yards, during the course of both the investigations. In the process of throwing up so large a mass of earth, the original centre could scarcely have been retained, and it is probably a con- siderable distance from the present one. Stukeley mentions that an iron bridle-bit and some armour were found on the summit, the remains probably of a Saxon interment, placed there certainly long after the mound was thrown up. The occurrence of Saxon burials in the upper parts of. British barrows is by no means infrequent. I have myself met with three, and very notable instances. ® Some writers, and with much probability, have regarded the sepulchral chamber | as a copy of the habitation of the living, and the way in which the dead are some- times found, arranged upon a stone bench round the chamber, as representing the manner in which they sat in their huts when alive. There certainly is a great FORM OF BARROWS. 3 mode the great chambered cairns at New Grange and Dowth, in the County of Meath, on the banks of the Boyne, and Maeshowe in the Orkneys, are the most remarkable examples in the United Kingdom. As a rule they are circular, though at times approaching an oval form, but a long-shaped mound is common in some parts of Eng- land, and has been regarded with much probability as the earliest form of barrow, and belonging to a period before the introduction of the use of metal into the country. It has been stated in the Preface, that the Introduction will be mainly confined to a consideration of the facts which an extended examination of the barrows of the Yorkshire Wolds has supplied, and to certain deductions which may be drawn from those facts. It becomes necessary however, in the first place, to give a description of the barrows themselves, preparatory to giving an account of their contents. In form they are either long or circular; but as the long bar- rows, and the various interesting questions connected with them, are fully considered in the account of the opening of several of them, given in the sequel, the present remarks will be limited to the round barrows. They differ considerably in outline, and the slope of the sides is sometimes very gradual, at other times quite sharp. In most cases they have become so greatly altered, during the course of years of cultivation of the surface, that it is difficult to ascertain what has been the original form ; but judging from some which still remain untouched by the plough, and from the present appearance of the whole of them, they may be described as being bowl-shaped and conical ; those of the former shape being perhaps the most numerous. resemblance between some of these receptacles for the dead, especially in Scandinavia, and the places of abode of the Eskimo and other Arctic residents. Nilsson, Stone Age, ed. Lubbock, p. 124 seg. The supposition is not one which bears in itself anything of improbability, but rather is the expression of a natural feeling. Some of the early twelfth-century grave-stones are miniature high-pitched roofs, the covering in fact of man’s last home. ant The same idea, connecting the dead with the living, and retaining in the grave some reminiscence of the former life, may possibly have been sought to be embodied by the use of a peculiarly shaped urn, holding the ashes of the dead,—specimens of which have been found at Albano and on Mons Crescentius in Italy, and at several places in Germany. They are imitations of huts, and have a moveable door, which was secured after the bones had been deposited within them. They belong to the Bronze Age. Birch, Ancient Pottery, vol. ii. 196, 391 1st ed., 446, 595 2nd oe Pigorini and Lubbock, Notes on the Hut Urns...of Marino, Archeol. vol, ‘a . p- 99; Matériaux pour Histoire primitive de ’Homme, 2 Séz, vol. iv. Pp. ; Lindenschmit, Alterthiimer, vol. i, Heft. x. Taf. 3. B 2 4 INTRODUCTION, The evidence afforded by those on the moorland to the north of the river Derwent, and which are situated at a distance of but a few miles from the chalk range of the wolds, tends likewise to show the correctness of this description. In Wiltshire, as also, though not so commonly, in other dis- tricts of England, different forms are met with. One large series has had the name of bell-barrow given to it; but it is difficult to separate it from the conical-shaped mound, except that it has a ditch round the base. What Sir Richard Colt Hoare calls Druid barrows, consisting of one or more very small mounds having a cir- cular bank surrounding them at some distance, do not occur upon the wolds, though it is possible that such may at one time have existed, and have been entirely destroyed by cultivation; at the same time, as they have not been met with on the moors to the north of the Derwent, it is more probable that they were always absent on the wolds. Nor do the twin barrows of Sir R. Colt Hoare, or a group of three mounds, surrounded by a ditch, which are found, though rarely, in Wiltshire, find any representatives on the wolds. It is probable that many of the wold barrows had originally an encircling mound or ditch, or both, at the base; but if such was the case, the process of agriculture has long since destroyed all trace of them. Some such method of enclosure is very common in connection with sepulchral places throughout the whole of Britain. It is found in the shape of circles of stone, where that material is abundant; and in mounds of earth or ditches, where no suitable stone exists. The circles are placed in some cases immediately round the base of the barrow, and in others at some little distance from it}. Several barrows upon Wykeham Moor, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and on Riccal and Skipwith commons, in the East Riding, have each a ditch round the base. The downs of Wiltshire present numerous instances of encircling mounds; and the greater number of the Cornish barrows are enclosed by rings of stone. This frequent characteristic makes it probable that the wold barrows were, many of them, originally surrounded by a similar enclosure. Barrows differ very considerably in size, though not perhaps so much on the wolds as in other districts: those of the wolds 1 In Homeric times the custom appears to have been to first mark out the site of the tomb (ofpa) in somewhat of a circular form, or, as Mr. Paley thinks, in an oval, and then to place stones round the outline. See paper by F. A. Paley, M.A., on Homeric Tumuli, in Trans. of Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. xi. pt. 2. = x * p © a “ MATERIALS OF BARROWS. 5 may be said to range from 20 feet to 150 feet in diameter, and from one foot to 24 feet in height '. They have been made with the materials which came the readiest to hand ; and these appear to have been collected for some distance round each mound, for no indication of a hollow marks the place from whence the earth or chalk was taken. As might be ex- pected, they are more commonly made of earth than of chalk, _ but it is rare to find one without some admixture of that stone, or of flint, the former no doubt frequently obtained from the grave, which is almost always found at the centre. They occur but very rarely made entirely of chalk. With the imperfect tools and other appliances possessed by the people who erected them, the task of collecting the earth, and much more of quarrying the chalk, must have been by no means an easy one. Chalk however, from its tendency to become broken up, especially in the upper beds by cracks, is easier to work, even by means of so humble an implement as a pick of deer’s-horn or a pointed stake, than might at first be supposed. I have frequently noticed indications of turfs or sods of earth having been used; in a few instances the remains of grass and other plants being distinctly visible. In some of the barrows the appearances were such as to suggest that the material was col- lected in small quantities, probably in baskets ?, and that the mound was constructed piecemeal, here a basketfull of earth, there a few turfs, then a basketfull of chalk, then two or three blocks of flint, and so on®,. In some cases the materials have been placed with greater regularity, and the way in which a barrow had gradually increased from the centre was most clearly shown by the parallel layers of different-coloured matter which were distinguishable in the section of it. I have never seen anything to lead to the con- clusion that a material foreign to the spot on which the barrow was erected had been used in its construction, with the exception of slabs of stone, used in making cists, and that has occurred, within 1 The largest that I am acquainted with is Willy Houe, near Wold Newton, which is very nearly 150 feet in diameter, and about 24 feet high. It was partly opened by the late Lord: Londesborough, but no interment was discovered, nor was the centre reached. ; 2 Mr. Peacock noticed the same appearances in a barrow at Cleatham, Lincolnshire ; see a paper by him in the Reliquary, vol. viii. p. 224. 3 Is it possible that the custom of friends throwing earth on the coffin, when the words ‘earth to earth’ are being read, is a reminiscence or survival of the old manner - of raising the barrow, when it may be supposed that those present deposited each his portion of earth, &c. with some degree of observance ? 6 INTRODUCTION. amy experience, in only one case upon the wolds!. Nor have I ever found that the body had been placed amongst any peculiar soil, or brought in contact with any other substance than what might be obtained in close proximity to the barrow’. It has already been suggested that it is probable the wold barrows had circles round the base, in the shape of mounds or ditches, as is not uncommon elsewhere. In some rare instances they certainly had enclosing circles within the barrow. I have met with this feature, in the form of a circle of flint stones, and of a circular trench. In both cases the circle was an incomplete one. In the ring of flint stones there was a space left vacant; in the trench, which was hollowed out of the chalk rock, there was one portion, or more, which was necessary to complete the circle, not excavated. The same peculiarity is found to exist in the barrows and cairns of other parts of England and in Scotland, and indeed this incompleteness appears to be almost invariable in connection with sepulchral circles °. The circle, which occasionally is double, sometimes includes the whole barrow, at other times it defines the bounds of an individual - burial, it may be of one out of many which have been placed within the barrow, and only encloses a portion of its area. Similar en- circling mounds and trenches are found to surround spaces of ground which have been devoted to the purpose of burial, but where, apparently, no barrow has ever surmounted the graves. * The Rev. J. C. Atkinson, of Danby, found a barrow in Cleveland, in the North Riding, to have been made to a considerable extent of sand, basalt, and rolled pebbles, none of which materials are to be met with within several miles of the place. ? Colonel Meadows Taylor remarks that fine earth, brought from a distance, almost universally surrounded the urns and cists in the Dekhan cairns. The same feature has been supposed to have been observed in barrows in England, but, I think, without sufficient foundation. See ‘Cairns, Cromlechs, &c., in the Dekhan,’ a paper by Colonel Taylor, in vol. xxiv. of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy ; and ‘Archxology of India,’ Journal of the Ethnological Society, New Series, vol. i. pp. 167, 168 * The great circles of Avebury, Stonehenge, Callernish, &c., are all incomplete, though perhaps it may be said that in those gigantic structures the idea there expressed was an entrance, and not incompleteness. Examples, however, where no such object as the obtaining an entrance was intended, might be multiplied in- definitely from Great Britain. The same feature is found in connection with sepulchral circles in other parts of the world. Colonel Meadows Taylor mentions it as incidental to circles in the Dekhan, J. c. p. 336. In a paper in Revue Arché- ologique, Nouvelle Série, ix. 372, entitled, Description d’un Tumulus sépulchral des Tchoudes & Arrayione sur la Kama (Russie), the following passage occurs, ‘4 V’in- térieur on remarque une enceinte formée par des blocs de pierre calcaire et affectant la forme d’un fer & cheval. L’ouverture, large de neuf pas, regarde le sud. Une autre petite ouverture se trouve aussi 4 l’est.’ CIRCLES ENCLOSING BARROWS. 7 The incompleteness of these circles is so frequent a feature in their construction that it cannot be accidental. They have moreover been left incomplete in some cases in a way which most evidently shows a design in the operation; as for instance, where the circle is formed of a number of stones standing apart from each other, the space between two of them has frequently been carefully built up with one large or several smaller stones!. The effect of this is to break the continuity, or rather the uniformity, of the circle, and so to make it imperfect. This very remarkable feature, in connection _ with the enclosing circles, is also found to occur in the case of other remains which belong to the same period and people as the bar- rows. The sculptured markings engraved upon rocks, and also upon stones forming the covers of urns or cists, consist in the main of two types—cup-shaped hollows, and circles, more or less in number, surrounding in most cases a central cup. In almost every instance the circle is imperfect, its continuity being sometimes broken by a duct leading out from the central cup; at other times by the hollowed line of the circle stopping short when about to join at each end. The connection of these sculptured stones, if so they may be termed, with places of sepulture brings them at once into close relationship with the enclosing circles of barrows, and it is scarcely possible to imagine but that the same idea, whatever that may have been, is signified by the incomplete circle in both cases. The rings of gold and bronze, of various shapes, some of which in their construction show that the penannular form is not caused by the requirements of their use, appear to.represent the same incom- plete circle. In fact, if some of the gold rings were figured upon stone, they would appear in the very similitude of the circular rock sculptures”. I will attempt to give no explanation of this figure, 1 To prevent encumbering the subject with a large number of examples of circles ‘made incomplete in this way, it may be sufficient to refer the reader to a paper by Mr. James Logan, F.S.A., on ‘ Circles of Stones in Scotland, presumed to be Druidical,’ printed in the Archzologia, vol. xxii. p. 198. Mention is there made, and engravings given, of several circles where this feature is quite distinct. The author calls the stone, which fills up the space between two of the separate stones of the circle, the altar, his view being that the circles are temples. I found in a cairn, examined by the Rev. R. J. Mapleton and myself, at Kilmartin, in Argyleshire, two circles, parallel to each other, and surrounding a cist, in which was an unburnt body. The circles were within and covered by the mound, and were both made incomplete by having the space between two of the stones built up with smaller ones. See Pro- ceedings of Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. vi. p. 339. ; 2 For a description of these sculptured rocks and stones, with accurate figures of them, the reader is referred to ‘Ancient British Sculptured Rocks of Northumber- land,’ &c., by George Tate, F.G.S., published in the Transactions of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, vol. v. p. 187; to ‘ Archaic Sculpturings,’ by Sir J. Y. Simpson, 8 INTRODUCTION. so marked and so frequent amongst the works of the early people of Britain, though I think it not improbable that whatever the Tau symbol of Egypt, the equal-limbed cross with its binding circle, and other like signs betokened, this mysterious figure may likewise have represented. | It has been suggested by some that the enclosing circles were merely made to support the mound at its base. It is only necessary to remark, in refutation of this surmise, that the circle is often within the mound, is sometimes a trench, and is, as before men- tioned, nearly always incomplete. Others have, and with more reason, supposed them to be marks of taboo, a fence to preserve the habitation of the dead from desecration, but the fact that so many are within, and must always have been concealed by, the barrow, appears to be inconsistent with this explanation. I think it more probable, if the notion of a fence is to be entertained, that they were intended to prevent the exit of the spirit of those buried within, rather than to guard against disturbance from without. A dread of | injury by the spirits of the dead has been very commonly felt by many savage and semi-civilised peoples; nor, indeed, is such fear unknown in our own times and even amongst ourselves ; and it may well be that, by means of this symbolic figure, it was thought this danger might be averted, and the dead kept safe within the tomb. It is usual to find the wold barrows associated in groups, of greater or less number, though a single one is not very uncommon. I have known as many as thirty and more, which, from their close proximity, might lay claim to be considered as a group. In other parts of England they occur associated in much larger numbers, as for instance in Wiltshire, where, especially round Stonehenge, bar- rows are very numerous. They are not generally placed quite close _ together, but are separated by intervals, sometimes of several hundred feet, though occasionally two or more approach very near to each other, indeed to touching. As a rule they crown the heights, and though frequently placed on the slope of the hill, it is rare to find them in the bottom of the valley. We need not be at a loss to suggest the reason of this, for as the object of the mound itself was to be a memorial of those buried within it, so it is natural that such a position should be chosen as would allow that memorial to be generally and constantly seen. There are certain features in connection with many, if not with Bart.; and to ‘Incised Markings on Stone,’ published by direction of Algernon, Duke of Northumberland. HOLES IN BARROWS. 9 all, of the barrows, which, as they do not appear to have reference to any particular burial, but rather to the sepulchral mounds them- selves, though perhaps the two can scarcely be separated, it will be better to explain, before giving a description of the manner in which the interments have been made. Though, as has been stated, these features do not connect themselves immediately with the burials, they are nevertheless so commonly found in the barrows, that they must have reference to, and originate in, customs pertain- ing to the rites of sepulture !. It is a frequent occurrence to find holes, sunk below the natural surface, within the area of a barrow, and not usually in close proximity to any interment, though in some instances such has been found to be the case. Sometimes as many as four or five have been met with in a single barrow. They are of various sizes, and differ in shape, but they are generally circular, about 13 ft. in diameter, and the same in depth. In the greater number of cases they are filled with the ordinary materials of which the mound itself is com- posed, and contain nothing besides; but at other times pieces of animal, and much more rarely of human, bones, charcoal, potsherds, and burnt earth and stone are found in them. There is no appear- ance, however, of a fire having ever been kindled within them ; the burnt matter, when they contain any, having evidently been placed there in that condition. Similar holes are found in the Long Bar- rows of the south-west of England, but I have never observed anything like them in the barrows of the North Riding or of Northumberland, common as they are in those on the wolds?. It has suggested itself to me that they may have been made as receptacles of food or of some other perishable material, and that they answered the same purpose as the vessels of pottery are sup- posed to have done, which are such frequent accompaniments of a burial. Their not being usually placed in close contact with the body is a fact not perhaps very consistent with this explanation of their purpose, but I am unable to offer any more likely suggestion. The occurrence of animal bones is another frequent incident. It is rare indeed to meet with a barrow (where the material is such 1 I am here reminded of a very apposite remark of M. P. Casalis de Fondouce : ‘Je n’ai pas une confiance beaucoup plus grande dans celle des rites” funéraires. Les auteurs sont, en général, trop disposés & attribuer 4 des rites funéraires tout ce quwils ne comprennent pas.’ Matériaux pour Histoire de ’? Homme, Sec. Série, tom. iv. 1873, p. 79. 2 Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A., found them in a barrow near Brighton, which contained an unburnt body, with a bronze knife. 10 INTRODUCTION. as to further the preservation of bone) without a considerable number of them being found scattered indiscriminately throughout the mound ; and where they have not been so found, their absence is no doubt in many cases to be attributed to decay of the bones. In some barrows they are very abundant; for instance, in one at Rudstone they were literally in hundreds, placed, with flint chip- pings and sherds of pottery, in a dark-coloured, unctuous layer, which extended throughout the whole area of the mound, on the natural surface of the ground. They are nearly always, when of a nature that admits of such a process, broken, so as apparently to extract the marrow. There can, I think, be little doubt that these bones are the remains of feasts, held at the time of the funeral, or at some subsequent one, such as its anniversary. Practices of a like kind have been common to many different peoples, and so prevalent was the custom in some parts of Europe in the early times of Christianity that frequent orders, directed against holding feasts or sacrificing at the graves of the dead, are to be found in the Frankish Capitularies1. They may also be the remains of food offered to the dead, an observance which has extensively prevailed in many countries and in various ages. They would in this case form a part of the practice of the worship of ancestors, which has been a feature almost universal in the growth of the religious feel- ing of the human race, and allied always with fear. The attempt to propitiate the dead, in one way or other, with the view of averting their displeasure and warding off the danger of their in- flicting injury, might be illustrated very fully and from many sources in the history of almost every people and religion. Nor is it impossible that the habit of placing arms, implements, and ornaments in the grave with the dead (of the purpose of which other explanations will be found later on), may have had its origin in ancestral worship. The prevalence of this custom has been of great service in enabling us to gain a considerable knowledge of the animals which, at the time of the erection of the barrows, ? Even Christian priests appear to have indulged in the practice. Pope Zacharias in a letter to Boniface says, ‘Pro sacrilegis itaque presbyteris, ut conscripsisti, qui tauros, hircos, diis paganorum immolabant, manducantes sacrificia mortuorum.’ Magna Biblioth. Vet. Patrum, ed. 1618, viii. 130. In a capitulary of Karloman, Dux Francorum, A.D. 742, is a decree against ‘sacrificia mortuorum.’ Pertz, Monum. Germanie Historica. Legum, tom. i. p. 17. An ‘ Indiculus superstitionum et pagania- rum,’ which appears to be of the time of Karloman, a.p. 743, contains two articles which seem to refer to holding feasts at burial-places—‘ De sacrilegio ad sepulchra mortuorum,’ and ‘ De sacrilegio super defunctos, id est, dadsisas.’ 7. ¢. p. 19. ee ee FLINTS AND POTSHERDS. inhabited the country, as well as of those which had been brought into a state of domestication. I am indebted to Mr. William Boyd- Dawkins, F.R.S., for identifying those I have discovered, a detailed account of which will be given in the sequel. There are two other series of objects, which are found still more constantly, and even more abundantly, than the bones, and for the presence of which it is much more difficult to account ; namely, flints and potsherds. They occur at times in very large quantities ; the flints generally in the shape of mere chippingss and waste pieces, but often as manufactured articles, such as arrow- points, knives, saws, drills, and scrapers, &c. The potsherds are sometimes fragments of the ordinary sepulchral pottery, but more frequently of vessels which, on account of their better firing and the absence of ornament, appear to be those of domestic utensils. Both flints and potsherds are found distributed throughout the whole of a mound, and in some instances in such quantities as to suggest the idea that the persons who were engaged in throwing up the barrow, scattered them, from time to time, during the process. They are certainly not there accidentally '. The potsherds might be supposed to be fragments of vessels broken at the funeral or other feasts, but then we should expect to find many pieces be- longing to the same vessel more frequently than is the case. I have met with the remains of at least twenty different utensils in the same barrow, whilst the fragments which belonged to any one vessel formed a very inconsiderable portion of the whole. lt is difficult to account for the occurrence of the flints and potsherds in question, except on the supposition that they sym- bolised some religious idea, though what that idea was we may not be able even to conjecture. A passage in Hamlet (act v. scene 1) may possibly have reference to this ancient rite, though it is in the play spoken of as being unholy. Those rites, however, which are thought pious in one religion are often accounted accursed in a 1 Tt has been suggested that these flints came into the barrows along with the surface soil, of which, in a great measure, many of them are formed; chippings and other pieces of used flint being, as is well known, strewn abundantly on the ground where these early people dwelt, and near to which they buried their dead. This way of accounting for their occurrence, though plausible, cannot I think be maintained, inasmuch as they are found abundantly amongst the chalk rubble of which many barrows are made, and in the chalk filling in of graves, where no surface soil is mixed with it; and also in places where flint chippings &c. are not met with amongst the surface soil. And even where the barrow is made up of such material as is ordinarily found to contain them, and that abundantly, yet the number of them in some mounds is so very large as to preclude the idea that they can ever have been laid on the surface in quantities so great as to account for that abundance. 12 INTRODUCTION. new one, and it is not unlikely that this, a sacred Pagan custom, was remembered in Christian times, but was then associated with what is irreligious, just as the practice of burning the dead, because it was in use under the old system, was made illegal when Christianity became the religion of the State. The passage occurs where the priest, answering Laertes relative to the burial of Ophelia, a suicide, and therefore unholy, says: ‘Her death was doubtful ; And, but that great command o’ersways the order, She should in ground unsanctified have lodged Till the last trump; for charitable prayers, Shards, flints and pebbles should be thrown on her.’ The bodies, both burnt and unburnt, are found buried in various parts of the barrows. The central, which in case of no after disturb- ance is the primary, burial, was usually made in a grave, sunk to a greater or less depth in the chalk rock. This grave is either oval or circular, and its shape and size were no doubt in some measure regulated by the way in which the makers were able to work out the chalk at that particular spot. It varies considerably in size, and is found from under 3 ft. to above 10 ft. in diameter, and from 1 ft. to 10 ft. in depth, below the original surface of the ground. In some few instances the central and primary burial has been made upon the surface level, and more unfrequently still above it. The number of burials in a barrow is very uncertain, nor is the size of the mound any criterion in that respect. A large barrow may contain a single interment, a small one several. When more bodies than one are found in the mound, they are placed at greater or less distances from the centre, upon or beneath the natural surface, or above it, at different levels. Some of these appear to have been buried when the primary interment took place, whilst others are evidently the bodies of persons interred at a time subse- quent to that of the first erection of the barrow. These secondary interments have been made either by placing the body on the surface of an existing barrow, or on the surface of the ground just beyond its limits, and then covering them by adding more material to the mound; or by making an excavation into it. Secondary burials occur in all parts of a barrow, and the several levels at which they have been met with seems to show that a mound has some- times been increased in size on two or more occasions. They have been made on all the sides of a barrow, but much more frequently tee) ee | PROTECTION OF THE BODY. 13 on the south and east than on the north and west; indeed they are but rarely found on the last-mentioned sides. It is probable that the desire to face the sun guided them in this, as it has other peoples. The feeling still exists amongst ourselves; for the preju- dice against burying on the north, the dark, side of the churchyard is strong in most parts of England, and it is only where the crowded state of the burial-ground has compelled it, that others than un- baptised children and suicides have been buried there. The same rule has held in ancient times in other places. Nearly all the dolmens of Brittany have the openings between the south and east points of the compass ; and the avenues in the same country appear to have a like orientation!. In most cases there is nothing to protect the body against the pres- sure of the overlying soil, but now and then a few large blocks of flint or thin slabs of chalk have been placed round it, thus forming a kind of rude covering ; and, from the appearance of the earth immediately in contact with the bones, it would seem that turfs had sometimes been laid over the corpse. The interring in cists, that is, in coffins, made of four or more stones set on edge, with a cover, so common in other parts *,is, as might indeed be expected, almost entirely wanting upon the wolds. In a chalk district like the wolds it was impossible to procure the requisite slabs, except by bringing them from a distance with great toil. I only know of one instance, at Rudstone, where cists have occurred, there placed in a deep grave, sunk in the chalk rock, and where the stones of which they were com- posed must have been brought from a place at least twelve miles distant. In some rare cases wood was used as a protection to the body, after the fashion of a coffin, made out of a split and hollowed tree trunk, of which the well-known Gristhorpe burial is an example. The bottom of a grave has sometimes been laid with slabs of wood; and in one instance a wooden flooring had been placed upon short posts, driven in at the head and foot of the grave, the sides of which also showed, by the impression on the clay, that 1 See a paper by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, M.A., F.S.A., on the ‘Stone Avenues of Carnac,’ in the Transactions of the Geological and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1869. ' 2 The very natural mode of interring in cists of stone, of greater or less size, and of different shapes, has prevailed in almost all parts of the Old World, where suitable stone was to be had; nor is it necessary to give references. The same mode was adopted in the New World. Mr. Charles Rau says that in Illinois the cemeteries are generally situated on high ground, and the graves usually consist of rough limestone slabs, placed in a rectangular form, no rule as to the cardinal points being observed. Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 219. 14 . INTRODUCTION. it had been lined with wood. The body seems not unfrequently to have been placed upon wood, not extending much beyond the bones, and in one case protected on each side by a thin slab of willow, there being no appearance of wood either above or beneath it ; but in other cases wood, apparently planks, had been laid over the body. What has already been said refers to unburnt bodies, but the same rule holds good with those that are burnt, except that, so far as I have observed, upon the wolds they are not found in connection with any protection of wood; and that they are sometimes placed within an urn *, which usually is deposited standing upright, but very fre- quently is reversed over the bones. When the urn is met with in an upright position it is sometimes covered by a flat stone; and the mouth is now and then found to have been closed with clay, both in cases when the urn is standing on its base and when it is reversed. It is not unlikely that the mouth of the urn was occasionally covered with cloth or hide. If we may judge from the careful way in which the bones have been collected after the burn- ing, it would only be natural to expect that some provision should have been made for protecting them from the surrounding earth, so as to keep them separate from it; though that might, be done by enclosing them in some material or other before they were deposited inthe urn. Nor is it impossible that the overhanging rim may have been provided for that purpose, the cloth being drawn down as far as to that part, when a cord or thong was then passed over it and round the urn below the projecting rim. It may, however, be objected to this that if the rim was thus mtended to be concealed, it would not have been, as it is almost universally, highly decorated. In the greater number of cases the body appears to have been burnt apart from the place where the bones were ultimately deposited ; but numerous instances occur where the calcined re- mains have been interred on the site of the funeral pile, which was frequently constructed over a hollow, previously made to contain the bones. In some rare cases the bones were not collected after 1 Sir R. Colt Hoare found the deposit of burnt bones in four instances placed in. what he calls a wooden box. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. pp. 122, 126, 207, 211; and in one case in a hollowed tree trunk, p. 185. The Rey. W. C, Lukis met with a burnt body, enclosed in a hollowed tree trunk, in a barrow at Collingbourne Ducis, Wiltshire. Notes on Barrow Diggings in the Parish of Collingbourne Ducis, p. 12. 2 Burnt bones are found enclosed in urns much less frequently on the Wolds than in other parts of England, In Wiltshire, Sir R. Colt Hoare met with them in the proportion of one to three; and in Dorsetshire they are still more commonly placed in urns, being in the proportion of three to one. In Cleveland, Mr, Atkinson, out of fifty burials after cremation, found that the bones were deposited in an urn in thirty-two cases, BURNT BODIES. 15 the burning, but were left in the position they had occupied before the fire was applied, as in the barrows Nos. Ixxix, Ixxxvi. A deposit of burnt bones is sometimes found to comprise the remains of more than one body, which, in some instances, are those of a woman and child, probably a mother and her offspring, but in other cases they are the bones of adults. It is not an uncommon occurrence to find pins, generally made of bone, but sometimes of wood, with a deposit of burnt bones. In most cases they are calcined, and no doubt represent the fastening of the dress or covering in which the body was enclosed before the burning took place ; but in others the pin is found to be untouched by fire, and it is probable, where this is the case, that it had served to fasten a cloth or hide in which the bones were deposited after they were collected from the funeral pile’. The remains of such cloth has occasionally been met with?. The bones are generally found to be remarkably free from any extraneous substance, even charcoal, which naturally might be looked for, being, if present at all, only in small pieces, and to a very trifling extent. This is found to be the case more especially when the bones are enclosed in an urn, cist, or hollow made in the ground, though sometimes under these cireumstances much charcoal has been placed over the deposit, but not amongst the bones. When the bones, however, are widely scattered amongst soil, which is not a common occurrence, then charcoal is not unfrequently freely intermixed. It would seem from this that they must have been collected from the place of burning with more than common care. This pious and reverential custom is described by Homer ®, when he speaks of the white bones of Hector being gathered up (from amongst the ashes of the funeral pile) by his brethren and companions. A deposit of burnt human bones is sometimes found to contain a small number of animal bones mixed up with them. From the fact that they are not present in all cases, and that when they do occur it is only in small numbers, it is probable that they are there accidentally +. When the bones of the burnt body were collected 1 Homer, describing the burial of Hector, says that the bones (or the golden urn in which they were placed, for it is doubtful to which he refers) were wrapped in a soft purple cloth. Tliad, xxiv. 796. ? Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol, i. pp. 113, 114, 169. 3 Tliad, xxiv. 793. ~4 It has been stated that, amongst some deposits of burnt human bones found in Scotland and Ireland, a large number of animal bones have been mixed up. I have not, however, been able to obtain any trustworthy information on the matter, 16 INTRODUCTION. from the funeral pile, upon which, from one cause or another, some animal bones might have been placed, these might easily and with- out intention be gathered up with the rest, and so become a part of the general mass of calcined bones. It is quite possible, however, that these bones may represent animals killed at the funeral and burnt with the body?. Czsar, writing of the custom of an age later than that when the wold barrows were erected, and of another people, kindred if not in blood, at all events in many habits and practices, says, ‘ Funera sunt, pro cultu Gallorum, magnifica et sumptuosa ; omniaque que vivis cordi fuisse arbitran- tur, in ignem ferunt, etiam animalia ?.’ Burnt bones have frequently a blue or green tinge, and this has sometimes been thought to indicate the former presence of some article of bronze, which had entirely gone to decay. The colour, however, is not owing to the bones having been in contact with bronze, but on analysis has been found to be due to the presence of phosphate of iron, a salt which can assume various tinges of blue and green. It is further to be noted that this discolouration is by no means confined to the superficial layers of the bones thus affected. The infiltration of stalagmite, sometimes to be observed in bones, enables us to understand how a salt of iron, carried in solution into the internal structure of a bone, may there, by double decomposition with phosphate of lime, produce the salt in question. It has already been mentioned that bodies oecur at various levels in the barrows, and there can be no doubt that the burial mounds were used over a considerable period for later interments. When this has been done by making excavations in an existing bar- row, great disturbance of the bodies already there has frequently taken place. A large number of cases will be found in the follow- ing record of barrow openings, where primary and other interments have been cut through, the bones broken, and the vases and other associated articles scattered, by the introduction of later burials. When this has occurred, the bones of the disturbed bodies have sometimes been treated with care, and re-interred with as much * A very valuable account, as illustrative in many points of what has been met with in British barrows, is contained in the Iliad, xxiii. 166-176. Homer, there writing of what Achilles did at the burning of the body of Patroclus, says that, after placing the fat of many sheep and oxen (whose carcases were heaped round the pyre) about the body of Patroclus, from head to foot, he set vessels (‘food vessels’ ?), with honey and oil, slanting towards the bier. He then threw horses, pet dogs, and captive Trojans, after slaying them, on to the pile, to be burnt with the body of his friend. ? Comm. de Bello Gallico, vi. ¢. 19. SECONDARY INTERMENTS. 17 reference to their proper order and position as an imperfect know- ledge of the anatomy of the human body admitted, or have been collected together and Jaid in a heap, the skull in some cases being placed on the top; but at other times they seem to have been recklessly cut through and carelessly thrown back into the ground. If these imperfectly arranged skeletons are those of disturbed bodies, and are not to be accounted for by an explanation of their condition which will be mentioned presently, then they may be supposed to be those of ancestors or relations, which were therefore treated with respect when the barrow was opened for a subsequent burial. Many of the secondary interments must have taken place either at no great interval after the erection of the mound, or, at all events, before any change had taken place in burial customs or in the manufacture of pottery, implements, and ornaments; for such as are associated with the introduced bodies differ in no respect from those which are found to accompany the primary occupant of the barrow. There can be no doubt that the barrows have been extensively used for secondary interments, during’ which process bodies have been disturbed, and the bones, burnt or unburnt, have been scattered. But some of these cases of apparent disturbance suggest the idea, that a practice, which has been the custom amongst many peoples, may have prevailed in Britain. Some of the North-American tribes, for instance, collect the bones of the dead, after the flesh has decayed, and bury them in ossuaries, where very large collections of them are found. Amongst the Patagonians the habit prevailed of keeping the bones of the body, from which the flesh had been removed, and afterwards, on certain occasions, taking them to the burial-place of the tribe, where they were laid in the grave in order, together with the arms &c. of the deceased. Even in Brittany, at the present day, some portions of the skeleton are put away in a dead-house in the churchyard, and there kept, each labelled with the name of the dead person, until they are finally buried. Similar practices have been found to exist amongst other peoples, which it is not necessary to particularise. The custom of burying in what may strictly be called ossuaries does not appear to have been in use in Britain, though in some barrows, as for instance in one at Cowlam [No. lvii], the disturbed bodies, which were numerous, presented somewhat of the appearance of such a collection of bones, though on a small scale. In many barrows the bones have been discovered, laid in that rude kind of order, already spoken of, and with a care bestowed upon them Cc 18 INTRODUCTION. which it appears difficult to account for even on the supposition, mentioned above, that they are the remains of bodies of relations disturbed by the introduction of subsequent burials. They present exactly the appearance of bones, which might have had the flesh removed, in one way or another, sometime previous to that of their final interment, and then placed in order by persons whose knowledge of their precise juxtaposition was not minute. The absence of parts of the skeleton, in these instances, is also in favour of this view, for we can more readily understand that one or more bones might be lost in the interval between the removal of the flesh and their final burying, than that any should have disappeared during the process of taking up the bones and at once replacing them. Upon the whoie it may be said, that though the theory which regards these as the remains of disturbed skeletons is quite a tenable one, the other explanation possesses greater claims to be considered the true one. At the same time it is probable that in these disturbed bodies we have the evidence of both practices ; and, indeed, it is scarcely possible to believe that when secondary © interments took place, which the internal appearances of the bar- rows show to have been a very common occurrence, the displaced bones of the first occupant should in all cases have been treated ~ with that want of reverence which it is evident they frequently met with. The pious care of relations must undoubtedly have some- times operated to cause the bones to be taken up and re-interred with attention and respect. It is possible that in some of the cases where imperfect or irregularly-arranged skeletons have been met with, and where no signs of disturbance are apparent in the mound, they may represent persons who had died at a distance from the ordinary place of burial, and whose bodies could not at once be taken to that place. It has been the habit of many peoples to retain the bodies of those who died away from the usual cemetery of the tribe, until a suitable occasion happened to transfer them there, and it does not seem unlikely that a similar custom may have pre- vailed amongst the inhabitants of the wolds. The dead were buried in the barrows both by inhumation, where the body was interred in the condition in which it was left when life departed ; and after cremation, when it had undergone the pro- cess of burning’. This applies both to primary and secondary * Amongst the Greeks both practices prevailed at the same time. The Romans at first buried the dead without burning them, afterwards they practised cremation, and finally reverted to the first mode; but at no time was the observance in either way universal. © BURIAL BY INHUMATION, 19 interments. Nor does the evidence afforded by the barrows show that the one process was earlier than the other’. It has been held by many archeologists that burning the body was the more fre- quent, if not the universal, practice during the bronze period, and, indeed, this seems to be true as regards Denmark, but the facts supplied by the wold barrows by no means corroborate that view. It is perhaps natural, and what might be expected, that, in the rudest states of society, the body, if interred at all, should be simply buried without having been subjected to the action of fire. And this is confirmed by the knowledge we possess of the burial rites of modern savages. But the whole series of the wold bar- rows belongs to a time when civilisation had made some con- siderable progress, and when there was nothing to prevent the use of so artificial a process of disposing of the body as cremation implies. | Inhumation was by far the most frequent practice upon the wolds. In some groups of barrows however—and there is nothing’ connected with them to show that they are earlier or later than the general mass—cremation was the rule. For instance, at Gardham there were six burials, contained in four barrows, five being of burnt, and one of an unburnt body. At Enthorpe, in the same locality, there were twenty-eight burials in six barrows, of these _ eighteen were after cremation, and ten by inhumation. These six barrows, however, formed part of a much larger group, though to a certain extent they stood apart, forming, as it were, a smaller group within the larger one. The proportion of burnt to unburnt bodies, taking into account the whole series.of which those at En- thorpe formed a part, was about three unburnt to two burnt. As _ marking the relative general proportion of burnt to unburnt bodies in the barrows I have opened on the wolds, it may suffice to mention that out of 379 burials, only 78 were after cremation, whilst 301 were by inhumation, which gives nearly 21 per cent. for burials of burnt bodies. And to show that in the wold barrows bronze is by no means more commonly found with burnt bodies than with unburnt, out of 14 instances where I have discovered bronze articles associated with an interment, it was only in 2 that the body had 1 The oceurrence of burial mounds, containing in one case burnt and in the other unburnt. bodies, placed in close proximity and apparently belonging to the same period, has been frequently met with, and in many countries. Mr. Jones opened two mounds on the Georgian coast, in one of which the bodies had been buried unburnt, in the other where they had all been burnt together with many vases and implements. Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 466. ; C2 20 INTRODUCTION. been burnt. The proportion therefore is, that about 4 per cent. of unburnt bodies, and about 23 per cent. of burnt bodies, had articles of bronze accompanying them. This question partly resolves itself into another, whether, in the main, the round barrows of the wolds belong to a time before the introduction of bronze. As the subject will be considered more at length in the sequel, it is sufficient to remark here that I see nothing to imply that they are the burial-places of a people unacquainted with bronze, and my own impression is that, as a rule, they date from a time after its introduction. Burial by inhumation then is so much more common than burial after cremation that, as is shown by the numbers stated above, the latter only amount to rather more than a fourth of the former. There can be no doubt that both practices prevailed at the same time, for several instances have occurred where burials after the two modes have been so intimately connected as to prove that they were contemporaneous. This is most clearly shown in five cases, where the burnt bones of one body were placed in such im- mediate contact with the unburnt bones of another, as to demon- strate incontestably that both must have been deposited in the grave together. Nor is there any circumstance connecting itself with those bodies buried by inhumation and those buried after cremation which implies that they were of persons of varying conditions’. This is made quite certain by the evidence which two cist burials in a deep grave at Rudstone affords. The cists contained respectively a burnt and an unburnt body, both of adult men, each having a ‘drinking cup’ associated with it; the two cists having, as their construction plainly showed, been made at the same time, and with equal care, The only certainly pre-Roman burial, in a large barrow at Uncleby [No. i], was that of a burnt body in a central grave ; and on Potter Brompton Wold[ No. xviii] a burnt body was also’ found in a large central grave, with which a fine axe-hammer of stone was deposited. In each of these cases, it is probable that the person who had undergone cremation had been of great social importance. It seems scarcely necessary to remark that many * Amongst some semi-savage people, who practise both modes of burial at the present day, a reason is given for the different observance, ‘The Curumbalen, a slave caste, who worship the hill god (Malai-déva) and the spirits of deceased ancestors, burn their dead, if good men, and bury them if bad; the latter become demons, requiring to be conciliated by sacrifice. Sir Walter Elliot, Journal of Ethnological Society, New Series, vol. i. p. 115, quoting Buchanan’s Journal, vol. ii. p. 497. BURIAL AFTER CREMATION, 21 unburnt bodies were those of persons of high rank. among their people. Nor was it a question of sex; for, apart from the evidence of the bones themselves, burnt bodies have occurred which had articles buried with them, such as arrow-points and axe- hammers, indicating a male, whilst others have had such implements or ornaments with them as have usually been found accompanying the unburnt bodies of females; and unburnt bodies of men and women are abundant. Numerous interments of children by in- humation have been met with, but they also have very often undergone the process of burning. It is probable, indeed almost certain, that some rule guided the practice, for it can scarcely have been a matter of accident, but we are not at present in possession of evidence to show what the rule was. In some localities on the wolds it has been seen that cremation prevailed, though inhumation was the general custom throughout the whole district. In other parts of Yorkshire, however, crema- tion was all but universal ; as for instance in Cleveland, where Mr. Atkinson’s very extensive investigations did not produce a single instance of an unburnt body; and near Castle Howard, where a large series of barrows contained nothing but burnt bodies’. It has been suggested, as a mode of accounting for the finding of burnt bodies associated with unburnt, that, in some cases, the dead were burnt and the bones preserved without being buried, until the proper time for performing that rite arrived’. This time has been supposed to be that of the death of the head of the family, when it became necessary to erect the sepulchral mound over him, The suggestion, however, does not appear to me a probable one, and the occurrence of such large numbers of burnt bodies in certain dis- tricts seems fatal to it, even without taking into consideration the ' The proportion of burnt to unburnt bodies differs very considerably in various districts. The extensive series of interments, the examination of which is recorded in the works of Bateman, Hoare, Warne, and Borlase, enables us to obtain an ap- proximately true estimate of what has been the mode of burial in the several localities to which their accounts refer. In Derbyshire the proportion is slightly in favour of unburnt bodies; in Wiltshire burnt bodies are as three to one unburnt; in Dorsetshire as four to one; and in Cornwall cremation appears to have been by far the most common usage. In the counties of Denbigh, Merioneth, and Caernarvon, crema- tion seems to have been almost universal, In Northumberland I have disinterred seventy-one bodies, and of these forty-five were after cremation, and twenty-six by inhumation; the proportion of burnt to unburnt bodies being, therefore, almost two to one. : ; 2 The Chinese preserve the body without burying it, until a propitious time arrives, This is discovered by the priests, who perform from time to time certain incantations (for which they are paid), with the view of ascertaining when the happy moment wil oceur. As may be imagined, the burial of a rich man is often long deferred. 22 INTRODUCTION. fact that'a single burnt body is frequently the sole occupant of a barrow, and that the principal interment is sometimes tliat of a child. The way in which the unburnt body was placed in the burial mound has now to be considered. It is almost always found to have been laid upon the side, in a contracted position [fig. 1], Si et + ws eS s we > Sy SS ——- .”. that is, with the knees drawn up towards the head, which is generally more or less bent forward; the back, however, is some- times quite straight. So invariable is this rule, that out of 301 burials of unburnt bodies, which I have examined in the barrows of the wolds, I have only met with four instances where the body had been laid at full length’. This remarkable position of the body, which has nevertheless prevailed in many countries and at very different times, was certainly not caused by the desire to compress the body within the limits of a grave of small dimensions. In those barrows where a grave of 9 feet or 10 feet in diameter has occurred, the single body, which is all that in many instances has been buried there, is * Mr. Bateman (referring to the Derbyshire barrows) says, and his experience was very large, ‘nor have we seen any skeleton, accompanied by relics of the earlier ages (he is speaking of British burials), fully extended.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 27. In Dorsetshire, on the contrary, the extended position seems to be the prevalent one. Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset, passim. CONTRACTED POSITION OF THE BODY. 23 found to be contracted, and placed at one side of the grave, thus occupying but a very small: portion of its area. Where the body has been simply laid upon the ground, and when it might have been extended at full length without any difficulty, the same bowed form is preserved. In the Gristhorpe barrow, where the man had been interred in the split and hollowed trunk of an oak-tree, and when, from the narrowness of the coffin, the usual con- tracted position could not be fully adopted, the knees, so far as they would admit of it, had been drawn up towards the chin. Even in the process of burning the body, the contracted position seems to have been retained ; this was clearly shown in a barrow at Enthorpe [ No. Ixxxvi], as well as in another instance [No. lxxix]. The body had in these cases been burnt on the spot, and the calcined remains had not afterwards been collected and laid together in the ordinary manner, but left in the condition in which they remained after the burning had ceased. The bones, imperfectly consumed, and which were all quite distinct and lying in their proper order, showed that the corpse had been prepared for the funeral fire with the knees brought up towards the head, which was itself bent for- ward. In the barrow at Enthorpe, it appeared, from the remains of the charcoal, that the body had been burnt by placing the wood upon it, rather than by laying it upon the wood. The position, therefore, was not due to the requirements of space, but originated in some settled*principle, the meaning and purpose of which it may be said we have not the means of fully understand- ing, though I think a satisfactory explanation can be given. Nor does the question receive elucidation from any knowledge we possess of the cause of its adoption by modern savages, for though it. is a common practice amongst many of them, no reason, except custom, is given for its use. This manner of disposing of the body has been so common and so widely diffused that it. cannot be accidental. It scarcely seems to suggest itself as a natural position, and it must certainly have required in many cases very con- siderable force to bring the limbs into the required form. Some writers have thought that, in placing the body in the ground after this fashion, a reference was made to the way in which man lay in the womb, before he came into the world, and that as his entrance was, so his departure from this, or rather perhaps his entrance into another, world should be’. This explanation, I think, can only . 1 This view is advocated by M. Fréd, Troyon in a letter to M. Alex. Bertrand, Sur Vattitude repliée dans les sépultures antiques, in the Revue Archéologique, Nouvelle 24, INTRODUCTION. claim a doubtful acceptance, for it is one which supposes a mental process beyond the power of the persons who originated the custom, and also would show a knowledge of the human frame such as these people, though they might be considerably advanced beyond the savage state, were not likely to possess, A more simple and, at the same time, a more probable explanation of this custom has however been offered, and which cannot be considered an unnatural or unlikely one’. Where the sleeping-place was not well protected against the cold, and when covering for the body at night was scanty and limited, the contracted position was that which was best adapted to afford warmth and comfort. In fact it has been observed — that most savages sleep after that fashion. What was more natural then than that the body should be interred in the same posture in which the person was accustomed to rest in sleep, and in which, in many cases, he probably may have died ? ? | Bodies are said to have been found in Britain buried in a sitting position *®. This is probably a mistaken view of the contracted body taken by persons who, seeing the head lying close to the knees, have come to the conclusion that it had fallen down upon the knees when the ligaments decayed. There seems, however, reason to suppose that they were sometimes placed in a sitting position in the chambered barrows of Scandinavia, where, in some cases, they appear to have been arranged in stone cells or stalls running round the chamber 4. A very remarkable discovery by Mr. Lukis shows that, in the Channel Islands, bodies were in some cases interred in a kneeling posture. He found in a cist, within the dolmen called Du Tus in Guernsey, two skeletons amongst sand, with the Série, ix. 288. He mentions, p. 294, ‘la momie d’un oiseau provenant aussi de ces tombeaux Péruviens ; c’était un perroquet, les pattes repliées sur le thorax et la téte ramenée vers l’aile gauche. Cette position étant evidemment celle du petit oiseau dans la coquille.’ * Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, p. 135. * I have learnt, on good authority, that the greater number of persons die in a more or less contracted position, and with the hands towards the chest or head. * Mr. Bateman says, ‘ We found the primary interment . . . in a small oval excava- tion in the rock . . . about 3 feet in depth, and not exceeding the same in its greatest diameter, consequently the body had been placed upright in a sitting or crouching posture, as was abundantly evident from the order in which the bones were found.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 23. It seems from his using the word consequently in the way he does, that the principal reason for this supposition of Mr. Bateman was the small size of the grave, the order of the bones filling up the picture he had already formed. But the contracted body of this, not a very large, man might have been placed in the grave in question in the ordinary form without any difficulty whatever. * Nilsson, Stone Age, ed. Lubbock, p. 128. DIRECTION OF THE HEAD. 2D bones so arranged that the correctness of the description cannot be disputed 1. The position in which the hands have been placed varies con- siderably. They are found up to, and in front of, the face—and this is perhaps the most frequent position—at the neck, under the head, crossed over the chest or stomach, at the knees and hips, and extended down the side, or out from the body; in fact, arranged in almost every way in which it is possible to place the arms of a body laid upon the side, and just as they would naturally be adjusted during sleep. — There is no rule as regards the direction of the body, the head being laid with the face opposite to any point of the compass*, In the whole series of the wold barrows, 234 bodies were in a suffi- cient state of preservation to admit of the position of the head in this respect being ascertained, together with the side on which the body had been laid. Without having regard to the minute divi- sion of the compass points, they may be thus classed * :— DIRECTION OF HEAD. ON THE RIGHT SIDE. ON THE LEFT SIDE. TOTAL. Head pointing to N. 8 11 19 i N.N.W. 3 3 6 * 3 N.W. 12 6 18 4s 5 W.N.W 6 1 7 * - W. 20 5 25 - 3 W.S.W. 7 1 8 : Ps S.W. 16 3 19 ra a 8.S.W. 4 5 9 94 yo 8. af 8 19 es is S.S.E. 1 5 6 ‘s 5 S.E. 3 18 21 46 = E.S.E. 1 9 10 » » K. 13 24 37 = . E.N.E. 1 A 5 i - N.E. © 6 15 21 % , N.N.E 0 : 4. A 112 122 234 Tt will be seen from this table that when the head has pointed to the West or the adjoining parts to North and South of if, by far the larger number of bodies were laid on the right side ; 1 See a paper by Mr. Lukis in the Journal of the British Archeological Associa- tion, vol. i, where at p. 27 is an engraving of the skeletons in the position in which they were discovered. 2 The direction of the head is given with reference to the line of the vertebral column, the head being regarded as the final vertebra. 8 Sir R. Colt Hoare (though his observations in this respect are not very carefully recorded) appears to have found the head generally directed towards the North. 26 INTRODUCTION. whereas when the head pointed to the East and its adjacent parts, the larger number of bodies were laid on the left side. ~ From this fact I infer that the habit was generally to place the body in the grave facing the sun. When the head was to North or South, the face would look to East or West according to the side on which the body was laid, the position being regulated by the time of day at which the burial took place; but when the head pointed to East or West, it must, to face the sun, have been placed, in the one case, on the left, in the other, on the mght side; and so we find, asa rule, that the bodies have this relative position of side and head. It is true that such does not appear to have held good in every case; but the proportion is too large, and the facts fit in too accu- rately with the supposed custom, to admit of the coincidence being merely an accidental one. It is quite possible that some of the instances, where the rule seems to have been departed from, may be more apparent than real; and, moreover, it is not difficult to adduce cases where it would be impossible to place a body facing the sun; for instance, when two persons nearly connected were buried together, and where, as will be seen in the account of some of the barrows, they had been laid in the grave in front of and facing each other, one must have looked away from the sun, in order that such a position might be preserved. The bodies, including men, women, and children, have been placed indifferently on either side; women, however, are more frequently laid on the right, whilst men and children are most commonly laid on the left side’. The whole number of burials by inhumation that I have examined in the wold barrows is 301; of these, 124 had been laid on the left, 112 on the right side, and 4 extended and on the back; whilst the position of 61, owing to the decayed state of the bones, could not be determined. When these burials are further classed into sex and age (and no bodies are here taken into account except those where the sex may fairly be deter- mined), it results that 40 men had been laid on the right side, and 52 on the left; 26 women on the right, and 19 on the left; and 12 children on the right, and 21 on the left. Though it 1s most commonly found that a grave contains but 1 Mr. Bateman appears to have found in the Derbyshire barrows that the bodies of men were generally placed on the left side; he says that he met with ‘a man... who lay with the knees drawn up, contrary to the usual custom on his right side” Ten Years’ Diggings, p.58. Indeed in Derbyshire the body was discovered by Mr. Bateman to have been laid on the left side four times as frequently as on the right. CENOTAPHS. 54 27 a single body, it is by no means an infrequent occurrence to find two or more bodies which have evidently been all interred together, and at the same time. The inference which may be drawn from this is discussed in more than one place in the de- tailed account of the examination of the barrows, and need not be specially noticed here. | y Barrows are sometimes met with in which, upon examination, no burial appears to have taken place, since no remains of the body are to be discovered. In the greater number of these instances there can be little doubt that, in consequence of the imperfect ex- ploration of the mound, the place of burial has been missed, and in other cases that a small deposit of burnt bones or the almost entirely decayed bones of an unburnt body have been overlooked. - Large numbers of barrows have been opened by merely cutting a narrow trench through the centre’. It will readily be understood how, in a process like this, the central burial might not be dis- covered; for in throwing up a mound of considerable size, that part, which was at one time the centre, might eventually be at some distance from the central point of the completed barrow. Graves have also been very frequently overlooked, the explorers not being aware that it was the habit to bury beneath the natural surface. But there are other cases, and such have occurred to myself, when the most careful examination has failed to discover any trace of an interment. These empty barrows have been spoken of as ceno- taphs, monuments raised to commemorate but not to contain the dead. Mr. Kemble, holding the view that barrows were prepared beforehand, and that, from time to time, bodies were inserted in the mounds so set apart, believed that the barrows where no burials are found had never been used for interment’. Neither of these views appears to be a tenable one, and both seem modes of account- ing for the absence of burials much too artificial for such a state of society as may be supposed to have existed during the ages when barrow burial was in use in Britain. With every wish to defer to the great practical knowledge of Mr. Kemble, as well as to 1 It must be understood that I am not now referring to my own barrow diggings. ~ My practice has always been to drive a trench, the width of the barrow as it was originally constituted and before it was enlarged by being ploughed down, from south to north, through and beyond the centre. I have not always thought it necessary to remove the whole of the north and west sides, as they are generally found to be destitute of secondary interments; in very many cases, however, I have turned over the whole mound. ; 2 Hore Ferales, p. 99, in an article upon Burial and Cremation, reprinted from the Archeological Journal, vol. xii. 28 | INTRODUCTION. the skill with which, as a rule, his mind moulded the facts it had accumulated into a consistent and reasonable theory, I cannot but regard this opinion as being both unnatural and out of harmony with the general mass of evidence which the burial mounds afford. Nor do I see any difficulty in accounting for the absence of bones or other indications of an interment where a careful examination has shown that such evidence has not been overlooked through a careless or imperfect exploration. In the greater number of instances, how- ever, as has already been stated, the barrows are found empty, not because they are so in reality, but because they have not been searched exhaustively *. The absence of any signs of a burial, where a barrow has been minutely and fully examined, is due, in my opinion, to the entire decay of the skeleton, in cases where no weapon, implement, ornament, or vase has accompanied the body. I have myself opened several cists where there was not the slightest trace of bone to be seen, but where the occurrence of flint, and jet, and ‘ food vessel ’ showed plainly that a body had once been placed therein ; in other cases there was absolutely nothing within the cist. In burial mounds where no cists had been constructed, and where the body had been laid in the ground without anything to mark the spot, the admission of air or some other destructive agency might easily lead to the total disappearance of the bones; and if nothing of a more lasting character had been associated with the body, to testify to its having once been there, we should then have an empty barrow—the so-called cenotaph *. There is an incident intimately connected with burials by in- humation, which is rarely, if ever, wanting; the occurrence of charcoal, in greater or less quantities, in contact with the body °. * To give an instance in illustration: a barrow at Everley, Wiltshire, opened by Sir R. Colt Hoare, and by him styled a cenotaph, because he found no signs of an interment therein, has subsequently, on a more careful examination by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., proved to have contained a deposit of burnt bones. The deposit was discovered at the centre, in association with a flint arrow-point and an implement of deer’s-horn, the bones being scattered amongst the disturbed material of the barrow, having no doubt been overlooked by the workmen in the absence of their employer. * In a paper on ‘ Buried Cruciform Platforms in Yorkshire,’ printed in the York- - shire Archeological Journal, vol. ii. p. 69, the late Mr. Charles Monkman, of Malton, has suggested that these empty barrows may be botontini, erected by the agrimen- sores for the purposes of land division, &c. I think it more than probable that the three mounds he cites, and which contained peculiar cruciform structures, were such - landmarks, In the absence, however, of anything distinctly Roman, and the presence, moreover, of much that is evidently pre-Roman, I should have great hesitation in attributing, as a rule, these now vacant barrows to the operations of the agrimensores. * The Abbé Cochet appears to have met with the same feature in the Frankish cemetery at Parfondeval, where ‘deux ou trois squelettes paraissaient avoir été déposés CHARCOAL IN GRAVES. 29 This substance, which I have found to exist in every instance since my attention was directed to the fact, not only in Yorkshire, but in Northumberland and other places, I have little doubt would be discovered connected with every interment of an unburnt body if it was looked for. The frequency of its occurrence and the close contact between it and the body make it very improbable that its presence is accidental. It is true that charcoal is often met with scattered throughout the greater part of a sepulchral mound, when it may be supposed to represent the remains of fires on the surface of the ground, and gathered up with the material of the barrow, or to be the ashes of the fire at which the feast was cooked if such took place, and indeed it is probable that in many cases it does represent such remains. But another explanation of its occurrence may be given, and one which makes it a part of-the same burning as that originating the charcoal found in the grave. It has been shown that cremation, though not the most frequent mode of burial upon the wolds, prevailed there toa considerable extent, being in some parts of the district the more common practice. In other localities in Yorkshire, and the same may be said of Britain in general, it is by far the most usual custom. The application of fire to the body was therefore one of the rites which was com- monly practised in connection with burial. The extent of the burning varied much, as might be expected, and as is found to be the case in India at the present day. Sometimes the bones were reduced almost to powder, at other times they are so little consumed that each particular bone can be recognised, whilst in some cases only a part of them has been acted upon by the fire, other portions being in a perfectly uncalcined state’. It appears dans une couche de braise et méme sur des cendres.’ La Normandie Souterraine, ed. 1855, p. 308. Charcoal has been frequently found in Christian graves, even of a comparatively late date. Durandus explains its occurrence thus: ‘ Carbones in testimonium, quod terra illa ad communes usus amplius redigi non potest, plus enim durat carbo sub terra quam aliud.” Rationale Divin. Offic. lib. vii. cap. 35. sect. 38. The same explanation is given by Beleth in his Explicatio Divin. Offic. cap. 161. 1 Cases have been met with in more than one country in Europe where parts of the body only have been burnt, the remainder having never, apparently, been subjected to the action of fire. M. Ph. Lalande says that he found, in a tumulus, Commune de Saint-Cernin de l’Arche [Corréze], an unburnt body, associated with bronze armlets (probably of the early iron age), where the head had been burnt, the bones of which had been enclosed in an urn, placed where the head should have been. Matériaux pour l’Hist. Prim. de Homme, See. Sér., vol. ii. p. 407. In the cemetery at Hallstatt, of the time of transition from bronze to iron, numerous instances were discovered where parts of the body were burnt, whilst others were left unburnt ; nor does any rule seem to apply there; sometimes the head is burnt, at other times the body had passed 30 INTRODUCTION. then to have been considered sufficient that fire should be applied to the body, without reducing it completely to ashes; “and if so, it is quite possible to understand how the application might in some cases be so trifling as to leave upon the bones no indications of fire having been in contact with the body*. This appears to me to afford a clue to the explanation of the occurrence of char- coal in connection with the unburnt body. It may be the remains of fire through which the corpse was passed where burning the dead had become, to some extent, a merely representative rite *. If this suggestion is the true solution of the reason why charcoal accompanies the body, then the practice of cremation was universal amongst these people, for every corpse was either burnt actually, or was subjected so far to the influence of fire that the obligation ~ of burning was supposed to be fulfilled. The substitution of aspersion for immersion in the rite of baptism may be regarded as a somewhat analogous instance, where a partial application has taken the place of a complete one. The whole question of fire, the purifier, in its connection with funeral rites, is of the deepest interest ; and there is a large amount of evidence bearing upon it, which has been collected from many different countries and belonging to ages widely apart, but to con- through the fire, and in other cases the head with some portions of the body, as the hands and feet, are calcined, the remainder of the skeleton-being left unburnt. Von Sacken, Grabfeld von Hallstatt, pl. iv, p. 13. The same feature has been observed in graves in ‘Mahren, Rheinhessen, Thiiringen und Luxemburg,’ where generally it was the skull that was preserved intact. Essay by Professor Unger in Mittheilungen aus dem Géttinger Anthropologischen Vereine, vol. i. p. 32, 1874. * «At Elze, near Hildesheim, a barrow was removed. Upon its basis there were ‘found six holes or kists, as they are sometimes called. Five of these were nearly filled with ashes of wood, and. over each a skeleton lay at full length upon its back.’ Hore Ferales, p. 98. Mr. Kemble thinks that the intention was to apply fire surreptitiously, and that the persons may have been half-converted Christians, or pagans living under Christian rule. The explanation does not, however, appear to be a probable one. * This idea had suggested itself to Mr. Kemble. He says, Hore Ferales, p. 101 : ‘In a vast number of burials, where interment is ‘the rule, there are signs of crema- tion ... the body was not reduced to ashes, but it was singed... . I believe that we may thus best account for the few remains of charcoal (sometimes exceedingly minute) which are often found in tumuli where skeletons are deposited entire. A little fire was probably considered sufficient to symbolise the ancient rite.’ | This partial burning appears to have been practised at a time possibly antecedent to that of the wold barrows, or of those interments referred to by Mr. Kemble, though the time of the burials at Solutré is very doubtful. MM. de Ferry and A. Arcelin, in a paper, ‘ L’Age du renne en Maconnais,’ printed in the Norwich volume of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology, mention, p. 342, that at Solutré, ‘Qu’un grand nombre des os des ‘squelettes portent des traces de brilure. Ce fait vaut une étiquette, et prouve d’une fagon irréfutable que les corps ont été déposés sur les foyers mal éteints, ou au moins encore chauds, avant leur enfouissement par conséquent.’ BODIES BURIED IN THE DRESS. 31 sider it in detail is quite beyond the limits of this Introduction, and I must here be satisfied with simply alluding to it‘. Owing to the perishable nature of the material, it is difficult to come to any certain conclusion as to whether the corpse was interred in the ordinary dress of the deceased person, in something like a shroud, or without any covering. Upon the whole, it seems most probable that the body was laid in the grave clothed. Several facts bearing upon the question have been discovered. The im- pression of various fabrics upon the oxidised surface of associated implements of bronze has afforded some information as to the nature of the clothing’. But the occurrence of bronze is so rare, and even when found is so often in the shape of drills, awls, and other articles too small to afford a surface sufficient to exhibit any impression, that we possess but scanty evidence in this respect from its presence in the grave. The finding of articles used in fastening the dress affords, however, more satisfactory proof. At Butterwick [ No. xxxix], six buttons of jet and stone were found in their proper position, supposing that they fastened a dress, in front of the chest. In barrows on Ganton Wold [No. xxvii] and on Flixton Wold [ No. lxxi], a button, in one case of jet, in the other of bone, was lying in front of the neck of the skeleton. In these several instances it would appear that the body had been buried in its every- day clothing. The discovery of bone pins, which, however, is uncommon’, is not a certain indication that the corpse had been dressed, for they might have equally been used to fasten something 1 In illustration of the occurrence of fire-in connection with burials, a few notes --may be given. In some of the graves at Obgrflacht, in Suabia, candlesticks were found. See Graves of the Alemanni, by W. M. Wylie, Esq., Archzol. xxxvi. 129. The well-known and common practice of placing a lamp in Roman sepulchres may also be referred to this use of fire. In a barrow at Mammen, near Viborg (c. A.D. 900), a lighted wax-candle had: been deposited with the body. La Sépulture de Mammen, par J. J. A. Worsaae, Memoires de la Soc. Royale des Ant. du Nord. A Report of the Church Missionary Society says of the Arriyans or Malai-arasar, a primitive com- munity in the mountains of Travancore, ‘They bury in Cromlechs, like those of Coimbratore .. . in this (the cromlech) is included a metal image or an oblong stone, in which the spirit of the deceased is supposed to dwell. It is deposited with offerings of milk, of ghee, &e., a torch is lighted and then extinguished, and the top-stone put on, which is tlenoaforward undisturbed.’ Journal of Ethnological Society, N. S., -i, 109. * Mr. Bateman mentions the finding of the body of ‘a man... who had been interred enveloped in a skin of dark red colour, the hairy surface of ‘which had left many traces both upon the surrounding earth, and upon the patina coating a bronze axe-shaped celt and dagger, deposited with the skeleton.? Ten Years’ Diggings, 34. , 3 T have found twelve unburnt bodies accompanied : each bya pin, and amongst burnt bones they have occurred in four cases, 32 INTRODUCTION. of the nature of a shroud. The association of weapons, implements, and ornaments, in cases where they occur, may be fairly-considered to presuppose the presence of garments. The knowledge we pos- sess upon the subject, from the evidence afforded by the wold bar- rows, may be further augmented by an account of some of the discoveries which have been made in other districts in Britain, as well as in countries beyond its limits. Remains of woollen and leathern* garments have been found in cists and graves; and buttons and other fastenings have remained undecayed in many cases where the dress to which they were attached has perished. In a barrow at Scale House, in Craven, numerous fragments of woollen fabric [fig. 2], the remains, no doubt, of the dress in which the body had been in- terred, were met with in a hollowed oak-tree trunk. The presence of charred cloth amongst burnt bones, with other articles, such as a kind of fibula of bone, connected with the dress, Fig.2. 2.5 shows that the body was in some cases, if not always, placed on the funeral pile in the garments worn during life. The evidence, however, is much stronger which is afforded by the contents of some tree-coffins of the bronze age found in Den- mark. In one instance there the whole dress was found complete, and has been preserved, and it shows, in the long catalogue of cap, cloak, shirt, leggings, and probably boots, that the wardrobe of these ancient people was by no means slenderly provided. As to the make and shape of the dress which was worn by the occupiers of the wolds, the barrows give us no information; the only facts that we learn from the burials are, that these people, as might be expected, notwithstanding the popular notion about our naked and painted — predecessors, wore clothes, and that sometimes, if not always, they were buried in them. | | Fastenings for the dress have already been alluded to. They include buttons of jet, stone, and bone, in some cases highly decorated [figs. 3, 4]’; a peculiarly formed ring, the application of * Where remains of leather have been found it is difficult in most cases, on account of the imperfect state of the material, to say whether the body had been clothed in a dress, or merely enclosed in a hide by way of shroud. At Stowborough, Dorsetshire, where a body was discovered in 1767, in a tree-coffin, it appeared to have been wrapped in skins sewed together and then passed several times round the body. Hutchins’s Dorset, vol. i. p. 25. * A small button-shaped article of jet has not unfrequently been found associated with necklaces made of beads of various shapes, and has been usually considered to DRESS-FASTENERS. 33 which, as a mode of fastening the dress, is difficult to understand ; these also usually are prettily ornamented |fig. 5]; a jet article, probably to brace the belt [fig. 6]; a kind of clasp or fibula of bone | fig. 7]; and pins of bone or of boar’s-tusk | figs. 8, 9]. The nature of the materials of which weapons and implements were made has enabled us to obtain a considerable amount of in- formation with respect to them. ‘These various articles are met have formed a portion of the necklace, Though these are precisely like buttons, and “as large as some which have certainly answered that purpose, yet on account of the number found together, and of their having been mixed up with beads, it is probable that they were decorative, and not used for fastening the dress. See Bateman, Vestiges, pp. 24, 47; also Evans, Stone Impl. p. 409. ‘ 1 A gold article, which appears to correspond with these bone fastenings, was found by Sir R. Colt Hoare in Bush Barrow. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 204, pl. xxvil. fig. 1. D 34 INTRODUCTION. with, associated with the bodies, both burnt and unburnt, ‘as well as placed, without reference to any particular interment, within and at different parts of the mound. They are numerous, and it is difficult to say of some of them whether they should be classed in the category of weapons or of implements. They may be divided into articles of stone, including flint; of bone or deer’s-horn; and of bronze. The list of those made of other stone than flint comprises hatchets [fig. 10]; adzes [fig. 11]; 35 STONE IMPLEMENTS, ton Coy ow aoe Oo wm 0 re Mm rat bp = 8D ee &, m . & i oes oo Ss a SO ee + On ae art me ont (= 0S — on an — 2 a ¢&, — ors _ & 2 a oe f 8 LI @ £ nm § ~ wn 28 £ ss 0 gece Sr seg S o ie aes o42 = 6 Ce ae ee E aps ale Canes eS o 8 coe ne Lae 2h es oo» now ‘So .8 oF & ; knives [figs. 20, 21]; saws [fig. 22]; drills ; fabricators or flaking tools [fig. 24]; sling-stones (com- monly so called); hammer-stones [ fig. 25]; polishers [fig. 26]; arrow- points, leaf-shaped [fig. 27], triangular [fig. 28], and barbed [fig. 29] ; 4 oO lon! &p id a} a MN par (e3) 2 Sop. Te St at Se D2 36 INTRODUCTION. heads of darts or javelins [fig..30] ; ‘flint and steel ’ [fig. 31]; and numerous enigmatical articles, the use of which it is not easy to make out. What may be called an implement of stone, a wrist guard [fig. 32], to protect the arm against the recoil of the bow- string, has been found so near to the wolds that it may be included amongst the articles met with in the wold barrows. It was dis- covered in'a cist at Kelleythorpe, near Driffield, and was placed on Fig. 13. 3. the wrist of a skeleton, with which a bronze knife-dagger, amber buttons, and a ‘ drinking cup’ were associated !. 1 Archeologia, vol. xxxiv. p. 254. Wrist-guards have occurred in connection with an interment of an unburnt body in several instances. In Wiltshire, on Roundway Down, near Deyizes, Crania Brit. pl. 42; and near Sutton, Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol, i. p. 103. In Hertfordshire, near Tring, Archzologia, vol. viii. p. 429, pl. xxx. In Suffolk, near Brandon—this guard is now in the Christy Collection. In Scotland, they have been met with in the Isle of Skye, Wilson, Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 223; near Cruden, Aberdeenshire, /. c., vol. i. p.'76; and near Evantown, Ross- shire, Proc. Soc. Ant. of Scotland, vol. vi. p. 233. They have also been found casually in other places in Great Britain and Ireland. They have been discovered in Denmark, associated with burials. See also Evans, Stone Impl. p. 380. BONE IMPLEMEN'S. 37 Bone and horn implements are rarely found, owing no doubt, in some measure, to their being liable to decay. I have only met, with them in the shape of a hammer, made from the lower part of a red-deer’s antler [fig. 33]; what may have been a pick for ex- Fig. 14. 4. Fig. 16. 3. cavating the chalk or a hoe for breaking up the ground, also made of a red-deer’s antler? [fig. 34]; a knife or scraping instrument formed out of a split and sharpened boar’s tusk; two articles * This horn implement was found in a grave hollowed out of the chalk rock near Rudstone, and as it is identical in shape, and in the signs of wear at the end of the. tine, with several which had been used as picks for excavating the chalk in the flint workings at Grime’s Graves in Norfolk, it is probable that one of the purposes it had served was to make the grave in which it was found. There is however, besides the bruising at the end of the tine, so much- smoothening upon the whole length of it, especially on the under side, as to give the impression that it must have been used amongst some softer material than chalk, and if so, possibly in tilling the ground, 38 INTRODUCTION, made of bone, which may have been used in the manufacture of pottery | figs. 35, 36]; a cutting instrument made from an incisor tooth of a beaver; and a small chisel-like tool. The bronze implements include knife-daggers | fig. 37]; knives ; axes |[fig. 38]; drills [fig. 39]; and awls or prickers | fig. 40]. In the barrows of the wolds, though implements of any kind have been but rarely found in connection with an interment, those of stone are much more abundant than those of bronze. The con- verse of this appears to be the case in Wiltshire, where Sir R. Colt Hoare met with bronze implements in the proportion of two of that metal to one of stone; and though it is possible that he may have overlooked some of the smaller flint articles, still it is evident that in Wiltshire stone was less frequently deposited with the dead than was bronze. POSITION OF IMPLEMENTS. 39 When any of these implements of stone, horn, or bronze have been associated with a burial, they have been discovered in various relative positions as regards the body. Knife-daggers of bronze and flint, and axe-hammers of stone or horn have been, in many cases, apparently held in the hand, with the point of the one and the edge of the other almost touching the chin. Other weapons Fig. 22. 1. Fig. 23. 4. and implements have been found in front of the face and chest; behind the head, shoulders, and back; at the hips, and under the knees. Amongst these several articles of stone, horn, and bronze, the only two which can fairly lay claim to be considered as weapons are arrow-points and the perforated axe-hammer of stone; to which may possibly be added the plain bronze axe. The knife- 40 INTRODUCTION. dagger, which is usually called a dagger, and believed to have been a weapon, can scarcely be regarded as being such. It is so thin in the blade, and at times the point is so much rounded, that it would ill serve the purpose to which a dagger had to be l Uy Lp fi \ \ SS DH iit SS \Y ZN Mlf{/? Fig. 28. 4. applied. It partakes much more both of the shape and character of a knife, and seems to have been intended rather for cutting than for stabbing. At the same time it probably served more than one purpose, and as the Kaffir uses the head of his assagai in a variety of ways, so we may imagine that the knife-dagger sup- plied the place of several different instruments. Some of these BRONZE DAGGERS. 41 blades [fig. 41], however, must- be regarded as daggers in the trué sense of the word, though these have not been found associated Fig. 31. +. with interments in the wold barrows, so far as my own experience goes. A portion of one of these last-named blades, much stronger and thicker than those to which I have applied the name of knife- dagger, was discovered amongst the material of a barrow at Cowlam 42 INTRODUCTION. [No. lvii], but not in connection with a burial. Strong blades similar in character to that figured at p. 47 have occurred in several of the Wiltshire barrows opened by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, as well as in other parts of England’. The perforated stone axe-hammer, on the contrary, could scarcely have been used for any other purpose than that of offence, for the edge, instead of being sharp, as in the case of the ordinary stone hatchet, is always rounded or squared’. This would be sufficiently efficacious for assaulting an enemy, but could never have been applied to such an use as that of cutting wood. The care bestowed upon these axe-hammers, and the ornament which is found upon some of them, are also greatly in favour of their having been used as weapons, upon which so many peoples have been in the habit of lavishing decoration. ? It is a curious circumstance, though it may be an accidental one, that all the knife-daggers found by Messrs. Bateman and Carrington in the Derbyshire and Staffordshire barrows, sixteen in number, were discovered with bodies unaccompanied by any vessel of pottery. The same is the case with those found by Mr. Ruddock on the Yorkshire moors, and by myself on the wolds and on the moors. Sir R. Colt Hoare found thirty-six daggers and knife-daggers with burnt and unburnt bodies, the larger number, as is usually the case, with burials by inhumation. With twenty- four of these no vessel of pottery occurred, five were with burnt bones enclosed in. urns, one was with two bodies and a single urn, and may have been placed with either of the two, thus leaving only five instances where an urn and a dagger were found together. Of these, two were with ‘drinking-cups,’ two with peculiarly-shaped urns, and one with what was probably a ‘ food-vessel.’ 2 See Evans, Stone Impl. p. 175. - SCARCITY OF BRONZE IMPLEMENTS, 43 The barrows are found to contain examples of almost all the stone implements which occur elsewhere. I do not remember, indeed, to have seen any article of stone which has not, in one form or another, been met with in a barrow. The contrary, how- ever, is the case with regard to bronze. The number as well as variety of weapons and implements belonging to the bronze period, which have been discovered under many different circumstances Fig. 33. sito Fig. 34, 2. and in great abundance, is very large. Not to particularise every one, it may be sufficient to mention swords, daggers, spear-heads, axes (plain, flanged, and socketed—the so-called paalstabs ant celts), gouges, chisels, knives, drills, and awls. Now, out of this long list, but a very small proportion has ever been found in bar- rows in association with interments, or, indeed, in any part of a sepulchral mound. Those that have occurred may be comprised 44. INTRODUCTION. under the head of the plain axe, dagger, knife-dagger’, knife, drill, and awl. It appears strange that out of all these implements and weapons cans Yrs eh wr oes entt 2 BE saa We Sie sats A Ses Nit ass =<" Ser y= pp —— —= belonging to the bronze period in Britain, only the six above mentioned should have been found, in the barrows, and the fact is not easily to be accounted for”. It has been stated, indeed, and Dr. Daniel Wilson, in the Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, mentions it as not an uncommon occurrence, that bronze swords have been dis- covered in barrows, buried with the dead*, I cannot, however, find a single authentic instance of their occurrence. It is probable that a mis- conceived view about the finding of swords with burials has arisen from the loose way in which casual discoveries have frequently been recorded. It has happened (and I know of such a case) that a sword was found in the neighbourhood of a barrow, where it may have been lost or concealed at some other time than that when the mound was constructed, and a careless method of recording has referred it to a position 1 The knife-dagger and knife of the barrows are quite different implements from the knives which frequently form part of the hoards of bronze articles, such as swords, spear- heads, &c. * I have only met with three doubtful instances in Eng- land of the alleged finding of a bronze socketed celt in connection with an interment. In an account of the opening of some barrows in East Devon, by the Rev. R. Kirwan, it is stated that this implement was found in the deposit made by the remains of the funeral pyre. This statement occurs in the text, but on the plate the celt is described as coming out of a kistvaen. Trans. Devon. Assoc., 1870. See also Evans, Coins Anc. Brit. p. 102; and Archeol. iv. p. 24. To show how. uncommon is its occurrence in France, it may be mentioned that in a letter from the Abbé Cochet to M. de Mortillet (Mat. pour Vhist. de homme, N. 8. i. 73) he says that one was found by M. de Ring of Bischeim in a barrow in the forest of Brumath, Alsace, and that it is the, only instance of the kind with which he is acquainted. $ Vol. i. p. 394. Dr. Wilson here speaks of the swords as’ being found broken, but in doing this he seems to confuse) the contents of Danish with those of Scotch burial mounds. In Denmark it is true that bronze swords, both entire and broken, have been met with occasionally, associated with both burnt and unburnt bodies. ant neti iD SCARCITY OF BRONZE IMPLEMENTS. 45 in the barrow itself. Nor, indeed, would the fact that a sword was found in a barrow show that there was anything more than an accidental connection between the two. The sword might have been deposited in an already existing barrow for concealment or other purpose, just as I have known a small hoard of shillings of Queen Elizabeth to have been found in one. It is only when an article is discovered associated with an interment, or in a barrow under such circumstances as make it clear that no after- disturbance of the mound has taken place, that the article can be considered as contemporaneous with the barrow. It has also frequently been stated that spear-heads have been met with in barrows, but in every case where I have had an oppor- tunity of testing the report, the so-called spear-head has proved to be either one of the knife-daggers or a dagger. I have little doubt that, could all these cases be investigated, the result of the examination would be found to be the same. The fact that so few of the ordinary bronze implements wid “weapons have been met with in the barrows is a very important one as regards the age of these sepulchral mounds; for if the barrows 46 : INTRODUCTION. belong to the same period as that which was so prolific in- the various articles of bronze mentioned above, it is difficult to under- stand how so small a number of them should have been met with in the mounds. It must not, however, be supposed, because in some barrows no other implements than those of stone have been found, that such barrows belong to a time be- fore the introduction of bronze, for its absence by no means proves that it was unknown, In many cases there may have been small articles, such as awls or prickers, buried with the dead which have entirely gone to decay; indeed in a barrow at Rudstone, but for the stain upon the cheek bone of a woman, there would not have been the slightest evidence that anything of bronze had been buried with her, and that evidence would have been wanting unless the ‘metal had been in actual contact with the bone. Many barrows also merely contain such articles of stone or of pottery as in others are found in connection with implements of bronze, and in these cases there can be little doubt that those barrows where the metal is absent, nevertheless, belong to a time when it was in use, though for one reason or another it was not placed in the sepulchral mound. The absence of bronze how- ever might be used, and with good reason, as an argument in favour of the barrows belonging to a time, if not antecedent to its introduction, at all events to one poe to its highest developement. In further illustration of this it may be stated, that amongst the weapons and implements forming the constituent parts of the ordinary hoards of bronze articles, there has nothing been discovered which is at all like the knife-daggers or knives of the barrows ; nor, indeed, does the true dagger, also met with in the barrows, appear to have been in use at that time’. The sword appears to have served Fig. 39. j. Fig. 40. ? The Arreton Down find, which might at first sight appear to be inconsistent with this statement, is really in favour of it. The principal part of the articles found there consisted of what have been called spear-heads, but which are, properly speaking, daggers; the remaining implements being two ordinary dagger-blades, and four axes, of the plain and early type. The find seems to belong not to the later ‘time, when the sword, spear, &c. were the ordinary weapons, but to the earlier one of the age of bronze, or possibly to a period between the two. The find is described, and many of the articles are figured, in Archzol. vol. xxxvi.'p. 326: A hoard of bronze articles, corresponding in many respects with those found on Ps | s Ml OO Pa wet. aS. BRONZE KNIFE-DAGGERS. 47 the double purpose which the two weapons in question. fulfilled, and many of them are so short that they might almost be classed amongst daggers. The circumstance that the knife-dagger, knife (of the barrows), &e. are not found with swords, spear-heads, socketed celts, knives (of the hoards), &c., 1s very difficult to account for, if they are all to be referred to the same period. It may be said that knife- daggers were manufactured specially for burial purposes, and would not therefore be likely to occur in association with the ordinary implements of daily use. The evident signs of wear upon many of them is, however, quite inconsistent with such an explana- tion. Again, it may be said that imple- ments like the knife-dagger or knife (of the barrows) would be kept in use until there was but little left of them, and that therefore they would not be likely to occur in many of the hoards, which seem to have been collections of damaged and broken implements gathered together for the purpose of being recast. But articles of quite as small a size as a knife-dagger would ever be reduced to by whetting are common enough in the hoards; and it must also be remembered that many of the large finds have not been of broken articles, but of those which were quite new, or, at all events, perfect. The plain axe has been mentioned as one of the bronze implements found in barrows, and as the facts connected with that implement have a very important bearing upon the question of the age of these places of sepulture, it becomes ne- eessary to devote some consideration to it. By the plain axe is meant the simple form of the implement, like that figured at p. 45, which appears to have been based Fig. 41. 2. Arreton Down, was discovered at Plymstock, Devon. There were no paalstabs of the later form, no socketed celts, spear-heads nor swords, but knife-daggers, an early, though not perhaps the earliest, form of axe, a narrow chisel, &c. Arch. Journ. xxvi. 346, 48 INTRODUCTION. upon the model of the earlier stone axe’. It has neither flanges at the side like fig. 42, nor a socket at the end like fig. 43, and seems to have been hafted by inserting the smaller end into a club-like handle of wood’®. The simplicity of the form, and the resemblance it bears to the stone axe, both make it probable that \ \ \ | it is the earliest type of the bronze axe*. Now this form of axe is never found with swords, spear-heads, &c. in the various hoards of bronze articles, which have been so frequently discovered ; the axe in use at the same time with them, and occurring with them in these finds, is the flanged axe (paalstab), and more commonly the 1 An analogue may be found in the baluster shafts and other ‘stone carpentry ’ of pre-Conquest churches, no doubt copied from buildings of wood; and also in some of the iron bridges of our own day, where the stone bridge has served as a model. 2 The axe found at Butterwick [No. xxxix] shows, upon the oxidised surface, the exact place at which the handle terminated, about one-third of the length from the narrower end. These axes may also have been hafted by fixing them midway into the split end of a shaft, and then binding across with thong. * Axes of this form, made of copper or of a metal containing a very small propor- tion of tin, have been found, not unfrequently, in Ireland; and may be considered to belong to the transition period between the use of stone and bronze. bo “ - = odie oe berths Mia Pres mi atians —= Ter" | © F —— ee eee ee BARROWS—EARLY TIME OF BRONZE. 49 socketed celt’. From this it would appear that swords and spear- heads were not manufactured immediately upon the introduction or the discovery of bronze ; and that the plain axe preceded them, dating, as it might seem, from the time of the earliest use of that metal. This fact is quite in accordance with the inference which has been drawn from the occurrence of the knife-dagger in the barrows, and its absence from the hoards of swords, spear-heads, socketed axes, &e. The knife-dagger and the plain axe may both be considered, judging from their shape, to be early productions of the age of bronze, and as neither of them has been found accom- panying those weapons and implements which were certainly in use during the height of that period, they may be regarded as prior to such time, and as marking an epoch during the’ bronze age, namely, its first developement. It has been mentioned already that the knife-dagger and the plain axe are found in the barrows, and, indeed, are the only articles of the kind which have been dis- covered in connection with an interment; but the two have been met with associated together accompanying a burial, a connection which seems to draw towards a single point the converging: lines of evidence as to the early date of the sepulchral mounds. The conclusion then at which we seem to arrive is, that the barrows in general belong to a period before bronze was in common use, and when that metal was scarce, and only manufactured into articles of a comparatively small size, such as those usually found in them. Indeed it is almost impossible to believe that, if the burial mounds were constructed after the time when swords, spear- heads, and socketed axes were abundant, none of them should have been discovered in the barrows. If these weapons &c. had not been plentiful, we could understand how they might never have occurred in connection with burials; but from the numbers which have been found in all parts of Britain, it is evident that they were very widely diffused and largely manufactured. This circumstance makes it. difficult, indeed almost impossible, to refer to the same period the erection of the barrows and the fabrication and use of the weapons and implements in question. 1 A very valuable discovery of bronze and other articles, the whole effects in fact of a family, was made in a cave, called Heathery Burn, in the county of Durham. The series comprised almost every article of the bronze age which has been found else- where, either as a single specimen or one of many, besides some which have been met with in no other place. It forms, therefore, an index as it were to the age of bronze in England, and includes sword, spear-head, knife, socketed axe, gouge, chisel, &c., but neither plain axe nor knife-dagger. E 50 INTRODUCTION, It may be asked, if the ordinary barrows are none of them the burial-places of the people who occupied the country during the highest developement of the bronze period, where do their burial- places exist? ‘The question certainly 1s one which it is not possible to answer; but the inability to offer any explanation is not suffi- cient to make us, in the face of what appear to be greater difficul- ties, accept the view that the barrows belong to that time. There are other periods during which the people must have been buried in large numbers, and yet there is scarcely a trace left of their sepulchral remains. For instance, the time which elapsed between the introduction of iron and the full occupation of Britain by the Romans was by no means a short one, and yet the burials which can be attributed to that period are but few’. It has been stated already that various implements of flint are found in the barrows, both associated with interments and dis- persed casually amongst the materials of which the mounds are composed. ‘There is a fact connected with these implements and of some interest in itself, which becomes of importance from the evidence it affords in relation to the cause of such articles being deposited with the dead. Those implements of flint which are found placed in immediate connection with the body appear in most instances to be perfectly new, and as if made for the burial, whilst those found in the material of the barrows and not associated with an interment have, as a rule, been evidently in use; some of them, indeed, showing abundant signs of having answered their purpose for a lengthened time. Bronze implements, on the con- 1 The Arras and Hessleskew group of barrows, opened by the Rev. Edw. W. Stilling- fleet in 1816-7, contained several that belonged to the time in question, as also did at least two barrows at Cowlam, described in the sequel [ Nos. 1, li]. A grave discovered in 1868, at Grimthorpe, on the western verge of the wold-range, and where in close proximity two or three other graves were met with, afforded a fine series of articles belonging to the early iron age. An account of the grave and its contents, with engravings, is given in the Reliquary, vol. ix. p. 180, by Mr. J. R. Mortimer, of Driffield, and another by Mr, Llewellyn Jewitt in Grave Mounds, in both of which however, and no doubt by an oversight, it is described as an Anglo-Saxon burial. Just beyond the range of the wolds, and not very far from where the last-mentioned graves were found, at a place called Bugthorpe, a body was discovered with which an iron sword in a bronze sheath and an enamelled bronze brooch were associated. Another interment of the same period, with some beautifully enamelled bronze articles, was found at Barlaston, in Staffordshire. Jewitt, Grave Mounds, p. 258, where again it is wrongly called Anglo-Saxon.- Another burial was discovered with enamelled bronzes similar to those at Barlaston, in 1788, on Middleton Moor, Derbyshire. These few burials appear to comprise all that have been recorded of those belonging to the early iron age. Others have no doubt been met with, but it is not likely that many have been overlooked, for the nature of the articles buried with the dead in that class of interments is of a kind likely to command attention. WEAPONS AND IMFLEMENTS., 51 ‘trary, when discovered in a barrow, and there deposited with the dead, appear to be such as had been the property of the living, and had been in ordinary use. Weapons and implements, either of bronze or stone, are however rarely found accompanying a burial. By far the greater number of bodies, whether burnt or unburnt, have been interred without anything of the kind. To show how infrequent is the occurrence of such articles, it may be stated that out of 379 burials, by in- humation and after cremation, 63 had implements of flint or other stone; 16, of bronze, one of which however was an ear-ring’; and 4, of deer’s-horn or bone; making in all (for 5 had articles both of bronze and stone) 77 bodies which had an implement associated with them, a very small proportion out of so large a number as that stated above. It may be well to analyse this statement more minutely. Of 301 unburnt bodies, 13 had implements of bronze, including the ear-ring ; 54 had implements of flint and other stone ; and 4 of deer’s-horn or boar’s-tusk. Of 78 burnt bodies, 2 had implements of bronze, 7 had implements of flint, 2 had each an axe-hammer of grcenstone, and another had two rude hammer- stones laid on the lid of the cist which contained the bones. In three cases where articles of bronze accompanied the body there were also implements of flint, a fourth body had an axe-hammer of stone and a bronze knife, and a fifth had a bronze knife-dagger and a whetstone, all being unburnt bodies”. Ornaments and objects of personal decoration are sometimes found associated with burials in the barrows*. They are how- ever much less frequently discovered than weapons and imple- ments, and appear to be confined to those of women, at least in the barrows of the wolds. They accompany burials after cremation, as well as those by inhumation. When met with in association with a burnt body, in many cases they have not been burnt with 1 In one of these cases it is impossible to say of what nature the article had been, for the former presence of the metal was only indicated by the green stain on the cheek-bone, arising from the oxidation of the bronze. 2 In the large series of Wiltshire barrows opened by Sir R. Colt Hoare, twice as many burials were associated with bronze as with stone. On account of the want of care which characterises Mr. Bateman’s records of the examination of Derbyshire barrows, it is difficult to arrive at any certain conclusion, though he appears to have found more interments where stone was associated with the body than he did where bronze accompanied it. 3 Personal ornaments are not of frequent occurrence in the Wiltshire barrows. Sir R. Colt Hoare has recorded the examination of 350 burial-places of burnt and unburnt bodies, and he only describes 57 as being possessed of anything in the shape of ornament. BE 2 52 é INTRODUCTION. it, but have been placed amongst the calcined bones, after they were collected from the funeral pile; and the same may be said of certain implements of flint. I have found three burnt bodies which had jet beads placed amongst the bones, and they showed by their perfect condition that they had never been subjected to the action of fire, It will give some idea of the rarity of orna- ments when I state that out of the whole number of 379 burials, Fig. 44. 4. Fig. 45. 3. Fig. 46. 4. only 10 possessed anything of the kind; and out of these, 2, in _ barrows at Cowlam [Nos. ], li], belong to the early iron age; a period later than that of the ordinary barrows, which are alone taken into consideration in these introductory remarks’. The Fig. 47. 4 Fig. 48. +. eight burials which had ornaments associated with them were as follows. One on Langton Wold [No. ii], where a woman had been buried with a humble necklace consisting of a single jet bead [fig. 44], two shells [fig. 45], a piece of a deer’s-tooth pierced [fig. 46], and the vertebra of a fish, &e. One at Cowlam [ No. lviii], where a woman was interred with two bronze ear- rings [fig 47]; and another on Goodmanham Wold [No. exv], where what appear to have been two bronze ear-rings were found close to the head of a woman, one on each side of it [fig. 48]. Two, * One of the barrows at Cowlam contained the body of a woman who had been buried with a necklace of glass beads. This is the only instance, so far as I know, where glass has been found in any of the wold barrows, of a time before the oceupa- tion by the Romans, except at Arras, a group of the same date as those at Cowlam. In other parts of Great Britain, however, glass beads have been discovered, which certainly belong to the same period as that of the ordinary round barrows of the wolds, that is, before the introduction of iron. ORNAMENTS. ‘53 each with a jet necklace, one being at Weaverthorpe [No. xliv], [fig. 49], the other on Goodmanham Wold [No. exxi]. One on Flixton Wold [ No. lxxi], where a young girl had four beads of bone, three of which were ornamented on each side [fig. 50]; and a woman on Goodmanham Wold [No.: exvii], with a pierced pig’s-tooth. Besides these instances, there were found in a disturbed barrow at -Fig. 49. 4. Helperthorpe two flat beads of jet [fig. 51], which had formed part of a necklace. They are ornamented with a pattern, consisting of minute punctured holes on the surface, and are similar to many which have been. discovered in other parts of Britain, as in Wales’, Derbyshire’®, Northumberland, and Scotland *. ? Archeological Journal, vol. xxiv. p. 257. 2 Engraved in Bateman, Vestiges, pp. 89, 92; Ten Years’ Diggings, pp. 25, 47. $ Engraved in the Catalogue of the Museum of the Archeological Institute, at Edinburgh, p. 15. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scotland, vol. viii. pp. 409, 412; Wilson, Prehist. Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 485. See Evans, Stone Impl. p. 410. BA. INTRODUCTION. \ - The barrows of Wiltshire have, however, produced many more articles of personal decoration, and those of more varied and costly materials, than the wold barrows. At the same time there are many points of very close resemblance between the contents of the sepulchral mounds of the two districts. In both are found perforated axe-hammers of stone; knife-daggers of bronze and flint; barbed flint arrow-points; axes and awls of bronze; buttons and rings of jet; beads of bone, with almost identical patterns upon them; not to speak of the vessels of pottery. If the contents of the burial-hills are to be taken in evidence, and they afford the most certain we possess, the people who dwelt upon the wolds of Yorkshire appear to have been in a humbler condition and to have had less intercourse with other districts than the inhabitants of many parts of Britain. The Scotch cists and graves have been more prolific of ornaments, so have the Derbyshire barrows; and in fact no district, whose burial-mounds have been extensively explored, seems to have been in possession of so little bronze and so few personal decora- tions as the wolds, with the exception of the north-eastern moor- land. of Yorkshire, and Dorsetshire, with the extreme south-west of Engiand. In the barrows of other districts, and which, from their general features, may be considered as belonging to the ORNAMENTS. 55 same period as those of the wolds, ornaments have been dis- covered made of gold’, bronze, glass®, ivory, amber’, jet‘, clay Fig. 52. 1. [fig. 52], and bone [fig. 53]. In the barrows of the wolds neither gold, glass, ivory, nor amber® has been found, so far as I * Gold has rarely been found in any part of ‘Britain in connection with an inter- ment. In Wiltshire, where it has occurred most abundantly, Sir R. Colt Hoare records only six instances. A necklace of gold beads was met with in a barrow at Bircham, Norfolk ; and at Cressingham, in the same county, several articles of gold were discovered in a barrow, with amber beads and bronze daggers. Proc. of Soc. of Ant., Second Series, vol. iv. p. 456. At Mold, in Flintshire, the breastplate (if such it is), now in the British Museum, is the most remarkable discovery yet made of gold ina British barrow. Archzol. xxvi. 422. Gold-headed bronze rivets had been used to fasten the stone plate of a wrist-guard to the material on which it had been fixed, in the case of an interment at Kelleythorpe, near Driffield. Archeologia, vol. xxxiv. p- 254. A necklace of rather rudely-fashioned gold beads was found in a cairn on Chesterhope Common, Northumberland. Archzol. Aliana, vol. i. p. 1. Ina cist near the Fochabers Railway Station two gold ear-rings were associated with the interment. Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 28.. At Huntiscarth, Orkney, in a cist under a barrow, four ornamented disks of gold were found with a necklace of amber beads. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot. vol. iii. p. 195, pl. xxii. * Beads of glass, principally of a bluish-green colour, and of peculiar shape, being like three or more beads joined together, have been discovered in several barrows in Wiltshire, associated with burnt bodies; they have also been found in Dorsetshire. - 3 Amber has been found in barrows, of the same time as those of the wolds, in Wiltshire; see Hoare, Ancient Wilts, passim: at Cressingham, in Norfolk ; Proc. Soe. of Ant., Second Series, vol. iv. p. 456: at Mold, Flintshire, with the gold breast- plate just above noticed ; Archeol. vol. xxvi. p. 422; Proc. Soc. of Ant. vol. iv. p. 132, where an amber bead is figured: at Llanwyllog, Anglesea; Archwol. Cambr., Third Series, vol. xii. p. 110: and at Huntiscarth, Orkney; Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. iii. pp. 183, 195, pl. xxii. See also Evans, Stone Impl. p. 413 e7 seqq. * Jet or other lignite, though found not unfrequently in Scotland, the- northern counties of England, and Derbyshire, has not occurred to the same extent in the Wiltshire barrows. The very pretty. form of necklace, consisting principally of oblong pieces (generally engraved with dotted patterns) alternating with long eylin- drical beads, which usually is made of jet, or of jet and bone, has in Wiltshire been found formed of amber. > At Kelleythorpe, near Deiffield, just beyond the limits of the wolds, the late Lord 56 INTRODUCTION, know, nor do the bronze and bone articles possess that elaborate- ness of form, diversity of pattern, and skill in manufacture, which is displayed upon the necklaces and other ornaments which have been met with in many parts of Britain. A bronze knife-dagger has been found in a wold barrow, having the handle ornamented with a pattern made by minute pins of bronze, but Wiltshire has produced a similar one, where the pins or studs were made of gold’, It may also be said of the weapons and implements that, on the whole, they are inferior in design and execution; for, though the bronze knife-daggers are skilfully made, they do not equal the beautiful specimens which the Wilt- shire barrows have afforded. The only articles indeed discovered in the wold barrows which can compare in beauty of design and workmanship with any found elsewhere, are the pretty jet buttons engraved with a cross pattern, and the jet rings, dis- covered at Thwing and Rudstone, and these are surpassed, at all events in material, by some of the Wiltshire buttons, which are made of gold’. ~ There is nothing in the implements and ornaments to show that there was any traffic going on between the wold-dwellers and other people at a distance, except to a very trifling extent. The bronze and jet must have been imported, but bronze has occurred in a very small quantity, and jet has not been found in many barrows, though the material itself is the product of a district lying within a few miles of the northern ridge of the wold-range. Besides, many of the so-called jet articles are not made of true jet, but of an inferior lignite. Flint, which is so abundant in the shape of weapons and implements, is not: generally the . product of the native chalk, though the flint of the district was used to some extent; but it is very common in the condition of rolled pebbles upon the adjoining sea-beach, and the greater part of what was used no doubt came from thence. It is sin- gular that amber should not have been occasionally met with, for it is sometimes. thrown up on the neighbouring coast, and it was used by the same people living in places much more remote than the wolds from any spot where it could have been procured. Londesborough discovered, with an unburnt body in a cist, three amber buttons. Archeologia, vol. xxxiv. p. 255, pl. xx. 1 Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 204, pl. xxvii. 2 L.e., vol. i. p. 99, pl. x; p. 201, pl. xxv. CONDITION OF WOLD-DWELLERS. 57 The whole of. the evidence afforded by the barrows appears. to show that they are the burial-places of a people who were not possessed of much wealth of any kind. They were not likely, therefore, to have any abundance either of bronze or of those materials of which personal decorations are usually made. Their intercourse, in the way of traffic, with people at a distance must have been very limited. Nor is such a condition difficult. to account for, The district is not one producing any substance which could well be made a subject of barter or exchange. Its productions in the way of animals, or of anything which in such a state of society constituted wealth, were posséssed by other districts, and probably in greater abundance. The inhabitants of the wolds had no gold, no copper, no flint, no jet, and very possibly no hides or grain to spare, so that there. was nothing which they could offer in exchange; and, indeed, it is difficult to understand how they obtained their bronze and jet except by the plunder of their neighbours. ei ‘Weapons, implements, and ornaments, it has been. seen, are sometimes found deposited in the barrows with the dead. The custom has usually been accounted for by the explanation, that it was the result of a belief in an after state of existence of the same nature as that which had just terminated, and where such things would again be required; that when he passed to the happy hunting-fields where the buffalo and the elk roamed in herds unnumbered, and which no slaughter could make less, he might have ‘his faithful: dog to bear him company;’ that.when he joined ‘the departed brave in the halls of Odin, there to quaff without satiety the ever-replenished mead from the skull of his enemy, he might bear with him the trusty sword, the unerring arrow, wherewith to subdue the foes that never failed and yet were ever vanquished. The practice has been all but universal ; every ancient burial-place testifies to it’; almost every modern savage grave gives the like evidence of the custom’, To archxo- 1 One of the latest notices of the occurrence of this practice in Europe is contained in a deed of contract, bearing date A.D. 1249, between the newly converted Prussians and the Knights of the Teutonic Order: the former promise ‘quod ipsi et heredes eorum in mortuis comburendis vel subterrandis, cum equis, sive hominibus, vel cum armis, seu vestibus, vel quibuscumque aliis preciosis rebus, vel etiam in aliis quibus- cumque, ritus gentilium de cetero non servabunt, sed mortuos suos juxta morem Christianorum in cemeteriis sepelient et non extra.’ Dreger, Codex Diplomat. Pome- raniz, pp. 286-294, No. 191, quoted by W. M. Wylie in an essay on the burning and burial of the dead, Archzologia, vol. xxxvii. p. 463. 2 An interesting account of the burial of ‘The Stung Serpent,’ a chief of the 58 INTRODUCTION, logical science it has been of inestimable service. What should we know of ancient Egypt, of her cultivation, her art, her manu- factures, except so far as the imperishable monuments of stone bear witness, had not the tombs preserved an endless storehouse of pictures as well as of the very things themselves those pictures represent. Denmark’s stone, bronze, and iron ages might have remained a subject of dispute amongst the learned, but for the barrows and their buried contents, which have handed down to us a book in whose record of flint and metal we may again read somewhat of the history of the past. Our own English ancestors might, no doubt, have been understood by us in many of their great. characteristics, in their obedience to law, their love of justice and of freedom, and their aptitude for self-government, for these by an unswerving tradition have passed down, by slow gradations. of change, unto ourselves. We might have known something of their poetry and other writings, for Cedmon and Beda and Alcuin had lived and written, and letters had early taken root amongst them. We might have recognised their energy, their devotion, their strong religious feeling, which made them the teachers of a new and purer faith to those beyond their borders; for all Europe bears testimony to the great missionary labours of the English, when Wilfrid, Willebrord, and Boniface became the apostles of the Gospel to many a heathen land. But without the wondrous museum of gold, and silver, and iron, and precious stone, and glass, and bronze, and ivory, which the cemeteries of Kent, of East-Anglia, and of middle England have so carefully preserved to us, what should we have known of English progress in many a developement of artistic workman- ship? How should we have become cognisant of their wondrous skill in goldsmith’s-work; their tasteful application of metal, stone, and glass to the enrichment of personal ornaments; their knowledge of glass manufacture in beads and vessels of that material’; their high cultivation in art; their great practical acquaintance with the mystery of the smith? Natchez, who was interred with his wives, weapons, &c., is given by Du Pratz, History of Louisiana, vol. ii. p. 216, Lond. 1763, and quoted by Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians, pp. 105-107. Mr. Jones states, p. 185, ‘The practice of depositing in the grave all articles which the deceased deemed most valuable obtained among all the Southern tribes.’ 1 It is perhaps questionable whether the beads and glass vessels found in English graves were not of foreign manufacture. It is certain that a very great similarity exists between those found in England and those which have occurred so plentifully in the cemeteries of north-eastern France and the Rhine district. Similarity of MOTIVE FOR DEPOSITS WITH BURIALS, 59 It is certain that amongst some of the many peoples who have been in the habit of depositing various articles with the dead, a belief that they might be of use in another world has been the motive which prompted the action. With others a dislike or superstitious dread, attaching to the use of what had belonged to the dead, was the reason which caused them to place such things with the body in the grave’. Though it is quite possible that either one or the other, or both, of these feelings might have led the dwellers on the wolds to adopt the practice, there is nevertheless a circumstance which it is difficult to account for on such grounds. It will have been observed that it is only upon rare occasions that anything whatever has been found associated with a burial; whilst in several of these instances the articles are merely such as were connected, in the shape of fastenings, with the dress or other covering in which the body had been clothed or the corpse invested. In the large number of 379 burials, of burnt and unburnt bodies, not more than 94 were found to be thus accompanied ; and, of these, 15 had nothing more than pins or buttons with them. It appears strange, if either of the reasons stated was that which led to the depositing of different articles with the dead, that so few of them should have been thus provided. If it were thought that in another world persons would pass through a state of existence similar to that which they had lived upon earth, and that it was therefore necessary to send them into that second. state equipped with the essential means of such existence, it is difficult to understand why so’ few persons were laid in the grave with these provisions for the necessities of that after life. This difficulty becomes greater when we consider the labour that was bestowed upon the barrows ; showing, as, it does, that neither care nor trouble was spared upon that which was connected with the funeral rites. Or, if it was believed to be unlucky for the survivors to make use of those things which had been the property of the deceased, and that for this reason such things were buried with them, then we make does not, however, always imply that such things came from the same manu- factory. And besides, though there is a very great general resemblance, a close examination of a large series of these articles discovered in the two countries will show many points of difference, sufficient, I think, to imply that they were not all made in the same workshop. 1 Mr. Whymper stated, at the Norwich Meeting of the British Association (1868), that the Greenlander has a great objection to use the property of the dead, and that, in accordance with this feeling, their goods were deposited in their graves. Flint Chips, p. 278 n. 60 INTRODUCTION. must suppose that by far the greater number of persons buried in the barrows were possessed of neither weapons, implements, nor ornaments—which it is quite impossible to conceive. The circumstance already mentioned, that a large number of the articles deposited with the dead are quite new, and to all appear- ance made for the occasion, is a- fact which also militates very strongly against this explanation of their occurrence. Another reason has been adduced for this apparently capricious custom of sometimes placing various articles in the grave, namely, that a pious and affectionate feeling prompted it; it has been sug~- gested that those things which were daily associated with them when living, were laid beside them by their friends when they were buried. Nor, perhaps, is it unnatural or contrary to what we know has been frequently done even in our own days, that promptings like these should have ruled at such a time, The arrow with which the hunter went forth to provide for the sustenance of himself and of his family; the scraper or the awl with which his wife prepared the skins and put together the garments for his clothing; the necklace or other ornament worn to make more pleasing those charms she had by nature’s gift; the bright-coloured berries which made a plaything for the child—all had that association with those who were gone as might not unfitly cause them to be placed in the grave by the survivors who mourned their loss. To this explana- - tion the same objection applies as has been urged above, that many of the articles are new. The bronze implements and the ornaments indeed appear to have been in use, but by far the greater part of those of flint had almost certainly been made for the occasion of the burial, since they show, in every part of them, such sharpness in the chipping, both of the edges and of the point, as could not have existed if they had ever been subjected to use. It is not possible to speak unhesitatingly upon this interesting but myste- rious subject ; and though we have made the graves give up their dead, and thereby have unfolded some of the secrets of the life of those who were laid to rest beneath these ancient mounds, yet there are others, still to be unravelled, which a larger assemblage of observed facts and a more ingenious speculation may perhaps hereafter explain. At the same time I think that, taking all the facts into consideration, and having regard to the reason which causes some semi-savage people at the present day to practise the same custom, the probability is strongly in favour of the opinion which considers these articles as having been deposited with the —— ee SE ——— - POTTERY OF THE BARROWS. 61 dead for an after use in another state of existence’; though of course that does not prevent other causes, such as those mentioned, from having also had their influence on certain occasions. A more frequent accompaniment of the body, whether burnt or unburnt, than either weapon, implement, or ornament, is a vessel of earthenware. ‘This is found, in the greater number of cases of unburnt bodies, to be placed in front or at the back of the head; but occasionally behind the back, in front of the chest or knees, and sometimes, though rarely, at the feet. In a few instances a sepulchral vase has occurred in a barrow not in close proximity with any interment. It is usually placed upright, but is found not unfrequently on the side, a position which appears to have been caused by its having been overthrown by the pressure of the sur- rounding earth. 7 Vessels of pottery are associated with burnt bodies in two different ways: they occur containing the bones, and are also met with - aceompanying them, much. after the fashion in which they are found with unburnt bodies. They are in this case placed on the top or at the side of deposits of burnt bones, and frequently amongst them, even where the bones themselves are enclosed in an urn. The vessels vary almost indefinitely in size, shape, and orna- mentation, as they do in the composition of the clay and the rude- ness or skill of their manufacture. They have been divided into cinerary urns, ‘incense cups,’ ‘ food vessels, and ‘drinking cups.’ This nomenclature is to some ex- tent, and as regards some of them, misleading ; but it has become so commonly used as to render it difficult, and perhaps unadvisable, to alter it. If the intention of these vessels or the object with which they have been buried with the dead could be distinctly ascertained, then it would become imperative to make such an alteration in the names given to them as would bring the names into harmony with their actual purpose. But as it is impossible to say, with absolute certainty, what they were originally intended for, if indeed they ever had any purpose beyond the sepulchral one; or to explain, in every case, the use they fulfilled when deposited with the body; it is perhaps better. to adhere to the existing nomen- clature. It must however be premised that it is merely a con- ventional one, and the reader must be guarded against. forming any 1 The whole question connected with this and kindred practices is very fully illustrated and discussed in Tylor’s Primitive Culture, in the chapters on Animism, 62 INTRODUCTION. conclusion as to the purpose of the vessel from the name aeich has been popularly assigned to it. The cinerary urn (to’ which name no objection can i. made, since it fully answers to its use) and the ‘incense cup’ have hitherto been found to accompany burnt bodies, though on Langton Wold [ No. ii], and in a few other cases, a vessel which is in every respect of form and ornament a cinerary urn was placed close to an unburnt body. The ‘ food vessel’ and ‘ drinking cup’ are met with in association alike with burnt and unburnt bodies, though it is very rare to find a ‘drinking cup’ accompanying burnt bones. I have only found it so deposited in one barrow | No. 1xii], at Rud- stone, where three bodies, one unburnt and two burnt, were placed in a deep grave, each having a ‘ drinking cup’ of very similar shape and ornamentation buried with it. Though, as has been stated, these vessels are found with burials much more frequently than are weapons, implements, and orna- ments, they are by no means associated with the. majority of inter- ments. Thus out of the large number of bodies, burnt and unburnt, met with in the series of wold barrows, an account of which is con- tained in this volume, amounting to 379, only 108 had any vessel of pottery buried with them, and of these 9 were cinerary urns holding the ashes of the dead. The four classes of vessels mentioned above have been discéecitely slightly varying in form and style of ornamentation, in many locali- ties from the Orkney Islands to the extreme south-west of England, and (except ‘drinking cups’) in Ireland. In the last-named country they are, and especially the ‘food vessels,’ upon the whole of better workmanship, and are more elaborately and tastefully ornamented than in most parts of Great Britain. Many of the ‘food vessels ’ however found in Argyleshire and in other districts of the south- west of Scotland, as might be perhaps expected, are very Irish in character, and may claim to be equally fine in the paste and delicate in the workmanship with those from Ireland. Beyond the limits of the United Kingdom they are represented. by vessels of a very different character. In the Channel Islands the type approaches to that which is found in the dolmens and other sepulchral places of Brittany *. This type, which occurs more * Some few of the Guernsey sepulchral vessels, however, somewhat resemble those found in Britain. One type, and the same. occurs in Brittany, where it is not unusual, has much in common with the ‘drinking cup;’ and another is not unlike the Dorset- shire cinerary urns, See a paper by Mr. F. C. Lukis in the Archeological Journal, vol. i. pp. 142, 222. POTTERY OF THE BARROWS. 63 or less throughout France, is very distinct from that of the British sepulchral pottery. In Denmark and in Holland and North Ger- many, amongst the vessels belonging to a time before the intro- duction of iron, some are found which have a greater resemblance to those of our own cairns and barrows; but though there is a certain general similarity of form, and still more of ornament, the difference between those of the two countries is well marked’. The distinction between the pottery of the barrows and that of Roman manufacture made in England is as well defined as is possible in vessels equally made of clay. The shape, the orna- mentation, the paste of the British and Roman ware possess scarcely anything in common. ‘The same may be said of the so-called Anglo-Saxon pottery, which has many features in common with Frankish ware, and with that found in the older seats of our Eng- lish ancestors on the Elbe and in adjoining districts. In colour, form, and mode of decoration, as well as in the paste, it is so dif ferent from that of the British sepulchral mounds, that no one who has the slightest acquaintance with the two could ever mistake between them. Before a detailed description of these vessels and the classes into which they are divided is entered upon, it is necessary to make a few general remarks upon them with reference to those features they po-sess in common. But, before doing this, it is desirable to remove a false but very common impression with regard to their manufacture. They were at one time almcst universally, and are still occasionally, spoken of as being sun-dried. This is not the ease with any of them, for they have all invariably undergone, more or less, the action of fire; though, in some instances, this has taken place to a very trifling extent. They have not been baked in a kiln, but at an open fire; and the larger vessels frequently show on their upper part a tinge of black colour, caused by the smoke of the wood with which they were burnt. They have been all hand-made, not one showing any sign of the use of the wheel; and taking this into consideration, many of them are surprising specimens of the potter’s skill. As a rule, they are more or less ornamented, it being rare to find one which is quite plain, 1 In Denmark, as also in Guelderland, vases much like our own ‘ drinking cups * have occurred, In the style and manner of their ornamentation they are very similar to ours, as also in their general shape, though they are rather squatter than the British specimens, 64 B. INTRODUCTION, The clay of which they are made differs much, both in its quality and in the preparation, by means of tempering, which it has under- gone. ‘As the vessels were probably manufactured on the spot, the clay necessarily varied with the several localities; and as greater or less skill was at times employed, and they-were more or less hastily made, these differences are only such as might be expected. In the-greater number of all the vessels, and in the whole of the larger ones, broken stone in various proportions is found to have been mixed with the clay. In some cases there is almost as much broken stone as clay-in- the composition. The stone usually con- sists of such as was at hand; on the wolds, chalk and flint; and in other places, quartz, sandstone, granite, porphyry, or other rocks.. The object of this mixture was to prevent the pottery from cracking in the baking, and it also had the effect of making the clay more firm before the firing, so that the shape of the vessel was better preserved. The size of the pieces of stone varies consider- ably: they are sometimes as large as a pea, at other times almost as fine as sand.. In the better-worked clay, of which the ‘ drinking cups’ and some of the ‘food vessels’ are made, and where the walls of the vase are thin, the broken stone is wanting; and as a rule it may be said, the thicker and coarser the pottery, the more stone there is in its composition. Some of the vessels appear to have been made from one mass of clay, and at once; but others show that they were formed of separate pieces laid together, the sides being as it were gradually built up. This is apparent from the smooth and rounded edges of the pieces into which a vessel has sometimes separated from long exposure to damp in the ground’ and from the pressure of the earth upon it, there being a tendency for it to come asunder at those parts where the several pieces of which it was formed had originally been joined. In many of the cinerary urns the clay appears to have been made use of with- out having been at all tempered; but the finer vessels have had the clay in many cases carefully prepared. Some of the pottery seems to have been made by overlaying a coarser and ill-worked clay with a coating of finer paste; and it is not improbable that in many cases the vessel was shaped at the first out of inferior clay and partly dried, and that afterwards an additional layer of better- tempered clay was laid over the surface, upon which the ornamental patterns were executed, the whole being then fired. The colour varies to a great extent; it is generally not very unlike that of the clay in its natural state, and is then often of a -_ ae Te, 2 POTTERY OF THE BARROWS. 65, brownish yellow, and at times of a grey tone; it ranges, however, through all the intermediate tints, and in the better-burnt speei- mens is sometimes almost red. The fracture shows that the firing has been almost always very imperfect, the inside, except in some of the thinner ware, being usually black. There is no instance ‘where any process of artificial colouring appears to have been em- ployed; nor has there been ever seen any appearance of true glazing. Upon most of the ‘drinking cups,’ and also upon some of the other vessels, there is however found a polished surface which almost amounts to glazing. This may have been produced by rubbing the hand over the partially-dried vase, but more probably by the use of a smooth stone, or an implement of bone like fig. 35. The ornamentation of the pottery, which will however be con- sidered more in detail under the description of each class of vessel, has never been found to exhibit any representation of animal or vegetable form. It consists principally of combinations of straight linés in an almost inconceivable variety. The patterns have been made by a sharp-pointed instrument drawn over the moist clay; by stamping with a narrow piece of bone or hard wood, cut into alter- nate raised and sunk squares, or simply notched ; by rows of dotted markings, round, oval, and triangular, of greater or less size; by the impression of the finger nails; and most commonly by impres- sions of a twisted thong, generally made of a strip of hide, but cer- tainly in many cases of string manufactured out of some vegetable fibre, and consisting in some cases of two if not three plaits. Curved lines and circular markings, though they occur now and then, are uncommon, the pattern being generally made up of straight lines arranged in cross, zigzag, chevron, saltire, reticulated, and herring-bone fashion. It has been suggested that the ornamentation originated in an imitation of basket-work, for the manufacture of which Britain was celebrated ; the Jascauda, largely exported in Roman times, being not vessels of pottery, but made of wicker-work, This does not seem to me likely; for, apart from the fact that the sepulchral ware in question dates from a time long antecedent to that when these baskets were made, the ornament is precisely that which would be developed by the art instincts of a people in a comparatively low 1 Messrs. Blackmore and Stevens found in some pits at Highfield, near Salisbury, fragments of pottery which were coloured. Their impression is, and for many reasons it appears to be a true one, that the pits belong to a time after the introduction of iron. F 66 INTRODUCTION. _ state of civilisation, and is such as could most easily be produced by the simple tools they possessed. It bears a strong resemblance to the patterns found upon some of the bronze axes and on the gold articles belonging to the same period, and with which it probably had a kindred origin. The decorations upon the iron knives &ce. of some of the tribes of Central Africa, and upon the clubs and _paddles of the islanders of the South Seas, have much in common with the ornamental patterns upon the British pottery; and it would seem as if, in certain stages of progress, the human mind without any objective influence manifests in different individuals and communities results very similar in their developement. The sepulchral pottery, as has already been stated, may be divided into Cinerary Urns, ‘ Incense Cups,’ ‘ Food Vessels,’ and ‘ Drink- ing Cups.’ | . These different vessels have been found in the wold barrows in the following numbers. ‘ Food vessels’ are by far the most fre- quent. In this class I include all those vessels which are associated with unburnt bodies, except ‘ drinking cups;’ and those which ac- company burnt bodies, except ‘cimerary urns; and ‘incense cups,’ whatever the form may be. Of these 73 have been met with, 57 with unburnt and 16 with burnt bodies. ‘ Drinking cups’ are the next most numerous, and 24 have occurred; 22 being associated with unburnt bodies, and 2 with burnt ones. Nine cinerary urns have been found, enclosing the deposit of burnt bones; and 12 vessels of the type of the cinerary urn were associated with interments, 2 with unburnt bodies, and 10 with burnt ones, but not containing any of the bones: these, however, are included amongst the 73 ‘food vessels’ noticed above. The rarest class is the ‘incense cup, of which only 6 were discovered in the barrows I have exa- mined on the wolds.- The exact converse of this appears, from Sir R. Colt Hoare’s account of the barrows, to have been the case in Wiltshire, where the order is reversed, ‘incense cups’ being the most common vessel, and ‘food vessels’ the rarest. The Dorset- shire barrows also seem to contain very few ‘ food vessels ;’ and ‘drinking cups’ and ‘ incense cups’ are.also very uncommon. These classes differ very much from each other, as also do the -vessels of each class amongst themselves. It is therefore desirable to give a more minute description of them than has hitherto been attempted. The Cinerary Urns, those vessels which contain a deposit of burnt bones, are of different sizes, and vary to some extent in . SE ————— ee ee Ss = = = CINERARY URNS. 67 shape. They range in height from five or six inches to about three feet; the breadth at the widest patt being usually about the same as the height. The most common shape is that of two truncated cones, placed the one upon the other, the broadest parts in apposition, the upper rather overlapping the lower and being about half its depth [fig. 54]. The mouth is therefore "4 Os ene te, cane PF hd \ Rave CP ed contracted, and the upper cone constitutes the rim, which is overhanging. The ornamentation is very often confined to the rim, but is also frequently continued below it, and in some cases extends over the whole surface of the urn; the inner part of the lip of the rim has also, in many cases, a pattern upon it. The bottom of the urn is small in comparison with the mouth, and is usually not above one-third of its diameter. This form is found distributed over nearly the whole ‘of Britain; but in Dorsetshire and the F 2 68 INTRODUCTION. neighbouring districts a much more inelegant shape is prevalent, which has no overhanging rim and much straighter sides [fig. 55]. A second form [fig. 56] differs somewhat from that first described. It has an overhanging rim, but does not present that feature in so marked a degree as in the first type; and the sides of the urn below the rim, instead of sloping gradually to the bottom, have at: that part a concave belt of greater or less depth, from the lower part of which they contract to the bottom of the urn. The over- hanging rim may be said to be the principal hbo of the cinerary urns. There are numerous minor varieties found in different parts of Britain [figs. 57,58], and perhaps the south-western counties of England show a more distinctly marked departure from the normal types than any other district. In Cornwall and Dorsetshire they are frequently found with handles, or rather perforated projections, round the upper part of the urn. I have not known this type to have occurred on the wolds, or anywhere in the north of CINERARY URNS. 69 Britain*. In the south-west of Ergland they have been made with semicircular handles in slight relief placed near to the top, apparently to lift them by, and the same form occurs in Gloucestershire and Norfolk. Some have been met with, but very rarely, and never, so far as I know, on the wolds, which have unperforated projections round the rim, presenting in this respect much the same appearance as some of the ‘food vessels, in which this is so common. I possess a cinerary urn, found at Sealby in the North Riding, which has the uncommon “< = SSE SS SSS Fig. 56. . feature of possessing two holes, 1} in. apart, pierced through the rim near to the top. Others having the same peculiarity have been discovered in different parts of England. The object of these holes in many cases has evidently been to repair a cracked vessel. This cannot however have been the purpose in all cases, for in some of those I have had an opportunity of examining the holes have been made before the vessel was burnt. 1 Mr. Llewellyn Jewitt figures one in Grave Mounds, p. 95, fig. 98, from Darley Dale, Derbyshire, which has four pierced ears ; it measures 10} inches in height: an ‘incense cup’ with a handle was discovered with it. ‘70 INTRODUCTION. ‘Several cinerary urns have occurred in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and Sussex which have a cross, generally in relief, upon the bottom on the inside; this remarkable feature does not appear to have been observed upon any of those found in other parts of England or in Scotland. As will be noticed in the sequel, the cross in various forms has formed a part of the decoration of some of the sepulchral vessels of the other classes, but there is.a great difference in the way in which it has been applied on the cinerary urns and on the ‘incense cups,’ ‘food vessels,’ and ‘drinking: cups.’ — The clay of which the cinerary urns are made is generally coarse, and in most of them has never, apparently, been tempered to any extent. There is usually a great quantity of broken stone, sometimes in large pieces, mixed with the clay. The walls of these urns are in most cases thick, at times remarkably so, even to the extent of above an inch. The urns are rarely found to be quite destitute of ornament, though it is frequently scanty and ill applied, giving the im- a CINERARY URNS. 71 -pression that they were made hastily. The ornamental patterns upon them vary in an almost indefinite degree; so much so in fact that it may be said of them that no two are exactly alike. The most common forms of ornament are alternate series of parallel horizontal and vertical lines (like heraldic componé, if it were engraved as of gules and azure); now and then in a double series (as counter-componé); triangles set in rows (or Fig. 58. 4. rather what heralds call a dancetté line of partition), the tri- angular spaces formed being filled with parallel diagonal lines, which have a different direction in each alternate space (like alternate representations of heraldic purpure and vert); rows of round or oval impressions encircling the urn; lines forming a reticulated pattern; lines placed herring-bone fashion, or In a zigzag. The lines are often made by impressions of twisted thong or cord, but sometimes are drawn on the clay with a sharp-pointed instrument. In some rare cases raised ribs occur ap 2 INTRODUCTION. upon the rim [fig. 59], and one from Rosebrough, Northumber- land, has a series of figures in relief [ fig. 60]. The larger cinerary urns contain in some instances, besides the deposit of burnt bones, a second vessel. This is often of the same form as the urn containing it, though of course it is smaller; but more frequently it is one of the so-called ‘ incense cups. When it is of the form of the larger cinerary urn, it is Fig. 59, 4. generally reversed upon the bones. I have met with an instance where such a smaller vessel, quite empty, was placed by the side of the larger urn. When the contained vessel is an ‘ incense cup,’ it is indifferently found upright, reversed, laid on the side, or placed on the top of, or amongst, the bones. A very small urn of precisely the same form and style of ornament as the cinerary urn, in fact quite a miniature one, about 4 inches high [fig. 61], CINERARY URNS. 73 has occurred with a deposit of burnt bones, but not containing any of them, and placed above or amongst them. Several of these were found by me in a group of barrows at Enthorpe, near Goodmanham. I have met with three instances of a vessel like a cinerary urn in form accompanying an unburnt body ; they were all of compara- "Fig. 60. 4. tively small size. In the Orkney Islands vessels of stone have been found answering the purpose of cinerary urns. There has occasionally been found on the inside of the cinerary urns a deposit, sometimes of considerable thickness, of black- coloured carbonaceous matter. It has the appearance as if a flame, sending forth a large proportion of smoke, had been burning within the vessel for a lengthened period. It is very difficult 74 INTRODUCTION. to account for this deposit, which could scarcely originate in anything arising from the calcined bones themselves. It is by no means the rule to find the remains of a burnt ‘body to be enclosed within:an urn, either on the wolds or else- -where. Out of 78 burnt bodies which occurred in the wold barrows, only 9 were deposited in urns. A cinerary urn, found in a barrow on Sherburn Wold [No. xviii], contained a bronze awl amongst the bones, which itself showed no signs of having been/subjected to the action of fire. The second class of vessels, that to which the name e of ‘Incense Cup’ has been applied, has been found in the Orkney Islands, and from thence throughout the whole of Britain, to the extreme limit on the south and west; they are, however, very uncommon in Dorsetshire and the neighbouring districts to the north and west of that county. They also occur in Ireland. They do not, however, appear amongst the various forms of sepulchral pottery which have been discovered in Scandinavia, Germany, and France. In the barrows on the wolds they are not numerous, and were associated with but 6 out of 78 burials after cremation. — They differ considerably in size; and are found measuring from little more than an inch to about four inches in diameter, and. from one inch to above three inches in height. They vary _ eaieealaimalil . —————ti es Oe eee le INCENSE CUPS. 15 also in shape; but the most common form is one which expands from the mouth towards the middle, and when at or near that ‘part gradually contracts again towards the bottom, where the width is much the same as it is at the mouth, though some- times it is narrower at that part [fig. 62]. Another form has Fig. 62. 2. Oe PS REN, a 9 - : ws —_ ~ a ae “ ’ nearly straight sides, narrowing, however, towards the top [fig. 63]. Another is of a flattened globular form [fig. 64]. There are numerous varieties, not materially differing from the typical forms, which it would be tedious as well as. useless to particularise. One variety however, found in Wiltshire and the Fig. 63. 2. Fig. 64, 2. adjoining districts, it may be well to notice. It is markedly distinct in shape from the ordinary ‘incense cup,’ though it has some features corresponding with it. The appearance of this type is not unlike that of a saucer, with the foot deepened to about a third of the height of the whole vessel; it is generally 76 INTRODUCTION. perforated with two holes, just above the foot, and some are ornamented on the bottom? [figs. 65, 66]. : The clay of which the ‘incense cups’ are made differs a good deal in fineness, but it is generally of much better quality than Fig. 65. 2. that of the cinerary urns. The colour varies from an ashen grey to red, and depends in a great measure upon the greater or less degree of firing to which they have been subjected, as well as to the different nature of the clay of which they are formed. Though broken stone is sometimes mixed with the clay, it is not usually present. The ornamentation consists of almost all the patterns noticed in the account of the cinerary urns, with many others in addition. The markings, as has already been mentioned under the descrip- tion of the cinerary urns, are made with a pointed instrument in lines drawn upon the moist clay; frequently by impressions of twisted thong or cord, and sometimes by punetured dots. Many of. them have the pattern extended on to the bottom; a very rare feature in the vessels of the other classes. This pattern on the bottom assumes peculiar forms, of which the cross is by no means the most uncommon. That figure, which has the. effect of quartering the space it- covers, can scarcely be regarded as being anything more than ornamental, though it has been in use in many different countries as a_ religious symbol in times long antecedent to Christianity. The form 1 Two specimens are figured in Hoare’s Ancient Wilts, pls. xviii, xxxiii, fig. 3, and three others in Archeologia, vol. xliii. pp. 363-4. INCENSE CUPS, pies is one which is easily made upon clay, and which would occur to the maker as a means of decoration almost as readily as any other; yet it is very rarely found amongst the many and varied designs upon the cinerary urns and other vessels, and Fig. 66, 2, not upon any of them, including the ‘incense cups,’ except on the bottom’, Several have occurred, and in various parts of _ 1 Some instances of the occurrence of a cross pattern upon sepulchral vessels are brought together in this note, and some others will be found in a succeeding one. I have met with it upon the bottom of two ‘food vessels,’ discovered in Northumber- land, in one of which it almost assumes the form of the fylfot [fig. 79]. Mr. Bateman mentions it as existing on a ‘food vessel’ from Newton-upon-Raweliffe, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 285. It occurs upon the inside of an urn from Worgret, near Wareham. Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset—Tumuli Opened at Various Periods, p. 29. The cinerary urn noticed by Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 241, and found at Woodyates, has a cross on the bottom of the inside of the vessel, made by the impression of a twisted thong. One from Roke Down, Dorset (Mr. Durden’s Collection at Blandford), has a cross in relief on the bottom of the inside ; and another similar one was found on King’s Down, Badbury, Dorset.. Amongst a number of fragments of many different vessels (some of them ornamented with a zigzag pattern of twisted-thong impressions, now in the British Museum, and found in Brixham Cave, but under what circumstances is not recorded) is the bottom of a large and thick vase which has on the inside a raised cross, with a circular de- pression at the intersection of the limbs, The same figure, and applied in the same way, has been met with on Irish urns: one is figured, Proc, Soc. of Ant., Second Series, vol. ii. p. 5. Not to mention other instances where the cross has occurred in one form or another on vessels of pottery, it may suffice to refer the reader to Hydriotaphia Cambrensis (reprinted from Arch. Cambr., Third Series, vol. xiv), pp. 40, 62 seg. Mr. Stanley and Mr. Way have there collected a large number of instances, Perhaps in some of these cases it would be more correct to say that the circular bottom of the vessel is quartered, than that it is marked with a cross, though by the process of quartering itself that figure is formed. In these instances the quarters are frequently filled in with lines arranged vertically and horizontally in alternate series, or to speak heraldically, first and fourth vertical lines, second and third horizontal lines. The 78 INTRODUCTION. the country, having open work all round the side, the piercings taking their place as part of the ornamental work of the vessel * [fig. 67]. Some of them are perfectly plain. There is one feature very common in the “incense | cups,’ but which very rarely occurs in any of the other classes of fictile vessels, They are often perforated with holes*. These, which are usually two in number, are found at different places on the sides. They are most commonly near the top, but often midway down one side, and sometimes near.the bottom of the vessel. A second pair of these perforations occurs now and then opposite Fig. 67. 2. | to the first pair, and at other times three sets of two holes are placed at intervals in the sides. In one example [fig. 63], which bottom of a cup with this pattern upon it, found on the site of a Lake Dwelling, on the Uberlinger See, is figured in Keller’s Lake Dwellings, ed. Lee, pl. xxx. fig. 6. 1 Pierced ‘incense cups’ have been found near Dewlish (and this one forms the frontispiece to Warne’s Celtic Tumuli of Dorset): at Normanton, near Amesbury ; Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 201, pl. xxx: at Bulford, Wilts [fig. 67], which also has the bottom ornamented with a central raised point, and concentric rings round it ; Archeological Journal, vol. vi. p. 319: at Great Shefford, Berkshire; Journal of Archeological Association, vol. xxii. p. 459: at Stainton Moor, Derbyshire; Archzol. vol, viii. p. 59: at Bryn Seiont, Caernarvonshire ; Hydriot. Cambr. p. 40: on the Moors near Scarborough, now in the Scarborough Museum: at Com-Boots, near Hackness, North Riding ; Archeol. vol. xxx. p. 458. One with slits on the lower part, found at Clayton Hill, Sussex, is figured in the Archeological Journal, vol. xix. p. 185. They have also been met with in Ireland; one, discovered in a larger vessel, together with burnt bones, at Killucken, County Tyrone, is figured Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. ix. p. 197; another, but an imperfect one, also from Ireland, is noticed on the same page. 2 A very remarkable feature, connected with siaks perforations, occurs in one found by the Rev. W. C. Lukis, in a barrow on Melmerby Common, in the North Riding. ‘On one side of the cup at its base are two small holes, about one inch apart, which appear to have passed through to the inside; but before the vessel was baked a thin coating of clay was smeared over the inside and the holes are obliterated there. Within the cup was the fragment of another still smaller cup, also eaeely and not so carefully ornamented.’ The bottom of this curious ‘incense cup’ has a cross pattern upon it. Flint Implements and Tumuli of Wath, p. 6. INCENSE CUPS. 79 I met with in a barrow near Castle Howard [No. exlviii], are twenty-seven perforations, in sets of three, arranged vertically and at intervals over the whole ‘cup.’ A- very: similar vessel,.so far as the perforations are concerned, having four rows of small holes encircling it, was found in a barrow with a deposit of burnt bones at Hutton Cranswick, on the wolds’. , One, discovered by Sir R. Colt Hoare in a barrow near Wodd- yates, Dorsetshire, has the upper part overhanging, and through the edge of this projecting rim (so to call it) the holes are pierced vertically’. A vessel, not, however, possessing much Fig. 68. 2. of the form of the ‘incense cup,’ though found with a deposit of burnt bones inside a larger urn, with vertical perforations through two slightly projecting ears, was met with in a barrow [| No. cliv| on Wykeham Moor, North Riding, and is figured in the sequel. Vessels somewhat similar have occurred in Ireland. Some are of very peculiar form ; for instance, three found by Sir R. Colt Hoare: in the Wiltshire barrows have a grape-like pattern in relief upon them |fig. 68|°; another, also met with by the same explorer, has a division in the middle, by which it is made into two cups, each provided with two perforations close to the division, and therefore just above the bottom of each 1 Proceedings of Yorkshire Antiquarian Club; it is engraved, Reliquiz Ant. Eboracenses, by W. Bowman, p. 38. 2 Ancient Wilts, pl. xxxiii. fig. 4. . 8 Figured in Ancient Wilts, pl. xi. p. 99; pl. xxiv. p. 199. Two similarly orna- mented vessels, found near Amesbury, in the same county, are engraved in the Proceedings of the Archeological Institute Meeting at Salisbury, p. 108, figs. 2, 3. Another occurred at Priddy, in Somersetshire, and is now in the British Museum. 80 INTRODUCTION. respective cup’. Sir R. Colt Hoare describes one found at Lake, Wiltshire, ‘which is perforated at the bottom like a cullender, and has two holes on the sides*.’ A very curiously ornamented one was discovered at Meinau’r Gwyr, Pembroke- shire; it is. drum-shaped, and has vertical ribs in relief all round the sides *. ‘Incense cups,’ when discovered, invariably * accompany deposits of burnt bones, placed both amongst and upon them, but scarcely ever, except accidentally, containing them’. They have been found not unfrequently with the burnt bones inside a cinerary urn. They have sometimes been met with in pairs; in the cases where this has occurred, it is probable that the deposit of burnt bones contained the remains of two bodies. I am acquainted with one instance where an ‘incense cup’ had apparently been burnt with the body, amongst the bones of which, themselves enclosed in a cinerary urn, it was found; but except in that single case, so far as I know, these vessels have been placed with the burnt bones, after the latter had beén collected from the funeral pile’. They have often occurred in Association with bronze articles, such as knife-daggers, awls, &c., and at other times with implements of flint and ornaments of jet, 1 Figured, Ancient Wilts, pl. xiii. p. 114. 2 Figured, Ancient Wilts, pl. xxx. p. 209. 3 Figured, Hydriotaphia Cambrensis, p. 41. * An ‘incense cup’ is said to have been found by Mr. Ruddock, near Pickering, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, with an unburnt body. Mr. Bateman tells ts, at p. 227 of Ten Years’ Diggings, where the relation occurs:—‘ Were it not for the extreme accuracy of Mr. Ruddock’s notes, I should feel disposed to think that the skeleton had undergone combustion, as the incense cup has uniformly been found with such.” At page 214 of the same book Mr. Bateman says, ‘ From the vagueness of the original notes (Mr. Ruddock’s) it is uncertain whether. the human remains found with these articles were calcined or not.’ It is clear therefore that no con- fidence can be placed in the account which states that the ‘incense cup’ was found with-an unburnt body. Mr. Bateman is, however, doubly inconsistent with regard to this fact, for in another of his books (Vestiges, p. 39) he says, ‘Amongst the bones of these four skeletons (unburnt) a small rude incense cup was found, which is of rather unusual form, being perforated with two holes on each side, opposite each other,’ 5 The Rev. J. C. Atkinson met with one in Cleveland, covered by a flat piece of charcoal evidently designedly placed there, which contained a single burnt human tooth. 6 Mr, Bateman records the finding of a small vase, which had ‘ passed through the fire,’ in company with a deposit of burnt bones. This may possibly have been an ‘incense cup.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 161. He also mentions ‘the fact that por- tions of earthen vessels were sometimes burnt along with human bodies ;’ /.c. p. 190. Sir R. Colt Hoare, Ancient Wilts, pl. xviii, figures an ‘incense cup,’ which he says (vol. i, p. 174) ‘has been burnt and cracked, probably by the heat of the funeral fire.’ Te ee ee ee a ee INCENSE CUPS. 81 - Various opinions have been expressed as to their use, none of which can be regarded as altogether satisfactory. Some of these are grounded upon the belief that the vessels which ac- company burials were once used for domestic purposes. As I cannot assent to that view, any considerations arising from their supposed domestic use are not, in my opinion, of much value in the argument. The whole question of the domestic origin of the sepulchral vessels is, however, more fully considered here- after, I will therefore say nothing more in this place than to express my dissent from that theory. The ‘incense cups,’ as indeed the name given to them implies, have been regarded as vessels in which to burn incense, aromatic oils, or perfumes; and it has been conjectured that they were suspended over the funeral pile. This is the view propounded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare, by whom the name was first given tothem*, Mr. Birch, in ‘ Ancient Pottery and Porcelain ’,’ appears to regard them as pots or lamps, though it is doubtful whether he refers, in the passage in question, to ‘incense cups’ or ‘food vessels.’ By others they have been regarded as the receptacles of some particular part of the human body, such as the ashes of the heart. The Hon. W. Owen Stanley and Mr. Albert Way, in a valuable essay upon Ancient Interments and Sepulchral Urns, found in Anglesea and North Wales, printed in the Archzologia Cambrensis*, seem to lean to the belief that they may have been chafers, ‘for conveying fire, whether a small quantity of glowing embers, or some inflammable substance, in which the latent spark might for awhile be retained, such for instance as touchwood, fungus, or the like,’ with which to kindle the funeral fire. That they were incense or perfume burners appears to imply a state of refinement to which we can scarcely consider the people who used them to have attained; and though the sepulchral remains show the great importance that was attached to burial and its attendant rites, it is improbable that fumigation, used either as concealing the odour of the burning body or as part of a religious ceremoriy, was practised*. The objections to the ? Ancient Wilts, vol. i. pp. 25, 209. ? First Edit., vol. ii. p. 380; second Edit., p. 587. _ § Third Series, vol. xiv. Revised for private distribution, under the title of Hydrio- taphia Cambrensis, &c., from notices collected by the Hon. William Owen Stanley, M.P., with additional observations by Albert Way, M.A., F.S.A. * Mr. Way mentions, in the essay just above referred to, that from the information of Mr. Lodge, a gentleman long resident in India, it appears that ‘it is not unusual G 82 INTRODUCTION. opinion which regards them as lamps are very strong. It is quite possible that a light may have formed part of the cere- monial attendant upon the interment of the dead, but as ‘incense cups’ are accompaniments of burials after cremation, their appli- cation in the capacity of a lamp appears to be supererogatory. The nature of the vessels themselves seems to preclude the idea that they could ever have answered any such purpose. The occurrence of ornament upon the bottom, which is found at that part much more frequently upon them than upon any other of the sepulchral vessels, affords a presumption that they were meant to be seen from below, and may seem to favour the theory that they were lamps, but it can only be regarded as corroborative evidence at the most. The circumstance that they are frequently perforated, as if for suspension, has also been urged in support of their having been used as lamps, but the perforations eccur as often close to the bottom or near the middle as at the top, and therefore cannot be considered as made for that exclusive purpose. The fact that these perforations consist not only of two or of four, placed in pairs opposite each other, but sometimes of a large number over the whole of the sides of the vessel, makes their intention as a means of suspension more than problematical. It seems impossible to separate these smaller perforations from the larger piercings which, as has already been stated, occur in some of the ‘incense cups.’ Nor could a lamp have holes close to or in the bottom, for its very nature entails upon it the necessity of preserving the oil from being wasted; a require- ment which surely could never be answered by a vessel with. a bottom like a cullender. One of the strongest objections, however, to their having been so used appears to be this, that there has never been found upon them any appearance of their having served for such a purpose. It could not be expected, indeed, that the wick should have remained after so many cen- turies of exposure to various disintegrating influences; but the marks of the smoke from it would have been found, just as they are still seen upon the Roman lamps of earthenware. That they were intended to contain some especial part of the body is in itself so unlikely, and has so little beyond mere to place upon the breast of the corpse a small cup containing some powerful perfume, whereby the disgusting and insalubrious stench might be remedied.? Mr, Way, how- ever, pertinently adds, ‘whence were perfumes or unguents to be procured in the neolithic or later stone age, to which the vessels under consideration appear mostly to belong.’ l. ce. p. 72. | INCENSE CUPS. 83 conjecture to recommend it, that it is not worthy of any serious consideration. Indeed no part of the body except bone could be, recovered after the burning, and as a rule no remains of bone are found in these vessels, unless it has got in accidentally from their. having been placed amongst the deposit. The explanation of Mr. Stanley and Mr. Albert Way appears to me to possess, upon the whole, the best claims to acceptance; and until some more likely one is suggested, or some facts come to light which render it untenable, I feel inclined to adopt it, as, at all events, a provisional explanation of the purpose of these enigmatical vessels, The burning of the dead was certainly not practised merely to dispose of the body, but was a custom which had more or less of a religious character about it. The rite, doubtless, was gone through with some degree of form and solemn observance. The application of fire to the body, to a greater or less extent, appears to have been universal, and shows what a deep significancy there was in it with reference to the dead. It is therefore not an unnatural supposition that the fire which was to consume the body should be brought to the pile with a certain amount of ceremony, and that it might have been taken there from the place where it had been kindled in accordance with some especial usage’. The fact that ‘incense cups’ are always associated with burials after cremation, brings them into intimate connection with the burning of the body, and perhaps may be considered to favour the view which regards them as the means of conveying the fire to kindle the funeral pile. Neither the form nor the peculiarity of the holes and piercings is inconsistent with this explanation of their use. Their size is what we might expect to find in vessels made for the purpose of carrying a piece of ignited touchwood or other suitable material, and the holes and piercings are not ill adapted for keeping it, by means of a draught, in a state of ignition. The vases.to which the name of ‘ Food Vessel’ has been applied are found associated both with burnt and unburnt bodies, though 1 The account of the funeral of Narayan Wasudeo, a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay, contains a very interesting record of such a practice as it has been supposed was current in Britain. ‘The sacred fire, which had been kindled with due ceremonies at the house, was carried in front in a brazen vessel by the deceased’s son.... While this (the making of the funeral pile) was being done, a number of torches of sandal wood were being carefully ignited by the son of the deceased at the sacred fire, which he had brought with him for the purpose.... The friends applied matches to the sandal-wood brands and, when they blazed up, set fire to the com- bustibles.’ Times of India, Sept. 1, 1874. P G 2 84 INTRODUCTION. most commonly with the latter. They are by far the most frequent of the sepulchral vessels met with in the barrows of the wolds. In the 73 cases where they have’ occurred in that series of barrows, they were all, with the exception of 16, associated with unburnt bodies, and these 16 include 9 which were not of a purely ‘food vessel’ type. The proportion has not been so great, though still very large, being 12 with unburnt to 5 with burnt bodies, in the barrows I have opened in other parts of England; and the same appears to have been the case in the Derbyshire and Staffordshire barrows, in which Mr. Bateman and Mr. Carrington discovered 25, and of these 19 were placed with unburnt bodies. In the large series of Cleveland barrows, however, in which, as has already been mentioned, Mr. Atkinson met with no burials by inhumation, though the number of burnt bodies he found was very great, there was not one which had a distinctive ‘food vessel * accompanying it. They seem to have been very rarely met with.in the south of England; and they are of infrequent occurrence in East-Anglia, where the kindred ‘ drinking cup’ is also, but not commonly, found. Two or three vessels, which probably answered the same purpose as this class is supposed to have done, were all that were discovered by Sir R. Colt Hoare in Wiltshire; nor do they appear. to have been more frequently found in Dorsetshire and the other south- western counties. They are, however, common in the northern parts of England, as they are in Scotland. In Ireland they are also numerous, many of them being artistically made and very beautifully ornamented. - When they are deposited with burials after bigelidadeoni they do not contain any of the bones, but are placed sometimes amongst them, but more frequently upon or at the side of them’. There is no difference in the form or style of ornament between those found with burnt and those found with unburnt bodies. _ They vary in size from about 8 in. to 8 in. in height, and are more diversified in shape than those of any other class. The prevail- ing type is one which is in form like figs. 69, 70, 71, sometimes, but not always, contracting towards the mouth. This type has frequently projecting knobs or ears, of a greater or less number, placed round the shoulder of the vase, which are sometimes 7 Mr. Bateman, speaking of one, says, ‘It is of that class of vessel indifferently deposited with human remains, burnt or unburnt, and which may probably yp con- tained food or drink, but never the remains, as is the case with cinerary urns.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 1 FOOD VESSELS. 85 perforated, and at other times without any piercing’. Those with pierced ears must, I think, be regarded as the earlier, the object of the piercing being to allow a thong or cord to be passed through > _ 3 for) en tol~ 1 One of this type, having the rare peculiarity of two series of pierced ears, one above the other, the ears being placed alternately, was found in a barrow on Seamer Moor, in the North Riding. It is figured in the Journal of the British Archeological Association, vol. iv. p. 102. 86 INTRODUCTION. the holes, by which to suspend them*. When they ceased to be ‘suspended, the ears were still retained, in accordance with the com- ‘mon principle of survival, but were not pierced, becoming mere ornamental appendages, and indeed, as such, they are very effective. I discovered two, in separate barrows, on Goodmanham Wold | Nos. 1 Vessels, usually of small size, perforated evidently for suspension, have been found in Denmark, in burial chambers of the Stone Age, where they are associated with unburnt bodies. It is probable that they served the same purpose, of holding food, as did the British ‘food-vessels.’ I have seen vases, in shape and general style of ornamentation almost like that class of ‘food-vessel’ which has the projecting knobs round the shoulder, taken from graves near Tolima, United States of Columbia. They are perforated for suspension near to the rim, and have also a groove on the bottom corresponding to the holes above, in order the better to keep the cord, which held them up, in its place. FOOD VESSELS. 87 cii, ciii], which had evidently been made by the same workman, where in one case the ears were pierced, in the other being left un- pierced. The holes, however, are so small in some of them, that it would be very difficult to pass a thong through them. Many of this type are very well and symmetrically made, and the ornament also is applied with much taste; and they may be said to excel in fineness of paste, care in manufacture, and beauty of ornament any ‘food vessels’ of the other types which are found upon the wolds and in other parts of Yorkshire. In Northumberland, however, and in the south-west of Scotland, a class of ‘food vessel,’ rather bowl- shaped in form and without ears, being very similar to many of the Irish specimens, is perhaps still more beautifully, as it is certainly more elaborately, ornamented. Another common type in the wold barrows, and more frequently found there than in other parts of England, is one which approaches somewhat to the globular shape, though it is higher than it is wide [fig. 72]. It is made of coarser clay, and is less skilfully manufactured than the last- mentioned class ; the ornamentation also is not so carefully designed, 88 INTRODUCTION. and shows but little taste in its application. There are numbers also which cannot be classed with any type, as they differ amongst themselves, and more or less from any of the before-mentioned forms, as fig. 73. Others are of very peculiar shape, and of rare Fig. 74, 4. occurrence. For instance, they have been found with four feet, one of these occurred in a barrow at Weaverthorpe [No. xliii], [fig. 74.|*; and two very singular vessels, one discovered at Heighing- ton, Lincolnshire [figs. 75, 76]’, the other near Corbridge, in 1 I have seen a second one of this form, found in a barrow at Amotherby, near Malton, in the North Riding. 2 Archeol. Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 288, FOOD VESSELS. 89 Northumberland ', have four perforated feet, as if it were intended to hang the vase up with the mouth downwards. In a barrow on Potter Brompton Wold [No. xxi] were two small ones having the extremely rare addition of a cover or lid [fig. 77]; and another Pare Tes ne is Sa key he fe) {tl ~I or i om Fig. 76. 3. instance of the same addition to the vase was met with in one of the barrows on Goodmanham Wold [No. xeviii]. One from Dod- dington, Northumberland [fig. 78], has four handles, scarcely large enough to hold it by, and yet too large if made merely for the 1 Archeol. Aliana, vol. i. pl. vi. G. 90 INTRODUCTION. purpose of suspension’. The same county has produced a large number of abnormal forms of ‘ food vessels,’ but it is ufnecessary to describe every variety ; engravings of two of them are given, ‘Fig. 78. 5. 1 One, somewhat similar, having four handles, or rather large loops, found at Wetton Hill, Staffordshire, is engraved in Bateman’s Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 139. FOOD VESSELS. 91 one of which [fig. 79] was found at Hepple, in the parish of Rothbury ; the other [fig. 80] at Ford. The clay of which they are composed is as different in quality as are the vessels themselves; for while some are extremely rude, and made of coarse unworked clay, others are elegant in shape, graceful in the style of ornamentation, and the paste fine and well-tempered. The better specimens have no mixture, or scarcely any, of broken stone in the clay, but others have the clay full of it, and are frequently, in material and imperfect firing, no better than the worst-made cinerary urns. Vases of the two qualities are often found in the same barrow; indeed it is no uncommon occurrence to discover together, and apparently deposited at the same time, a ‘food vessel’ beautiful in its shape and ornament, and another ill-formed and with a pattern upon it of the rudest deseription. 92 INTRODUCTION. It is quite impossible to give anything like a complete account of the ornamental designs found upon them, for they are endless. Amongst the most. common are lines of short impressions, arranged herring-bone fashion, and encompassing and covering the vessel ; lines drawn round the vessel, having between them dotted impres- sions. or short lines, usually sloping ; zigzag lines, with various markings within them; variously formed lines of impressions made by a piece of bone or wood and giving a triangular or oval-shaped mark. The ornamentation is sometimes confined to the upper part of the vase, but more frequently it covers the whole, and is found on the inside of the lip of the rim, and in rare instances on the bottom of the vessel. The patterns have been made by thong or cord im- pressions, by lines drawn with a pointed instrument, and by dotted markings. In colour the vessels vary as much as those of the other classes of sepulchral pottery. They are ashen-grey, yellowish brown, ‘straw-coloured, dark brown, and almost as red as pale brick: The position they occupy relative to the body differs consider- FOOD VESSELS. 93 ably ; they are met with before and behind the head ;-in front. of the chest; behind the shoulders and back; in front of the knees ; and at the feet. The most frequent place, however, is near ‘the head. Though it is not possible to say with absolute certainty what was the purpose for which they were placed in the grave, a more probable reason of their occurrence there can be assigned than any that has been suggested with regard to the ‘incense cup.’ The name given to them, there can be little doubt, answers to their use—namely, that of containing food for the dead. In several instances a dark-coloured substance has been found in them, and in others a black deposit is to be observed on the inside near to the bottom, which may easily be the remains of animal or vegetable matter: unfortunately, an analysis does no more than show that such is the nature of the deposit. This fact, however, that remains of such a nature are found in them, goes far to prove that they were receptacles of food; for in what other shape is it likely that any animal or vegetable substance would be placed in connection with the dead? That food, or what could scarcely be anything else, was sometimes deposited with the body, is shown by the occur- rence of the remains of portions of the bones of animals, such as pig and goat, found in the grave together: with those of the buried person. Where I have met with such relics in close connection with the body, no vessel of pottery was present. Though I would not insist upon’ the practices of modern savages as being, except to a limited extent, any illustration of the burial usages of the early people of Britain, they have nevertheless some value. The North American Indian tribes, we know, place a bag of provisions with the dead, and this custom may very well have prevailed in our own country at the time of the erection of the barrows; for there 1s nothing connected with these people, so far as we have the means of judging, which makes it unlikely that such should have been their custom too’. Whatever may have been the purpose for which the ‘ food vessel ’ was deposited in the grave, the same, there can be little doubt, was - 1 Food, in a very distinctive form, has been met with in graves in different countries. In a cemetery at Oberflacht in Suabia, porridge, pears, and bones of animals were found in many of the coffins. Graves of the Alemanni, by W. M. Wylie, Esq., Archeeol. vol. xxxvi. p. 129. The contents of Egyptian tombs bear abundant testimony to the practice, even cooked provisions have occurred therein. Maize and other vegetable products have frequently been discovered in the Peruvian cemeteries, as for instance at Arica. 94, INTRODUCTION. answered by the next class of sepulchral vessel, the ‘ Drinking Cup.” Though not so commonly met with as the ‘ food vessel,’ it is never- theless sufficiently abundant ; I have found it associated with burials in the wold barrows in 24 cases, 2 of these being burials after cre- mation. It occurs throughout the whole of Britain, and varies less in each different locality than those of the other classes of PAPI IT ISIS ISI AD ISFIFSR SFT SG JIDIZIGIBIIISLIDVIIBIFZ GIVIDARG BID ELD” F BBI2PA. ———— Fig. 81. 3. sepulchral pottery. ‘ Drinking cups’ have been met with in Wilt- shire and in Argyleshire so identical in shape and ornamentation, that a representation of one might almost stand for the other; and I possess two, one from Northumberland, the other from Argyle- shire, which are not easily to be distinguished from each other. ‘Drinking cups’ do not appear to have been met with in Ireland ; but a form of vessel approaching them in shape and ornamentation has been found in the dolmens of Guernsey and Brittany. In Holland and North Germany somewhat similar vases, though not DRINKING CUPS. 95 so elegant in form as those from Britain, have been discovered not unfrequently in the sepulchral mounds’. There is a considerable difference in their size, and they vary in height from 5 in. to 10 in. In shape they arrange themselves into two principal forms, though there is a great general similarity between the two. The one [ fig. 81] is more flowing and easy in outline, narrowing from the mouth to about the middle, then gra- dually swelling, and then again narrowing towards the bottom ; Ar SOP Y2 a> the Fig. 82. 4. the other form | fig. 82] is rounder than the last near to the bot- tom, and from the upper part of this globular portion of the vessel the sides widen towards the mouth without any curvature, There are other forms [figs. 83, 84, 85] which vary more or less from these two, but which do not frequently occur. Some of a very distinctive shape have been met with; one of which, having a handle, may be mentioned. I have only found one of this type 1 There is a vessel in the British Museum, ornamented with a pattern of twisted- thong impressions, very much like the ordinary British ‘drinking cup.’ It was found at Bennedorf, near Merseberg. 96 INTRODUCTION: [fig. 86], in a barrow on Goodmanham Wold [No. exiii], and one other at least has occurred on the wolds. ‘Two vessels of this form, almost alike in shape and ornament, have been discovered, one near Pickering, in the North Riding’, the other in the Isle of Ely’. In the Mayer Collection, at Liverpool, there is one said to have been found near Whitby.. A fragment of one having the handle complete was found near Appleford, Berks, and is now in the British Museum, where is a perfect one almost identical; once in the Klemm Collection, and discovered at Spittswitz. - Some- what similar vessels have been met with in Dorsetshire*®. A very small vase, which perhaps may be classed with the ‘ drinking cups,’ was found by Mr. W. C. Borlase in a barrow on Denzell Downs, near St. Columb, Cornwall, accompanying a deposit of burnt bones, _ *} Engraved in Bateman’s Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 209, ® Engraved in Archeological Journal, vol. xix. p. 364. ° Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset, pp. 37, 71, of ‘Tumuli Opened at Various Periods,’ DRINKING CUPS. 97 some of which it is said to have contained; though it is quite possible they may have got into it accidentally’; and one some- what similar, and quite plain, was discovered by the Rev, W. C. Fig. 84, 3. Lukis in a barrow at Collingbourne Ducis, Wilts, with the burnt bones of a child?, A vessel made of shale, found on Broad Down, near Honiton *, the amber cup from Hove, near Brighton *, and ? Nenia Cornubiz, p, 246, where it is figured. ? Wilts Archeological Magazine, x. p. 90. 8 Arch. Journal, vol, xxv. p. 296; Trans. Devon. Astoe., vol, ii. iP. 635 ; Bios: Stone Impl. p. 399. The so-called vessel of wood found in a tree-coffin in the King Barrow, Stowborough, was probably, like that from the barrow on Broad Down, made of shale. * Sussex Arch. Coll., vol. ix. p. 120; Arch. Journal, vol. xiii. p. 183; vol. xv. p. 90; Evans, Stone Jmpl. p. 403. H 98 INTRODUCTION. the gold vase found in a barrow at Rillaton, Cornwall [figs. 87, 88]', may all possibly be included in this class of sepulchral vessels. The ‘drinking cups’ are usually thin in the walls, very neatly made, of fine paste, and generally much better fired than those of any other class of sepulchral pottery ; nor do they, as a rule, contain any broken stone mixed amongst the clay, though it does sometimes occur, and then very finely pounded, almost like sand. The colour is very frequently of a pale yellowish brown, but they are often dark brown, and gradually change from that, by a greater or less admixture of red, until in some of them that colour predominates. Fig. 85. 4. The ornamentation upon them is very varied, though not more so perhaps than it is found to be on the ‘ food vessels.’ A better idea how- ever of the designs upon them (as indeed is the case with all the classes of sepulchral vessels) will be obtained from the engravings than any words can give. They are almost-always ornamented over the whole surface from top to bottom, sometimes toa considerable depth within the rim, and now and then on the bottom itself. I have met with one instance on the wolds of a ‘drinking cup’ ornamented on the bottom ; it was found near Goodmanham [No. exvi]; the pattern was divided into quarters by a cross [figs. 89, 90] ”. * Arch. Journal, vol. xxiv. p. 189; Evans, Stone Impl. p. 402. ? One found at Kelleythorpe, East Riding, in a cist, with the skeleton of a man, a bronze knife-dagger, &c., is ornamented on the bottom with a cross pattern. Another from Edgefield-by-Holt, Norfolk, in the possession of Mr. Fitch, F.S.A., of Norwich, DRINKING CUPS. 99 ‘The lines of the various designs have been made by similar instruments, and by the like impressions, as those upon the ‘food vessels ;) a very common marking appears to have been formed by a notched or toothed strip of bone being pressed upon the moist clay. It is very rare to find them associated with burials after crema- tion. In a barrow at Rudstone [No. Ixii], a burnt and unburnt body were discovered in adjoining cists; with each was a ‘ drink- ing cup’ of similar shape and character, and outside the cists was a second deposit of burnt bones, having with it another like cup. I have met with 27 ‘drinking cups’ during the course of my bar- row investigations in various places, but the two instances above has a cross-shaped figure on the bottom; and one found in Elk Low, Derbyshire, has the bottom covered with an ornament of a peculiar pattern; it is figured by Jewitt, Grave Mounds, pp. 108, 104, figs. 110,111, A fragment of one, now in the British Museum, found at West Lodge Gate, has a pattern on the bottom formed by two lozenge-shaped figures placed together side by side, H 2 100 INTRODUCTION. mentioned are the only ones wheré I have found that kind of sepul- chral vessel. associated with a burnt body. The same appears to be the rule in other districts. Messrs. Bateman and Carrington discovered 18 in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, all with unburnt: bodies. Sir R. Colt Hoare found 30 in Wiltshire, only four of them deposited with burials after cremation, two of which occurred in combination with two ‘incense cups’ in a grave with numerous burnt bones. As in the case of the ‘food vessels,’ they are found in juxta- Fig. 88. Fig. 87. Height 33 inches. position with almost every part of the skeleton; the most frequent place of deposit being near the head, either in front of it or behind. They are also, like the ‘food vessels,’ sometimes placed on the side, but I think they cannot have originally been deposited in that position, but may have fallen over by the pressure of: the surrounding earth; the upright position certainly seems to be the most natural one. They have been, though rarely, met with at some distance apart from any interment: an instance of this will be found to have occurred in a barrow [No. xcix] on Good- manham Wold. In considering the purpose ahee fulfilled when buried in con- nection with the dead, they must be regarded as forming one _part of that class of which the ‘ food vessel’ forms another, What- ever was the purpose of the one, the same, there cannot be any DRINKING CUPS. 101 doubt, was that of the other; and it can scarcely be questioned. that they were the receptacles of food, and as such were placed in the grave. Like the ‘food vessels’ they have occasionally been found to contain a dark-coloured substance, which has all the appearance of being the remains of solid food, and which analysis has shown to be sometimes of animal, at other times of vegetable, origin. No liquid could have left such a residuum, and in fact the vessels are too porous in texture ever to have retained fluid: for any length of time. It has been suggested Fig. 89. ff. that they were intended to hold a light; but besides their in- appropriateness for any such use, there has never been seen upon them, or found in them, anything which favours such a sup- position. A very remarkable burial, in a cist at Broomend, near Inverurie, Aberdeenshire, may help us towards a solution of the question’, The cist contained two skeletons, of a man and an infant, with two ‘drinking cups;’ hanging over the edge of the larger vessel, which was associated with the adult body, was an article which at first was supposed to be a lamp. ‘The cup-like end was. outside the vase, and the long tang-like handle was re- curved over the edge, and hung down on the inside. At the bottom of both ‘drinking cups’ was some mack: earthy matter; * Proe. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. vii. p. 116, where an engraving of the lxgce ‘drinking-cup,’ and of the horn spoon, there called a lamp, is given. 102 INTRODUCTION. and in the larger one, in addition, were some pieces of decayed bone. I think there can be no doubt that this curious article must be regarded as a spoon or ladle, and that it had been em- ployed in putting food into or taking it out of the vessel over the edge of which it was hanging. The handle had, no doubt, been originally straight, but had become bent during the time it had remained in the cist. The idea that it was a lamp, now I believe discarded, appears to have originated in the present and accidentally curved appearance of the handle; the absence of any signs of burning, at what may be called the nozzle, if it had been a lamp, appears to be fatal to its being regarded as having served in that capacity. Retaining the name provisionally, I should class the ‘drinking cups’ with the ‘food vessels,’ as having both been intended for the same purpose, that of holding food of some kind for the use of the dead. That they were not placed in the grave empty is self-evident, and the remains found in them show that some- thing of a more or less solid nature had been originally deposited there. No explanation has ever been given of their presence in connection with interments so satisfactory as that which regards them as receptacles of food; and it may be accepted, without much hesitation, as being the true one. It is more difficult, however, to understand with what object food . was placed in the grave. It has generally been regarded as de- posited there to sustain the buried person on the passage to another world; but if so, then it could only be considered as representative, for the quantity provided would ill suffice for such a journey. And the same difficulty suggests itself, though not so strongly as it did in the case of weapons and implements associated with interments, that if these several articles were needed by and provided for the dead, how does it happen that so small a number of persons were furnished with that which, it might be supposed, was equally necessary for all. This objection is not of so much force in respect of food as it is of weapons, &c., for the requisite provision might have been placed in the majority of cases with the body, either in a basket or bag, or without anything to hold it; and, therefore, would leave no trace of its former presence. Another reason, and perhaps a more probable one, has been adduced in expla- nation of the custom. It has been a common practice to offer food to the dead, of whom most peoples, in certain states of mind and stages of culture, have felt much dread; a feeling indeed VESSELS OF THE BARROWS NOT DOMESTIC. 103 which is shared by many even in our own country and at the present day. ‘The desire to propitiate them, so that they might not injure the living, has strongly ruled in many different ages and countries; and one mode of effecting this was by the offering of various things, and amongst them food. The subject is so trite that there needs no reference to particular instances as showing the custom ; it is familiar alike to the student of classical literature, to those who have made acquaintance with early Christian enact- ments, and to all who have investigated the history of modern savages. It is probable then, that in the ‘food vessel’ and ‘drinking cup’ we see the vases where the offering of food was supplied, which in other cases was placed in the grave without any such enduring receptacle. Nor is it impossible that the various weapons, implements, and ornaments discovered with the bodies may have been deposited there in accordance with the same belief which made the food vase so frequent an accom- paniment of the dead. | The question whether these various sepulchral vessels were especially made for the purposes of burial, or were originally manufactured for domestic use, has been a subject of controversy amongst those who have given the matter consideration. The greater number of writers have regarded them as having heen fabricated for the dead, and not as having ever served the wants of the living, and with them I concur. The late Mr. Albert Way, who took the opposite view, brought forward, in the essay on Welsh sepulture already referred to, several strong reasons in favour of their primary domestic purpose. He there adduces the Roman practice, and thinks it ‘highly improbable that, in times of low and inartificial conditions, any objects or fictile vessels should have been specially fabricated for funeral rites’? Mr. Way was so high an authority, and had so much experience and had paid such attention to the subject, that his opinion is of the highest value, and I differ from his conclusions with great hesi- tation. But on the whole, though there is certainly much to be said in favour of their original domestic use, at all events as regards some of the vessels, I think the balance of evidence is against their having been manufactured for any other than sepulchral pur- poses. One of the principal objections to their having been made for domestic use is the coarseness, porousness, and friability of the paste, which in many of them is so great that it seems + Hydriotaphia Cambrensis, p. 70. 104 | INTRODUCTION. impossible they can’ ever have served any other than a temporary purpose, and one not admitting of their being much handled. Some of the cinerary urns and ‘ food vessels’ have been only very ‘partially exposed to the action of fire, sometimes indeed having been scarcely altered by heat from the natural condition of the clay. This coarseness and fragileness characterise almost all the cinerary urns and a large number of the ‘food vessels.’ It is true indeed that many of the latter, and nearly all the ‘drinking cups,’ are of better-tempered and finer clay, and have been sub- jected to much more complete firing, but even the strongest of these are but ill adapted for most household work, and would certainly not bear the knocking about to which such vessels must necessarily be submitted. Nor do any of them ‘seem, from their shape, to be well suited for such purposes as domestic utensils are intended for. The cinerary urns would undoubtedly answer no end, which can be-imagined, except for storing away grain or some other vegetable products; but the very small size of some of them precludes any such idea. Nor is the shape, with its invariably narrow bottom, at all what would be chosen for such a purpose. The Swiss Lake Dwellings have produced large numbers of vessels, of all sizes, and belonging both to the stone and bronze age, which had been made by those lake-dwellers for the ordinary use of the household. These are all of quite a different nature from the pottery of the barrows; and, as might be expected. from the purpose for which they were fabricated, though many are very rudely made, yet they are much better baked, and of a more enduring character, than the sepulchral vessels in question. Mr. Way suggests that the over-hang- ing rim, so characteristic a feature in the cinerary urns, was intended as a means of supporting the vessel by passing a thong or some such appliance round the urn, underneath the pro- jecting part of it. The objections to this view appear to be many. In the first place it scarcely seems to be a natural mode of suspending such a vessel, and the rim in many cases projects too slightly to give sufficient security to the fastening; the urns also are much too fragile, and the clay is wanting in that suf- ficient cohesion which would allow the vessel, when filled with even a light substance, to be suspended in that way. | The peculiar appearance the cinerary urns present, with the almost universal overhanging rim, giving them as it does so marked a character, I cannot regard as caused by the requirements of VESSELS OF THE BARROWS NOT DOMESTIC. 105 the vessel for such a use. I have suggested before that a covering of cloth or hide may have been placed over the mouth of the vessel, and if that was the case, then the projecting rim afforded a means of keeping such a covering more firmly in its place, ° by passing a cord or thong round the vessel below such projecting part. Enough has already been said in the account of the ‘incense cups’ to show how ill adapted they are for any domestic purpose ; nor indeed has any one suggested an explanation of their every- day use which bears the least appearance of probability. In considering the ‘food vessels’ as being originally intended to serve as ordinary household utensils, the same objection may be brought against them as has been brought against the cinerary urns—that it is difficult to understand to what domestic use they could have been applied. Their shape, the small size of some of them, the thickness of the walls, the inconvenient width of the lip of the rim, would make them very unsuitable vessels in the economy of daily life. We cannot regard them as having been made to serve at table, for their form renders them almost useless for such a purpose. They could not have been used in cooking, for apart from the fact that none of them show signs of having been placed upon a fire, they could not bear its action. Liquids they cannot have held on account of their porousness. They might indeed have contained some semi-fluid mess, like porridge, but the narrowness of many of them, especially at the bottom, makes such a supposition unlikely. ‘ It may be said that the perforated ears round the shoulder, with which so many are provided, are inconsistent with their having been made purely for burial uses, inasmuch as there would be no occasion that vessels intended to be placed in the grave should be constructed with the means of suspending them. This objection to their being considered entirely as sepulchral vessels is certainly a very strong one, nor do I pretend to answer it. At the same time it appears to militate equally against their having been intended for domestic use, for it is impossible to understand what office in the household could have been served by the suspension of such vessels. | The last class, the ‘drinking cup,’ has by far the best claim to be considered a domestic vessel in its primary intention ; but, on the whole, it can scarcely be regarded as having been one, If it would hold water (and no doubt many of them would do 106 INTRODUCTION. so temporarily), it might be drunk from, for the thinness of the walls and its shape make it not unsuitable for that purpose. But if it is on the whole better fired, and in consequence harder, ’ than the other classes, many of these ‘cups’ are, nevertheless, much too porous to enable any liquid to be retained for more than a very short time. As vessels for eating from they would be most inconvenient, on account of their height and comparative narrowness. The profuseness of ornament, which is lavished upon even the least highly decorated of these several vessels, is a fact which seems to be more in favour of their sepulchral than of their domestic intention. It is not probable that the amount of labour which must have been bestowed upon them would have been expended on utensils for daily use, and such as must necessarily have been subjected to various accidents almost every hour. On the contrary, it is just what we would naturally look for in vessels intended to be associated with the dead, about whose burial no expenditure of time or labour was thought too great. The special manufacture of vessels to be deposited with the dead has prevailed in other countries, abundant evidence of which is found for instance in Greek and Etruscan tombs. In our own country we find the practice to. have been common at a time long sub- sequent. to that of the barrows of the wolds. The narrow-necked and frequently highly ornamented urns, which contain the burnt remains of those whom the late Mr. Kemble justly considered the pagan Anglo-Saxons, are certainly sepulchral in their origin as well as in their use. But perhaps the strongest objection to their having fulfilled a purpose in the household, is the fact that they possess but little in common with the pottery, which, without much doubt, is domestic [figs. 91,92]. It is true that not very much of this has been discovered, but quite enough has been found to enable us to judge pretty accurately of its character. It has not indeed been proved conclusively that the people who occupied the hut circles and pit dwellings were those who erected the barrows so often met with in close proximity to them, but if we may judge, as I think we fairly may, from the identity of the flint imple- ments found in each, there can be little doubt that they were, the one the dwelling-place, the other the burial-place of the same people. Now the pottery which has been discovered on the site of dwelling-places is a dark-coloured, hard-baked, perfectly VESSELS OF THE BARROWS NOT DOMESTIC. 107 plain ware, without ornament of any kind, is in fact just what we would expect domestic pottery to be, and has nothing in which it resembles the sepulchral vessels. And more than this, so far as I know of my own experience or can learn from that of others, no whole vessel, or even fragments, of the ordinary sepul- chral pottery of the barrows or other places of sepulture has ever been met with in connection with places of habitation. A dis- covery was made in the county of Durham which affords most valuable evidence upon this point. A cave in the limestone had been the habitation of a family, during the bronze age, for a lengthened period, if we may judge from the large quantity of animal bones, the remains of its food, found therein. These © 108 INTRODUCTION. people seem to have come to a sudden and untimely end, by the cave becoming flooded, and not only were they themselves. left there, until the working away of the rock revealed their presence; but also their whole belongings, weapons, implements, ornaments, together with. the whole Jdatterie de cuisine in pots and pans; This pottery, which was very abundant and which presented a great variety of different vessels, was in perfect agreement with that which has been found in other places of habitation, but had nothing in common with the pottery of the barrows, except that there was the same admixture of broken stone in its composition. Not a single vessel showed any trace of ornament, but all were plain, strong, and useful, such as we might look for in the domestic economy. Is it possible that, if cimerary urns, ‘food vessels,’ and ‘drinking cups’ were the ordinary utensils of daily use, we should not have frequently found them in other situations than burial mounds and cists ? It has already been mentioned that potsherds are met with, and sometimes in large quantities, scattered indiscriminately amongst the material of the barrows, ‘These are in many cases fragments of vessels of similar shape and manufacture to those found on the site of dwelling-places, and are almost certainly the remains of domestic pottery. Pieces of ‘drinking cups,’ cinerary urns, &c. are also discovered in the barrows, but these are often, if not in all cases, portions of disturbed sepulchral vessels, broken by the introduction of secondary interments. Two quite distinct kinds of pottery then are found, belonging unquestionably to the same period, since both are met with under similar circumstances, in one and the same barrow. One of these, from the resemblance it bears to the ware occurring in the hut-circles and pit-dwellings, must be regarded as that made for domestic use; the other is invariably found in associa- tion, more or less close, with interments. The one is only on the rarest occasions discovered in intimate connection with the buried dead; the other never in connection with their dwelling- places when they were living; can we hesitate then to say that the first was manufactured for use in life, the second for one purpose or another after that life had passed away ? The conclusion to which all the evidence we are able to put together appears to lead is, that cinerary urns, ‘incense cups,’ ‘food vessels,? and ‘drinking cups’ were especially made for the burial, and that they had no place in the house, nor were ever ANIMAL BONES IN THE BARROWS. 109 intended for its occupants when alive; and if any exception: is to be taken to .this, that the ‘drinking cup’ is the only vessel which can possibly come within that limit. I have, however, little hesitation in asserting that it is also sepulchral. Vessels have occasionally been met with, associated with inter- ments, which may have been originally domestic, at all events they possess the characteristic features of that kind of pottery. This occurrence is only what might be looked for, and indeed it is surprising that it has not more frequently taken place. It seems to show how rigid ‘was’ the observance which’ regulated the character of the vessels deposited with the dead. But,. from one cause or another, the occasion must sometimes have arisen when no vase, properly sepulchral, could be obtained, and there- fore a domestic one was made to serve in its stead. ‘The slightest acquaintance with Roman burials will show how common it is to find ordinary household vessels answering to a sepulchral use. In the description of the different substances found in barrows, it was mentioned that animal bones (and usually, when they are those which once contained marrow, split open) are met with scattered, here and there, throughout the material of which the mound is formed. It was also said that these are probably the relics of a feast, held either at the time of the burial, or on some subsequent occasion, possibly at its anniversary. They thus represent what may, so far as flesh is concerned, be con- sidered as the food of the people then occupying the wolds. A fact of very considerable importance, concerning the condition and state of civilisation of the early inhabitants of the ae, is thus established. : 3 The bones which have been found are those of tie ox (os longifrons); of another species of ox, probably a cross between bos longifrons and the wrus; of the pig (sus serofa); of the goat or sheep, for it is difficult, without the head, to dictinguidh: be- 4ween the two species; of the horse (equus caballus); and of the dog (canis familiaris); all of them being domesticated animals. The most frequent bones are those of the ox, followed by those of pig, and then of goat; the horse and dog being very un- common. Of wild animals, the only bones discovered, and those very sparingly, are of the red-deer (cervus elaphus). That this animal was abundant is shown by the numerous remains of. its antlers which have occurred, but though the horn was thus utilised, the flesh seems to have formed but a small item in 110 INTRODUCTION, the dietary of these people. The horn of the roe-deer (cervus capreolus) has been met with in two barrows. The antlers found in the barrows (and the same was the case at Grime’s Graves) are almost always shed ones, it being very rare to find one which has been taken from a slain animal. The abundance of the antlers shows how plentiful the beast was, the rarity of any but shed horns appears to indicate how seldom it was cap- tured. The evidence of the Swiss Lake Dwellings points in the same direction. At Allensbach in the Uberlinger See, says Dr. Keller, numbers of red-deer horns were met with, but ‘by far the largest proportion appears to have been parts of horns which had been shed, pieces attached to the skull are very rare’. The result of a critical examination of these bones shows very clearly that a different state of existence prevailed on the wolds from what was generally believed to have been the case. It was com- monly thought that these people subsisted principally by the chase ; and though it was not doubted that they possessed domesticated animals, it was scarcely believed that the flesh of such was the main support of these early wold-dwellers. Such appears, however, undoubtedly to have been the case, for we cannot imagine that the bones found in the barrows represent other than their ordinary and daily food. The chase must, however, have been followed very extensively by the wold-inhabitants, as is shown by the abundance of arrow-points which are found scattered about in every part of the district. These were no doubt used equally in war, but it is impossible to suppose that the enormous numbers met with can all have been intended for solely warlike purposes. Many were probably expended not in the pursuit of the larger animals, but of birds, and amongst them the bustard, which until quite lately was an occupant of the wolds, as it was of the downs of Wiltshire. The bones which occurred at Grime’s Graves (a series of flint workings in Norfolk) strongly cor- roborate the testimony afforded by the barrows, for they are identical in the two places. The pits at Grime’s Graves cor- respond in point of time with the large majority of the wold barrows, if not exactly, at all events substantially, and therefore the evidence we obtain from them in this respect is of great value as illustrating the history we learn from the barrows ?. In this Introduction, as also in the detailed account of the 1 Keller, Lake Dwellings, ed. Lee, p. 97. 2 Grime’s Graves, Journal of Ethnological Society, N. S., vol. ii. p. 419. SOCIAL CONDITION OF PEOPLE. 111 examination of the barrows, various remarks have been made, incidentally, concerning the social condition of the people who erected these burial-mounds, their food, clothing, arms, imple- ments, ornaments, and other accessories of daily life. The barrows, indeed, only give us a very imperfect, and at times but a doubtful, outline with respect to some of these subjects. Sufficient evidence, however, has been brought together to admit of some conclusions being arrived at which are based upon the secure foundation of facts. A brief account then of what we appear to have learned concerning the people and their progress in civilisation, their art and manufactures, their social habits and their polity as evidenced by the contents of the barrows, may not be out of place. That they lived in an organised condition of society may be considered as quite certain; and, as a necessity of such a state, they must have been under the government of a head, most probably the chief of a sept or clan. They had unquestionably long passed beyond the stage when the family is the only com- munity, and they were ruled by an order and constraint embracing wider bounds than those comprised within the authority of rela- tionship in its more limited sense. The magnitude of the burial- mounds would in itself imply this, as, from the amount of continued labour bestowed upon them, they could never have been erected except by a community which included several families. The very extensive and strongly constructed defensive arrangements, so abundant on the wolds, enclosing in many instances large tracts of country within their lines, are strongly indicative of a combination which necessitates an union of very considerable bodies of men; and there is every reason to believe that these works and the barrows were constructed by the same people. Within what may perhaps be designated as the larger federation, held together by a common origin and mutual interest, there were doubtless several smaller tribal divisions, ruled over by their respective chiefs, either independent, or more or less under the authority of the federal head. It may also be that there were still more minute subdivisions, where the family government might prevail, and where the interest and property in the land would be parcelled out into tracts not larger than what is com- prised within contiguous ranges of high land, in some cases not more extensive perhaps than the present parishes. To the heads of these smaller communities, if such existed, the greater number of the barrows must probably be attributed, if the supposition 112 INTRODUCTION. is correct which regards them as the burial-places, not of the mass of the people, but of those who occupied a position of authority, of whatever nature that might be, amongst them. This view appears to be most consistent with facts, for it cannot be supposed for a moment that the whole population was buried in the sepulchral mounds. Had that been the case, the barrows would have been far more abundant than they are, even though the time during which the practice was in use was very short. But as it is evident that the period when burials in the barrows took place was a lengthened one, it becomes still more certain that only a very small part of the population received such a distinction, These mounds must be regarded as the places of sepulture of chiefs of tribes, clans, and: families, or of other people in authority claiming and being allowed a position of respect, - and of those who were nearly connected with them, as wives, children, and personal dependants. Some of the barrows, indeed, appear to have been in use over a lengthened period, and assume somewhat of the character of a family burying-place. The mass of the community were probably buried at no great depth beneath the surface, and with no mound over them, or at all events a very trifling one, to mark the spot. _ Nor is it likely that anything in the shape of implement, ornament, or pottery was deposited with them. Under these circumstances it is impossible to identify their burying-places. Skeletons, however, have very frequently been found in places where there was no visible mound or any appear- ance to show that such had formerly existed, and these bodies may very possibly represent the humbler members of the population. In some instances large numbers of burials have been discovered together, constituting’ what may be denominated as cemeteries, and consisting both of burnt and unburnt bodies; places like these may be regarded perhaps as the common burial-place of the community, the heads of which may have been interred in adjacent barrows’. In many parts both of England and Scotland, where the land has never been under cultivation, it is not uncommon to find large numbers of small mounds in groups, which are usually accompanied by -one or more larger mounds; in the latter, burials, frequently ? At Rimbury, in Dorsetshire, a large number of cinerary urns were discovered without any apparent barrows overlying them, constituting in fact a cemetery; the same mode of interment was met with on Lancaster Moor ; at Garlands, near Carlisle ; and at St. Andrews in Fifeshire; at all of which places many burnt bodies and a number of urns were found; . ee ee ae SOCIAL CONDITION OF PEOPLE, 113 placed in cists, with which vessels of pottery and other articles are associated, have been met with, but in the smaller mounds, any indication, beyond the presence of charcoal, that a body had once been placed below them has very rarely occurred. In these cases it would appear as if the small mounds covered the bodies of the poorer and humbler members of the tribe, placed in the grave without any accompaniment, and where the bones have gone entirely to decay, whereas the larger mound, with its cists or other more special places of interment, was the monumental record of the more important persons of the community. In ad- dition to the burials which are found simply made in the ground, without any weapon, implement, or vessel of pottery associated with them, others have been met with, in cists and graves, sunk below the surface of the ground,: but having no mound over them, and which, to judge from the various articles de- posited with the body, may be supposed to be those of people of some social distinction. Nor does the time when these burials must have taken place appear to differ from that of the barrows, if the character of the pottery and other things associated with the dead are to be considered as conclusive evi- dence, for these are identical in the two cases. It may be that some of these burials have once had a barrow over them, and no doubt many of them had, but in numerous instances it does not seem likely that there can ever have been a mound at the place; they are frequently, however, met with on the summit of a natural swell of the land, itself a mound, and so fulfilling one requirement of a barrow,—the furnishing a conspicuous landmark. It seems, if we may judge from this, that the two customs of burying under barrows, and in simple graves without any mound to distinguish them, were practised at the same time, though we can scarcely suppose that the two modes were applied indifferently to persons of the same importance, for the very mound itself appears to make a distinction. It is quite possible that such a government as has been described might have existed amongst people in the condition of hunters, without domesticated animals and ignorant of agriculture, though an organisation like that supposed is more consistent with a state of greater progress. Still it is certain that the inhabitants of the wolds had advanced beyond the hunting stage. Wild animals indeed, as had already been stated, seem to have formed a very small part of their food. What we learn from the barrows as to the condition I 114 INTRODUCTION, of the people of the wolds is very strongly corroborated by the much more extensive series of facts which have been brought te light by an examination of the Swiss Lake Dwellings. The two peoples appear to have been in much the same state of civilisation, especially if we have regard to those stations in Switzerland where the inhabitants had only just passed from the stone age to a knowledge of bronze. Both were possessed of domesticated animals, both cultivated grain, manufactured cloth and pottery, but without the aid of the wheel, and used implements of flint and other stone as well as of deer’s- — horn, all in each country very similar in their character. _ It seems quite certain that grain of some description was culti- vated by the dwellers on the wolds, and it is probable that other vegetables were used by them. ‘Terraces of a peculiar construction are found throughout large and various districts of Britam. They still remain in some parts of the wolds, as for instance near _ Carnaby, though modern cultivation has in most cases destroyed all traces of them. They are abundantly distributed over other districts, as will be found more fully noticed in the sequel. These terraces have been considered by many persons, and I think with every probability, to be the places upon which some cereal crop was grown under a system of agriculture not quite intelligible to us. Some of these terraces, however, belong to a much later period, and are to be referred to the way in which the land in the common field of the village, where there was no division by a fence, was ploughed. But the proof that these people cultivated grain does not depend upon this alone. There is more conclusive evidence of it afforded by the stones found in such abundance, and which seem to have been used for bruising corn or some like seed*. They have been met with not only on the surface of the ground, but in several instances in the barrows. It is not always easy to distinguish be- tween stones which have been used as hammers and for taking the larger flakes of flint from the block, and those which have been employed in bruising or grinding grain. Some, however, show signs of wear of such a nature as could not have been produced by hammering, but just such as would accrue from a process of rubbing. The specimen figured here [fig. 93], belonging to the class of rubbers, has been very ingeniously fitted for its work. The stone is rather unwieldy, and to make it the better adapted for being held securely in the hand, a groove has been cut on one side, in 1 It is possible, however, that these ridged stones may have been used for bruising roots or for mashing bones. See Evans, Stone hnpl., pp. 221 seqq. DOMESTICATED ANIMALS. 115 which the thumb or little finger might be placed, as one or the other end of it was to be used, a better purchase being thus obtained. Besides the smaller grinding stones, the larger ones have also been found upon which the grain was pounded or ground, I am not aware that a quern, or hand mill-stone, has ever been discovered in a barrow upon the wolds, though they have frequently been met with in the hut-cireles (the foundations of houses) and in the camps or other fortified places of many parts of Britain, The small hand mill-stones indeed have very rarely been found on the wolds under any circumstances. This fact, which is a remarkable one when their abundance in other localities is considered, may possibly arise from the absence in the district of ‘stone suitable for such a purpose. | It has been mentioned that these people possessed a variety of domesticated animals, upon the flesh of which to some extent they lived. It is probable that milk formed an important article of food, and in connection with this, an interesting circumstance which was observed at Grime’s Graves may be mentioned. A very large proportion of the numerous bones found there were of the ox, and nearly all were those of animals of but a few days old. This seems to imply that they were not able or willing to keep the 12 116 INTRODUCTION. calves, a necessity which most probably arose from the milk of the mothers being used by the people themselves, though it might also have arisen from a scarcity of winter food. Their dress, the use of metal, their weapons, implements, orna- ments, and pottery have already been treated of at some length, so that it is only necessary here to give a slight account of them. That woollen, and probably linen, fabrics were manufactured is evident from the remains of such which have been discovered. The evidence is indeed but scanty, as might be expected, on account of the perishable nature of the material; portions, how- ever, of woven stuffs have been found with deposits of burnt bones, either the remainder of the dress of the person or of some wrapping in which the bones had been collected from the funeral pile. In one of the barrows at Weaverthorpe | No. xliii], the half of a clay spindle-whorl was met with, which may be supposed to indicate a knowledge of spinning. They further appear to have been clothed in garments which had made some considerable advance beyond such as were merely wrapped round the body; for, in a grave at Butterwick [No. xxxix], six buttons of jet and stone were found placed in a line in front of the chest of the buried man, showing that the vestment was to some extent fitted to the form of the wearer, and had been fashioned into shape with somewhat of sartorial skill. Their dress appears to have been fastened in a variety of ways. Buttons and pins have occurred in many instances; and a ring with perforations on the side [fig. 5, p. 34] has sometimes been met with, usually in connection with buttons. An oblong narrow article, made of jet or other lignite, having a slit, which widens towards the middle, and occupies about two-thirds of the whole length, has been found on the wolds accompanying a body [fig. 6, p. 34]; and also in other places in Britain’, They have probably been used in some way for fastening the dress, a belt perhaps having been passed through the slit. A ring of jet from a barrow at Rudstone [| No. 1xiii], which is too small for an armlet, had possibly been made for the same purpose, though its form is not quite so suitable as the oblong one would be. Sir R. Colt Hoare discovered, in a barrow at Upton Lovell, what he considered to be gold boxes’; and somewhat similar objects, though smaller, were found in a barrow at Cres- 1 One from the Isle of Skye is figured in Wilson’s Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 441. 2 Ancient Wilts, vel. i. p. 99. pl. x. PROGRESS IN MANUFACTURES AND ART. 117 singham in Norfolk’; but they may very possibly have been but- tons, the more solid part having been made of wood upon which the thin gold plating was laid; what are undoubtedly buttons, of a conical form, and made in the way I have suggested, of wood and gold, have occurred in the Wiltshire barrows*. What may be ealled a fibula of bone [fig. 7, p. 34] has also been found, and always, so far as I know, with burnt bodies. No bronze fibule or any fastenings of that nature have been discovered in barrows of the bronze age, though they occur in those of the early time of iron; but a few buckles, small and of a simple form, show that, as might be expected, so very natural a mode of connection was known*, The dress was no doubt fastened more commonly by tags or laces, but of such things it is not to be expected that any trace would be left. The implements and weapons of bronze show that they had attained to a high perfection in the process of casting, and give evidence of no little progress in metallurgy; whilst the pottery is quite equal to what has been discovered in other parts of Britain, though perhaps the designs upon some of the vessels do not show so much artistic skill as is seen upon those from the south-west of Scotland. It manifests, however, a long-continued experience in the manufacture of fictile ware. The ornamentation upon the vases and urns is not wanting in a certain tasteful arrangement, but in the ignorance of the use of the wheel, in the imperfect firing, in the absence of glazing, and of any other form of design in the patterns than simple combinations of lines or of circular markings, it cannot be said that they had attained to any great perfection in the art of the potter. The personal ornaments, which have however occurred in a very few instances, give indications of some artistic power, though de- veloped after a simple fashion. They have consisted of necklaces, generally made of jet, or other and inferior lignite ; of buttons and rings of jet, in some cases tastefully decorated, and therefore having a claim to be classed under the head of ornaments; of ear-rings of bronze; of beads and pendants of bone, jet, and other substances, not found in sufficient numbers to constitute a necklace; and of some humbler articles, such as perforated teeth. ? Proc. Soc. of Ant., 2nd Ser., vol. iv. p. 456. _ ® Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 99. pl. x; p. 201. pl. xxxv. * A small bronze buckle, which had been used for fastening the wrist-guard, was found in a cist at Kelleythorpe. Archeologia, vol. xxxiv. p. 254, 118 INTRODUCTION. The whole evidence of the barrows appears to show that the people living on the wolds were, to some extent, isolated from the rest of the country, with which they seem to have held little in- tercourse; this state of things originating partly in the natural features of the district in which they dwelt, surrounded, as it was on all sides, by low-lying ground, swampy and largely covered with wood. They were apparently not possessed of much in the shape of gold, bronze, amber, or glass, Their condition may per- haps be described as that of people who were living in the pastoral state, but at the same time cultivating grain, though probably not extensively. Their clothing no doubt consisted largely of skins, though they certainly used textile fabrics; and such ornaments as they possessed were of a simple, though by no means of an unar- tistic, description. The presence of a lump of ochre, which has been found in more than one instance associated with the body, may perhaps be considered as affording some evidence of the use of colour as a means of personal adornment; nor is it easy to account for its occurrence on any other supposition. When these people are compared with the inhabitants of some other districts in Britain, as for instance of Wiltshire, and even of Derbyshire, who, to judge by the pottery, implements, and ornaments, must have been occu- pying the country at the same time, they cannot be regarded as having been in possession of the same amount of wealth of various kinds, as of bronze and other materials, or to have arrived at quite the same height of cultivation. It cannot be expected that the contents of the burial mounds should give much information upon. the social relations of these people, the position the wife occupied in the family, and questions akin to this. Some few inferences may, however, be drawn from the facts which the barrows have disclosed. For instance, the cen- tral and indeed the sole burial in a barrow upon Heslerton Wold [ No. iv], was that of a very young child, placed in a grave sunk in the chalk; and in the largest barrow I have opened on the wolds, at Rudstone [ No. Ixvii], the primary burial, over which the whole mound had been raised, was that of an infant’. Numerous other in- stances have occurred where quite young children had been buried with associated vases, and in a manner which betokens that much care was bestowed upon the burial, as in a barrow at Rudstone 1 Mr. Jones records the fact that in a barrow in Liberty County, Georgia, U.S.A., the sole interment was that of a young child, whose bones were enclosed in an urn. Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 455. GOVERNMENT. 119 [No. Ixii], where the grave had been lined out with wood. I have met with other cases elsewhere; for instance, the central cist in a barrow at Ford, Northumberland | No. clxxxvii], was occupied by the skeleton of an infant, having a ‘ food vessel’ with it, whilst round the cist were seven burnt bodies, deposited in as many cine- rary urns, in one of which was a flint implement. From these and similar instances we may gather that the family tie had much influence with these people, and that the child of the chief or other person of distinction held an important position in the estimation of the tribe. The affection of the father might prompt him to honour with the full ceremonial of the burial rites the child whose early death he mourned, but unless the social im- portance of the infant had been likewise recognised in the eyes of the people, it is scarcely likely that so high a mark of considera- tion as a separate barrow implies would have been accorded to so young a member of the community. Perhaps it may not be con- sidered to be an unfair inference to regard a circumstance like this as indicating that something like an hereditary headship prevailed amongst them. The great labour and pains bestowed upon the burial of the dead, the large mound, the deep grave, the various attendant cere- monies of the funeral, may not necessarily show any high advance in civilisation, for in very rude conditions of society the disposal of the body after death has generally been attended with somewhat of care, and regarded as requiring the presence of some rites of burial. But, making allowance for this, we cannot look upon the barrows and their varied contents without being impressed with the belief that the semi-savage state had been well-nigh passed, and that the dawn of an advanced civilisation was approaching. The pot- tery, with its simple and yet effective ornamentation, the bronze knife-dagger and awl, the necklace of jet, the buttons tastefully decorated, the ear-ring of metal, may all be regarded as heralds of cultivation and refinement, even as the east is flecked with streaks of gold and crimson before the morning sun breaks forth in all his splendour. There are, on the other hand, some features pointing toa condition of things which ill accords with much advance beyond savagery, though to the practices these would seem to indicate we might find a parallel amongst people who, in some of the processes of mental developement, have been second to few. It can scarcely be questioned that it was the habit to slay at the funeral and to bury with the 120 INTRODUCTION. dead man, wives, children, and others, probably slaves’. The frequent occurrence of several bodies, all certainly interred at the same time, the finding of a man and woman in adjoining graves, which must have been excavated together, or of two persons of different sexes in the same grave, with the remains of children, or with deposits of burnt bones, are incidents difficult to interpret in any other way. Nor has the practice been so uncommon that we need feel much hesitation in attributing it to the ancient dwellers upon the wolds. The custom of suttee which still, in spite of the most stringent enactments, lingers in India, shows that, under an elaborate reli- gious system and in highly organised communities, a habit so repugnant to our ideas has nevertheless prevailed. That it was in use amongst the ancient Scythians, the account of the burial of their kings given by Herodotus (and amply confirmed by the ex- amination of the burial mounds of the countries occupied by that people) abundantly proves*. That women, however, were not in the condition of slaves, but held a position of trust as the equals in some degree of the husband, may perhaps be considered as not improbable, when the manner in which they seem to have received burial in the barrows is remembered. They have been found in- terred apart from any male, and occupying an important position in the burial mounds, in some cases a woman being the sole tenant of a barrow,—a circumstance which is quite inconsistent with their place in the house being merely a servile one. The barrows do not afford much information upon which to build any theory respecting their religious ideas, nor indeed could * Colonel Meadows Taylor found, in a large number of the sepulchral places he examined in the Dekhan, the remains of bodies, with the bones disturbed and lying confusedly about. In many cases the skulls were separate from their bodies. The conclusion at which he arrives is, that these fragmentary skeletons are the remains of persons slain at the burial of a chief person. Cairns, Cromlechs, &c. in the Dekhan, Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxiv. p. 339. ? Herodotus, iv. c. 71. It may not be out of place to give an account of the burial of a Fiji chief. ‘The dead chief lay in state, with a dead wife by his side, on a raised platform ; the corpse of his mother (who had been strangled) on a bier at his feet, and a murdered servant on a mat in the midst of the house. A large grave was dug in the foundation of a house near by, in which the servant was laid first, and upon her the other three corpses, wrapped and wound up together.’ Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, vol. ii. p. 301. The same practice appears to have prevailed as late as the eighth century among the Wends. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, in a letter to Ethibald, King of the Mercians, says: ‘ Winedi ... tam magno zelo matrimonii amorem mutuum servant, ut mulier, viro proprio mortuo, vivere recuset, et laudabilis mulier inter illas esse judicatur, que propria manu sibi mortem intulit, ut in una strue pariter ardeat cum viro suo.’ Bonifacii Epist., in Magna Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum, viii. 74. BELIEF IN A FUTURE LIFE. 121 much be looked for. The practice of burying various articles in the grave and of placing a vase, the supposed receptacle of food, beside the dead, has usually been looked upon as proof of a belief in a future state of existence. It necessarily follows that if a belief in a future state is proved by the occurrence of weapons, implements, ornaments and food associated with the buried persons, that second life must be supposed to have been similar in kind to the first one which had just ended. In this future world there were enemies against whom the warrior must be prepared in arms, there were animals which he must be provided with the means of cap- turing, there were husbands and friends to be charmed by the added decoration of ornament and dress, there were happy hours of childhood to be brightened by such simple pleasures as gladden the young heart. It may well be that a hope like this took some- thing of its sting from the dread forecast of death. A similar belief has been shared by many a different race, in ages far apart, in many a varying clime, and under forms of religious faith which have agreed in little beyond this natural expectation. The evidence which the barrows afford cannot, however, be regarded. as perfectly conclusive in favour of this view; and, indeed, there is much that appears to be inconsistent with it. This objection, which has already been stated, is one not easily to be set aside; namely, that if the different articles found with the bodies were placed there to be of use in an after-state of existence, it is diffi- eult to understand why the majority of persons were sent on their journey entirely unprovided with those things which it was thought were necessary for them when they had arrived in another world. The subject, however, has been discussed previously, and it is superfluous to say more here, than that the custom by itself does not prove there was any belief in a future state of the same nature as that which had been already gone through, still less does it show a belief in any future of a different kind. At the same time I think there is a very strong presumption in favour of the former view, to which, I am bound to say, I myself incline. One of the most important and interesting subjects of enquiry which a knowledge of the contents of the barrows has enabled us to discuss is that of the people themselves, with reference to their physical characteristics, Some description therefore of their form, stature, and general appearance is necessary to complete, as far as is possible, the imperfect picture we have hitherto been able to present. There are, as has already been mentioned, two classes of 122 INTRODUCTION. barrows upon the wolds, so different in their appearance and construction, as to suggest at once, without any further investiga- tion of their contents, that they belong to different periods of time, and the probability that they are the burial-places of different peoples. The one is eminently a long mound, the other is cireular in its outline; the former being the grave-hills of a markedly dolicho-cephalic (long-headed) people, the latter producing skulls both dolicho-cephalic and brachy-cephalic (round-headed). The long barrows and the skull which is found in them are so fully described in the detailed account of that class of mounds contained in this volume, that it is unnecessiry to enter upon any consideration of them in this place. Nor do I propose to give anything more than a very brief notice of the skulls from the round barrows, as the whole subject is thoroughly discussed by Professor Rolleston in the valuable and exhaustive essay with which he has enriched this volume. The round barrows, then, contain two very distinct forms of skull, a long and a round one, together with other less characteristic forms which may be supposed to have belonged to people who were descended from inter-marriages between persons whose heads were of the two different types in question. The dolicho-cephalic head of the round barrows does not differ from the dolicho-cephalic head — of the long barrows. It would appear from this, that if, as there is every reason to believe is the case, the long barrows are the burial- places of the oldest occupants of the wolds (at all events in neolithic times *), the long-headed people of the round barrows are the representatives of those persons who buried in the earlier long-shaped mounds. This people was probably intruded upon and conquered by the more powerfully made round-headed folk, who, as is nearly always found to be the case, would in course of time become intermixed with them, and with whom in the end they would become identified as one people. This appears to be the 1 There is no evidence that the wolds were peopled in palwolithic times; none of the flint implements of the drift, so characteristic in their shape, have been dis- covered there, nor indeed in any other part of Yorkshire. Remains of the fauna of the period, during which in other districts of England man was the contemporary of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, have been met with on the very borders of the wolds at Bridlington, and at Bielbecks, near Market Weighton; they have also occurred elsewhere in the county, but up to the present time, with the exception of two doubtful fiints from Bridlington, no trace of man has been found. At the same time it by no means follows that man did not live in Yorkshire with the mammoth, and it is quite possible that abundant proof of such a companionship may yet be discovered. if _ ‘AL ap, -» Tae tae THE WOLD ENTRENCHMENTS. 123 most reasonable, in fact the only, way of accounting for the finding of the bones of the long-headed people in the round barrows. These dolicho-cephalic heads of the round barrows cannot belong to the later Anglian immigrants, of whom the present population of the wolds is no doubt to a large extent composed, and who have left traces of their early, and probably pre-Christian, places of sepulture in several localities in the district; and this for more than one reason. In the first place, the heads of the barrows and those of the Anglian cemeteries, though both falling under the general designation of heing dolicho-cephalic, possess nevertheless, within that wide limit, other features so characteristic and well-marked, as to demand their separation into two distinct forms of skull, a result which certainly could not occur if both were of the same unaltered stock. Again, the Anglian invaders of the fifth and following century had been possessed of a knowledge of iron for some considerable time previous to that date, and were equipped with a full armament of that metal, as indeed their places of burial most abundantly show. But the long-headed people whose bodies are found in the round barrows, when any weapon or implement has been discovered with them, are seen to have been provided with nothing beyond those made of stone or bronze, identical with such as are discovered in association with the round-headed occupants of the same grave-mounds. The pottery also, so very well defined in its character, is quite distinct in shape, material, and ornamentation from that of the Anglian cemeteries, whilst it is precisely the same in all respects with that which is found with round-headed people in the barrows. It is true that Angles have sometimes made use of the earlier British barrows in which to inter their own dead; but when that has been the case, there is not the least difficulty in distinguishing between the burials of the later disturbers of the mound and those of the original occupants; and it is quite impossible that any confusion between the two distinct classes of interments could occur in the mind of any one to whom the facts incidental to barrow burial are familiar. The extensive series of defensive works, commencing near Flamborough and extending over the whole of the wold district, has a very important bearing upon the question of the occupation of this part of England. These lines of fortification, so far as the North-eastern portion of them is concerned, have been very earefully surveyed by Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A. His opinion is that these earthworks and their arrangement for defensive 124 INTRODUCTION. purposes are only to be explained on the supposition that they were made by a body of men advancing from the East, and gradually entrenching themselves as they extended their progress towards the West. If this view is correct, and the evidence of these arrangements considered strategically is certainly strongly in its favour, it appears to necessitate the occupation of the wolds by a people who, coming oversea, had landed upon the adjoining coast. A body so large as to have constructed the fortifications in question cannot be supposed to have arrived there haphazard; they must have had some previous knowledge of the country, and there must have been an intention of settling in it before the invaders left their own shores. It may be said that we have such a body arriving there in historic times, and that to them are to be attributed the works now under consideration. As is_ well known, the Angles, coming from the mouth of the Elbe, in the exact parallel of latitude with Flamborough Head, and leaving their ancient seats in the country which borders on that river in the lower. part of its course, landed in England in considerable numbers, and gradually possessed themselves of South-eastern Yorkshire amongst other districts. Are they then to be looked upon as the invading people who threw up these large and strongly- constructed series of mounds and ditches? I cannot think that there are any sufficient grounds for attributing such an origin to them, but that, on the contrary, there are strong reasons which seem to be inconsistent with it. It is scarcely to be looked for that an invading people would practise any new mode of entrenchment upon their first arrival, and therefore we would expect to find in the country from which they came some arrangements for defence similar to those in question. But in that part of Europe from which it is known the Angles and other nearly- connected tribes emigrated into this country, very few works at all resembling these in question are to be found. It is true that the great line of the Dannewerk runs across from sea to sea, separating the northern part of the peninsula from the rest of the continent ; but if in later times it was ever anything more than a divisional or boundary work, it seems probable it repre- sents a line of defence constructed at a time antecedent to the Scandinavian occupation of Denmark. Besides the Dannewerk, there are still existing the remains of two defensive lines, apparently to protect the land of the Angles against an attack from the south; namely, the Kograben, on the middle water- THE WOLD ENTRENCHMENTS. 125 shed, a little to the south of the Dannewerk, and the Oster Wall, between the Schlei and the Eckerfordern Harbour. There are also other old boundary walls and earth-works in different parts of the same country. These facts may seem to militate against what has been stated above, nor do I deny that they possess some weight; but at the same time, they may, as I have remarked of the Dannewerk, be defensive works of an earlier time than the Teutonic settlement of those parts. Having then due regard to this supposition and to the fact that, on the whole, fortified places are uncommon within the country occupied by our ancestors in their older seats, I cannot assent to the view which would attribute the wold entrenchments to the Anglian invaders. It does not appear that it was ever the habit of that branch of the human family, to which the designation of Teutonic has been commonly applied, and to which the Angles belonged, to depend upon an elaborate system of fortification for their defence, nor do we find that they adopted it even when they came into possession of countries where such arrangements were abundant, and which they must have found to be no trifling hinderances to their progress of conquest, We ourselves, mainly a Teutonic people, and showing our origin in all the spirit of our institutions and mode of government, good and bad, have never heartily entered upon any system of defending the country by fortified places, and have always placed more reliance upon the arm of flesh and our wooden walls than upon those elaborate stone and earth-works which other nations have carried to such perfection. To speak roundly, there were no castles in England before the Conquest by William and his Normans, who originally of kindred stock with the Saxon, Angle, and Jute, had nevertheless lost most of their Norse blood by intermarriage, and who had become as Gallic in their habits and speech as in their blood. There is nothing which has ever been found, so far as I know, in connection with the entrenchments of the wolds, enabling us to attribute them with certainty to any time or people. The remains of the implements .which were used in their construction, and some of which must probably have been met with within the mounds when they were levelled in the course of cultivation, have never been observed, so that any information which the occurrence of such things as broken picks of deer’s-horn or stone axes, if they belong to the time when such were in use, 126 INTRODUCTION. would supply is wanting. Many burials have, however, been found placed in the mounds, some of which, on account of the various articles deposited with them, there can be no hesitation in attributing to the Anglian population; whilst those with which nothing has occurred may, on account of the type of the skull and the way in which the body has been interred, be safely attributed to the same people. This fact seems to be a strong argument against considering these lines of entrenchment to be of Anglian origin ; for it appears unlikely that the persons who threw up the mounds as fortifications would use them as places of burial. At the same time it may be said that the descendants of the people who originally constructed them for defence might, when their necessity for such a purpose had passed away, have buried their dead in them. We must, I think, leok to some other people than the Angles for the invaders who erected these defensive works; and we seem naturally brought to regard the brachy-cephalic occupants of the round barrows as the probable constructors. It seems certain that an earlier long-headed people were intruded upon by a round-headed one, nor do we find until the coming in of the Angles any proof that the wolds had ever been occupied by other than these two markedly different peoples; for the Roman settlement of the district, as indeed might be expected, does not appear to have sensibly affected the character of the population. If then we reject the Angles as the authors of these defences, we are reduced to the round-headed folk as their constructors, for the earlier people whom they conquered, if they were the first occupants of the country, would not require to erect any such system of fortifications as these in question are found to be. This brachy-cephalic race, if they are to be regarded as the people who erected the wold fortifications, must have arrived from the opposite shores of the continent, and we may expect to find there people possessing the same characteristics. Nor shall we have to travel far in our search after them, for in the modern Danish head is exhibited the same peculiarity of type as is found to exist in the round skull of the barrows, a form which is also presented by many of the inhabitants of South Germany and Switzerland. At the time when it was the custom to bury under round barrows, and when the body was interred both by inhumation and after cremation, the wolds were inhabited, as has already been more than once stated, by two stocks of people, having characteristic features of the most distinctive kind; the one being brachy-cephalic, the other dolicho-cephalic. Nor can it . 2 abi Ss sod ~~ PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 127 be said that the one was much’ more numerous than the other, as heads of the two types have been found in the barrows in about equal proportions. In this respect the wolds give a somewhat different testimony to that which is afforded by the round barrows in other parts of Britain; although the weapons, implements, ornaments, and pottery associated with burials in the various districts, including the wolds, are so identical as to show that the people who made and used them must have arrived at a very similar state of culture, and must also have been connected by one tie or another. By far the larger number of skulls which have been recovered from the barrows and cists of the greater part of Britain are brachy-cephalic, so much so, indeed, as to have caused Dr. Thurnam, whose experience was considerable, to use the expression ‘round barrows, round skulls’.’ If we are to judge from the barrows themselves, the long-headed people who buried in the long barrows must have been more numerous in some other parts of England than on the wolds, as for instance in’ Wiltshire and the adjoining country, where sepulchral mounds of this shape are much more plentiful than they are in East Yorkshire. On the- other hand, the dolicho-cephalic head is far more abundant in the round barrows of the wolds than in the similar-shaped mounds of the South-west of England. The conclusion then at which we seem to arrive appears to be this—that the earlier long-headed people were more completely eradicated by the intrusive round- heads in Wiltshire than they were in East Yorkshire, unless, which is not probable, the balance in the latter country was restored by later immigrations of the dolicho-cephalic people. When we come to consider the physical characteristics of these two distinet peoples we observe at once a wide difference in their appearance. The long-headed one does not seem to have been either so tall or so strongly made as the other. The average height of the first may be taken to be about 5 ft. 6in.; that of the other as about an inch more. The dolicho-cephalic people were also of a somewhat softer outline, in all the features of the head and face, than the more rugged brachy-cephalic people. The cheek + tetany lv ’ AGE OF THE BARROWS. 131 metal used for making cutting instruments (and this estimate is probably under rather than above the truth), the date of the introduction of bronze may be estimated as being somewhere about the year B.c. 1000. It has been previously shown that, as regards the erection of the round barrows, the evidence appears to favour the view that the period must have been one when bronze was scarce, and had only lately become known. It is not impossible, indeed, that some of them belong to an age before bronze was discovered, and that they may date from a time several _centuries earlier than that which has been fixed upon as the era of its introduction. This naturally leads to the question as to whether there was ever in Britain a neolithic age, when metal was unknown, or whether all the ground stone axes are contemporaneous with the use of bronze. The subject however is beyond the limits of this Introduction, nor do we at present, I think, possess the infor- mation necessary to enable us to arrive at any certain conclusion upon this very difficult matter of enquiry. I have myself no doubt that there was a neolithic age in Britain, when no metal was in use, and to that time I would attribute, though not with any degree of positiveness, the burial-mounds to which the name of Long Barrow has been given. With respect to the age of the round barrows, there is a greater probability, I believe, of post-dating than of ante-dating them ; and we need not fear that we are attributing too high an antiquity to them, if we say that they belong to a period which centres more or less in B.c. 500. The absence of silver and coins (the latter of which have not occurred except in a few and doubtful instances), though it is only negative evidence, is still strongly in favour of an early date. Silver appears to have become generally known about the same time that iron was first smelted and used for weapons and implements, and the introduction of coins as a medium of exchange seems to have taken place much about the same time, which in Britain may be considered as not earlier than B.c. 250. It appears scarcely possible, if the barrows belong to a time posterior to the knowledge and use of iron, silver and coins, that these several — articles should not have been found in some of the many barrows which have been examined in Britain. It may be said that there was no native British coinage in the more northern parts of the island until after the Roman invasion, and therefore it could not be expected that coins should be discovered in those parts; but they have not been met with in the numerous barrows which have K 2 132 INTRODUCTION. been opened in those districts of Britain where coins were struck and where they have been found in abundance. Iron and silver however were both of them known and used throughout the whole country. That they belong to a time before the Roman occupation of Britain appears to be absolutely certain’ (notwith- standing what some writers have said to the contrary), from the well-established fact, that neither the pottery, weapons, implements, ornaments, nor anything found in connection with the burials in the barrows shows the very slightest trace of Roman manufacture or even of Roman influence. It must be remembered also, when this fact is taken into consideration, that the wolds are not a tract of country far removed from the centres of Roman rule in Britain, but that the important station and settlement at Malton is upon their very outskirts, whilst they are only a few miles removed from the metropolis of York. In conclusion it may be said, that at whatever time they were erected, one thing is certain, that they are the burial-mounds ofa people who occupied the wolds antecedent to the conquest of Britain by the Romans. * I am speaking here with reference to the age of the wold barrows, though I believe the same may be said of similar sepulchral mounds in the greater part of Britain. It is possible, however, that in some remote districts the characteristic features of early burial may have been found in connection with interments of com- paratively late times, and that such things as are justly considered to indicate a pre- Roman interment on the wolds or in Wiltshire, may in other places have occurred with a burial of a much later date. For instance, in a cist under a barrow on Morvah Hill, Cornwall, Mr. Borlase found, together with a burnt body enclosed in an urn of a type not unusual in that district, several Roman coins, one of which was of Con- stantine the Great (A.D. 306—337). Mr. Borlase is confident that the cist had never been disturbed since its formation until opened by himself. If then the integrity of the burial-place is granted, we have in this instance a case where the older mode of interment and the fashion of the pottery were continued down to a late period during the Roman occupation of Britain. Nenia Cornubie, p. 251. —-- . — eto | arian aioe ~~ YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. THE WOLDS. Tue barrows which I am about to describe are situated upon the Wolds of the East Riding of Yorkshire, a district lying on the south side of the valley of the river Derwent, and opposite, at a distance of some miles, to the range of oolitic hills upon which some of the barrows described in other parts of this book are placed. An extensive examination of the northern, north-eastern, and south-western portions of this district has been made, and a large number of its sepulchral remains, as the following account will show, have been explored. This tract of country, consisting of swelling and rounded chalk hills, interspersed with waterless valleys, and covered, before cultivation had in recent times brought it under the plough, with a stunted vegetation of short grass, furze and ling, but with little wood, occupies a considerable space in East Yorkshire. It is bounded, on the north by the valley of the Derwent, on the east by the sea and the flat lands of Holderness, on the south by the alluvial valley of the Humber, and on the west by the great plain of York. A district such as this, wanting in one great requisite for permanent occupation, namely water, and possessing, through a want of shelter and its sparse vegetation, only a limited capa- bility for harbouring and feeding any large number of wild or domesticated animals, would appear to have been, at a time when agriculture must have been exceedingly limited, but little adapted to furnish a dwelling-place for an extensive population. Notwith- standing these apparent disadvantages, however, the wolds show manifold signs of having been occupied at an early period by a numerous people. This appears, not only from the sepulchral 134 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. mounds, which are still, after years of exposure to the destructive agency of the plough and of removal for agricultural purposes, sufficiently abundant, but also from the widely-diffused series of defensive works—ramparts and ditches—with which the wolds are covered. The multitudes of flint implements and chippings, which it is no exaggeration to say are found by thousands, also point to an occupation which must have been lengthened as well as extensive. In the absence of other grounds of explanation of this fact, we must probably look to the naturally strong and easily defended positions which the district affords, for one of the main reasons why its early occupants selected it for their place of abode. It was nearly inaccessible on account of the flat, and consequently swampy, ground which surrounded it on all sides; and besides this, in the thick coverts, which must at that time have existed on those low-lying lands—a fact which is demonstrated by the frequent occurrence of trunks of trees and brushwood found in the peat—there was supplied the requisite shelter for deer, wild swine, and other animals, which formed, no doubt to some extent, an element in the food of a people by whom the processes of agriculture were but very slightly pursued. At the same time it must be admitted, that the evidence of the barrows makes it quite certain that these people were possessed of domesticated animals of various kinds, and if we are to judge by the bones found in the sepulchral mounds, it appears that the flesh of wild animals formed a very small item in their food, when compared with that of oxen, goats, and swine. With a few exceptions, the numerous bones which have been met with in the barrows are those of domesticated animals. _ The dryness of the soil was also, no doubt, a great inducement to a people whose habitations were of a very imperfect kind, and to whom a wet or swampy situation must have been both incon- venient and unhealthy. Nor can it be doubted that the comparative absence of wood was a circumstance which must have materially influenced settlers, such as we may consider the early wold- dwellers to have been, in their choice of a place of abode. To men who were in possession of no cutting instruments better than axes made of stone, or at the best of bronze, the clearing of land from forest trees, and even brushwood, must have presented almost insuperable obstacles. And as in the humblest stages of agricui- tural and pastoral life a certain proportion of land must necessarily ee ere i; he Sgt i; J 6, eee ~ “es , mn be pe PARISH OF KIRBY UNDERDALE. 135 be free from wood, it may easily be understood that a tract of country which already fulfilled this requirement must have been a most desirable location for people in ‘the earlier periods of civilisation. It has been remarked that those parts of England which appear to ourselves to be the least adapted to support a population, have been the most extensively occupied in primitive times, as for instance the wolds of Yorkshire, the downs of the southern counties, and the moorland of many different localities. The explanation of this seems to be that all these several districts were more or less free from wood, and were therefore ready for occupation without the labour, to these people a very severe and difficult one, of clearing the ground. In the following account of barrow-opening operations I propose to take the successive groups of sepulchral mounds in a sort of order, commencing from the point most to the west, and proceeding in an easterly direction, along the northern border of the wolds, leaving those which have been subjected to examination towards the south-eastern and southern parts to be last described. Paris or Kirpy Unperpate. Ord. Map (one-inch scale) Xxciil. N.E. I. One of the most interesting barrows in some respects that I have opened was in the parish of Kirby Underdale, and situated at Uncleby, on the western ridge of the wolds, where it over- looks the plain towards York. I must, however, be content with giving details only as to a very small part of the contents of this grave-mound, because I do not intend, in the present account, to enter upon any description of Roman or post-Roman places of interment. The barrow in question had, at a long time subsequent to its original construction, been made use of for burial purposes by a community of Angles (presumably the ancient inhabitants of what is now called Kirby), who had placed in it the bodies of above seventy men, women, and children, some of whom, it would appear, had belonged to the poorer classes of the community, whilst others had certainly been persons of wealth and importance. Quite a small museum of warlike, domestic, and personal relics was furnished by the results of a fortnight’s digging, and some remarkable features in connection with Anglian interments were ascertained and recorded. Of these I will, however, only mention 186 YORKSHIRE. EAST. RIDING. one, viz. that, contrary to the usual Anglian practice, the greater number of the buried persons had been interred in a contracted position, and not at their full length. The barrow was 94 ft. in diameter, but only 2 ft. 10in. high, having, within the recollection of the present occupier of the land, lost some feet of its original height. At a distance of 30 ft. south- by-east from the centre, there was a deposit of burnt bones, those of an adult, laid in a round heap, 13in. in diameter, upon the natural surface of the ground. With the bones was placed a bone pin, also burnt, and perforated with a large eye. At the centre was a grave, of a slightly oval form, sunk into the chalk rock to a depth of 6 ft. The longest diameter, in a direction south- west by north-east, was 6} ft., the other 6ft. At a distance of 31 ft. above the bottom were the two pelvic bones of a horse; and at the bottom, about the middle of the grave, were two large flint stones, one foot apart, lying between which was a deposit of the burnt bones of an adult. Twenty-eight feet north-east of the centre, on the natural surface, was found a small polished green- stone axe, 3} in. long, and 1? in. wide at the cutting edge; and not far from it a fragment of a ‘ drinking cup,’ together with some flint chippings, a round scraper, and a long flake which showed many signs of use along one edge. Parisu or Laneron. | Ord. Map. xcut. N.E. One of the great wold entrenchments runs across the well-known Langton race-course, in a direction almost due north and south. Just over the crown of the hill it is in a very perfect condition, and consists of four banks and three ditches. II. To the north-west of this earth-work, at a distance of about 50 yds., is a barrow, the north side of which has been partly removed in order to level that part of the course. The other portion of it had been ploughed over, and very numerous fragments of ‘Anglo-Saxon’ pottery were strewed about immediately beneath the surface, the remains no doubt of somewhat superficial inter- ments, disturbed by the ordinary processes of cultivation. The barrow was 60 ft. in diameter and 53 ft. high, and formed of oolitic rubble and soil. At the centre, and placed on the natural surface, was the body of a man in the prime of life, laid on the left side, the PARISH OF LANGTON. 137 head to N.N.W.*, and with the hands placed on the top of the head. Behind the head there was a small flint) flake. The skull, which is dolicho-cephalic and orthognathous, shows an extensive wound on the right side of the frontal. bone, which was probably made by a metal weapon, but also might have been caused by some such implement as a stone axe. The present appearance of the bone shows that he must have lived two or three months after he received the blow, which was, therefore, possibly not the cause of his death. Just behind the head was a circular hole*, 2 ft. deep and 3 ft. in diameter, filled in with sand ; and close by the feet was a similar hole, but six inches deeper, and filled in with some broken pieces of stone in addition to the sand. Both above and below the body was a considerable quantity of charcoal. To the north-east of the body, and close in front of it, was a rudely-constructed wall about 3 ft. high, made of flat stones set on their edges, and five or six deep. This wall ran, for a distance of more than nine feet, in a direction nearly east and west. Imme- diately to the south-west of the body, the outer edge indeed overlying it, was a kind of cairn *, 10 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. high, composed of oolitic rubble, with an external layer of yellow clayey soil, by which last substance the skeleton was overlaid. Beneath the cairn was a large quantity of burnt earth and charcoal, as if a fire had been lighted on the spot. About 15 ft. south-east-by- south from the first body a second was met with. This was that of a woman *, of advanced age, which had been deposited about 9 in. 1 The compass direction (magnetic) is taken along the line of the vertebral column, and it is the crown of the head which is spoken of as being to such and such a point of the compass. The body must in all cases, unless it is specified to the contrary, be regarded as placed on the side in a contracted position, with the knees drawn up more or less towards the face, the back being in general slightly bowed. ? It will be noticed in the account of the long barrows that circular and oval holes were met with in some of them. The same has been found to be the case in the long barrows of the south-west of England. In the sequel it will be seen that they are by no means uncommon in the round barrows of the wolds, and the same feature was ‘remarked by Sir Richard Colt Hoare in at least one instance in Wiltshire. In a bar- row near Amesbury, he says, ‘on the floor lay a skeleton ...and near it was a small oblong cist (hole), without any deposit in it. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 123. * Smaller mounds enclosed within the larger one have occurred in other barrows on the wolds, as for instance on Duggleby Wold [ No. iii] and at Rudstone [No. lxiii]. Mr. Bateman notices that, at Gib Low, ‘the tumulus had been originally raised over four smaller mounds,’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p.18. They are not usually placed over an interment. * The skull is dolicho-cephalic, and in a very slight degree prognathous. Allowing for the difference of sex, there is a strong resemblance between this skull and that of the man lately noticed, so great indeed as to suggest the probability of there having been a near relationship between them. 138 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. above the natural surface, upon a layer of flat stones, and with a similar layer above it, by which means it was to some extent protected from the pressure of the soil. The body had been laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W., the right hand was across the chest, the left up to the face. Immediately about the bones was a noticeable quantity of charcoal. In front of the waist, and lying close together, as though at the burial they might have been placed in a bag, were several articles, evidently the implements and ornaments of the woman with whom they had been buried. They consisted of three bronze awls or prickers’; two bone instruments, one fashioned from a boar’s tusk, 32in. from point to point with a groove at each end, and possibly being the bow of a drill, though Fig. 94, 1 a¢ tooth 1Zin. long, curved and narrow, and ue a sharp cutting ] edge jin. broad; a flat circular jet bead | fig. ; apiece of an animal’s tooth, pierced [fig. 46]; a merita, pierced [fig 45]; 1 [have met with similar instruments in other barrows on the wolds, as at Sherburn [No. xii], Rudstone [No. lxii], and Goodmanham [No. exii]. One is noticed and figured in the Reliquary, for Oct. 1868, from a barrow near Fimber on the Wolds. Sir R. Colt Hoare records the finding of several, which he calls pins, associated with burials after cremation ; one is figured, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. pl. xii, and shows it to be identical with those from this barrow. Mr. Bateman met with them in the Derby- shire barrows, some having the remains of the wooden handle still upon them. Vestiges, p. 105; Ten Years’ Diggings, pp. 67, 72, 107, 155, 171. They are fre- quently found in the sepulchral mounds of Denmark accompanying burnt bodies. Though they have usually been called pins, they are by no means well adapted for any purpose to which pins would be applied, and I have little doubt that they are awls or prickers, and were used for piercing leather or other material in the operation of sewing. ? Sir R. Colt Hoare met with a single nerita in the Wiltshire barrows. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 68. A necklace, consisting of a number of perforated shells, was found with a skeleton at Knock-Maraidhe in the Phoenix Park, Dublin. Crania Brit., pl. 22; Wilde, Cat. of Ant. Museum of Royal Irish Acad., p. 183. A skeleton discovered in a cave at Mentone and another at Cro-Magnon, both of which have been attributed, though I scarcely think on quite sufficient grounds, to the palzolithic age, had been buried with similar necklaces. PARISH OF LANGTON. 139 a piece of a dentalium’; a portion of a belemnite rubbed down; one of the vertebree of a fish ; and three cowries (Cyprea Europea)’. Only one of the awls is perfect, the others having lost somewhat of their substance by oxidation. The entire awl [fig. 95] is one inch Fig. 95. 2. Jong, the flat tang for insertion in the handle taking up & in. of the entire length. : About 6 ft. south of the remains last mentioned was a third body, that of a very old person, probably a woman, with a markedly brachy-cephalic head *. This was laid on the left side upon a rough pavement of small stones-placed on the natural surface. The head, on either side of which stood an upright stone, pointed a little south of east, and the hands were up to the face. In front of the knees was a vessel of pottery, lying on its side, and with the bottom towards the body. It is of the type of the cinerary urn, in shape like fig. 56, a vessel which is very rarely found with an unburnt body, and is 74in. high, 54 in. wide at the mouth, 6} in. at the bottom of the overhanging rim, and 3in. at the bottom of the vessel. The rim, 12 in. deep, is ornamented with parallel sloping lines, over which are impressed two lines, parallel to each other, about an inch apart, and encompassing the urn. Below the rim another line goes round the urn, from which shallow loops depend, 2? in. long and not quite + in. deep. The impressions are those of loosely-twisted thong. Between this interment and the body of the woman was the same kind of wall as that found near to the first body. It ran in a direction east and west for a distance of about six feet. Two feet west of the third body there was a circular hole, 3 ft. in diameter and 1 Sir R. Colt Hoare found, whether with a burnt or unburnt body is not stated, ‘a little dagger of brass,’ several clay beads, and ‘a great quantity of curious little shells, in shape like the Hirlas horn used by the Britons.’ Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 114. pl. xiii. The shell he figures is evidently a dentalium. ? Amongst the burnt bones in an urn under a barrow three miles west of Dorchester, was ‘a small cowrie shell, which had been perforated, and worn probably as a bead.’ It had been ‘subjected to the action of fire Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset— Tumuli Opened at Various Periods, p. 45; extracted from a paper, Archzol., vol. xxx. p. 327, where the shell is figured, pl. xvii. fig. e. ’ The skull shows all the signs of extreme age; all the sutures are effaced. The lower maxillary, all the teeth having been wanting for many years, had become attenuated to a very extraordinary degree, from the complete absorption of the alveolar process. 140 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. 2 ft. deep, filled with broken stones and rubble, with larger and flat stones on the top. About 8 ft. within the external line of the barrow, on its south-west side, were many traces of fire, such as burnt earth and stones, and amongst them a portion of a human skull also burnt. Throughout the whole barrow, but the least so on the east side, the natural surface showed .extensive signs of burning. Some animal bones, and amongst them the tooth of an ox (08 longifrons), were found in the barrow, and a single piece of pottery, but no flint chippings. Parisu or Kirpy GrinpatytH. Ord. Map, xctv. N.w. III. Upon Duggleby Wold there was at one time a group of three barrows lying very close together. Of these, one was removed several years since, and of the two remaining I opened the larger. This was 74 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. high. The upper part consisted of layers of loamy earth, below which the material employed was very stiff clay, with chalk and flints intermixed. Twenty-five feet south of the centre was an oblong hollow, with rounded ends, excavated in the chalk, 6ft. by 4? ft. and 22 ft. deep, and having a direction south-west by north-east. Like nearly all of these enigmatical holes, it contained nothing besides the filling-in of earth and clay. ‘Twelve feet south of the centre there was another hole, 2 ft. in diameter and 11 ft. deep, containing, like the larger one, nothing more than the filling-in. At the centre was a flat-topped conical mound, composed of chalk rubble, 1} ft. high, and 4 ft. in diameter at the top. Upon the flat summit was a layer of charcoal, and upon it was deposited the body apparently of a man, laid on the right side with the head to W., but in such a decayed state that the position of the hands could not be ascertained. At the hips were two flint flakes, and close to the body were four flint chippings and three water-worn quartz pebbles. Beyond the head were four holes, made apparently by the ends of stakes, similar to some found in a grave under a barrow on Ganton Wold, and which are fully described in the sequel. These now under notice were 10in. deep, and varied from 14 in. to 2 in. in diameter. Three of them were angular and one round, and the remains of the decayed wood in the holes were quite distinct. On both the east and west sides of the central mound was a similar one, but without any layer of charcoal, and showing no signs of a body having ever been placed upon either of them. Within the barrow PARISH OF HESLERTON. 141 were a few potsherds, some chippings of flint, a well-formed flint flake, 22 in. long, much worn by use along both edges, and a thin piece of sandstone, 4 in. long, 12in. wide at the narrower end, and 1? in. at the broader, the latter being rounded. The surface is quite smooth, apparently from use, and the stone seems as though it might have served for rubbing down hides, or some similar purpose. Parish oF Hesterton. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. IV. I commenced operations on a large series of barrows placed upon the edge of the chalk range and overlooking the valley of the Derwent, by opening one on West Heslerton Wold. It was 42 ft. in diameter, and still, though somewhat ploughed down, 8 ft. high, and was composed of chalk-rubble above and plain earth below. At the centre was an oval grave, having a direction north- west by south-east, 3 ft. 2in. lone by 2ft. 4in. wide, and sunk ‘1: ft. mto the chalk rock. At the bottom of the grave was the body of a young child’, about 23 years old, laid on the right side, and with the head to N.W. In front of the knees was placed a large quantity of round dark objects, apparently the seed of some plant, bearing indeed a strong resemblance to the fruit of the juniper *. Just above the grave two ox-teeth were met with. On the north side of the barrow were portions of two adult femurs, which may have belonged to a body that had been disturbed when a partial opening, of which very evident signs were found, had been made many years before. In the barrow was a very well made long flint scraper. V. About 300 yards to the east of the last barrow was another, oval in shape, and having a direction north-north-east by south- 1 Tt is not very uncommon to find that the primary interment in a barrow has been of a child, sometimes of very tender years. I have met with it myself at Ford, Northumberland [ No. clxxxvii], and at Rudstone [ No. Ixvii], under a very large grave mound. Other explorers have met with the same occurrence. In a cist at the centre of the barrow, and no doubt the primary interment, was ‘the skeleton of a child, apparently about ten years of age; above this was a drinking cup.’ Bateman, Vestiges, p. 52. In a grave, 5 ft. deep, at the centre of a large barrow, was ‘the skeleton of a child, apparently not more than two or three years old, accompanied by a drinking cup.? Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 210. ? Similar deposits have occurred elsewhere. In a cist at Terrachie, near Stone- haven, with a contracted body, were ‘ not féwer than 150 small black balls, which, on examination, proved to be vegetable, and were most probably acorns.’ Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. i. p. 140. 142 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. south-west, 83 ft. long, 67 ft. wide, and 23 ft. high. It was formed principally of earth, but with some admixture of chalk, especially at the south end. The mound contained a single burial, deposited in a grave at the centre. This grave was oval, running east and west, 8 ft. by 42 ft., and 3ft.decp. It was filled in with chalk. On the bottom at the east end was the body of a man in the middle period of life, laid upon the left side, with the head to E.S.E., the right hand across the chest, the left up to the chin. In front of the face was a ‘food vessel,’ still containing some dark-coloured matter, the remains, there can be no doubt, of what had been placed in it at the time of burial. Below the body, and extending beyond it on either side for a short space, was a thin seam of a dark substance, having very much the appearance of decayed leather. This was probably all that was left of what had been the buried man’s dress; who if not interred in his garment of skin, may have been first wrapped in a hide, of which this was the remains '. The ‘food vessel’ [fig. 70] is 42 in. high, 6 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in, at the bottom, and has nine perforated ears at the shoulder. It is covered, for a space of 334 in. from the top, with short lines in bands encircling the vessel, and arranged herring-bone wise. The ears have similar lines upon them, but arranged vertically, and the inside of the rim is ornamented in the same way as the body of the vessel; at the bottom a row of short vertical lines encompasses it. The lines have been made by a sharp-pointed tool drawn on the moist clay towards the workman. Sixteen feet west of the centre, and 14ft. above the natural surface, was found the bottom and some other portions of a vessel of pottery, but there was no ap- pearance of a body having ever been buried at the place. Through- out the whole of the mound, and upon the natural surface also, were pieces of charcoal; and here and there, in the material of the barrow, were chippings of flit. There were also met with a few broken animal bones’, some potsherds, about the half of a round jet bead, $ in. in diameter, having the perforation drilled from each side, several flint scrapers, and two saws, one of them most regularly and delicately serrated, and showing in the glazing upon the teeth that it had been long in use. VI. About a quarter of a mile east of the barrow just noticed was 1 The occurrence of leather or hide with ancient interments is not unfrequent. Some instances will be found recorded in the Introduction, pp. 31, 32. 2 The bones are of ox (bos longifrons), and of pig (sus scrofa domesticus). PARISH OF HESLERTON, 143 another, which on examination presented some singular features. It is at no great distance from a long barrow, which was partly removed prior to the year 1868, and entirely destroyed in that year, when several characteristics very similar to those of a long barrow which I examined on Willerby Wold were disclosed. The round barrow was 7Oft. in diameter, 31 ft. high, and was made up of earth and broken flint. On the east side of the mound was a very remarkable trench sunk into the chalk rock. It commenced at a point 25 ft. east-by-south from the centre, and extended for 16 ft. in a north-east direction. At the south-west end (where it had a kind of offset or extension towards the south- west, 3 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep) it was 52 ft. deep, 3 ft. wide at the top, and 13 ft. at the bottom. Towards the north-east end it became gradually shallower and narrower, diminishing to 2 ft. in depth and 1 ft. in width, widening again however and deepening at its extremity into a hole 2 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep. Midway along the line of this trench was a row of large blocks of flint, lying close together and 13 ft. above the bottom, having underneath them a considerable number of potsherds. The whole of the trench was filled with burnt earth, burnt chalk, and charcoal. The fire had been applied however to this material before it had been placed in the trench, for there was not the slightest trace of burning on the sides of the trench, although the heat to which the burnt chalk and earth had been subjected had evidently been very intense. Throughout the trench, but especially (as just noticed) beneath the flints, were many broken pieces of pottery, principally of a dark-coloured ware, and certainly the fragments of domestic utensils. Amongst these were the broken portions of one vessel in particular, in sufficient number to allow of its being re-constructed ; the several pieces were not lying together, but were dispersed throughout the greater part of the trench. This vessel [ fig. 91] is hand-made, with a rounded bottom, 5 in. high, and 10 in. wide at the mouth; the lip or rim turns over. It is of a palish- brown colour, and the paste is remarkably fine and without any admixture of broken stone ; and in point of density it is so light as to rival in that respect the best Greek pottery. I have never met with anything quite like it,in shape, colour, or paste’. Mr. Tindall, 1 Tt will be observed that the occurrence of dark-coloured plain pottery, pre- sumably the remains of domestic vessels, is a common feature in the wold barrows. The remains are however so fragmentary that I have never been able to reconstruct -a vessel, but I believe, judging from the curvature of the fragments, that many of 144 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. of Bridlington, who from his knowledge of clay, as a pipe-maker, is competent to speak on the subject, tells me that there is a clay at Speeton which produces a paste like this, and that he knows of no other clay in the district which would make such a ware. I should however be inclined to think that the clay had been obtained nearer to the barrow than Speeton. At the south-west end of the trench, and on its west side, was a sort of extension of it, of an apsidal form towards the west, 6 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, and 8 in. deep ; this was filled with burnt earth and charcoal, which indeed rose above the natural surface as high as the present surface of the barrow, and was co-extensive with the hollow. There were no potsherds in it, and, as in the case of the trench, the burning did not appear to have taken place on the spot. On the south side of the hollow lay a log of partially burnt oak wood, 3 ft. lone and 8 in. square. Another hole occurred 16 ft. east-by-south from the centre. It was oval, 2 ft. long from north to south by 1 ft. broad, and 1# ft. deep. The filling-in was burnt earth, having amongst it a very few burnt bones, apparently animal. At a point 12 ft. north- west of the centre, and 11 ft. above the surface, there was a large quantity of pieces of dark-coloured plain pottery, the remains of several vessels, all of them probably domestic. Fifteen feet west-by- north of the centre, and a little above the natural surface, lay a ‘drinking cup,’ much broken by the pressure of the earth and badly decayed. ‘There was nothing to suggest that a body had ever been buried at the spot; as from the nature of the soil it might have been expected that some at least of the bones would have been found if ever a body had been laid there. It is of course possible that the vase may have been placed in the mound in connection with the central and sole interment found in it, though the occurrence is very unusual. I have however met with other instances in which a vessel has been placed in the barrow apart from a body, as in one on Ganton Wold and in another at Cowlam. At the centre was the body of a young person, laid on the left side, the head to W. by N. The bones were very much decayed. The body had been placed on the level of the natural surface, but the chalk had been removed below it to a depth of 13 ft., the hollow thus produced having been filled in with stiff clayey soil. In the barrow were several chipping's, and a knife-shaped implement of flint with a curved edge, carefully chipped along both back and front. them, like this in question, have been round-bottomed ; the lip also is generally, like that in the figure, roll-shaped, slightly curving over, fie A. ~, PARISH OF SHERBURN. 145 The trench, with its filling-in of burnt earth and chalk, its potsherds and charcoal, presents a very interesting subject for speculation. It will be seen from the description of many of the barrows noticed in this volume, that enigmatical holes, usually filled with earth and stone that have not been burnt, are of frequent occur- rence, but trenches or holes filled up with burnt matter are by no means. so common, though occasionally met with. Deposits of burnt earth &c. upon the natural surface, together with fragments of domestic pottery and bones of animals, have been found in some of the wold barrows; and these probably originated in the self-same funeral practice as gave rise:to the trench in the barrow lately under notice. Were they connected with a feast held at the burial, or on later commemorative occasions? May the broken vessels and animal bones be regarded as favouring such a view ? ParisH oF SuHersurn. Ord. Map. xov. s.w. ' The three barrows next to be noticed were not opened by myself, but by the Rev.- Frederick Porter, Vicar of Yedingham, and the late Mr. Charles Monkman of Malton, both of whom have. had some experience in the examination of barrows, and whose accuracy of observation may be fully depended upon. I include them in the present description because they are situated’ in the immediate vicinity of a large series opened by myself, and also because the skulls and other remains found in them have- come into my possession. | : At a short distance to the north-west of these barrows, and close. to where the long barrow shortly before noticed once stood, was a round one, which was opened by Mr. Ruddock in 1851. An account of the contents is given by Mr. Bateman in his Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 280, where it is recorded that fifteen skeletons: were found at the centre. I examined it again when it was: being removed for agricultural purposes. It was 80 ft. in diameter, and within it, with a radius of 30 ft., was a circle of chalk stones’ which had an opening 9 ft. in width on the east side. Eighteen’ feet south-east of the centre and 11 ft. above the surface was a body, on the right side, the head to W., the hands up to the face. Twenty feet south-south-east of the centre and lying on the surface was a skull which had evidently been disturbed at an early period ; no other bones of the body were present. Below L 146 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. the skull was an oval hole, north and south, 5 ft. by 3} ft., and 23 ft. deep, containing nothing beyond earth and chalk, the materials of which the barrow was formed. At the centre were two holes, 1} ft. apart, lying in a direction north-east and south- west ; one was 5 ft. long and 33 ft. wide, the other 43 ft. long and 3 ft. wide, both being 2} ft. deep, and having their long diameter north-west by south-east. Like the first-mentioned hole, they contained nothing except earth and chalk. VII. The first of the three barrows opened by Messrs. Porter and Monkman was 60 ft. in diameter, and had been ploughed down to a height of not more than 1} ft. About 18 ft. from the east side of the mound, and laid upon the natural surface, was found a large deposit of broken human bones, the remains of not less than eight bodies, as was proved by the presence of portions of as many different skulls. All these, together with some animal bones’, were scattered about in the greatest. confusion, and, in the opinion of the explorers, had been deposited so originally. It is of course possible they might be the remains of bodies which had been disturbed by the insertion of secondary interments and re-buried ; still, if this had been the case, we should scarcely have expected to meet with so many bodies; nor indeed did the examination of the barrow show that there had been any disturbance sufficiently extensive to occasion the removal of so many as eight previously buried bodies, At the centre of the barrow and upon the natural surface there was a large quantity. of dark-coloured and perfectly plain pottery, the remains of many different vessels which had, it was evident, been placed there in the fragmentary condition in which they were found. They were spread over an area of about 6ft. square. , a Z wy PARISH OF SHERBURN. 149 the wold, taken advantage of and artificially enlarged to a slight extent. In its present form it is an oval mound, with a north and south direction, about 90 ft. by 74 ft. At the centre the chalk rock rises to the surface, and it did not seem as if any addition had ever been made at that point. Eighteen feet west-south-west from this assumed centre was an adult body, laid on the left side, upon the natural surface, with the head to S.E., and the hands crossed over each other at the waist. Below the head. was a chipping of flint. In contact with this body and lying in front of its face and chest was the burnt body of an adult, some of the bones of which were lying under the arms of the unburnt one. It thus became evident that the unburnt body must have been deposited in point of succession after the burnt body, and not less evident was it, from the general appearance of the bones of each body, that both had been buried on the same occasion. The added soil above these bodies did not exceed a foot in actual thickness; but they may originally have been further from the surface, as some of the soil would naturally be removed by the action of the plough. In the mound were some broken bones of an adult ox, some of them gnawed, ‘most probably by dogs; several flint chippings, and a long and rather irregularly formed flint scraper, the edge of which was somewhat smoothened by use. XI. The barrow now about to be described seems to have been partly ploughed out of its original position, down the sharp slope of the hill upon the extreme verge of which it is placed. It was 40 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. high, and was made of chalk rubble. Ata distance of 14ft, east-north-east of the present centre was the head of a young child, none of the other bones of the body being present; whilst imme- diately under it, and resting upon the rock, were the burnt remains of another child. In contact with the latter was a ‘ food vessel,’ in shape like fig. 69, lying on its side, with the mouth to the east, and close to the child’s head. It is 64 in. high, 6} in. wide at the mouth, and 3in. at the bottom, where it slightly widens. The inside of the lip of the rim has three and the outside two encircling lines ; below these are two zigzag encircling lines, and below these again two other encircling lines of semicircular markings, forming two rows of arches; all the impressions having been made by the application of a twisted thong. The remainder of the vase for a depth of 44 in. is quite plain. It is impossible to say with which -of the two burials this vessel was associated, as it was in like 150 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. proximity to either. It is probable however that it accompanied the unburnt body. Touching the child’s head were the feet of a third body, of a person of full growth, laid on the right side, and with the head to W. The heels of this body were in the closest vicinity of the ‘ food vessel.’ No part of the skeleton was left, except the legs, part of the lower jaw, and the left temporal bone. XII. About a mile south-west of the barrow just described, but ‘separated from it by a deep valley, was a single mound, placed on the summit of the hill, upon the range of high land running ‘between the valley of the Derwent and the great Wold valley, which pursues a direction west and east past Lutton, Weaverthorpe, Wold Newton, and other places in the same line. This barrow was 56 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. high, and consisted of earth with some chalk. It had been much ploughed down. At a distance of 21 ft. north-west of the centre was found the body of an adult, probably a man, which had been laid on the right side on the natural surface, the head bemg to 8.W. Underneath the head were three flint implements; the first, which seems to be a knife, has been carefully chipped all along the edge, except at the end opposite to that at which it was struck to separate it from the core, it is 2Zin. long and 1}in. wide; the other two were a round scraper, and a flake which shows, all along the edge, signs of having been actually in use. At the centre and placed upon the level of the natural surface was a cinerary urn, reversed |fig. 97], enclosing a deposit of the burnt bones of an adult, and amongst them was a bronze awl, 1Zin. long [fig. 41], the flattened end of which, intended for insertion in the handle, is just above a quarter of an inch in length. The urn, which is better fired than usual, is of rather uncommon proportions, being narrow in comparison with its height. It is 13} in. high, 82 in. wide at the mouth, and 4 in. at the bottom. The upper part, for a depth of 5in., is ornamented with encompassing lines, arranged herring-bone fashion, made by a sharp-pointed tool. Immediately underneath the urn was an oval grave, cut into the rock, and filled in with clayey soil and a little chalk. It was 7 ft. by 6ft., running north-east by south-west, and 13 ft. deep. At the bottom was found the body of a young person, about 15 years of age, laid on the right side, the head to N. by E., and the hands up to the face. In front of the knees there was a ‘food vessel.’ It is shaped somewhat like fig. 69, 53in. high, 6in. wide at the mouth, and 2?in. at the bottom. PARISH OF SHERBURN. 151 The inside of the rim, which is lin. deep, is ornamented with four encircling lines arranged in pairs, and the upper part of the vessel for a depth of 2in., where a groove runs round it, has irregular impressions upon it. The whole of the markings are made by the application of twisted thong. Just in front of the chest was a flint knife, 22 in. long and § in. wide, and in general shape much like figure 98; one face is left just as it was struck off from the core, the other is carefully flaked along both planes ; it shows no trace of wear, and seems as if it had been made specially for the burial. Immediately to the west of the legs of the last- mentioned body, and in actual contact with it, was that of a younger person, one whose age did not probably exceed ten years ; this was laid on the left side, and with the head to W.S.W. The bodies were both at the south side of the grave, and there was a considerable quantity of charcoal near them. Some broken bones of an ox were also in the grave; and amongst the materials of the barrow were several flint chippings and four round scrapers. The relative ages of the two persons in the grave was such as to preclude the idea that they were mother and child; but we may 152 YORKSHIRE. BAST RIDING. suppose them to have been nearly related, perhaps brother and sister, or two sisters. The burnt body immediately above the grave was probably that of a woman, for bronze awls have usually been found associated with female interments; and it is possible that we have in this barrow the burials of a family: the mother in the cinerary urn, two children in the grave, and the father, who must have: died later, buried near the north-west side, with the flint instruments accompanying the body. The conjunction of burnt and unburnt bodies need cause no difficulty, for we have so many instances of inhumation and cremation contemporaneously practised as to show that their concurrent adoption was by no means uncommon, ¢ Rather more than a quarter of a mile to the north-east of the barrow last but one noticed were six others, three of which lay on Sherburn, the remaining three on Potter Brompton Wold. I examined the whole group. XIII. The first was 90 ft. in diameter and 22 ft. high, but had been much ploughed down; it was composed of earth. Two feet south of the centre and one foot above the natural surface were two red-deer antlers laid together’. Immediately west of them was an oval grave, lying north-west by south-east, 42 ft. by 3} ft., and sunk to a depth of 4 ft. into the chalk rock. On the bottom, at the north-west end, was the body of a woman, from 18 to 24 years old, laid on the right side, with the head to W., the right hand in front of the knees and the left on the right elbow. Upon the wrist of the right arm, and just in front of the knees, was a ‘food vessel’ [fig. 72]. It is very substantially made, being more than half an inch thick, and is 6} in. high, 7 in. wide at the mouth, and 3+ in. at the bottom. The inside of the lip is ornamented with three encircling lines of twisted-thong marks, the outside with a row of short vertical impressions of pieces of thicker thong but very closely twisted. The whole surface of the body of the vase is covered with sixteen encompassing lines of a very thick and loosely-twisted cord, apparently made of some vegetable fibre. Immediately behind the back of the body and underneath it was a quantity of burnt 1 In a barrow at Warren Hill, near Mildenhall, Suffolk, Mr. Henry Prigg, junior, discovered a body associated with a ‘food vessel’ in a grave. Over the body were placed eighteen red-deer antlers, as if to protect it. Journ. Suffolk Inst. of Arche- ology, vol, iv. p. 289, PARISH OF SHERBURN. 153 bones '.. With them was deposited an implement, which may be a javelin-head of flint, calcined [fig. 98]; it is 3} in. long and fin. wide at the broadest part, and has been made from a flake, triangular in section, the broadest side of which has been left as it was when struck from the core, while the edges of the two smaller planes of cleavage, where they run into that of the broader side, have been very carefully flaked all along to the point ’. qi ui ys nk Ni Two feet south-west of the first grave was a second, an oval one; 5 ft. by 43 ft., the direction of the longer axis being north-east by south-west, and 3ft. 10in. deep. In it on the bottom, at the - +The bones are those of a person nearly, if not quite, full grown, together with a few fragments of what seem to be those of a young goat or deer. * The occurrence of burnt and unburnt bodies in close juxtaposition, and evidently deposited at the same time, will be noticed under the account of several barrows in this volume. The same circumstance has been met with by other explorers. In a barrow on Acklam Wold, in the East Riding, opened by the Yorkshire Antiquarian Club, the knees of an unburnt body are stated to have been found charred by a deposit of burnt bones placed close against them. Procter, Proc. Yorkshire Antiquarian Club, 154 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. south-west end, was the body of a young man, from 20 to 25 years of age, laid on the left side, and with the head to 8.8.W., the right hand in front of the knees, the left just below the chest. Upon the right hand was placed a ‘food vessel,’ shaped somewhat like fig. 69, but having two raised ribs instead of one. It is very thick, and is roughly ornamented over the upper two inches with short and irregularly-placed impressions of loosely-twisted and very thick thong; below these is a zigzag line, 1} in. deep, encompassing the vessel, irregularly drawn with some sharp-pointed instrument. The vessel is 61 in. high, 7 in. wide at the mouth, and 31 in. at the bottom. There was a good deal of charcoal in both the graves. In the substance of the barrow, here and there, were found animal bones1, potsherds, a small flake struck off from a ground stone axe, several flint chippings, and seven flint saws, some of them showing by their smoothed and polished teething that they had seen much service. There were also amongst the material of the barrow a small oval flint scraper, and two much larger of the same shape, one of which had been so much used - at the end that the edge is quite rounded and blunt. If it may be allowed to hazard a conjecture,—and it is scarcely possible to withhold the imagination from all play in a case such as 1s presented by the contents of this barrow,—we may without extravagance suppose that in these two adjoining graves were deposited the bodies of a man and his wife. They were both young, and it is by no means impossible that the wife may have sacrificed herself at the funeral of her husband, in order to accompany him into the unknown land on his journey to which he had but now entered ; while in the burnt bones we may have the remains of a slave, killed at the same time, and under the influence of like 1854, p. 3. Ina central cist in a barrow was a ‘large and strong human skeleton .. . with a coarse urn; at the foot of the skeleton lay a large heap of calcined human bones, which, on examination, proved to be the remains of two children. Near them «+. an urn was deposited.’ Bateman, Vestiges, p. 49. Ina cist was a ‘skeleton of a young person, .. . and a deposit of burnt human bones. Between the two was a small vase of coarse clay.’ Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 37. In a grave was a “skeleton of a full-sized person .. .a few inches above this skeleton was a deposit of calcined human bones, apparently interred at the same time as it” J. c.p.56. Ina barrow ‘ was a skeleton . .. and near the skull a deposit of calcined human bones. .. . We have here a double interment, by inhumation and cremation, suggesting a bar- barous rite.’ 7. ¢. p. 175. In a barrow on Arbor Hill was ‘a skeleton accompanied by a deposit of calcined bones.’ 7. c. p. 187. Mr. Warne mentions in a note that Mr. Medhurst discovered, in a barrow on the Ridgeway, a skeleton ‘ with the remains of an infant by its side, an urn containing burnt bones placed between the legs.’ Celtic Tumuli of Dorset, p. 33. * The bones are those of several oxen (bos longifrons), and of one goat or sheep. - a PARISH OF GANTON. 155 motives". The three bodies appear to have been, unquestionably, buried together, for there was an entire absence of all those appearances which present themselves when an interment clearly subsequent to the primary one has taken place in a barrow. We shall moreover find instances in other barrows apparently indicating the same practice as that which may have been followed in this ease ; and it is by no means so inconsistent with what we know to have been the custom in ancient days, and yet to prevail in some countries in modern times, as to cause us to hesitate about adopting it on the score of its being an unnatural hypothesis. XIV. The second in this group of barrows was not very regular in shape, having been more ploughed down on one side than on the other. It was about 70 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and was made of earth. Ata point 10 ft. south-east from the present centre was a deposit of the burnt bones of an adult, which was no doubt originally the central and primary, as it was the only, burial in thé mound. It was laid upon disturbed soil, which constituted the filling-in of what appeared to be a natural depression in the original surface. In the barrow were a few potsherds and a round flint scraper. XV. The third barrow, about 100 yds. south-west of the last, was of very slight elevation, but appeared to have been about 60 ft. in diameter. At the centre,-in an irregularly-shaped but to some extent circular hollow, 5 ft. in diameter and 14 ft. deep, was a deposit of burnt bones, placed close to the south-west side of the cavity. The bones were those of a child about 12 years old, together with three fragments of bone belonging to a goat or sheep, also calcined, Pariso or Ganton. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. XVI. The fourth barrow lay about 50 yds. east of that first described, but was situated upon Potter Brompton Wold. It was ’ Places of sepulture presenting very similar features to this have been met with _ elsewhere. At Newbigging, near Kirkwall, Orkney, Mr. Petrie found in a cist, below “a barrow, two bodies, both apparently males, one, the shorter, in part overlying the other. In front of the knees of the smaller body was a deposit of burnt bones, which must have been placed there before the unburnt body was laid in the cist. At Isbister, Orkney, the same explorer found in a cist, beneath a barrow, two bodies, both males. In a second cist, about 5 ft. from the first, was the body of a woman, whose bones seemed to have been partly burnt. A short distance from these two cists was a third, 156 YORKSHIRE, -EAST RIDING. 70 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and made of earth and chalk. From the manner in which the mound had been ploughed down it is not easy to say where the original centre had been, and it is most probable that the only interment met with, although it lay 14 ft. to the east of the present centre, was the original and central one. It ‘was that of a person in middle life, who was laid on the natural surface, on the left side, with the head to S.8.W.; the right hand was in front of the face, the left laid under the thighs. Behind the head of the adult was placed that of a very young child, being all of the body that had not gone to decay’. Behind the child’s head, which was er to 8.W., and on the left side, was a rudely-made ‘bone pin, 23 in. long. © In this case it is probable that we have the intial of a parent and child, but the imperfect condition of the bones makes it impossible to say whether the adult was male or female. In the barrow were a fragment of pottery, a knife-like implement of flint, 13 in. long and rather triangular in shape, a round scraper, and another one, long, narrow, and well-shaped, exactly like fig. 18, and a flint arselaigas [fig. 28], of a type not ve” found containing a deposit of burnt bones. Mr. Petrie thinks these were the bodies of a great man and a slave, and of a wife and another slave or slaves. Proc. Soc. of Ant. Scotland, vol. vi. pp. 412-417. 1The occurrence of children buried with adults, both male and female, will be found noticed in several places in this volume; similar instances have been met with by others. In a cist was ‘the skeleton of a man, in the prime of life ;? with him were a drinking cup, a flint implement, a dagger of flint, three barbed arrow-points, and three bone implements ; ‘ close to the pelvis (of the man) lay the remains of an infant.’ Bateman, Vestiges, p. 59. The primary interment in a cist below a barrow on Middleton Moor, ‘ consisted of a female, in the prime of life, and a child, about four years of age ... the child was placed above her, and rather behind her shoulders.’ Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 24. The central interment in Blake Low was ‘ of a very young woman, or rather of a girl...at the head was a drinking cup... and along with the skeleton were the bones of an infant.’ /.c.p.41. Ina grave in Rus- den Low was ‘the skeleton of a young female . . . before the face were indications of the skeleton of a very young child.’ 7. c. p. 44. In a cist were ‘skeletons of two infants and an adult.... Immediately under lay another adult human skeleton. ... This, the lowest interment, was evidently a male, the one next above presents female characteristics, and both, together with the children, presented unmistakeable evidence of having been interred at the same time, so that we have some reason to suppose that the family was immolated at the funeral of its head.’ l. c. p. 78. Within a cist in a barrow north of Pickering, North Riding, ‘ were two skeletons; the principal one (an adult) laid on its left side . . . the other skeleton was that of an infant, and lay behind the former.’ 7. c. p. 210. In a barrow near Pickering was ‘a skeleton ... with a stone adze or celt.... #t is also to be remarked that at the head and feet of this interment were two more human skeletons of very small size, which illustrates similar dis- coveries made in Derbyshire and Staffordshire barrows.’ /.c. p. 221. Near Warminster, in a grave, were ‘discovered the remains of an infant, and by its side those of a female adult, probably its mother.’ Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 68. eee PARISH OF GANTON. 157 in Yorkshire, having the base slightly hollowed; a form inviting comparison with that which is so common, though more fully developed, in many of the most beautifully shaped of the Irish and Danish arrow-points. XVII. The fifth barrow was a little to the east of the last named, and had been ploughed down after a very irregular manner, so as to have become of an oval form, 90 ft. by 50 ft., and only 1 ft. high. It was composed of earth, with a few chalk stones. Nine feet south- east of the present centre part of a skull was met with, the remains of a body which had been destroyed by the plough. Fifteen feet east of the centre were portions of a vessel of pottery, which had been deposited a little above the natural surface, and: had been broken and scattered by the plough. It had been a ‘ food vessel,’ of good shape and workmanship, and with pierced ears round the shoulder. At the centre was a shallow grave, north-west by south- east in direction, 6ft. by 5ft., and 6in. deep. In it was a body, laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W. and the hands up to the face. In the process of inserting this interment another adult body had been in part disturbed, portions of it being still 2m situ, immediately to the east of the secondary interment. The original occupant of the grave, an adult of uncertain sex, had also been placed on the right side, the head being to S.W.; a vase had been deposited with the body, the greater part of which was found broken and scattered, and lying underneath the head of the inserted body. It is 62in. high, a little more in width at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The upper part is ornamented immediately below the lip with a row of impressions, apparently made by the end of a piece of bone or wood triangular in section, and there is another similar row 22in. below the first, the space between being filled up by three bands of vertical lines of different lengths, those of the upper rows being the shortest; the inside of the lip of the rim has a series of vertical lines running round it. The lower part for a depth of 44 im. is covered with an irregular reticulated pattern. The whole of the ornamentation, except that due to a triangular-ended tool, has been made with a pointed instrument drawn over the clay when soft. Above the grave was a number of large flint blocks. Immediately to the east of the last-mentioned grave was another, very shallow and scarcely to be defined. In it was the body of an adult, laid on the right side, with the head to N.W., the right hand under the hip, the left 158 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. up to the face. In the barrow itself were some flint chippings, and: a very beautifully flaked javelin-head or knife [fig. 30]. One face had never been touched after being struck off from the core, the other had been very carefully and minutely chipped over nearly the whole surface, whilst the end is worked up to a very sharp point. XVIII. The last barrow of this group was situated about 80 yds. north of that last mentioned. It was 60 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and composed of earth and chalk. Near the outside of the mound, on the east and south sides, was a great quantity of blocks of flint. At the centre was a grave, 6 ft. in diameter and the same in depth, covered over with large flints, and having a considerable number of the same at the bottom. It was principally filled in with chalk rubble (the material removed in the process of making the grave), amongst which were some broken human bones, two fragments of different earthenware vessels, and a single flint chipping. One foot and a half above the bottom of the grave, and rather to the south of the centre, was a burnt body; the bones, those of a full-grown person, were laid in a small round heap, 14in. in diameter, Just beyond this heap, on the south-west side, was placed a perforated greenstone axe-hammer [fig. 99], which had been burnt with the body*. It is 5 in. long and 2 in. wide at the _ ? Axe-hammers have occurred in other barrows on the wolds, as will be seen in the sequel, in two cases [ Nos. lviii, lxviii] associated with unburnt bodies, and in one [ No. lxxxix ], like this, with a burial after cremation. They have also been met with accompanying burnt bodies, as well in Yorkshire as in other parts of England; somé of these discoveries are here noted. Three have been found by the Rev. J. C. Atkinson in barrows in Cleveland, in the North Riding, one of which is here figured [fig. 100] ; in these cases the weapon had been burnt with the corpse. Under a barrow near Stourton in Wiltshire, in a grave with a burnt body, a bronze knife-dagger and a perforated stone axe-hammer were associated. Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 39, pl. i. In a barrow near Heytesbury a cinerary urn was found inverted over a deposit of burnt bones and an axe-hammer of stone. J. ¢. p. 79, pl. viii. In a barrow near the last was a deposit. of burnt bones and an axe-hammer of stone. J. c. p. 79, pl. viii. In a cist below a barrow at Winterbourne Steepleton, which contained ashes and calcined human —— PARISH OF GANTON. 159 cutting edge, which is rounded and widens gradually from the middle of the weapon. ‘The hole for the handle is 1} in. im width, and narrows very slightly to the centre, having been drilled from both sides. In the barrow was a square-shaped flint scraper. I am inclined to think, as has been already stated in the Intro- duction, that this kind of axe-hammer was meant for the purposes of war. Having their edges rounded they could not have been adapted for cutting wood, or indeed for any except an offensive use, Fig. 100. 4. and there is certainly nothing in the fact that they are found associated with interments inconsistent with the presumption that they have been weapons of war. For in days when every man was armed, and when individual prowess was of more importance than at a time when the change in the character of those arms and the consequent alteration in military tactics have merged the individual in the mass, what more natural than that, when the bones, was a pierced axe of greenstone. ‘ This is the first of its kind that has as yet been found in the tumuli of Dorset.? Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset, p. 56, engr. p. 63. One was discovered with a bronze knife in an urn containing burnt bones, under a barrow at Winwick, Lancashire. Journ. of Arch. Inst., vol. xviii. p. 158. In a bar- row near Throwley, amongst a deposit of burnt bones in an urn were two bone pins, a bronze awl, and a ‘double-edged axe of basaltic stone,’ which had been burnt with the body. Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 155. A very fine one was found with a deposit of burnt bones within a stone circle at Crithie, Aberdeenshire. Proc. Soc, of Ant. Scotland, vol. ii. p. 306. 160 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. warrior was'at last laid in the grave, the weapon with which he had won renown and smitten the foes of his tribe should be there deposited at his side? They are always beautifully made, and with great ayuiacige ; sometimes with simple but tasteful ornamentation, which is possibly another reason for accounting them weapons of war rather than implements for every-day use. All races of men, in the gradual progress from the untutored ways of savage life to the greater refinements of civilisation, have not only bestowed unusual pains on making beautiful their choicest possessions, or in enhancing the natural beauty of their women by the further adornment of various decorations, jewels and gold, but have specially enriched their swords, their spears, all their warlike equipment, with the choicest art at their command. On the other hand, the simple hatchet, the so-called celt, of stone, without perforation, but possessing a sharp-cutting edge, has been but rarely found buried with its owner; although it may not unfrequently have occurred amongst the materials of which the burial mound is composed. We are almost constrained to regard these hatchets, or celts, as being, in the main, implements for ordinary use, such as cutting down trees and working wood in other ways, or not improbably in the various processes of agriculture; although of course they may have served at times quite other purposes: they may have often dealt a death-blow to an ‘ox or other animal, or even to an enemy in a hand-to-hand struggle. Nay, even at the present day, with all our wealth of mechanical contrivances, we are continually putting the selfsame article to a variety of uses: and such must have been far more frequently the case in a ruder and more imperfectly-supplied state of society; just as the African savage of to-day uses the head of his spear not only as a knife, but makes it serve the as of a variety of tools. The group of barrows next dealt with is also situated upon Potter Brompton Wold, and about a mile east of the group lately under notice. It consisted originally of five mounds, one having been removed in the course of agricultural operations several years ago. The remaining four were all examined by me. They had been more or less ploughed down, and some secondary burials had most probably been destroyed in consequence. PARISH OF GANTON. 161 XIX. The first one was 70 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. high, and was made up of earth. At the centre, in an oval hollow 2 ft. by 14 ft. and + ft. deep, was a deposit of burnt bones, those of an adult of small size, with which was found a bone-pin also burnt. ‘The body had been burnt on the spot, and a great quantity of charcoal in large lumps was placed above, below, and round the bones; upon the top of which was an urn laid on its side, the mouth to the south. It is in shape much like fig. 58, 6 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 4 in. at the bottom, and has an overhanging rim 23 in. deep, and is entirely devoid of ornament. In the barrow were several flint chippings, a barbed arrow-point of flint, and two long scrapers, one of them worn quite smooth at the end by use. XX. The second barrow was 42 ft. in diameter and 14 in. high, and was made of earth. Fourteen feet south-west-by-west from the centre was the body of an aged person, laid on the right side, upon the natural surface of the ground. The head lay to 8S. by W., but the bones were too much decayed to allow the position of the hands to be made out. In a very slight hollow, 14 in. in diameter, at the centre, there was a burnt body, that of an adult, and about 6 in. above the bones was a thin flat piece of bronze, of indeterminate shape. In the barrow were three flint scrapers, one round, another long, and the third of irregular form. XXI. The third barrow, which lay about 150 yds. north-west of the last, and upon the verge of the brow of the chalk escarpment overlooking the valley of the Derwent, was one very prolific in interments, and which presented moreover many and novel features of interest. It was 60 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. high, and was made up of chalk rubble and flint. Seven feet south-east of the centre, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a child, probably a boy, of above six years old, laid on the left side, the head to E., and with the hands towards the knees. At the crown of the head was deposited a ‘food vessel’ [fig. 69]. It is 3% in. high, 42 in. wide at the mouth, and 2in. at the bottom. The inside of the rim and the upper part of the outside of the vase for a depth of 1}in. have encompassing lines of twisted-thong impressions, a wavy line of the same impression occurring between the two upper and five lower lines on the outside. Over the head of the body and the vase, and to some extent protecting them, were placed two large blocks of flint. About 3 ft. east of the child’s body were M 162 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. the bones of a second body, an adult, probably a woman, which had been very imperfectly burnt. They were laid in a round heap 18 in, in diameter, on the level of the natural surface, and were carefully covered over with chalk and flint stones. Amongst the human bones was the radius of a domestic pig, also burnt. Imme- diately east of this pile of burnt bones was the body of a child, of Fig. 101. 4. less than six years old, laid on the left side, the head to N.N.E., the right hand upon the knees, the left under the face. Below these bodies there was another, that of a young man, about 25 years of age, which was laid on the left side, the head to E., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a ‘ drinking cup,’ and below the cup a flint knife. The vessel [fig. 101] is 62 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 2zin. at the bottom. The pattern upon it, which will best be understood from the engraving, is made on the upper part by impressions of a notched strip of bone or _wood, and on the lower part by markings apparently the result of PARISH OF GANTON. 163 the application of the end of a finger nail.. Round the body, and especially-near the head, was a good deal of charcoal. These three bodies, it should be said, were in a grave, 54 ft. in diameter, and sunk into the chalk to a depth of 3} ft. Eight feet south of the centre lay a body, 2 ft. below the ordinary surface level, in a sort of hollow ; either a natural depression in the surface, or one artificially produced. The body, probably that of a woman past middle life, was laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W., the right hand under the knees, and the left up to the face. In front of the face was a ‘food vessel,’ which together with the head was carefully protected by chalk stones arranged round them. The vessel, which is shaped somewhat like fig. 69, is 43 in. high, 44 in. wide at the mouth, and 22 in. at the bottom. It is ornamented on the inside of the rim with sloping lines, and on the upper two inches of the out- side with short lines of twisted-thong impressions, arranged in four bands, after a rough herring-bone fashion, and encompassing the vessel. Sixteen feet south-south-west-by-south of the centre was the body of a woman, about 20 years of age, placed in a shallow grave, of not quite 1 ft.in depth. The body was laid on the right side, with the head to S.W., and the hands up to the face. There was a great quantity of charcoal round the body, and especially near the head. At the centre of the barrow was an oval grave, lying east and west, 8 ft. by 63 ft., and 3 ft. deep. At the eastern end and on the bottom of the grave was the body of a young man, probably under 20 years of age, laid on the left side, the head to E., with the right hand upon the knees, and the left in front of the face. Before the face was a ‘food vessel,’ approaching in shape to fie. 72. It is 64in. high, the same in width at the mouth, and 3 in. wide at the bottom. The inside of the rim has two encircling rows of very short lines, arranged roughly chevron-wise; the upper part of the outside of the vase, for a depth of 1} in., has four encompassing lines, arranged in pairs three-quarters of an inch apart, of small oval dots. At the west end of the grave was the body of a young man, about 20 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to N.W., and the hands up to the face. The head of this body was immediately west of the feet of that first described. In front of the knees was a barbed arrow-point of flint. Fifteen feet east-north-east of the centre were laid two bodies facing each other’. They were placed on the level of the * Instances have occurred in other places where bodies had been placed in a more or less intimate association such as that in which these were found, In a grave were M 2 164 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. natural surface, but at the spot there was a hollow, 23 ft. deep, which had been filled up to the ordinary level, and upon that the bodies were laid The one, the remains of a man about 20 years of age, was on the left side, with the head to 8. ‘This body was laid partly over the other, which was that of a woman, about 17 years of age, his legs being placed above hers. She was laid on the right side, her head being to S.E. Her hands were up to the face of the man, and it appeared as though his head had been held between them. The left hand of the man was under _ his own hip, and his right hand upon the hips of the woman. The two bodies together occupied a space of no greater extent than 3 ft. 8in. by 1 ft. 10in. Between the bodies were two small ‘food vessels,’ each with a cover’. One of these was set between ‘the skeletons of a large man,...and that of a younger person by his right side. From the position of their heads they seemed to have been placed in the affectionate attitude of embrace, as the two skulls nearly touched each other. In the grave were a bronze dagger-knife, two gold ornaments, a stone with two perforations, one at each end, a bone implement, a drinking cup, and ‘a great deal of charred wood.’ Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 44, pl. ii. Near Warminster in a barrow ‘ were two skeletons . . . the head of the smallest reclining on the breast of the other.’ /. c. vol. i. p. 68. In a grave were two skeletons: ‘the first appeared to have been a stout man, the latter, being much smaller, was probably a female, and perhaps his wife.’ In the grave were a large number of bones, pointed and perforated, three celts of flint, sharpening stones, an axe-hammer of stone, a jet ring, jet and bone beads, and a small bronze pin. J. c. vol. i. p. 75, pls. v, vi, vii. Ina grave at the centre of a barrow were two bodies, one on the left, the other on the right side, and ‘each having the head in the opposite direction. That which lay on the right side was ... the skeleton of a slender young person... the other was the skeleton of a much more robust person.’ Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 68. In a grave below a barrow near Cawthorn® Camps, North Riding, ‘were two skeletons, deposited with their heads to the south, the skull of one lying on the breast of the other. Near the head of each was a small vase.’ 1. c. p. 207. ‘Two skeletons lay side by side, evidently those of a man and a woman... the bodies touched each other... the head of each leaned towards the other, so that the foreheads touched so intimately that the blade of a knife could not be pressed between them. The right arm of the man lay across his breast, that of the woman by her right side, over which his left arm was crossed, apparently to clasp the left hand of the woman, whose arm was bent in that direction across the body.’ Warne, Celtic Tumuli of Dorset-—Tumuli Opened at Various Periods, p. 62. * Vases with covers have very rarely been met with in Britain; they have occurred in Wiltshire and Derbyshire as well as in Yorkshire. I have met with another instance on the wolds, near Goodmanham [No. xeviii]; and I believe two other vessels with covers have been found in barrows on the wolds by Mr. Mortimer. ‘A food vessel” with a cover was discovered in a barrow on Acklam Wold, in the East Riding. The vase is figured in Phillips’s Rivers and Mountains of Yorkshire, pl. 33, and is now in the York Museum, but the cover appears to have been lost. Ina barrow near Little Durnford were three urns, one containing a deposit of burnt bones, and another of them having ‘a cover or lid ... richly ornamented with indentations and zigzags. This may be considered a very interesting discovery, and is the first instance we have yet seen of a cover to a cup or vase.’ Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 221. One in the Museum at Dorchester, but having no note of the place of its discovery, which however was probably in Dorsetshire, is figured in Journ, Arch, Inst., vol. xxv. p. 52. — PARISH OF GANTON. 165 their chests, the other between their hips. Beneath the shoulders of the man there lay a boar’s tusk and a small round quartz pebble. The two vessels are almost identical in shape, size, and orna- mentation ; as also are their covers. ‘The vase |fig. 77] is 23 in. high, 3 in. wide at the mouth, and 13 in. at the bottom. It is entirely covered on the outside, as well as on the inside of the rim, with lines, arranged herring -bone wise, and made by a sharp-pointed tool drawn towards the maker in the moist clay. The cover, which has a handle to raise it by, is 341n. in diameter, and has a pattern, made by dotted impressions, two lines of which run round it, one on the edge, the other near to and parallel with it; from the latter encircling line, others, placed in pairs, converge towards the handle. It will be observed from the engraving that there — is a want of uniformity in the ornamentation of the vase and of the cover, and this is still more apparent in the originals. The colour and nature of the clay also differs very materially; the vases being of a very pale brown, the covers of a very dark brown. It would therefore appear probable that they did not proceed from the hands of the same workman. In this case we can have little hesitation in regarding the burial as that of a man and his wife, who, one in life, in death had not been divided. They had both died in their prime, and may very possibly have been childless. And if so, their very attitude in the grave betokening the strong bond of affection which had linked them together in life, and all analogy leading us to the conclusion that, in their rude, untutored system of belief, that connection was not to be dissolved even through ‘the grave and gate of death,” are we to think harshly of the possible self-sacrifice which, now that she was deprived of what had made the old life most desirable to her, would, as she thought, enable her to follow into a new one him whose love had been her happiness, and to whom she hoped to be in the future, as she had been in the past, the loving help-mate, the sharer of his toils and pleasures ? Eleven feet: east-north-east of the centre was the body of a very young child, the head to W. ‘Twelve feet north-east-by-east of the A yase with a cover is stated to have been found at Stanton Moor, Derbyshire. Archzol., vol. viii. p. 62. A very beautiful ‘food vessel’ with a cover, discovered at Cairn Thierna, County Cork, is figured in the Journ. of the Arch. Inst., vol. vi. p. 191. In a cist at Danesford was found a deposit of burnt bones, and a very fine and elaborately ornamented urn with a cover, having ‘a handle or loop at the top to lift it by.’ Kilkenny Journ of Arch., N. S., vol. iii. p. 169. In Denmark urns with lids are not very uncommon, and they have occurred in Germany and Italy, 166 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. centre was the body of another child, about 3 years old, laid on the left side, with the head to E. Behind the head was a ‘ drinking cup’ [fig. 83]. It is 72 in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 3} in. at the bottom. The ornamentation, which will be best under- stood from the figure, is made by the application of a notched strip of bone or wood. Twenty-one feet east-north-east of the centre was the body of a third and very young child, placed in a shallow grave, with the head to E.N.E. The character of this grave was reniarkable, for it was sunk below the level of what had the appearance of a trench, which ran in a direction east-north-east by west-south-west, from a point about 8 ft. east-north-east of the centre, for a distance of 15 ft. The trench was about 5 ft. wide, but rather irregular, and 2 ft. deep, and in it were also the bodies of the two other children just above mentioned. On the south-west side of the mound there was at one spot a consider- able deposit of large and small flint flakes and chippings, 118 in all, and amongst them were several worked flints, four long and two round scrapers. Amongst the materials of the barrow, at various places, were three flint saws, three flint flakes showing signs of much use in scraping, and a beautifully-formed long scraper. In the central grave were several bones, all split open, belonging to six adult oxen, XXII. The last barrow in this group was a little to the south of the others. It was 54 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, and made up of earth, chalk rubble, and flint blocks, the latter principally on the south-east side, Within the mound was a circular trench, having an inner diameter of 23 ft., 23 ft. deep, and varying from 1} ft. to 2t ft. in width. It was sunk into the rock, and had been filled in again with the chalk which had been removed in forming it. It was incomplete on the south-south-east side, where a space of 8 ft. in length had never been excavated. At the bottom of this trench, at a point which was marked by a slight increase in depth and width, and was 18 ft. east-by-south from the centre, was the body of a man, about 65 years of age, laid on the right side, and with the head to 8. by E., the hands being placed in front of the hips. In the trench a few occasional pieces of charcoal were met with. Six feet east-by-south of the centre, on the natural surface, but with a layer of flints both above and below it, was the body of probably a male, from 16 to 18 years of age, laid on the left side, the head to E. and. the hands up to the face. Seven feet east-north- PARISH OF GANTON. 167 east of the centre, and just above the natural surface, was found half of the lower jaw of an aged person, and two metacarpal bones. At the centre was an oval grave, 8} ft. by 63 ft., running east and _west, and 34 ft. deep. Amongst the filling-in of the grave, and particularly near the top, were numerous disturbed bones of two bodies and six pieces of a ‘drinking cup.’ Six inches from the south side of the grave, and at a depth of 2 ft. 3 in. from the bottom, were the bones of an adult woman, very imperfectly burnt ; and a little to the north of these, and rather lower, was a large portion of a red-deer’s antler. At the bottom of the grave there was a body of an aged woman, laid on the left side, with the head to E., and close to the east side of the grave; the hands were near to the hips. Just above this body was part of a second red-deer’s antler, and a rather peculiar flint implement. This flint is 22 in. long and half-an-inch wide; it is carefully chipped along both edges and to a point; the other end, which has not been much chipped, has had one side rubbed quite smooth by wear. It would appear to have been an implement of long-continued daily use, the original edges of which had become blunted and had then been re- chipped ; for the existing edges are as sharp as if they had been worked only yesterday. There was, it should be observed, distinct evidence here of the disturbance of the primary burials in the process or for the purpose of putting in the secondary ones. The scattered bones of at least two bodies and the fragments of the ‘drinking cup’ found in the grave plainly show this; and it is probable that the wrought flint just described had been associated with one of them. © In the grave and in different parts of the barrow were pieces of charcoal ; the grave also contained some broken bones of two adult oxen. XXIII. About half a mile to the south-east of the barrow last described was an inconspicuous one, 50 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, but much ploughed down, and made of earth and chalk. At a distance of 14 ft. south-south-east from the centre was the body of a man, about 60 years old, laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W. by S., the right hand up to the face, and the left to the knees. Near the head was a large quantity of charcoal. The body was placed in a slight hollow, but on the level of the natural surface ; this hollow was not more than 4 in. deep, and was filled in with dark-coloured earth, containing potsherds, flint chippings, and broken animal bones. The black deposit extended from the 168 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. hollow toa distance of 7 ft. west of it, having a width of about 2 ft., and amongst it were many fragments of plain, dark-coloured pottery, flint chippings, and animal bones, some of which were charred. There were also several pieces of. sandstone which had been burnt, and had splintered during the burning, reminding me of what I have observed in other barrows, as at Cowlam [ No. lvii] and Rudstone [No. lxi]; wherein, moreover, plain, dark-coloured pottery, like that under notice, also occurred. These burnt and splintered fragments seem to have been portions of stones which might have been used for rubbing or grinding, as they show signs of use on their smoothened surface. Thirteen feet east-south-east from the centre was the body of a young person, probably a female, laid upon the natural surface, on the right side, with the head to S., the right hand up to the face, the left to the knees. In front of the face was a ‘food vessel.’ It is rudely formed, shaped somewhat like fig. 69, 43 in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. It is entirely covered with twisted-thong impressions, very irregularly placed, more or less vertically, except at the upper part of the vase and on the inside of the rim, where they encompass it in lines, three on the outside and » two on the inside. About the head and upper parts of the body were large flint stones, and the whole of the lower part of the body was covered over with similar blocks. Near the body were some charred animal bones; and 2 ft. west of the head were the horn- cores and frontal bone of an adult ox’ (40s longifrons). At a point 6 ft. south-east of the centre there was a spot, 24 ft. in diameter, where the natural surface of the ground was much reddened by the action of fire. Throughout the whole mound was found a quantity of black, apparently burnt, matter, similar to that recorded as occurring beneath the first body, and in it many flint chippings, potsherds, and animal bones”. At a distance of 5 ft. south of the centre, parts of the thigh bones of a young person were found: these were not in position, and as no burial was dis- covered at the centre, it is possible that the central interment may 1 Mr. Bateman records the finding of the head, or of part of the head, of an ox in three barrows in Derbyshire. Vestiges, p. 82; Ten Years’ Diggings, pp. 126, 129. Sir R. Colt Hoare found in a barrow near Amesbury the skeletons of two children, each laid on the head of an ox. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 199: 2 The animal bones found here and in the hollow below the body are those of oxen (bos longifrons), goat or sheep, and pig (sus scrofa domesticus). All of those which would contain marrow have been, as indeed is almost always the case with the bones found in the wold barrows, designedly split open. 23 in. at the bottom. The inside of the rim, which is PARISH OF GANTON. 169 have been previously disturbed, and that these portions of thigh bones belonged to the primary burial. This is, however, a mere conjecture, as no signs of disturbance at the centre were observed. In the barrow there was found a piece of sandstone, which had been used for hammering or pounding. The next group of barrows examined was on Ganton Wold, and lay about a mile north-east of the last one. The group was an extensive one. The largest barrow in the series had been removed many years ago, when a number of bodies are said to have been discovered, and at least one vessel of pottery, which is now in a museum at Huddersfield. I examined the remainder, which, like the others in the district, mainly contained burials by inhumation. XXIV. The first, and that one which was situated the furthest to the south, was 40 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, having been like the rest much ploughed down, and was made of earth. Immediately south of the centre, and upon the level of the natural surface, was an earthenware vase, around which was a large quantity of burnt earth, and amongst this, but widely scattered, were a few human bones, slightly charred, and quite black. The vessel, in shape like fig. 97, is 58 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 1 in. deep, is covered with round dotted impressions. The upper part of the vessel is ornamented for a depth of 21 in. with lines made by a sharp-pointed tool, arranged in a rough herring-bone fashion. At the centre was a grave, lying north-east and south-west, 4 ft. by 3 ft., and 1} ft.deep. Init was the body of a very aged man, laid on the left side, with the head to S.W., the right hand to the knees and the left under the head ; in front of the face was a bone-pin, 3? in. long | fig. 102]. Amongst the filling-in of the grave were several pieces of slightly- burnt bone, similar in colour, and in other respects, to those found near the vase. Judging from the appear- ance of the barrow, and these scattered bones, it would seem that the grave had been made after the deposition of the burnt body, and that the remains of it had been disturbed in making the grave. Upon this supposition, the primary interment had been one after cremation. 170 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. XXV. The second barrow, 60 yds. north-east of that just described, was 100 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and was made of sand. Just south of the centre was a deposit of burnt bones, those of a child not much above ten years of age, laid in a round heap, 13 ft. in diameter, upon the natural surface ; a piece of calcined flint was amongst the bones. At the centre was found an oval grave, lying north-west by south-east, 4 ft. by 3} ft., and 24 ft. deep. On clearing this grave out, a very novel feature presented itself. It had been sunk in a bed of clay, and at the north-west end five short stakes, and-at the opposite end six, had been driven in. Upon the supports thus furnished it seemed as if a platform of wood had rested, the remains of which, in the shape of a dark-coloured deposit (proved by analysis to be of vegetable origin), covered the bottom of the grave. Upon this platform the body had been placed, and the purpose of this unusual provision for supporting the body may have been to keep it out of the wet, which would be likely to accumulate in a grave dug in so retentive a material as the clay at the place. I must recall attention to the fact that the graves on the wolds are, in most cases, hollowed out in the chalk, which is quite sufficiently provided with means of natural drainage to allow water to run freely through it; and, as a rule, the body seems to have been laid on the chalk-floor of the grave without the introduction of anything except the clothes of the buried person. In the present case, how- ever, the sides of the grave also had been lined with planks, the impression of which was left on the clay to a degree sufficient to enable me to secure an accurate cast. The stakes themselves were entirely decayed, leaving only a small quantity of dark- coloured matter at the bottom of each hole; and thus there was no difficulty in obtaining a cast, in plaster-of-Paris, from a mould so novel, exactly reproducing the form and dimensions of the stake as originally driven into the clay. The stakes had been made out of small trees, about 3 in. in diameter, and were 14 in. long, of which length 10 inches had been driven into the clay and 4 inches left protruding. The ends had been brought to a point by four cuts, which are so cleanly made and after so workmanlike a fashion, that not only must a metal axe I think have been used, but used by a man to whom the art of wood-cutting was familiar. The length of the cut surfaces is 7 inches, and the stakes had been brought to a very sharp point. The series or row of stakes, five in number, at the head of the grave reached over a width of 1 ft. 8 in., while the six at the foot occupied a space of 23 ft. In the grave, PARISH OF GANTON, 171 and resting on the dark-coloured matter before mentioned, was the body of an adult, laid on the right side, the head to N.W., and close to that end of the grave; the bones were too much decayed to allow the position of the hands to be noted. In front of the face was a ‘food vessel,’ on its side, and with the mouth towards the head of the body. It is shaped like fig. 72, though not so globular, and is 52 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom ; made in the rudest fashion, and of badly-wrought clay. The only ornamentation upon it is a row of short vertical lines round the inside of the rim, another similar one encompassing the outside of it, and a third about midway between the top and bottom; they have all been made by a sharp-pointed instrument. In the grave, and especially near the body, charcoal was found in scat- tered pieces. There were also a large number of flint chippings amongst the material of the barrow, and above the grave were four very well-formed round scrapers of flint, one worn quite smooth at the edge by use, two long scrapers, and a peculiarly-formed flint, 4 in. long, carefully chipped along both edges for 14 in. so as to form a point, the remaining parts being left as when it was struck off from the core; it has somewhat the appearance of an unfinished javelin-head. XXVI. The third barrow was close to the last, and east of it. It was 80 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and was made of chalk rubble and clayey earth. Nineteen’ feet south-south-west of the centre, and 1 ft. above the natural surface, was a deposit of burnt bones, laid in a round heap of about 9 in. in diameter. Upon the bones, at their west side, was an ‘incense cup,’ very much decayed, but of which enough remains to allow the size and ornamentation to be determined. In shape it is somewhat like fig. 63, but wider in proportion at the mouth, and is 14 in. high, and more than double that in width. The upper half is ornamented with a band of vertical lines placed between one encircling line above and three below them, all of twisted-thong impressions. About 1 ft. east of these burnt bones was the head of a young person, laid on the right side, and pointing to the north if there had been a body attached. In front of the face, the point touching the teeth, was a well-formed barbed arrow-point of flint, 13 in. long. There was no trace of the presence of any other bones, nor did it seem that any part of the body, except the head, had ever been deposited at the spot. At the centre, and upon the natural surface, was an 172 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. adult body, laid on the left side, and with the head to W.N.W.. It was too decayed to allow the position of the hands to be made out. Underneath the shoulders was an oval flint knife, 14 in. long, very carefully chipped over the convex surface for a space of # in. from the pointed end. Large flint blocks were placed both over and beneath the body. About 5 ft. east of this last was the body of a young child, laid on the right side, with the head to W. Close to its back, and partly surrounding it, were the burnt remains of a full-sized. person. In actual contact with the child’s head was another body, its face being the part in contact; this, so far as could be made out from such bones as were still undecayed, was that of a woman, laid on the. left side, the head to E.N.E., the left hand on the breast, but having the right arm extended from the hips, and holding the head of a second and younger child with the hand. Just behind the back of this body was the lower jaw of a young person. All these bodies or parts of bodies were placed upon the natural surface. Nine feet north-west of the centre, and also laid on the natural surface, was _ the head of a body on its left side, and in front of it was a ‘ food vessel.’ It is shaped like fig. 69, 4 in. high, 44 in. wide at the mouth, and 24 in. at the bottom, and is ornamented on the inside of the lip of the rim and on the upper part of the vase with two encircling rows of short lines, made with the end of a pointed tool. There was no trace of the rest of the body in this case, nor was there any reason for supposing that any other of the bones had ever been placed there. From the fact of two heads and a lower jaw having been found separated from the other parts of the bodies to which they respectively belonged, it is possible that the barrow had been disturbed in order to put in some secondary burials, and that a certain amount of pains had been taken to replace the most important part, I mean the head, and even to put back the vase and the arrow-point, which had originally accompanied two of the interments. What is here supposed would not be without parallel in other barrows, for it will be seen in future pages that other instances of disturbance have occurred in which the bones have afterwards been replaced, in some cases with the obvious attempt to put the several bones removed back again into their due relative positions. The secondary or introduced burials, in the case before us, supposing them to be such, were probably those of the woman and the two children, together with that of the burnt body, which was placed in immediate contact with one of the children, There can be little doubt that in this barrow we have the bodies of PARISH OF GANTON. 173 a mother and her children ; and it is at least supposable that they were killed at the time of her interment; though of course it is quite possible that they may all have died at the same time, either by disease or by the mischances of war. ‘The occurrence of the same facts in other barrows, and indeed the comparative frequency of their occurrence, make the supposition that the children had been killed at the time of their mother’s death or burial the more probable. There is another explanation of the occurrence of the fraementary bodies discovered in this barrow, which perhaps may be thought as probable as that their condition was caused by the introduction of secondary interments. They may have been the remains of bodies previously deposited at some other place, and afterwards brought to this barrow for final interment. The system of twice burying the body has not been an infrequent one, and the practice of some modern savages may be cited to show that it still exists. The question is however more fully discussed in other parts of this volume, to which the reader is referred. In the barrow under notice, it should be remarked, were some lines of chalk rubble, arranged in a sort of rude wall-fashion. Some flint chip- pings were dispersed amongst its material, and also a rough flint flake, very carefully chipped at one end to a sharp point, so as to form a drill or piercing implement ; there was also a round piece of sandstone, 22 in. in diameter, which had been much used in the process of pounding or grinding. The two barrows next to be described were situated about 200 yds. north of the last, and in near connection with one before mentioned as having been removed about 30 years ago; the three had formed a small group in themselves. XXVII. The first, and smallest of the three, was 48 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and was made up of flint rubble and mould; and from the very dark colour, due to the presence of a large quantity of decayed vegetable matter, it is probable that the mould had originally been turfs. At the centre, 14 ft. above the natural surface, was a deposit of burnt bones, with some unburnt ones in company with them. The burnt bones comprised the remains of at least two bodies, for portions of two distinct lower jaws formed part of the deposit ; and a critical examination shows the bones to be those of a very large and strongly-made man, and of another smaller person, probably a woman. Amongst the bones were fragments of a large cinerary urn, the rim of which had been ornamented with alternate series of vertical and 174 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. horizontal lines of twisted-thong impressions. There was also a long narrow flint knife, of a beautiful tortoise-shell colour [fig..21]. The knife is 2{ in. long and nearly 3 in. wide, left untouched on one face and as it came off from the core, and carefully chipped along the other face, on both edges, to a blunt point at each end. These bones, both burnt and unburnt, were clearly the remains of burials which had been disturbed by the introduction of later interments ; and one, if not both, of the burnt bodies had been enclosed in the urn. The knife, if such a term may be applied to the flint in question, is one of a class of flint implements of which I have found several (besides being aware of the occurrence of others) associated with burnt bodies, but which had not themselves been subjected to the action of fire’, On the other hand, so far as my experience serves, the arrow-points found in company with burnt bodies are always calcined. This fact is at least worthy of remark, although it is possible that further investigations may reveal instances to the contrary, notwithstanding the unvarying testimony of my own personal experience. / Immediately below these disturbed bodies, and placed upon the natural surface, was the body of a man, in middle life, laid on the right side, and with the head to E.; the right arm was extended down the side, the left hand upon the knees. At the back of the skeleton was part of the skull of a child, about 6 years of age, belong- ing to a body which had been disturbed. Three feet east of the head of the body there was an oval hole, 4 ft. by 32 ft., and 2 ft. deep, which contained nothing beyond the ordinary material of the barrow. Over the hole however there was placed a vessel, probably a domestic one, of well-worked clay, and well-baked [fig. 92]. It is quite plain, is 4in. high, 32 in. wide at the mouth, and 32in. at the bottom, and has six holes, in pairs, close to the rim. Four feet west of the centre, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a young man, about 25 years of age, laid on the right side, the hands touching the face. In front of the upper part of the chest was a jet button, $ in. in diameter, bearing as fine a polish and being as sound as if made only yesterday. It had no doubt fastened the dress in which the corpse had been buried, and a like instance will be found in the sequel, where a man had been buried with six similarly-shaped but larger buttons, placed in front of his chest. 1 The calcined implement found on Sherburn Wold, and figured at p. 153, appears to belong to a different class from these knife-like articles. It is much thicker, rising into a ridge at the back, and was more probably intended as a point to a dart. PARISH OF GANTON. 175 Near the head of the body under notice were a few pieces of a richly-decorated vase. There was also a good deal of charcoal upon the hips and upper part of the thigh bones, and some large flints were roughly disposed over the body, probably by way of protection. About 3 ft. west-north-west of the centre was a second oval hole, 4 ft. by 3 ft., and 2 ft. deep, which contained nothing except chalk rubble and mould. Just north of the centre were many broken bones of the body of an adult man, which had evidently been disturbed, and to which the broken fragments of the vase, mentioned above as met with near the head of the last-named body, may be referred ; nor is it unlikely that the unburnt bones found amongst the disturbed burnt ones may have belonged to this body. In the barrow a part of a red-deer’s antler was met with. XXVIII. The second barrow was 75 ft. in diameter, 4 ft. high, and, like the last, was made of flint rubble and mould, the latter of the same dark colour as in the former instance. Ata point 18 ft. south-by-east from the centre, and 1 ft. above the natural surface, was a body, apparently that of a woman, laid on the right side; the bones were too much decayed to allow the position of the hands to be made out. Behind and touching the lower part of the back was - a roughly-made and irregularly-formed round scraper of flint, and close in front of the body was a single fragment of a ‘ drinking cup,’ ornamented like fig. 83. Again, 18 ft. west-south-west from the centre, and just below the present surface of the barrow, was found a cinerary urn, filled with the burnt bones of an adult; the upper part of the urn had been destroyed by the plough ; the overhanging rim, 2in. deep, bas had on the outside a pattern like that on fig. 54, of alternate series of vertical and horizontal lines, and is further ornamented to the same depth on the inside by encircling lines, all of twisted thong. -At a point 7 ft. south-south-west of the centre, and 3ft. above the natural surface, there was a further deposit of burnt bones, also of an adult, disposed in a round heap 1 ft. in diameter. A few feet south-west of the present centre were found several bodies laid very close together, and placed either in a natural depression in the eriginal surface, or in a slight artificially- formed hollow. These probably constituted the original interments, and the deposits had to some extent been disturbed by the intro- duction of a later burial. The first body, that of a man, was 7 ft. south-west of the present centre, and was laid in a contracted position on the right side, with the head to E. The legs were 176 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. crossed in a peculiar manner, right to left and left to right, the feet being bent back under the hips, a position which might result if the body had been buried in a sitting posture. That it had not been so buried, however, the position of the rest of the body, clearly laid on its side, sufficiently proved. The arms were too much decayed to permit it to be seen how they had been arranged. A second body, also that of a man, past the middle period of life and of great strength, was laid on the right side, with the knees close to the head of the first, the head being to N.W., the right hand in front of the chest, the left under the head. Both the thigh bones had been broken during life, and were re-united. Behind the head was a plain vase, which had almost gone back to its original clay. A third body, that of a strongly-made young man, about 25 years of age, was laid on the right side, the head to N.E., the lower part of the back touching the vase just mentioned; the right hand was up to the face, the left under the head. Laid across the feet of the second body was the neck of a fourth; this, a strongly-made man in the middle period of life, was laid on the left side, with the head to N.W., the hands in front of the chest, and clasping each other, the right over the left. This body lay about 7 ft. to the south of the centre, and its legs were cut away by the introduction of a body which I shall proceed to notice immediately. To the east of the fourth body were numbers of broken human bones, parts of skulls (amongst them that of a child), all of them the remains of bodies most probably disturbed by the secondary central interment ; whilst due to the same act of disturbance, was the fragmentary condition of a body, the head of which, with a few of the cervical vertebra in position, was found 9ft. south of the centre, and laid upon the natural surface. The skull (that of a man past the middle period of life) was placed on its left side. Four feet south-east-by-south of the centre was the body of a man, the introduction of which had no doubt caused the disturbance above mentioned. It was laid on the right side, with the head to E., but the bones of the arms were too much decayed to allow their position to be inferred. Close to, and in some cases touching, this body were numerous remains of human bones belonging to several disturbed bodies. In front of the chest were a rubbing-stone of oolitic sandstone, of a texture not unlike pumice, a flint saw, two ordinary flakes, one a long and well- formed one, having the edge along the whole of one side worn smooth by use, and a flat nodule of flint, from which flakes had been struck off, but which seems to have been afterwards used as’ t PARISH OF GANTON. j by i 4 a hammer-stone. These all appeared to be associated with the body under notice, but they may have been originally placed with one or other of those which had been disturbed,:as had certainly been the case with a pin 51iin. long, made from the leg-bone of a heron or bittern [fig. 8], and several pieces of a ‘drinking cup,’ found at a little distance from the body, just to the east of which was the lower jaw of a child, together with its right femur and a part of the sacrum. At a point 73 ft. south-west of the centre was a hole, 2ft. in diameter and 13 ft. deep; it was just south- west of the bodies above described. Over all the central part of the barrow, and above the interments, were placed, with obvious intention, a number of large flints. In the substance of the barrow just north of the centre was found a large part of a ‘red-deer’s antler. The central, and what may be considered the primary, interments must have comprised, inclusive of the remains of a child, no less than seven bodies, four being so far uninjured by the disturbance due to the secondary central burial, that the way in which they had been placed in the grave could be ascertained with fair precision. They had all evidently been buried at one time, for ‘it is impossible that, lying in such close proximity, in one case ‘actually overlying one another, they could have been interred at different times :' because, as is obvious, had the barrow been opened in order to lay a fresh body or bodies alongside or upon those already in the grave, some disturbance of the latter must have -taken place during the operation. I conclude then that these several persons had all been interred at the same time; and the ‘question arises—to what cause or causes was the circumstance ‘due? It is of course possible that they may have died simul- ‘taneously of some epidemic, or have been killed in an onslaught of an enemy. But there is a third supposition, which to my mind possesses greater probability, as being fully in accordance with funeral customs which we believe to have prevailed amongst the primitive inhabitants of the country. I mean that the greater number of the bodies were those of victims slain at the funeral of the chief or other important person in whose honour the barrow was erected. I have already noticed some facts which seem at least to imply that a custom of this kind was actually prevalent, ‘and I shall have occasion to draw the same inference from other ‘barrows situated in the same locality. It is of course a matter of ‘simple conjecture in the main; but in the questions which arise N 178 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. from our attempts to arrive at some knowledge of the mode of life, state of culture, and habits of a people from the remains and other objects revealed to us by an examination of their burial-places, questions which are necessarily or in their essence tentative, it is alike impossible and undesirable not to start theories. And indeed no sensible evil can arise from such a proceeding, unless we attempt to square our facts to our hypotheses, or allow our- selves to become so wedded to the latter that we refuse to throw them aside when they are found to be inconsistent with other facts which our investigations may be the means of bringing to light. The three barrows next examined were about 300 yds. to the east of the last three, and were separated from each other by intervals of about 80 yds. | XXIX. The first was 60 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and was made of earth. It had been used, lone after the period of its original formation, as the burial-place of an Anglian woman, the sole remains of whose body consisted of a single tooth, found just below the surface of the mound at a point 12 ft. south of the centre. The associated articles however were in greater abundance, and consisted of portions of the dress, of woollen fabric, in which she had been buried ; three cruciform fibule and a waist-belt clasp, all of bronze, the last gilded; a necklace of amber and glass beads, a spindle- whorl of clay, and two vases, one quite plain, the other ornamented after the usual fashion of the so-called Anglo-Saxon pottery. At the centre, in an oval hollow running east and west, 34 ft. by 2 ft. 10in., and 1ft. deep, was a deposit of calcined bones, the remains of an adult body which had been burned on the spot. Upon the bones, at the east end of the deposit, was an ‘incense cup,’ in a reversed position [fig. 103]. The cup is 1#in. high, 23in. wide at the mouth, and 2in. at the bottom. It has four perforations near the top, in pairs, opposite each other. The upper part for a depth of 1d}in. is ornamented with alternate series of vertical and horizontal lines, made by dotted impressions. Amongst the bones, at their western limit, was a calcined flint flake. Underneath the burnt body there was a grave, having a direction north-west by south-east, 7 ft. by 5ft., and 33 ft. deep. On the bottom of the grave at the west end was the body of an adult, laid on the right PARISH OF BINNINGTON. 179 side, the head to W., and the hands up to the face. The grave was filled in with earth, clay, and flints. XXX. The second barrow was 45 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre, in a hollow about 9 in. deep, and running north and south, 2 ft. 4in. by 1 ft. 10 in., was a deposit of bones, the remains of the body of an adult, which had been burned on the spot. Lying upon them, at their northern limit, was an oval flint knife, caleined. It is 2}in. long by 14 in. wide, and very carefully chipped all round the edge except at the butt. Amongst the material of the barrow was part of a leaf-shaped arrow-point of flint. ParisH or Brnnineton. Ord. Map. xov. s.w. XXXI. The third barrow, which, though in a different parish from the last, was but a very short distance from it, was 54 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and made of earth. Throughout the whole area of the mound the natural surface of the ground was covered with large flint blocks, while amongst them were many chippings of flint and a small broken honestone axe, 3} in. long. A little to the west of the centre there was a great deal of burnt earth and charcoal. At the centre was a pile of large flints, forming a small cairn, under which was a deposit of the calcined bones of an adult, laid in a round heap, 8in. in diameter. Below this burnt body was a hollow, tending north-west by south-east, 51 ft. by 33 ft., and 1} ft. deep, which contained nothing beyond the filling-in (of earth), except some charcoal and a single flint chipping. On the north side of the barrow, which had been removed by the occupier of the land, two vases were found, but whether in company with burnt or unburnt bodies I could not ascertain. They are both of the ‘food N 2 180 YORKSHIRE, EAST. RIDING. ‘vessel’ type. The larger, in shape like fig. 69, but having two raised ribs, is 5 in. high, 51 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. The upper part has two bands of short inclining oval impressions, one above each rib, encircling the vase, and the inside of the rim has two lines of thong-impressions, arranged chevron fashion. The smaller one, a pretty little vase like fig. 70, is 2} in. high, 3in. wide at the mouth, and 1} in. at the bottom. It has five unpierced ears at the shoulder, which have each two dotted impressions upon them, as if to simulate perforations. This peculiar and interesting feature seems to represent a time of transition between the pierced and the unpierced ears (when, though no longer used for suspension, the ears remained as an ornamental feature), the appearance but not the perforation itself being retained. ‘The vase is ornamented over the entire surface ; the inside of the lip of the rim’ has two encompassing lines, and the top and bottom of the vessel have each three similar lines, the space between the two series being occupied by two bands of vertical lines, divided by a single encircling line ; all the impressions are due toa finely-twisted thong. ParisH OF WILLERBY. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. The next group, still proceeding towards the east, consisted of a long barrow, described elsewhere in this volume, and nine of round form. One of them, a very large mound, was partially opened by the late Lord Londesborough, with what results I am not aware. They were all situated on the same ridge as those last under notice, though not, as in their case, overlooking the valley of the Derwent, inasmuch as an outlying spur of the chalk hill, separated from the main range by a deep ravine, les to the north of that on which ‘these barrows are placed. XXXII. The first was 72 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and was made of earth. At a point 6ft. west of the present, but which may ‘be assumed to have been the original, centre, was a large quantity -of charcoal, lying at about the level of the natural surface, and covering a number of flint blocks placed above a shallow grave. These flints were immediately covered by a layer of clay, 13 ft. ‘thick, and over that was a stratum of smaller flints. The grave “was a simple depression in the surface, of about 1 ft. deep, and in it -was a body, laid on the left side, with the head to 8. by E.; the PARISH OF WILLERBY. ~— 181. bones however were too much decayed to allow the position of the hands to be ascertained. Near the face lay some remains of a ‘drinking cup,’ but so disintegrated that it was impossible to decide whether it had been entire when deposited with the body or _ not; though, from its relative position to the face, it is reasonable: to assume that it was. On the south-east side of the barrow, at a depth of 1 ft. below its surface, was a most beautiful green-coloured honestone adze, almost approaching to a gouge, with a polish upon. its surface like that of glass. There is an old fracture at the smaller end, and it is now 6 in. long, and 13 in. wide at the cutting edge [fig. 11]. In the barrow were also found a small knife-like instrument of flint, and a small round flint scraper. 7 XXXIIT. The second barrow was situated a little to the south-east of the last. It was 64 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and made of earth.. At the centre was a grave, of an oval form, lying east and west, 8 ft. by 7 ft., and 5 ft. deep.. I will commence by describing the contents of this grave, because by doing so it will, I think, be easier, to give an intelligible account of the order of the burials in the mound. There had evidently been, as will appear in the course of the account, a good deal of disturbance in the grave, subse- quently to its first application to sepulchral purposes, by the introduction of after interments. At a depth of 2 ft. the remains of what had apparently been a wooden platform were met with: this occurred in the shape of a thin layer of dark-coloured matter,, with remains of woody fibre in it, running horizontally through the grave at that part. Uponit, and at the west side of the grave, lay the body of a child, of about 7 or 8 years old, placed on the left side, with the head to N.N.E., and the hands up to the face. This body seemed to have been at some time displaced and then relaid ; for one of the temporal bones was lying at some distance apart from the rest of the head, a circumstance not to, be accounted. for on the hypothesis of any shrinking of the material which filled in the grave, that being, up to this point, simply earth. At a depth of 1 ft. below the (assumed) wooden platform, a large fragment of the thigh bone of an ox (dos longifrons) was found, and a little lower still, and 1 ft. more to the west, was a mass of charcoal, covering a space of 5in. square, and in company with it a fragment of an earthenware vase. Below the platform. the grave was filled in with earth and chalk, each in separate deposits. At the bottom of the grave, on the north side, was the body of a 182 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. woman in middle life, laid on the left side, with the head to E.S.E. by E., and having the hands up to the face. At the head was the body of a child, about 6 years old, which had been disturbed and afterwards replaced *, the pelvic bones being laid close to the head, and the right tibia reversed. At her feet was another child, about 3 or 4 years old, and behind her back a third, about 2 years old. These two latter children seemed not to have been disturbed, but the bones were very much decayed, so much so that their position could not be very certainly made out, though it was clear they had been interred in the customary contracted manner. Almost touch- ing the feet of the female body were the knees of, possibly, a man, who had been buried lying on the right side, with the head to W.S.W. This body also had been disturbed and replaced in a sort of rude order, the two femurs being in their proper places, but reversed. Laid upon these last bones were those of yet a fourth child, older apparently than any of the others; but whether it too had ever been disturbed it was impossible to decide, owing to the very decayed condition of the bones. From the manner in which these several bodies were placed, it would appear that the original occupants of the grave had been the supposed man, and perhaps two of the children, and that it had been re-opened to put in the woman and the remaining children ; and further, that in order to do this the child whose body was found at a higher level had also been subjected to removal. We may conjecture that a near tie of relationship had bound together the whole of the persons thus buried in one grave, possibly a man, his wife and children; but in this instance there is not anything to lead us to the conclusion that a wife and her children had been immolated at the funeral of the husband and father. But to resume the account. Next,it would seem, after the grave had been finally filled in, and most likely not very long after that operation in point of time (for the shrinking of the grave, to be referred to presently, was probably due, in some measure at least, to the decay of the flesh of the bodies buried at its bottom), two other interments - 1 Several instances of a similar disturbance and replacement of skeletons will be found recorded in the sequel. The same feature occurred to Mr. Bateman in the Derbyshire barrows; in particular he mentions that in Rusden Lowe, ‘it was evident that the grave had been occupied by a previous tenant, whose bones, together with the remains of another drinking cup beautifully decorated, and a bit of stag’s-horn, had been collected and placed under one of the large stones that covered the grave. This had clearly been done at the time when the female was buried.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 44. See also pp. 58, 73. PARISH OF WILLERBY, 183 had been placed partly over it. On the south side of the grave, to some extent in a hollow 13 ft. deep, and partly over the edge of the grave, was the body of a man, about 40 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to 8.E., and the hands in front of the chest. The lower part of the back, which was slightly within the edge of the grave, had sunk 8 in. below the level of the rest of the body. On the south-east side of the grave was the body of an aged woman, which had been laid on the right side, with the head to W.N.W., and the hands up to the face. The body was placed partly over the grave, and in consequence the head and neck had sunk 14 in. below the level at which the rest of the body reposed. On the north-east side of the grave, and 2ft. higher than the level of the natural surface, was a cinerary urn, reversed, and containing the calcined bones of an adult. The urn was very much broken and decayed, but it was plain that it had had an overhanging rim, ornamented with alternate series of vertical and horizontal lines of thong- impressions. In the grave were some bones of two adult oxen; a round scraper, part of a second one, a ‘ slingstone,’ and the end of a sharp-pointed and carefully-chipped narrow implement, all of flint. XXXIV. The third barrow lay about a quarter of a mile to the south-east of the last. It was 45 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and com- posed of chalk-rubble and earth. At a spot 8 ft. east of the centre, and about 6 in. above the natural surface, were two bodies of young persons, under 12 and 20 years of age respectively, the younger laid just in the rear of the elder, the face of the one being close to the back of the head of the other. They were both laid on the left side, with the heads to §.S.W., and their hands up to the face. About 1 ft. in front of the elder was a third body, that of a child about 4 years old, also laid on the left side, and with the head to 8.S.W. Facing the child was the body of, almost certainly, a woman, not less than 60 years of age, laid on the right side, the head to 8S. The right arm was extended down the side, and the left laid upon the thigh. The right hand of the youngest child was close up to the face of the adult, and the left under the child’s own right elbow, the arms and knees being placed upon the right arm of the adult. The knees of the adult were laid a little over the knees of the eldest of the children, and the youngest child was placed between the knees and face of the adult, about whose head there was a quantity of charcoal. In front of the face of the eldest of the children was one half of the bottom of 184 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. an earthenware vessel. The four bodies together occupied but a very small space: from hip to hip of the two outside bodies the distance was but 3 ft. 7in., and between the corresponding heads only 34 ft. At the centre was a grave, sunk in the chalk, 5 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. deep. Amongst the filling-in of the grave were the scattered remains of a body, which had been disturbed in the process of inserting that which was subsequently found at the bottom. The last-named body was that of a man, between 25 and: 30 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to. N.W., the right hand being placed upon the breast, and the left up to.the face. The body was deposited upon a flooring of chalk flags, arranged upon the solid chalk floor of the bottom of the grave, and it had been, when buried, covered with sods of turf, the decayed remains of which admitted of easy identification; the rest of the filling-in of the grave consisted of chalk. XXXV. The fourth barrow was placed a little to the north of that last named. It was 68 ft. in diameter, 31 ft. in height, and formed of earth. At the centre was an oval grave sunk in the chalk, running east and west, 6 ft. by 5 ft., and 23 ft. deep; in it, on the bottom, was an adult body very much decayed, lying on the right side, with the head to W. In front of the face was a‘ food vessel.’ It is of the type of fig. 71, 43 in. high, 54 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom, having four pierced ears at the shoulder. It is entirely covered with a pattern formed by impressions of twisted thong. The inside of the rim has four encircling lines upon it, and the vase itself has encircling lines, having between them bands of short inclining lines, with a single zigzag encircling line near to the bottom, below which are five encircling lines. Behind and touching the head were six flints, two of them well worked ; one, possibly a knife, 1{ in. long, carefully chipped over the whole of the one face, the other being left as when it was struck off from the core ; another, having also somewhat of the knife form, is of the same length as the first, but not so well flaked ; the others being mere chippings. The grave was filled in with earth, and covered over on the top with very stiff clay, amongst which were many flint chippings, potsherds, and pieces of charcoal. Above this clay were several fragments of a vase, which may have been broken and scattered in rabbit- digging ; certainly there was a rabbit-burrow close to it. Amongst the materials of the barrow, here and there, flint chippings were _ - a ee Ell —_—— PARISH OF WILLERBY. 185 observed, together with a flint saw, a single piece of pottery, and considerable traces of charcoal. XXXVI. The fifth barrow was about 100 yds. east of the last, and, with the next, was situated in the parish of Forden. It was 60 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and made up of earth and chalk- rubble. At the centre was an oval grave, north-west by south-east, 5i ft. by 43 ft., and 3ft. deep. At the north-west end, on the bottom of the grave, where a thin layer of clayey soil had. accumulated, was the impression of the bones of a body, not a single fragment of which however was remaining. This is a valuable illustration of the way in which a barrow may be found entirely destitute of any trace of the body which once occupied it ; in this case, if it had not been for the accidental presence of the clay in the grave, there would not have been the slightest indication. that a body had ever been placed in it. The grave was filled in with flints, clay, and earth: and it may here be observed that wherever there is vegetable mould in a grave near the body, it is usually found to be very much decayed ;. but where the body is surrounded with chalk, the bones are generally well preserved. Amongst the materials of the barrow were several flint chippings. XXXVII. Another barrow in the close vicinity of that last noticed was thoroughly examined at a great expense of time and labour. It was 100 ft. in diameter, 5ft. high, and composed of earth and chalk. The only discovery made was of a single interment of an unburnt body, 15 ft. south of the centre, and placed just below the present surface of the mound. ‘The bones had been so much disturbed by the plough that nothing could be made out with regard to the position of the body. If ever there had been a central interment, it must have been situated much above the level of the natural surface, and had been totally removed by the plough. The nature of the material of the barrow was such as to lead to the conclusion that at least some trace of bones would have been met with if ever there had been a second interment in the existing mound. There certamly was no grave, for the solid rock was reached, and there was no trace of any excavation upon it. Several bones belonging to three oxen (40s dongifrons) were dispersed amongst the materials of which the barrow was formed. XXXVIII. The seventh and last barrow of this group wasa little to the north of the two last, but in the parish of Willerby, and close 186 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. to the east end of a long barrow before referred to. It had been opened at the centre by the late Lord Londesborough, who found in it two bodies; one with a ‘food vessel’ accompanying it*. I re- examined it throughout, and found the bones of both bodies replaced at the centre. One of them had been originally laid upon the natural surface, and was that of a strongly-built, middle-aged man, the head markedly brachy-cephalic. The barrow yielded no other interment, and nothing more that four round scrapers, some flint chippings, and potsherds was obtained from it. | ParisH oF Burrerwicx. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. XXXIX. This barrow, which was placed singly, was situated on moderately high ground, to the north of the great wold valley already referred to. Though standing alone, it was not very far removed from those on Sherburn Wold, the opening of which has been before described; it lay to the south-east of them. It was 56 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made of earth. At a point a little south of the centre, a rude wall of small chalk stones, 13 ft. high, ran through the barrow, in a direction east-south-east by west-north- west. At the centre there was a grave, sunk into the chalk, 10 ft. in diameter, and 52 ft. deep. Near the centre of the grave, and placed on its floor, was the body of a young man, laid on the left side, the head to N.E., and with the hands in front of the breast. The head and upper part of the body had been covered with turf, and the bones were in consequence much decayed. ‘The rest of the bones were quite sound, having been covered with chalk, with which the grave was filled. Along the back of the body was a line of chalk flags set on edge. In the right hand was held, by the handle, a bronze knife-dagger | fig. 37], the point of which touched the chin. The handle had been made of ox-horn, the impression of which, showing the grain most distinctly, is still quite plainly to be seen upon the oxidised surface of the metal. The blade had been fastened to the handle by three bronze rivets, which still remain in the holes, and the haft terminates upon the blade in the usual semi-lunar fashion. This instrument or weapon is of very thin metal, highly polished, and the edges are quite sharp; it is 41 in. long, and 2 in. wide where the blade joins the handle, and 1 The vase is engraved in the Journal of the British Arch. Assoc., vol. iv. p. 107. es PARISH OF BUTTERWICK. 187 the point has a rounded end. When deposited with its dead owner it had been encased in a wooden sheath, the remains of which, though completely decayed, were sufficiently apparent. Like most of the so-called daggers which have been found in company with buried bodies, this appears to be too short and too weak to have served the purpose to which a dagger proper would commonly be put; and this is, as it seems to me, a conclusive reason for think- ing they ought rather to be looked upon as knives, for which they are well fitted, equally by their thin blades and sharp edges. Upon the blade was laid a flint knife; it is formed from a broad flake, 22in. long, which has the original skin of the flint left on one face: both the edges are carefully chipped along nearly the whole length. Below the blade was a bronze drill or pricker [ fig. 104], Fig. 104, 2. 3 in. long'. The section at the middle is square; it then becomes round and, tapering in each direction, terminates in a sharp point at both ends?. In front of the chest were six round buttons, five of jet and one of oolitic sandstone, which had been applied to fasten the man’s dress*. The jet -buttons* [fig. 105] vary in size, from 14 in. to 13 in. in diameter, and are slightly conical in form. They have two holes worked in obliquely at the back, one from 1 The engraving does not show the sharp-pointed ends in consequence of the oxidised metal having decayed since the implement was discovered. ? [have found four like this but smaller, one in a barrow on Flixton Wold ['No. lxxi], two in one barrow at Rudstone [ No. lxii], and the fourth on Goodmanham Wold [ No. exv]. One was met with by Mr. Bateman in a grave under a barrow near High Needham, Derbyshire, where was ‘a skeleton . . . at the right shoulder were three instruments of flint, and a small bronze awl, tapering each way from the middle, which is square. Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 85. Similar instruments are commonly met with in the Danish barrows, where they are associated with burials after cre- mation. 3 It will be found in the sequel that, in a barrow at Rudstone [No. lxviii], a similar conjunction of a bronze knife-dagger and jet buttons was met with. Mr. Bateman, in his account of a barrow on Alsop Moor, Derbyshire, mentions the finding of a skeleton at the centre, and that ‘close to the right arm lay a large dagger of brass. . . close to this dagger were two highly polished ornaments made from a kind of bituminous shale . . . circular, and moulded round the edges, having a round elevation on the front to allow of two perforations, which meet in an oblique direction, on the back.’ Vestiges, pp. 68, 69. * The button figured has been a failure in the first instance, so far as the perfora- tion is concerned, and that has been remedied by a second boring. 188 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. either side, so as to meet at the centre, without penetrating to the front*. The stone button [fig. 4] is 14 in. in diameter, and is formed exactly like those'of jet, only that it has a slight ornament: due to four engraved lines, which quarter the face and nearly meet. at the apex, constituting in fact a cruciform pattern’. At the hips was an axe-blade of bronze’ [fig. 38]. The handle, which had. been under 2 ft. in length, could be plainly traced by means of a dark line of decayed wood, extending from the hips towards the 1 Buttons of this form are by no means unfrequent. I have met with them in six instances on the wolds, and in three in Northumberland. They are also made of bone after the same fashion, and in Wiltshire Sir R. Colt Hoare found them made of wood plated with gold. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 99, pl. x; p. 201, pl. xxxv. fig. 1. ? A similar pattern, but more skilfully executed, and occurring upon jet buttons, will be found noticed in the account of a barrow at Thwing [No. lx], and of one at Rudstone [ No. lxviii ]. 8 So far as I know, this is the only instance of the occurrence of a bronze axe in association with an interment which has been met with on the wolds. Indeed they have very rarely been found under such circumstances in any part of Britain; some instances, however, are here noted.: In a barrow at Normanton was a male skeleton, with a bronze axe-head near the shoulders, a dagger and spear-head of bronze, some bone and gold articles, and a pierced stone. Hoare, Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 203, pl. xxvi. Near Wilsford, in a grave was a burnt body, with a small bronze axe, pin, and a ring of bone. /. c. p. 208, pl. xxviii. In a barrow, also near Wilsford, was a skeleton, with a bronze axe, a stone hammer, &c. J. c. p. 209, pl. xxix. In a barrow called Borther Lowe, near Middleton-by-Yolgrave, Derbyshire, was found a skeleton with a plain coarse urn, a flint arrow-point, and a ‘diminutive bronze celt.? Bateman, Vestiges, p. 48. On Parwich Moor, Derbyshire, in a grave under a barrow was the skeleton of a man, ‘and close to the head were one small bead of jet, and a circular flint ; in contact with the left upper arm lay a bronze dagger, with a very sharp edge, having two rivets for the attachment of the handle, which was of horn, the impression of the grain of that substance being quite distinct around the studs. About the middle of the left thigh bone was a bronze celt, which is of the plainest axe- o-shaped type.’ Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 35. — oe PARISH OF BUTTERWICK. 189 heels; moreover, from the presence of decayed wood on the sides of the blade, it would seem as if the axe had been protected by a_ wooden sheath. ‘To all appearance the weapon had been worn slung from the waist. The blade is of the simplest form, modelled on the pattern of the stone axe, and may, it is probable, be regarded as the earliest type of bronze axe, antecedently to the appearance of either flanges or socket. It is 4 in. long, 23 in. wide at the ‘cutting edge, and 12 in. at the smaller end. It had evidently been fixed into a solid handle to a depth of two inches, and that part of the blade which had been inserted into the handle has a perfectly different appearance on the oxidised surface of the metal from that part which has been exposed. ‘The wood of the handle had no doubt remained for many centuries more or less undecayed, and so had prevented that end of the axe-head covered by it from being acted upon, by one agency or another, to the same extent ‘that the exposed end had been. In the grave, but not in close connection with the body, were several flint chippings, a long flint scraper, much used, three pieces ‘of a richly-decorated ‘food vessel,’ and some charcoal. On the bottom of the grave, at the east side, was a layer of dark matter like decayed wood, 2 ft. long, 9in. wide, and 1 in. thick. In the material of the barrow were several bones, belonging to four oxen and one pig, together with half the lower jaw of an adult Jos ‘Longifrons. 3 In regard to the variety of articles found associated with an ‘Individual interment, this is one of the most instructive I have ‘met with; and it enables us to bring together the knife-dagger and the simple axe-head, and to class them’ as belonging to one and the same, and that an early, time in the Bronze Age. From ‘the type of either of these implements singly, we might well assume it to be an early specimen of metal-work, but the additional support given to this view, from the circumstance of their being associated, is of considerable force. The fact of a flint implement forming a part of the buried man’s equipment would not in itself prove that the burial belonged to the early bronze period ; because, as is fully ascertained, both flint and other stone were in use for certain purposes throughout the whole of the Bronze Age. Still of course, so far as it is significant of date, it is in favour of an early one. We seem to learn, from the concomitants of this burial, what the general nature of barrow burials ever tends to prove— though not to the same extent, for it is seldom that so many 190 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. objects are found with a single body—that it was not the usual habit to bury weapons of war with the dead. There seems to be in this case certainly nothing that can be considered a purely warlike instrument, although I admit quite unreservedly that the axe may have been applied to battle uses. Indeed the only article found associated with an interment, and that alike with burnt and unburnt bodies, which cannot be regarded as intended for any other purposes than those of war, is the perforated stone axe-ham- mer, which from its rounded or squared edge could not have been used for cutting wood or any like purpose, but which still is well adapted for use in battle. As I have elsewhere remarked, the very careful way in which these axe-hammers are finished and the pre- sence of more or less ornamentation upon some of them are also facts in support of the conclusion that they have been weapons of war: for it has always been on such objects that people in the earlier stages of civilisation have delighted to bestow decoration. The arrow-point of flint, not unfrequently found in the grave, may, it is true, be said to have been employed in war, and to be an ex- ample in contradiction of what is above advanced. But it must be remembered that the arrow was necessarily in much more frequent use in the chase than in battle, and it may have had its place by the body of its owner in its character of subserving towards the sustenance of human life, rather than in that of aiding in destroy- ing it. Wedo not find in the burial mounds of the Bronze Age those articles which are emphatically ‘ weapons of war,’ the sword and the spear for instance. Certainly the occurrence of bronze swords in barrows is mentioned by Professor Wilson as having been ascertained in Scotland ; but I cannot say that the instances he adduces appear to me at all satisfactory, nor can I find a single case, Wherein a sword is said to have been found in association with a buried body, depending upon evidence which may justly be regarded as trustworthy. In Denmark, indeed, it is not very uncommon to find the bronze sword buried with its deceased owner ; in some instances broken, as if to intimate that its use was ended’, If ever we might have expected to find weapons of war buried with the dead, it would surely have been in such a barrow as I have just described; for it covered the remains of a strongly-built and 1 Tf it was the belief of these people that what we call inanimate objects were possessed of a soul or spirit, then the purpose in breaking the sword might be to enable the soul of the sword to accompany the soul of the deceased warrior into the land of spirits. PARISH OF HELPERTHORPE. 191 powerfully-made young man, in the very prime of life, who more- over, from the associated articles found with his body, and from the very burial-mound itself, would appear to have been a man of importance amongst his people, and necessarily therefore, in such times, a man of war’. ParisH or Hetprrtuorrr. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. The two barrows next to be described were situated some miles to the west of the last, but upon the same tract of high land, be- tween the valley of the Derwent and the great wold valley; upon the crown however, and not upon the slope, of the hill. XL. The first examined was 72 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and made principally of earth, having some chalk near the centre. It contained a single interment, which was placed in a grave at the centre; this was oval, lying north and south, 6 ft. by 43 ft. and 3 ft. deep, and filled in with earth and some chalk rubble. At the bottom was the body of a young man, laid upon the left side, with the head to N.; the right hand was up to the chin, the left behind and at the back of the head, with the fingers doubled in. In the mound were some flint chippings, a small barbed arrow-point of flint, and two sherds of pottery. XLI. The second barrow was only a few yards to the south of the last. It was 69ft.in diameter, 3 ft. high, and made of earth, with some chalk intermixed. At the centre, about 9 in. below the surface of the mound, was the body of a child, about 12 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to S., but so much decayed that the position of the hands could not be made out. Immediately in the rear of it was a second body, that of an adult, also laid on the right side, and with the head in the same direction as that of the first ; im this case also the arrange- ment of the hands could not be ascertained. In front of the face was a barbed arrow-point of flint, 1} in. long. Below these bodies there was a grave, of an irregularly circular form, 4 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. deep, which had been filled in with chalk. In it was the body of a man, past the middle period of life, laid on the left side, 1 This difficult question is more fully considered in the Introduction, to which the reader is referred. 192 “YORKSHIRE. LEAST RIDING. the head to N., the right arm across the body, the fingers resting on the loins, the left hand up to the face. The head and feet were both in contact with the sides of the grave, and, consequently, lay rather higher than the rest of the body. In front of the face was what seems to be part of a flint knife, 2in. long and chipped to a sharp edge along that side which remained. At the head was the tine of a red-deer’s antler, 8in. long, partly cut and partly broken off from the beam ; while another tine, also 8 in. long, partly sawn and partly broken off, lay at the feet. From the position in which they were found they had probably been once applied to some special use, although it may be vain to speculate what that use was. It is possible that they may have been employed in flaking flint, for the ends are worn quite smooth, though that may have been done during life by the animal rubbing them against trees. In the grave there were also a part of the pelvic bones and one of the femurs of a child. ParisH OF WeaverRTHORPE. Ord. Map. xctv. N.w. The series of barrows next to be described is a large one, and extends through the parishes of Weaverthorpe, Helperthorpe, Langtoft, and Cowlam, along the ridge of high land lying south of the great wold valley. The whole district, to judge from the number of barrows it contains and the numerous earthworks which intersect it, as also from the amazing quantity of flint implements and chipping scattered about on the surface in every part, must have been thickly peopled and over a long space of time. XLII. The first barrow examined was in the parish of Weaver- thorpe, about a mile to the south of the village, and standing upon a rising piece of land, although not upon the ridge of the hill. It _ was 60 ft. in diameter, 4 ft. high, and formed of earth, with an intermixture of some chalk stones. Twelve feet south-east from the centre, and extending for about 5 ft. towards that point, was a layer of soft black mould about 4 ft. wide, placed on the natural surface, and varying in thickness from 2in. to6in. A great deal of charcoal in small grains lay amongst it, with many broken animal bones, and numerous flint flakes and chippings, amongst which was a long, oval, carefully-worked scraper. About the middle of this deposit were the remains of what seemed to have been when first -_ —— - PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 198 placed there an entire vessel of plain, dark-coloured pottery, but too much disintegrated to admit of any determination as to its original shape or size, thongh it had probably been not unlike fig. 91. Between this black deposit and the centre of the barrow was another deposit of like matter, but smaller in extent and thinner. At a point 5 ft. south-south-west of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the occipital portion of the skull of a young person, and close to it some other bones, a right femur, the iliac bones, &c.; while at the other end of the femur was the skull of a small-sized man, in the middle period of life, In close contiguity to this lay a water-worn oval quartzite pebble, one end of which had been much used for pounding or grinding; the other end being less, but still distinctly, abraded in like manner. It is 42 in. long and 3 in. wide. At the centre of the barrow, on the natural surface, was the body of a strongly-made man, past the middle period of life, laid on the left ‘side, with the head to E., the right hand across the lower part of the chest, and the left on the right elbow. Behind the head was a ‘ drinking eup,’ in form like fig. 120, 7? in, high, 53 in. wide at the mouth, and 3+in. at the bottom. It is ornamented over nearly the whole of the upper 5 in. with encompassing, intersecting, vertical and zigzag lines, all made by impressions of a narrow notched strip of bone or wood. Immeédiately above the body, and again in a second deposit 14 ft. above that, were numerous portions of human bones, and amongst them part'of.a skull. The introduction of the body found at the centre had led to the disturbance of two, if not three, previously buried bodies, with one of which the pounder had probably been deposited. Amongst the materials of the mound were several flint chippings, a round seraper, a number of animal bones*, and many fragments of pottery, principally like those already described, and consisting of portions of several dark-coloured, well-baked, plain vessels apparently domestic. XLIITI. The next barrow was about half a mile south-east of the last, and proved very prolific in interments, Like the last, although at a higher level, it was not on the crown of the hill. It was 54 ft. in diameter, 4ft. high, though a good deal ploughed down, and made of earth, with an admixture of some chalk. At a point 19 ft. south-west of the centre was a ‘ food vessel,’ set upright, and ? The animal bones, which include those found in the deposit of dark-coloured mould, belong to a large number of oxen (dos longifrons), some of them young ones, and to two pigs. All the marrow-containing bones have been split open. O Es] 194, YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. upon the natural surface, but not near to any interment. It is shaped like fig. 71, with five unpierced ears at the shoulders ; 4% in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. The ornamentation is confined to the upper two inches of the vase and to the inside of the rim, and consists on the outside of ten encircling lines of thong-impressions and two of dotted markings, one between the first and second, the other between the fourth and fifth lines of thong-impressions. The inside of the rim has a single encircling line of dots between two encircling lines of thong- impressions, whilst the outside of the lip has upon it a series of short vertical lines. * Fifteen feet south of the centre, and about 1 ft. above the natural surface, was a body, probably that of a man about 20 to 25 years of age, lying on the right side, with the head to W., the left hand crossed over and clasping the right, and both up to the face. Above the knees was a very peculiar vase which must be classed amongst the ‘food vessels’ [fig. 74]. It has four feet set upon a round bottom; and is 52 in. high, and 52 in. wide at the mouth. The upper part is ornamented with a herring-bone pattern of thong-impressions, and below is an encompassing band of semicircular markings; the vase then becomes plain, until within 1 in. of the bottom, when it is covered over the whole remaining space with semicireular markings similar to those on the upper part, and, like them, made with finely-twisted thong. Fifteen feet east-south-east from the centre, and just above the natural surface, was the body of a child, too much decayed to admit of its position being determined’. Six feet south-west of the centre, and 23 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of aman in middle life, laid on the left side, with the head to E.; the hands were up to the face, the left over the right and clasping: it, the fingers being doubled in. Behind the head were two flint implements elaborately chipped: the one is apparently a knife, flaked to a sharp edge along both sides, one of which is curved, and is 2Zin. long and 13in. wide [fig. 20]; the .other has originally been larger, and had been broken before it was buried ; it is now 2}in. long and 11 in. wide, and is of a triangular shape, and chipped over both faces. Under the knees was a flint flake, 24in. long, very much worn along both edges by use. Nine feet west-south-west of the centre was the body of a 1 In the further account of this barrow, where no specific mention is made of the position of the body, or of its head or hands, it must be understood that the bones were too much decayed to allow those facts to be ascertained. — PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 195 child, placed 13 ft. above the natural surface. Nine feet east of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was laid the body of an old woman, on the right side; the head was to E., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a round flint scraper. At a point 5 ft. east-south-east of the centre, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of an adult, lying on the left side, with the head to W., and the hands up to the face; upon them was placed a thick, well-chipped flint implement, 23 1in. long and 3 in. wide, of knife-like form; and above it a ‘food vessel,’ 42 in. high, 54 in. wide at the mouth, and 3in. at the bottom, and in shape like fig. 69, but with two raised ribs. The upper part for a depth of 14 in. is ornamented with three encompassing ,bands of short vertical lines of twisted-thong impressions; the inside of the rim has two similar bands, having between them an encompassing line of the same impression. About the body were a few fragments of burnt bone. Nine feet east-north-east of the centre, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a strongly-made man in the middle period of life, laid on the left side, with the head to E., and the hands clasping each other and up to the face. Fifteen feet east-north-east of the centre was the body of a child, laid on the left side, at a height of 1 ft. above the natural surface. Eighteen feet north-north-east of the centre, at the same level, was the body of another child; 9 ft. north-west of the centre, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a third child, laid upon the right side ; while at a-point 12 ft. north- east of the centre, and at the same level as the last, was the body of yet a fourth child, laid on the right side, with the head to the west. At the centre was an oval grave, running east and west, 9 ft. by 63 ft. and 5 ft. deep, sunk into the chalk, the excavated material from which, beyond what had served to fill it in again, was regularly piled up, like a wall, on the north side of the grave. On the bottom, at the south-west side, lay the body of a large and power- fully-made man, past the middle period of life. At the knees was a large, thin, and well-chipped flint knife [fig. 106], the edge worn by use, 32 in. long and 12 in. wide, with a rounded point ; and nearer the head was a large oval flint flake, which also shows signs of se on one edge. The bones were not all in their proper order, nor did it seem as if the body when deposited in the grave had been vested with its flesh, or connected by the ligaments in all its parts, There was a story of a former tenant of the farm having dug into the barrow and come upon a skeleton, the head of which he held up 0 2 196. YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. to the light, saying that it should once more behold the sun ; but; the appearance of the grave, which seemed to be undisturbed, scarcely gave warrant to the notion that, supposing the story to: be true, this had been the body so treated. I should rather be inclined to think that in this case, as in others which have been. met with, the body had in the first instance been deposited at some other place, and then brought, in a more or less perfect condition, to its final burying-place. Amongst the material of the mound were many flint chippings ; five round scrapers, and one oval, left- handed one; a most symmetrically-formed and beautifully-flaked Fig. 106. 4. willow-leaf-shaped arrow-point of flint, precisely like fig. 114, 22 in. long and 3 in. wide; the half of a spindle-whorl, of baked clay, 2 in. in diameter ; some charcoal, several fragments of pottery, and many broken bones belonging to four oxen and three goats or sheep, all of them adults. In this barrow there were twelve unburnt bodies, half of which were those of children, and probably one burnt one, in all thirteen; and so far as could be judged from the appearance of the mound, there did not seem to have been any disturbance occasioned by the insertion of secondary interments, all of these as it would appear having been placed on the then existing surface of the barrow, to which, as each new burial took place, fresh additions of earth were made. At least this theory seems to account for the way in which the mound may be supposed to have gradually grown to ‘its present PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 197 size, and for the various depths at which the several bodies were found. It was in all probability a family burial-place, and it must have been in use as such fora period extending at least over the life-times of three generations. With so large a number of interments it would have been reasonable to look for the oceurrence of some article of bronze; and the more so as several of the bodies were accompanied by implements. I should not however, from the entire absence of bronze, be inclined to attribute the formation of this barrow to a time at which that metal was at yet unknown, on grounds which I have stated in the Introduction. We may not be wrong however in placing the epoch during which the mound was mm process of use for a burial-place as one early in the bronze period, notwithstanding the fact that all the objects found in it are of such a nature as were commonly manufactured quite down to the end of that time. The proportion of children is large. But without any assumption that their death was by violence on the burial of their mother, we may remind ourselves how in the then comparatively rude state of life, and with occasional scarcity of food, the number of children who arrived at maturity must have been very much smaller than it is at present. Moreover, we do not find in this barrow any instance of a child laid by the side of its parent, a circumstance we meet with in others, and in which case it seems not unlikely that death was inflicted at the time of the funeral of the father or mother. XLIV. The next barrow was about a quarter of a mile to the east of the last, and, like it, not on the crown of the hill. It was 42 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and composed of earth and chalk-rubble. Twelve feet east-north-east of the centre, and laid on the left side, upon the natural surface, was the body of an adult with the head to N.N.E., the right hand at the back of the head and the left up to the face. Touching the knees were two flints ;. one of them may best be classed under the head of scraper, though it is not of the usual form, being made out of a broad flake and having a straight edge’; the other is one of those enigmatical tools to which it is difficult to assign any certain use, it may have been intended as a borer, or to tip the end of a dart, being carefully chipped along both edges to a fine point, one face is left in the same condition in which it was when struck off from the core; they are * The implement, fig, 225, Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, is almost a counter- part of this. 198 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. both 1#in. long. Close to the flints was a bone pin, 3in. long. At the centre, in a very shallow hollow, was the body of a young woman, laid upon the right side, with the head to E., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a ‘food vessel,’ something in _ shape like fig. 69, but perfectly plain, 5 in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. Round her neck was a necklace of jet beads [fig. 49], consisting of 119 small flat circular disks, slightly increasing in size from the ends of the necklace to the ‘middle, where was a triangular pendant, also of jet!. Immediately to the east of this body, but at a slightly higher level, was another, that of an adult. It was laid upon the left side, with the head to E., the hands being up to the face. The plough had just touched it and taken off the legs, which had been placed a little higher than the rest of the body. A flint implement was found where the knees had been, and had evidently been deposited under them; a ‘position in which, associated with a burial noticed in the account of the last barrow, a somewhat similar flint was discovered. This implement [fig. 107], to which the name of knife may perhaps be given, is 2} in. long, very carefully made, being chipped along both sides and also round the ends, and is an excellent specimen of the class to which it belongs. At a point 5 ft. west of the centre was the body of a strongly-built but aged man, laid on the natural ‘surface, upon the right side, and with the head to W. Close to I found a second necklace identical with this, except in the pendant being slightly different in shape, with the body of a young woman in a grave on Goodmanham Wold [No. cxxi]. Another precisely like this was found in a grave under a barrow at ~Fimber, on the Wolds. With the skeleton were a ‘food vessel’ and a small bronze awl or pricker. The necklace is engraved in the Reliquary, vol. ix. pl. x. p. 65. In the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland are three similar triangular ‘pendants of lignite; one found at Rothie, Aberdeenshire, another at Bogheadly, Kincardine, and the third at Balgay, near Dundee; this last was associated with plates and ‘ bugles ’ also of lignite, forming an elaborate necklace; in the cist in which ‘the interment had been made was an urn. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scotland, vol. viii. p. 412. ‘In a cist within a chamber enclosed in a long horned-cairn at Yarhouse, Caithness, were found an urn, and a necklace of beads of lignite, of which seventy were recovered, Those figured are identical in shape with the beads from this barrow. -l.e. vol. vii. p. 498. Similarly formed disks, of various. materials, have served the purpose of ornaments, sometimes by themselves, and sometimes in connection with ‘other forms, not only amongst the early inhabitants of Britain and other countries, but with modern savages. PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 199 this body was part of the lower jaw of a very old person; but whether the body to which it belonged had been destroyed by the plough, or in the process of inserting that of the aged man just referred to, it was not possible to decide. Due north and south of the body, about 1 ft. distant from it, were two circular holes, each 3 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. deep. In one of them, that to the north, was a piece of the shoulder-blade of a pig ; in the other, part of a human metacarpal bone. Amongst the material of the barrow were several flint chippings and potsherds, together with a con- siderable quantity of charcoal. It would seem that a vase had been destroyed by the plough, as many pieces of such a vessel were found scattered about in one particular place on the east side of the mound and amongst the soil which had been turned over in the course of ploughing. XLV. The barrow next to be noticed lay about a quarter of a mile south-east of the last, and was placed on the crown of the hill. It was 54 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made of earth with some addition of chalk. Twelve feet south of the centre, and laid on the natural surface, was the body of a child, too much decayed to permit the position to be noted. Ata distance of 9 ft. south- west of the centre was the body of another and very young child, in an oval hollow, 1} ft. by 1 ft., and 8 in. deep, but in the same decayed condition as the last. About 1 ft. north-west of this body, and probably in intended connection with it, was a ‘food vessel,’ laid upon its side, and having the mouth turned to the north-east. It is shaped like fig. 71, with four unpierced ears at the shoulder; 4 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. The upper part of the vessel for a depth of 1?in., and the inside of the rim, are ornamented with lines, almost touch- ing each other, arranged herring-bone fashion, and made by the impression of very thin and closely-twisted thong. Round the vase were large numbers of bones of the vole. At the centre was an oval grave, lying north and south, 7} ft. by 52? ft., and 13 ft. deep. In it, on the bottom, was a body so much decayed that nothing could be determined about it, except that it was an adult and had been buried in a contracted position, Together with it, and also in a very decayed condition, was a ‘food vessel.’ There are however sufficient remains left to show that it had been in shape like fig. 69, but with two ribs, and about 5} in. high. The ornamentation, which is confined to the inside of the lip and 200 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. to the upper two inches of the vase, consists of three encircling bands of short lines of thong-impressions placed vertically. The inside of the lip has two encircling bands of the same impression, the lines being arranged as chevrons set on edge. In the grave was the head of a badger, and on the south-east side, at the edge of the grave, a red-deer’s antler. Intermixed in the material of the mound, here and there, were flint chippings, potsherds, pieces of charcoal, and some broken bones of two oxen, one a young animal. XLVI. The barrow next in succession to this was placed 220 yds. to the east of it, and was 70 ft. in diameter, 4 ft. high, and made up of earth and chalk. Fifteen feet west-by-south of the centre, and 1} ft. above the natural surface, was a vase, a perfectly plain vessel ; directly below this, and upon the natural surface, was part of a second vase, also quite plain and very much like the first in respect. of fabric and paste; both these vessels being in such a de- cayed condition that neither size nor shape could be made out. Nine feet south-east of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the body of a young man, from 20 to 24 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to N.E., and the hands (the right clasping the left) raised to the face, in front of which was a flint flake. Not far from this body, at a point 9 ft. south of the centre, was a frag- ment of a human skull, and with it a flint flake. Three feet east of the plain vase first above mentioned, and at the same level with it, was the body of a very young child, much decayed and affording no certain evidence as to its position. Twelve feet south-west of the centre there lay another child, at the same level (about 14 ft. above the natural surface), and in the same decayed condition. Just to the south of the centre, and about 11 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a woman, from 25 to 30 years of age, laid upon the right side, the hands being up to the face. Touching the back of the head was a water-rolled quartzite pebble, 23 in. long and 1} in. broad [fig. 15], which had been in much use as a hammer or knapping-stone, being worn down at both ends; and behind the neck was a long flint flake, chipped along one edge, and showing most distinct signs of wear. Below this body and ex- tending to the south of it, and 3 ft. south of the present centre, was an oval grave, lying east-and west, 61 ft. by 44 ft. and 2 ft. deep. This grave had been sunk through a body, which had probably been the primary and central interment, the lower parts of which PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 201 still remained in their proper order and position, on the natural surface, at the north side of the grave; other parts of the same body, portions of the skull, &c., being mixed amongst the filling-in of the upper part of the grave; with these disturbed human bones were some broken ox bones. At the bottom of the grave, and at the west end, was the body of a strongly-made man, past the middle period of life, laid upon the right side, with the head to W., the right hand upon the left elbow and the left hand upon the stomach. Behind the neck was a large and well-shaped flint flake, which, from its form and sharp edge, would well answer the pur- pose of a knife; and at the knees were some pieces of a human skull, probably belonging to the body whieh had been cut through in making the grave. Near the centre of the barrow, and just to the south of it, was a great quantity of charcoal. Twenty-one feet north-east of the centre, and 1 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a very large and strongly-built man, but so de- eayed that nothing could be discovered about it except that it had been placed in the usual contracted position. In the mound, here and there, were some few ftint chippings, charcoal, the tine of a red-deer’s antler, and broken bones belonging to several adult oxen. XLVII. The barrow now to be described, and which proved to be a very remarkable one, was.about 300 yds. to the south-east of the last. It was 80 ft. in diameter, 34 feet high, and made up of earth, with a little chalk-rubble intermixed. Just within the edge of the mound there was an oval trench, 70 ft. across from east to west, and 60 ft. from north to south. It was 3 ft. wide and 3+ ft. deep, and was sunk to a depth of 2 ft. into the solid chalk, the upper 12 ft. being cut through the soil overlying the chalk. On account of the highway cutting off a portion of the barrow it was impossible to examine its south-eastern quarter completely, so that the trench could not be traced through its entire extent; neither could it be ascertained whether, like that found in a barrow on Potter Brompton Wold | No. xxii], there was a space left unex- cavated so as to render the circle incomplete. At the bottom :of the trench, on the west side, were the two halves of a red-deer’s antler. ‘The lower half has the brow tine left on, the other tines being broken off. There are evident signs of use at the point of the tine and at the back of the burr, and there can scarcely be a doubt that it had served as a pick, and that the trench had in 202 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. part been excavated with it’. Near to the same place were some of the teeth and the lower jaw of an adult ox (40s longifrons); while in other parts of the trench charcoal was met with. In the sub- stance of the barrow, and nearly throughout its whole extent, were numerous flint chippings, together with a flint saw and a great many round scrapers, sixteen in all, several of them quite small. There were also a very large number of fragments of plain dark-coloured pottery, amongst which were two pierced ears or handles of a vessel. The bones of several oxen, of one goat or sheep, and of one red-deer were also found in the substance of the mound. About the centre, for a foot in height above the natural surface, the earth was exceedingly hard, with an appearance sug- gesting the idea of its having been puddled. I have met with the same kind of compact earth in two barrows at Rudstone [ Nos. ]xiu, Ixviii], and I have conjectured that it might be due to the mound having been thrown up in very wet weather, when the soil in a moist condition became puddled by the constant treading of the people employed upon it. No trace whatever of an interment could be discovered, although the whole mound, except the com- paratively small ‘portion cut off by the road, was turned over down to the chalk rock, the labour of six men and of two hard-working volunteers having been expences on Lit through a period of five days. It was the most perplexing barrow I have ever met with ; and but for my complete disbelief that monuments of a more artificial age, such as cenotaphs, had any existence during the era of these burial mounds, I should feel that it offers a problem very difficult to solve on any other supposition. It is certainly impossible that the site of a burial could have been overlooked in the exhaustive examination to which the barrow was subjected; and the part left unopened, through necessity, was so small and so remote from the centre, that nothing except a secondary burial could have been looked for there. The only conjecture which seems to me admis- sible is, that a body had been deposited upon the natural surface, without any vase, weapon, implement, or ornament accompanying it, and that every trace of the human remains had perished. That, under certain circumstances, the bones themselves go entirely to decay leaving no trace whatever behind them, I have ample * A somewhat similar portion of a deer’s antler, but more evidently an instrument, was found in a grave at Rudstone [No. lxi], described in the st ad to which description and the accompanying note the reader is referred. _ PARISH OF WEAVERTHORPE. 203 proof. In cists under cairns, where the air obtains free admission through the interstices of the surrounding stones, and in cists in sandy soil, where again the conditions favour the admission of air, it is very rare indeed to find any portion of the body left ; although in a few cases one may meet with a fragment or two of the skull or of a femur, or other of the more solid bones, serving to prove that a body had once occupied the cist. Again, as has already been observed, where the bones have been deposited in a deep grave and enveloped with mould in which there is a considerable proportion of vegetable matter, they are usually found much de- cayed ; as also where the body has been interred in wood and laid in a wet place, in consequence of the earthy constituents of the bone being dissolved by the vegetable acid of the decaying wood, brought to act upon them by the percolation of water. I have met with one very curious instance of the change which had taken place in the bones of a human body, enclosed in a split and hollowed oak tree-trunk and buried in swampy ground. Several rude coffins of this description were taken up near Featherstone Castle, North- cumberland, and no trace whatever of a body was found in any of them, until at last one occurred in which the bones were left in their original form, but quite soft: while, on drying, as they shrivelled up, they assumed the appearance of old shoe-leather, such as may be picked up off a rubbish-heap. Bones discovered in peat-bogs have often been found in the same condition, the phosphate of lime entirely decomposed, while the gelatinous portion -of the bone has been preserved. The skeleton of a roe-deer, found in Thorne Marsh, in the West Riding, and now preserved in the -York Museum, is a specimen of bone in the condition referred to. I have observed that buried bones are in the best state of preser- vation when the body has been deposited in a stone cist con- structed below the surface of the ground in strong clayey soil, or where the burial has taken place in a grave sunk in the chalk and filled in again with the material excavated in making it. I must however confess that the explanation just given of the absence of any signs of an interment in the barrow under notice, namely that the bones had gone to decay, is not quite satisfactory, for the nature ‘of the material of the barrow was such that I should have ex- pected to find the bones in good condition ; and indeed the animal bones which were met with in several different parts of the mound were all in an excellent state of preservation, some of them still -retaining the gelatinous part of the bone. 204 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. Parisu or Lanetort. Ord. Map. xctv. N.w. _ XLVIII. The next barrow, which was situated a little to the south-east of the last, though in a different parish, had been dug into in recent times at the centre, but there were so many peculiar features connected with it that I am reluctant to omit all mention of its contents. It was 70 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and made of earth. Twelve feet east-south-east of the centre was a circular -hole, 23 ft. in diameter; three feet east of it was a second, 2 ft. in diameter ; and three feet east-south-east of it a third, also 2 ft. in diameter. They were all sunk to a depth of 2 ft. below the natural surface, and were filled in with chalk-rubble, amongst which there was some charcoal. Over and round about these three ~ holes lay a great quantity of burnt earth and charcoal, together with a few burnt bones. Eight feet south-south-east of the centre, in a slight depression of the surface, were two bodies, with some fragments of a ‘drinking cup,’ and a good deal of charcoal : these “no doubt had been the central burials. Both the bodies had been disturbed, probably by the persons who had dug into the barrow, and who had left, in evidence of their work, half of a horse-shoe and a piece of glazed pottery. One of the two bodies had been that of a large man; the other, of a young person about 16 years old. Beneath these two disturbed bodies was a circular hole, 1 ft. 4in. in diameter and 14 in. deep, filled in with burnt earth and charcoal, amongst which were some human bones, unburnt. Fifteen feet east of the centre, and 4 ft. north of the second of the holes first above noticed, was a very much larger one, running in -a direction north-east and south-west, 73 ft. long by 2 ft. wide, and nearly 2 ft. deep. It was filled with chalk, burnt earth, and charcoal, and there was one single fragment of a vase init. Two feet north-west of the disturbed bones were the leg and feet bones of a body, which had been laid upon the left side, and with the ‘head to W. Close to the feet, on the north, were three thigh bones and a leg bone laid in a sort of order, all probably displaced from their original site by the opening above mentioned. Six feet south-south-west-of the centre was a sixth hole, tending north- north-east by south-south-west, 44 ft. by 3} ft., and 3 ft. deep. It was filled in, like the others, with chalk, burnt earth and charcoal, -and contained besides this the knee-cap of a young person. It will be remarked that there were in this barrow more than the usual PARISH OF HELPERTHORPE., 205, number of the curious and puzzling holes which have been so fre- quently noticed before. They are clearly not graves ; for in by far the greater number of instances no trace whatever of human bone: has been found in them; and in those cases where any such occur, they appear to be accidentally present. 'They have been met with in the long barrows of the south-west of England; but either they do not exist, or they have not been noticed, in the Derbyshire and Staffordshire barrows, so large a number of which are described in Mr. Bateman’s two volumes. It is open to surmise that they may have been intended to serve the same purpose which the vessels of pottery buried with unburnt and (in some cases) with burnt bodies are supposed to have fulfilled, that, namely, of holding provisions for the use of the buried person. Iam not able to say the supposi- tion appears to me a very plausible one; but I am equally unable to offer any conjecture of a more reasonable nature or supported by any tangible evidence. | Parish oF HetpertHorPE. Ord, Map. xciv. N.w. - XLIX. The barrow I next proceed to describe was situated on the south bank of a small valley which runs parallel .with the great wold valley, and about half a mile to the south of it. Although there are some barrows at no very great distance from it, this one stood quite alone. It was 54 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and was made of earth and some chalk. There were several interments in it, of both burnt and unburnt bodies, and it had been disturbed in early times, probably not long after its original construction, with the object of inserting secondary interments. All the burials had been made in a line running east-south-east by west-north-west through the centre of the mound. Eighteen feet east-south-east from the centre were the remains of a burnt body, or possibly of more than one body, which had been burnt on the spot. Mixed chalk and flint had been laid upon the bones and then fired, the whole by this process having become compacted into a substance nearly as hard as stone, and presenting many features in common with those of the calcined chalk and flint in the long barrow on Willerby Wold and in others described in this volume. Indeed it is quite possible that the original interments may have belonged to the same period as that when it was the custom to bury after this fashion and under long mounds. This may indeed, in the first instance, have been a 206 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. small long barrow, which had been taken advantage of in later times, when it was again used as a place of burial, and by the additions then made to it turned into a round barrow. A similar process had taken place at Westow, where a long mound had become a round one in consequence’ of subsequent burials, as will be found by reference to the account of the barrow opened by me at that place. A true long barrow once existed not very far from the bar- row now under notice, which presented features analogous to those of the ordinary wold mounds of that character. The burnt bones lately referred to occupied a space of 3} ft. square, and the burning extended up to the knees of the body of a strongly-made man about 30 years of age, who was laid on the left side, 13 ft. east-south-east from the centre, the head being to N.W., the right hand on the left arm, and the left hand up to the face. At the crown of the head was a bone pin, 33 in. long, and a small quartz pebble. There was a good deal of charcoal about the body, especially at the head, above which lay the left femur of a young person, while in front of the head, and also at the hip, was a single piece of burnt bone. At a point 7 ft. east-south-east of the centre was the body of a young child, about 2% years old, partly disturbed, and immediately east- south-east of it were three skulls, placed in contact with each other: so as to present the trefoil figure. That one which was furthest to the west was placed on its base, some cervical vertebre and others from amongst the upper bones of the body being in connec- tion with it and apparently cu situ. This skull was that of, probably, a boy, about 15 years old; the other two skulls, those of older persons, one quite an aged woman, were placed on their crowns, and no bones of their respective bodies were present’. Beneath the three skulls there was an oval hollow, 3} ft. by 22 ft. and 12 ft. deep, which contained burnt earth, some charcoal, and a few calcined bones. This was, it is probable, the central point of the barrow, .and the disturbance of the several bodies above noticed was possibly caused by the placing a burnt body in this hollow, a few 1 Instances analogous to this have been met with in other parts of England. Mr. Bateman says that in a grave below a barrow near Monsel Dale ‘were two small human crania, placed side by side, near a drinking cup.... It is singular that no trace either of the lower jaws or of any other parts of the skeleton could be seen, though no disarrangement had ever taken place in this part of the mound, and it is certain that the crania alone had been buried there. At a little distance from them was the skeleton of a child and one cylindrical jet bead.” Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 76. In a barrow at Steepleton, in Dorsetshire, Mr. Warne found an urn containing a deposit of burnt bones, and ‘resting upon it was a perfect human skull, which showed no appearance of the action of fire.’ Celtic Tumuli of Dorse p. 45, ‘these are still in the holes of the blade PARISH OF HELPERTHORPE. 207 of the bones of which were found in it. The unburnt body, with the bone pin, there can be little doubt, was also an introduced one, for disturbed bones were found about it. Six | feet west-north-west of the centre was a body, laid upon the natural surface, as indeed were all the others previously mentioned. It was that of a strongly-made old man, who was laid upon the left side, with the head to the east. The left hand was up to the face, the right in front of the knees, and holding a bronze knife-dagger, the point of which was touching the chin [fig. 108]. Three bronze rivets, 2 im. long, which had fastened the two plates forming the sides of the ox-horn handle, were within the bones of the hand, and just clear of the hand was the bone termination of the handle! [fig. 109], 1g in. long and in. deep, which had been affixed to it by two pegs, probably of wood. The blade had been fastened to the handle (which had the usual semi-lunar termination) by other two bronze rivets ; and are 7 in. long. This knife-dagger, 42 in. long, is very thin, and has almost certainly been brought to its present sharply-pointed form by long- continued use and whetting®. It is the same type of instrument, more intended for cutting than for stabbing, as that found in’ the barrow’ at Butterwick [No. xxxix] with the | bronze axe and drill; indeed, before it was so much whetted away it was probably not unlike that, so far at least as the blade is concerned. 1 Bone terminations of the handle similar to this have been met with in barrows on the wolds, at Garton and at Bishop Burton, and are engraved, Archeol., vol. xliii. p. 441, figs. 143, 145. One was found in the-tree-coffin from Gristhorpe, and is now in the Scarborough Museum ; it is figured in Crania Brit., pl. 52. They have occurred in the barrows on the moors in the North Riding, and one from thence is in the pos- session of Mr. Kendall of Pickering. Outside of Yorkshire they have been found in Derbyshire and Wiltshire, and a very beautiful one, but made of amber, was dis- covered by Mr. Spence Bate, F.R.S., in a barrow on Dartmoor. 2 So far as can be judged from the exceedingly rude woodcut, one very like this was found in Carder Lowe, near Hartington, Derbyshire. Bateman, Vestiges, p. 63, 208 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. Under the head were two chalk stones set on edge, and there were some bones of a pig near the body. In the material of the mound were some flint chippings and two sherds of pottery. — ParisH or Cownam. Ord. Map. xciv. N.w. The group of barrows now to be described was situated about two miles to the south’ of that one last under notice, and contained certainly two, and probably four, grave-mounds, which proved to belong to a period considerably later than those which have been already dealt with. I mean that of the Early Iron Age. These barrows are of the same date, approximately, and produced articles | of precisely the same character as a very remarkable series at Arras and Hessleskew, on the south range of the wolds, which were opened by the late Rev. Edward W. Bpalineeless and others, in cae years 1816 and 1817’. I will first describe the four pena just adverted to, all of which I believe belong to the early time of iron, although, from the circumstance that no associated objects were discovered together with the buried bodies in two of the barrows, I cannot positively affirm that all four can certainly be attributed to that period, L. The first was 22 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made up of chalk-rubble. At the centre, and placed on the natural surface, was the body of an aged woman, laid upon the left side, with the head to N.E., and the hands up to the face. On the wrist of the right arm was a bronze armlet | fig. 110], and near the chin a bronze fibula, with an iron pin [fig. 111]. At the neck were seventy glass beads of a deep blue colour, and, except in one’ instance, having a zigzag pattern in white. The bead excepted, which also was the largest, has a series of annulets round it, which had been of white glass, still perceptible though the glass has almost entirely gone to decay [fig. 112]. Several beads of exactly similar fashion, both as to the zigzag pattern and the encircling line of annulets, were found at Arras*. The pin of the fibula had originally been of bronze, this ? The articles found in the barrows at Arras, and which fell to the share of the Rev. E. W. Stillingfleet, are now, by his gift, in the York Museum. A short account of the opening of this very extensive and valuable group of barrows will be found in the Proceedings of the York Meeting of the Arch. Inst., p. 26, and in Crania Brit., pl. 7. * Very similar beads have occurred in the cemetery at Hallstatt, which belongs to the early time of iron. Von Sacken, Grabfeld von Hallstatt, pl. xvii. figs. 32, 37. ‘They have also been found in a cemetery at Marzabotto. Gozzadini, pl. xv. fig. 18. PARISH OF COWLAM. | 209 however had been broken and replaced by a pin of iron, the one end of which had been inserted into a piece of wood placed within the coil constituting the spring with which fibule of this form were customarily fitted. In the barrow were a few flint chippings, and a very large number of sherds, principally of a plain, hard-baked, and dark-coloured kind of pottery, but some of a fine, porous, and light- coloured kind, like that figured p. 107, fig. 91. Very little of it had much admixture of broken stone, and the greater part had none. A small fragment, 13 in. long, triangular in section, of an armlet of lignite was also found. Fig. 112. 3. 1 Li. The second barrow was 24 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, and, like the first, made of chalk-rubble. On the south side was a trench, running east and west, 5 ft. long, 14 ft. wide, and 3 ft. deep. : 210 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. In it were several sherds of the same kind of pottery as in the last barrow, and many broken bones of several oxen, of goat or sheep, of two pigs, and of two horses. At the centre of the mound, on the natural surface, was the body of a woman in the middle period of life, laid upon the left side, with the head to N. and the hands up to the face. Upon the wrist of the right arm was a bronze armlet [fig. 113] of very beautiful and delicate workmanship, and having a patina like glass in its polish, of blue, green, and olive colour. It is exactly similar, except in being of more skilful fabric, to some found at Arras. The body when laid in its last resting-place had been very much contracted, and only occupied, measuring from the ends of the toes to the back of the head, a space of 85in. About and beneath the hips were some pieces of a plain, dark-coloured, and hard-baked vessel. Immediately to the west of, and extending partly underneath, the body was a hollow, running east and west, 7 ft. by 4 ft. and 3 ft. deep, in which were flint chippings, charcoal, frag- ments of the same dark-coloured pottery as that mentioned above, and many broken bones belonging to four oxen, one goat or sheep, and one young horse. LII. The third barrow was 32 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made up of earth and chalk. About 4 ft. south-east of the centre was an oval hole, 3 ft. by 2 ft.and 14 ft. deep, containing amongst the filling-in, charcoal, flint chippings, and some bones of an adult ox. Another hole, 5 ft. long by 3 ft. wide at the west and 1 ft. wide at the east end and of the same depth as the first, was met with PARISH OF COWLAM, ~ See about 4 ft. west of the centre ; in it, and especially at the east end, was much burnt earth and a quantity of charcoal, evidently resulting from a fire which had been lighted in the hole and had reddened its sides and the surrounding earth for some distance. In this hole also were flint chippings, fragments of dark-coloured plain pottery, and many broken bones belonging to several oxen, one sheep or goat, and three horses, all adult animals. At the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the body of a woman about 30 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to N.E; the right arm was down the side, the hand being flat with the palm uppermost and the fingers touching the knees; the left arm was extended at a right angle from the side, the hand being laid flat as in the case of the other. Underneath the body were several fragments of two, if not three, plain, hard-baked, and dark-coloured vessels with lips turned over like that of fig. 91, and having no broken stone mixed with the clay. Amongst the material of the mound was a well-formed, Jong and narrow flint scraper [fig. 18], showing signs of much use along one side. LITI. The last barrow of this group was 42 ft. in diameter, 1 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre, on the natural surface, lay the body of a woman in the middle period of life, on the left side, with the head to N., and the hands just above the knees. In contact with the body was the usual accompaniment of charcoal. Amongst the material of the mound were a very well-made small oval flint seraper; pieces of two or three vessels of pottery of the same kind as that found in the last barrow; the tine of a red-deer’s antler, 44 in. long, cut off from the horn, and rubbed smooth towards the point as if by use ; and several split bones of oxen. There was nothing in these four barrows to show that they belonged to a period different from that of the ordinary class, so many of which have been already described, except the glass beads, the fibula and the armlets; the occurrence of the bones of the horse is also unusual, though it has occasionally been met with in the barrows. The bodies were in the contracted position so universal throughout the burials of the wolds; the usual accompaniments of charcoal, flint chippings and potsherds were found here also ; and, although the pottery was of a different ware from that of which the common cinerary urns, ‘food vessels,’ and ‘ drinking cups’ are made, yet I have met with the same kind of hard, well-baked, dark- coloured, plain pottery in barrows of the ordinary kind. The holes P22 eles YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. too were like those which have been so often noticed, except that one -had been made use of for lighting a large fire in, and that they contained more animal bones, potsherds, and chippings of flint than perhaps is common. Had the bodies occurred without the necklace, fibula, or armlets, I should not have hesitated the least about classing these four barrows with the other barrows in the immediate vicinity, which were of the time of stone, or more probably of bronze, and contained implements of flint and earthenware vessels of the ordinary round barrow type. This important inference may perhaps not unfairly be deduced from these facts :—That no new people had come in with iron, but that acquaintance with and use of this metal were gradually developed amongst an originally bronze-using people,.: either according to the natural process of improvement characteristic of man, or through knowledge gained by contact and intercourse, in whatever way, with people who had already attained to a higher grade of civilisation. The number of burials discovered in Britain which may be attributed with any certainty to the early time of the use of iron is very small, and this contrasts strongly with what is found to be the case in some parts of Germany, in Switzerland, France and Italy, and seems to imply that the period which elapsed between the introduction of iron and the time when Britain became more or less under Roman rule and influence was but short. Still, even upon this supposition, it is difficult to account for the paucity of burials belonging to the time in question. A greater number seem to have been discovered in Yorkshire than in all the rest of England '. © There is a oct 5 in connection with the form of skull of the aCe of the Early Iron Age which it may be well to notice here—it is dolicho-cephalic; nor does it differ from many of the skulls which have been found in some of the barrows belonging to a time ante- cedent to the introduction of iron into Britain, and in those barrows discovered with other skulls of a markedly brachy-cephalie type. An explanation of this has suggested itself to me, which however I lay before the reader with some hesitation. It has been held by most of those who have considered the subject that the form of skull belonging to the earliest occupants of the country in neolithie times is a typically dolicho-cephalic one. In this I entirely agree, ~~? An account of all the burials of the period in question with which I am Ba i rte will be found in the Introduction, p. 50 n. —— PARISH OF COWLAM. 213. as will be seen in other parts of this volume where the subject is more fully discussed. This long-headed race appears to have been intruded upon and conquered by a round-headed one, probably possessing a knowledge of bronze, to which in part may have been due the success of their invasion. That these conquerors did not extirpate the long-headed people is evident from the abundant remains of the latter found in the barrows of the time of bronze; and it would appear that ultimately the two races became so mixed up and connected as to form one people. If this was the case, by a natural process the more numerous race would in the end absorb the other, until at length, with some exceptions to be accounted for by well-known laws, the whole population would become one, not only in the accidents of civilisation and government, but practically in blood also. In this way it appears to me that we may account for the skull type of the Early Iron Age without the necessity of requiring any immigration into Britain or its conquest after the time of the presumed occupation by the bronze-using round-headed people already referred to. It may well have happened that a more numerous population was conquered by a smaller body of better- armed invaders, but that in course of time the former absorbed the latter, so that at last they became the sole inhabitants of the country; and thus, without any fresh invasion of a long-headed race, we may have Britain again in the Early Iron Age occupied by a people who, so far as the form of head is concerned, seem to represent the earlier if not the original possessors of the land. LIV. The next barrow, which was placed closely adjoining the three first of the group just described, but which I assign to an earlier date, was 50 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and made of earth and chalk. At the centre, laid on the right side, upon the natural surface, was the body, probably of a woman past the middle period of life, the head of which was to 8.S.W.; the right hand being under the head, the left arm extended down the side, and the hand on the hips. At the feet was much charcoal. In the substance of the mound there were a few flint chippings, a great many potsherds, and a single bone of goat or sheep. LV. This barrow was one of a small group of three, the largest of which still remains unopened, on account of its being planted with trees. They are situated not quite a quarter of a mile to the south of the five last mentioned. The first one opened was 46 ft. 214 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre there was an oval grave, north-west by south-east, 7 ft. in the longer diameter, 4 ft. wide, and 23 ft. deep. In it was the body of an adult, laid on the left side, with the head to 8.E., the right hand up to the face, and the left on the chest. In the making of this grave a burnt adult body and the unburnt one of a child had been dis- placed; remains of both, together with pieces of a ‘drinking cup’ and of a cinerary urn, being found in the filling-in of the grave. LVI. Close to this was another barrow, 50 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre, in a slight hollow, 44 by 4 ft. and only 4 in. deep, were two bodies. The first, an adult male between 24 and 30 years of age, was laid on the right side, and had the head to N.W., the right hand being in front of the face but not close to it, the left arm extended and with the fingers touching the knees. Between the right hand and the face was a vessel of pottery, so much decayed that nothing more can be made out with regard to it than that it appears to have been of the type of ‘food vessel,’ of small size and covered over the whole sur- face with a pattern of an irregularly-reticulated character made by a sharp-pointed tool. The head of the second body, also that of a man about the same age as the first, almost touched the vase, and was to S.E.; the body was laid on the left side, and with the hands up to the face. Under this body was a large quantity of dark- coloured matter like decayed wood, and it is probable that in this, as in other cases, the body had been placed upon wooden planks. Close to these two bodies were some scattered bones of an adult male and of a child. In the material of the barrow were a few bones of ox, some flint chipping’s, and one potsherd. From the position of these two bodies, interred in the same grave and with their heads almost in contact, it seems reasonable to infer that it was the burial-place of two persons nearly related, and probably, from their age, brothers. It would seem from the fact that some bones of a man and child were found close to the two bodies that they had been secondary interments, and that the first occupants of the barrow had been disturbed for their burial. LVII. The next barrow, which lay about half a mile to the north-west of the four lately described and attributed to the Early Tron Age, had never been ploughed over. It was 56 ft. in diameter, 6 ft. high, and made of earth. The greater part of the northern ———<. -—- = PARISH OF COWLAM. 215 half of it had however been removed for the purpose of laying the material on the land, but nothing calling for notice had been at that time observed. Still, the natural surface had never been reached, and hence the burials in the part of the mound specified had not been destroyed. It was one of the most prolific barrows in regard to the number of interments that I have opened, and it pre- sented a number of very interesting, though enigmatical, features. In consequence of the removal of the earth down to within a very short distance of the bodies at the part above referred to they were much decayed; but there was no difficulty in making out how they had been placed, as to all the main particulars, although in some respects, such as the position of the hands and arms, it was not in all cases possible to discover with absolute precision the direction in which they had been laid. About 16 ft. north-west of the centre, and upon the level of the natural surface, was a body, probably of a female past the middle period of life, laid on the left side, with the head to N., the arms standing out from the side and almost parallel with the thigh bones. Close to the fingers and knees, which were near together, was the head of a second body, that of a girl of about 18 years of age, also laid on the left side, with the head to 8.; this body had either been disturbed and re- laid in a sort of rude order, or had been an imperfect skeleton when buried, some of the bones being absent; which may be accounted for, not on the ground of decay, but either from their not having been replaced with the rest, or from their never having been in the barrow at all. Close to this body were some fragments of pottery, and upon the right femur was placed the tusk of a boar, split and sharpened at the edge by rubbing, and forming what had no doubt served the purposes of a knife’. I have seen similar imple- ments made from boars’ tusks, and associated with bronze swords, spear-heads, and the like, which were found in a cave at Heathery Burn, near Stanhope, in the county of Durham. It lay in front of the chest of the first body, and may have been interred with it, although lying on the thigh bone of the other. Below these bodies, a hollow, 3 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. deep, was disclosed, which contained, at a level equidistant from the bottom and the surface, the body of a man between 24 and 30 years of age, laid upon the * Mr. Bateman records the finding of a like article in Derbyshire. ‘Upon a pave- ment of thin flat stones ...lay the skeleton of a tall and strongly-built man... . Near his feet was the tusk of a large boar, rubbed down on the inner surface to about half the natural thickness.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 131. 216 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. right side, and having the head to W.S.W., the hands being up to the face. Upon the surface of this grave, as well as immediately beneath and about the two bodies first named, was a great deal of charcoal, many broken human bones, and numerous fragments of pottery. Two feet north-west of the two bodies first named, and a little above their level, was a pavement of small thin slabs of chalk, extending in a direction north-west by south-east for a length of 93 ft., with a width of 33 ft. Upon this pavement several bodies were laid. At its south-eastern extremity, and ata distance of about 2 ft. from the two bodies first discovered, was the body of a person of doubtful sex past middle age, deposited upon the left side, and with the head to E. Close to the back of the head of this was the head of a second body, much disturbed and decayed, and not other- . wise admitting of identification of position. Touching the knees of the first was the back of the head of a third body, that of a man past the middle period of life, laid upon the right side, and with the head to S.W.; while upon the hips of the same first body was the upper part of a fourth, an adult, laid on the left side, and with the head to E. The hips of a fifth skeleton were close to the hips of the first; no head in connection with it was however to be found ; the body, so far as any portion of it had ever been laid there, having been placed on the right side. These bodies. occupied a space extending to a distance of 27 ft. from the centre, in a north- western direction, and from the displaced condition of the bones they appeared (as has been already remarked) to have been dis- turbed and then replaced, if not brought from some previous place of burial. Some sort of order had been observed in the disposi- tion or replacement, but many of the bones were not laid in their proper positions, and some were altogether wanting. So far as could be ascertained, the hands seemed to have been placed up to the heads. It is not very easy to understand the cause of this extensive disturbance ; for it was not called for in the process of excavating the shallow grave disclosed. It is of course possible that the body first mentioned was an introduced one, and that the displacement recorded may have been due to that burial. The pavement too may have been there from the first, and the original interments deposited upon it. It is however possible, indeed probable, that the fragmentary and disturbed condition of these bodies, as well as of those presently to be described, may be due to quite another cause than that just mentioned, the probability of which will be discussed later on. ———— PARISH OF COWLAM, 217 After having completed the examination of this part of the mound, I then proceeded to remove all the south side, as also such part of the north side as had not been already carted away. During this process a large number of burials were met with, the majority showing the same signs of displacement and imperfectness as those already described. It will perhaps be best to commence any de- tailed account by beginning at the centre, and describing the several interments as they occurred with reference to that point. Upon the natural surface and at the centre were the remains of a body, that of a young man of strong make, which had been dis- turbed and replaced. It was laid upon the might side, the head being to E. There was no lower jaw present, the elbow end of the right humerus touched the face, and the knee end of the right femur was also close to the face, the tibias were laid alongside the femurs, but reversed, and the ball of the left femur was not in the socket of the hip-bone, and was also turned outwards. In front of and almost touching the face was the head of a hammer made from the burr end of a red-deer’s antler! [fig. 33]. It has been formed out of a shed horn, the brow tine having been cut off. Through that part of the horn a roughly-cireular hole, 2 in. in diameter, has been pierced to admit the handle, and the horn has been cut off at a distance of 6 in. from the burr end. From the 1 Somewhat similar implements have occurred in Derbyshire and Wiltshire, and I have found one in a cairn in Westmoreland. Mr. Bateman records that ‘a skeleton in a cist had in the angle of the knees a hammer-head ingeniously constructed out of the lower part of the horn of a noble red-deer: one end of this instrument is rounded and polished, the other is cut into a diamond pattern similar to the wafer-stamps used by attorneys.’ With the same interment were associated two boar’s-tusks, two flint arrow-points, two flint axes polished at the cutting edges, two ‘spear-heads’ of flint, two flint ‘knives polished on the edge, one of them serrated on the back, and a drink- ing cup. Vestiges, p. 42. Sir R. Colt Hoare found at Cop Head, near Warminster, at the south-east side of a barrow, a skeleton, with which were deposited ‘some frag- ments of stags’ horns, the butt-end of one of which had been cut off and perforated, and from its appearance used asa hammer’ Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 68. The Rev. W. C. Lukis, M.A., F.S.A., met with a hammer of deer’s-horn, not very unlike that noticed in the text, in a barrow at Collingbourne Ducis, Wiltshire; it was deposited with a burnt body, which appeared to have been placed in a hollowed tree-trunk, the hammer being laid by the side of the bones. Wiltshire Archzol. Magazine, vol. x. p- 96, pl. iii. fig. 4. One not very unlike the Cowlam specimen was discovered with a skeleton, a bronze sword, &c., in a cist at Veuxhaulles, Cote d’Or. Les Sépultures anté-historiques de Veuxhaulles, par Ed. Flouest. Matériaux pour l’Histoire primi- tive de Homme, 2nd Sér., vol. iv. p. 265, pl. xx. fig. 1. Deer’s-horn hammers have been found in considerable numbers in various places where the circumstances of their deposit have been such as to tend to their preserva- tion, as for example in the rivers Thames and Seine, in peat-mosses in Denmark, and on the site of the Swiss Lake Dwellings. Indeed, as might be expected, the antler of the red-deer was very freely used both by the people of the Stone and Bronze Age as a material in the manufacture of several different implements. 218 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. marks of the cutting, and the way in which the brow tine has been removed and the hole pierced through, flint tools appear to have been used in forming the implement; and most of the cuts seem as if made by a flint saw, rather than with a sharp-edged flake, although some few of them may be due to the employment of the last-named implement. The hammer shows signs of having been much used, the part from whence the brow tine springs and the burr at the same place being worn quite smooth. The other end is also much smoothened at the edges, and has been splintered in four places. It must therefore have been in constant use, for no merely occasional employment could have worn away the burr and the part of the horn near it to the extent described, and hence it would appear that it may be more safely regarded as an implement rather than a weapon ; and if a suggestion may be hazarded, I should be inclined to suppose that it may have been an instrument with which flint flakes were struck off from the block, in the first process of the fabrication of implements of that material. Six feet east of the centre and upon the natural surface, were numerous fragments of - dark-coloured, plain pottery, lying close together, and which had probably, at the time of deposit, constituted an entire vessel. Ten feet south-east of the centre was a hole, 23 ft. in diameter and 1i ft. deep, containing nothing but the same material as that of the mound itself. Six feet west of the centre, and about 1 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a young person, laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W.; behind the head was a round flint seraper. Six feet north of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the body of an adult, almost certainly a female ; it was laid upon the left side, the head to E., the right arm was extended at a right angle from the side, and the left hand was up to the face; under the hips was a very beautifully-made willow- leaf-shaped arrow-point of flint [fig. 27], 1 in. long and { in. wide. The ankle end of the right tibia was placed in contact with the hip, and in company with it was an astragalus; the left tibia was in its proper position ; the head of the right femur had the ball end out of the socket, and was turned outwards; all these displacements showing that some, at all events, of the bones had been relaid. There can be little doubt that the body was that of a woman, and therefore the occurrence of an arrow-point associated with the in- terment is remarkable. The body however had unquestionably been at one time disturbed and replaced, and it is more than pro- bable that the arrow-point had no connection with it beyond its PARISH OF COWLAM. 219 accidental position near the bones. At a distance of 4 ft. north- west from the head of this body was the head of another, that of an aged female, laid on the right side, the head to W., with a bone- pin in front of the face, and having none of the bones of the body associated with it. The head in question was itself laid upon the upper part of the thigh-bones of another body, that of a small and slightly-made man in the middle period of life. This last body was laid on the right side, with the head to W.S.W., and the hands up to the face. There was but one femur and one iliac bone, but neither of the tibias seemed ever to have been disturbed. All these bodies had a good deal of charcoal about them, and were deposited upon the natural surface. Two feet north-east from the head of the last body was that of a child, laid on its left side, and with the head to 8.S.E. About 23 ft. north from the same body was another child, laid on the right side, the head to E., but, un- like the rest, placed at a height of about 1 ft. above the natural surface. A little to the west of it, but at a lower level, was a body without a head and laid on the right side, the hands being placed in front of where the head naturally would have been, and which, if present, would have pointed to W.S.W. This body, which was that of a large man, and certainly not that to which the separate head above mentioned had belonged, was laid about 6 in. above the natural surface, and the knees were about 1 ft. to the rear of the head of the body, on the thigh-bones of which the bodiless head was placed. Upon the hips of the child first mentioned was the head of another child, the bones of which were so much decayed, that nothing more could be made out as to its position beyond the fact that the head was to S.E. The whole of the burials, these last mentioned as well as those found on the north side of the barrow laid upon the pavement, were placed more or less in a line running south-east by north-west. A vessel of pottery was discovered, reversed, and not near any interment, at a point 24 ft. south-west of the centre and just above the natural surface. It is of rather peculiar shape, not unlike the lower half of fig. 69, 22 in. high, 42 in. wide at the mouth, and 2% in. at the bottom; the upper part for an inch in depth is orna- mented with irregularly-formed twisted-thong impressions, placed roughly herring-bone fashion. A very large number of flint flakes ‘and chippings were found dispersed throughout the barrow, besides two arrow-points, one a beautifully-formed example [fig. 114], 13 in. long and 2 in. wide, the other smaller and less elongated. There were 220 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. dispersed, at various places in the mound, twelve round scrapers ; two drills, one [fig. 23] a long and narrow one; a cube of flint, 14 in. square [fig. 26], which has one face partly. ground smooth, having probably been used as a polisher; a piece of oolitic sandstone, show-. ing signs of use in rubbing or grinding; an oval water-rolled quartzite pebble, worn at the ends by hammering or pounding; together with several burnt and broken stones having a smoothened surface, and which I have met with in the same condition in other barrows. A curious stone, flat and not unlike a shoemaker’s lapstone, was also found; it has been very much used in rubbing” down what can seareely have been anything harder than hide; the whole of its surfaee, on both the faces and the sides, is worn into shallow hollows and is perfectly smooth; it is 81 in. long, 3 in. wide, and about 1 in. thick. On the south side of the barrow and about 8 in. below the surface of the mound, a large bronze rivet, } in. long, was met with, which had most probably belonged to a fine bronze fluted dagger, the middle portion of which, 3? in. long, was found at the same depth near the centre of the mound. Large numbers of bones, belonging to twelve oxen and three horses, and innumerable sherds of pottery, principally of plain, dark-coloured ware, occurred throughout the entire barrow. Amongst these are many pieces of two vessels, which may have been complete when first deposited in the barrow; they are plain and dark-coloured, with a recurved lip, like that of fig. 91, and they may very possibly have been of the same shape. There were also found several fragments of at least two ‘drinking cups, and a single sherd of what appears, from the pattern upon it, to have been a cinerary urn. ; The number of interments discovered in this barrow was, as will have been observed, a large one, and the disturbed condition of nearly all of the bodies was very remarkable. It is difficult to understand how the insertion of any body or bodies could have caused the disturbance which was apparent, for the whole of the. skeletons had most certainly been moved and replaced. There seemed to be no reason for supposing that these evidences of disturbance had originated in any opening made, whether from curiosity or: other motives, in modern times: indeed the whole barrow pre- sented unmistakeable testimony that many centuries must have Fig. 114.2. PARISH OF COWLAM. 221 elapsed since the earth of which it was composed had been sub- jected to any process of removal. Nor is it likely, if the barrow had been opened for other purposes than those of burial, that the bodies which were disturbed by such act would have been relaid with attention to the due order of the constituent bones. The mound may have been in use as a burying-place for some length of time; and it is possible that it had been opened at various places, and probably, if so opened, oftener than once, in order to introduce fresh mterments, though it is not easy to decide which the introduced interments were. These appearances may, however, be accounted for in another way. All the bodies may have been previously deposited, either under or above ground, at some other place, and may have afterwards been removed to where they were discovered, for none seemed to be complete or to have all their bones in proper order. On this supposition the barrow was an ossuary, though not on a large scale, nor having the bones placed all together in one common mass, as is usual in such a mode of final disposition of the bones. Similar conditions with regard to the bones have been met with in other barrows, and though I would not insist upon the ossuary view as explaining all the circumstances of the different cases, it appears on the whole to present fewer difficulties than any other theory, and it has the merit of being in accordance with a not uncommon practice. The large quantity of fragments of pottery also deserves special remark. It was, nearly all of it, of the well-baked, unorna- mented, dark-coloured ware, of which several of the barrows in this locality as well as others elsewhere on the wolds have afforded specimens, but which is by no means so common in average bar- rows as the lighter-coloured, inferior kind of pottery, frequently characterised by the presence of ornamentation, and usually con- stituting portions of cinerary urns or other sepulchral vessels. I strongly incline to the opinion that this plain ware appertained to vessels for domestic use, which were necessarily better fired than those which I believe were specially made for burial pur- poses. This subject has been however more fully considered in the Introduction. The two barrows next in order were situated upon the same ridge of high land as that whereon the last seven were placed, but about a mile to the west of them. 222 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. LVIII. The first was 66 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and com- posed of earth and chalk-rubble. Six feet south of the centre and upon the natural surface, was the body of an adult, laid on the left side, and with the head to S., the hands being up to the face. Three feet north of this was a burnt body, also of an adult, the bones being laid in a round heap 10 in. in diameter, placed 8 in. above the natural surface : amongst the bones were two potsherds. Six feet south-east of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was a body, laid on the right side, and with the head to W. It was - that of a young person and very much decayed. Nine feet west of the centre, and 8 in. above the natural surface, was a second burnt body, also of an adult, the bones being Jaid in a round heap about 10 in. in diameter. Nearly coincident with the centre was an oval grave, 83 ft. by 6 ft., the long diameter being north- west and south-east, and 33 deep. At the south-east end of the grave on the bottom, was the body of a young man from 18 to 24 years of age, laid upon the left side, and with the head to S.E., the hands being up to the face. In front of the face was a perforated axe-hammer of green-stone!, the edge of which touched the face [fig. 115]; be- Fig. 115. 2. hind the head were two small round scrapers of flint, a flint flake, and three shapeless pieces of jet. The axe-hammer is 4} in. long, and 23 in. wide at the edge, which 1 | have met with a second perforated axe-hammer in connection with the body of a man ina grave at Rudstone [ No. lxviii], where a bronze knife was associated with it. Though not commonly found, they have occurred in other parts of England accompanying unburnt bodies. Mr. W. C. Borlase discovered a very beautiful one in a barrow at Trevelgue, Cornwall. Nenia Cornubie, p. 87. In Wiltshire Sir R. Colt Hoare found one, in company with a bronze pin and several bone implements, in a barrow at Upton Lovel. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 76, pl. v; at Rolston he discovered a skeleton in a grave, and ‘on the right side of the head lay a small black stone hatchet.’ J. c., vol. i. p. 174, pl. xx; at Wilsford he found a skeleton with ‘a hammer of dark-coloured stone and a brass celt.’ J. ¢., vol. i. p. 209. Mr. Bateman found jn a barrow near Hartington, a skeleton; laid on the cover-stones of a grave, near the i 4 qq PARISH OF COWLAM. 223 has been purposely squared; the other end being also squared. The hole for the shaft has been drilled from both sides, and is 2 in. wide, slightly narrowing towards the middle. The grave was filled in with earth, and a quantity of charcoal surrounded the body. Amongst the earth in the grave were some bones of a disturbed body, three potsherds, and a small and imperfect conical button of jet, in. in diameter, having the usual perforation at the back ; it had probably fastened the dress of the person whose body had either been displaced in making the grave or by the introduction of a new tenant therein, Immediately to the north of this grave, and connected with it by an opening 2 ft. wide, was a second grave’. This was also oval, running north-east by south-west, 6 ft. by 42 ft. and 3 ft. deep. At the north-east side of it and on the bottom, was a body, probably that of a woman, but the bones were so much decayed that nothing more, with respect to their position, could be made out than that the body had been placed in the usual contracted form, and with the head directed to the north-east. Touching the temporal bones, which were stained green by the contact, were two ear-rings of bronze* [fig. 47]. They have been made by beating the one upper part of which was ‘a very elegantly formed axe-head of granite, with a hole for the shaft, and a very fine bronze dagger.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 24. I possess a very beautifully formed axe-hammer of quartzite [fig. bce discovered with a skeleton in a cist at Seghill, Northumberland. 1 A discovery was made in Dorsetshire of two graves which possess much in com- mon with these at Cowlam ; the two were found under a barrow, each containing an urn and a deposit of Sarat bones. ‘ We cannot,’ says Mr. Warne, ‘avoid suggesting that, in this instance, it is not improbable but that they respectively contained the ashes of a chieftain and of his favourite wife. On the present occasion the idea being confirmed by the remarkable fact that the cists communicated with each other, the thin wall of separation being perforated by a circular opening 3 in. in diameter.’ Celtic Tumuli of Dorset—Communications from Personal Friends, p. 8. The same feature has been observed in Peruvian graves. Mr. Hutchinson says that in a large necropolis at Parara, in the valley of the Rimac, the graves were connected by a hole 6 in. in diameter. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. iv. p. 448. ? Ear-rings have very rarely been met with in barrows, and this, with another pair found in a barrow on Goodmanham Wold [ No. exv |, are the only two I have discovered. The following recorded instances have however occurred to me. In a grave below a barrow near Buxton, Derbyshire, ‘was a female skeleton ... between the head and the knees was a broken drinking cup. ... Both mastoid bones were dyed green from contact with two small pieces of thin bronze, bent in the middle just sufficiently to clasp the edge or lobe of the ear.’ Bateman, Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 80. In a cist, sunk about 3 ft. deep into a natural sandy hillock, near Orton-on-the-Spey, in the railway cutting close to the Fochabers Station, Morayshire, were two gold ear-rings ; one is now in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. The body, which had been an unburnt one, had gone entirely to decay. The ear-ring is engraved, Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 30. In Sir W. Wilde’s Catalogue of the Antiquities of Gold, in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy, p. 40, fig. 570, is 224 YORKSHIRE. ~EAST RIDING. end of a piece of bronze flat, and forming the other end into a pin- shaped termination. This pin had been passed through the lobe of the ear and then bent round, the other and flat end being bent over it. Thus the ear-ring must have been permanently fixed in the ear. Behind the head were two formless pieces of jet. Under Fig. 116. 4. the body, and covering the bottom of the grave, was a great quantity of decayed wood, the grave having evidently, as in other cases, been floored with that material. | It would seem probable that in this barrow we have the graves of a man and his wife. The connecting opening between them an engraving of what is evidently an ear-ring, but which has been, probably since the finding of it, flattened out. It is quite plain, and has a loop at the top. I have seen another, a similar one, in the collection of Mr, Welsh, at Dromore, BI i 4 IO Ok NA A. ae SSS PARISH OF COWLAM. 225 appears to imply some such relationship; and we may fairly assume that the body in contact with which the ear-rings were found was that of a woman: had the bones been less decayed, as- sumption would of course have given place to certainty. It cannot however be positively asserted that both the burials had taken place at the same time, and thus we are without any very strong presumptive evidence in this case that the wife had been killed on the occasion of her husband’s funeral, though it is highly probable that the graves were contemporaneous. This barrow affords an- other instance of the fact that, after the introduction of bronze, axe-hammers of stone continued to be used. In the material of the mound, here and there, were many flint cores, flakes, and chippings, as well as two drills; two round scrapers ; a broad leaf-shaped arrow-point, all of flint; and a flat circular piece of stone, struck off from a water-rolled quartzite pebble, and which had been used for both polishing and hammering ; it is 4 in. in diameter. LIX. The second barrow was 70 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and _ made up of earth and chalk-rubble. Sixteen feet south‘south-west of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the body of a person of full size, laid on the right side, with the head to W., and the hands up to the face. Two feet behind the back of this body _ was the skull of a child. Touching the face of the child, with the eutting edge towards it, was a narrow chisel-like implement of hone-stone. It is 3? in. long, and } in. wide at the edge, which is slightly splintered, probably by use; it is ground over the whole surface. Ten feet south-east of the centre was one of those enig- matical holes, so often referred to in earlier pages, 23 ft. in diameter and 2% ft. deep ; in it was some charcoal, and near the top a flint chipping and some bones of a pig.’ Six feet north-west of the centre was the body of a strongly-made man in middle life, laid on the natural surface, and upon the left side, the head being to E., the right hand to the knees, the fingers however turned up to- wards the face, the left hand in front of the face, the fingers doubled in. Behind the head was a small round flint scraper and a very well made oval flint knife, 2 in. long and 14 in. wide, and carefully flaked over the whole of the convex face. Nine feet west of the centre, and placed upon the natural surface, were parts of the pelvic bones, a clavicle, and several other bones, the remains of a body which had been disturbed, either by rabbit-digging or Q 226 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. in the act of inserting the body last described. Immediately to the west of that body, the feet of which in fact projected beyond the edge of the excavation now to be mentioned, was an oval grave, which had no doubt been originally central ; but the centre, as is not unusual, had afterwards been lost in the process of adding to the dimensions of the mound. It was north-west by south-east, 72 ft. by 7 ft. and 3% ft. deep. At the bottom was the body of a strongly-made man in the middle period of life, laid on the left side, with the head to S.E., and close to the south-east, side of the grave; the hands were up ~ the face. The body seemed to have been surrounded by wood on all sides, but not apparently covered over with it. Outside this wooden casing lay chalk-rubble, but -within it, and over the body, there was a good deal of earth mixed with the chalk. The bones seemed to have been removed and afterwards replaced ; for the sacrum was close to the left scapula, and there were no vertebre between the cervical and the lumbar region of the back bone, the bones of the neck and those of the lower part of the back being in immediate connection. In the filling-in of the grave was a well-chipped knife of flint ; it is 2} in. long, 1} in. wide at the broadest part, and comes to a sharper point than is usual in such implements, so as in some degree to partake of the character of a javelin-head. The circumstances of this interment present some difficulties which are not readily to be explained. Bodies which have been disturbed and replaced are not unfrequently found, but in such eases there is often a cause sufficiently apparent for that disturb- ance in the presence of an introduced body. In this instance, however, there was nothing of that kind to account for the evidently imperfect and replaced condition of the bones. It would seem as if the body had been interred in some other place in the first instance, and had afterwards been removed to the place where the bones were now found. Amongst the materials of the barrow were a number of flint chippings, flakes, and cores; an oval scraper of the same material which had passed through the fire; two drills, a saw, and two enigmatical articles, one possibly a knife, the other a sling- stone. ParisH OF Tuwine. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. LX. The barrow now to be described was situated towards the easternmost range of the wolds, and at a distance of several miles a PARISH OF .THWING. 227 from those last noticed. It was in the parish of Thwing, but very near its northern boundary, and close to the village of Wold New- ton. About half a mile east from it is a very large barrow, called Willy Howe, which was partly opened by the late Lord Londes- borough, but without the discovery of any interment, the centre not having been reached; while about 300 yds. to the north is another barrow, much above the ordinary size, though still not to be compared in that respect with Willy Howe. The barrow was placed nearly on the level of the great wold valley, on a piece of ground sloping down towards the north, and was 70 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and made of earth. It had lost several feet of its height, through the action of the plough, within man’s recollection; and during the course of this lowering some secondary interments had been disturbed. Within the mound, and with a radius of 19 ft., was an encircling trench, excavated in the chalk rock to a depth of 23 ft., and with a width of 4 ft. at the top and 2 ft. at the bottom. As the examination of this trench was not carried out through the whole of its length, it is impossible to say whether it was a perfect circle, or, like that on Potter Brompton Wold | No. xxii], was incomplete. The first interment met with was one of a man, laid on the right side, at a point 53 ft. east- by-north from the centre, and placed 1 ft. above the natural surface. The head pointed to the north, the right hand was down to the knees, the left up to the face. Thirteen feet and a-half west-north- west of the centre was a second body, that of an adult of uncertain sex, laid on the left side, with the head to. E.S.E., the right hand up to the face, and the left under the corresponding thigh. It was deposited a little above the natural surface, and there was a good deal of charcoal at the back of the head. At the feet was a ‘ drink- ing cup, the upper part of which had been cut away by the plough. At the centre was a grave, 7 ft. in diameter and 4ft.in depth. In the middle of it, 1 ft. below the surface-level of the ground and therefore 3 ft. above the bottom of the grave, was the body of a person of uncertain sex and in middle life, laid on the left side, with the head to E.S.E., the right hand up to the face, the left under the hips, and having the fingers doubled in. Within the bones of the left hand, and no doubt once held in it, was a small article, so much decayed that nothing could be made out regarding it beyond the fact that wood had entered into its composition. Upon the middle of the right arm were laid two articles of jet, a button [fig. 3], and a ring [fig. 5], the latter placed upon the former. The Q 2 228 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. button is very beautifully ornamented with a cross pattern’, formed by delicately-engraved lines, and is very similar to one found, to- gether with a ring, in a barrow at Rudstone [No. lxviii]. The ring is also engraved with lines over the entire surface, and has two perforations in the side, similar to that at the back of the button, as shown in the section. The supposed use of these rings, which have been found in Wiltshire and Derbyshire as well as on the wolds, will be found discussed a little further on in the account of the Rudstone barrow. Near the feet of the body were numerous fragments of a ‘drinking cup,’ which did not however seem to have been deposited with this interment, but with an earlier one, disturbed in the process of inserting the body now under notice ; many pieces of the same vessel were met with in various parts of the grave. About 8 in. beneath the body was a great quantity of charcoal. No undisturbed skeleton lay at the bottom of the grave; but part of a skull, two femurs, two tibias, and several other bones showed that a former occupant had been displaced, and most pro- bably when the body above noticed was buried. It is strange indeed that the disturbance should have been extended to the very bottom of the grave, when the inserted body had been placed fully 3 ft. above that level, and that the bottom of the grave having been reached, the secondary interment should not have been made there. There cannot however be any doubt about the fact that the bones met with at the bottom were not in their natural position, | for they were broken and scattered at wide in- tervals, In the grave, and not far from the bottom, were three small and very beautifully-made barbed arrow-points of flint [fig. 117], which very possibly had been associated with the primary interment. Amongst the material of the barrow were a few sherds of plain pottery and a single piece of a cinerary urn, a few flint chippings, and several bones of oxen and of goats or sheep, one being the core of an ox-horn. 1 On a bronze vase found, with other things, at Rénninge, Denmark, is a cross, surrounded by a border, the whole pattern being almost identical with that on the button. The vase has at the centre of the cross a dot with two circles round it, a feature which seems almost necessary when such a design is exhibited on a flat sur- face, but which the conical button naturally presents in its raised central point. Another bronze vase with a similar cross figure upon it was found at Siem, Denmark. The vases are figured in Madsen, Afbildninger. PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 229 ParisH oF Rupstone. Ord. Map. xctv. N.w. LXI. This barrow was situated still further towards the eastern verge of the wold range, and about two miles to the south-east of that last described. It was near two long barrows, the examination of which is elsewhere recorded. It was a solitary one, and placed on the slope of the hill towards the north. In diameter it was 66 ft., in height 2 ft., and it consisted almost entirely of chalk-rubble. At a distance of 16 ft. south-south-east from the centre, and laid upon the natural surface, was a deposit of burnt earth, which extended over a space of several feet towards the north-east ; amongst it were flint chippings, a leaf-shaped flint arrow-point, and a quantity of dark-coloured plain pottery of the same descrip- tion as that found in other barrows. Twenty-one feet south-east of the centre was an oval hole, running west-south-west by east- north-east, 4 ft. by 2 ft. and 12 ft. deep. On the surface of the filling-in had been much burning: in the hole itself were flint chippings, potsherds, and charcoal. Eight feet and a-half south- south-west of the centre, and about a foot above the natural surface, was the body of a child about 4 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to E. Eight feet and a-half south-east by east from the centre, and about 10 in. above the natural surface, the head being about 4 in. higher than the other parts, was the body of a young man from 20 to 25 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to N.E., and the hands up to the face. Underneath the right tibia were two much worn articles of inferior jet, or some other kind of lignite, which had probably been used in fastening the dress. One of them, which is { in. in diameter | fig. 118], is like the ordinary buttons of the period, but pierced at the back from the edge to near the centre, and not, as the buttons usually are, with both piercings within the edge. The other is a ring" [fig. 119], ¢ In. wide, and having a hole pierced through from back to front * Rings of a similar form, and even ornamented after the same fashion, have been met with in Wiltshire and other parts of England. Sir R. Colt Hoare describes and figures some in Ancient Wilts, vol.i. pp. 172, 289, pl. xiii, xix, xxxiv. Another found at Winterbourn Monkton, in the same county, is figured in Crania Britannica, pl. 58. It was associated with an unburnt male,body, three jet buttons, a flint knife, an ovoid stone with flattened ends, and two ‘drinking cups.’ One figured in Jewitt’s Grave Mounds, p. 126, fig. 176, was found in a barrow at Tissington, Derbyshire. A jet ring, apparently of the same kind, associated with an urn, barbed arrow-points of flint and other articles, accompanied a skeleton discovered in 1764 at the Grove, near Tring. Archeol., vol. viii. p. 429, pl. xxx. 230 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. running into another pierced through parallel to and just within the edge. It is ornamented on both sides with incised lines, some of which cross so as to form a saltire pattern. Although the position in which these articles were found scarcely seems to indicate the place at which they would be met with if they had been used to fasten the dress in which the man had been buried, still I think that must have been the purpose to which they were ordinarily applied. It will be remarked in the account of one of the barrows presently to be described, as well as in that last under notice [ Nos. lx, Ixviii], that a somewhat similar ring was found in connec- tion with buttons, both ring and buttons having been placed in the grave, though not having apparently been at the time of the Fig. 118. Fig. 119. 4, n|~ * burial in use as parts of the dress. At a point 4 ft. south-east from the head of the man, and at the same level, was the head of a large adult ox (40s longifrons) and a bone of a young pig. ‘Ten feet east by south from the centre, and upon the natural surface, was the body of a man about 55 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to N.W., the right hand being up to the face and the left to the knees. Large pieces of chalk were placed over the upper part of the body. Some bones of a disturbed body were found near the body under notice, and also several fragments of broken burnt stone, which showed signs of having been previously used in the process of polishing. Immediately to the west of this body were the disturbed bones of a strongly-made man, deposited in a heap, and having a great deal of charcoal and much burnt earth about them. Underneath these bones was a hole, 1 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. deep, filled in with earth, amongst which was much charcoal and a human finger-bone. Nine feet east by south from the present centre, but at a point which no doubt had been the original centre, was an oval grave, running west-north-west and east-south-east, 7 ft. by 41 ft., and 2 ft. deep, in which, and near the west-north-west end, ee PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 231 was the body, probably of a woman, about 30 years of age and 5 ft. 7 in. in height, laid on the right side, with the head to W.S.W., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a ‘drinking cup. It is like fig. 120, but narrower, 77 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The ornamentation is simple and occurs at intervals. Immediately below the lip are six grooved lines encircling the vessel, made by a blunt-ended tool drawn over the moist clay. One inch and a-half below these lines are four other encircling lines, made by a notched piece of bone or wood; a blank space of one inch then occurs, beneath which are eight en- circling lines, similar to those last mentioned. At the bottom is an encircling zigzag consisting of three parallel lines, one inch and a-half deep, of the same toothed impressions. In advance of but in close contact with the knees was an instrument made from the shed antler of a large red-deer [fig. 34]. It is 19 in. long, and has been partly cut and partly burnt and broken through at the points of severance. The brow tine has been broken off, the next one, which is 7} in. long, being left. This implement shows, by the rubbed sides and splintered end of the tine, signs of having been much used, and at the part where it has been grasped by the hand it is worn smooth’. It would have formed a most efficacious war-club; but it is very doubtful whether that could have been its use. It most probably has served the purpose of a pick as well as of a hoe or cultivator, the smoothness of that part of the tine which would have come most into use seeming to show that it had been long employed amongst some soft material, such as earth. The bruised end of the tine implies use amongst some harder material than earth, and it is by no means improbable that it was the instrument employed in making the grave, and that its purpose having been served it was placed there with its once owner. A somewhat similar occurrence may be noted in the account of the barrow immediately following this, where some large hammer-stones, with which the slabs form- ing two cists had apparently been split, were laid upon the cover 1 I discovered a number of implements very similar to this in a pit with galleries in connection with it, one of a large series, at a place called Grime’s Graves, near Weeting, Norfolk. The workings in which they were found had been made to obtain flint for the fabrication of instruments of that stone; and the deer’s-horn tools had been used for excavating the chalk into which the pits were sunk, and for breaking up the bed of flint. They were in fact picks and hammers combined in one tool. See Journal of Ethnological Society, N. S., vol. ii. p. 419. I possess one found in a grave with a skeleton and ‘food vessel’ at Tosson, Northumberland; and I have on several occasions met with splinters from the ends of the tines of antlers, which probably had been broken off in excavating the chalk of which the barrows were in part made. 232 YORKSHIRE. HAST RIDING. of one of the cists. In the grave were several bones of a body which had been disturbed. : Seventeen feet north-east from the centre, and on the surface, was the body, probably of a woman about 55 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to W.N.W., having the hands in front of the stomach, the fingers of both hands mutually touching. Close behind the back of the hips was a bone-pin, 2% in. long, laid upon four flints, all in contact; one of them is a well-made pear-shaped scraper, another a knife-like implement, curved on one edge, and } in. long, the other two are mere chippings. At the right hand was a triangular-shaped flint, chipped along two of its edges, and probably a scraper; while beneath the knees there lay a large and broad flint flake, At the present centre, which, as noticed above, was about 9 ft. north-west by west from the original centre, assuming that point to be marked by the presenee of the grave,, was a very large quantity of broken pottery, dark-coloured and, plain, like that which has been several times noticed already, The fragments were laid upon the natural surface, and appeared to form’ the remains of what had been originally deposited as two entire. vessels. Twelve feet north of the grave, in a hole 14 in. in diameter and 11 ft. deep, was a burnt body, that of an adult; amongst the’ bones were several pieces of calcined flint, one of which was. evidently part of an implement, as indeed they may all have been,” whilst immediately above the bones was an unburnt flint flake very. much worn by use along both edges. Fifteen feet north of the grave was a hole, 1 ft. in diameter and the same in depth, in which . was a large quantity of charcoal. Fires had evidently been lighted on the natural surface over nearly the whole extent covered by the barrow, and the: earth was very much reddened in consequence, burnt chalk being mixed amongst it. Innumerable potsherds of the dark-coloured plain ware and flint chippings were found throughout the barrow, together with two water-rolled quartzite pebbles, which had been used as hammer-stones; a flat stone quite smoothened, probably by the process of rubbing, 61 in. by 5+ in., and 1} in. thick ; and a round flint scraper. Scattered here and there in the mound were the broken bones of several oxen (Jos longifrons), some of them young animals, and of four pigs. On the ridge of the wolds, where the chalk range slopes sharply away to the flat land of Holderness, and near the division between the parishes of Rudstone and Burton Agnes, is a group of barrows PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 233 which follows more or less the line of the crest of the hill. There are first three, very near together and standing the furthest to the west, then a single one, and still more to the east another. Some- what to the south-east of the last are two long mounds, almost parallel, their northern ends gradually losing themselves in the surface-level, but connected together at their southern ends by another long mound. Then about half a mile to the east-north- east is a very large barrow, while other three are placed at con- siderable intervals still further to the east. One of this group, that the most towards the west, was almost entirely removed many years ago, when bones are said to have been found in large quan- tities: part also of one of the long mounds was taken away fifty years since in order to fill in a neighbouring chalk-pit, but finding some human bones, the workmen were stopped, leaving it little disturbed except at one end. I opened seven of the round barrows which remained untouched, and also the long mounds. The position which the barrows occupy is a very striking one, and must always have been so. The men who raised these funeral mounds looked on the one side over the swelling upland of the wold, bleak, grey, and treeless, their eye taking in on many a dis- tant ridge the burial-places of chiefs of other, though perhaps kindred, tribes ; whilst upon an outcrop of rock, lifting itself out of the valley just beneath them, rose the lofty monolith which now stands in Rudstone churchyard, even then it may be hoar and lichen-covered, and to them equally speechless, as to its origin and meaning, as it is to ourselves at the present day. Or possibly they might look upon it with traditionary knowledge of its purport, or even have helped to raise it from its bed, where, laid ages before, it told of a mighty cataclysm, and how it had wandered far from its original home, borne over the waves on some buoyant ice- ship. There it stood, telling them perchance that at its base was laid to his rest a mightier warrior than him they were entombing on the height above; or it may have spoken to them as the symbol of a belief, according to which their lives were regulated, and marked the place it stood upon as holy ground. If they looked to the south there was nothing but a dreary tract of marsh-land, which seemed almost interminable, wherein however, amidst the coarse vegetation and brushwood, the deer and the wild swine had their haunt, and where the beaver made a habitation almost equal in point of construction to those they had themselves the skill to form. Beyond was the sea, as yet enlivened by no sail. 234 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. A very different sight met our eye, when on a bright frosty day in November, with a strong north-east wind sweeping over the hills, we commenced opening the barrows. Below us was, as of old, the mighty stone, ancient of days; but side by side with it stood the shrine of a purer faith, a more humane teaching ; whilst round it rose in the clear air from many a chimney the pale blue line of smoke, suggestive of comforts those older people never dreamed of. The cold and cheerless wold, with its flocks of bus- tards and flights of dotterel, had given place to bright-green cultured fields, and flocks of sheep, and teams of horses turning up the rich brown mould in preparation for the golden sheaves of the next coming harvest. And just as great a change had taken place in the other direction, in what had been the dreary swamps of the old days. There the rough sedges, and rank growth of rush and reed, and the thickets of the water-loving alder and the willow were replaced by fields teeming with agricultural wealth, and diver- sified by hedgerows broken up by the varying forms of oak and ash and elm-tree. Far away rose the towers of Beverley, the beautiful minster, the creation of a belief and culture which, un- like that of the people who raised the Rudstone, has not died away. Still further in the distance, and dimly seen in the haze of the far-off horizon, were tall chimneys, and the smoke which marked where Hull, with its commerce and manufactures, was in itself more stirrmg and changing than was all the world with which these ancient wold-dwellers were acquainted. In the dis- tance still, but nearer to us, was the Bay of Bridlington, where hundreds of ships were lying at anchor, kept there by the wind which forbade a course to the north. There they were, laden with the products and goods of many a land, manned by the sons of ‘many a clime, making the whole world akin in purpose and pursuit. As we looked, the thought could not but be stirred—How much have we changed from those who, in the dark past, raised the mound on which we are standing, and which they thought would speak with no faltering tongue to all future time! How much more from us will those have changed who, thousands of years hence, may stand on the self-same spot, and to whom our boasted © knowledge may seem as feeble and as strange as we think theirs who laid beside the ashes of the departed the food they thought he needed for the journey to the unknown land. LXII. The first barrow of this group which I examined was a PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 235 that which lies to the north-west of, and nearest to, the long mounds above referred to. It was 66 ft. in diameter, and still, though much worn down by the plough, 43 ft. high; and was composed of chalk and earth. After cutting away the mound, almost to its whole width, from the south-east side towards the centre, at a distance of 25 ft. from that point the barrow was found to be there made entirely of chalk-rubble, a state of things which continued through a space of 9 ft., when the chalk gave way to a pile of earth. This pile or mound, 16 ft. in diameter, rising gradu- ally from the natural surface of the ground, attained a height of 3 ft. at the centre; the upper and outer part of the barrow itself continuing to be formed of chalk. In consequence of the existence of this inner mound of earth, certain signs of the disturbance of the original barrow, to be more fully referred to afterwards, were plainly perceptible. At a distance of 4 ft. south-west of the centre, and at a height of 4 ft. above the surface-level of the ground, was a body, probably that of a woman, laid on the left side, with the head to N.W., the right hand up to the face and the left under the hips. In front of the face was a ‘ food vessel,’ and just in advance of the chest a small bronze awl or pricker. The ‘food vessel’ is rudely made, and somewhat in shape like fig. 72, but having two raised ribs. It is 54 in. high, 63 in. wide at the mouth, and 23in. at the bot- tom, and is ornamented over the whole surface with thick loosely- twisted thong-impressions arranged more or less in the form of encompassing lines, the two raised ribs having each short inclining lines upon them; the inside of the lip of the rim has a series of similarly-formed short vertical lines upon it. The awl is 1} in. long, similar to fig. 40, having a flattened tang for imsertion into the handle, which is Sin. long; the other end is round, and tapers gradually to a sharp point. Six feet north-east of the centre, and within reach of the plough, were some few remains of the body of a large and powerfully-made man in middle life; the only parts of the skull which were left being the frontal bone and the right temporal; the remainder, with many of the other bones of the body, having been destroyed in ploughing. On ap- proaching the centre it was found that a circular cutting, 9 ft. in diameter, had been made into the barrow, coinciding exactly with the outline of the grave, which it was afterwards found had been excavated in the underlying chalk. This cutting, which must have been made subsequently to the first erection of the mound, 236 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. was distinctly indicated, not only by the filling-in, consisting of chalk and presenting a marked contrast to the earth through which the cutting passed, but also by the very clear proofs afforded by the sides that the original mound of earth had been cut through, as also that the sides of the cutting had been plastered over with a thin layer of clay, or else that water had been thrown against them, and that then, while still wet, they had been rubbed over with the hand or some smooth instrument. Three feet above the level of the natural surface, and running through the whole extent of the cutting, was a layer of burnt earth and charcoal 5 in. thick, below which and towards the sides of the cutting (although in actual contact with the sides the material was chalk-rubble) the filling-in consisted of earth. The middle portion however, having a diameter of more than 3 ft., was pure and loose chalk-grit, which rested on a concave or dish-shaped bed of charcoal about 2 in. in thickness ; this layer of chareoal was about 2 ft. above the surface- level at the sides, but came down almost to that level at the centre. Nine inches above the charcoal, and on the east side of the cutting, was the body of a young child, laid on the left side, with the head to E. by S. More towards the centre of the cutting, at a lower level than the child, and all but resting upon the char- ~ coal, was the body of, probably, a woman, above 55 years of age, which was laid on the left side, with the head to E.N.E., the right hand being across the neck and below the chin, the fingers doubled in, and the left to the knees. In front of the chest, between the face and the knees, were a flint knife and two chippings of flint, and underneath them a bronze drill or awl. The knife is made from a thin outside flake, very carefully chipped all round the edges, the original skin of the nodule being left untouched except at that part; one side is curved, and the other straight; it is 23 in. long and 13 in. wide. The drill, similar to fig. 39, is iin. long, square at the middle, and tapering to a point at each end. ‘To the rear of the hips was a second bronze drill or awl and a flint chipping, and close to them, though nearer to the heels of the body, was a ‘drinking-cup.’ The drill is like fig. 39, but much shorter in proportion to its thickness; 3 in. long, square at the middle, and tapering to a point at each end, and had the remains of its wooden handle still left upon it. The ‘ drinking cup’ [fig. 85 | is of uncommon pattern, and is covered from top to bottom with encompassing grooved lines, made by a narrow-edged piece of bone. or wood drawn over the moist clay. It is 7 in. high, 6 in, wide at PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 237 the mouth, and 42 in. at the bottom. Through the introduction of this body just above noticed, which must have taken place subsequently to the making of the cutting, the body, probably of a man, already interred within its limits had been in part disturbed. He must have been laid with his head to S.E., and on the left side, and some of the bones still remained in their natural position ; the left femur, with the knee-cap im situ, was there, showing that the hips must have been about the place occupied by the knees of the woman; the scapula, humerus, radius, and ulna of the left arm and also the scapula of the right were in position; the left hand having been placed under the femur, where the bones composing it were still lying. The head must have been near the place where the second bronze drill and the ‘ drinking cup’ were found, and it is possible that both these articles may have been deposited with the supposed male body; although from the nature of the imple- ment I should be more inclined to connect it with that of the female. Still nearer to the centre of the cutting, just above the level of the natural surface, and resting immediately upon the bed of charcoal mentioned above, was the body of a young woman, from 18 to 24 years of age, laid upon the left side, with the head to E., and both hands up to and in front of the chest. Behind the head was a ‘drinking cup’ [fig. 82], and under the feet a flint knife. The ‘cup’ is 6in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The ornamentation, which is principally made with a notched strip of bone or wood, and partly with a sharp-pointed tool, will be better understood from the figure than from any description. The knife, which has one side curved, is chipped to a very sharp edge on that side; it is 12 in. long and Zin. wide. All these interments had been made within the limits of the cut- ting, and one of them appears to have been even subsequent to the cutting itself. Amongst the filling-in of the cutting were found, scattered about, the fragments of a ‘drinking-cup,’ the bones, some entire some broken, of more than one body, and a bone-pin, all of which must be referred to interments which had been dis- turbed in making the cutting. The general character of the orna- mentation upon the fragments of the vessel just named is identical with that of the other ‘drinking-cups’ which accompanied the un- disturbed and later interments; and it is therefore evident that no great length of time had elapsed between the erection of the barrow and the subsequent burials in it; or else that during the more considerable period of time, if that may be assumed, no 238 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. change had taken place in the form and ornamentation of sepul- chral vessels. It is however, on the whole, more probable that the secondary interments were of people who had been near relatives of those over whom the mound was first raised, and that the disturbance of the barrow for these took place at no great interval of time after it was first thrown up. At a distance of 4 ft. east of the edge of this cutting, and 2 ft. above the natural surface, were found some fragments of a human skull, which seemed to have formed no part of a body buried entire at the place, but rather to have been laid there as fragmentary bones; there being no signs of any disturbance of the mound at the point in question to account for them as parts of a body which had ever been removed. At the centre, and conterminous with the cireuit of the cutting so often before mentioned, was a grave 9 ft. in diameter, excavated in the chalk, which it was evident had either been first made, or else enlarged when the cutting itself was sunk through the barrow. This was made clear not only by the fact that the sides of the cutting through the mound and those of the grave were conter- minous, but also from the remains of disturbed and broken-up bones and vases which oecurred at various places throughout the whole of the filling-in of the excavation, from the level of the surface of the ground downwards. The upper part of the grave for a depth of 2ft., on the south side, was filled in with earth ; while, on the north side, it was filled in with pure chalk to the same depth. Below this was chalk with some admixture of earth. At a depth, of 42 ft. four flags of oolitic sandstone were met with, laid flat, and filling up the greater part of the area of the grave. The upper one was 2 ft. by 1 ft. 10in., and was placed upon the edge of another, which was 3 ft. 10in. by 3 ft. 6in.; the second of these flags overlaid a third, 3 ft. 8in. by 3 ft. 3in., both showing very distinct marks of fire upon the upper surface, the burning being more evident upon the lower one; to the south-east of these was the fourth stone, 4 ft. 8in. by 1ft. 9in.; and on the south side of the grave, but standing on their edges, with a slight inclination towards the side, were two similar slabs, one of them 2 ft. broad, the other 2 ft. 4in., the first being 2 ft. 2in. in length, and the other 3 ft. 4in. These last stones rested at the same level as the four which were laid flat. Under these stones the grave was filled in with earth, and on the bottom, 6 ft. below the stones and 103 ft. below the surface of the ground, were placed two cists, made of PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 239 slabs of stone like those first named. The sides of the grave, it should be remarked, appeared to have been plastered in the same way as those of the cutting above it, and presented a similar smooth surface. The cists ran through the middle of the grave in a direction north-north-west by south-south-east; and the ends of the cists were in contact with the sides of the grave. The first cist, or that to the north, was 3 ft. 10 in. long by 2 ft. 1 in. wide, and 1 ft. 8 in. deep; it was formed of one slab on the east side, 4 ft. 7 in. long, one on the west, 44 ft. long, and two end slabs, each of a length rather exceeding the width of the cist; it had two slabs on the bottom, one 2 ft. 10 in. long, the other 1 ft. 2 in.; while the cover-stone was rather larger than the area of the cist, only, as it was broken in pieces in the effort of raising it, the exact dimensions could not be taken. The same also must be said of the cover of the second cist. Between the two cists was a space of 10in. in width, the boundary of which on the one side was formed by the east side- stone of the first cist, on the other by the west side-stone of the second cist. This cist was 3 ft. 8in. long by 2 ft. 7in. wide, and 1 ft. 10 in. deep; it was formed by one slab on the west side, 4 ft. 1lin. long, one on the east side, 3 ft. 10in. long, and two slabs at each end, overlapping each other; the bottom was made with one slab, whilst another formed the cover. Over the cists for a depth of 4in. was a layer of chalk, the rest of the filling-in, as noticed above, consisting of earth. Just above it, at the west and east sides of the south end of the cover of the second cist, though not actually in contact with it, were two large water-rolled pebbles of whinstone, of a reniform shape, but still further adapted for the affixing of a handle, or for being the more readily held in the hand, by having a part of their substance carefully chipped away about the middle. The edges of these chipped places have been ham- mered to make them smooth; either to prevent their injuring the hand, if intended to be used in that way, or else to preserve the fastening of the handle from being abraded, if the intention was to facilitate their use by such an appendage. They weigh respec- tively 7 lb. 4 0z. and 5 lb. 6 oz.!. In the first cist, at the south * Mr. George Petrie met with more than one instance in Orkney where a somewhat similar stone implement was placed at the end of cists containing skeletons ; in one of these cases a vase was associated with the body. Proc. Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, vol. vii. p. 135. Mr. Anderson, in a paper on the excavation of cairns in Caithness, /. c., vol. ix. p. 294, says, ‘The bottom of the cist and the two end stones had been roughly dressed to fit, by blows applied along the edges of the slabs on opposite sides. On the 240 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. end; was laid the body of an aged man, on the left side, the head being to S., and with both the hands up to the face. Behind his head; and in the south-east corner of the cist, was a ‘ drinking cup,’ standing upright; and in front of the face an oblong piece of iron- stone, which had been subjected to the action of fire. A smaller piece of the same kind of stone, also burnt, was placed outside the end of each cist, as well as in the space spoken of above as inter- vening between them. In front of the feet of the man was the body of a very young child, and before the middle part of the leg was another and still younger child. ‘The ‘ drinking cup,’ similar in shape and ornamentation to fig. 120, but narrower, is 7# in. | high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The orna- mentation, which covers the whole surface to within one inch from the bottom, is composed principally of series of encircling lines, varied by bands of lines inclining in reversed directions, of bands of lozenges and of plain bands; the impressions being those of a notched piece of bone or wood. In the centre of the second cist was a deposit of burnt bones, laid in an oval heap, 19 in. by 12 in.; the principal part of the deposit consisted of the bones of an adult male, with some few of another human body, and three fragments from the interior of the frontal sinus of an ox. In the south-east corner of the cist was placed a ‘ drinking: cup,’ standing upright, which, like that in the first cist, contained some dark- coloured matter, the remains, it is to be presumed, of whatever had been originally deposited in them’. The ‘drinking cup’ is 8} in. high, 63 in. wide at the mouth, and 33 in. at the bottom | fig. 120]. This fine specimen of the class of vessel to which it belongs is very beautifully ornamented, the nature of which will best be under- stood from the engraving; as in the preceding vessel, the pattern has all been made by the application of a notched piece of bone or wood. On the east side of the grave and between it and the side of the first cist, 4in. above the bottom, was a second burnt body ; that of a strongly-made adult man; and about 1 ft. to the south- south-east of the deposit of bones was a ‘drinking cup,’ which is in shape like fig. 120, but narrower though widening more at the mouth, 7? in. high, 54in.- wide at the mouth, and 22 in. middle of the covering-slab we found an oblong water-rolled stone, naturally shaped, but which bears marks on both its ends of having been used as a hammer, and which seemed to be the hammer with which the coffin was made.’ 1 This dark-coloured matter has been shown by analysis to contain a large quantity of nitrogen, and is therefore probably of animal origin. PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 241 at the bottom. The pattern has for the most part been made by the use of a similarly notched piece of bone or wood as on the two preceding vessels, Just below the rim is a band of vertical lines, with a vandyked edge at the top nearly one inch deep; then come six encircling lines made by a pointed tool — 2. = id i Ra en eos sts FEE oe: =. Fig. 120. 3. drawn over the moist clay; then for a depth of 2 in. is a pattern exactly like the upper part of fig. 82, having three encircling lines below; then for one inch in depth is the same pattern as on fig. 82, then three encircling lines, with the same pattern again below them ; then come five encircling lines, then a pattern one inch deep somewhat like that on fig. 86, and then three encircling lines just above the bottom. Immediately above the burnt bones, R 242 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. though not in actual contact with them, was a water-rolled pebble of whinstone, similar in shape to those found on the lid of the -second cist, but which had not, like them, been chipped at the narrowest part; it weighs 6 lb. 80z. It is difficult to believe that these rude and cumbrous implements can have served more than a mere temporary purpose; nor is there any appearance about them, beyond a slight abrasion at the end of one, of their having been used. They were probably the instruments by aid of which the slabs were split to fit them for their places in the construction of the cists, and when they had answered that end, they had been deposited with the bodies at the burial of which they had thus been made serviceable. A somewhat similar instance, where the implement apparently used in making the grave had been placed in it, has been mentioned in the account of the last preceding barrow. ‘The sandstone slabs, some of which showed by their peculiarly weathered surface that they had been taken from the sea-beach, could not have been obtained nearer than Filey Brigg, which is about twelve miles distant from the barrow. ‘The trans- portation of them thence must have been a work of time and labour, especially to people who could have possessed nothing but the simplest appliances for effecting the carriage of weighty objects. Still there would be no unsurmountable difficulty in the way of bringing them over the wolds from Filey, and their size and number are as nothing compared to what we see in other places as con- stituting parts of erections which must be attributed to the early inhabitants of Britain. For instance, the moving of the great monolith in Rudstone churehyard, even supposing it had been brought to its present site from the distance of only a mile or two, must have been a much more difficult operation than the bringing of the slabs in question over a space of twelve miles. This is the only instance throughout my examination of the wold barrows in which I have met with anything like a cist: in fact, the absence of suitable stone is in itself sufficient to account for such a mode of burial not having been adopted, common as it is found to be in all: districts where a supply of stone adapted to such a purpose is met with. And indeed it seems strange in this case, where a deep grave had been sunk into the chalk, that it should have been considered necessary to undertake all the addi- tional toil of constructing cists within the grave, when such con- structions seemed in no way necessary for the protection of the interred bodies. I have seen in limestone districts something EE EEE lata PARISH OF RUDSTONE., 243 which may be considered more or less analogous; namely, that a hollow has been first made in the limestone rock, and then lined with slabs of sandstone. Such cases speak very emphatically of the great care which was shown in the burials of these people, and of the importance they attached to the due disposal of their dead ; to which indeed the entire system of barrow-burial testifies in the strongest way. ‘This particular case appears moreover to point to the eminent position which must have been occupied amongst the tribe by the tenant of a tomb which had been constructed at so _ great an amount of labour. To proceed with the description. Just west of the second cist were some bones of a full-grown person, as also some of a young child; but they were merely fragmentary, and probably the re- mains of disturbed bodies, numerous other and like relics of which were found, as has been noticed, in the filling-in of the grave. From the discovery of these remains of disturbed bodies and of the fragments of a ‘drinking cup,’ not only in the filling-in of the grave but also in that of the cutting through the barrow above the grave, it seems quite impossible to consider the cist burials as the primary ones. This conclusion is further confirmed by the fact that the cutting through the barrow and the outline of the grave itself were conterminous; for it is scarcely likely that, assuming: the grave to be co-existent with the formation of the barrow, any cutting afterwards made into the mound from above should have coincided exactly with the dimensions and outline of a pre-existing grave. I therefore regard the grave and the cists it contained as secondary: though they probably received the bodies of people of as great importance as the person or persons over whom the barrow was originally raised. Is it possible to form any reasonable conjecture as to the relative positions of these people when living ? If it had not been for the great care bestowed on the second cist burial, and the ‘ drinking cups’ accompanying the two burnt bodies, we might have concluded that there was contained in the first cist the body of a man, probably the chief of the tribe, together with two of his children; and that the burnt bones within the second cist and those outside the first comprised the remains of slaves or dependants who, with the children, had been killed at the funeral. Nor perhaps are the facts inconsistent with this view. The five burials had evidently been made at once, and it is scarcely possible to conceive in this, any more than in previously mentioned in- stances, that all the persons buried had died at one and the same R 2 244 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. time, in the ordinary course of nature. It has been suggested that riembers of a family, chancing to die before its head, might be burnt at the time of their decease, and their ashes preserved until the period of his death, when they would be buried in company with his body. This might have been the case in the instances now under consideration, so far as the burnt bodies are concerned ; but it does not account for the presence of the unburnt bones of the children. Besides, in other instances, several bodies have been found, all un- burnt, but certainly all buried at the same time; and of course it would not be possible to keep dead bodies for any length of time with- out first burning them, or at least reducing them to the condition of mummies or skeletons. Moreover, if we suppose that such bodies might have been placed in some receptacle until the time arrived for their final deposition in the grave, the bones could scarcely have been found as in many cases we really do find them in the barrows— namely,in such relative positions as to afford the most certain evidence that they must still have been invested with their covering of flesh and with the ligaments attached when finally laid to rest. It will have been observed that in one of the Cowlam barrows | No. lvii], and in one of those on Willerby Wold [ No. xxxiii], as well as in others, bodies were discovered which, from the irregular way in which the ‘bones were disposed, showed that they had been re- moved from a previous place of deposit; and such facts might appear to favour the view that in some instances persons were not buried at the period of their death, but were kept until what was considered a more suitable, or the proper, time had arrived for the performance of the rite. Certainly such an interpretation may be given of the facts as they are presented in some barrows; but there is another explanation to be given of the facts as presented in others. It is probable that these improperly jointed and sometimes incomplete skeletons are the remains of disturbed bodies, which had been replaced with a certain amount of care, though with little anatomical skill, this careful re-interment being pos- sibly due to their being near of kin to the person the introduction of whose body into the barrow had caused the disturbance. Taking all the facts into consideration, I am inclined to think that in many of the cases where we find several bodies, either burnt or unburnt, or both, which have all been buried at the same time, some of them are those of wives, children, or slaves who had been put to death at the funeral of the chief or other person with whose body they are associated in the grave. EE PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 245 The finding of ‘drinking cups’ in connection with burials after cremation is of very infrequent occurrence: indeed, I do not know of any previous instance on the wolds in which such a conjunction has been observed. Amongst the material of the barrow were several animal bones '; many flint chippings, two round scrapers, six saws, and a knife, all of flint. Besides these articles there was a pounder or rubbing- stone [fig. 13]; it is formed from a water-rolled quartzite pebble, of flattened globular shape, and shows signs of having been a long time in use, as it is worn into a great number of facets all round the edge. Many sherds of pottery were found scattered throughout the whole of the mound. LXIII. The next barrow of this group opened by me was a little more than 200 yards west-south-west of the last. It was 78 ft. in diameter, and still 63 ft. high, notwithstanding the action of the plough, and was principally formed of earth, having’ however some chalk rubble on the south side near the surface of the mound, and layers of chalk in other parts. The whole of the barrow on the south and east sides, with a considerable portion of the north side, was turned over to beyond the centre, but the remaining section was not disturbed: I cannot therefore speak positively, as if the fact had been ascertained, that the trench about to be de- scribed went entirely round the mound in its circuit; but from the analogy of some other similar trenches met with in my researches, I may say that I have little doubt that it did so”. The trench was drawn with a radius which varied from 18 ft. to 27 ft. from the centre, measuring from the inside edge; as it extended towards the east side the radius lengthened, and at a point east-south-east from the centre it attained the length of 29 ft. It was about 4 ft. wide at the top, varying between 2 ft. and 3 ft. in width at the bottom, and was sunk into the chalk rock to a depth of 33 ft. The measure- 1 The animal bones, those which had contained marrow being split open, comprised a large number of bos longifrons, and a single bone of a pig; all the animals had been adults with the exception of one of the oxen; a single ox bone was calcined. ? I have met with three other instances where a trench was found surrounding the inner portion of a barrow, one on Potter Brompton Wold [No. xxii], another in one of the Weaverthorpe series [ No. xlvii], and the third at Thwing [No. lx]. A some- what similar feature was discovered in a barrow in the parish of Edderstone, Ross- shire, where a ditch, 3 ft. deep, seemed to surround the mound. In the ditch was found an urn containing burnt bones and some pieces of bronze. At the centre of the barrow was a cist, with burnt bones, a piece of bronze, apparently the point of a blade, and a glass bead. Proc. Soc. of Ant. Scotland, vol. v. p. 311. 246 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. ments given place it 14 ft., more or less, within the outer cireum- ference of the barrow. It was formed into compartments by narrow divisions of chalk left undisturbed’; these, so far as the trench was examined, proved to be four in number, each 13 ft. wide and 2 ft. in height, and consequently not reaching to the level of the natural surface. The distances between them varied: one of them, lying south-west by west from the centre, being 16 ft. from the next, which lay south-south-west from the centre; this in its turn being 14 ft. from its other neighbour, which was south-south-east from the same point, and 12 ft. from the fourth, which lay south-east of the centre. Immediately to the south of the south-south-east division was an extension of the trench, in the shape of an oval hole, lying north-west by south-east, 53 ft. long, 42 ft. wide, and 2% ft. deep, which had in it some flint chippings and charcoal. At various points the trench itself contained animal bones, flint chippings, and a few disturbed human bones. | There were some very peculiar features in this barrow, such as I have not often met with, and which are not easy of explanation. Within the circuit of the trench and extending over it, at the level - of the natural surface, was a stratum of what seemed to be puddled earth, 8 in. in thickness. I think there can be no doubt that, in one way or another, designedly or otherwise, it had been tempered with water, for no earth that had not gone through that process could have been so hard and compact’. Above this was a layer of fine chalk gravel, 3 in. to 6 in. thick, then another layer of tempered earth 9 in. thick, then 3 in. to 7 in. of chalk, and then the ordinary earth of which the bulk of the mound was composed. At 1 This appears to correspond with some openings which existed in an encircling wall within a cairn at Spottiswood, Berwickshire. The cairn contained deposits of burnt bones and an urn. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scotland, vol. v. p. 222. ? I have met with the same kind of hardened earth in another barrow of this group [ No. Ixviii], described further on, and in a barrow at Weaverthorpe [No. xlvii]. Mr. Bateman mentions some instances where ‘tempered earth’ had been used in the Derbyshire barrows, by which expression I suppose he means something like what was noticed in this mound. Ten Years’ Diggings, pp. 34, 36. The same condition of earth has been observed in barrows in France. ‘Sous ces deux métres de pierres mélangées de gravier et de terreau, nous avons rencontré une calotte trés compacte de terre glaise battue, épaisse de 0™, 15 & O™, 20, uniformément répandue sur la con- struction sous-jacente, comme pour la mieux défendre des influences extérieures, et notamment de l’infiltration des eaux. Le méme procédé a été, vous le savez, souvent employé pour le méme but au profit des tumulus Armoricains, témoin le fameux Mané-Lud.’? Les Fouilles du Magny-Lambert (Céte d’Or)—Revue Archéologique, N. S., vol. xxiv. p. 354. The probable explanation seems to be that these barrows were erected during very wet weather, and that the soil became puddled by the con- stant trampling of the persons employed in throwing it up when in a wet state. PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 247 first sight it seemed as if the original surface-soil had been re- moved entirely, for the lowermost layer of tempered earth rested immediately upon the chalk rock, but I am inclined to think that this condition was caused (as suggested in the preceding note) by the aecidental puddling of the old surface-mould during the throwing up of the barrow in wet weather. To the south of the centre, and with its edge resting on the inner edge of the trench (which at that point was 27 ft. from the centre), was a smaller mound, enclosed within the larger. It was placed upon a natural swell of the chalk, and was 21 ft. in diameter and 2 ft. high, and made of tempered earth, then chalk, and then tempered earth again. Contrary to expectation there was no burial beneath it; nor was there anything to indicate why the ordinary process of throwing up the barrow had been deviated from at this point. It must have been made before the larger mound was raised over it, and it might naturally have been expected to cover an interment, but I have met with other instances where a smaller mound within a larger has proved to be equally destitute of a burial beneath it. Just over the trench, but at a height of 3 ft. above its surface, and at a distance of 30 ft. east-south-east from the centre, was the body of probably a man, laid on the right side, with the head to $.S.W. It was very much decayed, and being not far below the surface of the barrow, it had been partly destroyed, pro- bably in the operation of driving in stakes for sheep-nets. No part of the head was left, with the exception of the lower jaw. The vertebral column, the pelvic bones, and the femurs were lying un- disturbed, but the tibias, &. were gone. At a point 16 ft. south- east-by-east from the centre, in a hollow 3 ft. in diameter, and de- scending 4 in. below the level of the natural surface, was the body of a very young child, laid on the right side, and with the head to S. Before the face was a small and somewhat rudely made ‘drinking cup;’ it is in shape like fig. 122, 52 in. high, 33 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. The pattern, which has been made by a notched instrument of bone or wood, consists of four encircling lines in pairs at the top of the cup, having a plain slightly-projecting rib between each pair; below these are tri- angular-shaped figures, 1 in. high, touching each other at the base, and filled in with a reticulated pattern ; then come three encircling lines, then a plain band half-an-inch deep, then five encircling lines, then a zigzag band of two lines, and then four encircling lines at the bottom. Eleven feet and a-half south-east of the 248 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. centre, and 1 ft. above the surface-level, was the body of a woman in the middle period of life, lying on the right side, with the head to N.E. by E.; the right hand was up to the face, the left extended to the knees and having the fingers doubled in; behind the head was a bone pin, 23 in. long. A few inches higher than this body, and over it, was part of the lower jaw of a child. Above the body was a layer of chalk 14 in. thick, which indeed extended throughout the barrow within the limits of the trench at this part. Six feet south-south-east of the centre, and 16 in. above the surface, laid in a circular hollow cut through the layer of chalk just above men- tioned, and resting on the tempered earth beneath, was the body of probably an aged woman, laid on the left side, and with the head to E.S.E., the right hand, having the fingers doubled in, being between the face and the knees, and the left hand towards the hips. Almost precisely between this last body and that of the first- mentioned woman, at a point 7} ft. south-east-by-east from the centre, and at a height of 1 ft. 8 in. above the surface, was another body, that of a young person, laid on the right side, the head to 8. by W., the hands up to the face. Four feet south of the centre, and placed at the surface-level, was the body of a man about 55 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to S.E. by 8., the right hand being to the larees and the left up to the face. Three inches higher than this body, and 1 ft. to the east of its head but probably having no immediate connection with it, was an oval tool-stone [fig. 16], with a perforated hole at the centre, which has been drilled from each side. It is 2} in. by 2 in. and ¢ in. thick, the perforation widening from + in. at the middle part to 3 in. at each surface. Directly over the last body, and 1 ft. higher than it, was another body, that of a child in the period of the first dentition, laid on the left side, with the head to N. It was too much decayed to allow of the position of the hands being noted. Four feet east of a central grave, of which I am about to speak, and 2} ft. above the surface-level, were a human radius and some portions of a ‘drinking cup ;’ they were lying almost immediately above the body of a man, past the middle period of life, placed on the natural surface, and on the right side, with the head to N.N.W., and the hands in front of the knees. On the east side, and within the compass of the grave, but at a height of 6 in. above the level of the natural surface, was the body of a man about 55 years of age, laid on the ‘right side, with the head to W., the right hand being under the head, and the left, the fingers of which were doubled in, up to the PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 249 middle of the humerus of the right arm. In front of the face there was a ‘food vessel,’ while just between it and the face was a most beautiful barbed arrow-point of flint [fig. 29}, which was lying with its point away from the body. It might be surmised from its position, and that of the man’s right hand, that the shaft had been held in the hand when he was arranged for his last rest. Close by the arrow-point was part of an ammonite, which, from its worn appearance, may in life have been carried as a charm, and in death deposited, as such, with its owner. This body had been laid between two planks, apparently of willow; they were each 33 ft. long, and placed 13 ft. apart. There had, however, been no plank either above or beneath the body. In immediate contact with the body was a good deal of charcoal, which indeed was abundant in con- nection with all the interments in this barrow. The ‘food vessel’ is somewhat in shape like fig. 71, but wider in proportion to the height, and having five perforated ears at the shoulder. It is 42 in. high, 63 in. wide at the mouth, and 2% in. at the bottom. The inside of the lip of the rim has two pairs of encompassing lines of thong-impressions, the space between the pairs being plain. The edge of the rim has one pair of similar lines, and the shoulder has two pairs, having between them a band of herring-bone pattern, made with a sharp-pointed tool; the lines forming the pairs are placed close together, and have been made by impressions of twisted-thong. Below the shoulder the vase is plain. The grave at the centre of the barrow, of which I now proceed to speak, was oval, east and west in direction, 63 ft. long by 52 ft. in width. As in the case of the last preceding barrow, the mound had been cut through, and the cutting was conterminous with the grave, while in the filling-in of the grave itself and of the cutting above it were fragments of a ‘drinking cup,’ and the broken and disturbed bones of at least two bodies, one being that of a very young child. In the case of this barrow, as also in that of the last one, it was quite evident that the burials in the grave were secondary ones; and it is also equally impossible in either case to say whether or not a grave had existed at the first formation of the barrow. Judging however from the general nature of the wold barrows, it is almost certain that there had been one, which was possibly enlarged when the time came for depositing the secondary burials, At the centre of the grave, and 31 ft. below the surface-level, were the remains of the burnt body of an old woman, laid in a round heap, 13 in. in diameter, having the calcined point of a bone pin 250 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. amongst them, At the bottom of the grave, which was 5 ft. deep, and on the east side of it, was the body of an adult of uncertain sex, laid in.a shallow dish-shaped hollow, lined with burnt matter and charcoal. The body was placed on the left side, with the head to S.E., the right hand up to the face and the left under the hips. Behind the back, but beyond the limits of the hollow in which the body was deposited, was a very beautifully formed and exceedingly thin oval flint scraper. I scarcely think it had been deposited with. the body, but that it 1s rather to be regarded as one of those implements which are casually found in barrows, and of which a very large number had been scattered in this grave-mound; it may however have been originally associated with one of the bodies disturbed in depositing the secondary interments. It is 2} in. long, in shape something like a spear-point, and has been carefully chipped all round the edge. | | | Sixteen feet east-by-north of the centre, measuring from centre to centre, was a mound of chalk, 17 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. high, form- ing a small barrow within the larger one. Under it, at the centre and upon the natural surface, was the body of a woman, of about the middle period of life, laid on the left side, the head to S. by E., the right hand beiny under the head, the left in the direction of the head but having the fingers pointing towards the elbow of the right arm. The body was very slightly contracted, the back being perfectly straight, and the knees, instead of being drawn up towards the face, were turned in the opposite direction, as if the body, having been laid upon the left side, had been held firm in that position, whilst the legs were violently wrenched round until they were brought into the position they would have occupied had the body been laid upon the right side. The knees were about 8 in. higher than the back. Twelve feet north-east of the centre, and still under the smaller mound, and upon the surface-level, was the body of another woman, of about the same age as the last, laid upon the left side, with the head to N.W.; the right hand was in front of the knees, which, as in the former instance, were higher than the rest of the body, the left hand being under the hips. About 1 ft. north of the edge of the grave before described was a hole, ex- cavated in the chalk, 6 ft. in diameter and 5 ft. deep. It was filled in with chalk rubble, and contained nothing beyond the filling-in, except two flint chippings and a large quantity of charcoal. Twenty- three feet south of the centre were some fragments of a cinerary um; and 18 ft. south-south-west of the same point were some ins PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 251 broken human bones, showing that the barrow had been disturbed in other places as well as at the centre. In the material of the mound there were numerous animal bones! and chippings of flint; as also a very large quantity of implements of stone and flint, comprising one quartzite hammer- stone; three pounders or rubbers; a willow-leaf-shaped arrow- point; seven saws; two drills, one of them curved; thirteen round scrapers | figs. 17, 121] (one of them being very fine and large, and another showing in its smoothened edge the signs of long- continued use); three long scrapers (one 3 in. in length); four knives; three flat circular-shaped flints, such as have usually been called ‘ sling-stones ;’ and four other worked flints, of which it is not easy to say what they have been intended for. There were also three fragments of stone | axes, one of them a large chipping from iil, 7m. : a hone-stone implement, another a part of the edge of one of greenstone, and the third a piece out of the middle of the edge of a very sharp flint axe. A ring of some kind of lignite, brownish-black in colour, was met with 9 ft. south-west of the centre and 2 ft. above the surface- level; it is 13 in. wide in the inner diameter, 21 in. in the outer, and oval-shaped in section®. The small size of this ring seems to preclude the idea that it can have been intended for an armlet, and it is not unlikely that it may have served some purpose in fastening the dress; or possibly it may have been used merely as a pendent ornament. Fig. 121. 3. a The two barrows examined next were those adjoining that before alluded to as having been opened many years since, and with it forming a smaller group of three lying close together; they are situated furthest to the west of the whole series constituting the larger group. * The bones comprised those of several oxen (bos longifrons), still more of goat or sheep, also of twelve pigs and two hares. The marrow-containing bones were all split open, and amongst the ox bones was a calcined one. With few exceptions all the animals had been young. ? Mr. Bateman records the finding of ‘a ring, about 1 in. diameter inside, cut from a flat piece of black shale, and fragments of another ring like it,’ in a barrow near Pickering, in the North Riding. Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 229. 252 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. LXIV. The first was 70 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and was composed of earth, except at a point near the centre where it con- sisted of chalk which formed a smaller mound enclosed within the larger. This inner mound was about 18 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and covered the grave which will presently be described. At a point 13 ft. south-east from the centre, and one foot above the natural surface, was a single human pelvic bone. Twenty-six feet south of the centre, and also 1 ft. above the surface, was the body of a woman in middle life, laid on the right side, with the head to E. by S., the right hand being in front of the face, with the fingers doubled in, and the left arm over the right. Upon the right cheek- bone there was a discolouration, caused by the oxidation of some bronze article which had gone entirely to decay, having probably been of small size, and possibly a pricker or awl. At a point which had no doubt originally been the centre, but which now was 4 ft. south-east of it, was a gtave, having a direction south-east by north-west, 10 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and 73 ft. deep, and filled in with chalk. Dispersed throughout the whole of the grave were numerous bones of the skeleton of a large-sized man, as also char- coal in great abundance, there being a very large quantity at one place, on the east side, and 54 ft. below the surface. At the bottom and nearly in the middle of the grave was the body of an aged man, laid on the right side, with the head to S.E., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a small flint knife, 1} in. long, quite unused, and seeming as though it had been made for the purpose of the burial; while at the crown of the head, below it, and also behind the neck, were small flint chippings. A good deal of charcoal lay about the head and underneath it, and just beyond the feet were some remains of wood, but in too de- cayed a state to admit of the original form being made out. In the material of the barrow were two pieces of a ‘ drinking cup, many flint chippings, six round scrapers, five saws, two knife- hke implements, and some articles of uncertain use,—all of flint. A bone pin occurred, not connected with any interment; and another implement of bone [fig. 35], 64 in. long, which somewhat resembles a spatula in shape, and bears upon its surface the signs of long-continued use. It is difficult to assign any certain purpose to it, but it may very probably have been a tool for the fabrication or ornamenting of pottery. — LXV. The second barrow was 55 ft. in diameter, 12 ft. high, PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 253 and made of earth and chalk. It contained a single interment, placed at the centre in a grave which lay east and west, having a length of 10 ft., a width of 43 ft., and a depth of 7 ft. At the bottom and placed centrally was the body of a man about 30 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to E.S.E.; the right hand was up to the face and the left towards the feet. In front of the middle of the right leg was a flint knife, 23 in. long, and before the face a flint chipping. Amongst the ehalk with which the grave was filled in were many disturbed bones of a small-sized adult, probably a female, and also pieces of a ‘drinking cup, together with charcoal and some remains of wood. Within the grave, and 2 ft. below the surface-level, was a piece of a red- deer’s antler, showing signs of having been worked, but too much decayed to permit of its purpose being ascertained, the presumption merely being that it had been an implement of some sort. Still within the grave, but at a depth of 5 ft., was a broken tine of another antler, probably a piece of one of the tools used in making: the grave. At a place 18 ft. south-east of the centre, and 1 ft. above the surface-level, was part of a child’s skull; and 21 ft. south-east of the same point, and 9 in. above the surface, were two large portions of red-deer horns, both from antlers that had been shed, of which, though much decayed, enough remained to show that they had been shaped, and were not merely broken fragments. A few pieces of a cinerary urn were also met with, here and there, and also many sherds of plain, dark-coloured pottery ; two saws, and five scrapers of flint; two fabricators for flaking flint ; a piece out of the edge of a calcined flint axe ; another piece out of the middle of a large and well-chipped arrow-point ; and several flint imple- ments of uncertain description. It has already been mentioned that somewhat to the east of the barrows last named there were some large mounds, evidently arti- ficial, and which might be a priori assumed to be sepulchral in their intention. These also were examined, and, although burials were found in them, it is very doubtful if any of these could be regarded in the light of primary interments. LXVI. The principal mound had an east and west direction, either of the two extremities being of greater elevation than the middle part. The extreme length of the mound was 137 ft., with a mean breadth of 40 ft., the west end being 42 ft. in height, and 254 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. the east 53 ft. At the west end the mound was formed entirely of earth; the east end, and the remainder of the mound to within 40 ft. of the west end, being made of earth up the middle and of chalk on both sides. At the west end, and below the centre of what had something of the appearance of a round barrow raised upon the surface of the long mound, and 2 ft. above the level of Fig. 122. 4. the natural surface, was the body of a young adult woman, laid on the right side, with the head to W., and the hands up to the face. Just in front of the right tibia was a ‘drinking cup” [fig. 122]. It is 81 in. high, 5} in. wide at the mouth, and 31 in. at the bot- tom; the upper part has nearly straight sides, and the vessel becomes somewhat bulbous-shaped below the middle; the upper part is ornamented with seven encircling bands, the two outside eo s, ’ : nn ee eee eee PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 255 ones quite plain, the inner ones consisting of alternate oblong spaces, one plain, the other marked with vertical lines of impres- sions made by a notched instrument, these spaces being counter- changed on the bands. The widest portion of the bulbous part has an encircling band of chevrons set on edge, and below that are four bands, alternately plain and marked with lines slightly in- clining to the right. All the bands are separated by two encircling lines of notched impressions. At a level 6in. higher (the head lying above the woman’s knees) was the body of a child, 8 or 9 years old, laid with the head to E.S.E. Immediately above the head, though not in actual contact with the bones, but still I think associated with the body, was a flint knife, 1$ in. long. Much charcoal was found about both the bodies. Underneath the woman, and at the level of the natural surface, lying east and west, was a beam of wood, 53 ft. long, and 9 in. wide by 4 in. thick; and just above it was a hollow space, 7 in. deep, which was probably due to the settling of the filling-in of a grave over the top of which the beam was laid. The grave lay north-west-by-west and south-east- by-east, and was 7 ft. long, 44 ft. wide, and 2ft. deep. In it on the bottom, and close to the north-west end, was the body of an adult of uncertain sex, laid on the right side, with the head to W., and the hands up to the face. Behind the head was a ‘ drinking cup; in front of the chest two round flint scrapers and a chipping ; at the knees one round scraper and a chipping; and at the feet a small oval scraper. The ‘drinking cup,’ in form somewhat like fir. 82, is 74 in. high, 5} in. wide at the mouth, and 3+ in. at the bottom. At the top two lines of notched impressions encircle the vessel; then there is a band formed by a series of vertical lines, of the same markings, 12 in. in length; then four plain grooved lines and below these five toothed lines encircle it, occupying a space of 1} in.; below them a series of vertical lines, similar to those above but shorter, covers a space of 2 in., having below a row of very short lines inclining to the right, with four encircling lines intervening ; below which, for a space of 23 in., the vessel is plain. Just beyond the feet of this body were the bones of a young woman which had been disturbed and relaid. They were placed in a heap, the skull being on the top of the other bones. In the grave scattered pieces of charcoal were seen, here and there. The appear- ances suggested that a cutting had been made into an already existing grave, but not extending quite to its sides: the original grave seemed to have been filled in with earth, and through this 256 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. the secondary cutting had been made, that being filled in with chalk. It is almost certain that the occupant of the primary grave was the woman whose bones had been disturbed and replaced, and that the cutting of secondary date had been made when the body was buried whose skeleton was found at the north-west end. Seventy-six feet east of the grave, about the middle of the mound, and 41 ft. above the natural surface, were many bones belonging to a man of large stature, together with others of a child’s body, and a single piece of burnt bone. They were all laid in a heap, and had evidently been moved and redeposited. Imme- diately south of them, but at a slightly lower level, was the body of a child, during the period of the first dentition, laid on its left side, with the head to E.S.E. It is not improbable that the inter- ment of the child had led to the disturbance of the other bodies. On the south side of the mound, 68 ft. east of the centre of the grave and 1 ft. above the surface-level, was a single human meta- carpal bone. A second mound, 190 ft. long by 50 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high, extended from the west end of the mound just described, towards the north, where it gradualiy died away into the natural surface of the ground. There was no burial found in it, although flint chip- pings, charcoal, and fragments of pottery occurred in several dif- ferent places. It should be remarked that in the first of these mounds numerous bones of ox and pig with a few of dog, flint chippings, sherds of plain, dark-coloured pottery, and charcoal were met with throughout the whole of its length, and principally at the level of the natural surface. Amongst the flint objects were five round scrapers and a pointed tool. It seems difficult to account for these extensive and beclinly arranged mounds upon any other supposition than that they were intended for sepulchral purposes ; indeed, the presence of charcoal, broken animal bones, potsherds, and flint implements and chip- pings in them makes any other conclusion difficult of adoption. But with the exception of the grave at the west end of the first mound, and its contents, the other burials were all clearly secondary and subsequent to the formation of the mounds; and even the grave itself was not certainly a primary one, made before the throwing up of that part of the mound ; although there were some appearances which seemed to favour that view. The round barrow- like form of the west end, under which the grave was excavated, had however in itself a secondary appearance, and from the circum- PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 257 stance that it was formed in a different way from the rest of the mound—heing made entirely of earth—it is not improbable that it was an addition made to the west end of an already existing pile. If this burial were not the primary one, then no interment which can be regarded as such was discovered. It does not however seem probable that all these large accumulations of earth and chalk, extending in different directions, were merely adjuncts to the memorial of a single burial, and that occupying a position like the one in question. At the same time it may be stated that in many of the long barrows, and indeed in some of the round ones, that part which is devoted to the immediate place of sepulture bears a very small proportion to the mound itself. I can however offer no explanation which bears the semblance of probability, and I must leave it to the ingenuity of the reader to form his own conclusion as to the object of this collection of material, which must have re- quired the continued labour of a large number of people over a considerable period of time. In conclusion I would observe that the examination was so thoroughly exhaustive that there cannot be any hesitation whatever in saying that no burial-place has remained undiscovered beneath the mounds. LXVII. The next barrow, the largest of the group, lay about half a mile to the north-east of the long mounds just described. It was 100 ft. in diameter and 9 ft. high, and was formed entirely of chalk, with the exception of a layer of dark fatty earth which rested on the natural surface, and was of a thickness varying between 1 ft. and 21 ft. There was no trace of any hollow in the neighbourhood from whence so large a mass of chalk could have been obtained as that required to form this barrow. The chalk employed must however have been quarried from a considerable depth, for the material over a great part of the mound was of a description that does not occur in the upper chalk beds of the locality. There can be but little doubt that it was obtained close by, and it would therefore seem as if the place from which it had been obtained had been afterwards filled up again. There is no difficulty in under- standing how the chalk was excavated, for the remains of the tools were found amongst the material composing the barrow, in the shape of broken tines of red-deer antlers and splinters originating in their breakage. In a grave underneath a barrow about three 1 Upon a long barrow, in the same parish, there was placed at the west end a very similar mound, under which was found a body with a ‘food vessel.’ Ss 258 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING. miles distant from that now under notice, it will be remembered that a pick of deer’s-horn was found laid at the buried person’s knees, the instrument no doubt with which the grave had been dug (see p. 231); and I have met with several instances where broken splinters of deer’s antlers have oceurred amongst the chalk filling-in of graves. This barrow produced a large number of burials, all of them, with one exception, appearing to be secondary, and many of them mere insertions. They were all placed at a very slight eins beneath the present surface of the mound. At a distance of 14 ft. south-west of the centre was the body of a man, placed 6 ft. above the natural surface, and laid on his nght side, with the head to W.N.W., and the hands up to the face. At the crown of the head was a ‘ food vessel,’ and behind the head a long flint seraper, made from the outside of a nodule of flint, the end only being chipped into shape. ‘The ‘food vessel’ is in shape like fig. 71, with six unpierced ears at the shoulder, 54 in. high, 61 in, wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. It is covered over the whole surface and on the inside of the lip of the rim with very short lines of twisted-thong impressions arranged herring-bone fashion. The body had. been inserted in the barrow, which, as has already been observed, was made of chalk, and the hollow in which it was placed had been filled in with earth, but along the back of the body some large flat pieces of chalk were set on edge. Twenty- seven feet west-by-south of the centre, and 43 ft. above the surface, was the body of another man, laid on the left side, with the head to N.N.W., the right hand being up to the face and the left on the right arm. At the feet was a very beautifully-formed oval flint knife, 24 in. long, very evenly and skilfully serrated along one edge. Twenty-one feet west-south-west from the centre, and 6 ft. above the ground-level, was the body of a woman, laid on the right side, with the head to N.W. by N.; the right arm was extended and the hand placed under the knees, the left hand being up to the face. Between the head and the knees was a ‘food vessel.’ This body was evidently an insertion, and was deposited in a hollow filled in with earth, having a thin chalk flag laid over the knees and the vessel. This, which is very rudely made, is shaped much like an ordinary flower-pot, 44 in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom, and is ornamented over the whole surface and on the inside of the lip of the rim with encircling lines of impressions of very coarsely-twisted thong. Close to the last body were the remains of a disturbed one, with many pieces of a ‘ drinking-cup,’ PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 259 which had probably been associated with it ; it has been ornamented over the whole surface with bands at intervals, consisting of en- circling lines made by a roughly-toothed piece of bone or wood. Twenty-one feet west-by-south from the centre, and 6 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a second woman, laid on the right side, with the head to N. by W.; the hands were crossed in front of where the hips had been, but these, together with the bones of the legs, had been cut away by the introduction of the interment last mentioned. Behind the head was a ‘ drinking cup,’ 42 in. high, 4 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. It is in shape like fig. 81, and is ornamented over the whole surface by encircling lines of twisted-thong impressions. Twelve feet south-south-east from the centre, and 6} ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a child, about 3 years old, laid on its right side, with the head to S.8S.W. Seven feet and a-half south-south-east from the centre, and 7 ft. above the surface, was the body of another child, rather younger than the last, also laid on its night side, with the head to N. by E. On the same level, 6 ft. south-east-by-south of the centre, and apparently in the undisturbed chalk of the mound, was still another child, about a year old. Just west of this, but about a foot higher, was part of the skull of another child of about the same age; whilst 4 ft. east-south-east of the centre, and nearly at the same height as the two children’s bodies just named, were two other children, laid close together, the elder in front of the younger, both on their left sides, and with their heads to N.E. by E., and the hands of both up to their respective faces. Between the face of one and the back of the head of the other were two flint chippings. These bodies also were placed apparently in the undisturbed chalk of the mound. Six feet east of the centre, and at the same level with the last-named children, was yet another child ; while 3 ft. west of it were several disturbed bones of another child. Seven feet and a half north-north-east from the centre, and at the same distance above the ground-level, was the body of a young woman, the epi- physes of the thigh bones not being united’; she was laid on the right side, with the head to 8.W. by S., the right hand being under the corresponding thigh, and the left on the chest. Between the face and the knees was a ‘food vessel.’ It is shaped like fig. 71, with four unpierced ears at the shoulder, 54 in. high, 53 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The ornamentation is applied over the whole surface and on the inside of the lip of the rim, and is made by short lines drawn by a pointed instrument, and 8 2 260 YORKSHIRE, EAST RIDING, arranged herring-bone fashion on the outside of the vessel, and on the inside of the rim by a series of lozenges (their longer axes touching at the points) placed between two bands of short lines inclining inwards. Seven feet north-north-east of the present centre, but no doubt coincident with the original one, and clearly the primary interment, was the body ofa child, scarcely a year old, on its left side, with the head to N. by E. It was plaeed on the natural surface in a slight hollow, with a direction of west-north-west by east- south-east, 5 ft. long and 3 ft. wide, and lined with wood, which towards the east end was charred. Close to the child, also towards the east end of the hollow, were some of the bones of, apparently, a young woman, placed certainly with some regard to their proper order, but by no means presenting such an appearance as would imply that when the interment took place there had been an entire body. The head was on its left side, but there was no lower jaw with it; the other bones were in such a position as to show that it had been intended to lay the body on the right side, but there was no left femur, no vertebre, and none of the bones of the arms, except the left humerus. The bones still remaining were in such a sound condition as to render it impossible to suppose that those which were wanting had perished by decay, so that there can be no room for doubt that when the child was buried eertain parts of the skeleton of another body had been placed in association with it, the bones probably of one removed from some other place of deposit, and possibly those of the mother. The size of this barrow was such as (presumably at least) to in- dicate the importance of the person over whose body it had been raised ; and yet there seems every reason to conclude that the person in question was a child of very tender years’. Possibly the child may have been the offspring of the .chief of some powerful tribe, destined, if life had been spared, to rule in his turn over the people whose bodily toil contributed to the erection of this gigantic funeral memorial. Nor is the conjecture an improbable one which would regard the bones of the young female as those of the mother, who had died before her child, and whose bones had been disinterred from their previous resting-place in order that they might be laid 1 Sir R. Colt Hoare records the discovery of the body of a very young child in a deep grave at the centre of a large barrow at Lake. He says, ‘ The history of this tumulus, which our learned Doctor (Stukeley) would, from its superior size and beauti- ful form, have styled a King Barrow, shows what little regard we ought to pay to system; for here, at the vast depth of nearly 14 ft., we find only the deposit of an infant, accompanied by a single drinking cup.’ Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 210. PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 261 by the side of her child’s lifeless body. Assuming the probability of these conjectures, the circumstances would seem to point to a stage of progress quite inconsistent with the idea of an utterly un- cultured or savage people ; indeed, they would imply something like hereditary rule, or at least a state of society in which the son of the chief was regarded by the community as having especial claims on their regard and respect, and whose burial-place it was fitting to honour with a more than ordinary observance. At a distance of 15 ft. north-east of the centre, and 64 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a child, very much decayed ; close to the head was a small and perfectly plain vessel, 33 in. high, & in. wide at the mouth, 42 in. at a distance of 14 in. below the mouth, and 22 in. at the bottom. One foot and a-half east of the last was another child, also mueh decayed; at the head, and pro- bably in front of the face, was a small ‘drinking cup, in form like fig. 120, 42 in. high, 33 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. It is ornamented to within 1} in. of the bottom with four zigzag and two saltire-formed lines encompassing the vase, and alternating with a series of four plain eneircling lines, the whole slightly marked and made by a sharp-pointed tool. ‘Twenty-one feet and a-half east-by-north from the centre, and 63 ft. above the level of the ground, was the body of a man, laid on the back and at full length, with the head to W. by N. One foot north of the last was another man; and 12 ft. to the north of the second was a third man’s body, both of which, like the first, were laid at full length on their backs, and with the head in the same direction ; the hands in all three cases being placed on the hips. Two feet north-west of the third man was a fourth, laid on the right side in a contracted position, with the head to S.W., and the hands up to the face. Just beyond the feet of the three extended bodies there was another, the bones of which were too mueh disturbed by the plough to admit of the position of the body being ascertained. It is not improbable that the three bodies laid at full length, and indeed the other two as well, were those of Angles, placed in the mound many centuries after its construction. In the absence of any associated relics this is of course mere conjecture ; but it is one which at least may safely be hazarded, inasmuch as the position was so exactly that of Anglian burials in general, and as it was by no means an uncommon thing for the later settlers to make use of earlier burial-mounds in which to inter their own dead. It has already been mentioned that there was a deposit of dark 262 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. fatty earth upon the level of the ground, extending throughout the whole barrow, and increasing in depth up to the centre, where it attained a thickness of 21 ft. This deposit was full of burnt earth and charcoal in every part; but there was more evidence of burning in that’ part which immediately overlaid the natural surface. There were also in it a very large number of animal bones!, as well as sherds of pottery, principally of plain dark-coloured ware, flint implements, and chippings of the same material. Amongst the implements must be numbered 79 saws [fig. 22]; 17 scrapers ; 3 leaf-shaped arrow-points; 2 pointed tools (probably for boring) ; several flint articles of uncertain purpose; a hammer-stone; and a piece of a greenstone axe. Many of the saws are very delicately: serrated, some along both edges, and showing by the glaze upon the edge that they had been in use. The number of saws was very surprising, and far exceeded the aggregate of those ob- tained from all the barrows I have opened ; and it is by no means easy to give any reasonable explanation of the phenomenon. | LXVIIi. The next barrow was situated about a quarter of a mile to the south-east of the last. It had been much dug into in pursuit of rabbits, and in one part a trench had been cut through it down to the level of the ground. It nevertheless proved one of the most. prolific and interesting mounds I have ever examined. It was 40 ft., in diameter and 33 ft. high, the lower 18 inches being of earth, the remaining or upper portion of chalk. The earth which over- laid the graves was so compact that it was only broken up with great difficulty, and had all the appearance of having been in- tentionally puddled ; although it is more probable that this con- dition had been caused by the material having been put together’ in very wet weather, and much trampled on in the process. It; will be remembered that a similar appearance was noticed in a barrow at Weaverthorpe | No. xlvii], as also in the second barrow of the present group | No. lxiii]. At a distance of 73 ft. south-west of the centre, and 11 ft. above the surface-level, was the body of an adult, laid on the right side, with the head to N.N.W.; but the hands were so much decayed. 1 The bones are—of red deer, four, and two teeth; of goat or sheep, twelve, and six teeth ; of horse, four; of dog (canis familiaris), two; of pig (sus scrofa domesticus), sixty-five, and thirty teeth ; of ox (bos longifrons), one hundred and thirty, and forty- one teeth; and of another species of ox, either of the wrus type or of a cross between that species and bos longifrons, a domestic variety, and of larger size than has been before met with in the barrows of the: wolds. SS... See — —E PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 263 as to prevent their position being ascertained. Seven feet south-west- by-west from the centre, and at the same level, was a child’s body, too much decayed to allow anything more to be determined. Two feet south of the centre, and upon the level of the natural surface, was the body of a man, laid on its right side, with the head to S.W., the hands being up to the face. On the ground-level at the centre, and just over the middle of the first grave (to be noticed presently), was a child, laid on the left side, with the head to 8.W., and the hands up to the face. There was a great deal of burnt earth and charcoal both above and below the body; and throughout all this part of the mound were the disturbed and broken bones of two bodies, one being of an adult, the other of a child. Immediately beneath the child was an oval grave, north-east and south-west, 8 ft. by 44 ft. at the bottom, and 9 ft. by 82 ft. at the surface-level, and 64 ft. deep. It was filled in with chalk. At the bottom of the grave, about the middle, was the body of a man, laid on the left side, with the head to S.E. by E., the mght hand being up to the face and the left on the upper part of the stomach. About midway between the knees and the face were several articles, some of which had apparently once been employed in fastening the dress. They were placed upon each other in the following order. On the top was a long and narrow implement of mica-schist, ground over the whole surface | fig. 14]; it may very possibly have ey been a whetstone. The under sur- [i face is flat and the upper one con- vex, and it decreases in width from the middle to the ends, which are rounded; the flat surface is hol- lowed to some, though a trifling, ex- tent, and there are slight scratches upon it which may have been caused by its having been used for whetting’. Immediately below it was a very prettily engraved jet ring |[fig. 123], with two perforations in the side, similar to those in the jet buttons as shown in the section below. This ring Pe | : Py as = >} j " 4 \ 1} h . _— Fig. 123. 4. * Two similarly-shaped stones, one remarkably like the Rudstone specimen, were found by Sir R. Colt Hoare in a barrow in Wiltshire. They were associated with an unburnt body, with which were also deposited a ‘drinking cup,’ a large button and a “pulley bead,’ both of jet, and a flint rudely chipped, as if for a dagger or spear. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 118, pl. xiv. There is a great resemblance between the objects discovered in the above Wiltshire barrow and that at Rudstone, though the two burials do not correspond in all the accidents. Mr. Evans regards these articles as whetstones, or for polishing. Ancient, 264 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. is altogether similar to one found in the same locality, and described at p. 228, and much like to another described at p. 230. Below the ring was a plain jet button, 12 in. in diameter, and in shape like fig. 124, placed face upwards; and again below that a second button, lying with the face downwards [fig. 124]; this last, as will be seen from the figure, is vety beautifully en- graved with a cross pattern, and cor- responds very closely with one found at Thwing, and figured p. 33. A little nearer to the face were two articles, a ‘flint and steel’ [fig. 31], not hitherto noticed as such in their relative capacities, though they have been before found with ancient British interments. The steel had been made from a round nodule of iron pyrites, split in half; the flint was placed below the split nodule, which rested upon it, the flat surface being downwards; the flint is 21 in. long and 2 in. square. Both show signs of continued use in their worn and smoothened edges, but the spark of fire seems principally to have been obtained by rubbing the end of the flint along the flat face of the nodule, which is worn into a considerable groove in con- sequence. The nodiile has had a portion ground off on the rounded surface, probably in order to remove a projecting piece which rendered it in- convenient to handle. Still nearer to the face, the point however directed away from it, lay a bronze knife-dagger [fig. 125], resting on some substance which has the appearance of moss. This implement is 43 in. long, and 1% in. wide at the point where the handle has joined the blade in the usual semilunar form, and where it has been fixed by three bronze rivets, the two sides having been further fastened together by two additional rivets, one of which is figured with the blade. The handle had been made of ox-horn, the impression left by Fig. 125. 4. Stone Implements, p. 239. Some implements evidently whetstones, at times per- forated, have been met with in the Wiltshire barrows, and now and then accompanying bronze knife-daggers, % PARISH OF RUDSTONE. 265 the texture of that material being still apparent upon the oxi- dised metal. The two rivets are severally, and without ineluding the heads, ;%, in. and 7, in. long, and thus the thickness of the handle is given. On the bottom of the grave was a quantity of charcoal. — At the south-west end of the first grave there was an extension, forming a second one, not so deep as the first by a foot. It extended 7 ft. to the south-west, with a width of 43 ft. At the north-east end of it was the body of a man, laid on the left side, with the head to 8.E., the right hand being up to the face and the left on the stomach. The body was but slightly contracted, the head being 33 ft. away from the knees. Behind the back were two jet buttons, placed one upon the other; they are both plain, and are respectively 12 in. and 1} in. in diameter, the larger one being more conically shaped than the other. Close to them, on the north, was another ‘flint and steel,’ almost identical in form and appearance with those found in the preceding grave, but both of the latter showing signs of having been a longer time in use. As in the first instance, the nodule of pyrites was placed upon the flint. On the north side of the grave last described, being also an extension of the first one, in a north-east-by-north direction, was a third grave, a foot less in depth than the second, and consequently not more than 44 ft. deep. It was 5 ft. long and 53 ft. wide, and contained the body of a large and very powerfully made old man, laid on the left side, with the head to N.E. by E., the right hand being upon the head, the left up to the face. In front of the face was placed a bronze knife, which had been fastened to its handle of ox-horn by a single rivet. The metal is a good deal oxidised, and the exact length of the blade cannot be ascertained with certainty, but it has probably been about 33 in. long; it is one inch wide where the handle joined the blade, which has terminated with a straight end, and not in the semilunar form. The point of the knife, which is rounded, was turned away from the face of the man. Behind the shoulders was a perforated axe-hammer of micaceous grit, 54 in. long and 1% in. thick * [fig. 126]. The edge, if such a term can be applied to what has a rounded form, was turned away from the body, and the 1 A similar conjunction of implements has occurred in other places in England. Mr. Bateman found two interments where a perforated axe-hammer and a bronze knife-dagger were associated ; one in Carden Lowe, near Hartington; Vestiges, p. 63 ; the other at Parcelly Hay, also near Hartington; Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 24. Sir R. Colt Hoare met with the two implements in question in a barrow near Selwood, but there associated with a burial after cremation. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 39, pl. i. 266 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. weapon was laid with the perforation in a vertical position. Close to it was a flint tool of elongated triangular form, 14 in. long, and chipped along both edges. In the material of the barrow were some sherds of pottery, two round flint scrapers, and some bones of goat or sheep, ox, dog, and pig, all of domesticated animals. This barrow presented some features which seem to require a more particular notice than the mere record of their occurrence. The most important matter is the discovery of two articles which Fig. 126. 5. cannot have been anything else than a ‘flint and steel,’ the means of producing fire. So far as I know, this is the first instance of anything of the kind appertaining to the bronze age having been specially recorded’; and although the probability that in these 1 Though the occurrence of pyrites of iron and flint-in barrows had been already remarked, it does not seem to have suggested the purpose to which these materials had been applied. Mr. Bateman, for instance, mentions that in a barrow on Elton Moor, near the head of a body ‘ was a piece of spherical iron pyrites, now for the first time noticed as being found with other relics in the British tumuli.” In the rear of the same body was ‘a flat piece of polished iron ore, a small celt of flint, with the peculiarity of having a round polished edge instead of a cutting one as is usual; a beautifully-chipped cutting tool, twenty-one circular instruments, almost all neatly chipped, and seventeen pieces or rude instruments, all of flint.’ Vestiges, p. 53. In Green Lowe, behind the shoulders of a skeleton was ‘a piece of spherical pyrites or. iron ore... and a flint instrument of the circular-headed form.’ /. ¢:, p. 59. In Dowe- Lowe a skeleton ‘was accompanied by a fluted brass dagger... and an amulet or ornament of iron ore, with a large flint implement, which had seen a good deal of | service.’.l. c., p. 96. In Wiltshire Sir R. Colt-Hoare found in a barrow at Brigmilston, ' ‘a long piece of flint and a pyrites, both evidently smoothed by use.’ Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 195. A half nodule of pyrites, showing signs of use, after the same fashion as those from Rudstone, was discovered in a barfow on Lambourne Down, Berkshire, and is now in the British Museum. . Another, having a deep. groove worn - on the flat surface, was met with in company with an urn and a bronze dagger, in a_ barrow at Angrowse Mullion, Cornwall. Borlase, Nenia Cornubie, p. 235. Lord Rosehill found with a burnt body in a cist at Tyneside Farm, near Minto, Roxburgh- shire, a slice of a nodule of iron pyrites, together with a long and thick flint flake, apparently ‘a flint and steel.” I myself found a piece of iron ore, held in the hand of a skeleton, and a long thick flake of flint, evidently ‘a flint and steel,’ in a cairn_ [ No. elxxiv] on Crosby Garrett Fell, Westmoreland. See Evans, Stone Impl., pp. 14, 281, seqq- : PARISH OF RUDSTONE, 267 early ages fire was obtained by such a process may have suggested itself to many, as it had indeed to myself,. still, before this discovery of the ‘flint and steel’ unmistakeably adapted and also used for that purpose, there was no tangible evidence of the fact. This evidence seems now to be supplied by the contents of the present barrow; for not only were the two materials—the flint and the iron pyrites—found in such juxtaposition as to imply connection the one with the other, but both by their appearance clearly indicate the nature of that connection and mutual use ; the bruised and smoothened edges and ends of the flints and the grooved surface of the pyrites showing tokens of long-continued reciprocal friction. It is true that certain ores of iron have long been employed by savage tribes as a source from which to obtain a red pigment, whether for their own personal adornment or for colouring articles of dress and implements, but the particular ore to which, the nodules under notice belong is not adapted for producing any. pigment when in a fresh and unoxidised condition; neither are the appearances of wear upon the pyrites those that would have resulted from a scraping process necessary in the preparation of such a substance. There certainly are the marks of what may perhaps be called scraping along the middle of the fractured surface of the nodules ; but that is just the part where the ore would be quite fresh and unoxidised, and therefore the least available for use as providing a pigment. The marks in question have no doubt been made, as has already been mentioned, by rubbing the flint rapidly across the flat surface in the process of obtaining the required spark. The value of the evidence is further enhanced by the fact that like articles occurred in connection with two separate interments under precisely similar circumstances and with. exactly identical appearances of use upon them. It might naturally be expected that a people who had so far progressed in civilisation, as the various remains belonging to the bronze period attest that the inhabitants of Britain had at that time arrived, would have attained to some better mode of producing fire than the tedious process of rubbing two sticks together, or even by the use of a fire driil. There was however no evidence to show in what improved way so important an essential to human existence, especially in a climate like ours, might have been obtained at the time in question, until this important discovery in the barrow at Rudstone supplied the interesting fact. It might seem strange that a people who were dealing in this manner with an ore of iron should not 268 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. have made the discovery of the possibility of smelting it, if we did not bear in mind: that the different pyritie ores are intractable enough to bid defiance to the appliances of modern science. Although perhaps not of equal value as evidence touching the condition of the people of this early period with the discovery just passed under notice, still the occurrence of a bronze implement associated with one of stone is not without its interest. It is well known that during the bronze age flint and other varieties of stone were used for the fabrication of such weapons and tools as would have been made of metal had it been more readily procurable ; still, every additional fact illustrative of this point is important, as adding one more to a number whieh is by no means too great. The stone implement, exclusive of the smaller articles of flint, which has been most commonly found associated with bronze, is (as was the case in the barrow now under notice) the perforated axe-hammer, an implement which must I think be classed as a weapon of war, for which purpose it would obviously at such a period be almost as efficacious as if made of bronze. ~ The jet articles, especially the ring and one of the buttons, are of great beauty, and show not only considerable skill in their manufacture, but much taste in the style of ornament adopted in each case. The ring, with the parallel lines engraved upon its faces and side, is really a very pretty object ; and the pattern with which it is decorated is so well suited to the art-requirements of such an article as to show that the person who made it must have been not only well acquainted with, but much under the influence of, the true principles of ornamentation as applied to objects of personal use. The same may be said of the engraved button, the simple orna- mentation upon which is just such as to add to its beauty without overloading it, while the conical form of the upper surface of the button seems fittingly to call for the application of such a pattern as has been placed upon it. ‘The cross in this case is most probably simply decorative, and although it is certain that from a very early time this figure was used as a symbol, and although it occurs frequently upon various manufactured articles of the bronze period, and more especially on the bottoms of fictile vessels, I should not be inclined to suppose that anything more than an ornamental purpose was intended in the cases just referred to’. | _ 1 Two previous instances where the cross has occurred on buttons in the wold barrows may be referred to; at Butterwick [No. xxxix] on a stone button, and at Thwing [ No. lx] on one of jet. Sir R. Colt Hoare found two thin gold disks, which PARISH O¥ RUDSTONE, 269 There can be no doubt that. the ring, with the perforations on the side, was used in some way for fastening the dress; rings of this kind have so constantly been found together with buttons that they can scarcely be separated from them when their original purpose is considered. The manner of use is however not so easy of expla- nation, though it is possible that a thong being fixed on each side of a garment which was open in front, one of them may have been passed through one of the perforations, whilst the opposite thong was passed through the other, the two thongs being then tied, and leaving the ring to hang in front of the dress, serving, like a modern brooch, equally for use and ornament. LXIX. The last barrow of the group which was opened, being the last but one towards the east, was situated about 3 mile east- by-south from that just described. It was 60 ft. in diameter, 3} ft. high, and was composed entirely of earth. It contained two inter- ments at the centre, those of an unburnt and a burnt body. The former (the only instance in my experience except three, where the all but universal rule of contracting the body was departed from) was laid in a shallow grave, west-south-west by east-north-east, 6 ft. long and 34 ft. wide ; at the east end it was 13 ft. deep, and it decreased gradually in depth until at the west end, where the head was placed, it rose to the level of the original surface. The body deposited in it was that of a young man about 25 years of age, who was laid on his back and at full length, the head being a little brought forward on to the chest, and the hands up to each side of the head. On the left side, in contact with the body, and extending from 6 in. above to the same distance below the knees, were the bones of the burnt body of an adult male. At the right hip was a ‘ food vessel,’ and on the left side, between the arm and the chest, was a flint knife. The vase is, though more rudely made, in shape much like fig. 70, but has four unpierced ears. It is 42 in. high, 6in. wide at the mouth, and 32 in. at the bottom. It is entirely covered with ornament, including the inside of the lip seem to have been the coating of wooden buttons, having a cross engraved on each, in a barrow in Wiltshire, associated with a small bronze knife-dagger and a ‘ drink- ing cup,’ accompanying an unburnt body. Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 99, pl. x, xi. In all these cases where this figure has been found upon buttons I am inclined to consider it as being purely decorative, though it has been used extensively, and in many countries and at different times, as a religious symbol. The subject of the use of the cross in early times is very fully treated by G. de Mortillet, ‘Le signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme,’ and in an article ‘On the Pre-Christian Cross,’ in the Edinburgh Review, vol. exxxi. p, 222. 270 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. of the rim, which has four lines of thong-impressions running round it. The outside has a herring-bone pattern upon it, made by short thong-impressions, except at the shoulder including the ears, where it has four rows of vesica-shaped vertical markings made by a sharp-pointed tool. The knife, which is of the form of fig. 21, though not so long proportionately, is most beautifully chipped over the whole of its convex surface, and has an edge, produced by very minute flaking, quite as sharp as one of steel. There was a great quantity of charcoal at both the head and feet of the body. ) It will have been remarked that in the barrow described a few pages before a very large number of flint saws were found ; in the barrow now under notice there were no fewer than twenty-four round scrapers. Besides these, there were, together with innumer- able chippings, a long leaf-shaped arrow-point, a javelin-head, a single-winged arrow-point (or whatever that class of flint imple- ment may have been), very much like fig. 340 in Evans’s Stone Implements, a knife | fig. 127], several flints of enigmatical purpose, a flat oval piece of fine-grained sandstone, 3 in. in length, which had been used on one face for polishing, and from the appearance probably for polishing metal, and at the ends for ham- mering, together with another flat irregularly- shaped piece of similar stone 2? in. long, in which, on the flat side, a hollow has been wrought, while on the opposite side another hollow has just been commenced. Amongst the material of the barrow were also some ~ sherds of plain dark-coloured pottery and some bones of ox and pig. The position of the body, being at full length, in connection with the undoubted antiquity of the interment, is a very unusual one, indeed AN the only case of the kind, with three exceptions, Fig. 127. 2. that I have met with in above three hundred interments which I have examined on the wolds and elsewhere. Rare instances of its occurrence have been noted in different parts of England, where, as in this case, there could be no doubt that the burials were pre-Roman. The ordinary fashion of burial in an extended position was however to some extent deviated from in the present instance, for the hands, instead of being laid at the full length of the arm alongside the PARISH OF FOLKTON. 271 body or upon the hips, were, as is commonly the case with contracted bodies, placed at the side of the head, which also, as noticed above, was bent a little forward. Still, the change from the ordinary position is remarkable, and does not readily admit of explanation ; and all that can be said is that, under the most rigid observance of rule or custom, aberrant cases will occasionally occur —in common speech, ‘ There is no rule without an exception.’ Parish or Forxton. Ord. Map. xcv. s.w. There still remain, though many have been removed in the course of agricultural operations, a considerable number of barrows upon Folkton and Flixton Wolds, some of which, especially one called Sharp Howe, are of large dimensions. Of these I examined three upon Flixton Wold, situated about a mile to the north-east of those on Willerby Wold, described at p. 185. The first of these, called Elf Howe, had been removed to a great extent, and the grave had been dug out before I had an opportunity of examining it. I how- ever got an account of what was diseovered’from the foreman on the farm, and I was able personally to inspect a small portion which had not been disturbed. The barrow had been 60 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. high, and was made of earth and chalk. Near the centre a deposit of burnt bones was met with, over which some large flints were placed; this was at a depth of 4ft., and as a great quantity of burnt earth was observed immediately round the bones, it is probable that the body had been burnt on the spot where the bones were placed. Two unburnt bodies were found on the south side of the mound, with one of which a vessel of pottery was associated. At a distance of 17 ft. south-south-east of the centre I found the body of a strongly-made man, laid on the right side, with the head to 8. and the hands to the knees; the body was placed about 6 in. above the natural surface. Immediately below the head was the body of a very young child, the bones of which were too much decayed to admit of anything being made out beyond the fact that it was a child’s body which was laid there. Still lower, and on the natural surface, was a patella, a radius, and some other bones of a body, which had been disturbed, probably in the interring of the person who was found buried above. At the centre was a grave, lying north-west and south-east, 7 ft. by 63 ft. and 24 ft. deep. On the bottom at the north side was the body of 272 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. a strongly-made man in the middle period of life, whose head, a typically brachy-cephalic one, was to S., but my informant could not remember on which side the body was laid; at the head was a ‘food vessel, which, from the fragments that have been preserved, must have been a rudely-made one with unusually thick walls. LXX. The next barrow, which was about a quarter of a mile to the south of the last, was placed upon the steep slope of a valley which runs up from the village of Forden, and upon a piece of ground which had never been under the plough. It was therefore of its original size, though an attempt had been made to open it, which had not however interfered with many of the numerous interments it was found to contain. It was 28 ft. in diameter, 33 ft. high, and made of chalk and earth. Thirteen feet south of the centre, and upon the surface-level, was a small sepulchral vessel, which had no doubt been associated with an interment, most probably that of a child, whose bones had however gone entirely to decay. The vessel, roughly in shape like fig. 69, is 4in. high, 5in. wide: at the mouth, and 2} in. at the bottom, and is perfectly plain, except on the inside of the rim, where are some lines rudely and irregularly made. At a distance of 8} ft. south- south-west of the centre, and at the same level as the vase just mentioned, were the much decayed remains of the bones of a child under a year old, with which was associated a ‘ food vessel,’ so much broken and disintegrated that nothing more can be said of it than that it had been small and ornamented on the upper part with encircling lines of the usual thong-impressions. At a higher level than the last, being 14 ft. above the surface of the ground, and 9 ft. south-south-east of the centre, was the body of another very young child, in the same decayed condition as that of the last one ; with this interment also was a ‘food vessel.’ It is rudely made, in form approaching to fig. 69, 32in. high, 4#in. wide at the mouth, and 22in. at the bottom; the upper part has two encircling zigzag lines, and below these the vessel is covered with parallel lines, arranged vertically, all being made by thong- impressions. At the same distance from the centre as the last interment, but in a direction south-east-by-south, and laid on the surface-level, was the body of yet another child, with the head to S.E. Upon the same level, and 5 ft, south-west-by-south of the centre, was the body of a young woman from 18 to 20 years . PARISH OF FOLKTON. 273 ef age, laid on the left side, the head to S.S.E., and the hands on the chest. At a distance of 7 ft. west-by-south of the centre, and 13 ft. above the natural surface, were two bodies, both placed on the left side, and having the heads to N. by W. The one, that of a strongly-made man past the middle period of life, had the arms crossed in front of the chest, and upon them and laid between the knees and head was the second body, that of a boy or girl below the age of puberty, whose hands were to the knees. Nine feet east of the centre, and deposited on the natural surface, was the body of a young person, probably a boy about 17 or 18 years of age, laid on the right side, having the head to E., and the hands up to the face; in contact with this body were some burnt bones. At the same level, and 7 ft. north-east-by-north of the centre, was a body, probably that of a woman between 40 and 45 years of age, laid on the left side, the head to E.S.E., and the hands to the knees. In front of the face was a ‘drinking cup,’ of a novel form [fig. 84]. It is 84 in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth. 3} in. at the bottom, and is ornamented over the whole surface; the nature of the ornamenta- tion will best be understood from the figure. The pattern is formed by impressions of twisted thong, aided in some parts by a sharp- pointed tool. Just above the surface-level, and 9} ft. north-by-west of the centre, was the body of a child, laid on the left side, the head to W. by S. In front of the face was a ‘ food vessel,’ 43 in. high, 4 in. wide at the mouth and 2?in. at the bottom. It is shaped roughly like fig. 71, and is but slightly ornamented, having a row of dotted impressions running round the inside of the lip of the rim, the outside of which has three encircling lines. of thong-impressions upon it; at the shoulder are two encircling rows of short lines, inclining to the right, made by a bluntly-pointed tool. At a distance of 7 ft. north-north-west of the centre, and 1 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a large man, laid on the left side, and whose head, when there, must have been to W. by N. The head and part of the back had however heen cut away when the partial opening before alluded to had been made. Another body, that of a woman, seems to have been discovered on the same ceasion, for portions of the skulls and ,other bones of three adults (some of them clearly belonging to that one a part of whose skeleton was still left undisturbed) had been collected together, and put into a hole made below the pelvis of the partially removed body. Immediately north-west of the present centre was the edge of a grave, lying north-by-west and south-by-east, 53 ft. by 42 ft. and T 274 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. 33 ft. deep. Close to the north side of the grave, and.just below its surface, was a deposit of burnt bones, those of a child at least twelve years old, and immediately underneath them, at a depth of 6in., was a ‘food vessel,’ in form like fig. 69, quite destitute of ornamentation, 33in. high, 42 in. wide at the mouth, and 24 in. at the bottom. Though not in actual contact with the bones, there can be scarcely any doubt that the vessel was intended to be as- sociated with the interment; and though it is not usual to meet with the vase separate from the body, yet it has been found in other instances a little apart from it. At the bottom of the grave, which was flagged with chalk slabs, and on the south side of it, was the body of a young man about 24 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to 8.S.E., the hands being up to the face. In front of the chest was a curved pin, made from the tusk of a boar [fig. 9]; it has three holes and the broken part of a fourth perforated through it at the broader end. From its form, and the place where it was found, there can be little doubt that it had served to fasten the dress of the buried person. Below the head was part of another boar’s tusk, which has been rubbed down to a sharp edge on one side, and which seems to have been in- tended for a knife or some similar instrument. It will be re- membered that an article of the same kind was met with in one of the Cowlam barrows [| No. lvii]. In front of the face were some of the bones of the right fore-leg of a young pig’, possibly the remains of food deposited with the dead man ; as the several bones were in their proper order, it is probable that the flesh was still upon them when they were placed in the grave. Within the grave, but not connected with the body, were some bones of pig and the tooth of an ox; and also a bone implement [fig. 36]. A few potsherds occurred amongst the material of the barrow. LXXI. On the opposite side of the narrow valley before men- tioned, and, like the last barrow, situated upon a piece of wold which had never been cultivated, was another grave-mound. It was placed just to the west of one of the entrenchments so abundant on the wolds, and it had apparently been constructed at an earlier — period than the mound which formed part of the defensive work, — for the side of the barrow appeared to have been partly cut away — 1 In a grave under a barrow at Arras, East Riding, a body was discovered, and ‘close to the upper part of the skeleton was part of the skull and two or three bones — of the foreleg of a young pig.’ Crania Brit., pl. 6, 7. p. 7. — cP 6. OS Poe = : PARISH OF FOLKTON. 275 at that point. It was 36 ft. in diameter, 5 ft. high, and made of chalk and earth; the barrow at a distance of 12 ft. south-west of the centre being entirely formed of chalk, which gradually decreased towards the north-east, until, at a point a little beyond and to the east of the centre, it consisted wholly of earth. Ata depth of one foot above the natural surface, and 83 ft. south-by-east of the centre, was the body of a young person about 14 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to E. by 8., the right hand being on the hips, the left to the right elbow; it was covered over with chalk slabs. At the same level as the last body, and 73} ft. south-west-by- south of the centre, was the body of a child about a year old, laid with the head to S. Close to the child, and chiefly near its head, were many bones of a large man, having evidently been disturbed and replaced, and which probably belonged to a partially dismem- bered body found 63 ft. south-west-by-west of the centre. This body (that of a man of considerable strength and at least 30 years of age), as well as could be judged from what was left of it, had been placed on the right side, with the head to W. by N., the right hand being to the hips, the left arm extended down the side. The lower part of the body had been cut away; and the bones which were found close to the child corresponded in size with those of this skeleton, and they were moreover the bones which were absent from it; the upper part had not been interfered with. To the south of the centre, and about 1} ft. above the surface-level, were a number of calcined human bones widely scattered. A foot higher than the last-named body, but a little nearer to the centre, was another body, probably that of a boy from 16 to 18 years of age, laid on the right side, with the head to W.N.W., the hands being in front of the chest. At a distance of 9 ft. south-south-west of the present centre of the barrow, measuring to its own centre, was an oval grave, north-west and south-east, 91 ft. by 6 ft. and 5 ft. deep, principally filled in with chalk. At a depth of 4ft., and placed about the middle of the grave, was the body of a young woman from 18 to 20 years of age, laid on the right side, the head to S., the hands up to the face, in front of which was a ‘food vessel.’ Below the head was a round flint scraper, at the right elbow three bone beads, and below the hips a fourth bone bead and a small bronze drill or awl. The body had flat pieces of chalk set round it, and just in front of the hips were the bones of the right fore-lee and some of the ribs of a young pig, and an astragalus of a goat or sheep; the remains, no doubt, of food placed T 2 276 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. in the grave at the burial. In the account of the last-described barrow a similar occurrence will be found noted. The ‘ food vessel,’ which is in its general form somewhat like fig. 71, has six slightly- projecting pierced ears at the shoulder, which are more than the usual depth, being 12 in. deep. The vase is 4Zin. high, 5} in. wide at the mouth and 32 in. at the bottom. The inside of the lip has two encircling lines made by impressions ef short pieces of twisted thong nearly touching each other ; similar impressions, but arranged vertically, are placed on the edge of the lip. The remainder of the vase to within 12 m. of the bottem is covered with twelve encompassing lines of thong-impressions, and the space below that has on it lines-of similar impressions, but arranged vertically and slightly radiating from the bottom. The three bone beads first found have patterns upon them {fig. 50], principally of various forms of the cross, worked upon both faces; this has been effected by burning part of the surface with a sharp-pointed imple- ment, so that the device shows in white on a dark ground, or black on a white ground; the fourth bead, which was found under the hips, though of precisely the same shape and size as the other three, is quite plain. The drill [fig. 39] is square at the middle, then becomes round, and tapers away to a very fine point at each end ; itis 1gin. long. A foot below the last body, and on the bottom of the grave, was the body of an aged and powerfully-made man, laid on the left side, the head, which was close to the north-east end of the grave, being to N.E. by E.; the arms were crossed, the hands being placed upon the opposite elbows. Turfs had been laid over and round the body. Near to the head, but scarcely im con- nection with the interment, were the half of a flint knife and a round seraper of the same material. They had probably been at one time associated with one or both of two disturbed bodies (an adult and a child), abundant remains of which were met with throughout the filling-in of the grave.. At the centre of the barrow, for about a space of 5 ft. in diameter, — and above 6 in. in depth, and commencing 16 in. below the surface of the mound, was a deposit of dark-coloured earth, containing a great quantity of charcoal and other burnt matter. In this deposit — were many large fragments of imperfectly calcined human bones, namely, parts of a skull, a tibia, femur and humerus, apparently — belonging to a single adult body. They were widely scattered, here and there, and did not present anything like the appearance — of an ordinary interment of a burnt body. About the middle of PARISH OF FOLKTON. 77 this dark mass, and 4 ft. above the surface-level, was the body of probably a man, about 25: to 30 years of age, laid on the left side, with the head to E.N.E., and the hands up to the face. In front of the knees was a vessel of pottery, too much broken and decayed to admit of either its size or shape being accurately defined. It has much of the form of a einerary urn, having an overhanging rim which is ornamented with four encircling’ rows of oval im- pressions in pairs, and having a similar row below the rim; it appears to have been about 5 in. high. Five feet north of the centre, and about 1 ft. above the surface- level, was the body of a young child, the head being to S. At a distance of 8 ft. north-west of the present centre of the barrow was the centre of a second grave, which probably had been originally at the point from whence the mound was com- menced, but which, in consequence of the barrow having been placed on the sharp slope of the hill, and the material having a tendency to fall towards the south-east down the slope, had thus become so far as 8 ft. distant from the present centre. Before describing the contents of this grave it will be necessary to mention that 8 ft. north-north-east of the centre, and at a level of 1 ft. above the surface of the ground, were found the remains of a body, part of which had been removed, and the skull apparently belonging to which was subsequently discovered in the grave. The body was laid on the right side, the head having been to N. when the skull was present; the lower jaw, the vertebral column, the right femur, the bones of the pelvis and the tibias were however there, and in their proper positions. Upon the knees was a small round flint seraper. At a distance of 6 ft. north-by-west from the centre, and within the limits of the grave just above mentioned, being 1} ft. below the surface-level, was the body of a man past the middle period of life, laid on the left side, the head to E.S.E., with the hands up to the face. The back was not bowed forward as is usual, but was quite straight, and the femurs stood out at right angles from it. Just beyond the knees was a skull, probably of a man in the middle period of life, with no lower jaw, and which there cannot be much dowbt belonged to the body previously described as having been found without a skull, and which had been in part disturbed when this body had been placed in the grave. In front of the face of the undisturbed body, indeed touching the teeth, were two round flint scrapers, whilst under the head was a third and larger one. A line of decayed wood, lying parallel to the body and in front of it, 278 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. about 2 ft. long, may very possibly represent what had once been a club, or other implement of wood. Throughout that part of the barrow which was above the grave, and in the grave itself down to the level of the last-described interment, were several disturbed bones of two bodies, an adult and a child. The grave was oval, having a direction east-by-south and west-by-north, 6 ft. long, 4° ft. wide, and 4 ft. deep. At the bottom and about the centre was the body of a man in the middle period of life, laid on the right side, with the head to N.E. by E., and the hands in front of the chest. Under the neck was a small conical bone button 2 in. in diameter, similar in shape to the jet buttons which have been frequently met with, and before described. Behind the shoulders was a ‘food vessel.’ The head had been protected by three flat pieces of chalk set on edge, with another laid upon them, and the vase was placed just outside them. Close to the feet were the ‘trotters’ of a young pig, making the third.instance in the two barrows now under notiee where portions of animal food had apparently been deposited in connection with the interments. — ‘The vase is in shape somewhat like fig. 72, 62 in. high, 61 in. wide at the mouth, and 3in. at the bottom. The inside of the lip has three encireling lines of thong-impressions, very irregularly placed. The whole vessel is covered with slightly-made impres- sions of loosely-twisted thong, arranged without any order and forming no pattern. The paste is full of large pieces of stone, and the vessel is as rude and badly manufactured as it is possible to conceive. There was an absence of chippings or implements of flint amongst the material of this mound, as was also the ease in the barrow last deseribed, but a few pieces of different kinds of pottery were found here and there. The jaw of a large dow and the tooth of an ox were also met with amongst the undisturbed material. | The discovery of the beads, with their peculiar marking, requires a more special notice than has. yet been given to them. The cross which in various forms appears upon them must, I think, be regarded merely as ornamental, and not as having any symbolical meaning, though it does not in this instance seem to fit in with the form of the article to which it is applied so naturally as upon the buttons already noticed. J am inclined to think that the very variety itself under which the form occurs is in favour of its being decorative, for had it been intended to serve as a representation or _ symbol of some religious or other idea, it seems scarcely likely that — ~ PARISH OF CHERRY BURTON. 279 it would have been so carefully varied in each instance, nor would the primary and simple form have been so much departed from. This is the first time that I have met with the cross, except as an ornament upon buttons and upon the bottoms of sepulchral vessels, but a very remarkable instance of the discovery of articles all but identical is recorded by Sir R. Colt Hoare*, who found four bone objects in a barrow in Wiltshire, which can only be regarded as beads, though they are not perforated. As in the case of those under notice, three of them were ornamented and one plain, and the ornament is so much alike in both the Yorkshire and Wiltshire specimens that the one set might almost pass for the other. This identity is very noteworthy, for though with the same people, at the same time, and living under much the same conditions, it might naturally be looked for that the various articles of domestie, agricultural, and warlike purpose should partake of the same shape, and even be decorated after much the same fashion, it is nevertheless striking to find that two sets of beads, discovered in places so widely separated as Yorkshire and Wiltshire, should be not only the same in shape, number, and material, as well as in the style of ornamentation, but even in the absence of all pattern upon one of the beads in each set. It would almost seem as though there had been something more in this instance than a general intercourse or community of thought between the two places in question. At the same time, it must be remembered that there is a very striking resemblance between many manufactured articles belonging to this period and occurring over wide areas. Parish oF Cuerry Burton. Ord. Map. xctv. s.w. The group of barrows to be now described is situated on a different part of the wolds from any yet examined, being placed towards the south-eastern boundary of the chalk range. They were eight in number, six of them being placed in a line, running east and west, at no great distanee from each other ; the other two lying a little further to the north. They were situated upon Cherry Burton Wold, and about half-a-mile to the south of the site of the village of Gardham, one of those now destroyed centres of a comparatively late population of which several are to be met with ? Ancient Wilts, vol. i. p. 212. pl. xxxi. 980 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. on the wolds'. The remains of the village, in the shape of foundations of houses and other enclosures, show that it had been of considerable size. I opened seven of the group, finding that three of them had been already dag into and the burials disturbed. The eighth also presented some appearances of having been tampered with, and was consequently left unexplored. LXXII. To commence with that which lay most to the east. It was 49 ft. in diameter, 33 ft. high, and made of earth and chalk. At the centre, in an oval hollow, lying east and west, 4% ft. by 81 ft. and 1 ft. deep, was the body of a large and strongly-made: middle-aged man, laid upon the left side, with the head to 8.E. and the hands up to the face. There was a good deal of burnt earth and chareoal about the body. 7 LX XIII. The second barrow, just west of the last, was 46 ft. in diameter, 3 ft. high, and made of earth with a little chalk inter- mixed. Three feet and a-half east-north-east from the centre, and 23 ft. above the natural surface, was a cinerary urn reversed, and containing the burnt bones of a very young child. It was too much decayed to admit of the exact size being ascertained. The ornamentation, which is confined to the overhanging rim, is of a herring-bone pattern, and has been made with a sharp-pointed tool. Three and a-half feet west-south-west of the centre, and at the same level as the last, was another cinerary urn also reversed, and filled with the burnt bones of a person of mature age. This urn was likewise in the same decayed condition as the last, and is ornamented upon and immediately below the overhanging rim with a herring-bone pattern of twisted-thong impressions. Flint blocks had been placed round the two urns, but the bottoms of both had been destroyed by the plough. Between the urns, but nearer to the more eastern one, was a circular hollow 1$ft. m diameter and 13 ft. deep, filled in with burnt earth and some charcoal placed around a third cinerary urn also reversed, and containing the burnt bones of a young person. ‘This vessel, in shape like fig. 61, and of good form and manufacture, is 11+ in. 1 It is difficult to say when these villages became deserted, but it is not unlikely that it took place in the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century, when the great impulse given to the trade in wool, through commercial intercourse with the Low Countries, had caused a large proportion of the arable land to be thrown into _ sheep farms, PARISH OF CHERRY BURTON. 281k high, 9in. wide at the mouth, and 3?in. at the bottom. The rim, which is 2in. deep, has upon it a reticulated pattern placed between double encompassing lines. The lip of the rim has on the outside one encircling line, and on the inside two, of oval impressions; below those on the inside is an encircling line, immediately below which is a band of loops, each 14 in. deep and tin. wide, forming a series of arches, having’ below them an encircling line similar to that above. Below the rim are five encompassing lines, rather irregularly placed, and below these lines a row of oval marks encircles the urn. The pattern, except that made by the oval marking, is due to impressions of twisted thong. In the hollow above named was part of a human frontal bone, unburnt. The barrow had charcoal mixed in its material throughout ; some pieces of the antler of a red-deer were found in it. LXXIV. The fourth barrow in the line was 20 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre was a very slight depression in the natural surface, and in it were deposited the remains of the burnt body of an adult, laid in a round heap about 10 in. in diameter. The body had been burnt on the spot, the hollow having been first made. LXXYV. This barrow, one of the two placed to the north of: the line of six before referred to, was 46 ft. in diameter, 23 ft. high, and made of earth. Just above the natural surface was a layer of ealeined chalk and flint about 6 in. thick, which was very hard, being nearly as compact as slag. It extended over the greater part of the area of the barrow. At the centre, below this hard layer, was a slight hollow, showing within and around it abundant evidence of sustained heat; a funeral pile having clearly been built over the hollow and a body burnt on the spot. In the hollow there were a very few burnt bones of a full-grown person, and when the imperfect way in which they were burnt is considered, it seems scarcely probable that all the remains of the body could have been placed there. Some portions of a cinerary urn were found amongst the soil disturbed by the plough. The three barrows which on examination proved to have been opened on some previous occasion presented no features worthy of special notice, and have therefore not been particularly described. They had all contained burials after cremation. 282 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. It will be remarked that, contrary to the ordinary custom of burial on the wolds, this group was found to contain, with one exception, bodies which had been interred after having been burnt. In the seven barrows which were examined nine places of interment were met with, and of these there was but one where an un- burnt body had been buried. The same departure from the prevailing custom will be found in a section of a large group of barrows to be presently described, where thirteen burials in five barrows had all been after cremation. Pariso or Erton. Ord. Map. xctv. s.w. About a mile to the north-east of the village of Etton there are five small barrows lying a little apart from each other. Two of Fig. 128. 2. them had been opened many years ago with I know not what result, the remaining three I examined. LXXVI. The first was 50 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and made of earth. It contained a single interment at the centre, that of an adult woman. The body had been burnt on the spot, over a hollow 3 ft. wide and Qin. deep, in which the bones were found deposited. At the west side of this hollow, with some charcoal placed round it, was a small vessel of pottery [fig. 128], and amongst the bones was a broad flint flake calcined. The site of the funeral pile, which was very clearly defined by the reddened earth, occupied a space of 7 ft. in diameter. In the barrow were found the half of a long flint scraper and several flint chippings. PARISH OF ETTON. 283 LXXVII. The second barrow was 46 ft. in diameter, 14 ft. high, and, like the last and the next to be noticed, made of earth. At the centre, upon the natural surface, was the body of a strongly-made and very tall man of advanced age, laid on the right side with the head to N.; the right hand was at the knees, the left on the hips. The baay was only slightly contracted, the distance between the crown of the head and the knees being 44 ft. LXXVIII. The last barrow of the group was 45 ft. in diameter and 13 ft. high. It contained, like the other two, a.single inter- ment, that of a strongly-made man past middle life, who had been laid on the right side in a very shallow grave, with the head to N. The bones were too much decayed to admit of the position of the hands being ascertained. LXXIX. About two miles to the north of the group of barrows near Gardham lately described, and situated upon Etton Wold, are four if not more sepulchral mounds, three of which I examined. The first was 60 ft. in diameter, 13 ft. high, and made of earth with some chalk and flint stones intermixed. At a distance of 14 ft. south-west-by-south from the centre, and laid upon the natural surface, were a few burnt bones of an adult, with some burnt chalk close to them. At what had no doubt originally been the centre, though now 83 ft. west-by-south of the present centre, were the remains of a burnt body, placed in a hollow about 23 ft. in diameter, and excavated to a depth of 10in. below the natural surface. The body, probably of a male adult, had been burnt on the spot, and the bones had never been removed from the place where the body had been laid on the wood of the funeral pile, abundant remains of which, in the shape of charcoal, were found beneath the bones. The body had been placed in the usual contracted position, on the right side, with the head to N.E. by E., and behind the hips was found a vessel of pottery, whilst close to the bones of the chest was a small piece of bronze, apparently the remains of a drill or awl, which had been burnt with the body. With the human bones were found the burnt scapula, radius, and ulna of a young pig, probably.the remains of food deposited on the funeral pile. It will be remembered that in two of the barrows on Flixton Wold [Nos. lxx, Ixxi] a similar deposit was met with, though there the animal bones, as well as those of the buried body, were 284 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. unburnt. The vessel, a rudely-made one, is of the type of the cinerary urn, like fig. 56, 62 in. high, 5in. wide at the mouth, and 3in. at the bottom. Two lines encompass the inside of the lip of the overhanging rim, whieh: is 12 in. deep, and the outside of the lip has a single encircling line, whilst below is a pattern of triangular spaces filled in with lines, like that described at p. 71. All the lines are made by impressions of twisted thong. There appeared to be something like a circular wall of flints and chalk, but very irregularly formed, enclosing the place of burning, its diameter being about 11 ft. Amongst the material of the mound was a fragment of a ‘ food vessel,’ and another of a cinerary urn. The two barrows next to be described were situated about half- a-mile to the west of the last one; but, unlike it, they were placed in a valley, upon a deposit of chalk gravel. As was found to be the case im the last barrow, and in almost all those at Gardham, these contained interments after cremation. LXXX. The first was oval in form, being 70 ft. by 62 ft.: this was probably due to the action of the plough, and not to any departure from the ordinary round shape in its original construc- tion. It was still, though much reduced by cultivation within the last few years, 4 ft. high ; and: it had a further elevation from its having been erected upon a knoll. It was composed principally of earth, with some chalk and flint interspersed. At the centre was a deposit of burnt bones, those of an adult, probably a man, placed in a circular hollow 13 ft. in diameter and sunk to a depth of about 1 ft. below the surface of the ground. The body had been burnt on the spot, and the bones then eolleeted and deposited in the hollow which had been first made; over the bones was laid a large quantity of chareoal, the remains no doubt of the funeral pile. LXXXI. The second barrow was 60 ft. in diameter and still 33 ft. high, though, like the last, it had been much reduced in height by the action of the plough. It was composed of earth, with some chalk and flint intermixed. At the centre was a hollow, excavated in the chalk gravel, 14 in. in diameter and 11 ft. deep, in which was a deposit of the burnt bones of a child, not above three years old, resting upon a layer, 2in. thick, of black-coloured sand full of pieces of charcoal, and having another layer, 8 in. thick, of — an PARISH OF ETTON. 285 ssimilarly-coloured sand over the bones. The ‘body had not been burnt on the spot. LXXXITI. About a mile to the north-west of the two barrows Jast described I examined another. It was placed upon the slope of the hill about two-thirds from the bottom, and was 46 ft. in diameter, and still 12 ft. high, theugh much ploughed down. It was made up of earth, with a little chalk here and there. In it two graves were discovered, lying 8 ft. apart, and being respectively north and south of the centre, which was midway between them. That to the south was 41 ft. long, 23 ft. wide, and 21ft. deep, and had the longer axis east and west. In rt, on the bottom and at the middle, was a deposit of burnt bones, those of two bodies, one an adult woman, the other a child under 7 years of age; they were laid in a round heap, 13 in. in diameter. Amongst the bones was deposited a flint knife, unburnt [fig. 129], 2 in. long and { in. wide, by far the most beautiful specimen I-have yet met with ; it is very delicately flaked over the whole of the convex surface, the edges being serrated with the greatest skill and regularity. It is another example of those implements which, when associated with interments after cremation, have been usually found to be themselves unburnt. The northern grave was 4 ft. long, 2? ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep, with the longer axis in a direction north-north-west and south- south-east. The grave was covered over at the top with large blocks of flint, amongst which was placed about the third part of what had been, when complete, one of that class of vessels to which the name of ‘food vessel’ has been given. The fragment was quite perfect, and comprised a portion reaching from the rim to the bottom of the vase, and it must have been when deposited there in the same imperfect condition in which it was discovered. It is 5in. high, and has been about 6in. wide at the mouth, and is ornamented to a depth of 22 in. with ten encircling rows of lines of twisted-thong impressions arranged herring-bone fashion, the inside of the lip of the rim being similarly ornamented. On the bottom of the grave, and at the northern end, was the body of 286 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. a child, a little under three years old, laid on the left side, with the head to N.N.W. Close to the hips was a round urinary calculus of the ordinary character, about the size of a large pea. Near to the front of the neck was a bone pin, very much decayed. PaRrisH oF GoopMaNHAM. Ord. Map. Xctv. s.w. We arrive now at a very large group of barrows situated upon Goodmanham Wold, and lying to the north of that last described. There are still above forty, and it is known that some have been entirely removed for agricultural purposes, no trace of them being now left at the sites on which they were onee placed. A few of those remaining were opened by the late Lord Londesborough and others, a record of which will be found in vol. xxxiv. of the Archeologia, p. 256. The whole district is replete with archzological interest. Lines of entrenchments abound, showing, in connection with the numerous sepulchral mounds, that the country was largely settled in pre- historic times. In the immediate vicinity, at Arras and Hessle- skew, were discovered in 1815 and the two following years the largest number of burials belonging to the Early Iron Age which has been met with im England. The remains of chariots, beautifully ornamented fibule and armlets, with other articles (testifying to the artistic feeling and manufacturing skill of those people), give evidence of a population which had attaimed to a degree of cultivation that it has not been usual to attribute to the inhabitants of Britain before the Roman occupation. Of the time when this country was a province of the Roman Empire not many remains have been discovered in the district im question, but cemeteries of burnt and unburnt bodies, the former enclosed in characteristic urns, and isolated burials, where numerous ornaments and articles of personal use have been abundantly met with, show that it was largely occupied by an early Anglian population. It did not indeed require the aid of archeological research to prove this, for historical records tell us that Goodmanham was one of the principal sacred places of pagan Northumbria; and in connection with the missionary Paulinus, it was the spot with which one of the most picturesque and interesting stories detailed by Bada is connected '. . 1 Keel. Hist., lib. ii, cap, xii, xiii, PARISH OF GOODMANHAM. 287 There is a remarkable fact connected with the pre-historic occupation of this district of the wolds, and one which it is not easy to explain, and that is the great scarcity of implements of flint or other stone throughout the whole of this portion of the chalk range. Whereas, in other parts of the same tract of high land, implements are found abundantly, in this part they are of very rare occurrence; and this is shown most clearly not only by their infrequency upon the surface of the land, but also by the small number that an extensive examination of the barrows has brought to light. It is impossible to account for this scarcity of implements on the supposition that the country was not so thickly peopled here as elsewhere on the wolds, for other and equally convincing evidences of occupation are as abundant, if indeed they are not even more so; nor is it easy to understand what more perishable material could have been used in the place of stone, and which it might be supposed had gone to decay. Were the absence of implements noticeable merely in the barrows, that would not have created much difficulty, for the custom of placing such articles in association with the dead is so capricious, that it is impossible to draw any safe conclusion from the contents of the sepulchral mounds as to the general diffusion of any especial instruments of warlike, domestic, or agricultural use in any particular locality. But that does not hold good with regard to the casual finding of the implements in question during the course of the ordinary operations of the farm; for had they been in common use at any time, it is certain that they must have been found, here as well as elsewhere, when the land was turned over, and when they would naturally become exposed upon the surface of the ground. I ean offer no solution of this difficulty, and I must leave it to the more ingenious speculation of others, as an interesting, though by no means an easy, subject of enquiry. The first five barrows which I examined were those lying the furthest to the east of the whole series, and contained, as has already been noticed, burials after cremation. LXXXIII. The first was 48 ft. in diameter, 31 ft. high, and made of earth with some flints amongst it. Thirteen feet east of the centre, and about 6 in. above the natural surface, was a small vessel of pottery, standing upright and surrounded with burnt earth and charcoal. The vessel is in shape like fig. 180; the overhanging rim, to which the ornamentation is confined, being 2 in. 288 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. deep. The urn itself is 64 in. high, 43 in. wide at the mouth, and 31in. at the bottom. The pattern consists of lines placed very irregularly, but apparently representing the triangular figure described at p. 71, and is made by small punctured markings. One foot west of this, with its bottom on a level with the top ef the last, was a second vessel, also placed upright, and sur- rounded with burnt earth and chareoal. This vessel is a miniature einerary urn, in shape like fig. 61. It is 44in, high, 33in. wide at the mouth, and 22 in. at the bottom. The overhanging rim is completely covered with eneompassing lines of twisted-thong impressions, placed very elose together; below the rim a zigzag line lin. deep, of thong-impression, encircles the vessel. The remains of the two burnt bodies, with which the urns had been deposited, singularly scanty in quantity, were placed amongst the burnt earth, and close to their respective vases. In the first case the bones were those of a young person; in the second, those of a child. With the bones of the former was a piece of calcined flint. There was no trace of an interment at the centre of the mound, and the original surface of the ground had not been disturbed to make a grave. Amongst the materials of the barrow were two flint chippings and a well-formed long flint scraper. LXXXIV. The second barrow was 36 ft, in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made of earth. Fifteen feet east-south-east of the centre was a deposit of burnt bones, very few in number, laid upon the natural surface, and covering a space of about one foot in diameter; the body had been burnt on the spot. Eleven feet south of the centre, and at a level of one foot above the natural surface, was a second burnt body, ef which the remains, as in the case just mentioned, were very scanty; this also had been burnt on the spot. our feet and a-half east of this was a third burnt body, that of an adult, laid at the same level as the last-named, and though the bones were in excess of those in the other cases, still they were very few in number; this body had also been burnt on the spot. Nine feet south-east of the centre, and at the same level as the last two bodies, was a vessel of pottery, laid upon its side with the mouth to the east, and beneath it lay an ‘incense cup.’ The vessel is somewhat like fig. 58, but not having so deep a rim, 43, in. high, 44in. wide at the mouth, and 22in. at the bottom. The rim, 12in. deep, is ornamented with three bands of lines, arranged vertically, and made by a sharp-pointed tool ; below them, PARISH OF GOODMANHAM. 289 for the space of an inch, the vessel is marked with oval punctures irregularly placed. The ‘incense cup’ is 1} in, high, and 2? in. wide at the mouth; it has perfectly straight sides, and is quite un- ornamented, except on the flat top of the rim, which has some irregular marks upon it. There had been much burning at the place where the two vessels were laid, and they were surrounded by burnt earth and charcoal on all sides; but there was only one single piece of burnt bone, which lay in contact with the side of the upper vase. Six feet east of the centre, and at a height of 16 in. above the natural surface, was a burnt body, the bones of which, those of a person of full age, were laid in a round heap Qin. in diameter. Amongst them was a calcined flint knife, 12 in. lone and 2 in. wide, having one edge curved. This body had also been burnt on the spot. Six feet west-south-west of the centre, and at the same level as the last, was another burnt body, the remains being disposed around a vessel of pottery, which was standing upright, but did not contain any of the bones; this body, that of a young person, had been burnt on the spot. The vessel, which is in shape much like the last, has an overhanging rim 1} in. deep, and is 32 in. high, 33in. wide at the mouth, and 2? in. at the bottom, being quite devoid of ornamentation. Six feet east-north-east of the centre, and placed upon the natural surface, was a burnt body, which, unlike the others, had not been burnt on the spot. The bones, those of an adult, were laid in a round heap 10 in. in diameter. At the centre, and 14 ft. above the natural surface, was a vessel of pottery reversed, set amongst burnt earth and charcoal, with a very few burnt bones; the body to which these remains belonged had been burnt on the spot. The vessel [fig. 61] is very beautifully made, a most perfect cinerary urn in miniature. It is 44 in. high, 33 in. wide at the mouth, and 22 in. at the bottom. The ornamentation, which is confined to the upper part of the urn, consists of a herring-bone pattern, the lines of which have been made by a sharp-pointed tool. It will be observed that both in this and the last-described barrow the remains of the bones were exceedingly scanty, in some cases being almost entirely wanting. The character of the vessels of pottery presents another point of connection between the several burials ; the features also of these vessels are so marked, and they are themselves so different from those usually found accompanying burnt bodies but not enclosing the bones, that they may be fairly supposed to have proceeded, if not from the hands of the same U 290 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. maker, at all events from what may be designated as one manu- factory. These two facts seem to lead to the inference that no great length of time had elapsed between the burials in these two barrows; and possibly one or more of those abdut to be described may be included in the same category. LXXXV. The third barrow was 42 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made of earth. At the centre, and upon the natural surface, which at this point was a swell of the chalk rising higher than the adjoining rock, was a deposit of burnt bones, consisting of the calcined remains of two children, one of whom had died during the period of the first dentition ; the bodies had been burnt on the spot. Amongst the bones was a vessel of pottery standing upright and set upon a second one, which was laid on its side, with the mouth to the west, both being rude and ill manufactured. The first vase is of the cinerary type, like fig. 130, with an overhanging rim, and perfectly plain ; it is 641in. high, 5 in. wide at the mouth, and 34 in. at the bottom. The second vase is also of the cinerary type, with an overhanging rim, and, like the first, quite devoid of ornamentation. It is 81 in. high, 53 in. wide at the mouth, and 23 in. at the bottom. In this case the presence of two sepulchral vessels, in association with the bones, is to be accounted for by the fact that they represented two bodies. Cases however have been met with where a single interment has been accompanied by more than one vessel, and in this group of barrows it will be found that m a grave where a woman and child were buried there were three ‘drinking cups.’ This is not the first instance where the principal interment in a barrow has been that of a child ; the most remarkable one being in the large mound at Rudstone | No. Ixvii], where the burial was that of an infant. Here there were two children, who may be supposed to have died about the same time, and who cannot, when the important nature of the sepulchral monument is considered, have been other than the children of a person of importance in the community. A fact like this, and especially when it is taken in connection with similar instances, appears to me to be of consider- able importance, when the social condition and the place in civilisation of these people are in question; nor do I think it would be unfair to regard it as affording evidence that they had advanced beyond the state of semi-savage life. LXXXVI. The fourth barrow was 57 ft. in diameter, 42 ft. high, and made of earth, with some chalk intermixed. At the centre was PARISH OF GOODMANHAM, 291 a circular hollow, 33 ft. in diameter, and about 9 in. deep, made in an artificial mound, which had been in existence before the barrow was raised ; the summit of this mound being 3 ft. above the level of the natural surface. In the hollow was the body of a very large adult man, with delicately-made teeth ; it had been burned, though not to such an extent but that all the bones and their position could be recognised without the least difficulty ; they were all still in their proper places, having evidently never been moved since the application of fire to the corpse’. The body was laid on the right side, the head to S.W., and the hands up to the face, in front of which was an urn standing upright. On the bottom of the Fig. 130. 2. hollow, below the bones, was a great quantity of charcoal, and the earth all round the hollow was much reddened by the action of fire. The urn [fig. 130] is of the cinerary type, with an overhanging | + It will be remembered that in the barrow on Etton Wold [No. lxxix] a body was : 5 found in a similar condition to this. The same feature has occurred in Derbyshire, where in a barrow at Dale, near Stanton, Mr. Bateman says there ‘lay two skeletons in a line, one at the feet of the other, which presented a mode of sepulture different from any yet found in our researches, from haying been intentionally subjected to the action of fire upon the spot, in such a manner as to preserve the bones in their natural order, entire and unwarped by the heat. They were surrounded by charcoal and earth, ‘to which a red colour had been imparted by the operation... . All deposits of burnt bones previously found by us have been strictly calcined ... and have generally been gathered into a heap, or placed within an urn; so that here we find an exception to the general rule perfectly inexplicable.’ Ten Years’ Diggings, p. 125. It is un- fortunate that Mr. Bateman does not record the position of the bones, and it is there- fore impossible to say whether the bodies, like that described in the text, had been placed on the funeral pile in the usual contracted form. U2 = a cae 292 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. rim, 73 in. high, 53 in. wide at the mouth, and 3} in. at the bottom. The rim is ornamented with three bands of alternate series of vertical and horizontal lines of thong-impressions counterchanged ; below the rim the urn is marked, for a space*of an inch in depth, with four encompassing rows of thong-impressions horse- shoe-shaped. Amongst the materials of the barrow were a single potsherd, a flint core, and a round but flattened water-rolled quartz pebble, 2 in. in diameter, which has the centre of each face roughened by picking, probably to enable it to be the more firmly held between the finger and thumb. It shows many signs of use all round the edge, such as might have been produced by the action of taking flakes off a block of flint. This was one of the most curious burials it has been my fortune to meet with, and it appears to supply some information as to the way in which the body was laid upon the funeral pile. It also suggests some considerations connected with cremation, which it may not be out of place here to entertain and weigh. It would appear then that the body was placed upon the wood before the burning, in the same contracted position in which I have, except in four instances, invariably found unburnt bodies deposited in their graves. Every bone could be identified most clearly, and each limb had been arranged after a fashion which, as we have seen, has been a very common one in the barrows. The knees were drawn up towards the head, which was brought somewhat forward towards the chest, and the hands were placed up to the face. The accom- panying urn also occupied a position which is not unfrequent in the case of inhumed bodies, namely, in front of the face. In this re- markable cremated interment we thus obtain another point of con- tact between the practice of cremation and inhumation, in addition to those which similarity of weapons, implements, ornaments, and pottery, in either case deposited, has hitherto afforded, and one which seems to be even more important than they are. Whatever may have been the object or purport of placing the body in the ground in the contracted position, it was evidently thought to be a matter of equal importance, and to be equally observed, when the body was first subjected to the process of burning. It will have been observed that this flexed position of the body could not have originated in any mere desire to get it into as small a space as possible, for there are many instances, in the accounts above given, where in a grave more than fully long enough to have allowed a man of the largest stature to be laid at full PARISH OF GOODMANHAM. 293 length, the body has yet been placed quite at one side of the grave, and has occupied but a very small proportion of the entire excavated space. Some other reason then, rather than a mere desire to economise space, must be enquired for as the motive or object aimed at by these people in placing their dead in the grave in the position under notice ; a position, moreover, such as to entail an arrangement of the limbs by no means easy of accomplishment, except when the body was manipulated immediately after death, which assuredly in a great many cases—such as death in the heat of battle or at a distance from home—could not have been very readily effected. ; Although no proof may have been required, other than the almost unvarying circumstances themselves, under which the inhumed bodies are found, to demonstrate that there must have been some object or reason, quite independent of a desire to save space and consequently labour also, for placing the bodies of the dead in the remarkable position we are discussing, yet it is satisfactory to have the further confirmation afforded us by the arrangement of the body in this most note-worthy instance of cremation. For it enables us to assume with confidence that it was held to be a matter of equal importance, not to say necessity, that the body should be thus contracted even pre- viously to burning, and when no visible evidence of such a dis- position would ordinarily remain. I have thought it right to make, these remarks here, though the whole subject is more fully discussed in the Introduction (p. 22), where I have also stated what in my opinion was the motive which induced the adoption of the contracted position referred to. LXXXVII. The fifth barrow was 69 ft. in diameter, though only 1} ft. high; it had no doubt been considerably ploughed down, but it must always have been of slight elevation in comparison with its area. At the centre, in a hollow, 2} ft. in diameter, and sunk below the natural surface to a depth of 3 ft., was a deposit of the burnt bones of an adult, having some flint blocks arranged over them. The body had been burnt on the spot, the hollow having been first made, and the fire must have been very intense, for the ground was much altered in colour by it, and that too over a considerable space. LXXXVIII. The next barrow, which was situated within a 294, YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. short distance of the one last noticed, departed from the rule which characterised the preceding five sepulchral mounds, and was the first of a series where the greater number of burials were by inhu- mation. It was 56 ft. in diameter, 2 ft. high, and made almost entirely of earth. At the centre was an oval grave, lying east and west, 10ft. by 8ft. and 4 ft. deep. On the bottom, at the east end, was the much decayed body apparently of a man, laid on the left side, the head to S.E., and the hands up to the face. Immediately over the bones was a large quantity of charcoal. In the grave, a little higher than the body just mentioned, was part of a human skull, but no other remains of the body to which it had belonged were met with either in the grave or in the mound itself, though it had probably been connected with an interment disturbed in making the grave, or in opening it to place therein a secondary burial. 7 LXXXIX. Another barrow of this group proved to be very prolific of interments, and possessed in addition some features of more than ordinary interest. It was 80 ft. in diameter, 4 ft. high, and was composed of earth, with here and there small deposits of chalk in layers. It was evident that the mound had originally been a smaller one, and that upon the surface of this several bodies had been burnt, additional material being afterwards added to cover the interments. This was distinctly shown not only by the dif- ference between the colour of the earth forming the body of the barrow and that of the outer portion, but also by the presence of a dark line, which ran through it at a level of 3 ft. above the natural surface near the centre, and which was due to the remains of char- coal and partially-burnt earth, resulting from the fires made on the surface of the first mound to consume the bodies whose remains, as has already been stated, were found within it. At a distance of 15 ft. south-by-east from the centre, and so near to the present surface of the barrow that the plough had disturbed it, were the fragments of a vessel of pottery; this had probably once been associated with an unburnt body, all trace of which had however disappeared. The vessel is somewhat like fig. 69, but has two raised ribs instead of one, and is quite plain; it is 6}in. high, 52 in. wide at the mouth, and 2#in. at the bottom. Highteen and a-half feet south-east-by-south from the centre, and 14 in. below the present surface of the barrow, was the spot where a body had been burnt, the remains of which were found in a hollow, 1 ft. Co are: 5 PARISH OF GOODMANHAM. 295 wide and 14 in. deep, excavated in the earlier mound already men- tioned. ‘The bones were those of an adult of uncertain sex, and amongst them was a piece of calcined flint, showing signs of work upon the edge. The hollow had been made, as in the case presently to be noticed, before the body was burnt, and the bones after cremation had been gathered together from the funeral pile and placed within it. The way in which the burning had been effected was evidenced by the deep red colour, gradually changing into black, with which the inside of the hollow was tinged, the colour extend- ing to the earth around it for a space of about 4 ft. in diameter. Amongst the bones, and near the middle of the deposit, was a small vessel of pottery [fig. 131]. It is difficult to say to what class this vase is to be attributed, for though it possesses somewhat of the appearance of an ‘incense cup, it has much in common with the ‘food vessel.’ In others of this group it will have been observed that anomalous forms of sepulchral vessels were met with, and speci- mens resembling the cinerary urn, in form though not in size, were found associated with burials after cremation, but not containing any of the bones; and in this barrow a small urn of the cinerary type accompanied an unburnt body. The vase is 14 in. high, 23 in. wide at the mouth, and 1?in. at the bottom. The ornamentation is due to the impression of twisted-thong. At the same distance from the centre, but south-south-west of it, and at the same level as the burnt body just described, was a second one, that of a person, probably a female, of small size, under 25 years of age. The bones were placed in a hollow, 1 ft. 8 in. in diameter, and sunk to a depth 296 YORKSHIRE. EAST RIDING. of 1 ft. 5in. below the surface of the original mound. ~ This body also had been burnt on the spot, and the appearances, in- dicating the manner in which the burning had taken place, were the same as in the last case. Amongst the bones was an ‘incense cup, 22 in. high, 23 in. wide at the mouth, and 21 in. at the bottom. It is ornamented on the inside of the lip with a row of irregular oval impressions; on the outside immediately below the lip are three encircling lines, and just below the widest part of the vessel, 11 in. from: the top, are three similar lines, the space between the two series being filled in with a pattern like the triangular one described p. 71; the impressions have been made with a sharp- pointed tool. The remainder of the vessel, for a depth of ?in., is quite plain. At a distance of 174 ft. south-west of the centre, and at the same level as the last two, was a third burnt body, that of | an adult, probably a male, placed in a hollow 13 ft. wide and 14 ft. deep. This body had not been burnt on the spot. At the west side of the hollow, and about 9 in. above the bottom, was an ‘ incense cup’ [ fig. 62] amongst the bones, the remains of the skull being those in immediate contact. with it. It is 22in. high, 23 in. wide at the mouth, and 2in. at the bottom. The pattern is due to the impression of twisted-thong. There are two holes, 2in. apart, pierced from the edge of the lowest of the three lines which encircle the vessel below the lip, to the middle of the inside of the lip, a novel position in my experience for such perforations. Ten feet south of the centre, and 1 ft. above the natural surface, was the body of a very aged person of uncertain sex, laid on the left side, with the head to N. by W., the right hand being up to the face, and the left under the head. At a distance of 114 ft. south-east of the centre, and upon the natural surface, was a second body, that of a person of uncertain sex, between 20 and 24 years of age; it was laid on the right side, with the head to 8.8.W., the hands being up to the face. In front of the head and chest there was a large flint block; and under the head and back, and extending beyond them, were the remains of wood, upon which that part of the body had been laid. . The length of this deposit was 4 ft., but there was no appearance of wood having covered the’ body, or of its having been placed under the thighs and legs. Seven and a-half feet east of the centre, and 9in. above the natural surface, was the body of an aged woman, laid upon the left side, with the head to N.E.; the arms were crossed, the right hand being under the left humerus, the left hand in the hollow of the right PARISH OF GOODMANHAM. 297 elbow. At the crown of the head, but a little behind and above it, was a vessel of pottery reversed. It is in form a perfect cinerary urn, like fig. 56, 54 in. high, 53 in. wide at the mouth, and 3 in. at the bottom. The rim has three encompassing rows of short lines made with a sharp-pointed tool, arranged herring-bone fashion, and the part immediately below the rim has two similar rows con- tinuing the same pattern. At the back of the neck was a pendent ornament of lignite, very neatly made; it is somewhat like a flat plummet, 3 in. long, in. wide at the bottom, ;3, in. at the top, and 5%, in. thick ; the bottom is rounded, and the perforation near the top has been drilled from both sides’. Three feet south of the centre, 1 ft. 8in. above the surface-level, and 1 ft. 2in. below the dark line above mentioned, and therefore within the limits of the original barrow, was the mastoid ‘process of the right temporal bone of a child, the last undecayed remains of the body once deposited there. It did not appear as if this interment had been imserted into the original barrow, for there were no signs of the very regular lines of the material of the mound having been cut through. a } PARISH OF UPPER SWELL, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 531 undue stress upon the presence or absence of these peculiarities as indications of the age of any of the interments. A left ulna and a right radius from this collection of bones show badly-united frac- tures. With the human bones were found bones of the roe (Cervus capreolus) and the patella of an ox. Two more skulls, labelled ‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively, were found at the E.S.E. end of the trench-grave, holding much the same relation to aggregations of other bones as those held by skulls ‘4, a’ and ‘4’ to the bones in their immediate neighbourhood. Skull ‘A,’ which bears a considerable resemblance to the skull ‘ No. 2,’ and, like it, belonged probably to an old woman, was found in a fragmentary state only 8in. below the surface, whilst underneath lay, in a space of 2 ft. 8in., a confused mass of bones—lower jaw, ulna, femur, radius, all disturbed—representing two children and two adults by bones other than lower jaws; whilst by reference to these we find three adults and one child represented. About a foot and a half from the skull ‘A,’ but at a deeper level, another skull, ‘B,’ likewise the skull of an old woman, but of larger size, was found, illustrating the fact that one female skull from these early burials often is very much larger than another found in the same surroundings. With the skull ‘B’ came an elbow-joint, the three bones composing: which were much deformed by exostosis, the result of disease or violence; as also a right clavicle, which had been fractured and repaired with a false jot. In the space between skulls “A ’ and ‘B’ and that occupied by the bones labelled ‘3’ and ‘4 were found, above ‘ B,’ parts of a vessel of rude pottery. With the skull and bones labelled ‘A’ came bones of pig, roe, and goat. This is a very short account of the remains of at least eleven skeletons found in the S.E. half of the grave-trench; nearly as many, eight to wit, were found in the W.N.W. half. The first of these, ‘No. 5,’ is represented by a long calvaria, much worn and somewhat distorted, of an aged man; immediately underneath which one thigh bone was found, and three others below this one. With the deepest lying of these three femora, a tibia also was found. The arrangement of the bones and stones in this half of the trench- grave differed somewhat from that in the other, in that the bones were more completely separated from each other by the interpo- sition of the layers of the stones. It seems likely, considering this arrangement, together with the tendency usually shown in ancient, as indeed in modern interments, to bury so that the rays of the sun may strike directly upon the grave, that the north-west portion Mm 2 532 LONG BARROWS. ~ may have been used for the reception only of displaced bodies, which would, by the process of removal from one half of the trench to the other, get more intimately intermingled with the rubble than others not so transported. The bones of children were noted to be mixed up indiscriminately with those of adults, as well as with rubble, as though several skeletons had been removed together and confusedly; but I have not been able to refer any of the bones found in the one half to the skeletons represented in the other half of the trench; and we are therefore justified, perhaps, in holding that eight interments, three of children and five of adults, should be assigned by us to this half of the trench-grave. In the aggregation of bones labelled ‘ No. 6,’ two humeri with perforated olecranic fossee were found, and with them a portion of a very old upper jaw. Both the arm and the jaw bones may very likely have belonged to an aged female, it being in females of priscan times, as Professor Brocat has remarked, that this perforation is most commonly observed, and it being readily intelligible that in hardly- worked and often scantily-fed individuals, such as the females in savage tribes, such an absorption would be likely to take place. — A large proportion of the bones from this part of the trench showed old breakages, their broken surfaces being stained, like the other _ surfaces, with oxide of iron. ; Out of a number of bones found at the W.N.W. end of the — trench-grave one calvarium has been recovered and labelled ‘No. — 8.’ It is chiefly remarkable as having been considerably though — equably flattened till it has come to resemble in contour and pro- — portion a skull once in the hands of Dr. Buckland, now in the Oxford University Museum, and referred to by Professor Nilsson (British Assoc. Report, 1847, p. 32), as having been found 500 ft. — ‘down in a tin mine, and as illustrating the type of the race which he supposes to have been second in order of time amongst the inhabitants of Scandinavia. With these bones were mixed up the bones, and, notably, the horn cores, of a goat, Capra hircus ; the human bones representing skeletons of two children be- tween eight and twelve years of age, of one infant, and of three — adults. Many of these bones were much stained with the man- ganic oxide. Some of those bones found thus at the extreme — W.N.W. end of the grave were found to fit with bones belonging — to skeletons, represented, not in the W.N.W. end of the grave itself, but in the gallery leading to it from the exterior, and in the part 1 Mémoires, vol. ii, p. 864, 1874. PARISH OF UPPER SWELL, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 533 of that gallery near the exterior. In the deposit thus found ex- ternally to the grave itself, parts of two skeletons were found, one of which had belonged to a very powerful man, the other to a very feeble subject. As the presence of bones in the gallery leading into the grave may furnish some clue to the method, if not of the primary introduction of the bones into the grave, still to that of their remaniement, it may be well to specify some of the very large number, no less than 207 in all, which it contained. In this gal- lery then there were found three human clavicles, all of exceeding feebleness, and one badly reunited after fracture ; a distally injured and exostotic radius, a similarly conditioned fibula ; two anchylosed cervical and some other vertebra from a very aged subject; three patella, two ossa calcis and other foot bones. All however admitted of being referred to one or other of the two skeletons represented by the two skulls Nos. 5 and 8, found in the grave at the W.N.W. end into which this passage opened; and there is consequently no reason to suppose that they are anything else than parts of those two skeletons, disturbed possibly to make room for another skeleton which may even have held the same place at this end as skeleton ‘No.3’ did at the other end of the trench. This however is but conjecture: a survey of the entire collection of bones, from one end of the trans- verse zone to the other, does, I think, help us to making a tolerably certain conclusion as to the way in which they came to have the arrangement we observed. Taking all the bones of whatever kind which we took out of this primary interment, amounting in all to very many hundreds, and arranging them, after they had been labelled according to the position they had occupied, on a long table, so as to be able easily to compare one set of bones with another, and avoid thus the risks of either underrating or over- rating the number of bodies represented, I was able to show that the lower jaws alone gave evidence of the presence in the series of four more adult skeletons than did the reconstructed calvarie. Similarly it was clear that there were more long bones, humeri, femora, and tibie, than could be assigned to so few as ten adults. And these numbers seem to me to prove that the ‘Ossuary Theory,’ a theory in accordance with which the bodies found in non-cremation long barrows were deposited in them at one time and not succes- sively, and consequently must have been stored or stacked away somewhere else till a sufficient number were available for such dis- posal of them, does not apply to this barrow, as I was! once inclined ? See Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. v. p. 187, Oct. 1875. 534 LONG BARROWS. to think it may do to others of the same period. For in a collec- tion of bones from a modern ossuary the number of caléaria will, I think, be always found to exceed the number of lower jaws; these latter bones, as paleontological as much as modern osteological in- vestigations have taught us, having a great tendency to separate themselves from the skulls to which they properly belong. The same may be said of the long bones; but precisely the reverse of all this is what we have found in this Upper Swell Barrow. That a number of bodies must have been stored away, and then simultaneously disposed of, there is no doubt as regards the long barrows in which cremation was practised ; the structure of these barrows implies unity of deposition and simultaneity of ignition. And, as regards tribes which did not practise cremation, there can be no doubt that the accidents of war, the difficulties entailed by expeditions to a distance, when such expeditions were under- taken, and perhaps, above all, the increase in mortality which severe weather must have produced in those, as it does in these — days, may frequently have left them with a number of dead bodies upon their hands, and without the usual facilities for disposing of them. Out of such difficulties the practice of storing the dead — would naturally develope itself. But the bodies thus temporarily — stored away would be finally buried either before or after the mutual attachments of their bones had been destroyed by decomposition. — If the former had been the case as regards this barrow, the various — skeletons represented in it would have maintained the normal re- — lations of their constituent parts, which they have not done here; if the latter, those constituent parts would not have maintained the — ! numerical proportions which we have here found them to do 1. x But, secondly, the intimate intermingling and interstratification — of the human bones with the rubble filling up the trench-grave in a this Upper Swell Barrow is a fact which, when coupled with the second fact of one skeleton, which we have no reason to think was of — a different period, having been found undisturbed in it, appears to me to necessitate the conclusion that the Successive Interments Theory is the true one for this barrow at least: the only non-cremation barrow with bones in a tolerable state of preservation which I have been fortunate enough to see with reasonable grounds for holding 1 I am not prepared however to say that the same numerical proportions have always ruled in other long barrows, even when they have escaped disturbance by later races. For the separation of the lower jaws in Red Indian ossuaries, see Professor D. Wilson, Canadian Journal, 1861—On the Huron Race. PARISH OF UPPER SWELL, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. — 535 that it had escaped material disturbance by races later than its original erectors and occupants. For it is easy to understand how, as a grave filled up with rubble was from time to time reopened to admit a fresh tenant, the bones of two or three of the least recently deposited and most completely forgotten previous occu- pants might come to be intermingled more or less confusedly, firstly with each other, and secondly with the rubble, accordingly as more or less care was bestowed upon the task of displacing them to make room for the new arrival. I had observed and recorded * an interstratification of bones and rubble similar to that existing here in other non-cremation barrows; these latter, however, bore marks of having suffered from later, possibly medieval treasure- seeking disturbers; the undisturbed condition, however, of this barrow eliminates this hypothesis, and shuts us up to one which, like the one above sketched out, recognises the fact that this burial-place was found by us in the condition it was left in when it was last used in neolithic times for purposes of interment. As so much hinges upon the question whether this barrow was really in an undisturbed condition when examined by us, it may be well to state distinctly our reasons for holding that though the part of the barrow containing these interments may have lost something of its original elevation by being used for walling, or by being ploughed over, it remained otherwise much as the men its original constructors had left it. Firstly, then, otherwise the single undisturbed skeleton in the contracted position would not have been found by us im situ. N, M.D., F.R.S. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. ELrven skulls and two calvarie from thirteen barrows examined by Canon Greenwell have been selected for description by myself, and drawn and engraved by Mr. W. H. Wesley. Four of the skulls and both the calvarie are of the dolicho-cephalic, and the remaining seven of the brachy-cephalic type. Four views have been given of each of the eleven skulls; the incomplete state of the two calvarie rendered it useless to attempt to give more than two views of each of them. ‘The four views given are the profile view, the so-called norma lateralis ; the view from above, the norma verti- calis; the view from in front, the norma frontalis ; and the view from behind, the norma occipitalis. Views have not been given of the norma basalis, the base of the skulls having very ordinarily suffered so much posthumous injury as greatly to impair the value of such a view of them. Each skull has been drawn in the position most commonly adopted by craniographers, in which a vertical line drawn from the centre of the auditory meatus passes through the plane of the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures’. The horizontal plane obtained by drawing a line from the centre of the auditory meatus at right angles to this vertical line will pass at a slightly variable distance above the floor of the nostrils, and will be found ordinarily, though not in- variably, to be parallel with the horizontal plane which would be obtained from a consideration of the visual axis, or from the direc- tion of the fronto-ethmoidal suture as proposed by Professor Good- sir *, or from a horizontal surface touching the skull at its occipital * For the most recent Memoir which has appeared upon the question of the true horizontal plane of the human skull, see Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Bd. ix. 1876. Die horizontal Ebene des menschlichlen Schiidels, von Dr. Schmidt in Essen, To the extensive bibliography there given should be added a reference to Professor Busk’s Address to the Anthropological Institute, January 1874 (given in Journal of Institute, vol. iii. p. 522), where especial reference is made to Dr. von Thering’s views upon the subject which have been put forward by him in the Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. v. 1872, and the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1873. See also Aeby, Archiv fiir Anthro- pologie, vol. vi. p. 295, 1874; Gosse, Déformations artificielles du Crane, pp. 7, 59. 1855. In brachycephalic skulls with vertical foreheads the true vertical line often falls a little way behind the coronal suture. ? Memoirs, 1868, vol. i. p. 247. 560 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. condyles and at the posterior border of its occipital foramen, as proposed by Professor Cleland}. The principal measurements taken have been :— I. Measurements of Calvaria. : Extreme length. Cubical capacity. Fronto-inial length. Frontal are. Extreme breadth. Parietal arc. Vertical height. Occipital arc. Absolute height. - Minimum frontal width. Basi-cranial axis. Maximum frontal width. Circumference. Maximum occipital width. II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: ‘ naso-alveolar’ line. Breadth of face: interzygomatic line. ‘ Basio-subnasal ’ line *. ‘ Basio-alveolar ’ line. Height of orbit. Width of orbit. Length of nose. Width of nose. Lower jaw, interangular diameter. Lower jaw, depth at symphysis. Lower jaw, width of ramus. III. Indices. Length-breadth index: ‘ cephalic index.’ Antero-posterior index. Where any of these measurements have been omitted, it will Pe understood that the damaged condition of the skull prevented them from being taken. It will be well, as some differences exist in the practice of cranio- graphers as to the exact points whence their measurements are taken, to specify, in cases where such differences have existed, what the points are whence and to which the measurements given in the subjoined descriptions have been taken. | The ‘extreme length’ has been taken neither from the fronto-— nasal suture, as Professor Virchow takes it®, nor from the ‘gla-— bella’ strictly so called, i.e. from the interspace separating or con- necting, as the case may be, the two supraciliary ridges, but from a spot immediately above that area—just, in fact, where the upper part of the frontal begins to rise into it. This appears to be the most reasonable spot to take for an antero-posterior measurement of the brain-case, as the applied arm of the compasses comes there — 1 See Phil. Trans., vol. elx. p. 121, 1870. . ? For explanation of the words ‘ Basio-subnasal’ and ‘ Basio-alveolar’ see p. 584 infra, i 8 Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. iv. p. 59, 1870. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 561 into nearer relations with the cavity containing the cerebrum than at either of the two other points specified. The most posteriorly placed part of the skull, whatever it may be short of an exagger- atedly developed occipital spine, is the point to which the other arm of the compasses is applied for this measurement. This point will sometimes be found at the base and on the upper surface of the external occipital ‘ spine,’ or ‘ protuberance,’ or ‘inion,’ in cases in which the superior occipital squama is flat and takes a perpen- dicular direction: and here what may be called the ‘ fronto-inial’ diameter is identical with the ‘ fronto-postremal’ or extreme length of the skull. It is usually in brachy-cephalic skulls that this is the case; it is however by no means rare in the dolicho-cephalic forms. Sometimes, as in the more typical dolicho-cephalic skulls, the most posteriorly placed point of the skull is to be found upon the superior squama occipitis, which in these cases is as markedly convex as in the other class of cases it is markedly flat; and here a difference, which may amount to as much as half an inch, may exist between the ‘fronto-inial’ and the extreme length. This differ- ence has been considered to furnish a measure of ‘ occipital dolicho- cephaly',’ or of the extent to which the posterior cerebral lobes overlap the cerebellum. It must be remarked, however, that in some skulls, where we find the occipital spine taking the form of a broad transversely running ridge, in which the /inee supreme? of Merkel are fused with the dine superiores nucha, the slightness of the difference between the two cranial measurements in question may cause us to under-estimate the extent of the cerebral overlap, and that, except in those rare cases in which the ‘ fronto-inial ’ diameter can be taken to a ‘tuberculum linearum’ as distinguished from a ‘protuberantia occipitalis externa,’ it is always necessary to compare the internal with the external surface of the skull. The extreme breadth has in these skulls been taken upon the parietal bones, either in ‘ well-filled’ skulls at some point abutting upon the posterior edge of the squamous portion of the temporal bone, or in ‘ill-filled’ skulls at the tuberosities. The squamous por- tion of the temporal has very frequently in old skulls become sepa- rated a little from the parietal, and it is rendered consequently For ‘ Occipital dolicho-cephaly,’ see Gratiolet, Bullet. Soc. Anth. Paris, ii. p. 254, 1861; Broca, ibid. iv. pp. 49-56, 1863, or his collected Mémoires, ii. p. 27, 1864; British Association Report for 1875, p. 152. ? For explanation of these terms, see Dr. Fr. Merkel, ‘ Die Linea nuchz suprema,’ 1871. 00 562 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. unfit to be taken as a surface to measure from. The extreme breadth therefore being always the extreme parietal breadth, it has been unnecessary to have a separate entry for this as for the corresponding frontal and occipital diameters. The anterior margin of the occipital foramen has been frequently so much injured in these ancient skulls as to render it impossible to take their actual or ‘absolute’ height from the plane of the fora- men magnum. In these cases the so-called ‘upright’ height of Professors V. Baer1, His?, and Ecker®, taken by placing one arm of the beam-compasses upon the posterior border of the occipital foramen and at right angles to a vertical line passing from the middle of the auditory foramen to the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, and the other upon the most distant part of the cranial vault, becomes of especial importance. This measurement is, of course, somewhat greater than that of the ‘actual’ or ‘ abso- lute’ height as usually taken from the plane of the foramen mag- num—a point to be borne in mind when we compare the height and breadth of these skulls with those dimensions in other series. The imperfect state of the skulls has similarly rendered it im- possible in many cases to take the measurements of the basi- cranial axis, or of the cubical capacity. The minimum frontal width has been taken from a spot imme- diately behind the external angular process of the frontal bone, and below the temporal ridge on one side, to the corresponding spot on the other. The maximum has been taken between two points below the temporal ridge at the coronal suture. The maximum parietal width is, as stated above, given under the head of ‘Extreme Breadth ;’ the maximum occipital is taken from the point (‘asterion’ of MM. Broca and Topinard) where the occipital, parietal, and temporal bones of one side meet, to the cor- — responding point on the other; i.e. between the two most distant points of the lambdoid suture. | It is not unusual to give a number of ‘indices’ stating the pro- portions existing between various measures of length in addition to that usually called the ‘ Cephalic Index,’ which gives the rela- tion of the breadth of the calvaria to the length taken as 100. — Thus we have an index of the relation of the height to the length — and of the height to the breadth; a ‘nasal index ;’ an ‘orbital 1 Zusammenkunft einiger Anthropologen, p. 50, Leipzig, 1861. 2 Crania Helvetica, p. 7, 1864. 5 Crania Germaniz Meridional. Occident., p. 3, 1865. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, 563 -index;’ and a ‘ maxillary! index, giving the relations of the basi- cranial line to a line passing from the middle of the anterior border of the foramen magnum, the ‘basion’ of Broca, to the nasal spine. The value of these measurements is beyond question; but as the important point in each of these cases is simply one of greater or less magnitude, oscillating within narrow limits, the in- convenience of additional statements of proportion is not counter- balanced by much corresponding advantage. I have, however, given one measurement of proportions in addition to the ‘ Cephalic Index ;’ and this, which I have called the ‘ Antero-posterior Index,’ gives the relation which is held to the extreme length of the skull by that part of the extreme length which lies anteriorly to the auditory foramen. The extreme length being taken as above described, it is divided into an anterior and a posterior segment by a line passing as a tangent to the anterior border of the audi- tory meatus, and prolonged so as to cut the line of extreme length at right angles. The proportions between these segments may be very readily obtained by fitting an indicator to one of the longer sides of M. Broca’s ‘cadre 4 maxima”, and, when the instrument is so applied as to take the extreme length, adjusting the indi- cator so as to run as a tangent to the anterior edge of the auditory meatus. The vertical line thus obtained falls always some way behind the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures ; but though it fails thus to coincide with the vertical line chosen for placing the skull in for the purpose of drawing, it does coincide very nearly with the line which might be drawn across the external surface of the cerebral hemisphere for limiting posteriorly the area which is most favourably conditioned as to irrigation with arterialised blood. The segments therefore into which it divides the line of extreme length may be held to correspond respectively to more and to less favourably nourished and actively operating segments of the cerebral hemispheres, and the statement of their relative proportions as expressed in the ‘Antero-posterior Index’ assumes considerable importance. The indications as to prognathism and its absence furnished by the ‘ maxillary index’ of Virchow and the ‘ gnathic index’ of Busk (Journal Anthrop. Instit. London, Jan. 1874, p. 496) are both * Virchow, Archiv ftir Anthropologie, vol. iv. p. 63, 1870. ? For description of this useful instrument, see Bulletin Soc. Anthrop. Paris, tom. iv. (24° Série), pp. 101-104, 1869 ; or Mémoires d’Anthropologie par Paul Broca, tom. i. p. 152, 1871. 002 564, DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, easily obtained by comparison of the three measurements, (a) of the basi-cranial axis taken from the middle of the anterior border of the occipital foramen, the ‘ basion’ of Professor Broca, to the fronto-nasal suture; (b) of the ‘ basio-subnasal’ line measured from the ‘basion’ to the base of the nasal spine ; and (c) of the ‘basio-alveolar line’ measured from the ‘ basion’ to the edge of the alveolar process of the upper jaw. A fourth facial measurement, that of the length from the fronto-nasal suture to the edge of the alveolar process of the upper jaw, which may be called the ‘ naso- alveolar’ line, together with the three others just given, enables us to construct two ‘facial triangles.’ In some cases where the anterior margin of the foramen magnum has been wanting, the facial angles, with apices respectively at the base of the nasal spine and at the fore-edge of the alveolar border of the upper jaw, have been taken by Professor Broca’s Nouveau Goniometre, described and figured in the Bullet. Soc. Anth. Paris, t. v. 17° Série, 1861, pp. 943-946, or in his collected Mémoires d’ Anthropologie, tom. i. pp. 106-109, 1871°. The stature has usually been calculated from an estimate of the length of the femur as being 27:5 to 100 of the entire length of the body. By another method, that of adding the lengths of the femur and tibia together, multiplying by two, and then adding an inch for the calcaneal integument, we obtain sometimes an identical, sometimes a slightly lower stature-estimate. The length of the femur has been measured? from the point at which the head of the bone abuts upon one flat surface to the middle point of — another flat surface which touches the distal ends of both the con- dyles. The length of the tibia has been taken from the level of the femoral articular-surface to that of the astragalar, as by Professor Huxley, /.c. p. 146, and Langer, /.c..p. 65. In some few cases, — in which none of the other long bones were available for measure- _ ment, the length of the humerus, from the upper surface of its 1 For alveolar prognathism and its linear measurement, see Topinard, L’ Anthropo- logie, p. 303, 1876, and Sasse, Archiv ftir Anthropologie, ix. p. 9, 1876. ? This measurement, as taken by Professor Huxley (Prehistoric Remains of Caith- — ness, p. 147), appears to be preferable for the purpose in question to that taken by — ‘Virchow (Archiv ftir Anthropologie, vol. vi. p. 18) from the trochanter major to the — external condyle; or by Liharzig, from the same point to the middle of the patella — (Gesetz des Wachsthum, p. 321, 1862) ; or by Langer (Wachsthum des Menschlichen ~ Skelets, Denkschrift Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Nat. Klass., Bd. xxi. S. A. — pp. 59, 87), from the apex of the trochanter major to the middle of a line drawn as — aboye as a tangent to the two condyles; or by Lissauer (Alt-Pommer. Schiidel, p. 8, — 1872), from the uppermost point of the head of the femur to the under edge of the inner condyle. | DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 565 head to the middle of the distal articular surface, has been taken as being 19°5 to the stature as 100, as given by Professor Humphry, Human Skeleton, p. 108, 1858. ° As regards the sex of the skulls described and figured, there can, it is believed, be little ambiguity even irrespectively of any indications which the long bones and pelvis may have afforded. These indications have of course always been taken into account, where it was possible to do so, in the determination of the sex, not only of each figured and described skull, but also of every other skull mentioned in this book which has been sent to me for verification. In some cases! it may be unsafe, in the absence ’ The skull of an Anglo-Saxon woman found by me at Frilford [Archeologia, vol. xvii. p. 440, 1870], buried with the insignia of the female sex, would I think be referred to the male sex by most craniologists if the bones of the trunk and limbs (to say nothing of the archzological surroundings) had not been available for reference and comparison, as fortunately they were and are in the University Museum, ‘No. xxii. Jan. 6, 1869.’ Similarly I have more than once had skulls of savage races put into my hands which I had every reason to believe had belonged to females, but which, from a consideration of the skull-characters alone, I should have supposed to have belonged to men. As I have elsewhere observed, however (see Journal of Anthropological Institute, vol. v. p. 123, October 1875), female skulls of savage races are by no means always thus similar to male either in size, texture, or contour; the class of cases indeed characterized by similarity or subequality is perhaps only a little more numerous, at all events amongst priscan skulls, than the class characterized by disproportionate smallness. As Welcker has observed (Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. i. p. 127, 1866), the cases where ambiguity arises are cases in which female skulls have assumed, or must be supposed to have assumed, male characters; it is only very rarely that we are in any danger of supposing a skull to be female which is really male. On the other hand, the words of His (Crania Helvetica, p. 9, 1864), ‘ Die Geschlectsbestimmung nach dem blossen Ansehen fiihrt allzuleicht zu Willkirhrlich- keiten als dass man sich darauf verlassen kénnte,’ seem to me to rate the value of an unassisted cranioscopy in the question of sex a little lower than it really deserves. And the argument by which he supports this view, drawn from the fact that skulls ‘which had been classed by competent observers as undoubtedly female could never- theless be proved to have come from an interment on a battlefield, is by no means convincing. The German woman was told (see Tacitus, Germania, p. 18), on the occasion of her marriage, by tangible symbols as well as by mere words, ‘venire se laborum periculorumque sociam, idem in pace, idem in prelio passuram ausuramque. The same community of risks, we are told by numerous ancient writers, e.g. Diodorus’, Strabo*, Plutarch*, and others, was run by both sexes amongst Celtic tribes; and I find it recorded of a Celtic invasion *, which took place little more than * Diodorus, v. 32. Af 5% yuvaikes ray Tadata@y ov pdrov Trois peyéOeor mapamAjorot Tois dvipdow eiow GAA Kal Tals dAKais évdpuAdor. ? Strabo, vii. 2. 3. “EOos 5€ te Tay KipBpav dinyodrra towdrov br. Tais ~yuvaigiv auTay svoTpaTevovoas mapnkorAovdouv mpoyavTes. * Plutarch, Marius, 27, The details of the slaughters of Aque Sextie and Vercellz are too well known to need quoting: ‘nec minus cum uxoribus eorum pugna quam cum ipsis fuit,’ says Florus, iii. 3. See also Ammianus Marcellinus, xv. c. 12. **The Kingdome’s Weekly Intelligencer,’ Friday, March 31, 1643; a Parlia- mentarian newspaper, quoted in a ‘Letter on the Discovery of the Skeletons at Barber’s Bridge,’ by W. H. Price, Esq., M.P. Gloucester, 1868. 566 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. . of the bones of the trunk and limbs, to pronounce as to the sex of a skull, and it is much more unsafe, as the disputes relative to the Engis skull show, to pronounce positively in cases where the lower jaw and even the base of the skull with the mastoids and the facial bones are wanting also. When such cases have occurred amongst the skulls submitted to me, I have spoken of the sex as ‘uncertain ;’ this uncertainty however does not seem to me to attach to any of the figured skulls or calvarie. The skulls which have been selected for figuring will put into contrast not only the peculiarities of male and female crania, but also those due to differences in years; special regard having been had in their arrangement to the importance of distinguishing between ethnical characters and those dependent upon age by ranking the skulls of each type in the order of their seniority. The following works and memoirs may be consulted as to points distinguishing male from female crania :— Humphry, Human Skeleton, 1858, pp. 103-282. V. Baer, Crania Selecta, Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Petersburg, tom. vill. 1859, p. 259. Welcker, Wachsthum und Bau des Menschlichen Schadels, 1862, pp. 65, 141. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Bd. i. 1866, pp. 110 and 120-127. B. Davis, Ibid., Bd. 11. p. 25. Kcker, Ibid. p. 82, and Ba. ii. p. 110, 1867, and Crania Germanize Meridionalis Occidentalis, 1865, p. 78. Aeby, Schidelformen, 1867, pp. 10-12. Archiv fiir Anthropo- logie, vi. 1872, p. 302. Cleland, Phil. Trans., 1870, pp. 124-132, 161-164. Weisbach, Archiv fur Anthropologie, Bd. 1.1866, pp. 191 and 285. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Bd. i. 1868, p. 61. With tables such as those given by Dr. Aitken, On the Growth of the Recruit, 1862, pp. 36-38, and by Welcker, Archiv fiir Anthro- pologie, i. p. 119, 1864, there is very little difficulty in deter- mining with a high degree of probability the age of skulls below 30 years of age, if the bones of the trunk and limbs are available as well as the cranium. This, however, has by no means always been — the case with the skulls of this series; still the condition of the teeth furnishes us with a fair indication for an approximate estimate 200 years ago and ended much as the one just referred to as recorded by Plutarch, that ‘amongst the Welsh were found many women which had knives near half a yard — long to effect some notable massacres with them.’ Mr. W. P. Price has enabled me to prove the truth of this statement by an examination of the skeletons of these invaders. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 567 of the age of their owner up to the age mentioned. When the teeth all alike have begun to show marks of wear, but the inner and outer surfaces of the skull still retain some smoothness and glossiness, I have spoken of the skull as belonging to a person in the ‘early portion of middle life,’ meaning thereby a period from 30 to 40. Greater wear of the teeth as yet unaccompanied with serious senile changes I have spoken of as characterising ‘later middle life,’ a period between 40 and 50. The commencement of senile changes I have noted by speaking of the skull as having: belonged to a person ‘ past middle life,’ their greater development by speaking of the skull as that of an ‘aged’ person. In priscan, as indeed, according to Dr. E. Zuckerkandl (Reise der Osterreich. Frege. Novara, 1875, p. 117), in modern skulls, both of civilised and savage races, the obliteration of the sutures of the skull takes place at any time within a period extending over no less a time than the twenty years from the age of 20 to that of 40. Dr. Thurnam showed (Nat. Hist. Rev., April 1865; Mem. Soc. Anth. Lond., vol. ui. 1867-9, p. 70; see also Virchow, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, v. p. 585, 1872) that the British, like some other dolicho-cephalic skulls, had a great tendency to premature obliteration of the main sutures, and these facts have been kept in view in making estimates of the ages of the skulls, and especially of the calvarie, which have been put into my hands. For a description of senile changes in the cranium, may be con- sulted Welcker, Archiv fir Anthropologie, i. p. 119, 1866; Virchow, Verhandlungen Phys. Med. Gesellschaft zu Wurzburg, iv. 354, 1853, Ueber die Involutionskrankheit (Malum senile) der platten Knochen, namentlich des Schadels, or Gesamm. Abhand., p. 1010 Absolute height . ‘ : 5:2” Minimum frontal width . : 44!" Basi-cranial axis. : : 4°05” | Maximum frontal width . ‘ 55” Circumference . . ; 21” Maximum occipital width , 49” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: naso-alveolar line . : : ‘ ae cae Breadth of face: ‘interzygomatic’ line . ; ; . 5°6” ‘Basio-subnasal’ line . SEE Te A ah ee. nae * Basio-alveolar ’ line : : ‘ ; ; . ; 38” Height of orbit ; ; ; a s ; . a ee Width of orbit ; Tes: , Be ss : Ne Length of nose ; 3 : ; ; ; ; ‘ 2:1” - Width of nose ‘ ; ‘ 2 A : . we _ Lower jaw, interangular diameter . . ‘ ; ‘ 4:9" Lower jaw, depth at symphysis 1-4” Lower jaw, width of ramus. ; : ‘ ; RS Sg III. Indices. Length-breadth index : ‘ cephalic index’ , . ; 82 Antero-posterior index . : . ‘ ‘ ; 54: Basilar angle . ; ; ; ; i , . : 14 Facial angle to nasal spine . ‘ i ; ; ; 65 Facial angle to alveolaredge . Ro ae Skah | The femur of the skeleton to which this skull belonged is 19:1” in length, and has its various ridges, and especially that which is in relation with the insertion of the gluteus maximus, considerably developed. The humerus is 12°7” long,and by examination of this bone, of the femur, of the skull, and the lower jaw, we are enabled to say that they belonged to a strong male in the later part of the middle period of life, probably about 50 years of age and 5’ 9” in height. In the greater obliquity of its forehead and the larger deve- lopment of its supraciliary ridges this skull differs from the one which precedes it, and forms a connecting link between such skulls as that 584 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. and the one which is described at pages 590-594, viz. ‘Rudstone, Ixiii. 9.’ The relations between the basi-cranial axis, the basio-subnasal line, and the basio-alveolar respectively, as well as the verticality of — the pterygoids, show that this skull is essentially orthognathous, as His and Riitimeyer in treating of skulls of a similar type, viz. their ‘ Disentis’ type, say (Crania Helvetica, p. 27) all pre-historic skulls of widely-spread races have been. The comparative lowness therefore of the facial angles, 65 and 61, as obtained by M. Broca’s goniometer, is to be ascribed to the slope of the forehead, not — to any thrusting forward of the jaws; and the slope of the forehead is to be viewed as correlated with the powerfully developed and heavy lower jaw, the downward gravitation! of which has been counterbalanced by a backward rotation of the brain and its con- taining case. ‘The fronto-inial and fronto-postremal diameters are identical, so are the maximum height and the maximum width ; the point for the latter measurement lies low down on the parietal — bones, on a level with the posterior superior angle of the squamous part of the temporal bone, and in a plane which would touch the ~ anterior edge of the faintly marked tubera parietalia. There is a considerable downgrowth of the occipital condyles, as is often observed to be the case in skulls with heavy lower jaws, especially in the later half of life; the skull however is supported by the con- — ceptacula cerebelli and the grinding edge of the molar teeth when — it is placed upon a flat surface without its lower jaw. The extent of its cranial curvature is spoken to by this last fact, as also by the lowness of its basilar angle, 14, as obtained by the occipital gonio- : meter of Prof. Broca., In the occipital and vertical norme this — skull shows the rounded outlines characteristic of well-filled skulls. In the latter ofthese xorme it shows the characteristic proportions, and in the norma lateralis the characteristic contour of the brachy- _ cephalic skull. The lower jaw, with its great width, flanged angles, and prominent bifid mentum, shows that its owner was a man of considerable strength. The teeth are comparatively small, and not as much worn as the teeth are usually in skulls of individuals — of this period and the age of this subject. The cranial sutures, especially the sagittal, have undergone extensive obliteration. — # This skull has been figured and described by the Rev. W. Green= well, M.A. and D. Embleton, M.D., in the Natural History, Transactions of Northumberland and Durham, Tyneside Field Club, vol. 1. pl. xiii. ‘- ~*~ 1 See Cleland, Phil. Trans., 1870, pp. 136,163. : hy - ee at c : , Dee iae haere te 4) ee. . i ‘ ‘ =| ’ ¢ vl - 4 < is tty aT ale Ps Piast : COWLAM. [lix. 3. p. 226.] SKULL OF A MAN IN LATER MIDDLE LIFE AND 5 FT. 71N. IN HEIGHT. \\\' ANY )} } f HANNA | my) ml We’) rt mt ny SUN Wea NU ‘nam, \ DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 587 COW LAM. [lix. 3. p. 226.] SKULL OF A MAN IN LATER MIDDLE LIFE AND 5 FT. 7 IN. IN HEIGHT. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . ‘ Mae i Parietal are ; ‘ ‘ i. Extreme breadth... owe Occipital arc. ; ’ ii tin Vertical height. ° ee Maximum frontal width . - 53” Absolute height. , » 64’ Minimum frontal width . Pit, 3) Circumference. . . 2271” | Maximum occipital width, ap- Frontal are . ; ; re proximatively ., ‘ b> DEN II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: ‘ naso-alveolar line’ 4 , ao Breadth of face: ‘interzygomatic line,’ uppeodimhitvsly::; 5°65” Height of orbit wal ahs : 3 yn : ; 1:45” Width of orbit ; A ‘ ‘ ‘ ; ‘ ‘ A as Length of nose ‘ . ‘ . : ; ‘ , 1:9” Width of nose ‘ ‘ P ‘ é ; 0:9” Lower j jaw, interangular dianieter . , ‘ ; 1 ME Lower jaw, depth at symphysis : 1.5” Lower jaw, width of ramus on level of grinding surface of molar teeth . : ‘ ‘ : ‘ , , : iO III. Indices. Length-breadth index : ‘ cephalic index’ ‘ ‘ : 84 Antero-posterior index. ; é ‘ ; P , 50 Facial angle to nasal spine ; . : : ; ° 72 Facial angle to alveolar edge . ‘ A . : : 69 A fragmentary femur gives a probable length of 18°5” for the perfect bone, from which we may calculate the stature as having been 5’ 7”, about an inch and a half less than the average stature assigned to the brachy-cephalous British by Dr. Thurnam upon an examination of twenty-seven femora. The femur in question shows its owner to have been a man of considerable strength and to have been in the later period of middle life, conclusions to which the condition and character of the skull would likewise point. The articular surface of the head of the femur has encroached a little way on to its neck anteriorly, which may indicate the existence in early life of some disease of the joint which was recovered from. The sagittal and coronal sutures are still patent, both internally and externally, for a considerable part of their extent. The skull itself is a most favourable specimen of the brachy-cephalic type, combining as it does indications of strength with great size, and yet showing no marks of savagery. It assuredly merits the titles of Kraftigkeit und Wiirde which His and Riitimeyer (Jahrbuch der 588 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, Schweizer Alpen for 1864, p. 398) bestow upon the better developed skulls of their ‘ Sion Typus ;? though it belongs to the class of skull assigned by those anthropologists to their ‘ Disentis Typus’ The skull asa whole is sub-quadrate or sub-cubical in outline, but being filled out in each individual region it gains an appearance of general smoothness and globosity. The supraciliary ridges are less in size and_the forehead is less oblique than is at all usual in skulls © of this period which belonged to owners of such strength as the powerful and well-defined lower jaw speaks to. The point of maxi- mum height when the skull is in its normal position lies a little way behind the coronal suture ; and by the greatness of this height, both absolute and relative, and by its situation at this point, one of the most characteristic features of this type of skull is constituted. In this the ancient British brachy-cephali resemble the neolithic Danes, as pointed out by Professor Busk!. | The occipital squama oceupies a plane a little posterior to that occupied by the posterior half of the parietals, as is the case in some of the brachy-cephalic skulls just referred to and others : the occipital protuberance having been lost, together with a large part of the ~ occipital bone, it is not now possible to say with safety whether the fronto-inial line was or was not shorter than the fronto-postremal. The cerebral overlap however has certainly been considerable, and the conceptacula cerebelli are more horizontal than is usual in skulls of this type. This however may be partly due to the commence- ment of senile gravitation? changes. The posterior part of the parietals show the normal brachy-cephalic perpendicularity, the small foramina emissaria, not seen in the drawing, being entirely on the posterior aspect of the skull. In spite of the very considerable frontal width the zygomatic arch still comes into view in the xorma verticalis, and this width, together with that of the interangular diameter of the __ lower jaw, must have given the face a marked expression of strength during life. The sockets of the canine give a square outline to the front of the upper jaw. The xorma occipitalis, like the norma verti- calis, is remarkable for the rounding off of its outstanding angles. Skulls strikingly similar to this, both in contour and measurements, are to be found in modern European races, ¢.g. in the Grisons * amongst the Roumansch-speaking populations, for a specimen of * See Journal of the Ethnological Society, p. 468, Jan. 1871. peed * See Cleland, Phil. Trans., 1870, pp. 136-137. - * For a memoir on the population of the Grisons, see V. Baer, Bull. Acad. Imp. des Sciences St. Petersburg, p. 38 seqq., 1860, . ' DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 589 which see skull 768 in Oxford University Museum, obtained from the neighbourhood of Andeer by Dyce Duckworth, Esq., M.D., or amongst the Finns', for a specimen of which see a skull e Diocesz Saaryarvi presented to the University Museum by Professor E. Eichwald. | Still closer is the resemblance to this prehistoric British type borne by the prehistoric Danish brachy-cephalic crania in which the height is, contrary to what we see in modern European skulls of the same type, greater than the breadth. A comparison indeed of such a series as that which has been obtained from the small Danish island of Moen, figures and casts of some of the crania of which are readily accessible?, with such a series of skulls as that which Canon Greenwell has presented to the Oxford Museum from the British round barrows, is instructive in many ways. By going over the entire number of specimens contained in such series we learn, firstly, that forms so widely different at first sight as the skull ‘ Cowlam, lix. 3,’ and the one next to be described, or the one from Borreby figured in Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘Antiquity of Man’ (p. 91, 4th ed. 1871), are nevertheless found in company and contem- poraneity with each other in many barrows. Secondly, we find that in many cases they are connected by transitional forms. Thirdly, in series containing either well-developed and capacious skulls, such as ‘Cowlam, lix. 3,’ or rough-hewn crania such as ‘ Rudstone, |xiii. 9,’ the one next to be described, or both, we find in England ® as well as in Denmark skulls differing from them in being at once them- selves ‘ill-filled, and in being indicative of feebleness in their owners. The existence of such skulls in such series in Denmark has often been explained by supposing them to have belonged to a Lapp population. This explanation however will not account for their presence in the Bronze-Period barrows of this country. * For the Ethnology of the Finns, see Virchow, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. iv. p. 78; Zeitschrift ftir Ethnologie, vol. v. p. 320. ? For figures of crania from the tumuli in Moen, see Nilsson’s ‘ Stone Age’ (trans. Lubbock), 1868, pl. xii. figs. 230-232, pl. xiii. fig. 240, pp. 121, 126; Sir John Lubbock’s ‘ Prehistoric Timés’ (3rd ed.), p. 159; Retzius’? Ethnographische Schrifte, pl. iii. fig. 2. A cast, No. 5710, of a small skull from Moen is to be seen in the Royal College of Surgeons in London, and another of a larger one from Udby in the same island was procured from the late Professor Thomsen through the kind offices of Dr. F. Krebs for the Oxford University Museum. The original of this cast has been measured and described by Professor Virchow in the Archiv fiir Anthropologie, tom. iv. pp. 68, 84, where he draws especial attention to its ‘ capsulires Hinterhaupt mit starken Schaltknochen der Lambdanaht’ points observable in ‘ Cowlam, lix. 3.’ * The series from Cowlam, Rudstone, Weaverthorpe, Goodmanham, and some others furnish specimens of small delicate skulls in company with one or other of the larger and stronger varieties of the brachy-cephalic type. RUDSTONE. [Ixiii. 9. p. 248.] SKULL OF A MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE; OF 5 FT. 9IN. IN STATURE. i i, WA a aN ‘ mn ‘ AAI 4/1 iN | RG ie file am tH) 1 ! 4 Wy i. A ) ‘ gi) ' 2 y WH DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 591 RUDSTONE, Ixiii. 9. p. 248. SKULL OF A MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE; OF 5 FT. JIN. IN STATURE. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . : . 72" | Cubical capacity . oe. OO Fronto-inial length . : 72" | Frontalare . : ; ; 51” Extreme breadth . git) 5:8” | Parietalare . i BHGo wee Vertical height . : . 587” | Occipital are. ‘ 2 a Absolute height . ‘ . 52” | Minimum frontal width por Basi-cranial axis . : . 89” | Maximum frontal width . ‘ 4°9” Circumference. : : 22” | Maximum occipital width ‘ 4A” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: ‘naso-alveolar’ line : : ° ‘ a hee ‘ Basio-subnasal ’ line ; ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ‘ ; 3:7” ‘ Basio-alveolar ’ line < ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ ‘ ‘ 39” Height of orbit ‘ ‘ ‘ . ‘ - ‘ ; 1:3” Width of orbit : ; 7 : . ; ; : 18” Length of nose ‘ ‘ ‘ ; ; ‘ : 5 2-1” Width of nose ‘ : ‘ : ; , a Lower j jaw, interangular diameter ‘ ; : : : 4-1” Lower jaw, depth at symphysis ‘ ; : : : tg Lower jaw, width of ramus . . . Se SRS a fy xe III. Indices. Length-breadth index: ‘ cephalic index’ . ‘ F 81 Antero-posterior index. ‘ : : : ‘ e« - 66 Basilar angle . ; ‘ ‘ ‘ : : 19 Facial angle to base of nacal Spite ‘ ’ . . 65 Facial angle to alveolar border of upper die : . F 60 With the cranium, ‘ Rudstone, lxiii. 9,’ there came into my hands two femora, the length (19°1”) and strength of which, as also the character of the skull, show that we have here to deal with the remains of a man of great muscular strength, of about 5’ 9” in stature, and ‘ past the middle period of life,’ if not indeed ‘ aged.’ The skull itself is a good example of one form of the brachy- cephalic cranium, which is distinguished by having a very oblique and low-lying frontal region, and large supraciliary ridges, which, if covered with large eyebrows during life, would have given a somewhat beetling and forbidding expression to the countenance. In the skull now before us the obliquity of the forehead is probably somewhat increased by the commencing! of the senile settling _1 There can be no doubt that with the atrophy of the brain which sometimes accompanies other senile changes some substance must, in the nature of things, be 592 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, down of that region as it follows after the retreating brain, but the brachy-cephalic form with retreating and low forehead is recognis- able in quite young skulls both of early, as in the case of the ‘ Hesler- ton Wold Hall Grave’ skull already described, and of present times. Other senile changes are beginning to show themselves in this skull in the way of loss of compactness of tissue and consequently of gloss and smoothness on the external surface, in the very extensive obliteration of sutures even in the external table of the skull, a condition less frequently observed in brachy-cephalic than in dolicho-cephalie skulls, and in the wearing down of the teeth to an extent which, in an ill-nourished' individual, would have produced alveolar abscesses. The conceptacula cerebelli are larger relatively to the space occupied. by the superior sguama occipitis in this than in most skulls, and the occipital protuberance is very considerably developed to fill up the void thus caused. In some cases an effusion of subarachnoid fluid occupies the space as fast as it is formed, and in a case of a very aged man, Dr. Holyoke of Salem, Massachusetts, a person known to be a centenarian, whose body was examined after death, and whose symptoms of intra-cranial fluctuation — during life were recorded by himself (see Memoirs, p. 48 seqq., Boston, U.S. A., 1829), this fluid must have been exuded in great abundance to occupy the space rendered available by the shrinking of the brain. In other cases, as also to a considerable extent even when fluid is poured out in the subarachnoid space, the inner table of the skull appears to secrete fresh laminz of bone, and is found closely adherent, as in infancy, to the dura mater. In such cases the grooves for the meningeal arteries appear to be deeply sunken into the substance of the skull, having been in reality converted into deeper channels, or even tubes, by the upgrowth of bone around them. This was the case in the body of a man supposed to be 106 years old examined by me, as recorded in the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, p 508, April 1863. A skull of a very aged person may under such circum- stances attain a thickness of as much as 15 millimetres, forming thereby a striking contrast to equally senile skulls in which the cranial walls may have been reduced to paper-thinness or actual fenestration by atrophy. In a third class of cases the retreating brain is followed up by the skull walls; and especially in the frontal region is this concomitance of involution observable, both in the living subject and in the skull, as has been noted by Lavater and Froriep, cited by Cleland, Phil. Trans., p. 136, 1870. In some of these cases the inner table of the skull will thicken simultaneously with the gradually sinking down of the cranial vault. In a skull of an aged man, probably a Roman officer, eminently dolicho- cephalic, forwarded to me by the Rev. W. Lukis, F.S.A., from Wath, near Ripon, I. find, coincidently with an extraordinary obliquity of ‘the os frontis, two raised arex, covering a space of a little more than an inch square on each side, as though they were growing down into the space vacated by the atrophying frontal convolutions. Some of the appearances which have been dwelt upon as characteristic of ‘ Neander- thaloid’ crania are, I am well assured, to be ascribed to these purely physiological, though senile, changes of form, and have absolutely no ethnological significance whatever, except in so far as the texture of brachy-cephalic crania is usually stouter and more resistent to gravitation changes than is that of the dolicho-cephalic, amongst which most of the skulls just mentioned are to be classed. . ' See J. Mummery, On the Relations of Dental Caries in Aboriginal Races. Trans. Odont. Soc., Nov. 1869. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 593 developed and devoid of any traces of division into linee superiores and linee supreme, as, V. Baer observes, is usually the case when the inferior preponderates in size over the superior squama occipitis. In the norma basalis we have to note the width of the basilar process of the occipital bone, a point often remarkable in the lower races of mankind, and the roughness and thickening of the posterior border of the occipital foramen, a development often noticeable in skulls with the brain-case rotated backwards, and correlated with the maintenance of the balance of the head by giving attachment to ligaments. The wisdom teeth are very much less worn than the two first molars ; only one wisdom tooth however has been developed in the lower jaw. : The lower jaw has lost by water-wear a good deal of its angle on the side figured; the angle on the side not shown in the figure, though it would even by itself have been assigned to the male sex, has by no means the boldly defined outlines and large size usually seen in the brachy-cephali of this series. The inter-angular diameter however of the entire jaw is as large as that of even larger skulls of this type. The parieto-occipital dip is eminently brachy-cephalic ; the point of maximum height is anterior to the coronal suture, the point of maximum width is the region representing the faintly marked parietal tubera. This skull does not show any traces of the not uncommon asymmetry of the parieto-occipital region produced by careless one-sided carriage in infancy; but it has a singular and sug- gestive resemblance to many of the artificially deformed skulls of the New World, though it is not likely that it was subjected to any such process purposively carried out. Skulls like this resemble some of the purposively deformed skulls, firstly, in general antero-posterior contour from the large supraciliary ridges over to the similarly developed ¢ransversa ecrista occipitis ; secondly, in the general relations of maximum breadth to the extreme length; thirdly, in the position of that plane of maxi- mum breadth far back in the plane of extreme length; fourthly, * Crania Selecta, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, Ser. vi. tom. viii. 1859. His words are, ‘Cristam (transversam occipitis) in plurimis hominibus in binos arcus sub angulo manifesto inter se conjunctos dividi patet ; attamen in animalibus multis crista transversa occipitis etiam binis arcubus constituitur, et in homine angulus medius non raro fere evanescit, et quidem ubi pars inferior ossis occipitis magnam habet evolutionem, pars superior vero parvam.’ Q4 594, DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, in the width and strength of the upper and lower jaws; and, fifthly, in the minor yet not wholly unimportant point of the disparity of size between the upper and lower squame occipitis with their respective nervous contents. Nor is prognathism, which is almost always absent in these priscan skulls, by any means always present in the artificially deformed ones of modern times. Skulls like the one just described have a calculable brain weight of 54 oz. avoirdupois, which is considerably above the average weight 495 oz. for European males in modern times; their powerful lower jaw and the bones of their limbs show them to have been possessed of muscular strength at least as much superior to that of average men; and their owners, for these as well as for other reasons which it is not my purpose to discuss here’, may be very reasonably supposed to have been chiefs of their clan or tribe. The physical peculiarities however of individuals in such positions are very usually imitated by other members of their clan, tribe, or nation; and it may be suggested that the habit of artificially deforming the head, at all events as we see it most commonly done when it results in the production of a form like the one just described, may have arisen from the wish to give a child from the first the outlines which distinguished some adult whose vigour had placed him in a position of eminence and command 2. 1 See Address to Anthropological Subsection, British Assoc. Report for 1875, p. 150. 2 It is not entirely easy even with a large number, as in the Oxford Museum, of artificially deformed skulls to be perfectly certain that such a skull as the one above described cannot have owed its peculiar contour to compression purposively exercised upon it during the period of infancy. Some sort of @ priori probability in favour of this skull having been endowed with its peculiar shape by this means arises of course from its very close resemblance to the Oregon, Peruvian, and other antero-posteriorly compressed skulls which we know as a matter of fact to have been so treated,and _ which we see to be as free, if they be skulls of aged individuals, from any traces of the severe treatment they underwent in the first two years of life, as in the skull now before us. It is obvious, whatever may be said to the contrary, that a deformation which goes so far as materially to alter the relative proportions of the several lobes of the brain to each other without materially altering the anatomical relation of those ~ lobes to the skull bones covering them, which M. Broca has (Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie, 1870, p. 115) shown that the ‘Deformation Toulonnaise’ actually does, must be put in play in these early days. For of the 22 inches or so (=555 mm.) which may be taken (Bischoff, Sitzungsberichte Kon-bayer. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, - 1864, Bd. i. p. 39) as the average head circumference of a living male adult, no less, but a little more, than nineteen inches and a half (=500 mm.=19°685”) have been shown by Liharzig (Gesetz des Wachsthums, 1862, p. 17, Taf. 5) to be attained by the male child of twenty-one months old. And between twenty-one months and the age to which the owner of such a skull as this must have attained, abundant time would have been afforded for smoothing down, rounding off, and removing any such traces of the action of any deforming apparatus as are sometimes to be seen in younger skulls (e.g. in a skull from Vancouver’s Island, No. 826 a, Oxford Museum) which DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 595 Professor Busk has, @oc. infra cit., felicitously suggested the restoration of the Linnean term ‘ plagio-cephalic’ to this strongly marked variety of a strongly brachy-cephalic type. Skulls of similar proportions and contour have been procured from three or four other round barrows in the East Riding, viz. from barrows in the Goodmanham, Flixton, and Marr series; and two others, also of the same conformation, ‘ Rudstone, Ixiii. 6,’ and ‘ Rudstone, Ixviii. 7,’ have been procured from this very series. The latter of these two skulls, which belonged to a man past the middle period of life and of about 5 ft. 8in. in stature, goes farther have been subjected to it. Further, the fact that in a country so near as France a practice of depressing the head has lasted in Normandy (Retzius, Ethnograph. Schriften., p. 180) and in the non-Iberian parts of Southern France (Foville, cit. Retzius, J. c.) even into our own days,—and in the Tolosan portion of this latter dis- trict has been supposed (see Broca, /.c.) to have been a survival of the practice of the Tectosages,—may make us hesitate before definitely refusing, as so many other writers from the times of Haller (ci¢. Blumenbach, De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat., l. c.) down to that of Virchow (see Congrés Internat. d’ Anthropologie, 1876, tom. i. p. 318) have refused, to accept artificial deformation as the explanation of the conformation of a particular skull, whether it be plagio-cephalic as this skull, or annularly constricted like the well-known Avar skulls of Grafenegg and Atzgersdorff. It must however be said, on the other hand, that both these forms of skull, though now well known to be pro- ducible artificially, do yet arise spontaneously even in our own day; and it is here suggested that unless a considerable number of skulls of one or other or both of these forms are found together it is unsafe to assert, in the absence of still persistent marks . of the action of a compressing or constricting apparatus, that any single skull has been artificially deformed. For in most cases in which we have undoubted evidence of the existence of this practice, skulls of both forms, the plagio-cephalic, in which the skull has been compressed from before backwards, and the annularly constricted and elongated form illustrated by the Avar skulls above-mentioned and described by many of the authors enumerated below, have been found together: and in spite of the tendency shown by many writers to make multitudinous divisions of artificial cranial deformities, it is plain from a consideration of the history of the rapid growth of the brain and of the restlessness of children in early life, that it must be ex- ceedingly difficult to prevent, with whatever care and whatever apparatus, the plagio-cephalic form from lapsing into the annularly constricted form. A com- parison of the account given by M. Dumoutier of the practice (Bull. Soc. Ethnograph. de Paris, vol. i. 1847, cit. Gosse, l.c. p. 154), as carried on in Patagonia with the description given by Professor Huxley of a skull brought from Gregory Bay, Patagonia, by Dr. Cunningham of H.M.S. ‘Nassau,’ or of that given by Ellis, /.c. infra, of the Tahiti method with that given by Camper, /. c. of a calvarium brought to Oxford by Captain King (No. 827. University Museum), will show that both forms of artificial deformity existed side by side with each other in Patagonia and in Tahiti. Annularly constricted and elongated skulls, such as the one spoken of by Camper as ‘tout pareillement conformée’ to the one from Tahiti, have been constantly found in the region of the Nootka Sound in company with the plagio-cephalous variety. And the same is notoriously the case with the Peruvian series, though here it must be said that several authors have attempted to show, though not in the writer’s opinion successfully, that these two forms of distorted skull may be taken as distinctive either of two different races, or of chiefs as opposed to the common people. See Forbes, J. ¢. infra, pp. 12,18. The annularly constricted skulls which have come into the present writer’s hands appear to have belonged to females whose treatment, even in matters of this kind, is often, amongst savages, different from that of males. Q.q 2 596 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. than most even of the roughest hewn skulls of the Bronze Period to justify the comparison which Dr. Thurnam ! instituted between them and the macrognathous Maori crania. This skull having been much broken, most of its measurements, as reconstructed, have to be taken with qualification ; its great weight however, 2 lb. 4°9 oz. av., the lower jaw included, but much loss of other bone having been incurred, as against a weight for the much more nearly perfect skull and lower jaw, here figured, of 1lb. 10 0z. 10 grs. av., is unambiguously indicative as to its great size. Skulls differing from these mainly in the comparatively unimportant particular of a lesser frontal obliquity will be found figured in the ‘Crania — Helvetica’ of His and Riitimeyer, t. ii. p. 180, and in V. Baer’s description of the crania and people of the Graubiindten?. Even more closely similar are the figures of the Borreby skull and of the Ledbury skull given by Professor Huxley in Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘Antiquity of Man, p. 91, 4th ed. 1873, and in ‘ Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,’ 1866, p. 114. In none of these cases however, with the single exception of the Borreby skull, have we — decisive proof of their having belonged to a Premetallie Period. No skulls resembling them in their distinctive characters have come — into my hands from any British burial-place belonging to the Stone Age. On the other hand, there is no doubt that this variety — of the brachy-cephalic skull has survived and is represented — amongst us in modern days. Dr. Beddoe*, for example, and — Professor Virchow 4, have both specially remarked upon the like- — ness borne by certain modern Danish heads to some of the ancient — Borreby crania; and their characteristics are even exaggerated in a presumably modern cranium figured by M. Topinard in his. 3 L’Anthropologie, 1876, p. 298, fig. 37. A few references have been given above, pp. 572, 573 note, to memoirs bearing upon the production of cranial deformities artificially though undesignedly. “a : The bibliography of artificially and designedly produced deformities is very much — more extensive. The following list will be found to comprise the most important — notices of and memoirs upon the practice. Hippocrates, [ept dépwv tddrov rénwy, ed. Littré, tom. ii. pp. 59, 60, 14; ed. Kuhn, — tom. i. p. 551; ed. Lind, i. 348, 349; ed. Ermerius, tom. i. 1859, p. 268. ’“Emdnylov, — ed. Littré, tom. v. p- 80; ii. 8. Coray’ s note, p. 224, tom. ii. 1800, in his translation of the former treatise is worth reading. Strabo, xi. 16. p. 520. I IL OE I TEGO EE A ty er i ‘ 1 Principal Forms of Ancient British and.Gaulish Skulls, 1865, pp. 31, 102. & 2 Bulletin de Acad. Imp. des Sciences de Saint Pétersbourg, vol. i. 1860; Mélanges biologiques tirés du Bulletin, t. iii. . = 2 3’ Mem. Soc. Anth. London, vol. iii. p. 383. 4 * Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. iv. p. 71, 1860. oe DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 597 Hiuen-Thsang, fl. A.D. 629-645, cit. V. Baer, loc. infra cit. p. 22; of practice exist- ing at Kashgar, in Histoire de la vie de Hiouen-Thsang et de ses voyages, par Stan. Julien, Paris, 1853, 8vo. p. 396. J. Bulwer, Anthropometamorphosis, London, 1653, pp. 74-85. Forster, Observations made during a Voyage round the World, 1778, p. 267, of Mallicollo. P. Camper, Différence des traits du Visage, Autrecht, 1791, p. 23 seqgqg. The works of the late Professor Camper, translated*by Dr. Cogan, 1794, also at p. 23. Blumenbach, Decas Craniorum prima, 1790, iii. p.17; x. p. 27. De generis humani varietate nativa, 1795, p. 255 seqq., ibique citata—in his own words ‘ nubem testiwm,? Nova Pentas, 1822, p. 10, ibique citata. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i. pp. 80, 261, 2nd edit. 1831. Tiedemann and Pentland, Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie, 1833, Bd. v. p. 108. Bulletin Soc. Ethnograph. Paris, 1847, tom. i. pp. 262-273. . Foville, Déformations du Crane, 1834. Systéme Nerveux, i. 632, 1844, pl. 23, figs. 1 and 2. Williams, Missionary Enterprize, 1837, p. 539. Morton’s Crania Americana, 1839, pp. 117, 203 e¢ passim. Rathke, Miiller’s Archiv, 1843. Tschudi, Ibid., 1844, 1845. Retzius, Ibid., 1849, or Ethnograph. Schrift. p. 94. Morton, cit. Waitz, Anthropologie, iv. 2, p. 386, On the Ethnography and Archeology of the American Aborigines, New Haven, 1846, p. 18; Schoolcraft, ii. 326. Meyer, Miiller’s Archiv, 1850. Thierry, A., Révue des deux Mondes, 1852, tom. xxxv. p. 533. Ibid., 1854, p. 241. Fitzinger, Denkschriften, v. 1854; Akad. Wiss. Wien. Retzius, Miiller’s Archiv, 1854, p. 489, and Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. vii. p. 405. Ethnograph. Schrift. p. 125. Morton, in Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 1854, pp. 436, 440. Gosse, Essai sur les Déformations artificielles du Crane, 1855. Nott and Gliddon, Indigenous Races of the Earth, 1857, p. 335. Wagner, A., Geschichte der Urwelt, 2nd edit. 1858, p. 39. Retzius, Miller’s Archiv, 1858, p. 106. British and Foreign Med. Chir. Rev., 1860, p- 228. Ethnographische Schriften, 1864, pp. 160, 161. Von Baer, Mémoires de l’Academie des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, Sér. VIT. tom, ii. n?° 6, cbique citata, 1860. Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia, 1861, p. 175. Van der Hoeven and Pruner-Bey, Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, tom. 1i. 1861, p, 449. Wilson, On Kertch Skulls, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, April, 1861. Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, 1862, pp. 28-30. C. C. Blake, Trans. Ethnolog. Soc. London, vol. ii. 1862, ibique citata. Thurnam, Crania Britannica, Decade V. pl. 45, July 1862. Davis, Ibid., chap. ix. p. 233. His and Riitimeyer and Troyon, Crania Helvetica, 1864, pp. 56-59. Broca and Lagneau, Bulletin Soc. Anth. Paris, 1864, tom. v. pp. 385-421. Keker, A., Archiv fiir Anthropologie, i. 75, 1866; ix. 1, pp. 61-76, 1876. Forbes, D., On the Aymara Indians, Journ. Ethn. Soc. Lond. ii. 3, pp. 12, 13 and 205, Oct. 1870. Broca, Ibid., 1871, p. 115. Sur la Déformation Toulonnaise. Busk and J. B. Davis, Journal Anthrop. Instit. iii. 1, April 1873, p. 86 seqq. Hutchinson, Consul T. J., Journal Anth. Inst. iii. 3, iv. 1, 1874. Simms, Ibid., iii. 3, p. 327, 1874. Telfer, Commander, Ibid.iv.1, p. 57, with figure of annectent form. Wood, ‘ Cruise in the South Seas,’ 1875, p. 41, of Futuna Islanders, Horne Islands, citing Marsden as to Sumatrans, and Captain Cook (see ‘ Voyage towards the South Pole,’ i. p. 366, 1777) as to natives of Ulietea, who however are only represented as flattening the nose, a particular omitted by Forster, ‘ Observations,’ p. 472, in his account of the same proceedings. Zuckerkandl, Reise der Novara, Anthrop. Theil, 1875, p. 46. Bancroft, Native Races of Pacific States, vol. i. pp. 158, 228 (where occasional failures are spoken of) ; vol. ii. 1875, pp. 731, 732; iv. p. 740. Dupont and Virchow, Congres international d’Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Pre- historiques ; Compte Rendu, Stockholm, 1876, pp. 316 and 318. Wilson, ‘ Prehistoric Man,’ 3rd edit. 1876, chap. xx. ibique citata, esp. Blake, p. 156, for finding of short and long forms together. Topinard, Anthropologie, 1876, p. 194. Busk, Journal Anth. Inst., January 1877, p. 202, on skulls from Mallicollo. CASTLE CARROCK, CUMBERLAND. [clxiii. p. 379.] SKULL OF A MAN ADVANCED IN YEARS. DP \i DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 599 CASTLE CARROCK, CUMBERLAND. [elxiii. p. 379.] SKULL OF A MAN ADVANCED IN YEARS. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . re apo ae Cubical capacity . , oe OS" Fronto-inial length . ; Zz Frontal are. ‘ , et i HB" Extreme breadth . 56” Parietal are. ; , : 49” Vertical height . ; a oe Occipital are . - : 4:4,” Absolute height . : ah eee Minimum frontal widile : td te Basi-cranial axis , - 405” | Maximum frontal width ve etek Circumference . : ‘ 20°7” | Maximum occipital width . 4-7” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: ‘naso-alveolar’ line J : ow Se Breadth of face: ‘interzygomatic’ line ; : ‘ 5°2” ‘Basio-subnasal’ line. é ; ; ‘ : ‘ 37” ‘ Basio-alveolar’ line he, : ; : ; : 3°9” Height of orbit , : , , ; ‘ ‘ ; 15” Width of orbit > ; . - ; ; é AY x Length of nose ? : ; ; : ; : ; 2°05” Width of nose * ; ‘ : : 1°2” Lower jaw, inter angular diameter : ‘ : ; : 44” Lower jaw, depth at symphysis ; é é . i 1:3” Lower jaw, width of ramus’. ‘ , : ‘ re III. Indices. Length-breadth index: ‘ cephalic index ’ : ; P 80 Antero-posterior index. , , - ‘ 3 ; 52 Basilar angle . : : : ‘ ‘ : ; 24: Facial angle to nasal ili : : : : : ; 71 Facial angle to alveolar border : . P ; : 66 With the skull ‘ Castle Carrock, Cumberland,’ no bones of the trunk or limbs have come into my hands; there is considerable reason however, from the consideration of the skull alone, for saying that this skull belonged to a man much ‘ past the middle period of life” if not to an ‘aged’ man. The still outstanding muscular and other processes in the lower part of the skull and the still powerful lower jaw show that the owner of this skull was a person of con- siderable strength, whilst the general rounding off of the angular portion of the vault of the skull seems referable to the working of senile absorption. The diploic sinuses are exposed on either side in. 600 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. the region of the parietal eminences, as is the case in advanced senile atrophy ; ; the cavities exposed are undoubtedly larger than they would, in almost any circumstances, be until some time after the prime of life; the skull however has suffered somewhat from water-wear, and it is not easy to be sure that some of the excavation and exposure shown in the drawing on the left parietal bone may not be due to this posthumously working cause. The down-growth of the occipital condyles, and of the mastoids, and the spiny roughnesses developed generally at the base of the skull, and specially around the posterior border of its foramen magnum, are points indicative of its advance in age. A somewhat similar skull, — from Tosson in Northumberland, presented to the University Museum by Canon Greenwell, has been described by Dr. Barnard Davis in the ‘Crania Britannica,’ vii. Pl. 54; its sex however — does not seem to be quite so certainly male as that of the skull — from Castle Carrock, and its age to be a little greater, as is also its — cubical capacity, 97:5 as against 95 cubic inches. The two skulls are specially useful as showing the modifications, especially in the — way of rounding off of outlines, which the advance of old age © produces upon the more capacious brachy-cephalic skulls, which — when young might have been spoken of as ‘tétes carrées,’ ‘sub- — cubical,’ or ‘subquadrate.’ Both of them have retained compara- — tively vertical foreheads and the characteristic dip of a slightly asymmetrical parieto-occipital region , the Castle Carrock skull in company with a powerful lower jaw, and the Tosson skull in~ company with a feebler one; both have their points of maximum transverse width low down upon the parietal bone, both have vertical pterygoids; but the lateral bulging produced by oul change has advanced further in the Tosson specimen, and the ple of maximum width has advanced further forwards relatively to a long axis of the skull. Some of the peculiarities to be seen in the norma basalis and lower jaw of the Castle Carrock skull are very exactly reproduced in the Tosson specimen, even to such points as the _ non-development of some of the wisdom teeth and the small size of — the entire dental series. The lower jaw of the Tosson skull is feebler _ than that of the Cumberland skull, and its coronoid fails, as is more usually the case in dolicho-cephalie than in brachy-cephalie . ‘ skulls, to reach the level of the zygomatic arch, points which, taken — 3 : together with the remarkably small size of its mastoids and its lesser absolute and relative height, may seem to indicate that it is — x a female skull. However this may be, there can be no doubt that DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 601 they both are what Dr. Barnard Davis has said one of them, viz. the Tosson skull, is, ‘ of the typical series of ancient British crania,’ and of the typical series, I should add, of the Round Barrow or Bronze Period. As an individual peculiarity in the Castle Carrock skull not observed among the other brachy-cephalic skulls here figured, may be noted! the fact that when placed without its lower jaw, but with the grinding surface of its upper molar. teeth upon a horizontal surface, it touches that surface posteriorly, not with its conceptacula cerebelli, but with its occipital condyles. This is mainly due to the downgrowth of these processes, but also in part to the upward slant of the cerebellar fosse, a point more common in brachy-cephalic than in other crania, and not indicative of deficient cranial curvature when coupled, as in this case, with a vertical forehead. This skull and the five here described before it are all alike brachy-cephalic by contour as well as by mere measurement. In all of them, with the exception of ‘ Rudstone, lxiii. 9,’ the ‘ vertical height’ is greater than or at least equal to the ‘extreme breadth ;’ in all of them the posterior part of the parietal bones curves downwards more or less vertically, making thus the distance between the plane of the parietal tubera and that of the back of the head shorter than it is in dolicho-cephalic skulls and throwing the foramina emissaria entirely on to the back aspect of the cranium. In none of them, whether young or old, is either the coronal or the lambdoid suture entirely obliterated, showing that the form of the skull in them, as we shall hereafter see it is also in the dolicho-cephalic variety, is dependent upon that of the brain and not upon any synostosis. With this skull, undoubtedly the oldest of those as yet described, the series of brachy-cephalic skulls here figured ends; in the arrangement of the dolicho-cephalic series, next to be entered upon, similar regard has been had to age; and the first skull of that series, *‘ Langton Wold, ii. 1,’ differs from the skull ‘ Castle Carrock ’ in the matter of age as much as in any other of its distinctive peculiarities. 1 See Ecker, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, iv. p. 301, cit. p. 567 supra. LANGTON WOLD. [ii. 1. p. 136.] SKULL OF A MAN OF FROM THIRTY TO THIRTY-FIVE YEARS OF AGE, AND 5 FT. OJIN. IN STATURE. / ch 44) ce ) Pa sap 8 GU “ ti a Nay § hy atl Mi Me "y ll ny = & é . sly \ i aps wi Nye ts DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 603 LANGTON WOLD. fii. 1. p. 136.) SKULL OF A MAN OF FROM THIRTY TO THIRTY-FIVE YEARS OF AGE, AND 5 FT. 9 IN. IN STATURE. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . : 78" suture, approximatively . 44 Fronto-inial length . ‘ 76" Circumference ‘ ‘ er 4 Extreme breadth : F 5°25” | Frontalarc . ; : “nr oe Vertical height . , : 5°8” Parietal are. : - a Se" Absolute height . ; - 54” Occipital are, ‘ ore ee Basi-cranial axis from an- Minimum frontal width ; $8" terior margin of foramen Maximum frontal width . . et" magnum to naso-frontal Maximum occipital width ~ 457 II. Measurements of Face, Length of face: ‘naso-alveolar’ line : z ; . 3” Breadth of face: ‘interzygomatic’ line . : ‘ : 5°05” * Basio-sub-nasal’ line, approximatively .. A : ‘ 4:05” ‘ Basio-alveolar’ line, approximatively . - ‘ . 4:05” Height of orbit ‘ : ‘ ‘ : ‘ : : 1-4” Width of orbit ; 4 Y : F ‘ ‘ . 1:65” Length of nose d 2°3” Lower jaw, width of ramus on eee of grinding surface of molar teeth . ; : ; ‘ ; : : ; bay hv III. Indices. Length-breadth index : ‘cephalic index’ . : : : 68 Antero-posterior index . ; : : ‘ ; 45 Facial angle to nasal spine. ‘ , é ‘ : 67 Facial angle to alveolar process : . 5 F ‘ 63 The femora and pelvic bones taken together with the cranium show that the skeleton, Langton Wold i, belonged to a strong man in the early part of middle life, that is to say probably between 30 and 35, of very considerable muscular strength, and about 5 ft. 9 in. in stature. The sacrum and ossa innominata have their sutures and epiphyses completely anchylosed. The two posterior molars however on each side of the jaws are comparatively worn. The femur is of great strength, flanged out in the region of the upper insertion of the gluteus maximus so as to give this part of the bone a flattened appearance ; the inner division of the upper bifurca- tion of the linea aspera is prolonged into a spiral ridge continuous 604 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, with the anterior intertrochanteric line, a peculiarity much more marked in the much smaller femora of the skeleton next to be described ; whilst the size of the linea aspersa in the area over which its two lips are combined is such as to give the fluted appearance to the posterior aspect of the femur which has procured for such bones the name of ‘ fémurs 4 colonnes’ (Topinard, L’ Anthro- pologie, p. 324, 1876). | This skull, and the one next to be described, Duggleby 1. 2, may be taken as typical representatives of the male and female form respectively of the Hohberg type of His and Riitimeyer as described and figured in the ‘ Crania Helvetica’ of those authors. There can be no doubt as to the respective sexes and ages of these two skulls, the trunk and limb-bones of both having been available for examination as well as the ecrania, though many of both sets of bones in both cases have suffered considerably from posthumous injury, and have to be spoken of as reconstructed. There are several modifications of the dolicho-cephalic type found in barrows of the Neolithic Period which do not correspond with the Hohberg type just mentioned ; that type however is found in those barrows, and these skulls, though of a later date, very fairly repre- sent it, and their respective sexes being certainly fixed they enable us to distinguish in this type the characters which have an ethno- graphical from those which have merely a sexual significance. The skull, Langton Wold i, is distinctly and essentially ortho- gnathous, as shown by comparison of the basi-cranial with the basio- subnasal and basio-alveolar lengths; the supraciliary ridges owe their large size to the masculine character of the skeleton they belong to, they meet, however, as these ridges are said to do in this type by the ethnologists just referred to, without that depression in the middle glabellar line which is usual in the brachy-cephali; the median vertical contour describes the characteristically equable dolicho-cephalic curve from the point where the glabella sinks into the oblique facies frontalis of the os frontis to the centre of the superior squama occipitis, where a spot 2,’ anterior to the upper side of — the external occipital protuberance, and ,3,” anterior to the commence- ment of a /inea nuche mediana, separated by a slight interval from that largely developed ridge, marks the back of the skull. This — occipital dolicho-cephaly, plain enough also on simple inspection, is 4 further made manifest by its low antero-posterior index, 45, though it is right to say that the skull has probably undergone some — compression with the usual result of producing a lengthening, and DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS, 605 in this case owing to its intrinsic wall-sidedness in the temporal and parietal regions, especially in the posterior half of the skull. The parietal and occipital arcs each exceed their normal length by ;4,ths of an inch. The lower jaw being imperfect it is not easy to form an accurate estimate of the amount of compression which may have been effected here. This bone appears to have been more powerfully developed than is usually the case in skulls of this type, its angle having been square and everted and its coronoid having reached above the level of its zygoma. The mastoids are of an extra- ordinary length. There isa broad but shallow undulation on either side of a raised sagittal carina posteriorly to the coronal suture. Viewed in the xorma verticalis, the skull is remarkable for the very gradual way in which it grows narrower along the long straight lateral boundaries from the barely recognisable region of the parietal tubera up to the external orbital processes of the frontal. This contour has been supposed! to characterise the Anglo-Saxon rather than the Celtic type of head ; there is however no room for doubting that this cranium belonged to an inhabitant of this country in the Bronze Period. The skull is phenozygous. The sagittal and coronal sutures are both obliterated internally, and the sagittal is obliterated on the outside of the skull in the region where such obliteration usually shows itself first, viz. in the region of the foramina emissaria. On the right half of the frontal bone there is a wound 8” long and 1” wide, sloping downwards from a point about an inch in front of the point where the sagittal meets the coronal suture very nearly to the point where the temporal line passes from the lateral cranial wall on to the external orbital process. The floor of the wound is formed for a little over 2” by the diploe, the cavities of which are filled with black earth of the same kind, apparently, as that which has given the entire exterior surface of the skull its dingy appearance. The outer table forms the lateral boundaries and the floor at either end of the wound. The inner table of the skull does not: appear to have been affected by the blow, and the wound may be taken as an instance of ‘ un- depressed gouged out fracture,’ for accounts of which kind of injury 1 See Professor Daniel Wilson, Canadian Journal, New Series, vol. liv. Nov. 1864; or Anthropological Review, vol. iii. Feb. 1865, London. The skull described below, under the name of Weaverthorpe, Smith, iii. 3, is of the type which, while equally long with the one described above, is distinguished by a sudden tapering in front of the parietal tubera, and is supposed by the writer just cited to be characteristic of the ‘Insular Celt.’ There is however no reason for holding that it belongs to a period anterior to that of the skull Langton i. 606 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. see United States Reports, Circular No. 6, War Department, Surgeon-General’s Office, Washington, p. 12, Nov. 1, 1865. A spear or celt of metal if driven with force at a living head might very well raise a splinter of bone out of the two external layers of the bony cranium, especially if the recipient was lying on the ground and rolled his head as much out of the way as he could as the blow descended. The splinter would probably, in the first instance, be left adhering to the scalp, and might have taken up its old place again. Here it has been lost; but that the patient survived its separation, at least from all connexion with the bone of which it once formed a part, the state of that bone furnishes fair evidence. On looking carefully with a lens at the edges of the wound formed by the external table of the skull, it will be seen that, though the meandering channels formed for themselves by plant rootlets have had something to do with making the surface what it is, still some process of smoothing down due to the vital operations of the skull itself is recognisable upon them. The lamellar arrangement of the outer table is still distinctly visible, nevertheless the surface is not as sharply defined anywhere as it must have been when the wound was first inflicted. To allow of this smoothing down being effected not more than two or three months would be required ; in the very instructive /istories given of the owners of skulls in the Berlin Museum (see Walter’s Museum Anatomicum, 1805, p. 468) which had had sword-cuts inflicted upon them, a process of healing effected ovo succo osseo affluente et annitente ut vulnus claudat takes only paucos menses, and in one case (2394) only two months. Yet this process is one requiring more time than the process of absorptive smoothing which is all we have signs of here. The unclosed vacuities in the diploe show that the wound was never healed, unless we are to suppose that the rootlets above mentioned have removed away cleanly and entirely that glaze of bone which in skulls so wounded is deposited over the injured area. The death of the man therefore, though occurring within a comparatively short time from the receiving of this wound, must have been due to some other cause than the mere wound itself. In the occipital norma the wall-sidedness of the lateral boundaries of the pentagon described by the contour lines in this aspect and the vertical carination characteristic of male skulls of this type are eminently noteworthy '. 1 A female skull, ‘Langton Wold ii, very closely resembling the one just described, has been obtained from the same barrow. It belonged however to a very much older DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 607 individual, and some of the characteristics of its sex, which was established mainly by an examination of its trunk and limb bones, have been, as female cranial cha- racters sometimes are, masked by the inroads of senile changes. It is interesting to note that the femora of this aged woman resembled those of this young male subject and those of the young woman next to be described, in having the spiral line joining the linea aspera and the anterior intertrochanteric line well marked. The aged female skull, ‘ Langton, ii. 2,’ differs from both the others with which it has been compared in retaining the prominence of the parietal tubera so commonly observable in skulls up to the time when, with the evolution of the second set of teeth, the lower part of the skull widens out with the widening of the jaws. The absence of prominence of the region of the parietal tuberosities is one of the characters given by His and Riitimeyer as characteristic of the Hohberg type, an undoubtedly old form of skull; the presence of such prominence, on the other hand, is given by Schaafhausen (Die Urform des menschlichen Schidels, p. 7) as characteristic of priscan skulls. A consideration of these three skulls taken together with that of some of the facts of skull-development, will show how these statements may be reconciled. The parietal tuberosities are as distinctively characteristic of the human cranium as is the lobule of the marginal convolution called ‘lobulus tuberis’ by Huschke (Schaedel, Hirn, and Seele, p. 142, 1854); the full distance between them (135 mill.) however, within some three millimeters, is attained to as early as ten years of age. See Welcker, Wachsthum und Bau, p. 127. They are prominent in the skulls of quite young human subjects even of savage races, as e.g. the Australians and Coles (see skulls mentioned in note on p. 615 infra), whilst on the other hand they are only very faintly indicated in the skulls even of the antheropo- morphous apes. Further, it is, as might have been expected, a fact (see Weisbach, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, iii. p. 71) that the intertuberal diameter is identical for the two sexes, or nearly so. It is now easy to see how female skulls which fail to attain the ‘rounding out of the sides of the skull which occurs from the latest expansion of the brain’ (see Cleland, Phil. Trans. 1870, p. 149), and which retain in this particular of comparative narrowness of the transverse diameter of the basis cranii (see Weis- bach, /. ce. p. 68), as in some others, childlike characters, will have their parietal tubera relatively prominent ; and how ill-filled male skulls in ill-fed races may come to re- semble them in this point. In well-filled male skulls, on the other hand, the prominence of the parietal tubera is lost in the general globosity produced by the widening out of the lower parts of the brain. SHERBURN WOLD. (vii. 1. p. 146] SKULL OF A WOMAN OF FROM THIRTY TO THIRTY-FIVE YEARS OF AGE, AND OF 4 FT. 8 IN. IN HEIGHT. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 609 SHERBURN WOLD. [vii. 1. p. 146.] SKULL OF A WOMAN OF FROM THIRTY TO THIRTY-FIVE YEARS OF AGE, AND OF 4 FT. SIN. IN HEIGHT. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length. . . 771” Parietal arc. : : oe Fronto-inial length . oi ae Occipital are. ‘ : Si gags Extreme breadth ‘ ~ 1 40? Minimum frontal width . : 3°3” Verticalheight . . . 656” | Maximum frontal width. . 42” Circumference . ; : 195” | Maximum occipital width . 4)" Frontal are ee F 5” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face ; ‘ ; LEE Bhi ylt wt & 2°8” Height of orbit ; ; , : P ‘ ‘ ‘ 1:5” Width of orbit ; ‘ ; : : , ° : 1:6” Length of nose : 3 ‘ : : . : 2-2” Width of nose - : F : ‘ ‘ 1” Lower j jaw, interangular diameter ° : A : ‘ 3°3” Lower j jaw, depth at symphysis 2 1:3” Lower jaw, width of ramus on level of einige warfand of molar teeth . : , ; - . : : ‘ 2” III. Indices. Length-breadth index: ‘cephalic index’ . , . ; 68 Antero-posterior index ~ . : ; : ‘. ‘ : 46 Facial angle to nasal spine ; : : , , i 63 Facial angle to alveolar edge ©. . 4 ; ; : 60 The condition of the femora and pelvis and of the teeth enable us to say with certainty that we have in ‘Sherburn Wold, vii. 1’ the skeleton of a woman who was of about the same age as, or perhaps a little older than, the man to whom the preceding skeleton (‘ Langton, ii. 1’) belonged, i.e. about thirty or thirty- five years of age, and who was 4 8” in stature. The femora are much slighter and much more curved, as well as much shorter, than those of ‘ Langton Wold, ii. 1 ;’ they resemble them however in the curious point of having the inner of the two upper lips Rr 610 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. of the dinea aspera prolonged spirally round into the anterior intertrochanteric line. The pelvis and sacrum are completed ; the wisdom teeth however are comparatively little worn. The verticality of the forehead and the absence of large supra- ciliary ridges are feminine characters, as are also the comparative feebleness of the lower jaw and the smaller size of the mastoids, seen in the profile view. The parieto-occipital slope however is a little more oblique than is usual in women’s skulls. The pterygoids are perfectly vertical. In almost all its measurements this skull is smaller than the male skull with which it is compared ; the more important, however, of the proportions which subsist between these dimensions are the same for both. The point of maximum width is situated a little higher up than in the preceding skull, and the mesial vertical carina is less clear in the occipital pentagon. But it resembles that skull in the faintly marked parietal tubera | and the absence of any rounding out of the lateral cranial walls below the level of those eminences. Viewed from above this skull presents a somewhat more tapering outline in both directions, both towards the forehead and towards the occiput, than the preceding one, and would have been more phenozygous if the zygomatic arches had not been extensively lost. The sagittal and coronal sutures are more extensively obliterated than in the preceding skull, and the lambdoid, which was unaffected in that skull, is largely obliterated in this. There is a depression in the region of — the left lateral fontanelle, the spot called ‘asterion’ by Professor Broca, and the maximum occipital width is half an inch less than in the other skull with which it has been compared. These points — and the closure of the lambdoid may suggest that the occipital lobes ceased to grow early in life; their length however must have been great. In the norma basalis the absence of any crista transversa occipitis enables us to give a more favourable measure- ment to the fronto-postremal as compared with the fronto-inial _ diameter of the skull than in skulls where the commencement of the linea nuche mediana is masked by a large development of that outgrowth. The palate is deep; the external alveolar border of the upper jaw is ellipsoidal ; the disproportionate smallness of the upper wisdom teeth gives the inner border of the dental series a parabolic - outline. There is a spot of caries on the right wisdom tooth in the lower jaw. The absence of any occipital spine enables us to seé the distinctness of the curves described by the superior squama from those of the parietal above and the conceptacula cerebelli below, DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 611 and produces the ‘facettirte Absetzung des Hinterkopfs’ dwelt upon as characteristic of the Hohberg type of skull. The absence of the process in question is however rather a sexual than an ethnographical difference; but it enables us to see the peculiar conformation of the back-head which is common to both sexes to great advantage. RraZ RUDSTONE. [eexxiv. 4. p. 501. | SKULL OF A MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. ~ \ SS TS Ws aa) of if WINNS pe oe / i B\ al } ; : “ YEN) .: A G Meh) Oy h fi Ls yy yj: ‘y i Muy ji yn iil ‘Al le J > COs DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 613 RUDSTONE. [cexxiv. 4. p. 501.] SKULL OF A MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . : é 76” | Parietalarc .. ; ‘ 5 Fronto-inial length . : 74” Occipital are. . , 4°2” * Extreme breadth . : ; 5:4” | Least frontal width. , : 3:9” Upright height . .*. 6” Greatest frontal width . Peay’ Circumference. ‘ ‘ 20” Greatest occipital width . ‘ Ary” ' Frontal are . ‘ ‘ d 52” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face : : ; : , : 3” Depth of lower jaw at symphysis : P rare? mittee Ley Width of ramus. é / ‘ : ; 1:5” Height of orbit , ; : : : 5 ‘ : 1°45” Width of orbit , ° é ; ; F ; ; 1:6” Length of nose : 2 ‘ : ; ; : ‘ 2” Width of nose . . ‘ . ‘ ° : ° ‘ 0:9” III. Indices. Cephalic mdex ; ; ; F ‘ ; : : 72 Antero-posterior index. ‘ i ; : , : 40°9 Facial angle at nasal spine ; : . ‘ : ‘ 68 Facial angle at alveolar border ; : ‘ f ‘ 61 The lower jaw which has been drawn with this skull was not found in connexion with it, but was lying, in the long barrow whence it came, at no very great distance from it. It may very well have be- longed to it, inasmuch as, though its colouration is somewhat dif- ferent, it shows the same male characters; has a somewhat similar amount of wear upon the grinding surface of its teeth, which other- wise correspond in the way of co-adaptation to those of the upper jaw of the skull; and has been similarly channelled externally by rootlets. It has not been possible to say anything as to the long bones of the skeleton to which this skull belonged, but the skull taken by itself enables us to say positively that we have here to deal with the remains of a man ‘ past the middle period of life’ who was probably of considerable muscular strength. The skull is eminently long and lofty, and specially interesting as showing how ‘occipital dolicho-cephaly,’ as here measured by drawing a line at right angles to the line of extreme length so as to lie as a tangent to the anterior 614 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. border of the auditory foramen, is really dependent more upon the length of the parietal than upon that of the occipital bone. This is plain enough upon simple inspection of the skull in its norma lateralis ; and it is shown, secondly, by the very small difference, only amounting to 2,ths of an inch, which subsists between the © extreme length, 7°6”, and the fronto-inial length, 7:4’, taken to the commencement of the inea nuche mediana; the measurements of the frontal, 5:2”, parietal, 5-4”, and occipital, 5-2” ares, are not so clearly indicative. Professor Jeffries Wyman! by a measurement of eleven normal crania obtained an average of 125 mm. (=4:92”) for the frontal are, 124mm. (=4°88”) for the parietal, and 117 mm. (=4°60”) for the occipital; whilst three adult synostotic crania gave for the frontal, parietal, and occipital ares respectively 129°2 mm. (=5”), 142 mm. (= 5:59”), and 119mm. (= 468”). Welcker? similarly obtained, as against an average from normal crania for the sagittal suture or parietal are of 126 mm (=496”), an average from eleven skulls with premature obliteration of the sagittal suture (Dolicho-cephah ex synostost sagittali) of 1387 mm. (=5°39"). His average from three ‘scapho-cephali’ for the sagittal suture is 139 mm. (=5°47”). The skull now before us resembles those measured by Wyman and Welcker in the great length of its parietal arc; but its occipital shows an equal excess over the normal. As its sagittal suture is closed along the inner table of the skull, though it is complexly denticulated externally, a condition of things observable in two other very closely similar skulls from the same locality, ‘ Rudstone, cexxiv. 1’ and ‘Rudstone, Ixi. 8,’ it is not possible to say whether here an elongation of the cerebral lobes produced the elongation of the brain case, or a premature sagittal synostosis produced an elongation of the brain in the way of compensatory outgrowth. An examination however of other similarly elongated calvarie from long and other barrows, as well as from interments of modern dolicho-cephalic savage races, puts it beyond a doubt that the elongation of the brain is the first term in the series, and that the synostosis observable in such skulls as these is not a cause but a consequence merely, the sutures closing because the brain does not grow in the direction at right angles to their long axis ’*. 1 See Observations on Crania, p. 32, Boston, 1868. 2 Wachsthum und Bau des menschlichen Schiidels, p. 15, 1862. ° A calvaria from the long barrow at Upper Swell, mentioned at p. 528 of this book, _as found under the skull ‘No. 2, Upper Swell,’ has a parietal are of 5:9”, being one DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 615 The elongated oval contour of the vertical norma and the penta- gonal of the occipital are very characteristic. In the frontal norma the great relative development of the alveolar, as opposed to the mental portion of the front of the lower jaw, is very striking. In this, as also in the backward position of its foramen mentale in a plane corresponding to that of the last premolar, this lower jaw resembles many other lower jaws of skulls of this period. It is however a larger and powerful bone, as, it must be said’, many lower jaws from very early burials have been found to be. The canines are greatly developed in both jaws, and give a squareness to the lower part of the face. There has been much decay of the teeth, and alveolar abscesses with the left upper premolars and wisdom tooth. inch longer than the normal length of this arc, with a frontal of 5:1” and an occipital of 4:9", with both frontal and sagittal sutures open both internally and externally and for their entire lengths. The sex of the owner of this calvaria cannot be spoken to positively, the age however must have been somewhere between sixteen and twenty, and probably nearer the latter than the former of those years, the sphenoidal sinuses being largely developed, and the spheno-basilar synchondrosis entirely closed. In this latter particular this skull is a more striking example in illustration of the view given above than the skull from Norton Bavant, adduced in favour of that view by Dr. Thurnam *, in which the spheno-basilar suture was still open. Four other dolicho-cephalie skulls were obtained from the same barrow of Upper Swell, in which the sagittal suture was patent, though they had belonged to as old or older individuals, but in them the parietal arc though long is not so long as in the one spoken of above. The same remark applies to some adult Eskimo skulls in the Oxford University Museum ; and two skulls in the Oxford University Museum (representative of two other races in which the boat-shape, denoted by the title ‘ Scapho-cephalic ’ or * Cymbo-cephalic,’ is very eminently and very frequently represented, the Australian, namely, and the Coles of India), the elder of the owners of which cannot have attained more than sixteen years of age, whilst the younger was only ten years old, have each attained that shape with every suture patent throughout. In like manner the Gentoo skull, No. 5558 in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, with every suture open, is all but identical in its outlines with the Gentoo skull 5556, which is ‘synostotic.? Per contra, in brachy-cephalic skulls of the Bronze as of other periods the coronal suture is far too frequently open throughout to allow us to suppose that its synostosis has, when present, been the cause of the skull’s shortness. ? Though the lower jaw figured with an ancient British skull from a barrow at West Kennet, North Wilts, pl. 50, ‘Crania Britannica,’ and stated by Dr. Thurnam, in loco, ‘to deviate considerably from the normal type,’ does, as I convinced myself by an examination of it in the Cambridge University Museum, most undoubtedly belong to some quite modern skull, still similarly powerful jaws have not rarely been found with very ancient skulls. Such were the lower jaws found by Schmerling in the Engis Cave, see Virchow, Archiv fiir Anthrop., vol. vi. p. 90; and in the cairn of Get, Caithness, as recorded by C. Carter Blake, Esq., Mem. Anth. Soc., vol. iii. p. 243. 1 See Mem. Soc. Anth. London, vol. iii, or ‘Further Researches,’ separate copy, p- 31. Also ibid., vol. i, separate copy, p. 69; and Nat. Hist., p. 242, 1865; and Virchow, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. v. p. 535, 1872. HELPERTHORPE. [xli. 3. p. 191.] SKULL OF A STRONG MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. AM oa 4 ‘Ns vg * ’ Rt A Qe iy ‘i M\, ASR DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 617 HELPERTHORPE. [xli. 3. p. 191.] SKULL OF A STRONG MAN PAST MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. I. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . ; v foro Frontal are .. ° . ; 4°9” Fronto-inial length to lines Parietal are. : ; A 55” nuche mediana : 7-6” Occipital arc. : , ; 4°6” Extreme breadth ‘ j 5:4” Minimum frontal width . : 3°9” Vertical height . me i Maximum frontal width . ad Ss Me Circumference . ‘ . 21:5” | Maximum occipital width F 4°8” II. Measurements of Face. Length of face: ‘naso-alveolar’ line : ; 5 ‘ 2-8” Height of orbit . ; ; : ‘ “ : : 1:5” Width of orbit 2 ; : ‘ ‘ : : ; a Length of nose : . ‘ : % ‘ : ; 19” Width of nose q : : ’ i é 1” Lower j jaw, depth at avmapliynid ) 19” Lower jaw, width of ramus on level of grinding snvface of molar teeth . ; : : ‘ : : 1°45” III. Indices. Length-breadth index: ‘ sete index’ > . m2 tena le Antero-posterior index . : : ? , 51 Facial angle to nasal spine. - ; ac He » 75 Facial angle to alveolar edge . : ‘ : ‘ > 70 The skull ‘Helperthorpe, xli. 3,’. is one which, except - for a certain asymmetry in its parieto-occipital region and a certain wall-sidedness in its lateral temporal regions, might have passed, if we were not acquainted with its archeological surroundings, for a modern skull. ‘The curve described by its mesial antero-posterior contour from the moderately developed supraciliary ridges to the middle of the superior squama occipitis is much more equable than is usual even in dolicho-cephalic skulls; and the comparatively small development of the frontal sinuses and supraciliary ridges makes us hesitate in ascribing any of the retreating of the frontal region to the commencement of senile gravitation-changes. The difference between the fronto-postremal length and the fronto-inial length, measured in this case to the commencement of the /nea nuche mediana, which is distinguishable from the external occipital 618 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 1/7 protuberance, is only },”; and the dolicho-cephaly of the skull depends upon the length of the parietal bones; the length of the parietal are, 5:5”, being more than half an inch over the average, whilst that of the occipital, 4:6’, is identical with it. The mastoids are large, the jaws orthognathous, the lower jaw well formed, lying evenly on a horizontal plane, with a bifid mentum, a long coronoid, and a square angle. The nasals are saddle-shaped, the nose in life may have been, judging from the rise of these bones distally, a ‘Roman’ one; but at any rate it must have differed from the all but Grecian. profile given to the Celtic face in the Ws grave! of Rimini, a work of art of probably the fifth century B. oc. In the xorma verticalis this skull presents a bluntly oval contour, remarkable for very considerable asymmetry? on the right half of the parieto-occipital region, due probably to the mode of carriage in infancy. This distortion is less common in the dolicho-cephalie than in the brachy-cephalic variety of erania, both in ancient and in modern times. The posterior part of the sagittal and the upper E part of the lambdoid sutures are extensively obliterated, both ex- — ternally and internally. As in many skulls with long parietals, the apex of the lambdoid suture forms a widely open angle. The parietal tubera are well marked, and one of them is the seat of — an exostosis ; the walls of the skull below widen only very slightly as they pass down to the mastoids; the point however of maximum width lies below that of the parietal tubera and on.a level with the posterior and superior angle of the squamous. A dilatation in the line of an accidental fissure running about midway between : the upper and lower borders of the left parietal bone marks the exact position of the parietal tuberosity of that side; which, as is the rule in skulls of this type, is seen to be both further forward and lower down than it, with the part of the brain which it covers (for which see Huschke, /. c. p. 142), would be in brachy- cephalic forms. The upper /inee semicirculares for the origin of the temporal muscles are plainly seen above the parietal tubera. * See Frontispiece to Ethnogénie Gauloise, par Roget Baron de Belloguet, 1861. Sambon, Recherches sur les Monnaies antiques de l’Italie, 1870, p.71. The backward position of the ear in this figure is nearly as clear an indication of its having been intended for a representation of a brachy-cephalic head as the tore round the neck is of its having been intended for a Gaul of early Roman history. ? For a discussion upon the mode of production of such asymmetry, see note, PP. 572, 573, supra ibique citata, et ee ie ee ae a ‘ \ a L——.- ai oa) WEAVERTHORPE. [xliv. 3. p. 198.] CALVARIUM AND LOWER JAW OF A MAN PROBABLY IN MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. 1 Ae a LaMy = ( Try he: bay in Sper y- La ———SS=— SI = = SS Wak? ‘ Yo Lewy) I, Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length . ; . 78” Frontal are. : ; . 54” Fronto-inial length , ; 75” Parietal arc. é : N 5:4” Extreme breadth é ‘ §°8” Occipital arc. ; i ; 47” Vertical height . ; , 56” Minimum frontal width . F 3 6” Circumference, approxima- Maximum frontal width . ; 44’ tively . : ’ : 21:2” | Maximum occipital width : 4:3” II. Measurements of Face. Lower jaw, depth at symphysis ‘ ae ; 1:2” Lower jaw, width of ramus on level of grinding surface | of molar teeth . . : ; - : ; i 1:45” : III. Indices. Length-breadth index : ‘ cephalic index ’ P ‘ ‘ 69 Antero-posterior index . ‘ : ‘ ‘ . . 53 The calvaria and lower jaw, ‘ Weaverthorpe, xliv. 3,’ may firstly be taken to illustrate the fact that a type existed in the Bronze Period which is recognisable amongst modern Celtic populations ; and, secondly, may throw some light upon the various questions which have been raised as to the famous skull from the cave at Engis, as it resembles that skull in many important particulars. 620 DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. In the profile view we have the characteristically equable dolicho-cephalie curve, beginning after a vertical course for a short distance above the upper edge of the supraciliary ridges, and sweeping round to the centre of the superior occipital squama, which then bends downwards and forwards to'a transversely running but not largely developed protuberantia externa, which is dis- tinguishable from, though continuous with the commencement of the linea nuche mediana in a tuberculum linearum. The frontal length taken to this last point is shorter than the extreme length — taken to the centre of the occipital squama by as much as ,%,ths of — an inch. The mastoids are largely developed, and what is of some importance to state, as the sex of the Engis calvaria has been — supposed to be female, these processes, which in the Engis specimen — are only imperfectly represented, taken together with the lower jaw, which in the-case of the Engis calvaria has not been identified, — leave no doubt as to the sex of their owner having been male. Had this calvarium been as imperfect as is the Engis, there would have been more justification than there is in the case of that specimen for suggesting that it may have belonged to a woman. — There is no doubt that the lower jaw belonging to this skull justifies — us in speaking of its owner as having been a strong male subject, — its angle, mentum, and coronoid being all alike powerfully developed, and its ramus showing on its lower edge the undulation anterior to its angle and the ridges on the internal surface of that area which are distinctive of muscular men. The one wisdom tooth, remaining on — the left side, shows some wear from use upon its two anterior cusps, the absence however of wear upon the posterior may perhaps have — ~ been due to the absence of any wisdom tooth on the left side above, — a point which cannot now be determined. The other teeth are much worn, the mastoids are very large, and, though the sutures — are often very extensively obliterated in skulls of this type before middle life, their very extensive obliteration here, both internally — and externally, coupled with the two other points just specified, — make it safe to speak of this skull as one of a man of at least the middle period of life. In the norma verticalis this skull is seen to taper somewhat rapidly forwards from the point of maximum width which lies in the plane of the mastoids, but on the level of the upper edge of the squamous; it tapers even more rapidly backwards, as the measurement of the extreme occipital width shows when compared with the measurement of extreme width ; a depression existing on either side at the ‘ asterion’ or site of the — ‘ie = a 4 lig v es , f % = | ‘ y ri rT a J DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 621 posterior lateral fontanelle. The contour consequently presented by this skull when viewed from above is that described! by Professor Daniel Wilson as characteristic of the ‘ Insular Celt,’ and called by him ‘ pear-shaped’ or ‘ coffin-shaped.’ Skulls, it may be said with truth, very closely similar to this skull and to the Engis skull have, like it, been found in caves ; three strikingly like them; one from the mountain limestone eave at Llanebie in Caermarthenshire, mentioned by Dr. Buckland, Reliquie Diluviane, p. 166’, and filled with stalagmite; a second from a cave at Cheddar; and a third, presented by James Parker, » Esq., from a small cave at Uphill, near Weston-super-Mare ; all, of considerable, though, as is often the case with other objects of the same kind from the same sort of locality and deposit, of uncertain antiquity, may be seen in the Oxford University Museum. But very similar skulls are to be found in perfectly modern interments. The Engis skull has been compared by its discoverer Professor Schmerling® and by Professor Virchow* to Aithiopian skulls ; and by other authorities to Eskimo and Australian skulls. Principal Dawson®, F.R.S., of McGill College, Canada, remarked to me of a skull of the dolicho-cephalic variety of the Red Indian race and of the Iroquet tribe from Hochelaga near Montreal, that it resembled the Engis cranium, and as this cranium has been presented to the Oxford University Museum it is available there for comparison with a cast of that famous calvaria. Resemblances so strong as are some of these should, as they are also so widely scattered over the globe, make us careful as to speaking as to the ethnographical affinities of any calvarie, or even, inasmuch as the absence or presence of prognathism varies a good deal within the limits of a single race, of skulls, until we have a very considerable number of representatives of both objects of comparison to place alongside of each other; and it may be added until we have also succeeded in bringing other lines of evidence from archeology, philology, and, when available, history, to bear upon the question. 1 Canadian Journal, New Series, vol. liv. p, 393, Nov. 1864; and Dr. Beddoe, Mem. Soc. Anth. London, vol. ii. p. 349. 2 An account of this cave, with a figure, may be found in Mr. L. W. Dillwyn’s History of Swansea, p. 52, and may be advantageously compared with M. Dupont’s similar discovery near Grendon, recorded at p. 229 of his work, cit. p. 5387 supra. 5 Recherches sur les ossements fossiles découverts dans les Cavernes de la Province de Liege, p. 59 seqq., 1833. Cit. Professor Huxley, Man’s Place in Nature, p. 121, 1863. * Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. vi. p. 92, 1878. 5 See also Canadian Naturalist, vol. v. No. 6, Dec. 1860. EBBERSTON. [No. 111. ] CALVARIA OF PROBABLY A WOMAN IN OR PAST THE MIDDLE PERIOD OF LIFE. Measurements of Calvaria. Extreme length ‘ ‘ ; ‘ os : ; ; 8:3” Fronto-inial length . j 2 outa ; : ; ; Extreme breadth . : ; : , : : 3 ; 4:6” Vertical height ; 6 Re et Se ee Frontal are. f ; - 3 ; : Sone ; 51” Parietal arc. 55” From upper surface of external occipital ‘protuberance io pos- terior edge of foramen magnum, approximatively Pee ele |< 5 Occipital arc to upper surface of external occipital protuber- ance. : : : ; : ; : ‘ 2°5” The very imperfect calvaria, ‘Ebberston iii,’ has been described by — Dr. Thurnam in the Archeological Journal, vol. xxii. 1865, and _ also in the Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London, vol. i. It has suffered very much from posthumous pressure, and the measurements given of it must be taken as being merely approximative. Still, there is abundant evidence furnished by its form in its present condition for saying that it formed part of an exaggeratedly dolicho-cephalic skull to which the name — ‘eymbocephalic,’ proposed by Professor Daniel Wilson! in 1850, may very appropriately be applied. No limb nor trunk bones — ~ 1 See British Association Report for 1850, p. 142. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES OF SKULLS. 623 have been assigned to this calvaria, and some doubt may exist as to the sex of its owner; it is most probable perhaps that it belonged to a woman. As regards the age of its owner there is also room for doubting whether the full term of 60 years assigned by Dr. Thurnam had really been attained to. All the sutures are ‘ ossified and nearly effaced’ in some dolicho- cephalic skulls from long barrows and of this period, e.g. ‘ Rudstone, cexxiv. 1, a skull from the same long barrow as ‘Rudstone, eexxiv. 4’ described above, whose owners had certainly not attained half that age. Comparatively little however need or ought in this case to be staked upon a determination of these two points of sex and age. The denticulations of the posterior fifth of the sagittal suture can be seen in spite of the closure of the suture to have been long and complex, as they often are in these synostotic skulls; in the penultimate fifth the suture is entirely obliterated, and its course is partly occupied by a nodular exostosis, to the left of which a large foramen emissarium is to be seen; the rest of the suture is barely traceable. The squamosal suture however and its additamentum have escaped anchylosis; and the coronal suture is complexly denticulated on both sides. The frontal bone is slightly carinate over the segment corre- sponding with the junction of its ‘ facies frontalis’ with its vertical aspect. The sites of its tubera are scarcely identifiable, though those of the parietal can still be recognised. The ectorbital process which is preserved is strong, the frontal sinuses are only moderately developed. Among the fragmentary bones from the Ebberston long barrow there came into my hands a portion of a lower jaw which combined, as jaws from these barrows not rarely do, great thickness in the molar region together with! a feebly developed chin. If this jaw, or one equally weighty, belonged to this skull, as it may very possibly have done, we may then explain the fact of the low and retreating forehead by a reference to the principle of balance already (p. 593) referred to; a very low dasis cranii may also have contri- buted to its formation. It may have been to skulls like this that Sir Richard Colt Hoare? referred when speaking of crania from a long barrow at Stoney Littleton in the county of Somerset as being: fronte valde depressa. ' Also a canine with socket bifid for a doubly fanged tooth. ? Archeologia, vol. xix. p. 46, 1821. » ey : . i) x) | . — eS : , a eA wi | | gz oO A 3 re Aare ear we Sis oh, een ie i M : ies | ne a AXN’ 6p00, ws erpadnuev ev tyerépoior Sdpoiow ... “Os 6& kal doréa vOiv bun copds 4udixadvrrot, is not more Greek than it is Turanian or Semitic; it expresses ' "Eoxarih appears to me to be used in contradistinction to év 5é mupy inary of line 165 supra and line 787 of book xxiv, and to furnish a good commentary on the words év Ti Ao edpvxwpin ris O_xns used by Herodotus (iv. 71) in his account of the similar Scythian rites, 694° GENERAL REMARKS merely the feeling common to all humanity that they who were- lovely and pleasant in their lives in their death should not be divided. It still remains for me to put on record the little which I have been able to note in the way of abnormalities, pathological and other, in these prehistoric skeletons and skulls. Of the non-pathological abnormalities observable in this series the persistence of the frontal suture is the only one which needs special notice. It is exceedingly rare for this suture to remain open in the earlier of the two series with which we have been dealing, whilst it is by no means uncommon to find it retaining its infantile patency after the coming of the brachy-cephalic race. Dr. Thurnam, writing in 1865 (Nat. Hist. Review, April, ¥ p. 245), said that of all the long-barrow skulls which he had examined, four only, one from the chambered-barrow at West — Kennet, a second from the Rodmarton barrow (which has been frequently figured, e.g. Cran. Brit., pl. 59; Archzologia, xlii. pl. xiv.; Thesaurus Craniorum, p. 8), aiid two from the Dinnington long barrow (described by me in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iii. 1868, p. 254), had been found possessing this peculiarity. To this very small number I have, from all the — Silurian skulls exhumed since 1865, only been able to add the skull of one adult, this one being the skull of the single skeleton found undisturbed in the long barrow at Upper Swell, as described by me at p. 529 supra; and one skull of a child of about 7 or 8 years of age, being one of the children found in the chamber of - the long barrow at Eyford, described above, p. 518, and Journ, Anth. Institute, Oct. 1875, p. 158. Coupling these facts on one side with the well-known fact of the extreme rarity of the per- sistence of this frontal prolongation of the sagittal suture in the skulls of modern savages!; on another side with the fact that this 1 This suture persists in a skull of an Andaman Islander presented to the Oxford Museum by Professor Wood Mason of the Indian Museum, Calcutta; it has been noted in an Abyssinian skull by Zuckerkandl, l.c. p. 65; it is seen in the figure of a skull given by Professor Busk (Natural History Review, April, 1861, pl. v. p. 174) of a Red Indian from an ancient burial-place in Tennessee, in which skull, Professor Busk informs us, ‘the supra-orbital prominence is most marked of all the crania in our possession; — and fourthly, it is seen in the figure of the skull treated of by Professor Broca in his — paper (in the Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris, Aott, 1871), ‘Surla Défor- — mation Toulousaine du Crane,’ of which we find it recorded that ‘l’os frontal est trés- petit dans toutes ses dimensions.’ But though small frontal bones may occasionally — retain this suture, there is no doubt that it is much more usually found in broad fore- — heads, and that the rationale of its formation lies in the early widening of the frontal lobes of the brain, of the ségments, that is, of that organ which are most indubitably — UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 695 suture persists with comparative frequency in the skulls of brachy- cephali as observed by His and Riitimeyer in the skulls of their ‘ Disentis Typus’ (Cran, Helvetica, p. 27), and by Dr. Thurnam and myself in the skulls of the bronze and later periods; and on a third with the fact that frontal bones with a persistent suture are all but invariably broader than allied skulls not bifid, we may feel ourselves justified in considering the extreme rarity of this suture in Silurian skulls as another indication of their inferiority to those of the later or Cimbric race. And we are further justified in saying that Mr. Darwin has ‘been misinformed when he says of this suture (Descent of Man, Ist ed. p. 124, 2nd ed. p. 39) that it persists ‘more frequently in ancient than in recent crania, especially, as Canestrini has observed, in those exhumed from the Drift and belonging to the brachy-cephalic type.’ The true rationale of the persistence of the frontal suture would appear to be that it is a teleological accommodation to the needs of the enlarging brain of an advancing civilisation, with which enlargement is correlated _a diminution of the size of the jaws, and of the necessity for the rotation of the brain and the frontal bone backwards which has been so often noted here (see p. 648 supra) as occurring in macro- enathous men, and which is carried out still further in the ‘ villainously low foreheads’ of the apes. We may now pass to the consideration of the few pathological deformations which have been noted in these prehistoric skulls and. skeletons ; and we may begin by recording I. Abnormal Ossifications, Dr. Thurnam in his ‘ Further Researches and Observations on the two principal Forms of Ancient British Skulls,’ p. 33, suggested that some ethnical importance might attach to the fact that in shown (see p. 676 swpra) to increase in complexity and extent with increase of intel- ligence. This principle was laid down in the year 1740, by Hanauld in the Mémoires de l’ Academie royale de Paris, p. 371; it has been reaffirmed by Dr. Theodor Simon, to whom I owe the foregoing reference, in an excellent though short paper in Virchow’s Archiv, tom. 58, 1873; by Virchow himself, J. ¢., tom. 13, 1858; Abhand- lungen Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1876, Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschen Rassen am Schiidel, p. 112, ibique citata; and by Hyrtl, Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen, 8th ed. 1863, p. 245. Welcker’s views (given in his Wachsthum und Bau des Menschlichen Schiidels, p 99) as to the hereditary transmission of this peculiarity are confirmed by the presence of it in four out of the sixteen skulls recovered by me from the Dinnington tumulus. In two of these not mentioned by Dr. Thurnam the traces of the suture are only rudimentary ; and in none of the four does it reach the inner table, which it does however in the Rodmarton and in the Upper Swell crania, both also in this Museum. 696 - GENERAL REMARKS remains from the long barrows an ‘ anchylosed condition of two or more of the cervical or upper dorsal vertebre’ had beet not rarely observed by him, whilst it was within his experience very un- common and almost unknown in the round barrows. This condi- tion of things he thought was indicative of some peculiarity, and that peculiarity the troglodytic mode of life of the people in whose remains it had been observed, and whose heads and necks he supposed would have been very much exposed to violent concussions against the sides and roofs of their narrow passages and doorways. Without discussing whether ‘ anchylosis of the vertebree may have resulted from such violence,’ I would say that I have observed the morbid condition of which Dr. Thurnam writes in many vertebral columns of much later times than those of the cave-dwellers. The Pathological Department of the Oxford University Museum contains, under the Catalogue-numbers 159-165, seven specimens with every appearance of being of modern date; and the magnifi- cent Catalogue of the Leyden Anatomical Museum? has ten Plates (Taf. xxxvui—Taf. xlvii) devoted to this particular form of disease. Of the two specimens of this anchylosis which I have met with amongst prehistoric skeletons, one came from the long barrow at Upper Swell, described by me at p. 533 supra, and the other belonged to the skeleton ‘ Paulinus, iv. 2, exiii. 5,’ which came from a round barrow, and indeed may be taken as being a strikingly good representative of the skeletons of the bronze-period. The 1 Museum Anatomicum Academiz Lugduno-Batave. Descriptum ab Edvardo Sandifort. 1793-1835. There can be no doubt that this morbid condition is the same as the one spoken of by Rokitansky (Manual of Pathological Anatomy, vol. iii. pp. 133, 134, and 247), and described by him as presenting an appearance as if the ‘ bony matter had been powred in a stream over larger surfaces of a bone and had then coagulated.’ Rokitansky adds, ‘ We are quite ignorant of any general condition of the system to which this can be attributed” In default of any suggestion of his, it may be well to add the following short account of the malady from a later writer, Genczig, who in an Inaugural Dissertation (Ueber Exostosen und Osteophyten) read in 1846 speaks of the malady as follows, p. 14: ‘ Exostosen der Wirbelknochen. Am kaufigsten findet sich ein Osteophyt welches in der Form einer im Flusse erstarrten Masse die vordere Flache der Wirbelkérper in geringerer oder grésserer Ausdehnung mit einander verbindet. Bisweilen findet sich dies Osteophyt ein héheren Alter ohne anderweitige Krankheiten der Wirbelsiule, bisweilen aber auch bei Caries oder Tuberculose der Wirbelkorper.’ I have myself observed this condition in the vertebral column of a Newfoundland dog and of a horse, which are preserved in the University Museum ; it is said to be normally present in the dipodide and dasypodide, animals, it is right to add, of burrowing habits; but it is also present in many cetacea; and I find that its occurrence as an abnormality is so well known, as to have furnished commentators with a not very satisfactory explanation of Aristotle’s twice repeated statement as to the cervical region of the lion consisting of one single bone (see A. F. A. Wiegmann, Observationes Zoologice Critic in Aristotelis Historiam Anima- lium, Berolini 1826; Arist. Hist. An. i. 1, ad fin.; De Part. An. iv. 10). UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 697 skull was noted by me as being ‘typically brachy-cephalic both by contour and by measurement (cephalic index=-82), and as having belonged to a strong man, 5 ft. 9in. in height, and past the middle period of life.’ Three of the dorsal vertebre are glued together by bony deposit on the anterior, and to some extent on the lateral aspects of their centra. . In this skeleton, as in two others, also of tall men, from the same neighbourhood and possibly the same clan, viz. ‘ Paulinus, vili. 2, xv. 2,’ and ‘ Goodmanham, xiv, ci,’ it is noteworthy that the last lumbar vertebra has anchylosed with the first sacral, and must, as it enters by its lateral outgrowths con- tinuously into the mass of bone supporting the articular surface which abutted upon the ilium, have so anchylosed at an early period in development. The ensiform cartilage of this skeleton is also ossified, and other bones besides those already specified are similarly hyperostotic. Some of the skeletal bones on the other hand, and notably the scapule, show signs of senile atrophy and thinning, a point of importance to note, as regards both the cause and the time of the production of the vertebral and other hyperostoses. A skeleton of a Little Andaman Islander described by Dr. Barnard Davis, Supplement to Thesaurus Craniorum, 1875, p. 95, appears to have exemplified almost every possible form of exostosis and synostosis, except the important form of bony anchylosis which consists in the more or less complete coalescence of the first cervical vertebra with the occipital bone. On this Professor Virchow has written at some length in his recently issued volume, Beitrage, pp. 340-345. Professor Virchow puts on record five cases of this variety, three of which have come under his own observation, whilst the other two have been described by Bogstra in conjunction with Boogaard and Friedlowsky. A somewhat larger number are described in the already cited Catalogue of the Leyden Anatomical Museum (vol. i. pp. 143, 144; vol. u. Taf. xiv, Taf. xv; vol. iv. pp. 31, 46, Taf. clviii. fig. 1, 2, 3), with the remark that ea descriptis speciminibus diversimode cranium cum atlante conerescere constat. 'There are two specimens of this anchylosis in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of London; one being an artificially distorted skull from Vancouver’s Island, No. 5412 A, and the other, the existence of which was notified to me by Professor Flower, being the partly-burnt skull, No. 5903, which was supposed, but probably erroneously, to have belonged to a native of Van Diemen’s Land. We have five specimens of this very interesting pathological deformation in the Oxford University 698 GENERAL REMARKS Museum, three in the Pathological Museum, and two in the Ethnological Series. Of the three in the Pathological Museum, one, No. 157, belonged to a man who died at the age of 78, and the second, third, and fourth cervical vertebra are anchylosed to each other just as the atlas is anchylosed to the occipital. In this case, as in Friedlowsky’s, the posterior arch of the atlas is left incomplete, an interval of two millimétres separating it into two halves. The second belonged to a boy who, after suffering from various scrofulous affections, died with cough, purulent expectora- tion, hectic, and vomice in the right lung, as well as extensive paralysis from, no doubt, encroachment effected by the odontoid upon the medulla oblongata. Of these two cases the first resembles one of the two recorded by Virchow from the Berlin Museum, in that death took place at an advanced age and without any recorded symptoms of disease connected with the lesion in question ; the second resembles the second of those cases, in that long disease was the cause of death. The third specimen from the Oxford Pathological Department, No. 261, is the skull of a lunatie, purchased with the Collection of Schréder van der Kolk, the calvarial bones of which present, according to the Catalogue, ‘a rugous wormeaten appearance, a consequence either of syphilis or tinea.’ Our fourth specimen was obtained from a Roman cemetery at York, in which large numbers of skeletons were found buried in putei with very little regard to any consideration, except that of - making the largest possible amount of room for the largest possible amount of bodies to be interred. No clue to its nationality, except in the political sense of subjectdom, therefore is available. The specimen however is of interest with reference to the question of the foetal or congenital origin of the anchylosis,as not only the spheno- basilar synchondrosis would appear never to have been closed, but also the basilar portion of the occipital bone would appear to have been entirely absorbed, and the arch of the atlas to have coalesced all but perfectly with the occipital, two circular orifices only remaining for the outlets of the first spinal nerves. It is of interest further, as combining with this anchylosis, firstly the ‘plastic deformation’ of Dr. Barnard Davis, the ‘basilar impression’ of Virchow (é. ¢.); and secondly, a flattening and widening out of the cranial vault, the height from the edge of the anterior arch of the atlas next to the base of the brain up to the vertex being only’ 4” as against a maxim width of 6:2”, as to give the skull what: Dr. Barnard Davis calls a ‘discoid,’ and Virchow (/. ¢.) a ‘ molen-. UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA, 699 formig’ appearance. Our fifth skull belonged to a man (Cowlam, lvii. 8, p. 215) of from twenty-five to thirty years of age, whose shortness of stature (5’ 1”) and ill-filledness of skull (with cephalic index of 76) would point to his having belonged to the stone age, a supposition which his archeological surroundings do not, I appre- hend, contradict (see pp. 215-6 supra). In this skull a considerable part of the occipital bone has been lost, but on the left side its condyle has been left with the articular process of the atlas anchy- losed to it without any trace of recent discontinuity. Professor Virchow appears to consider these cases explicable by the action of an arthritis chronica deformans ; Friedlowsky (Wiener Med. Jahrbiicher, 1868, Bd. xv. p. 241; cit. Virchow, /. ¢., p. 343) is inclined to believe them to be due to intra-uterine disease ; in some cases I should suggest that they were the result of strumous disorganisation occurring in early life but recovered from, as we have seen recorded in two of the cases here referred to, so completely as to allow of a goodly old age being attained to. It is perhaps difficult to assign any other ethnological bearing to them than that which they have had conferred upon them by being discussed in the important ethnological memoir referred to. The skeleton ‘ Goodmanham, xiv, ci,’ already mentioned as having had the last lumbar vertebra anchylosed to the first sacral, presented another form of exostosis, which, as it did not affect the joints, cannot be ascribed to an arthritis (see Adams, cit. Paget, Lancet, Nov. 18, 1875). An osseous upgrowth on the tibia, 2” long by -6” in height and ‘35” in width, roughened and perforated here and there, occupies the part of the popliteal line which is common to the popliteus and the inner head of the soleus ; the bone is further beset by rough and by smooth exostosis on its border below this level, and is finally joined, by a stalactitic growth 1:25” long and -7” thick, to the fibula. That particular form of exostosis which produces in its most usual form what is called the puerperal osteophyte is by no means unrepresented in prehistoric series. As in modern times also, it is not confined to the female sex exclusively; a typically male skull of the brachy-cephalic type from a grave in a barrow at Gardham exemplifying it. Finally, we have in the long barrow series from Market Weighton, Rodmarton, and Swell, that form of hyperostosis which developes masses of bones along the supraciliary ridges, as repeatedly observed in Australian and Tasmanian skulls (see Catalogue Ost. Series, Royal 700 GENERAL REMARKS College of Surgeons, vol. ii. 1853, Nos. 5317, 5318, 5324, 5345), as also in foreign skulls of prehistoric times, e.g. the Danish skulls from the Island of Seeland, as noted by Virchow (Arch. fiir Anthr. iv. p- 66; see also Spengel, 77d. viii. p. 59, 1875, and Journ, Anth. Inst. Oct. 1875, p. 170). Il. Rickets. I am inclined to believe that we have an example of the working of what has been called an ‘ English disease,’ viz. Rickets, in one skull of the bronze period, ‘ Rudstone, Ixii. 4,’ p. 248. The cal- varia of this cranium is so large relatively to its small facial skeleton and lower jaw, and has so distinctly the subquadrate out- lines which we have learnt! to recognise as indicative of that false cerebral hypertrophy the essence of which consists in an increase, not of the nerve cells, but the interstitial neuroglia, that we are probably justified in considering it to have taken this shape and size in accommodation to a rickety brain. The skull appears, from its small mastoids and small teeth and jaws, to have belonged to a woman, and somewhat difficult though the size and weight of the entire skull and the considerable development of the supraciliary ridges may make it to believe this, the existence of a considerable quantity of stalagmite-like exostosis on the interior of the frontal bone lends some additional probability to this view as to its sex, as does also the comparative verticality of the forehead and of the posterior part of the parietals. As rickets may appear, as Dr. Jenner (/. c. p. 466) has shown, in any child whose mother may have been in a depressed condition during the period of gestation, no matter whether the father may have been in ‘robust health and the hygienic conditions most favourable,’ there is no need for wondering at its appearance in a semi-civilised community, where early childbearing and hard labour would usually be the lot of the females. In the present case the malady had been outlived, and the subject of it, to judge from the great wear of the teeth and the obliteration of the skull sutures, had reached old age. The teeth are small in size, and only three molars appear to have been implanted in the jaws, two on the left, one on the right side. 1 West, Diseases of Children, Lectures X and XLI, pp. 134 and 729, 5th edition, 1865; Jenner, Lectures on Rickets, Med. Times and Gazette, 1860; Virchow, Untersuchungen ueber die Entwickelung des Schidelgrundes, Berlin 1857, pp. 99- 102, ibique citata, UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 701 The measurements of this skull are as follows :— Extreme length . - ; 7A | 4. 3 7 Interzygomatic width . a Extreme breadth . ‘ ‘ 57” S e ) Interangular width of lower jaw 3°2” Verticalheight . . . 58” | && | Depthofsymphysis . . 0:9” Circumference. . 214” | && \ Width of ramus . a oka Length of face from fronto- Cephalic index : 76 nasal suture to edge of Weight of skull with “aes iawe but _ alveolar process : ° 2-5” with loss of basicranial bones = 1 lb. 7} OZ. A second skull, to which the foregoing description as to age, sex, contour and other characters, with a slight altera- tion as to the supraciliary ridges being smaller, would apply almost word for word, was obtained by Canon Greenwell from a eave at Ryhope in the county of Durham. With this skull and lower jaw there came to the University Museum from this cave a second lower jaw, which had belonged to a strong. man, and resembles in many particulars the lower jaws of the earlier British prehistoric race ; and the lower jaw of the skull altered by cerebral hypertrophy, has its angles inverted in a manner frequently noticeable in lower jaws of early races. These points have some importance, as some doubt exists as to the date of this ‘ cave-find.’ The measurements of this Ryhope skull are as follows :— Extreme length : - « %4" | Interzygomatic breadth . . 4°97” Extreme breadth .. - 56” | Interangular width of lowerjaw 31” Vertical height : - 5:3” | Width of ramus ‘ , ; re Absolute height es nin - 50” | Depth of symphysis i 0:9” Circumference . ; ‘ - 208” | Weight of skull 1 lb. 5 oz. 70 eel Length of face ‘ ‘ : 2°3” III. Diseases and irregularity of teeth in Prehistoric Series. Mr. Mummery in a valuable paper published firstly in the Trans- actions of the Odontological Society of Great Britain, vol. 11. p. 1, Nov. 1869, and subsequently (1870) in a separate form with addi- tional notes, has given at considerable length, and also tabulated, the results of his observation upon dental disease as existing in pre- historic races, having examined for this purpose a large proportion of the series in the Oxford Museum and also several other collections. In the same paper he has also recorded the results of his investiga- tion of dental disease in various existing savage tribes, such as the Australians, the Eskimos, the Negroes, and the Red Indians. Mr. Mummery has pointed out that amongst as many as 68 Wiltshire skulls of the long-barrow period in Dr. Thurnam’s collection he could find only two cases of decay, whilst amongst 32 skulls in the 702 GENERAL REMARKS same collection from the round-barrow period there were 7 cases. In 60 Yorkshire dolicho-cephali, however, Mr. Mummery says no less than 24 exhibited more or less disease ; and in 44 other skulls ranged with the long-barrow series, some from Mr. Bateman’s Derbyshire series and some from other sources, much wearing down of the teeth and 9 cases of caries were noted; but alveolar abscesses were comparatively rare. In the Park Cwm tumulus in the peninsula of Gower, South Wales, described by Sir John Lubbock (Journal Ethn. Soc. London, vol. ii. 1870, pp. 416-419), and of the same ‘ horned’ character and possibly of the same race and time as the Gloucester tumuli next to be spoken of, amongst skeletal remains representing 24 individuals, 21 of whom were adults, Dr. D. M. Douglas found ‘the teeth wonderfully preserved, very good. and regular,’ and ‘only two that exhibited signs of decay during life.” In my examination of the entire series of bones, fragmentary as well as perfect, from several chambers in long barrows in Gloucestershire, I find very much the same state of things which Mr. Mummery has described from the Wiltshire burials of the same period. Ten lower jaws, nine of which were from persons - beyond the age of puberty, were recovered from a chamber in the long barrow described by Canon Greenwell, pp. 514-520 supra, and by me in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Oct. 1875, p. 160; and of them I write (/. c.), ‘In none of these lower jaws had any teeth been lost before death, in only one is there any caries visible, and in one other (of an old woman, see p. 165) there is a cavity formed by an alveolar abscess in connection with a lower front molar worn down to the fangs and with its pulp cavities almost obliterated by osteodentine.’ Similarly of the six lower jaws, all but one of which must have belonged to strong adult men, recovered from a chamber in the long barrow at Upper Swell described by Canon Greenwell at p. 521 supra, and by me at p. 168 of the Journal Anth. Soe. (Z. c.) I write, ‘In every case but one the full number of teeth was retained up to the time of death, even though the teeth are very much worn in most cases, and in some even down to close upon the fangs. There was only one case of caries.’ I should have added that some traces of an alveolar abscess are to be seen in the jaw which had lost teeth before death, and that this jaw appears to have belonged to a man, whilst the jaw with caries belonged probably to a woman. On the other hand, of the teeth of three females, also already described by me and all undoubtedly from the stone and bone UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 703 period (Journal Anth. Inst., vol. v. p. 152, and vol. vi. p. 34), a very different history has to be given. Of the first of these, from the barrow ‘Nether Swell, ccxxix,’ I write, ‘The lower jaw is feeble. - The mental foramen corresponds to the interval between the second bicuspid and first molar. The teeth are very much worn down, and there are two or three alveolar-abscess cavities in the jaw. One very large one occupies a great part of the molar region of the left upper maxilla.’ One of the male skulls from this barrow shows the cavity of a small alveolar abscess; and in another several teeth had been lost before death. The second of these cases is that of the woman recorded at p. 518 supra, and Journal Anth. Soe., 7. c., p. 158, of whom in the latter place I say, ‘The lower jaw of the old woman was feeblish as compared with some of the male jaws, but not with all, from these barrows. It had lost no teeth, from the half we recovered, during life, though the teeth were very much worn down, and the first molar, notably, down to its fangs; in connection with both of which there were alveolar abscesses.’ Of the femur and other bones belonging to this skeleton I say that they ‘give the idea of their owner having had hard work and poor food, viz. as they are slight, but with rough ridges.’ The third instance is furnished by the history of the young woman found at Cissbury (Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. vi. p. 34), in whom an alveolar abscess existed in relation with a lower pre- molar, which had had its pulp cavity exposed by being broken across midway between its grinding surface and its neck. Here the two anterior molars were very much worn down, though their owner was not more than twenty-five years of age, and the wisdom teeth were scarcely worn at all. Subsequently to these excavations two lower jaws affected with alveolar abscesses, both of aged females, were found in the long barrow No. cexxxii, described by me above, p. 524; another similarly affected, but from a powerful old male subject, was found in the same barrow. A third as yet undescribed skull of an old woman of the stone period, with extensive traces of the same mischief, was presented to me by the late Rev. Canon Lysons, having been obtained by him from a long barrow in Gloucestershire; and three of the Rodmarton long-barrow skulls, also from the collection of that antiquary, one of an old man, one of the young man already referred to (p. 694 supra), and one of an old woman, have suffered similarly. Of eight lower jaws, of all ages and both sexes, discovered by Edward Laws, Esq., in a cave near Tenby (see Journ. Anthrop. Institute, July, 1877), 704 GENERAL REMARKS to the early date of which their possession of the ‘ priscan ’ pecu- liarities specified above (pp. 645-652) speak as decisively as their archeological surroundings, one only, a lower jaw of a man, had been affected by alveolar abscess. From the Westow long-barrow series (see p. 494 supra) no lower jaw thus affected has been re- covered ; from the Rudstone long barrow (see p. 497 supra) only one, (the one described above, p. 613, as) of a man; from the Ebberston long barrow (see p. 484 supra) only one of a woman}, Further investigations may possibly reverse this relation of numerical superiority on the side of the female sex in the matter of alveolar abscesses. I am inclined however to connect it with the harder life and scantier fare which are the lot of women in most savage races, upon which I have here (p. 659 supra) and elsewhere ? insisted as accounting for the greater inferiority in ‘stature and in bulk which existed and exists between men and women in many ancient and in many modern savage races. Feeble general physique is correlated, as Mr. Mummery’s examination of modern savage races (pp. 47, 51-54, 60, 63) in Africa, China, Australia, and elsewhere has shown us, with deterio- ration of the state of the teeth, and this, howsoever, whether by too small a proportion of animal to vegetable food in their dietary, by frequent privation of food altogether, or by general anti- hygienic conditions, this feebleness may have. been produced. To realise the working of the two former of these causes among the prehistoric inhabitants of these islands, and especially the women, there is little need of imagination; I think however that from our present familiarity with the production of anti-hygienic conditions by the crowding of a superabundant population within solid walls, from our lack of familiarity with tent life and savage life, we may underrate the extent to which unhealthy conditions may, or indeed must have prevailed in the dwellings even of sparse populations in days so long before the invention not merely of glass but of many other things in which in these days ‘ our basest beggars are superfluous.’ It is obvious however upon the smallest 1 In none of these cases have I seen any traces of the simple but relief-producing operation of extraction, or of other evidence to show that in this, any more than in any other sphere, ‘the former days were better than these.’ The same lesson may be gathered analogically from observations made upon the remains of modern savages, Mr. Mummery informing us (J. ¢., p. 47) that he has ‘met in Australian jaws ae every form of dental disease with which we are familiar amongst the English race.’ ~ # Journal Anth. Inst., Oct. 1875, p. 121 note; British Association Report, 1875, pi 152; Archeologia, xlii. 1870, p. 457. — UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 705 consideration, even in the absence of any personal acquaintance with present savage life, that the dwellings of the races we are dealing with must have been dark and crowded to secure warmth, and that the female portion of the tribe would have a larger share of these as of other depressing influences to contend with than the males. And the effects of these influences would show themselves as surely and clearly in the teeth, a system most closely correlated with the general state of the whole organism, as in their feebler trunk and limb bones’. The great frequency of the per- foration in the olecranic fossa of female prehistoric humeri, noticed by Broca (Mémoires, ii. p. 366, and Rev. d’Anthropologie, 1873, i. p. 15) and instanced by me (Journ. Anth. Inst., v. pp. 149-159, 161-169) in four cases from the Swell long barrows, is to be simi- larly explained ; and, conversely, its absence in the Cro-Magnon and Mentone skeletons, which belonged to the ‘ giants’ of tradition. I have not, though constantly careful in looking for irregu- larities in dentition, found many in either of the prehistoric series which I have examined. ‘Three of retardation of one or both bicuspids with retention of the second milk molar in persons of fourteen to fifteen years of age (‘Jarrett, cxix,’ p. 328, ‘Money Hill, exxi. 3,’ p. 380, and ‘ Flixton, Ixxi. 1,’ p. 275) may be mentioned and compared with the similar cases given at p. 237 of the second edition of the System of Dental Surgery by J. Tomes and C. 8. Tomes. Another of the retention of a wisdom tooth, with its upper surface only just visible above the alveolus in an aged female skull, ‘ Cowlam, lvii. 3, p. 216, may be mentioned as exemplifying another kind of retardation which is perhaps more common among women than men, as is also, I incline to think, the entire obsolescence of the wisdom teeth. * The slovenly habits of savages, carnivorous as well as vegetarian, by allowing of the admixture of sand with their food, furnish a very efficient means for wearing down of the teeth. But the inland tribes, who, like the outcasts described in the book of Job (chap. xxx. ver. 3-8), ‘cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat,’ suffer more from the secondary consequences of such wear, which we have been speaking of as alveolar abscesses, than do the game-, fish-, or shellfish-eating races, such as the tribes represented by the Cro-Magnon and Mentone skeletons, or the Eskimos and Vancouver Island Red Indians. For the action of unintentionally introduced sand, see Wilson, Canadian Journal, Sept. 1862, p. 12, March, 1863, p. 151; Mummery, /.c., pp. 35, 36; Pengelly, Trans. Devon Association, 1874, vi. p. 307, com- pared with p. 302, where the cave earth of the Mentone Cave is described as being “a perfectly dry, very fine, incoherent, greenish sand.’ For the wear of the teeth in the Cro-Magnon skeletons, see Broca, Mémoires, ii. pp. 166-168 ; for that of the skulls from the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, see Revue d’Anthropologie, 1873, ii. p. 17. The similar sufferings of later races in possession of cerealia may be referred to the detritus of their querns and grain-crushers. ZZ 706 GENERAL REMARKS The somewhat rare anomaly constituted by the presence of two roots to the lower canine has been noted by me in lower jaws from no less than five of the earlier interments treated of in this book; from, to wit, the long barrow cexxix. at Nether Swell, described above at p. 513, and by me in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Oct. 1875, vol. v.; from the cremation long barrow at Ebberston (p. 484 supra); from the chambered long barrow at Rodmarton (Cran. Brit., pl. 59); from the Dinnington! barrow, described by me in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1863, vol, i. p. 254; and, fifthly, from the Longberry Cave, near Tenby, examined by Mr. Laws (see p. 703 supra). The importance of this, which may appear to some readers to be a curious rather than a significant fact, will be seen very plainly when I add that all the other lower jaws from every period, inclusively of the bronze down to the present day, and from almost every variety of our species available in the ethnological series of the Oxford Museum for this comparison, have only furnished to me seven specimens with simi- larly bifid canine-fangs, and that of these seven only one belonged to a modern civilised race. This one presented other anomalies in its dentition which should render it perhaps unnecessary to consider it here, and the same may perhaps be said of yet another of these seven, inasmuch as it belonged to the skull ‘ Rudstone, Ixiii. 4,’ which has already been referred to (above, pp. 700-701) as fur- 1 Some doubt may attach to the assignment of the Dinnington barrow to the long- barrow period. I was not an eyewitness of the examination of it, though I, subse- quently to the removal of it, made inquiries on the spot from persons concerned in that work, and recorded them 7. c.. Eighteen more or less perfect skulls had been reinterred after the removal of the barrow; these, through the kindness of J. C. Athorpe Esq., I recovered; they are all dolicho-cephalic, and measurements of them were taken by Dr. Thurnam and recorded in the Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London, vol. i., and Crania Britannica, tab. ii. p. 242. Casts of one of these skulls have been taken and are referred to by Welcker, Archiv fiir Anthropo- logie, i. 1, p. 149, and by Ecker, ibid. i. 2, p. 283, as illustrating well the ‘ Reihen- grdéber’ form of the latter anthropologist; and Dr. Barnard Davis has described this cast in his ‘Thesaurus Craniorum,’ p. 10, as being ‘ very large, even enormous,’ and ‘subscapho-cephalic.’ I may mention in support of the view, which however I do not hold to be absolutely proved, that this barrow should take rank with those of the neolithic age, that out of twelve lower jaws recovered by me from the reinterment, no less than six combine the wide ramus, the short coronoid, and shallow sigmoid notch so characteristic of priscan jaws, with a rounded and slightly inverted angle; whilst in three of the other six the same rounding of the angle of the jaw is present with the same inversion, sometimes considered peculiarly significant; and that whilst in many cases the chin has an eminently feeble, in none of them has it the powerful develop- ment so common in the lower jaws of the later occupants of this country. For other references to this Dinnington barrow, see Bulletin Soc. Anthrop. Paris, at i. vol. v. pp. 541, 578; Natural History Review, April, 1865, p. 245; Archezologia, xlii. p. 171, UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 707 nishing some evidence for the existence of the disease rickets in the bronze period. Of the other five, one was found amongst more than a hundred Peruvian crania obtained from the collections made by Consul Hutchinson ; two came to me from among six lower jaws collected for me in South Africa by the late Mr. Frank Oates of Christ Church, the small size, low coronoids, and feeble chins of which indicate that they probably belonged, as reported, to an outcast tribe, probably Bushman; a fourth belonged to a ‘ pure- blooded Gond,’ as guaranteed by the donor, Captain H. A. Ham- mond, from Chindwara in Central India; the fifth, curiously enough and also suggestively, belonged to one of the South Welsh skeletons buried in the time of Charles I, as referred to above, pp. 565-566, note. Pruner Bey (Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, ser. ii. tom. ii. p. 244, 1867) has recorded the discovery of a similarly bifid canine from the famous cave-find of Naulette, in which, it may be added, evidence of a lower-jaw wisdom tooth with quinquefid fangs, and of extremely small incisors, was also found (ibid. tom. i. p. 587). The trans- versely placed sockets of these fangs are very frequently represented rudimentarily by raised ribs on the walls of undivided sockets, and the same may be said of the sockets of the lower premolars, which however I have never seen bifid, but which, judging from the position of these raised ridges, would have had such double fangs placed transversely to the jaw like those of the canines, not antero- posteriorly like those of the molars behind them, or of their homo- logues in Simiade. If the importance of the fact of the greater relative frequency of bifidity of the lower canine-fang in ‘priscan’ races and modern * Naturvother’ is plain enough, the same cannot be said of the inter- pretation or signification of the fact. In none of the recent, nor, so far as I can learn from plates, in any of the fossil Simiade, has any fission of the fang of a canine been observed ; indeed the lower-jaw canines in this family with their single fangs and the lower-jaw premolars with their invariably double ones differ from their human homologues more strikingly than do any of their other teeth. It is true that in some even of the Cynomorphous Simiade the fang of the lower canine is laterally grooved as well as laterally com- pressed ; and in the gorilla the long diameter of the oval section of this fang forms a much more widely open angle mesially with the long axis of the molar series than it does in the chimpanzee or orang. Still these are but approximations to what is fully carried aa 708 GENERAL REMARKS in the bifidity of the human canine fang; and though we may speak of them, therefore, as ‘anthropoid,’ we cannot speak of it as ‘pithecoid.” To my thinking a fair expression of the facts may be given by saying, the interchangeability of form which exists _ between ‘canines’ and ‘premolars,’ but which ordinarily requires for its illustration the comparison of two distinct species, is exem- plified by different varieties within the limits of our own single species. If in this instance we have to go as far afield as are such animals as Galeopithecus, Erinaceus, and Talpa, to understand how a so-called ‘canine’ can become ‘ premolariform’ and develope two fangs, it is but one instance out of many which show that many questions in anthropology can be read only in the light furnished by comparative anatomy 1. I have not observed in these series any wisdom teeth with that larger development which is so commonly noticeable in the dental series of Australians as compared even with other black races, not to say with Europeans. Rather indeed the reverse, the wisdom teeth being often very small, especially in female skulls of the earlier series. Nor in spite of the grinding down which is so marked a feature in many of these skulls, as for example in the skull of the woman from Cissbury, described by me in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. vi. p. 34, have I ever observed the eruption of these teeth to have been provoked, as is sometimes the case in savage races, into taking precedence of the union by ossification of the occipital and sphenoid bones, Such precedence has been noted by Professor Broca? in one of the Cro-Magnon skulls; and from his comparison of the skulls of various modern savages between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five with skulls of modern Europeans at the same period of life, it results that this peculiarity must be considered as a mark of degradation. Several other notes of inferiority which are commonly found in savage races of modern days, and which have been described as existing in the remains of troglodytic man, are wanting in the neolithic skeletons which I have examined. Foremost amongst 1 For a philosophical discussion of the homologies and nomenclature and the inter- changeability of form in mammalian teeth, see Messrs. Moseley and Lankester, Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Nov. 1868, ser. ii. No. iii. p. 73, and Mr. C, S. Tomes, Manual of Dental Anatomy, 1876, p. 260. 2 See Revue d’ Anthropologie, 1873, ii. p. 20. Dr. Barnard Davis in his ‘ Thesaurus Craniorum,’ 1867, p. 309, observes of a Loyalty islander, ‘ et. c. 25,’ that ‘the syn- chondrosis sphenobasilaris is not quite ossified, yet all the teeth have been cut.’ This — is the ordinary sequence in the lower animals, UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 709 these may be mentioned prognathism; a peculiarity which our knowledge of the extent to which the jaws are modifiable and modified by the nature of the dietary alike in the lower races of man and in the lower animals, would certainly lead us to expect to find amongst a stone- and bone-using people. But, as it has often been remarked *, the facial angle of these early races is by no means small, and their jaws have none of that pithecoid elongation which is so striking and prominent a characteristic in the crania of many still existing savages. On the other hand, prognathic and macro- gnathic jaws are not rare, though they are not the rule, in series from the bronze, and also from the early iron period in this country. A second mark of inferiority, not entirely unexampled among modern savages, the junction, namely, of the squamous to the frontal bone, has never to my knowledge been observed in any prehistoric crania. If this peculiarity had been present its significance would have been very great, as denoting a curtailment of the part of the brain which, corresponding to the great ala of the spheroid in the skull, is eminently favorably conditioned, both as regards vascular supply and histological constitution. I have already remarked (pp. 640, 650 swpra, and Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. v. p. 126) that a third mark of inferiority, that, namely, which is constituted by diminution of the height of the skull, abso- lutely as well as relatively to its long and transverse diameters, is not usually noticeable, except in the female skulls of the dolicho- cephalic long-barrow race. ‘To this may be added that in the series from the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, belonging to an early period of the neolithic age, Professor Broca found the height of the female actually exceeding that of the male skulls in the proportion of 132 millimétres to 131. If we miss in these neolithic crania the diminution of the height of the skull which Professor Busk has, under the name of ‘ tapeino- cephaly,’ noted in certain modern savages, we look almost equally in vain amongst them for a fourth point of degradation, the elonga- tion, to wit, of the basicranial axis; a peculiarity which Professor Cleland has rightly insisted upon (Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 124) as being strikingly and remarkably characteristic of uncivilised nations as distinct ethnographically as the Esquimaux, the Kafirs, and the Caribs. . 1 Broca, Mémoires, ii. p. 197; Rev. Anth., J. c., p. 19; Thurnam, Principal Forms p. 32. 710 GENERAL REMARKS I have already (p. 6397) noted that the dasis crani in these ancient crania has never been found by me to have suffered from that pathological degradation which is known as the ‘plastic de- formation’ of Dr. Barnard Davis, the ‘basilar impression’ of Virchow, the ‘impressio baseos cranw’ of other authors. The nasal index, which fails to separate the Eskimo from the civilised races, fails equally with the long-barrow skulls, and, as has been pointed out by Professor Broca (Rev. Anth., 18738, ii. p. 19), with other prehistoric European skulls. On the other hand, the orbital index, which does put the prehistoric crania from Cro- Magnon and the Caverne de ?Homme into a position of similarity to skulls such as those of the Tasmanian, Australian, and Melanesian races, puts the.neolithic skulls of British barrows into a position of superiority as compared, not merely with the modern savages just mentioned, but even with the skulls of the bronze period. As regards these latter skulls however, it should be remarked that the transversely oblong outline which their orbital border sometimes as- sumes, as in the skulls ‘ Heslerton Wold,’ described and figured at pp. 579-580, and ‘ Rudstone, ]xiii,’ described and figured at pp. 590-591, is due to an excessive downgrowth of the supraciliary ridges, rather than to any curtailment of the distance between the actual roof of the orbit and its inferior or maxillary border. In other words, just as the prognathism of modern savages may depend simply upon in- crease in size of the anterior alveolar segment of the upper jaw, so a low orbital index may be and often is due to a downgrowth of the upper border of the orbit, which comes thus to lie in a plane much lower than that which the true roof of the orbit occupies. a Professor Broca, in his account of the skulls from the Caverne de -PHomme Mort (Rev. Anth. /. c. pp. 26-28), after enumerating the various points in which those nineteen crania contrast and agree severally with those of the earlier race represented at Les Eyzies on the one hand, and with those of later races on the other, declares him- self of opinion that the race to which they belong, whilst affined to the palzolithic man, has no longer any distinct representatives upon 1°The references made by me elsewhere (pp. 689-698 swpra) to this interesting pathological change were made merely for the sake of illustration. Dr. Barnard Davis’s paper was read before the Anthropological Society of Paris, June 5, 1862, and may be found in Mem. Soc. Anthrop. de Paris, tom. i. p. 380. Subsequently a memoir upon the subject was published by Dr. Boogaard in the Nederland Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 1865, 2. p. 81, an analysis of which by Dr. W. D. Moore appeared in the Cambridge and Edinburgh Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Nov. 1866, p. 179. UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 711 the area which it once, however imperfectly, occupied. It must be very difficult to attain to anything like perfect certainty upon such a point in view on the one side of the tenacity with which so-called ‘indigenous’ or ‘autochthonous’ races retain, in whatever political or social status, a foothold in their ‘aboriginal’ country ; and, on the other, of the modifying influence which the introduction of agricul- tural and other improvements may have exercised in the course of many centuries. Without going, however, further into this question, I will say that a comparison of the skulls here dealt with from the stone and bronze periods with those of the medieval and modern tenants of these islands, coupled with other considerations and carried on for a considerable number of years, has inclined me to hold that the two prehistoric races, though outnumbered greatly by Anglo-Saxons, are still represented in the population of Great Britain and Ireland. The short-statured, dark-haired, long-headed race which is found not only making up nearly the whole population of large ‘ Welsh ’- speaking districts in Wales itself and in the Highlands of Scotland, but also mixed up, and in very large proportions, with the popula- tion occupying midland-county districts usually held to have been entirely Saxonised and Danicised, as pointed out long ago (see p- 679 supra) by Professor Phillips, we have many reasons for holding to be the lineal descendants of our long-barrow people. In the north of England we find that the neolithic race amalgamated peacefully with the brachy-cephalic stock which taught them the use of bronze; and in the early iron period (see p. 683 supra) the earlier race appears to have regained some of its numerical preponderance, the late Celts from the East Riding and elsewhere north of York- shire having been mostly dolicho-cephalic. The bronze-using race seems, in the southern parts of this country, to have more com- pletely absorbed or destroyed the dolicho-cephalic than it did in the north, resembling in this the dolmen-builders of France, whose pre- dominance brought about an almost entire disappearance of their neolithic and troglodytic predecessors (see Broca, Revue d’Anthro- pologie, ii. pp. 49, 50, iv. p. 608). Still a race with many of the physical peculiarities of the long-barrow people is represented in great abundance in the cemeteries of the centuries during which this country was divided into Roman latifundia and forest-land; and whatever may have been their social or political status, the dolicho- cephali enjoy in such interments a great numerical superiority as compared with the brachy-cephali. The ‘Saxon’ or ‘English’ conquerors of this country have been shown (see Archzologia, xlu. 712 GENERAL REMARKS p- 460; Proceedings of the Royal Institution, 1870, p. 118) from the examination of their burial-grounds, as well as of other evidence, to have displaced the population they found in occupation of it as entirely and completely! as it has ever been found possible for in- vaders to do. The existence in the England of those days of large woods and forests and marshes, a point dwelt upon by Professor Pearson at pp. 4 and 24, and illustrated by several of his ‘Historical Maps of England,’ must have made the entire extirpation of the Romano-British population an impossibility?; and enables us to understand how even in the time of Canute British outlaws carried on brigandage even in such counties as Huntingdonshire. There is of course no need to adduce any argument in favour of the self-evident proposition that the brachy-cephalic metal-using Celt was in date but of yesterday as compared with the troglodytic men of the continent; but the line of argument which may be employed in favour of this conclusion as regards the neolithic man of our long barrows, that, namely, such as it is, which rests upon the continuity of descent which appears to connect this stock with the dark Welsh and Gael of our own days and country, would not admit of being so used as regards the later race. For, as has been above (pp. 126, 630, 631, 681) pointed out*, the cranial and skeletal characters of the bronze-using Celt are very closely similar 1 In this, which appears to have been a very thoroughly Teutonised district, the crania of the present agricultural population appear to me to be very closely similar to or indeed scarcely distinguishable from those of the Saxons of the times when they first discontinued cremation. 2 Captain Thomas (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., April, 1876, xi. part ii. p. 504) may be quite right as to his ‘ theory of the entire removal by slaughter or flight of the Celtic people’ of the Hebrides; but the evidence from ‘place-names’ is not by itself suffi- cient to support this conclusion. The ‘ place-names’ in many districts of England in which the so-called ‘ Black Celts’ are still largely represented, will be found to be exclusively Scandinavian or Saxon. Small islands of course which have neither dense woods nor lofty mountains to serve as refuges to their occupants may, as the miserable history of the Greek Archipelago has shown from the time of Datis and Artaphernes (Hat. vi. 31) down to our own, have their inhabitants entirely extirpated. And this may have been the case when the Hebrides were invaded by the Northmen. But as regards larger islands and continental areas the lines from Wordsworth’s ‘ Poems dedicated to National Independence and Liberty,’ ‘Two voices are there; one is of the sea, One of the mountains,’ need to be supplemented by a mention of woodlands. 8 The very frequent discovery of amber ornaments in round barrows may be fairly considered as an argument in favour of their ‘Cimbric’ or ‘ Baltic’ origin. Mr. Spence Bate (see Trans. Devon Assoc. 1872) considers the beautiful amber dagger-pommel found in a round barrow on Dartmoor as evidence for the ‘ Scandinavian’ character of the interment. For amber-ornaments on bronze weapons, see Montelius, Congr. Internat. Anth, C. R. Stockholm, ii. 833, and Catalogue, Stockholm Museum, 1876, p. 40. UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 718 to those of the medieval and modern Dane; and this similarity must of course make it difficult to decide whether the brachy- cephalism of many crania procurable from medieval and especially urban medieval interments, is to be referred to the persistence of such a brachy-cephalic prehistoric stock, or to the admixture of Danish blood in historic times upon which writers such as Worsaae (The Danes and Norwegians in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1852) and Isaac Taylor (Words and Places, 1865, p. 183) have insisted with so much force. The discovery however by Dr. Thurnam and myself! of numerous skeletons of a typically brachy- cephalic tribe in a tumulus belonging to a period close upon that of the Saxon invasion, and situated at Crawley in Oxford- shire within the shadow of the protecting Forest of Wychwood, renders it exceedingly probable that this vigorous race, after sur- viving three centuries of Roman rule, may have endured till, at the commencement of the historical Danish invasion and immigration, there came into this country a stock to which they are beyond doubt physicaliy, and probably also ethnographically, most closely allied. The probable continuity in the way of descent of the long-barrow people with certain varieties of our present population, considered together with the fact that in these series we miss certain marks of degradation which are recognisable in the confessedly more ancient remains from certain continental ‘finds’ may tend to produce in the mind of a reader an exaggerated as well as a somewhat morti- fying notion of their inferiority in the matter of antiquity. I will therefore, in conclusion and very shortly, enumerate the various physical peculiarities of an anatomical, to the exclusion of an archeological, kind which have in spite of all the considerations just put forward impressed me very deeply with a conviction of the immense distance which separates our time from that of the lone barrows. First amongst these I should put the smallness of many of the skeletal and of the cranial bones both, which I have obtained from the long barrows alike of the cremation-kind, as in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and of the inhumation-kind in Gloucestershire. It is true enough that powerful skeletons and very large skulls have been found by me in these British as well as by many other investigators in many other interments of the same and of earlier ages. So generally accepted? indeed is this @ priord surprising fact that we find writers such as Virchow (Archiv fir Anthro- 1 Archeologia, 1870, xlii. p. 175, and supra p. 657. 2 See British Association Report for 1875, p. 150. 714 - GENERAL REMARKS pologie, 1873, vi. p. 92) speaking of the notion that savagery and inferiority are characteristics of the aboriginal population of Europe as being simply an arbitrary preconception, der vorgefassten Meinung von der Wildheit und Inferioritét der europaischen Urbevolkerung. But against this criticism we have to set the following considera- tions; firstly, that the male skeletons in these tumuli are the skeletons of men who were chiefs, and chiefs in times and under conditions when such a position was held and kept only by men of force at once of character and physique (see supra pp. 640, 662, cbique citata) ; secondly, that even in these ‘ tombs of the kings’ we find (see supra pp- 658, 660, 704) female skulls and female skeletons of dispropor- tionate smallness; and, thirdly, that (see pp. 615, 651, 675 supra), mixed up in these tumuli with the large and well-filled male skulls there are not wanting ‘ill-filled,’ ‘ boat-shaped’ crania, to parallel which we have to go far afield amongst modern ‘ Natur-vélker ;’ or that, in technical language, the crania of the neolithic period were not rarely dolicho-cephalic in a way which justifies us in speaking of them as being steno-cephalic! and of their owners as being in contrast to modern civilised dolicho-cephali, axgustiores rather than latiores. To the narrowness of the ill-fed brain the simplicity or ob- literation of the sutures testifies often, even in the most fragmentary of the neolithic crania; in more perfect specimens we have the same conditions more forcibly impressed upon our imagination by the 1 Professor Aeby in 1863 (Verhandl. Naturforsch. Gesell. Basel., iii. 4) proposed to divide all skulls into the two classes of Steno-cephalous and Dolicho-cephalous, having regard simply to the differences of breadth. In 1867, in his Schiidelformen des Men- schen und der Affen, p. 32, he again argues that this division should be substituted for that of Retzius, according to which skulls are similarly divided into two classes, but into Dolicho-cephalous and Brachy-cephalous by reference to the relation sub- sisting between their length and breadth. His words are as follows:—‘ Was er (Retzius) also fiir lang und kurz gehalten ist nichts anders als schmal und breit, und es scheiden sich die menschen nicht nach Dolicho-cephalie und Brachy-cephalie sondern nach Steno-cephalie und Eury-cephalie.” As there appears to be some tendency in recent writers, e.g. Zuckerkandl, Novara Reise, 1875, p. 65, to adopt this classification, it may be well to say here that with dolicho-cephaly and brachy-cephaly respectively many more properties are correlated than those which their mere etymo- logy connotes. Some of these are of primary morphological (see p. 637 swpra), others of primary physiological (see p. 677 swpra) importance. Neither is it possible to overrate the ethnographical importance of the fact insisted upon (pp. 589, 648, 662, 664, 665 supra) that within the circumscription of dolicho-cephaly and brachy-cephaly both, a natural subdivision may be made by reference to this very matter of breadth. There are ‘ill-filled’ brachy-cephalic skulls as well as ‘ well-filled;’ ‘well-filled’ dolicho- cephalic skulls as well as ‘ill-filled;” and to use, as is now sometimes done, the word ‘steno-cephalous’ or ‘schmalkopfige,’ as convertible with dolicho-cephalous and as opposed to brachy-cephalous, is simply to ignore facts. These are excellently ex- pressed by Professor Cleland’s proposed quadrifid division of dolicho-cephali and brachy- cephali into latiores and angustiores respectively. See Phil. Trans. 1870, p. 148. UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA,. 715 sight of the parietal and frontal eminences standing prominently out in relief upon the wall-sided and vertically-ridged cranium. If a contrast such as this can be shown to exist between a series of what were all but certainly the crania of the most favourably con- ditioned and best developed of the neolithic population and any mixed series of later times down to this day from cemeteries in this country, the contrast would undoubtedly have been very much more sharply pronounced if we had had before us representatives of all classes from those early times. Secondly, though well shaped and capacious calvarie with ortho- gnathous upper jaws do abound in the series from the stone and bone ages, and after bearing a comparison, and by no means always to their own disadvantage, with modern specimens, may be only with difficulty distinguishable from them, the same can_ hardly be affirmed of that most distinctive bone, the lower jaw’. Enough 1 The caves of Cro-Magnon and Mentone have furnished us with similar lower jaws from the palzeolithic men whose remains have been found in them, but, as in the cases of the Bushman and the Tasmanian, these lower jaws were combined with the low orbit so different from that of the Esquimaux, the wide opening of which in the skull contrasts so strikingly with the oblique, slit-like aperture of the eyelids in their living heads. And the prognathism of the Esquimaux, though it is possible to lay too much weight upon this point, as also the convex malar portions of the maxillaries, will be held by many to differentiate him from the paleolithic and neolithic races both. On the other hand, Professor Broca (Rév. d’Anth., 1873, ii. pp. 26-28), with the remains from the Caverne de Homme Mort before him, has no difficulty in connecting these neolithic with the paleolithic men, and Professor Boyd Dawkins so long ago as 1866 (see ‘Cave Hunting,’ p. 359, ibique citata) collected a set of coin- cidences between the implements, works of art, and animal surroundings of these latter men and those of the Esquimaux, the number and variety of which it is difficult to explain except upon the hypothesis of some connection having subsisted between them. Colonel Lane Fox and Mr. C. E. Rance are cited in the ‘ Reliquize Aquitanice,’ p. 284, as accepting and corroborating this view; and Sir John Lubbock at p. 262 of his edition of Nilsson’s ‘ Karly Inhabitants of Scandinavia,’ whilst pointing out that Mr. Busk’s identification of Ursus priscus with Ursus ferox gives us some additional ‘reason for the belief that the Esquimaux once inhabitated Western Europe,’ uses language of a more cautious character as regards this conclusion than perhaps he might have done had not the author whose work he was editing expressed himself (pp. 104, 141) as being so very distinctly opposed to it. Mr. Alexander C. Anderson, ‘ Reliquiz Aquitanice,’ p.49, and M. Sauvage, ibid. p. 220, would appear to be of the same opinion as Nilsson; most recent anthropologists, however (see for example Mr. E. B. Tylor, ‘ Primitive Culture,’ vol. i. pp. 64, 95, ed. 1873, or the various authorities, old and recent, cited in the Address to the Biological Section, British Association, Liverpool, 1870, p. 103), incline to accept the argument from identity of custom to identity of race. As regards the language of the Esquimaux, Professor Sayce has told us (Contemp. Rev., April 1876, p. 722) that ‘if we turn to the grammars of those savage tribes who best represent the infancy of mankind we shall find them marked by the greatest synthetic complexity. The involved and monstrous words of the polysynthetic languages of North America, where the Esquimaux aglekkigiartorasuarnipok, for instance, represents our “he goes away hastily and exerts himself to write,” are really examples 716 ' GENERAL REMARKS has been said above (pp. 541, 645, 654, 655, 706) of the peculiar characteristics of the ‘priscan’ human lower jaw, of the tumid of those primeval undecomposed sentences out of which the logical precision of a French grammar or the severe grandeur of a Semitic prophecy were eventually to come. Their cumbrous barbarism is due to poverty, not to profundity of thought. Relatively to the Bushman language, however, the same authority writes in answer to an enquiry of mine; ‘As regards phonology, the Bushmen with their clicks certainly stand on a far lower level than the Esquimaux. ... . In some grammatical points, moreover, the Bushman language is what you aptly term “poor stuff.” Thus the plural is denoted by reduplication, and the verb has not been developed. However, we do not yet know as much about the Bushman dialects as is desirable. Where the Esquimaux—like most of the other inhabitants of the Old World—best represent the primitive condition of speech is in the structure of the sentence. The in- dependent wérd has not yet been evolved out of it.’ I have above (p. 633) expressed my feeling of the strain which is put upon the imagina- tion by the effort to think even of the neolithic races as genealogically connected with the paleolithic; and a still greater effort is of course required for putting in thought any still existing races into a similar relationship. The exertion necessary will however become lighter in proportion to the hold which the uniformitarian doctrines of modern geology obtain upon our minds, and in the meantime what is going on in the world at the present day may teach us that it has not always been easy, and may sometimes, even now, be impossible, entirely to extirpate a wild race of men in a wild country. Such were of course the men and the country of the cave and other paleolithic periods. Neither, I apprehend, is it meant by speaking of affinity as existing between these ancient races and the modern Esquimaux, that these stone- and bone-using men are to be connected together at all in the same way as the Massaliotes were connected with the Phocceans, or the Galatians of Asia Minor with the Gauls. No one supposes that an immigration has ever’ taken place from the district inhabited by the Esquimaux into the regions now occupied by the French, English, and Belgians. Nothing that is suggested by the facts goes beyond making us suppose that the countries in question were in the times in question occupied by a race of very considerable uniformity of physical structure, of habits, and of appliances for fighting their hard battle of life ; and that the great changes which have since those ‘unhappy far-off times’ taken place alike in their inorganic and organic environment have broken those tribes up into fragments, of which some infinitesimal traces are perhaps still detectable amongst us, and of which the still widely-spread Esquimaux may, however altered in the course of ages, be with some probability held to be the most characteristic remnant. I take this opportunity of drawing attention to two instances of the tenacity with which certain customs and practices have maintained themselves amongst some of the races which we have had under comparison, leaving to the reader the task of deciding how far such persistence may be explicable upon the principle 7d xaxd ovvdye Tods dv@pwmovus (Arist. Rhetor., i. 6. 22), that community of needs and distresses brings all men together, and makes all men alike. First of these, as being less amenable than the other to the objection just referred to, I will put the singular aversion to fish as an article of food which has characterised certain of the inhabitants of Scotland from the time of Severus down to our own time and has been noted as something remarkable in the history of the modern Esquimaux. Dio Cassius (fl. A. D. 230), lib. Ixxii. 21, p. 866 ¢, ed. Leunclavii, observes with the surprise not unnatural to an Italian, that the two most powerful British tribes, the Mate and the Caledonii, though they have no agri- culture, but are dependent upon the produce of pastoral and hunting life and fruits, such as nuts and acorns, make nevertheless no use of fish for food, though fish are avail- able in countless and inexhaustible quantities: é« Te vous nal Onpas axpodiew TE Tivwr (avres, Tay ixOtow dneipwv Kal dmdéTov dvtww ov yedovta. Logan, who in his work on the Scottish Gael (vol. ii. p.125) says that Herodian, a contemporary of Dio Cassius, makes the same observation, a statement which I have not been able to verify, writes (/. c.) as UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. 717 horizontal segment corresponding to its molar teeth, of its wide ramus, of its short coronoid process, of its feeble chin, of its rounded, follows of the modern Highlanders:—‘ The Highlanders, notwithstanding the mention of fish in several old poems, certainly did never willingly make use of such food. It was a matter of astonishment to an English resident among them a century ago that the trout with which their streams were teeming remained entirely disregarded, but they retain a proverb which implies their contempt for fish-eaters, and the encouragement of govern- ment has not yet induced either the Scots, Welsh, or Irish to enter with spirit into the fish trading.’ Later evidence is not wanting to the same effect. The same peculiarity is recorded by Mr. Whymper in the Alpine Journal of May, 1870, with the same indications of surprise, as distinguishing the Esquimaux :—‘ Fish are plentiful on most parts of the Greenland coast, particularly cod, holibut, and salmon. But, although their quality is little, if at all, inferior to the best we can obtain in this country, the Greenlander does not care for them, he will eat them and does eat them, but he will seldom do so unless there is a great necessity. .... It is certain that in his heart of hearts he cares for none of them as food.’ Neither modern research among still existing savages (see ‘ Reliquie Aquitanice,’ p. 95) nor ancient literature justifies the scepticism which has been expressed (see Sturzius in ed. Dio Cassius, 1824, vol. vi. p. 812; Selden, Mare Clausum, ii. p. 127, ed. 1635) as to the abstinence from fish-food on the part of wild races living by the sea-side. Irrespectively of notices in the classical writers as to the prohibition of such food for religious reasons by Pythagoras, or in the cases of priests as in Egypt (Hdt. ii. 37), or as in the service of the Bona Dea (Julian, pp. 176, 177, ed. Lipsiz, 1696), we have such abstinence on the part of early races repeatedly mentioned by them as a matter of wonder and contrast. Marsham (Can. Chron., Leipzig, 1676, p- 220) has improved upon the well-known remarks of Plato (Rep. iii. 404, or Trans. Jowett, ii. p. 231) and of Athenzus (Dipnosoph. iv. p. 157, ed. Leyden, 1612), fol- lowing Meleager of Gadara, to the effect that the warriors of the [liad did not eat fish, by pointing out that the same may be said of the luxurious Pheenicians and the Ithacan suitors of the Odyssey, and that it was only under the pressure of necessity that the sailors of Ulysses betook themselves to fishing (Od. yp. (xii.) 329-331) :— "AAN’ Ere 52 vnds eépbito Hia wdvra, Kat 52 aypnv épémecxov ddnrevoytes avayrn, "IxO0s opviOds Te, pidas Sti xelpas ixoTo. Similarly the lines of Horace (Sat. ii. 2. 46-48),— ‘Haud ita pridem..... Tutus erat rhombus tutoque ciconia nido,— and those of Ovid (Fasti, vi. 173-179) show that even in the times of Augustus a tradition remained of the period when fish and fowl were not used in supplementa- tion of mammalian meat, when ‘ Piscis adhuc illi populo sine fraude natabat,’ though * Sus erat in pretio.’ The second peculiarity which I wish to note is one recorded by the ancient Strabo (iii. 4, 16) and by his contemporaries Diodorus Siculus (v. 33) and Catullus (xxxv, xxxvii) as distinguishing the Iberians and Celtiberians of their time; and by the modern Egede (Description of Greenland, second edition, London, 1818, p. 127; French edition, 1763, p. 98, cit. Sir John Richardson, ‘ Polar Regions,’ 1861, p. 304) as distinguishing the Esquimaux ; and it may be best given in the words of the first-named of those authorities :—(Oi”’IBnpes od) mpds Siayoryiy GAAA padAov mpds dvd-yenv Kai dpyiy Onpiwdy pera @Oovs pavaov (Hor... . i wh Tis olerar mpds Siaywyhv (nv Tods ovpw Aovopévous év Sefapevais madaovpévw kal Tods dddvrTas cunxopuévovs Kal abtods Kai Tas ‘yuvaikas aiTav, kaddnep Kal rods KavrdBpovs pac? Kai rods éudpovs abrois. The words év defapevais madavovpévy are explained by the information that the ‘liquor is kept in tubs in the porches of their huts for use in dressing the deer and seal skins.’ It is clear from Catullus’s use of the word mane (xxxvii) that he did not understand the rationale of the process he refers to, and that he was inaccurate as well as otherwise offensive. 718 GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. often inwardly bent angle; the outcome of the investigation may be summed up by saying that though lower jaws combining all these marks of degradation may be found amongst such races as the Bushman, the Tasmanian, and the Melanesian, it is only amongst the Eskimos that we find such jaws combined with the widely open orbit and vertically elongated nasal cavity so charac- teristic of the long-barrow race. And there are many reasons for supposing that the Eskimos are a race which still retains and preserves for us in the structure and grammatical peculiarities of its language, its life-history, and physical peculiarities, the very closest likeness to what we believe some of the earliest races of mankind must have been. The disproportion which I have dwelt upon (p. 658 e¢ seqq. supra) as existing between the male and female limb- and trunk-bones from the long barrows is a striking feature in the comparison of that series with any other from later interments in this country. This however is a skeletal character reproduced in and reproducible by modern savagery. But the ‘ platyenemy’ or peculiar flattening out of the shin-bones, which we know from the researches of Professors Busk and Broca and others to have characterised other early and - earlier races of men, has stronger claims to be considered a note of antiquity; it is possible that such tibie may be hereafter found amongst modern savages; but they will not, I anticipate, be found amongst such races in the numerical proportion to normal bones which I have found them to possess in neolithic skeletons. APPENDIX. I nave thought it well to put together in an appendix a few remarks upon the flora and fauna of the prehistoric times with which I have been dealing, with the view of supplementing rather than of summarising the already existing and very extensive litera- ture of this subject. Having had numerous opportunities of ex- amining, not merely the collected contents of barrows, but the barrows themselves whilst still containing them in situ, I have come to feel that the history of the prehistoric flora and fauna may have been somewhat analogous to that of the barrows them- selves, and may therefore receive some elucidation from it. Firstly, the barrows survive mainly in parts of the country into which agricultural improvements with their levelling tendencies have not penetrated as thoroughly as they have into less: rugged, less hilly, more arable districts. But the same causes which have allowed these sometimes large masses to remain undisturbed may be reasonably supposed to have been equally favourable to the living organisms which were their contemporaries. Secondly, when we come to look at the structure of the barrows in various parts of this country and the character of their manufactured contents, we are impressed with the existence in them of a similarity and uni- formity the more striking as it is not paralleled by any very marked similarity in the analogous human creations of the present day; whilst it is reproduced more or less closely in the flora and the domesticated fauna of those localities. The sheep, oxen, and swine of the Scotch and Welsh highlands, even if not as closely alike as are the horned cairns of Caithness, of Gloucestershire, and of the Peninsula of Gower (see pp. 536, 537, 702 supra), are nevertheless far from dissimilar; vegetable being more dependent upon inorganic influences than animal life, the flora at present in occupation of those districts may perhaps, when we make allowance for very recent disturbances in the way of planting, be held to be even as exact a reproduction of that which occupied them in neolithic times 720 APPENDIX. as the pottery of that period found at one end of this country is of the contemporaneous pottery found in the other. If we are to reason about these as we do about other facts of distribution in space and time, we must hold that a greater uniformity existed in the forms of vegetable and a much greater in the forms of animal life over the whole of this country in prehistoric than in recent times ; and that the districts in question may be likened to islands which have been separated from each other by the encroachments, sometimes more, sometimes less gradual, of an invading sea. Ifa greater mass of material has been available to me in the barrows themselves than has been to some other writers upon the subject of the fauna of prehistoric times, it must be said on the other side that my investigations have been confined to the ‘houses of the dead;’ and that I am not here writing of the relics to be found in such greater abundance in what were ‘the houses of the living,’ viz. cave- and pile-dwellings. In the largest long barrow indeed, that at Crosby Garrett (see p. 510 supra), which I have examined, I noted that of all the animal bones found, only one single fragment could be said to have been proved to have owed its introduction to the race which reared the barrow. And though in many barrows considerable numbers of such bones have been found, the remains of the funeral feast have not been so productive, as indeed they could not have been expected to be, as the rubbish-pits or the floors of the dwellings of ancient times have been to other investigators. I. Or tHe Preuistoric Frora oF THIS CoUNTRY IN THE NeowitHic PERIOD. The palzolithic man had before his eyes a country, the hills, valleys, and plains of which had somewhat different contours from those upon which the neolithic man lived his hunting or pastoral life. But the position of the long barrows and forts, reared by the later race of men in places of vantage as regards prospect and elevation, shows us that the solid earth on which they trod has had its escarp- ments and its river-courses subjected to but little change since their time. The landscape however upon which his eyes rested was neverthe- less a very different one from that which meets ours now in any but the wildest districts of this country. The characters of a landscape at various periods depend mainly upon its vegetation, and if the indigenous trees of Great Britain have not been so entirely out- APPENDIX. 721 numbered and the character of its summer and indeed winter clothing of leaves so entirely changed by foreign immigrations, as Victor Hehn in his interesting work, ‘ Kulturpflanzen und Haus- thiere,’ 1870, pp. 2, 314, 392, is inclined to think that of Italy has been, the changes which the woodlands of this country have under- gone since prehistoric times have been very great indeed. Much weight must in the first place be laid upon the enormously greater proportion of the entire surface of the country which was in early times occupied by trees, though England is even at the present day one of the best wooded of civilised countries; for the influence of this quantitative difference upon both man and beast must have been important and many-sided to a degree which, in spite of all that has been written by others, it is difficult to exaggerate. Qualitatively the character of the trees which filled the plains, clothed the hillside, and formed the sky-line of the neolithic period was a very different one from that of those which stand at intervals in our hedges and enclosures and bound our horizon, at least in our midland and southern counties. Some difference of opinion exists among botanists as to whether the ‘common’ elm, which is now perhaps the most abundant of our southern and midland trees, is or is not indigenous?. I cannot but think that the facts of its absence from parts of Great Britain which are separated either by moorland or mountain from the southern and midland counties, whilst it flourishes in such districts when once introduced into them, coupled 1 Yor the changes which have been produced in our indigenous flora by the successive immigrants into or conquerors of this country, see De Candolle’s Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, 1855, vol. ii. pp. 645-705; the Rev. C. A. Johns, Forest Trees of Great Britain, who says (p. 42), ‘If in my history of forest trees I were to confine myself to those which are universally acknowledged to be indigenous to Britain, I should soon bring my labours to a close. England, though once a well-wooded country, never pro- bably could boast of containing within it any great variety of species ;’ and Pearson, ‘ Historical Maps of England,’ 1869, pp. 48, 49. For the question as to the indigenous character of the common elm, see De Candolle, l. c., p. 690, and Watson and Bromfield, cit¢. in loco; Pratt, Flowering Plants and Ferns of Great Britain, vol. iii. p. 98; Johns, J. c., p. 227. The history of the common ~ elm, which, though multitudinous and prominent in our landscapes, has yet failed, as its rarely seeding shows, to become really naturalised in our soil, may be taken as corresponding, and curiously, if it be really a Roman importation, to that of the Latin element in our language, which, though outnumbering by mere words the Teutonic or Saxon element in the proportion of 29,354 to 13,330 (Thommerel, cit. Max Miller, Lectures on the Science of Language, 1861, p. 74), has never established itself in our grammar. The wych-elm, which in spite of its more rapid growth and greater beauty has nevertheless, owing probably to the lesser durability of its timber, had its area of distribution in Great Britain curtailed by successive invaders, may in like manner be considered to typify the history of the indigenous British races as encroached upon by Teutonic and Scandinavian conquerors. 3A 729 APPENDIX. with the fact of its rarely seeding here, should incline us to the latter view. It is obvious, as has often been suggested, that the Romans who introduced the vine may have introduced with it the ‘piller’ elm, the two plants being so commonly wedded in Italian husbandry, as in both Italian and English poetry. On the other hand, the readiness with which the wych-elm ripens its seeds, and its power of maintaining itself and flourishing even in the highlands of Scotland, to say nothing of its trivial name, the nation- ality of which is disputed, would appear to show that it at least is an indigenous tree; and it may consequently have contributed in larger proportions and given pro tanto a larger share of beauty to the prehistoric landscape than it does now to ours. Dwellers on or near the chalk districts of England are too familiar with the conspicuous and beautiful, though common, seedlings of the beech not to feel considerable doubt as to the accuracy of Julius Cesar’s statement that the tree though present in Gaul was wanting in Britain. Antiquaries who are familiar with the fact of the great abundance of the bones of the domestic pig in British barrows, both of the stone and of the bronze age, will find it difficult to believe that, in the latter of those periods at least, beech-mast and beech- trees had not been made available for feeding that animal; especially when they consider how freely intercourse was carried on between Britain and Gaul, and how easily the seeds in question could and would have been carried across the Channel.. Botanists at least (see De Candolle, 7. c., pp. 154, 689, and Johns, /. ¢., p. 144) appear to be agreed that the words ‘ Materia cujusque generis, ut in Gallia, — est, preter fagum atque abietem’ (De Bello Gallico, v. 12) contain one of the few errors fallen into by Cesar. Had this statement related to Scotland it would probably have been correct, beech-mast never having been found any more than ash-seeds in the peat- mosses of Scotland, though both plants are now to be found even in the extreme north of that country, and though both, I think, must be held to be indigenous in South Britain. For these considerations and some others seem to me to outweigh the views of Dr. Daubeny, expressed in ‘Trees of the Ancients,’ 1865, p-7, to the effect that the beech ‘was not known in Holland nor pro- bably in England or Ireland at the time of the Norman Conquest ;’ views against which, as pointed out by Professor Pearson, /. c., p. 48, the mention of a ‘bochholt’ in a charter of Offa, and of ‘the old. beech ’ in one of the Confessor, can be urged as regards Saxon times. — It is difficult also to reconcile them with the general fact stated by — APPENDIX. 723 De Candolle, 7. ¢., p. 689, on the authority of Davies (Welsh Botany, p. 90), that dans le pays de Galles Ffa-wydden (wydden étant une désinence commune aux arbres et Lfa le nom proprement dit) was the name for this tree; or with the special exemplification of this with which the Welsh name for Hereford, a city with beech-trees ‘ near it, ‘ Zre fawydd,’ furnishes us (see Camden’s Britannia, p. 476, cit. Professor Pearson, /. c.). As there is however no question that the beech fails to form any very large proportion of our South Britain peat-mosses, it may be suggested that this transference to the beech by the Welsh of a name which originally belonged to the oak (see Max Miller, Science of Language, ser. ii. p. 236) must have taken place in a country where a preponderance had been gained by the former over the latter tree. If therefore Denmark was the country, see supra, p. 631, whence the bronze-importing invaders of this island came, the beech must have been a pro- minent tree there at an earlier period than is usually supposed. Or it may have abounded here at that time and yet left, as in Denmark, no remains in the uncongenial peat. * As against the prominence, though not against the existence, of the beech in our own country at a much later period might be urged the fact that it is not mentioned by Chaucer in three places, ‘The Assembly of Foules’ (ed. Bell, 1855, vol. iv. p. 195), ‘The Romaunt of the Rose’ (vol. vii. p. 59), and ‘The Complaint of a Lover’s Life’ (vol. viii. p. 8), where he does mention nearly all the other trees which in the fourteenth century entered largely into the composition of the English landscape; to wit, the ‘ oke,’ thé ‘ asshe,’ the ‘ elme,’ the ‘ boxe,’ the ‘ firre,’ the ‘ ewe,’ the ‘ aspe,’ ‘notes,’ s. ‘philbert’ (hazel), the ‘bolas,’ the ‘ pyn,’ the ‘maples,’ the ‘popler,’ the ‘lyndes,’ the ‘hauthorne.’ And it might be said that in a Welsh poem ascribed to Taliessin, but referred by Professor Pearson (/. c. p. 48), to the fourteenth century, ‘the beech and lime are both left unmentioned in describing a battle of the trees; and that the beech is omitted from a much earlier Welsh poem ascribed to Llywarch Hen in the sixth century. See Skene, ‘Four Ancient Books of Wales,’ i. pp. 279 and 576, cit. Pearson, l.c. As against the evidence furnished by a fourth passage from Chaucer, ‘ The Knightes Tale,’ vol. i. ed. cit. p. 182, in which, as in Spenser’s ‘ Faery Queen,’ i. 7, 8, 9, the beech and also the birch and thé willow are added to the tree above enumerated, it might be objected that ‘the whole description of the funeral and games is taken from the sixth book of the Thebais ;’ and as a matter of fact we have the words ‘gli alti faggi’ standing in the parallel passage, ‘ Teseide,’ xi. 22, col. 237, ed. Ven. 1838. But Professor Earle writes to me upon this matter to the fol- lowing effect: ‘In the Knightes Tale, the marshalling of the trees in a catalogue is in manner Chaucer’s own; and the majority of the trees, also, are his, and not Boccaccio’s. ... But as faras philological and literary evidence goes, it is all in favour of the trees being at Chaucer’s time familiarly English. The word beech was ready to hand, and in its final form which has nos since been modified. Yet that word was a considerable remove from the Anglo-Saxon dc, and:such modification postulates warm and con- stant usage. The word is ancestral, older, I mean, than our distinct national existence; it is so like in Anglo-Saxon to what it is in Icelandic and in German as to prove that there was no breach of continuity in its use from the earliest time.’ ZAa2 PQS oT a -—-— 724 APPENDIX. - By the word ‘abietem’ Julius meant probably the Adies pectinata, s. Pinus picea L., our ‘silver fir,’ a tree with which, as being a Swiss, a French, and a Pyrenean pine, and climbing those heights in company with the beech, his campaigns in Western Europe had. sufficiently familiarised him. The Scotch fir, Pinus sylvestris, was for many centuries later the only representative in these islands of the Abietinee, and indeed the yew, Taxus baccata, and the juniper, Juniperus communis, the only other representatives of the entire natural order Conifere}. In a round barrow at Kepwick examined by Canon Greenwell (see supra p. 337) and myself the grave was found lined with the bark and branches of the birch ;, much as the Lapp graves, described in the Compte Rendu of the Stockholm International Congress of Anthropology, 1876, tom. i. p. 181, or Mestorf’s Report of it, 1874, p. 13, contained bodies entirely covered with several layers of birch bark sewed round them to protect them as much as possible. It is interesting to add that in these tombs, constructed of stones and with much pains, ‘on y a retrouvé . . . des pointes de fléche et des cuillers en bois de renne ainsi que des fragments de poterie .... and that ‘quelques-uns de tombeaux renfermaient une ou deux piéces de bronze et de fer.’ Herr Victor Hehn has in two passages, /.c. pp. 11 and 425, laid so much weight upon the importance of the lime or linden tree (the ‘lyndes faire’ of Chaucer, 7%dia europea, grandifolia, and parvifolia of botanists) to man in early stages of culture,at once forthe manufacture of matting, an invention of older date than weaving, and for the 1 The Scotch fir, P. sylvestris, must have met Cesar’s eyes in great abundance in the parts of Britain which he traversed. Still he, not being a botanist, may have failed to recognise it as an abies; and it may, in the other countries in which he might have seen it, have been, then as now, overgrown and obscured by its natural allies. Or indeed it may have been represented in those regions at that time only by that dwarf marsh-haunting variety which, following zoological analogies, I would call P. sylvestris, var. palustris. The Swiss spruce, P. abies, on the other hand, which as much excels our English spruce in size and beauty as our Scotch fir excels the Swiss, may very easily have been confounded with the silver fir, P. picea, by Cesar, as when old it comes to resemble it both in general facies and in the colour of its bark. I have thought that the spruce may, like our common elm, have attained its present numerical preponderance in recent times and owing to man’s help and its superior serviceability. And Dr. Uhlmann tells me it is less abundantly represented in the stone-period lake-dwelling of Miinchenbuchsee than the silver fir. Dr. H. Christ, on the other hand, says the reverse is the case in the station of Roben- hausen, which, according to Riitimeyer, Fauna der Pfahlbauten, p. 161, bears other evidence of belonging to a later ‘ Kulturzustand.’ For the geographical distribution of the Abietinee, see De Candolle, 7.c., pp. 158, 190, 192; Fischer, Flora von Bern, 1863, pp. 227, 228; Heer in Keller, ed. Lee, p. 349; Dr. Christ in Riitimeyer, lL. c., pp. 228, 229. ais v9 APPENDIX. 725 supply of honey to bees, to say nothing of its other uses, that in view of the indigenous character of the tree being disputed it be- comes of importance to note that De Candolle (/. c. p. 658), with the arguments of Messrs. Leighton and Bromfield and with the philo- logical evidence furnished by Davies (Welsh Botany, p. 53) before him, inclines to the affirmative side of the question. As regards the small-leaved lime-tree, Zidia parvifolia, the claims of which to be considered indigenous Mr. H. C. Watson (Cybele, i. p. 243) allows, it may be added that Mr. Edwin Lees (cit. Johns, /. ¢. p- 260) informs us that there is in the neighbourhood of Worcester a wood remote from any old dwelling or public road, of about 500 acres in extent, the greater part of which is composed of the small-leaved lime. II. Or tue Preuistoric Fauna or Neoutrutc Times. But though the lime may have been available in these islands for the use of the bee, and though both the laws (Wotton, Leg. Wallice, i. 22. p. 43) and the literature (Sharon Turner, Vindication of the Ancient British Poems, p. 59; Stephens, Literature of the Kymry, 2nd ed., 1876, p. 80) no less than the reputation (Holin- shed, England, ed. 1807, i. 286) of the Welsh tell us that they made ‘no less accompt’ of metheglin or mead ‘than the Greeks did of their ambrosia or nectar,’ I should for several reasons be slow to think that the bee was domesticated in this country before the Roman era, or that the Celtic mead was made of any but wild honey. If we consider however, firstly, that even to the Romans themselves sugar was mainly procured from honey, beet-root and maple-sugar being wholly unknown and cane-sugar having been heard of only in some tradition from the expedition of Nearchus (Strabo, xv. 1. 20); and, secondly, how largely now separated sugars * enter into the dietaries even of the poorest amongst us, we shall 1 See address to the Physiological Subsection of the British Association, by Ed- ward Smith, M.D., F.R.S. Report, Bath Meeting, 1864, p. 110. ‘Separated sugars were obtained by 98 per cent. of the farm labourers in England, 92 per cent. in Wales, 96 per cent. in Scotland, and 82 per cent. in Ireland; and the quantity per adult weekly was—England 74 ozs., Wales 73 ozs., Scotland 53 ozs., and Ireland 43 0zs.; so that Wales occupied the head, and Ireland the foot of the list, both in frequency and quantity. Of in-door operatives, silk-weavers obtained 74 ozs., needle-women 7{ ozs., kid-glovers 44 ozs., shoemakers 10 ozs., and stocking-weavers 11 ozs.; and hence the average was higher than that of out-door labourers, as 8 ozs. to 66 ozs. The frequency with which they were obtained was the same in both classes on the whole average.’ 726 APFENDIX. come to see that this at first sight trifling matter would, if we could transport ourselves back into the days of even Caractacns, constitute for us as constantly felt a difference between ancient and modern life as would the absence or extreme rarity of glass and coal. The only evidence which I have met with which may seem to show that the British in pre-Roman times obtained the honey which the authority I am about to quote calls an ‘excellent succedaneum ’ for sugar, from hived bees rather than wérpys é« yAaupijs of the Ihad (8. 88), the ‘stony rock’ of Scripture+, or the mountain oak of Hesiod’s Works and Days, 230, is the following passage in Mr. Logan’s ‘Scottish Gael,’ ii. 147. ‘The Celtic Britons,’ says this authority, ‘kept their bees in a bascaud formed of willow plaited. About fifty years ago one of these was found in Lanishaw Moss; and about eighteen years since another was discovered about six feet underground in Chat’s Moss, both in Lancashire. This last was a cone of about two yards and a half high and one yard in diameter at bottom, and was divided into four floors or separate hives.’ No references are given im loco, and I have-not been able to find any more detailed account of this discovery elsewhere, The older edi- tions of Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘Principles of Geology,’ e.g. ninth edition, 1853, chap. xlv. p. 721, familiarised us with the belief that Roman roads were to be found in Yorkshire and Kincardineshire covered under peat of eight feet in thickness; but in his tenth edition of 1868, vol. ii. chap. xliv. p. 499, as also in his ‘Antiquity of Man,’ 1863, p. 110, we find some distrust expressed upon this point, and in the last cited work the author inclines to accept M. Boucher de Perthes’ estimate of three centimétres being the 1 T have not been able to convince myself that there is any allusion in either the Old Testament or the Homeric poems to the invention of the hive any more than there is to the common fowl. The earliest mention of hives which I have met with is in Hesiod (fi. 700 B.c.), who in five lines of the Theogonia, 594-598, speaks of them twice, once in the words ophvecot xatnpepéecot, and again as émnpedpéas oipBdous. An eminent scholar has however suggested to me that hives seem to be referred to in the words from the description of the cave in Ithaca (Odyssey, v. xiii. 106) :— év0a 8 érerta TiWaBwooovar pédAtooa. But nothing that I can find recorded of the habits of wild bees is inconsistent with what we can see of the fearlessness with which swarms of our bees will enter places tenanted by man. As regards the force of the words, I find that Virgil in his para- phrase of the passage Aineid, i. 159 seqg., as also Quintus Calaber in his vi. 470, omit to give any equivalent whatever for them, whence perhaps we may infer that they were not quite certain what they meant. Mr. Worsley however, in his translation of them, gives us the simple words, ‘ Wild bees make honey there.’ The two passages in the Iliad, f. ii. 87-89, p. xii. 167, obviously refer to wild bees; and I submit that Quintus Calaber in his line iii. 222, ai’ fa 0 édv wept of uBAov dmepécia roréovrat, as well as elsewhere, was guilty of an anachronism. . APPENDIX. 727 rate of increment for every hundred years. The following summary, however, of the facts known as to the growth of peat, given by Professor McK. Hughes in a lecture given before the Royal Insti- tution, Friday, March 24, 1876, on ‘Geological Measures of Time’ (see Proceedings of the Royal Institution, p. 6), will justify us in setting aside the imperfectly recorded history given above from Mr. Logan’s work :— ‘He explained the growth of peat, pointing out that there are two kinds of peat; that which is formed in water, as in mountain tarns or old river-courses, and the peat that grows all over the slopes of moorlands, high and low. The first is partly formed from drifted vegetable matter in the deeper parts, and from the decay of plants that grow on the spot all round the margin, which therefore encroaches rapidly. Here at the outset we meet with a source of error. The rate is very different in these two cases, the quantity of vegetable matter that drifts far in being generally very small. On the hill-sides the growth is to be referred almost entirely to two or three species of moss, and in a smaller degree to the heather and other plants. As the lower part of the mosses sphagnum and hypnum decay away and add to the layer of peat below, the upper part grows on, and so a thick layer of vegetable matter is at length accumulated. Workmen tell us that when they have dug a trench into a peat- moss, if they leave it alone it fills up again, or, as they would say, the peat grows again. This happens when the peat is apt during some seasons to be full of water, so as to become a kind of slush or ooze. It is perfectly clear that the apparent rate of accumulation where such filling in occurs must often be deceptive. A good example of a similar thing happening on a large scale in nature is the case of the Solway Moss, and many other instances as recorded by Lyell. ‘So we see that while the peat is being formed it is subject to all kinds of variations, and when it has been formed it is liable to be soaked with water and run, destroying the value of all evidence to be derived from any observation on its rate of growth else- where.’ . On the other hand, my own excavations in Roman rubbish-pits have furnished me with something of an argument to set against the reported discovery of hives under peat. When excavating in 1868 (see Archxologia, xlii. p. 476) a very large pit of that kind at Frilford, I was much struck with the relatively great abundance amongst the various kinds of earthen vessels there represented by 728 | APPENDIX. larger or smaller fragments of small, often nearly perfect, pots of hard black ware of about the size of a large swan’s ego, with the smaller end truncated and flattened and the larger usually provided with a recurved lip for tieing a cover over its contents. Now I have never found any of the various and well-known varieties of Roman funeral ware in a Roman rubbish-heap; every article of daily life, of the coarsest and of the finest kind, whether in pottery or metal, may be found in such deposits; but within my experience they never contain anything which was destined for the tomb or could bring to mind the dmvisas cupressos. It is obvious however that such jars might be supposed to be intended for the cosmetic rather than the culinary needs of the luxurious Romans. But for the purposes indicated .by Horace (Od. ii. 29) and Persius (Sat. iv. 37), for the dalanus capillis and the balanatum gausape, finer ware than that of these diminutive amphore would, I think, have been used, for finer ware is usually present in abundance in such collections, and was, as I have noted, /. ¢., specially abundant in the case speci- fied; whilst, as was pointed out to me by Mr. Wm. Hatchett Jackson, of the University Museum, small jars of much the same contour, if not of the same paste, are still largely used in the honey trade of Narbonne. ‘The sale of honey was amongst the patrias artes of the Ligurian of the times of Diodorus and Strabo’, and fashions and 1 Diodorus (v. 34) writes thus of the Celtiberians (in the connection already referred to, p. 685 supra): Tpopais 5 xp@vras npéaor wavrodamois Kal SayiAéor Kal oivopédcTos népatt, xopnyovons THs xwpas TO wéAL TapwAnbés. It may be an overstraining of the words to suggest that the six last quoted may be considered to indicate that wild rather than hive honey was in the mind of the writer. The words of his contemporary Strabo are in a parallel passage (iv. 6, 2, p. 168, ed. Miiller, 1853) to the following effect :— Aiyves, (vres dnd Opepparav 7d TAEéov Kat yaAaKTos Kal KpOivov TépaTos, veudpevor TA TE mpos Oadarrn, xwpia kal 7d TA€ov TA Opn . . HAN TapndAANV vautnyhotpov Kal peyahddevSpov . katéyouow eis 70 Eumdprov Thy Téevovay Kal Opéupara Kal Sépyara wal péerAr.. . . mAcovdce 5 kai 7d Avyyotpiov map airois 8 Ties HAEKpov mpocayopevouet. M. Escher vom Berg, Mittheil. Ant. Gesell. Zurich, Rapp. vi. Pfahlbauten, p. 34, suggests that the straining of honey off the comb may have been the use to which such perforated dishes as that figured by Keller, 7. c., taf. v. fig. 26, p. 270, or ed. Lee, pl. lii. B, fig. 1. See also Désor, Le Bel Age du Bronze, p. 12, fig. 22, and Schlie- mann, Trojanische Alterthiimer, tab. 174, fig. 3377. Usually such perforations are held to have been intended for filtering whey off curds, in accordance with the Homeric words, Od. ix. 222, 223 :— : Naiov 8 dpo dyyea mavTa Tavaoi te oxapides Te TeTvypéva, But, as hinted above, p. 705, we may suppose that in such descriptions as this we have traditions of a much earlier period than those we are here concerned with, preserved for us. It is right however to add that Herr Edmund vy. Fellenberg, Bericht iiber die Pfahlbauten des Bielersees, S.A. 1875, pp. 55-61, suggests yet another application, that of fumigation, for these vessels. Honey however is so strained in certain Swiss valleys at the present day. ee APPENDIX. 729 patterns which have once been in vogue in such trades are often very persistent. Strong evidence of the literary and historical kind (gq. v.) is brought forward by Mr. J. Thrupp, in his interesting article on the ‘Domestication of Animals in England’ (Trans. Ethn. Soe. London, 1865, New Series, vol. iv. p. 169), in favour of the con- clusion that ‘in the sixth and seventh centuries bees were alto- gether wild’ in this country. The history of the words used for ‘hive’ appears to show that the first step towards the domestication of the bee by the English was ‘the formation of imitations in bark (rusca, see Ducange, sub voc.) of the hollows of the trees in which they were found.’ About the middle of the tenth century we read of Anglo-Saxon ‘beo-churls ;’ and we find ‘the Anglo-Saxon word “beo-cist” (bee-chest) and the Latin “alvearia” (bee-hives) usually substituted for “rusca,” from which it may be inferred that these rough constructions were superseded by regular hives.’ Hehn (Cultur-Planzen und Hausthiere, p. 425 ed. i. p. 505 ed. ii), referring to an ‘erschépfend’ article by Pott in Kuhn and Schleicher’s Beitrage, ii. 265, in which the Slavonic word for hive is stated to be w/ei and the Lithuanian awilys (as according to Grimm (1819) the Bohemian word is au/ and the Polish w/), sug- gests that these words may be loan words modelled from the Latin alveus, and medieval Latin apile. The Welsh scholars in Oxford, the late Principal of Jesus College and Professor Rhys, inform me that the common Welsh word for beehive is cwch-gwenyn, literally boat of bees, and that these are not loan words. If the words are not borrowed words, the idea which they express is borrowed, and shows that the employers of the metaphor used boats before hives. If the boats to which they compared the beehives were the North Welsh coracles with ‘subspheroidal’ rather than so-called ‘scaphoid’ outlines, this may further indicate that the earliest form of beehive with which the Welsh were acquainted was one which was late to be attained to in the development of the invention!. If we are right in holding, on the authority of Logan, /. c., that the Cornish word for hive is kauelh, which in Welsh means a large basket, this would go some way to show that the Cornish were not acquainted with, or at least did not adopt the hive until it had been developed beyond 1 [ learn from Professor Westwood that according to Spinola our domestic species Apis mellifica rarely occurs in Liguria; and he suggests that this shows either that the Ligures were not the colonisers of Wales, as has been affirmed, or that they did not bring their bee Apis ligustica with them. 730° APPENDIX. . the stage of ‘rusca,’ ‘corticibus suta cavatis,’ into that of the ‘lento alvearia vimine texta’ of Virgil. I have, finally, the authority of Professor Rhys for the possibility of the Welsh word for wax, viz. cwyr, being a loan word from the Latin. I searched, as I had expected, in vain, for any figure of a hive in Mr. Evans’s! ‘ Coins of the Ancient Britons,’ 1864. The currently, and as I believe correctly, accepted view that the common fowl, Gallus gallimaceus, is never mentioned by, and may with some considerable likelihood be supposed to have been unknown to the Old Testament writers and to Homer and Hesiod also, is confirmed by the negative evidence of the neolithic interments in this country. 1 In answer to an enquiry of mine as to the existence of a figure of a hive on any ancient coin whatever, Mr. Evans informs me that he does not know of any such coin which has certainly a hive upon it. The figures upon two coins of Dyrrachium given by Beger (Thesaur. Brandenberg. Select. vol. i. p.459) and by Goltz (ed. Nonnius, 1620, pl. i. fig. 7, p. 4) amongst the coins of Greece, the Islands, and Asia Minor, though described loce. citt. as ‘ apiaria’ and ‘ alvearia,’ Mr. Evans thinks may be merely the caps of the Dioscuri. And to me these figures, as given in the latter of the books referred to, appear with their pendent strings to suggest the mitre with redimicula of the Mneid, ix. 616, rather than the alvearia of the Georgics. Professor Westwood has furnished me with certain references from hagiological literature which bear on the question of the recent date of the domestication of the bee in these islands. In the Life of St. Cadoe (Bibl. Cotton. Vesp. A. xiv) it is stated that he chose a solitary place for his monastery, having seen aprwm sub arbore jacentem, apes venientes et intrantes in cavam arborem. In the first Life of St. David we are told that his father was told by an angel that he would find gifts by the river Teivy ; a certain stag; apwmque examen in arbore positum, &. And in the second Life of the same saint there is a curious legend of a swarm of bees settling on a ship going to Ireland, the bees following St. David from place to place ; and it is added that ‘Hibernia in qua nunquam usque ad illud tempus apes vivere poterant mellis fertilitate ditatur? See also Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., iii, 82-84; Life of St. Molaga, cap. 22; Notes on Irish Architecture, by the Earl of Dunraven, i. pp. 63, 64. 2 It is a little difficult to reconcile the passages which stand in our authorised version of the Old Testament (1 Kings x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21), to the effect that a navy of Tarshish brought ‘once in three years gold and silver, ivory, and apes and peacocks ” to king Solomon, with the view held, I should suppose, by most modern Hebraists, as by Bochart (Hierozoicon, ed. 1682, lib. i. cap. xvi. p. 111), that when the Latin ‘inter- pretes multa prophetarum loca ad gallinaceum genus referunt,’ it is, in the words of the writer just cited, conjecturis non satis certis. For the servants of Hiram and Solomon would have found it at least as easy and profitable to import Gallus bankiva and indeed Sus indicus as apes and peacocks. But as against this utilitarian considera- tion we may suggest that the words of Cesar quoted in the text render it not wholly improbable that to the Tyrian sailors the fowl may have been a forbidden food, as it was to many other races; and as, in fact, Sus was to their Hebrew comrades on those ships of Tarshish. Antiquaries who hold that it was from intercourse with Pheenician rather than with Etruscan traders that the Britons learnt certain other things will think this an argument in their favour. A long sea-voyage however, as the absence of the fowl from New Zealand in the time of Captain Cook shows us, made the intro- duction of domestic animals very difficult to such navigators. And the history of the words makes me suspect that it was by the way of Babylon rather than that of the Red Sea that the peacock itself, to say nothing of the common fowl, the meporxds dpyis, found its main route of immigration into Palestine and Greece. For, during the APPENDIX. 731 Negative evidence is perhaps stronger in this case than in most of the others in which I have had to refer to it. For it is difficult Babylonish captivity the word fukhi-im, the Hebrew representative of the Malabar name for the peacock, had become obsolete, and, like many other Hebrew words, was nearly forgotten in the time of the LXX, who have given what the Targum, using a word, tavass, almost identical with ra@s, holds to be its true meaning, only once and in a various reading (Cod. Alex.), nal radévev. And Minayeff (cit. Caldwell, Dravidian Grammar, ed. 1875, p. 92) has discovered in the Buddhistical writings that the ancient Indian merchants took peacocks to Babylon. Probably the fowl was carried with them. As regards the absence of any mention of the common fowl in the Homeric poems, I have been told that an eminent and voluminous writer upon this subject is of opinion that in the line, Il. ¢. (vi.) 518, Tevxeot tappaivery, &s 7 HA€KTwp, eBeBHnet, we have Paris, in his ill-supported character of warrior, compared to this bird. A somewhat similar passage in the Proverbs of Solomon (xxx. 31) has been similarly misconceived of ; and it is true that we do find this comparison used by Aschylus (Agamemnon, 1671) for a man with a character not wholly unlike that of Paris. This however proves nothing. I have not enquired what the balance of commentatorial authority may be upon this point; for I cannot understand how any unprejudiced person who will compare the passage already referred to, Il. vi. 504-514, with the ten lines Il. x. (xxii.) 22-32, describing the armed Achilles, can doubt that the two passages are the work of one poet; that he uses in them two metaphors in illustration of one phenomenon ; and that in neither of these metaphors is the bird in question alluded to. Theognis (fl. 540 38.0.) is the earliest Western writer, so far as I know, in whom any indisputable allusion to this bird has been found; and to him the cock-crowing appears to have become already a familiar mark of the passing of time. We have also Payne Knight’s authority (Prolegomena, ed. 1820, Paris and Strasburg, p. 8) for saying that in the same sixth century B. c. the coins of Himera and Samothrace bore - evidence of its establishment in Mediterranean countries. See for coins, Goltz and Nonnius, Greecia, Insule et Asia Minor; Carystus, tab. xi. et xii.; Massieu, p. 500; Rasche, Lex Numn. ii. 2, p. 311. ' Whilst upon the subject of the importation of animals from the East Indies, I would draw attention to the fact that the area of the world’s surface which M. Mortillet (in his most suggestive paper, ‘Sur l’Origine de Bronze,’ in the Révue d’ Anthropologie, 1875, iv. p. 653) has pointed out as the region in which the largest and most readily available deposits of tin were and are to be found side by side with copper, the region namely which extends from ‘ La Birmanie Anglaise’ to the Sunda Straits, lies entirely within the area of distribution of the Gallus bankiva (see Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., April 21, 1863, p. 122), the undoubted parent stock of the common fowl. This coin- cidence appears to me to add something to the force of M. Mortillet’s argument in favour of the East Indian origin of bronze; but it must be added, on the other side, that if the domesticated bird followed bronze westwards, this order of events was reversed in the easterly and south-easterly direction, the introduction of the bird having preceded all importation of metal into Polynesia. ; So much has of late been written upon the Indian or African origin of our domestic animals, mammalian and avian, that it may be well to add in this connection that too much weight may in this question be given to the principle laid down by Link in his usually excellent though now old treatise, Die Urwelt, 1821, i. p. 201, to the effect that the domestication of birds indicates a higher condition of civilisation than the domes- tication of mammals. The Indians described by Mr. Bates (/. c. supra) domesticate not only the common fowl which will, but curassows which will not breed in captivity ; and the same authority is referred to by Mr. Francis Galton (Trans. Ethn. Soc., 1865, _ New Series, vol. iii. p. 125) as having given him a list of birds tamed by the same tribes which is more extensive than the list of quadrupeds tamed by them, though that list contains twenty-one species. And this they do, at the same time that they ‘do not 732 APPENDIX. to think on the one hand as regards literature, that poetical writers would have omitted to use for illustration the habits -and bearing and peculiarities of a creature which all later poets, gnomic and other, have so constantly and multifariously alluded to; and on the other as regards excavations, that an animal which Captain Cook found in occupation of Polynesia, from Tahiti to the Sandwich Islands, and which has. since been adopted everywhere, even by the non-progressive Indians of the Amazons (see Bates, /.¢., il. 193), and ‘by remote tribes on rivers rarely visited by white men,’ would have been missing in them if it had existed on the spots at the period concerned. There is of course no question that the common fowl was known to if not used by the Britons when Cesar made his short acquaintance with them and found that ‘ Leporem et gallinam et anserem gustare fas non putant; hec tamen alunt animi voluptatisque caussa.’ (See De Bello Gallico, v. 12.) Nor, on the other hand, does the discovery of the bones of Gallus as described by Alphonse Milne Edwards (Reliquize Aquitanice, p. 241) in association with ‘those of Ursus spelzus, Rhinoceros, and large Felis’ in the caves tenanted by paleolithic man make it at all more likely that the bird has, any more than the mammals, been continuously represented upon that area since those times down to those of Cesar and ours. The struggle for existence with rival animals, to say nothing of that to be waged against inorganic forces, may well have exiled and exterminated during the neolithic age animals which the men of the bronze and iron have found it their pleasure or their interest to introduce again, or which may themselves have succeeded in reoccupying their lost territories. The history of the fallow deer, and possibly those of the rabbit and horse, might, if we could read them out of the records in the soil, illustrate this principle, just as the recent history of the capercailzie, Tetrao urogallus, does. On the other hand, though M. Alphonse Milne Edwards (/.c., pp. 243-247) appears to think otherwise, I should incline to think the Crane, Grus cinereus, may have occupied this country con- show themselves so sensible of the advantages derivable from the ox, sheep, and hog, all of which have been introduced into their country.’ Few Englishmen will be found to agree in Guizot’s comparison (Hist. Civ, Franc., lect. vii. tom. i., cit. Merivale, Conversion of the Northern Nations, p. 185) of their Anglo-Saxon forefathers’ condi- tion, social and political, to that of the modern Red Indians; still as against Link’s principle quoted above it is worth while to recollect that they, in the words of Mr. Thrupp (l. c. p. 172), ‘kept as pets and probably attempted to domesticate’ ravens, rooks, cranes, and peacocks. ee mend APPENDIX. 733 tinuously from palzolithic down to the comparatively recent period of its extinction here. Difference merely of size is not sufficient in this case to establish a specific difference. The bones of more than one specimen of this bird were found by two of my former pupils, Mr. W. Bruce Clark and Mr. Randal Johnson of Pembroke College, in a rubbish-pit at Wytham, near Oxford, mixed up with the skeletons of three dogs, with bones of ox, pig, roe, horse, teal and wild-swan, and with coarse culinary nail-marked and other British pottery, by which the date of this ‘find’ is fixed to the bronze age. I have not met with any remains of this bird in any excavations of an earlier date in this country; though it is difficult to think that neolithic man would have neglected it as an article of diet unless debarred by superstition from making use of it. _ The rabbit, Lepus cuniculus, finds a place in several catalogues of British Prehistoric Mammalia; Mr. Pengelly, however, writing of the discovery of the cave man at Mentone (Trans. Devon Association for the Advancement of Science, vi. 1874, pp. 318, 801, 818 and 840), says that the discovery of its bones in that deposit does ‘not strengthen the evidence for its antiquity :’ though there is of course no doubt that the remains of this animal, which still survives as a member of the fauna of North Africa, form an essential and not merely an accidental constituent in the quaternary deposits of Mediterranean caves (see Prof. Busk, Zool, Trans. x. 2, p. 128), and though it is difficult to set aside the evidence of their holding a similar relation to some of our own caves. Professor Rogers, who in his ‘ History of Agriculture and Prices in England’ has given us (vol. i. pp. 33, 65, 123, 340, 341, 583, vol. 11. 558-91) records of the high prices paid for these 1 In Daniel’s ‘Rural Sports,’ 1801, vol. i. p. 347, there is the following statement :— *In an account of the prices of provisions, &c. at the installation feast of Ralph de Borne, abbot of St. Austin’s, Canterbury, A.D. 1309 (contained in the fourth volume of Dr. Henry’s valuable History of Great Britain), we have among others the following articles :— ° £ a da. 600 rabbits . F : , F : The. 2 0 Partridges, mallards, bitterns, larks ; : te O00 200 pigs ; ‘ : , . : ues, 2. 0 As partridges are here associated with other birds and no mention made of their number, their price in these times cannot be ascertained, but a rabbit appears to have been sold at the same price as a pig, viz. sixpence each. Their relative value has con- siderably altered in the interval between that day and this.’ I should not agree with the view put forward (1. c. 341) by my friend and former tutor Professor Rogers, to the effect that rabbits when once introduced ‘would spread very slowly over the country.’ We have good natural history evidence, both direct and analogical, for holding that starting even from a single centre, and as individuals 734 APPENDIX. animals in the middle ages, declares himself of opinion that ‘rabbits were introduced into England in or just before the thirteenth century.’ I have never found the remains of the rabbit in any surroundings » earlier than those of Saxon times; but difficult as it may be to prove the positive fact of the contemporaneity of a burrowing animal with a deposit into which it is possible it may have burrowed,-it is more difficult still to prove the negative fact of its absence from an entire country at any one particular period. Further, the comparatively small size of the rabbit makes the matter still more difficult than it is as regards the fallow deer, or the elm and vine and chestnut, which we may speak of as having been probably introduced or reintroduced by the Romans. And, thirdly, as a much larger portion of Britain was occupied in earlier than in later times by woodland which would furnish protection and harbour to the mustelide, the martens, weasel, stoat, and polecat, the natural enemies and most effectual destroyers of the rabbit, we can understand how this latter animal has escaped the ordinary fate of ere nature and become more abundant in this country concomitantly with the increase of its human occu- pants, and the curtailment of its woods and forests’. The re- ranging only for short distances, they would form a circle with a very rapidly widening circumference in the absence or paucity of natural enemies. Literary evidence in the same direction is furnished by the beautiful lines of our fourteenth-century poet, Chaucer, in the ‘ Romaunt of the Rose,’ ed. Bell, 1855, vol. vii. p. 60 :— ‘Conies there were also playing That comen out of her claperes, Of sondry coloures and maneres, And maden many a turneying Upon the freshe gras sprynging.’ So also in the ‘Assembly of Foules,’ vol. iv. p. 196, in a parallel passage of equal beauty we have the line ‘The pretty conies to hir playe gan hie.’ Whence it would appear that the animal in question was a familiar object to English eyes in those days. I take this opportunity of remarking that an acquaintance with the line next but one to that just quoted, ‘The dredeful roe, the buck, ‘the hart, the hind,’ would have made the suggestion that the fallow deer was introduced into England no earlier than the time of James I. an impossibility. For the introduction of the fallow deer into Britain, see Professor Boyd Dawkins, Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., June 17, 1868, p. 515; ‘Nature,’ Dec. 10, 1874, Jan. 21, 1875; Jeitteles, ibid., Nov. 26, 1874; Sir V. Brooke, ibid., Jan. 14, 1875. 1 From British coins the rabbit is as entirely absent as is the beehive; see p. 729 supra. Of Spanishcoins, on the ot her hand, Spanheim (De Prestantia et Usu, vol. i. p. 179), in a passage pointed out to me by Mr. Evans, says it may be taken ‘index velut ac tessera, much as the dolphin is of Italian seaports and the owl of Athens and her colonies. Dr. Whitaker however, in his ‘ History of Manchester,’ may overstrain the a _/ au” ved APPENDIX, 700 lations of the Mustelide to the Rodentia generally, are expressed accurately in the Batrachomyomachia, 51-52 :— mActoTov 8% yadenv tepide(d.a tris dplary "H xal tpwyAodvvovta Kata TpdyAnv épectven. The bones of water-rats, Arvicola amphibius, I have found lying in great quantities in a barrow together with a few remains of the polecat, Mustela putorius, which latter animal had used the place as a lair and probably nest for a considerable period. The upper and lower jaws of the water-rats had been left intact, their strong teeth, which should have prevented what I am well assured were similar remains in other barrows from being spoken of as ‘ rats’ bones, having been found over-resistent by their destroyers, who had however, with the characteristic instinct of their genus, never spared the brain-containing calvarie. The dog has only rarely been met with in British interments either of the stone or of the bronze age, a circumstance worthy of note when we recollect how very commonly the dog has in all countries kept his master or mistress company in the tomb as faithfully as during life. One instance however of such an inter- ment I noted and have described (Journal Anth. Inst., v. p. 157; see p. 517 supra) in the neolithic barrow at Eyford; the dog had undoubtedly been buried together with a woman, whose skeleton was, like that of the dog, still partly iz situ. The characters of the dog’s skeleton, like those of many other objects found even in in- terments most undoubtedly of the stone- and bone-age, are such as, irrespective of any reference to what we know of paleolithic times, — to impress upon us the conviction that the men even of those far- off days had yet been preceded by many generations who had made weapons and domesticated animals. This dog bears no resemblance to the wolf-like Esquimaux dog on the one side, nor to any such small terrier-like breed on the other, as might suggest that it represents a lately domesticated jackal. It may be conveniently spoken of, as Riitimeyer (Fauna der Pfahlbauten, p. 118) does speak of the dog, similarly rare in the relics from the Swiss lake- dwellings, as a ‘middle sized’ dog, ‘einen Hand von mittlerer words of Varro (iii. 12), ‘Et quod in Hispania annis ita fuisti multis ut inde te cuniculos persecutos credam,’ by supposing them to show that the writer held that all rabbits in Italy had been imported from Spain. For a disquisition on the history of the rabbit, see Houghton, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1869, iv. Ser., vol. xv. p. 179. For one on that of the martens, see Cambridge Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1868, pp. 47, 62, 437, 438, where the historical relations of these animals to the rabbit, and also to the Felis catus, are considered. en, e Na 736 APPENDIX. Grosse ;’ a description which, however vague, is decisive as to its representing a long-domesticated breed. The lower jaw, the only part of the head which had been left undisturbed im situ, had the stoutness and was about the size of that bone as seen in some of the smaller English mastiffs ; its trunk bones are still incomplete, but may be supposed to have made up the framework of a body about the size of that of an ordinary shepherd’s-dog!. The dogs of the bronze period referred to, supra p. 782, are about the same size. In the same chamber with the bones of this dog a single bone of a fox, Canis vulpes, was found, which escaped notice when the contents of the chamber were first examined and described, /. c. Its texture and weathering are so similar to those of the other bones, human and canine, found in the chamber, as to suggest that it must have been nearly or quite of the same age; and its slender- ness and slightness, as compared with those of modern foxes, illustrate the principle that the bones of the carnivora of times when game-preserving was unknown, and when they had conse- quently more of their own congeners to compete with and fewer of their victims available to prey upon, are smaller than those of our days when these conditions are exactly reversed. The bones of the martens and polecats which I have found in various barrows bear out this view. Similar facts have been noted by Riitimeyer in the ‘ Fauna der Pfahlbauten,’ p. 281. As in the earlier pile-dwellings of Switzerland, so in the stone- age barrows of this country, the horse is less frequently found than from what we know of the discovery of its bones in cave-dwellings on the one hand, and in interments of later date than the stone age on the other, we should be inclined to expect?. I have never found the bones or teeth of a horse in a long barrow, and I would remark that, whilst such bones are very likely to be introduced into such barrows in the way of secondary interments, I have not met with 1 The dog was abundantly represented in the Norfolk flint mines known as ‘ Grimes Graves,’ and described by Canon Greenwell, Journal Ethnol. Soc. 1870, p. 431. Ido not know the size of the animals to which these remains belonged, but the ingenious argument which Riitimeyer has drawn from the supposedly uniform inferiority in size of the stone-age dog for the singleness of race of his human masters is invalidated by the discovery in the very early lake-dwelling of Luscherz by Dr. Studer of more than one race of dogs. See Bericht iiber die Pfahlbauten des Bielersees, 1875, p. 24. ? For the history of the prehistoric horse, see Riitimeyer, Fauna der Pfahlbauten, 1861, p. 122; Archiv fiir Anthrop., 1873, vi. p. 60; 1875, viii. p. 125; Veranderungen Unserer Thierwelt, 1876, pp. 69, 92; Naumann, Archiv fiir Anthrop., 1875, viii. p. 12; Merk, Excavations at the Kesserloch, translated by J. E. Lee, 1876, pp. 9, 47, with figure ; Dupont, Congrés Internat. Stockholm, C. R. 821; Kinberg, iid., p. 830. APPENDIX. 737 any exact record as to the finding of them in surroundings which left no doubt as to their being contemporaneous with the primary interments. The bones of the horse are both durable and con- spicuous, and it is difficult to think that if the neolithic man had used the animal either for purposes of food or for those of carriage, as his predecessors and successors did, we should not have come upon abundant and unambiguous evidence of such use. As regards the wild boar, Sus scrofa, var. ferus, I have to say that in this country, whatever has been the case elsewhere, it has been but rarely found in the barrows either of the bronze or of the stone period. Until indeed the discovery of it at Cissbury, as described in the Journal Anth. Inst., vol. vi. p, 20 segg., I had never met with its remains in any barrow, though the domesticated variety had been represented in several of both periods. Subsequently the tusk of a wild boar was found in the Nether Swell long barrow. The lower part of the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw of a wild boar found at Cissbury had been broken away, as has so often been noted in other instances, for the purpose of extracting the marrow; and the same practice had been put in force with the remains of two tame pigs found (as described above, p. 454) immediately behind the head of a female skeleton of the late Celtic period. The domestic British pig does not seem to me to differ in any important par- ticulars from the races which we believe to be the descendants of the wild boar. Two bronze statuettes of the Gallo-Roman period given me by Mr. John Evans, as also many antique Italian terra cotta figures, show that the Romans in Gaul knew both the long- snouted wild-boar-like breed and the shorter-snouted better-bred race. The same contrast is shown in two plates (pl. iii. 4, pl. v. 5) of Sambon’s ‘Recherches sur les Monnaies Antiques de I’Italie,’ Naples, 1870, the former of which gives us a pig with a very long and slender snout, whilst in the latter, which represents a sow suckling three young ones, we have, together with the pendent ears, so usually though not invariably characteristic of domestication, the short snout bent upwards so as to form, as in our best breeds, an angle with the plane of the sagittal suture along the roof of the skull. Columella may be cited in support of the same view, as he (lib viii. cap. 9) says that pigs with such short and recurved snouts were preferred to those of a different frontal profile; ‘ Quare in suillo pecore probandi sunt ... . rostris brevibus et resupinis. But I have not found the skulls of this ‘ Oultur-Race’ in British burial-places, and the tenacity with which 3B 738 APPENDIX. very different races have maintained themselves in very many parts even of our less wild districts up to quite recent memory make this the less remarkable. The figures of the boar upon coins and shields of the late Keltic period, i.e. from circa 200 B.c. to circa 80 A.D., might perhaps be taken as confirming the conclusion which my examination of the osteological remains (given at length in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, Zoological Series, vol. ii. 1877) had led me to, had they been more frequently and more distinctively than they are, figures of domesticated as opposed to wild animals. Still, what Mr. Franks writes (Hore Ferales, p. 188, pl. xiv.) is to the purpose in this connexion, especially if we com- pare the plate referred to by him with plates vi, vili, xti, and xii of Mr. Evans’s ‘ British Coins.’ Mr. Franks’s words (/. ¢.) are as follows :—‘ The boar as seen on the Witham shield appears only on the older or autonomous coins of Gaul and Britain; on Roman civilisation being introduced, this national symbol was no longer a gaunt lean animal, as it appears on the shield, but a well-con- ditioned boar of a natural form and in a classical attitude 1’ The small Scottish Highland and Island breed of pigs described by Low (‘ Domesticated Animals of the British Islands,’ Eng. ed. p- 429, Fr. ed. pl. iii) and by Youatt (‘The Pig,’ 1847, pp. 50-52) as having sharp-pointed suberect ears, remarkably strong muscular snouts, an arched back (the ‘Carp’ back of the Germans), and 1 The following passage from De Blainville’s ‘ Osteographie,’ 1847, fase. xxii. p. 170, may be quoted as being a good instance of the folly of relying in these questions upon negative evidence, especially when the existence of that evidence is due simply to neglect of the three lines of enquiry available here, viz. the examination of bones; the excavation or other discovery of coins and works of art; and, thirdly, the examina- tion of literature. Writing of Sus he says, ‘Du temps de César il parait cependant qu’elle n’était pas encore parvenue dans les Gaules, car il n’est nullement question de cet animal dans ses Commentaires; elle s’y est done propagée depuis la conquéte d’ot elle a passée en Angleterre qui ne possédait pas méme de sanglier dans ses forets.’ It is needless to refer to the innumerable discoveries of Sus, both wild and tame, in pre- Roman deposits in this country; and the unanimously accepted result of archeological enquiry may be shortly summed up in the following words of M. Montellier’s ‘Mémoires sur les Bronzes Antiques’ (Paris, 1865, p. 41), ‘ Le de symbole sanglier était un sym- bole Celtique le plus ancien de tous les symboles adoptés dans les Gaules.’ The evidence of literature tells even more strongly in the same direction. From Mr. Thomas Stephens’s ‘ Literature of the Kymry’ (second edition, 1876, pp. 286-270) I learn that this animal was taken by the Kymric poets as typifying the past and future fortunes of their race, and the number of odes translated in the pages referred to in which the persons addressed by those bards are apostrophised in its character is very great. Neither Mr. Stephens nor Mr. Davies can, I apprehend, be accused of want of sympathy with the race which they write of; but I note as regards this particular point that the only difference between them is that (pp. 237 and 270) whilst according to Mr. Davies in the Hoianau the pig is ‘the symbol of Druidism,’ it appears to Mr. Stephens that it ‘allegorically represents the Kymry who inhabited the Principality.’ oa etre eee ae APPENDIX. 739 a forest of stiff bristles arising from it, may perhaps be taken as representing to us now what the ancient British domesticated pig was. The old Welsh pig resembles the Scotch in various points characterising an unimproved breed, but its large ears, spoken of familiarly by breeders as being ‘as large as newspapers,’ indicate that it has been more thoroughly domesticated. Its colour also is more constantly and deeply dark than is that of northern form }, But the size of the ears and the colouration are both exceedingly variable points. The condition of neglect and comparative freedom in which the still surviving Scotch breed is described as living has no doubt been constant since the earliest times; and we may, after making some allowances, fairly suppose that it must have produced the same changes in the soft and perishable parts, and so in the entire appearance of the swine of those days, that we can see it has done in those subjected to it now. The bones of the 1 Tt is not safe to assume that any appearance of a black colour in a pig of this country shows it to be modern, as if this colour could only be due to some cross with the breed known as ‘ Neapolitan,’ and called conveniently by Nathusius, on account of its distribution over the Mediterranean area occupied by Rome in her best days, the ‘Roman’ pig. For the colour of the pig is not only exceedingly variable per se, as stated above, and for reasons which we do not know; but it changes, as regards entire breeds, under the selective action of certain foods, viz. the paint-root, Lachnanthes tinctoria, and buckwheat, Polygonum fagopyrum (see Wyman, Spinola, and Heusinger, citt. Darwin, ‘Origin of Species,’ sixth edition, p. 9; ‘ Domestication,’ second edition, ii. p. 332). The ‘ Roman’ pig is now, as figured in Low, /. c., of a deep black colour almost universally ; but in classical times it was not so any more than the domestic Greék pig was of which Aristotle tells us (H. A. ii. 2. 14) the wild boar differed from it in being black. It is true that the sow of Mneid iii. 392 and viii. 45, ‘ Alba solo recubans, albi circum ubera nati,’ is spoken of (viii. 81) as ‘ subitum atque oculis mirabile monstrum ;’ but Servius 7m loco, who from his date, A. D. 400, must have been familiar enough with ‘ Roman’ pigs, explains the word monstrwm thus, ‘ quia et subito et cwm triginta porcellis est visa, which is quite an adequate explanation. Columella also contrasts (vi. 9) a ‘grex nigre sete quam durissime denseque’ with a ‘glabrum pecus vel etiam pistrinale album’ as being better suited for a ‘regio frigida et pruinosa,’ Hence, though there is no doubt that one of the earliest effects of domestication upon the wild boar stock not uncommonly is to make the colour white or at least what Youatt calls ‘dirty white’ or ‘ yellowish brown,’ there is also no doubt that the reverse of this may be effected by the same process in later stages or through the introduction of new disturbing influences. I incline to think that, though the reverse must have been the case with several of our common domestic animals, immigrating races of men have usually provided themselves with tame pigs by having recourse to the young of the wild-boar stock available on the area which they have occupied. For whilst wild swine everywhere lend themselves readily to domestication, it mmust in early times have been very difficult to transport or import even already domesticated pigs. The contrast in this latter point between the pig and the two animals, which ‘most certainly of all must have been imported into Europe as domesticated, did not escape the notice of the ancient fabulist who, as referred to by Bochart, Hierozoicon, ii. 57, p. 698, spoke of the ‘ poreus, qui cwm agno et lupra ad urbem deferebaiur et quum illi pacate degerent solus se distorquebat.’ 3B2 740 APPENDIX. domesticated prehistoric pig, it is almost needless to say, are the bones of small animals; nor does the early age at which the great majority of domestic swine were then as now slaughtered entirely explain this fact away. As regards the sheep, Ovis aries, I have to say, firstly, that I think the caution with which any identification of any ovine or caprine bone from a prehistoric ‘find’ is usually recorded, should be so worded, or at least received, as to make us think it is at least as likely to be a sheep’s bone as a goat’s. The reverse is ordinarily taken as being implied. But anybody who will study the coloured drawing given by Low (Hist. Nat. An. Dom. de l'Europe, pls. i, ii, French ed.) as referred to by Riitimeyer (Fauna des Pfahlbauten, p- 129) of the ‘dun-faced,’ ‘ flounder-tailed,’ ‘drevicauda,’ ‘ goat- horned’ variety of the sheep still existing in the islands north of the Pentland Firth, will see how difficult it must be to decide the question as to the absence or presence of the sheep at any particular prehistoric period, unless an entire skull be available for deciding the question. Nor is the variation which gives to the horns of the sheep, usually considered the most distinctive portion in the prehistoric skeletons left us, the shape of those of the goat, by any means confined to the Orkney or Shetland sheep. The same approach to the goat’s character is noted of the horns of the Welsh higher mountain breed (Low, Fr. ed. p. 20, Eng. ed. p. 65) of sheep. Hence it is entirely unsafe to decide from the often frag- mentary and detached horn-cores which we obtain from neolithic burials that the animal they belonged to was not a sheep. | But, secondly, though a sheep may have the horn-cores usually found in goats, a goat never has the horn-cores usually found in sheep. But such may be found in prehistoric interments }. 1 Since writing as above I have, through the kindness of Herren Edmund von Fellenberg and Grossrath Biirki in Bern, of Professor F. A. Forel of Lausanne, and of Dr. Uhlmann at Miinchenbuchsee, had opportunities for examining the very rich collections of animal bones from the various lake-dwellings which owe so much to © their protecting care. And I found that the caution which is necessary in dealing with the scanty and often imperfect remains available to me from our prehistoric graves is superfluous in face of their abundant and more complete specimens. The goat is richly and unambiguously represented in the stone-age lake-dwellings, and more abundantly indeed than the sheep in the early stone-age lake-dwellings of — Moosseedorf. It seems however to have lost this numerical preponderance towards the end of the stone period, and to have become comparatively scarce in the bronze age. And I find that M. Kinberg, Stockholm Internat. Congres Anth., p. 831, tells us of Sweden that ‘ La Chévre Capra hircus h. parait avoir été primitivement — plus rare que le mouton. Elle est rare du moins dans les sepultures de Age de la pierre de la Vestergétlande. These facts are entirely in keeping with the sus- APPENDIX, 7Al As regards the ox, Bos taurus, I have little to add to what has been written by others with the much larger stores available to their hands which the Swiss pile-dwellings and other habitations of the living prehistoric man have furnished. Riitimeyer, Fauna des Pfahlbauten, p. 127, and Naumann in his interesting memoir, Archiv fiir Anthropologie, viii. 1, 1875, p. 80, suggest that the variety of ox known in this country as Bos longifrons, and known abroad more correctly as regards structure, if not more conve- niently as regards the appropriation of the name, as Bos brachyceros, is probably the oldest domestic animal with which we are ac- quainted. The older zoologists held (see Buffon, Hist. Nat. xi. 812, ed. 1755), perhaps rather as an article of faith than as the result of enquiry, that ‘on a soumis le brebis et le chévre avant d’avoir dompté le cheval, le boeuf ou le chameau.’ The dog and the pig have on the grounds of their present and their pristine distribution in space, of their readiness to attach themselves to picions hinted at in the text, and with the view that our domestic animals, though coming in the ultimate resort from the East, like nephrite and jade in the stone-, and bronze probably in the bronze-period, did not reach the regions north of the Alps directly from the East, but only by passing northwards from the Greek and Italian peninsulas. For the goat, as has been repeatedly observed from the time of Aristotle (Hist. An, ix. 4) down to the present, bears cold less well than the sheep, whilst every traveller in sunburnt barren countries may observe with gratitude and wonder what copious supplies of milk are obtained from it, often off but limited areas in these surroundings, and from but shrubs and weeds. The sheep on the other hand, is, as its resting-places on the ‘ Schatten-seite’ of a mountain show us, more sensitive to heat and more appreciative of the ‘shadow of a great rock in a weary land’ than most animals. As described in the beautiful translations of a modern Greek ballad, by Niebuhr and Miss Winkworth (Life and Letters, vol. ii. p. 28, ed. 1852), it loves the ‘still cold fountain’ of the ‘many fountained’ mountain-top, toAvmidaxos axpupeins, whilst, as a visit to the hungry and thirsty, stony and light-soiled, island of Rhenea showed me, the goat will retain its vigour and independence of bearing with but the scantiest supply of succulent vegetation and of pure water. The goat possesses certain advantages over the sheep as a domestic animal in a ‘barren and dry land where no water is,’ but in a palustrine or lacustrine district it possesses none. And I submit therefore that the abundance of it in the Swiss lake-dwellings can be reasonably explained by supposing that it was carried thither by a people or tribe migrating northwards from the Mediterranean countries. Uncultivated races, as is well known and can still be observed, will adhere with a persistence which, if not wholly intelligent, is yet not wholly unpleasing, to their own domesticated animals even when their inferiority to other available breeds is demonstrated ; and the goat, on its side, will, as Buffon has remarked (Hist. Nat. v. 66, ed. 1755), attach itself to man with an irrepressible fixity correlated with its traditional petulance. _ The importance of these points in the natural history of the goat is impressed upon us from the purely anatomical point of view by the absence of any well-marked Western varieties of it; whilst the greater utility of the sheep in our latitudes is shown contrariwise by the multitude of such varieties into which it has effloresced under domestication in a period throughout which the goat has remained as unchanged as the weeds it feeds upon. 742 APPENDIX. man and share his fortunes, and, I incline to think, most of all, of their solidarity with him in supporting the alternation of generations of certain entozoa, perhaps equal claims in this matter with the other five animals specified. For my own part I should incline to favour the claims of the dog, on the general grounds of the hunting stage having been earlier in date than the pastoral and of the facility with which commensalism would be set up between the two species when they happened to enter into partrership in the chase. "What I saw at Cissbury (see Journal Anth. Institute, July, 1876, vol. vi. p. 22) impressed me very much with the idea that the pitfall counted for much more in the earliest times than I had previously imagined. A wild animal was much more easily mastered in that way! than in any other available to the man to whom ‘Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt Et lapides:et item sylvarum fragmina rami.’—Lucret. v. 1282. The wild dogs which fed themselves or were allowed to feed upon the remnants of the animals thus caught and slaughtered would not be slow to learn the lesson of attachment to place, and out of, or upon this, might very readily grow the feeling of attachment to person. It requires a greater effort of imagination on our part to imagine a pack of wild dogs co-operating with priscan men in driving a herd of wild cattle or wild pigs (both of which were represented in the Cissbury pits) along a track in which a pitfall had been dug and covered over. Still what we know of the relations subsisting between savage men and dogs or dingoes 1 Cesar’s words (B. G. vi. 28) used of the Germans capturing Bos primigenius, ‘hos studiose foveis captos interficiunt, I had commented upon (Journ. Anth. Inst., l. c.) before learning that Keller (‘ Lake Dwellings,’ pp. 298, 299, trans. Lee) had written as he has done. The Old Testament writers make innumerable references to the use of the pitfall. The tradition of its employment by the Ancient Britons sur- vived into the days of Henry V., and of Hardyng who in his ‘ Chronicle in Metre fro the first Begynning of Englande,’ cit. Youatt on the sheep, speaks of ‘pitfalles and trappes’ as well as ‘Arrows and boltes ’ To slee the deere, the bull, also the bore, The bear, and byrdes that were therein before.’ For the use of the pitfall by the Esquimaux, see an excellent paper by N. L. Austen, Esq., in the ‘ Reliquie Aquitanice,’ p. 217. The fact that the Esquimaux have fitted their pitfall for the reindeer with a trap-door revolving on two short axles of wood, as is done in the so-called ‘ tipe’ or‘ tip’ in rabbit warrens, together with other considera- tions, makes me doubt whether Daniel (Rural Sports, vol. i. p. 351) can be right in holding that this last is ‘a modern invention.’ The Norway reindeer is similarly taken in a ‘rengraven’ (see Austen, /. c.), and the kangaroo in Western Australia (see Eyre, Central Australia, ii. 278; Nind, Journ. Royal Geog. Soc. i. p. 30, 1831). ee — ae APPENDIX. 743 (see Nind, /.c., p. 29) justifies us in holding that this second stage of co-operation may have been attained to very early in the history of our species. | The contrast, common in ancient writings, both sacred and pro- fane, between Bos primigenius, ‘magnitudine paullo infra elephantos, as Cxsar wrote of them (De Bell. Gall., vi. 28), and the tamed variety or varieties of the species, with the ‘ tenue et miserabile collum’ which Juvenal (Sat. x. 270) half pathetically deseribes, were seen in eminently instructive contrast in the Cissbury pits, the filling up of which with chalk rubble had very effectually preserved the bones. By the spar-like hardness and lustre, by the sharply- defined ridges and sculpturing of the surface, and, finally, by the huge size of the wild animals’ bones when viewed in contrast with those of the tame races, we are helped as effectually as by almost any other means to realise the immense difference which exists between those times and ours; in which last the representatives of the wild ox, still surviving under Lord Tankerville’s care at Chillingham in an at least half-wild state, are so much smaller, and the domestic races so much larger. The wild animal of prehistoric times to attain and sustain its vast bulk must have had command of good pasturage which even the cherished and protected herds of modern wild cattle might envy, but with this, itself a thing possible only in a district occupied but sparsely by man, there co-operated another agency distinctive of a wild country. This agency was the selecting agency of carnivora, in the Britain of those times chiefly wolves, which would weed out the weaker members of each herd, long before they attained the sexual maturity which might have enabled . ‘them to bring into being a stock of weakness and smallness like their own. The rifle-bullet, on the other hand, of modern days selects the monarch of the herd, and leaves the sustentation of the race to the despised smaller representatives of it. The differences between the conditions affecting the domestic breeds of ancient and modern times respectively are at least as striking. The range available to a savage tribe ever at war with its neighbours, as is the habit of modern, as it was of ancient uncivilised tribes, must have been limited and small relatively to the number of the cattle which a tribe devoid of cerealia must have had for their sustenta- tidn. This would affect the animal during the whole period of its growth, and very materially. And we have to add to this the consideration that not only were such articles as turnips wholly unknown to the ancient Briton, but that even such an art as that 744, APPENDIX. of making and storing hay was as yet uninvented. The contem- plation of a herd of dark-coloured mountain cattle in the north of this country, of small size and yet with ragged, ‘ill-filled’ out contours, standing on a wintry day in a landscape filled with birch, oak, alder, heath, and bracken, has often struck me as giving a picture which I might take as being very probably not wholly unlike that which the eyes of the ancient British herdsman were familiar with. But the treatment which the domestic ruminant is all but necessarily and universally subjected to in the very earliest days of its life when owned by a savage, is found in modern days and in very different climates from ours to be sufficient to stunt its growth effectually, even in the absence of the unfavourable conditions alluded to. The milk which naturally should have gone to build up the body of the newly-born animal is, in great part at least, taken for the use of its owner and his human family. The vast difference in size between the domestic buffalo of Hindostan, Bos bubalus, and the wild variety“or Arnee', is due, I apprehend, to the working of this agency upon the former as against the selective agency of the carnivora upon the latter; and the like causes must have produced the like effects in former times. « I take this opportunity of putting on record the points in which the collections of various objects from the Swiss lake-dwellings seen by me under the favourable conditions above specified (p. 740, note) differ from those procured from British prehistoric graves. The absence of any traces of cerealia in our neolithic barrows puts them at once into sharp contrast with the Swiss lake-dwellings even of the early stone age such as Moosseedorf and Wangen; and though the frequent occurrence of unthrashed-out ears in the specimens from these habitations shows, as Dr. H. Christ (/. c.) has observed, that their tenants were in a very primitive state, still the presence and botanical characters of these ‘ Kultur- + An anonymous but excellent naturalist in the ‘ Zoologist’ (1858, 1859, vol. xvi. p- 6554) writes thus as to the great difference in size existing between the wild and tame buffalo to the advantage of the former: ‘ We believe the main reason of it to be that the tame calves are deprived of their due supply of milk. The importance of an ample supply of suitable nourishment in early life, as bearing on the future develop- ment of any animal, cannot be over-estimated.’ He also states on the authority of a friend that the Burmese domestic buffalo is ‘much larger than in Bengal, with splendid horns, and altogether a vastly superior animal, in fact, resembling the wild buffalo. The Burmese never milk them; having the same strange prejudice to milk which the Chinese have, though otherwise both peoples are nearly omnivorous.’ See Specimens 1350 and 1351, Oxford University Museum, the one from a wild, the other from a tame buffalo. ¥ APPENDIX. 745 planzen,’ as also of the weeds accompanying them, proves that these men had at one time or other some direct or indirect communication with Mediterranean regions. (See Prof. Heer in Keller’s Lake Dwellings, trans. Lee, p. 3842 seqg.) The textile flax-fabrics so pro- minent in every series from the Swiss lake-dwellings, even from the very early one of Schaffis, are as completely wanting in British stone-age barrows as the cerealia. _ A second point of equally striking contrast is furnished to us by the great inferiority of all British pottery of the stone- and bone-periods to that at least of the later stone age in Switzerland. It is true that from such a very early lake-dwelling as that of Schaffis, pottery of the most primitive kind possible, imperfectly burnt, coarse alike in composition and contour, may, as the series in the University Museum obtained through the kindness of Herr E. von Fellenberg and the exertions of the Rev. H. B. George shows, be obtained; and that speaking generally all the pottery of the Swiss stone age is inferior in shape, paste, and size to that of the bronze age. Still with my recollection of the best specimens of British long-barrow pottery, such as those referred to pp. 536-537 supra, as found by myself and others, I needed when at Morges a very definite assurance from that entirely indisputable authority Professor F. A. Forel, to make me believe, as I do, that certain pottery of a much higher degree of excellence had really belonged _to the stone age. Thirdly, even in the very early lake-dwelling of Schaffis, barbed and tanged arrow-heads have been found, as indeed also in Danish and Breton stone-age interments; whilst our long barrows have, as Dr. Thurnam remarked, never furnished us with any arrow-heads perfected beyond the leaf-shape. Fourthly, the practice of boring, however roughly and by what- ever process, the stone axe for the reception of the haft was not unknown even to the lake-dwellers of Schaffis (see Herr E. v. Fellenberg’s Bericht iiber die Pfahlbauten des Bielersees, 1875, p- 78), whilst, as Mr. John Evans (Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, p. 49) has remarked, the stone axes of this period, at least in Britain, were rarely perforated. _ The similarly all but, if not entirely, complete absence of nephrit- and jadeit-implements from our British prehistoric series consti- tutes a fifth point of contrast between them and those procured from the Swiss lakes; and to the ‘ Ethnographisch-archxologischer Bedeutung’ (to use the words of Prof, H. Fischer in his model 746 APPENDIX. monograph ‘Nephrit und Jadeit,’ 1875, p. 1; see also pp. 48, 49, 54, 355, 367, 377) of this negative fact, we must under all the circumstances of the case assign a very high place. Wild animals, sixthly, are but sparingly represented in early British graves, whilst in some at least of the earliest Swiss lake- dwellings they have a numerical preponderance over the domesti- cated breeds. It is right however to add that in the early British dwellings for the living and in early British excavations such as the flint mines at Cissbury, this numerical inferiority of the wild fauna is by no means so distinctly pronounced (see Journal Anthrop. Institute, vol. vi. p. 20, 1876). Seventhly, as regards the craniography of our own species, the skulls of the Swiss lake-dwellers of both stone- and bronze- periods alike belong to that ‘massive and grandiose’ variety of the dolicho-cephalic type which the Swiss ethnographers, His and Riitimeyer, have in their often-referred to ‘Crania Helvetica’ called the ‘Sion Typus.’ In other words, we have in Switzerland no such evidence for the immigration of a fresh race of men at ‘the commencement of the bronze period as we have furnished to us in Great Britain by the appearance contemporaneously with metal implements of brachy-cephalic crania in preponderating numbers. It may however be objected here that this seventh point of difference, like indeed all the other six, depends simply on negative evidence; and that the entire number of human skulls recovered from the lake-dwellings has been, as might from the very nature of the case have been expected, very small. On the other hand, I have to say that an English ethnologist, con- vinced, as due examination of the evidence (see p. 712 supra) will convince him, that a very thorough, if not absolutely exhaustive, displacement of the races previously in occupation of what is now his country was effected by the Teutonic immigration of the fifth and succeeding century, may very easily be over-ready to believe that other invasions may have been similarly overwhelming. The Swiss ethnologists, at all events, after fairly stating the two opposed views, declare themselves to be of opinion that one and the same dolicho-cephalic stock persisted through the two periods in question. Their words run thus (Crania Helvetica, p. 37) :— ‘Wir sind durch diese Unterbringung des Meilen- und des Auvernier-Schadel zu einem hochst erfreulichen Resultate gelangt heinsichtlich der Bevolkerung die die Pfahlbauten, wahrend der ersten Zeit ihres Bestehens in der sog- Stein- und Bronze-Periode oo rs" APPENDIX. 747 bewohnt hat. Bekanntlich haben unsere hervorragenderen Alter- thumforscher uber dieser Punkt sich noch nicht geeinigt; eines theils vertritt Herr Troyon in seinen Habitations lacustres die Ansicht, es habe in den verschiedenen Perioden der Pfahlbau-Zeit eine Succession von verschiedenen Bevolkerungen stattgefunden ; es sel die Bevolkerung der Steinzeit durch eine vollig neue der Bronzezeit, und diese durch eine solche der EHisenzeit verdrangt worden: anderntheils aber hat Herr Dr. Ferd. Keller aus dem allmahligen Fortschreiten der Kultur in der Pfahlbaustationen, aus der mannigfachen Formibereinstimmung der Stein- und der Bronze-, dieser und der Eisenobjecte, und aus dem Vorhandensein mannig- facher Uebergangstationen wahrscheinlich gemacht, dass die Pfahl- bau-Bevolkerung der verschiedenen Kulturperioden doch nur einen und demselben Stamm, dem Keltischen, angehért habe. Die Ergebnisse der craniologischen Forschung sprechen, wie man sieht, fur diese letztere Annahme, und wir diirfen, gestutzt auf die ober mitgetheiite Schadelvergleichen, allerdings mit Bestimmtheit aus- sprechen, dass die Pfahlbaubevélkerunge der Stein- und Bronzezeit desselben Stammes gewesen sei, wie die, spiter dies Land behaup- tenden Helvetier.’ Some Swiss historians (see Crania Helvetica, p. 84) are inclined to hold that remnants of the Cimbric invaders still survive in their country; and the light hair combined with typically brachy- cephalic skull (see p. 680 supra) which so constantly meets the eye in Switzerland may incline us to favour this view. It may seem to be going out of the way to take up with this hypothesis when there is a characteristically brachy-cephalic stock occupying at the present day, as it has done no doubt uninterruptedly from prehistoric times, the conterminous region of the Grisons. The Roumansch race, however, is dark-haired, whilst the Swiss brachy- cephali are, especially as compared with the French, light-haired ; the relations between the Rheti and the Helvetii was in historic times (see Crania Helvetica, p. 33) ordinarily the reverse of amicable; and what appears to me a most convincing argument of all, rye, a cereal the place of origin of which is supposed by De Candolle (Geograph. Botan. Raisonnée, ii. 938-940) to be in the district to the east of the Alps, and which has been the staple food of the Grisons, has, like oats and spelt, never been found in the lake-dwellings. Eastern Switzerland is known, both from linguistic and from historical evidence, to owe a very large part of its population to the 748 APPENDIX. Alemannian invasion ; the physical characters however of this race were different from those of the Cimbric probably, and certainly from those of the Roumansch, and of the brachy-cephalic stock (see p. 679 supra) abundant in South Germany at the present day. _ From the phenomena presented by the pottery, by the imple- ments, by the cultivated plants and domesticated animals of pre- historic times in this and other countries, arguments have been drawn in favour of one or other of three theories, which may for the sake of brevity be spoken of as the theory of Immigration with more or less displacement of any population previously in occupa- tion, the theory of Importation without immigration, and the theory called by its supporters the ‘ Autochthony ’ of these products. It may be well here to give references to authorities who have pronounced themselves in favour of one or other of each of these three views. | In favour of the first theory we may cite Riitimeyer, who (Fauna des Pfahlbauten, pp. 160-162, 1861) speaks of the introduction of bronze as being a ‘Wendepunkt der modglicherweise mit dem Auftreten neuer Volkerstamme in Verbindung stand;’ and suggests that the appearance of a new race of domestic dogs at the com- mencement of that period indicates the setting up of intercourse with or replacement by a fresh race of men. In the same sense we find Prof. E. Désor (Le Bel Age du Bronze Lacustre, p. 11, 1874) speaking of the weeds, such as Centaurea cyanus and Silene ecretica, which accompany the cerealia of the lake-dwellings as those of modern Switzerland, thus, ‘Etrangéres 4 notre flore comme les céréales ellesméme elles sont suivi le sort de ces derniéres, et nous sont venues d’Orient, peutétre avec les premiers colons lacustres.’ Dr. Oswald Heer, however, a botanist of whose investigations Switzerland may justly be proud, in laying these facts before the world, as in Troyon’s ‘ Habitations lacustres,’ p. 443, and Keller’s ‘Lake Dwellings,’ transl. Lee, p. 344, appears to adhere to the second of the two views above stated; as indeed Keller himself does (/.¢. pp. 56 and 309) in the following words used of another product foreign to Switzerland, namely, nephrit, ‘It was not brought by the settlers with them from their earlier abodes, but was acquired by barter in later times, after they had lived for centuries in the lake-dwellings of our country.’ In the second of the two passages referred to Keller says distinctly, ‘There is no ground for concluding that successive peoples of different races or civilisations have occupied these lake-dwellings, one of which APPENDIX. 749 has chased the other from its abodes in order to occupy them themselves.’ In spite of this, however, scientific opinion in Switzerland seems to me to gravitate rather in the direction of the former of these two views. And this I say, though Herr Edmund v. Fellenberg (Bericht, 7. c. p. 15) puts both of them forward without distinctly Indicating to which of the two he inclines. He points out that the two minerals nephrit and jadeit are found only in Central Asia, China, New Zealand, and South America; that only a single unworked block, and that one probably dropped by the importers, has been found in Europe at Schwemmsal in Saxony ; and that the usually sharp and little worn-down imple- ments and weapons made of these two highly resistant minerals are found in somewhat different proportions in different parts of Switzerland, the nephrit- preponderating in the eastern and the jadeit-weapons in the western lake dwellings; but he sums up the discussion by asking impartially, ‘Sollten Einwanderungen von verschiedenen Seiten stattgefunden haben, oder hatten diese Stamme Handelsbeziehungen nach verschiedenen Richtungen hin! ?’ The third view, diametrically opposed to the two first enunciated, was put forward by M. Dupont, with the protection of the honoured name of Steenstrup, at the meeting of the International Anthro- pological Congress at Stockholm in 1874, in the following words (Compte Rendu, p. 821) :— ‘Dans la précédente session du Congrés, M. Steenstrup a émis ~ Vidée aprés avoir examiné les collections recueillies dans les cavernes belges, que nos principales espéces domestiques pourraient & la rigueur étre originaires du sol qu’elles habitent et y avoir été directement assujéties par Vhomme. Cette solution est loin d’étre improbable. lle a ceci de frappant de se trouver en accord avec les principes qui tendent a s’établir dans l’anthropologie, et d’aprés lesquels les conquétes violentes et les déplacements des peuples auraient joué dans la constitution de nos populations, un rdle fundamental moins important que celui qu’on avait été d’abord porté a leurs attribuer; la grande masse des habitants d’un pays étant composée par les trés anciens occupants du sol et non par les enyahisseurs. Ces principes ont été surtout soutenus avec convic- 1 Mr. H. Cayley’s valuable account of his own visit to the old Jade quarries of Ktienltin given in Macmillan’s Magazine for October, 1871, appears to have escaped - the all but exhaustive research displayed in Dr. Heinrich Fischer’s ‘Nephrit und Jadeit’ already referred to, p. 746, 750 APPENDIX. tion par MM. de Quatrefages et Virchow durant ces derniéres années pour les peuples Européens, La méme thése a été déferidue récem- ment 4 aide d’une grande érudition et d’une argumentation persuasive, pour les langues occidentales'. Je crois, pouvoir prouver de nous cété que notre dge de la pierre? polie n’est pas le résultat d’une importation, mais qu’il apris naissance dans nos regions mémes.’ Professor Steenstrup is reported as having expressed himself entirely to the opposite effect in the Compte Rendu (p. 168) of the International Congress held at Copenhagen in 1869; and unless he changed his opinion in the interval between 1869 and 1873, it must be through some error that his name is quoted as in the above extract from the Stockholm Compte Rendu. There is no room however for suggesting that the reference to M. Granier de Cassagnac’s work is made through inadvertence; and I must remark therefore that no conclusion however much in want of support can gain much by a reference to that production. On the other hand, the respectable authority of Dr. H. Christ (in Riutimeyer’s Fauna des Pfahlbauten, pp. 225-226) can be brought forward for ‘die Autochthonie’ theory. I cannot understand how any one with the evidence properly before him can doubt that the goat, sheep, horse, and dog were in the earliest neolithic times imported as domesticated animals into this country and into Switzerland. The ease with which the calf of a pit-fall-taken Bos primigenius would be domesticated, as well as some other reasons, may make it just possible that the domestic cow of those times may not in all cases have been im- ported already tamed. But I incline to think that this really was most commonly the case. On the other hand, having been convinced by what I saw in the Swiss collections from Schaffis and elsewhere that the small race of swine Sus scrofa, var. palustris, existed there as a wild race; and coupling this with the facts, on the one side, of the exceeding readiness with which this species lends itself to domestication, and on the other side, of the considerable difficulties which attend its transport over great distances in space, I incline to think that this animal may have had a different history from the others just mentioned, and may have been domesticated upon the spot. 1 Granier de Cassagnac, Les origines de la langue Francaise. Paris, 1872, * Compte rendu du Congres de 1872, p. 459. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN DESCRIPTION OF AND GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE SERIES OF PREHISTORIC CRANIA. Abbay, Rev. R., p. 659. Achille, Dr., 673. Adams, W., 699. Adelung, 631. Aeby, Prof., 559, 566, 644, 649, 714. Ablian, 685. Aitken, Dr., 566. Akerman, 657, 691. | Anderson, Joseph, 525, 526, 536, 537, 653, 685. Antelme, 663. Appian, 632. Aristotle, 717, 739. Arnkiel, 686. Athenzus, 718. Austen, N. L., 742. Avienus, 635. Bacon, 643. Baehr, J.C. F., 68s. nap Prof., 562, 366, 588, 593, 596, 597, 81. Bagehot, 537. Bancroft, 597. Bartholinus, T., 686, 693. Bastian, Prof. A., 640. Bate, Spence, 712. Bateman, 628, 7or. Bates, 661, 662, 667, 731. Batt, Dr., lage Beddoe, Dr., 538, 596, 621, 630, 631, _ 678, 679, 680, 682. Beechey, 660. Beger, 729. Belloguet, Roget — de, 618, 632, 636. Bessels, Dr. E., 660. Betz, Prof., 673. Bischoff, Prof., 642,663, 666, 672. Blainville, de, 737. Blake, Dr. C. C., 597, 615, 653. Blumenbach, 697. Boccaccio, 723. Bochart, 730, 739. Bogstra, 697. Boogaard, 697, 710. Brenchley, 641. Broca, Prof., 532, 538, 561, 562, 563, 564, 567, 572, 577; 584, 594, 595, 597 628, 635, 636, 647, 655, 056, 661, 666, ne 682, 694, 705, 708, 710, vil, 715, ‘Bromfield, 721. Brooke, Sir Wg FES: Browne, Dr. “3 C., 668, 674. ae Dr., 532, 537; 540, 621. Buffon, 643, 741. Bulwer, J., 597- Bunsen, 681. Biirki, Grossrath, 740. Busk, Prof, 559, 588, 595, 597, 640, 650, 655; 658, 004, 694, 715, 716, 733. Cesar, J., 632, 634, 692, 722, 724, 731, 732 737> 743- Caldwell, Bishop, 730. Calori, 647. Camden, 723. Camper, P., 597, 643. Candolle, De, 721, 722, 724, 747. Cassagnac, Granier de, 750. Catullus, 718. Cayley, H., 749. Chaucer, 723, 733. Christ, Dr. H., 724, 744, 750. Cicero, 632, 685. Clark, Bruce, 733. Clarke, Lockart, 667, 685. Claussen, 631. Cleland, Prof., 560, 566, 568, 580, 584, 588, 592, 637, 639, 642, 647, 648, 649, 650, 663, 664, 678, 709, 714. Cogan, Dr., 597. Columella, 737, 738. Cook, Capt., 730, 731. Cortese, 647. Craveilhicr, 667, 668, 669. Cunningham, Dr., 595. Cunnington, 684. Cuvier, 643. Dahlmann, 632. . Dalton, Col., 691. Daniel, 733, 742: Darwin, 628, 695. Davies, 723, 724. Daubentin, 643. Daubeny, Prof., 722. Davis, Dr. J. B., 560, 597, 600, 601, 639, 648, 649, 650, 659, 662, 664, 683, 689, 697, 698, 706, 708, 710. Dawkins, Boyd, Prof., 716, 734. Dawson, J. S., 682. Dawson, Principal, ‘621. Désor, Prof. E., 728, 748. Dillwyn, L. Ww. 621 Dio Cassius, 632, 657, 716 Diodorus, 565, 632, 635, 657, 680, 685, 686. 752 Douglas, D. M., Dr., 702. Dryden, Sir H., 524, 679. Diiben, Baron Von, 629, 665. Ducange, 728. Duckworth, D., 589. Dumoutier, 595. Duncker, 631, 632. Dunraven, Lord, 730. Dupont, E., 537 597, 621, 736, 749. Duret, 671, 672 i eons . Earle, Prof., 723. Ecker, Prof. 540, 562, 566, 567, 597, 6or, 636, 646, 654, 666, 672, 679. Edwards, Milne A., 732. Egede, 718. Eichwald, Prof., 589, 629, 659. Ellis, 595, 597, 641. Embleton, D., 584. Engelhardt, Prof., 687. Erskine, 641. Evans, A. J., 629, 680, 745. Evans, J., 687, 73, 734, 737: Falconer, Dr., 655. Fellenberg, E. von, 728, 745, 749. Fischer, Prof. H., 745, 749. Fischer, Prof. L., 724. Fitzinger, 597. Florus, 565, 631, 632. Flower, Prof., 697. Forbes, D., 595, 597. Forel, Prof. F. A., 745. Forster, 597, 641. Foville, Dr., 597, 668, 673. Fox, Dr., 668. Franks, A. W., 738. Fresnel, 652. Friedlowsky, 697, 698, 699. Gall, 643. Galton, F., 640, 731. Galton, J. C., 672. Garner, R., 670. Gausse, 676. George, Rev. H. B., 745. Gilmour, Rev. J., 659. Gliddon, 573, 597, 628. Goltz, 729, 731. Goodsir, Prof., 559. Gosse, Dr., 559, 573, 595, 597- Gratiolet, 561, 638, 669, 673, 676. Greenwell, Rev. W., 627, 683, 690, 7or, 702, 736. Grimm, 632, 685, 686, 729. Guizot, 732. Haller, 595. Halloy, Omalius de, 646. Hammond, Capt., 707. Hanauld, 695. Hancock, Dr., 682. Handelman, 631. Hardyng, 740. ' INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. Heath, 688. Heer, Prof., 724, 745. Heftler, F., 666. Hehn, V., 721, 724, 729. Hen Llywarch, 723. Henle, Prof., 667. Henry, 733. Hermann, K. F., 538. Herodian, 717. Herodotus, 685, 693, 718. Hesiod, 726. Heubner, 671. Heusinger, 738. Hewett, P., 572. Heyne, 685. Hind, Prof., 682. Hine, W., 646. Hippocrates, 597. His, Prof., 562, 587, 596, 597, 604, 607, 640, 649, 652, 682, 695, 746. Hiven-Thsang, 597. Hoare, Sir R. C., 525, 623, 640, 648, 652, 684. Hoeven, Van der, 597. Holder, Dr,, 571, 636, 640, 647; 678, 679. Holinshed, 725. Holmboe, Prof. 685. Holyoke, Dr., 592. Homer, 692, 730. Horace, 632, 681, 718. Houghton, 735. Hughes, Prof., 726. Humphry, Prof., 565, 566, 686. Hunter, Archdeacon, 682. Huschke, 607, 618, 638, 639, 647, 649, 661, 666. Hutchinson, Consul T. J., 597, 707. Huth, 682. Huxley, Prof., 564, 595, 596, 621, 646, 6 47- Hyrtl, 695. Thering, Dr., 559, 637. Jackson, W. H., 728. Jeitteles, 734. Jenner, Dr., 700. Job, 705. Johns, 721, 722, 723. Johnson, R., 733. Jones, W. B., 631, 635, 667. Jornandes, 630, 634, 680. Jowett, The Rev. B., Master of Balliol College, 718. Julian, 718. Justin, 632. Juvenal, 743. Keller, 740, 745, 747, 748. Kemble, 691. Keyser, 630. Kinberg, 736, 740. King, Capt., 595. Knight, Payne, 730. Koner, 631. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. oh 758 Kopernicki, 636. Krause, W., 607, 667. Krebs, Dr., 589, 676. Kuhff, Dr., 659. Lafargue, 643. eau, 597. Lane-Fox, Col. A., 631, 650, 716, Langer, 564. Lanigan, 730. Lankester, Prof., 708. Latham, 632. Laws, E., 703, 706. Lee, J. E., 736, 740, 745, 748. Lees, 725. Leighton, 724. Lelut, Dr., 668. Liharzig, 564, 594, 662. Lindenschmidt, 691. Link, 731. Lipsius, 680. Lissauer, 564. Livy, 632. Lluyd, E., 631. Logan, 640, 717, 726, 726. Lord, 738, 739. Low, D., 738, 739, 740. Lubbock, 665, 702, 716, 723. Lukis, Rev. W., 592. Luschka, 667. Lyell, Sir Charles, 589, 596, 631, 729. Lysons, Rev. Canon, 650, 690, 703. Maack, 631. Maclean, H., 680. Major, Dr. H. C., 667, 673. Marcellinus, A., 565, 631. Marius, 632. Markham, C., 657. Marshall, Prof., 668. Marsham, 718. Martial, 658, 686. Martin, H., 632. Mason, Prof. W., 694. Massieu, 731. Maudsley, 667. Mela, 632, 685. Meleager, 718. Merk, 736. Merkel, Dr., 561. Mestorf, 724. Meyer, 597. Meynert, Prof., 638, 667, 673. Minayeff, 730. Mirabeau, 643. Montelius, 665. Montellier, 738. Moore, W. D., 710. Morley, Prof., 634. Mortillet, 731. Mortimer, J. R., 654. Morton, 573, 597, 652. Moseley, H. N., 641, 708. Moxon, 667. Miller, Prof., 597, 630, 665, 685, 686, 795, 721. Mummery, J., 592, 701, 702, 703. Munch, 631, 632. : Naumann, 736, 739. Nearchus, 725. Neville, 691. Nicolaus, Damascenus, 685. Nicollucci, Prof. 8., 636. Niebuhr, 631, 632. Nilsson, Prof., 527, 532, 536, 540, 628, 632, 646, 665, 693, 716. Nind, 742, 743. Nonnius, 730, 731. Nott, 573, 597, 628, 629. Oates, F., 707. O’Brien, 631. Ogle, 573. Orosius, 632. Ovid, 718. Paget, Sir J., 699. Pallmann, Dr., 631, 632. Pansch, 631, 668, 669, 683. Parker, J., 621. Parkes, Prof. E., 673. Paterculus, V., 632. Pausanias, 685. Payne, Dr. F. J., 667. Pearson, Prof., 712, 721, 722, 723. Pengelly, W., 705, 733. Pentland, 597. Perier, 681. Persius, 728. Perthes, B. de, 726. Peschel, 673. Phillips, Prof., 679, 711. Plato, 718. Pliny, 632, 685. Plutarch, 565, 566, 632, 685. Pott, 729. Power, 667. Pratt, 721. Price, W. H., 565. Price, W. P., 566. Prichard, 631, 632, 634, 681. Propertius, 685. Pruner-Bey, 597, 717. Quatrefages, Prof. A. de, 750. Quintus Calaber, 726. Rance, C. E., 716. Rasche, 731. Rask, Prof., 665. Rathke, 597. ~~ A., 595, 597; 629, 637, 646, 661, 6 5. Retzius, G., 665. Rhys, Prof., 632, 634, 729, 73°. Richardson, Sir J., 660, 718. Rochholtz, 657. 3C 754 Rogers, Prof., 733. Rokitansky, 667, 696. Royce, Rev. D., 524, 526, 528, 529. Rudall, J. T., 668, 676. Riitimeyer, Prof., 540, 587, 596, 597, 604, 607, 640, 649, 652, 682, 695, 735, 739, 739, 746. Rygh, 665. Sacken, Baron Osten, 681. Sallust, 632. Sambon, 737. Sammlung, 647. Sandifort, 696. Sartoris, A., 524. Sasse, Dr., 564, 636, 640. Sauvage, 716. Sayce, Prof., 716. Schaafhausen, Prof. H., 607, 628, 646, 654, 665. 686. Schliemann, 728. Schmidt, Dr. L., 559, 656, 658. Schréder, Van der Kolk, Prof., 668, 675, 676, 698. Sclater, 731. Selden, 716. Seneca, 632. Servius, 685, 738. Sieveking, 667. Simmo, Dr. T., 694. Skene, 723. Skylax, 635. Smiles, 665. Smith, Sir A., 660. Smith, E., 725. Spanheim, 734. Spengel, 700. Spenser, 723. Spinola, 728, 738. Sproat, 597. Squier, 682. Steenstrup, Prof., 687, 749, 750. Stephanus Byzantinus, 685. Stephens, Thomas, 725, 738. Strabo, 565, 597, 631, 632, 635, 657, 680, 685, 686, 725, 728. Stricker, 667. Sturzius, 716. Tacitus, 565, 630, 631, 632, 634, 657, 680, 681. Taliessin, 723. Tankerville, Lord, 741. Taylor, L., 713. Telfer, Com., 597. Tertullian. 685. Theile, Dr., 676. Theodoret, 685. Thierry, 597, 631, 632. Thomas, Capt., 712. Thommerel, 721. Thomsen, Prof., 589. Thrupp, J., 729, 731. Thurnam, Dr., 526, 537, 567, 587, 596, INDEX OF AUTHORITIES. 597, 615, 622, 623, 628, 636, 639, 640, 641, 644, 650, 651, 654, 657, 663, 683, 684, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 694, 695, 696, 701, 706, 709, 713, 745- Tiedemann, 597. Tomes, C. S., 705, 708. Tomes, J., 704. Topinard, 562, 564, 567, 596, 597, 604, 655. \ Troyon, 747, 748. Tschudi, 597. Turner, Prof., 597, 666, 687. : Turner, S., 631, 725. Tylor, E. B., 716. Uhlmann, 724, 740. Ukert, 632, 681. Valerius Maximus, 685. Vanderkindere, M. Léon, 636, Vesalius, 572, 573- Virchow, Prof., 560, 563, 564, 567, 569, 589, 595, 596, 597, 615, 636, 646,647, 649, 651, 652, 653, 665, 668, 678, 681, 695, 698, 699, 700, 710, 713, 750. Virgil, 659, 685, 726, 729. Wagner, A., 597. Wagner, H., 649, 676. Wagner, R., 676. Waitz, 597. Walter, 606. Ware, Dr. H., 630. Watson, H.C., 721, 725. Webster, Rev. W., 633. Weigmann, A. F. A., 696. Weinhold, 630, 656, 691. Weisbach, 566, 573, 607, 640, 649, 689. Welcker, 565, 566, 567, 607, 614, 628, 639, 642, 695, 706. Wesley, W. H., 559. Westwood, Prof., 728, 729. Whitaker, 734. Whitmee, 641. Whymper, 717. Wilde, Sir W., 627, 628, 646. Wilks, 667. Williams, 597. Williams, Principal, 729. Wilson, Prof. D., 528, 534, 540, 573, 597, 605, 621, 622, 628, 653, 662, 681, 705. Wood, 597. Wordsworth, 712. Worsaae, 665, 713. Worsley, 726. Wotton, 725. Wylie, 691. Wyman, Prof., 614, 738. Youatt, 738, 739, 740. Zeuss, 632, 634, 635, 681. Zuckerkandl, Dr. E., 567, 573, 597, 661, 694, 714. INDEX. Adzes, stone, found in barrows, p. 34, 181. Alcuin, 58. Alwinton, parish of, 422, 476, 477. Amber, 55, 55 ”.; beads, 55 ., 178; buttons, 56 .; cup, found at Hove near Brighton, 97; pendants of, 297 n.; termination of knife-dagger handle, found on Dartmoor, 207 n. Amulet or charm found with a skeleton, 249. Ancestors, worship of, 10. Anderson, Mr. Joseph, 239 n., 480 n., 525, 526 m., 536, 537 n. Angles, 123, 124; burial-place of, 178, 261, 371, 385, 386, 387, 395, 432, 4353 buried in the contracted position, 136. Anglian cemetery, 123, 135. Animal bones, found amongst human, 15, 153 1., 155, 162, 240, 274, 275, 278, 283, 298, 353, 427; found at Grime’s Graves, 110, 115 ; found in barrows, 9, 109. Animals, domesticated, 115; used for food, 109; wild, not much used for food, Iog, 113. Another life, belief in, 57 seq. Armlets, bronze, of the early iron age, 208, 210, 386. Arreton Down, find of bronze articles there, 46 n. Arrow-points, bronze, not found in Bri- tain, 360, 360 ».; flint, found with burnt bodies, 352, 368, 369, 412; flint, found with unburnt bodies, 163, 171, 191, 218, 249 ; flint, rarely found south of the Thames, 444 n.; flint, when found with burnt bodies usually burnt, 174. Art ornamentation, 268. Arthur’s Round Table at Penrith, 381. Articles, identical, found in different localities, 279 ; why deposited with the dead, 59, 425. Asby, parish of, 386, 474. Askham, parish of, 400, 475. Atkinson, Rev. J. C., of Danby, 6 x., 14 n., 80 n., 84, 333, 421 2. Avebury, stone circle at, 6 ”. Awls, or drills, of bronze, 38, 46 ; found with an interment, 138, 150, 235, 236, 275, 283, 313, 321, 324, 366, 373, fo) 404. Axes, bronze, 44, 47; found with an interment, 188, 188 n.; the plain one only found in barrows, 47. Axes or hatchets, stone, 34, 35, 160; found in a barrow, 136, 179, 319. Axe-hammers, stone, 35, 39, 42; found with burnt bodies, 158, 158 7., 298; found with unburnt bodies, 222, 222 n., 265; probably weapons, 39, 42, 159. Badgers’ earth in a barrow, 315; head in a grave, 200. Beda, 58. Bamborough, parish of, 413, 476. Barrows, added to from time to time, 196, 294, 491; burial-places of persons of note, 112 ; date of round, 45, 46, 49, 130; elevated position of, 8; form of, 3,43; groups of, 8, 112, 420, 42I .; large, frequently contain a single burial, 12, 312; large, frequently without a grave, 300; long, 3, 479 seg.; made of different materials in the same locality, 394; made piecemeal, 5; materials of, 5}; popular names of, 2; size of, 4; size of, no criterion of number of burials, 12; small and of low elevation, 327, 351; small often destroyed by cultiva- tion, 327; table of, 458; widely dif- fused, 1; without any trace of an interment, 27, 202, 301, 337, 349, 346. . Bascaude, 65. Bate, Mr. Spence, F.R.S8., 207 n. Bateman, Mr., 21 7., passim. Beads, amber, 55 7., 178; animal’s tooth, 52, 138; bone, 53, 275, 278, 279; clay, 55, 394; glass, 52 ., 55, 55 Ms 178, 208, 208 n., 384; gold, 55 ”., 436; in long barrow, 519, 520; jet, 32 %., 52, 53, 138, 142, 198, 198 %., 330, 334, 366, 392, 407, 419; shale, 419, 519; shell, 138, 139; vertebra of fish, 139. Beaver’s tooth, implement of, 38, 138. Bee-hive, houses, 450 ; roof, 523. Belemnite, piece of, used as an ornament, 139. Bielbecks, animal remains found there, 505- Binnington, parish of, 179. Birch branches on bottom of barrow, 337: : Birch, Mr., Ancient Pottery, 3 ”., 81. 302 756 Bits, bridle, of bronze, 455, 455 n. Boar’s tusk, implement of, 389; knife of, 37, 215, 215 ., 2743 pin of, 33, 138, 274. . Bodies buried facing the sun, 26 ; buried in a contracted position, 22, 136, passim; buried in an extended position, 22, 22 n., 261, 269, 299, 303, 386, 395, 4353 buried in a hollowed tree trunk, 13, 23, 32, 375, 376n., 384; buried in every part of a barrow, 12, 16; buried in leather or hide, 32, 32 ”., 142, 411; buried in the dress, 31 ; buried in woollen cloth, 32, 376; buried usually on the sunny side of barrow, 13; burnt and unburnt buried together, 149, 152, 153 n., 172, 240, 269, 329, 372, 391, 441; disturbed by the introduction of later interments, 16, 141, 157, 167, 169, 172, 175, 176, 182, 184, 193, 200, 206, 214, 223, 228, 230, 232, 237, 243, 249, 252, 253, 255, 258, 275, 277, 305, 308, 321, 322, 323, 330, 367; fire possibly applied to all, 29, 30, 30 ”.; how burnt in long barrows, 495, 499, 502, 506, 511; imperfect when interred, 172, 195, 221, 226, 260, 325, 326, 363, 388; more than one buried together, 15, 27, 148, 151, 152, 155, 156, 163, 172, 175, 182, 183, IQI, 214, 240, 259, 269, 273, 285, 290, 297, 299, 308, 329, 364, 372, 391, 399, 399 n., 406, 427; partly burnt, 29, 29 N., 30, 30”.; placed in contact, 148, 151, 156, 156 n., 163, 163 n., 172, 175, 182, 183, 191, 214, 240, 259, 273, 297, 299, 308, 391; placed on a small mound within barrow, 140; placed on a wooden platform, 13, 170, 181; pre- served before burial, 17, 244; protection of, in barrows, 2, 13; re-interred, 17, 173, 196, 215, 216, 218, 244, 260, 326, 519, 546; re-placed, 18, 226, 244, 255, 275; side on which laid, 25, 26; some- times buried without having the bones removed after being burnt, 23, 283, 291, 291 2. Bone, beads, 52, 53, 138, 275; button, 278; fibula, 33,117, 352, 352.3 im- plements, 37, 138, 252, 274, 392; orna- ments, 55, 392; pins, 33, passim ; termination of knife-dagger handle, 207, 207 n. Bones, colour of burnt, 16; decayed totally, 28, 185, 202, 301, 338, 340, 341, 346, 358, 359, 414, 417, 419, 421, 423, 430, 437, 438; decayed when buried in wood, 203, 375, 376 %., 384 ; impression of, 185 ; preserved well in chalk, 185 ; showing signs of disease, 312, 323; stained by manganese, 517. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, 58, 120 n. Borlase, Mr. W. C., 96, 222 n., 266 n. Bowl, bronze, 384. INDEX. Brittany, dolmens of, 13; pottery of, 62 ; parts of body kept ‘there in a dead-~ house, 17. Brixham Cave, pottery found there, 77 n. Broca, Professor, 532. Bronze age, bodies not always then burnt, 19; burials of the later period of, 50. Bronze and stone implements associated, 187, 225, 236, 265, 265 7., 359. Bronze, armlets, 208, 210, 386 ; awls or drills, 38, 46, 138, 150, 187, 235, 236, 275, 283, 313, 321, 324, 366, 404; axes, 43, 44, 47, 188; bowl, 384; buckle, 117, 432; casting, skill in, 117; daggers, 41, 42, 42 n., 220, 359; drills, 38; ear-rings, 52, I17, 223, 223, 3243 fibula, 178, 208; found with burnt bodies, 19, 150, 283, 366, 404, 446, 446 ».; found with unburnt bodies, 1g, 138, 178, 186, 187, 188, 207, 208, 210, 223, 235, 236, 264, 265, 275, 313, 321, 324, 359, 361, 373, 384, 386, 455; implements, 38, 117; implements found at Westow, 490; implements rarely found in Wold barrows, 43; implements, relative age of, 44. seqg.; knife-daggers, 38, 40, 42 2., 47, 186, 207, 264; knives, 38, 265, 446, 446 n.; rings, 433, 455- Burial, after cremation, 18, 20, 21; by inhumation, 18, 19; importance of rite of, 119, 243; persons killed at, 244; places of the common people, 112, 113 ; primary, placed above the surface, 334, 335, 336 m., 345, 349, 356, 382. Burials, number of in barrows, 12; with- out a mound over them, I12. Burning of the body, a religious rite, 83 ; site of place of, 14; sometimes partial, 29, 30, 30 n. Burnt and unburnt bodies, buried toge- ther, 149, 152, 153 ”., 172, 240, 269, 329, 372, 391, 441; relative proportion of, 19, 20, 21, 21”. Burnt bones, carefully collected from the pile, 15; colour of, 16; enclosed in cloth, 15, 453; enclosed in urns, 14; enclosed in wood, 14 ”. Burnt clay, &c., layer of in barrow, 281, 349, 349 2. ; Butterwick, parish of, 186, 461. Buttons, 31, 32, 116; of amber, 56 n.; of bone, 278; of gold, 56, 117; of jet, 32, 174, 187, 223, 227, 229, 229 n., 264, 265, 431 ;, of stone, 32, 187. Ceedmon, 58. Cesar, account of Gaulish burials, 16. Caithness, ‘horned’ cairns of, 480, 536; long barrows of, 480 ; round barrows of, 481. Calculus, urinary, found in barrow, 286, 13. Cailernish, stone circle at, 6. Cannibalism, 544. OE —— eee INDEX. Castle Carrock, parish of, 379, 474, 599- Castles, none in England before Norman Conquest, 125. Celts of bronze, socketed, 43, 44 2., 48, 49 ; not found in barrows, 44 n. Cemeteries, Anglian, 123, 135; ‘Anglo- Saxon,’ 58; in Illinois, 13 n. Cenotaphs, 27, 28 n., 202, 301, 340. Chalk, preservation of bone in; 185. Chamber, in barrows, 2, 3; circnlar, in round barrow, 448; copy of dwelling- place, 2 n.; different from cist, 451, 479 ”, 515; earlier than cist, 451, 480 n. ; in long barrows, 449, 479, 5153 oval, in long barrow, 514. Channel Islands, pottery of, 62. Charcoal, found in Christian graves, 29 n.; found in connection with burials, 28, 28 n., 29. Chariot in barrow, 454, 455. Charm or amulet, 249. Chatton, parish of, 412, 476. Cherry Burton, parish of, 279, 467. Child, interment of, the principal one in a barrow, 118, 141, 141 ”., 260, 2607., 290, 408, 409. Children, several buried in a barrow, 196, China, bodies kept unburied there, 21 n. “tsar stone, found in barrows, 35, 225, 399. Chollerton, parish of, 435, 477. Cinerary urns, 62, 66, seg. ; cross pat- tern found on them, 70; mouth stopped with clay, 14; ornamentation of, 71; perforated, 69 ; projections round, 6g ; rare on the Wolds, 74; reversed, 14; size of, 67 ; vessels of type of, 62, 72, 139, 161, 277, 284, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 297, 318, 370, 428. Circles, of stone or earth, connected with barrow, 4, 6; incomplete, 6, 6 x., 7, 7 n.; sometimes double, 6; surround- ing the base of barrows, 4, 6, 7, 8, 369, 400, 412, 429, 434; within bar- rows, 8, 344, 358, 363, 363 ., 408. Circular-marked rocks and stones, 7, 343, 493, 410, 418, 422, 429,430. Cists, burial in, 13, 13 ».; distinction between chambers and, 451, 479 ”., 515; in a grave on the Wolds, 238; later than chambers, 451, 480 n. Clasp for waist-belt of bronze, 178. Clasp or fibula of bone, 33, 117, 352, 520. Cleveland, 21, 333; bronze very rare in, 333; cremation almost universal in, 21; inhumation very rare in, 333. ioe woollen, body wrapped in, 32, 379. Club of wood, 278. Cochet, Abbé, 28 n., 44 2 Coffins, made from hollowed tree trunk, 13, 23, 32, 375, 370 m., 384; throwing earth on, at funerals, 5 7, 757 Cold Kirby, parish of, 337, 471. Colour of burnt bones, 16. Conquerors rarely extirpate the con- quered, 213, 451. Constantine, coin of, found in a barrow, 514. Contracted position, bodies so placed when burnt, 23, 283, 291, 291 n. Contracted position of the body, almost universal, 22; reason of, 23, 24. Cop-stone (monolith) on Moor Divock, 400. Coquet, valley of, 422. Cotswold Hills, cremation the most com- mon practice there, 445; large stone implements uncommon there, 444. Cover of vessels of pottery, 89, 164, 164”., 305. Cowlam, parish of, 208, 462, 463, 587. Cowry shells (Cypreea Europa) in bar- row, 139. Craven, West Riding of Yorkshire, 374. Cremation, and inhumation practised at the same time, 20, 21, 392, 542; burial after, 18, 20, 21; the rule in some districts, 21, 333, 339. 347, 359, 445- Crosby Garrett, parish of, 386, 474, 475, 510. Crosby Ravensworth, parish of, 396, 475. Cross, as an ornament, 56, 76, 77 n., 228 n., 268, 268 n., 276, 278; on bone beads, 276 ; on buttons, 188, 228, 264; on cinerary urns, 70, 76, 77 .; on ‘drinking cups,’ 98, 98 .; on ‘ food vessels,’ 77 .,424, 424 ”.; on ‘incense cups, 76; on a stone, 342. Cumberland, 378. Cunnington, Mr., 542 n., 543 n. Cup, of amber, 97; of gold, 98. Cup-markings on rocks and stones, 7, 341, 342, 342 %, 343, 402, 422, 430, 433- Daggers, bronze, 41; found in barrows, 42, 42 ., 220, 359. Dawkins, Mr. W. Boyd, F.R.S., 11. Dead, articles buried with, 121; dislike of using what belonged to, 59, 59 n.3; fear of spirits of, 8, 10; offerings made to, 10, 10 n., 102; provisions placed with, 93, 93 .; reason why articles were buried with, 57 seg.; reason why ‘drinking cups’ and ‘food vessels’ were buried with, too ; worship of, ro. Dead houses in Brittany, parts of bodies kept in, 17. Deer’s-horn, hammers of, 37, 217, 217 ”., 399, 390 n.; implements of, 37, 192, 211; picks of, 5, 37, 37 %, 201, 231, 231 N., 253, 258, 304, 329, 432. Defensive works on the Wolds, 111, 123, 134, 136, 274. Dekhan, cairns there, 6 n., 120 n. 758 Denmark, bodies buried in dress, 32; bodies burnt during bronze age, 19; - bronze swords found with interments, 190; burials in tree-coffins, 377 n. Dennis, Mr., of Rosebrough, 415. Denny, Mr., of Leeds, 337 n. Deposit of burnt bones containing more than one body, 285, 290, 399, 399 ”.» 427. Distinction between chambers and cists, 451, 479 1, 515- Ditches, circular or square, round base of barrows, 4, 369, 370 n. Doddington, parish of, 410, 476. Dolmen-builders, 482. Dolmens of Brittany, 13. Domesticated animals, 115. Domestic vessels of pottery, 106; some- times used for burial purposes, 10g. Dorsetshire, form of cinerary urns there, ", Dotchon, Mr., of Whitby, 352 n. Dress, bodies buried in, 31; of people of bronze age in Denmark, 32, 377 n.; of people of Wolds, 116; remains of leathern, 142, 411; remains of woollen, 32, 376. Dress-fasteners, 32, 116, 352, 352 n. Drills, bronze, 38, 187, 236, 275, 324; flint, 35, 251. ‘Drinking cups,’ 62, 94 seg.; forms of, 95; not found in Ireland, 94; orna- mentation of, 98 ; ornamented on bot- tom, 98, 98 n., 326; rarely found with burnt bodies, 99, 245; size of, 95; with handle, 95, 96, 321; with horn spoon in one, IOI. Dryden, Sir Henry, Bart., 524. Duggleby Wold, 140. Dunhill, Mr., 488 x. Durandus, his reason why charcoal was placed in graves, 29 n. Durden, Mr., of Blandford, 77 n. Durham, county of, 440. Early Iron Age (‘ Late Keltic’), barrows of, 50 n., 208 seg.; burials of, 50 x, 212, 286, 386, 454; skull form of people, 129, 212. Ear-rings, bronze, 52, 117, 223, 223 7., 324; gold, 55 n., 223 n. Ebberston, parish of, 484, 622. Eglingham, parish of, 418, 476. Egton, parish of, 334, 471. Egypt, Pyramids of, 1; Tau symbol of, 8 Elevated position of barrows, 8. Elf Howe, 271. Elliot, Sir Walter, 20 n. Enamelled bronze articles, 50 n. Entrenchments on the Wolds, I1I, 123, 134, 136, 274. Eskimo, crania of, 541 ; houses of, 3 n. INDEX. Etall Moor, parish of Ford, 403. Etton, parish of, 282, 467. Evans, Mr. John, F.RS., 24 n., 33 2. 36 n., 44 N. passim. Extended position, bodies interred in, 22, 22. 261, 269, 299, 303, 386, 395, 435- Eyford, parish of, 514. Fastenings of dress, 32, 116, 352, 352 n. Fauna, ancient, at Bielbecks, 505. Feasts at funerals, 10, 145. Feasts at graves, enactments against, 10, ION. Ferrybridge, 371. Ferry Fryston, parish of, 371, 474. Fibule, bone, 33, 117, 352, 352 2.3 bronze, 178, 208. Figure engraved on side stone of cist, 423. Fiji chief, burial of, 120 n. Fire, how applied to bodies in long bar- rows, 495, 499, 502, 506, 511; how produced in bronze age, 266, 266 n.; in connection with burial, 29, 30, 31. Fires, remains of, in barrows, 232. Fitch, Mr., of Norwich, F.S.A., 98 n. Flint arrow-points, found with burnt bodies, 352, 368, 369, 412; found with unburnt bodies, 163, 171, 191, 218, 249. Flint blades probably knives, 361 n. Flint drills, 35, 251. Flint flakes in barrows, 11; large num- ber in a barrow, 166 ; not gathered up with the material of barrows, II n. Flint implements found with interments usually new, 50, 60, Flint knives, 35 ; with burnt bodies not usually burnt themselves, 174, 285, 363, 380, 497. Flint saws, 35; large number found in a barrow, 262. Flint and steel, 36, 264, 265, 266 n., 391. Flixton Wold, 271, 575. Flouest, M. Ed., 217 n. Flues in long barrows, 487 n., 496, 511. Folkton, parish of, 271, 466, 467. Fondouce, M. P. Casalis de, 9 n. Food, deposited with the dead, 10, 274, 275, 278, 283, 427; remains of, found in sepulchral vessels, 240, 303, 311, 312, 313; why placed with the dead, 102, ‘Food vessels,’ 62, 66, 83 seg.; clay of which made, 91; common in the Wold barrows, 66, 84; deposited with both burnt and unburnt bodies, 83; form of, 84; ornamentation upon, 92; orna- mented on bottom, 424, 424.; peculiar forms of, 88; provision for suspending them, 85 ; rare in Wiltshire, 66; size of, 84; with a cover, 89, 164, 164 n., oi INDEX, 305; with feet, 88, 194; with per- forated ears, 84, 314. Forden, 272. Foreign substances used in construction of barrows, 5, 6 n. Fox, Colonel A, Lane, F.S.A., 9 n., 123, 342”. Funeral, persons slain at, 119, 177, 243. Funeral feasts, 10, 145. Future life, belief in, 57, 60, 121, 425. Fylfot, 77 n. Ganton, parish of, 155, 459, 460. Gardham, village of, 279. Garments of wool, 32, 376. Gaul, people of, 130. Gaulish custom of burning animals with the dead, 16. Giants’ Graves, 344. Gilling, parish of, 343, 471, 472, 550. Gill’s Vallis Eboracensis, 347, 550. Glass, 55,55 .; beads made of, 527., 55, 55 7., 178, 208, 208 n., 384. Glaze on pottery, 65, 310. Gloucestershire, 443. Gold, 55,55 .; beads, 55 ., 436; buttons, 56, 117; cup, 98; ear-rings, 55 7., 223 2. Goodmanham, parish of, 286, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471. Gower in South Wales, 451. Grain cultivated by people of the Wolds, II4. Graves, connected by an opening, 223, 223 n.; floored with wood, 13; in barrows, 12; lined with wood, 13, 170; size of, 12; three connected together, 265. Grime’s Graves (flint workings), 37 7., 1IO, 231 n. Grimston Moor, 343, 550. Grimthorpe, ‘Late Keltic’ burial there, * RO Gristhorpe, burial in tree-coffin, 13, 23, 207 ., 377 N- Groups of barrows, 8, 112, 420, 421 7. Habituation, place of, used for burial, . 6 316. Hall, Rev. G. Rome, 436 n. Hambleton training-ground, near Thirsk, 337- Hammer of deer’s-horn, 37, 217, 217 2, 390, 390 n. Hammer-stones, 35, 200, 239, 242, 251. Hand-made, vessels of pottery, all, 63. Handle, of ‘ drinking cup,’ 95, 96, 321; of knife-dagger ornamented with bronze, 56; ornamented with gold, 56. Handle-termination of knife-dagger, made of amber, 207 n.; made of bone, 207, 207 n. Hands, position of, 25. Hartburn, parish of, 434. Hatchets, stone, 34. 759 Head, direction of, 25 ; form of, 122. Headship of tribe, hereditary, 119, 260. Heathery Burn Cave, bronze articles found there, 49 n.; pottery found there, 107. Hector, burial of, 15 n. Helperthorpe, parish of, 191, 205, 461, 462, 617. Herodotus, his account of the burial of a Scythian king, 120. Heron or bittern, pin made from bone of, 177. Heslerton, parish of, 141, 458, 579. Hoare, Sir R. Colt, 4, 14 ., 25 n., 28 n., passim. Holes in barrows, 9, 137, 137 ”., 140, 146, 147, 174, 199, 204, 210, 225, 229, 321, 328, 497, 498, 554, 554 . Homer, burial of Hector, 15 ».; burial of Patroclus, 16 n. Horn spoon in ‘drinking cup,’ Iot. ‘Horned’ cairns, 480, 515, 521, 536. Horse, bones of, in barrows, 136, 220, 262 ».; buried with body, 456. Hove, near Brighton, amber cup found there, 97. Huddersfield Museum, urn in, 169. Humbleton Hill, near Sunderland, urns found there, 440. Hunebedden in Holland, 483. Hut urns, 3 n. Hutton Buscel, parish of, 357, 472, 473. Ilderton, Northumberland, 583. Illinois, cemeteries in, 13 n. Implements, of boar’s-tusk, 37, 138, 215, 215 ., 274, 389; of bone, 37, 138, 252, 274, 392; of bronze, 38, 117; of deer’s-horn, 37, 192, 201, 2II, 231, 253, 258, 304, 329, 432 ; of stone, 34, 35, 36; position of, with reference to body, 39; rarely found with an inter- ment, 38, 51, 425; used in the making of cists, 239, 239 n., 242; why buried with the dead, 57, 121. Impression of bones the sole remains of a body, 185. ‘Incense cups,’ 62, 66, 74 seg.; common forms of, 74,75; cross on, 76; found always with burnt bodies, 80; found frequently in Wiltshire, 66; found in- side a cinerary urn, 80, 405; ornamenta- tion of, 76; ornamented on bottom, 76, 355, 384 ; peculiar forms of, 79; per- forated, 78, 78 n., 82; rare on the Wolds, 66; size of, 74; sometimes burnt with the body, 80; supposed to be lamps, 81, 82; use of, 81, 82, 83. Incompleteness of circles, 6, 6 n., 7, 7 N. P Inhumation, burial by, 18, 19; alternating with cremation, 302; and cremation practised at the same time, 20, 21, 760 INDEX. 392, 542; the most frequent mode of burial on the Wolds, 19, 20. Inscribed rocks, 7, 343, 403, 410, 412, 422, 429, 430. Interments, secondary, 12, 16, 17. Invading people absorbed by an invaded one, 213, 451. Ireland, ‘drinking cups’ not found in, 94. Ironstone (calcined), pieces of, in grave, 240. Isolation of people of the Wolds, 118. Jet, 55,55 .; beads, 32 n., 52, 53, 138, 142, 198, 198 n., 330, 334, 366, 392, 407, 419; buttons, 32, 174, 187, 223, 227, 229, 229 n., 264, 265, 431 ; neck- laces, 55 ”., 117, 198, 198 ”., 330, 334, 403, 419; pendants, 198, 198 n., 297, 297 N. 330, 362; rings, 32, 116, 227, 229, 229 N., 251, 263. Jewitt, Mr. Llewellyn, F.S.A., 50 x., 69 n., 99 2. Joass, Rev. J. M., of Golspie, 421 n. Kaffir, uses assagai for various purposes, 40. Kemble, Mr. J. M., 27, 30 n., 106. is) en North Riding of Yorkshire, 339- Kilburn, parish of, 339, 471, 501. Kilham, parish of, 553. Kiplingcotes Race-course, 325. Kirby Grindalythe, parish of, 140, 458. Kirby Stephen, parish of, 382, 474. Kirby Underdale, parish of, 135, 458. Kirk Whelpington, parish of, 433, 477. Kirwan, Rev. R., 44 n. Kneeling position of body, 24. Knife-daggers, of bronze, 38, 40, 42 1”, 47, 186, 207, 264; of bronze mis- takenly called spear-heads, 45 ; of flint, 35- Knives, of boar’s-tusk, 37, 215, 215 m, 274; of bronze, 38, 265, 446, 446 n.; of flint, 35; of flint, serrated, 285 ; of flint found with burnt bodies usually not burnt, 174, 285, 363, 380, 407. Lalande, M. Philibert, 29 n. Langtoft, parish of, 204, 462. Langton, parish of, 136, 458, 603. ‘Late Keltic’ (Early Iron Age) burials, 5On., 212, 286, 386, 454. Lead pommel of bronze sword-handle, 433- Leather or skin in graves, 31 7., 32, 32 ., 142, 4IT. Logan, Mr. James, F.S.A., 7 n. Londesborough, Lord, 5 n., 56 v., 180, 186, 227, 286. Londesborough, parish of, 331, 471. Long barrows, 3, 479 seq.; earlier than a knowledge of metal, 483, 548; earliest form of sepulchral mound, 548; fire how applied to bodies.in, 495, 499, 502, 506, 511; form of skull found in, 122, 482, 543, 549; imperfect skeletons found in, 543; pottery rare in, 543; turned into round barrows, 205, 491 ; weapons and implements rarely found in, 543, 547. Long Meg and her Daughters (stone circle), 381. Lordenshaws Camp, near Rothbury, 30. Lubbock, Sir John, F.RS., 451 n., 526 n. Lucker Moor, Northumberland, 413. Lukis, Mr. F. C., 62 n.; Rev. W. C., FS.A., 13 2., 14 2. 28 0., 97, 217 2, 352 N-, 377 Ne Man and wife interred together, 154, 165, 224, 441. Manganese, bones stained by, 517. Mapleton, Rev. R. J., 7 n. Market Weighton, parish of, 505. Mayburgh, near Penrith, 381. Menhir in a barrow, 511. Mirror, iron, 454, 455 n. Money Hill, barrow so called, 329. Monkman, Mr. Charles, 28 n., 145. Monolith, Cop-stone on Moor Divock, 400; at Humbleton, 403 ; at Flodden, 402; at Rudstone, 233; at Swinburne, 436; at Yevering, 403. Moor Divock, parish of Askham, 400. Mortillet, M. Gabriel de, 269 n. Mortimer, Mr. J. R., 50 n., 377 n. Mother and child interred together, 1567., 260, 309, 391, 399 399 N, 523. Mound (circular) surrounding barrow, 4. Necklaces, 52; of glass beads, 52 x., 208 ; of gold, 55 n., 436; of jet, 55 n., 117, 198, 198 n., 330, 334, 403, 4193 of shells, 138 n. ; of teeth, 327, 327 n. Nether Swell, parish of, 445, 478, 513. Nilsson, Professor, 527, 537, 540, 546, 547- North side of barrow, burials rarely found there, 13. Northumberland, 378, 402. Ochre, in grave, 328, 331. Old Bewick, camp at, 421. Ophelia, burial of, 12. Ord, Mr., History of Cleveland, 333. Orkney, stone sepulchral vessels found there, 73. Ornamentation, of bronze articles, 66; of iron knives from Africa, 66; of pottery, 65, I17. Ornaments, 51, 117; why buried with the dead, 57. Orton, parish of, 394, 475. — - = i it ii i i i ttl i ii te he INDEX. Ossuaries, 17, 18, 221, 504, 546. Ossuary Theory, 533. Overhanging rim of cinerary urns; 14, 67, 104. Over Silton, parish of, 336, 471, 509. Ovingham, parish of, 437, 477. Ox, head of, in barrow, 168, 168 x., 230. Paalstabs, 48. Paleolithic times, no evidence of Wolds being occupied then, 122 n. Paley, F. A., Homeric tumuli, 4 n. Partial burning of the body, 29, 29 u., 30, 30 n. Patagonians, bodies kept by, before burial, 17. Patroclus, burial of, 16 n. Paulinus, 286, 403, 426. Peacock, Mr., 5 . Penannular rings, 7. Pendants, of amber, 297 n.; of gold, 297 n.; of jet or lignite, 198, 198 n., 297, 297 M, 330, 362. People of the Wolds, not rich, 57; their physical characteristics, 121, 127; two stocks there, 122, 126. Perforations, in cinerary urns, 69; in ‘incense cups,’ 78. Persons slain at funeral, 119, 120, 177, 243. Petrie, Mr. George, 239 n. Picks of deer’s-horn, 5, 37, 37 %., 201, 231, 231 2., 253, 258, 304, 329, 432. Pig, bones of, in graves, 274, 275, 278, 283, 298, 454. Pig’s tooth, perforated, 53, 326. Pile, funeral, 14. Pins, 31, 31 ., 33; with burnt bodies, 15, 31%. Pious rites of one religion accursed in another, II. Pit or cup markings on rocks and stones, 7; 341, 342, 342 0, 343, 402, 422, 430, 433- Platform of wood in grave, 13, 170, 181. Porter, Rev. Fred., 145. Position of the body in barrows, 22, 23, 24. Potsherds in barrows, 11, 108. Potter Brompton Wold, 155. Pottery, 61; always burnt, 63; of barrows different from ‘Anglo-Saxon’ and Roman, 63; of Brittany, 62; of Channel Islands, 62; clay of, 64; colour of, 64 ; domestic, 106; none made on wheel, 63 ; numerous fragments of, in barrows, II, 108, 221; ornamentation of, 65 ; position with reference to body, 61 ; rare in long barrows, 508; skill in manufacture of, 117, 306. Prickers, vide Awls and Drills. Proctor, Rev. William, junior, 411. 761 Prominent position of barrows, 8. Proportion of burnt to unburnt bodies on Wolds and elsewhere, 19, 20, 21, 21 n, Provisions placed with dead, 93. Puddled earth in barrows, 202, 246, 246 n., 262. Pyramids of Egypt, 1. Querns (hand-mills), 115. Raiset Pike (long barrow), 510. Rau, Mr. Charles, 13 n. Ravenstonedale, parish of, 393, 475. Religion of people of Wolds, 120. Rillaton, gold cup found there, 98. Rings, of jet and lignite, 32, 116, 227, 229, 229 n., 251, 263; penannular, 7. Rolleston, Professor, 122, 352 7., 505, 5IO, 513 %, 515, 521; description of figures of skulls by, 559; essay on skulls by, 625. Rosehill, Lord, 266 n. Rothbury, parish of, 428, 477. Rowtin Lynn, inscribed rock there, 403. Royce, Rev. David, 443, 513, 524. Rudstone, parish of, 229, 464, 465, 497, 591, 613. Rylston, parish of, 374, 474. Sandstone, burnt, pieces of, in barrows, 168, 220. Saws, flint, 35 ; large number in a barrow, 262. Scale House in Craven, barrow at, 32, 375: Scamridge Dykes, 484. Scandinavia, bodies interred there in a sitting posture, 2 n., 24; chambered tombs of, 2 n., 316, 481, 482. Scotland, stone circles there, 7 n. Scrapers, flint, 35. Scythian king, burial of, 120. Seal Howe, Oddendale, 398. Secondary interments, 12, 16, 17; in long barrows, 485, 488, 491, 502. Seeds in a grave, 141, 141 n. Selby, Major Luard-, 413, 414. Shap, stone circle and avenue there, 381. Sheath, wooden, of a bronze dagger, 359, 359 Nn. Shells, perforated, 138; necklace of, 138 n. Sherburn, parish of, 145, 458, 459, 609. Side on which bodies were buried, 25, 26. Silbury Hill, 2, 2 ». Simpson, Rev. James, LL.D., Sir J. Y., 7 2. Sitting posture, bodies buried in, 2 n., 24, 382 ; 24 N. Skill of wold-dwellers in bronze-casting, 117; in manufacture of pottery, 117, 306. 3D 762 Skin or hide, body interred in, 31 m, 32, 32 ”., 142, 4II. Skull showing signs of a wound, 137. Skull-form, of people of early iron age, 129, 212; of people of long barrows, 122 ., 482, 543, 549; of people of Wolds, 122; of Scandinavian chambered barrows, 482. Skulls placed together without bodies, 206, 206 n. Slaves ae others killed at funeral, 120, 177, 2 Sleep, ag buried as they lay during, 24. Slingsby, parish of, 347, 472. Sling-stones, 35. Small mounds within barrows, 137, 137 %., 140, 247. Social state of people of Wolds, 111, 118. Socketed celts, bronze, 49. Soden-Smith, Mr., 396 n. South Shields, parish of, 442, 478. Space, saving of, not the reason why body was contracted, 22, 293. Spear-heads of bronze, not found in bar- rows, 45; belong probably to an ad- vanced period of the time of bronze, 49; of iron, 432. Spindle-whorls, 116, 178, 196. Spinning, people of Wolds acquainted with, 116. Spirits of the dead, fear of, 8, Io. Spoon of horn, found in a ‘ drinking cup,’ Iol. Stakes supporting a platform in barrow, 170. Stanley, Hon. W. Owen, 77 n., 81, 83. Steeple Hill, near Sunderland, 441. Stillingfleet, Rev. E. W., 50 n., 208, 454, 455 n Stone, adzes, 34; hatchets, 34; imple- ments, 34; implements still used in bronze age, 361 ; pieces of, mixed with clay of pottery, 64 ; rows (alignments), 402, 430; vessels containing burnt bones, 73. © Stone and bronze implements associated, 187, 225, 236, 265; 265 n., 359. Stonehenge, 6 ., 18 Stones for polishing o or grinding, 414, 416. Successive Interments Theory, 527, 546. Sun, bodies placed facing, 26. Sun-dried, urns not merely, 63. Surface soil removed under long pero 510, 511. Suttee, 120. Swiss Lake Dwellings, people of, 114. Swords of bronze, belong, probably, not to the earliest time of bronze, 49; found in Danish barrows, 44 n.; not found in British barrows, 44, 44 7. Swords of iron, 50 n. Symbolic representations connected with burial, 343. INDEX. Table of barrows, 458. Taboo, 8. Tait, Mr. Lawson, 342 n. Tate, Mr. George, F.G.8., 7 n. Tau symbol of Egypt, 8. Taylor, Colonel Meadows, 6 n., 120 n. Terraces for cultivation, 114, 374. Teutons not a fortifying people, 125. Three Tremblers (barrows), 357. Thurnam, Dr., F.S.A., 127, 485 , 508, 526 m., 542 2., 543 My 544. - Thwing, parish of, 226, 464 Tindall, Mr., of Bridlington, 143. Tool-stone, oval, in barrow, 248. Tooth of pig, perforated, 326. Tosson, Great, parish of Rothbury, 431. Toy weapons, &c., 361 n. Traffic amongst people of Wolds, 56. Tree-coffins, 13, 23, 32, 375, 3760 n., 384. Trench, along the sides of long barrows, 488 ; circular, round base of barrows, 6, 369; within barrows, 6, 166, 201, 227, 245, 245 n. Troyon, M. Fréd., 23 n. Tunstall Hill, near Sunderland, 440. Unburnt and burnt bodies, buried to- gether, 149, 152, 153 %., 172, 240, 269, 329, 372, 391, 441; relative proportion of, 19, 20, 21, 21”. Unceleby, parish of Kirby Underdale, 135. Upper Swell, parish of, 521. Urn, burnt bones placed in, 14. Urns of cinerary type not containing bones, 62, 72, 139, 161, 277, 284, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 297, 318, 370, 28. Unie smaller, placed inside larger ones, 72, 364, 367, 405, 408 n., 428. Vase, Anglian, 178; diminutive, 317, 317 n.; found apart from any inter- ment, 193, 199, 219, 301, 302, 309, 345, 351; of great beauty, 307; with cover, 89, 164, 164 ”., 305; with feet, 88, 194; with rounded bottom, 143, 143 n. Vases, two made by same workman, 314. Vessels of pottery, how manufactured, 64; made for burial purposes, 103, 108 ; probably domestic, 143 n., 174. Villages on the Wolds now destroyed, 279. Vole, bones of, 199, 391. Wall surrounding long barrow, 513, 515, 521. Walls within barrows, 137, 139, 173, 284, 485, 504, 514, 521. Warcop, parish of, 385, 474. Wass Moor, 339, 501. Way, Mr. Albert, 77 n., 81, 83, 103, 397: INDEX. Weapons, 33, 39, 159; frequently deco- rated, 160; rarely found in barrows, 51, 190; why buried with dead, 57. _ Weaverthorpe, parish of, 192, 461, 462, 571, 619. Welburn, parish of, 356, 472. West side of barrow, burials rare on, 13. Westmoreland, 381, 510. Westow, parish of, 490. Whetstones, 35, 263, 263 n. Wife slain at funeral of husband, 120, 120 n. Wilfred, 58. Willerby, parish of, 180, 460, 461, 487. William Howe, parish of Egton, 334. Williamson, Professor, F.R.S., 377 n. - Willy Howe, near Wold Newton, 5 x., 227. Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 44, 53 ., 116 n., 190, 528, 534 1, 540. Wiltshire barrows, 4, 8, 38, 54, 56. 763 Wold dwellers, not possessed of much wealth, 57; social condition of, 111 118 ; their physical characteristics, 121, 2 1247. Wolds, defensive condition of, 123, 134; description of, 133; dry, 134; nume- - rously occupied, 133; two stocks of people living on, 126; wanting in water, 133; wanting in wood, 134. Women, social position of, 120. Wood, absence of, conducive to early occupation, 134; grave lined with, 13, 170, Wooden club, 278. Woollen garments in grave, 32, 376. Worsaae, J.J. A., 31 2. Worship of ancestors, Io. Wrist-guard of stone, 36, 36 n. Wykeham Moor, 357. Wylie, Mr. W. M., F.S.A., 31 1, 57 n., 93 2. ee: rune ARE eet ren tee tert ne ic see he te ee tree: . ORE RCE Et rte greeny as ee ae eR ee eee | ree oe ee Dae +t '* ~