S&ctions, THE Section. ii-JO/6 net BRITISHBIRD UC-NRLF C 2 755 Ebfi BOOK 2OO PLATES IN COLOUR- AND NUMEROUS PHOTOGRAPHS, EDITED BY FBKIRKMAN BAQXON COIL trib vc 1 02? J. L. BONHOTE WILLIAM FARREN F. C. R. JOURDAIN W. P. PYGRAFT EDMUND SELOUS MISS E. L. TURNER AND THE EDITOR MISS W. AUSTEN G. E. COLLINS H. GRONVOLD G. E. LODGE A. W. SEABY AND OTHERS A- COMPLETE WORK ON THE BIRDS, NESTS AND EGGS OF GREAT BRITAIN and Edinburgh, ~~T'C &-JB- C' JACK- BIOLOGY UflRARr 0 T ^i . ~-f'~ '-•" "" "?^i^- Sfc& v^'Sitoii. Photo by Kilcy Fortune Corn-bunting's Nest in grass Reed-bunting's Nest Photo by \V. Farren Yellow- bunting's Nest in a bank Photo by F. B. Kirkman Yellow-bunting's Nest in a bush PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 161 GIRL-BUNTING- [Ember iza cirlus, Linnaeus. French, bruant zizi; German, Zaunammer ; Italian, zigolo nero], 1. Description. — Distinguished from the yellow-hammer, which it resembles, by the black throat and lores, the black spot behind the eye, and the olive-green rump. (PL 20.) The crown and nape are olive-green, with black striations. The throat below the gorget is bright yellow, and this is succeeded by a sage-green pectoral band, bounded posteriorly by a narrow band of mahogany-red, which extends backwards on each side on to fore-part of flanks, which, tailwards, become greenish grey relieved by dusky streaks. The interscapulars and scapulars are mahogany-red, marked with inconspicuous black spots. After the autumn moult the black feathers of the head and throat are tipped with olive-green, obscuring the black, the upper parts duller and greener. Length 6J in. [165 mm.]. The female differs from the male in having the throat pale yellow striated with black, and only a tinge of red in sides of breast, the ground colour of the back and crown olive-brown striated with black, scapulars mahogany-red. She may be distinguished from the female yellow-hammer by the olive-green rump, red scapulars with dark shaft-streaks. After the autumn moult the upper surface of the body has a browner hue, owing to broad brownish fringes to the feathers. The young, before the first moult, are browner than the adults, especially on the throat and chest ; the sides of the face and ear-coverts are uniform brown, [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — On the Continent it is almost confined to the basin of the Mediterranean and Black Seas ; from Spain and North-west Africa east to the Caucasus and Asia Minor. In the British Isles it is chiefly found as a resident in the counties on the south coast of England, and locally in various parts of the south midlands, the Thames valley, Somerset, and Gloucester : also locally in Wales, not only in the south but also in the north, and is not uncommon in Flint and Denbigh. Records of breeding in the north of England require confirmation. The species is practically unknown in Scotland and Ireland. As will be seen from the above, the presence of this bird in Great Britain is remarkable in view of the fact that it is only found in the south of Continental Europe as a rule, although a few pairs breed in France and the Rhine valley. [F. c. B. J.] 3. Migration. — There is no evidence of any migratory movements from or to the British Isles. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : near or on the ground in gorse, hedge- bottoms, or bank sides. The nest is built of bents, roots, and sometimes moss, 162 THE BUNTINGS leaves, etc., lined with finer grasses and generally horse-hair. It is con- structed by both sexes (E. Selous), but to what extent the male participates is uncertain. The eggs, 4-5, sometimes only 3, in number, have the ground colour usually pale bluish or greenish white, and the streaks bolder and blacker than in the yellow-bunting. Occasionally, however, the eggs of the two species are barely distinguishable. (PL B.) Average size of 100 eggs, -83x-63 in. [21 '13 x 16'11 mm.]. Laying begins in May. Incubation lasts about a fortnight. In four cases observed by X. Raspail it lasted 12| days (Ornis., 1902-3, pp. 147- 154). It is performed by the hen, relieved, at least occasionally, by the cock, for in one case I have flushed the latter from the nest. Second broods may be found in July and even August. [F. c. R. j.] 5. Food. — Seeds of grasses, cereals, and other plants form the greater part. The nestlings are fed on insects, notably grasshoppers, but also moths and others, probably by both sexes. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Not fully ascertained, but is much the same as that of the yellow-hammer (E. Selous, in litt. ; British Birds, i. 372. C. J. and H. G. Alexander). REED-BUNTING [Emberiza schceniclus (Linnaeus). Reed- or water- sparrow, blackcap, blackheaded-bunting. French, briiant des roseaux ; German, Rohrammer ; Italian, migliarino di padule]. i. Description. — Recognised by the black head and throat, intersected by a white stripe running obliquely backwards from the base of the bill to the white collar ; also by the ash-grey rump, tinged and striped with brown. (PL 19.) The mantle feathers are chiefly dull black, broadly margined rich chestnut. Rump grey, washed with rufous and faintly striated, the under parts white, flanks striated with brown, the outermost tail feather white with dusky lanceolate patch on outer urb ; the penultimate, black with a white blaze 011 inner urb, two middle feathers dusky with pale ochreous margins. Marginal wing-coverts rich chestnut red, median dull black with broad chestnut-red tips. Major coverts and secondaries black, with broad outer margins of ochreous brown. Length 6 in. [152 mm.]. In the hen the black of the head and throat is obscured by long tawny edges to the feathers, the ear-coverts dark brown with a white stripe below and above, the throat dull white encircled by a horse-shoe band of black. Median wing-coverts chestnut. The breast is also more striated than that of the male. After the autumn moult the male has the black of the head and throat obscured by tawny fringes to the feathers. PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 163 The feathers of the upper surface have broad rufous edges, while the white area of the neck is obscured by a wash of sandy brown. The female at this season is .much browner than in summer, and may be distinguished from females of allied species by the chestnut colour of the lesser wing-coverts, and the marking of the throat. The young, up to the first moult, resemble the hen, but the young males show signs of the characteristic black and white markings of the head of the adult. After the first moult they are to be distinguished from the adults only by the more marked striation of the under parts, [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — Generally distributed throughout Europe and West Siberia, but in Hungary, the Balkan Peninsula, and South Russia local races are found. In the British Isles it is a resident on suitable ground even to the Outer Hebrides and the Orkneys, but it is scarce in North Scotland, and absent from the Shetlands and Faeroes. [F. c. B. j.] 3. Migration. — Resident as a species, but many writers of local avifaunas are agreed that their breeding birds are replaced by others from farther north in autumn, a return migration taking place in March or early April. An overseas emigration of south of England birds probably takes place, but direct evidence is wanting (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 180). In some years there is a con- siderable immigration in September and October on the east coast of Great Britain, the movements often corresponding with similar " rushes " on Heligoland (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 209 ; and Gatke, Vogduiarte Helgoland, Eng. trans., 1895, p. 380). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : usually on or not far from the ground in marshy spots ; sometimes a foot or two above ground in flood wrack or young trees. Nest : grasses, bents, and a little moss, lined with finer grasses, horse-hair, and sometimes reed flowers. (PL vi.) It is built by the female, with or without the co-operation of the male (E. Selous). Eggs 4-5, sometimes 6, in number. The ground is generally olive, sometimes pale greenish or buff, boldly spotted and streaked with a few almost black markings, and underlying shell marks of violet-grey. A scarce variety is white without markings. (PI. B.) Average size of 172 eggs, -76 x -56 in. [19*39 x 14*43 mm.]. Laying begins in April. Incubation lasts 13-14 days, and is chiefly performed by the hen. Sometimes three broods are reared. [F. c. B. J.] 5. Food. — In summer the reed-bunting takes various insects and their larvae, but at other times feeds chiefly on the seeds of cereals, grasses, marsh plants, etc. 164 THE BUNTINGS Small aquatic animals — molluscs and crustaceans — are also eaten. The young are fed by both parents on insects. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — The song has been heard from the end of February to the end of July (Brit. Birds, i. 370, C. and H. Alexander). Ussher and Warren give it for Ireland as from March to July (B. of Ireland, p. 77). [F. B. K.] SNOW-BUNTING [Passerina nivdlis (Linnaeus) [Plectrophenax nivalis (L.)]. Snowflake, snowbird, white lark. French, ortolan de neige ; German, Schneeammer ; Italian, zigolo della neve]. i. Description. — Distinguished from all the other buntings by the large amount of white in the secondary wing feathers, and the great length of the wing, which reaches nearly to the end of the tail. (PL 22.) The male, in its breeding dress, is pure white, with the exception of the back, middle tail feathers, bastard wing, innermost secondaries, and the terminal half of the primaries, which are black. The legs and beak are also black. In birds which are not fully mature, the major coverts of the primaries are black, but these gradually, with age, become white, and the bases of the primaries similarly only gradually become white, until only the terminal half of each feather is black. This pied livery is the result of the abrasion of the dress assumed in autumn. After the autumn moult the white areas of the upper parts are obscured by a rich rust red, deepening to chocolate on the crown and ear-coverts, while the black feathers are concealed by long tawny fringes. The white area of the wings is unaffected. The two outer tail feathers are white save for a small terminal shaft-streak of dull black, the antepenultimate feather is mostly black. But the amount of white in the tail and of the tail-coverts varies considerably, probably with age. The beak turns yellow, but the legs and feet remain black. Length 7 in. [178 mm.]. The adult female contrasts with the male in having the upper parts greyish brown, and flecked, rather than striated, with black; an effect caused by the greyish brown margins of the dull black feathers. Often there is a patch of rust red on the crown, and a similar patch on the ear- coverts. The interscapulars and scapulars are dull black, each feather margined with brown. The wing-coverts and inner secondaries are dull black, with pale whitish brown edges, while the under parts are of a dull white. After the autumn moult the female more nearly resembles the male, the feathers having broad fringes of rust colour ; but she is always duller, and has dull black wing- coverts, margined with greyish white, the white of the secondaries and tail is also much less. Young females resemble the adult female. Young males in winter PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 165 can be distinguished from females by the ashy white wing-coverts, and the greater extent of white on the outer tail feathers. The secondaries — as in adults of both sexes — are deeply notched at the tip, and show a variable amount of white around the margins, the rest of the feathers being dull black, which is gradually replaced by white extending from the base of the feathers downwards. The major coverts are black, as also are the primaries. As age advances the primaries develop white bases, and later white gradually replaces the black of the major coverts. Immature birds, furthermore, have a more or less well-marked pectoral gorget of rust colour, and faintly striated flanks. The fledgling has the upper parts brownish grey, inclining to tawny on interscapulars, faintly striated with dull black on the crown, and distinctly so on the back. The under parts are grey, the throat, fore-neck, and flanks being more or less distinctly striated with dull grey-black, [w. p. P.] 2. Distribution. — The Arctic regions of both hemispheres. In Europe it breeds not only in North Scandinavia and North Russia, but also in Novaya Zemlya, Waigatz, Spitsbergen, Franz-Josef Land, the Faeroes, and Iceland, and in the British Isles nests in the Shetlands and also in the Scottish Highlands, especially in the Cairngorm range. It is now known to breed at least as far south as the spurs of the Grampians between Rannoch and Glen Lyon ( Vertebrate Fauna of Tay Basin, etc., p. 133). [r. c. B. J.] 3. Migration. — Whether the comparatively small numbers that nest in the Highlands migrate southwards on the approach of winter or merely seek lower levels, it is not possible to say. Disregarding these, the snow-bunting is a winter visitor to the British Isles, keeping chiefly to the coast districts, and becoming rather irregular in Wales and the south-western parts of England, and the southern half of Ireland. At the end of September, or oftener early in October, the flocks, chiefly young birds at first, but sometimes preceded by a few straggling adults, begin to arrive in the north. Immigration continues through October and November, and may persist till January in some seasons. The numbers that visit us appear to depend on the severity of the winter in the northern regions whence they come, and are very variable, great " rushes " occurring in some years (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 204). The return migration is at its height in March, but a few birds may linger till April, or exceptionally till May, and stragglers are occasionally obtained in summer in localities where the species does not breed. There is some ground for believing that birds reach the south- east of England direct from the Continent (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 182). From the llth to the 14th of October 1902, numbers were reported Y 166 THE BUNTINGS as migrating, apparently due east, in mid-Atlantic, 45°-50° N. lat., 15° W. long, (cf. A. L. Butler, Ibis, 1904, p. 304). The snow-bunting is eminently a gregarious migrant. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : as a rule deep in some cleft of a scree or heap of boulders on a mountain-side, but in the Shetlands in crevices in the sea- cliffs. Nest : built rather carelessly of dry grass stalks and occasionally twigs or moss, lined with finer grasses, a little hair, and many feathers of various Alpine or northern birds. The hen has been observed to build the nest un- aided (A. Trevor-Battye, Icebound in Kolguev, p. 107). Whether the cock ever takes part is not recorded. Eggs, 5-6 as a rule in the British Isles ; varying in ground colour from white to pale bluish or greenish, sometimes tinged with rufous, and blotched, spotted, and striated with deep red-brown and underlying violet. There is often a cap or zone at the big end. (PI. B.) Average size of 100 eggs, •86 x '63 in. [22-04 x 16-14 mm.]. Laying begins in Scotland about the end of May and early in June. Incubation period 14 days, chiefly, at any rate, performed by the hen. One brood, [r. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — Mosquitoes and other insects form the principal food of both old and young in summer, but at other times the seeds of cereals, polygona, etc., are eaten. The young are fed by both parents, but on what is uncertain. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Not recorded. LAPLAND-BUNTING \Calcdrius lapponicus (Linnaeus). French, bruant lapon ; German, Lerchen-Spornammer ; Italian, zigolo di Lapponia], i. Description. — The male in breeding plumage has the crown sides of head, throat, and fore-neck black, with a whitish stripe passing over the eye and down the neck, the nape bright rust red. Scapulars and interscapular feathers black, margined with rust colour. Median wing-coverts black, edged white. Major coverts black, margined with rust colour, striped white. Inner secondaries black, with broad margins rich rust colour ; tail quills are dark brown with paler margins, the penultimate pair having a small wedge-shaped mark of white on the tip. The under parts are white with a chestnut tinge, and black striations. (PI. 20.) Length 6£ in. [159 mm.]. The hen differs in having the head and throat dusky brown, and is generally duller. She may be distinguished from the females of allied species by the patch of dull rufous on the hind-neck, answering to the bright rust- PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 167 coloured patch of the male. Both sexes may further be distinguished by the great length of the hind claw. The adult male, after the autumn moult, has the black of the head completely obscured by sandy rufous margins to the feathers, while the white of the eyebrow and neck are similarly marked with the same sandy buff ; the chestnut of the nape is also marled by similar sandy buff fringes. The female is browner than in summer, both on the upper and under parts, and may be dis- tinguished from the male by the coloration of the head and neck, since these in the winter retain the characteristic sexual coloration though obscured by the sandy buff fringes referred to : raising the feathers will always display this coloration. The young differ little from the parents, except that the young cock has less black on the head. The fledgling differs conspicuously from the adults, being of a golden buff indistinctly streaked with dusky above ; throat dull white, base of fore-neck and flanks buff, indistinctly striated, breast and abdomen buffish white, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — Northern Scandinavia and Russia ; also on Kolguev, Waigatz, and Novaya Zemlya in Europe during the breeding season. Its range also includes the Arctic regions of Asia and North America. [F. c. B. J.] 3. Migration. — This species is an uncommon migrational visitor to the British Isles, most of the records being for the autumn passage. So far it is only known to occur regularly on the east coast of Great Britain, but there are a number of west coast records. In Ireland it has occurred only thrice : once on the Fastnet (cf. Zool, 1889, p. 76), and twice in Co. Dublin (cf. Irish Naturalist, 1906, p. 112 ; and Ussher, List of Irish Birds, 1908, p. 20). The first migrants usually appear on our east coast early in September, but in 1907 they were recorded from Fair Isle (Shetlands) as early as August 25 (cf. Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1908, p. 77). The return journey takes place in May (cf. torn, cit., 1907, p. 71). The species appears to be a solitary migrant as a rule, even on Heligoland, which is apparently more directly in the stream of its migration than our islands are. But it often consorts with other species, while a flock of 30-40, old and young, was recorded from the Flannan Isles in 1904 (cf. torn, cit., 1904, p. 207), and one of over 100 from Flamborough in 1893 (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 211). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs.— Does not breed in the British Isles. 5. Food. — Insects and their larvae are taken at the seasons when they are obtainable, but seeds probably form a more important part of the bird's diet. These may be of various " arctic and alpine plants, especially willows and Arbuius alpina" (cf. Macgillivray, British Birds, 1837, vol. i. p. 474). [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Not yet recorded as singing^in the British Isles. 168 THE BUNTINGS The following species and subspecies of the Fringillidoe are described in the supplementary chapter on " Rare Birds " : — FINCHES (Fringillince)— Citril Finch, Carduelis citrinella (L.). Serin, Serinus canarius serinus (L.). (8. hortulanus, Koch.) Snow Finch, Montifringilla nivalis, L. Holboll's Redpoll, Linota linaria holbcelli (Brehm) ; and Greenland Redpoll, L. linaria rostrata (Coues). Hoary Redpoll, Linota hornemanni hornemanni, Holb. ; and Coues' Redpoll, L. hornemanni exilipes (Coues). Scarlet Grosbeak, Carpodacus erythrinus (Pall.). (Pyrrhula erythrina (Pall.).) Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator (L.). (Pyrrhula enucleator (L.).) Twobarred-crossbill, Loxia leucoptera bifasciata (Brehm). (L. bifasciata (Brehm).) Northern Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula pyrrhula (L.). BUNTINGS (Emberizince)— Blackheaded-bunting, Emberiza melanocephala, Scop. Yellowbreasted-bunting, Emberiza aureola, Pall. Ortolan, Emberiza hortulana, L. Rock Bunting, Emberiza cia, L. Siberian Meadow-bunting, Emberiza cioides castaneiceps, Moore. (E. cioides, Brandt.) Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica, Pall. Little Bunting, Emberiza pusilla, Pall. Thickbilled Reed-bunting, Emberiza pyrrhuloides, Pall. THE BUNTINGS 169 THE BUNTINGS [EDMUND SELOUS] The Buntings, birds homely, but lovable (yet why the antithesis?), albeit that they have much of the finch in appearance, and are, to a large extent, similar in their habits, have yet, on account of some structural peculiarities not shared by the true Fringillince, been separated from these, and, under the title of Emberizince, stand now upon their own merits. These, in a classificatory sense, I do not propose to touch upon. They have been settled till the next unsettlement, and, in the meanwhile, should be held final by all who are not of sufficient authority, or who may lack ambition, to produce or take part in such destined upheaval. Whatever my own views may be, therefore, I suppress them, and the following remarks, in so far as they may relate to this subject at all, will apply to that period only in the growth of ornithological science when the idea of a bunting, as distinct from a finch, had forced itself, after long preparation, upon the slowly enlarging horizon of the human intellect. When once it had, the next step was to decide which species of the newly formed, or rather of the newly conceived group, should, by virtue of a somewhat fuller or more typical display of the required characters, together with a general conformity to bunting traditions and habits, be held best qualified to represent it " That proud honour claimed" (each, bien entendu, through its respective adherents) the yellow-hammer (E. citrinella) and the corn-bunting (E. miliaria). Between these two — for the rest, I understand, had no backers — the judgment, and one may even say the passions, of ornithologists were for long divided, so that some of that bitterness, which the birds themselves, had they been capable of so high a flight, would, no doubt, have felt on the subject, was, by a law of compensa- tion which obtains in such cases, transferred to the rival champions 170 THE BUNTINGS of each. The decision, however, has at length fallen finally (using the word in its precedent sense) upon E. miliaria. He it is who, in this country, at any rate, where there are only a few of them, is repre- sentative of the Buntings. Some silent heart-burnings there may still be, but none now (I gather) dare openly question his right to the dignity.1 I, at any rate, am not going to do so. To accept the corn-bunting in the above capacity is to have an immediate opportunity of saying something about him — in other words of beginning, which, without some such handle, is always a difficult matter. Accordingly I accept him — " sit mihi magnus Apollo ! " Touching the credentials upon which he may most strongly rely I prefer (as before explained) not to speak, and of his more general qualifications it is hardly necessary to. Few, I believe, if any, will deny that he is as much every inch a bunting as Lear was " every inch a king," nor is it incumbent upon him that, in such mental and moral attributes as are here implied, he should go beyond his fellows. That he does upon the issue that has already been tried, so that in all respects, both general and particular, his claim is fully made out. Such as he is, the corn-bunting, though by no means, in this country, abundant, is yet a sufficiently familiar figure. He is also a somewhat ungainly one, his general appearance, when perched at a little distance, being that of a more heavily built and rather overgrown sparrow. From the disgrace, however, of being ever confounded (except by the quite inattentive) with a bird so much his inferior, he is saved by his lighter colouring, his yellow beak, and, above all, in singing time, by his song. This last has excited much comment, and ornithological literature is rich in attempted descrip- tions of what (which, for those who like trying, is no disadvantage) would appear to be quite indescribable. A suspicion may even occur to one, sometimes — try as one will to force it back — that there is not so very much to describe ; but this is only when one listens to the song 1 Newton, A Dictionary of Birds. Plate 18 a Corn-bunting By G. E. Collins THE BUNTINGS 171 itself. When one reverts to the literature aforesaid, one recognises anew how remarkable that must needs be which has produced such results, but how it did (since there can be no fads or fashions in ornithology) is a mystery still. Quot homines, tot sententice. The song of the corn-bunting is a " clanking with Ts and r's combined," a " musical stuttering " a " number of minute wind pipes," a "jingling chain," the " whir of a stocking- loom," "flute-like," and the breaking of glass vessels,1 even to the extent of a whole fleet of them wrecked upon "a reef of gold." This takes us right up to Tennyson, but one need not stop there. Only proclaim it a " musical confusion," and we reach Shakespeare, which, starting from a corn-bunting, is surely a striking crescendo. Coming down again, as I myself conceive the matter, the bird, having uttered, with increasing speed, and what seems a resolute purpose, his little gamut of preluding notes, be they what they will, appears to lose himself, and after tumbling out sounds in which an uneasy conscious- ness of what is due to the various similitudes that have been heaped upon them, detracts, very noticeably, from the value of any, stops suddenly, as though he gave it up. In the space of a minute or so he makes another attempt, gets involved in the same difficulties, stops again, again recommences, stops, starts once more, and con- tinues to try, at short intervals, till, at last, and, as one might think, in despair, he flies from his perch. This is very commonly a telegraph- wire, but a high hedge, if there be one, will serve, and here, perhaps, or hereabouts, he may come once more into competition with his old rival, the yellow-hammer (E. citrinella), whose funny though enjoyable little " tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee, tseeng " is much in evidence at the same season. Which of these performances bears the bell is, like many other grave matters, a matter of taste, but this, at least, may be said in favour of Citrinella, that he is neither hesitating nor obscure. 1 Also the crushing and grinding of innumerable splinters of glass. Perhaps it is like what this is in the imagination of those who catch the resemblance, but, having broken glass, and crushed it, on purpose, I confess I could make nothing of it. There was no corn-bunting in the sound. 172 THE BUNTINGS His song may be a plain-song, but at least it is plain. It may be urged, however, and I think with justice, that Miliaria, though he attain them not, yet attempts higher things than the other, and I have read somewhere — I think in some minor poet — that high failure is to be estimated above low success. Well, I do not hold so, and I wish minor poets would not either — they wrong themselves by such fancies, they had better be whole frogs than burst ones. That the corn-bunting " would, an if he could" I am ready to admit, but since he cannot, what is the value of that ? The little ditty of the yellow- hammer may not aspire to much, but it appears to hit what it aims at. In short — to sum up the difference between the two birds, in this regard — as a minor poet the yellow-hammer may be said to have " arrived," as a great one the corn-bunting has not. In appearance, too, it must be conceded that Citrinella, if he be not the better bunting, is at any rate the better bird — he has the finer feathers undoubtedly. No need to describe him — and yet (to confess it) in spite of his colouring, of his bright, sunny yellow, shaded with soft olives and rich, chestnut browns, there is something about him— partly in his looks, more perhaps in what he makes of them — which has always led me to think of him as an undistinguished bird. It is not because he is common (in numbers I mean), I repudiate that — but there is something, a want of pose, perhaps, in his attitudes, of purity, almost of definition, in his outline — you may call it blurred on a dull day — that does not set him oft' to advantage. In fact, though he has brightness he lacks distinction, which many more quiet birds have. His actions may be pleasing, but they are unsalient, they slip away from one, making him soon to be lost in the landscape, as a yellow leaf is lost in it. All is not plumage in bird-land. By their personalities, more than by their outwardnesses, some of its denizens fly in front of the canvas, others would, if they could, get behind it. In spite of his size and his song, in spite even of some grotesqueries in the season of courtship, E. miliaria is, upon the whole, unassertive, blending, not Plate 19 Reed-buntings in Spring, Cock (upper figure) and hen By A. W. Seaby THE BUNTINGS 173 in any full degree pose tit. The same may — indeed it just has been said of E. citrinella, and in E. schceniclus (called also, sometimes, the reed-bunting) we have these qualities at height But for a certain washed purity and pleasure of soft hair-pencillings, the plumage of this little bird is much like a sparrow's, so is his size, and his shape, though more shapely, yet something so — but who would say that he is like that bird ? Wherever the sparrow is, there he has projected himself; into whatever scene the reed-bunting flies, hops, flutters, or perches, he seems always to have grown out of it. How else has it happened when, sitting stilly amidst the sedge and alder-growth of some small reedy stream (to watch dabchicks at play, perhaps, my "contemplative man's recreation"), his high, clear, yet sad-lingering call-notes, with a lower one, sometimes, like a soft little hiss, if heard closely, fall all around one, and there, all at once, the birds are? Though the arrival of such a little flock of them may be often quite sudden, though, to have entered the reed-beds, they may have pitched steeply down from the sky, as their custom is, yet, once there, so much are they a part of the still scene, the dank surroundings, that it is as though they had always been there — they do not seem to have come. So like, so in consonance are they with their setting, that what but frames them seems to have brought them forth ; it is out of, not into it, that they have stepped. Impressions such as these are not of yesterday, and, long before time had known Darwin, there were evolutionary theories to account for them. To the old (and best) inhabitants of the New World, humming-birds were sunbeams that had taken life, and if here, upon some sear, autumn day, when the wind, blowing strongly over the wide marshes, carried bits of brown, broken reed on its wings, wailing as it went — if these had been metamorphosed and become birds, it would have been reed-buntings, surely, that they would have turned into. Had I been born a pagan, to believe in such things (and I should not have objected), nothing would have seemed to me more likely, more fitting — even now I can almost accept it as their origin. z 174 THE BUNTINGS It is in the decay of the year, when the plumage, even of the male reed-bunting, is of a uniform dull hue, much resembling the brown reeds he lives amongst, that such fancies occur to one. In spring he acquires a fine black-velvet cap and a white, somewhat stick-up collar, which set him more off from his background, and with these he grows less impersonal. He begins, now, to indulge in movements less wind-blown and wandering than formerly, and his notes, though they still have a reedy quality, become more distinctly a song. In this he has been severely criticised, yet his performance is certainly a remarkable one, as may be gathered from the following descrip- tion by Naumann : — ' His loud, peculiar ditty is delivered in a stammering manner, as though he found considerable difficulty in bringing forth the various notes of which it is composed — one might almost say that they were vomited out of him. Sometimes these notes sound like " zja, tit, tai, zissziss, tai, zier, zissziss," but they vary considerably in different individuals.1 It has been said that the male reed-bunting is deficient in courting display, but he has certain forms when he requires them, and he does not require more. The expansion of the tail shows the white feathers in it, being also a well-looking action in itself, whilst no special posture is needed to set off points so conspicuous as the contrasted black and white of the head and neck. As nothing here can well be missed, nothing need be pointed out, yet the bird will erect the feathers of the crown, thus drawing special attention to, and, at the same time, improving his principal ornament.2 Thus we have the courting actions, but to see the actual courtship of a bird so retiring in its nature, and having so much covert into which it may, at liberty, retire, may well be a difficult matter. The corn-bunting has also suffered disparagement as a wooer — indeed, it has even been asserted that he has no courting actions at all. If so, the fact is of interest, for Miliaria is plain enough 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. p. 215. The notes anglicised run — Tsya, teet, taee, tsiziz, taee, tseer, etc. 2 Jenner Weir, as referred to by Darwin in Descent of Man. THE BUNTINGS 175 in his attire, and would thus help to illustrate that general principle, upon which, the less a bird has to show, the less pains he takes to show it. Still, the plainest bird has its feelings, and it is, as I believe, out of the aimless and chaotic movements produced by these, that the most elaborate and methodical displays have been gradually shaped and perfected through the agency of sexual selection. Just as colours and patterns of unsurpassed beauty and elegance have appeared out of primitive drabs or browns,1 so must springs, jerks, rollings, and various uncouth, rigid actions, have been the raw material of effective pose, or measured, pompous " dance." Let us then look at the corn-bunting with a discerning eye, and see if he have not an antic or two, to show us, even though they may not be true courting ones, though, as to this, further evidence is required. The corn-bunting, then, when, time after time, he gives vent to that little insignificant song of his, of which so much has been said (and made), does not, with that, quite exhaust his capacities. Actions which, even if there be no arritre pensee in them, bear yet the un- mistakable stamp of the class to which they belong, either accompany it, or, more often, are indulged in during the intervals of its utterance. The wings, for instance, are drooped or held hanging, the throat swelled, and the feathers, generally, puffed out in a noticeable manner. Then, all at once, if the bird be on the ground, which perhaps was more commonly his habit before telegraph-wires were invented, he will make a little run, in this fashion, and, upon stopping, again so comport himself;2 or from the wire aforesaid, or else, and more often, from the top of some lonely hawthorn-bush, in a wide, waste 1 How, without some precedent power of aesthetic perception, were the first slight shades of colour selected, accumulated, and intensified? Some may hold, now, that birds became bright all at once, but why then do we find, at the present day, such a gradual crescendo from the plain to the brilliant, first in the various species, and then in the plumage of the individual bird, as e.g. the " eye" of the peacock's feather? Why, too, do the various plain or moderately gay-coloured birds that we are familiar with, never assume, on a sudden, the far richer hues of some other ones— parrots, for instance, or humming-birds ? Moreover, in some birds— e.g. the argus pheasant— we have great beaiity, with little or no coloration. Want of colour must not be confounded with ugliness, which, except as a deviation from an accustomed standard, is a non-existent factor in nature. 2 Xaumann, op. cit. 176 THE BUNTINGS space (which looks better), he will fly, on a sudden, with dangling legs and feathers still out-ruffled. To such a post as this, however, he will generally return, especially if the nearest one like it is in possession of another male corn-bunting, who sits there with rival song and rival actions. In this case, the two will often meet in mid- space, and after darting at, and waltzing about one another, in a sort of clumsy, half make-believe fight, fly back, each to his respective solitude, where they continue to sit, sing and attitudinise, the only two visible living points on that bare, wind-swept, peasant-cleared space. This they will do, time after time, at long, cold, desolate intervals, nor have I ever seen anything in which life was, that has more emphasised the general lifelessness, or made loneliness lonelier. At such times one may love the song of the corn-bunting. If, then, the male corn-bunting has really no courting actions, he has, at any rate, something which might easily, some day, become such — the raw material as I have called it — but perhaps, in view of the above, it would be premature to assume that he has not. If his song can attract the attention of the female, there seems no good reason why his gestures should not, also. Nor is this the end of the matter, for, as is the case with many birds, some of the corn-bunting's habits, in other countries, seem to be different, or, at any rate, more pronounced, and therefore more interesting, than they are here — probably on account of its numbers being there greater. Thus, in Savoy we are told that, on a fine day in March, all the corn-buntings of the district are accustomed to rendez- vous on some slight elevation in the midst of a wide, open space, and that here various males, rising only a little into the air, will circle or half-circle about the females, on trembling wings and with their legs hanging down. This lasts but for a short time, when they descend slowly, in a lark-like manner, and there is then a pause or entre-acte, at the end of which the males rise and circle again, this time for a longer period, encouraged in their gallantries by the growing interest of the females, who, with soft cries and gently vibrating wings, applaud Plate 2O Left Girl-bunting (male) Lapland-bunting (male) By G- B. Collins By Winifred Austen *•• THE BUNTINGS 177 and follow their movements. Finally they re-alight in the same manner, but more gently, and close by the side of the females.1 Here, then, we seem to have something like true courting actions on the part of the male corn-bunting, and not only so, but a place of assem- blage where they are more especially practised. As for the male yellow-hammer, he, too, will raise the feathers of his crest, or rather scalp, and, with wings drooped upon the ground, parade about the female,2 to whose gaze his most adorned parts — being the head, breast, and throat — are thus exposed, or rather emphasised, since they are no revelation. The white border-feathers of the tail, however, to some extent, are, and, by the sudden spreading out of the latter, these are frequently flashed into view.3 Thus, homely as the performance may be said to be — the actions at least are not very striking — yet the bird shows all that he has to show. Of the cirl-bunting's actions in courtship, uncommon as the bird is with us, I can find no account, whilst those of the snow-bunting (P. nivalis) — our own, though only just our own — seem equally to have escaped observation. The male has, indeed, been seen to mount, larkwise, into the air, and then descend slowly, upon spread wings and in spiral circles, on to some rock, where the song, which he had all the while been trilling, is brought to a conclusion 4 — but there is more, I feel certain, than this. The Lapland-bunting (Calcarius lapponicus} does the same thing,5 and if only because of the brotherhood that exists between these two northern forms — since, in all things, they make a pair, in their song, in their call-notes, their flight, gait and strongly- marked plumage, suggesting affinity even when it varies most widely — I am convinced that Nivalis has some dance, or other ground evolution, extremely impressive and of more intimately nuptial character. 1 Bailly, Ornithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 281. The height to which the males are said to rise is only "quelques decimetres," and as a decimetre is less than the third of a foot, this in itself would seem to give a special and quite uncommon character to the proceedings. This interesting account is evidently from personal observation. 2 Ussher and Warren, Birds of Ireland. 3 Boraston, Nature Tones and Undertones. * Seebohm, Birds of Siberia. 6 Wheelwright, A Spring and Summer in Lapland ; Hagerup, Birds of Greenland. 178 THE BUNTINGS For of all our buntings (if we may presume to call him so), Calcarius displays his rich, if not quite gaudy livery, in the most set and elaborate manner, and, more than this, he also offers a crowning example of the combination of vocal and artistic allurement, with which, as from a double battery, he charms, or seeks to charm, the object of his choice. For, with a loud, joyous warble, he advances towards her, in a curiously upright attitude, by which his glossy black throat, to its fullest extent, as well as his whole under surface of snow, lightly speckled with jetty flakes, are presented in one telling coup d'ceil. Should the female be inclined to accept of his homage, she crouches before him, whereupon, stooping to conquer, he touches her bill with his. As he does so, his black crown, white eye-stripes, with perhaps just a soupqon of his chestnut collar, flash in her eyes — she looks up dazzled, quivering, and snapping her bill in fierce excitement. Then the male, who has, all this time, been singing, starts up, leaps into the air, and flying to a spray of the nearest willow or sallow bush — for it is in such damp situations that the courtship is ordinarily carried on — utters his call-notes in clear, jubilant tones. Immediately afterwards he flies down again, and now begins the dance or " waltz " proper, to which all this, complete as it may seem in itself, has been but the preliminary. Standing bolt upright, as on the first occasion, the male once more bursts into song, and, for the first time, spreads his wings. But did ever bird spread them in so bizarre a fashion ? Both are pointed downwards, almost touching the ground, but whilst the left is advanced, like a shield, across the breast, the right is turned entirely backwards, as one might think, for the sheer sake of contrast. In this striking attitude he vibrates the wings thus oddly disposed, and, still singing loudly, marches, for the second time, up to the female, who, as before, crouches down, with her head turned towards him. He does not, however, advance in a straight line, but obliquely, from right to left,1 so that the bright rufous feathers of the nape, and, to some 1 See Von Homeyer in Ornithologische Monatsbei~ichte, vol. v. pp. 2, 3. THE BUNTINGS 179 extent, those of the back, are displayed, as well as the wings and handsome black throat1 Why does the male, in this curious ceremony, advance from right to left ? As the left wing is extended forwards and inwards, so as to cross the breast, whilst being, at the same time, lowered, it is obvious that much, if not the whole, of the inferior pail of the corresponding side and portion of the breast, presenting a fine, white surface, must be concealed by it. The right wing, however, being turned backwards, leaves these same parts, on the right side, which is the one presented, exposed, so that the hen sees both this and the expanded wing itself, which, independently of colouring — and here it makes a rich contrast — is always an object of beauty. An effective portion of the left wing would also be visible, the two making a soft, trembling border and background to the beauties of breast, side, and throat — for it must not be forgotten that the wings are in a state of vibration. Furthermore, the delicate, white eye-stripe, piercing the night of the head-plumage like a ray of dawn, is, by this sideway attitude, shown to advantage, whilst a profile view of the black-tipped, orange-yellow bill is also obtained. Thus, all the best points in the bird's handsome livery, that it is possible to show at one and the same time, are so shown by this mode of approach. And whilst the eye of the female is thus carefully pleased, her ear is, at the same time, ravished by the sweet song of her swain. Even the familiar call-notes are not forgotten by the male, and, as though to give them full point and piquancy, the bond of association is, as it were, added by his flying, to make them, into a tree. Can those who seek to minimise the significance of such actions as these, by telling us that plain birds also indulge in them, point to any homely, 1 It is, in my view, a most significant fact that we have had to wait for the description of this elaborate and strongly-marked courtship, till it was exhibited before Von Homeyer by birds in captivity. How cautious should we be in assuming that any bird— especially a small bird— has no — or no striking — courting actions ! Yearly, for a long time, in the various appropriate organs, something or other has been reported about the Lapland bunting, in its wild state— but not this. The lesson is obvious. My "willow-" or "sallow- bush," I should mention, is represented in the original account, by the perch of the birds' cage or aviary. 180 THE BUNTINGS sombre-suited bunting whose courtship is of an equally elaborate kind ? The corn-bunting, it has now been seen, has also his courting antics, but how different — how far less specialised — are they! This difference, I believe, applies generally, and it is just that which, upon the theory of sexual selection, rightly understood, might be expected. Of the song of the male Lapland-bunting, Yon Homeyer, who was so lucky as to hear it in such interesting connection with the bird's nuptial activities, says nothing (at least in that particular paper) except that it was loud, and excitedly uttered. There can be little doubt, however, that the bird is a sweet singer. Naumann x speaks of its "agreeable, unusual song, which seems made out of the lark's and the linnet's," and adds that it soars, singing, like a lark, over its nest. Wheelwright — once better known as " The old Bushman " — has the following sympathetic passage in his A Spring and Summer in Lapland : " The male," he says (while the hen is on the nest), " sits on a stone or heap of earth, uttering a monotonous, plaintive whistle —very much resembling the call of the golden plover, but fainter — till disturbed, when he rises in the air, much after the manner of the common bunting, soars for awhile, and then suddenly drops down to the ground, as does the skylark into a field of young wheat, at home. While in the air, the song is as rich and clear as that of any of our songsters — not so shrill as that of the lark, but far sweeter and more varied, for, in this song, the clear, flute-like note of the corn-bunting is blended with the varying strain of the skylark, and I thought I never listened to a sweeter melody." Hagerup, another eye and ear witness, is not quite so appreciative. He says : " The song, which sounds best while the bird descends slowly, and without flapping of wings, from on high, is but short, and of an extremely melancholy nature, but containing very pretty warbling runs, which are always repeated in the same order and in a comparatively slow time." 2 As to " melancholy," one does not want a bird to sing jigs, 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleiiropas. 2 Birds of Greenland. THE BUNTINGS 181 and a certain famous line has imperishably connected this attribute with the song of the nightingale, whilst another well sets forth the most essential quality of music.1 Unlike that of the last-mentioned species, the song of the snow- bunting is to be heard here, at home. Not often, certainly, but from time to time, it may please the ear of some Highland or Shetland shepherd, unbribed, let us hope, to obtain either the bird or its eggs for some hungry collector or ravening museum. Which is the more musical of these two most musical of the Bunting tribe, I do not know, but certainly the snow-bunting is a very fine performer, and we have a few more data concerning him. What Hagerup says, indeed, is perhaps not wholly in the bird's favour, since, having first cavilled at the " melancholy nature " of the song of Lapponicus, he refers to the snow-bunting as " this merry songster." However, he means well, and is soon constrained to use a higher adjective. " It is chiefly," he tells us, " in April, whilst the country is still covered with snow, that their glorious song is most appreciated. It consists of loud and clear flute- notes, combined into short stanzas, but has no definite melody. The birds sing, frequently, while sitting on an elevation, but seldom on the wing." In this last respect, therefore, Lapponicus is certainly the superior, or, rather, he would be, could Hagerup's statement be accepted as final. As against it, however, we have that of Seebohm, who certainly writes as though what he was describing were a thing of wont, " The males," he says, " would fling themselves up into the air, almost like a shuttlecock, giving, all the time, a low and melodious warble, not unlike that of a shorelark (Otocorys alpestris), or perhaps still more like that of the Lapland-bunting, and they would immedi- ately descend, in a spiral curve, with wings and tail expanded, and finish their song on a rock.2 It would appear, therefore, that not only is the song of these two northern species — the most poetic, surely, of their kind — much alike, but that it is also sung in the same way. 1 "I am never merry when I hear sweet music." For the philosophy of this, which applies to birds in their degree, see Darwin (Descent of Man) in one of his most interesting chapters. 2 Birds of Siberia. 2 A 182 THE BUNTINGS There is the same similarity in the call-notes, though the snow- bunting's is given as " zh" and those of the Lapland-bunting — heard, sometimes, at night, when the moon shines — as "tid" and "tirr"1 Yet Yon Homeyer says that both tones are very like those of Nivalis, though the latter have been compared by Seebohm to the brambling's and greenfinch's.2 Whether Calcarius has also "a loud tweek," as has Nivalis, when alarmed, I cannot say positively, but, with so many vocal similarities, one more would not be surpris- ing. Audubon refers to the snow- bunting's song as " a few plaintive, but soft and agreeable notes," 3 but this, trilled by the bird when driven southwards beyond its true breeding-home, was, no doubt, but a faint reminiscence. Trevor-Battye, who heard it in Kolguev, calls it " a lovely song, with no touch in it of a bunting's scrape, but a true, wild song, and " (but this, methinks, is somewhat of a fall) " very like a chaffinch's in spring." 4 I would not end with that, so quote the words of one who, though he does not appear to have seen or heard the snow-bunting farther afield than in the Humber district, has yet, without going to Kolguev, seized all the poetry of its song. After remarking how these winter visits of the bird to our shores are appreciated by the bird-lover, he exclaims : " How much more a favourite should it be to those who have watched it in its summer haunts, in the sheltered quiet of some Greenland valley, strewed with the yellow flowers of the little Arctic poppy, or crimson with the blossom of Silene acaulis, that most lovely of northern plants, and there listened to the sweet song of the male, trilled out under the midnight sun, as, perched on some lichen- spotted boulder, or sprig of Arctic willow, he serenades, in her dark cell, his brooding mate." 5 With this we may pass from the song and courtship of our buntings to those activities which succeed or accompany them ; so, since we are at him, why not begin with our " snowflake " ? In the 1 Ornithologische Monatsberichte, vol. v. pp. 2, 3. 2 Birds of Siberia. 3 Ornithological Biography. 4 Ice-bound in Kolguev. ° J. Cordeaux, Zoologist, 1881. THE BUNTINGS 183 cavities between heaped stones and boulders — fragments of the scarped precipice, strewn on the rough mountain-side — upon Arctic fells or the summits of our own Scotch Highlands, as well as on the flat wastes of the desolate tundras — either above or bevond the limit of w forest growth — sometimes, too, amidst the driftwood of northern rivers, or by the dreary northern strand, his nest is built. Where possible it will be well concealed, which, however, with all the other deterrents, has not prevented its being torn even from where it should be most sacred — our own soil namely — though whether its owners, also, being amongst the rarest and most beautiful of the bird denizens of this isle, have, on any such occasion, been shot, to make that soulless thing, a stuffed bird-group, I know not, and so say no more.1 Nothing has, in this way, been added to our knowledge of the bird's conjugal or domestic habits, as, by patient watching, within the radius of these activities, might have been done. True science (God's "good meat" however the devil may sometimes "send cooks") would have acted in this way. She would have watched by, not " obtained " the nest — that nest, so full of poetry as it lies where the bird has made it, so prosaic, so positively distressing to the mind, when one sees it amidst all the dry inharmoniousness of walls, floor, ceiling, shelves, glass ! 2 A detailed description of its composition and fashioning is to be found elsewhere.3 It may not be a finished structure, not comparable with the highest examples either of the Bunting or Finch school of architecture, it may even — spite of its fox-fur and snowy ptarmigan feathers, mingling, sometimes, with those of the raven — be " rude " as Professor Newton has (perhaps somewhat rudely) termed it — yet still it is a pleasing performance. More than that ! In the high north, where the earth, hardly yet unchilled by the spring, spreads her rudest and ruggedest lap, that snug little cradle, upon it, with its soft, " The dial spoke not, but it made shrewd signs And pointed full upon the stroke of murder." 2 " True science " would hardly object to the presence of one or two snow-buntings' nests in a museum, where they, in fact, are admired by hundreds who can never hope to see them in their natural surroundings. — ED. 3 See ante, Classified Notes. 184 THE BUNTINGS feathered cup, sunk amidst the thick, mossy mattress, must be a beautiful, a moving thing to see — or, if not to see, to muse upon. There it lies, the grey stone above it, the bleak, whistling wind all around, the snow, perhaps, still driving and whirling, or, where melted, a drear desolation — wild, barren, inhospitable — yet there, amidst it all, and taking no harm from it — warm with its lining, warmer with domestic love — glows that bright little focus of life and joy, of comfort and cosiness, of bustle and cheerful activity ; and, back- wards and forwards, coming and going, with their warm little hearts beating under their white little waistcoats, flit those tiny bird atoms, those " snowflakes," looking as soft as the softest one, but as iron-framed, really, as granite, as the ribs of the mountains, hardier than the hardiest Highlander, than the Esquimaux, sharers of their "farthest north" home, in the bleached skeleton of one of whose children a pair has once nested — backwards and forwards, through the storm and the whirlwind, they go, fearless and cheery, strong as the elements, bringing food to that little, loved nursery. Why should we wish to destroy and " break-up in its assigned and native dwelling-place," such a household as this? Surely it is a much more respectable one than many amongst our own, and contains more happiness, perhaps, than any. It is an appalling thought, indeed, that a larger amount of the last-named element is, in all probability, absorbed daily out of the world, by the mere filling of cabinets, than years of active philanthropy can ever put into it. The passion for his nest has left little to be said concerning the nesting habits of the snow-bunting, but in regard to the actual nidifi- cation, Trevor-Battye l has observed the female alone "exerting all her tiny energies to pull fibres from the ground." The male was " very assiduous, very fussy, he accompanied his wife up and down. He waited upon her whilst she hunted up fibres, he flew back with her, and watched while she worked at the nest," but this was all. Doubtless he might have done more, but why what he did do should 1 Ice-bound in Kolguev, p. 107. THE BUNTINGS 185 have made him "a perfect example of a despot lord" I am quite unable to see. Such active sympathy, even though not extending to actual collaboration, could only have come from a good husband. No less than three of our buntings — more than half of them practically, that is to say — have been accused of what is called intelligent adaptation in nest-building; in other words, of having revolutionary tendencies — a grave charge, which I propose to investi- gate. First, let us take the reed-bunting, he being amongst those implicated. In a close bunch of wiry reeds, a nest of his was found by Boraston : to be deeper and more closely compacted, than was another, built amongst hedge-parsley, which does not grow so densely, and the stalks of which are more pliant. But does not this merely mean that the one kind of vegetation will support less weight than the other, and that the bird feels when the safety-point has been reached? If this is not the case, then where is the adaptation ? — and if it is, it seems much more a matter of sensation than reason. It is not so much the latter that tells one when the ascent of a tree is becoming unsafe. Again, " where a gap presented itself, at one point, between the nearest stalk and the rim of the nest, the bird had extended the rim by weaving grass-stems, in zig-zag fashion, so as to form a small horizontal platform."2 Because, as it seems to me, there was the rim and there was the grass, and it was the bird's ancestral custom to weave the one to the other. All stems cannot be equally near to all rims, nor can all sites chosen be precisely alike, but unless there is a very considerable difference in the conditions, or unless it be one of kind, in each case involving some essential departure in the method of architecture, it does not appear to me that the intelligence — or extra- intelligence — implied is other than trifling. Indeed, it might show more if, instead of weaving in a reed which, though farther from the rim than usual, was close enough to bring its instinct into play, the bird were to pass it altogether. It would then not have done something which it felt an inherited impulse to do, because it was not neces- 1 Birds by Land and Sea. * Boraston, op. tit. 186 THE BUNTINGS sary. But to follow an instinctive inclination an inch or two farther, whether it is necessary or not to do so, though it may be adaptation in the literal sense of the word, hardly seems intelligent adaptation. But, in regard to this question of instinct and intelligence, is it not very material first to inquire what are the ordinary necessary variations in the conditions of any bird's building ? No two sites- no two anythings — are quite alike, so that an instinct could hardly have arisen at all, that did not include in itself, as it were, a certain power of adaptation — or rather what I would say is that the strength of the instinct must have been sufficiently great for it to cover a certain fluctuating margin of deviation. If so, then a power of meet- ing slightly varied conditions, in connection with any instinct, must be in every individual bird, not as part of its individual intelligence, but as part of the instinct itself, which, if of too rigid a nature, would not have sufficiently benefited the species, and would therefore not have become fixed in it. By this I do not mean to deny the modifying influence of reason, or intelligence, proper, but I think we may see it too easily, and to the exclusion of other possible elements. The above remarks would apply, also, to the so-called platform of both the yellow-hammer's and cirl-bimting's nest — especially that of the former. I have not been able to observe, myself, that any special use is made of this elongation of the rim of the riest, at one point, and am inclined to look upon it as a mere incidental result of the way in which, by its method of building, long grass-stems, etc., are manipu- lated by the bird. Should it, however, be used, in such a way, that would not, in itself, prove that there had been intelligent adaptation. Most birds, whilst attending to the young, perch, more or less fre- quently, on the rim of the nest, and if a certain portion of this, by being wider, were better adapted to such a purpose, then, however this had come about, they would, naturally, take advantage of it, so that their habits, in time, might even be, to some extent, modified. Also, should such a structure become thus undesignedly useful, a bird that had once made it would miss it, if it did not make it again, Plate 21 Cock Yellow-hammer By A. W. Seaby •»»» < *. ,•- THE BUNTINGS 187 and, since there is generally more than one nest in a season, memory might serve it so far. In all such cases, however, the mechanism would have preceded the idea of that use to which it had been afterwards applied. This is precisely my idea of the way in which change in established methods comes about, and new instincts gradu- ally arise. Small deviations take place, into which purpose hardly enters — due, in some instances, to mere nervous-muscular move- ments— but which a quite slight intelligence, finding the thing under its nose, may afterwards utilise, from which point there is another advance of the same kind, and so on, never-endingly, the whole being shaped by the principle of natural selection, which uses whatever is fit to be used. It is thus, as I believe, that the nest of the ostrich (such as it is) has been evolved. From the frenzied sexual rolling in the sand has come the depression, and the nervous pecking up of the sand in her bill, and letting it drop again, by the hen, as she sits there, produces, as can be seen, the mound or embankment around it. This was the beginning ; use, then, began to demand the hollow, and intelligence probably first stepped in when this was added to by a few kicks with the feet, in the delivery of which, however, the courting attitude was, and still is, assumed.1 The nearness of the relationship between the yellow-hammer and cirl-bunting is marked not only by the similarity of their nests, but also, as might perhaps be expected to follow, by that of the nesting- site. S. G. Gumming, however, has drawn a distinction between the two species, in this respect, He says : " The yellow-hammer, in nine cases out of ten, builds its nest actually touching the ground, whether it be placed in herbage, on a flat surface, or in a bank or hedge. The cirl-bunting, on the contrary, invariably builds some distance off the ground, the height varying from a few inches to 1 See an interesting paper by Mr. Cronwright Schreiner in the Zoologist for 1897, pp. 97-120. It corrected various fallacies, in regard to the habits of the ostrich, which have for long been, and, I believe, still are ignorantly promulgated from the learned arm-chair. [It is only fair to add, however, that the "learned arm-chairs" were simply relying upon the informa- tion supplied them by the "man on the spot." The error committed by the former was to assume the accuracy of the latter, who must, therefore, share the blame.— ED.] 188 THE BUNTINGS several feet."1 Some recent observations of my own, in Brittany, would incline me to think that this distinction exists only in the United Kingdom. For instance, out of six nests of the yellow- hammer, found by me, not one touched the ground, the different heights above it of five of these being as follows — viz., 2 feet, 18 inches to 2 feet, 7 to 12 inches, 10 inches, and 7 to 8 inches. The sixth I was not able to measure, but I feel sure it was no nearer the ground than the last one, at any rate. As against this, two cirl-buntings' nests, situated, the one in a gorse-bush, the other in an alder-bush, were respectively about 18 inches and some 4 feet from the ground, the latter being exceptionally placed, and therefore no criterion. Other differences which are supposed to exist between the habits of the two birds, in England, I have also been unable to observe in Brittany. The cirl-bunting, for instance, is always said to be more arboreal than the yellow-hammer, but I have not seen the smallest trace of such a distinction. Both habitually sit in trees — often in high trees — and certainly the yellow-hammer, as an individual, is not to be seen in undergrowth, or hopping about on the ground, in the least degree oftener than is the cirl-bunting. In fact, beyond their appearance and note, I have not myself seen anything clearly to differentiate the two species, and doubt if there be a habit possessed by either, not equally common to the other also. As for what is called the song of the cirl-bunting, the truth was, I think, exhausted by Bailly when he said that it was a prolonged " zeereereereereeree," always in one tone, and that it "imitated, a little, the shrilling of a large, green grasshopper"2 — though I am aware that very much more has been said since. What surprises me is that there are those who will speak of the performance as though the bird were really an artiste. Scientifically, no doubt, — looking, that is to say, at the meaning and effect of the utterance, — the cirl-bunting sings as much as does the thrush or nightingale, but otherwise the 1 British Birds, February 1908. 2 Ornithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 267. THE BUNTINGS 189 difference is so great that phraseology that can be rationally employed for the one, seems, ipso facto, absurd for the other. However, let him sing, if he must; yet the song is one-noted, and the one note not musical. The call-note is a " zip, zip " —and " basta ! " In my essay on the Finches I have mentioned two parental ruses or stratagems, as they would generally be considered, practised respectively by the brambling and crossbill, nor am I acquainted with any others. The buntings would seem to be richer in such ex- pedients, a fact, if it be so, which may have a relation to the greater accessibility of their nests. Still the known, or, at least, the recorded instances do not amount to many, even when to those of our common, or commoner, kinds, some others are added belonging to species which, though they but rarely visit us, yet, as they do so occasionally, may be considered, in this connection, as British birds. A little deception or trick, which I have myself observed in the cirl-bunting, is indeed of no use — at least I can see none in it — yet, as it seems prompted by family considerations, we may regard it as belonging to the above category. On more than one occasion when I have gone up to the nest I was watching, the bird — always the female — has almost immediately, it would seem, upon flying out, doubled back and concealed herself somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood, and there waited for my departure. From the very short interval between my leaving the nest and this stealthy return of the bird to it, I feel sure that she had hidden in this way, though I never saw her do so. She must, I think, have been, if not in the actual bush, at least very close to it, all the while I was at the nest. The reed-bunting's actions, when the privacy of its family life is intruded upon, are less equivocal. Thus Ussher and Warren remark of this species that " birds that have young, especially the males, will spread themselves out on the ground like pen-wipers, to divert attention." That the male reed-bunting should be a greater adept 1 Birds of Ireland. 2B 190 THE BUNTINGS in a performance of this nature than the female, is an interesting fact, and one which has escaped the notice of other observers. Coward and Oldham, for instance, in their Birds of Cheshire, say that : " Like many birds that build upon the ground, the female reed-bunting, when disturbed, will frequently endeavour to lure an intruder from the vicinity of the nest, by tumbling along the ground, for several yards, with trailing wings." Arundel, too, apparently, mistook the matter, for he says : " Both male and female — more particularly the latter — are adepts at shamming wounded, to draw attention from the nest";1 whilst Bruce has only recorded an instance of the more exceptional kind. "The female," he tells us, when he had almost trodden on a nest, " tried all kinds of alluring antics, pretending to have broken wing and leg, as this species so often will, when disturbed at the nest." 2 Stevenson, in his Birds of Norfolk, does not go into the question of sex, but says, generally, that the bird, when its nest is approached, rises from the spot, "when most frequently it will be found to flutter away as if wounded, with one wing trailing on the ground." These actions, however, do not seem to have much struck Naumann, since, though well acquainted with the bird, he barely alludes to them. One might suppose, indeed, that he saw in them nothing more specialised than the "anxious gestures" of the corn- bunting, to which he alludes in much the same terms.3 Yet the actions of the latter species, under similar circumstances, do not at all closely resemble those which have been described, since they are neither adapted, nor do they seem intended to lead one away from the nest or young, but have rather a contrary effect. They are, moreover, conducted in the air, though, as has been seen in the case of the crossbill, this is a difference which is not of the essence of what we are considering. The next genuine instance of these interesting activities — for interesting they appear to me to be, in a high degree — is unfortunately never to be seen in these islands, though the bird by whom they are practised may sometimes be. If the 1 Ackworth Birds. 2 The Birds about St. Andrews. 3 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. THE BUNTINGS 191 female blackheaded-bimting (E. melanocephala], namely, be disturbed on the nest, more particularly after the eggs have been hatched, she will fly to the ground, and commence struggling and flapping over it, as though she were hurt and unable to get away, or she will even lie with wings outstretched, as though dead.1 A similar pantomime is gone through by the yellowbreasted-bunting 2 (E. aureola). The class of deception of which the above are examples is practised by various birds, but who knows the philosophy of it ? Is it a conscious deception — a ruse in the proper sense of the word ? Possibly in some species it may now have become so, for an effect often observed might well sink into the memory. But that it ever occurred to any bird, as a new thing, and " with intent to deceive " to go through any such actions, I for one cannot believe. But if not, then in what " small dose of reason " has the instinct, if we consider it such, originated ? Any design to mislead steps forth, at once, a complicated process of reason, and, without such design, where is there even a grain of intelligence in movements which seem to be due to some morbid or surrexcited state of the bird? They cannot, as it seems to me, be thus accounted for, but, on my view of instincts having sometimes originated in nervous-muscular movements, which have been guided by natural selection, and into which some intelligence has subsequently entered,3 I think that they can be. There are certainly many degrees in the perfection of the stratagem, and if careful notes were taken of the behaviour of the various birds that ever, at any time, act in this way, there can be no doubt that a connected chain could be formed between unplanned movements of short duration, which all would admit to be due to fright alone, and others which, though bearing in themselves a considerable analogy with these, are long- continued, and form part of an effective manreuvre, into which real intelligence and some understanding of the end in view seem to enter. 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. 2 Ibid. 3 See my papers in the Zoologist for December 1901 and April 1902, vols. v. and vL, pp. 459-462 and 136-144. 192 THE BUNTINGS Furthermore, I believe that it has fallen to me (as doubtless to many others) to see the actual origin of the habit or instinct in question. Meanwhile let us turn to the actions of the male blackheaded- bunting, which may possibly give us a hint in another direction. He, when disturbed in the neighbourhood of the nest, does not, like the female, play his part on the ground, but flutters from bush to bush, with fanned tail and apparently injured wings l (me gelahmten Fliigelri). It seems clear that this also must be due to anxiety, yet these, strange to say, are the bird's actions in courtship, and, moreover, he sings now, as then.2 The fact would seem to be that sudden excitement demands movements of some sort, and that those come most readily to hand which the bird, though under the influence of quite another set of feelings, has been in the constant daily habit of going through. Should there be any truth in this principle, we have here another element that may enter into the origin of the movements we have been discussing, as well as of some others which birds indulge in, the meaning of which is not always apparent. Like the Finches proper, buntings, as a family, become more or less gregarious after the nesting season is over, and may then often be seen in company with other species, either of their own or alien families. As with most birds, the development of the social principle seems to vary with the country in which they find themselves, depend- ing, no doubt, primarily, on their comparative numbers, and, to a lesser extent, upon food conditions. Thus whilst, in various parts of England, corn-buntings collect, in autumn, in fairly respectable numbers — at least in small flocks3 — and, in Scotland, during the winter, in very large ones, which, however, would seem to be migra- tory,4 D'Urban and Matthew, in their Birds of Devon, tell us that they have " never met with it in flocks, in the winter time, anywhere in the western counties." In Ireland, also, their habits would seem to differ in this respect, and they have only once been seen by Ussher and Warren in a party of fifty or sixty.5 In Savoy, however, these 1 Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vdgel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. 2 Ibid. 3 O. V. Aplin, Birds of Oxfordshire. 4 R. Gray, Birds of the West of Scotland. 6 Birds of Ireland. THE BUNTINGS 193 birds are described by Bailly as sweeping through the country in bataillons epais, and descending upon the wide fields of wheat, barley, oats, flax, and millet, as well as the vineyards, which clothe the vales and lower mountain-sides of that richly cultivated land. Here, he tells us, they gorge themselves, paying now little attention to insects, and retiring, during the heat of the day, beneath the shade of thick undergrowth, where, reaching from the ground, they quench their thirst with the dew or moisture still to be found within the fold- like hollow, at the base of each leaf-stalk, at its junction with the stem. Some two hours before sunset they return to their pastures, where they continue feeding till almost dusk, when they fly, en masse, to the nearest trees or reed-beds, crowded amongst which they pass the night. Next morning the rising sun sees them, once more, industriously occupied in procuring a well-earned breakfast from the same ample stores. These great gatherings are at their height in August and September, and towards the middle of the latter month the migratory movement sets in. The battalions are then more broken up, the birds flying in troops or batches, at early dawn, and, again, from an hour before sunset, the ordinary hours of daylight being occupied, as before, in the important business of procuring food. The birds fly, now, somewhat high, and, as they go, utter a short, sharp note, several times repeated, which somewhat resembles a snapping of the bill.1 According to Bailly, this note is never uttered by the corn-bunting, except during flight.2 The flocking habits of the corn-bunting are continued into early spring, so that the first amorous awakenings are, to some extent, of a social character. These, besides actions of considerable interest which have been already described, include the famous song, which, as " clanked " and "jingled " in chorus, has received less attention, and, for aught I know, may now suggest the dashing of whole armadas of glassware along an extended auriferous coast-line. 1 Ornithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 288. 1 Similarly, starlings, when flying in small or moderate bands, utter or produce a soft undulating note, as one may call it, which I have never heard under other circumstances. 194 THE BUNTINGS Considerations of space oblige me to pass, at once, from the flocking movements of the corn-bunting to those of his northern cousin, the snow-bunting. It is in him that the instinct is most strongly developed, or rather — which often amounts to the same thing — circumstances are in his case — as perhaps, almost as much, in that of the Lapland-bunting — more strongly conducive to the results which we see. The hardiest bird must have food, and if this is not to be found in one place, it must be sought in another, nor is it to be wondered at that parties of birds, flying over a treeless and snow-covered waste, driven by the same great want, and bound in the same general direction, should join one another, or that the larger cohorts should tend to absorb the smaller, till, at last, in some cases, the numbers become enormous, and the advance like that of a feathery snow-storm. It seems probable, indeed, that the very natural idea of each individual bird, that another has found, or is just upon finding, what it is itself in search of, acting upon groups, has been a principal element in making " birds of a feather flock together," as it is, indeed, in veiy many ways, amongst birds of no feather at all. Audubon has given a very elaborate account of the flocking movements of the snow-bunting, some parts of which may be here quoted, more particularly as this seldom happens to Audubon nowa- days, a fate, perhaps not wholly undeserved, since, with large oppor- tunities for something better, he appears to have devoted himself, principally, to the gun and the paint-brush, no doubt considering the latter an ample equivalent for any amount of destruction, specific or individual, for which the first might be responsible — a habit of thought, whether as applied to the plate or the specimen, now happily fast dying out amongst naturalists generally, and especially obsolete, as I am given to understand, at ornithological headquarters. His words are as follows : — "As soon as the cold blasts of winter have stiffened the earth's surface, and brought with them the first snow- clouds, millions of these birds, driven before the pitiless storm, make their way towards milder climes. Their wings seem scarcely able to THE BUNTINGS 195 support their exhausted, nay, almost congealed, bodies, which seem little larger than the great feathery flakes of the substance from which these delicate creatures have borrowed their name. In com- pressed squadrons, they are seen anxiously engaged in attempting to overcome the difficulties which beset them, amid their perilous adventures. They now glide over the earth, relax the closeness of their phalanx, and, with amazing swiftness, sweep over the country, in search of that food without which they must all shortly perish. At last, when nearly exhausted with fatigue and hunger, some leader1 espies the wished-for land, not yet buried in snow. Joyful notes are heard from the famished voyagers, while, with relaxed flight, and wings and tail expanded, they float, as it were, in broad circles, towards the spot where they are to find relief. They alight, disperse, run nimbly, in masses, from the foot of one corn-stalk to the next, scratch the ground here, pick up a dormant insect there, or nibble the small seeds of the withered grass, mixing them with a portion of gravel. Now two meet and contend for the scanty morsel, etc."2 All this seems certainly from keen personal observation, and is perhaps the fullest description that we possess. Audubon goes on to say that he caught, near Louisville, " several which were covered with hoar- frost, and so benumbed that they were unable to fly." He adds that " at that season they frequently kept company with the shore-larks, the lark-finches, and several species of sparrow," and also — which is interesting, owing to the fact having been since forgotten, denied, and finally re-established, not without some heart-burning — that "they frequently alighted on trees, particularly the sweet gum, of which they eat the seeds." 3 It is probable that most, if not all, of the above applies to the Lapland-bunting, as well as to the snow-bunting, and it may be added that whilst both habitually run along the ground, 1 This well illustrates the difficulties of the theory of leadership amongst birds, which I do not believe in either for rooks or wild geese, much less for snow-buntings. As to them, a lead- ing actual sno\v-flake seems hardly less hard to imagine. 2 Ornithological Biography. 3 Ibid. If this last be true, the modern statement that the snow-bunting is entirely a ground feeder is not correct. The implication certainly is that the .seeds are eaten in the trees, even if "eat" here is not intended in the past tense. 196 THE BUNTINGS like larks, they both can and are prepared to hop, whenever the occasion may seem to require it." Snow-buntings appear annually, though in comparatively small numbers, upon various favoured portions of our coast, and such visits have had a very appreciative commemorator in the author of Birds of the If umber District l — already once quoted — who remarks as follows : — " To the lover of birds, dwelling on the east coast, there is no greater favourite than our 'snowflake,' for it comes when summer birds are gone, in the darkness of the declining year, enlivening the bleak coast, or marsh, with its cheerful call, and making beautiful the dreary landscape by the flicker of hundreds of white-patched wings ; so that, seen against the dark background of a lowering sky — which in itself causes the dark portions of the plumage to become invisible — it has exactly the appearance of those large, feather-like and slowly-drifting flakes which herald the approaching storm." The "call" here alluded to is described by Macgillivray as "a soft and rather low cry, inter- mixed, at times, with a sort of stifled scream."2 The same writer speaks of such flocks of "snowflakes" as "flying low along the shore, somewhat in the manner of larks, moving in an undulating line, by means of repeated flappings and short intervals of cessation,"3 an account — I know not whether it was from personal observation- bearing no very striking resemblance to that of Seebohrn (which certainly was), who compares the snow-bunting's flight to a butterfly's, "as if the bird altered its mind every few seconds, as to which direction it wished to take." 4 Just as, on the shores of the Humber, the black parts of the birds disappeared against " the lowering sky," so, in Siberia, where they were seen by the writer last quoted, the white parts "were invisible against the white snow,"5 so that if the same individuals could be in two countries or climates, at once, the species might (and, no doubt, would) be claimed as a salient example 1 J. Cordeaux. 2 History of British Birds. 3 Ibid. 4 A History of British Birds. 6 Birds of Siberia, etc. ; Field, 1874, July 25. Plate 22 Snow-buntings in winter plumage By Winifred Austen *• C*t- t . THE BUNTINGS 197 of the principle of protective coloration. Since, however, this cannot be, neither can the other, and the bird remains, if anything, still more distinguished as, perhaps, the only example of a creature, intensely conspicuous, which has not been so claimed. A refuge, however, lies open for it in the resemblance alluded to, to the strength of which Seebohm has given the most explicit testimony, since, speaking not for himself, alone, but in the name of his fellow-traveller also, he says : " We could almost fancy that a flock of black butterflies were dancing before us."1 If the trained ornithological eye — with reason behind it — could be thus " almost " deceived, we may suppose, without violence, that a bird's would be entirely, and, since it is extremely doubtful if any of the Falconidce would strike at a butterfly,2 it follows that AVC have, in the snow-bunting, another, and very remarkable, instance of what is called "mimicry" in nature. That, in spite of the above-quoted passage, this should have been, hitherto, so far as I am aware, overlooked, seems somewhat remarkable — but truth has often to wait.3 To the more ordinary points of view from which the buntings, like other families of birds, are to be considered, there may be added that of commensalism, a phenomenon which, as it is by no means a common one, should, for that reason, be all the more carefully noted, even when such examples of it as may seem to occur represent only its simple — perhaps hardly recognisable — beginnings. According to Nauniann,4 who, in each instance, apparently, speaks from personal observation, the Emberizince present us with two such examples. First there is the Lapland-bunting, which, as he tells us, affects the society of many birds, but, in a more particular degree, that of larks 1 History of British Birds, ii. p. 127. 2 It has been pointed out to me that some of the smaller ones do strike at beetles, and might, therefore, conceivably, strike at butterflies also. It is probable, however, that the size of the impostors would prove a sufficient deterrent in these cases, and thus a seeming objection helps to support the theory — just in the way that one is accustomed to. 3 Though it was, I believe, unclaimed by him, the telat of this discovery ought certainly to rest with the ornithologist by whom the take off was first noted ; and most willingly do I resign it to his fame. 4 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. 198 THE BUNTINGS (no doubt the skylark is specially referred to), " living in the greatest harmony with them, following them everywhere, and not willingly leaving them." The second case is, or appears to be, more remark- able, and concerns the yellow-hammer. Naumann states as follows : — "The very special affection which the yellow-hammer has for the fieldfare — a species to which it is quite unrelated — is in the highest degree remarkable. I have often observed, with pleasure, how, whenever these birds made part of any general assemblage, in the neighbourhood of my nets, yellow-hammers would soon be there too, and, after hopping round about them, in the most joyous manner, would often fly, with them, into captivity, though no decoy of their own species had been set down to attract them."1 Here, then, we have a really interesting fact, for thus personally attested by such an observer, not as happening on one or two occasions only, but " often," 2 it has to be accepted as one. But why, then, do we hear no more of it — for I know of no further reference ? The question, perhaps, arises — Is it, or was it, a local phenomenon only ? — yet this seems extremely improbable. I have no theory to offer, so will conform, in this instance, to an ideal which has often been commended — almost in so many words — to " the mere field naturalist " —facts only, don't think.3 Such is Naumann's statement, and I have recorded it, possibly now for the first time in an English work of ornithology. 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. 2 As no special period or season is mentioned, it was probably a lifelong observation. 3 The fact is, philosophical or even scientific field natural history is not wanted by some, who, though not field naturalists, would yet have all the field to themselves. By such it is looked upon as a hostile incursion into home territory, and so must run the gauntlet of a certain little army where the men are all officers, and the battles reviews. In these there are certain laws as to giving quarter to, or scalping, the enemy, who, through an ingenious ruse de guerre, which allows him no tomahawk, can never know aught but defeat. Mere mild chirping and chirruping over couronn6s facts— the sort of thing known now as " nature-writing "—may procure him (said enemy) the patronising nod or " bene!" some bland pats on the back, a little de haut en bus encouragement. But should he lay aside his pan-pipes and begin reasoning — starting a theory perhaps, which is like an advance on the capital — the system is different. Sneers without argument, or even the barest citation, a barren insistence on something he has NOT observed or mentioned, without any reference to anything he has (however much he has), a keen scent for errors, be they never so trivial, and plugged nose for anything else, mis- statement, a flat-footed jest or two, and some personal rudeness — these are then the tactics, the weapons with which these " braves " fight. Rigid suppression of any reply is their shield — some grudge, or base hatred, their whetstone. [For the statements made in this note Mr. E. Selous is solely responsible.— ED.] THE LARKS [ORDER : Pdsseriformes. FAMILY : Alaudidce] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES [F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON] eld-lark, laverock. French, Page 199. For Alauda arvensis read Alauda arvensis arvensis -,- 7 j ? n ilian, lodola}. i. Description. — The adult has the upper parts huffish brown striated with dusky brown, the crest erectile, a pale buff superciliary stripe. The inner secondaries and major coverts dark brown, with broad margins of paler brown : median coverts with whitish free edges. Outermost (10th) primary vestigial, the wing-quills dark brown, the outer web margined buff, and the tips greyish white. The outer pair of tail feathers are white except for a narrow smoky brown stripe along the inner margin of the inner web, the penultimate pair with a white outer - web, a feature which suffices to distinguish this from the following species. Under- parts pale buff, streaked with dark brown on the throat, prepectus, and flanks. The hind claw longer than the toe itself. In flight the bird may be recognised by the broad buff margin round the inner side of the pointed wings. (PL 23.) Sexes almost indistinguishable, the hen being usually smaller and shorter hi the wing. Length 7 in. [178 mm.]. In autumn the newly moulted plumage differs from that of the spring only in being rather more tawny. The young, before the first moult, differ markedly in the " scaly" appearance of the upper surface, caused by conical patches of black and small semicircles of buffish white on an ochraceous ground colour, while the wings — inner primaries and secondaries — have broad longitu- dinal bands of buff and black. The fore-neck has a yellowish tinge, and each feather has a central area of dark grey forming a spot at the feather tip. The flanks are greyish, and faintly spotted. On the scapulars the black area is reduced to a horse-shoe band bounded externally with creamy white. The secondaries are brownish grey with a narrow line of black along the outer web, bounded externally with dull brown, the innermost secondaries have black shaft-streaks, 199 200 THE LARKS and a black line along the outer margin bounded externally with a narrow band of dull brown, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — The ordinary form (A. arvensis arvensis), prevalent in our Isles, is generally distributed throughout Europe, except in the extreme north, where it is absent, while in the south-east, a local race, the Mediterranean form (A. arvensis cantarella), replaces it. In West Asia another form is found (A arvensis cinerea) which has strayed to Scotland in winter on at least one occasion, [r. c. B. J.] 3. Migration. — The skylark is resident as a species practically throughout our area, but is nevertheless a migrant whose movements are of an extraordinarily complicated nature. Our knowledge of them is entirely due to the labours of Mr. Eagle Clarke, who has summarised them as follows, beginning with the autumnal movements : — " (1) Autumn Emigration of Summer Visitants, with their offspring, i.e. home-breeding and home-bred birds. (2) Autumn Immigra- tion of Winter Visitants from Central Europe. (3) Autumn Immigration of Winter Visitants from Northern Europe. (4) Autumn Passage from Central to Southern Europe along the British coast. (5) Autumn Passage from Northern to Southern Europe along the British coast. (6) Winter Emigration from, and Partial Migra- tion within, the British Isles. (7) Spring Immigration of Summer Visitants, and return of Winter Emigrants. (8) Spring Emigration to Central Europe from the British Isles. (9) Spring Emigration to Northern Europe from the British Isles. (10) Spring Passage from Southern to Central and Northern Europe along the British coast. But even this is not all, for the movements which take place between Great Britain and Ireland, as well as between Great Britain and the Hebrides and Northern Islands, have also to be considered." It must also be noted " that several of these movements are often simultaneously in progress," and that "the degree to which our native skylarks are migratory depends on the varying conditions of climate and food. In the lowlands of Great Britain, especially in the south-west of England, and throughout Ireland generally, the migratory habit is less exercised. . . . On the other hand, there are considerable tracts which, from their elevated, exposed, or northerly situation, are not suited for winter residence, and to those the skylark is merely a Summer Visitor." For a more detailed discussion of the various move- ments, the reader is referred to the original paper (Report Brit. Assoc., 1901, pp. 365-372). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is placed on the ground, in a depression PLATE VII Photo by F. B. Kirknian Photo liy W. F; Skylark's Nest in sainfoin Skylark's Nest in grass Photo by W. Farreu Woodlark feeding nestlings. One side of the nest is crushed down PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 201 among grass or growing crops, and built of stalks and bents, lined with finer grasses and generally hair. (PL vni.) It is constructed by the hen, the cock bringing the materials. Eggs usually 3 or 4, but in some districts (such as the Outer Hebrides) often 5 in number. They are greyish, greenish, or brownish white, mottled thickly with olive-brown and grey. In some cases there is a distinct cap or zone of dark markings at the big end. Varieties are white, without markings, and ferruginous. (PI. B.) Average size of 190 eggs, •91 x -66 in. [23-21 x 16-83 mm.]. Few birds lay before the latter half of April in England, and some not till May, but as two or three broods are reared, eggs may be found till July. Incubation lasts 14 days ; apparently by the hen. alone. [F. c. B. J.] 5. Food. — The food of the skylark is partly animal and partly vegetable: worms, insects (including many economically harmful ones), spiders, etc. ; seeds of many kinds, grass, turnip-leaves, and similar matter. The young are fed by both sexes on insects. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — The regular period is from the end of January to the end of July. The song is resumed in September, and continued into November, up to the 25th to my knowledge, and probably later on fine days. It has been heard in the second and third weeks of January (C. and H. Alexander, British Birds, i. p. 370; Zoologist, 1845, p. 1068; id., 1851, p. 3111). [F. B. K.] WOOD LARK [Alauda arborea, Linnaeus. French, alouette lulu; German, Heidelerche ; Italian, tottavilla}. i. Description. — Resembles the skylark in its general coloration, but may be distinguished from it by naving the outermost (10th) primary well developed, the outer pair of tail feathers not white, but smoky brown, and an oblique black mark on the inner web. It is also smaller, has a smaller and weaker beak, a shorter tail, the crest more distinct, and a whitish eyebrow. (PI. 24.) Length 5£ in. [139 mm.]. The hen differs only* in being usually smaller, duller in plumage, more flecked, and shorter in the wing. After the autumn moult the general tone of the plumage is rather more rufous. The coloration of the adult varies : some have a distinct chestnut hue above, and a tinge of sulphur below: others much greyer above and white below. The young, up to the first moult, may be distinguished from the parents by the white tips to the crown and back feathers, while the scapulars, inner secondaries, and major coverts of the primaries have white outer margins, [w. p. p.] 202 THE LARKS 2. Distribution. — Found throughout the greater part of Europe, except Northern Scandinavia and Russia, and also in North-west Africa and South-west Asia, but everywhere a local species. In the British Isles it is apparently de- creasing in England, except in one or two localities in the south and in some parts of E. Anglia and in Devon, where it is still common, but has disappeared from many districts in the midlands where it formerly nested, and now rarely occurs in the northern counties. It also breeds in mid and south Wales, and in Co. Wicklow and perhaps also in Co. Cork in Ireland, but apparently not in Scotland. [F. c. B. J.] 3. Migration. — Resident in the parts of the British Isles where it breeds, but also migratory to a slight extent in some districts, appearing in winter in localities where it does not nest. It is also a rare migrant on the east coast of Great Britain (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 258), and considering the species' British and Continental distribution, the record of a few remaining at Fair Isle (Shetlands) in the early winter of 1906, is very remarkable (cf. W. Eagle Clarke, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1907, p. 71). It is non-gregarious as a rule, rarely asso- ciating in anything more than family parties, but Gatke has a single record of a flock of 50-60 individuals (cf. Heligoland as an Orn. Obs., 1895, p. 357). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : generally on or close to the ground, but sheltered by bracken, heath, or grass. Nest : moss and bents, lined with finer grasses, and sometimes a few hairs. (PI. vn.) Whether the cock shares in the construction of the nest is not recorded. Eggs usually 4, sometimes 5, and very rarely 6, dirty white in ground colour, and spotted with hair brown or reddish brown, and underlying grey markings. Sometimes a zone is formed round the big end. (PL B.) Average size of 100 eggs, '83 x -61 in. [21 '12x15*59 mm.]. Breeding begins in the latter part of March, but as two or three broods are reared the eggs may be found till late in June. Incubation lasts 14-15 days, and is apparently performed by the hen, which is a close sitter. [F. c. B. j.] 5. Food. — The species is mainly insectivorous, but seeds and other vegetable matter are also taken. The young are fed by both sexes on caterpillars, flies, and other insects (W. Farren). [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Much the same as the skylark. If we exclude the period of moult, Gilbert White's statement may be regarded as approximately correct: "In January, and continues to sing all through the summer and autumn" (Letter to Pennant, Nov. 2, 1769). [F. B. K.] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 303 SHORELARK [Eremophila alpestris, Linnaeus [Otocorys alpestris (L.)]. French, alouette de la Siberie ; German, Alpenlerche, Ohrenlerche ; Italian, lodola gola gialla]. 1. Description. — Distinguished by the narrow black feathers, directed backwards along each side of the crown and having the appearance of two horns. (PI. 24.) In the breeding season the forehead, crown, throat, and superciliary stripe are sulphur yellow. The lores, part of the cheek and ear-coverts, a band across the forehead, and the upper breast black. Back of neck vinous: inter- scapulars greyish brown, with darker shaft stripes, the wing and tail quills are darker, the primaries and two outer tail feathers being margined on the outer web with white. The inner secondaries rich sepia, with paler margins : outer dusky, with narrow edges and tips of white, and notched ends. The underparts mostly white ; but the flanks are vinous and somewhat striated. Length 6 '80 in. [172 mm.]. The female is smaller and duller, and has the horns much shorter, and the lores and cheek patch of black smaller : the black gorget of the prepectus also smaller. In autumn plumage the black feathers of the crown and cheeks have brownish yellow edges. The young, after the first autumn moult, may be dis- tinguished from the adults by lacking both the horns and the bright black and yellow on the head and breast. Fledglings differ from the adult in having the yellow areas of the head paler ; white lores, and only a trace of the black cheek stripe ; crown, back, scapulars, black tipped with golden buff spots ; primaries dusky, with narrow outer edges and broad tips of buff ; secondaries grey, with broad buff margins, the innermost black enclosing a rust-coloured area, and with broad edges of buff. Forepart of breast and flanks with dusky spots, giving a clouded appearance. Abdomen white, tinged buff. Middle tail feathers dusky, with broad rufous brown edges; outermost dusky, with terminal half of outer web white; penultimate feather black, with a narrow external margin of white turning inwards to form a white tip. [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — Some form of this species is to be found in the Arctic regions of both hemispheres, and also among the mountain ranges and deserts of the temperate zone. In Europe the race which visits us (E. alpestris ftava) breeds in Northern Scandinavia, North Russia, Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, Wai- gatz, Franz Josef Land, etc., while other races are found in the Caucasus and the Balkans, as well as in the Sahara, North Palestine, etc. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — A winter visitor to the British Isles, but chiefly known to 204 THE LARKS us as a bird of passage from North Europe to countries south of our coasts. Most of the records are for the east coast of England, a few for the east coast of Scotland, even as far north as Fair Isle (Shetlands), and for the west coast of England, and none as yet for the west of Scotland or for Ireland. With the west- ward spread of the shorelark as a breeding species in Northern Europe, it has become a more numerous migrant to the western countries. Thus on Heligoland it was of rare and irregular occurrence previous to the considerable migration of 1847 ; since then it has become an abundant bird of passage (cf. Gatke, Heligo- land as an Orn. Obs., 1895, pp. 363-368). Similarly, it had only been recorded a few times in the British Isles until 1860. In that autumn a considerable immi- gration took place, and since then the numbers, although fluctuating somewhat from year to year, have gradually increased. The species may now be regarded as an annual visitor to the eastern seaboard from Yorkshire to Kent (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, pp. 259-261 ; ZooL, 1898, p. 115; 1900, pp. 101, 408; 1902, p. 112; 1907, p. 136: Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, pp. 222-224; etc.). It is a gregarious migrant : increasingly large parties are now recorded in England, while enormous flocks sometimes pass over Heligoland. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not nest in the British Isles. 5. Food. — Seeds appear to be the main article of diet, but the bird also eats insects, especially beetles, small crustaceans and molluscs, and other animal food. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — No record of its song in this country. The following species and subspecies are described in the supplementary chapter on " Rare Birds " : — Asiatic Skylark, Alauda arvensis cinerea, Ehmcke. Crested Lark, Alauda cristata, Linnseus. Short-toed Lark, Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler). White-winged Lark, Melanocorypha sibirica (Gmelin). Black Lark, Melanocorypha yeltonensis (Forster). THE LARKS 205 THE LARKS [W. P. PYCRAFT] For most people there is but one lark, which most prefer to call the skylark. Nevertheless no fewer than seven well-marked species are entitled to a place in our list of British birds, though of four1 of these, at any rate, it must be said that their visits are like angels visits — few and far between. Notoriety brings its penalties, and the dominating personality of the skylark becomes, naturally, the standard of comparison for the family. Larger than most of its members,2 sombre in hue, and a songster of rare sweetness, he combines at once all the salient characters of his race. And this is true equally of those less obvious characters which, for their discovery, must be pursued "with forks and hope." These are the characters used by the systematist to distinguish the larks from other groups of birds near and remotely allied ; and such characters include the form of the wing, the number and shape of the quill feathers, the shape and size of the beak, and the nature of the scales which envelop the foot. A more or less well-marked crest, formed by the elongation of the feathers of the crown, is characteristic of the larks, and so also is the curious notching of the tips of the secondary wing-quills, the innermost of which, in the larks, as in some other groups in no way related, are elongated so as to conceal the primaries when the wing is closed. The significance of this peculiarity remains so far un- explained. A still more curious feature, not alone confined to the larks, is the elongation of the claw of the hind toe, which forms a long slender spur of unknown function, though various attempts have been 1 The four are noted above at the foot of the Identification Notes. 2 It is exceeded only by two species of the genus Melanocorypha—M. calandra and M. maxima. 2D 206 THE LARKS made to explain its meaning. So far, however, none of these guesses at truth carry conviction. In the shape and size of the beak the skylark may be taken as the type of his race ; but it is interesting to remark that few groups of birds exceed the larks in the changes in relative length and stout- ness which this organ presents. In some species, foreign to this country, it is so long, slender, and curved, as to suggest an attempt at emulating the hoopoe ; in others it is so short and stout as to rival that of the grosbeaks even among the. finches.1 Though this is obviously connected with the bird's method of feeding, and the nature of the food, the precise relation of these factors is yet but little understood. The long-beaked forms are all desert dwellers, but short-beaked species live side by side with them, and this suggests that the food must in the two cases be very different, though both long- and short-beaked types are said to feed on seeds and insects, a mixed diet affected by larks everywhere. A more careful examina- tion may show that the long-beaked forms are mainly insectivorous. The heavy-beaked types, indeed, seem to be, as one would suppose, mainly seed eaters. The British larks have specialised in neither direction, and, consequently, vary their food with the time of the year and the abundance of provender. But of this more anon. Though this comparison of beaks may seem irrelevant, it is not really so, for how else, than by such a survey, can we hope to under- stand the significance of the characters of our native birds ? The skylark, as we have already remarked, is a bird of sober hues, and this is true of both sexes, which are, in this respect, practi- cally indistinguishable. And what is true of the skylark is true of all his race, save only the shorelark, to be presently described. But this lack of colour is intimately bound up with the habits of these birds, which, the world over, are dwellers in the open country, some even affecting the barren deserts, becoming in consequence extremely pallid, or " isabelline," apparently under the influence of a dry atmo- 1 Tristram, Ibis, 1859, pp. 429-433, THE LARKS 207 sphere and a burning sun. On the other hand, those which haunt very humid areas have acquired an extremely dark livery, which, in certain cases, as of the skylark in the Roman Campagna, may be called melanic.1 Whatever the hue, it is commonly supposed to have been evolved to afford protection from enemies, to serve the purpose of a mantle of invisibility : and the pallid coloured desert dwelling forms have been used time out of number to demonstrate the truth of this view. Liv- ing where cover in the shape of vegetation is at best but scanty, it is assumed that "natural selection" has, on the one hand, gradually weeded out the typical, darker, forms, and, on the other, encouraged the survival of those individuals which inherently were less pigmented, and thus, in course of time, the pallid forms came into being. The agents at work in effecting this transformation have been, it is con- tended, carnivores, winged and four-footed. But it would seem rather that the governing factor is to be sought for, as we have already hinted, in the physical rather than the animate environment. All the same, this pale hue, in this milieu, materially lessens the chances .of death by enabling the birds to escape their many foes : dark-coloured, they would inevitably have been wiped out, and the deserts now enlivened would have been tenantless. It is difficult to think of the skylark without thinking also of its song. Fervid and impassioned, this strangely beautiful melody has inspired some of the finest prose and poetry to be found in our language : so much, indeed, has been written on this theme, that the barest summary thereof would be wearisome in its length : nor would such a summary serve any useful purpose, for the enthralling strains are beloved of us all. It may be heard wellnigh the year round, yet it would seem to be subject to a certain periodicity. A few of the more vigorous birds begin, as it were, to tune up during the second week in January, and from the end of this month to the end of July, save during inclement weather, it may be heard almost the whole day 1 Whitaker, Birds of Tunisia, vol. i. p. 270. 208 THE LARKS long, commencing in the summer before sunrise, and ending only after the shades of night have closed in. At high noon, and during the early part of the afternoon, there is generally a pause. During August, the trying season of moult, the silvery tongue is silent, but from the second week in September the carolling is renewed afresh, to cease only when chill November is more than half-way through. As a rule, the song is poured forth while the bird is on the wing, ascending perpendicularly, but veering now to the right now to the left, till a height of about one thousand feet is reached, the songster being sometimes lost to view. Then the descent begins, and with it a change in tune, which some observers assert is so marked that they can tell whether the bird is ascending or descending merely by analys- ing the notes. At the beginning of the season two minutes marks the limit of the song, but in the full flush of spring, and in the excitement of courtship, a quarter of an hour is commonly spent in this delicious exercise. On occasion, however, and with especially vigorous birds, this period is exceeded, and a continuous song of half an hour's dura- tion has been recorded. The method of descent during singing, it may be remarked, differs from the ascent, since the bird goes down with its wings kept outspread and without beats, and often by a series of sudden drops, hovering after each new level is reached. Finally, as it draws near to earth, the song ceases and the minstrel drops like a stone till within a few feet of the ground, when it either alights at once, or sweeps away with an almost horizontal course for a few yards, then disappears in the herbage. Though normally the skylark sings in mid-air, it is well known to most people that it will also sing when on the ground, on a post, or when perched on furze or whins. It will also warble a few notes occasionally when running on the ground or over fallows. Rarely, too, it may be remarked, it will mount and sing in the rain.1 It is commonly supposed that the male alone sings, but while this 1 Thompson, Natural History of Ireland, vol. i. p. 232. THE LARKS 209 is the rule, females are said to have been shot while singing after the approved male fashion.1 As to the cause, or stimulus to song, it must be sufficient here to remark that it is generally supposed to be due to exuberance of spirits, and directly associated with the course of the reproductive activities. Certainly it attains its maximum power during the courting season, and it is supposed that the lark, like other sombre-hued birds, makes up for lack of colour by this gift of melody. The fact that females also may occasionally sing — and the song begins before the trying period of courtship, and is continued long after — does not militate against the view that it is primarily a sexual character. But the lark, like other songsters, sings also when under the influence of fear, and instances are on record of their singing when pursued by a hawk. " When . . . larks have completed their moult, and are confident of their powers of flight, I have actually known them to rise up before a merlin, singing all the time, and to continue their song into the sky." So writes Falconer.2 On the other hand, according to Yarrell, when singing in mid-air he will cease his strains and drop to the ground if a merlin makes his appearance.3 That the skylark has a rival in song among his own kindred is not generally known, yet those who know both birds well agree that the song of the woodlark in compass surpasses that of its relative, though in point of variety it is decidedly inferior. The duration of its song is also, on the average, greater — according to some it may be sustained for an hour 4 — and it extends over as long a period of the year. Like the skylark, it sings on the wing, mounting, unlike its larger relative, not perpendicularly, but in wide circles. The ascent is not so high, however, and the descent is made in spirals, wherein again it is peculiar. Like the skylark, and more commonly, it will sing when on terra firma, a favourite coign of vantage being the upper branches of a tree. 1 Ussher and Warren, Birds of Ireland, p. 100. 2 British Birds, December 1909, p. 222. 3 Yarrell's British Birds, vol. i. p. 615. 4 Montagu, Ornithological Dictionary, 210 THE LARKS The performances of the woodlark are less generally known, because this bird is much less plentiful, and more locally distributed. Why this should be so is not easy of explanation. The remarkable abundance of some species, and the comparative rarity of nearly allied forms, even in localities apparently perfectly suited to their needs, is a phenomenon deserving more careful consideration than it has yet received. The dominance of one over the other cannot be satisfactorily explained on the assumption that the one is crowded out by the other, for, as in the case of the two species now under consideration, the skylark and woodlark, the latter is nowhere abundant, and, moreover, affects localities not favoured by the former. It is, indeed, a peculiarly fastidious bird in the choice of its haunts. The vicinity of trees appears to be indispensable ; but while in some parts of the country it affects wooded parks or hedge-bound meadows interspersed with copses, in others dry sheep-walks or the borders of heaths suit its taste no less. At all times it is a "local" bird, in spring and summer hardly straying two hundred yards from its nest- ing territory. In winter, however, it assembles in small bands and haunts the outskirts of woods, and during severe weather these bands unite to form flocks of considerable size. But to return to the skylark. In its haunts it displays a far wider adaptability to environment than is the case with the wood- lark, and this may in part, at any rate, explain the numerical superiority of the one over the other, since the species which can occupy the most territory will of necessity have the best chance of maintaining a high population. The skylark, then, is to be met with in all kind of places, from the coast to the inland moors and moun- tains. Preferring well-cultivated districts offering arable land, meadows, and commons, in Ireland it is "the only bird commonly seen on the desolate moors of Connemara and West Mayo, and it breeds on many of the islands round the coast, even on the Blaskets."1 But it shuns the neighbourhood of woods, or where 1 Ussher and Warren, Birds of Ireland, p. 100. THE LARKS 211 trees grow thickly. It is a ground dweller, and even roosts on the ground. In its search for food it runs with agility, and it does not hop, as do some Passerine birds which commonly run ; and it is supposed by some that the long claw of the hind-toe, common to the family, is of material assistance in tripping lightly over long grass : but this is problematical, for where the claws are lengthened to enable the foot to tread upon lightly supported vegetation, as, for instance, in the Jacanas, all are elongated. Nor is the view that this long hind-claw hinders perching any better supported by facts, for it is well known that the skylark perches readily on the branches of trees whenever it is so minded, though this habit is not common. Attempts have been made to accord a use to this "spur." It seems to have been widely believed among shepherds, for instance, that the spurs were very effective weapons of offence, since they were capable of blinding sheep. According to tradition, sheep wandering too near the nest of the lark were promptly attacked by the parent birds, which repelled the unconscious trespasser by digging their spurs into the eyes, inflicting a poisonous wound which speedily resulted in blindness.1 Youatt, however, long since realised the absurdity of this belief, though he retained the term "lark-spurred" for sheep suffering from a form of ophthalmia which " suddenly occurs without any apparent cause." It is generally supposed that the song of the skylark, as in other singing birds, is the dominant factor in securing success during the critical period of courtship, but the precise significance of this sweet music, and the part it plays during this phase of life, is by no means definitely settled. At any rate, with the advent of spring comes a reawakening of the slumbering fires of love, and all that is associated therewith. And though the first signs of this outburst may be expressed in song, buffetings and tourneyings form a no less important accompaniment. But both these manifesta- 1 Harting, Field, 1904, p. 576 ; 1905, p. 549. 212 THE LARKS tions, it would seem, are preceded, on the part of the males, by a species of territorial annexation, whereby each bird assumes dominion over a definite area of ground which he endeavours to hold against all rivals, and from which all trespassers of his own kind are promptly driven. The breeding area occupied, several neighbouring males may now be seen chasing a female with great rapidity through the air, and every now and then breaking out into the sweetest song. Sometimes a male will hover above a female who crouches down amongst the herbage, and in various ways will seek to display his charms. She will then often rise in the air, when the males will toy with her, fluttering round and round, or darting hither and thither with great speed, singing all the while. Mr. Selous refers to such encounters as " delicate little mock-combats in the air," and assures us that the male, when courting, advances on the female with wings drooped and tail and crest raised, in a series of impressive hops ; all, in short, is carried on in a perfectly gentle and chivalrous spirit, in which the elements of jealousy seem to have no part. Naumann, on the other hand, sees the same essential facts in another light. Not only does he assert that the males are always quarrelling, but they are, he protests, particularly aggressive during the spring. Rival males, according to him, actuated by jealousy, fight furiously, and often a third male will join in the fray. These combats, while generally aerial, sometimes take place on the ground, when the com- batants assume the attitudes of fighting cocks. Every now and again they will spring up in the air, when the click of their opposing beaks can be plainly heard. The victor retires singing, commonly accompanied by a female, who will sometimes, indeed, participate in these brawls.1 The evidence of all other observers, however, seems to contradict Naumann's interpretation of the conduct of these birds, who seems to have read malice into mere acts of playful- ness, though doubtless, occasionally, some anger may be displayed. 1 Seebohm, British Birds, vol. ii. p. 268; Selous, Bird- Watching, pp. 35-49; Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. p. 23. Plate 23 Skylarks, Cock (upper bird), hen and nestlings By A. W. Seaby „ * . . - . „ » 3+0 f THE LARKS 213 What is true of the skylark during courtship seems also, in the main, to be true of the woodlark. The courtship over, the next item in the pageant is concerned with the preparation of the nursery. And just as renewal of fine warm weather in late autumn will reawaken the displays of courtship, so fine weather in early spring will induce the more venturesome, or more vigorous, birds to commence nesting. Skylarks' eggs have been taken in the middle of March; in open weather, indeed, it seems probable that larks normally begin to breed before the end of March, though, as with other species, the young are apt to be killed by out- bursts of cold weather in April. In the building of the nest, which for choice seems to be placed amid growing corn or in meadows, the female does the actual work of construction, but the male collects the bulk of the material. Similarly, the task of incubation is chiefly undertaken by the female, though the male bears a share. The sitting birds are exposed to many dangers, chiefly from prowling carnivores, such as stoats, weasels, foxes, and cats, as well as rats and mice, while crows are no less dreaded. The sober-coloration of the birds forms what is practically a mantle of invisibility, since it harmonises so well with the bird's surroundings : but it is possible that they are betrayed at times by scent, while the eggs are probably often taken while the nest is left unguarded. In regard to scent, it may be remarked that the skylark is said to have a strong "gamey" scent, traceable by sporting dogs, but only it would seem when running : so long as the bird sits close it is said to exhale no smell, but this needs further investigation. Both birds share the arduous work of feeding the young, which are hatched before the eyelids open, and having the body but sparsely clad in a thin, delicate down. As with Passerine birds in general, the interior of the mouth is brightly coloured — of chrome- yellow in the case of the present species ; while thick flanges of pale yellow skin bound the gape on either side. But the interior of the mouth is further peculiar, in that at the base of the tongue are two 2E 214 THE LARKS black spots, and at its tip is a third, triangular in shape. These spots, it is held by some, have been developed to serve as guides to the parents in feeding, and no serious objections have yet been brought forward against this interpretation. Originally, they were probably developed in young reared in dimly lighted places, since in young reared in such nurseries these markings are most conspicuously developed. In many Passerines these spots have been more or less completely lost, in others traces remain, as in the skylark and many others, just as many other vestiges of now useless characters survive. Young larks are fed largely on worms, and these are not dropped into the mouth, but are carefully placed on the top of the tongue — the spots helping to speedy disposition of the food. Experiments lend support to this view, for they show that the gape-flanges and palate are comparatively insensitive to touch, but the tongue, on the contrary, responds readily. Mr. Kearton,1 in describing his observations on the method of feeding, remarks that the hen quickly alighted, and running up gave to each in turn a small worm, fetched apparently from the back of her throat. Generally, however, the worm was held in the tip of the beak. On an average, feeding took place about every quarter of an hour. The nestlings he watched were nearly ready to fly, and one, more venturesome than the rest, left the nest and wandered some fifteen yards away. But it was discovered immediately on the return of its parent to the nest, and fed ; then she proceeded to the nest and fed the rest. In this case, at any rate, the male rendered no help, but contented himself with carolling gaily just above the nest ! The young, during the absence of their parent, spent most of the time stretching and gaping. And here we may remark that in all that pertains to the labours of nest-building, incubation, and feeding the young, the woodlark agrees with the skylark — except that, it is said, the female alone incubates.2 Both sexes feed the young, and these, like young 1 Wild Life at Home, pp. 73, 74. 2 Naumanu, op. tit. THE LARKS 215 skylarks, leave the nest before they can fly, and take refuge in the herbage in the immediate neighbourhood, whereby, doubtless, they obtain a greater measure of safety from enemies. According to Mr. W. Farren, who has supplied some useful notes for this chapter, nesting begins early in March. He remarks that in the vicinity of the nests several "dummy" nests are commonly found, most of them merely deep scrapes showing bare soil at the bottom ; some, however, have a slight lining of grass. It has been thought that such " dummies," which are more conspicuous than the real nests, are made for the purpose of drawing attention from the latter. But it is more probable that the unlined "scrapes" are old " dust-baths," for the woodlark, like the skylark, is fond of dust-baths, and never bathes in water. Or both the lined and unlined may be beginnings of nests, abandoned by the birds because in too conspicuous a position. The nestlings in a brood Mr. Farren had under observation were very active, and soon left the nest, one or other of the more venturesome running sometimes a yard or two, to meet its parents returning with food ; such eagerness, however, was apparently always unrewarded, for the parents refused to deliver food save at the nest. Discovering this, the vagrant returned suddenly to its fellows in a way which seemed to suggest that it was being pulled back by a piece of elastic. On reaching the nest the young one wriggled itself backwards among its companions. Feeding in the case of the woodlark seems to take place more frequently than in the case of the skylark, for the parents brought flies and other insects at varying intervals of from three to eight minutes throughout the day. Perhaps this is to be accounted for by the nature of the food. As with most Passerine birds, the excreta of the young are carefully and constantly removed by the parents. While two broods are generally reared, this number is apparently frequently exceeded, both by the skylark and woodlark. According to Newton, the latter may rear as many as four broods in a season, when 216 THE LARKS the last remains with the parents throughout the winter ; while the earlier broods, in the case of both species now under consideration, are driven off by the parents as soon as they are able to fend for them- selves. This is not, as it might seem, to be taken as a proof of callousness on the part of the parents, but is rather a wise step, since by their dispersion the breeding area does not become overcrowded and so cause competition for food between parents and offspring, thus bringing disaster on all. Indeed, there are many instances which prove without question the love which the parents bear for their young. Yarrell, for example,1 quoting Jesse, cites an instance of a bird which dropped a young one it was carrying, apparently to remove it from some real or imaginary danger, for a distance of thirty feet — and unfortunately the fall was fatal. Later, quoting Mr. Blyth, he gives particulars of a case wherein a nest was laid bare by the sweep of a scythe, revealing a brooding bird, which but for its concern for the callow young which the nest proved to contain, could have escaped long before the scythe reached it. An hour later, when the nest was again examined, it was found that the parents had constructed a dome of dry grass for its concealment. At all times they display the most jealous care not to reveal the whereabouts of the nest, alighting always at some distance therefrom, and running up to it under cover of the herbage, while in leaving the nest similar precautions are observed. Yet, unwittingly, they betray themselves by the pitiful distress they exhibit whenever the neighbourhood of the nursery is approached. As autumn advances the skylark becomes gregarious, assembling in large flocks, which keep together throughout the winter. At this time they may do a certain amount of damage to crops, injuring, for example, autumn-planted wheat about old Michaelmas, while they also levy unwelcome toll on newly drilled oats. Their presence on the clover-backs in winter is not always without its disadvantages, yet they undoubtedly consume an enormous quantity of pernicious 1 Yarrell, British Birds, vol. i. p. 617. THE LARKS 217 weeds. Their opportunity for mischief indeed is limited, and during the rest of the year they more than make amends in the vast quantity of noxious insects which they devour.1 According to Naumann,2 oats are freed from their husks, being seized by the tip of the beak and beaten against the ground ; in like manner the spikes or awns are removed from barley ; while the feathery crowns of the corn- flower (Centaurea) are similarly treated. A fall of snow at once sets them on the move, the birds retreating with all speed to settle on the first bare ground ; and during severe winters they suffer terribly. In gathering numbers they gradually move westwards, vast hordes passing into Ireland, chiefly at the south-east coast, and thence spread over the country. The woodlark similarly gathers into flocks in the autumn, haunt- ing the outskirts of woods, and low but not marshy spots. On warm days, however, such flocks appear and disperse to high ground, re- assembling with a return of frost. The ranks of our resident skylarks are augmented in the autumn by vast hordes of larks from the Continent. But our home-bred birds can usually be distinguished therefrom, being generally more rufous in colour, the immigrants darker and larger. The immigrants just referred to arrive along the east coast of England and Scotland in vast numbers, forming a continuous stream for several consecutive days, and during this time appalling inroads are made on their ranks. They are attacked by merlins 3 and other birds of prey which persistently follow and harass them ; they are taken in thousands by the bird-catchers, and thousands are killed at the lighthouses over which they pass, being attracted by the glare of the light. Thus dazzled, thousands strike the lanterns, and stunned fall on the rocks below or into the sea. In Heligoland as many as 15,000 have been taken in a single night, and no estimate could be made of the numbers which fell into the sea. Yet in spite of this 1 O. V. Aplin, in Ornithology and Agriculture, p. 156. 8 Naumann, Vogel der Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. p. 25. 3 Chapman, Bird-life of the Border, p. 235. 218 THE LARKS devastation the number which safely reach our shores is prodigious. On landing, their ranks are subjected to a yet further toll, so that the number of the dead makes a positively appalling total. But this slaughter is no new thing ; for the works of the older ornithologists, from Fuller,1 Gilbert White,2 and Montagu3 onwards, abound with instances thereof. During severe winters this carnage attains its height, for then the number of immigrants is vastly increased. Even in normal years the death-roll is heavy, and in times past was, if possible, heavier still. Dunstable was formerly famous for its larks for table. It was estimated, in 1854, for example, that some 400,000 were sent up to London markets alone, 20,000 to 30,000 being often sent up at a time.4 Huge numbers still reach the London markets annually, not more than a tithe of which are eaten. On the Continent the same ghastly story of greed and waste of life is to be recorded. Keysler, Bechstein, and Naumann, for instance, all show that, in their day, larks were destroyed in France and Germany during each winter by the million. During the winter of 1867-68, for example, 1,255,500 larks were taken into the town of Dieppe alone ! And yet, after these long years of slaughter, the skylark still out- numbers any other Passerine bird in Northern Europe. This numerical superiority is due, no doubt, very largely to its extended geographical range, and its adaptability to circumstances ; but it is also, probably, a long-lived bird, retaining its reproductive powers till the last. Captive birds, at any rate, have been known to live for twenty years. So far, it may have been remarked, nothing has been said about the shorelark ; and this because, though in its habits it recalls the skylark, it differs therefrom in too many particulars to be conveniently included in the same description. Reference has already been made to the sombre hues of the typical larks, which are of a protective character, affording the 1 Fuller, History of English Worthies, 1662. 2 Gilbert White, Letters to Barrington, Ixii. ! Montagu, Ornithological Dictionary. 4 Farrell, British Birds, vol. i. p. 631. Plate 24 Left Woodlark Shorelark (male) By Winifred Austen THE LARKS 219 wearer a measure of concealment from its enemies by reason of the harmony of such coloration with its environment. In the shore- lark we meet with a relatively resplendent livery, inasmuch as the head is enlivened with patches of black, white, and yellow, while a gorget of black spreads across the chest ; for the rest the plumage may be described as lark-like, save that the upper parts have a hue as of a delicate wine stain, and in place of the characteristic lark-like crest, a pair of "horns" or elongated feathers are developed, which can be erected on either side of the hinder part of the crown, a character shared in common with several other allied species which have not occurred in the British Islands. How far this coloration is related to the bird's environment no man can say. Circumpolar in its range, and nowhere, apparently, breeding below the Arctic Circle, this bird would be unknown to those of us who dwell in more favoured regions but for its habit of migrating southwards in winter. Hence it is not surprising that but little is known of its habits. Like the Lapland- and snow-buntings, it is a bird of the tundra, confining itself to sandy plains and rocky hills, avoiding marshy places, though frequenting the mud-shores of rivers to drink, and the seaboard when near the coast. Seebohm met with it in large numbers on migration when in Siberia, and remarks that the males arrive first,1 but the females soon follow, when the flock join, and band together with flocks of Lapland-buntings. Of its habits in winter, however, little is known, but it seems to lead a roving life, flocking soon after the autumn moult. Until recent years it was reckoned among our rarer British birds, but is now a regular winter visitant along our eastern coasts, coming thus far south to avoid the rigours of winter in the high northern latitudes. It has also been noticed in the spring migration. Not until May is well advanced are the first eggs laid,2 and in Siberia not until the middle of June ; and this is probably determined by the abundance of insect life, for it feeds on small Mollusca, the 1 Seebohm, Birds of Siberia, pp. 74-85. 2 Seebohm, British Birds, vol. ii. p. 257. 220 THE LARKS buds of small plants, and, during the summer months, insects ; hence, until these last have become plentiful, breeding is necessarily delayed, for the young are fed on insects. Seebohm l took a nest with young at Pustozersk, on the Petchora, on 18th June. In Lapland, he remarks, two broods are reared, in Siberia, owing to the lateness of the season, only one. In hunting for food it runs nimbly, but occasionally hops, like the Lapland-bunting. According to Seebohm, it has never been seen to perch on trees, or even bushes ; thus it is a more exclusively ground-bird than the skylark. This author, in commenting on this fact, remarks that he has once seen common gulls, and also snipe, in trees, and once, in Siberia, shot a golden plover when perched on the summit of a larch tree. Like the skylark and woodlark it is a singer, though far inferior to either. It sings continuously in mid-air, mounting like a skylark, and remaining some time on the wing, descends in similar fashion. But it will also sing while perched on some post, rail, or barn top, for the bird is of a sociable disposition and frequents the haunts of man. Woolley tells of one which used to perch on the roof of a house he was staying at on the Varanger Fjord, and sing for several hours in the cool midnight sun ! Its call-note is clear and somewhat deeper than that of the skylark ; hence in Lapland it has earned the name of " bell-bird." 1 J. A. Harvie-Brown, Travels of a Naturalist in Northern Europe, vol. ii. p. 369. WAGTAILS AND PIPITS [ORDER : Pdsseriformes. FAMILY : Motacillidce] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES [F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON] PIED-WAGTAIL [Motacilla alba lugubris, Temm. Dishwasher, penny- wagtail, nanny- washtail, whipjack, grey hemplin, Watty. German, Trauer- Bachstdze]. i. Description. — Easily recognised by the black, white, and grey plumage, and the long black tail bounded externally by two conspicuous white feathers. (PL 26.) In summer the male has the upper parts black, except the forehead, and sides of the head and neck, which are white. The chin, throat, and forepart of the breast are black, the rest of the under parts being white, save the flanks, which are slate-grey. The wing feathers are black with white margins, broad on the inner secondaries, very narrow on the primaries. Length 7'3 in. [185 mm.]. The hen has a leaden grey back mottled with black, rather less black on the head and throat, and a rather shorter tail. After the autumn moult the black on the back of the male is replaced by dark grey save the rump, which remains black, while the black throat is replaced by white, so that the whole of the under parts are white relieved by a crescentic black gorget, and grey flanks. The female can, at this season, hardly be distinguished from the male, but has the black areas rather smaller. In the fledgling black is absent, the upper parts being entirely olive-brown, the auriculars buff with a tinge of grey, throat buff with a moustachial streak of dark slate-grey, passing downwards to meet in the middle line on the fore-neck. Flanks grey tinged with brown, breast dull white. On leaving the nest the sides of the face and forehead become white, and a pectoral band of grey appears. At the autumn moult black feathers appear in the crown, and the black gorget, characteristic of the adult in winter, is developed, while the grey of the mantle takes on a darker hue. A sulphur-yellow colour commonly suffuses the white areas of the head in young birds at this moult, [w. p. p.] 2F 222 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 2. Distribution. — As two forms of black and white wagtail have been found breeding in this country, it is necessary to treat them separately. This is the British local form, and is almost confined to the British Isles, but has bred in Scandinavia near the coast, hi Holland, and apparently in North-west France. In the British Isles it is generally distributed except in the Outer Hebrides and the Shetlands, but it has occasionally bred in the latter locality. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — The pied-wagtail is found in the British Isles throughout the year, except that it is only a summer visitor to some islands and districts in the extreme north of Scotland. Over the larger part of Great Britain, however, it becomes much less common in winter, the decrease being most apparent in high- lying and exposed districts. In addition to movements probably of a purely local nature, there is in autumn a general southward migration within our area, so that the race becomes more abundant in winter than in summer in some districts of the south of England (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 89). There is also a considerable autumnal emigration from the whole south coast to the Continent, but in some cases the birds are seen migrating eastwards along it (cf. loc. cit.). In Ireland it is resident, although decreasing in numbers in whiter in some northern districts, and increased on the whole at that season by immigrants from Great Britain (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 53). Considering that we can be practically sure, from the race's distribution, that the bulk, if not the whole of the birds seen within our area, are British-breeding individuals, the migration season is very long drawn out. Migrants occur at light-stations, etc., in all months of the year except January and June (cf. loc. cit., etc., etc.), but March and September are the times of the principal movements. Migration is undertaken hi small parties as a rule, sometimes in large flocks. On the south coast of England the immigrating males arrive in spring a few days before the females (cf. B. O. C. Migration Reports, iii. p. 181 ; etc.). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : generally in a hollow in a wall, bank, or in ivy, but also not infrequently in old nests of other species (Zoologist, 1904, p. 421, etc.), also in pollard willows. Many extraordinary sites have occasionally been recorded. Nest : moss, twigs, leaves, roots, grasses, etc., rather loosely constructed, and lined with grasses, hair, feathers, wool, and other materials. (PI. VHI.) Both sexes share in the construction of the nest. Eggs, 5 or 6 as a rule, greyish white, closely freckled with leaden brown and grey spots. (PI. B.) Pure white varieties have been found. Average size of 100 eggs, -79 x -59 in. [20*16 x PLATE VIII Photo by F. E. Daniel Pied-wagtail's Nest Photo by W. Fan*n Pied- wagtail's Nest at foot of gorse bush Photo by \\'. Farren Cock Pied- wagtail bringing food to the young at the entrance of the hole in which its nest is PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 223 15-13 mm.]. The first eggs are laid about the end of April, and the second brood in June, while a third is sometimes reared. Incubation, chiefly if not entirely by the hen, lasts 13-14 days (W. Evans, Ibis, 1891, p. 60, and 1892, p. 57; Zool, 1910, p. 117). [F. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — Chiefly insects. The young are fed by both parents on flies, small caterpillars, and other insects (W. Farren). 6. Song Period. — From February to June, and again from August to November (C. and H. Alexander in British Birds, i. 370). WHITE-WAGTAIL [Motacitta alba alba, Linnaeus. French, lavan- diere ; German, weisse Bachstelze ; Italian, ballerina], 1. Description. — The male in summer plumage differs from the male pied- wagtail only in having the back and rump pearl-grey. (No Plate.) The female is smaller than the male — the wing 5-7 mm. shorter — has the black areas smaller in size, and a tinge of grey on the crown, and the white of the forehead often tinged with grey. The tail is also shorter. Length 7'5 in. [190 mm.]. Though the two species are easily distinguishable in summer, in winter they are not readily recog- nisable, but the white-wagtail has a greater amount of white on the wing-coverts, and a paler grey back, and grey instead of black tail-coverts, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — This is the Continental representative of our pied-wagtail. •It is generally distributed over the Continent, and also breeds in Iceland. It breeds in small numbers in the maritime counties of England and Wales, and there are records of its doing so inland, also in the N.W. Highlands and Fair Isle. It occasionally interbreeds with our local race. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — The white- wagtail is a summer visitor, in small numbers, within the limits of its British breeding area, but is otherwise only a bird of passage. Till the lighthouse and other records were summarised by Mr. Eagle Clarke (cf. Report Brit. Assoc., 1900, pp. 409-413), the movements were not understood at all, and since then comparatively little has been added to our knowledge on this point, although much remains to be learnt (but see also British Birds, voL i. pp. Ill, 112 : and B. 0. C. Migration Reports, i. p. 124, ii. p. 101, iii. p. 107, iv. pp. 107 and 189). The following is a summary of the movements within our area so far as known : — (1) In March and April the English breeding birds arrive on the south coast ; (2) chiefly between mid- April and mid-May a well-marked migration of birds of passage takes place along the western sea- boards of both Great Britain and Ireland— this becomes especially noticeable 224 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS in the Hebrides, and part of the stream at least appears to pass through the Shetland group, going, presumably, to the Fseroes and Iceland ; (3) at the same time a very slight migration takes place through the more eastern districts of Great Britain as far north as the Firth of Forth. As has been re- marked, this is one of the few birds whose migrations are largely confined to our western coasts ; it is also remarkable in that its vernal passage is so much better known than its autumnal one. Its movements at the latter season are probably the counterpart of those described above : — (1) Details of the autumnal emigration appear to be wanting ; (2) the autumn passage on the western route has only been partially recorded, e.g. from the Hebrides ; the season is remarkably short, ex- tending from mid- August to mid-September; (3) to the Lothians the white- wagtail is known as a bird of double passage, and it probably is so to the eastern districts of England as well, but the available information is especially incomplete for autumn. On the east of Scotland north of the Forth, as well as on the east of Ireland, the white- wagtail is of exceptional occurrence, and there is some ground for believing that the large numbers which pass through Fair Isle, and the Shet- lands generally, take the western route. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Practically indistinguishable from those of the pied- wagtail. (PL B.) Average size of 100 eggs, -8 x '59 in. [20'43 x 15-11 mm.]. The breeding habits of the two races are also similar. [F. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — Similar to that of the pied- wagtail. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Spring and summer according to Naumann, who adds that the hen also sings, her efforts being, however, much less finished. One would expect an autumn song-period. [F. B. K.] GREY-WAGTAIL [Motacilla boarula, Linnaeus [M. melanope, Pall.]. Rock-wagtail. French, hochequeue ; German, graue Bachstelze ; Italian, ballerina gialla]. i. Description. — Distinguished from all the other British wagtails by the great length of the tail, and the uniform slate-blue of the upper parts. (PI. 25.) The male, in breeding dress, has the upper parts slate-blue, relieved by a white superciliary stripe, and a narrow line of white extending from the base of the beak backwards below the auriculars, to terminate on the sides of the neck; the upper tail-coverts are of a greenish yellow. The throat is black, and the rest of the under parts are sulphur yellow, brightest on the under PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 225 tail-coverts. The wings are brownish black, the long inner secondaries margined, along their outer edges, with buffish white. The three outer tail feathers are white, but the penultimate and antepenultimate feathers have a dark stripe along the outer vane. The two middle feathers are brownish black, with a greenish line along the outer vane. Length 7'25 in. [184 mm.]. The female is rather smaller than the male, and has a tinge of green over the head and back, and never develops a fully black throat, often none at all. The juvenile plumage resembles that of the adults after the autumn moult ; but immature birds may always be distinguished by the fact that the superciliary stripe, cheeks, throat, and pectoral regions are tinged with fawn colour, [w. p. P.] 2. Distribution. — The hilly districts of Central and Southern Europe and the British Isles, the Canaries and North-west Africa, while other forms are found in Madeira and Asia. It is, however, absent from Denmark, Scandinavia, and North Russia. In the British Isles it is generally distributed in small numbers in all the hilly districts, but is rare or absent as a rule from the flat country south of the Pennines, and east of the Cambrian and Devonian ranges. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — The resident birds leave the higher grounds towards winter, and the species is then found in parts of the south of England, where it does not nest, arriving there early in September, and returning to more northerly counties at the end of March or the beginning of April. It is also in small numbers an autumn immigrant to the east coast of Great Britain, presumably from mid- Europe or farther south. The chief influx of young birds is in September, that of old birds in October, with a return emigration in March (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 126). There is no evidence of overseas migration to or from our south coasts. On the east coast it arrives during the night, and apparently proceeds inland before daybreak as a rule (cf. loc. cit.). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : in a hole of a wall, steep bank, or ledge of rock close to rapid streams as a rule. Nest : moss, twigs, leaves, and grasses, lined with hair, frequently white. (PI. x.) What share is taken by the cock in building is uncertain. Eggs 4 to 6, buff or stone colour, faintly marbled with pale brown and often with a blackish hair-line. Some varieties resemble those of the yellow- wagtail, while others tend to approach those of the pied- : white and pinkish eggs have also been recorded. (PI. B.) Average size of 100 eggs, -74 x -56 in. [18-81 x 14-27 mm.]. The usual breeding time is the latter part of April, and though many birds are single brooded, a second brood may sometimes be found early in June. Incubation lasts about 14 days, 226 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS and though the hen takes the greater part, the cock also assists occasionally. [F. c. E. J.] 5. Food. — Beetles, flies, and other insects, including many aquatic species, small crustaceans and molluscs. The young are fed by both parents, chiefly, at least, on insects. 6. Song Period. — Not recorded. YELLOW-WAGTAIL [Motacilla ftava rayi (Bonap. ). Cow-bird, barley- bird, yellow-Molly, yellow- wagster, seed-fool, oatseed-bird. French, ber- geronette d tete jaune], 1. Description. — Distinguished by the uniform bright olive-green of the upper surface, clearer and brighter yellow on the side of the head, rump, and upper tail-coverts : lores and superciliary streak bright yellow ; auriculars yellow bordered with yellowish olive; under surface of body bright canary-yellow. (PL 27.) Some males are almost entirely yellow ; but all, before the autumn moult, fade to an ashy-greenish above, and dull pale yellow below. The lesser wing-coverts are coloured like the back ; the median and greater coverts blackish brown, tipped with yellowish white. Inner secondaries margined with dull white. Two outer tail feathers white, with an oblique brown stripe along the inner web, the third with white outer web, and irregular edge of white on inner ; rest, blackish brown edged yellowish olive. Length 6'30 in. [160 mm.]. The female is distinguish- able by her duller coloration, lacking the yellow on the forehead, and her smaller size. The throat and breast are markedly paler, and there is a trace of a dark prepectoral gorget. Fledglings greyish brown above, with dusky mottlings on the back ; upper tail-coverts mottled with brown, a black superciliary stripe, and a white stripe behind the eye ; ear-coverts brown. Under parts dull white, tinged on the breast with buff, or fulvous : flanks greyish : throat and pectoral area marked with a horse-shoe gorget of dull black. Under tail-coverts dull yellow. After the autumn moult the adult male is rather greener above than in summer, while the throat and prepectoral region display an incipient gorget, which is more marked in the female. Young birds, after the autumn moult, are olive-brown above, inclining to olive-yellow on the lower back and rump and upper tail- coverts. The superciliary stripe is of a pale fawn-brown, the ear-coverts brown ; throat and chest pale fawn-brown, with an indistinct gorget on the throat ; abdomen, flanks, and under tail-coverts bright yellow, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — As in the case of the black- and white-wagtails, two local PLATE IX Yellow- wagtail's Nest in grass Bluebeaded- wagtail's Nest and young: in grass Yellow- wagtail's Nest and young PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 227 forms of yellow-wagtail have been recorded as breeding in the British Isles, the blueheaded and the subject of this note, and each is here treated separately. The present race is confined to the British Isles and North-west France in the breeding season. It is fairly common on low ground in England, but is absent from the mountainous districts and the Devonian peninsula. It is also scarce in Wales, and very local in Scotland south of the Great Glen, while in Ireland only two or three colonies are known to exist — on Lough Neagh, Loughs Corrib and Mask, and possibly near Dublin, [r. c. B. j.] 3. Migration. — A summer visitor to the districts of the British Isles where it breeds. It is seen as a passing visitor in most of the other portions of Great Britain, and occasionally in counties Wexford and Dublin in Ireland. An uncommon straggler to the remainder of Ireland and to the parts of Scotland north of the breeding area (cf. Saunders, III. Han. British Birds, 1899, p. 129 ; and Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 39). In spring the chief immigration appears to occur on the south-east corner of England, the birds then spreading north and west (cf. B. O. C. Migration Reports, i. p. 71, ii. p. 103, iii. p. 109, and iv. p. 111). A few stragglers may appear towards the end of March, but the first important immigration takes place during the first half of April. Males are then in the majority, however, the main body of females arriving during the second half of the month (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 98). Southward migration begins .early in August, and has almost ceased by the third week of September (cf. B. 0. C. Migration Reports, iv. p. 189; and Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 129). Migration is undertaken mainly in small parties, which are often accompanied by birds of other species. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : either in mowing grass or cornfields as a rule, and in the former case well concealed in a depression. Nest : bents and grasses, with sometimes moss, lined with fine grass and plenty of hair. (PI. ix.) Whether the male assists the female in nest building is not certain. The eggs are generally 5 or 6, more rarely only 4, or 7, in number, and are mottled with pale ochreous brown on a whitish ground, sometimes so thickly that the surface appears to be uniform ochreous brown. Exceptionally white eggs, olive grey eggs, and distinctly zoned eggs have been met with. (PL B.) Average size of 100 eggs, -75 x -55 in. [19'01 x 14-15 mm.]. Incubation lasts about 14 days, and is apparently performed by the hen only. The normal breeding time is late in May, but occasional nests have been found towards the end of April, and probably second broods are sometimes reared, [r. c. B. J.] 228 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 5. Food. — The food includes insects and their larvae, and "the small thin- shelled molluscs found among water-meadows" (Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 130). The young are fed by both parents, chiefly on caterpillars and winged insects. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Whether it sings during the whole period of its annual stay with us is not recorded. [F. B. K.] BLUEHEADED-WAGTAIL [Motacilla flava flava, Linnseus. French, bergeronette printaniere ; German, Schafstelze], 1. Description. — Distinguished from the yellow- or Ray's wagtail by the bluish slate crown, white superciliary stripe, and more or less distinct white stripe through the ear-coverts, which are of an ash-grey. (PL 27.) The rest of the upper parts yellowish olive-green, brighter in the rump. Lesser wing-coverts like the back ; median and greater dark brown, with broad pale yellowish white tips, form- ing two bands across the wing. Tail as in M , f. rayi. Under surface bright yellow ; dusky spots on the throat show vestiges of a gorget. Length 6'30 in. [160 mm.]. After the autumn moult the male has the upper parts tinged with brown, the super- ciliary stripe yellowish, and the under parts pale. The female resembles the male in autumn, having a brown tinge over the upper parts, and more white on the throat, and paler yellow breast and abdomen : she is rather smaller than the male. She can be distinguished from the female M . f. rayi, by the slightly bluer tint of the crown, and the white superciliary stripe and chin. The young of the blueheaded- may be distinguished from that of the yellow- or Rays-wagtail by the white throat, yellowish white or buffish white superciliary stripe ; the back is of a more greenish brown colour, and the green on the rump more pronounced, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — This race is found in the summer over the lowlands of Continental Europe, except in the north, where it is replaced by the Arctic form, and in the basins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, where other races occur. A few pah's breed annually along our south-eastern coasts, and it has also nested hi Durham (Hancock, Cat. Birds of Northumberland and Durham, p. 60). [p. c. R. j.] 3. Migration. — A summer visitor to the localities where it breeds, and a rare passing visitor, chiefly in late April and in August, to other parts of England and Wales, and to the east of Scotland. There appears to be no certain record from Ireland. [A. L. T.] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 229 4. Nest and Eggs. — In nest, eggs, and breeding habits this bird is indis- tinguishable from our British race (see Yellow- wagtail). (PI. B. and rx.) The average size of 100 eggs is '73 x -55 in. [18'75 x 13*9 mm.]. [F. c. B. J.] 5. Food. — Similar to that of the yellow-wagtail. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Is not continued long after the breeding season (Naumann). [F. B. K.] TREE-PIPIT [Anihus trivialis (Linnaeus). Tit-, bank-, field-, tree-, or blood-lark. French, pipi des arbres ; German, Baumpieper ; Italian, prispolone], i. Description. — Resembles the meadow-pipit, but may be distinguished therefrom, and from all the other British pipits, by the curved claw of the hind toe, which is not so long as the toe itself : furthermore, the three outermost primaries are nearly equal, the fourth — wristwards — is much shorter. (PL 28.) The upper parts are of a clear wood-brown, shading into olive-brown on the rump, and relieved by dull black striations, sharply defined in the crown, broadly in the interscapulars, and absent in the rump. The median coverts are tipped with white ; the greater coverts and long inner secondaries have pale greyish brown margins. The outermost tail feather has the inner web mostly white, the pen- . ultimate has only a small triangular patch of white on the tip of the inner vane. The under parts are of a sandy buff, fading to pure white on the abdomen. The fore-neck, pectoral region, and flanks are striated with black, heavily on the pectoral region, and these striations are continued forwards along each side of the throat to the base of the jaw, forming a moustachial streak. Length 6 in. [152 mm.]. The sexes are indistinguishable ; though, according to some authorities, the female is rather duller and has narrower striations. The plumage after the autumn moult is brighter than the spring livery — which is assumed by a moult — a richer buff suffusing the whole body. The fledgling differs from the adult only in that the crown of the head has a spotted, rather than striated, appearance, while the ground colour is darker, and the striations are conspicuously duller, browner, in hue : the rest of the upper parts yellower. The throat is white or only faintly tinged yellow, while the ground colour of the pectoral region is much paler (buffish white), and the striations heavier, duller, and less sharply defined. The minor and median coverts are broadly tipped with buff instead of white ; and the long inner secondaries have the paler margins narrower. The white patch on the inner 2o 230 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS vane of the penultimate tail feather is much larger than in the adult, and all the remaining tail feathers have faint white tips. [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — Generally distributed throughout Continental Europe and Great Britain, except in Northern Scandinavia and Russia, south of the Cantabrian Mountains in Spain, Middle Italy, and the Balkan range, where it is absent during the breeding season. It does not visit Ireland, the Faeroes, or Iceland. It is common in wooded districts of Great Britain, but is scarce in the north of Scotland, and absent from the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Shetland s. [F. c. R. j.] 3. Migration, — A summer visitor to the portions of Great Britain wherein it breeds, and chiefly an uncommon wanderer farther north, although recorded on both passages at Fair Isle (Shetlands) (cf. W. E. Clarke, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1907, p. 72). Immigration takes place chiefly on the south-east coast of England, the birds spreading rapidly over the country in northerly, north-westerly, and westerly directions. A certain amount of immigration also occurs on the western half of the south coast (cf. B. O. C. Migration Reports, i. p. 75, ii. p. 107, iii. p. 115, iv. p. 115). A few stragglers are usually recorded in the southern counties of England during the first two weeks of April or even earlier, but the chief influx begins about the middle of that month, and the passage continues for two or three weeks more. The autumn emigration is for the most part over by the end of September, but a few birds may be recorded later. The species is a gregarious migrant, and appears to travel mainly by day. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : in a hollow on the ground, on a bank, in rough pastures, railway cuttings, edges of woods, etc. Nest : grasses, bents, and moss, lined with fine grasses and sometimes horse-hair. (PI. x.) It is built by the hen : whether the cock assists is uncertain. Eggs 4 to 6 as a rule, varying extraordinarily, although all the eggs in each clutch are of the same type. Space will not admit of the description of all the types, but the commonest may be classified as "red," "brown," or "grey," in general effect. The ground colour, which may be bluish, greenish, pinkish, brownish, or grey, is generally covered with either fine spots which almost conceal it, or bolder spots, blotches, and streaks, while finely mottled red eggs often have an almost black hair-line. In a large series eggs may be found resembling those of the reed-bunting, meadow- pipit, tree-sparrow, house-sparrow, wheatear, pied-wagtail, grasshopper-warbler, skylark, etc., in style of coloration. (PL B.) Average size of 174 eggs, "79 x -59 in. [20'09 x 15*1 mm.]. Only one brood is reared as a rule, and incubation lasts PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 231 13-14 days, while the usual breeding time is during the latter weeks of May and early in June. Incubation is performed by the hen alone, so far as known. [F. c. R. j.] 5. Food. — Consists principally of insects, including both economically in- jurious and beneficial species ; small seeds are also taken. The young are fed by both parents on insects, including the larvae of many injurious moths (W. Farren). [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — From its arrival to the middle of July (F. A. Chennel, Zoologist, 1851, p. 3111 ; C. and H. Alexander, British Birds, i. p. 371). [F. B. K.] MEADOW- PI PIT [Anihus pratensis, Linnaeus. Tit-, ground-, meadow-, or peat-lark, ling-bird, moor-titling, moor-peep, moss-cheeper, heather- lintie. French, pipi des pres ; German, Wiesenpieper ; Italian, pispola]. 1. Description. — Resembles both the tree-pipit and the red-throated pipit. It may be distinguished from the first-named by the fact that the claw of the hind- toe is longer than the toe itself, and the fact that the four outermost primaries are of equal length. From the red-throated pipit it differs in having the feathers of the rump and upper tail-coverts of a uniform hue, or the centres of these feathers only slightly darker than the rest. (PL 29.) The sexes are indistinguishable. Length 5f in. [143 mm.]. The upper surface is of an olive-brown hue relieved by dark striations, except in the rump, which is uniformly olive-brown. There is a more or less well-marked superciliary streak of buff, while the median wing- coverts are broadly margined with dull white, the major coverts with pale brown. The outermost tail feather is for the most part white, fading into a pale smoky- brown along the outer web : the succeeding penultimate feather, with a wedge- shaped spot of white at the top of the inner web. The throat, breast, and flanks are of a tawny buff, relieved by striations which run down on either side of the neck from the base of the beak on to the fore-breast and along the flanks, leaving the throat and lower breast of a uniform buff hue. The abdomen is of a dull white, and also unstriated. After the autumn moult the plumage is of a richer buff hue below, and greener above. Fledglings differ from the adults only in being duller, and in having the striations heavier and less sharply defined, [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — Iceland, the Faeroes, the British Isles, Continental Europe, except Spain and Portugal and the Balkan Peninsula. Rare in South Italy, and absent from the Mediterranean islands, but found in West Siberia and Turkestan. In the British Isles it is general on moor- and marsh-lands. [F. c. R. j.] 232 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 3. Migration. — Resident as a species, except in elevated districts, but the individuals are to a great extent migratory. The movements in Great Britain in autumn, from September onwards, appear to comprise (a) movements from the more northern to the more southern counties, but the former are not altogether forsaken ; (6) immigration on the south-east coast from Central Europe — there is little evidence of direct intermigration between our coasts and the more northern parts of the Continent ; (c) emigration to Ireland ; and (d) emigration from the south coast (cf. Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 133 ; and B. 0. C. Migration Reports, ii. p. 178, iii. pp. 181, 191, and iv. pp. 173, 190). In Ireland at the same season there are (a) partial movements from the northern and eastern to the south-western counties ; and (6) immigration on the east coast ; but there seems to be no evidence of oversea emigration in autumn (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 40). All these movements have their reverse counter- parts in spring, mid-March to mid- April being the chief season. The meadow-pipit is a gregarious and mainly diurnal migrant, and is very frequently noted as travel- ling with the pied-wagtail, whose movements within our area closely correspond with those of the species under discussion. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : generally in a grass tussock, rushes, or heather, on the ground and neatly hidden. It is built of grasses and bents, with a little moss, lined with finer grasses and horse-hair. (PI. x.) Both sexes share in its construction. Eggs 4 to 6, rarely 7, in number, vary much less than those of the tree-pipit, and are distinctly smaller. Most eggs are brown or grey in general effect, being thickly covered with small spots so as almost to hide the ground, and often a black hairstreak at the big end. Eggs with a blue ground are sometimes found, as well as a pink type, finely speckled all over. (PI. B.) Average size of 143 eggs, *76 x '55 in. [19'34 x 14'19 mm.]. Laying begins towards the end of April in England, but not till May in the Shetlands. The hen performs the greater part of the incubation, which lasts 13-14 days. Two broods are usually reared. [F. c. E. J.] 5. Food. — Insects of both injurious and beneficial species, worms and small molluscs, while in winter seeds are also eaten. The young are fed by both parents, chiefly, no doubt, on insects, but sufficient evidence is wanting. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — From April to July. The song has been heard in February and March, also in August (C. and H. Alexander, British Birds, i. p. 370). [F. B. K.] PLATE X Photo by Rfley Fortune Photo by F. E. Daniel Nest of Grey-wagtaa Meadow-pipit's Nest in grass Photo by E. A. Willis l'.:oto by W, Farren Tree-pipit's Nest in Rock-pipifs Nest PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 233 • TAWNY-PIPIT [Anfhus campestris (Linnaeus). French, pipi rousseline; German, Brachpieper ; Italian, calandrd], 1. Description. — Distinguished by the relatively large beak, the incon- spicuous character of the striation, and the yellow hue of the under parts. (PL 30.) The sexes are alike in coloration. Length 6'5 in. [165 mm.]. The upper parts are of a sandy brown tinged with grey and relieved by dark striations, most distinct on the crown, a fawn-coloured superciliary stripe, and ash-coloured auriculars. Wing-coverts dark brown tipped cream colour, secondaries amber- brown with tawny margins. Tail feathers dark brown, median pair with broad fawn-coloured margins, the outer pair creamy white with white shaft and dark brown inner vane ; penultimate pair cream white with dark brown shaft, and very broad dark brown inner vane. Chin and throat tawny white ; breast and flanks buff, slightly striated with dark brown. After the autumn moult the tawny hue of the plumage is more marked. In young birds the feathers of the upper parts have dark brown centres and cream coloured margins, giving a very dark appearance, while the fore-neck and chest are spotted with dark brown, [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — Breeds locally over almost the whole of Europe, but is absent from Norway, North Sweden, North Russia, and Iceland. Its range in summer includes South-west Asia and North Africa. It breeds on the opposite side of the Channel, but its claim to be a British breeding species rests only upon some evidence that a pair or so have occasionally nested on the Sussex coast (M. J. Nicoll, Hastings and East Coast Naturalist, vol. i. No. 4 ; cf. British Birds, i. p. 112). [F. c. B. j.] 3. Migration. — The species is chiefly known as an uncommon but pro- bably regular passing visitor, chiefly to the south coast of England and to Sussex in particular (British Birds, i. 113). It has occurred also in Suffolk, Norfolk, Yorkshire, Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles, and is no doubt frequently over- looked. It has not yet been noted in Ireland, Scotland, or Wales (cf. Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 137 ; and British Birds, vol. i. pp. 112, 113). Most of the records are for the months September to November. The species has not yet been observed during the spring passage. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not as a rule breed in the British Isles. The nest is neatly built of roots and stalks, lined with hair, and is placed in a hollow on the ground under shelter of a clump of grass or some other plant. Whether the cock aids the hen in its construction is not recorded. Eggs usually 4, some- 234 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS times 5 or even 6 in number. They have a whitish ground, thickly spotted with brown and underlying violet, sometimes with a tendency to a zone or cap. Average size of 137 eggs, -86 x -62 in. [21-96 x!5'75 mm.]. The eggs are laid about the end of May, and probably only one brood is reared as a rule. Accord- ing to Naumann (Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. p. 76) incubation is by the hen only, and lasts 13-14 days. [F. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — " The food consists of small insects, but seldom or never of seeds " (Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 138). The young are fed by both parents on insects (Naumann, op. cit.). [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Not recorded. RICHARD'S PIPIT [Anthus richardi, Vieillot. German, Spornpieper ; Italian, titro]. 1. Description. — Easily distinguished by its large size, the great length of the legs and the claw of the hind toe, which generally greatly exceeds the length of the toe itself. (PL 30.) The upper parts are of a sandy brown, mottled rather than striated with dark brown, recalling the coloration of the lark. There is a distinct eyebrow of sandy white, and the ear-coverts are of a sandy rufous, with fine dark striations. The median and major coverts are dusky with pale fulvous margins, and the inner secondaries are margined buffish white ; the outer pair of tail feathers are white with a narrow dusky margin along the inner web, penultimate pair white with dark brown shaft, and a grey-brown inner vane, remaining feathers dark brown, the central pair having buffish margins. The chin is white ; from the base of the beak to the gorget runs a line of dusky spots ; the gorget itself is marked with dark brown spots on a ground colour of buff ; the spots extend backwards, on each side, along the flanks, which are also buff. The abdomen is white. Length 7'25 in. [184 mm.]. After the autumn moult a more decided rufous tinge pervades the upper parts, and this is even more marked in the under parts — that is to say, the sandy and buff-coloured areas become intensified. The female differs from the male only in her rather smaller size. Young birds have the upper parts of a cream colour striated with dark brown : on the under surface the striations are heavier. This species has both a spring and an autumn moult, [w. P. p.] 2. Distribution. — Breeds in Turkestan, Siberia, Tibet, and Mongolia, while a smaller local race breeds in China. It is found in winter as far as the western limits of Europe. [F. c. R. J.] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 235 3. Migration. — An irregular and uncommon visitor to England, occurring chiefly in autumn on the south-eastern coasts, especially in Sussex. There are several records for neighbouring counties (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 105, etc.), and a number for Norfolk (cf. Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 139; and British Birds, vol. i. p. 264). There are also one or two records each for Northumberland, Cumberland, Lancashire, Shrop- shire, Warwickshire, the Scilly Isles, and the Kentish Knock Light Vessel, (cf. Saunders, loc. cit.) ; and British Birds, vol. i. p. 113). Until several were detected on Fair Isle (Shetlands) during the autumn of 1908 (cf. W. Eagle Clarke, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1909, p. 72), the only Scottish record was for near Dunkeld, Perthshire, 2nd Aug. 1880 (cf. Saunders, loc. cit.), and the only Irish one is for near Dublin, 21st Nov. 1907 (cf. Zoologist, 1908, p. 32). The bird migrates singly or in small parties. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles. 5. Food. — Worms, and grasshoppers and other insects. ALPINE- or W AT ER- PIPIT [A nthus spinoletta spinoletta (Linnaeus) [Anthus spipoletta (L.)]. French, pipi spioncelle; German, Wasser-pieper ; Italian, spioncello]. i. Description. — Resembles the rock-pipit, from which it may be dis- tinguished by the white colour of the outer vane of the outermost tail feather, and the white tips of the penultimate pair. (PL 30.) The sexes are indistinguish- able. Length 6| in. [165 mm.]. The crown, ear-coverts, and neck are ash-grey, shading into brown on the back : there is a creamy-white superciliary streak, and a more or less well-marked crescentic band of creamy-white running from the base of the beak backwards behind and beneath the ear-coverts. The uniformity in the coloration of the back is relieved by faint striations of a darker hue. Wings dark brown, with pale margins to the inner secondaries and coverts. The outer pair of tail feathers are white with a smoky-brown outer vane ; the second and third pairs brown, tipped white ; the rest brown. Chin white ; throat and breast of a warm vinaceous buff ; abdomen paler. The sides of the throat, breast, and flanks striated with greyish brown. After the autumn moult the upper parts are browner, and the under surface loses the rosy hue, while the striations become more marked. Young birds resemble the adults in winter, but are more heavily striated. They may be distinguished from young meadow-pipits on the one 236 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS hand, and the rock-pipit on the other, by the markings on the tail feathers, which agree with those of the adult, [w. p. P.] 2. Distribution. — The great mountain ranges of Central and Southern Europe (Sierra de Gredos, Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Riesengebirge, Carpathians, and others). It also breeds in Asia Minor, but is replaced by a local race in the Caucasus, and perhaps also the Urals. 3. Migration. — Probably a fairly regular autumn visitor in small numbers to the southern coasts of England from the Continent. It must undoubtedly be very often overlooked, but, on the other hand, reputed examples have sometimes proved to be rock-pipits of the Scandinavian race, A. spinoletta littoralis, which not infrequently occur. As with the tawny-pipit, most of the records are from Sussex, but there are single records from Kent, Norfolk, Lincoln, Oxford, the Isle of Wight, and the Scilly Isles (cf. Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 1899, p. 141; and British Birds, vol. i. pp. 113, 114). There are also three Welsh records, all from the Glaslyn Estuary, Carnarvonshire, but some pipits of dusky hue seen from time to time in the Welsh mountains in summer may possibly belong to this species (cf. Forrest, Fauna N. Wales, 1907, pp. 122, 123). The only Irish record is that of an example obtained in Co. Dublin hi 1861 (cf. Ussher, List of Irish Birds, 1908, p. 15), and there is no record from Scotland. November and April appear to be the months of the chief migrations, but the British records include examples got in every month from September to June. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles. 5. Food. — Insects, small molluscs, and seeds. [A. L. T.] ROCK-PIPIT [Anihus spinoletta obscurus (Latham). Sea-titling, rock-, sea-, or sand-lark, sea-lintie. French, pipi des roches]. i. Description. — The rock-pipit is to be distinguished from all the other pipits by the fact that the white areas of the penultimate and outermost tail feathers are replaced by smoky white. (PI. 30.) The sexes are indistinguishable. Length 6'25 in. [158'75 mm.]. The upper parts are of an olive-brown striated with darker brown : there is no superciliary stripe : the under parts have the throat dull white, the rest of the under parts dull white heavily striated with broad ill-defined streaks of dark brown across the breast and along the flanks. The median and greater coverts and long inner secondaries tipped and margined with PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 237 dull white. After the autumn moult the upper parts have a decided green hue, while the under parts are of yellowish olive. Young birds are much darker than the adults, the striations of the feathers being much broader, [w. p. p.] 2. Distribution. — In all probability this bird and the Alpine- or water-pipit, which visits our coasts in winter, are only geographical races of the same species. The British rock-pipit is confined to the coasts of the British Isles, the Channel Isles, and North-west France, while other local races inhabit the Faeroes and the Scandinavian coasts, and the latter form visits our coasts on migration. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — Resident on all the rocky and broken British coasts. On the flat east coast of Great Britain, however, it is also a regular migrant, nearly all these birds presumably coming from more northerly districts within our area, and staying from September to April. September and October are the months of the chief southward movements, and March and April of the less pronounced return passage (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 135; W. Eagle Clarke, Ibis, 1904, p. 137 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 108). Examples of the Scandinavian race, A. spinoletta littoralis, to which reference has been made above, are not infrequently obtained among these migrants, and are probably very often overlooked. [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting place : generally cunningly concealed in some crevice of rocky cliff, sometimes low down, and at other times over one thousand .feet above the sea. Exceptionally it has been found in rabbit-holes, in disused boats, or beds of sea campion, etc. Like the other pipits' nests, it is composed of dry grasses and bents, usually with some hair in the lining, and is constructed by both sexes. (PL x.) Eggs 4 or 5, rarely 6, varying from the grey or wagtail type to the brown type, spotted with innumerable fine markings of olive or reddish brown. Red varieties are also occasionally met with, and some eggs are hand- somely marked with caps or zones of dark brown. (PL B.) Average size of 100 British eggs, *83 x -62 in. [21-29 x 15'91 mm.]. Laying begins in April, but most eggs are found at the end of April and the first half of May. Whether the cock shares in incubation is uncertain. The period is probably the same as that of the other pipits, about a fortnight. Two broods are reared in the year. [F. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — This species subsists on such beetles and other insects as may be found about the seashore, and on small molluscs and crustaceans, as well as to a slight extent on vegetable food. The young are fed by both parents, chiefly, no doubt, on insects, but evidence is wanting. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — Not recorded. 238 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS The following species and subspecies are described in the supplementary chapter on " Rare Birds " : — Of Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava, Linnaeus, the following races : — Greyheaded [Yellow] Wagtail, Motacilla flava thunbergi, Billberg (M. viridis, Gmel.). Blackheaded Wagtail, M . flava melanocephala, Lichtenstein. Sykes' Wagtail, M. flava beema, Sykes. Red-throated Pipit, Anthus cervinus (Pallas). Scandinavian Rock-pipit, A. spinoletta littoralis (Brehm). THE WAGTAILS 339 THE WAGTAILS [EDMUND SELOUS] It has been said that most small birds of bright colouring are deficient in courting actions, and the wagtails have been cited as an exemplification of this principle. My own understanding of the matter is different, and I now bring them forward as evidence against the principle itself. To take the most brightly coloured examples first -the grey-, yellow-, and blueheaded-wagtails, namely — in the first the male, after having for some time uttered his little trilling note, from some favourite spot — the sprayed, projecting rock above a fall, perhaps, or gnarled willow growing "aslant" the stream — launches himself into the air, and with trembling wings, and tail — his tail — out- fanned, comes, softly fluttering, to the water's edge.1 How shines the sun, then, upon that other lesser sun, his breast, as, with every feather of it swelled and puffed, it slowly sinks from its meridian ? Is it not a .very globe of gold above the hen who watches its setting, and do not the long white feathers of the tail gleam out from it, like silver rays ? Must not her eyes be well-nigh dazzled, seeing, not, as we do, a mere dot of colour — something we could hold in our hand — but a gorgeous luminary, larger, by a little, than herself, by whom she measures all things, descending, approaching, coming nearer and nearer, sinking, at last, by her side ? Where is the grey, for her, now, whatever be her husband's name ? Is it not all gold and flashing silver white, with one magnificent spot, in the throat's black velvet, bounding the solar expanse ? Where is the deficiency here, or when the tail leaps upwards, as the bird pitches, and runs resplendent beside her? To a certain nymph, whose name lives not now in my memory, Apollo or Jupiter — I am not perfect which — appeared once, by request, in full toilette. She was burnt to ashes, and that, I think, is the 1 Naumann. Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. 240 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS principal difference between the wooing of her and of the female grey-wagtail. The male blueheaded-wagtail does all this, and more — that is to say, he has been definitely seen to do more, and the excess put on record. Puffing out his feathers, to an unusual degree, he both fans the tail and bends it, or lets it hang downwards, as he descends, in a very singular, fluttering manner, from the twig or bough on which he has been perched. The tail-coverts are now so ruffled as to give to this part of the body a very much thicker appearance than is usual, the head is drawn in, so that the beak points slightly upwards, thus displaying the white and yellow of chin and throat, with their delicate blendings, whilst the pendent tail is spread to an extreme degree; the wings tremble and the whole performance is of the most striking character. Arrived upon the ground, the bird walks, not only by, but around the female, the plumage still puffed, the tail still fanned, whilst the wings now droop at the same time that they are fluttered.1 Thus the elegant stripings of their upper surface, as well as the olive- green of the back, with the bluish head and white eye-stripe — all in fact that was not visible or fully visible from below — are brought promin- ently before her,2 so that the bird might well say, " I show thee all I can. I can no more." In a generally similar manner, but with some varying touches of his own, the yellow-wagtail also displays his somewhat lesser adornments, " hovering, like a kestrel, about eighteen inches above the female, in the grass below."3 When we see a little bird thus acting, we should try to magnify it in the imagination. Assuredly, were a wagtail but as large as a thrush or blackbird, such displays as these would be thought both beautiful and interesting. Naturalists would take considerable pains to witness them, and we should hear much of "gorgeous effect," and nothing of "deficiency of courting actions." Increase the size still further — say to that of a magpie — and the Motacillidce would become almost as world-famed 1 Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. 1 Naumann, Ibid. 3 Coward and Oldham, Birds of Cheshire. THE WAGTAILS 241 as are the Paradiseidce. Taxidermists, the world over, would vie with one another in representing, stiffly and wrongly, the splendid " descent " of the male, the sight would become familiar in museums and shop-museum windows, and excessively rare out of doors. Such thoughts have often occurred to me, whilst watching the male even of our common pied-wagtail making, after his own somewhat similar down-coming, proud, almost fierce little runs beside the female, or spreading out a wing before her in very much the same way as does the cock pheasant.1 He has certainly seemed to me to make the best of himself on such occasions, and I believe that an extended study of the courting activities of all birds, large or small, drawing the evidence from as wide a field as possible, and paying particular attention to those cases where the observer has been most favoured, would establish the fact that decoration and the effective display of it stand in exactly the same relation to one another as do the powers of vocal utterance and song. The fact that the latter is an unknown quantity till the bird does actually sing, whilst the plumage can be seen though it is not specially displayed, is an accidental, rather than an essential, distinction, and one, moreover, which does not, in all cases, exist. The erection of a cockatoo or other bird's crest, the careful display of the light under surface of the wings by the male redshanks and many other birds, and the rolling of, at least, one species of parrot, on its back, apparently in order to display a rich hyacinthine abdomen (which I have seen), are examples of this. If some male birds are better and more constant displayers of their plumage than others of the same species, so, too, some are better singers, and sing more, and, in each case, much will depend upon the season and the mood. Song indeed has, in many cases — of this I think there can be no doubt — become a pleasure in itself, whereas I do not know of any — 1 Mr. Kirkmau has seen still more elaborate displays, and gives the following account of one : " The cock kept moving about a yard off the hen, in front of her, bowing his head repeatedly, then, approaching, he spread his tail, deflecting it, and displaying to the full the striking contrast between the deep black and the white. With his wings spread, his body pressed upon the ground, inclined to one side, and all tense with emotion, he dragged himself slowly toward the hen." 242 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS at least to be sure, or in so marked a degree — where the careful and elaborate display of the plumage has. But this is not sufficient to destroy the parallel, inasmuch as it is exactly what one might expect • — since birds can hear, but cannot see themselves, effectively. We, too, will sing for our pleasure, but only pose, alone, before a glass. Turning from the courting activities of the Motacillidce to those which naturally succeed them, we come, at once, in the pied-wagtail— as also in its continental representative, M. alba — to a very interesting peculiarity in connection with its nesting habits, along the lines of which, as I believe, the origin of the parasitic instinct in the cuckoo, and one or two other birds, is to be sought. In the Zoologist for November 1904, the Rev. F. C. R Jourdain drew attention to the fact that M. lugnhris not infrequently adapts the nest of some other species to its own needs, and gave seven authenticated instances, in- cluding two that had fallen under his own observation, of this peculiarity. To these, in the following number of the same organ, Mr. Jourdain added two other such, in respect of the same species, and one on the part of M. alba as made known by H. J. Pearson in his Three Summers among the Birds of Russian Lap- land. The above ten instances range from 1862 to 1904, and the nests utilised were those of the swallow (once), robin (twice), and blackbird and song-thrush (each three times), whilst M. alba's choice had fallen on that of the fieldfare. In the latter case, and in seven out of the nine others, the appropriated nest was an old one, but from one of these the young had but just flown, whilst on two occasions it had been deserted only, by the respective rightful owners — robin and song-thrush. In regard to these deserted nests, we are left in doubt on a very crucial point, whether, namely, the owners had abandoned them before the wag- tails appeared on the scene. Since, however, there are always some considerable spaces of time during which a nest in course of construction is left unvisited by the building birds — or bird — there seems no reason to suppose that an egg, in some cases of this kind, THE WAGTAILS 243 might not be deposited during one of these, and it also seems probable that, as the habit of seizing an alien nest became more and more rooted, acquiring, at length, the strength of an instinct, the legitimate and guilty egg would sometimes lie side by side. Indeed, if I remember rightly, this is sometimes the case with the cowbird of South America, or, rather, the eggs of the latter may be separated from those of the rightful owner of the nest by a superimposed thin layer of straw only, so that, quite conceivably, the two might sometimes be hatched out together. That, in the cowbird, we have a considerable approach to the cuckoo, can hardly be denied, yet the instinct of nidi- ficatioii has not, in its case, been quite lost, and the same, if I mistake not, is the case with some (parasitically) less developed relatives of the cuckoo itself. The starling, also, as we know, often appropriates the nest of the green woodpecker, and it can hardly be doubted that a greater knowledge of the habits of the birds of the world would supply us with other similar instances. With such materials to work upon, the evolution, through natural selection, of the cow-bird, and ultimately the cuckoo, does not appear to me very surprising, the really surprising thing perhaps being that such parasitism is so rare. But the instinct of building, which may continue even after the nest is seized, with the tendency of the disturbed owners to desert, help to explain this. In deference to those who think it rash or wicked, or both, to cherish a theory till the facts* in support of it are so overwhelmingly strong that it is hardly any longer one, I would point out that they may, if they please, consider this idea of mine as a suggestion only, which is something slighter and — as I would humbly urge in this connection — less criminal than a theory, or hypothesis. Should this plea be not accepted, then I have only to tell them that, in my opinion, if not in theirs, the facts here touched upon are quite sufficient to justify my remarks on them, whatever they think these amount to. They are, in truth, by no means slight, but pregnant, rather, and the cuckoo, though some may be content to take her as a miracle (like the rooks and 244 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS hooded crows), has, for others, to be rationally accounted for. As a matter of fact, I believe, it will be found that Darwin's theory of the origin of the parasitic instinct rests upon quite as or even a more speculative basis than what is here submitted. Needless to say, the class of censors whose wrath is here deprecated, are not quite impartial in their tirades, but in animadverting on the weak- nesses of others, show great human weakness themselves. With them a name is of much more weight than a fact, and their estimate of evidence is in accordance with what they understand to be the official view of the thing about which one is arguing.1 I believe that reason has had hardly anything to do with the growth of the parasitic instinct. A bird must build its nest some- where, and what more is it to select the cavity of an old one, for its site, than any other cavity or depression — than any other place, in fact, no more, if no less, convenient? To suppose that it says to itself: "Here is a nest almost finished, which I need only have the trouble of lining," is, to my mind, unnecessary. Nest-building with a bird is not the laborious, or, at any rate, not the tedious thing that seems to be commonly supposed, but an instinct, pleasurable in proportion to its strength, and so strong that it is constantly followed beyond the necessary point or period — for this I believe to be the real origin of supernumerary nests.2 Consequently, the idea of saving itself trouble would never have occurred to the bird mind, filled, as it is, with the strong, sweet compulsion of making a nest. But why then is not the old nest, when it has been chosen as a site, speedily buried under another, instead of being, as is sometimes reported, only lined ? The reason may be that no sooner has the bird begun to build, under such circumstances, than the existing nest beneath it becomes confused in its mind with its own work, and after a feeling 1 See the editorial addition to the footnote on p. 198. 2 That, and the hen not always being ready to lay her eggs when the nest is finished, as may be assumed from the fact of her not doing so. It is the need of laying, probably, and the instinct of incubation thence arising, that puts a stop to, or checks, that of nidification. Without this, why should we even expect it to end abruptly ? We only do so, because, with all our advanced talk, we are always putting ourselves inside birds. THE WAGTAILS 245 of vague surprise, perhaps, that the lining stage has been so quickly reached, it proceeds in accordance with the undeniable fact. If I remember rightly, however, there was much more than lining in what had been added by a pair of pied-wagtails — or rather by the female, who alone builds — to an old thrush's nest in my garden at Icklingham. The bird seemed rather to have built its nest in the other, so that before settling ourselves to explain this difficulty, if it be one, it would be well to be more accurately informed as to how the facts really stand. Another interesting question in connection with the above speculation is which of the two species — the appropriating or the dispossessed one — would be the more likely to rear the false brood or chick ? To me it does not appear impossible that the cuckoo was first driven to parasitism by having its nest wrested from it — that its own eggs in its own nest made the first " dupes " of a robber pair. However or wherever the nest of the pied-, and, for the matter of that, of the white-, grey-, blue-, etc., wagtail be made, it is an extremely interesting sight to see the young birds fed in it. When quite small, their four beaks — which are anything but so — all widely distended and held up together, look very remarkable, and one may even say beautiful. Outside, they are of a light, crude yellow — very bright — but within, the hue is deeper, almost approaching to salmon, or, at any rate, to some variety of that shade. Also, it has a peculiar translucent quality, or rather appearance, and the general effect of all four together is as of a pretty little piece of Venetian glass-work, such as one sees at Salviati's — indeed very much so. Into it — that is into all its four apertures — is conveyed, at intervals, by both parents, but very much more by the female, the stream of insect food. This consists largely of flies or fly-like creatures, which are caught either on the wing or as they alight upon leaf or grass-blade of any of the varied vegetation clothing the ground. The bird then runs, with extreme rapidity, from one point to another, picking them off, and rarely seeming to miss one. With equal facility she catches them in the air, and, from both sources of supply, has soon a little heap 246 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS in her bill, conspicuous both from its size and the way in which the white entrails extrude from one or another of the tightly-gripped abdomens. Nothing can be more horrid than this scene, if closely followed, and beheld in its true essential colours. The wagtail, indeed, is pleased and happy, and a pretty little bird, withal. Also she is under the full sway of that maternal instinct which is thought to be so beautiful a thing — but, to satisfy it, hundreds of weaker creatures are being robbed of their existence. Now, when the tigress would initiate her growing cubs into the mystery of procuring food for themselves, she partially disables some animal — either by breaking one of its legs, or dislocating a shoulder, or tearing open the flank, or by hamstringing — and then leaves it to them. Sitting, or lying couched a little apart, and, no doubt, purring with supreme happiness, she watches her darlings, as, with bloodthirsty fury, they try their "prentice bans," and teeth, on the unfortunate creature.1 This, too, is maternal love, and it is exercised upon beings who probably feel physical pain as much, or almost as much, as ourselves. If, therefore, insects do not, that is accidental, merely, so that little consolation is to be drawn from that circumstance by the philosophic mind that, seeing the same unpitying law applied to the highest and lowliest organisms, recognises that " All are but parts of one atrocious whole." The way in which the wagtail — and many another bird — is thus able to catch insect after insect, whilst holding an ever-increasing heap of them in the beak, is wonderful. I have tried to see how it is done, but if any special art or trick belongs to it, I have not been able to discover this. In the case of the puffin, where a similar problem is raised, the action of the tongue has been suggested as solving the mystery. It might be equally employed by the wagtail, but I do not think so, or at least I do not suppose it to be necessary. 1 All this has been deduced with tolerable certainty from the " sign " which the tigress has left of her presence near by, together with that of the cubs at the " kill" and the state of the dead animal, a photograph of which latter, bearing signs of great pain in the facial expression, has, in one instance, been taken. Plate 25 Grey-wagtails, Cock (upper figure) and hen By A- W- Seaby THE WAGTAILS 247 From what I have seen, it appears to me that the motion is so quick, and the mandibles opened so slightly, that there is no time for any of the heap to escape — supposing any to be capable of attempting it — or even to become displaced. For the fraction of a second the compressing power is but slightly relaxed, during which brief interval another living speck is added, and so on. Occasionally, indeed, a body from one of the projecting margins will drop upon the ground, and is then instantly picked up again, in what seems to be a quite ordinary manner. Once I have seen a bird after thus collecting flies, for some time, apparently for the young, close at hand, drop the whole heap on the ground, and commence eating them, none being either sufficiently quick, or sufficiently intact, to get away. This may have been the male — not nearly so good a caterer — and we perhaps see in such an act a conflict between parental instinct and keen personal appetite. It is always in this way, and never with one insect, brought at a time, that I have seen young wagtails fed, and the same method is employed after they have left the nest. This can be most pleasingly witnessed with the grey-wagtail, as this bird — one of the most brightly beautiful that we possess — has been foolishly called (lugvhris being about as happy for its brisk, lively relative). It is entrancing to watch a pair of these sylph-like beings, about some rock- and boulder- strewn stream, whose banks, in places, make miniature precipices, from the height of which the water tumbles, to foam and swirl a little, till, having swept round a bend, it flows swiftly away, in broad, full volume, just curling, crestless, over smooth, flat stones that gleam, golden-brown, in the sunbeams. Here, in some nook or angle, under the shade of forest trees, very often — for hill, stream, and woodland touch hands in these paradises — one may sit and see such grace, beauty, and activity conjoined, as never yet swayed in a ball-room or panted on a pantomime stage. Sometimes the birds, in their uniformly successful pursuit of the insects which fill the air, will turn almost, if not entirely, over in it, losing, as if for sport, their centre 248 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS of gravity, to regain it in, and with, a flash. No less pleasing to witness than these acrobatic feats of theirs, is the delight and satisfac- tion which they evidently feel in performing them, and the state of their tails, as they come down, is a wonder, as well as a joy. These are long, even to the limit of graceful proportion, and not only is the tail itself tilted to a quite astonishing height, but the whole of the after part of the body goes with it, and more than half the bird swings lightly up and down. The first tilt is always the highest, a slightly lesser elevation being reached with each successive one, till either the bird regains its stability, or a fresh initial impetus sets it tilting, again, with redoubled energy. Sometimes one or other of the pair will fly almost vertically up from the stone on which they were standing, and, rising to quite a height, catch an insect in the most fairy-like manner. When not thus aerially occupied, they keep running about over the stones or pebbles, and in the shallow water, into which they make many a little peck, and occasionally pull a leaf out of it, as if for the pleasure of doing so. In such actions we probably see the first step towards an aquatic mode of life, taken by birds who, both in appearance and general habits, are far less water- loving than wagtails. Even so woodland a one as the robin, may, for several "little moments," be the companion of such a pair as this, and the chaffinch will sometimes catch mayflies, almost on the surface of the stream. But, for the robin, he, I believe, may in time become a red-breasted wagtail himself, for he will run — that is, hop — almost jostling these golden-hued grey ones, upon the stones, in mid stream, that the water leaves partly uncovered, pecking and investigating, wetting his feet and his forehead, as they do, whilst, ever and anon, darting into the air, to catch flies, in just the same manner. With a difference, however, for though active enough — and indeed his little turns, twists, and jerks, whilst on his feet, would be hard to excel, yet aerially — as an acrobatic fly-catcher — he is not quite so finished a performer — it is the fairies against very Titania. His tail too — but no more need be said. THE WAGTAILS 249 It is where the landscapes intermingle that one sees this inter- mingling of habits, out of which sprang, doubtless — for all his move- ments are sudden — Cindus aquaticus, the water-ouzel, a more frequent, or, at least, a more characteristic figure of the above little picture. He — but I am forgetting the feeding of the young grey-wagtails, now fully fledged, and having, for some little while, left the nest. We will take another sketch for them, then, for, now I bethink me, the above belongs to a fine morning in autumn. Here is one, of the late days of July or the early ones of August. As a baby has its chair, so the young and much greyer grey-wagtail has its own stone, to stand on, and the parents having fed it there, with the products both of air and water, fly, in their long, sweeping curves, down the music- murmuring stream, and are lost in a dip or a bend of it. For the best part of an hour they keep away, and, all this while, the baby stands still, on its stone, not often moving even its head, or — still more remarkable — its tail. This is perhaps somewhat curious, since that spirit of restless activity which we are accustomed to associate with youth, and take .note of in kittens and puppies, seems here quite wanting. How powerful the instinct of incubation must be, to keep motionless, for hour after hour, so active and warm-blooded a creature as a bird, is a reflection of Darwin's, but, in this case, a young, yet fully fledged and " unhouselled " one, stands motionless, for a length of time, with- out any such imperious necessity. Did it move, and keep moving, however, it might be difficult for its parents, on their return, to find it, and thus — for I have made the same observation with other young birds — one perhaps sees something protective in this apparent lethargy. Yet taking into consideration how many adult birds will sit quietly, often for a considerable time — as, for instance, wood- pigeons in trees — perhaps, after all, unless it has something particular to do, there is no general feeling which drives a bird into activity. The wild animal acts, probably, under a series of impulses (more specialised and defined than our own), which together answer to the 250 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS whole of its needs, and so fill its life. It cannot, however, from this, be argued that such beings do not suffer, under captivity, since they live then in a perpetual state of unfittedness for their enforced part in life, and inherited energies, for which no outlet arises, must become wants in proportion to their strengths. Waiting (to continue) must be filled up with reflections of some sort, but, at the end of forty minutes or so, the parents return, an event which the young bird acknowledges by a sudden and most violent wagging of his tail, which, by comparison with the adult one, is as yet short and stumpy. His whole little body moves in consonance, and the effect, in striking contrast to his previous stillness, is very arresting to the attention. Having thus, in his own way, salaamed, he flies to his dam, who has settled on another stone near him, and is presently fed by her. After this, he follows her, as she flies from stone to stone, and often, as she makes a turn towards him, meets her, breast to breast, in the air, where, hovering a little, he seems to expect to be fed. In this, however, he is not gratified, and, still soliciting, albeit after several less poetical banquets, follows his mother down the stream. Here, upon another stone, at the distance of some two hundred yards or so, sits a second somewhat larger young wagtail — who straightway wags his, and makes the familiar request. But although the first one continues to be fed — insects caught, one after another, in the air, being now the uniform diet — the mother steadily refuses to do the same by the other of her offspring. He is denied several times, and, after a while, seems to resign himself to this position, sitting quietly, unfed, on his stone, whilst his younger brother or sister is solely attended to. It is true that his dam often flies up to him, with insects in her bill, yet still she does not feed him. She seems sometimes on the point of doing so, but after flourishing them, as it were, before him, flirts away, to bestow them, later, on the evident favourite. This seems a heavy dispensation for the neglected chick to bear, nor is the reason for it obvious. He may be fed, at last — the worst of field observation is that one can so rarely see to the end of a thing — but meanwhile Plate 26 Pied-wagtails, Cock (lower figure), hen and young By G-. E. Collins mmm THE WAGTAILS 251 he has been kept a long while fasting, and, moreover, on subsequent occasions, the same process is observable — refusal in the one case, compliance in the other — nor do the parts played by the two young wagtails appear to be transposed. This greater assiduity of the mother in feeding one of her two chicks, or her feeding it alone, may possibly be accounted for by the favoured one being the younger of the two, though the difference could be but slight; but why does she sometimes fly down beside the other one, with insects in her beak, as if to feed it, and then fly away again with them, as described ? That there is any clear idea in her mind of thus bringing the elder members of the brood into activity, and so leading them, by degrees, to seek their own food, I do not find it easy to believe, yet her conduct might very well have that effect. In fact, a time must come when the parent bird can, or rather will, no longer feed the young, and we must suppose it to come before the latter are able, or have acquired the habit of catching insects, themselves, since, as long as they were waited on by their dams, they would not trouble to do so. Natural selection must do the rest, and the contrary impulses to provide, and to leave off providing, food for the offspring, may perhaps account for such scenes as the above. It is curious, however, that, in the particular case witnessed, a disinclination to feed one chick — which seemed the elder — went hand in hand with a readi- ness to minister to the wants of the younger. Yet I cannot suppose that we see here an intelligent discernment, on the part of the parent bird, as between one child and another, though a well-developed human mind would appear, in practice, to be the key that the evolutionary ornithologist of the twentieth century carries about with him, to unlock the mystery of avine habit, as opposed to avine structure. For myself, I must look elsewhere. It seems likely that the parental instinct, if it ended gradually, would also end capriciously, and, moreover, that there was really any " working difference " between the ages of these two young wagtails, it would be more than rash to assume. It has been seen that, like the pipits, the courtship of the 252 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS wagtails is, to a large extent, an aerial one. That they sing, also, when descending in their small splendours (too much overlooked simply because they are small), seems in itself probable, yet that the combination is not of so marked a nature as with the former birds, is suggested, at any rate, if not established, by the fact that Naumann, to whom we owe the foregoing account of their nuptial activities, does not seem to have been much impressed with this feature of the performance. He mentions, indeed,1 some notes of a soft and plaintive character (ziirli or zussri in the one case, zier, zier, in the other) as preceding, and also accompanying, the descent both of the grey- and blueheaded-wagtails. These, however, he treats rather as the call, or cry, of love (Paarungsruf}, and speaks of the song as distinct from them, nor does he mention it in this connection. Yet wagtails certainly sing — some of them prettily— and it is, therefore, interesting and suggestive to find various independent witnesses alluding to the infrequency with which they do so. Are the vocal attractions, in this case, gradually ceding to those which appeal to the eye of the female, and has this been a general process in birds of great beauty of plumage, to which such examples as the lyre-bird arid king bird of paradise are to be looked upon as exceptions ? If so, we can the better understand why the combination of the two powers of fascination is more common when neither is in extremis, which, how- ever, would allow room for a good deal of beauty and a good deal of melody, in unison, which is to be seen more often than has, apparently, been taken note of. Be this as it may, some passages descriptive of the song of our wagtails, in which the point of its infrequency is well brought out, will not here be out of place. In the Field of 3rd November 1889, we have the following from one who signs himself " Borderer " : — " As the song of the pied-wagtail seems to be so little known, and in the books I have referred to by Montagu, Yarrell, Wood, and Harting, is only noticed in one — viz. that by Col. Montagu — I think it may be of interest to mention that 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. THE WAGTAILS 253 on October 27th last, at Tunbridge Wells, I heard a pied-wagtail singing very prettily and softly, from the top of my house. The song I should describe as a gentle warbling song, something like a weak and soft robin's, and having some resemblance to a subdued lark's. The song was continued, though of course with breaks, for some two or three minutes, and I thought, before I saw the bird, that it was a wagtail that was singing, as I heard the ordinary short double note. I have only once before heard a wagtail singing, and, on that occasion, it seemed to me more like the muffled song of a skylark than the song which I heard last month." In connection with this, and taking into consideration the fact that the specific identity of the white- and pied-wagtails has sometimes been questioned, Naumann's description of the song of the latter is of interest.1 "It consists," he says, "of variations of the different call-notes, and many other ones, not of a pleasing character," whilst, so far from being seldom heard, "the male sings pertinaciously," and " both sitting, running, and flying." Unless, therefore, this is not the bird's true song — in which case we must suppose Naumann never to have heard it — we have here a pronounced difference between the two kinds, and, for myself, I can only say that, when in Sweden, the white-wagtail, not only in appearance, but in its deportment and individuality — that indefinable something which makes the essential self — struck me as a bird quite distinct from our own pied one. Whether, from the standpoint of sexual selection, the yellow- wagtail is to be looked upon as a more or less adorned species than litgubris, is, in spite of that name, perhaps doubtful. That its song is also infrequent seems clear from the following quotations, but whether in a greater or less degree, is, from the nature of the case, difficult to say.2 Borrer, indeed, states that he has " no recollection of ever having heard it sing " ; and Johns 3 adds, " This is the only 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleur&pas, Hi. 1 Birds of Sussex. 3 British Birds in their Haunts. 254 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS occasion on which I have ever heard it really sing," to the following clear description which, as will be seen, resembles that which has been quoted of the pied-wagtail's song. " Besides its call-note," he tells us, " which consists of two shrill notes, the second of which is a musical tone lower than the first, it has a short and exceedingly sweet song, something like that of the redbreast when at its best. This I have heard it utter whilst it was perched on a low bush overhanging a pond. Its nest was probably somewhere in the neighbourhood, for, when disturbed, it flew to a short distance only, alighted on another twig, and repeated its warble again." It may be doubted whether Lilford " ever heard the bird really sing" since he only says a that " the yellow-wagtail has more of a song, and altogether more musical notes than either the pied or grey species " ; but Yarrell also remarks that the song of this species, which he describes, it would seem inappreciatively, as " lively, though short," is " not often uttered." 2 Whether this last is an expression adequate to the infrequency of its utterance nowadays, as judged from what has been previously quoted, is perhaps an interesting point in connection with the fact that Yarrell died more than fifty years ago. It is probable, moreover, that the words quoted record the impressions of the earlier portion of his life. As before stated, Naumann3 alludes to the song of both the grey- and blueheaded-wagtail, as distinct from the notes which they utter before and whilst making the nuptial display. In both he finds considerable resemblance to that of the white-wagtail, but whilst the former "is better than it," and " not unpleasant," the latter he declared to be a bad one. Summing up the evidence — which space does not permit me here to go more fully into — in the wagtails, song and bodily display would appear to be, on the whole, disunited, and whilst one form — M. a. alba— sings continuously, the habit of doing so seems to have lessened, in varying degrees, in all the others ; not very much, perhaps, in the blueheaded- 1 Birds of Northamptonshire. 2 A History of British Birds. 3 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. Plate 27 Upper Blueheaded- wagtails Lower Yellow-wagtails (the cock is the brighter bird) By A- W- Seaby THE WAGTAILS 255 wagtail, more in the grey one, whilst in the yellow and pied species not many would seem to have heard it, and those who have, but rarely. That this may stand in some relation with an increasing beauty and nuptial display of the plumage, does not seem impossible. There is, however, an alternative explanation which is equally inter- esting. Is a new song, in combination with such display, in course of development ? Independently of the spring and autumn migrations, which are to be witnessed yearly on various parts of our coast, wagtails, like so many other birds, flock after the nesting season is over, though this phase of their life is not seen to so great advantage in these islands as on various parts of the Continent. It is at roosting time, more particularly, and in relation to this part of the day's routine, that the social instinct is most marked. Thus Naumann1 has given us a lively picture of the way in which the white-wagtails repair, in numbers, just after sunset, to the common dormitory amongst the reed-beds, where, for a considerable time — in fact until night has fully closed in — they quarrel, not only with each other and the blue- headed-wagtails, who also resort there, but even — such is their outrecuidance — with the starlings — for they too like roosting in reed- beds. They are now extremely noisy, singing " from full throat " in such a manner as to express the angry rather than the tender emotions, a use to which song is very frequently put, as may be seen even with the nightingale, when two males, in the presence of a female, after a few moments of rising musical fury, dash violently at one another. My own view, indeed, is that it is out of the angry scolding of rival males that the " music of the grove " has arisen. Similar assemblages of the pied- and yellow-wagtails have been, from time to time, observed in this country. A certain H. G. T., for instance, writing to the Field of 26th October 1901, says : " For the last two years, or more, several hundred pied-wagtails have been in the habit of roosting in a small osier-bed at the back of a cottage. 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. 256 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS They arrive about dusk from all directions " ; and the editor, in some- what evasive reply to the question, " Is this usual ? " says : " The same thing has been observed of both the grey- and yellow- wagtails." These habits are continued into the early spring — indeed until the approach of the nesting season — though I believe that, as with rooks, there is a tendency for such large gatherings to break up into smaller ones. Thus, " at the quiet evenfall " of an April day, one may be sitting alone on the margin of some still pool or mere, watching sedge-, reed-, or willow-warblers fly-catching — darting from reed-clump to osier-bush, flying softly up into the air, and softly down again, clinging sideways to the slender stems of the reeds, setting their feathery heads waving, and swinging with them, light as they, showing every charm and grace and prettiness, all exercised in destruction. Into this soft, fair deception — this fairy slaughter-bower — enter, briskly, a pair of pied- wagtails, who, recognising at once that it is " good," begin to act in exactly the same way as their before-arrivers on the scene, perching amidst the twigs, clinging and swinging upon the reeds — in fact just the same, and with almost, if not quite, the same grace. This is interesting, for they are not ordinary — at least not ordinarily seen — wagtail habits, but how much more so when the number begins gradually to increase, till at last there are perhaps a score of these little birds darting all about amidst the reeds and the bushes, or over the water of the dark, silent pool, just touched by the hastening sunlight. The constant flashing of their white tail feathers has a pretty and bizarre effect, like something of "faerie" rather than of "this sin-worn mould," and, amidst it, there is sometimes another flash, brighter, more gorgeous — lit now in the sun's last rays — the jewelled flash of a kingfisher. Visiting the same pool, a night or two afterwards, no bird is to be seen, the warblers having apparently finished their meal, but, a little later, just as the true evening falls, the wagtails are there again. Softly they flit in, coming as to an accustomed spot, and, at once, as before, commence pursuing their quarry. The reeds and the osiers are beaten, as one may say, but THE WAGTAILS 257 though recognising them, evidently, as choice preserves, they will often leave them, to make sweeping darts over the surface of the water, but just above it, and from bank to bank of the little pool, catching as they go. Then, at last, when the light is so fading that he too looks dusky, comes the kingfisher, again, and, perched upon a willow bough, makes dart after dart, at intervals of a minute or so, into the now intensely black water — black as Styx itself. His eyes are good enough, evidently, to see small fish beneath its surface, but human ones cannot be certain whether he has caught one or not. So, too, with the wagtails, they still continue to fly-catch, though they are white-, not pied-wagtails now, for nothing black about them can be seen ; and so, having begun to diminish, they soon cease altogether, first one and then another vanishing "softly and silently," a yellow one, amongst them, who receives some pecks from the others, being the first to disappear — but in all this no sound is uttered. Possibly, therefore, the little bands of yellow- wagtails — a dozen to a score — that Boraston 1 has seen in autumn " in the tops of high trees, by their excited flutterings and short flights exhibiting some of the accompaniments of swarming in birds about to migrate," may be exhibiting some of those of eating, also, for September, which I think was the month, is not void of insects. It is not very easy to see the connection between perching and migration, and in the tree- and the meadow-pipit, who both perch, this instinct drives them rather away from trees, and into the open country. Nor can I agree with the same observant naturalist 2 (whose affirmative state- ment is, indeed, a guarantee), that the perching of wagtails, in the spring-time, has nothing to do with these birds' courting actions. As has been seen, a descending flight — which necessitates an elevation to start from — is a salient feature of these, and in the great lonely rabbit-warrens of West Suffolk, amidst which I have lived, the top twig of some solitary elder-bush may be made to answer this purpose. From it I have watched the pied-wagtail sink, twittering, to the sand, 1 Nature Tones and Undertones. ! Ibid. 258 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS beside his hen, and such twitter, whether the true song or not, heard amidst such surroundings, is pleasant enough to the lover of solitude, though a reflection or two that cannot but occur, under the circumstances, may, at the same time, sadden one who is also a believer in peasant proprietorship. For myself, I see no mystery- nothing that requires any special explanation — in such arboreal proclivities as may, at times, be shown by any of our Motacillince. Neither in wagtail nor pipit has the occasional habit of perching by any means been lost, and they are prepared to do so whenever it may be at all convenient. Remarkable for his incipient parasitism, the pied-wagtail (to go no farther) stands also convicted of another vagary, a revival, namely — I will not call it a " recrudescence " — of the amatory and domestic instincts, after the time in which these have had their legitimate fulfilment has gone by — when the nuptial plumage has been laid aside, and that proper to the approaching winter assumed. Such " latter-spring " activities, however, are by no means confined to the bird in question, or to the group represented by it, but are practised, occasionally, by many other species, belonging to families widely separated both from it and from each other. After all, why should this not be so ? It is not very wonderful, surely, that beings, compact of so many and various energies, should sometimes push this or that one of them beyond their ordinary confining channels. It would be stranger, on the whole, if they did not, and perhaps it is strangest of all that such forces, once kindled, should ever cease. Indeed, one may almost ask, do they — that is to say in every case ? How, unless killed by their enemies or overtaken by some accident, do birds die ? is a thought that has occurred to me, as it may have occurred to others. Where are their dead bodies, not just a few of them, starved or frozen during some exceptionally severe winter — still less, one here or there, beneath a window or telegraph wire, telling their stories — but those thousands, nay hundreds of thousands, which, if we think of larks, starlings, wheatears, etc., should, on any ordinary theory THE WAGTAILS 259 of mortality, sprinkle our woods and fields ? One might almost fancy that, like the elephants of Sindbad the Sailor — to whose authority may be added that of the modern Indian shikari l — there was some valley, strangely hidden from the view of man, to which, when near their end, they retired. However this may be, it is not easy to see a bird's natural death, though I once caught a wood-pigeon that expired in my hands, and once a pied-wagtail was seen to fall lifeless, in the very act of catching a fly.2 But how rare are such instances (which, moreover, do not quite answer the question), and how great is that disproportion between the numbers of the living species and its mortal remains, to which attention has often, ere now, been drawn, in the case of various animals ! With which wonder-note (for to me it is really one) I will end this little wagtail fairy-tale. For, after all, ornithology is a science, and that science is a fairy-tale we know, not only from Tennyson, but, still more, upon the reiterated personal assurance of quite a number of scientific writers, well able to make it one — except, perhaps, in the nursery. 1 Sanderson, Thirteen Years amongst the Wild Beasts of India. 8 Field, 20th December 1884. Dissection showed that the cause was an " effusion of blood on the brain, resulting, apparently, from rupture of a small blood-vessel at base of skull, consequent on sudden and severe exertion." 260 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS THE PIPITS [EDMUND SELOUS] Time was when the wagtails and pipits, instead of being associated together, as they now are, in one family, stood disunited in the text-books, whatever lurking sense of affinity may have caused them to sometimes join company in the field ; when the former, after the successive removal of various claimants to kinship, the falsity or slender foundation of whose plea had gradually become apparent,1 walked proudly, alone, as the only real representatives of the Motacillince, whilst the latter, with pretensions which, if only they could be made good, must still better entitle them to the respect and esteem of mankind, posed themselves, freely, as larks. And indeed their title to this exalted station seemed, up to a comparatively recent period, to be well made out. Not only did they dwell much where larks were, but to the untrained eye of general humanity — nay even, then, to the scientific one — they really looked like larks, a fact still chronicled in such familiar rustic appellations as treelark, shorelark, titlark, and the like, which may once, for aught I know, have stood, boldly and largely, as their true names, upon every page of their history, in ornithological works of high standing, but from which they are now sternly excluded, except as subsidiary local ones, to be but once written, in a small and, as it were, shame- faced type.2 Nor did the resemblance end here, for in those early days, when 1 Newton, A Dictionary of Birds. 2 I am not ignorant that latterly some disposition has been evinced to salve the wound thus inflicted. Hartert, for instance, and other recent writers have placed the Pipits in close juxtaposition to the Larks, and had this been a first promotion the compliment could not have failed in its effect. But what is close juxtaposition to those who have tasted the sweets of identity? To a bird that has once been, and still thinks itself a Lark, the very name of Pipit must be an offence. The original injustice is repeated, in its employment, however employed, and it cannot be wondered at if such partial reparation has been coldly ignored by those whom it was intended to conciliate. Plate 28 Tree-pipits' song flight By A. W. Seaby THE PIPITS 261 White was still writing to Pennant, and when birds, instead of being collected, as now, into various centres or focuses, within the walls of buildings, were distributed generally about the countryside, thus lending themselves, in a superior degree, to field observation, it used to be noticed that the titlark, though its strains were certainly inferior to those of Alauda arvensis, yet uttered them whilst descend- ing from the heavens — evan though it were the nearer heavens — after the manner of that sweet singer, and that the tree- or field-lark (now the tree-pipit) both did the same, and had, also, a song which not only reminded one of the skylark's, but was even worthy to be compared with it. "Nous avons cliange tout cela" but to the ornithologists of those days it may well have seemed that so striking a similarity, not standing alone, but enforced and supported by the further credentials of a general rappi-ochement in appearance, ways, and deportment, was sufficient to justify the popular view that pipits were only less finely- touched larks, and larks but more glorified pipits. It must be allowed, indeed — though some twittering little aerial frolics are not to be denied to the latter — that in the double link of melody and the manner and medium of its pouring forth, it is with the Alaudidce, rather than with the Motacillidce, that the Anthidce challenge comparison. For if the wood- or tree-lark, when he sings, rises, not " from sullen earth," but from the high bough on which he has been hitherto perched, so likewise does the tree-pipit, and descends like him — and like the skylark too in a measure — whilst, for the song itself, there is, at least, one quality which, by the consent of all, the two latter have in common — that of perfect and utter joyousness. In that, Trivialis excels amongst pipits, as does Arvensis amongst larks— nay, if that alone be made the criterion, some may think that there is no " bird's throat " sweeter than his, and that, taken in conjunction with the raised, expanded wings — silvery almost on the underside — and small, speckled body — slowly, melo- diously sinking — and with the fanned tail, too — for all in all, there is nothing decisively surpassing it in the whole of our British 2L 262 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS bird world. If there be, we must seek for it where we find the analogy. It is matter of taste. In the ever-upward flight of the lark — that one that alone we call "the" — in those "skiey" circlings from which far-off music falls, there is that, undoubtedly, to take, wholly, an aspiring spirit, whilst charming all. But so high does the bird mount that he is soon wellnigh invisible, and his song, faint though beautiful, becomes more and more dissociated from his bodily being, till it floats, a song alone. Then when he sinks, at last, it is as a stranger, from celestial regions, that he comes, condescending towards, rather than familiarly rejoining us. But in that quick little up-blossoming flight from the tree-top—ending so soon — with the hovering pause and gracious, soft return, there is something that catches one like a human feeling, something of ruth and compunc- tion, of tenderness almost, a weakness more winning than a strength. It is as though the bird— parted and in full flight for heaven — remembered something that it could not leave, looked back, relented, and gave its song to earth. It will, indeed, sing on the ground — and so will the skylark too sometimes — as melodiously as it does in the air, though, to compromise matters, it does not descend directly upon it, but into the tree from which it has mounted — or else another one — and so down at leisure. This rising and returning flight, with song, is the leading charac- teristic, as it seems to me, of all our three pipits — for we have hardly more — as it is of both the skylark and woodlark. In his rising from the ground, as well as in the superior height to which he attains, A. pratensis approaches nearer to the skylark than does A. trivialis, though in the song itself, which is the root of the matter, he comes behind them both. Still it is a sweet little strophe, heard over such barren acres as the bird loves — "ling, heath, broom, furze, anything" — often marsh or fenland, amidst the snipe's bleat, the peewit's "coo-ee," and the musical wail of the redshanks. The descent, here, is almost wholly lark-like, especially in the plunge before alighting, the little sweep on again, almost as the feet touch THE PIPITS 263 the ground, and the short swing up, with sudden plumb-down, at the end of it — the drop-scene which closes the performance. There are the same variations, too, for sometimes the bird sinks, only, on wings spread and raised, and sometimes, closing them, shoots swiftly earth- wards, as the skylark also will do. So, too, the rock-pipit, that little humdrum haunter of the wild, sea-flung beach and stupendous preci- pice, who, over sand, or pebbles, or the drift of seaweed, or black basaltic boulders, heaped in titanic confusion, pursues his business of finding and eating, with a manner and air as though London streets were around him — I know of no bird more prosaical — none that I would less soon apostrophise — even he, when the spring comes, shows the spark of poetry that lives in him, rising, time after time, into the air, with his weak, yet clear little song — much resemb- ling that of Pratensis — to sink softly down again, as do the others of his tribe. In characterising the rock-pipit as a prosaic little bird, I mean only that he looks so — for, speaking generally, is there anything in the actions and ways, the mannerisms, tricks, graces, prettinesses — the personal charm, in short — of one bird, to our eyes, which makes it inwardly superior to another? In the spirit around which these cluster, is there anything at all corresponding to the human sentiment which we receive from them ? Surelv not, tf and therefore, when Jefferies calls the robin a "sentimental humbug " this appears to me to be either meaningless or inapprecia- tive — meaningless if intended to apply to that sweet bird itself, in particular, (" why he more than another ? "), inappreciative if the poetry and charm of his apparent personality are, in any degree, questioned. Most assuredly they are there, and the general senti- ment which has grown around them is as just and true a one as that which has grown around any bird in these islands, or out of them. In a certain way, indeed, it is just and true. He does come to the lowly cottage, in winter, when the earth is snow-covered, sit in the little tree by the window, and sing his low, sweet song — a beautiful thing it is to see and hear him, and well may the poor feel 264 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS grateful. He does flit and perch, near about one, and come down on the very spade, as one digs. These actions, if they are not more prompted by affection than they would be in another bird, are assuredly not less so, and the feelings excited by them are right ones, in their way, and not "humbug." Those are much more " humbug," because strained and unnatural, which derive themselves from a constant insistence upon the comforting little bird's boldness and greediness, in thus acting. Ungracious and harsh train of thought ! — and false too, for the greediness does not apply, simply, and no bird is the worse for being bold and intelligent. But there is some- thing more, here. The intelligence is applied not to the getting food, merely, but to us — to man. It is (in this very rare instance) an intelligent confidence in him, and does really deserve a pleased and grateful sentiment, in return — if anything does. Let those who think otherwise analyse their own human friendships. But Jefferies did not feel the charm of the robin. Perhaps, on my part, I have not felt that of the rock-pipit. However, let others find that out. I, as is natural, would rather suppose that he has none — with this special reservation, however, that I am not considering his spring-tide habits. This is a fair saving clause for him, but in the pursuit of his ordinary daily avocations, in his running about the rocks, or flying from one to another of them, or up to a guillemot ledge and back again, sometimes, or into the air, merely, after an insect, or when he walks the immediate strand, in the flash and spray of the billows, I have never been able to derive the same satisfaction in watching him as I have from the meadow-pipit, when pursuing his business — which is also eating — amidst his far tamer surroundings. Is there any reason for this ? The rock-pipit's environment is not that of his family, nor has he been specially modified in relation to his changed mode of life. He is no true child of the seashore, therefore, and thus the eye, in following his movements, perhaps unconsciously recognises that he is out of place. This, at least, is my theory — the way I excuse myself for THE PIPITS 265 finding some want in the bird. That little body of his, had it grass- stems to creep in and out amongst, might do so as deftly, as mousily, as his brother Pratensis does; he could not go, then, in such straight uncompromising lines, he must be more sinuous, more meandering, more hesitating — consequently more a pipit and less homme d'affaires. He would be sometimes half hidden, then lost outright, in the rank grassy jungle, then seen again, for a moment — a full view — moving demurely, with little picked steps, amidst (to him) tall bamboos, slender and shapely; he would have to look pretty and dainty then, even when he walked, and when he flew some fair " plant of grace " would receive him, and sway with him gracefully, or, in the rays of broom, or gorse, or of marsh marigold, his quiet plumage would be enlivened. But there are no plant labyrinths for him to thread, here. He walks on bare boards, as it were, with nothing to shade or relieve him, and when he flies he is lost, or as nothing, in the frown of a precipice, or, upon its face, he disappears. The raven, even, does not look impressive under such circumstances — I doubt if the eagle would ; as for the poor little rock-pipit, he goes out — ceases — and even on his black rocks- stupendous fragments of the vast wall that towers above them — it is difficult to see or remember him. When one does, one sees but a little, black-looking, unpoetical bird, out of artistic touch with his surroundings. If, as has been seen, such pipits as we know, or know best, have this way of the lark — that of singing, namely, whilst they, in different degrees but in the same general manner, rise buoyantly from earth to air, and then sink slowly back again,1 it is the same with others that we know not. One in Petchora, for instance, not only soars and circles,2 like the skylark itself, but even seems to be developing a 1 The general assertion is that the tree-pipit sings only when descending, and not when rising. Nevertheless, this is not altogether so, for the song, as I have over and over again remarked, is begun a moment or so before the full height of the mount is attained. I cannot accept Montagu's compromise, if one is intended, and he does not inadvertently contradict himself (see Ornithological Dictionary of British Birds). The beginning of the strain in the air is, in my view, the beginning of the song there. 2 See Seebohm, Birds of Siberia. 266 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS habit of not coming down. The red-throated pipit again, though not now considered to be merely a beautiful variety of Pratensis, acts, in this particular, as if it were, whilst in the water-pipit, whom we know just a little, but his song, unfortunately, not at all, we have perhaps as lark-like an example as any — insomuch that, with equal propriety, one might call a lark pipit-like, in this respect. Warde Fowler, in an eloquent passage of his well - known A Year with the Birds, speaks of " a song resounding far and near, a song given high in air, and often by an invisible singer. But he is never many minutes together on the wing, and will soon descend to perch on some prominent object, the very top twig of a pine, or a bit of rock amid the Alpine roses. This blithe spirit of the flowery pastures is the water-pipit." The song of the tawny-pipit, also, though extremely poor, is delivered after the family manner, as, in all probability, is that of Richard's pipit, but of the performance of this Asiatic species I have not been able to find any account. The principle of display and song being employed in conjunction, by the male bird, during the nuptial season, seems well illustrated by the above facts, for it is of little force to contrast the sober colouring of a bird with its powers of vocal utterance, if, through special aerial performances, it can make itself pleasing to the eye, as well. Flight, in that case, takes the place of adornment, so that we have, instead of the supposed opposition, an essentially similar combination. Nor is beauty of plumage quite wanting, here, even though it hold a secondary place — all beauty indeed is relative, and when one form of it is aided by another, much may sometimes be made out of little. But indeed our little pipits, homely as their garb may be, are of a soft, greyish white under the wings, and this is displayed in a very pleasing manner, as the bird sinks, with them raised, through the air. Looking up, as, if one looks at all, one must do, this, with the speckled breast and swelled throat — which is red, in the case of one species — is just the part one sees, and the effect, in the sunlight — a great magician in THE PIPITS 267 such matters — is almost of a soft, chastened silver, added to all of which there is, of course, the beauty of the flight. Since, then, these performances, besides being melodious to the ear, are full of soft grace and beauty to the eye, the pipits, plain though they are under ordinary circumstances, yet, in the nuptial season, and for nuptial purposes, contrive to make themselves pretty — one may even say beautiful — birds. I am not aware if the tree-, or any other of the pipits, have, as has the skylark, a ground courting action, to the boot of the above- described aerial ones. If so, they may, upon occasion, hop, or at least jump, as, under the requisite stimulus, the last-mentioned species has been observed to do. Otherwise, like the larks, in their general habits, as also like the wagtails, they are walkers and runners only. The point is perhaps an interesting one, for there may be a tendency both in lark and pipit — or, at least, in some of the species — for the song, thus wedded with aspiring flight, to forget its object, so to speak, and take joy in itself. If, then, «ome more prosaic earth- actions, keeping their earth-end in view, had become developed in certain species, either of one or the other family, according to the degree in which the tendency just mentioned had asserted itself, great and inspiriting would be the significance of this. A brief description may be here attempted — or rather, some brief attempts may be quoted — of the actual song of the various species of pipits — the what they say, as distinct from how they say it. To commence with the most worthy ; that of the tree-pipit " consists of a number of lovely, high-toned, trilling strophes, very various in char- acter, and following each other so quickly that they all blend into one delightful whole, ending, commonly, with a soft, ' dying fall ' of ' zia, zia, zia ' " (Anglice, tseea). Such is Naumann's l description, to which he adds that it has an astonishing resemblance to the song of the canary, whilst Liebe,2 after describing it in much the same terms, compares the ending to that of the nightingale. The pleasing and, 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. * Omithologische Schriften, p. 162. 268 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS to my own ear, lark-like production of the meadow-pipit is a weaker edition of the foregoing, and has been expressed syllabically by Naumann, after the following fashion, which I believe to be the best rendering extant, viz., "vitge, vitge, vitge, vitge, vitgevitgevitgevitgevitge, zickzickzickzickzickzickzick, yeckyeckyeckyeckyeckyeckyeck teerrrrrrrrr." l The call-note is an "ist, ist, ist,"2 or "ptee, ptee, ptee"3 — according to fancy — that of the tree-pipit a "web, seeb, seeb" or "sib, sib, sib"* on the same principle. The rock-pipit sings much after the fashion of the meadow-pipit, but his notes, which have been compared to the tinkling of a tiny bell, by Hudson,5 are weaker. The call is a "weet,weet" or thereabouts. The water-pipit is confessedly a fine performer, his melody in parts resembling the meadow-pipit's, in other parts the tree-pipit's, whilst the rest is all his own. It is, however, much superior to the song of the first-named bird, though inferior to that of the second. Gif, gees, vitt, vick, veet, vith, veeth, vink, sittr, and zeea are some of the syllables into which its four parts have been rendered.6 Bailly, in describing the song, contents himself with three renderings, viz., flee, fee, and tee, but adds the far more interesting information (which we owe apparently to him and to his personal observation, alone) that in the season of courtship the female pursues the male with a "plee, plee, plee" or "pee, pee, pee" uttered softly, and, as it were, shamefacedly, at some distance, " comme si die craignait de trahir piibliquement sa passion, par sa voix" and that scarcely has the male heard the note than he launches himself almost perpendicularly into the air, singing as he does so, and having attained a height, flies, beating his wings, in search of its author, until, descrying her " from his watch-tower in the skies," he sinks, still singing, on wings now poised and motionless, to alight at her side, and be rewarded for his strains.7 This is an observation which does one's heart good to read. The female, as we see, calls the male ; but is it any male, or one whose song and flight, perhaps frequently repeated in competition 1 Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. iii. 2 Ibid. 3 Bailly, Ornithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 359. 4 Naumann, op. cit. 6 The Land's End. 8 Naumaim, op. cit. 1 Ornithologie de la Suisse. Plate 29 Meadow-pipit feeding young cuckoo By A. W. Seaby THE PIPITS 269 with others, has specially appealed to her? Here, after nearly sixty years, is a matter for further observation. ** t The song of the tawny-pipit, notwithstanding that he mounts, hovers and descends, like a skylark, when singing it, is nothing but an oft-repeated "zeeeerrr" to which he adds " dillem" as a call-note, and "didleen" as "a parley to provocation."1- According to Gatke2 — who is most explicit on this point — Richard's pipit, in taking flight au naturel, utters a ,single " r-r-reep" a remarkable sound which is heard a long way off, and only during flight. If put up he repeats the cry once more. Whether thjs makes it the alarm-note, and whether the single " r-r-reep " is the call, I leave to those who can with ease deter- mine the exact significance of every cry a bird makes, every time that it makes it — I cannot. " The rest is silence," for as Richard's pipit does not breed in Heligoland,3 Gatke has nothing to say of his true song, nor do I know of any one who has. In the construction of the nest (for details of which the Classified Notes may be consulted) the pipits would no doubt claim that they are more nearly related to the larks than to the wagtails, and should the latter contest this — which in view of their own pretensions to alone represent the Motacillince,* is, in the highest degree, unlikely— they might point to the employment of roots in that of M. lugubris, and to the greater untidiness of all — though this would, no doubt, be hotly denied — as bars to a contrary conclusion. In regard to the site chosen, they could also appeal to the evidence, asserting, with a proper pride, that no young pipit, any more than any young lark, had ever been beholden for its upbringing to the cast-off nest of another species. So, again, a dislike to the damp situations affected by several of the wagtails could be confessed with a becoming 1 Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. - As quoted in Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. 3 Nor in Savoy. It is to be noted that whilst Bailly's description and rendering of the cry is sufficiently similar to the above to make it clear that there has been no confusion of species, he does not confine its utterance either to once or twice, but gives it as " piet, piet, piet-piet, piet-pie t-piet. ' ' 4 See ante, p. 48. 2M 270 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS degree of superiority, and whilst in the skylark's partiality for grass- land and cornfield, some differentiation might be frankly admitted, a rapprochement, at any rate, if not a full reconciliation between the tastes of the two families — "might it not be said of the family tastes ?" —would be fondly insisted on. How far, however, the eloquence of pipit counsel should be allowed, upon so grave an issue, to prevail, it is for the reader, after a careful and unimpassioned * consideration of the evidence, to decide. Turning to the more general, or, as we may call them, the non- domestic habits of the pipits, it does not appear that these differ more essentially from those of the larks than the ones we have been con- sidering. True it is that the meadow-pipit more affects barren, waste lands, and dank, marshy fields than he does those more cultivated territories over which the skylark soars and sings. But, besides that some skylarks seem to prefer these wilder and more melancholy scenes — perhaps that they can glad them more — so, on the other side also, the distinction does not always obtain, being, more especially, in abeyance during the period of migration. Here, indeed, in England, our little Pratensis, in spite of the way we have treated him, stays with us always ; but then he must really be ours. A certain number of individuals, who have only joined us in the spring, leave us again in the autumn, and this is still more the case in lands whose winter is harder for a pipit to bear than is our own. In these, as the time of departure approaches, habits, hitherto prevalent, become modified, and old longings return. Always of a social, if of a quietly social disposition — for there is nothing " loud " about the family — a closer and more extended intercourse with his fellow-migrants is now, to every meadow-pipit, a thing of necessity. Banded into flocks whose numbers may be sometimes compared with those of starlings, these small creatures, once so inconspicuous, become, all at once, a note- worthy feature of the landscape. In flight which, though swift enough in reality, looks always more hurried than swift, they whirl 1 See ante, Classified Notes, as a help towards this. THE PIPITS 271 here and there over the country, and, mingling with similar armies of skylarks (by whom they are not rejected), seem, like them, to show a preference for the more agricultural districts. Place them as we may, the two now are inseparable. They feed, fly, walk, run together, together leave the country, and together, in winter, return to it.1 This is much, and to it can be added that they sometimes perch together, too — on trees, on bushes, even on telegraph-wires ; at least the skylark will do this sometimes, and will any ornithologist of standing go so far as to assert that the meadow-pipit never will ? No, surely, he will be too wary, for greater even than the dangers which lurk about, to destroy, in one short sentence, the long and carefully hoarded reputation for sobriety of statement, are those which attend committal to even the most sober-seeming negative. Bailly tells us that the "farlouses " enter Savoy in numerous phalanxes, following one another, and that some of these may be as much as 60 to 80 metres in length, by 10 to 12 in breadth — a metre being some three inches more than a yard. They do not fly closely, but " eparpilles dans Pair" and " s'entr' appellent d tout instant." Should any bird amongst the advanced columns seek the ground, the rest follow, scattering themselves over the face of the country, so that a space of from 20 to 25 ares 2 will sometimes be covered by them.3 In England large flocks of meadow-pipits may be seen, in spring and autumn, arriving upon or leaving our shores.4 Such birds as stay with us, even through the most severe winters, frequent moist meadows and similar localities, as long as the ground remains soft. When frozen, they seek for sheep-folds,5 and are only too glad to find them, as may be inferred from the fact that — like Motacilla alba Ittgubris, who also resorts there, and whose name might seem to be a contradiction in terms — they are then frequently observed to wag their tails. For the Pipits, belonging as they do to the Motatillince, 1 Naumann, Naturgeschichte der Vogel Mitteleuropas, iii. - An are = 119i square yards. 3 Omithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 356. 4 D'Urban, Birds of Devon; Borrer, Birds of Sussex. 5 O. V. Aplin, Birds of Oxfordshire. 212 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS wag their tails, as well as — yet not as well as — the wagtails, who wag theirs much better — by which I mean much more, and more often. It is a low wag, as compared to a high one, a sedate and measured wag, as compared to a fast one, and a wag that is occasional, merely, as compared to one which never leaves off. I know not how it may strike others, but to me this appears to be the great psychical distinction between the two sub-families. It is L1 Allegro and II Penseroso, and if literary critics have never yet suggested that the contemplation, by their author, of this difference, gave rise to those two peerless poems, it is not, in my opinion, because they have not been absurd enough, but only because they have not been sufficiently ornithological, also. Unlike the last-mentioned species, tree-pipits, on the approach of autumn, band themselves into small companies of from twelve to fifteen, and pass thus, by easy stages, southwards, through Europe, into East Africa, where they winter. The love of woods and trees has now left them, and during the whole long journey — such at least is the opinion of Liebe — they pass the nights in fields or the open country, generally, roosting either on the ground or amidst low herbage. Their flight is now changed from the usual somewhat (in appearance) laborious one, in which the bird seems to make long fluttering leaps through the air — as if trying to hop there, to use Liebe's similitude — to a series of shorter and steadier efforts, each one representing a little arch or curve.1 These habits appear to have received little attention in England, or, at any rate, in English works of ornithology, a bare mention of the birds " congregating into small flocks" after the nesting season, and an involved passage where " little parties " are spoken of, being all that I have been able to find. Liebe's interesting account, I may say, begins at the very beginning, and is too detailed for space to allow me to do it justice. With the rock-pipit things are still worse. Montagu 2 long ago " observed them, 1 OrnitJiologische Schriften, quoted in Naumann. 2 A Dictionary of British Birds. THE PIPITS 273 in great numbers, on the wild rocky shores of Normandy, and, if not quite gregarious, very nearly so." Ralfe, however, in the Isle of Man does not find them even nearly gregarious, but says that " it is rare to see more than one or two together." * Finally, there are those who, in the month of November, at the mouth of the Tees, have " frequently seen small flocks consisting of from twelve to fourteen individuals."2 This, as may be gathered, was during the autumn migration, when we see the bird in its most festive mood, for that belonging to the spring " is not so pronounced." The tree- and rock- pipit would appear to be much alike, therefore, in regard to gregari- ousness, or, at any rate, the latter does sometimes arrive at what is habitual with the former. The water-pipit, on the other hand, much more resembles Pratensis, in this respect, and has been observed, by Gloger,4 in flocks of over a hundred, and, in one case, between one and two hundred, on the meadows bordering the Elbe, so early as August. Gloger made the observation that, whilst the flock, as a whole, were a good deal spread out, small parties in it were in close company, and these he believes to have been family parties. The rising of any member of such a family would, however — presumably, through the rest soon following — lead to that of the whole host. Here, within the flock itself, we seem to see the origin of flocking — the amalgamation, namely, of such single family parties. But for the last-cited circumstance, indeed, it might not appear, from this account, that the birds, strictly speaking, formed only one flock. It is to be presumed, however, that, upon rising, the numbers coalesced. Prob- ably, in all these cases, the flocking commences with the young birds of the first brood, but Bailly specially mentions that this is so in the case of the water-pipit, and gives us a pretty little picture (one of a very great many5) of these neophytes met together in the early morning, "dans quelque lieu expose aux premiers rayons solaires," where they form 1 Birds of the Isle of Man. 2 Nelson and Clarke, Birds of Yorkshire. 3 Ibid. ' Quoted in Naumann. 5 Bailly should be on every bird-lover's book-shelf (instead of which I believe he is out of print). 274 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS numerous companies, which, as the heat becomes gradually greater, disperse themselves over moist pastures and shady retreats — " Lovely, lonesome, cool, and green." If intruded upon by the wretched, clumsy being, man, they fly up, one after another, " en s'avertissant par leurs cm : /It, /It, /it, fit, prononces dune voix forte et grave" * Such scenes cannot, unfortunately, be witnessed in England, where the species, though (like the ibis and griffon vulture) upon the British list, comes to us, to be shot, very rarely. The tawny-bunting is a little more reckless, since it would appear to be " a regular autumn visitor in small numbers " to some parts of the south coast. Luckily, however, its resemblance to the meadow-pipit protects it in some measure, besides that it is also very shy. It does not, therefore, to so great a degree as in some other and more lamentable cases, fall a victim to the bird-collector or his somewhat less degraded brother, the bird-catcher. Nothing, as far as I am aware — that is to say, nothing very salient — has been observed in regard to the roosting habits of our pipits, which may perhaps be explained by the fact that, unlike the wagtails, who pass the night, crowded together, amidst shrubbery of some height, and not of a very concealing kind — as, for instance, in a reed- bed — they make the earth their dormitory, on whose broad bosom their numbers, even when observable, lose such irnposingness as they might otherwise possess. This, as has been seen, is great, during the more sombre months of the year, in the case of the meadow-pipit alone, as far as our islands are concerned, whilst, even in his case, such flights, unless on the sea-coast, are rarely, if ever, to be witnessed by us, as are common on the Continent of Europe. Yet, how large soever such a gathering might be, it would disappear, to all intents and purposes, upon reaching the ground, — clothed, as this is, with its varying chevaux de frise, — and this, in any study of the aforesaid habits, wrould tend to increase a difficulty which must always, in some degree, exist 1 Ornithologie de la Savoie, iii. p. 351. Plate 3O Upper Right Richard's-pipit Tawny-pipit Lower Right Left Alpine-pipit Rock-pipit Plate 30 (to face page 274). On the interleave add—By H. Grdnvold, and transfer Right to Left and vice versa. THE PIPITS 275 —that, namely, of distinguishing the roosting from the flocking habits of birds. Perhaps, strictly speaking, the former should be considered as a part of the latter, in which case all or most that there is to say of the Anthidce, in their roosting capacity, has already been said. When it is stated that these birds roost on the ground, stunted herbage of various kinds — such as heather — must be understood as included in this term. This, under the circumstances, would often be unavoidable, but the matrix of an excavated turf or clod, or a natural depression in the soil, is constantly chosen, and would probably always be preferred. In their food, as well as in their feeding habits, the Anthidce are, upon the whole, more wagtails than larks — that is to say, more insect- eaters than seed-eaters. Yet the difference between them and the latter birds is not strikingly great, and it is possible that, were we to step from British soil, and pass in review the pipits of the world, it would be found to diminish. I am not aware, however, that any of the family have developed a type of bill, on the one hand, so specially adapted for insect food as are the elongated, thin ones of certain of the Alaudidce that, as it would seem, eat seeds indifferently with insects, or, on the other, as the short or " heavy " variety — the adapta- tion of which to a seed diet is evident — characteristic of some larks, which, apparently, affect insects as freely as seeds. The significance of this distinction between the two families would, it is true, be more apparent, were the key to such differences in the rostral form, at present assumed to be obvious, to become, by some contrary turn of the evidence, logical also.1 Yet this may be said, that whilst perhaps there is no pipit capable of catching insects with the same dexterity as a slender-billed lark may be supposed to be master of, so, con- versely, not one of them can have the power of seizing and manipulat- ing seeds so deftly as, upon the theory, this office ought to be performed by any of the more characteristically heavy-billed representatives of the allied family. Some may, perhaps, feel inclined to go just one step farther, but I am anxious not to overstate the case. 1 See ante, in the chapter on Larks. 276 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS It has been supposed by many that the comparatively obscure coloration of the pipits, like that of the larks whom they so much resemble, has been acquired by them as a protection against their enemies in the struggle for existence ; but here, as in so many other instances, the application of that doctrine is complicated by con- siderations of so puzzling a kind, that cautious naturalists have found it better, in practice, not to consider them. Why, for instance, if natural selection has protected the meadow-pipit (let us say) through his colour, should it, at the same time, have developed, or, rather, have failed to check the development in him of a scent still stronger than that of the skylark,1 a scent which dogs, even of a respectable, non-sporting kind — poodles, for example — will often follow, at speed, and which must, therefore, be in the highest degree apparent to weasels, stoats, polecats, cats, foxes, as also to rats and mice, all which creatures are nocturnal, and all of which, if they prey on larks, would no doubt do pipits that justice, to consider them as one and the same. What is the value of a cloak of darkness against enemies that hunt in darkness, and by scent ? It may, and, no doubt, will be said by advocates of the theory under discussion, that weasels, stoats, cats and polecats, as also, in a certain degree, rats, mice, and foxes, are diurnal as well as nocturnal, so that, though their powers of destruction are thus widened, the number of instances in which they fail to destroy is, by this very fact, increased ; but I cannot see much force in this reply. It is true, indeed, that the merlin, hobby, and sparrow- hawk, the principal aerial enemies of both larks and pipits, hunt by sight and in the daytime, but, so far as the air is concerned, a quarry of not less than a fourth or fifth, perhaps, of their own size — therefore by no means a diminutive object in their regard — should be con- spicuous enough, however dully coloured, to birds whose visual 1 Asserted, if I remember, by Prof. Newton to be the strongest scent possessed by any bird. I, at any rate, having seen it scented out, and put up by a poodle, can testify that the emanation is without that useful and mysterious property by which, at one and the same time, a dog may be baffled and a theory saved — such as (en attendant the evidence) has been attributed to the skylark's. (See ante, " The Larks.") THE PIPITS 277 powers are so highly developed, and whose flight is sufficiently swift to prevent their being out-distanced. These factors would still count for much, both in scanning and quartering the ground ; but, con- sidering the many opportunities which pipits, no less than larks, have of concealing themselves amidst grass and other herbage, con- sidering also that they are only one amongst many other kinds of small birds, equally, or even in a greater degree, liable to the same attacks, it would perhaps be more pertinent to ask, what can be the need of specially protective coloration in their case ? The above remarks, if not final in regard to the subject which has introduced them, may serve, at any rate, as an enumeration and partial consideration of the principal enemies to which pipits, in much the same degree as larks, are liable to fall a prey. THE TREE-CREEPER [ORDER : Pdsseriformes. FAMILY : Certhiidce] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES [F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON] TREE-CREEPER [Certhia familiaris brittanica, Ridgway (C. familiaris, Linn.). Tree-climber, tree-runner. French, grimpereau ; German, Baum- Idufer ; Italian, rampichino]. 1. Description. — Distinguished at once by its small size, slender decurved bill, and long, stiffened, and pointed tail feathers. (PL 31.) The general coloration is of a yellowish brown, mottled with black, and streaked with dull white. The striations are formed by dull white shaft-streaks, and are most marked on the crown and neck, inconspicuous on the back, and absent on the rump, which is of a pale rust colour. Across the quills of the extended wing runs a buff-coloured, black- bordered bar, forming a V-shaped pattern in the half -opened wing. The under parts have a silky-white sheen. Length 5*5 in. [165 mm.]. The sexes are indis- tinguishable. Fledglings differ but little from the adults, but they have a more mottled appearance on the back, the white shaft-streaks being wider : on the head the striations are less conspicuous. The beak of the nestling is at first straight, [w. P. P.] 2. Distribution. — Two closely allied species of creeper are found in Europe. Of these our British birds form an insular race (C. familiaris britannica) of the species distinguished by its longer claws, C. familiaris, L. Other local forms of this species are found in Northern Europe, Central Europe, and Corsica, as well as in the mountain ranges of Asia east to Japan. In the British Isles our local race is generally to be found resident in well- wooded districts, but is absent from the barren moorlands and the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Outer Hebrides. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — The bird often associates in winter with the wandering parties of titmice and goldcrests, but there is no evidence of true migratory movement in the normal course. But as it is a solitary migrant in limited numbers to Heligoland, it is not surprising that individual migrating examples 278 PLATE XI I'hoto by E. L. Turner Tree-creeper's Nest in a crevice In a tree. Typical site Photo by E. A. Wallis Tree-creeper's nest, about six feet from the ground, placed a few Inches under the comer tile of a shed. Tile removed. Un- common site. Photo by E. L. Turner Wivns NVs: Photo by E. L. Turner •Wren's Nest in a coil of rope PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 279 are sometimes recorded from the east coast of Great Britain also (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 121), and that it is a straggler to the northern isles. As evidence of occasional overseas migration, we may cite the case of an example obtained on Fair Isle (Shetlands) on December 27, 1906, which was referred by Mr. Eagle Clarke to "the Continental race" (cf. Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1907, p. 72). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — The typical site is between a loose piece of bark and the trunk of a tree at varying heights. It is also frequently placed behind ivy stems ; and occasionally in crevices of boards, holes in walls, or under eaves. The nest, which is constructed by both sexes, is built of moss, roots, grasses, etc., on a founda- tion of small birch twigs, and with feathers, strips of thin bark, bits of wool, catkins, etc. (PI. xi.) Eggs 5 or 6, rarely 7, in number, are white, generally boldly marked with dark red spots at the big end, which often form a zone. (PL C.) Average size of 100 British eggs, '61 x '47 in. [15*52 x 12-09 mm.]. Laying generally begins late in April or early in May. Incubation lasts for 15 days (W. Evans, Ibis, 1891, p. 61), and is apparently performed by both sexes. A second brood is sometimes reared. [F. c. B. j.] 5. Food. — This consists chiefly of insects, many of them economically harm- ful, which are found in the crevices of the bark of trees. Seeds of various sorts are sometimes taken. The young are fed by both parents on insects. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — It sings more or less at all seasons, most during breeding time, and least from the end of June to the end of August (C. and H. Alex- ander, British Birds, i. p. 370). The frequency of its winter singing probably depends upon the weather. [F. B. K.] The following is described in the supplementary chapter on "Rare Birds" : — Wall-creeper, Tichodroma muraria (Linnaeus). 280 THE TREE-CREEPER THE TKEE-CREEPER [E. L. TURNER] The tree-creeper is not unlike John Bunyan's "Man with the Muck-rake." His mind never seems to rise above the daily sordid struggle after the things of the earth. Essentially a bird of the woods and plantations, he seldom leaves them for the sunlit fields or open sky, but spends the days monotonously ascending one tree after another in search of food. No doubt these regular habits are very praiseworthy, and such as would ensure success in any undertaking, if the tree-creeper were human ; but one cannot help feeling that he misses a good deal of the joy of living by such strict attention to business. " Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers." Probably the bird is not conscious of anything amiss : those who worship the " Goddess of Getting On " seem well content with their religion, and rather glory in it ; but to my mind, the rough and tumble life of the quarrelsome house-sparrow is preferable to the Ixion-like monotony of the tree-creeper's. He is not an uncommon bird, but being soberly clad often escapes observation. The real beauty of the delicately mottled plumage can only be realised when viewed through a good pair of field glasses; but the exquisite silvery white gleam of the under parts often betrays his presence when slipping round to the far side of a tree, away from the observer. The way in which the tree-creeper procures his food is interesting. Generally beginning at the foot of a tree, he ascends by a series of almost imperceptible Jwps, not always spirally, as some writers affirm, but by a kind of zig-zag method peculiarly his own ; frequently, how- ever, he scarcely deviates by a hairbreadth from a directly vertical THE TREE-CREEPER 281 ascent. So rapid is this movement, and so smoothly done, that at a distance he might easily be mistaken for a mouse. Occasionally he will descend a foot or more with a curious sideway hop, and immediately continue his ascent. Certain structural modifications greatly assist the tree-creeper in its method of climbing. Its feet are large in proportion to the small size of their owner ; the hind-toe, besides being armed with a long curved claw, is exceedingly mobile, and may be turned outwards till it forms a right angle with its ordinary direction, and all the other toes may be so twisted as to reverse the position of the claws. When waiting to photograph the tree-creeper feeding its young, although unable to see the bird, I have known immediately it has alighted on the trunk of a tree by the sound made by these long claws gripping and tearing the bark, which is often frayed to ribbons by the peculiar method of descent employed by this bird. The tail consists of twelve long-pointed feathers, specially stiffened and slightly curved ; these are pressed against the tree when ascending, and thus give material support to the whole body. The beak also is well adapted to its own peculiar work, being long, slender, and curved downwards. Swiftly, silently, and with the finesse of an expert fencer, the tree-creeper thrusts it here and there in search of succulent spiders, or larvae and insects in general, which are then taken and destroyed without warning. There is something almost uncanny in the remorseless accuracy with which this slender tool does its work. I have been astonished at its strength. Not long ago I accidentally detached a piece of bark, and so doing laid bare the entrance to a nest. When the old bird returned, she at once set to work cutting and sawing the surrounding loose bark till she had collected sufficient to repair the breach, which reminded me of the well-tempered scimitars of the paladins of old, — warranted to cut through a man's thick skull, or a sofa cushion. It has frequently been stated that the tree-creeper invariably begins his search for food at the foot of a tree and works upwards as 282 THE TREE-CREEPER far as the branches, and that he then flits to the next, and alighting low down, repeats this process. It is a great mistake to say that any bird invariably pursues a certain course of action, however regular in its habits. I have quite recently seen a tree-creeper fly from the middle of a gnarled old thorn to some spot considerably higher up on another, and then away to the top of a larch, thrusting its bill into nooks and crannies of each tree in turn. The bird has also been seen to fly four times to the foot of the same trunk, each time making a vertical ascent up a fresh course, with occasional zig-zags on its previous course. It is, in fact, no more safe to lay down hard and fast rules about a bird's behaviour under certain conditions than a woman's ; both are usually guided by circumstances and their own sweet wills! A robin or sparrow will occasionally cling to the inverted half of a cocoa-nut and peck at its contents, in spite of their supposed inability to perform this acrobatic feat. So also a sober and respectable tree-creeper will occasionally break away from tradition and hidebound conventionality. Nevertheless, so ingrained is this habit of ascending, I was this year guided to a tree-creeper's nest owing to the regularity with which one of the two parents alighted at the base of an old willow stump, and crept upwards carrying food in its bill to the nesting-hole ; while the other bird flew to the opposite side of the trunk and crept round it to reach the hole. The tree-creeper's song is what one might expect from his manner of life, weak, complaining, and plaintive : a cross between that of the wren and hedge-sparrow, but lacking the vigour of both. It has been syllabled as " ticka-tee-tee-tee-tee-tee-ticka-ticka ! " and is usually uttered as the bird makes a pause in its progress up the tree-trunk and " holds its head sideways in a languishing manner." 1 The usual note is a soft "zit" which is sometimes repeated and supplemented by a sound like " ssrih, ssrih, ssrih ! " There is, in fact, nothing particularly inspiring about this 1 Mr. Moffat, quoted in Ussher and Warren's Birds of Ireland. Plate 31 Tree-creeper about to feed a cluster of young By A- W- Seaby THE TREE-CREEPER 283 bird except his diligence. As a rule he is sad and solitary, except in the breeding season, when even the soberest of birds remember to be glad — "... And in the fire of spring The winter garment of repentance fling." I have never yet seen the tree-creeper making love, but should imagine that his wooing would be carried out on strictly business lines, with a view to settlements and such like dull arrangements; very different from the passionate rapture of the lapwing when he hurls himself through the air and dashes to earth, missing destruction by a hairbreadth ; nor could he be filled with the ecstasy of the lark, who, beating his way heavenwards, pours forth his love as he mounts, " Till the world is wrought To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not." But it may be I do an injustice to the tree-creeper. Perhaps, after all, the lady does not care to be wooed in any other than a sober fashion, otherwise her lover would have to do it. Perhaps, for all we know, he does do it On June 25, 1910, I saw three birds playing a kind of hide and seek game round and round a tall oak tree, finally only two were left ; and whether they were birds of the year merely amusing themselves, or whether courting, I could not tell ; it seemed late in the season for love-making. One would utter his faint call-note and flutter his wings, making sundry rushes round the tree at the same time ; the other would avoid these rushes either by a similar dash in an opposite direction, or by pressing its body into a crevice of the thick bark, with head and tail stretched straight out, thus hiding itself completely, for the speckled back of the bird looked like a mere continuation of the bark of the tree. The tree-creeper makes a somewhat elaborate nest, the building of which usually takes several days, although both birds work hard almost all day. Should you happen to see a few stray twigs of larch 284 THE TREE-CREEPER or birch hanging from a piece of loosely attached bark, or protruding from one of those deep indentations of the trunk peculiar to silver birches, do not neglect to examine these more closely, as they frequently form part of a tree-creeper's nest. Sometimes the actual nest forms a cup-like depression at the end of a large quantity of twigs, especially when it is placed between two supports ; but if in a hole, less material is used. In the Norfolk Broads district one year, I found five nests in a small plantation near the water, each one composed of dead reed-stalks, though other material was close at hand ; three of these nests were old ones. The female tree-creeper is no craven ; she, like the nuthatch, will, when disturbed, hiss loudly, and retiring to the far corner of the nesting-place, ruffle up her feathers, and make sundry ineffectual dabs at your hand with her bill before disappearing by the back entrance ; for these birds, if possible, choose a site provided with an emergency staircase. Both parents are assiduous in feeding the young. They have been observed during a period of nineteen minutes making thirty visits, bringing green caterpillars and insects.1 The tree-creeper's nest seems particularly liable to the depreda- tions of mice, not only when built in sheds or outhouses, but also when placed in trees, both eggs and young being frequently destroyed. This fate befell the young tree-creepers whose home is shown in my photograph on Plate XL, when they were a week old. As the birds playing hide and seek, referred to above, were not far from this destroyed nest, it is just possible they may have been the bereaved parents making the best of things, and perhaps meditating starting afresh upon family cares. When fledged, the young cluster on the bark of a tree, and thus early in their career begin to "creep." Mr. Seaby's picture, which is from life, shows the nestlings in this attitude, waiting for food. They also roost thus clustered, but soon leave the vicinity of their 1 Coward and Oldham, Zoologist, 1902, p. 405. THE TREE-CREEPER 285 nest, however, and go farther afield, and when able to fend for themselves are cast adrift by the parents. For, unlike the tits, tree-creepers do not keep together in family parties during autumn and winter ; I have seldom seen more than two or three in one spot after July. Individuals, however, may occasionally be seen through- out the winter consorting and hunting with tits and goldcrests. When the snow has drifted high against the exposed side of a tree, a creeper hunting silently up the other looks a dingy little bird, the breast feathers which gleamed so silvery white in the spring sunshine look extremely dirty against the whiteness of driven snow, — and, in fact, they are very dirty owing to constant pressure against the bark, on which there is always a great collection of atmospheric debris. I think these birds must suffer considerably during a pro- longed spell of cold. Their slender rapier-like bills and retiring habits, so different from the hard-headed, cheerful pushfulness of the tits, must result in a kind of "genteel poverty," the hardest to bear and most fatal of all forms of want. I missed several pairs from their usual haunts in the spring of 1909, and fear they must have succumbed to the unusual weather conditions which prevailed throughout the early spring. THE WREN [ORDER : Pdsseriformes, FAMILY : Troglodtftidce] PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES [F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON] WREN [Troglodytes troglodytes troglodytes (Linnaeus) [Troglodytes parvulus, Koch]. Jenny- or Kitty-wren. French, roitelet; German, Zaunkonig; Italian, re degli uccelli}. i. Description. — Crown, hind-neck, scapulars, interscapulars, and rump brown, varying in hue, hi different individuals, from greyish, light chestnut, to sepia brown, more or less obscurely barred with narrow black lines on the rump, which is always slightly brighter than the rest of the upper parts. Tail, as rump, narrowly barred black, the intensity of the barring, and the number of bars, vary- ing. There is a more or less distinct superciliary stripe, and the cheeks are more or less distinctly mottled with dun, brown, and white. The under parts are also variable in their coloration. The throat, fore-neck, and upper breast range from dull white to brownish white, and may be uniform, or mottled with ochreous : the hinder region of the flanks, abdomen, and under tail-coverts more or less dis- tinctly barred with narrow bars of dun, black, or dark brown. The primaries have the under webs barred alternately with black and white, or brown, the bars varying much in distinctness, width, and hue. The secondaries narrowly barred black. Shafts of median coverts each with a minute spot of white at tips. In some individuals the under parts are faintly barred with dark brown : these are, perhaps, immature. Hebridean birds are rather more conspicuously barred in the hinder region of the flanks. This variability, and range of coloration, does not seem to be associated with the distribution, as similar specimens may be met with in England, Scotland, and Ireland. (PL 32.) The sexes are alike in plumage. Length 3J in. [88 mm.]. Juvenile (fledgling) plumage : the young birds in their first plumage appear to differ from the adults only in having a less distinct PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 287 superciliary stripe, and no trace of barring on the rump, or white spots on the median coverts, [w. P. p.] 2. Distribution. — This species is generally distributed throughout the whole of Europe and its outlying islands, as well as North Africa and Asia, but as it is everywhere resident it tends to division into various local races. Thus the Icelandic, Faeroese, Norwegian, Shetland, and even the St. Kilda birds have all been separated, and other forms have been described from Asia. In the British Isles it is universally distributed, from the tops of our highest mountains to the barren islets off our coasts. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Migration. — Although our breeding birds are resident, yet there is con- siderable immigration of birds from the Continent in autumn. " In 1881 the migration extended over 80 days, from July the 17th at Flamborough, to October the 4th" (Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 118). The return migration begins in March and continues in some degree till May. The wren often occurs on vessels crossing the North Sea, and is seen at the lighthouse lanterns round our coasts. " Usually only a few travel in company " (Forrest, Fauna N. Wales, 1907, p. 109). [A. L. T.] 4. Nest and Eggs. — The sites used are very varied : in banks, thick bushes, brambles, ivy, haystacks, tree-roots, and many other situations, some of the most extraordinary nature, but generally not more than a few feet from the ground. It is spherical in shape, with a neat round opening at the side, and is constructed of materials which match the surroundings — hay, bracken, moss, grasses, lichens, leaves, etc., warmly lined with feathers when built for breeding purposes, but not otherwise. (PL xi.) Both sexes are expert builders, and the cock often con- structs one or two supplementary nests. Eggs usually 5-7 or 8 in number, as a rule, but clutches of 10-11 have been occasionally recorded. They are white, finely speckled with reddish brown, especially at the big end, but sometimes unmarked. (PL C.) Average size of 100 eggs, '64 x '49 in. [16'49 x 12*54 mm.]. Laying begins generally about the latter part of April or early in May. Both sexes share in incubation. Period of incubation 13-14 days. A second brood is frequently reared. [F. c. R. J.] 5. Food. — This species is for the most part insectivorous ; the nestlings are fed by both parents on small insects, crane-flies, moth larvae, etc. In winter, seeds, etc., are eaten. [A. L. T.] 6. Song Period. — More or less at all seasons. [A. L. T.] 288 THE WREN ST. KILDA WREN [Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis, Dixon]. 1. Description. — Differs from the common wren by its larger size, con- spicuously greyer coloration, and the pattern on the primaries. The upper parts are greyish brown, strongly barred with dark brown on the scapulars, inter- scapulars, and rump. The under parts are mealy white, strongly barred on the lower flanks and abdomen with dark brown. Chequering on the primaries takes the form of narrow bars of white on a dark grey ground, therein differing conspicuously from the common wren. [w. p. P.] 2. Distribution. — Confined to the islet of St. Kilda. [F. c. R. J.] 3. Nest and Eggs. — This large local form differs somewhat in its eggs from the ordinary race. It nests in crevices of walls, sheepfolds, etc., and lays 6 eggs, which are distinctly larger than those from the mainland. Average size of 33 eggs, •71 x -54 in. [IS'll x 13*79 mm.]. In other respects it resembles the common wren. [F. c. R. j.] SHETLAND WREN [Troglodytes troglodytes zetlandicus, Hartert]. 1. Description. — Distinguished, according to Dr. Hartert, from the pre- ceding by its dark coloration, especially on the under parts ( Vogel der Paldark- tischen Fauna, vol. i. No. 1173). 2. Distribution. — Confined to the Shetland Islands. [F. c. R. j.] 3. Nest and Eggs. — Another large but dark-coloured local form, which breeds among the rocks on the sea-shore. In its habits it does not differ from the other races. [F. c. R. J.] Plate 32 Wren feeding her young By A. W. Seaby THE WREN THE WREN [E. L. TURNER] The common wren has three principal characteristics — a mania for house building, aggressive impudence, and an enormous voice greatly disproportionate to the small size of the bird. Scarcely one out of the half-dozen nests you may come across in an April morning's walk ever contain eggs. The wren seems to build from sheer love of the work, or because it must ; and exquisite work this master-builder turns out. The nest is generally in complete harmony with its surroundings, although the wren is as fond of variety in the matter of building sites as the robin. " And when for their abodes they seek An opportune recess, The Hermit has no finer eye For shadowy quietness."1 There is no scamped work, no jerry-building; every leaf and twig composing " This moss-lined shed, green, soft, and dry," is care- fully selected, and so woven into the structure that it serves a triple purpose — being useful, decorative, and protective. The work is per- fect of its kind, harmonious and enduring, like that of the old cathedral builders. Two years in succession a pair of wrens chose for their abode a coil of rope which hung from a beam in an old barn. In this instance they showed their usual adaptation to environment, for the nest was entirely composed of fine wisps of hay, which exactly matched the rope in colour. These two nests I photographed.2 There is a common idea afloat, but one which has never been " well proven," that the unlined nests, those which are not used for incubation, are built by the cock birds for their own special comfort 1 Wordsworth. - See the photograph oil PI. xi. 290 THE WREN during the breeding season. Now the luxurious nature is seldom energetic : it loves comfort and ease, but others must provide them ! For the head of a family to build himself a home wherein he may take refuge from domestic cares and curtain lectures betokens a luxurious disposition of the most virulent type ; whereas every atom that goes to make up the tiny wren is replete with energy and life. It is a well-established fact that unlined nests are sometimes used as a bedroom during the autumn and winter by several wrens together ; and not by them only. Late one winter afternoon, seeing a wren's nest in an excellent state of repair under an overhanging bank, I went close up to inspect it, and was a little astonished when five long-tailed tits flew out almost into my face. "The problem is solved," I said to myself; "Nature's darkling of the mossy shedj' has an eye to business, and turns house agent during the winter ! The house agent himself sometimes goes into humbler quarters. Ten or twelve have been caught roosting in a hole in the side of a building, others have been found in holes in trees and haystacks, also in ivy.1 The unlined nests are certainly used, at least occasionally, by the brood on quitting the lined nest. They may remain in it a few days, being fed by the parents, and continue to use it as a roosting-place for some time, until they disperse. But, on the other hand, the breeding-nest has also been known to be used as a dormitory by the young for several weeks after they quit the nest. What is not commonly known is the fact that the unlined nests, after remaining unoccupied for a month or six weeks, may not infrequently be lined and used for breeding purposes. In one case a nest was left untouched for seven weeks after completion, eggs were then laid in it, and this nest was again used in the following season.2 Lastly, the unlined nest may be used merely as a daily place of 1 Zoologist, 1844, p. 564 ; British Birds, ii. p. 119. * J. Whitaker, Notes on the Birds of Notts, p. 55, quoted in British Birds, iv. 92. For further evidence of unlined nests being subsequently lined and used for breeding, see the Field, June 25 (p. 1112) and July 2 (p. 52) 1910, which show also incidentally that the "cock's nest" may be built while the hen is incubating in the lined nest. THE WREN 291 *, resort by the cock during the breeding season. This is shown by the following account supplied me by Mr. F. B. Kirkman : " I had a cock's nest under observation during June and July 1910. The cock was to be seen either in, on, or near it daily, and at all times of the day in June, less frequently in July, after which his visits were only occasional. His favourite singing perches were near it. At intervals he left by an .almost unvarying route to go to a neighbouring garden, where presum- %bly he visited the breeding-nest. On June 16, in the early morning, I saw the hen make her appearance for the first time. She seemed to be inspecting the nest, while her mate, in a state of high agitation, sang close by. The inspection was apparently not satisfactory, for the hen soon disappeared, and did not return. The cock remained in a state of unusual excitement all the morning, singing repeatedly and vehe- mently, and I saw him carrying building material to the nest. Nothing, however, came of this visit. Once only did I flush the cock from the nest at night (June 7), at least I presumed it was he. The nest was built on the underside of a thick arch of climbing roses, and, though well constructed about the lower part, had a hole in the roof. It was perhaps this that prejudiced the hen against it, if always it be assumed that she had any intention of putting it to use. Perhaps she wished simply to make clear to her husband that her eye was upon him." From all this it will be evident that there is yet much to learn about these unlined nests. How many are built by each cock? When more than one, to what use is each put ? Is it certain the cock alone builds them ? When they are subsequently lined, which of the pair performs the duty ? And last, but not least, how are we to explain the origin of these supernumerary nests ? After leaving the nest, the young continue to be fed for some time by the parents. On one occasion a pair were seen feeding a newly- fledged brood in an open nest placed low down in the fork of a tree, and made of moss and other material very loosely put together, and without any lining, possibly built for the occasion.1 When the 1 F. B. Kirkman, in litt. 292 THE WREN family break up, the young, according to Bailly, live solitary, but the parents continue together. The species is usually seen either singly or in pairs outside the breeding season.1 Wrens are very jealous of human intrusion into their affairs. They will, as far as my own experience goes, often forsake a nest that has been touched by the hand, unless the eggs are well-set; therefore, to avoid hurting the bird's feelings, I generally carry with me a long mustard-spoon, and delicately insert this into the nest if I wish to find out whether or not it contains eggs. In England the wren is generally known as the " Kitty-" or " Jenny "-wren — terms of endearment called forth by its confiding and amusing ways ; but in almost all European countries it shares with the goldcrests the epithet " Kingly." This may have its origin in a very old tradition, always worth repeating because so charac- teristic of the wren's resourceful impudence. The story goes that the birds desired a king, and decided to confer the title upon which- ever of their number could mount highest into the air. This the eagle seemed to do, but just as all were ready to render him homage, a loud burst of song was heard above the eagle's head — there sat the tiny wren exultant, having been borne aloft by the giant unseen and unfelt. The eagle in his rage dashed the wren to earth and broke its tail, and this is why the wren's tail is so tiny. On desolate winter days the wren will suddenly fling at you this same exultant song. The very aspect of the singer dispels all gloomy thoughts, as he sits on the top of some hedgerow, with what courtesy calls a tail, cocked up at right angles to his body, greeting you with a cheerfulness worthy of Mark Tapley. It seems absurd that so tiny a thing should be able to give forth such a volume of sound : one would like to know the master who taught "The wren, with little quill," voice production. The wren having no particular use for a tail, has not troubled to cultivate one as a mere ornament. Dwelling in caves, as its Greek 1 Zoologist, 1905, p. 141 ; J. B. Bailly, Ornithologie de la Savoie, ii. 462. THE WREN 293 name implies, it found the appendage rather in the way, and Nature therefore shortened it almost to vanishing point. Not being such an acrobat as the long-tailed tit, the wren does not require a tail as a balancing pole, and perhaps feels some contempt for the latter bird, which has to devote a considerable amount of time to the arrange- ment of hers as she sits in her bottle-shaped nest. But as we all have our own particular vanities, even the practical and bustling wren is no exception to the general rule, for its little body is decorated with a wondrous arrangement of bars and dots, which have a marvellously aesthetic value when examined closely. When the male is displaying his attractions during courtship, the white spots on the tail and wing-coverts are brought into view, but after the wear and tear of family life these small white dots become obliterated. Quite early in February our commons and waste places are enlivened by the loud challenge of the male wrens as they call to one another from bush to bush, often across wide intervening spaces. By careful stalking you can get close enough to see these diminutive swaggerers, with tail erect and head thrust forward, inciting each other to deeds of valour. The curious "churring" note rapidly repeated is uttered first by one and then by the next, but the warfare seems to be principally wordy, as the combatants seldom come to close quarters, and if conscious of observation, drop down immediately into the tangled undergrowth. Sometimes, however, they meet and fight — and sing between the rounds. A remarkable instance of this is recorded in the Zoologist (1869, p. 1645). Two wrens were found fighting on the ground, among the leaves. Their feet were locked, and they struck with their beaks. So absorbed were they, that one was picked up, while its rival flew to a rock, where it poured forth scorn and defiance. On being released the captive returned the challenge with equal energy, and in less than a minute they again closed, struggling on the ground as before. Though again separated twice, the combat was renewed each time. Finally they were left to settle their differences unhindered. 294 THE WREN The food of the wren consists of insects and their pupae, which it searches for in every nook and cranny of moss-covered walls and fences, or on the lichen-clad roots of trees, but principally amongst the hedgerows, where its lack of a long tail seems to considerably facilitate its movements ; for no other bird hunts so continuously in a line parallel with the hedge itself, or threads the interlacing twigs with such dexterity. But if so minded, the wren can turn itself into a tree-creeper and rapidly ascend a tree to a considerable height, crawling up 'with almost imperceptible hops; but, unlike the tree- creeper, every now and again assisting itself with tiny flutterings of the wings. The slender and slightly curved bill, too, is almost as finely adapted a means to an end as that of the tree-creeper. The hind-toe also is long, and the claws long and arched — slight structural adaptation which must greatly assist it in tree climbing. I have seen it stated by one writer that, owing to the wren's restricted diet, vast numbers yearly fall victims to starvation during frosty weather. But all others are agreed in pronouncing it an extremely hardy bird. Macgillivray remarks: "That small as the wren is, it seems to receive as little injury from severe weather as any of the larger birds"; and again, "In the midst of winter I have met with it in the valleys of the Grampians, where no other small birds were to be seen, unless a few tits and creepers." The same writer also says that in the stomach of one he opened he found " many small hard seeds, an entire pupa and elytra of coleopterous insects." Surely a diet catholic enough to make starvation even in cold weather a remote possibility ! In my own small garden there are always one or two wrens about all the year. After a heavy fall of snow their favourite habitat is an ivy-clad fence, surmounted with a tangle of honeysuckle and briar, all of which stands out about a foot from the fence. However thick the mantle of snow appears above this, there are always crevices by means of which birds obtain access to the vegetation behind ; and upon this there must be food in plenty, as well as shelter during severe THE WREN 295 weather. So, too, on gorse and bramble-covered wastes, where the undergrowth is thick, small birds find food and warmth amongst the roots and branches of these low-growing shrubs. I have just placed the thermometer behind the ivy against my fence and found it registered 30° F. at 7 P.M., whereas on the open lawn it sunk to 18° F. Stable and farm-yards, too, abound with wrens in hard weather, so that in the matter of food supply I cannot help thinking Nature is kinder to her tiny children than to those of larger growth. In any case, it must be a very severe frost to have any chastening effect upon a wren's spirits, for the song may be heard more or less all the year round. An interesting fact, recorded as long ago as 1844, in the Zoologist of that year (p. 564), is worth noting in connection with the feeding habits of the wren. One was distinctly seen to " walk over head into the water by the shallow margin of a brook, as if in search of insect food. This action it repeated several times in quick succession, and then, as if it had secured the object of its search, darted off into a neighbouring bush." The fact is all the more interesting, as it seems to bring the wren closer, not only in structure, but also in habit, to the dipper, the species to be described in the next chapter. Both male and female wrens take turns in incubating, and when the clamorous brood is hatched, the parents have all their work cut out to feed so many mouths. I unintentionally turned out a young family from a nest beneath the thatch of a cow-shed last spring. Some sat on the thatch, some on a fence, and one in a bush near at hand. The adult birds scolded and raged, but did not neglect one of the seven ; whether they lured them back into the old home at night I don't know, but next day they were all in its vicinity. Even in these enlightened days the idea is afloat that the wren is the robin's mate ! Ignorance and superstition die hard. It is all owing to that fabulous little nursery story about Cock Robin and Jenny Wren, and has no foundation in actual fact ; though, curiously enough, in looking carefully through the Migration Reports of Mr. 296 THE WREN Barrington, I came upon this bare statement: "A robin and wren at present on the rock," and the date — it is always well to be quite correct when retailing scandal — " May 16, 1890." 1 As already shown in the Classified Notes, there are in our Isles two local races of the wren. These are not known to display any marked difference in habit from the common form. The St. Kilda bird has the misfortune, however, to lay a larger egg than its co- subspecies, the discovery of which fact at once exposed it to the merciless persecution of a foolish type of collector, and has nearly led to its extermination.2 1 Migration of Birds at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships, p. 146. 2 For further information on this point, see W. H. Hudson's Lost British Birds. 17 193 .. - REGAL 746808 BIOLOGY LIBRARY u. / :^- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY