ZhJZ BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Volume LH H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD 5 Warwick Court * London * W.C.l LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE Plates 1-4 Plates 5-8 Plates 9-12 Plates 13-20 Plates 21-24 Plates 25-32 Plates 33-36 Plates 37-42 Plates 43-44 Plates 45-48 Plates 49-56 Plates 57-62 Plate 63 Plate 64 Tengmalm's Owls (Aegolius funereus), adults at nest and with prey, and juveniles, Sweden and Finland (Hans Kallander, Ake Norberg and Eric Hosking)... facing Tracks and feeding marks of various birds on tidal flats, and also the holes of certain marine worms, Holland (C. Swennen and Gr 6 van der Baan) ... facing Little Gulls ( Larus minutus), habitat, adults at nest, and juvenile, Denmark (C. C. Doncaster and J. B. and S. Bottomley) ... ... ... ... facing Terek Sandpipers (Tringa terek), adults at nests with eggs and young, and habitat, Finland (Eric Hosking) facing Ivory Gulls ( Pagophila eburnea), breeding-cliff, and adults at nests with eggs and young, Spitsbergen (J. L. Cutbill and R. E. Hitchcock) ... ... facing Yellow-breasted Buntings ( Emberiza aureola), male and female at nest with young, and habitats, Finland (Eric Hosking) ... ... ... ... ... facing Squacco Herons ( Ardeola ralloides), adults at nest and perched, including display, Spain (Eric Hosking) facing Alpine Swifts (A pus melba), adults and young, nests with eggs and young, and breeding-sites, Switzerland (E. Benz and F. Oberholzer) ... ... ... facing Sequence of twelve photographs of Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) laying in nest of Meadow Pipit ( Anthus pratensis), Worcestershire (Oliver G. Pike) ... facing Watching migration by radar: various bird movements in March, November and June, as seen on the radar screen (Royal Radar Establishment and R.A.F. Fighter Command) ... ... ... ... facing Ruffs ( Philomachus pugnax), lek-displays between “residents” and “visitors”, with and without females present; also Reeve on nest and bird in autumn plumage, Denmark (C. C. Doncaster and J. B. and S. Bottomley) ... ... ... ... ... facing Fulmars [Fulmarus glacialis) , nest-cliff, cackling-display, feeding chick, and flight-actions, Spitsbergen (C. J. Pennycuick) ... ... ... ... ... facing Two Robins (Erithacus rubecula ) sitting on the same nest, Sussex (F. Worger) Nest of Rook (Corvus frugilegus) on ground, Kent (W. S. Nevin) ... ... ... ... facing PAGE 16 17 52 88 122 158 190 222 223 260 300 356 357 Plate 65 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Arnold Whitworth Boyd (1885-1959) (Eric Hosking) facing 416 Plates 66-69 Ross’s Gull ( Rhodostethia rosea), adult female, Holland (J- Kist) Plate 70 Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia), male trapped at Fair Isle, April/May 1959 (Angela Davis) Plate 71 Nests of Goldfinches ( Carduelis carduelis) built with tie-on labels, Kent (East Mailing Research Station) Plate 72 Blue Tit ( Parus caeruleus) feeding young Treecreepers (Certhia familiaris), Nottinghamshire (N. J. Antoine) facing 417 JANUARY 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £ 2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LII, Number i, January 1959 PAGE The Crossbill invasion of 1956 and the subsequent breeding in 1957. By F. R. Smith ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 Breeding of the Ashy-headed Wagtail and Yellow Wagtail in Northern Ireland. By Thomas Ennis and Hill Dick ... ... ... ... 10 Photographic studies of some less familar birds. XC1II — Tengmalm’s Owl. Photographs by Hans Kallander, Ake Norberg and Eric Hosking (plates 1-4). Text by Hans Kallander ... ... ... ... ... 12 Tracking birds on tidal flats and beaches. By C. Swennen and Miss G. van der Baan. Photographs by the authors (plates 5-8) ... 15 Notes : — Head-stabilization by a Jay (G. H. Forster) ... ... ... ... 18 Orphean Warblers having dark eyes (C. H. Fry) ... ... ... 20 Feeding-methods of Long-tailed Tits with artificial food (Mrs. Joan Hall-Craggs) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Special review by E. M. Nicholson: Finnish Birds: Their Distribution and Numbers, by Einari Merikallio ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 Review : — Living Birds of the World. By E. Thomas Gilliard ... ... ... 30 Letter: — On the identification of some warblers (K. D. Smith) 31 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 The new cover is designed and drawn by E. A. Tomsett, the sketch of a Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. Vol. LI I No. x JANUARY *959 BRITISH BIRDS THE CROSSBILL INVASION OF 1956 AND THE SUBSEQUENT BREEDING IN 1957 Invasions of Great Britain by Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra) have been recorded periodically for hundreds of years, ever since 1251, and recent ones of notable size took place in 1927, 1935, 1942 and 1953 (Barraud, 1956). In view of the last, it might at first sight appear strange to find a further invasion taking place in 1956* and so it is of interest to consider the theories that have been put forward to account for these visitations. Lack (1954) has two theories, neither of which he looks upon as being conclusive in itself: — (1) That invasions follow, and are stimulated by, an exceptionally successful breeding year at the western end of their breeding range. (2) That they ultimately occur when there is a failure in the normal food supply. Williamson (1954) considers that the irregularity of these large-scale movements is due to the rarity with which the responsible factors coincide and relates them more closely to their meteorological environment. A strong polar high pressure system over a large part of the species’ range in the period between the end of the breeding season and the beginning of the moult is, he considers, the ultimate factor, when this follows a season in which the spruce cone-crop has given a rich yield of seeds and breeding has been unusually successful. Svardson (1957) relates the movements much more closely to the shortage of spruce seeds, the natural and principal food of the Crossbill. He points out that in southern Sweden a rich *It should be remembered that in 1958 there was yet another invasion of Crossbills, from the end of June onwards (antea, pp. 315-316). — Eds. By F. R. Smith INTRODUCTION I 2 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII cone winter occurs every third or fourth year, and that the better this crop of cones is in one winter, the poorer will be the crop available in the following- one. In the winter of i952_53 the crop of spruce cones was low over the whole of Sweden and the breeding- population of Crossbills was also very low. At this critical time of food shortage a large scale movement of Crossbills took place westwards through Sweden, originating from further east and probably stimulated by similar spruce-cone shortage conditions. As the movements of Crossbills normally occur after the old seeds fall from the cones in April and May and before those of the new crop ripen in August, the resulting invasion into Great Britain in the summer of 1953 is explained, the birds continuing westwards in their search for food. The winter of 1954-55 was again rich in spruce cones through- out Sweden and a poor crop followed a year later, so that there was a minimum supply of seeds in the spring of 1956. An influx from the east therefore produced an invasion into Great Britain in the summer of 1956 in accordance with the theories advanced by Svardson. It would appear, then, that the weather at the time of the irruption is not the dominating factor, though it is of importance in the determination of the front along which the arrival into Great Britain takes place, the direction taken by the Crossbills being generally east to west along the breeding range, or west to east in the pendulum flights which must subsequently occur. Reinikainen (1937) had already demonstrated that the high degree of nomadic wandering by Crossbills is related to seasons when the spruce seed yield is low, but subsequent evidence obtained by Svardson shows that this correlation is not always as positive as the material suggested. In particular, 1942-43 was a peak cone winter and also a peak breeding season due to a 1942 invasion from the east coupled with this high spruce crop ; yet this abundant season was followed by a large scale movement eastward in the summer of 1943. A completely satisfactory explanation of the irruptions and subsequent reverse movements will be obtainable only when a full analysis of the status of the Crossbill over the whole of its breeding range is available, together with a complete knowledge of the fruiting rhythms of the spruce over the whole of this area. THE INVASION INTO GREAT BRITAIN DURING 1956 Although not on as large a scale as the 1953 invasion, the pattern of the 1956 irruption was true to form and took place at the normal annual movement time for Crossbills. However, whereas the 1953 influx took the form of a gradual spread from a north-easterly point of origin, the 1956 arrival started about a month later as a massive east to west movement on a broad front followed by a rapid penetration into the more distant parts of England. (In this connection, it is of interest to add that the vol. lii] CROSSBILLS IN BRITAIN: 1956-57 3 recent 1958 movement appears, from a preliminary analysis, to have been more on the lines of 1956 than 1953.) The first indications of the invasion were a few arrivals at the Isle of May on 1st July and flocks of 30 and 55 at Fair Isle on the 2nd and 3rd respectively. By 4th July the movement was in full swing- on a broad front stretching- from the Shetland Isles to Yorkshire and, although the numbers were at first small (flocks Fig. r — To snow the westward movement of the first arrivals of Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra) in July 1956 4 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII of five or six birds), by 6th July 200 had been recorded at Fair Isle, flocks of 20-30 had been seen in Berwickshire, Peeblesshire, Selkirkshire, Northumberland, Durham and Yorkshire, and a party of 12 had reached as far south as Kent. The birds passed rapidly inland (Fig-. 1), parties of six or seven being seen in Surrey and Sussex on 7th and 8th July, and by 12th July they had penetrated as far as west Somerset where a flock of 40 was recorded. The Isle of Man was reached by at least 14 Crossbills on 15th July and on the same day six were seen in Worcestershire; on the 16th a small flock appeared at St. Kilda and 30 were noted in Devon. The first 10 were seen in Hereford- shire on 19th July and during the next few days many of the counties further east recorded their first ones as further flocks came in: Essex, two about 20th July; Oxfordshire, six on the 22nd and 40 on the 25th ; Berkshire, one on the 25th ; and Bucking- hamshire and Bedfordshire, several each in the last part of the month. Small flocks of up to twelve were seen in Northern Ire- land on 2 1 st, 22nd and 25th July and one or two in early August. It is evident that the 1956 invasion differed from the 1953 influx in that it was mainly concentrated into the first half of July, with arrivals on a large scale and a broad front, though there was a smaller secondary influx from 28th August to 8th September. On Fair Isle, for instance, none was recorded between 13th July and 28th August, whereas in 1953 they were seen in considerable numbers from mid-June to mid-September. The breeding distribution of Crossbills in Europe and Asia extends northwards from a line approximately along latitude 540 (see antea, vol. L, p. 324, fig. 2) and it is of interest to note that the July invasion into Great Britain similarly occurred principally from latitude 540 north- wards. The 1956 invasion also differed from the one in 1953 in that no Crossbills were seen in Cornwall and the numbers in Ireland were smaller. The end of July and the whole of August was, therefore, a period of little movement, flocks being recorded in seventeen counties in areas where cones were plentiful. In Scotland, flocks of up to 60 were seen in Berwickshire, numerous flocks of up to 30 in Perthshire and Inverness-shire, and several hundreds in Dumfries-shire. In Co. Durham, flocks of nearly 100 were seen until late August, but the Crossbills elsewhere in England during August were usually in groups of less than 20 with the exception of those in Northumberland (flocks of up to 40) and in Gloucestershire (flocks of up to 30). The secondary influx began on 28th August at Fair Isle and on 4th September at the Isle of May, and numerous parties were recorded during the first week of September in Northumberland. In Norfolk, 20 were seen on Newarp Light Vessel on 2nd September and there were small parties on the coast on the 3rd and 4th. A much greater general movement was then again recorded: this involved twenty-six counties and affected southern Scotland, vol. lii] CROSSBILLS IN BRITAIN: 1956-57 o almost the whole of England and part of Wales, but the flocks were small, being of less than 20 birds except in Berwickshire (flocks of over 100), Perthshire (flocks of up to 50), Wales (up to 25) and Surrey (up to 30). A restless movement continued throughout October and November and during these months thirty counties reported small parties while several recorded larger groups. Scotland had flocks of up to 80 in Ross, Inverness, Kirkcudbright, Berwick and Peebles, while in England flocks of up to 60 were seen in Northumberland, Durham, Hereford, Wiltshire and Sussex. Cross- bills were particularly numerous in Northumberland where in one locality it was estimated that at least 500 were present and at the same time in another, where the coniferous trees had just reached the cone-bearing stage, many large flocks were frequently seen. December records from sixteen counties varied mainly from two to 14 birds. Northumberland was the exception as the large concentration of over 500 was still maintained. A steady falling off in numbers was taking place elsewhere, leaving behind small wintering flocks. BREEDING IN I957 The 1953 invasion was followed by a certain amount of breed- ing success in Great Britain in 1954 in areas where there are normally no Crossbills. The influx of 1956 was also followed by successful breeding in 1957 but on a much larger scale. This success was principally evident in England and Wales where nesting was proved in at least eight counties and suspected in an additional eight. In a further nine counties Crossbills were present during the 1957 breeding season and it seems possible that they may have nested in at least some of these without being detected. A summary of the breeding records follows (see also Fig. 2). Northumberland. — A nest found in one area on 25th January 1957 contained four eggs. It was situated in a Sitka spruce at a height of about ten feet from the ground and at an altitude of 750 feet. Although an inch of snow was lying on the ground at the time, the young were successfully reared. Breeding was also strongly suspected in various areas of suitable woodland where Crossbills were present in early 1957 and also in localities where they were known to have bred after previous invasions. Cumberland. — Crossbills were seen in small groups and in pairs until April 1957 in the Thirlmere and Keswick areas and it is likely that breeding took place. Westmorland. — Crossbills bred in at least three different localities in 1957 and nest-building, incubation and feeding were closely watched. One nest was situated at a height of nearly sixty feet against the main trunk of a larch. Yorkshire. — In the North Riding several parties of Crossbills were seen in June 1957. 1° the West Riding breeding was proved to have taken place in one area and was suspected at others. Lancashire. — In the north of the county, four nests were found in one area and there was evidence that there were very many more. Females were seen carrying building materials in other suitable localities. One nest was built on the arm of a stunted Scots pine at a height of about five feet from 6 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII the ground. These are believed to be the first breeding records in Lancashire. Cheshire. — A pair of adults and two juveniles were observed in mid-June and elsewhere another juvenile was seen begging for food from an adult. As thirty were recorded in May in still another area, further nesting success may have taken place. Derbyshire. — A small number of adults and juveniles were seen in the western part of the county in mid-June. Staffordshire. — Crossbills were seen in small parties in the south-western part of the county until the end of March, but breeding was not proved. Fig. 2 — To show the post-invasion breeding distribution of Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra) in England and Wales in 1957 vol. lii] CROSSBILLS IN BRITAIN: 1956-57 7 Shropshire. — Flocks of up to 30 and one of about 100 were seen in February, April and May 1957. Breeding was not proved but could well have occurred in the sparsely inhabited country concerned. Radnorshire. — Crossbills were seen from January until May in small numbers and breeding was suspected but not proved. Herefordshire. — Flocks of up to 30 were seen in a number of places from January until the end of March and two birds were seen in May. Breeding was suspected but not proved. Bedfordshire. — A few Crossbills were seen in March, and in May there were young birds in one garden. Gloucestershire. — Crossbills were concentrated principally in the Forest of Dean where it is estimated that up to 150 were present in the early months of 1957. Although only one nest was found, breeding of several pairs was strongly suspected in this large area which is difficult to search. Oxfordshire. — Small parties of up to twelve were seen until May and breeding was suspected. Hertfordshire. — A few Crossbills occurred in February and March, but breeding was not proved. Wiltshire. — A few were recorded in February and March, but there was no proof of breeding. Berkshire. — Small parties were seen until May when flocks of up to 25 were recorded. No evidence of breeding was obtained. Buckinghamshire. — A pair in May with fully fledged young is the nearest approach to a breeding record. Devon. — A pair was observed feeding two newly fledged young and breeding was suspected in two other areas. Somerset. — Birds were seen in small numbers in two areas in January and February and there was a small party in May in another area. Breeding may have taken place. Dorset. — In the eastern part of the county, Crossbills were watched at six sites and breeding by single pairs was proved to have taken place at four of them in April and May. Hampshire. — A family party was seen in April in an area away from the New Forest (where breeding takes place regularly each year) and this suggests that additional breeding, as a result of the invasion, may have taken place in 1957. Surrey. — There were parties of Crossbills in each month from January to June: the largest was one of 33 and breeding was strongly suspected. Sussex. — Small parties were seen during the early months of 1957, the largest being one of 18 in April. No evidence of breeding was recorded. In many of these counties no Crossbills were seen after June 1957 and, as the normal annual movement is during the summer months, it is likely that they were leaving Great Britain in appreciable numbers at this time and returning eastwards. FOOD As in previous invasions, many observers gave details of the food which they had seen Crossbills eating. The following notes represent only a brief summary of points of interest and do not in any way attempt a food analysis : the data would be insufficient to justify that and it is recognized that invasion behaviour is abnormal in any case. Readers are also referred to the useful summary in Barraud (1956, pp. 293-296). Conifers were, of course, the principal souces of food and the areas in which spruces ( Picea spp.) predominated were well favoured. Among other trees, there were a few records of the birds being seen feeding on the cones of alders ( Alnus glutinosa), 8 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII though it must be remembered that it is usually difficult in these cases to be certain whether the actual seeds or insects are being taken. Plants on which Crossbills were seen included thistles (Car duus spp.), ragwort ( Senecio spp.), tufts of heather ( Ccdluna vulgaris) and thrift ( Statice maritima). In Herefordshire in February they were observed feeding on beech mast ( Fagus sylvatica) ; and later in another locality on young leaves of oak ( Quercus sp.). There were a few records of unidentified caterpillars being taken and one instance of a female Crossbill on a bird-table eating crumbs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following observers and correspondents who supplied the detailed information on which this analysis is based. The list also includes the names of the numerous editors of county and other reports who rendered invaluable assistance in the collection of the necessary data. Grateful thanks are also made to any whose names may have inadvertently escaped inclusion in this list. E. M. D. Acland, R. G. Adams, A. F. Airey, H. G. Alexander, S. M. D. Alexander, T. R. Ammonds, D. G. Andrew, Dr. J. S. Ash. R. P. Bagnall-Oakeley, R. H. Baillie, A. Baldridge, C. M.Ball, P. Banks, Dr. D. A. Bannerman, P. R. G. Barbier, J. A. G. Barnes, A. Bastable, P. S. Bates, Rev. J. E. Beckerlegge, J. H. Bell, Rev. H. C. Blackburne, A. M. Bond, Miss P. M. Bond, Mrs. Boothby, J. B. Bottomley, Mrs. S. Bottomley, A. W. Boyd, R. J. Bradney, C. J. Brecknall, W. G. Breed, Miss H. J. Brotherton, B. Brunn, A. J. Bull, M. E. Burkitt, J. Buyers, G. H. C. Byford. C. D. Cadbury, C. J. Cadbury, Dr. Bruce Campbell, W. D. Campbell, D. Carr, Mrs. F. E. Carter, Mrs. G. M. Chadwyck-Healey, C. E. M. Chapman, J. Chard, R. Chestney, R. Chislett, T. M. Clegg, F. K. Cobb, R. B. Cobb, E. Cohen, B. Coleman, J. C. L. Comby, M. Conder, W. M. Condry, B. E. Cooper, J. F. Cooper, A. V. Cornish, R. K. Cornwallis, F. Coss, A. Cowieson, R. A. F. Cox, Mrs. Cox, J. Coyne, S. Craddock, H. J. Craske, R. M. Curber. P. J. Dare, P. F. Davidson, W. H. Davis, T. E. Dennery, R. F. Dickens, E. C. Dickinson, G. S. T. Diggory, T. Dixon, A. Dobbs, J. Dodds, W. Douglas, P. H. Dymott. C. W. S. Ellis, E. A. Ellis, Dr. E. A. R. Ennion. J. Field, R. S. R. Fitter, Miss W. U. Flower, J. E. Flynn, J. Foil. R. M. Garnett, F. M. Gauntlett, S. D. Gibbard, Miss M. J. Gibbs, E. H. Gillham, E. M. Gladding, M. Glegg, G. B. Gooch, P. F. Goodfellow, D. Grant, E. E. Green, S. T. Greenhouse, F. C. Gribble. D. D. Harber, E. Hardy, A. J. Harthan, J. E. Haswell, F. G. Henderson, Canon G. A. K. Hervey, R. A. O. Hickling, Mrs. M. G. A. Hinde, P. W. Hinde, P. A. D. Hollom, M. B. Horan, D. Hughes, G. R. Humphreys, O. D. Hunt, R. J. Hunt, H. G. Hurrell, M. M. Hutchinson. H. E. Ingram, G. M. Ireson. E. E. Jackson, B. Jeffery, A. R. Jenkins. T. Kay, R. Kemp, Rev. P. G. Kennedy, P. Kerr. Dr. D. Lack, J. N. A. Larmuth, T. S. Leach, Miss R. F. Lewx, L. Lloyd- Evans, Col. W. M. Logan-Home, A. G. Long, J. Lord. D. Macdonald, M. K. Macpherson, J. R. Marshall, M. Marston, Miss G. E. May, W. H. Meadham, H. P. Medhurst, A. Middleton, C. D. T. Minton, A. F. Mitchell, Rev. R. Mitchell, A. C. Morris, J. H. B. Munro, B. Murray, W. Murray, D. F. Musson. C. A. Norris. vol. hi] CROSSBILLS IN BRITAIN: 1956-57 9 E. T. Pederson, R. S. Pitchin, R. L. Pitt, R. S. Pollard, G. A. Pyman. P. C. Quin. C. E. Radcliffe, Mrs. H. Rait-Kerr, D. E. Redfern, J. Reynolds, T. J. Richards, Miss Rickard, P. Roberts, L. B. Robinson, Dr. K. B. Rooke, M. C. Rothcope, E. M. Rutter, Major R. F. Ruttledge. J. A. Sage, M. J. Seago, R. Simpson, M. Sinclair, A. J. Smith, A. V. Smith, P. J. Stead, I. Stewart, B. M. Stratton, Dr. G. Svardson, C. M. Swaine. C. F. Tebbutt, G. W. Temperley, Mrs. A. Tewnion, Mrs. M. Traill-Clouston. C. M. Veysey, A. E. Vine. C. W. Walker, D. F. Walker, A. J. Wallis, J. I. Ward, Prof. E. H. Warmington, G. Waterston, M. Waring, P. J. Welbourne, Mrs. M. J. White, R. G. Williams, K. Williamson, P. Wolstenholm, J. A. Wood, Mrs. M. J. Wood. P. Young. SUMMARY 1. The pattern of past invasions of Crossbills is examined and consideration is given to the varied theories that have been put forward to account for their irregularity. The timing of the 1956 irruption is discussed in relation to the spruce crop in Scandinavia. 2. The 1956 invasion of Crossbills was concentrated mainly into the first half of July, with arrivals on a broad front from the 1 st to the 15th and on a reduced scale during the third week. A secondary and lesser invasion followed between 28th August and 8th September. 3. These birds stayed in Great Britain in large numbers until the end of 1956, many wintered and some remained to nest in 1957. Successful breeding was on a larger scale than that follow- ing the 1953 invasion: it was proved in at least eight counties in England and Wales and suspected in an additional eight ; in a further nine counties Crossbills were present during the breeding season. 4. Very few Crossbills were seen after June 1957. REFERENCES Barraud, E. M. (1956): “The Crossbill invasion of Great Britain in 1953”. Brit. Birds, xlix: 289-297. Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford. Pederson, E. T. (1957): “Ynglende Korsnoeb i frost og snestorm’’. Nat. Verd., Dec. 1957: 23-27. Reinikainen, A. (1937): “The irregular migration of the Crossbills and their relation to the cone-crop of the conifers”.”. Orn. Fentt., 14: 55-64. Svardson, G. (1955): “Crossbills in Sweden in 1953”. Brit. Birds, xlvii : 425-428. — — — — - (1957): “The ‘invasion’ type of bird migration. Brit. Birds, l: 3I4-343- Waterston, G. (1956): “Crossbills in south-east Scotland”. Edinburgh Bird Bulletin, 7: 28-29. Williamson, K. (1954): “A synoptic study of the 1953 Crossbill irruption”. Scot. Nat., 66: 155-169. Witherby, H. F., et al. (1938): The Handbook of British Birds. London. BREEDING OF THE ASHY-HEADED WAGTAIL AND YELLOW WAGTAIL IN NORTHERN IRELAND By Thomas Ennis and Hill Dick On 5TH June 1956 H.D. found a pair of flava- type wagtails at Duncrue Street marsh, Belfast, which were completely strange to him. The birds were tired and seemed newly arrived, and they permitted him to study them at close range for three-quarters of an hour. During this time he took full notes on behaviour, plumage details, etc., and finally came to the conclusion that he was watching a pair of variant Blue-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla flava flava). The birds were seen on many occasions during the next few weeks, however, and were subsequently identified as Ashy-headed Wagtails (M. /. drier eocapilla). Then, after one unsuccessful attempt, they bred and reared three young birds. A few days after the first pair were discovered breeding, T.E. found a pair of Yellow Wagtails ( M . f. flavissima ) and a second pair of cinereocapilla breeding at Kinnegar, Holywood, two miles away to the south-east. This second pair of dnereocapiUa reared five young successfully, as did the flavissima pair. Up to this date flavissima had been regarded in Northern Ireland as a rare visitor in spring and autumn (formerly it was a summer resident around Lough Neagh, but it has not been noted there as a breeding bird since 1941 — Deane, 1954), while the status of cinereocapilla in the whole of the British Isles is that of an exceptionally rare vagrant that had been recorded only twice before (Williamson, 1955; Richardson and Clarke, 1955). DUNCRUE STREET AREA The Duncrue Street area comprises ten acres of rough waste- land, in which the marsh is situated. This is an overflow catchment pond adjoining a sewage-station, the water-level of which is governed both by the filter-bed waste and precipitation. In summer exposed areas in the marsh are densely overgrown. The marsh is flanked on its western side by ponds and rubble, but to the east, beyond the sewage-station, is a portion of relatively even, dry ground, about one acre in extent, covered with short grass and low shrubs. This pair of cinereocapilla nested twice, the first attempt being unsuccessful. The first nest, containing four eggs, was discovered on 17th June in a shallow depression amongst the sea-aster (Aster tripolium ) in the marsh. Subsequent heavy rain swamped this, causing desertion. The nest and eggs were donated to the Belfast Museum. The second nest belonging to this pair was found on 9th July about 300 yards to the east of the original site, containing four 10 vol. lii] YELLOW WAGTAILS IN IRELAND 11 young- birds three days old and an infertile egg. It was well concealed in coltsfoot ( Tussilago farfara), and the dry nature of this site made the risk of flooding practically negligible. On igth July three young fledged, the fourth having died on the 15th. KINNEGAR AREA The second site embraces a portion of reclaimed land containing two rectangular ponds, the water levels of which are governed by rainfall and evaporation. The more northerly pond is never full, but usually has a small amount of water in the eastern end while the rest is rough grassy land. The southern pond is much larger and always contains water, though there is usually a portion of semi-marshy ground in the western extremity. In winter this is inclined to become waterlogged, but in summer evaporation causes the water-level to recede, thus leaving the grass relatively dry and exposing large areas of mud. The ponds themselves are separated by a runway of Sydenham aerodrome, which is constantly used by jet aircraft. At Kinnegar one pair of flavissima and one pair of cinereocapilla bred successfully, each rearing five young. On 5th July T.E. observeda male flavissima atthe northern pond and on the following morning found it in company with an adult male cinereocapilla. The latter was not about that evening, but a female flavissima was present. A flavissima nest was discovered on 12th July contain- ing five recently hatched young. On the evening of 20th July the male cinereocapilla was seen again in company with a female and at 11.30 hours on 21st July their nest was found, in the southern pond, containing five fledglings. By 15.30 hours on the same day the whole family had left the nest, as had the flavissima juveniles. Both families stayed at the Kinnegar site for a few days, but by 27th July the cinereocapilla family had left the area and were not seen again. The flavissima family departed from Kinnegar on 6th August. Ten days later a pair of flavissima with five young were found in company with the other pair of cinereocapilla in the Duncrue Street area. They stayed in a mixed flock until the beginning of September but by the 12th none was present. It is possible that more than one pair of flavissima bred in Northern Ireland during 1956 as two adult males and a female were seen at Kinnegar on 22nd September on passage. In the years 1957 and 1958 flavissima again bred in Northern Ireland, but no cinereocapilla were identified. DETAILED PLUMAGE-DESCRIPTIONS OF CINEREOCAPILLA Duncrue Street pair. Male: — Forehead, crown, nape and ear-coverts subtly shading from cobalt blue to light blue-grey. Ear-coverts very slightly darker than crown. Lores noticeably darker, almost black. Narrow white superciliary starting behind eye. Mantle, back and rump olive-green. Tail blackish-brown with conspicuous white outer feathers. Chin and throat white, rest of under-parts bright yellow. Primaries dark brown, coverts as mantle. Two narrow white bars on wing. Bill and legs black. 12 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Female: — Forehead, crown and nape grey brown. Cheeks grey brown with a huffish white superciliary starting behind eye. Upper-parts brownish. Tail dark brown with white outer feathers. Throat, chin, breast and belly dirty grey-white. Lower belly tinged lemon-yellow, vent area brighter yellow. Wings brown with two faint wing-bars. Bill and legs as male. Kinnegar pair. Male: — Forehead, crown, nape and hindneck dull ashy-grey. Lores very dark. Ear-coverts looked darker than the crown at a distance, but on close examination seemed almost uniform with the crown. No supercilium. Mantle, back and rump olive-brown, much browner than the olive-green upper-parts of Duncrue Street male. Tail blackish-brown with white outer feathers. Chin creamy off-white, breast to under tail-coverts bright sulphur-yellow (brighter than flavissima or Duncrue Street male). Wings, bill and legs as Duncrue Street male. Female: — Identical with Duncrue Street female but for a dark grey-brown “V” on upper breast. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank I. C. McDonald, S. Penney, A. R. Thompson and A. J. Tree for their co-operation. We are also indebted to C. D. Deane, R. F. Ruttledge and K. Williamson, who furnished us with identification details, skins and advice in the preparation of this paper. REFERENCES Deane, C. D. (1954): A Handbook of the Birds of Northern Ireland. Belfast. Smith, S. (1950): The Yellow Wagtail. London. Richardson, R. A., and Clarke, P. R. (1955): “Ashy-headed Wagtail in Norfolk”. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 459. Williamson, K. (1955): “Migrational drift and the Yellow Wagtail complex”. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 382-403. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS XCIIL TENGMALM’S OWL Photographs by Hans Kallander, Ake Norberg and Eric Hosking (Plates 1-4) Text by Hans Kallander Photographs of Tengmalm’s Owl ( Aegolius funereus) have been published once before in this series, in 1953 ( antea , vol. xlvi, plates 1-2, pp. 15-16), and the reader is referred to the text which appeared then for details of the world distribution and field- characters, though the latter are covered briefly in the captions to the present photographs (plates 1-4). Here it will suffice to repeat only that Tengmalm’s Owl has a wide distribution, breed- ing in Europe from Scandinavia and southern France eastwards right across Asia and also in North America, but everywhere chiefly between latitudes 45° and 65°N. TENGMALM’S OWL STUDIES 13 VOL. LIl] In Sweden, where most of these photographs were taken, Tengrn aim’s Owl breeds locally in the south and rather more frequently in central districts. Further north it is much commoner and is the most abundant owl, appearing as far as the upper limits of the pine forests on the high mountains. In the province of Narke (Central Sweden), where I have studied and photographed the species, this owl breeds not too rarely in the large woodlands. Eggs are laid in hollow trees, usually in old nests of the Black Woodpecker ( Dryocopus martius) and thus often in pines and poplars. However, because of the way forestry interests are thinning out such old hollow trees, there is an increasing lack of convenient natural nesting holes, particularly in the southern parts of Sweden. Perhaps for that reason, nest-boxes erected for Goldeneyes ( Bucephala clang ula ) are often used by Tengmalm’s Owls. Like other owls, this species is very dependent upon the supply of rodents, its main prey (see below), and the number of breeding pairs varies in direct proportion to the density of the prey. Similarly, the sizes of the broods vary (from 3 to 6 or more) with the food supply. In the autumn, migratory birds are sometimes observed, quite frequently in such unexpected places as parks and gardens; these are mostly young birds. In certain years the numbers are such that the movement may be regarded as an invasion, and in Sweden 1919, 1935 and to a lesser extent 1930 were examples. In large parts of Sweden 1957 was a very good rodent year and the number of breeding Tengmalm’s Owls was also apparently unusually high. In the autumn of that year there was a mass movement of wood-mice ( Apodemus spp.) in Central Sweden and. in spite of a high mortality during the winter, they were still numerous in the spring of 1958. As a result, Tengmalm’s Owl was much more abundant than usual in several districts and in some areas studied in the province of Narke there was as high a density as one singing male per square mile; from districts further east even higher densities were reported. Song could be heard from the end of February (the normal date for this latitude) and there was a maximum of activity during March, after which the volume of sound rapidly decreased during the first part of April. Later on the species could be heard only occasionally and one energetically-singing male heard in May must have been a non-breeder. In 1958 eggs were mostly laid during the first half of April the period thus corresponding with the decrease in song. During March, in the period of highest activity, the owls began to sing about one hour after sunset, which at this latitude is quite a lime before nightfall. Song continued throughout the night, hut with a noticeable falling off for about two hours before mid- night. The song is described briefly in The Handbook, but some 14 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII additional remarks may be of value here. It consists of a run of some 3-5 short liquid flute-like notes “hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo”, the last ones being's somewhat higher in pitch. This run is regularly repeated after a pause of 1-3 seconds. The song varies in speed as well as in pitch and when the owl is very excited for some reason, e.g. when another male encroaches upon its territory, it utters long and faster runs of this sound. Thus I have heard up to 50 notes in secession. The normal song is loud and can sometimes be heard at a distance of up to ij miles. However, this varies and the sound may be very weak at the breeding place after the eggs have hatched. Similarly, it does not reach full intensity when the owl begins to sing after a pause: then it is usually uttered in slower tempo. A variation, sharper and more barking, is used near the nest as an alarm-note and this might be written as “weck-weck- weck-weck-weck”. The usual alarm-note (probably uttered by the female only) is otherwise very short and sharp and resembles the smack of a Red Squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris) — but with a more metallic tone like the sound of a stick hitting a railing. When disturbed in the nesting area, the female also has a thin piping- sound very like the hunger-cry of the nestling. Little is known about the habits of Tengmalm’s Owl during the incubation period and unfortunately I got no opportunity to study a nest before the eggs hatched. In May and June 1958, however, I spent eight nights at two different nests, each with four young. One was in a hollow poplar and the other in a nest-box for Goldeneye. Conditions for observation were especially good at the latter because the box was on a pole in the open, on a small moss, about 30 yards from the forest edge. By 15th June the nestlings were about three weeks old and were being energetically fed by the adults. My observations in 3 nights at this nest showed that at about 21.40 hours (i.e. about one hour after sunset) the adults would leave their roosting places which were probably about 10-13 feet up in the thick crowns of some pines. One of them (at least once it proved to be the female) would then fly out to the nest, but obviously carrying no prey. The young were first fed about an hour later (22.40 hours) and then at intervals of 20 minutes on average (varying between 5 and 40 minutes) until about 01.30 (sunrise at 03.10). Thus, during less than 3 hours some 7-10 items of prey were brought to the nest: these were wood-mice ( Apodcmus spp.) (plate 2), shrews (Sorex spp.) (plate 3) and at least once the nestling of some Passerine. These observations agree very well with those made by Mr. Uno Eliasson in 1937 'n t'10 province of Vastergotland, about 90 miles east of Gothenburg ( Vur Fdgelviirld , vol. 17, pp. 230-232). As his studies were made a fortnight earlier in the year, the feeding period was somewhat longer as a result of the longer night, but Mr. Eliasson was mainly concerned with an vol. lii] TENGMALM’S OWL STUDIES 15 investigation of the choice of prey and this he continued during 1958 with Mr. Ake Norberg. Table I summarizes the results of their investigation during those two years. Table I — Remains of animals found in pellets from 5 nests of Tencmalm’s Owl ( Aegolius funercus) in Vastergotland, Sweden, 1957-1958 Species Number Percentage Common Shrew (Sorex araneus ) 62 22.5% Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutus) 4 '•5% Unidentified shrews (Sorex spp.) IO 3-6% Field Vole (Microtus agrestis) I l8 42-9% Bank Vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) 3.4 12.0% Vole Rat (Arvicola terrestris) I 0.4% Wood mice (Apodemus spp.) 19 6.9% Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) 12 4-4?£ Birds ca. 16 5-8% Thus it can be seen that Field Voles, and to a lesser extent Common Shrews, made up the bulk of the prey. This was due to the fact that the pellets examined all came from nests close to fields. In woodland the number of Microtus would, of course, be much lower. The number of dormice (plate 4 upper) is also strikingly high, but this was because these mammals are relatively common just in the district where the studies were carried out. It was possible to identify only some of the bird remains found in the pellets, but these included one Great Tit ( Pams major), one Song Thrush ( Turdus philomelos ) (nearly as big as the owl itself!), one Robin (Erithacus rubecula), one warbler ( Phylloscopus sp.), one Goldcrest ( Regains regains), one Pied Flycatcher ( Muscicapa hypoleuca), one Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella ) and several Chaffinches or Bramblings ( Fringilla coelebs or montifringilla). In addition, a Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra) was seen to be taken by the owl to one of the nests studied by Mr. Eliasson. Finally, it should be mentioned that wing-cases of beetles (Coleoptera) were also found in fresh pellets, thus indicating that Tengmalm’s Owl eats insects to some extent. TRACKING BIRDS ON TIDAL FLATS AND BEACHES By C. Swennen and G. van der Baan (Plates 5-8) Sandy or muddy beaches and tidal flats offer an excellent opportunity for ecological investigation. The many miles of sand or mud emerging when the tide goes out provide in their bottom fauna the staple food for thousands of waders, gulls and ducks. We see them feeding, but even for a trained observer it is often difficult to make out what exactly they are finding there. 16 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII It is not only that their swift movements are difficult to follow; we also need to know what their prey may be. For the birds it is clearly a matter of routine ; they are experienced hunters and succeed in collecting a sufficient amount of food in the few hours which the movements of the tides allow. Let us follow them at low tide and look at the tracks they leave — not only their footprints, but every sign of their activity. Combining this with observations of feeding birds and with a study of the bottom fauna — by sieving a sufficient number of samples — we may be able to guess what is their principal source of food. If possible, further confirmation should be sought by the examination of pellets, faeces and stomach contents. The photographs on plates 5-8, all taken in Holland, illustrate a few instances of bird activities on tidal flats and it is simplest to look at these in order and use them to show how the signs may be interpreted. Plate 5 top shows a sandy beach where Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus) had been feeding. They did not leave any footprints in the firm sand, but they left the marks of their beaks : two double holes, which meant that the beak had been pushed into the ground opened. Some pecks were shallow; some were deep, showing a vigorous downward movement. Sieved samples showed that the only prey to be found in that particular spot was the worm Nerine cirratulus. This worm lives in a vertical position in the ground — from the surface, where its tentacles may emerge at high tide, down to about 40 centimetres (16 inches) below at low tide or when disturbed. Plate 5 centre shows the holes of this worm in the sand. Plate 5 bottom illustrates the activity of Turnstones ( Arenaria interpres). Part of the tidal flats south of Vlieland (Frisian islands) is covered by long strands of Enteromorpha sp. (one of the green algae). These are twisted together by the waves to form an enormous sheet which at low tide rests on the sand. The Turnstones will roll up pieces of this weed, rather like small carpets, with an incredibly swift and efficient movement and catch the Gammarus locusta wriggling about as the weed is removed. The “carpet” is pushed by beak, nape and sometimes shoulders. These rolled carpets, sometimes unrolled again by a second bird, are typically the work of Turnstones. Plate 6 top: the Knot (Cnlidris canutus ) likes Gammarus too, but catches them by making holes in the Enteromorpha carpet, as it has not mastered the trick of rolling. The next three photographs show three feeding methods of the Shelduck ( Tadorna tadornd). The first method (plate 6 centre) is used in wet, soft mud. The bird walks along “mowing” its beak through the mud from left to right and back again, leaving a trail like fern leaves. The prey is not known. There is a lot of edible matter in this mud, especially young worms and young Pl.ATE I Plate 2 Hans Kiillandcr Tknomalm’s Owi. (Aegolius funereus): Narke, Sweden, 17x11 June 1958 Note tlie large head, and the wide and deep facial discs — not flattened like those of the Little Owl (Athene noclua) (points to remember as the two species are comparable in size). In addition, the discs are conspicuously bordered with black (see also plate 3) and the crown is spotted with white (not streaked as in Little Owl). The bird here is holding a wood-mouse (Apodamus sp.), a common prey of this owl which in Sweden lives mainly on rodents (see pages 14-15). Pl.ATF. 3 Hans Kiillandcr Tint, malm's Owe (Aegolius funereus): Xarkf., Sweden, 15m Jim: 1958 Here tlie tiglitly-held prey is a shrew ( Sorex sp.), another regular food in Sweden (see page 15). The black border to the owl’s whitish facial discs can be clearly seen here. Note also the rather mottled under-parts, much less streaked than those of the Little Owl (Athene noctua). lvxcept in the far north, Tengmalm’s Owl is almost exclusively nocturnal in its hunting, and very difficult to locate by day as it perches close to the trunk in dense pine-tops. Plate q Ake N orb erg Tengmalm’s Owl (Aegolius funereus): Yastkrgoti.and, Sweden, 2nd June 1957 Note the long white feathers to the toes, a feature of this species among small Kuropean owls. Tengmalm’s also has the wavering flight of the -larger owls, though with quicker wing-beats which give it a bat-like appearance. The surprised victim here is a Dormouse ( Muscardinus avellanarius). Eric Ho ski ntf Young Tkngmalm's Owi.s (Aegolius funereus): Evo, Finland, ^rd June 1958 The first two of six young to leave their nest in a box for Goldeneyes (Buccphala clangula): chocolate-brown all over, except for white marks on the face and otherwise just a few whitish mottlings. After the autumn moult they become like the adults. Plate 5 C. Swcnnen Holes made by Oystf.rcatciier ( Haematopus ostralegus) in beach (Scheveningen, Holland.) Holes were double, showing bird’s beak was inserted open: some were shallow, others deep (see page 16 and plate 5 centre). C. Swenncn Holes ok the marine worm Xcrine cirratnlus in beach (Kijkduin, near Schcveningen, Holland.) Sampling showed this worm to be the only likely food in the area holed by Oystercatchers (above). C. Swcnnen Mats ok Entcromorpha rolled by Tcrnstones (Arcnaria interpret) ( I'iclal flats, Ylieland, Holland.) With beak anil nape Turnstones swiftly roll up pieces of this seaweed to catch the Gammitrus beneath (see page 16). Plate 6 C. Sworn en Holes made by Knots ( Calidris canutus) in Enteromorpha carpets ( I idal flats, \ lieland, Holland.) Knots have not learnt to roll mats like Turn- stones (cj. plate 5 bottom) and catch the Gammarus by making holes. C. Swcnncn Track left by Siielduck ( Tadorna tadorna) feeding in soft wet mud (Tidal flats, Terschelling, Holland.) This “fern leaves” trail is left when a Shelduck walks along mowing its beak from side to side (see page 16.) C. Swcnncn Marks i.eet by Siielduck (Tadorna tadorna) dabbling in shallow water (Tidal flats, Vlieland, Holland.) Footprints are washed away as the tide recedes, but series of dabble holes remain in firm wet mud (see page 17). Plate 7 ('. Swennrn Track relieved made hy swimming Siiki.dock (Tadorna t adorn a ) (Tidal flats, Terschelling, Holland.) Probably caused by swimming bird feed- ing with head submerged, beak touching bottom repeatedly. Swennen Hollows left by Black-headed Gulls (Lams ridibundus) on ebb tide (Tidal flats, Ylieland, Holland.) Trampling in shallow water, gulls stir up mud and catch bottom fauna as it washes away (see page 17). Grc van dcr Baan Hollows left by Black-headed Gulls (Lams ridibundus) on ebb tide (Tidal flats, Ylieland, Holland.) Hollows end in a \V (the bird’s feet after moving backwards); transverse ripples are made by the current. Plate 8 * ... .r * ' -V ■ * v » v • 4 *V . 1 • A ^ ' * . % ^ 4% v • v -v . * V - V •* “ , p V • fe- 9 0 % < • \ •3^? ‘ * *• . ; » . . ‘ • , A;. ,V* ~*\r .«% ■ ' y~'\ VT C. Swennen Starred effect round holes of THE worm Nereis diversicolor (Dc Beer, near Hook of Holland.) Occupied holes often show such patterns, the worm partly emerges in various directions at low tide (see page 17). C. Swenneu Cross-section of iiolf.s of the worm Nereis divcrsicolor (!)e Beer, near Hook of Holland.) Removal of stranded box exposed worm- holes. Only top part of mud and hole-walls were oxidized (see page 18). C. Swcnncn llvdrohia ulvac on mud surface and holes of worm Arenicola marina (Tidal flats, Vlieland, Holland.) Flash light at night shows Ilydrobia on surface. Mote “tooth-paste" faeces of the lugworm Arenicola (see page 18). vol. li i ] TRACKING BIRDS ON TIDAL FLATS 17 molluscs, and probably anything suitable is swallowed. 1 he second method (plate 6 bottom) is also used in wet mud, but when the ground is more firm. Here the bird is dabbling at regular intervals. It leaves a series of holes, together with footprints: the latter are easily washed away, but the former still show when the mud is dry. The third method (plate 7 top) results in a curious series of holes in a straight line. We are not quite sure how these are caused but we assume that the track is left by a swimming bird, feeding with head submerged and touching the bottom with its beak every few inches. Plate 7 centre and bottom show the hollows that are left behind by Black-headed Gulls ( Lams ridibundus) feeding in shallow water. They face the wind (as usual) and trample on the bottom, moving backwards, gazing intently a few inches in front of them. (This trampling is not to be confused with the trampling movement in meadows which brings worms to the surface. The reaction of a marine worm would possibly be to burrow deeper, certainly not to come to the surface.) By the trampling the top part of the bottom mud is stirred up, so that the bottom fauna is exposed and caught as it washes away. At low tide these holes may be recognized by their form. They end in a W (the two feet of the gull) and show a few transverse sand ripples made by the current resulting from the trampling movement. As the mud dries they are soon covered by other tracks: the footprints of crossing birds, or the trails and holes of Hydrobia, Arenicola and other animals of the sea bottom. For not only the birds leave tracks, so do the bottom animals themselves. Knowledge of these tracks is of the utmost importance to the birds since they may be directed by them to find their prey. It is far too early as yet to conclude how much ‘beach-lore” is innate and how much is learned by experience, but from observations on the “stupid” behaviour of young birds and the efficient working methods of the old birds we may assume that experience is an important factor. We have seen an Oystercatcher taking a fledged chick for a walk over the mud-flats. Wherever the old bird stopped the young bird ran up to it, often pressing itself close to the old bird as it stared at the mud where the old bird was looking. It was not fed during this walk and it caught very little by itself. On other occasions we observed Ovster- catchers feeding their grown young on the tidal flats. In most cases the prey (marine worms) was laid down in front of the young, but sometimes it was passed from beak to beak ; and once an old bird pulled a worm halfway out of the mud and left the young to finish the catch. Plate 8 top: the worm Nereis diversicolor often emerges partly from its hole at low tide, then draws back and emerges again in another direction. By these movements it leaves a kind of starred effect, like a tracing of twigs, with the opening of the hole for a centre. It is a sign that these holes are inhabited. The position 18 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I of this worm in the bottom is well shown in plate 8 centre. This photograph was taken after a stranded box had been pulled away. Note that only the top layer of the mud and the walls of the worm holes are oxidized : the rest is black. Plate 8 bottom was taken at night by flash light and shows a lot of Hydrobia ulvae taking the air. Many bottom animals are very active after dark, far more so than during the day. They will emerge from their holes and crawl or swim about. Various species of birds feed at night as well as by day, especially if there is a moon. Among the birds observed at night on the Vlieland tidal flats are Grey Plover ( Charadrius squatnrola ), Ringed Plover ( Ch . hiaticula), Curlew ( Numeniiis arquata), Redshank ( Tringa totanus ), Greenshank ( T . nebularia) and Oystercatcher. The well-known holes of the lugworm Arenicola marina are also shown in plate 8 bottom. They are L-shaped with a funnel-hole, where the sand has collapsed, at the shorter end and a “tooth- paste” mound of faeces at the other. Now and again the worm comes to the surface for a split second to defaecate and this would seem the opportunity for a bird to catch it. However, pecks were directed mostly at the funnel-hole and when we observed a worm being pulled out it was often at this end of the hole. These observations are only the beginning of an ecological study. A very important point is the question: what part of the time do birds spend in feeding? Some birds, especially the larger species, feed only for a short period. Smaller species may not stop at all but continue feeding on the shore during high tide. Also, we know hardly anything as yet about the nutritional value of the various species of bottom fauna. Anyone, professional or amateur, who takes up this bird track- ing on the tidal muds and sands will find it a fascinating and rewarding subject. If anyone has any interesting contributions to make the authors would be glad to compare results. NOTES Head-stabilization by a Jay. — While ringing a Jay ( Garrulus glandarius ) caught in my garden trap at East Horsley, Surrey, on 3rd November 1957, I was struck by the bird’s unusual behaviour during the process. No matter how I turned it about, it seemed to have the ability to keep its head in the same position in relation to its surroundings while its body was moved (in other words, its head remained stable in space). Naturally there were limits to the possible movements, but as the behaviour was more marked than I have noted before in other species I attempted to make some rough measurements of its extent. . To do this, I held the bird in both hands with the wings close to the body — in the normal way, but so that there was not quite so much restriction around the neck. Most Jays would then peck one’s hands, hut NOTES 19 VOL. LI I | this bird appeared to fix some particular object with its eyes (I could not make out what) and I slowly moved it in each of the three normal planes in relation to its body until the head moved as well. My wife held a ruler by my hand and so was able to obtain the following rough measurements of the distances through which the body passed while the head kept still: (A similar figure to the last would presumably have been obtained by moving this bird to the. left, but this was not measured.) It was possible to use any combination of the movements within these rough limits and I have rarely seen a more ludicrous sight than a Jay performing Hawaiian dance movements in any of the three planes. Unfortunately, I omitted to check on the amount of the other three degrees of freedom, i.e. ability to rotate about the same axes, but there is no doubt at all the bird could cope with them to large degree. I have since caught another Jay but was unable to get it to emulate the first. This may have been due, however, to the more restrictive hold which was necessary to prevent personal damage. This second bird, however, had another interesting habit which I discovered while attempting to measure the angular rotation of the body with which the head could cope without itself rotating. With the head still I slowly rotated the body so that the rump moved under the head. Ability of the order of 120° of rotation were involved, from when the rump was above the level of the head to when the rump was well under and in front of the head. The most interesting point, however, was that there appeared to be a critical angle of the body in relation to the head where the tail suddenly went forward. Although I was unable to devise any means of measuring this critical angle, it appeared to be an automatic response to the angle of the bodv from the horizontal. I mentally likened the movement to lowering the flaps of an air- craft to obtain a greater angle of attack to the air-stream. From the foregoing observations it would appear that the Jay is equipped with an automatic anti-stall device as well as a completely space-stabilized control system. Probably all birds have a certain degree of space stabilization for their heads, but so far I have detected it in the hand only in the Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe ) in the fore and aft direction. It may, however, be observed in the Kestrel ( Fnlco tinnunculus) and other larger birds in flight, when it can be seen that the head travels on a level path while the bodv is moving in accordance with the flight loads and reactions. It seems obvious that space stabilization of the eves is an asset towards survival, but never- theless many mammals (including Man) and possibly some birds Backwards and forwards Up and down To one side (the right) 4 inches i'2-2 inches ij inches 20 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII do not have this ability. The value of space stabilization to a hawk which spots its food from the air is fairly obvious, but it is not so clear why a Jay should be so well endowed. However, Mr. Derek Goodwin, to whom I wrote concerning" the behaviour, says that he once observed one of his tame Jays, while on a swinging- perch, fix a Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) with its eye, and the head remained steady while the body swung to and fro, so that there is undoubted survival value in the ability. Presumably this is also partly the reason why Jays normally see bird-watchers before bird-watchers see Jays. G. H. Forster [This phenomenon of head-stablization is well-known and many people will have noted how a chicken, when picked up, will keep its head in one position, even though the body is moved in various directions. However, the subject has not received as much attention as it might from ringers and from ornithologists in general. Two films that have been widely shown exhibit examples of head-stabilization. Mr. H. G. Hurrell’s film of a Buzzard (Buteo buteo) at its nest in a slender tree includes a sequence of the adult brooding the young in a fairly strong wind : the tree, the nest and the body of the bird are all swinging through a significant arc, but the bird’s head remains in exactly the same vertical and horizontal plane. Similarly, in the film “Wild Spain” a Stone Curlew ( Burkinas oedicnemus ) is seen settling on its eggs: having approached the nest with neck hunched, it lowers its body on to the eggs, but keeps its head still by extending its neck. — Eds.] Orphean Warblers having dark eyes. — On igth August 1954 I provisionally identified a bird at La Capeli^re, Camargue, S. France, as an adult male Orphean Warbler ( Sylvia hortensis), which it resembled in all plumage features except that the eye was dark. Furthermore, a second bird seen in the vicinity shortly afterwards, presumed to be an adult female because it was merely a dull edition of the first warbler, also had a dark eye. Again in August 1957 I had exceptionally good views of two Orphean Warblers in an open stand of pines at Bonanza, Andalucia, S. Spain. The birds frequented 18" high scrub as much as the trees, and were viewed over long periods at close range and in good light. In both, the forehead and crown were noted as being dark grey, and the lores and ear-coverts black, with a streak of paler grey topping the lores. In one bird, seen on 7th and 8th August, the eye was black or very dark brown, and in the other, watched on the 9th, white to pale straw. These two birds differed in no further respects except that the latter individual had rather greyer flanks. The markings of the head, especially the pale line above the lores, and the dark grey (not black) crown, indicate that these birds were probably adults in which the winter plumage was VOL. LIl] NOTES 21 already assumed. It would thus appear that the pale eye, so distinctive in the one individual I watched, is an inconsistent feature, although the importance of this character in identification of the Orphean Warbler is usually stressed. C. H. Fry Feeding-methods of Long-tailed Tits with artificial food. — Long-tailed Tits ( Aegithalos caudatus) have been taking artificial food from the bird-tables in our garden at Woodcote, in S. Oxfordshire, during each winter since the early months of 1955. Until March 1958 they confined themselves to eating very small crumbs of food (e.g. minced peanut and bread crumbs) or to peck- ing at a large piece of cheese or mashed potato. At the beginning of March 1958, however, one was seen to take food away to a tree, hang upside-down and eat in that position. This occurred several times and on different days, but it was impossible to note details as the tree is a thick and bushy hawthorn. On 21st March, however, a Long-tailed Tit was seen hanging upside-down in a lilac only three feet from a window. It hung by its left foot alone and proceeded to eat a piece of food which it was holding in its right foot, just as a child might eat an apple. It finished the food, returned to the bird table for more and took this to the same tree, but on the second occasion it hung in an inverted position with both feet, the food being pinned to the twig by the right claws and eaten from there. One other feeding-method was noted later: small pieces of food were taken away and the bird perched on a twig in a beak-cleaning attitude ; keeping the food in its beak, it then rubbed it along the twig, eating small morsels as it crumbled. The method of eating from one foot while hanging by the other was seen on 21st (twice), 24th and 25th March, and 3rd and 14th (twice) April by myself ; and on 29th March by my husband also. It is not known whether more than one individual was involved, but only one bird at a time was observed. The tit seemed to experience no difficulty in eating in this manner, except in strong gusts of wind when its whole body was blown around. The food eaten was probably half-peanut kernels, or it could have been pieces of minced fat approximately the size of these nuts. On 14th April, when feeding on nuts and fat had been discontinued, small pieces of biscuit were taken. On three occasions the food was finished, on four occasions it was dropped before being finished, and once it might be said to have been thrown away since it left the bird’s body at right angles and described an arc before dropping to the ground! These Long-tailed Tits also fed quite readily on the ground, especially towards dusk when parties of up to eleven were often seen clearing up the minute crumbs left by other species. Joan Hall-Craggs [Mr. Derek Goodwin tells us that he once watched some Long- 22 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. LIl tailed Tits in captivity. When given gentles they would seize one in the bill, fly to a thin twig, hang upside-down with one foot, now holding the gentle in the other, and eat it. He adds that he has seen this only once in a wild state, but Long-tailed Tits he has watched have normally been taking only tiny prey and he suspects that this is their usual method of dealing with any largish insect. — Eds.] SPECIAL REVIEW Bird Numbers in Finland : A Bold Effort towards Estimating a Nation’s Avifauna* Bv E. M. Nicholson J Among the many generous and thoughtful acts of our hosts in Finland at the Xllth International Ornithological Congress was the timely production and presentation to each member of this 181-page survey in English of the bird population of Finland. Illustrated by 131 maps of the distribution of individual species and forming a revised and rewritten version of the same author’s Suomen lintujen levinneisyys ja lukumaara (published in Finnish 1955), differs from most works of its kind in not stopping at listing the individual occurrences of rarities and the general distribution and frequency of the commoner species. It aims instead, with characteristic Finnish indifference to seemingly insurmountable obstacles, at providing nothing less than a summary of the actual numbers and regional density patterns of all the regular breeding species in Finland. It opens a window on to a rich and interesting avifauna which difficulties of language and travel have hitherto kept beyond the range of most British ornithologists, even though Finnish ornithology was partly pioneered by such Englishmen as Wolley, who just over a century ago first discovered there the nest of the Smew ( Mergus albellus). Arranged in a Wetmore order it deals with 327 species, although these include some which have occurred only as escapes — such as the Black Swan (Cygnus atratus), Bar-headed Goose ( Anser indicus), Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis) and Demoiselle Crane ( Anfhropoides virgo) — and one or two, surprisingly including the Great Northern Diver ( Gavin immer ), which are given space only to point out that no acceptable record yet exists for them in Finland. The maps (which are provided for most but by no means all species reaching any appreciable density in any part of Finland) are elaborately prepared to convey changing status and to grade their supporting data as •FINNISH BIRDS: THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBERS. By Einari Merikallio. Fauna Fennica V in series of publications by Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. ( Tilgmann , Helsinki, 1958). 181 pages; 131 maps. No price given. vol. lii] SPECIAL REVIEW: FINNISH BIRDS 23 well as to indicate density according to a frequency scale drawn up with the help of Professor O. Kalela. This distinguishes nine different frequency levels ranging from below 0.05 pairs per square kilometre (“very scarce”) to above 25 pairs (“extremely numerous”) in each of ten zoological regions. The necessary data are derived largely from sample transect counts along survey lines arranged in squares 4 kms. in perimeter with a width of some 50 metres for the main belt. A much broader “auditory belt” covering nearly seven times as wide a band is used for the more infrequent species. In this way transects aggregating 1,092 kms. were covered, scattered throughout Finland, and giving records of 67,321 individuals belonging to 130 species. Most bird census work in other European countries has hitherto been based on particular conspicuous species, and few experienced counters have been willing to contemplate even on a sample basis the estimating of a national population as a whole, although certain informed guesses have been hazarded. Finnish ornithologists believe that, despite the formidable obstacles, a worthwhile degree of accuracy is attainable. Dr. Merikallio, however, is careful to point out that certain species (owing to their inconspicuousness, gregariousness, or other factors) cannot be reliably sampled by such methods and he indicates that a number of his estimates must for such reasons be considered as probably too high, too low, or simply too uncertain. Although it must be emphasized that the book itself contains no summary census table, it gives all the necessary data for compiling the following one: Table I — Estimated populations of birds breeding in Finland * = Rough estimate. t = Uncertain or suspect estimate. + = Estimate incomplete or prior to recent increase. — = Estimate probably too high or prior to recent decrease. The ten commonest species are numbered in order on the left. It appears that every regular breeding species is included, except a few whose status is still uncertain — Water Rail ( Rallies aquations), Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus) and Terek Sandpiper ( Tringa terek) — and certain others for which firm data are lacking — Smew ( Mergus albellus), Snowy Owl ( Nyctea scandiaca) and Grey- headed Woodpecker (Pious canus). Species Black-throated Diver (Gavia arctica) Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata ) Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps crist atus) ... Red-necked Grebe (Podiceps griseigena ) ... Slavonian Grebe (Podiceps auritus) Heron (Arden cinerea) Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) ... Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Teal (.4no.9 crecca) Estimated breeding pairs 2,000 2.000 5.000 2.000 3.000 5-10 10 160,000 (*) 80,000 (*) 24 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Species Garganey (/Inas querquedula) Wigeon (Titas penelope) Pintail ( Anas acuta) ... Shoveler ( Spatula clypeala) ... Scaup ( Aylhya marila ) Tufted Duck (Ay thy a fuligula) Pochard (Aythya ferina) Goldeneye ( Bucephala dangula) Long-tailed Duck ( Clangula hyemalis ) ... Velvet Scoter ( Melanitta fused) Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) ... Eider (Somateria mollissima) Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator ) Goosander (Mergus merganser) Grey Lag Goose (Anser anser) Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus) Bean Goose ( Anser arvensis) ... Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) ... Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) ... Buzzard (Buteo buteo) ... Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo lagopus) ... Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) ... Black Kite (Milvus migrans) ... White-tailed Eagle (Haliaetus albicilla) ... Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus) ... Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus) Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus) ... Hobby (Falco subbuteo) Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) Gyr Falcon (Falco rusticolus) Merlin (Falco columbarius) ... Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus ) ... Willow Grouse (Lagopus lagopus) ... Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) ... Black Grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) Hazel Hen (Tetrastes bonasia) Partridge (Pcrdix perdix) Quail (Coturnix coturnix) Pheasant ( Phasianus colchicus) Crane (Megalornis grus) Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana) Corncrake (Crex crex) ... Coot (Fulica atra) Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) ... Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula) Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) ... Golden Plover (Charadrius apricarius) Dotterel (Charadrius morinellus) ... Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) Snipe (Capella gallinago) Great Snipe (Capella media) ... Jack Snipe (Lymnocryptes minimus) Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) Estimated breeding pairs 1.000- 2,000 (*) 40.000 (*) 20.000 (*) 4.000 (*) 1.000 40.000 (*) 5.000 (*) 50.000 (*) 500 (*) 5.000- 8,000 (+) 500 (*) 25.000 10.000 4.000 250 ( + ) 200 (*) 1.000 i5 (+) 82 2,300 3.000 (— ) 1,200 (+) 5oo (+) 5o 25-30 1.000 (t) 100 600 (t) 5oo (t) 2.700 (f -) 500 (t) 10 ( + ) 1,600 (t) 3.400 (t) I 10,000 4.000 310.000 214.000 ( — ) 228.000 15.000 20 20.000 ( — ) (1938 est.) 8,500 “several hundred” 900 (-) 2.000 600 26.000 5.700 (+) 1.000 (*) 12.000 8.000- 9,000 ( — ) 1,500-1,600 90.000 50 1 1.000 16.000 (+) vol. lii] SPECIAL REVIEW: FINNISH BIRDS 25 Species Curlew ( Numenius arquata) ... Whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus) Bar-tailed Godwit ( Limosa lapponica) Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus) Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola) Common Sandpiper ( Tringa hypoleucos) ... Redshank (Tringa totanus) ... Spotted Redshank ( Tringa erythropus) ... Greenshank (Tringa nebularia) Temminck’s Stint (Calidris temminckii) ... Dunlin (Calidris alpina) Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus) Ruff (Philomachus pugnax ) ... Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) Arctic Skua (Stercorarius parasiticus) Long-tailed Skua (Stercorarius longicaudus) Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus) Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuse us) ... Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) ... Common Gull (Larus canus ) ... Little Gull (Larus minutus) ... Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne caspia) Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) Arctic Tern (Sterna macrura) Razorbill (Ale a tor da) ... Black Guillemot (LJria grylle) Stock Dove (Columba ocnas) Rock Dove (Columba livia) ... Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) ... Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) Hawk Owl (Surnia ulula) ... Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium passerinum) Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) Great Grey Owl ( Strix nebulosa) ... Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) ... Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) Short-eared Owl (d-sio flammeus) ... Tengmalm’s Owl (Aegolius funercus) Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) ... Swift (Apus apus) Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) White-backed Woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos) Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos minor) Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides tridaetylus) ... Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus martins) ... Wryneck (Jynx torquilla) Woodlark (Lullula arborea) ... Skylark (Alauda arvensis) Shore Lark (Eremophila alpestris) ... Swallow (Hirundo rustica) ... House Martin (Delichon urbica) Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus) Raven (Corvus corax) ... Estimated breeding pairs 44.000 43.000 0-20 22.000 180,000 10.000 (-f) 2,000 24.000 30,000 2,000 (*) 30 I 1,000 7.500 700 130 1.500 (t -) 600 4.000 2,300-3,000 (*) 5.000 200 20,000-30,000 700 6.000 6.000 750-1,000 (*) i,5°° 8.000 50.000 (t) 164,000 30.000 200 3,600 (t) 200-300 2.000 50-2,000 (*) 700 (+) 2.500 (+) 9.000 (+ -) 1.500 4,300 25,000 10 95.000 4.000 (ft ) 3.000 (t +) 23.000 15.000 19.000 500 200,000 10.000 300,000 120,000 ( + ) 300,000 (tt -) 1.800 7.800 26 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Species Hooded Crow ( Corvus corone cornix) Rook ( Corvus jrugilegus) Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula) ... Magpie ( Pica pica) Nutcracker ( Nucifraga caryocatactes) Jay ( Garrulus glandarius) Siberian Jay ( Perisoreus infaustus ) ... Great Tit ( Parus major) Blue Tit ( Parus caeruleus) ... Coal Tit ( Parus ater) ... jo Crested Tit ( Parus cristatus) ... Siberian Tit ( Parus cinctus) 4 Willow Tit ( Parus atricapillus) Long-tailed Tit ( Aegilhalos caudatus) Treecreeper ( Certhia familiaris) Wren ( Troglodytes troglodytes) Dipper ( Cinclus cinclus) Mistle Thrush ( Turdus viscivorus) ... Fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris) Song Thrush ( Turdus philomelos) ... Redwing ( Turdus musicus) ... Ring Ouzel ( Turdus torquatus) Blackbird ( Turdus merula) ... Wheatear ( Oenanthe oenanthe) Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra) ... Red-flanked Bluetail ( Tarsiger cyanurus) ... 9 Redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus) Thrush Nightingale ( Luscinia luscinia) Bluethroat ( Cyano sylvia svecica) Robin ( Erithacus rubecula) ... Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustclla naevia) ... Great Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus arundinaceus) Reed Wai'bler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus) ... Marsh Warbler ( Acrocephalus palustris) ... Blyth’s Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus dumetorum) Sedge Warbler ( Acrocephalus schoenobaenus) Icterine Warbler ( Hippolais icterina) Blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla) ... Barred Warbler ( Sylvia nisoria) 8 Garden Warbler (Sylvia borin) Whitethroat ( Sylvia communis) Lesser Whitethroat ( Sylvia curruca) i Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus) ... Greenish Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochiloides) Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita) ... Wood Warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix) ... Arctic Warbler ( Phylloscopus borealis ) ... Goldcrest (Regains regulus) ... 5 Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata) Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapa hypoleuca) Red-breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva) Dunnock (Prunella modularis) Meadow Pipit ( Anthus pratensis) ... 3 Tree Pipit (Anthus trivialis) ... Red-throated Pipit ( Anthus cervinus) Rock Pipit (Anthus spinoletta) White Wagtail ( Motacilla alba) Estimated breeding pairs 135.000 3.000 8.000 (t) I 10,000 100 170.000 160.000 410.000 18.000 30.000 665.000 200.000 1.400.000 21.000 33.000 6.000 400 125.000 560.000 640.000 570.000 20 8.000 300.000 310.000 5oo (*) 670.000 200 27.000 410,000 50 (+) 5-10 500 5-10 30-40 9.000 2.000 10.000 100-200 690.000 220.000 170,000 5.700.000 I,3°° 300.000 36.000 700 520.000 990.000 325.000 100 8.000 230.000 1,650,000 300-350 (*) 500 (*) 430.000 vol. lii] SPECIAL REVIEW: FINNISH BIRDS 27 Species Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava thunbergi ) Waxwing ( Bonibycilla garrulus) Great Grey Shrike ( Lanius excubitor) Red-backed Shrike ( Lanius cristatus collurio ) Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris) ... Greenfinch ( Chloris chloris) ... Goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis ) Siskin ( Carduelis spinus) Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina) Redpoll ( Carduelis flammea) ... Arctic Redpoll ( Carduelis hornemanni) Bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula) Scarlet Grosbeak ( Carpodacus erythrinus) Pine Grosbeak ( Pinicola enucleator) Crossbill ( Loxia curvirostra) ... Parrot Crossbill ( Loxia pytyopsittacus) 2 Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ) ... ... 5,300,000 7 Brambling ( Fringilla montifringilla) 870,000 6 Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella) 970,000 Yellow-breasted Bunting ( Emberiza aureola) IOO Ortolan Bunting ( Emberiza hortulana) 100,000 Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica) ... 380,000 Little Bunting ( Emberiza pusilla) ... 2,500 Reed Bunting ( Emberiza schoeniclus) 100,000 Lapland Bunting ( Calcarius lapponicus) ... 14,000 Snow Bunting {Plectrophenax nivalis) 9,000 House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus) 500,000 Tree Sparrow ( Passer montanus) ... IOO Estimated breeding pairs 400.000 5.000 4.000 9.000 170.000 30.000 1.000 410.000 1,800 (t +) 470.000 2.000 80.000 3.000 17.000 480.000 30.000 (+ +) Total for Finland: ca. 32,160,000 breeding pairs (of which terrestrial) on 337,000 square kilometres or just over 73 averaging about 85 breeding adults per 100 acres. 31,620,000 are million acres, This most interesting Table raises many questions regarding both the picture which it presents of the Finnish avifauna and the reliability and applicability of such estimates in general and of this one in particular. Taking the figures first of all at their face value, we learn that Finland’s ten commonest breeding species are (in order) Willow Warbler and Chaffinch (at very similar levels of around 5J million), Tree Pipit, Willow Tit, Spotted Fly- catcher, Yellowhammer, Brambling-, Garden Warbler, Redstart and Crested Tit. On this information alone, no ornithologist would be surprised to learn that 65% of the area of Finland is under forest and only 8% is cultivated, or that it is a northern land in which summer residents form a large part of the breeding population. The most numerous bird appreciably over six inches long is the Song Thrush which comes eleventh (outnumbering the Blackbird by 80-1). Seven other forest species and the House Sparrow are clustered fairly near the half-million mark on the table. Besides the Blackbird, several other high-ranking British species come in at very low figures, such as Starling (170,000 — barely enough to populate one first-class roost), Rook (3,000), Blue Tit (18,000), Dunnock (8,000) and Wren (6,000) — in striking 28 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII contrast to the woodland Robin (410,000) — and the gulls, none of which except the Black-headed exceeds 5,000 pairs. While divers and grebes reflect the extensive inland waters (covering 9% of Finland), ducks are not strikingly numerous, the Mallard alone reaching six figures, although the estimates for this group are inevitably only rough. Birds of prey, although varied, are in disappointingly small numbers, the Golden Eagle, Buzzard (?) and Peregrine being certainly even less numerous than in Britain. On the other hand, certain temperate species are surprisingly high such as Wryneck (perhaps a thousand times more numerous than with us), Golden Oriole, Wood Warbler and Ortolan. Also, Finland is now at or near the western limit of the range of several species that are expanding from the east such as Terek Sandpiper and Blyth’s Reed, Greenish and Arctic Warblers. Coming to Finland’s special attractions, who can blame the tally-hunter for lingering over the 2,000 pairs of Red-necked Grebe, 30 of White-tailed Eagle, 10 of Gyr Falcon, 8,500 of Crane, 1,500 or more of Turnstone, 50 of the declining Great Snipe, 11,000 of Broad-billed Sandpiper, 700 of Caspian Tern, 3,600 of Hawk Owl, 200-300 of Pygmy Owl, 700 of Ural and 1,500 of Tengmalm’s Owl, 23,000 of Three-toed Woodpecker, 10,000 of Shore Lark and many others including 500 of Red- flanked Bluetail (an especially uncertain figure), 100 of Yellow- breasted Bunting and 3,000 of Scarlet Grosbeak. Whatever else the list may achieve it certainly kindles the imagination. Coming down to earth, however, anyone who has both counted birds and seen Finland is bound to be faced with some scepticism as to the validity of such figures covering an area nearly half as large again as Great Britain and much more difficult to work. While the underlying data are candidly treated it is difficult to assess from them the adequacy of the sample on which this magnificent superstructure rests. Rather casual scrutiny indicates that each individual actually observed in the sampling is normally multiplied between 300 and 2,000 times in framing the estimate. It is clear that great ingenuity and perseverance over many years have been devoted to securing a correct definition of habitats and a representative selection both of these and of zoological regions, but at the end of the day what does the margin of error amount to? Mr. J. G. Skellam, head of the Biometrics Unit of the Nature Conservancy, has kindly examined the basis of these estimates which is given in more detail in Dr. Merikallio’s 1946 paper entitled “Uber regionale verbreitung und anzahl der Landvogel in Slid- und Mittelfinnland, besonders in deren Ostlichen Teilen, im •Lichte von Quantitativen Untersuchungcn” (Annales Zoologici Societatis , Tom. 12, nos. 1 and 2). Dr. Merikallio also courteously and informatively answered numerous questions on the subject. Although the material and knowledge available to us here is vol. liiJ SPECIAL REVIEW: FINNISH BIRDS 29 evidently far more limited than that commanded by Dr. Merikallio and his colleagues, statistical examination confirms what ornithological experience would indicate, that such national bird population estimates based on samples of this type and scale are not at all to be relied upon. The margins of error are much too great, even those inherent in the sampling procedure itself being inacceptably large except for the very commonest species. What we have here, therefore, is not to be taken as a bird census of Finland or even as a serious approach to it. The study is rather an ambitious exercise in the application of painstaking but still limited and somewhat rough sampling methods in combination with a picture of national ecological and land-use patterns in a well-worked and relatively simple but rather large area. On these bases a gossamer network of arithmetic has been thrown boldly across Finland’s immense forests and innumerable lakes to catch the whole bird population, but the real avifauna escapes the net and the forests keep their secrets. Must we then conclude that all this impressive industry has been wasted? Certainly not, provided that its limits and un- certainties are strictly understood. Being based as it is on regional samples which can be repeated periodically it will provide an excellent means of tracing future major changes in distribution of common species within Finland, possibly related, say, to climatic changes. For example, it has shown already that the decline during the 1930’s and 1940’s of Bramblings in middle Finland has lately been entirely reversed, so that the view put forward by O. Kalela (1952, Fennia, vol. 75, p. 48) of a climatically linked, clearly definable change in the mutual abundance relations of the “boreal” Brambling and the “southern” Chaffinch can no longer be sustained. Used in such ways Dr. Merikallio’s figures afford measures of population density, differing perhaps for different species, but nevertheless reason- ably consistent for comparative purposes in different habitats in different parts of the country. This is a very different matter from a national bird population census in which, as Dr. Merikallio himself points out, the sampling basis becomes completely unreliable for the scarcer or more patchily distributed species, including all those breeding in colonies or fluctuating markedly from season to season. Here Dr. Merikallio’s valour has outrun his discretion. Nevertheless, even if such a Table as that given above must rank at this stage as largely a work of the imagination, it is for all that a real advance. It presents us with a model of the possible eventual results of a national bird census which enables us to see more clearly what the uses, limitations and problems of such a census would be, as well as the nature of the difficulties still to be over- come and the magnitude of the effort necesarv to reduce margins of error to an acceptable level. Looked at in this wav the task is 30 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII certainly daunting, but modern ornithological history gives no ground for supposing that somewhere, sometime, it will not be successfully accomplished, perhaps sooner than we think. When that time comes Dr. Merikallio will deserve, and no doubt receive, the recognition due to a pioneer. REVIEW LIVING BIRDS OF THE WORLD. By E. Thomas Gilliard. (Hamish Hamilton , London, 1958). 400 pages; 400 illustrations (217 in full colour). 70s. As its title implies, this book is a general survey of the birds of the world. The author, both as a field-ornithologist who has worked in remote parts and as Assistant Curator of Birds at the American Museum of Natural History, is well qualified for this colossal task, which he has fulfilled with distinction. The scope of the work has inevitably meant that individual birds are for the most part swamped in generalizations about each order and family. Yet it is to the author’s credit that he has managed to compress so much detail into his accounts. The pattern for these, with good reason, remains much the same for each: general characteristics, number of species, range, origin, breeding, court- ship, etc. With so wide a field to be compressed into small space, it would be surprising if there were not inadequacies and minor errors. One wonders, for instance, how the ranges of the Chaffinch and Reed Warbler can be made to include Iceland; and, of the Skylark, the remark that “the song for which it is famous is a long-sustained,’ musical chirr-r-up’’ is enough to make the poets turn in their graves. Yet, despite the compressions involved, the author has introduced evidence of recent developments, techniques and discoveries in all fields of modern ornithology. I suspect that the book will be an eye-opener to many readers of British Birds, as it was to me, in exposing to them’ how narrow is their knowledge of the birds of the world'. So intense has been the work done on Palaearctic species that it comes as a shock to discover how little is known of a big portion of the world’s birds — especially, as the author points out, of those of South America which, of all the continents, contains the largest number of families and species. The wide scope of the book’s letterpress is reflected in the illustrations. These are magnificent. In his introduction the author describes them as “probably the finest collection of bird photographs ever brought together in one volume’’ and few would dispute this claim. Every effort has been made to obtain representative illustrations of all bird families. Photographers from all parts of the world have contributed, and if there is a slight bias in favour of the New World, especially Central and REVIEW 31 VOL. LI I ] South America, that is not unreasonable in a book originally produced in the United States. The overall standard is of the very highest, and that of the colour photographs superb. In such a galaxy it is perhaps invidious to pick out plates for special mention, but I cannot refrain from praising the colour photographs of the Short-billed Marsh Wren and of the Rufous Hummingbird, both by Eliot Porter. It is difficult to believe that bird photography can ever improve on such results. If the text of this book cannot be described as inspiring reading, none would disagree that it is one of the finest albums of bird photographs ever produced, and a joy to look at and to possess. G.K.Y. LETTERS ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF SOME WARBLERS Sirs, — Messrs. I. C. T. Nisbet and T. C. Smout ( antea , vol. l, p. 204) state that all the Subalpine Warblers ( Sylvia cantillans ) they saw in S. E. Europe had buff or pinkish-buff under-parts, affording a quick distinction from Sardinian Warblers (S. melanocepliala), some of which were otherwise similar. Might I point out that this could lead to confusion if the other less obvious differences are overlooked, as males of the race of melanocephala known as M6n6tri^s Warbler (S. m. mystacea), of central Asia, also have largely pink under-parts, very apparent in the field. This warbler might occur in this country. On first seeing the bird in winter in Eritrea I presumed I was watching cantillans, but a specimen was identified in the B.M. as mystacea. The Egyptian race, norrisae, is also described as having pinkish under-parts. Upcher’s Warbler ( Hippolais languida) was a regular passage migrant in Eritrea. I wrote the usual note as a loud “chuck”, very distinctive as W. B. Alexander comments (antea, vol. l, p. 203), and quite different from the sparrow-like chatter of the Olivaceous and Melodious Warblers (H. pallidaa.nd polyglotta). The bird advertises its presence by constantly flicking its tail more like some chats than a warbler. I do not know whether other Hippolais species do this but it was not seen in wintering H. p. elaeica. K. D. Smith RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary covers December 1958 through to nth January 1959. For 32 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII reasons of space, however, we have to confine ourselves this month to the subjects of widest and most topical interest, again holding others over to the next issue. AN INVASION OF WAXWINGS The most striking feature of the period has been the third sizeable invasion of YVaxwings (Bombycilla garrulus) in a space of two years ( cf . antea, vol. L, pp. 339, 496, 543). This was not unexpected because reports from the Continent had shown that there was an unusually large and early southward and westward movement in the Baltic area from late September throughout October, followed by a build-up in southern Scandinavia in November and an invasion in Germany in December. The first Waxwings actually reached Scotland and East Anglia in mid-November — single birds at Fair Isle on the iSth-igth and the 24th, at Colinsburgh (Fife) on the 19th and at Cawston (Norfolk) on the 20th — but it was not until nth-i3th December that there was any real influx into Britain. During the next few days there were reports of small numbers in various parts of east Scotland from Shetland to the Firth of Forth, though the only English observations were several parties in north Norfolk. This pattern continued until about 20th-2ist December when there was apparently another influx, followed by a much larger one on the 26th-27th. The latter seems to have reached its most spectacular proportions in N.E. Northumberland: 65-70 were seen north of Belford on the 26th, followed by some 150 on the 27th; then, in the late afternoon of the 27th, many flocks of 30-50 were watched arriving from the east and it was estimated that at least 500 were seen; by 4th January it was thought that there were at least 1,000 in the area. During the last days of December many were reported from East Coast areas from Caithness to Essex, but, though some were seen both then and earlier in the Hebrides (Lewis, Canna, Tiree and Mull) and other places in W. Scotland, it was not until early January that English inland counties began to come into the picture. Then two in Worcestershire on the 4th and two in Staffordshire on the 10th, as well as the first reports as far south as Kent on the 1st and 13th, showed that Waxwings may now be worth watching for anywhere. To date the only flocks of over a dozen birds reported have been in Sutherland, Inverness, Aberdeen, Angus, Perth, Argyll, Fife, Midlothian, Northumberland, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex. We should be gnuteful for any records of Waxwings. THE RARER BIRDS Particularly interesting was the Crested Lark ( Galerida cristata) which inhabited some waste ground between two railway tracks near Exmouth (Devon) from 29th December to 3rd January, and another unexpected settler in the West Country was a Richard’s Pipit ( Anthus novaeseelandiae) at West Huntspill, near Pawlett (Somerset), from 21st December to at least 18th January. For November reports of these two species see antea , pp. 529-530; the Short-toed Lark (Calandrella cinerea) at Spurn (Yorkshire), mentioned then, stayed until 14th December. A Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) at Keresley, near Coventry (Warwickshire), on 4th January may have come in with the Waxwings. That same day a near-adult Iceland Gull (Larus glaucoides ) at Kettering (Northamptonshire) provided an unusual inland report and there was also an adult Mediterranean Black-headed Gull (L. melano- cephalus) in Langstone Harbour (Hampshire), in another part of which an immature Iceland Gull had been seen on 13th December. A Snow Goose ( Anser caerulescens) appeared on the North Slob (Co. Wexford) about 15th December and was still present on the 28th, while additions to those given last month (antea, p. 528) are one at Kingoodie, near Dundee (Angus), on 16th November and “four white geese with black wing tips” at South Queensferry (West Lothian) on 30th November. A Hudsonian Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus hudsonicus) was identified among Curlew (N. arquata) in Dublin Bay on 8th December (cf. antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 379-381). Out-of- season birds included a Spotted Crake (Porsana porzana) at Cliffe (Kent) on 7th December, and a Balearic Shearwater ( Procellaria puffinus mauretanicus) off St. Ives (Cornwall) on 3rd January (cf. antea, pp. 368, 445). NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being otTered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors ; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered w hen the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the lorm in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Willow Warbler, Black-tailed Godwit), but group terms should not (e.g. warblers, godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds, with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1053 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “ 1st January 1955 ” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “ 1st Jan.”, “ Jan. 1st ”, or even “ Jan. 1 ”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form: Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 129-134. Witherby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult foi the Editor to indicate the type to be used. 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The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted “ I he Sound-Guide establishes itself at once as the indispens- able tool and companion of all British bird-watchers and field ornithologists”. — Richard Fitter in the Observer. WITHERBY’S SOUND-GUIDE TO BRITISH BIRDS by MYLES NORTH and ERIC SIMMS Introduced by JAMES FISHER 195 species on 13 double-sided 10" gramophone records ■ Recordings by Ludwig Koch, Eric Simms, Radiotjanst, John Kirby, Carl Weismann, Myles North and others. ■ To be published simultaneously in two parts, each boxed and with descriptive book. £5 10s. Od. each part. PART ONE ( Seven records): Divers — Grebes — Petrels — Cormorants — Herons — Ducks — Geese — Swans — Birds of Prey — Game Birds — Crakes — Waders — Skuas — Gulls — Terns — Auks — Doves — Owls — W oodpcckers — (includes also Cuckoo, Nightjar, Swift, Kingfisher, Bee-eater and Hoopoe). PART TWO ( Six records ): Larks — Swallows — Crows — Tits — Thrushes — Chats — Redstarts- — Warblers — Flycatchers —Pipits— Wagtails— Finches — Buntings — (includes also Golden Oriole, Nuthatch, Treecreeper, W ren, Nightingale, Robin, Goldcrest, Dunnock and Red-backed Shrike). £5 10s. Od. each part. Available post free from the publishers : H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD., 5 Warwick Court, London, W.C.l Printed in Gt. Britain by Witherby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY. LTD., 5, Warwick Court. W.C.i )\yd Vsociv^ FEBRUARY 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LI I, Number 2, February 1959 page The influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957. By Bryan L. Sage and Bernard King ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33 The status of the Red-crested Pochard in the British Isles. By G. A. Pyman ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCIV — Little Gull. Photographs by C. C. Doncaster and J. B. and S. Bottomley (plates 9-12). Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 Notes : — Pintails diving (Stephen Chapman, Bernard King and Nigel Webb) 60 Lesser Black-backed Gull nesting on a bush (J. D. R. Vernon and C. Avent) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 Jay killed by Weasel (C. M. Perrins) ... ... ... ... ... 60 Male Robin taking part in nest-construction (Georges Olivier) ... 61 Review : — Witherby's Sound-Guide to British Birds. By Myles North and Eric Simms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 62 Letters : — An error in “The Birds of the British Isles" (Dr. David A. Bannerman) 65 List of Northamptonshire birds (L. S. Taylor) 65 Game Research Congress in Holland (C. L. Coles) 66 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ••• ••• ••• ... ... ... ... 66 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. Vol. LII No. 2 BRITISH BIRDS FEBRUARY THE INFLUX OF PHALAROPES IN AUTUMN 1957 By Bryan L. Sage and Bernard King During the autumn of 1957, more than average numbers of Grey Phalaropes ( Phalaropus fulicarius), together with many Red- necked Phalaropes ( Ph . lobatus ), were recorded in the British Isles. The following analysis of this influx is based on records received either direct from the observers or through the medium of the editors of county bird reports, all of whom are listed towards the end of this paper. Enquiries were made on the Continent in an attempt to ascertain whether or not phalaropes occurred there in unusual numbers at this period. Dr. Holger Holgerson, writing from Norway, stated that the only record of which he had knowledge was of an unidentified phalarope seen at Revtangen, 20 miles from Stavanger. Dr. Finn Salomonsen, referring to Denmark, said that only one Grey Phalarope was seen and no more than normal numbers of Red-necked Phalaropes. Somewhat larger numbers of Grey Phalaropes were reported in Holland, however. There, on 4th, 8th and 10th September, parties of 10, 13 and 15 respectively were seen on the Oost-Flevoland Polder, now being reclaimed from the Ijsselmeer, by Hermann Nuijen and Dr. A. B. H. Wolff, to whom we are indebted for this information. In addition, J. E. Sluiters gave us details of five additional records of Grey Phalaropes in Holland, including one on the Ijsselmeer on 6th July and another at IJmuiden on 30th December. He also states that many Red-necked Phalaropes were seen in Holland during the autumn of 1957. The first Grey Phalaropes were recorded in late August — in Northumberland (Cheviot) during the 26th-28th, and in Gloucester- shire on the 25th and 26th. The main influx took place in GREY PHALAROPES 33 34 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII September and the species was widely distributed during- the first three weeks of that month. Fig-, i shows the vice-county distribution of records for the period ist-2ist September. The maximum numbers were reported in the middle of the month when there were at least 25 in St. Ives Bay, Cornwall, on the 13th, as well as a minimum of 6 between Land’s End and the Scilly Isles on the 13th and 14th and another 4 off St. Agnes. On 14th September there was a minimum of 5 Grey Phalaropes off the coast of Co. Wexford, and in addition a flock of 14+ not specifically identified. The maximum number reported from any other one area at this period was a total of 7 in Hampshire on Fig. i — Map showing the vice-county distribution ok Grey Phalaropes ( Phalaropus fulicarius) recorded in tiie British Isles during tiie period ist-2ist September 1957 (see Addenda on page 39) vol. lii] PHALAROPES IN AUTUMN 1957 35 the 14th. During October, Grey Phalaropes were reported from Cheshire, Essex, Dorset, Glamorgan, Hampshire, Lancashire and Sussex, and also from Buckinghamshire, Durham, Co. Kerry, Norfolk and Suffolk where they were not recorded during September. There were November records from 9 vice-counties. The only December records were from Cornwall, Norfolk and Sussex. It is evident that, during the main passage, Grey Phalaropes were present in Irish waters only for a very short space of time, as they were not recorded off the Wexford coast (Great Saltee) after 14th September (though a single unidentified phalarope was seen there on 24th September). There was, however, one off the Dublin coast on I4th-i5th September, and 3 in that area on 25th September. It is of interest to note that at the same period the latest Cornish and west coast records were of 2 off the Scilly Isles on 24th September and 2 off Skokholm, Pembrokeshire, on the 30th. The number of October and November records of Grey Phalaropes suggests that they were held up somewhere by the weather conditions responsible for the minor peak of phalaropes in British waters in late September. The records for these two months came from widely scattered localities and indicate that movements during October were somewhat erratic. To summarise (see Appendix A, pp. 39-41), during the period August-December 1957 Grey Phalaropes were recorded from 37 vice-counties (England 28, Scotland 2, Wales 4, and Ireland 3). The maximum numbers occurred on I3th-i4th September and were concentrated mainly in Irish and Cornish waters. If we compare the 1957 influx with that which took place in the autumn of 1950 (see antea , vol. xliv, pp. 247-250), certain similarities emerge. In 1950 the maximum numbers occurred between 15th and 21st September and were mainly in Cornwall and Sussex. The following shows the comparative monthly distribution of individual records in the two years: — 1950 1957 August 5 2 September ... 39 ... 67 October 9 ... 22 November ... 1 15 December ... — 3 RED-XECKED PHALAROPES Red-necked Phalaropes occurred in somewhat smaller numbers, but reference to Fig. 2 shows that the numerical fluctuations of the two species were remarkably similar in pattern, both reaching their peak on I3th-i4th September. The Red-necked Phalaropes during the first three weeks of September were also mainly on the west coast, with a minimum of 6+ off Great Saltee, 3 off the Lancashire coast, 3 in N. Devon and 2 in Cornwall. However, the first individuals of this species to be recorded were all in East Anglia, single birds being seen at three localities in E. Suffolk between 14th and 28th August, and at Clev, Norfolk, 36 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII on 25th August. Unlike that of the preceding species, the passage of Red-necked Phalaropes was of very short duration, only 6 individuals being recorded later than September, i.e. 2 in October, 3 in November and one in December. An analysis of Appendix B (pp. 41-42) shows that Red- necked Phalaropes were recorded between August and December in 20 vice-counties (England 15, Wales 2 and Ireland 3). DISCUSSION AND WEATHER FACTORS At the peak of the movement on i3th-i4th September there were seen, including specifically unidentified birds, at least 25 phalaropes off the Wexford coast, about 44 in Cornish waters including the Scilly Isles, and about 10 off the south coast from Dorset to Sussex, a grand total of some 79 birds. Correlation of this peak and the smaller peak which occurred in late September, when there were 13 unidentified phalaropes in Cornish waters, with the weather conditions prevailing during' the month suggests that the birds involved originated in widely separated areas, and were windborne to the British Isles in rather different ways. It is probable that, at the beginning of the autumn migration period, both Grey and Red-necked Phalaropes from the Greenland breeding grounds are drifted into British and west European waters whenever there are extended spells of north-westerly winds. Such conditions are not unusual in the north-east Atlantic in the autumn : winds of this type occur frequently in the south-western sectors of depressions moving north-east towards the Iceland low pressure “minimum”. Although phalaropes are of regular autumn occurrence, one must look for exceptional weather conditions when abnormal numbers are involved. There was a spell of cyclonic north-westerly weather in the eastern Altantic between 23rd and 27th August, with a low moving towards Norway from the Faeroe Islands; similar conditions arose again on the 4th September and prevailed almost continuously until about the 14th. The winds reached gale force on the 6th and 7th, were no more than moderate on the 9th and 10th, and were strong from the nth to 13th. After the 10th a highly complex low pressure system, with three centres moving eastwards (one entering the North Sea on the nth), intensified this north-westerly airstream ; and when the North Sea centre reached southern Scandinavia on the 12th there were strong to gale force winds all round the western perimeter of this vast low, north- easterly between Spitzbergen and Denmark Strait, north-westerly between east Greenland and Iceland and the west and south of the British Isles. Fine and calm weather in south and east Greenland during late August and the first week or two of September probably enabled migration to get quickly under way. The phalaropes concerned in the main peak of i3th-i4th September may have come south very quickly with a following wind all the way from quite far north in east Greenland, and even from as far distant 37 VOL. l ii ] PHALAROPES IN AUTUMN 1957 as Spitzbergen. This suggestion is supported by Fig. 2 which indicates a rapid build-up of numbers during ioth-i4th September. The minor peak of late September seems likely to have been associated with a small and intense depression which reached St. George’s Channel on the 25th September. It is most improbable Fig. 2— Graph showing the numbers of phalaropes ( Phalaropus spp.) RECORDED IN THE BRITISH ISLES DURING SEPTEMBER 1957 The continuous line refers to Grey Phalaropes (Ph. fulicarius), the broken line to Red-necked Phalaropes (Ph. lobatus), and the crosses to birds which were not specifically identified (but see Addenda on page 39). that these phalaropes, considerably fewer in number (about 20% of the total for I3th-i4th September), could have come from Greenland, since, with a polar high dominating the north from the 16th, the winds between Britain and Greenland had been east or south-east. This low had first appeared midway between Bermuda and the Azores on the 20th, and had crossed the Azores, still deepening, on the 22nd. It entered the Western Approaches, with force 9 winds on its southern side, next day, and its centre was about 150 miles west of the southern tip of Ireland at mid-day on the 24th. It disappeared from the weather map on the 26th, replaced by an Azorean high, so that the time and place of its arrival make it highly suspect as the agent of the phalaropes appearance. Perhaps, following the earlier situation, there was an unusual concentration of these birds in the path of the depression as it moved towards the Western Approaches, so that numbers were swept into the comparatively calm centre by the strong circulation, to be carried along and eventually “disgorged” round the shores of the southern Irish Sea. An analysis of the distribution of the phalaropes recorded at the period of this minor peak corroborates this theory to a great extent as there are records 38 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII from Co. Dublin, Co. Wexford, Skokholm, Somerset, and the Cornish waters. It is also evident that a considerable scattering of birds took place about late September, for subsequent records are from widely separated localities many being recorded inland and on the east coast from Yorkshire to Essex and Kent. The explanation of this minor peak as given above is admittedly hypothetical, but it is what one would expect from the structure and behaviour of a small, intepse depression, and the reluctance of birds to combat strong winds. R. C. Murphy (The Oceanic Birds of South America, 1936, pp. 51-55) has described the remarkable concentration of birds that occurs in the calm “eye” of a tornado, and a depression of this kind is merely a tornado on a large and less vigorous scale. Many petrel wrecks are undoubtedly attributable to this cause, and indeed the main part of the wreck of Leach’s Petrels (Oceanodroma leucorrlioa) in October 1952 ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 137-163) was due to a small and extremely deep depression which raced across the Atlantic to the British Isles between 26th and 28th October, though earlier and later other less vigorous depressions played their part. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to the following correspondents whose ready assistance is gratefully acknowledged. This list includes many editors of county reports and to them special thanks are due, as without their generous co-operation this analysis would not have been possible : R. H. Baillie, Mrs. E. Barnes, J. E. Beckerlegge, E. Blezard, Miss P. Bond, A. W. Boyd, W. W. Campbell, R. Chislett, F. K. Cobb, E. Cohen, R. K. Cornwallis, Mrs. J. B. Cowdy, A. Dobbs, R. Felton, J. C. Follett, E. H. Gillham, J. C. Gittins, T. W. Gladwin, D. D. Harber, E. Hardy, Canon G. A. K. Hervey, R. A. O. Hickling, R. J. Johns, I. L. Jones, J. Lord, H. P. Medhurst, R. Murray, K. Palmer, J. L. F. Parslow, A. G. Parsons, Miss F. E. Penrose, G. A. Pyman, G. H. Rees, E. M. Rutter, Major R. F. Ruttledge, Col. H. Morrey Salmon, M. J. Seago, J. T. R. Sharrock, O. J. Shepard, F. R. Smith, K. G. Spencer, J. Stafford, E. G. Staunton, R. C. Stone, C. M. Swaine, J. H. Taverner, G. W. Temperley, A. J. Tree, C. M. Veysey, A. E. Vine, G. Waterston, Dr. Adam Watson, N. J. Westwood, A. A. K. Whitehouse, D. R. Wilson. The discussion of weather factors is based almost entirely on notes supplied by Mr. Kenneth Williamson, the Migration Research Officer of the British Trust for Ornithology, and his co-operation is greatly appreciated. In the appendices that follow we list all records that were sent to us by the correspondents listed above. We accept no responsibility as regards identification and any remarks related to this subject are those of the correspondents concerned. Nil returns were received for the following counties: Berkshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, Herefordshire, Leicestershire, Oxford- shire, Radnorshire, Rutland, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West- morland and Wiltshire. 39 VOL. lii] PHALAROPES IN AUTUMN 1957 Appendix A — List of records of Grey Phalaropes ( Phalaropus fulicarius ) in the British Isles during the autumn of 1957 ENGLAND Buckinghamshire. — A female ringed at Slough sewage farm on 3rd October (R. J. Johns). Cheshire. — Two in the Dee Estuary during the second and third weeks of September, and one in the Weaver Estuary in mid-September ( per E. Hardy). Single birds at Hilbre Island on 20th and 27th October (J. C. Gittins), and in the Dee Estuary on 9th and 27th October (per Canon G. A. K. Hervey). E. Cornwall. — One in Bude Harbour on 12th September and two on 17th (H. J. Chipman). [5 in Widemouth Bay on 12th September (H. J. Chipman).] Three at Gweek on 20th September (T. J. Stephens). W. Cornwall. — St. Ives Bay, 3 on nth September, 8 on 12th (N. R. Phillips); flocks of 20 and 5 on 13th September (B. King and P. Pearce); 6 on 14th September (A. G. Parsons et al.), and one on 8th December (N. R. Phillips). One at Porth on 20th October (C. J. Stevens), and one at Porthmeor on 27th October (N. R. Phillips). Penzance to Scilly Isles, mainly between Wolf Rock and Land’s End, 7 on 10th September and 6 on 14th (per J. L. F. Parslow). Scilly Isles. — St. Agnes, 4 on nth September, 2 on 12th, 4 on 13th, 2 on 14th, one on 15th, and 2 on 24th September (per J. L. F. Parslow). N. Devon. — One present at Northam Burrows from about 7th to 29th September (A. J. Vickery et al.). [One at Appledore on 18th September (R. C. Stone).] One at Braunton Pill on 10th November (A. J. Vickery). Dorset. — [One at Radipole Lake, Weymouth, on 9th September may have been Red-necked (J. Cook).] One at Ferrybridge, Weymouth, on nth September, and one off Portland Bill on 17th September (Portland B.O.). One at Lodmoor on 1st October (Miss H. J. Brotherton et al.). Durham. — One on the sea off Teesmouth on 13th October (per G. W. Temperley). Essex. — One at Hanningfield Reservoir, 2ist-25th September (R. B. Warren). One at Abberton Reservoir on 2nd October (J. W. Andrews). (See Essex Bird Report, 1957, p. 23.) Gloucestershire. — One at Frampton-on-Severn on 25th and 26th August (C. J. Tweedy and C. M. Swaine). S. Hampshire. — One at Southsea on 8th September (R. H. Dennis). One at Brownwich Shore on nth September, and one at Meon Shore on 12th September (S. L. White). One at Kingston Common, Ringwood, I2th-i4th September (Miss F. E. Penrose). Two at Farlington Marshes, 12th- 16th September (per G. FI. Rees). Pennington/Keyhaven Marshes, 4 on 14th September, 3 on 16th and 17th, 2 on 20th, and one on 21st September (J. K. Bowers et al.). 6 at Stokes Bay on 3rd October (D. C. Mole). One at Brownwich Shore and another in Hill Head Harbour on 5th November (R. H. Dennis). One at Lee-on-Solent on 21st November (T. E. Brice). Isle of Wight. — One at Grange Chine, Brighstone, on 15th and 16th September (G. A. H. Wells and D. J. Westwood). One probable Grey Addenda. — The following records came to hand too late for inclusion in the main report. They therefore affect Figs. 1 and 2 and the figures quoted in the discussion on pages 33-36: it should be noted particularly that the numbers of Grey Phalaropes reported during the peaks on 14th and 21st September are now increased by 5 and 7 respectively. Cheshire. — One on Weston Marsh, 5th September (Merseyside Nat. Assoc. Bird Report, 1957-58, p. 19). S. Devon. — One picked up dead on beach at Slapton, nth September (30th Rep. of Devon Bird-Watching and Pres. Soc., 1957, p. 26). N. Somerset. — One at Steart, 15th and 17th September (Report on Somerset Birds, 1957, p. 23). S. Somerset. — Five on Porlock Marsh, 14th September; and 7 on beach at Dunster, 21st September (ibid.). 40 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii Phalarope at Yarmouth on 15th September (E. Doe), and one certain on 29th September (M. C. Adams). Hertfordshire. — One at Hilfield Park reservoir, 6th-i7th September (B. L. Sage). One at Broxbourne gravel pits on 26th September, and probably the same bird at Rye Meads sewage farm during 27th-2gth (T. W. Gladwin). E. Kent. — One at Kingsdown on 15th September (J. T. R. Sharrock et al.) One at Shellness, Sheppey, on 26th September (D. F. Musson). Mid-Lancashire. — One on Fairhaven Lake, Lytham St. Annes, ioth-i6th September (P. Carah et al.). One off the coast on 9th November ( Field Nat., vol. 3, p. 7). S. Lancashire. — One on the Mersey at Liverpool on 13th September ( per E. Hardy). One at Astley Flash near Leigh, i3th-igth September (G. W. Fallows et al.). One at Pennington Flash for several days about 5th October (F. A. Lowe). One on the River Alt at Hightown on 26th October (O. Shepherd). N. Lincolnshire. — One picked up at Limber on 29th September (R. May). Middlesex. — One at Queen Mary reservoir, 15 th- 19 th September; and 2 on 17th September (B. E. Cooper et al.). W. Norfolk. — One at Cley, 9th-ioth October; 2 at Cley and 2 at Salthouse on 22nd October; one at Cley on 14th December; one at Brancaster Staithe on 2nd and 8th November ( per M. J. Seago). N. Northumberland (Cheviotland). — One at Ness End, Holy Island, 26th-28th August (per G. W. Temperley). S. Northumberland. — One found dead near Ponteland, 12 miles inland N.N.W. of Newcastle-on-Tyne, on 13th September ( per G. W. Temperley). Nottinghamshire. — One at Nottingham sewage farm on 15th and 16th September (J. M. McMeeking). N. Somerset. — One at Chew Valley reservoir on 3rd-4th November (P. Tibbs). S. Somerset. — Three at Porlock Marsh, i9th-2ist September (G. M. Chadwyck-Healey). One at Minehead on 23rd September (A. V. Cornish). E. Suffolk. — One at Reydon on 5th October ( per F. K. Cobb). Surrey. — One at Island Barn reservoir, i4th-i6th September (B. E. ana J. F. Cooper). [One at Frensham Great Pond on 15th and 16th September (Col. R. S. P. Bates).] E. Sussex. — One at Darwell reservoir, i8th-i9th September (Sussex Bird Report, 1957, p. 14). W. Sussex. — One at Thorney Island on 15th September; one at Manhood End, I5th-i7th September; one dead at Pilsea Island on 27th October; one off Lancing Beach on 30th October; one off Selsey Bill on 2nd November; one at Shoreham on 5th November; one off Lancing Beach and another off Little- hampton on 6th November; and one at Southwick on 18th December ( Sussex Bird Report, 1957, p. 14). Worcestershire.— One at Upper Bittell reservoir on nth September (J. Lord). S. E. Yorkshire. — One at Brotherton Ing on 24th September (C. Winn). One at Spurn on 2nd and 3rd November (A. E. Platt et al.). WALES Carmarthenshire. — One near Llanstephan on 20th September ( Nature in Wales, vol. 4, p. 561). Glamorganshire. — One at Llanishen reservoir, Cardiff, on 13th September (Col. H. Morrey Salmon). One on Rhaslas Pond about 1,500 feet above sea- level on 19th October (Ivor Jones). One at Eglwys Nunydd Pool, near Port Talbot, on 20th October (D. Griffin). One found dead at Rhossili, Gower, in October (Gower Orn. Soc.). 3 offshore and possibly more further out off Sully Island, Swanbridge, on 3rd November (M. R. Edmunds). Merionethshire. — One at Aberdovey, i3th-i6th September ( Nature in Wales, vol. 4, p.561). Pembrokeshire. — 4 in Milford Haven on 17th September ( Nature in Wales, vol. 4, p. 561). 2 at North Haven, Skokholm, on 30th September ( Skokholm Bird Obs. Rep., 1957, p. 9). vol. lii] PHALAROPES IN AUTUMN 1957 41 SCOTLAND Argyllshire. — One seen in September, date ? (R. H. Allen). Berwickshire. — One at Hule Moss, nth-igth September (R. Murray). IRELAND Co. Dublin. — One at Dun Laoghaire on 14th September and 3 there on 25th ( per Major R. F. Ruttledge). Co. Kerry. — One on Akeagh Lough on 23rd October and 20th November; one at Blennerville on 1st and 2nd November (F. King). Co. Wexford. — An adult at Kilmore Quay on 13th and 14th September, and an immature bird on 14th September (F. King and A. J. Tree). Great Saltee, one on 12th and 13th September, and 3 on 14th, but probably more than this present (per Major R. F. Ruttledge) (see Appendix C). Appendix B — List of records of Red-necked Phalaropes ( Phalaropus lobatus) in the British Isles during the autumn of 1957 ENGLAND Cambridgeshire. — One at Cambridge sewage farm, 25th September-3rd October ( per A. E. Vine). W. Cornwall. — One in St. Ives Bay on 14th September (A. G. Parsons et al.), and 8th December (N. R. Phillips). One at Cremyll on 14th September (A. C. Sawle). Scilly Isles. — One at St. Agnes on gth September, and one between the Wolf Rock and Land’s End on 14th September (St. Agnes Bird Obs.). N. Devon. — At least 3 birds present: two on the River Taw at Barnstaple on 14th September (Mrs. D. Wilson et al.), and a single bird seen there by R. C. Stone on the same day may have been one of these two; two seen on the Taw at Fremington Pill on 16th September by R. C. Stone were in different plumage to the single bird seen on the 14th. S. Devon. — One on the River Tamar on 15th September (A. C. Sawle), and one in Plymouth Sound on 3rd November (S. C. McCullough). Dorset. — One probably of this species off Portland Bill on 13th September (Portland Bird Obs.). S. Hampshire. — One at Stokes Bay on 10th and 12th September (D. C. Mole). E. Kent. — One at the Brooks, Dungeness, on 4th October ( Kent Bird Report, 1957, P- 21). S. Lancashire. — 3 at Southport on 15th September (A. A. K. Whitehouse). Lincolnshire/Norfolk borders. — One at Wisbech sewage farm, 29th September ( per A. E. Vine). W. Norfolk. — Single juveniles at Cley on 25th August, 2nd-i5th and 18th September, and 2 present on 14th September; one dead at Salthouse on 27th October ( per M. J. Seago). Northamptonshire. — One at Byfield reservoir on 15 th September ( per R. Felton). Shropshire. — One at Monkmoor sewage farm on 21st September (per E. M. Rutter). S. Somerset. — One at Porlock Marsh on 26th September (A. V. and H. A. Cornish). E. Suffolk. — [One at Buss Creek, Southwold, about 16th August (E. G. Staunton).] One at Reydon on 14th August and 26th September; one at Minsmere, 24th-28th August; and one at Havergate on 1st September (per F. K. Cobb). E. Sussex. — One at the Midrips, 4th-gth September; and one in Newhaven Harbour on nth and nth September (Sussex Bird Report, 1957, p. 14). S.E. Yorkshire. — One on the River Aire at Brotherton Ing on 3rd November (D. J. R. Potter et al.). WALES Cardiganshire. — One at Aberystwyth on 17th September (Nature in Wales, vol. 4, p. 561). 42 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii Carmarthenshire.— One at Llanelly on 5th November ( Nature in Wales, vol. 4, p. 561). IRELAND Co. Down. — One at Kinnegar on 5th September ( per Major R. F. Ruttledge). Co. Dublin. — One at Booterstown Marsh, 8th-ioth September ( per Major R. F. Ruttledge). Co. Wexford. — Great Saltee, 6+ on 13th September and one on 14th September (per Major R. F. Ruttledge). Appendix C — List of specifically unidentified phalaropes ( Phalaropus spp.) recorded in the British Isles during the autumn of 1957 ENGLAND W. Cornwall.— On 28th September, 3 off the Runnel Stone, 9 near the Wolf Rock lighthouse, and one near the Scilly Isles ( per J. E. Beckerlegge). W. Kent. — 3 at Allhallows on 9th November (D. F. Musson). Mid-Lancasiiire. — One at Bolton-le-Sands on 27 th September (Miss A. M. Mackintosh). IRELAND Co. Wexford. — At Great Saltee, 6 on 12th September, 8+ on 13th, 14+ on 14th, and one on 24th ( per Major R. F. Ruttledge). THE STATUS OF THE RED-CRESTED POCHARD IN THE BRITISH ISLES By G. A. Pyman INTRODUCTION The fact that for several years past apparently wild Red-crested Pochards ( Netta rufina) have occurred with some regularity and in significant numbers in Essex prompted the writer to collect all available British records of this duck from 1948 onwards, and also to seek information on the present status of the species else- where in north-west Europe, in an attempt to throw some light on their origin. Enquiries were also made with a view to obtaining' some indication of the number of Red-crested Pochards that have “escaped” during recent years from the many waterfowl collections in which this handsome species is now represented. This paper sets out to summarise the results of the various enquiries, to analyse the available data, and to examine the status of this pochard in the British Isles at the present time. OCCURRENCES IN THE BRITISH ISLES Records up to IQ42. Witherby et al. (1939, amended 1941 and 1944) describe the Red-crested Pochard as a rare vagrant to the British Isles, encountered chiefly between September and March, and list upwards of 40 occurrences, apparently involving somewhere in the region of 150 birds, up to and including 1942. Included in this approximate figure, however, are three parties, the smallest of 13 and the largest of 18, seen in Norfolk, at the mouth of the vol. liiJ RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN 43 Thames and in Sussex respectively, and a remarkable assembly of about 40 birds on the Tring reservoirs in 1889 or 1890. The same authors cite only one instance of nesting in the wild state — by a pair in Lincolnshire in 1937 — which they conclude had in all probability wandered from Woburn, where it is stated the species had been reared and allowed to fly for a number of years. Records from 1948 to 1958. During the period of 11 years — from 1948 to 1958 inclusive — for which records of this species have been collected, it is known that a total of at least 135 birds have occurred in the British Isles away from the London area; there, in view of the known local wanderings of full-winged birds from the London parks (Homes et al., 1957), all records of Red-crested Pochards must be regarded as highly suspect. Of the minimum total of 135 birds, no fewer than 85 have been recorded on or near the east coast, mainly in the autumn or early winter. At least 73 of these (more than half the total) have been seen in Essex, all but about 12 of them at Abberton reservoir, near Colchester. The words “at least’’ are used advisedly since the actual total may have been distinctly higher, the concentrations which were noted at Abberton in the autumns of 1956 and 1957 being represented in the total by the maximum number counted at any one time in each year, whereas during the period of the pochards’ stay numbers fluctuated considerably and the birds present in the early stages could quite conceivably have moved on and been replaced by fresh arrivals. Such is the importance of the comparatively large number of Essex records that it is considered necessary to list them in some detail. In addition to a fairly obvious “escape’’ which frequented Abberton reservoir from December 1949 until April 1951, the Essex Bird Reports from 1949 to 1957 mention the following occurrences : — 1951: Abberton reservoir, one on 24th November. 1952: Abberton reservoir, one from 21st September to 14th December; at least 4 from 23rd December onwards. 1953: Abberton reservoir, single individuals on 16th January, in the “early autumn”, and on 22nd November. 1954: Abberton reservoir, single individuals on 23rd February, 24th October and Sth November. 1955: Abberton reservoir, one from 16th October to 4th December; up to 3 from 26th December onwards. 1956: Abberton reservoir, one on 31st August; another on 7th October, then a gradual increase to 13 by the 27th and 22 by 25th November; still 1 1 on 2nd December; last seen (2) on 16th December. Salcott creek, 7+ on 9th November. x957 : Abberton reservoir, 4 on 18th August; 1-4 from 22nd August to 14th September; 13 on 15th September and maximum of 16 on the 19th; numbers then fell to 11 by the 29th September and 5 by 4th October; apparently absent from 5th to 19th October; 3 on the 20th and a second peak of 10 from the 26th to the 31st; 2-6 during ioth-26th November; one on 22nd December. Hanningfield reservoir, one from 31st July to 3rd August; 2 on 6th and 27th September; 4 on 9th October. 44 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii Additionally, it is now known that a small party* was seen at Abberton in February 1957. The only Essex records for 1958 concern individuals at Abberton in early June and on 7th October. Records of Red-crested Pochards noted elsewhere in the British Isles during the period are shown in Table I which indicates the counties from which the birds have been reported and the months and years in which they have been seen. Table I — Records of Red-crested Pochards ( Netta rufina) in the British Isles (except Essex and the London area) during 1948-1958 The figures in parentheses indicate the years concerned. Where any bird is known to have made a protracted stay it is shown only under the month in which it was first recorded. Certain counties are grouped together because in some cases either the bird(s) occurred on a water lying across the county boundary or the same bird(s) appeared on waters in neighbouring counties. County Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. England : Cambs i(54) Cheshire 1(48) Cornwall ) 1(52) Devon J •(53) Dorset Herts Lancs Leics Northants J- 2(56) Warwicks J Lines Norfolk Northumb •(50) Notts Somerset Staffs Suffolk •(50 •(50) Sussex 2(56) Wilts Yorks Scotland : •(58) !(S6) 2(48) 1(56) 2(58) i(54) i(50 i(56) i(49) i(54) 9(57) 1 (57) !(52) 1(50) i(57) 1 (53) i(55) i(57) i(55) 1(56) •(5<0 1(53) 1(55) 1(48) 1(57) H48) 1(57) 1(58) 1 (54) 1 (57) 3(57) Fife Midlothian 1 Peebles Roxburgh 1 Selkirk J Ireland : Galway Meath 1 (58) Waterford Wexford 2(49) '(56) 1(58) 1 (57) 2(52) 1(52) *The exact number involved is not known, but for the purpose of the various totals given throughout this paper the figure of four is used. 45 VOL. li i ] RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN Table II shows the number of birds recorded in each of the years under review, divided into four-month periods. The Essex total for each year, while included in the fifth column, is shown separately in the sixth column. Table II — Numbers of Red-crested Pochards ( Netta rufina) recorded in the British Isles in each four-month period during 1948-1958 Note the peak in the last part of the year. Though given separately in an extra column on the right, the Essex figures are also included in the preceding columns. Year Jan. -April May-Aug. Sept. -Dec. Total recorded in year Total recorded in Essex 1948 3 — 2 5 — 1949 2 I I 4 I 1950 2 — 2 4 — i95 1 I I I 3 I 1952 I — 9 10 5 1953 I — 4 5 2 1954 A Lx — 2 6 3 1955 — — 7 7 4 1956 6 2 31 39 30 1957 4 l6 24 44 25 1958 4 I 3 8 2 It is not proposed to analyse the records at this stage as they will be discussed at some length later. NORTH-WESTWARD EXTENSION OF RANGE IN EUROPE No paper on this subject would be complete without an account of the north-westward extension of the Red-crested Pochard’s European range in recent years. In north-west Germany it has bred since 1920 on Fehmarn Island in the Baltic (Jauch, 1950) — from which according to G. A. Radtke (personal communication), 10 pairs were reported in 1951. In recent years, also, Red-crested Pochards have nested regularly on the Diimmer See, north-east of Osnabriick, in Lower Saxony (Requate, 1954). In 1940 for the first time the bird was found nesting in Denmark (Jesperson, 1952), and then in 1942 it was first proved to have bred in Holland (van IJzendoorn, 1950). In Denmark, the nesting area was Nakskov inner fjord on the island of Lolland, and today about 20 pairs breed annually in that locality while odd pairs have been found in summer elsewhere on the island (H. Johansen, personal communication). Although, as stated, the first proof of nesting in Holland was not forthcoming until 1942, van IJzendoorn (1950) records that birds of this species were frequently shot in Zuid-Holland, chiefly in August, up to 40 years earlier and sent to Leiden museum. Today, it appears to be well established in the Botshol, south of Amsterdam, where about eight breeding pairs were located both in 1955 and 1956, and broods have been seen from time to time in several other areas during the past 12 years (J. A. Eygenraam, personal communication). 46 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I In Belgium, the Red-crested Pochard is still regarded only as a scarce visitor (J. Maebe, personal communication), although a pair bred there in 1905 and another attempted to do so in 1934 (Verheyen, 1952). In France, it is resident in a number of localities in the eastern and southern parts of the country but is known only as a vagrant elsewhere (Mayaud, 1936, 1953). Several birds have, however, recently been noted in the late summer or early autumn in the area of the Somme estuary (R.-D. Etchecopar, personal communication). It should also be mentioned that recent research in the Camargue, in southern France, has established that the resident population is augmented in winter by immigrants, up to 4,000 birds having been counted in the area (L. Hoffmann, personal communication). In the absence of any previous reference to the species as a winter visitor to this area it is possible that this seasonal influx is a comparatively recent development or at any rate that it is now on a larger scale than was previously the case. At the end of the breeding season, the chief haunt of Red-crested Pochard in W. Europe is usually the Zwarte Meer, a nature reserve of 4,500 acres, north of Kampen in Holland. (There is no evidence that the existence of the long established and much larger autumn concentration on the Lake of Constance (Bodensee) in central Europe affects recent developments in the British Isles.) The birds begin to arrive at the Zwarte Meer in July and peak numbers are reached at any time between late August and early October; most of them move on during the second half of October, and after the end of November few are to be seen. It would appear that the species has only concentrated here in recent years, for in 1947 only a few birds were seen whereas in 1953 no less than 400 were counted at the end of August and 650 in late September : these figures have not since been equalled, but peaks of 150-200 were noted in each year from 1954 to 1956. In 1958, however, there is but one record for this area — of four birds in November. The Red-crested Pochard is still a considerable rarity in Holland in the winter, although odd birds or small parties have occasionally been seen (J. A. Eygenraam, personal communication). In Schleswig-Holstein (N. Germany), where small flocks (which later disperse in a south-westerly direction) are to be found after the breeding-season, a larger concentration of 239 birds occurred on Fehmarn Island on 4th October 1953 (Schmidt, 1955); and E. Jahn (personal communication) counted about 250 birds on the Grosser Binnensee, near Liitjenburg, in late September 1958 — a significant observation in view of the extreme scarcity of the species in Holland in the autumn of that year. In both north and west Germany (R. Drost, personal communication), however, as well as in Denmark (H. Johansen, personal communication), this pochard is of rare occurrence during the winter months. In British Birds for 1952 (antea, vol. xlv, p. 105) there is an editorial note to the effect that up to 500 Red-crested Pochards winter on the Ijsselmeer (Zuider Zee). This statement, for which no authority is quoted, is clearly incorrect. The Dutch can produce 47 VOL. li i ] RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN no evidence that the species has ever been seen in any numbers on this water at any season and the note is apparently a confused reference to the autumn flock on the Zwarte Meer which, prior to the reclamation of certain areas of the Zuider Zee, formed part of that still vast expanse of water. [We regret this error. — Eds.] RINGING DATA Ten Red-crested Pochards have so far been ringed in the British Isles under the scheme managed by the British Trust for Ornithology (R. Spencer, personal communication). Six of these birds, ringed in St. James’s Park, London, were progeny of stock introduced to that water and two of them were subsequently recovered as follows (Thomson and Leach, 1953): Date ringed Dale and place of recovery 18.vii.52 16.viii.52 : Trentham, nr. Stoke-on-Trent, Staffs (130 miles N.W.). i.ix.52 3d. 53: Hoogeven, Drente, Holland. The remaining four birds were trapped at Abberton reservoir in December 1949; December 1952 ; September 1957 and June 1958 respectively. The 1949 bird, which was retrapped at the reservoir on several occasions up to April 1951, has earlier in this paper been referred to as a likely “escape”. The bird ringed in December 1952 was found dead at the reservoir in the following month. One of the arrivals at Abberton in the late summer of 1957 bore a silver- coloured ring but efforts to trap it were unsuccessful (C. B. Wainwright, personal communication). It is pertinent to mention at this juncture, however, that the blue coating on the Avicultural Society’s rings (with which many waterfowl are marked) is stated to wear off in the process of time. From enquiries that have been made it seems fairly certain that the Danish islands, the Camargue and (on the strength of a bird trapped in a fishing net in 1955) the Bodensee (southern Germany) are the only other localities in Europe (excluding Russia) in which this pochard has been ringed. In Denmark, one bird was marked near Copenhagen in 1955 and eight in the breeding area on Lolland in 1956: one of the latter, ringed in August 1956, was shot a few miles away in September 1958 (H. Johansen, personal communication). 100 birds have been ringed in the Camargue during the past few years, but apart from a few purely local re- captures none has so far been recovered (L. Hoffmann, personal communication). THF. RED-CRESTED POCHARD AS AN ORNAMENTAL WATERFOWL IN THE RRITISH ISLES The Red-crested Pochard is now one of the most popular species with collectors of ornamental waterfowl in the British Isles. The current price of a pair is only £8 and there can be no doubt that the total population of “ornamental” birds of this species has reached fairly substantial proportions. Peter Scott (personal 48 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII communication) has indicated that, although the species was fairly common in collections before the 1939-45 war, it seems to have bred much more freely since the war, and has suggested that the same (Pclimatic) influence which has resulted in the extension of the species’ wild range may be responsible for its cheap avicultural price and, consequently, for the more frequent occurrence of “escapes”. In an attempt to obtain some indication of the number of birds currently kept in collections, an enquiry was addressed in July 1958 to the 250 collectors known to the Wildfowl Trust. 153 replies were eventually received and these produced a total of about 260 birds in 60 collections. The same replies also revealed that about 42 Red-crested Pochards in the collections concerned were full-winged (this figure excluding a small number of ducklings which were later to be pinioned) and that, ignoring “escapes” from St. James’s Park, London, to which reference will be made later, only 41 — mostly birds of the year which their owners had been unable, or had made no attempt, to pinion — had flown away since 1948. Obviously, before these figures could be used to advantage, some means of assessing the degree of completeness of the Wild- fowl Trust’s list had to be found. It was considered that this could best be done by compiling a list of all collections which had come to light from other sources during the course of the enquiry and comparing it with the Trust’s list. This second list was found to comprise 40 collections of which only 12 (30%) were not known to the Trust. The figure of 250, representing the number of collections on the Trust’s list, was then increased by the same percentage and the resultant figure of 325 adopted as the very approximate number of collections in the British Isles. By this means, the 153 collections (containing some 260 Red-crested Pochards) about which information was received in response to the enquiry can be taken as rather less than half the total. Thus, on a proportional basis and after allowing a liberal margin of error (of close on 10%) in either direction, the total number of birds of this species in all collections can be roughly assessed at between 500 and 600, of which probably not more than 100 (including young birds) would have been unpinioned at the time of the enquiry. It onlv remains to consider the number of birds that have “escaped” from collections since 1948. As stated, the replies received from the 153 collectors revealed that a total of 41 birds, in addition to the indeterminate number that had left St. ITrnes’s Park, had flown away during that period and, if the same basis as was used in assessing the total number of rufina in collections is adopted in this case also, the relatively low maximum figure of 100 (again taking no account of “escapes” from St. James’s Park) results. In (he case of the St. James’s Park collection, it has to be 49 VOL. lii] RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN accepted that a few young birds have flown away in most, if not all, years since 1950 (when the species was re-introduced there), although the actual numbers are not known. W. G. Teagle (personal communication) states that breeding success in the park has often been quite high and although efforts have been made, especially during the past four years, to pinion the young birds (which have then either been left in the park or transferred to other collections), a few have usually remained full-winged. Some of these must obviously have left since counts carried out after the close of the breeding season in late years show that the number of birds in the park has remained fairly constant. However, even if due allowance is made for the birds that have flown away from St. James’s Park and for the possibility that a few of these as well as other “escapes” may subsequently have paired and raised young in the wild state (although in point of fact only one such instance — a pair at St. Osyth, Essex, in 1958 — has come to light during the course of the enquiry), it is fairly evident that the number of feral Red-crested Pochards at large in this country at any given time must still be comparatively small. In short, the available evidence does not support the belief, which has gained some currency during recent years, that considerable numbers of these birds are wandering about the British Isles. The collections from which Red-crested Pochards are known to have “escaped” during the 11-year period are widely scattered and from only three of them (in addition to that in St. James’s Park) have a significant number of “escapes” been reported. These three collections are situated near St. Neots (Huntingdon- shire), Horsham (Sussex) and East Dereham (Norfolk) and the “escapes” number 12, 9 and 6 respectively. In each case the birds have left gradually over a period of years but none has flown away from the last-mentioned collection since the early i95°’s; In view of the publicity that Woburn (Bedfordshire) has received in connection with this species in the past, it is worth recording that no Red-crested Pochards have been kept there for a number of years. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS It will already be apparent that in attempting to assess the probable status — genuinely wild or feral — of the comparatively large number of Red-crested Pochards that have been seen in the British Isles during recent years, two factors — namely, the north-westward extension of the species’ range in Europe and the increasing (if still quite small) number of “escapes” from collections — must be constantly borne in mind. If genuinely wild birds are now reaching this country in significant numbers it is highly probable that most of them come from Holland where it has been shown that the species usually concentrates in the late summer months. It should be 50 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII remembered that these birds leave the Zwarte Meer, where they have collected, well before the end of the year and that the species is rarely seen in the Netherlands or elsewhere in north- west Europe in winter. Fairly obviously, therefore, most of the north-west European population, which can be expected to number several hundred birds at the close of the breeding season, is migratory and it must be assumed that the birds’ winter quarters lie somewhere to the south or south-west of their autumn concentration area. Witherby et al. (1939) gave the species’ European winter range as the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and Wardlaw Ramsay (1923) as chiefly east of Sardinia. It is possible, however, that the majority of the birds now to be found at the end of the breeding season in north-west Europe winter in the western part of the Mediteranean basin. It has been stated earlier that in recent years, at least, the resident population of the Camargue has been augmented at this season by immigrants and this area of southern France, which lies some 650 miles S.S.YV. of the Zwarte Meer and forms a refuge for vast numbers of wildfowl, may well prove to be the main winter quarters of the north-west European birds. While other suitable, although mostly less extensive, wintering areas exist in south-west Europe there is as yet no evidence that any of them are visited by Red-crested Pochards, but the possibility that a few birds may winter in the British Isles — particularly in western areas— remains and will be discussed later. If it is a fact that most of the birds which have colonized north- west Europe migrate to winter quarters lying to the south or south-west, then it is quite conceivable that some of' them pass through eastern England. The large Abberton reservoir, well known as a sanctuary for thousands of duck and situated in close proximity to the Essex coast about 220 miles W.S.W. of the Zwarte Meer, is ideally placed as an alighting point for wildfowl arriving from the Netherlands and this reservoir is, in fact, the only water at which ostensibly wild Red-crested Pochards have been seen in any numbers. Furthermore, the only other localities (both in Essex) from which parties of these pochards have been reported in the late summer or autumn lie not far away : these are the new and extensive Hanningfield reservoir (17 miles S.W. of Abberton) where up to four birds were present in 1957, and Salcott creek near Tollesbury where, on 9th November 1956, there occurred a flock of at least seven birds which could conceivably have flown out from Abberton (less than three miles to the north) but which, in view of the fact that the species does not readily resort to tidal water, were perhaps more likely to have been newly arrived immigrants from the low countries. The one Suffolk record for this period — of an individual at Minsmere in August 1957 — is also a significant one since the date of the bird’s arrival coincided closely with that of the initial influx at Abberton in that year. That some relationship existed in the autumn and early winter vol. li i J RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN 51 of 1956 between the departure of the birds from the Zwarte Meer and the influx at Abberton is evident from Table III. Unfortunately, no counts were made in Holland in the autumn of 1957, the other year in which Red-crested Pochards appeared in Essex in some strength. The fact that only one bird appeared in Essex in the autumn of 1958, when the species was virtually absent from the Zwarte Meer, is also of some significance. Table III — Numbers of Red-crested Pochards ( Netta rufina ) on the Zwarte Meer (Holland) and Abberton reservoir (Essex) in the autumn and early WINTER OF 1956 Week Number reported from Zwarte Meer Minimum number present at Abberton 3rd week Sept. IQO — 4th t) it IOO — ISt ,, Oct. * I 2nd 11 it 5° 5 3rd t 1 1 1 5 4th t t 1 1 * 13 ISt ,, Nov. 15 J5 2nd 1 1 t t 5 I I 3rd t 1 1 1 * 12 4 th 1 1 t t * 22 ISt ,, Dec. * I I 3 rd M tt * 2 *No figures available. The only other possible explanation for the presence between the late summer and early winter in recent years of significant numbers of Red-crested Pochards at Abberton reservoir is that the birds came from waterfowl collections. It was realised that the most likely source from which any “escaped” birds might have wandered to Abberton is St. James’s Park, London, which lies only about 50 miles S.W. of the reservoir. The two ringing recoveries previously cited show that the park birds are capable of travelling considerable distances, while flocks from the park have frequently visited other waters in central London. On the other hand, there are few records (and none of a flock) for the reservoirs surrounding London (R. C. Homes, personal communication) although it is possible, since the presence of full- winged birds in St. James’s Park is well known, that a number may have gone unrecorded. Whether or not the movements of the bulk of the St. James’s Park birds are of a purely local character, a series of counts carried out in the park by W. G. Teagle in 1956 between September and December revealed that the number of birds (about 30, of which some two-thirds were unpinioned) remained virtually constant. It is, therefore, established that the birds which were present at Abberton in the late autumn of that year did not fly there direct from St. James’s Park, while there is not the slightest evidence that any other collection in the country could 52 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII have produced (or had lost) anything- approaching the number of full-winged birds noted on the Essex reservoir. Consequently, if all the Abberton birds were “escapes”, there remains only the unlikely hypothesis that they had flown into that water in ones and twos from all directions and — since only a few individuals were noted elsewhere in the British Isles during the ensuing winter — dispersed in the same way after they left the reservoir. It is, therefore, the writer’s considered opinion that the majority, at least, of the birds which concentrated at Abberton (and were also noted elsewhere in Essex) in the autumns of 1956 and 1957, together with the individual which appeared in Suffolk in August of the latter year, were almost certainly wild immigrants, as in all probability were the odd birds and small parties noted at Abberton in the autumn or early winter in other years. Further- more, if these autumn visitations continue, serious consideration will need to be given to this species being accorded the status of a regular autumn visitor to the British Isles instead of that of a rare vagrant. As the Red-crested Pochard now breeds as far north in Europe as ca. latitude 55 °, i.e. that of Newcastle, there must be a distinct possibility that the five individuals reported during the autumn or early winter from the vicinity of the east coast from Lincoln- shire northwards were also genuinely wild birds. Two of these records deserve special mention. The bird that arrived in Fife (the furthest north from which the species was reported during the period) in October 1956 — and, incidentally, spent the winter in the area — was described as “very shy” and almost certainly wild; and it may or may not have been pure coincidence that the individual reported from Lincolnshire in November 1957 was seen on the very day that another bird appeared on migration near the Dutch coast in Zeeland. Reports concerning the winter months of January and February have brought to light another small series of east coast records (including that of the small party at Abberton in February 1957) comprising a total of about 10 birds. These occurrences may possibly have been due in some instances to a hard weather exodus on the part of a few birds that had remained in Holland and/or neighbouring countries, and in others (particularly those in the second half of February) to a return passage to breeding grounds in north-west Europe: the breeding areas apparently begin to be re-occupied in the early spring since (to quote one example) 12 birds had arrived in the Botshol, in Holland, by 16th March 1954 (J. A. Eygenraam, personal communication). Occurrences of rtcfina over the remainder of the British Isles during the period' from September to February have been confined to western areas (from Lancashire round to Dorset as well as Ireland), to the Midlands and to West Sussex, as indicated in Table IV. Plate 9 - ►jdMwHfrE 4 •*- StAJl*' ' „ 4 ]. B. and S. Bottomley Habitat ok Little Gull ( Larus minutus ): N. Jutland, Denmark, May 1958 The foreground, with reeds, was a feeding-area and the nests were on the flat, partly flooded, saline grazing-land beyond. Some 10-20 pairs of Little Gulls were estimated among hundreds of Black-headed Gulls (L. ridibundus), Common Terns ( Sterna hirundo) and waders (see pages 57-58). ] . B. and S. Botlonilcy Little Gull ( Larus minutus) incubating: N. Jutland, Denmark, May 1958 This shows the general pattern of velvet black head, white body, and pale blue-grey wings and mantle. Note the absence of black on the wing-tips, though some second-summer birds in otherwise adult plumage do have dark patches on the primaries (see page 59). Plate io I Plate 12 C. C. Doncaster Juvenile Little Gull ( Larus minutus): W. Jutland, Denmark, August 1957 The juvenile is a very different-looking bird, with its blackish crown and ear- coverts, sooty brown upper-parts, and completely white under-parts except for a dark patch on each side of the breast. The white tail has a subterminal black band. C. C. Doncaster Juvenile Little Gull (Larus minutus) with Black-headed (L. ridibundus) The same bird giving a useful size comparison. It should be remembered that at this age the underwing is white and, indeed, it does not become fully dark until the third winter. Recognition is made easy in first-year plumage, however, by a black diagonal across the open wing. vol. liiJ RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN 53 Table IV — Numbers of Red-crested Pochards (Netta rufina) recorded during 1948-1958 between September and February in areas away from the Month Western areas (including Ireland) east coast Midlands (including S. Yorkshire) . West Sussex Sept. 2 I — Oct. 2 I I Nov. 2 5 — Dec. 4 I 2 Jan. 5 2 — Feb. I — 3 Of the 11 birds noted in western parts of the British Isles between November and January, no fewer than six (three of which were shot) were reported from Ireland. When it is recalled that observer coverage over much of that country is very poor it will be evident that this figure is unlikely to represent more than a small proportion of the number of Red— crested Pochards that have occurred in Ireland during the winter months. While it is appreciated that the numbers involved are too small to be of other than minor significance, it is nevertheless felt that the figures given in Table IV, when considered in conjunction with the detailed list of occurrences appearing in Table I, do tend to suggest the possibility that at least in some years a small scale movement of north-west European birds across the British Isles may take place in the late autumn or early winter and that a small wintering population of wild birds may be dispersed over suitable areas in Ireland and, to a lesser extent, some southern and western English counties. More intensive observations in Ireland, if that were possible, would obviously be of considerable value in helping to prove or disprove this theory. Of the few spring records — involving a total of only 10 birds between March and May — three concern individuals seen in Norfolk, but the remainder are from widely scattered localities. As these records do not conform to any recognisable pattern it is impossible to draw any conclusions regarding the origin of the birds concerned. The same remarks apply to those occurences for the summer months of June and July. That the total of 12 birds for these two months is as high as it is, is due to the record of a party of nine near Leeds in Yorkshire in June, 1957, which it is felt may well have flown off from some local collection the existence of which was not discovered during the course of the enquiry. At the same time, however, there is no reason why some of these spring and summer birds should not have been of wild stock. From the foregoing it can be asserted with some confidence that a reasonably high proportion of the Red-crested Pochards recorded since 1948 have been genuinely wild and, therefore, that the species has increased in numbers as a visitor to the British Isles during the past few years. In view of its recent 54 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I gains elsewhere in north-west Europe, this trend can be expected to continue despite the paucity of records in the autumn of 1958, and there is surely no valid reason why this attractive diving duck should not nest on this side of the North Sea in the foreseeable future. SUMMARY 1. Past records (up to and including 1942) of the Red-crested Pochard in the British Isles (where this species is known as a rare vagrant) are summarized. The one instance of breeding (in 1937) was thought to have been the act of “escaped” birds. 2. Since 1948, at least 135 possibly wild Red-crested Pochards have been noted in the British Isles. 85 of them appeared on or near the east coast, mainly in the autumn or early winter. 73 birds (more than half the total) have been seen in Essex where, at Abberton reservoir, concentrations of 22 and 16 birds respectively occurred in the autumns of 1956 and 1957. 3. Details are given of the north-westward extension of the species’ range in north-west Europe in recent years. The Red- crested Pochard now breeds regularly in Denmark and Holland and increasingly in north-west Germany. After the breeding season it usually concentrates on the Zwarte Meer, in Holland, but evacuates this water before the end of the year. Similar concentrations also occurred in Schleswig-Holstein (N. Germany) in 1953 and 1958. Few birds winter in north-west Europe. 4. Ten Red-crested Pochards have been ringed in the British Isles: two of them, progeny of imported stock and ringed in St. James’s Park, London, were subsequently recovered in the Midlands and in Holland respectively. The Danish Islands, the Camargue (southern France) and the Bodensee (southern Germany) are believed to be the only localities in Continental Europe in which birds of this species have been marked : the few recoveries to date have been local ones. 5. It is roughly estimated that between 500 and 600 Red- crested Pochards are currently kept in collections in the British Isles : probably not more than 100 of them are full-winged. The number that have “escaped” during the past n years is believed to be quite small — this figure also would probably not exceed 100 if it were not for the small but indeterminate number that have flown away in most years since 1950 from the flourishing collection in St. James’s Park. 6. The suggestion is made that many of the birds which disperse from north-west Europe in the late autumn may winter in the western part of the Mediterranean region — the Camargue is mentioned as a likely area. 7. It is suggested that the majority of the birds that arrived at Abberton reservoir and in neighbouring areas in the autumns or early winters of 1936 and 1957 had' originated in north-west Europe and were on their way to winter quarters lying to the south or south-west. Other records for Abberton and occurrences else- 55 VOL. lii] RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN BRITAIN where on or near the east coast during the same period of the year may well also refer, in the main, to wild birds. Serious consideration should, therefore, soon be given to the species being classified as an annual autumn visitor to the British Isles. The occurrence of a number of birds near the east coast in January and February may have been due partly to a cold weather exodus on the part of a few birds remaining in north-west Europe, and partly to an early return to breeding grounds in that area. 8. While numbers are too small to be of other than minor significance, the pattern and distribution of records between September and February for the remainder of the British Isles tend to suggest the possibility that in some years, at any rate, a small scale westward movement may take place across the country and that a small wintering population may be found in Ireland and possibly also in some southern and western English counties. 9. It is not possible at present to draw any conclusions regarding the origin of the birds recorded in the British Isles during the spring and early summer months. xo. It is suggested that the Red-crested Pochard has increased as a wild visitor to the British Isles during the past few years, a trend which can be expected to continue. There is every possibility that it may eventually nest on this side of the North Sea. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS While it is not possible to mention by name all who have helped in one way or another during the course of the enquiry, I wish to express my particular indebtedness to Messrs. I. J. Ferguson- Lces, R. S. R. Fitter, P. A. D. Hollom, E. M. Nicholson, Peter Scott and Robert Spencer for reading the draft of this paper and offering a number of constructive suggestions : to Miss P. Barclay-Smith, as well as to Mr. G. L. Atkinson- Whiles and Dr. G. V. T. Matthews of the Wildfowl Trust, for assistance in various directions; to Mr. W. G. Teagle for details of the breeding successes and numbers of Red-crested Pochards in the London parks ; to Mr. R. V. A. Marshall for undertaking German language translations; and to M. J. Maebe (Belgium), Dr. H. Johansen (Denmark), M. R.-D. Etchecopar and Dr. L. Hoffmann (France), Prof. Dr. R. Drost, Dr. R. Kuhk and Herr G. A. Radtke (Germany), and Dr. Morzer Bruijns ( per Miss Barclay-Smith) and Heer J. A. Eygenraam (Holland), for placing at my disposal all available information regarding the present status of the Red- crested Pochard in their respective countries or areas. To all the following who contributed records or otherwise provided information concerning occurrences of possibly wild Red-crested Pochards in the British Isles, my grateful thanks are also due: R. H. Baillie, Mrs. E. Barnes, Rev. J. E. Beekerlegge, Dr. John Berry, A. R. M. Blake, E. Blezard, Miss P. Bond, A. W. Boyd, C. Cadbury, Dr. Bruce Campbell, R. Chislett, F. K. Cobb, E. Cohen, P. J. Conderj VV. M. Condry, R. K. Cornwallis, H. H. Davis, A. Dobbs, Dr. W. J. Eggeling! 56 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII R. Felton, J. Field, J. C. Follett, E. H .Gillham, D. D. Harber, H. H. S. Hayward, Canon G. A. K. Hervey, R. A. O. Hickling, F. G. Hollands, R. C. Homes, B. King, Dr. L. Lloyd-Evans, J. Lord, A. T. Macmillan, J. A. W. Moyes, F. E. R. Peach, W. S. Peach, Major W. W. A. Phillips, M. H. Port, E. M. Rutter, Major R. F. Ruttledge, M. J. Seago, J. T. R. Sharrock, F. R. Smith, R. W. J. Smith, Dr. C. Suffern, G. A. Sutton, C. M. Swaine, C. F. Tebbutt, G. W. Temperley, A. E. Vine, Major-General C. B. Wainwright, J. E. S. YValker, Miss J. M. Walker, G. Waterston. REFERENCES Homes, R. C. et al. (1957): The Birds of the London Area since 1900. London. Jauch, W. A. (1950): “Der Untersee Kolbenenten-Reservat von europaischer Bedeutung”. Schweizer Naturschutz, 16: 22-25. Jespersen, P. (1952): Danske Fugle. Copenhagen. Mayaud, N. (1936): Inventoire des Oiseaux de France. Paris. (I953): “Liste des Oiseaux de France”. Alauda, 21: 15. Ramsay, R. G. Wardlaw (1923): Guide to the Birds of Europe and North Africa. London. Requate, H. (1954): ‘‘Die Entenvogelzahlung in Deutschland (1948 bis April, I9S3)”- Biologische Abhandlungen, 10: 24-25. Schmidt, G. A. J. (1955): ‘‘Eine Phanologie bemerkenswerter Vogelarten Schleswig-Holsteins fur die Jahre 1950-1954”. Orn. Mitt., 7: 27. Thomson, A. Landsborough, and Leach, E. P. (1953): ‘‘Report on bird- ringing for 1952”. Brit. Birds, xlvi : 299. Van IJzendoorn, A. L. J. (1950): The Breeding Birds of the Netherlands. Leiden. Verheyen, R. (1952): Les Anatidds de Belgique. Brussels. Witherby, H. F. et al. (1939): The Handbook of British Birds. Vol. Ill, also ‘‘Additions and Corrections” (1941) and “Supplementary Additions and Corrections” (1944). London. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS XCIV. LITTLE GULL Photographs by C. C. Doncaster and J. B. and S. Bottomley (Plates 9-12) Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees The Little Gull ( Larus minutus) is a purely Palaearctic species with a not particularly extensive breeding range in the eastern half of Europe and in two apparently quite separate regions of the U.S.S.R.— the first as far south as the Volga-Ural Steppes and as far east as Lake Zaisan, the second (after a gap in Central Asia) eastwards from the region of Lake Baikal — but ( pace The Handbook ) it is doubtful whether the species nests as far across as the Sea of Okhotsk, north of Japan (Dementiev and Gladkov, 1951 ; Harber, 1955). It nests chiefly between latitude 5o°N. and the Arctic Circle and may thus be considered a northern bird, though there are some colonies in south-east Europe (in Rumania and at Lake Sevan in Armenia and, probably more sporadically, in Hungary, the Crimea and the Sea of Azov). Outside the U.S.S.R. it is mainly confined as a breeding species to Denmark and eastwards from the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic, as far north as most of the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Bothnia. LITTLE GULL STUDIES 57 VOL. LIl] Like the Black-headed Gull (L. ridibundus), it nests both near the sea and far inland, but throughout its whole range it is some- what local and nearly everywhere in small numbers. For example, Merikallio (1958) estimates the total population for Finland as only 200 pairs, though a casual comparison between the maps in the Field Guide (p. 184) might suggest that it was almost as numerous there as the Black-headed (for which Merikallio gives 20-30,000). The species has never been proved to breed in Britain, but it is a regular winter visitor in small numbers to much of the east coast, as it is to all coasts of western Continental Europe from the southern Baltic to Spain and from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean. It appears to have increased in the last twenty years — an increase which bore fruit in the establishment of a small breeding colony in Holland in 1942 (Haverschmidt, 1946) — and it is therefore worth briefly reviewing the present status in Britain, since it differs somewhat from the outline given in The Handbook. On the east coast of England the status has not altered much, though in most of those counties there are now more records each year than was formerly the case. This might be thought to be due to the greater number of observers, but parties of Little Gulls are now regularly seen up as far north as Aberdeen and, particularly since 1948, groups of 20 and 30 and even flocks in excess of a hundred have established themselves in winter on the coasts of Angus and Fife (e.g. Boase, 1954). On the south coast of England, Sussex and Kent now each have more than 20 or 30 records annually, and there have been over a dozen in Hampshire and Dorset in some years. Even in Devon and Cornwall several Little Gulls appear annually (6 and 10 respectively in 1956, a good year) and western counties like Somerset, Lancashire and Cheshire have had one or two in most recent years, chiefly on autumn passage. Kennedy, Ruttledge and Scroope (1954) were able to list only 20 or 21 records for the whole of Ireland to the end of 1952, but now, perhaps partly as a result of increased watching, there are a few occurrences each year (2 birds in 1954, 2 in 1953, 7 in 1956, 1 in 1957 — see Irish Bird Reports). Although the species is still only occasional inland in Britain, some counties like Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Berkshire can each produce records for several recent years. Mid-August to early April is still the period which sees the majority of the Little Gulls in Britain, but immatures and even a few adults in full plumage very occasionally appear on the east and south-east coasts during May-July. The photographs on plates 9-12 were obtained in Jutland. Not only are we greatly indebted to Mr. Doncaster and Mr. and Mrs. Bottomlev for providing us with this series, but also for putting summaries of their observations at our disposal. The background' of plate 9 upper gives some indication of the habitat in which they found their birds — a large, flat area of closely-cropped, saline grazing-land, some three by four miles in extent and partly 58 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII flooded. The place was heavily populated with Black-headed Gulls, Common Terns ( Sterna hirundo ) and many waders, including Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus), Redshanks ( Tringa totanus), Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegas), Avocets (. Recurvirostra avosetta) and Black-tailed Godwits ( Limosa limosa). The gulls and terns showed little tendency to dense colonial concentration, but were rather thinly scattered over the nesting areas, and it was very roughly estimated that there were some 10-20 pairs of Little Gulls dotted about among hundreds of Black-headed. Such scattered nesting, or nesting in very small groups, seems to be a characteristic of the Little Gull : for example, in his paper on the Dutch birds Haverschmidt (1946) gave details which showed that in each of the years 1942-44 a total of 15-18 pairs nested in five separate little groups of from one to 7 pairs. The habitat, on the other hand, may differ very much from that shown in plate 9 upper: sometimes sandbanks, sometimes islands of rank grass or reed-beds surrounded by deep water, and some- times marshes covered completely by dense vegetation such as water soldier ( Stratiotes aloides). Though The Handbook describes the nest as carelessly built, other authors refer to it as a solid and neat structure, and the amount of material used clearly varies very much : some of Haverschmidt’s photographs show fairly bulky nests in dense Stratiotes, but the two found on this Jutland marsh were simply, as can be seen from the one on plates 10 and 11, small hollows thinly lined with dead grasses. A group of 7 nests seen by the writer in Finland in June 1958 were small and neatly built of dead reeds and grasses : these were on an “island” of the previous year’s reeds, which was about 50 yards in diameter, and were grouped in the middle of a colony of much larger nests of Black-headed Gulls ; around the edge of the island was a surprising concentration of nests of Great Crested Grebes ( Podiceps cristatus ), some 23 in all, of which at least 15 were then occupied. Both the male and the female Little Gull build the nest (Haverschmidt, 1946) and both sexes sit on the surprisingly tern- like eggs, of which there are usually two or three, sometimes only one and occasionally four or more. These are usually not laid before the end of May and early June (Handbook), but in 1942 Haverschmidt’s birds had full clutches “some days before Mav 23rd” and at the Danish nest in these photographs there was one egg on 18th May and the complete three by the 21st. Incubation there, as is normal, began with the first egg. The change-over at the nest is described by J. B. Bottomley (in lift.) as follows: “The change-over took two forms. In one, the relieving gull would fly over the nest-site calling with a subdued ‘kek’ note which the sitting bird answered ; (he relieving bird would then fly down to the edge of the nest and at the same moment the incubat- ing one would depart. In the second method, the sitting gull, after answering the call from the one above, would fly off with- out waiting for the relief to land. I twice saw the unoccupied LITTLE GULL STUDIES 59 VOL. LIl] bird bring nesting material (dead grass) which it placed on the nest edge. There was no change-over on these occasions and the sitting bird apparently ignored the material just brought.” Haverschmidt stated that the nests he studied in Holland were kept up well during the whole of the breeding-season. Identification features are given prominence in the legends under the photographs— -see plates 9 lower, 10 and 11 for adults, and plate 12 for juvenile and size characters — but there remain one or two special points which are well worth mentioning. The most important is the fact that second-summer birds may be completely indistinguishable from full adults (although the under-wing is normally paler) except that they retain to a varying extent the dark subterminal spots and bands on the primaries that one associates with first-year plumage. Haverschmidt draws attention to this feature with two photographs ( antea , vol. xxxix, plates 3 and 4) of nesting birds with black on the primaries and cites Berg (1937) as being the first to establish that Little Gulls actually breed in this plumage. The dark spots may be found on any or all of the second to sixth primaries inclusive, and it is worth bearing this point in mind because these feathers may not be moulted until September or even October — with the result that a small adult gull with dark on the wing-tips may be a pitfall for the unwary. In this connection, too, it must be emphasized that it is not until the third winter that the underwing of the Little Gull assumes the full depth of dark slate-grey (see plate 11). Another point raised bv Haverschmidt is that on three occasions in May and June (in three different years) he saw in the colony a bird which was fully adult but in complete winter plumage with grey crown and nape and otherwise white head. Similarly, on 18th May 1958 C. C. Doncaster (in lift.) saw a Little Gull in the Jutland colony, which was still apparently in first-winter plumage. There should, however, never be any real difficulty over identifying this species, even if the plumage is irregular, for its rounded wings (plate n) and buoyant flight give a moth-like effect which is quite characteristic. First-summer birds retain the dark tail-band of juvenile plumage (see legend to plate 12 upper), and have brown on the wings and a black hood spotted with white. A useful flight-photograph, by Arthur Christiansen, showing the dark underwing and rounded tips, was published in British Birds in 1949 (vol. xlii, plate 22). REFERENCES Boase, H. (1954I: “Large numbers of Little Gulls in Angus and Fife”. Brit. Birds, xlvii: 170-172. Berg, Bengt (1037): Vcrlorcnes Parodies. Berlin, pp. 107-157. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. (1051): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. Ill, p. 530. Harber, D. D. (1055): Special Review of The Birds of the Soviet Union. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 345. Haverschmidt, Fr. (’1046): “Notes on the breeding of the Little Gull”. Brit. Birds, xxxix: 14-18, plates 1-6. Kennedy, P. G., Ruttlf.dge, R. F. and Scroope, C. F. (1954): Birds of Ireland. Edinburgh, pp. 242-243. Merikali.io, E. (1054): Finnish Birds: Their Distribution and Numbers. Helsinki, pp. 84-86. NOTES Pintails diving. — Among the large number of tame waterfowl at the Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, on 8th November 1958, there were at least 150 wild “surface-feeding” ducks in the enclosures. Three of these, a male and two female Pintails ( Anas acuta), surprised us because they continually dived below the surface of the water on the Orchard Pond. Before diving they brought their heads and necks well back over their shoulders and then, as they quickly plunged forward, they slightly opened their wings and used them to drive their bodies below the surface. They remained completely submerged for periods of up to ten seconds or more. This interesting behaviour lasted about eight minutes, during which time each Pintail dived two or three dozen times, and then the three ducks flew off in the direction of the River Severn. The Handbook states: “Diving does not seem to be recorded except when wounded or incapable of flight during moult, or in captivity”. The only comparable record we can trace is R. H. Ryall’s observation of a drake Pintail diving on the River Thames near Isleworth, Middlesex, on 24th January 1943 ( antea , vol. xxxvi, p. 201). It may well have been that the three ducks at Slimbridge were feeding on stray corn which had sunk to the bottom of the pond during the previous feeding of birds in the Trust’s collection. Stephen Chapman, Bernard King and Nigel Webb [Mr. Hugh Boyd of the Wildfowl Trust tells us that Pintails have been repeatedly noted diving in this way at Slimbridge, since at least 1954, but that it has never been put on record. Other dabbling ducks (non-British) also dive occasionally there and it is confirmed that the birds are doing so for grain. — Eds.] Lesser Black-backed Gull nesting on a bush. — On 2nd and 3rd May 1958, during a visit to Steepholm Island in the Bristol Channel, with a party from the Gull Research Group of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society, we noted that a number of adult Lesser Black-backed Gulls ( Larus fuscus) were in the habit of perching on low privet bushes on the southern slopes of the island. A number of nests of this species were found on the bare ground between these bushes, but we were surprised to see that one was actually built on a bush some three feet above the ground. Mr. J. A. G. Barnes informs us that he knows of no record of this species nesting in or on bushes. J. D. R. Vernon and C. Avent Jay killed by Weasel. — In Wytham Wood, Berkshire, on 25th February 1958, I saw a Jay ( Garrulus glandarius) killed by a Weasel ( Mustela nivalis). There was about two inches of snow on the ground where the Jay was standing looking at a baited trap about five yards away. The Weasel approached the trap, saw the Jay, ran round in a half-circle and attacked it from behind. 60 VOL. LIl] NOTES 61 The ensuing fight lasted for about half to three-quarters of a minute, during which time it was difficult to see exactly what happened. It appeared that the Weasel gripped the Jay by either the right wing or the base of the right leg. Eventually the Jay fell over, whereupon the Weasel quickly changed its grip and bit the bird in the back of the neck, killing it almost immediately. Examination of the dead Jay showed no marks in the wing or leg, but two deep punctures in the back of the skull. The Jay weighed 176 gm., and Weasels average about 90 gm. C. M. Perrins Male Robin taking part in nest-construction. — Up to the spring of 1958 we had always noted that the female Robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) alone constructs the nest, and we had never observed the cock taking any part, however small. Moreover, all authors give this as the rule, although Dr. David Lack in The Life of the Robin (1943, p. 81) did qualify this by stating: “Rarely a cock was seen to pick up a piece of nesting material, but usually he dropped it again soon afterwards, and on one occasion when a cock came near the partly built nest the hen chased him away, as also observed by Kirkman. It is difficult to see why the cock should take no part in building, and from the above instances it is evident that he possesses a small trace of building behaviour.” We were therefore greatly surprised when on 3rd March 1958 we found that both birds of a pair of Robins were carrying material into a nest-box in our garden at Elbeuf, Seine Maritime, France. This nest-box was installed there about 25 years ago and Robins had frequently nested in it, as had Redstarts ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus). The next day we observed the birds from 7 a.m. and their behaviour was the same. The male was not content with carrying the material and he entered the box just like the female. We could not be sure that he was actually building, because we could not see him once he was inside the box, but certainly both birds remained inside for about equal periods of time. Often one of the pair would perch on top of the nest-box and wait till the other came out, to enter in its turn. The same behaviour continued on 5th and 6th March, and on the latter day the two birds continued to build during heavy rain between 7 and 8 a.m. On 7th March, however, a cold spell started and this entirely stopped the work of construction. I never saw the pair again and the nest-box was not used any more that year; eventually, on opening the box, I found a typical Robin’s nest which appeared to be complete. I must add that I never saw the pair working in the afternoon, but as I was always out for a while at this time there may have been some activity which I missed. The dates 3rd-yth March are very early for this species to be nest-building in Normandy, but it should be noted that in the spring of 1958, although the winter was very prolonged, several species arrived in this part of northern France before the usual date and others began nesting earlier. Georges Olivier REVIEW WITHERBY’S SOUND-GUIDE TO BRITISH BIRDS. By Myles North and Eric Simms. Produced with the co-operation of the British Broadcasting Corporation, from recordings by Ludwig Koch, Eric Simms, Radiotjanst, B.B.C. Regional Services, J. R. Kirby, Carl Weismann, Myles North, A. E. Soper, H. E. Axell, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, L. J. Kinlen and D. I. M. Wallace. (Witherby, London, 1958). 2 vols., Part I (non- Passerines) with 7 double-sided 10-inch gramophone records (speed 78) and Part II (Passerines) with 6 records. Boxed with book and records; each part ^5 10s. net. Ever since the pioneer work of Ludwig Koch and the subsequent formation of the B.B.C. ’s library of bird recordings, there has been a natural and insistent demand for a really comprehensive and well-selected series of songs and notes of British birds to be made generally available. The difficulties were serious, but the delay in overcoming them has at least had the result of enabling the job to be really well done in the end. This Sound-Guide, carrying the authentic voices of 195 species of birds on the British list, is indeed something altogether beyond the dreams of pre-war students of bird-song and bird vocabulary. The criteria for success in such an undertaking are formidably exacting. First, a very wide range of individual birds must be located uttering sounds at places where they can be closely approached with adequate equipment, and recorded free from extraneous noises of civilization, wind, water or even too much of rival voices of nature. They must not be too remote from the microphone to reproduce strongly, nor so near or shut in as to give a distorted effect. They must be typical of their kind, not poor or peculiar performers, and they must emit an adequate range of utterances to yield for the listener a satisfactory body of audible material on both songs and call-notes. However the recording is done, the skill, equipment and processing employed must be first-class, and any inconsistencies arising from different techniques must be ironed out in the finished product. The arrangement, separation, identification, explanation and the packing and protection of the finished and edited collection must be such that each species can be readily reproduced with undiminished performance over a period of many years, given reasonable care, on a wide variety of sound-reproducing apparatus. To ensure worth-while distribution the design of the whole must be convenient and attractive, and the price must not be prohibitive. While at certain points and in some of these respects the Sound- Guide falls short of perfection when judged by the most exacting standards it approaches sufficiently closely to that goal to command admiration. As regards design and production there is little to criticize except possibly the numbered interleaving between the 62 VOL. LIl] REVIEW 63 records, which is hardly stiff enough for durability. The box and the format of the descriptive book are unusually pleasing. The text of the book, although thoroughly adequate, leaves something to be desired. The slightly old-fashioned air of the verbalized renderings of notes is inevitably accentuated by continual comparison with the much more authentic and subtle versions recorded by the birds themselves, and the recourse to human musical analogies is not always necessary or helpful. Where, as often inevitably happens, the ostensible subject of a recording is accompanied or interrupted by voices of one or more other species, the fact is only sometimes pointed out in the explanatory text, and this may well be confusing to those who do not know or are unskilled in separating the unannounced and undesired extra performers. Quantitative data for durations, intervals and frequency ranges are given in only a few cases, and there is no use of, or even allusion to, sound spectrograms, which could help to illustrate critical distinctions. Within its limits, however, the text is clear, informative and helpful. The sound recordings in Part I cover the non-Passerines, beginning with excellent but brief recordings of the divers and fairly representative selections of calls of the Great Crested, Slavonian and Little Grebes. Notes of Leach’s and Storm Petrel follow at some length and, although good, arc much too loud relatively to the Manx Shearwater, Fulmar and Gannet which come next. This failure to adjust volume of sound on the records to relative loudness of voices in nature is one of the few repeated weaknesses of the work. The Cormorant, Shag, Heron, Bittern and most of the ducks are excellent, although the Goosander is confused and the Garganey detracted from by extraneous noises. The geese are an outstandingly good and valuable series covering ten species ; the swans except the Mute are less satisfying, and although the falcons are excellent the Buzzard calls seem to lack “edge”. The grouse and other game-birds are of outstanding quality, although the two partridges are unfortunately somewhat confused with background sounds. The rails are another first- rate series, including Spotted, Baillon’s and Little Crakes; rather surprisingly, the Corncrake makes the least realistic impression. A very high proportion of the long series of wader calls reach an excellent standard, the Lapwing, Little Ringed Plover, Golden Plover and Snipe being among the best; the Avocet sounds decidely thin and the Oystercatcher and Stone Curlew also fall short of expectation. While the Arctic Skua and also the Arctic Tern come over extremely well the rest of the skuas, gulls and terns are less satisfying recordings, and among auks only the Puffin stands out. Another disappointment for a very easy voice is the Woodpigeon, but the Stock Dove is excellent and the British recordings of Collared Doves are a notable success. Among owls the space allotted to the Tawnv seems excessive. While the 64 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Nightjar, Hoopoe and Wryneck are excellent, the Green Wood- pecker is oddly faint and untypical, and justice is not done to the call of the Great Spotted. Part II gets off to an unimpressive start with a Woodlark, which by no means lives up to the praise lavished on its song in the text, and an unduly brief snatch of Skylark. The House Martin and Sand Martin are also unimpressive, but the Swallow is excellent, and with the Golden Oriole and Raven a first-class standard is regained. The notes given for Carrion and Hooded Crows suggest considerable differences which are not generally typical, as the text rightly warns listeners. While the inevitably limited selection of Great Tit language is excellent and the voices of Crested and Marsh Tit come over well, the representation of the Willow Tit by song alone seems an error of judgment when the call-note is available, and is of such great diagnostic importance. The Coal Tit sounds thin, as does the song of the Treecreeper and the omission of the highly characteristic “tupp” of the Long-tailed Tit is another unexpected gap. The Bearded Tit calls do not ring true, but the Nuthatch vocabulary is good and comprehensive, and the Wren song excellent: why, however, was the alarm of the last not included? The Dipper song sounds unduly harsh ; and, while the Mistle Thrush song is excellent, the alarm and also that of the Song Thrush, and the Fieldfare calls, are unsatisfactory. The song of the Ring Ouzel and the calls of Wheatear and Stonechat disappoint, and a rather poor rendering of Redstart song and call- note ends an unaccountably bad patch in the selection. The song of the Black Redstart is adequate and the Nightingale — recorded north of the Forth! — is so good that more would have been welcome ; the alarm of this species is also well rendered, but that of the Robin is disappointing, although the contrast of its spring and autumn songs is well brought out. The subtle, but definite, distinction between the songs of Grass- hopper and Savi’s Warbler is also demonstrated in a way which, considering the immense technical difficulties, represents a triumph and is of exceptional value to field ornithology. The Moustached Warbler and Great Reed and Reed Warblers come over well, but the Marsh Warbler is unfortunately an untypically poor singer and the Sedge Warbler also is not a success. The Icterine Warbler picks up after a poor start and the Blackcap song is good, although this can hardly be said of the call-note. Both the Garden Warbler and Whitethroat songs are excellent, but it is curious that the most characteristic Whitethroat call is omitted, while the Dartford Warbler call, although good, is cited as “the most important guide to the bird’s presence” without any warning of the danger of mistaking for it a similar and un- reproduced call of the Whitethroat. The Lesser Whitethroat’s and Chiffchaff’s songs given are not entirely typical, but those of the Willow and Wood Warblers are excellent, and the Goldcrest’s is good considering its difficulties. REVIEW 60 VOL. LIl] The Pied Flycatcher’s song is well conveyed, but that of the Dunnock does not succeed well, and the Meadow Pipit’s is rendered with a vigour and robustness more reminiscent of a Rock Pipit; the Tree Pipit’s, on the other hand, is very typical. The wagtail calls are not very satisfactory, those of the Grey and Yellow, in particular, lacking their characteristic “edge”. The mimicking song of the Red-backed Shrike is characteristic, but most surprisingly the Starling’s is a disappointing performance and the finch songs, except those of the Redpoll, Crossbill and Chaffinch are not very satisfactory. Among the buntings, the Corn, Cirl and Reed are reproduced with excellent fidelity and those of the Yellowhammer and Snow Bunting well enough. Of the concluding sparrow notes the House Sparrow selection is excellent, but the timbre of the Tree Sparrow comes over less perfectly. The Sound-Guide challenges the most critical listener and it is interesting to find that even on a deliberately exacting assessment as many as half the recordings, for example, in Part I have passed muster as “excellent”. If there are gaps and imperfections they are largely inevitable at this stage of sound-recording development and, while some are surprising, the unexpected excellence of a number of the most difficult is easily more remarkable. The Sound-Guide will be an unfailing and agreeable aid to improved recognition of bird voices, a stimulus to further progress in this important branch of ornithology, and a lasting monument to the skill and patience of all those who have contributed to it. E.M.N. LETTERS AN ERROR IN “THE BIRDS OF THE BRITISH ISLES” Sirs, — May I be permitted to correct a serious error which occurred in my The Birds of the British Isles, Vol. V, p. 299, under Honey Buzzard ( Pernis apivorus). I quoted Col. C. F. Scroope as having written in The Birds of Ireland (1954) that this buzzard was formerly “a wide-spread breeding species” in Ireland. That, of course, is quite untrue and Col. Scroope wrote nothing of the kind. How this unfortunate mistake arose is quite inexplicable to me, but I would beg those in possession of my volume to make the necessary correction and I would ask you to allow me, through the medium of your widely read journal, to make my humble apology to Col. Scroope for misquoting him in this way. David A. Bannerman LIST OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE BIRDS Sirs, — I am compiling a list of the birds of Northamptonshire. To make this as complete as possible, I should be glad to receive 66 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII any unpublished records for the county, especially concerning irregular passage-migrants and the rarer nesting species, at 120 Bush Hill, Northampton. L. S. Taylor GAME RESEARCH CONGRESS IN HOLLAND Sirs, — May I draw the attention of your readers to the next congress of the International Union of Game Biologists? This organization was formed only a few years ago to co-ordinate the results of research work on game conservation, and to act as a clearing house for scientific information on this subject. The 4th meeting to be held will take place at Arnhem in the Netherlands from 28th September to 3rd October 1959. The meeting is open to anyone who is scientifically occupied with game or wildlife management. Would persons wishing to present papers, films, or demonstrations, write to the Organizing Secretary (Dr. J. A. Eygenraam), c/o I.T.B.O.N., Game Manage- ment Division, Kemperbergerweg 11, Arnhen, Netherlands, before 1 st March, telling him of their intention to participate. The texts of any contributions (with summaries) should reach Holland before April 1959. During and after the meeting excursions will be made to the National Parks (Red Deer and Moufflon), the new polder “Oostelijk Flevoland” (waterfowl) and the Delta-works in the province of Zeeland. More detailed information on the congress will be available in due course. c/o Game Research Station, C. L. Coles Burgate Manor, Fordingbridge, Hants. (LiaisonOfficerforU.lv.) RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. The first sections of this summary deal mainly with January, particularly from the 12th to the 31st but to some extent over- lapping with our last outline ( antea , pp. 31-32). The remainder give details of reports received as a result of observations in the December number (antea, vol. li , pp. 528-532) — e.g. late summer- visitors — and also cover some of the subjects postponed then for lack of space. THE WAXWING INVASION Since last month’s summary of Waxwings (Bombycilla garrulus) 67 vol. lii ] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS — in which we showed that the December influxes had resulted in good numbers in all east coast counties from Caithness down to Essex, though few further west except in Scotland— we have received many other reports indicating that January saw a south- ward movement down the east coast, a small spread inland in England, and a passage down the Irish Sea from north and west Scotland. In Essex, which had very few records until the middle of January (except for 30 near Harwich early in the month), at least 100 appeared near Thundersley on 18th January and were still present on the 29th, while smaller parties were seen in other districts. Similarly, though we have now received three December reports from Kent — the first was of two birds in the Dungeness area on the 10th — it was not until the second and third weeks of January that there were several observations in that county, and only one flock of over 20 was reported before the 25th and 26th; by the end of January, however, there were 40 or more at Sandwich. Almost every east coast county can now boast having had at least one flock of more than twenty Waxwings and several have reported concentrations of up to fifty or more. By contrast, though some areas in the west of Scotland have had large parties, the majority of reports from the rest of England and Wales are of ones, twos and threes, with 15+ at Burwell (Cambridgeshire) on 25th January the only group of double figures apart from a party of 21 or more in Westmorland. The spread to other parts of England and Wales is best indicated by listing the counties involved with the dates (all January) of the first reports received. In chronological order, these are: Worcester (4th), Cornwall (4th), Cumberland (“first week”), Cheshire (7th), Isle of Man (7th), Lancashire (“about 8th”), Stafford (10th), Cambridge (nth), Carmarthen (12th), Nottingham (14th), Devon (15th), Hertford (17th), Westmorland (18th), Somerset (18th), Buckingham (18th), Oxford (19th), Surrey (19th), Berkshire (20th), Flint (21st), Denbigh (22nd) and Middlesex (25th). This list is doubtless incomplete and we hope that we shall receive further reports which will help to make the pattern clearer. Different directions of spread and chance of observation make for a patchy distribution, but it is interesting to note the coincidence of the first dates in the group of counties from Surrey to Oxford, and the tendency to a southwards succession in the west. A certain number of reports have been received from Ireland — from Cos. Antrim, Down, Dublin, Westmeath, Cork and Clare — and these seem to fall into two groups, some very early in the month and the others at the beginning of the third week. One would, of course, expect that birds from the west of Scotland would spread down into Ireland, via the short 20-mile crossing of the North Channel, sooner than others would move into inland districts from the east coast of England. Reports from the south-west of Scotland (Ayr, Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, Dumfries and Roxburgh) show that good numbers were in that part of the countrv early 68 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII in January. In east Roxburgh (area of Yetholm) there were few seen in early January, but 87 were counted on the 25th and there were comparable numbers to the end of the month: Yetholm is some 20 miles west of Belford in Northumberland ( antea , p. 32). However, these details should not be taken to indicate that the birds have all moved away from the east coast, for the berry crop is very good in many areas and in the last week of January a majority still seemed to be well settled in many eastern counties. THE RARER BIRDS IN JANUARY One thinks of January as a time for wildfowl and gulls, and all but one or two of the few rarity reports refer to these groups. An apparently wild Red-breasted Goose ( Branta ruficollis ) appeared among the White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons) by the River Severn at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) on 24th January and was still present on 1st February. There are only fifteen accepted records of this species in the British Isles and it will be remembered that there was one in the same place in January 1954 [antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 136-137), but the possibility of such birds being escapes can never be entirely ruled out. The present one is considered to be an adult. Up to the end of January no Lesser White-fronted Geese (A. erythropus ) had appeared at Slimbridge, but one was seen on 31st January and 1st February at the same locality in Kirkcudbrightshire where this species has appeared among Bean Geese (.4. arvensis ) in several previous years (e.g. antea, vol. li, p. 84). A female Red-crested Pochard ( Nett a rufina) which arrived at Chichester gravel-pits (Sussex) on 7th December (see p. 44) was still present on 18th January. Iceland and Glaucous Gulls ( Larus glaucoides and hyperboreus ) are both rare inland in England and so it is of interest to note that an immature of each species was observed on a rubbish-tip near Cambridge on 24th January. A first-winter Glaucous Gull was also seen at Queen Mary Reservoir (Middlesex) on nth January, and it will be remembered that a near-adult Iceland Gull was reported from Northamptonshire on 4th January (antea, p. 32). The Sussex Iceland Gull (antea, pp. 444, 530) continues its stay at Southwick and we have received a few other reports of this species from the east and west coasts. There was only one Iceland Gull on St. Kilda at this time, an immature from nth December throughout January; an adult Glaucous appeared there on 18th January. The only Mediterranean Black-headed Gull (L. melanocephalus ) reported in January was the one that is again wintering at Hartlepool (Co. Durham) (antea, pp. 529-530), but others have doubtless remained in the two or three usual East Anglian and south-eastern localities. A Snowy Owl ( Nyctea ■ scandiaca) was identified on the Deben estuary (Suffolk) on 24th January, and on 31st January the Somerset Richard’s Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiac ) (antea, p. 32) was still present. In dealing with American species in the last four months of 1958 (antea, pp. 445, 528) we purposely summarized more than vol. lit] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 69 usual because we hope to publish a more adequate analysis of 1958 Nearctic birds in the near future. However, in connection with the Killdeer ( Charadrius vociferus ) in Norfolk on xst December (antea, p. 528), which at the time seemed to be an isolated occurrence, we would mention here two belated reports of American waders in Ireland that have only recently come to hand (see also antea, p. 32). A Killdeer stayed at Blennerville (Co. Kerry) from 20th November to 2nd December, and then on 3rd December there was a Dowitcher ( Limnodromus griseus ) — the third in the British Isles in 1958 — at the same place. AVOCETS, SWANS AND OTHER LESS COMMON WINTERERS Among the regular but less common wintering species, it is worth mentioning that the Avocets ( Recuruirostra avosetta) on the Tamar estuary (Devon) (antea, p. 530) built up to 43 in late December and remained at that total throughout January (the corresponding number in January 1958 was 46). Apart from Devon and Kent, single Avocets are also wintering at Foulness (Essex) and Burnham-on-Sea (Somerset). In addition, two were present at Rushbrooke (Co. Cork) in late December. The position with regard to wild swans is, however, more obscure at the time of writing. The peak of Bewick’s Swans (Cygnus cohimbianus ) on the Ouse Washes in Cambridgeshire and Norfolk and at Earith in Huntingdonshire (cf. antea, vol. li, p. 84) was only about 150 in January, although the birds arrived earlier than is sometimes the case. Correspondingly few Bewick’s Swans (compared with the previous four winters) have been reported from other counties in the southern half of England, but there have been several parties of up to 25 Whoopers (C. cygnus ) in the south — including 23 over Staines and King George VI reservoirs (Middlesex) on 10th January. It is therefore less wise than in other recent winters to expect that a party of a dozen or more wild swans in southern England will prove to be Bewick’s. The Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosas) is now a more regular winter-visitor to south-east England (Norfolk to Kent) than The Handbook suggests, though the number of birds is of course very small and few are seen outside this area. However, this winter an increased number of reports includes three of special interest. Far inland, there was one at Sonning Eye, near Reading (Berk- shire), on 19th December; and over on the west coast, one near Glandovev (Cardiganshire) on 23rd December. But most surprising of all are winter occurrences, possibly of one bird, up to the end of January at least, in Kirkcudbrightshire. Lapland Buntings (Calcarius lapponicus ) are again wintering in numbers on the coast of north Norfolk (over 100 at Morston) and there are smaller parties in counties as far apart as Kent, Essex and Co. Durham — which confirms the impression gained in recent years that eastern England should be regarded as a regular winter- ing area for this species (cf. Field Guide). Lastly on this subject, 70 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII over ioo Twites ( Carduelis flavirostris ) have been between Parkgate and Neston on the Cheshire Dee since November: we understand that there has been a flock there in each of the past four winters and it would be interesting to know if there are any other places on the west coast where this happens (cf. Handbook). Two Long-tailed Ducks ( Clang ula hyemalis ) on Cannock reservoir (Staffordshire) on 7th December are the only inland reports of this species that have reached us this winter ( cf . antea, vol. li, p. 208). HARD-WEATHER MOVEMENTS In the latter part of December there were comments on the unusual numbers of Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus) from various parts of East Anglia and Kent. During the period 6th-nth January we received several reports of large movements of Lap- wings travelling west and south-west in Buckingham, Oxford, Hertford, Berkshire, Nottingham, Lancashire and Cheshire. The peak seems to have been on 9th, 10th and nth January and the coincidence in dates is very marked. It is interesting to note that the large numbers of Lapwings in Kent seemed to disappear in the first week of January, and there were mass arrivals in Devon during this period. Various other species were observed moving west at the same time : these are too numerous to list, but particularly included Golden Plovers ( Charadrius apricarius), Fieldfares ( T-urdus pilaris ), Redwings (T. musicus) and gulls in the south, and Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis), Meadow Pipits ( Anthus pratensis), Chaffinches ( Fringilla coelebs) and thrushes in the north. A less spectacular return movement of some of these birds was commented on in Wiltshire and Oxfordshire on the 18th and 19th, and in Lancashire and Cheshire on the 18th, the birds all going east and north-east. Redwings in particular, and also Fieldfares, were apparently exceptionally numerous in East Anglia and the Home Counties in mid-January and the second half of the month. Over a score of comments to this effect varied from “the largest numbers for several years” to “ the biggest ever”. LITTLE AUKS, SHORT-EARED OWLS AND CROSSBILLS Little Auks ( Plautus alle ) have not been particularly in evidence this winter. Small numbers were reported from various parts of the east coast in November, particularly the middle of the month, but most of these had apparently left British waters by the beginning of December and the only interesting December/ January reports have been from the south and west coasts : 6 flying west off St. Ives Head (Cornwall) on 14th December; at least six reports off the Devon coast in mid-December; one off Selsey (Sussex) on 26th December; one at West Huntspill, near Pawlett (Somerset), on 2nd January. Reports from several south coast counties (Kent to Devon), but not East Anglia, suggest that this is a good winter for Short- vol. lii] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 71 eared Owls (Asto flammeus). The species has also been seen with some regularity in at least Middlesex, Surrey and Bucking- hamshire, and we should be interested in comments on this point. Similarly, it is worth drawing attention to the considerable parties of Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra ) that are still in the country as a result of last summer’s invasion ( antea , pp. 315-316). The larger numbers appear to be in parts of the western half of England, and of course south-west Scotland, but there seems to have been some reappearance in eastern districts in the last three months. It is now worth watching out for nests of this very early breeding species : in fact, one was being built in Kirkcudbright- shire at the beginning of January, and there was a fledged juvenile at least one week out of the nest on 1st February in Suffolk. LATE SWIFTS AND OTHER SUMMER-VISITORS Following the summary in the December number (antea, p. 531), we have received a number of further reports of October Swifts ( Apus apns). These include several for the first six days of the month — among them one as far north and west as Dairy (Kirkcudbrightshire) on the 3rd, and a series of observations in Yorkshire on the 6th (Redcar, Whitby, Spurn). Then the follow- ing correspond to the individual records listed before: 7th October: 2 at Spurn (Yorkshire). 9 th October: 1 at Cley (Norfolk). 12th October: 1 at Havering (Essex). 14th October: 1 in Whitby area (Yorkshire); 1 at Stapenhill Park, Burton- on-Trent (Staffordshire). 17th October: 1 at Spurn (Yorkshire). 30th October : 1 at Rhoose, near Barry (Glamorgan). Similarly, we have various further reports of other late summer- visitors ( cf . antea, pp. 531-532) in October and November, and even in December and January: Quail ( Coturnix coturnix ): three, West Ilsley (Berkshire), 17th January. Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia turtur ): one, Portland '(Dorset), 5th October; 5, Portland, 10th October; 2, Purbeck, near Poole Harbour (Dorset), 10th October (cf. Dungeness dates, antea, p. 531). Nightjar ( Caprimulgus enropacus ): one, Farlington marshes (Hampshire), 23rd November. Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) : one, Margate (Kent), 2nd December; one, South Benfleet (Essex), 24th December. Ring Ouzel ( Turdus torquatus ): male, Queen Mary Reservoir (Middlesex), nth January. Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra): one, Purbeck, 10th October; one, Portland, 10th October; one, near Llandrindod Wells (Radnor), 20th October; one, St. Osyth (Essex), 7th-8th November. Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) : one, Fownhope (Herefordshire), 18th October, was heard singing from 7.30 a.m. to 9.30 a.m. and occasionally after (cf. antea, vol. xli, p. 215); adult male picked up recently dead, Long Melford (Suffolk), 20th December. Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustella naevia): 3, Portland, 6th October; 2, Portland, 9th; 2, Portland, nth. Sedge Warbler (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus ): one, Coate Water, near Swindon (Wiltshire), 12th October. Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla ) : several reports of wintering birds included a male at Dornoch (Sutherland), ioth-2(5th January. It was first seen on eighth dav of severe frost and snow, remained through brief thaw 72 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII during i7th-2oth January, and was finally seen just before a night of exceptional frost; it fed on crumbs and was very aggressive towards other birds. This is perhaps the most northerly observation in the British Isles during mid-winter (c/. Bird Study, vol. 3, pp. 251-257; vol. 4, pp. 53-54), but there is also an unconfirmed report of a male at Golspie (Sutherland) “early in January”. Late migrants were seen on Fair Isle on 19th and 23rd November. Garden Warbler ( Sylvia borin): one, Fair Isle, 22nd-26th November (later than any date in The Handbook; cf. also antea, p. 532). Whitethroat ( Sylvia communis): the one at Ruxley, near Sidcup (Kent) (antea, p. 532), was seen on several days in December up to 28th; also one in Devon in late December. Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus) : one, Brentwood (Essex), 9th December. Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus collybita ) : this species winters regularly in the south-west, but 8 on one sheltered beach, together with a female Black- cap, on 10th January on St. Agnes (Isles of Scilly), seem noteworthy. In the south-east the species is comparatively seldom recorded in winter, but we have the following: one, near Dungeness (Kent), 25th December; one, Ruxley, several occasions to 28th December; 3, Beddington sewage- farm (Surrey), 2nd*7th January, and one to at least 25th; one, Dungeness, 17th January. Also one, St. Kilda, 6th and 8th December (suspected Ph. c. tristis). Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava): one, Leewick beach (Essex), 15th November (race?). Late observations of passage waders included a Whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus ) at Ince Blundell, near Liverpool (Lancashire), on 9th December and what was perhaps the same bird at Formby Moss on 28th December. A Wood Sandpiper (' Tringa glareola ) was seen at Altrincham (Cheshire) on several occasions in December and was still present on 4th January. There have been a number of reports of wintering Spotted Redshanks (T. erythropus). Common Sandpipers ( T . hypoleucos ) are, of course, regular winterers in small numbers now, but a Green Sand- piper (T. ochropus ) as far north as Northumberland is worthy of note: one was present for some days up to 6th January four miles north of Morpeth. A Grey Phalarope ( Phalaropus fulicarius) was seen at South Shields (Co. Durham) as late as 14th and 18th January. In connection with the Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger ) mentioned in the December issue (antea, p. 532), we received one other report for 18th October (Staines reservoir, Middlesex) and one rather later one from Chichester (Sussex) on 3rd November. Some details of late nests and winter song will have to be held over until the next issue. ERRATA We now understand that the Snow Goose (A user caerulescens ) in Co. Wexford (antea, p. 32) was first seen on 8th December, not 15th. More serious, however, is the confusion that has taken place over the Surf Scoters ( Melanitta perspicillata ) off North Bull (Dublin) and in Dublin Bay (antea, p. 528): the first bird was an immature (sex unknown) from 3rd to 16th November, and this same individual (or a similar one) reappeared on 20th December after a gale; the second bird was an adult male and was seen only on gt.h November. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors ; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similai spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Willow- Warbler, Black-tailed Godwit), but group terms should not (e.g. warblers, godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds. with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1053 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “ ist January 1055 ” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “ ist Jan.”, “ Jan. ist ”, or even “ Jan. 1 ”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form: Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit Birds, xlii : 129-134. Witmerry, H. F. (1804): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out ol each I able should be carefully planned with an eve to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" w idth the original should be 8" wide) ; sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how^ each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and. unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be onlv in exceptional cases that thev can undertake to have lettering inserted Types C.F.18 and C.F.24 (8 X 30-5 mm.) are highly favoured by bird-watchers. C.F. 24 having an extra wide field of view which is particularly valuable for observing birds in flight. With those who prefer a higher magnification, type C.F.43 (10 X 42 mm.) is a firm favourite. BARR i STROUD Ltd ANN1ESLAND, GLASGOW. W.3 — London Office: 15 Victoria St., S.W.l Printed in Gt. Britain by W ITHKRBY & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY. LTD., 5, Warwick Court, W.C.i. MARCH 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume Lll, Number 3, March 1959 PAGE Editorial: Centenary of the British Ornithologists’ Union ... ... 73 Early breeding in 1957. By Miss M. J. Goodacre and Dr. David Lack 74 Breeding season calls of the Chaffinch and Greenfinch. By Derek C. Hulme 83 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCV — Terek Sandpiper. Photographs by Eric Hosking (plates 13-20). Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 85 Shelduck counts in winter in east Scotland. By Henry Boase ... ... 90 Notes: — Display of Little Grebe (D. R. Wilson) ... ... ... ... ... 96 Kittiwakes attacking Grey Seals carrying fish (Roger Harkness) ... 96 Display by Swifts (Rev. E. A. Armstrong) 97 Blackbirds feeding on marine worms (Roger Harkness) ... ... 97 Pied Wagtail remaining on ship from Thames estuary to Mediterranean in spring (E. J. M. Buxton) 98 House Sparrows feeding on young Frogs (R. G. B. Brown) 98 Reviews : — Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World. By James C. Greenway, Jnr. Illustrated by D. M. Reid-Henry 98 The Birds of Brecknock. By Geoffrey C. S. Ingram and H. Murrey Sainton, C.B.E., M.C. ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 100 Letter: — “Sub-song” and “secondary song” (Dr. W. H. Thorpe) ... ... 101 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson 101 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. Vol. LI I No. 3 MARCH *959 BRITISH BIRDS EDITORIAL Centenary of the British Ornithologists’ Union Only eighteen months after the first publication of British Birds, its editors had the agreeable task of recording the jubilee meeting of the British Ornithologists’ Union in December 1908. Now, having passed our own jubilee two years ago, we have the even greater pleasure of greeting the Union’s centenary, and also of welcoming The Ibis in its new and ampler format. The January 1959 issue of that journal is a special centenary one containing fifteen contributions from officers and other leading members of the Union, on the history, especially in recent times, of British ornithology. This interesting series ranges from reminiscences to precise analyses of past activities and past contents of The Ibis, and also appraisals of general trends and British contributions in special fields of ornithology. It is a most valuable record of facts and at the same time a revealing witness of the attitudes and opinions of the present day, which will doubtless be quoted with suitable comment at the Union’s next centenary. It is satisfactory to know that, having taken two-thirds of a century to reach a total of five hundred members, the Union has passed the thousand mark in time for the completion of the hundred years. The centenary is most appropriately to be celebrated by a meeting at the Union’s place of foundation, Cambridge, beginning on Friday 20th March with an account of the Union’s two centenary expeditions to the Comoros and Ascension ; then continuing on the Saturday with discussions on systematics and behaviour, and on the Sunday with others on migration, orientation and population ecology. After a final lap on the Monday morning on breeding biology and physiology, the Ibises will migrate to the City of London for a Centenary Banquet that evening in the Fishmongers’ Hall. Among leading overseas ornithologists taking part will be Professor F. Bourliere (Paris), Professor Ernst Mayr (Harvard), Professor G. P. Baerends (Groningen) and Professor G. Kramer (Wilhelmshaven). Among 73 74 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII those present, too, will be several who have recently been celebrating in New York, under Professor Mayr’s presidency, the 75th anniversary of the American Ornithologists’ Union, which gave rise to a most interesting and successful meeting. We offer our warm congratulations and most cordial good wishes to both Unions: we trust that they may both go forward with continuing and increasing success, and may contribute together towards the advancement and unity of world ornithology. EARLY BREEDING IN 1957 By M. J. Goodacre and David Lack (Edward Grey Institute, Oxford) INTRODUCTION A u From February 1957 onwards, reports appeared in the press suggesting that birds were nesting unusually early in that year, so an enquiry was launched in British Birds and Bird Study. The long delay in preparing this paper was inevitable, for, though some observers responded immediately to the appeal, many others wrote out their records only at the end of the year, and then either sent them to their County Recorder or put them on Nest Record Cards; information from these two latter sources did not reach the writers until the summer of 1958, and in one important case not until the late autumn. By that time, the original organizer (D.L.) had become heavily committed to other work, so he had to pass on the extensive analyses in Table II and Appendix 1 to a second author (M.G.) who is solely responsible for these sections. Once the information had been received, a further difficulty became obvious, that of defining an “early” laying. For most British species, there is not nearly enough published information to determine whether the early clutches in 1957 were really abnormal and, if so, to what extent. Fortunately there are n species, as set out in Table I, for which accurate quantitative comparisons can be made with previous years. All of these were post-war studies, most were carried out near, or organized from, Oxford, and all save one were by professional ornithologists. Yet this type of work would seem eminently suitable for amateurs resident in one place for a period of years. For the remaining species, Table II must suffice, showing the number of early layings recorded in 1957 together with the total number of Nest Record Cards examined, and this will enable a future worker to see whether the proportion of early nests in 1957 was unusual. Perhaps the chief value of this paper will be to show that the day of the occasional early-nesting record is over, and that further long-term studies of common species by resident observers are badly needed. TIIE WEATHER The most unusual feature of the weather between December VOL. LIl] EARLY BREEDING IN 1957 75 1956 and the spring- of 1957 inclusive was not its exceptional warmth at particular times, but the fact that, throughout this period, there was no really cold weather at all. In addition, the monthly summaries of the Daily Weather Reports of the Meteorological Office showed that February was “notably mild over England and Wales”, and that in March the maximum and minimum temperatures were unusually high and there were few ground frosts, though the sunshine was below average. The weather was especially warm and sunny during nth-i3th March, and on 12th March the noon temperature at Mildenhall, Suffolk, reached 6g°F., the normal maximum for June. April was un- usually dry and sunshine was above average, but maximum and minimum temperatures were only slightly above average; indeed, from mid-April onwards the spring of 1957 was not exceptionally mild. LONG-TERM BREEDING STUDIES In examining Table I, it should be kept in mind that the results from one locality may not have been representative for England as a whole, especially since in the three species for which data were available from two localities, the mean laying time differed markedly. In addition, most species were not studied so far back as 1948, which was the last early-nesting season prior to 1957. Two of the largest species in Table I, the Tawny Owl and Rook, habitually nest in March, and both species laid their eggs 12 days earlier than the average for previous years (which did not, how- ever, include 1948). The mean date of laying for the Tawny Owl approached the figure of 1957 only in one previous year, 1950, while in five previous years the mean date of laying for the Rook had been fairly constant around 19th March. The fullest available figures are for the Great and Blue Tits in Marley Wood, near Oxford, where in 1957 both species laid 10-12 days earlier than the mean for 10 previous years. In only one year, 1948, did breeding take place earlier than in 1957, but then it was as much as 7 days earlier in the Great Tit and 5 days earlier in the Blue Tit. However, in Alice Holt wood, Surrey, only some 60 miles south of Oxford, the mean date of laying of the Great Tit in 1957 was only 4 days earlier than the mean for previous years, while the mean date for the Blue Tit there in 1957 was only 2 days earlier than usual. Figures for these tits in several other woods, published elsewhere (Lack, 1958), gave mean dates in 1957 intermediate between those for Marley on the one hand and Alice Holt on the other. Such local variations in the time of lay- ing were found in a few, but not most, other years, and their cause is not known. There were no obvious differences in 1957 in the mean temperature or other weather factors measured at Alice Holt and Oxford respectively, but in both cases the weather station was a mile or two from the wood. 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CD — . I G5 •" £ 3 T O > 3 C CJ Gj — « £ « rV r* r o „ j, 0 — qj C3 Z • e r- X V- 0 u 5 £•2 gj Ih-5 « u3*a - ^ « § I ' -o F c £ G5 o u x JD t(J X _*2 0 • , x o £ to w E 3 i2 i fc ST2 ! c 0 j a. a. 1 c cl cs < *-* 3 c « Plate 15 Plate 16 Eric Hosking Terek Sandpiper (' Tringa terck) on No. i nest: Finland, 2 8t i i June 1958 This is tTie nest shown in all these photographs except plate 17. The two sites were similar: both were completely open in short grass among large stones; both were slight hollows lined with bits of bark (see plate 15) and dead grasses or tide-wrack. The bird’s bill is nearly twice as long as its head, but is neither as long nor as thin as is sometimes depicted; it is very wide at the base and perhaps more upturned than it seems in these photographs (see page 89). Plate 17 Eric Hosking Terek Sandpiper (Tringa tcrek) ox No. 2 nest: Finland, 29TH June 1958 A comparison between this photograph and the one on plate 16 illustrates the variation which may be found in this species: apart from being paler and greyer with, therefore, more contrasting dark marks, this bird at No. 2 nest was much shyer and more conscious of the hide. Here one can see especially well the shaft-streaks on the mantle and the black stripes formed by the dark-centred scapulars. Plate iS Eric Hosking Terek Sandpiper ( Tringa terek) and chicks: Finland, 29T11 June 1958 The newly-hatched chick is pure white below; above, the down varies from buff to golden and is flecked with grey as a result of blackish bases and tips; there is also a striking dorsal stripe of brownish-black from bill to tail, and a narrow line of the same colour through the eye (see also page 89). Note the white eye-rim of the adult: at close range this was more marked than the streaky white forehead and short pale superciliary which can be seen in most of these plates. Plate 19 Eric Hosking Terek Sandpiper ( Tringa terek) and chicks: Finland, 29m June 1958 Eric Hosking Finnish habitat of Terek Sandpipers (Tringa tcrck): 17TH June 1958 The island where Tereks nested in 1957 and 1958, and probably 1955, is only ten acres in extent, some 300 yards long and less than 250 yards across at its widest point. Yet 21 species of birds, totalling over a hundred pairs, were breeding there in June 1958. Sandy soil, large stones and a broad surround of wet mud are features of this flat island on which the main vegetation, apart from three birches ( Belula ), consists of short grasses and the low rush Juncus balticus (see pages 86-87). Plate 20 VOL. LIl] TEREK SANDPIPER STUDIES 89 though Harber (1955) quotes Dementiev and Gladkov as giving it as “apparently 21 days’’. After the hatch at No. 1 nest, on 29th June, the young remained in the scrape and were brooded by one of the adults (plate 18) until the sun was high and they had all dried out. They were then called away by their parents and in a matter of a few hours had been taken to the sand and mud on the northern shore of the island, a distance of about 140 yards through fairly short rough grass. There, both adults remained with the young for the rest of the day, our last on the islet — but one was very much more demonstrative than the other, coming within a few yards if any of us approached, while its mate remained more quietly at a distance of 30-50 yards. Although The Handbook describes the Terek Sandpiper as “usually tame and approachable”, we found them rather shy except when the eggs were hatching or when they had young. They would tend to leave the nest when anyone came within about a hundred yards — but, conversely, they usually returned to it within two or three minutes of an observer’s being left in the hide. In this connection Browne (1949) found that some of the birds in winter at Aden were tame, but “on another occasion a single bird flew off at 200 yards”. The nestling is shown and described on plate 18, and in any case there is a detailed account in The Handbook, but it might be added here that the three young from nest No. 1, when less than twenty-four hours old, had short straight bills of a greyish-black colour, while their legs and feet were pinkish-grey on the upper sides and orange at the rear of the tarsi and on the soles of the feet. The legends beneath the photographs on plates 13-20 draw- attention to most of the main plumage features of the adult Terek Sandpiper, but it is worth enlarging on the general field impression and emphasizing certain points where our experience differed from statements in The Handbook. In brief, the species is an exaggeration of the Common Sandpiper (T ring a hypoleucos) : it is larger and paler, and has of course a much longer bill, but the long body and shortish legs are essentially on the same pattern (see plate 13); it has a similar (though more deliberate) way of moving the hind part of its body up and down ; and it has a comparable shallow flicking action in flight. The Redshank-like flight-pattern produced by the white tips of the secondaries and the wholly off-white tail has been commented on in The Handbook , but this feature can be over-emphasized: owing to its ashy back and only slightly browner wings, all very pale, the Terek does not have anything like the same contrast between light and dark. The orange legs and feet, which varied in the four Finnish birds from a deep and almost dirty orange to a bright orange-yellow, were conspicuous at considerable distances and the upturn on the bill was always quite noticeable, but somehow the bill never seemed quite so long, so slender or even so upturned as we had expected. The shape of the bill is well brought out in plates 13, 14, 16 and 17, though from the angle at which all these photographs were 90 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII taken, looking- down on the bird, a little of the upturn is perhaps lost (compare plate 14 with antea, vol. xlv, plate 12, which shows a Terek Sandpiper trapped at Ottenby, Sweden). In all four birds the bill was completely dark (see plate 13 and cf. Handbook) : in this connection it is worth noting that published descriptions of individual birds (e.g. Betts, 1952 ; Evans, 1953) refer to their having black bills, though Benson (1952) mentions that at close range it was possible to see that the “base of bill (was) rather lighter than remainder”: perhaps there is some seasonal or age variation here. REFERENCES Benson, G. B. G. (1952): “Terek Sandpiper in Suffolk”. Brit. Birds, xlv: 36-37- Betts, A. H. (1952): “Terek Sandpiper in Sussex”. Brit. Birds, xlv: 36. Browne, P. W. P. (1949): “Notes on Broad-billed and Terek Sandpipers at Aden”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 333-334. Dementiev, G. P. and Gladkov, N. A. (1951): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. Ill, pp. 249-255. Evans, P. (1953): “Terek Sandpiper in Co. Durham”. Brit. Birds, xlvi : 188. Harber, D. D. (1955): Special Review of The Birds of the Soviet Union. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 318. Merikallio, E. (1958): Finnish Birds : Their Distribution and Numbers. Helsinki, p. 75. Poulsen, H. (1951): “Terekklire (Xenus cinereus (Gtild.)) ny for Danmark”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 45: 223-225. Svardson, G. (1951): “Verksamheten vid Ottenby f&gelstation 1950”. Vdr Fagelvdrld, 10: 97-124. SHELDUCK COUNTS IN WINTER IN EAST SCOTLAND By Henry Boase During the years 1947-1954, counts of Shelduck ( Tadorna tadorna ) were made by several observers at Edenmouth on the east coast of Fife. During the same period the writer worked Montrose Basin in Angus and continued the counts at Kingoodie in Perthshire, on the north shore of the upper Tay estuary. These counts have been plotted as three graphs, all on the same scale, so that direct comparison is simple (see Figs. 1-3). At Edenmouth the autumn counts consist almost entirely of juveniles of the year and these tend to drift away as winter approaches. In December/January there is a build-up of incoming birds which reaches a maximum in late January or February; this is followed by a slow reduction from mid-March and an abrupt drop in numbers in late March or early April, the usual summer- ing count of 250-300 remaining by late April. At Montrose, and in the Tay, there is no wintering group, but each station shows a slow build-up in February/March. Tay has a fairly definite fall in mid- March almost every year, and a further rise in numbers vol. lii ] SHELDUCK COUNTS IN SCOTLAND 91 during- April-May. The varying counts at these stations suggest a succesion of movements during the early months of the year. The Shelduck has been found to have an unusual moult- migration. Hoogerheide and Kraak (1942) gave the first account of this behaviour as found on the Dutch coast, and Coombes (1950) and others in England have worked on the movement on this side of the North Sea. Apparently the Knechtsand, a maze of sand- banks and channels off the German coast between Bremerhaven and Cuxhaven, is the main moulting area in western Europe; and there is a less important station on the Bristol Channel. Hooger- heide and Kraak have shown that there is a return movement of mature birds westwards along the Dutch coast in October/ November and that the usual winter total is reached in early December. They report that in severe weather many depart but return almost at once when milder conditions set in. There are rapid variations in numbers from mid-February to mid-March. In north-east Kent, Gillham and Homes (1950) have found a big increase in numbers during November, with four-figure counts by mid-December and the peak in the last days of December or the first few days of January (though in mild conditions the main influx may not develop). There is a loss in numbers before the end of January; and by February, counts may be down to one third of the peak. There are fluctuations in March and normal summer numbers are attained in April. It is interesting to find that weather conditions affect the counts on the Dutch coast and in N.E. Kent, and yet the build-up at Edenmouth takes place during the roughest weather of the year. At all stations there is a rapid reduction in numbers in late June and early July when most of the summering birds depart to moult. Some mature birds remain with the juveniles of the year and so pass through the moult in the breeding area. The juveniles change during October/December to a plumage similar to that of the adult, but they retain the juvenile flight-feathers and some coverts, by which they can be identified as yearlings under favourable conditions. The wintering population must consist of several categories. It is established beyond doubt that many Shelduck do not breed in any one year although present at the nesting area. It is not yet certain at what age the young birds can and do breed. It is reasonable to assume that the wintering birds could be grouped as follows : — (a) Potent adults attaining breeding condition. (b) Adults which for reasons unknown will not breed in the ensuing spring; males in this category may show their want of sexual vigour bv the lack or poor development of the knob on the bill. (c) Birds of two summers (about eighteen months old) which are probably sexually immature although paired in some instances. I £>00 JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE 2 3 > < 5 O' CL < £ < > CL < 3 CL LD UJ > CL < oL UJ CO 2 UJ O CL UJ CO 2 UJ >■ o 2 CL UJ cO g U o CL UJ CO 2 UJ V— Q_ UJ o < to O' A «o c* 72 X. / 75 CQ tz] 75 o H Z 0 © ‘L u C CT. 0 75 H 2 D O g M > _J “5 LL) 2 Z> > Od CL < o CL < > CL < O CL CO >- CL < >. o o o w U U C CJ CJ V U > < 1 1 i 3 -3~ o - e u « o Ofi C Jr. 2 O o & 73 p^<— 73 U o "S^- « 8£ «.a o c 2 L u °-§ «5 O E * <=- »r, o s ^ O'. L i r C". .c 7 c oc o c«i§ . _ « 71 s> cr — .5 in .£ - O -g 0) > . 3 « h 2 £•§.£ < 73 H -a £ t ~ ^ § -.1 ° r ^ l- — *- r4 ^ a I M 7. — CJ ^ £ C £ c - 12 ^ n -O ^ 5 ~ S ti ~ « If, s~- 2 CJ , <3 C - J= 2 13 3 C 0) r- - O — •/■ _ QJ “ 75 r- 73 ~ 03 o 7) S J=. 'w' 73 j; O Ci 73 . 3 % • s -1.S & : : «= '-‘•-a u ; r B. ca c ° c — , c ■cuo w S’, ca • vj, y E S t: cj -q u •_ Si — 7: £ O u j: ^ o H >,•£ 94 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii (d) Birds of the year (six or seven months old); these may be present, but the records of them are very few. In the reviews of behaviour given by the Dutch and English observers quoted above, there is agreement that the return to the breeding areas is gradual and in small parties: there is no mass return. This behaviour is also found at Montrose and in the Tay estuary. As to the time of return, there is like agreement that the main arrival is in February and March, and, according to Baxter and Rintoul (1953), this is so even in the western and northern islands of Scotland. On enquiry from Dr. Holger Holgersen, it was learned that the return on the west coast of Norway was also in March. It is therefore notable that the assembly at Edenmouth is still almost intact up to the third week of March. The records for the Tay estuary go back for more than twenty years and these notes have been searched for records of parties. The block diagram on the Tay graph (Fig. 3) shows the relative number of parties, and the approximate numbers in these, found in the records for the months January/May. It illustrates the presence of smaller groups in February and March, and the occurrence of larger groups in late March and early April. There is also a re-appearance of groups in May at a time too early to be explained by the onset of the moult migration. The records of yearling Shelduck, identified by the white-tipped secondaries or the absence of the chestnut breast-band, are few and refer only to the upper Tay estuary. The records include one report in January, one in February, two in March, two in April, and eight in May. The foregoing are the main points of the available records. The underlying behaviour appears to be as follows: — (1) After the moult at the main moulting area, birds from the west move along the Dutch coast in October/November and many pass over to south-east England in November/ December. If the weather is unusually mild, the movement is less obvious, possibly because the more ardent birds press on to the breeding places. (2) During October/November, and probably later, the juveniles of the year are dispersing from the breeding areas where they have remained after the departure of the adults in July. Some may remain or may join the passing groups of adults. Three ringing records indicate a possible wider dispersal: Ringed Recovered. Mellum (Germany): 24.7.33 (pull.) He d’Qberon (Charente-Maritime, France): 10.12.33 Jaeren (S. Norway): 1.7.46 (pull.) Dungarvan (Co. Waterford, Ireland): 1.1.47 Aberlady (East Lothian, Scotland) : 2.8.53 (pull-) King’s Lynn (Norfolk, England): 6.1.54 (3) The return to the breeding places is in progress all over western Europe in February/ March, yet the main body at vol. li i ] SHELDUCK COUNTS IN SCOTLAND 95 Edenmouth remains almost intact. It seems probable that the birds with the greater sexual vigour will seek the breeding areas at an earlier date than those less advanced. Early arrivals in the Tay have shown well marked development of the frontal knob, whereas late arrivals may show little or no knob, although paired. The earliest arrivals in the Tay have appeared in the first days of January, and there is a regular arrival in February; yet at Edenmouth the build-up of the pack may still be in progress. The first fall in the numbers of the pack may mark the final dispersal of the ardent breeders other than the local nesting group, the remaining birds being the non-breeding birds which move away in large parties to summering places elsewhere. In the Tay the non-breeding group appears to occupy a definite feeding ground while the breeding pairs seem to be much more scattered along the north shore of the estuary. (4) The reported fluctuations in numbers during February and March mentioned for the more southerly stations may refer to the passage of breeding birds, but the later and more marked changes are more likely to refer to the non-breeding flocks on their way north. The graph for the Tay shows a fall in numbers during March, and the flock diagram on Fig. 3 confirms the drop in parties after early March. The early April outlines show the rising numbers, and the greater number of parties, due to the share of departing birds from the Fife coast. (5) The rise in numbers in the Tay continues into May (Boase, 1950). Reference has been made to the occurrence of obvious yearlings in May. These immatures will make their first moult-migration in July, and may well tend to seek as a starting point the place of their up-bringing. Much is surmise, as little is known of the movements of the young Shelduck, or where they pass the winter. (6) There is no evidence at present of any direct return from the moulting station on the German coast to British shores. It appears, therefore, that the return to Great Britain consists of a coastwise passage, varying in urgency with the physical state of the individual. It is as well to point out that the proportion of actual breeding pairs at Edenmouth and at Montrose Basin appears to be at least double that found on the north shore of the upper Tay estuary. In the writer’s earlier paper (Boase, 1950), mention was made of a large crop of juveniles which seemed to be reflected by an increase in summering birds two years later. In 1954 there was an exceptional crop of juveniles at Edenmouth. In 1956 there was a record number of summering birds (223) in the Tay and also a record crop of juveniles. This may be mere coincidence or it may mark the presence then of young vigorous breeding birds. Baxter and Rintoul (1953) give various reports of winter flocks 96 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII in Solway and in the Moray area. Unfortunately, the records are too vague to associate in any way with the Eden statement. It is clear, however, that Solway must have a much larger population of Shelduck in February than in May. The writer has worked the Carsethorn/ Wigtown Bay/ Luce Bay coast (Kirkcud- bright and Wigtown) for several years in May and only at Carsethorn have there been numbers exceeding one hundred birds. Numbers at Wigtown Bay and Luce Bay have been small — less than twenty. Once only, there were at least twenty pairs in the Fleet Estuary. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer is indebted to Miss E. V. Baxter, Dr. J. S. Carter and John Grierson for the details of the Eden counts ; and Dr. Holger Holgersen, of Stavanger Museum, was good enough to report on the arrival of Shelduck on the west coast of Norway. Without their assistance, it would not have been possible to find an explanation of the Tay records. REFERENCES Baxter, E. V., and Rintoul, L. J. (1953): The Birds of Scotland. Edinburgh. Boase, H. (1950): “Sheld-duck on the Tay Estuary”. Brit. Birds, xliv: 73-83. xliv: 73-83. Coombes, R. A. H. (1950): ‘‘The moult-migration of the Sheld-duck”. Ibis, 92: 405-418. Gillham, E. H., and Homes, R. C. (1950): The Birds of the North Kent Marshes. London. Hoogerheide, J., and Kraak, W. K. (1942): “Voorkomen en trek van de Bergeend”. Ardea, 31: 1-19. NOTES Display of Little Grebe. — A display by a Little Grebe ( Podiceps ruficollis) near Wath-upon-Dearne, Yorkshire, on 4th May 1957, seems to have been a form of penguin-dance ( antea , vol. L, pp. 269-270) and does not appear to be covered by the account in The Handbook. A single bird rose up on to its tail and legs with wings fluttering rapidly and legs paddling hard. It scuttered along in this position for about fifteen feet and stopped in front of another Little Grebe where it slowly rotated through three-quarters of a circle still in the upright position with wings fluttering. The second bird took no notice of this display, which lasted for a few seconds, after which the first bird swam off. There were about six pairs of Little Grebes present and much chasing was taking place. D. R. Wilson Kittiwakes attacking Grey Seals carrying fish. — On two occa- sions in April 1958, I witnessed attacks by Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) on Grey Seals ( Halichoerus grypus ) that were carrying large fish: both instances were off the coast of Northumberland. On 13th April, at the Fame Islands, three Kittiwakes in first- summer plumage were seen attacking a seal which surfaced with NOTES 97 VOL. LIl] a large fish: they settled on the water near the seal and then fluttered over it making little lunging stabs at the mammal’s head. When the seal submerged, the Kittiwakes continued to hover over the disturbed water. On 15th April a very similar performance, involving four Kittiwakes, was seen off Dun9tanburgh. Roger Harkness Display by Swifts— At 12.50 p.m. (B.S.T.) on 10th July 1958, in warm clear,. still weather, after a long unsettled spell, my atten- tion was attracted by the behaviour of two Swifts (A pus apus) in my garden at Cambridge. They followed each other in flight about 20-25 feet from the ground, the leading bird swooping towards the overhanging gutters of the house, the other following and checking, poising in the air and changing course a few inches from the gutters about a second after the leader, as if mimicking its movements. Eventually, after some minutes of this aerial follow-my-leader, one bird alighted for a few seconds below the gutter, the other clinging momentarily on the wall beside and touching it. There is a small cavity, occupied by House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus ) but un- suitable for Swifts, a few feet away from where the birds alighted, but the Swifts showed no interest. There is indeed nowhere on the building for Swifts to (nest, although the procedure looked as if it would be appropriate to nest-site selection. Twice during these activities one of -the birds arrested its flight about 40 feet from the house and made a burring noise with its wings, but there was no screaming. At least on one occasion the following bird became the leader. Edward A. Armstrong [We showed this note to Dr. David Lack, in view of his study of the Swift (see Simfts in a Toivcr, 1956) and he commented: “While one cannot be sure with unmarked birds, this behaviour strongly suggests that of a pair of yearlings in search of a nesting- site. Such birds often appear at the University Museum Tower in Oxford, sometimes staying to nest and sometimes passing on.’’ — Eds.] Blackbirds feeding on marine worms. — On 3rd June 1957, I watched two male Blackbirds ( Turdus merula) catching marine worms on the shore near Lee-on-Solent, Hampshire. The birds spent much time hunting, both on the open mud and amongst drifts of Enteroniorpha weed, and appeared to be taking three species of worm . The first was a greenish errant polychaete worm, the second one of the nemertines, and the third seemed to be a species of Arenicola. This last species was tugged vigorously from its burrows. The Handbook does not include any of the marine worms in the diet of the Blackbird ; nor does it refer to the species taking any marine organism on the littoral zone. The weather at the time was very7 warm and dry7. Roger Harkness 98 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Pied Wagtail remaining on ship from Thames estuary to Medi- terranean in spring. — A male Pied Wagtail {Motacilla alba yarrellii) remained on board the S.S. Orcades from Tilbury, Essex, from which we sailed at about 14.30 horn’s on 28th March 1956, until well into the Mediterranean, where it was last seen on board at 18.00 hours on 31st March off Cabo de Gata, Spain. The weather throughout was calm and overcast, with rain and sleet at Gibraltar, where the ship berthed for several hours on the morning of 31st March. The coast of Portugal had been in sight for much of the previous day. It is remarkable that a Pied Wagtail should allow itself to be carried so far south at this season, out of its breeding- range, when for much of the voyage land was in sight and at Gibraltar only a few moments’ flight away. E. J. M. Buxton House Sparrows feeding on young Frogs. — In 1958 an open tank in the courtyard of the Department of Zoology and Compara- tive Anatomy at Oxford contained a large number of Frog tadpoles ( Rana temporaria). By 14th July most of -these had metamorphosed and were clustering round the sides of the tank just above the waterline. On this and subsequent days they were regularly preyed upon by House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus). The birds would hop down a sloping board into the tank, pick the frogs off the sides, and carry them off to the roof near-by to dismember and eat them. I can -trace no previous record of House Sparrows feeding on small Frogs. R. G. B. Brown [During July 1958 there were large numbers of young Frogs in my garden at Bedford and on about six or eight occasions I watched a House Sparrow carry one off to eat it. — I.J.F.-L.] REVIEWS EXTINCT AND VANISHING BIRDS OF THE WORLD. By James C. Greenway, Jnr. Illustrated by D. M. Reid-Henry. (Special Publication No. 13, American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, New York, 1958). 518 pages; a coloured frontispiece and 86 ink drawings; maps and diagrams. This is a dispassionate book, but it loses no effect through the almost completely factual treatment of its subjects. Mr. Greenway has chosen as his part that of a chronicler ; that his book will succeed in doing more than merely cataloguing the losses to world avifauna is mainly due to the unimpeded view that such a treatment allows of the birds that are gone for ever and those likely to follow them. The book is divided into an introduction and summary of the species included, a section on the geography of extinction, separate accounts of all extinct and vanishing forms, a full bibliography, and an appendix listing the museums which contain remains of extinct birds. The professional ornithologist and VOL. LI I ] REVIEWS 99 students of natural history will welcome the ease of reference that the book affords and, if they cannot find all the details that they may wish, the many footnotes and references included will cut down the time of their search for them elsewhere. For the lay reader, the chapter on the geography of extinction will be the most readable, but, if he needs encouragement, the illustrations will lead him on through the species section. Mr. Reid-Henry’s style is at times meticulous but always very pleasing. Few living ornithologists will be able to comment on the accuracy of his drawings. However, those who know, for example, species of the genera Pterodroma, Grus, Rallus and Zosterops may well ponder, seeing his representations of certain rarer individuals of these groups, on the difficulty of the task that he was given. Just to turn a few leaves of the book may tempt European ornithologists and bird-watchers merely to regret the passing of the Great Auk (how many of us have at one time cherished fancies of finding this species alive again) and then pass on to note with dissatisfaction the much more numerous losses in other parts of the world. Going deeper into the text they must realise, however, just how large a part was taken in the total erasion and decimation of so many species and sub-species, both avian and terrestrial, by the fore-runners of western civilisation. Not so much perhaps from their actions of exploration and economic development (these can be justified, for Man will always be the world’s most needy species), but from what they took along with them and carelessly left behind them. Hungry sailors and pigs, cats and rats and that arch enemy, the Mongoose, can all be counted in this category. Isolated and uncommon species were in many cases defenceless when confronted by such indiscriminate predators and the speed of extinction was then incredible. In others Man merely removed entirely the necessary minimum of habitat. Mr. Greenway includes some interesting factor correlations on this subject. Some species have successfully contended with these and other sorts of pressure; others have adapted themselves to a new environment but they are comparatively few. The scene is still set for further extirpation. As the manuscript was finished in 1954 and publication was not until 1958, certain recent attempts at preservation and re-establishment, notably the Ne-Ne project at Slimbridge, find scant mention. Such action, still largely unsubsidized in Britain but sensibly supported in North America, points the way. The target for reclamation is immense. One or two breaches have been sandbagged, but disturbance is still at a dangerously high level. One new factor needs comment, the part to be played by the great number of modern bird-watchers. We should not be innocents. This book will help us all to gain real regret for those species that are gone and which we will never see, and to accept a share of the responsibility that our enjoyment of those that remain to us entails. D. I. M. Wallace 100 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII THE BIRDS OF BRECKNOCK. By Geoffrey C. S. Ingram and H. Morrey Salmon, C.B.E., M.C. (Published by The Brecknock Society : reprinted from Brycheiniog, Vol. Ill, 1957). 78 pages. 5s. This authoritative list is the result of a painstaking collection of records which goes back for over 30 years. It is based on the only previous list for the county, that of E. Cambridge Phillips (1899), and includes the thoroughly sifted observations of many observers. The authors themselves have explored every corner of the county and are able to give us their personal view on the status of every species. A full introduction summarizes the county’s ornithological history and describes its topography. The list includes 207 species and 4 subspecies which are made up as follows: breeding residents, 75; breeding summer visitors, 26; regular visitors and passage migrants, 18; occasional visitors, vagrants, etc., 92. Eight other species are in square brackets, and perhaps the 1903 report of Rock Pipits breeding in this inland county would have been better placed in square brackets too. There is a useful appendix of place-names with their 4-figure mao- references. A comparison of the present status of the breeding birds with that at the turn of the century shows that, while about two dozen have appreciably decreased, only one dozen have shown a significant increase. A striking feature of these decreased species is that, whereas in the past Man has been clearly responsible for reducing bird numbers, very few of those that have declined in Brecknock this half-century have done so because of any obvious human interference. Of those decreased some have done so in common with many other counties: Merlin, game-birds, crakes, Lapwing, Nightjar, Wryneck, Stonechat, Red-backed Shrike and Cirl Bunting. Other decreases are surprising and presumably very much more local : Coot, Curlew, Common Sandpiper, Tawny Owl, Swallow, Jay, Ring Ouzel, Wheatear and Meadow Pipit (and concurrently Cuckoo). The sharpest decline of any has been that of the Nightjar which has changed from abundant to rare in the last 25 years. The most noteworthy increases include Buzzard, Black-headed Gull, Great Spotted Woodpecker, Raven and Nut- hatch. Others which were always numerous and are now probably even more abundant are Pied Flycatcher, Willow Warbler, Garden Warbler, Blackbird and Yellowhammer. As to the future, one can foresee a continuing decrease of marsh birds, through drainage, and probably of some woodland species, such as Wood Warbler, through the replacing of oak- woods by conifers. On the other hand the conifers are probably favouring such species as Black Grouse, Long-eared Owl, Goldcrest and others. With the appearance of this hand-list ornithologists are placed further into debt to the remarkable Ingram and Salmon partner- ship which has already provided them with invaluable bird-lists VOL. LI I ] REVIEWS 101 for five other South Wales counties. It is to be hoped that the present work will stimulate bird-study in what is a most interest- ing and attractive county which is very poorly off for serious bird- students and bird-ringers. W.M.C. LETTER “SUB-SONG” AND “SECONDARY SONG” Sirs, — With regard to the paper by Miss P. M. Pilcher and myself on “The nature of sub-song” ( antea , vol. li, pp. 509-514), I very much regret to find that we were incorrect in stating that the term “sub-song” was used by Mr. M. D. Lister [antea, vol. xlvi, pp. 139-143) merely to indicate volume difference. In fact he used the term “secondary song” for this purpose and proposed to restrict the term “sub-song” in very much the same manner as we were advocating. W. H. Thorpe RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary is primarily concerned with February, from the 1st to the 22nd, but it includes a number of observations that are additional to the various sections in our last issue [antea, pp. 66-72). THE WAXWING INVASION The Waxwings [Bombycilla ganulus ) became so widespread that it would be pointless to attempt to assess the situation any further until all the available records are in and a proper analysis can be made. However, we should perhaps give the additional counties (all England and Wales) from which reports have been received since the previous list [antea, p. 67) was completed. In chronological order with, as before, the date of the first report received, these include Herefordshire (5th January), Bedfordshire (10th), London (“about 14th”), Derbyshire (15th), Northampton- shire (17th), Leicestershire (17th), Hampshire (18th), Cardigan- shire (28th), Warwickshire (30th) and Pembrokeshire (“first week February”). In addition, reports from Surrey and Westmorland on 3rd January are both earlier than the first dates given last month, and a few odd December reports from inland counties are being checked. The position on the East Coast became some- what obscured by the breaking up of the big flocks, but it is clear that many of these moved off inland or farther south, in spite 102 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII of the fact that some East Coast districts still had large numbers in mid-February. The trend is illustrated by the fact that there have been no large numbers in Essex since flocks of 60 and 30 on 1st February, while the reports from Kent have been steadily increasing (we have, incidentally, now received 2 more December reports from Kent). A WRECK OF KITTIWAKES? On 22nd February some 17 Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla ) were seen flying west over Queen Mary Reservoir (Middlesex), and be- tween mid-day and 1 p.m. three parties totalling about 115 passed W.S.W. over the watercress beds at Leatherhead (Surrey). These two observations alone might suggest a small, but curious, passage across southern England from the Thames estuary, but on that same day, 22nd February, there were over 80 Kittiwakes at Pitsford Reservoir (Northamptonshire) and a total of 10 at Bartley Reservoir (Warwickshire). We should be glad to receive any relevant observations. GEESE AND LAPWING MOVEMENTS Reports from Lincolnshire (Stamford), Leicestershire and Not- tinghamshire on 24th and 25th January seem to show that there was a strong north-west movement of grey geese (Anser sp.) inland in central England at that time. Skeins of 100-300 were reported from a total of 7 localities in those counties, all moving north-west, or between N. and W.N.W., and further observations would be interesting. Three groups were identified as Pink-footed Geese (.4. brachyrhynchus) . Last month ( antea , p. 70) we commented on the coincidence in dates and directions of Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) movements in a number of counties from Berkshire to Lancashire. After that was written, but before it was published, we received several further independent observations of strong westward movements of Lapwings and to the list of counties quoted last month should be added London, Surrey, Hampshire and Shropshire. The peak still appears to have been during 9th-llth January, but flocks were passing west throughout 7th- 13th. We should be grateful if all relevant observations could be sent to E. L. Jones, Willowbank, Eynsham, Oxford. RARER BIRDS AND THE LESS COMMON WINTERERS Two White-billed Divers ( Gavia adamsii) were identified during February in Inverness Firth near Avoch Harbour (Ross-shire) : both were first seen on 4th February, one until the 11th and the other to at least the 18th : the two birds did not apparently asso- ciate and were a mile lapart on the 8th. The Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus ) in Kirkcudbrightshire (antea, p. 68) was seen again on 3rd February with Bean Geese (A. arvensis) and Greylags (A. anser), but could not be found during the following week. We now have fuller information about the Marsh Harrier vol. lii] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 103 (Circus aeruginosus) observations in the same area ( antea , p. 69) : a number of reports of an immature from 28th December to at least 15th February show that either one bird ranges over about 5 miles of river and marshes or there may be two individuals. In contradiction to the last comment on Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus columbianus ) (antea, p. 69), it now appears that in mid-February (and very probably earlier) there was a total of about 450 on the Ouse and Nene Washes (Cambridgeshire and Norfolk). There have been a few more reports of parties of up to 30 in various counties of the southern half of England, but not as many as in several recent winters. A Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana ) was identified at Warsash (Hampshire) on 29th January, and we have recently learnt that one was seen at Porlock Marsh (Somerset) on 9th December ( cf . antea, p. 32). A Grey Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius) at Cromer (Norfolk) on 17th January is of interest in connection with the other January7 report received (antea, p. 72). An immature Iceland Gull (Larus glaucoides) at Ruxley, near Sidcup (Kent), from 31st January to at least 8th February, was the third interesting inland report this winter: the one at Cambridge (antea, p. 68) was seen at the sewage-farm there in early February. The Richard’s Pipit ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ) at West Huntspill (Somerset) (antea, pp. 32 and 68) was more difficult (o locate during February, but was still present on the 12th, by which time it had been there for about eight weeks. Although, as is usual, there was quite an influx of Firecrests (Regulus ignicapillus ) last autumn, we have received only two winter observations: one at Tilmanstone (Kent) on 10th January, and one at St. Ives (Cornwall) on 23rd January. LATE NESTS AND WINTER SONG During October and November late nests of a number of species were reported (antea, p. 532); we have now received several further observations of nests in November and some even in December. It is not unusual for Mallard (Anas plaiyrhynchos ) to be breeding as late as November, but among the reports received was one of 7 ducklings being hatched as far north as Carsebreck (Perthshire) on 15th November (only one survived a subsequent snowstorm); and at Malmesbury (Wiltshire) there were two nests in December: the first of these had ten eggs on 15th November and 1st December, and two eggs (one chipped) on 9fh December; the second nest had 13 eggs on 10th December, but these had disappeared bv the end of the month. A brood of young Moorhens (Gallinula chloropus ) about a fortnight old was reported from St. Neots (Huntingdon- shire) as late as 19th December, and in this connection it is interesting to note that a Coot (Fulica atrd) was sitting on four fresh eggs on Frensham Pond (Surrey) on 15th October, after which a juvenile was seen there on 1st January. Two young Wood- pigeons (i Columba palumbus ) left a nest near Bury St. Edmunds (Suffolk) as late as 3rd December. 104 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII A pair of Song Thrushes (T Urdus philomelos) had a nest near Swindon (Wiltshire) in December, brut the eggs were taken at or just before Christmas. Song Thrushes were also incubating a full clutch of eggs at St. Neots (Huntingdonshire) until snow fell on the night of 9th/10th December. Three of five young Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in a nest at Hemel Hempstead (Hertfordshire) were found dead beneath it on 2nd December, but the remaining two apparently fledged on 8th/9th December. A fresh Starling’s egg was found on the ground at Saltford, Bristol, on 19th January — but this seems to be a regular habit of Starlings even in winter! At the other end of the scale, more properly regarded as a sign of early breeding, was the St. Kilda Wren ( Troglodytes t. hirtensis ) which on the remarkable date of 21st January was building a nest in a 3-lb jam jar lying in an enclosure behind one of the cottages on Hirta. By the 26th tire feather lining had been started in spite of three days of snow and low temperatures. Winter song and display must also be briefly mentioned, although the data are insufficient for many definite statements. From East Anglia, the Midlands and the South came a number of reports of unusual outbreaks of full song in late October and November, in the second! half of December and early January, and in late January and February. Most of the species which are normally regarded as irregular or exceptional songsters in mid- winter were involved, but what stand out are the several reliable instances of Blackbirds (T urdus merula) in good song in November and December. And from Leicestershire, Surrey, Hampshire and Buckinghamshire came reports of Little Grebes ( Podiceps mficollis) trilling in December and early January. Black Grouse ( Lyrurus tetrix ) do not normally show any signs of display before the middle and end of February, or the begin- ning of the month at the earliest, but a low intensity display was reported on 22nd December from near a lek in the area of Simons- bath (Somerset): only two of a party of 7 males took part and the action lasted no more than two minutes. COLLARED DOVES Last October ( antea , pp. 406-407) we briefly reviewed the 1958 status of the Collared Dove ( Streptopelia decaocto) and showed that the species had nested in Norfolk, Kent and Morayshire. Since then we have had a breeding report from Hertfordshire and strong circumstantial evidence from Northumberland (though there is no proof of nesting in the latter). In Hertfordshire a nest with two nearly fledged young was found in a pine on 6th July and at least one adult was still in the area in early August. In Northumberland four birds were located in September (two of them probably juveniles) and three, if not all four, were there to at least 9th February. ADDENDUM As we go to press, we learn that a Killdeer ( Charadrius voeifcrus) has appeared at Little Paxton (Huntingdonshire) : first seen on 7th March, it was still present on the 9th ( cf . antea, pp. 528 and 69). lNOTICE to contributors British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. 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Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents ok Volume L 1 1 , Number 4, April 1959 PAGE 1'he breeding biology of the Ivory Gull in Spitsbergen. By P. P. G. Bateson and R. C. Plowright ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 Notes on the display, nesting and moult of the Mute Swan. By Henry Boase 114 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCVI — Ivory Gull. Photographs by J. L. Cutbill and R. E. Hitchcock (plates 21-24). Text by P. P. G. Bateson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 124 N otes : — Orientation of migrants over sea in fog (J. M. B. King) ... ... 125 Predation by Great Spotted Woodpeckers on nestlings in nest-boxes (R. A. O. Hickling and I. J. Ferguson-Lees) 126 Feeding behaviour of Ravens and Choughs (Brian C. Turner) 129 Melanistic adult Great Tit and brood of young (C. M. Perrins) ... 131 Downwind immigration of British Whitethroats (R. A. Richardson) 13 1 Unusual site of Goldcrest’s nest (A. G. Wootton) 133 Reviews: — Tales from the Vienna Woods. By Lilli Koenig ... ... ... ... 133 The Bird Bazaars of Novaya Zemlya. By S. M. Uspenski ... ... 134 Letters: — Crossbills at Fair Isle, 1956 (Kenneth Williamson) 135 Information wanted on Pratincoles and Bee-eaters in France (J. J. Swift) 136 The behaviour and breeding environment of the St. Kilda Wren (Rev. Edward A. Armstrong; Kenneth Williamson) 136 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• J4° Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. Vol. LI I No. 4 BRITISH BIRDS THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE IVORY GULL IN SPITSBERGEN By P. P. G. Bateson and R. C. Plowright (Plates 21-24) INTRODUCTION In the summer of 1958 R. E. Hitchcock, J. L. Cutbill and our- selves spent just over three weeks at a colony of Ivory Gulls [Pagophila eburnea ) in the Spitsbergen area. As the ice conditions were abnormally bad, our arrival at the colony was delayed until 17th July when the breeding season was already well advanced. The Ivory Gull has been recorded as breeding in great numbers on the ground, but, unfortunately, we were forced to work at a relatively small colony nesting on a steep cliff (plate 21). Though we were principally concerned with the study of Ivory Gull behaviour we made a number of more general observations which should add to the information already given in The Handbook of British Birds. THE BREEDING CLIFF The colony at which we worked was on a cliff about half a mile inland from the south shore of Wahlenbergfjord in North-East Land; it was almost certainly visited by Montague (1926) in 1924. The position according to the Norsk Polarinstitutt chart is 79°4i'3o"N., 2o°57' E. The cliff was a little over a thousand feet high and was formed by a sill of dolerite, about 100-150 feet thick, above a limestone scree. The cliff continued for three or four miles to the west of the colony, but only about half a mile to the east it turned sharply inland where a dead glacier descended from the ice-cap. For most of its length the cliff faced in a northerly direction. The main part of the colony was spread over about a quarter of a mile of the cliff. At the eastern end of the colony the Ivories were breeding among a few Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla). About a hundred yards from the western end there was a larger colony of 105 106 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII about ioo pairs of Kittiwakes, mainly concentrated round one chimney. Half a mile west of this Kittiwake colony a few more Ivory Gulls were nesting'. In all, there were between 35 and 40 pairs of Ivory Gulls, although it was difficult to arrive at an exact figure as the number of nests fluctuated owing to predation by the Arctic Fox ( Alopex lagopus). Besides Kittiwakes a certain number of Black Guillemots ( Uria grylle ) were also breeding on this cliff. Glaucous Gulls ( Larus hyperboreus ) were infrequently seen at the colony and when they did appear were quickly driven away by the Ivories. Arctic Skuas ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) were occasionally seen flying past the cliff, but only rarely did the Ivories take any notice of them. NEST SITES The ledges on which the gulls nested tended to be on the upper part of the cliff. The distance from the top varied from 10 to 60 feet, the average being 32 feet. Although the spread was appreciable the majority of nests were noticeably about the same distance from the top (standard deviation = 12). These results agree well with those of Montague (op. cit.) who found nests between 15 and 80 feet down. The ledges varied considerably in size but, as a rule, were considerably wider than those used by Kittiwakes. The largest ledge was probably three feet broad and the smallest site a cubby-hole recess, the measurements of which were estimated to be 15 inches across, 10 inches high and 12 inches deep. Where there were two nests on the same ledge they were much further apart from each other than is usual with Kittiwakes. NEST CONSTRUCTION The nests were bulky structures, loosely made of moss, lichen and saxifrage; these materials were collected chiefly from the plateau at the top of the cliff, although there was also some stealing. As the Ivories did not use mud in the manufacture of their nests, as did the Kittiwakes, large amounts of material fell off. Although the nests were still large when we left, owing to the incessant additions made by free birds before and after nest relief, it is understandable that Dalgety (1932) and Montague should have found nests on practically bare ledges. An impression of the nest and nest sites can be obtained from the plates. TIMES OF LAYING AND HATCHING It proved very difficult to keep a regular check on all the nests in the colony. We were unwilling to descend the cliff on a rope, partly because we were all inexperienced climbers and partly because we did not want to disturb the birds too much. For these reasons we were never able to examine some nests which were not visible from the top of the cliff. In addition, it was not always possible to check the contents of nests which were visible from the top of the cliff because the birds often refused to fly off. Finally, we were unable to examine the nests at all from 7th vol. lii] THE IVORY GULL IN SPITSBERGEN 107 August to 13th August owing to a blizzard which not only increased the reluctance of the birds to leave their nests but also made it very dangerous to approach the edge of the cliff. When we first arrived at the colony there were more than 35 nests. At least three more nests appeared during the course of our stay ; the times at w’hich the eggs in these nests were laid are shown in Table I. Obviously the number given for eggs laid before 17th July is only a minimum figure. The times of hatching are also shown on the table. Table 1 — Times of laving and hatching in colony of Ivory Gulls ( Pagophila eburnea ) in Spitsbergen, 1958 Date Number of eggs laid Number of young hatched Up to 1 6th Julv 5' I 17th July-20th July I 7 2 1 st July-24th July I 2 25th Julv-28th July — 3 29th July-4 th August I •4 Number of eggs unhatched on 4th August 22 Number of eggs lost and not known to have hatched 5 Four nests were robbed on 21st or 22nd July, which might account for the late layings, and another was found empty on 4th August. The figures from all of these nests that were visible are included in the table. In addition, 5 clutches of 2 lost one member of the clutch, but, as we are not certain whether the missing eggs hatched before disappearing, they are not included in the table. It is perhaps interesting that the first ten chicks which hatched were all from a group of nests at one end of the colony. Although nearly half the eggs had not hatched on 4th August, all those laid before 17th July that were fertile must have done so on or before 13th August, assuming a constant incubation period (see below). Summing our data with those of Collett (1888), Dalgety (1932), Montague (1926) and Sladen (1932), it seems that chicks are not likely to hatch before the middle of July and that the peak period will be at the end of July and the beginning of August, with the last chick appearing around the third or fourth week of August. The Kittiwakes seemed to have begun to breed about a fortnight earlier than the Ivory Gulls. INCUBATION AND FLEDGING PERIODS The only reference that we can find to the incubation length of the Ivory Gull is in Dementiev and Gladkov (1951), where it is 108 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII given as a little less than a month. Three eggs were laid after we reached the colony. Of these the one that was laid between igth and 20th July was chipping on 13th August, when we had to leave. The chipping egg had a hole of roughly half an inch in diameter and it was reckoned that it would have hatched about six hours after our final observation. Thus the incubation period for this egg was between 24J and 25J days. When we left the colony the eldest chicks were little over half grown. When Montague visited the colony on 29th August 1924, he found that all the chicks were still in down, having hatched out at least four weeks earlier according to other members of his expedition. Thus it seems that the fledging period is not less than five weeks. CLUTCH SIZE A clutch size of two is most usual at both ground and cliff colonies, but one egg is fairly common; only occasionally are there three eggs in a clutch, although this is evidently less rare in some years than others (Collett, 1888; Dalgety, 1932; Malmgren, 1863, in Newton, 1865; Manniche, 1910; Montague, 1926; Sladen, 1932; Wright, 1866). We recorded 22 nests with a clutch of two and 10 nests with a clutch of one. An average clutch size of two or less is unusually small for a gull and, among Palaearctic species, is otherwise only found in the cliff-nesting Kittiwake. However, as ground-nesting Ivory Gulls also have a small clutch size, this difference can hardly be due to the cliff-nesting habit as Cullen (1957) has suggested is the case for the Kittiwake. Dalgety (op. cit.) made the very interest- ing observation that in 1930, when there was very little ice, half the occupied nests he found had one egg; and that in 1931, when the ice was much as usual, he found in the same colony only three nests with one egg and one nest with three eggs, the remainder having clutches of two. Lack (1947) has already suggested that there might be a correlation between the amount of food available and the clutch size, a plausible explanation in view of the supposed ecological connection between the Ivory Gull and the ice (see below). BROODING BY BOTH SEXES While studying Ivory Gull behaviour we often observed nest relief (plate 23). To study this more fully three pairs were watched continuously for 24 hours. The results were rather surprising (Fig. 1) and might explain the mystery which hitherto had been attached to the Ivory Gulls’ nesting habits. Montague wrote: “The feeding of the nestling Ivory Gull is a problem. I spent between nine and ten hours continuously at the colony and not once in that time, though I was on the watch for it, did I see a bird arrive at or depart from the cliff, nor did I ever see two birds tending one brood”. Dalgety, concurring with these observations, remarked that he had only once seen a bird arrive vol. li i ] THE IVORY GULL IN SPITSBERGEN 109 at or leave a colony. Our results show that although nest relief was comparatively common during the early part of the watch, during the latter part some birds spent more than eleven hours on the nest and their mates were nowhere to be seen. It is possible that Montague had the misfortune to watch the colony during one of these spells of sitting. Regrettably we were never able to repeat such a watch and so establish if there was any rhythm in the occurrence of these long spells of sitting or whether it was just a result of mist and rain. Fig. i — To show the time spent by each adult of three pairs of Ivory Gulls ( Pagopliila eburuea) on the eggs or near the nest during a 24-HOUR watch, Spitsbergen, 1958 In each case the upper line represents the female and the lower the male. We saw Ivory Gulls coming to and going from the colony on a great many occasions. However, it should be mentioned that these movements were not apparently confined to any particular time of day. As there have been a number of references in the past to the Ivory Gull possessing only one brood patch, it should be made clear that the bird probably always has three. We shot five birds (three males and two females) and each of these had three brood patches. According to Tucker (1943) a given species always has 110 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI1 a constant number of brood patches. Admittedly the two lateral patches are much less conspicuous than the median patch, which probably accounts for the earlier records. These five birds had a great deal of subcutaneous and peritoneal fat, which may be an adaptation to long spells of sitting. FOOD The scavenging habits of the Ivory Gull are well known and it is probable that much of their food in the winter is derived from carcases left by the Polar Bear ( Thalarctos maritimus). Reference is also often made to the Ivory Gull eating the faeces of the large Arctic mammals. More often than not, however, this information appears to be based on inference rather than direct observation. It is certainly true that the gulls congregate where seals are lying out on the ice, but this might be in anticipation of the slaughter of one of the seals by a Polar Bear. Even if the gulls do feed on faeces, which they might well do when they are hungry, it is hardly likely that this could be a staple source of food. In the summer the Ivory Gull appears to feed to a large extent on marine food. Manniche (1910) examined several stomachs of birds shot in Greenland and found fish bones and remains of crustaceans as well as pieces of seal and chironomid larvae. Montague found fish in some of the stomachs he examined. Hartley and Fisher (1936) observed Ivory Gulls feeding with Kittiwakes and on shooting one found that its stomach was full of the crustacean Thysanoessa. Food that we observed being passed to young birds was frequently vermilion and sometimes silvery, which suggests that the birds had been feeding on crustaceans and fish. Of the five birds we shot, three had empty stomachs ; the remaining two contained fish which were later kindly identified by Dr. E. Trewavas of the British Museum as Polar Cod (Boreogadus saida). As Hartley and Fisher have pointed out, the Ivory Gull is an inefficient marine feeder because it is extremely unwilling to settle on the water and picks up food as it hovers. It is possible that the gulls fly north, as Montague has suggested, to feed among the pack ice, and that they obtain food for their chicks and perhaps supplement their own diet from the more local marine food. Montague has also suggested that the Ivories obtain their fish from below Kittiwake and Black Guillemot nesting places. This might be the case, but we have no observations of Ivory Gulls scavenging below Kittiwakes’ nests. PREDATION The Arctic Fox appears to be the only serious predator on the Ivory Gull. The activities of this fox may have driven the gulls from the ground to nesting on cliffs. Even this has not brought complete safety, however, as the Arctic Fox is a remarkable climber: at least four nests were robbed by the fox in our colony. VOL. lit] THE IVORY GULL IN SPITSBERGEN 111 T. S. Winsnes (personal communication) found a colony of twelve pairs of Ivory Gulls in 1957 on a cliff six miles east of Bodley Bay in Wahlenbergfjord. When we visited this colony at the beginning of August 1958 all the nests were empty, but it seemed inconceivable that they could have been robbed by an Arctic Fox. The only other possible predator was the Glaucous Gull. There was at least one pair nesting near-by and also several unattached birds. We saw Glaucous Gulls being driven away from our colony, but it is quite likely that the big gull occasionally manages to steal clutches, especially when only a few Ivory Gulls are breeding together. CALLS The calls and postures of the Ivory Gull will be dealt with in much greater detail in another paper, but a brief description of the most common calls might be of value here. The Call Note is commonly heard both at the colony and away from it, and has even been heard in England (Cusa, 1951). It is a fairly shrill, disyllabic note, rather tern-like in quality and given once or repeated a few times, both in flight and on the ground. We transcribed it as “kree-ar” or “pree-ar”, but the transcription “keeer” in Peterson, Mountfort and Hollom (1954) is quite satisfactory. The Long Call may also be heard away from the colony although much less commonly than the Call Note. This call is in some ways similar to the scream of a Black-headed Gull (Lotus ridibundus ), but is less harsh and is sustained for a much greater length of time. MOVEMENTS Generalizations about the movements of Ivory Gulls are very difficult to make as the birds are so rarely seen away from their breeding-grounds. However, it seems fairly clear from the reports of a great many observers that the gulls remain in the vicinity of the pack ice where they presumably scavenge in the wake of Polar Bears and human sealers. The gull moves southwards in winter and Snyder (1957) refers to those movements as “limited migration”. If, however, the gulls move with the ice this description is scarcely very apt. Nevertheless a fair number of birds wander considerably further than the southern limit of the pack ice. Nearly eighty birds have been recorded from the British Isles alone. It has been recorded as far south as N. France; Holland; Lake of Geneva, Switzer- land; Lake Ontario, Canada; Long Island and Massachusetts, U.S.A. ; Hokkaido, Japan; and Shantung, China (Witherby et al., 1941, and others). Although the stragglers are more often seen on the coast they have been recorded hundreds of miles inland in Canada and the Soviet Union. When analysed, the British records reveal a peak in February, which is suggestive as this is the month when the pack ice extends furthest south. Unlike some of the other Arctic gulls, more adults than immature birds have been recorded in temperate latitudes. 112 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I Naturally enough there are only a few records of the return of Ivory Gulls to the latitude of their breeding area. Nansen (1898), overwintering at the north of Franz Josef Land, recorded the first Ivory Gulls on 12th March and noted that they became more and more numerous throughout April. Clarke (1898) in the same group of islands saw the first spring arrivals on 10th April. The immature birds, as might be expected, do not usually return to the colony. We did not see a single immature bird throughout the summer we were in Spitsbergen, although some observers have seen small numbers there. In the unusual ice conditions of 1947 a great number of Ivory Gulls were recorded off Bear Island in mid-June (Williamson, 1948) and the majority of these birds were immature. It would seem, therefore, that the immature birds roam among the pack ice thoughout the breeding season as do all ages in the winter. In the extensive literature of the birds of Spitsbergen there are a considerable number of records of single adults or small parties, flying round the coast or across the ice-caps in summer. We saw about six birds in the course of our boat journey round the north coast of Spitsbergen. The larger congregations of Ivory Gulls, however, have usually been seen in the vicinity of the pack ice, although L0venskiold (1954) records 50-100 birds scavenging in the mining settlement of Sveagruva. DECLINE IN NUMBERS A few colonies in the Spitsbergen area have been revisited after their numbers were first estimated. A colony on Storoya, off the east coast of North-East Land, was visited in 1887 and found to have between 100 and 150 nests (Collett, op. cit.); Dalgety visited the same colony in 1930 and found only 11 nests. A colony in Palander Bay, North-East Land, which Dalgety visited in 1930 and 1931, then contained about 30 pairs, but when visited by us had no birds breeding. Finally, the colony which both Montague and ourselves worked at contained 100 pairs in 1924 and under 40 pairs in 1958. Admittedly this may be only an isolated trend, but it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the retreat of the ice is causing a decline in numbers. Apart from direct effects on its food supply, the retreat of the ice may expose the Ivory Gull to increased predation from the Arctic Fox and increased competition from other Arctic birds. Although the Kittiwake may not compete with the Ivory Gull, it is perhaps symptomatic that the Kittiwake colony on the cliff at which we worked has nearly doubled in numbers in the past thirty years. The decline observed in Spitsbergen may not be general, how- ever, and there is the possibility that fresh areas in the North American islands are being colonized. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are very much indebted to the trustees of the Gilchrist Educational Trust, the Hans Gadow Fund and the Ford Founda- VOL. m] THE IVORY GULL IN SPITSBERGEN 113 tion for financial assistance without which the expedition would not have been possible. Whilst in Spitsbergen we received a great deal of help from the Norsk Polarinstitutt and we should like to take this opportunity of thanking them for their kindness and consideration. Finally we wish to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Niko Tinbergen for the advice and encouragement which he so freely gave us. SUMMARY 1. The authors spent just over three weeks in July and August 1958 at a colony of about 35 pairs of Ivory Gulls in the north-east of Spitsbergen. The gulls were breeding on a steep cliff in association with Kittiwakes. However, the nesting ledges and territories of the Ivory Gulls were much larger than those of the Kittiwakes. Also in contrast with the Kittiwakes, the nests were loosely-made, bulky structures. 2. The peak of hatching was at the end of July and the begin- ning of August. The incubation period for one egg was between 24J and 25^ days ; the fledging period was estimated to be not less than five weeks. The clutch size of both ground- and cliff- nesting Ivory Gulls is most often two but commonly one. Both sexes were found to brood and might spend from a few minutes to over eleven hours on the eggs. 3. The stomachs of two birds that were shot contained Polar Cod and food that was given to chicks appeared to consist of fish and crustaceans. The gulls may rely more on marine food in summer than has hitherto been suggested. 4. The most serious predator is the Arctic Fox, but Glaucous Gulls may also occasionally take eggs and chicks. 5. Although stragglers appear in temperate latitudes, the Ivory Gull seems to be tied to the pack ice in winter. For the most part the immature birds remain at the pack ice in summer as well and the breeding areas are never far removed from ice. 6. In Spitsbergen, at least, the numbers of the Ivory Gull appear to be declining. This may be correlated with the melting ice caps. REFERENCES Clarke, W. E. (1898): “On the avifauna of Franz Josef Land. With notes by W. S. Bruce”. Ibis, 40: 249-277. Collett, A. (1888): “On a breeding colony of Larus eburneus on Spitsbergen”. Ibis, 30: 440-443. Cullen, Esther (1957): “Adaptations in the Kittiwake to cliff nesting”. Ibis, 99: 275-302. Cusa, N. W. (1951): “Ivory Gull in Pembrokeshire”. Brit. Birds, xliv: 355. Daloety, C. T. (1932): “The Ivory Gull in Spitsbergen”. Brit. Birds, xxvi : 2-7- Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, H. A. (1951): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. Ill, pp. 4 10-4 1 4. Hartley, C. H., and Fisher, J. (1936): “The marine foods of birds in an inland fjord region in West Spitsbergen”. J. Anitn. Ecol., 5: 370-389. Lack, D. (1947): “The significance of clutch size”. Ibis, 89: 302-352. 114 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii L0venskiold, H. L. (1954): “Studies on the avifauna of Spitsbergen”. Norsk Polar institutt Skrifter, 103. Oslo. Malmgren, A. J. (1863): “Anteckningar till Spetsbergens Fogel fauna”. Oefersigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Forhandlingar, 1863: 102. Manniche, A. L. V. (1910): “The terrestrial birds and mammals of North- east Greenland : biological observations. Danmark Expedition til Gronlands Nordostkyst, 1906-1908”. Meddelelser om Gronland, 45: 1-200. Montague, F. A. (1926): “Further notes from Spitsbergen”. Ibis, 68: 136-151. Nansen, F. (1898): Farthest North. London. Newton, A. (1865): “Notes on the birds of Spitsbergen”. Ibis, 7: 496-525. Peterson, R., Mountfort, G., and Hollom, P. A. D. (1954): A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe. London. Sladen, A. G. L. (1932): “Notes upon the eggs of the Ivory Gull ( Pagophila eburned)” . Bull. Br. Orn. Cl., 52 : 95-97. Snyder, L. L. (1957): Arctic Birds of Canada. Toronto. Tucker, B. W. (1943): “Brood patches and the physiology of incubation”. Brit. Birds, xxxvi: 22-28. Williamson, K. (1948): “Ivory Gulls off Bear Island”. Ibis, 90: 327. Witherby, H. F., et al. (1941): The Handbook of British Birds. London. Wright, E. P. (1866): Ibis, 8: 216-218. NOTES ON THE DISPLAY, NESTING AND MOULT OF THE MUTE SWAN By Henry Boase For some years the writer has recorded the variations in numbers of Mute Swans ( Cygnus olor) at stations in and around the Tay estuary, in east Scotland. The cycle of changes found during this period suggested complex movements of age-groups, and a study of their behaviour revealed some matters of interest relating to display, nesting, moult, voice, bathing and feeding. DISPLAY The account of the display of the Mute Swan given by F. C. R. Jourdain and B. W. Tucker in The Handbook of British Birds is rather vague about the preliminaries to pair formation. In the Tay estuary, the records of numbers led to the conclusion that the summering groups there consist mainly of immatures in their second and third summers. Some showed a marked improvement in bill colour in the period June/ August, indicative of advance to maturity*, and a watch was kept on the behaviour of these older birds to determine if possible whether any display is given and whether pairs are formed in late summer. That there is display, and that pairs are formed at this time, there is no doubt, but the performance is not very noticeable. The forms of display of the Mute Swan are as follows ; most of them are common to both sexes : (1) An attitude with the neck erect and almost straight, the bill held level and the head turning from side to side ; in *Tn the opinion of the Wildfowl Trust, there may be seasonal changes in the colour intensity of the Mute Swan’s bill, as is the case with the Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna ): if that is so, then some of the conclusions in this paper would need to be reviewed. — Eds. VOL. LI I ] MUTE SWAN BEHAVIOUR 115 mutual display each bird may turn to its right and to its left in unison. (2) An attitude with the neck erect and sharply curved near the nape, and the head and bill hanging down vertically — the pendant attitude. In mutual display, each bird may turn to its right and to its left in unison. (3) An attitude with the neck erect, the head and bill level and jerked upwards to about 40 degrees in a sharp move- ment— the bill-toss display. (4) A form of false preening, where the side of the head is rubbed along the line of the greater coverts and secondaries of the closed wing. , (5) A dipping motion which may range from a dropping of the head for a few inches, with the bill pointing down, to an actual immersion of the bill or, in its extreme form, to a position where the whole neck is immersed. The rate of dipping also varies : often the more deliberate the dip the deeper it is, and, as a preliminary to treading, it may decrease in depth of movement as the rate of dipping (the number of dips per minute) increases. These are the main displays used in pair-formation, and in them- selves they are not very noticeable in the scattered group of Mute Swans on open water. The accompanying diagramatic sketches (Fig. 1) may help to define the various attitudes used during display. There is a further action which may or may not be display. It has the appearance of a deliberate drinking or sipping of the tide: the bill is immersed almost horizontally with the neck curved ; the head and neck then straighten in line at an angle of 60-70 degrees, and the bird returns to a normal swimming attitude. The action may finish with the bird’s rising on the water as the neck is stretched upwards, and the wings may or may not be raised from the sides and even partly opened (but not flapped). It has been noted as a group behaviour; once two birds side by side carried out the simpler form without the rise on the water. Owing to the range, it has not been possible with certainty to sex the birds so behaving, but most appeared to be males. This behaviour recalls the bill-toss salute of the Shelduck ( Tadorna tadorna), which seems a general, rather than a particular, display directed to an individual bird. The final attitude is used in the “triumph” display when the male returns to his mate after repelling an invader into their territory; in a more vigorous form, it is part of the post-copulatory display. The familiar attitude of the Mute Swan with curved neck and raised secondaries does not appear to be used in sexual display. It might be described as an attitude of interest or attention. There is also the more exaggerated form of this, with the neck pressed back and the bill resting on the frontal curve so formed ; this 116 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Dip -Salul'e Bill loss Pendant Vill Fig. i — Display attitudes of the Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor) attitude is one of defiance, and progression becomes a series of spurts consequent on paddling with both feet together (instead of the normal alternate strokes). In the summering and wintering packs, the “interest” attitude is used very sparingly ; once it was adopted by the apparent male of a pair still in company with juveniles, which as a group had been keeping aloof from the main pack. The latter had come up on the flood tide and had surrounded this family party; the male swam to and fro, keeping away intruding birds as they came near. VOL. LI I ] MUTE SWAN BEHAVIOUR 117 Probably the jealousy of the male was fading and so the “defiance” attitude was not developed. Quarrelling among the birds of the pack is also exceptional. The few instances of attack and retreat have been seen in late August and in September. The attack is made in a sudden rush with out-stretched neck and the retreat a hasty flutter of wings and splash of feet. Display among summering birds at Montrose Basin, Angus, has been seen on at least six occasions during August and September. On 15th August 1953 two or more couples showed display: in particular, two birds were facing each other with the bases of their necks touching, their actual necks very erect and their bills level. First one and then the other made as though to dip its bill, but then did not lower its head much more than half way. This was repeated five or six times. The birds may have been nodding their heads before the dipping began. On 4th August 1954 the “salute” was used by individuals in scattered groups. Two birds were also displaying together, sometimes side by side, sometimes at varying angles, using the “pendant bill” attitude, and dipping the head and upper neck into the water, sometimes together, sometimes alternately ; now and then the actions were interrupted with momentary preening pretence (just lifting a feather or two) or even the cheek-rubbing behaviour. This display went on for five or six minutes. On this date 132 birds were present on the tide and, of these, about sixteen appeared to be grouped in couples ; yet on nth September following, with a like number present, there was no sign of pairs. In 1955 a group of only thirty birds appeared to include six couples, and during the watch at least one pair gave the “pendant bill” and “dip” displays for several minutes. On other occasions in late August and in September, other minor performances have been noted. The latest observed date of display was nth October 1953, when two birds were on the tide facing each other with stifflv-erect straight necks, heads and bills held level and turning from side to side, recalling the similar behaviour of the Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus). In field observation it is difficult to be positive as to the probable age of these displaying birds. Some years ago two birds turned up at a small storage pond in late June and both showed such poor bill colouring as to suggest that they may have been only in their second summer, and to leave in doubt whether they were actually male and female. During the spring of 1955 it was possible to watch in some detail the reactions of one pair to the intrusion of a second pair into their territory. The site was a flooded quarry, all deep water, where nesting and the rearing of young would be well-nigh impossible ; yet a pair came and went from this water and defended it vigorously on several ocasions. When the watch began, there was a period of inaction. Presently, the defending cob assumed 118 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII the arrogant attitude with raised wings and bill depressed on the curve of the back-pressed neck, and set out to chivvy the intruding male, progressing in spurts by the thrust of both feet together. Occasionally, the second pen got in the way and was chased, but immediately the pursuer noticed the other male he turned upon it. The intruding bird, or birds — they kept close together most of the time — swam away without any attempt to challenge the defender, scudding now and then with a stroke or two of wing to keep out of reach. Sometimes the defending cob reached out as if to seize the other, sometimes held his wings partly open as if in readiness to fly, and, when opportunity offered, did fly a few yards to close on the retreating male. When the latter found the pace too hot and flew some distance, the defender turned and swam to his mate with raised wings and open curved neck (the attention attitude) and greeted her with a dull rattling or snoring sound (as of wood knocking on wood) ; they then faced each other, bases of necks touching, both with raised secondaries, necks erect and slightly curved, and bills level, each turning together to its right or left several times, after which there followed one or more “cheek-rubbing” false-preening motions. On two occasions the pair rose on the water together, with necks extended and bills pointing up at 70 degrees or so, with or without open wings. Once at least, the pen of the defending pair pursued the intruding female on her own ; she also joined her mate when the intruding pair came near together, driven by the cob. As has been already mentioned, the real “arrogance” display is exceptional on tidal water ; on the rare occasions it was seen it lasted only a few seconds. Arrogance against intruding birds was seen at Clunie Loch on 6th October, when the male chased a strange pair which had landed on the water. This assertion of territorial rights so late in the season may be brought about by the dispersal of third-summer pairs which appears to take place in autumn. The copulation of the Mute Swan gives rise to quite elaborate posturing. Two instances were watched on tidal water at Montrose Basin on 23rd April 1955, a date by which most breeding pairs would be established in suitable sites and have built their nests. It may be, however, that these particular birds were actually nesting only a little way up river from the tidal basin and that they had fed down with the tide among the group link- ing the wintering and summering packs, as two broods of small young were found at the river inflow in early June. When first noted, the first pair was giving the dipping display, one bird immersing its neck completely, the other only partly doing so. The two swans were displaying alternately (or approximately so) and now and then, instead of dipping, one or the other would’ cheek-rub along the wing. At each withdrawal from dipping, the neck was drawn up into a narrow “S” bend with the bill pendant. Gradually the rate of dipping increased, the MUTE SWAN BEHAVIOUR 119 VOL. LIl] birds keeping close together, sometimes side by side, sometimes at approximately right angles. Finally, the pen laid her neck along the water (but without touching it) and the cob mounted. As the cob slipped off, both rose erect on the water, breast to breast, with necks extended and bills pointing upwards at 70-80 degrees, and stood so for two or three seconds. Then both settled on the water and after preening for a minute or two, resumed feeding. A few minutes later, a second pair was noted near-by, swimming side by side, and presently these two birds also began the dip display, immersing their heads and only a few inches of their necks, both breaking the rhythm at intervals to give the cheek- rub. As before, the rate of dipping increased and in two or three minutes the male mounted. Immediately on parting, both rose on the water, apparently one behind the other, and retained this attitude for ten seconds at least ; at the last moment the leading bird turned and faced the other, each still retaining the original erect attitude with neck and head in approximate line. After settling on the water, both preened for a short time and then resumed feeding. In neither instance were the wings opened or even raised from the sides; the erect position appeared to be maintained by treading the water. The most elaborate tread-display seen was that of a pair on the tidal river at the north-west angle of Montrose Basin. This was on 28th May 1955, a very late date for such behaviour, as at this date most young are already swimming. The preliminaries were not seen in detail. A few minutes before, however, two birds had been displaying quietly with the bases of their necks touching and their bills pendant, turning from side to side more or less in unison ; presently they started the dip display, going more than half-neck deep, but then they lost zest and appeared to be feeding. A little later, however, two birds were noted in mid-stream, the one pushing against the other as they swam in the current. The active bird was a male trying to mount, and presently the female sank low in the water with extended neck held flat ; the male mounted her, holding on to the feathering of her neck near the nape and arching up to make contact. This accomplished', he slipped aside and both rose breast to breast with extended necks erect and bills pointing upwards, wings against sides. After two or three seconds, while still facing, each neck was bent sharply near the head with the bill pendant, each turning to its right and left in unison two or three times. Then, still with necks erect and bills pendant but now side by side, they moved a few yards down stream, probably carried by the current. Both birds then resumed the normal floating attitude though retaining the pendant bill and erect neck; each in turn rubbed its cheek on its closed wing almost to its tail at least twice, and then relaxed to the normal swimming attitude. No call was heard although the displaying birds were only about fifty feet away. 120 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII The dip display was seen on one occasion at the early date of ist February 1943, at Dundee, Angus. Unfortunately, it was watched from a moving train and the time of observation was only about thirty seconds. The birds were side by side, dipping and rising together, each making a deep dip and pausing after every immersion with its bill pendant. Copulation display was seen at Loch Leven, Kinross, on nth March 1956, a date far too early for actual nesting. The various dates given show the wide extent of the period for this behaviour. At Perth on 22nd April 1954 two juvenile Mute Swans, both still retaining some brown feathers in the mantle and the blue-grey bill colour, gave a display like that of the white summering birds. The two birds were swimming close together, sometimes side by side, sometimes almost facing, with necks straight and erect, heads turning from side to side with bills level ; one gave the cheek-rub display at least once. One bird then gave the dip display, immersing the whole neck at least a dozen times, but the other did not respond, though remaining alongside. Both birds then returned to the shore together. This behaviour may account for the existence of apparent pairs whose very poor bill colour suggests they are birds of less than two years old, at which age the sex cannot be determined in the field. There was an instance of possible “display” nest building at Montrose Basin on 24th April 1954. A female in a scattered group, apparently not associated with any one of the four or five swans in the immediate vicinity, tore seaweed from stones and piled it up as if trying to build a nest. It may be that the behaviour was like that of a paired pen with a well-grown brood — she tore up and piled water plants at the family loafing place, perhaps merely to provide a dryer spot on which to doze and preen. NESTING Reference has been made elsewhere to the rather wide range of dates covered by the arrival of breeding pairs, and also to the wintering at nesting places of single birds which seem to await the arrival of a mate ; all those seen by the writer have apparently been females. The earliest date of piling nest material known to the writer is 16th February, in this instance the work of a pair. Interest in nesting seemed to wax and wane until a more vigorous attempt to complete the nest was made on 3rd May, but in spite of the long sustained activity no brood was hatched. In another instance, a single bird had wintered alone at a small pond and started to pile up weed on 23rd March. Though alone, it began to sit on the nest on 20th April, but it was then driven from the pond by an intruding pair which started to build at another spot on 26th April. The dispossessed bird lingered in the vicinity for a day and then departed. The invading pair had at least one egg on 20th May, and the female sat until 12th July, long after the egg VOL. LIl] MUTE SWAN BEHAVIOUR 121 or eggs were due to hatch. Neither bird exhibited any further interest in the nest after 16th July. This pair showed poor bill colour and may have been second- summer birds. They remained on the pond right through the following winter, and the female was piling nest material near the old site on ist April. She was sitting on 6th April and during the day-time sat continuously until 4th May when she was seen off the nest for a short spell about midday ; after that she repeatedly left the nest during the remainder of the incubation. On 25th May this female was sitting with her wings raised from her sides, and two days later the young were seen beside her on the nest. The brood was on the water on 29th May, four days after the presumed hatch. This was a brood of eight and at least one egg was left in the nest. The family remained on the pond until 9th September, by which time the young were about fifteen weeks old and still not able to fly. The tidal water near-by gave sanctuary to them. In contrast to the long stay of these adults and young, a brood reared at this pond in 1946 departed after about eight weeks, and again in 1956 the adults led the brood to tidal water when it was only about ten days old. This pair had returned to the pond on 1 st March. By 23rd April a nest was built and the female was sitting. On 5th June the young were seen on the nest. This brood was seen on tidal water up to 25th June, but probably perished in a storm soon afterwards. Two adults returned to the pond on 5th July and one remained during the ensuing autumn and winter; there was of course no certainty that this was one of the tw’o parent birds. The forty-one broods known to the writer in Angus and east Perth included three of 1 young, three of 2, seven of 3, ten of 4. nine of 5, six of 6, two of 7, and one of 8. The family parties may remain intact until the end of the year, sometimes into January. The writer has no certain record of the parent birds driving away their full-grown offspring at any time during the winter or early spring. A pinioned pair breeding on a small pond were said to have chivvied the immatures until they departed, but this does not appear to apply to full-winged pairs on larger waters. There are movements of family parties (that is, two adults and fledged juveniles) long before frost or territorial jealousy could have been the driving force. In 1953 at Montrose Basin, two family parties came in between 19th September and 3rd October, and these had moved on by 17th October. In the following year, an arrival between 14th and 21st August departed in the period i6th/3oth October. Frost is often severe in November in east Scotland and may compel departure from more exposed water long before the presence of the immatures could arouse jealousy in the parents. The writer has one instance where the presence of a brown immature on a small pond at the end of January caused resentment on the part of a prospecting pair. There was nothing to show that the immature BRITISH BIRDS 122 [VOL. LI1 was other than a wanderer seeking a quiet haven from the spring storms. MOULT At an early stage of the enquiry into the numbers at Montrose, it was found that the summering birds showed moult. It appeared from their bill colour that most or all of these were immatures, and the moult, as is usual with non-breeders, was prolonged. Birds with all the flight-feathers freshly moulted were seen on ist July 1950 and on 25th June 1955. Actual feathers (primaries and secondaries) were found on the shore on 5th July 1952, and a flightless bird was noted on 18th July 1953. The moult of the contour feathers was later, during August apparently, and some birds seemed still to be flightless in late August and early September, as was shown by their walking over the flats to reaoh open water instead of flying. The summer pack must consist of birds in their second and third summers, and it may be that the moults of these two age-groups are timed differently. The distinction between second- and third-summer birds is a matter of bill colour, confused admittedly by sex differences, and is much more marked from late August onwards : some, presumably second-summer birds, still show a greyish undertone in the orange of the bill at this time. There are wide differences in the period of the moult from the brown juvenile plumage to the immature white plumage. Brown juveniles may show patchiness early in December, due to the replacement of brown coverts. In 1950, two broods hatched about 27th May were showing moult on 9th December, when about six and a half months old. Others were in moult on 2nd January 1953 and these were entirely white by late March, only the slight brownish tint of the flight-feathers indicating the ages of the birds. Yet other brown birds may go right into the spring without any trace of change, even to late May. The moult must then come swiftly as the writer has no record of a brown juvenile in June. The change in colour of the bill also varies quite independently from the plumage, for brown-patched birds may show obvious orange-yellow in the bill and yet a white immature may have a blue-grev bill (a colour which sometimes comes between the pinkish-grey of the juvenile and the greyish orange-yellow that is normal for the white immature). The moult of the breeding adults in charge of a brood appears to be late. There was no indication of moulting flight-feathers in a pair on a small pond up to the first week of September 1955. A few contour-feathers were dropped, but probably no more than the normal wastage due to preening. Two instances of the moult of pairs which had attempted to nest and failed to hatch a brood were noted. One pair was found in hiding among over-hanging bushes in a small tidal stream near the nest site: both birds had lost most of the primaries on 17th August 1941, and those remaining were reduced to the rhachis W 1 Plate 21 /. L. Cut bill Ivorv (in. i. (Pagophila churned) at clikf-top: Spitsbergen, July 1958 1 he totally white plumage and dark eye are immediately obvious. The short- ness ol the black legs and the dense feathering give the bird a rather ungainly appearance. Note the short, stout bill which is yellowish with a grey-blue base and a reddish tip (see page 124). l\. E. Hitchcock Ivory Gull ( Pagophila eburnea) threatening: Spitsbergen, July 1958 The bird on the right is adopting the Oblique threat posture; as it does so it emits the Long Call, a long-drawn and rather shrill scream (see also page 111). The other gives a good impression of the long, pointed wings and the feathering almost to the “knee”. Plate 23 J. Cutbill Ivory (In. i. (Pagophila eburnra) change-over: Spitsbergen, Jt'i.v 1958 Both sexes incubate the eggs and may spend anything from a few minutes to over eleven hours on the nest (see page 109). Nests are loose, bulky structures and in this colony were made from moss, lichen and saxifrages collected on the plateau above (see page 106). J. I.. Cutbill Ivory Gills ( Pagophila eburnea) threatening intruder: Spitsbergen, 1958 The bird on the nest and its mate on the left resemble Ptarmigan (Laqopus mu tus) as they threaten the intruder into their territory. This posture^ was adopted very often in such territorial disputes and is the most common of the threat displays. Plate 24 MUTE SWAN BEHAVIOUR 123 VOL. LIl] only, at which they were pulling repeatedly as if to remove them. The other pair had nested but failed to hatch (they appeared immature on bill colour) at a small pond with much thick cover at one point. The pair had stamped out a small clearing in a thick clump and sat there preening during daylight hours from 19th August until 14th September 1954. Only once were they seen on open water during that period. The clearing was littered with the cast plumage, but the actual flightless period could not be determined. The writer has instances of the disappearance of pairs without broods in August and their subsequent re-appearance in September: similar retiring behaviour might well account for the apparent coming and going. CALLS For the most part, the Mute Swan is a silent bird. The ordinary call is a hoarse “yrrumf” — usually a dull sound, but sometimes with a shrill ring in the opening phrase (as “yerrumf”). This call may be used in flight. Reference has been made to the dull rattling call used in the “triumph” display given after the repulse of an intruder into the territory. Immature birds forming the summer pack were heard to give a soft “wirr” or “ yrrr” when passing down stream to meet the rising tide. BATHING On two occasions, Mute Swans have been seen bathing and playing on tidal water. In addition to the usual ducking and splashing, individuals rolled over backwards and also sideways, apparently with open wings, pausing for a moment of wild splash- ing when inverted. The action appeared to be under the stimulus of the flood tide bringing up clean sea water. FEEDING Most of the food of these Mute Swans on tidal water appears to be sought under water in the shallows, but some seek food in the shallow pools on the mud. In recent years small parties have been found feeding at sewer outfalls in company with gulls. In summer, small numbers have been seen grazing on rough grass beside a tidal estuary, sometimes moving around, some- times squatting and feeding on whatever was within reach. CONCLUSION These notes are only a tentative approach towards defining the behaviour of the Mute Swan. It may be possible to establish more definitely the activities of the different age groups. If it is normal for pairs to be formed in late summer among the third- summer birds, there is something more to be learned about the pairs which appear to be second-summer birds. The single immatures which winter at breeding sites and attempt to build nests provide another puzzle. If the proposed ringing attempts prove successful, some of these difficult matters may be resolved. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS XCVI. IVORY GULL Photographs by J. L. Cutbill and R. E. Hitchcock (Plates 21-24) Text by P. P. G. Bateson The Ivory Gull ( Pagopliila eburnea ) is probably the most consistently northerly bird in the world as it nests only above the 70th parallel (chiefly between 750 and 85°N.) and remains, for the most part, at the edge of the pack ice in winter. Most colonies have been recorded in the Spitsbergen archipelago, chiefly in the north and east, but several other nesting areas are known in widely separated parts of the Arctic Ocean. In the west it has been found breeding on Prince Patrick, Melville, north Baffin and Ellesmere Islands in the Canadian Arctic and at the extreme north of Greenland (see The Handbook). East of Spitsbergen, it nests on Franz Josef Land and probably at about latitude 75 0 on Novaya Zemlya, though the actual site there has yet to be found according to Dementiev and Gladkov (1951 ; see Harber, 1955). The same authors confirm that, further east still, it breeds on Lone Island (Einsamkeit) and Severnaya Zemlya, but they state that there does not seem to be any fresh information about nesting on Bennett, Herald and Polynia Islands, where a few pairs were recorded in 1856. Nests are usually in colonies, though isolated pairs have been found, and this species is interesting in that it breeds both on the level ground (sometimes in enormous numbers) and on precipitous cliffs (see page 105 and plate 21 left). Ground nests, as well as cliff ones, were illustrated in British Birds in 1932 (Dalgety, 1932). The most distinctive field-characters of the adult Ivory Gull are its pure white plumage and its short black legs which are feathered almost to the tops of the tarsi (see plates 22 upper and lower). There is a red eye-ring which, however, we found difficult to see in Spitsbergen in 1958, unless we were very close; the eye itself is dark brown. The base of the bill is grey-blue and in our experience does not appear dark in the field (as it is stated to look in The Handbook). The remainder of the bill is yellowish shading to a tip which can vary from a very noticeable red to a faint orange. The immature bird is mostly white, but the face is often smudged with sooty-brown. The primaries during the first summer and winter are tipped with dark brown and spots are scattered over the remainder of the wing, back, neck and under-parts with great individual variation. There is also a dark sub-terminal bar on the tail. The eye-ring at this stage is black and the bill varying 124 VOL. LIl] IVORY GULL STUDIES 125 shades of grey. Photographs of an immature Ivory Gull were published in British Birds in 1951 (Kay, 1951). The Ivory Gull is about the size of a Common Gull ( Lams canus), but when settled it gives the impression of having much longer wings (see plates). The bill is stout and fairly short in relation to the head. The feathering is very dense, which gives the bird a rather plump appearance; this character, together with the rather small rounded head, has caused it to be compared with pigeons and Ptarmigan ( Lagopus mutus) (plate 23 lower). The flight of the Ivory Gull is characteristically buoyant and is somewhat tern-like, though its wing-beats are not so accentuated. The trailing edge of the wing, where it is formed by the ends of the primaries, is curved to give the outer part of the wing a blade shape. We found that this character combined with the wing-beat makes the flight quite distinct from that of other gulls. Although this species will readily settle on ice or land, where it walks or runs in a curious manner without flexing the toes of the raised foot, it is extremely reluctant to come down on water. But there are a number of records of Ivory Gulls swimming and Kay (1951) describes an immature Ivory Gull bathing in the normal gull manner in Shetland. This suggests that the Ivory Gull may not acquire its aversion to water until, probably during its first winter, it has experienced the icing of the feathers which would be prone to occur after a bathe. As a result of this aversion this gull, when it feeds over water, hovers above the surface to pick up morsels. As a rule the Ivory Gull is totally unafraid of Man. If it reacts to his presence near the nest it will either give long sustained screams from the ground and in flight or will actively attack bv stooping like an Arctic Skua (Stercorarius parasiticus). A fuller discussion of the breeding habits is given in the accompanying paper (Bateson and Plowright, 1959). REFERENCES Bateson, P. P. G., and Plowright, R. C. (1950): “The breeding biology of the Ivory Gull in Spitsbergen”. Brit. Birds , lii : 105-1 14. Dalgety, C. T. (1932): “The Ivory-Gull in Spitsbergen”. Brit. Birds, xxvi : 2-7 and plate 1. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. (1951): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. Ill, p. 410. Harber, D. D. (1955): Special Review of The Birds of the Soviet Union. Brit. Birds, xlviii : 344. Kay, G. T. (1951): “Ivory Gull in Shetland”. Brit. Birds, xliv: 354 and plates 5°-5 1 • NOTES Orientation of migrants over sea in fog.— On 26th March 1958 Miss Jennifer Bak and I w>ere on board the Marine Biological Association’s ship “Sarsia” off Plymouth, Devon, near the Eddy- stone lighthouse, and saw a large migratory movement of birds: in 4J hours’ observation we counted some 1,600, mostly small 126 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Passerines. Visibility at the start of the period was \ to i mile, but the fog closed down to ioo yards at one stage. At no time was land visible, although we were only io miles out at the start of the period of observation and steamed around slowly so that at the end of the penultimate ^-hour we were no more than 5 miles from the shore. Birds were deflected off course by sighting the ship and then re- orientated themselves. Analysis of their directions of flight away from the ship has been made both in terms of flocks and in terms of individuals : the two methods agree very well, and the per- centage of birds leaving in directions between north-west and north-east has been taken as a measure of accuracy of orientation. In terms of individuals, this was 99% while visibility was moderate; for the first -|-hour of reduced visibility (150 yards) it was 97%, and for the next, 20% ; then for about ^-hour at 100 yards visibility the accuracy rose to 58% and for another |-hour at 150 yards it was 20% again. For the last |-hour, although visibility was much the same, accuracy was over 99% : this was probably due to our near approach to land, as at the start of this period we were only some 3 miles from Plymouth breakwater and approaching it fairly fast. The figure of 58% for the half hour of 100-yard visibility must be treated with reserve, since we found it most difficult at that time to determine with accuracy the direction of flight. Also, in this period especially, the birds would frequently fly out in one direction and disappear into the fog, only to re-appear a minute or less later and then set out again in a different direction: this is a further possible source of error, as we could not always be sure when a flock was a new one and when a repeat. Our evidence seems to show, however, that these migrants were able to orientate very well while visibility was moderate, in spite of the fact that no land or sky could be seen, but were lost when the fog closed right down. The wind was south-east, force 2, so that there were small waves consistent in direction : I would suggest that it is easy to align oneself using such waves as a guide, providing visibility is moderate; but when it is down to 150 yards the view obtained of the waves is not extensive enough to allow any accuracy. This type of effect is a common experience in fog on land also. These observations may therefore lend support to the idea of visual orientation by migrants over the sea when the sky is obscured: but this must mean that they have previously observed the direction of the waves in relation to their determined course. J. M. B. King Predation by Great Sootted Woodpeckers on nestlings in nest- boxes. — According to The Handbook , the food of the Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) includes voung birds from nests of House Martin ( Delichon urbica), House Sparrow (Passer domesticus ), Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (D. minor ) and NOTES 127 VOL. LIl] tits ( Parus spp.). -As no reference is made there, however, to the methods by which the young of these hole-nesting species are obtained, on the receipt of two independent accounts of depreda- tions by Great Spotted Woodpeckers on nest-boxes containing young tits has prompted a brief survey of the literature and the preparation of this note. What was presumably one of the first observations of this species feeding on young birds was that of Jourdain (1929) who, with W. M. Congreve, on 9th May 1890, saw a Great Spotted Wood- pecker in the cork woods at Almoraima, Spain, go to the nest of a Blue Tit ( Parus caeruleus), from which it “extracted a big un- fledged young bird”. Jourdain also quoted Gurney (1890) as having reported that an immature Great Spotted Woodpecker, which had been shot, contained the remains of two or more young birds “which in Mr. T. Southwell’s opinion were those of a Tit- mouse, probably the Blue Tit”. Frost (1927) stated that a “Spotted Woodpecker” was seen to take a young sparrow from a nest and tear it to pieces. Next, Schnurre (1936) quoted more than a dozen cases of Great Spotted Woodpeckers killing young birds, both of hole-nesting species and ones breeding out in the open and including an old record from Brehm’s Tierleben of a bird which was shot carrying a nestling tit to its own young. Steinfatt (1937), Franz (1940) and Kierski (1940) reported instances of hole-nest- ing species being preyed on in this way, and then Watson (1941) described a Great Spotted Woodpecker removing the young of a Treecreeper ( Certhia familiaris), which is equivalent to a hole- nesting bird. With the exception of Schnurre’s summary most of these were scattered observations, but Siivonen (1942) drew attention to this woodpecker as a regular enemy of small birds and their nests. Hodgetts (1943) made one of the few observa- tions that there have been of a Great Spotted Woodpecker actually feeding a nestling (unidentified) to its own young. Pihl and Knudsen (1945) considered this species a spoiler of nest-boxes, and in the next year Johnston (1946) gave an account of a female Great Spotted Woodpecker enlarging a nest-box entrance hole — in vain, as the young Blue Tits in the box were safely reared. An editorial note referred to a similar observation at Oxford “some years ago”, but W. B. Alexander tells us that that attempt was foiled by the fitting of a metal ring round the box entrance. Cohen (1947) saw a Great Spotted enlarge the entrance hole of a nest-box containing voung Blue Tits about 4-5 days old and remove one young; he had to go away the next day, but later evidence suggested that the woodpecker returned and removed the remainder of the brood. Other instances of these kinds were recorded by Tomasz (1950), Pfeifer (1952), Basecke (1034), Oldenburg (1954) and Keil (1934), Pfeifer’s case concern- ing the nest of a Wood Warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix) and Keil’s including nests of Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) and such open breeders as Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) and' Robin (Erithacus rubecula). Dr. Monica M. Betts tells us that she foiled two 128 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII attacks by a Great Spotted Woodpecker while watching Pied Flycatchers ( Muscicapa hypoleuca) at a glass-backed nest-box in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire: in that case the woodpecker reached through the entrance hole and pulled at the nest material. Attacks reported have thus seemed to be chiefly on hole-nesting species, though this is probably because predation on an open nest would take comparatively few moments and so not be seen. At the same time, most published accounts have been of attacks centred on the entrance hole — so much so that it has been suggested that deep nesting boxes would solve the problem. The two series of observations which follow, however, involve attacks on other parts of the nest-boxes. Since 1954 the Nuneaton Bird-Watchers’ Club has maintained a nest-box scheme at Higham Grange, Leicestershire: we are indebted to M. A. Arnold and D. E. Jebbett for details. In 1954 there were several boxes in the neighbourhood of a Great Spotted Woodpecker’s nest, and on nth June a brood of Great Tits ( P . major) disappeared without trace. The box had a large entrance hole, but there was no actual evidence that the young had gone to the woodpecker. In 1955, however, when there were eight occupied and five unoccupied boxes near to the woodpecker’s nest, several broods of young tits were taken by the woodpeckers, including three broods of Great Tits and one brood of Blue Tits — though never a clutch of eggs or any odd addled ones remaining in the nest. In three cases the woodpecker drilled a hole in the side of the box, and in the fourth the entrance was enlarged. The box containing Blue Tits was covered with wire netting as protection, but the young birds were extracted through it. A further box was attacked when a Great Tit’s nest was three parts finished : the resulting hole was in the side of the box and the nest was abandoned. In 1956 a Great Spotted Woodpecker made a hole beneath the entrance to a Great Tit’s nest containing eggs ; the hole was stopped effectively with a stone. In 1957 and 1958 there was only superficial damage to boxes by woodpeckers. The second series of new records has been sent in by M. H. Waddicor who had tits’ nests in his garden at Kingswood, Surrey, attacked by Great Spotted Woodpeckers during 1958. A wood- pecker made a small hole in the bottom of a box containing young Blue Tits. The hole was then patched and the box was covered bv a wire-netting cage and, though the woodpecker made several further attacks, the young left safely except for two which were dead in the nest. One of these, however, may well have been a victim of the woodpecker’s first attack, for subsequent examination revealed that after making its first hole it had pulled through the leg of a nestling: this was one of those that died. A second box, containing young Great Tits, was first attacked a day before the nestlings left. The woodpecker continued to attack the box after they had all flown, making a hole in the side about inches from the bottom ; through this it extracted the nesting material, which it immediately flung away. At a third box, containing VOL. LIlJ NOTES 129 Blue Tits, there was one attack on a split in the wood two inches below the entrance hole ; this was not repeated, however, and the young- flew some six days later. In conclusion, we should like to draw attention to the British Trust for Ornithology’s new Great Spotted Woodpecker Enquiry, organized by Mrs. P. V. Upton, Park Lodge, Margaretting, Ingatestone, Essex (see Bird Study, vol. 6, pp. 28-29). One °f the aims of this Enquiry is to investigate the question of attacks on nest-boxes and so anyone who has any relevant observations, past or present, is asked to get in touch with the organizer. R. A. O. Hickling and I. J. Ferguson-Lees REFERENCES Basecke, K. (1954): “Buntspecht holt zwei junge Blaumeisen aus der Nist- hohle”. Vogelwelt, 75: 203-204. Cohen, E. (1947): “Great Spotted Woodpecker taking young Blue Tit from nesting-box”. Brit. Birds, xl: 88. Franz, j. (1940): “Der Grosse Buntspecht ( Dryobates major pinetorum Brehm) als Nestrauber bei Hohlenbriitern”. Anz. Schliidingsk., 16: 6. Frost, S. (1927): In Country Life, 2nd July 1927, p. 34. Gurney, J. H. (1890): In The Zoologist, 1890, p. 435. Hodgetts, J. W. (1943): “Young of Great Spotted Woodpecker fed on nestling bird”. Brit. Birds, xxxvii: 97. Johnston, F. H. (1046): “Great Spotted Woodpecker attacking nesting-box containing young Blue Tits”. Brit. Birds, xxxix: 288. Jourdain, F. C. R. (1929): “Spanish Great Spotted Woodpecker eating young Blue Titmice”. Brit. Birds, xxiii : 131. Keil, W. (1954): “Grosser Buntspecht pliindert Bruten von Freibriitern”. Orn. Mitt., 6: 196. Kierski, W. (1940): "Nestraubereien des Grossen Buntspechtes”. Beitr. Fortpfl. Biol., 8: 160. Oldenburg, H. (1954): “Der Grosse Buntspecht als Nestrauber”. Vogelwelt, 75: 204. Pfeifer, S. (1952): “Der Grosse Buntspecht als Nestrauber”. Vogelwelt, 73: 141. Pihl, H., and Knudsen, S. (1945): “0delagte Mejsekasser”. Flora og Fauna, 51: 69-73. Schnurre, O. (1936): “Zum Vogelfang des Grossen Buntspechtes”. Beitr. Fortpfl. Biol., 12: 232. Siivonen, L. (1942): “Storre hackspetten, Dryobates in. major (L.), som fiende till smSf&glarna och deras bon”. Fauna och Flora, 1942, pp. 32-38. Steinfatt, O. (1937): “Aus dem Leben des Grossbuntspechtes”. Beitr. Fortpfl. Biol., 13: 45. Tomasz, E. (1950): “Great Spotted Woodpecker robbing nest”. Aquila, 51- 54= 199- Watson, J. B. (1941): “Great Spotted Woodpecker taking young Tree- creeper”. Brit. Birds, xxxv : 86. Feeding behaviour of Ravens and Choughs. — During recent years there have been a number of notes in British Birds on the hiding and recovery of food : a list of these appears in the biblio- graphy at the end of the paper by T. J. Richards on “Concealment and recovery of food bv birds, with some relevant observations on squirrels” ( antea , vol. li, pp. 497-508). The species involved have included several members of the crow famity — Carrion and Hooded 130 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Crows ( Corvus corone ), Rook (C. frugilegus), Jay ( Garndus glandarius) and Magpie ( Pica pica ) among British species — and so I am prompted to report my own observations on captive Ravens (C. corax) and Choughs ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). I have two Ravens in an aviary. When deprived of food they become very active and vociferous, but when food is supplied (usually offal or carrion) a particular pattern of behaviour invariably follows. The dominant birds “A” begins to feed*, pausing only to attack its fellow violently if the other attempts to approach the food. When “A’s” hunger has been satisfied to some extent, further food is gorged into the throat until it is grossly distended and the beak is also completely full. This bird then leaves the source of food and rapidly makes for one of the number of holes in the earth floor which have previously been made during random searching for food. (It is noteworthy that all the holes are situated at the bases of the upright posts of the aviary walls and at the bases of tree trunks placed inside as perches.) “A” promptly disgorges into one of these holes and then searches feverishly for dead grass and loose earth which it carries furtively and presses down on top of the disgorged food. This done, “A” returns to the food supply and battles with “B” who has been making the most of “A’s” absence, and then the former procedure is repeated. In time, “A’s” activity wanes and “B”, having eaten a little, now follows “A’s” example and buries food. Frequently “B” observes the other burying food and attempts to steal it as soon as “A” returns to the source of supply for more. “B” may be caught in the act, in which case battle ensues. If “B” is successful, it reburies the food in another hole, unless it is very hungry, when it will eat it. Sometimes “A” anticipates “B’s” intention to steal, digs up its own food again, threatens “B” and then, as “B” retreats, buries it elsewhere. On some days, the two birds seem to be on one level in the social hierarchy, and neither dominates. When this happens, it is simply a race to bury food with a minimum of fighting. Ultimately all the food, about i-2lbs. of flesh, is buried. It does not appear that the birds have their own hiding places permanently, but it is a case of the dominant one possessing the largest and most desirable. When the birds again become hungry they may be seen recover- ing the food. This may well not be until the following day, as they are never fed more than once in 24 hours and sometimes less, depending on the amount given at any one time. Quite frequently, pieces will be dug up and reburied. After all the buried food' has been recovered, the holes being left open, both birds frequently insoect the places and dig in them, but they seldom make any new holes. I have also seen one of my Choughs dig a hole and bury a piece of food, cover it up, and run off around the aviary. A second Chough may then approach the spot to investigate, whereupon the *Usua11v when one bird is dominant it is the same individual, but this is not invariable. NOTES 131 VOL. LIl] first one returns and recovers the food, eating it before it can be stolen. The behaviour of the second Chough is only as might be expected, as I have found that when one of these birds performs almost any positive action, such as digging, feeding or bathing, the others invariably follow suit. Brian C. Turner Melanistic adult Great Tit and brood of young. — During the winter of 1955-56 a melanistic Great Tit ( Parus major) was seen several times by Donald Parr and the writer at Hersham sewage farm, Surrey. The bird had black cheeks which gave it a very striking hooded appearance ; the rest of the plumage was very much darker than normal, being grey-black, with the under-parts nearly all black fading to greyish on the flanks. In April 1956 it was singing and had apparently taken up a territory, but it has not been seen since in spite of a repeated watch being kept for it. However, on 26th May 1957, at the same place a female Great Tit of normal colour was seen with a brood of nine young which had just fledged. One of these young was quite typical, but the other eight were similar to the one described above. Unfortunately, the male of this family was not seen. One of the young was caught and photographed. C. M. Perrins [B. L. Sage, who has for some years been collecting data on albinism and melanism ( antea , vol. xlix, p. 512), writes as follows: “I mentioned two British cases of melanism in the Great Tit in my note in Bull. B.O.C., vol. 76, pp. 130-131, and since then have received three more records: a bird with the entire head and neck black in the area of Oxshott, Surrey, from 24th December 1945 to 1957; an entirely black individual at Huddersfield, York- shire, in the late summer of 1955; and one with the head, cheeks and nape entirely blackish at Ashtead, Surrey, in early July 1957. It is interesting to note that three of these other five cases are, like the present one, from Surrey. The adult bird described by Mr. Perrins is fairly typical of melanistic types of Great Tit, the black ‘hood’ having been common to all but one of the records received, but this case is especially interesting in view of the circumstantial evidence connecting the melanistic adult and the brood of which eight-ninths were also melanistic: melanism is generally a dominant character”. — Eds.] Downwind immigration of British Whitethroats. — I have for some years suspected that many Whitethroats ( Sylvia communis ) native to north Norfolk, and doubtless to a larger area of eastern England, arrive each spring, not across country from the Channel coast as one might reasonably suppose but directly in from the Low Countries. At Clev the peak arrivals from the sea of these Whitethroats and other common British warblers coincide with light to moderate easterly winds in late April and Mav, conditions which at first sight suggest drift migration but which can only be described as downwind immigration. 132 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII An examination of the Cley Bird Observatory records for the past seven years has produced evidence which shows that easterly winds prevailed on 13 of the 16 occasions that a local Whitethroat was re-trapped on arrival home in the spring. In the following table the dates of re-trapping can confidently be taken to represent the approximate date of arrival, since the trap in question is worked several times a day during periods of peak migration and it is unlikely that a bird' would escape detection for long in the limited area of the trapping thicket. Fable I — Ringing and recovery details of British Whitethroats ( Sylvia communis) in north Norfolk to show wind conditions associated with return \11 were ringed at Cley and, with one exception, all were recovered there as re-traps; the sxception is KE 812 which was found dead below the lighthouse at Cromer, about 10 miles from Cley in a straight line. Ring. no. Date ringed Age/sex Recovery date Wind Remarks NR 620 12.8.51 ? 4-5-53 Light N.E. since 3.5.53 Locally bred KE 812 6.7.52 Juv. 4-5-54 Light S.E. since 1.5.54 Locally bred KE854 16.7.52 Juv. 3 4-5-53 Light N.E. since 3.5.53 Nested where re-trapped KE 920 12.8.52 Juv. 9 6-5-53 Light N.E. on 4.5.53 Locally bred B 34846 26.8.53 Juv. 9 9-5-54 Light S.E. since 7.5.54 Hatched where ringed and recovered B 34868 8.8.53 p 3-5-55 Light variable S. Nested where re-trapped A 56898 3J-7-55 6 (18.5.56 1 30-4-57 Moderate N. Moderate N.E. since 23.4.57 Nested locally Nested locally A 56669 28.5.56 (Light E.) 6 J J5-5-57 t 10.5-58 Following 6 days of S.E. S.W. Nested locally Nested locally A 56731 23-4-57 (Mod. N.E.) 6 23-4-58 S. Nested locally C T 1664 26.6.57 Juv. I-5-58 E. Locally bred C 31390 i8.5-57 istS. 3 2-5-58 Day after E. Nested locally c 3I7°S 21-7-57 p 5-5-58 Day after S.E. Nested locally One bird, an adult male not included in the table, is known to have arrived with easterly winds for two successive years. He was originally met with on breeding territory in the trapping thicket in 1951 and was the most accomplished mimic for a White- throat that I have yet encountered, his repertoire including, among other species, Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula ), Partridge ( Perdix perdix), Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo), Heron ( Ardea cinerea). House Martin ( Delichon urbica), Swallow ( Hirundo rustica), Pied Wagtail ( Motacilla alba), Greenfinch ( Chloris chloris), Linnet (Carduelis cannabina) and Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella). That first season passed without our succeeding in catching him, but in 1952 he returned during two days of light easterly winds, on 13th April to be captured immediately and ringed ME 767. He remained to breed and to treat us again to the identical medley of imitations. 1953 saw him home (for probably at least the fourth VOL. LI I ] NOTES 133 year running) on 25th April after eight days of light east winds, lDut a younger male usurped his territory and ME 767 was never seen again. Another male, ringed A 12038 on 27th April 1955 during a big influx of warblers on a S.E. wind, was re-trapped at Bradwell Bird Observatory, Essex, on 22nd May 1955. That the bird was still in eastern England (though 80 miles south) twenty-five days later suggests it was not a drift migrant which would surely have re-orientated itself well before then. Finally there is the interesting case of the male “Helgoland 9435010” trapped at Cley in heavy moult on 27th June 1952. He had been ringed as a migrant on Wangeroog, eastern-most of the E. Frisian Islands, on 29th April of the same year and a glance at the Cley Weather Log showed that five days of moderate easterly winds followed the date he was ringed, terminating on 4th May with the brief note in the General Remarks column, “Many migrants in”. R. A. Richardson Unusual site of Goldcrest’s nest. — On 21st May 1957 my brother, Rev. F. J. Wootton, and I watched a Goldcrest (Regains regains) collecting food in an oak wood in a combe on Exmoor, Devon. As there were no conifers in the wood, nor even any ivy-clad trees that we could see, we were interested to discover what site had been chosen for the nest. The trees in which the bird was hunting were tall and growing close together, without branches except for the top 15 feet or so. About 25 feet up one of them were the hollow remains of an old branch, not more than a foot long, covered with lichen, and with a small fern sprouting out. It was into this hole that the Goldcrest disappeared and we could just see the tip of its tail through the binoculars as it fed the young. We watched both adults for nearly an hour bringing food and removing faecal sacs. It is perhaps worth adding that, apart from its lack of normal nest-sites for this species, the wood impressed us with the abundance of insect food available: the oaks were infested with huge numbers of caterpillars and the sunshine glinting through the trees would show up hundreds swinging on their gossamer threads. The whole wood was alive with birds and we were able to watch six different insectivorous species in various stages of breeding, without having to move at all. A. G. Wootton [Both the Goldcrest and the Firecrest (R. ignicapillus ) some- times nest against tree-trunks in ivy and other creepers, quite commonly so in some parts of Europe, but we can trace no previous record of nesting in such a hole or recess.— Eds.] REVIEWS TALES FROM THE VIENNA WOODS. By Lilli Koenig. Translated from the German by Marjorie Latzke. With a fore- word by Konrad Lorenz. (Metheum , London, 1958). 159 pages; 24 photographs and many line drawings. 18s. The author of this delightful book combines a scientific attitude 134 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII with a warm love of animals. Together with hen husband, Otto Koenig, she runs the “Biologische Station Wilhelmineberg” in the Wiener Wald near Vienna. This private research station, which since the war has produced a number of first-rate publica- tions on animal behaviour, has a unique history that characterizes the Koenigs. When Otto Koenig returned from the war, his only possessions were an old Leica camera and a number of miraculously saved negatives; his wife had kept the letters he had written her during campaigns in Mediterranean countries. Together they turned these possessions into (a little) gold by publishing a book based on the letters, and illustrated by the photographs and Mrs. Koenig’s drawings. They decided to use the money to found a little private research zoo. Recruiting a group of young biologists they quite illegally took possession of an abandoned Flak-site, and in no time turned it into an ethological bee-hive. The Koenig’s unflagging enthusiasm and incredible energy nursed the station through its many teething troubles. No adversity (and there were many) has been able to quench their joie de vivre, their love of animals, or their thirst for understanding. This book, totally devoid of any affectation or pretence (save, perhaps, for the translator’s quotations at the heads of chapters), is of a singularly appealing innocence, charm and dignity. At the same time it has considerable scientific value by showing how, through keeping animal pets the Lorenz way and watching them in a variety of partly natural, partly unnatural situations, one can learn a great deal about the way their behaviour is organized and what ends it serves. The most valuable observations are perhaps those that show how many complicated behaviour patterns in birds and even mammals are non-learnt, such as the story of the hand-raised Badger which suddenly turned from an appealing milk-sucking baby into a fierce and competent killer the first time it saw the Koenigs’ treasured Turkey poult. On the other hand, the human environment revealed where learning usually occurs, by causing many animals to learn the wrong things: a human imprinted Turkey cock made a nuisance of itself by following all passers-by to court their shoes; eleven large Guinea Fowl persistently followed a tiny Bantam cock just because they happened to have been raised together. The book is illustrated by excellent photographs and by numerous beautiful line drawings by the author. The translation by Marjorie Latzke is of her usual high quality. N. Tinbergen THE BIRD BAZAARS OF NOVAYA ZEMLYA. Bv S. M. Uspenski. (Translations of Russian Game Reports. Vol. 4, Ottawa, 1958). 159 pages. Available from the Queen’s Printer, Ottawa. $1. During the last year or two the Wildlife Service of the VOL. LIl] REVIEWS 135 Canadian Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources has issued four volumes of Translations of Russian Game Reports. The translations have been done by Dr. J. M. MacLennan, until recently on the staff of the Canadian Wildlife Service, and the first three dealt with fur-bearing mammals. The fourth is on The Bird Bazaars of Novaya Zemlya and is a complete translation of a work by S. M. Uspenski. The foreword points out that almost all the species discussed are found on the coasts of Canada as well as on those of the U.S.S.R., and so are of interest to the Canadian Government which is responsible for their protection. Since most of the species are more or less familiar in this country also, a summary may interest readers of British Birds. The term “bird bazaars’’ refers to the colonial nesting places of guillemots, gulls and various other sea-birds. These are of considerable economic importance in the Russian far north where it is difficult to provide the population with fresh food ; the eggs, meat and skins are also exported from northern Russia to other parts of the country. These industries are most developed in the Novaya Zemlya bird bazaars, the largest in the U.S.S.R., and a vivid description is given of the tremendous density of their bird populations. The main feature of these colonies is the nesting of the Brunnich’s Guillemots ( Uria lomvia). In most of the bird bazaars, however, there also breed big numbers of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla), Black Guillemots ( Uria grylle) and, in places, Common Guillemots ( Uria aalge), Little Auks ( Plautus alle) and Puffins ( Fratercula arctica). Everywhere, also, Glaucous Gulls (Larus hyperboreus) make their nests. A table gives a list of 47 bird bazaars containing a total of at least about 1,900,000 Brunnich’s Guillemots and over 30,000 Kittiwakes, in addition to the other species above mentioned. An account is given of the methods used in making the censuses. Two chapters are devoted to detailed discussions of the life-histories, dietary, parasites, eggs and general bionomics of each species. The economic utilization of the bazaars as a regular custom dates from about the middle of the nineteenth century. The very incomplete data available indicate that during the period 1930-1950 at least 3,000,000 eggs and 500,000 birds were shipped from Novaya Zemlya. The three economically valuable species are Brunnich’s Guillemot (by far the most important), Common Guillemot and Kittiwake. The final chapter discusses the methods to be adopted for further development of the industry while at the same time avoiding over-exploitation. Though written through- out from the economic angle, the work contains many data of biological interest. Colin Matheson LETTERS CROSSBILLS AT FAIR ISLE, 1956 Sirs, — May I point out some inaccuracies in the data concern- ing Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra ) at Fair Isle in 1956, as given by Mr. F. R. Smith in his interesting paper “The Crossbill 136 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII invasion of 1956 and the subsequent breeding in 1957” ( antea , pp. 1-9). I hasten to add that the inaccuracies, which are no fault of Mr. Smith’s and which arise from errors in the information supplied to him, do not alter the picture he so ably presents. The first birds appeared on Fair Isle on 1st July and there were ca. 200 on the 2nd-3rd (not the 6th). Birds had decreased to 80 by the 5th and 50 by the 9th, and declined still further to between 20-30 over the next four days. The second influx began with a single bird on 28th August, 10 being present next day. This was followed by renewed movement of at least a dozen on 4th September. Another arrival of 10 occurred on 8th September, and the last birds were seen on the nth. Kenneth Williamson [It has also been pointed out that the breeding records for Lancashire in 1957 were not, as stated, the first for that county. C. Oakes in The Birds of Lancashire (1953) gives details of a pair found nesting at Hutton, near Preston, in March 1887. — Eds.] INFORMATION WANTED ON PRATINCOLES AND BEE- EATERS IN FRANCE Sirs, — I am at the moment collecting information on the Pratincole ( Glareola pratincola) in the south of France. Since colonies of these bird are unusually conservative about their nest- ing locality — each colony seems to return to one of a small number of places each year — it should be possible to gather some interest- ing information on the occupation of the colonies for some time back in the past. I should be grateful if anyone who has any relevant notes on colonies of this species, in any year, in the Camargue or Crau, would be kind enough to send them to me at Christ Church, Oxford. Information should, if possible, include the exact locality, the number of pairs, the date, and whether eggs or young were actually seen. All information received will, of course, be treated with the necessary secrecy. At the same time, if any reader has a breeding record of the Bee-eater ( Merops apiaster) in France, other than in the Camargue and the area immediately surrounding it, I should be very pleased to hear of it. J. J. Swift [Mr. Swift was working under Dr. L. Hoffmann at La Tour du Valat in the Camargue during 1958, and we very much hope that readers will support his request. — Eds.] THE BEHAVIOUR AND BREEDING ENVIRONMENT OF THE ST. KILDA WREN Sirs, — Mr. Kenneth Williamson’s conclusions (antea, vol. li, pp. 369-393) and mine (1933a, b; 1955) in regard to the behaviour of the St. Kilda Wren ( Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis) and other insular subspecies do not differ substantially, but while un- precedented opportunities are available for studying and comparing the Wren on St. Kilda and Fair Isle it may be useful to indicate LETTERS 137 VOL. LIl] some points on which there is still uncertainty or difference of opinion, in order that problems concerning the differentiation of races may be further investigated and, if possible, resolved. Neutral Areas. It is difficult to reconcile the existence of such extensive neutral ground, implying incomplete exploitation of much of the Village area, with the postulated relatively unfavourable nature of the habitat. The occurrence of such large undefended or unexploited areas would be surprising in view of what is known of the Wren’s behaviour elsewhere and is not supported by my own observations on Hirta in 1951. On the occasion of my visit there were at least nine, and probably ten, territories where Williamson found seven, so it is unlikely that I underestimated the size of what I called “neutral or disputed areas’’. Future observers might pay- attention to the extent to which song stances vary and birds feed beyond them. The Village may indeed be a less favourable habitat than some portions of the cliffs, though it is less exposed to high winds than some areas on them, but the latest accounts and photo- graphs suggest that the Village has recently deteriorated as a Wren habitat. In view of this area’s being occupied by about ten pairs, even when the total population appears to have been relatively low, it seems misleading to refer to “the marginal Village environment”. As I have pointed out, it probably provided, and may still provide, an “overflow” of birds in some years available to breed later, when density is greater, in the marginal habitats, such as the slope above the Village which was tenanted by Wrens in 1948 (I. J. Ferguson-Lees, in lift.). Foraging. Shetland Wrens ( T . t. zetlandicus) sometimes feed their nestlings on comparatively innutritious prey (Armstrong, 1952). This may apply to St. Kilda Wrens, especially on the cliffs. Two St. Kilda Wrens made about the same number of visits to their nestlings in a day as one Wren of the typical race made to its chicks on comparable dates before fledging (Bagenal, 1958; Armstrong, 1955). This suggests that food is less readily available on St. Kilda and is in contradiction with Bagenal’s conclusion that “it cannot be said that the St. Kilda Wren lives in such a bleak habitat that food shortage significantly increases the time necessary for foraging”. The relatively long nestling period is also un- favourable to this conclusion. The monogamy of the St. Kilda Wren is an adaption to lesser availability of food. Density-dependent Pair-bond. If the views I have put forward concerning the integration of the whole breeding behaviour complex are sound it would be mis- leading to speak of the pair-bond being density-dependent. This concept is more applicable to invertebrates than to birds. If occasional bigamy were to be recorded of some populations of normally monogamous Wrens, as I would expect, this would not weaken the thesis I have maintained. In future work to determine 138 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII the factors playing a part in speciation, it is important to obtain data relating size and nature of territory to the amount and character of food brought to the nest. I would predict that in marginal mainland habitats, where food for Wren broods is less available than elsewhere, the birds will be found to be monogamous. Climate and Extreme Habitats. The comment that when writing on this topic (1953b) I did not realise how different northern insular habitats could be in their effect on Wren survival does not seem justified as I pointed out how wind and snow probably affect populations differentially on various islands. I gave the St. Kilda Wren as “an extreme case” (not “the extreme case”) because more data were available for it than other island races. Conditions on Fair Isle may, perhaps, be more extreme than on other islands of Shetland, but it has not been convincingly shown that Fair Isle birds differ in their behaviour from those of other comparable Shetland isles. In view of the trapping of Wrens from elsewhere on Fair Isle (including presumed T. t. zetlandicus ), it is going beyond the evidence to class Fair Isle Wrens with those of St. Kilda in regard to isolation. W'illiamson estimates a population of two pairs on Stac an Armin, but there is no evidence that Wrens have ever bred there. Eagle Clarke did not claim that they did. Edward A. Armstrong REFERENCES Armstrong, E. A. (1952): “The behaviour and breeding biology of the Shetland Wren”. Ibis , 94: 220-242. - — (1953a): “The history, behavior and breeding biology of the St. Kilda Wren”. Auk , 70: 127-150. (1953b): “Island wrens: conditions influencing subspeciation and survival”. Brit. Birds, xlvi : 418-420. (1955): The Wren. London. (1956): “Territory in the Wren Troglodytes troglodytes” . Ibis, 98: 430-437- Bagenal, T. B. (1958): “The feeding of nestling St. Kilda Wrens”. Bird Study, 5 : 83-87. Williamson, K. (1958): “Population and breeding environment of the St. Kilda and Fair Isle Wrens”. Brit. Birds, li : 369-393. Sirs, — I do not understand why Mr. Armstrong insists that we must use the behaviour of the mainland Wren (Troglodytes t. troglodytes) as a yardstick for interpreting the behaviour of the St. Kilda Wren (T. t. hirtensis), especially as he himself has shown, in several contributions, how widely their habits differ. Neutral Areas. It is precisely because so much of the Village enclosure is un- suitable as a St. Kilda Wren habitat that there are extensive neutral or unexploited areas. Naturally, if 9 (or 10) pairs occupied this enclosure in 1951, it is obvious that the neutral zones must have been rather less extensive than in 1957. Even so, I do not see how Mr. Armstrong could have correctly estimated their size in only 7 hours ashore, and his conclusions in this respect — lead- ing to the misapprehension that the Village was “a congested area” — must have been based largely on his knowledge of Wren behaviour elsewhere. VOL. LIl] LETTERS 139 In criticizing the original draft of my paper, Mr. Armstrong disagreed with my conclusion that the Village has probably deteriorated as a Wren habitat since about 1953 : I am glad to see that he now accepts this point. There is no evidence to support his contention that when the 9 (or 10) pairs occupied this area in 1931 “the population appears to have been relatively low”. If Mr. Armstrong believes that the Village is less exposed to high winds than some parts of the cliffs, he should live there in a tent during the Wren’s breeding-season! The turbulence in Village Glen during west and north-west gales (which are by no means infrequent in summer) has to be experienced to be believed. To sum up, the Village Wrens establish a territory sufficient for their needs; and, since this is a marginal habitat, embracing a lot of exposed and otherwise unsuitable ground, the territories tend to be larger than in the optimal cliff environment, and there is in the Village enclosure more unoccupied ground than in areas of comparable extent on the Puffin-haunted cliffs. Foraging. Surely this comparison between the circumstances of the main- land and St. Kilda Wrens is purely academic. The island form has adjusted its breeding behaviour and cycle to meet the require- ments of a special environment ; the processes of adaptation have enabled it to exploit this relatively less fertile environment with a high degree of success, and Bagenal has made the point that, bearing this in mind, the St. Kilda Wren has no more difficulty in raising a brood than the mainland Wren. Density-dependent Pair-bond. Boyd merely suggested this as a possibility to draw attention to the dangers of generalizing on the basis of observations made in a marginal habitat like the Village area. The complete picture will not be available until such time as the breeding behaviour in an optimal puffinry habitat like Carn Mor has been studied. Climate and Extreme Habitats. Mr. Armstrong has mis-read me: I said we did not appreciate, at the time of the earlier correspondence, that northern insular habitats — not “climates” — could differ so widely. The Fair Isle Wrens ( T . t. fridariensis) differ in behaviour from Shetland Wrens (T. t. zetlandicus) in the manner described in the second paragraph on p. 387 of my paper, and on p. 177 of The Birds and Mammals of Shetland , by L. S. V. and U. M. Venables (Edinburgh, 1955). Presumed Continental T. t. troglodytes are trapped occasionally in autumn at Fair Isle, but the fact does not invalidate my conclusion that the Fair Isle Wren is as well isolated as the St. Kilda one. It is a habit of migrant birds to pass on, and not to linger, if their traditional habitat is wanting; and, in the event of an odd bird remaining (or turning up in the spring), it is conceiv- able that isolating mechanisms founded on differences in habitat and food preferences, and the quite different song, would prevent inter- breeding. 140 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Stac an Armin. I have sailed under Stac an Armin. I have also spent much time on similar terrain on the Hirta cliffs, studying; the distribu- tion of hirtensis, and Mr. Armstrong- has not. And in view of what I have learned I see no reason to doubt the integrity of Dr. Eagle Clarke’s information or my own. It is difficult to imagine what singing Wrens would be doing there in the breeding season if not nesting in the vast puffinry. Kenneth Williamson RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. At the time of writing (8th April) numerous reports of arrivals and movements during late February and March were still reach- ing us every day and it would have been premature to have attempted any general picture. The paragraph which follows is therefore no more than the briefest of interim summaries. Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe ) were on the south coast on 9th March, and there is some evidence of a small fall of Chiffchaffs ( Phylloscopus collybita ) as early as 20th-25th February. The first real movements of summer-visitors, however, appear to have taken place on the nights of igth/aoth and 20th/2ist March, particularly in the west, and in the next week Wheatears and Chiffchaffs were reported from many areas. A feature of this time was the exceptional arrival of Garganey ( Anas querquedula) : the earliest ones came about 16th March, but between the 22nd and the first few days of April abnormal numbers were reported from Devon, Cornwall and parts of Wales across the Midlands to East Anglia; we should be glad to have all observations of this species. Other March summer-visitors included three reports of House Martins ( Delichon urbica), the earliest in Somerset on the 23rd. Black Redstarts ( Phoenicurus ochruros ) were widespread and locally numerous on the coasts of the south-east, but in general neither they nor Firecrests ( Regains ignicapillus) were anywhere near as common as in 1958 ( antea , vol. li, pp. 203-205); only one Bluethroat ( Cyanosylvia svecica ) was reported, from just over the Essex border near Bishop’s Stortford on 31st March. Waxwings (Bombycilla garrulus) were still in the country in the last days of March, here and there in sizeable groups. Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra, ) were breeding in several counties. Rarities included a male Red-footed Falcon ( Falco vespertinus) at Leigh (Lancashire) on 15th March and a Crane ( Megalornis grus) flying up the River Severn at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) on 4th April. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Prools of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trival alterations: !. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 5. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Willow Warbler, Black-tailed Godwit), but group terms should not (e.g. warblers, godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds. with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1953 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “1st January 1955” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “1st Jan.”, “Jan. 1st”, or even “Jan. 1”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particular^ requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form : Tucker, B. W. (1040): “Species and subspecies a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 129-134. Witherby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out of each Table should be carefully planned with an eye to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paoer (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide); sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended thev should anpear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and. unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. UNIQUE BINOCULAR OFFER! Mtr 11*60 14 DAYS A Lightweight 11 x 60. Centre focussing and fully coated. For years bird- watchers have waited for a Glass such as this. High power plus a brightness and clarity which puts ordinary Binoculars in the shade. Wray of London — one of the great names in the instrument world for over a hundred years 4% — have proven that British instruments are second to none. This Binocular is well worth £60 and is supplied complete in solid hide case. FIVE YEARS GUARANTEE FREE TRIAL 6 x 30 BAUSCH & LOMB BINOCULARS This is the first release of the genuine streamlined Bausch & Lomb eyepiece focussing Binocular. The current model of this specification retails at over £30. Extremely good condition with new hide case. Five years’ written guarantee, if I I I C A 14 davs’ free trial. t I I " I CHARLES FRANK 67-75 SALTMARKET, GLASGOW, C.l. TELEPHONE : BELL 2106/7 TELEGRAMS : BINOCAM GLASGOW We have specialised in fine quality Binoculars and optical equipment for half a century and carry Europe's greatest stocks of Ex-Government Binoculars. Every purchase is covered by our money back guarantee. Send for catalogue. Printed in Gt. Britain by Witherby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H . F. Hi G. WITHF.RRY. LTD., 5, Warwick Court. W.C.i AY 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £ 2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LIT, Number 5, May 1959 page Survey of House Martin colonies in East Lancashire. By L. E. Bouldin 141 Observations on Arctic Terns in Spitsbergen. By P. J. K. Burton and M. H. Thurston ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 149 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCVII — Yellow- breasted Bunting. Photographs by Eric Hosking (plates 25-32). Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 161 Notes: — Fulmar incubating eggs of Great Black-backed Gull (Dr. J. Morton Boyd) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 163 Great Black-backed Gull attacking migrant Blackbird (George Gamble) 164 Swallow persistently following man to catch insects disturbed from ground (H. G. Alexander) ... 164 Co-operative preening by Carrion Crows (D. Summers-Smith) ... ... 164 Hen Blackbird killing young (Antony J. Harthan) 165 Early nesting of Reed Warbler (G. Trelfa) ... ... ... ... 165 Early breeding of Crossbill (R. E. Hitchcock) ... ... ... ... 166 Male Chaffinch apparently feigning injury (N. Harwood) 166 Review: — Phoenix Re-Born. By Maurice Burton ... ... ... ... ... 166 Letters : — The influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957 (Bryan L. Sage) 169 Information wanted on marked Swallows (Dr. G. J. Broekhuysen) ... 169 List of Flintshire birds (P. D. Walton) 169 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson 170 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett. the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. SURVEY OF HOUSE MARTIN COLONIES IN EAST LANCASHIRE By L. E. Bouldin INTRODUCTION In the summer of 1958, the East Lancashire Ornithologists’ Club carried out a local survey of the nesting-sites of the House Martin (. Delichon urbica), with a view to ascertaining their distribution and the factors controlling it. The area chosen for study was that bounded by a circle of 15 miles radius from the centre of Accrington (Fig. 1). This area intrudes into Yorkshire as far as Slaidburn and Paythorne in the north, and to Hebden Bridge in the east. Running roughly south- west to north-east across the centre of it is the industrial belt Blackburn/Accrington/Burnley/Nelson/Colne, which lies mainly in the valley of the River Calder. To the north-west of Nelson and Burnley the mass of Pendle Hill (1,831ft.) obtrudes between this industrial belt and the Ribble Valley (Longridge/Ribchester/ Clitheroe/Gisburn/Skipton), which in turn gives on to rising moor- land (Longridge Fell/Easington Fell) and the Hodder Valley around Slaidburn in the north. Much of the eastern and southern parts encroach on high and bleak moorland (Stanbury Moor/Wadsworth Moor/ Heptonstall Moor) in the east and the so-called Forest of Rossendale in the south. The whole is a largely moorland zone embracing a central industrial belt, with minor townships in the north and south, and intersected bv a number of prominent river valleys with their accompanying roads, railways and built-up areas. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal also runs diagonally across the area through the industrial belt. Woodland is scarce, but there are some 40 reservoirs, the majority south of the industrial belt. The whole area embraces some 452,000 acres in north-east Lancashire and the overspill into Yorkshire. Individual returns showed that the part east of the Clitheroe/ Whalley environs and north of Ramsbottom in the south had been well covered, but unfortunately little information was received for 141 142 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LIT PRYTHQAtiE 60LT0H-67 BOHL vtmoswii \6R/NU670ti\ 5 ALTER! WiOPiNGTO! CUTHERQE $ A3 DEM mHRLLEY RtaCHtSTEt bURNLEY Htptooiiall Moor HE ADEN BR/pcd 'ACCA/hCTCN BlACK3V*Ny R o s/s « n d a lAHTENSfML I HASUNCDtHi 'DENHELp jA*S3i Fig. i — Survey of House Martins ( Dclichon urbica): map of towns and OTHER PLACE-NAMES IN TEXT The dotted line shows the boundary of the area of the survey: a circle of 15 miles radius from the centre of Accrington, Lancashire. Other lines are main roads. the western half of the area, records of only six sites coming to hand. Thus the value of this survey has been limited by lack of full coverage over the whole of the area chosen for study, but it is possible to assess results from the returns for the eastern half of the area north of a line Hebden Bridge/Todmorden/ Rams- bottom. Apart from the wet summer which may have restricted observations and which doubtless had some effect on breeding, the only other factor which should be mentioned is the possible tendency for observers to have concentrated on the various built- up areas in the valleys to the exclusion of outlying hamlets and farmsteads, but many remote rural areas were fully covered, some with negative results. PREVIOUS WORK So far as can be ascertained, this is the first large-scale survey 31AI08U*N YRvtcacrc a bt anbury Moor vtodsmrth Moor voi.. ml LANCASHIRE HOUSE MARTIN SURVEY 143 of House Martin colonies carried out in East Lancashire, but there have been previous studies in other parts of the country with which this one may be compared. Hurrell (1930) organized a survey of House Martins in Devon and Cornwall. Then a census was carried out in the Oxford area in 1931 and 1932 (Alexander, 1933), and in the next year (Cramp and Ward, 1934) there was a similar study for the Manchester area. The national sample census of Swallows ( Hirundo rustica) in 1934 and 1935 (Boyd, 1935, 1936) included some data on House Martins, and finally there was a sample census in 1949 of Swifts ( Apus apus), Swallows and House Martins in certain parts of London (Cramp, 1950). NUMBERS OF BREEDING PAIRS A total of 486 nests were located in 122 colonies, nearly a quarter of which consisted of isolated single nests ; this gives an average of a fraction under 4 (3.98) nests per colony. The largest colony contained 31 nests on two adjacent farm buildings at Whiteacre (Map Ref. 612402). The numbers of nests per colony are set out in Table I. Table I — Sizes of colonies ok House Martins ( Delichort urbica) in East Lancashire in 1958 No. of nests per colony 1 2 3456789 10 11 12 13 14 21 31 No. of Colonies 28 31 19 16 5 3 3 3 3 3 o 3 o 3 1 1 Thus over three-quarters of the colonies were of from 1 to 4 nests, though much larger groups occurred. The site with 21 nests was suburban and that with 31 nests was rural. DENSITY The density of nests for the whole of the study area (452,000 acres) was found to be only 1.08 per 1,000 acres. All but 71 of the nests, however, were located in the greater eastern section of the study area which included the Clitheroe, Whalley and Wadd- ington environs and totalled approximately 333,000 acres: in this part the density figure averaged 1.25 nests per 1,000 acres. Further, by map-plotting nests in this eastern section it became obvious that most were located in five main zones, i.e. : — (A) South -east of Burnley. (B) South, west and north of Nelson. (C) North and south of Rawtenstall and Halsingden. (D) Between Whalley and Sabden in the south of the area, and Waddington and Grindleton in the north. (E) In the arc Colne/Salterforth/Barnoldswick/Gisburn/ Bolton-by-Bowland in the north-east. Records for these five main zones are shown in Table II. BRITISH BIRDS 144 [VOL. LII Table II — Colony-size and density of House Martins ( Delichon urbica) in FIVE ZONES OF EAST LANCASHIRE IN 1958 The zones are detailed in the preceding paragraph (see also Fig. i). Area Approx. acreage No. of colonies No. of nests Av. nests per colony Density per 1,000 acres A S.000 l6 65 4.06 13.0 B 3,000 25 I 12 4.48 37-3 C 10.500 19 52 2.74 4-94 D 13.500 27 87 3.22 6.46 E 18,000 14 52 3-72 2.9 50,000 IOI 368 3-64 7-36 GENERAL DISTRIBUTION That the House Martin is a suburban rather than an urban or rural breeding species has been well illustrated in previous surveys and is generally confirmed in the present study. Cramp and Ward (1934) and Oakes (1953) recorded the species as decreasing as an urban nester in the Manchester area. Cramp (1950) found the bird absent from Central London and his density figures for the inner suburbs were over 15 times greater than those for the outer suburbs which in turn were nearly twice those for the outskirts. Alexander (I933) f°r Oxford, found there were three times as many nests in urban and suburban areas as in rural. The plotted results of the present survey indicated clearly that the greatest concentrations of colonies occurred in the suburbs of the large towns, while the species was mostly absent from their centres. On the other hand, there were thriving colonies in purely rural areas, in which category, however, such small centres of human population as Whalley, Waddington, Grindleton, Gisburn and Bolton-by-Bowland, somewhat remote from the large industrial towns, are included. For the whole of the study area it was found that only 4 colonies (8 nests) were strictly urban, 60 colonies (224 nests) were suburban and 58 colonies (254 nests) were rural. It will be noticed there is no marked difference between suburban and rural totals, but this is due to the great size of the rural area included. The totals show that, while most colonies were suburban in location, these tended to contain less nests than those in rural areas, i.e. 3.73 nests per suburban colony as against 4.38 per rural colony. DIRECTIONS FACED BY NESTS Aspects were recorded for 448 of the 486 nests ; 193 of these faced from south to west, 145 from west to north, 157 from north to east, and 135 from east to south (the sum of these four figures exceeds the total number of nests because in each case, for reasons of convenience, both the limiting directions of the 90° arc have been included : in other words, the number of nests facing due west 145 VOL. lii] LANCASHIRE HOUSE MARTIN SURVEY is included in both the south-to-west and the west-to-north totals). In more detail, most nests faced south (63), south-west (52), north- east (51), west (48), east (43) and north (28). Thus it seems that direction has little significance and it is thought that the slight bias in favour of the south-to-west quarter is probably as much a reflection of the general direction faced by houses as of any preference on the part of the birds. By comparison, Hurrell (1930) found that 44 of 65 nests in Cornwall faced south, and that all of 126 nests in Devon looked south, south-east or south-west. FRONTS, SIDES OR BACKS OF BUILDINGS Particulars of the position of the wall concerned w'ere given for 451 of the 486 nests, and 342 (75.8%) of these w’ere at the fronts of buildings while 87 were at the sides and only 22 at the backs. Thus there w'erc 3^ times as many nests at fronts as at sides and backs together. Any tendency for observers to check fronts alone is not considered to have been sufficient to influence unduly a clear preponderance of frontal sites. In the next section it will be noted that more nests were sited on terraced houses than on detached and semi-detached together, as might be expected with a majority of colonies in suburban areas where there are many terraced dwellings. This does, of course, restrict the number of “sides” available, but, on the other hand, it must be remembered that detached or semi-detached houses provide twice as many sides as fronts. Eaves at backs of houses seem frequently to be less suitable, being narrow or even non-existent. Of the 108 back and side nests for which the directions faced were given, 69 had a southerly aspect; and only 14 of the 63 such nests for which the necessary details are available overlooked no form of road. TYPES OF BUILDING COLONIZED The type of building on which the nests were sited was recorded for all the 122 colonies (Table IV), but in the cases of 59 of them it was not clear from reports whether they fell under the category “detached”, “semi-detached” or “terraced”: these are classed as “unspecified” in Table IV and are detailed in Table V. Table TV — Broad categories of buildings colonized by House Martins ( Delichon tirbica ) in East Lancashire in 1958 Type of building Colonies Nests Detached 14 57 Semi-detached 18 46 Terraced 3i L34 Unspecified 59 249 Totals 122 486 BRITISH BIRDS 146 [VOL. LII Table V — Breakdown of nest-sites of House Martins (Delichon urbica) CLASSED AS “UNSPECIFIED” IN TABLE IV Type of building Colonies Nests Chapels and schools 3 20 Post offices I 4 Mills and warehouses 3 12 Railway stations 4 18 Police stations I 2 Sheds and barns 8 32 Inns and hotels 4 14 “Residences” 20 7° “Farms” and “farmhouses ” *3 44 Outbuildings 2 33 Totals 59 249 The variety in the types of buildings indicates that the House Martin is catholic in its choice of nesting-site, providing suitable eaves and other essentials such as food and mud supplies combine with reasonably open aspect. No preference for any particular style of eaves was evident, nor did the colour or surface of the surrounding wall (such as pebble-dash) seem to have any significance. It was frequently noted that many apparently ideal eaves with good approaches were not used when seemingly less adequate ones near-by were occupied. One observer suggested that the aspect of the nest holes might have some significance. He found that, where nests were built side by side under the same eaves, entrance holes were in different positions and apparently arranged to avoid having converging approaches with neighbouring nests. At a late check of the 21 -nest site, however, though this variation in the position was confirmed, it was clear that the entrance holes of adjoining nests as often converged as not. PROXIMITY TO WATER Of the 122 recorded colonies, 70 (304 nests) were located close to main rivers or to their tributaries: 17 of these were adjacent to such waters while the other 53 averaged 350 yards from them. Of the remaining 52 colonies, details for one (3 nests) were not given, but 51 (179 nests) were all near some ample water-supply such as a reservoir, canal or major stream, 15 colonies being adjacent and the other 36 averaging 280 yards away. Distances of nests from water are given in Table VI, and show that 419 of the 483 nests for which there are appropriate details were within 400 yards of some major water supply ; after this distance there is a sharp drop in the numbers and only two nests (one colony) were as much as 800-880 yards away. Thus the present study seems to confirm the correlation with food supply shown by Alexander (1933), Cramp and Ward (1934) and Cramp (1950). However, an alternative correlation might in this case be made with the availability of sites, for in Pennine areas the built-up parts largely follow the river valleys. vol. li i ] LANCASHIRE HOUSE MARTIN SURVEY 147 Table VI — Distances from water of nests of House Martins ( Delichoti urbica) in East Lancashire in 1958 Distance No. of from water nests Adjacent 120 Less than 100 yards 76 100-200 yards 77 200-300 yards 86 300-400 yards 60 400-500 yards US 500-600 yards •5 600-700 yards 25 700-800 yards 7 800-880 yards 2 Unknown 3 Total 486 DISTURBANCE OE COLONIES In the majority of instances where nests were known to have been destroyed, human interference was responsible. Such nests were mostly either removed by tenants of houses or by visiting window-cleaners, and gutter-clearance and exterior redecoration accounted for twelve at a single site. Three nests on a farm build- ing were deserted through the attentions of a cat which had near access via a ladder. Only twelve nests were known to have been usurped by House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus). PARASITES A number of ectoparasites were collected both from nests and dead birds. Examples from Edcnfield included the flea Ceratophyllus h. hirundinis (Curtis) and the flat-fly Stenepteryx hirundinis (L.), the latter new to Lancashire. Fleas from Slaidburn included Ceratophyllus h. hirundinis , Ceratophyllus f. farretii (Roths.) and Ceratophyllus rusticus (Wagner), the last new to Yorkshire. Slaidburn, like Edenfield, also provided Stenepteryx hirundinis and in this connection it is interesting to note the reference to this species in Boyd (1936, p. 111): there it is quoted as being the commonest parasite of Swallows and House Martins in France, though it was not recorded from Swallows’ nests in the British Isles during the 1934-35 Enquiry. Parasites were determined by R. S. George of Gloucester. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The compiler wishes to acknowledge with thanks the help of the following observers and correspondents who supplied much of the information on which this paper is based : Mrs. E. C. Barnes, J. Bentleyfand members of theTodmorden Natural History Society), H. A. Bilby, J. Boon, A. W. Boyd, A. J. Bull, R. Burr, S. Cramp, 148 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII R. C. Cross, E. Davis, P. Durham, F. Elliman, W. Farron, Miss J. M. Ferrier, J. C. Follett, Rev. and Mrs. Frankland, R. S. George, K. Halstead, P. A. D. Hollom, R. C. Homes, H. G. Hurrell, P. I ’Anson, M. Jackson, D. Jones, R. Kingsmill, D. Lamb, B. Mansfield, Newchurch School, K. G. Spencer, Dr. Stuart Smith, H. Smithies, D. Sodo, G. W. Temperley, J. M. Tomlinson, E. Ward, S. Ward, J. Webster, A. Welch, R. Wilson, D. Windle, T. Wood. SUMMARY 1. A survey of House Martin colonies was carried out by members of the East Lancashire Ornithologists’ Club in an area of 15 miles radius from the centre of Accrington in 1958. 2. Owing to incomplete coverage of the study area (452,000 acres), returns for an eastern section of 333,000 acres were mainly considered. For the larger area, however, 122 colonies totalling 486 nests were located. 3. Over three-quarters of the colonies consisted of from 1 to 4 nests, but the remainder included groups of 14 (three), 21 and 31 nests. 4. Breeding was found mainly in five distinct zones totalling approximately 50,000 acres and mostly in centres of heavy human population. These zones contained 10 1 colonies with a total of 368 nests, the density of breeding pairs being 7.36 per 1,000 acres, as against 1.25 for the eastern section as a whole and 1.08 for the complete study area. 5. Most colonies were in the suburbs of the industrial towns, only two being strictly urban. While there was not a great difference in the total numbers of colonies between suburban areas and rural areas, this was due to the great size of the rural area included. Colonies in rural areas, however, tended to contain more nests than those in suburban areas. 6. Aspects of 448 of the 486 nests seemed to show that direction had little significance, with possibly a slight tendency to face the south-to-west quarter. 7. Analysis of 451 nests showed that numbers on fronts of buildings were 3! times greater than the sum of those on sides and backs. 8. The survey confirmed that the House Martin is catholic in its choice of the type of building to colonize. 9. 419 of 483 nests were within four hundred' yards of some major water supply and only two nests were further than eight hundred yards from such water. 10. Human interference was the chief cause of nest-failure and only 12 nests were known to have been taken over by House Sparrows. A number of ectoparasites were collected and some details are given. REFERENCES Alexander, W. B. (193?) : “A census of House-Martins: are their numbers decreasing?” Journ. Min. Agrir., 40: 8-12. Royd, A. W. (1935): ‘‘Report on the Swallow Enquiry, 1934”. Brit. Birds, xxix: 3-21. vol. li i ] LANCASHIRE HOUSE MARTIN SURVEY 149 (1936): “Report on the Swallow Enquiry, 1935”. Brit. Birds, xxx: 98-1 16. Cramp, S., and Ward, J. H. (1934): “A census of House-Martins and Swallows near Manchester, 1933”. ]. Anim. Ecol., 3: 1-7. Cramp, S. (1950): “The census of Swifts, Swallows and House-Martins, 1949’’. London Bird Report, No. 14, pp. 49-57. Hurrell, H. G. (1930): “A survey of House-Martins in Devon and Cornwall’’. Western Morning News. Oakes, C. (1953): The Birds of Lancashire. Edinburgh. OBSERVATIONS ON ARCTIC TERNS IN SPITSBERGEN By P. J. K. Burton and M. H. Thurston During the first half of August 1957, observations were made at a colony of Arctic Terns ( Sterna macrura ) in the vicinity of Kapp Linn£, on the south side of the entrance to Isfjord, West Spitsbergen (Lat. 78°3'N.). This colony has been described by Lovenskiold (1954). It is situated on the north and east shores of the lake known as the Fyrsjoen. To the north of the colony, along the shore of Isfjord, lie the buildings of the Isfjord Radio Station (Fig. 1). The nesting area is on a stony stretch of fjaeldmark, of the type described by Summerhayes and Elton (1928). Typically, most of the nests are situated on a moss-lichen crust. During the time of the visit nearly all the eggs had hatched, and many young were already fledged. The size of the colony was estimated at some 600 pairs, but due to the late date a count of brooding birds could not be used to give a more accurate figure. Observations covered three main aspects: diurnal rhythms; inter-relationships with predators and other species in the area ; and food and feeding behaviour. DIURNAL RHYTHMS The daily behaviour of birds in the continuous light of the Arctic summer has been studied by a number of workers. Their results have been well summarized by Cullen (1954) and Armstrong (1954). Most of these studies have been carried out south of latitude 71 °N. The daily activities of Arctic Terns south of the Arctic Circle have been investigated by Hawksley (1957) in the Bay of Fundy and by Rollin (1958) in Northumberland. Marshall (1938) found a quiescent period for a number of species at Klaas Billen Bay, West Spitsbergen ; these included Arctic Tern, Eider ( Somateria mollissima ) and Arctic Skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus). In the colony at Kapp Linn£, the existence of a rest period was obvious from the silence which fell over the area around midnight; a similar hush was also found during periods of cold, windy or rainy weather, in support of Marshall’s observa- tion. Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis ) in this area also exhibited a 150 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII ISFJORD Kaff> Lin tie Tu.rlon^S Fig. i — Map to show position of colony of Arctic Terns ( Sterna macrura) studied in Spitsbergen in August 1957 The colony was on the south side of the entrance to Isfjord, West Spitsbergen, and situated on the north and east shores of the lake Fyrsjoen. Note positions of radio station and lighthouse. marked daily rhythm, moving- south down the coast in the morning; and back north ag"ain towards evening. In an effort to discover the extent and duration of the resting vol. lii] ARCTIC TERNS IN SPITSBERGEN 151 period of the terns, observations were made overnight on 5th/6th August. It was intended to watch the colony for 24 hours, but heavy rain after 17 hours made the completion of this task impossible. However, a distinct pattern was revealed and it is hoped that future expeditions may extend these observations. Commencing at 30 minutes past each hour, two main methods of recording activity were used. The first employed a telescope mounted in a fixed position over- looking the densest part of the colony. Each hour, the number of birds entering and leaving the telescope field of vision in a 15-minute period was recorded. A histogram of visits recorded against time of day is shown in Fig. 2. 40i nuh&eh. OF VISITS 35 Fig. 2 — Visiting rate of Arctic Terns ( Sterna tnacrura) to Spitsbergen colony, 5th/6th August 1957 In a 15-minute period in each hour the number of birds entering and leaving the field of a fixed telescope overlooking the densest part of the colony was recorded. This histogram shows the number of visits against the time of day (G.M.T.). The second technique was intended to investigate changes in behaviour throughout the 24 hours. Following each period spent 152 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII counting' visits, the colony was scanned by telescope and the behaviour of 50 individuals at the instant each came into view was noted. The telescope was then returned to its fixed position. A number of categories of behaviour were recognized, such as stand- ing, walking, preening, landing and taking off. Other than the last two, birds in the air were not counted. The numbers of visits in the 15-minute watches (Fig. 2) fall into a well-marked cycle with its low point at 23.30 hours G.M.T., and a period of reduced activity for about 4 hours on either side. Though only one set of observations is involved, application of the y2 test shows the probability of this distribution having arisen by chance to be less than 0.001 ( y2 = 138 with 17 degrees of freedom). The behaviour counts reveal principally a marked reduction in the number of birds preening between 21.30 and 01.30, with a corresponding increase in the number sitting quiescent (Fig. 3), followed by a period of bathing for about five hours after this. This early morning bathing was, on subsequent days, found to be a regular phenomenon ; at this time, up to 30 birds could be seen bathing and preening in the shallow water along the north bank of the Fyrsjoen. Bathing was rarely observed at other times of the day. Fig. 3 — Preening by Arctic Terns ( Sterna macrura) in Spitsbergen colony, 5Th/6th August 1957 The colony was scanned by telescope once in each hour and the behaviour of 50 individuals at the instant each came into view was noted. Preening was one of several categories into which behaviour was divided, and this histogram shows the number of birds preening in each sample of 50 against the time of day (G.M.T.). We did not see any social flights such as are observed in colonies south of the Arctic Circle at sunrise or sunset (Hawksley, 1957). Also, our observations on predation did not agree with the state- ment of Marshall (1938) that during the quiescent period species which are habitually mobbed by the terns were allowed to fly over 153 VOL. li i ] ARCTIC TERNS IN SPITSBERGEN unmolested. However, Marshall was referring to an earlier part of the season when the terns were sitting on eggs. PREDATION The predators in the area are limited to five vertebrate species: Glaucous Gull ( Lams hyperboreus), Arctic Skua, Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus), Greenland Dog and Man. Only the Glaucous Gull and Man were of importance during our stay at Kapp Linne. Lovenskiold has described predation on this colony by dogs from the Radio Station, but we witnessed nothing of the kind, the dogs being kept well under control. Arctic Skuas were seen only three times in the vicinity of the colony and an Arctic Fox only once; these species were not considered important in relation to the colony. Possibly the colony at Kapp Linn6 is spared fox predation due to the presence of the Radio Station, whose occupants would certainly shoot any fox seen in the vicinity. During our stay a considerable amount of mortality was also due to a small boy from the Radio Station who occasionally killed stooping terns with a stick and frequently caused much disturbance in parts of the colony. Efforts to correct him had little effect. The importance of Glaucous Gulls as predators was revealed by analyses of the stomach contents of 12 gulls shot by men at the Radio Station. These are summarized in Table I. Table I — Analysis of stomach contents of 12 Glaucous Gulls ( Larus hyperboreus), Spitsbergen, summer 1957 % by volume No. of stomachs Young Arctic Tern (5. macrura) remains 40 9 Crab ( Hyas sp.) remains 25 7 Echinoid plates and spines IS 3 Garbage IS 3 Fish remains ... S I Egg shell (? Eider, Somateria mollissima) trace I Ascidian test (? Ciona) trace I Plant (largely Phaeophvceae) trace 5 Gulls entering the colony were violently mobbed by the terns. They congregated outside it in two main places to the north and south, and when passing from one point to the other usually flew high; in general it was found that birds of any species flying over about 150 feet above the colony were not attacked. Any Glaucous Gull engaged in predation flew first to a rubbish tip overlooking the colony ; this was used as a vantage point and sometimes as a source of food in the form of garbage. If it was discovered there bv terns it was attacked and driven away, but frequently it would remain unnoticed, in which case it would eventually fly quickly down into the colonv, settle for a few seconds, and then leave hotly pursued by a cloud of terns. Only once were two gulls seen to enter the colony together. Tern chicks were killed and, as far as could be seen, swallowed whole. Frequently, however, a gull would be driven off before it could 154 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII eat the young tern. This was indicated by the large number of mutilated chicks found. Although young terns are occasionally killed by adults into whose territories they have strayed, the degree of mutilation could only be the work of gulls. It seems unlikely that the gulls took chicks already dead through other causes, since these are exceedingly well camouflaged and are probably noticed by the gulls only when they move. 56 dead chicks were collected and, of these, 13 (23%) were mutilated. It therefore seems possible that attacks by Glaucous Gulls may account for as much as 20-30% of fledging mortality in this area. Attacks on chicks almost certainly resulting in death were estimated to take place at the rate of about three or four per day. In addition, there were a large number of unsuccesful sallies by single gulls which were driven off before landing. These took place at the rate of about two every hour, regardless of the time of day. The disturbance they caused was considerable and may well have contributed to fledgling mortality. Attacks on other species caused far less extensive disturbance. Only two sucked terns eggs were found ; far more sucked eggs were those of Eiders. The nearest breeding place of Glaucous Gulls was at the top of some cliffs five miles away. The number of gulls around the ternery was almost invariably about 50. This figure decreased to 5 or so during four days of intensive shooting by men from the Radio Station, but returned to normal the day after that activity stopped. The number of stomachs containing tern remains appears too great in relation to the observed rate of predation on the colony. It is possible, however, that a few gulls were more persistent predators than the rest : since almost all of those obtained were shot on the rubbish tip overlooking the colony, the sample might be expected to consist largely of the active predators using it as a vantage point. Possibly, also, gulls obtained young terns from smaller colonies breeding to the west and south. RELATIONS WITH NON-PREDATORY SPECIES Several authorities have noticed the association between nest- ing ducks and terns. Lovenskiold ( 1954) commented on the association of nesting Eiders with Arctic Terns in Spitbergen ; Summerhayes and Elton (1928) recorded that the islands studied by them in Spitsbergen were shared for breeding by Arctic Terns, Eiders and Brent Geese (Branta bernicla) ; and Hawksley (1957) stated that the Long-tailed Duck ( Clangula hyemalis) is commonly found nesting with Arctic Terns in North America. The factors involved have been discussed bv Durango (1949)- This relationship was well illustrated at Kapp Linn£. About 400 Eiders were present in the area, and some 50 broods had been raised. A large number of old Eider nests were found in the tern colony, and moulting adult Eiders and families with young vol. l 1 1 ] ARCTIC TERNS IN SPITSBERGEN 155 congregated along a stretch of beach favoured by adult and fledged juvenile terns. Three families of Long-tailed Ducks were present on the Fyrsjoen, and a nest of this species had been found in the colony before our arrival. On the other hand, association of King Eiders ( Somateria spectabilis) with Arctic Terns seems doubtful: we found one nest just outside the colony, and three families which were present in the area only occasionally used the Fyrsjoen or other stretches of water favoured by the terns. The association of nesting ducks with terns has been commonly thought to be protective in function, though Bergman (1941) believed social instinct to be the basis of this behaviour. At Kapp Linne neither ducks nor terns occurred without each other, despite large surrounding areas of apparently suitable tundra. This cannot be explained merely by similar habitat preferences, and the most important factor seems to be the protective one. A large number of sucked Eider eggs were found and there is little doubt that, without the protection of the terns, egg-stealing by predators would even further reduce the breeding success of these ducks. No aggressive behaviour of terns towards Eiders was seen, and only once towards Long-tailed Ducks. However, attacks by Arctic Terns on Eiders have been noted in the Fame Islands, Northumberland (J. M. Cullen, personal communication). Paget-Wilkes (1922) discovered Grey Phalaropes ( Phalaropus fulicarius) nesting on an island in Liefde bay, Spitsbergen, with Arctic Terns; and Lovenskiold (1954) also gave these birds as associates. In the Kapp Linn6 area in 1957, about forty Grey Phalaropes and four Red-necked Phalaropes ( Ph . lobatus) frequented a shallow part of the Fyrsjoen near the tern colony and two families of the former species were seen. Mobbing of a Grey Phalarope by a tern was once noted ; otherwise, small waders were ignored by the terns. Fulmars crossed the colony regularly from the bay east of Kapp Linne to the sea on the west, and vice versa, in the course of daily movements up and down the coast. They were invariably mobbed by terns, sometimes quite heavily, but usually kept straight on, avoiding the terns by banking. Occasionally, how- ever, they were compelled to turn or dive, and a Fulmar found drowned in a pool of mud in the colony may well have been forced down by their attacks. Sometimes attacking terns would follow the Fulmars some way out to sea, and terns fishing along the coast were observed to stoop at passing Fulmars. Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla), another species harmless to terns, were also violently attacked on a number of occasions, in spite of the fact that large numbers frequented the area and were regularly seen resting, often among the terns, on islands in the Fvrsjeen. Mobbing was mainly confined to individuals and small parties of Kittiwakes. Twice, individuals flying over the Fvrsioen were attacked and forced down into the water by up to eight terns at once. However, the congregation of Kittiwakes in the 156 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII vicinity of the terns may have been ultimately self-protective, since skuas were abundant outside the colony and harassed Kitti- wakes unmercifully on all possible occasions. By contrast, skuas rarely approached the tern colony and those that did were quickly driven away. Various other species present in the area — Snow Buntings (. Plectrophenax nivalis), divers and auks — were not seen to be mobbed, and showed no signs of association with the terns. MOBBING BEHAVIOUR Methods of intimidation used by the terns appeared to fall into two general types. The normal one was the familiar stoop, from a height usually of 6 to 15 feet above the victim. It might involve striking with either the bill or the hind end of the body, and always included a sharp call “kaaak” uttered close to the victim’s head. Stoops of this kind might be repeated many times, with metronomic regularity, usually about every three to four seconds : Glaucous Gulls on the ground subjected to such treatment were able to judge the moment of each strike and duck their heads to avoid it. Each stoop would be preceded by a hover, lasting about one second. A less frequent modification was an approach from the predator’s front, usually at about head height ; the appearance of the approaching tern greatly enhanced the intimidatory effect of this attack. Both types were frequently accompanied by defecation. In our experience repeated stoops, both at ourselves and at gulls on the ground, were made from behind. During brief periods of bright sunny weather there also appeared to be a tendency to attack out of the sun. However, we did not observe any correla- tion between direction of attack and direction of wind as might have been supposed. This was borne out in experiments with dummy gulls, in which stoops were made from behind, reversal of the dummy causing reversal of the terns’ attacks. Both types of attack were modified with decreasing intensity. Half-hearted stoops would level out a yard or more above the victim’s head, and would often not include a call. In low-level, head-on attacks of reduced intensity a bird would rise too high or swerve to one side, and would often similarly not use any vocal accompaniment. Prolonged hovering without stooping was noted in some circumstances — in attacks upon ourselves when we retaliated by looking up at the bird and gesticulating ; in the early stages of attacks on gulls; and as a reaction to the injury of another tern. Behaviour in this last instance was similar to that observed when a dead adult tern was mounted on a stick (see page 158). Such hovering might last ten seconds, with several drops in height during the time. This behaviour, and the conditions under which it occurred, suggests a state of ambivalence between fear and aggression. Attacks were almost entirely carried out by adult terns ; juveniles vol. lii] ARCTIC TERNS IN SPITSBERGEN 157 associated with mobbing- birds, but only on rare occasions made a feeble stoop. Adults with fledged young attacked as readily as those with flightless chicks. Any gull landing in the colony was attacked by many terns and driven off. The attacks were continued on the flying bird, which would attempt to avoid them by sideslipping and diving. Invariably it would show itself to be in a condition of panic, and would fly erratically backwards and forwards over the colony, pursued by a cloud of terns; usually about two minutes would elapse before it found its way out. Gulls were fairly often struck and on one occasion one was seen shedding a trail of feathers as it fled. A gull that had apparently been killed bv terns was found in the colony on 7th August. EXPERIMENTS Using Glaucous Gulls shot by the men at Isfjord Radio Station, we were able to observe the extent of the disturbance caused by the presence of a predator in the colony. Also, by use of isolated parts of gulls, some of the stimuli releasing aggressive behaviour were investigated. The method in all cases was to carry a dummy (wrapped in cloth) into the colony, set it up quickly, and retire to a suitable vantage point to watch. Then the number of stoops made at the dummy per minute were recorded until a steady situation was reached, when the dummy was retrieved. The experiments w'ere made in various parts of the colony with intervals of two or more hours between them. Results are shown in Table II. able II — -Results of mobbing experiments with Arctic Terns (Sterna macrura), using dummies of Glaucous Gull ( Lams hyperboreus), Spitsbergen 1057 he figures show the average numbers of stoops per minute in successive five-minute iriods, compiled from one or more numerical trials. x signifies that observation was discontinued. Type of dummy No. of trials ISt 2nd 3rd 4th Successive five-minute periods 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th nth 12th 13th 14th 15th Stuffed full skin 2 40 42 26 23 17 13 16 15 20 15 6 O O X X Complete lead gull 4 40 37 52 44 3i 42 32 49 41 42 30 30 26 37 44 ead only I 33 36 33 27 21 24 33 23 7 14 6 9 X X X odel head 1 20 23 20 27 40 38 31 27 27 X X X X X X When a dead gull was set up, mobbing was initiated by the pair of birds whose young were closest to it; the process of alarm communication has been described by Palmer (1941, p. 95). This pattern was still followed in areas frequented by adults with their fledged young — notably the beach to the west of the colony. A disturbed juvenile would usually circle around over the intruder, while its parents and neighbouring adults attacked. 158 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII About one minute after attacks by the first pair of terns began, a cloud of some 60 to 70 birds had usually gathered. A peak in the rate of stooping was reached at the same time, the maximum being about 75 to 80 stoops per minute. This rate could be maintained by as few as 20 terns and larger numbers were unable to attack at a greater rate. The birds stooped in a more or less orderly succession, though when large numbers were present collisions occasionally occurred. The number of attacking terns fell to about xo in twenty minutes, and was thereafter continued by about 3-15 birds for as long as the watch went on (the maximum period of observation being an hour and a half). The attacking rate fell to about 35 with occasional outbursts. Earlier experiments utilized stuffed skins, but it was found that these gradually sagged and slumped forward, and the attacking rate fell correspondingly to nil (see Table II). One dummy was knocked over after 85 seconds and mobbing ceased after 7 minutes. Dead gulls placed upside down, or in various unnatural positions, did not elicit mobbing. This capacity to recognize “death” is of considerable value, since, if a gull was killed in the colony (as apparently on 7th August) and an unnecessarily prolonged disturbance resulted, this would cause heavy mortality among the fledglings. Further experiments were made with isolated parts of gulls: Pairs of wings only — Sporadic mobbing by one pair of terns for seven to ten minutes. Headless body — Did not elicit mobbing. Head alone — The head of an adult Glaucous Gull mounted on a stick 16 inches above the ground (about the natural height for this gull) produced continuous mobbing at a rate of about 30 to 40 stoops per minute, falling off gradually. A head half this height above ground was mobbed by a few birds for five to ten minutes, and a head at ground level caused no response. This suggests that head height may be involved in the terns’ ability to tell a well set-up (“life- like”) dummy from a sagging (“dead”) one. Model head — A two-dimensional paper model of a gull’s head, twice life size, was found to produce continuous mobbing, but when the red spot on the bill was missing there was no response in the three tests made. Similarly, a mounted Kittiwake’s head (yellow bill without spot) produced no response. It may be that a head lacking the spot is not sufficiently conspicuous, but possibly such a spot is of special significance. Palmer (1941, p. 97) noted that terns showing a bloody spot were subjected to social attack by their fellows. Some other experiments may be briefly mentioned. A dead tern mounted on a stick caused the assembly of a huge milling crowd of some 200 terns; similar behaviour was observed towards an Plate Plate 26 Eric Hashing Female Yellow-breasted Bunting (E nib erica aureola): Finland, July 1958 The female is yellowish-brown above, broadly streaked with black on the mantle and scapulars, with a chestnut tinge to the rump; the under-parts are mainly unmarked yellow more or less tinged with buff, with purer buff on the sides and under-tail, and streaking only on the flanks. The general effect is of a very pale bird with a noticeably streaky back, two pale and narrow wing- bars and a conspicuous pattern of light and dark stripes on the head (see plate 28 and pages 162-163). Plate 27 Eric Hosking Male Yellow-breasted Bunting (Embcriza aureola ): Finland, July 1958 This shows the inconspicuous second wing-bar formed by the buffish-white tips to the greater coverts, but except in fresh plumage it is less distinct than many book illustrations suggest. Note also the broad chestnut-black streaks on the flanks. There is a white band across the outer tail-feathers (see plate 25), but this is usually seen only in flight when it adds to the bird’s shape and wing-patch to give the male a superficial resemblance to a Chaffinch ( Friugilla coelebs). Plate 28 Eric Masking Female Yellow-breasted Bunting ( Emberiza aureola): Finland, July 1958 The upper photograph shows the two wing-bars which are often too inconspicuous to be very useful as a field-character, and the lower the singularly stripy head. The yellowish-brown crown-stripe is bordered with blackish, which in turn gives way to the broad yellowish-buff eye-stripes; a dark line through and behind the eye, and a dark line below the brown ear-coverts, add to an effect which with the streaky back recalls an Aquatic Warbler ( Acrocephalus paludicola). Plate 29 V Eric Hosking Yellow-breastkd Bunting ( Emberiza aureola) habitats: Finland, July 1958 The surroundings of the photographed nest (upper) were open; the nest itself was in a tangle of grass and other rank vegetation such as horsetails, I5-2 feet high, in which shoots of willow were growing, but it was some 30 yards from the bushes in the background. By contrast, the lower shows the site of another nest which was well inside and under a thicket of willow 6-9 feet high (see page 162); dead twigs such as those on the left were favourite song-perches. l’l. ATI' 30 Eric Husking Pair of Yellow-breasted BunsfIncs (Emberiza aureola): Finland, July iq^8 Both sexes feed the young and here the female is about to remove a faecal sac: these may be swallowed or taken away. Food at this nest consisted of hover-flies, clegs, crane-flies, lacewings and various caterpillars. Note again the broad buff eye-stripe of the female. There were six young here and this appears to be a commoner clutch and brood-size than The Handbook suggests (see page 162). The nestlings have blood-red interiors to their mouths. Plate 31 JLTIC noSKtllg Male VEM.OW-BREASTED Hi nting ( Emberiza aureola ): Finland, July 1038 m-ubaluM, ,s mainly by the female, but both sexes take turns in brooding the a fe v'h f T °f d^ad «rasses Iined "'ith finer grasses and sometimes np=t • - ,(n°,feathers)-1 Contrary to the statement in The Handbook, most 1'V"1lland are,on the ground, in more or less dense vegetation with or ! 7 “ fS'ne ,P ate 2q, T1 page, l6z) ■ This is one.of the smaller buntings v WmiBRBY & Co., Ltd., Watford, Hurts. Published bv H. F. X- C> WITHERBY. LTD. , 5, Warwick Codrt. W.C.i JUNE 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LII, Number 6, June 1959 PAGE Editorial ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 177 Migration notes from the Western Approaches, spring 1958. By Ivor McLean and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... 177 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCVIII — Squacco Heron. Photographs by Eric Hosking (plates 33-36). Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees 185 The plumage and leg colour of the Kittiwake and comments on the non- breeding population. By Dr. J. C. Coulson ... ... ... ... 189 Notes : — Increase in a Shetland Fulmar population (L. S. V. and U. M. Venables) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 197 Frightened Common Scoters diving from the wing (C. H. Fry) ... 197 Golden Eagle with tuberculosis and aspergillosis (George Waterston) 197 Kestrel’s unusual boldness in taking earthworms (T. A. W. Davis) 198 Great Black-backed Gull diving from a height and submerging in an inland water (Bernard King) ... ... ... ... ... ... 198 The separation of Subaloine and Spectacled Warblers in juvenile and first-winter plumages (J. J. Swift) 198 Abnormal growths on Starling’s head (W. D. Park) ... ... ... 199 House Sparrows soaking hard bread to soften it (G. L. Purser) ... 199 Letters: — Feeding methods of Long-tailed Tits with large food (Dr. John Gibb) 200 Phalaropes in 1957 (Dr. James D. Parrack; Peter F. Abbott) ... 201 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 203 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas EDITORIAL Fifty years ago our issue of ist June 1909 began with an Editorial announcing “with great satifaction” the names of two “excellent ornithologists’’ who would thenceforth assist in the task of editing the magazine. One of these was Dr. Norman F. Ticehurst, M.A., F.R.C.S., M.B.O.U. His name appeared at the head of the contents then, and it has stood there on every one of the six hundred issues since. We are sure that our readers will wish to join with us in congratulating him on this great record, remark- able not only for its length but for its broad and varied contribution to British ornithology. We are delighted that his services should have been so aptly recognized by his recent election as Vice- President of the British Ornithologists’ Union at its most successful Centenary Meeting at Cambridge during March. One of Dr. Ticehurst’s special interests has always been the history of ornithology ; by his long and fruitful activity he has made history as well as written it. MIGRATION NOTES FROM THE WESTERN APPROACHES, SPRING 1958 By Ivor McLean ( Meteorological Office, Air Ministry) and Kenneth Williamson ( Migration Research Officer, B.T.O.) INTRODUCTION During the month from 13th April to 13th May 1958 the first- named author did a tour of duty as meteorologist at the ocean weather-reporting station “Kilo” in the Western Approaches, at approximately latitude 45 °N., longitude i6°W. This position is about 500 miles south-west of Land’s End, Cornwall, and 600 miles west of the Biscay coast of France. Considerably more migration was witnessed than during the first three weeks of April 1957 (atitea, vol. li, pp. 351-353), and altogether some 72 individuals of a dozen species were seen. The material has been prepared for publication by the second author, and the-comments on the weather and the probable origins of the birds have been the subject of joint consultation. We are grateful to Major R. F. Ruttledge, Mr. J. L. F. Parslow and Mrs. Kate Barham for notes 177 178 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII on migrants during this period at, respectively, Great Saltee (Co. Wexford), St. Agnes (Isles of Scilly) and Skokholm (Pembroke- shire); and to the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office for permission to use weather-charts based on the Daily Weather Report of the Meteorological Office (Air Ministry). SYSTEMATIC LIST Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus).< — A female appeared at 17.35 hours on 30th April (wind I20°/o8) and circled the ship until dusk, when it settled for the night on the balloon shed deckhead. It spent much of its time there the next morning and would quickly return if disturbed. It was not seen to take water, or scraps of raw meat put out for it, and was last noted in fair weather at 13.40 hours on 1st May (wind 28o°/o8). Whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus). — Two parties appeared on 29th April, and a single exhausted bird on 1st May (Table I). The parties circled close to the ship, and even settled on it momentarily on several occasions: they flew off to the north and E.N.E. respectively. The tired bird was not easily disturbed, and if forced to fly returned very quickly to the ship. It was not observed to take ants’ eggs or water put out on deck. At 17.30 hours on the 2nd it fell into the sea and was drowned. Table I — Migrant Whimbrels ( Numenius phaeopus) at ocean weather-ship at “Kilo”, spring 1958 Date Time (G.M.T.) Wind direction and force (knots) Visi- bility (miles) No. of birds Remarks 29 April 10.20 080 °/ 15 (E'ly) 12 2 Circled 30 mins, calling 12. 12 090°/i9 (E’ly) I 2 3 Circled 23 mins i May 08.54 i6o°/o8 (S.S.E.) 12 1 Settled aboard (see text) Dunlin ( Calidris alpina). — Two in summer plumage circled for about a quarter of an hour from 08.40 hours on 30th April (wind 1 20° j og), when one settled on the forecastle and the other disappeared. The one on board was disturbed by a passing Arctic Skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) and was not seen again. A Dunlin also circled for 35 minutes from 12.40 hours on the same day (wind i5o°/o8). Ruff ( Philomachus pugnax). — No fewer than 17 birds came under notice between 10.35 hours and 14.45 hours on 30th April, and all appeared somewhat fatigued (Table II). The first three groups circled the ship before passing on, and frequently took brief rests on the surface of the sea close to the vessel, usually staying for less than 30 seconds but once close on a minute. One of the birds in the third party became water-logged whilst resting in this way and drifted helplessly away from the ship, to be pounced upon and killed by a Lesser Black-backed Gull {Larus fuscus). The survivors were not seen after 13.00 hours. The last two birds were exhausted; one died at 11.20 hours and the vol. li i ] MIGRATION IN WESTERN APPROACHES 179 other at 18.55 hours on 1st May. Both took water and ants’ eggs whilst on board, and at death one bird weighed 56 gm. (wing 153 mm., tail 55 mm., bill from feathers 32 mm.). Table IF — Migrant Ruffs ( Philomachus pugnax ) at ocean weather-ship at “Kilo”, spring 1958 Date Time (G.M.T.) Wind direction and force (knots) Visi- bility (miles) No. of birds Remarks 30 April 10.35 150708 (S.S.E.) 12 4 Circled 20 mins (see text) 1 1-45 120709 (S.E.) 12 3 Circled and settled frequently on sea (see text) 12.28 120708 (S.E.) 12 8 Circled and settled frequently on sea (see text) '4-45 180705 (S.) 12 2 Settled aboard, eventually died Sabine’s Gull (Xenia sabini). — An adult in summer plumage settled on the sea close to the ship and stayed for a quarter of an hour from 16.03 hours on 10th May (wind 290°/ 18). The slate grey head, forked tail and distinctive wing-pattern were well seen ; the bill was black with a yellow tip and the legs grey. Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur). — Several birds were encountered between 30th April and 3rd May, mostly in the early part of each day (Table III). Perhaps the first two records refer to one and the same individual, as the bird of 09.34 hours was not actually seen to leave; and one of the two found roosting in the funnel may have been the bird of the previous evening. The dead bird on 2nd May weighed about 100 gm. (wing 176 mm., tail 1 10 mm.). Short-toed Lark ( CalandreUa cinerea). — A small, light- coloured lark settled on the forecastle, where it preened for several Table IFF — Migrant Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur) at ocean weather-ship at “Kilo”, spring 1958 Date Time (G.M.T.) Wind direction and force (knots) Visi- bility (miles) No. of birds Remarks 0 April 09-34 100708 (E’lv) 12 I Circled 10 mins I I. 12 ioo°/o8 (E’ly) 12 I Settled on aerial; still on board at dusk 1 1. 16 120705 (E.S.E.) 12 I Circled 5 mins 1 May 08.40 160° /08 (S’ly) 12 2 On ledge inside funnel; fiew, not seen again 15.10 340704 (N’ly) 12 I Settled on yard-arm; dead beneath perch 07.30 hrs 2nd 3 May 05.40 0757,7 (E’ly) 12 2 Settled forecastle; stayed 1 hour 180 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII minutes, at 18.55 hours on 20th April (wind ioo°/i2). The white under-parts, with an ill-defined buff band across the breast and dark markings at the sides of the neck were well seen, and the generally tawny appearance of the upper-parts suggested the south European subspecies brachydactyla. When disturbed it fluttered round the ship at deck level and entered a cabin through an open porthole, where it was caught and identification confirmed by plumage and wing-formula examination. The bird weighed approximately 21 gm. (wing 92 mm., tail 58 mm.), and the legs and small, blunt bill were light brown. When released at 19.15 hours it flew away directly down-wind. Swallow [Hirundo rustica). — A marked passage of Hirundines, nearly all Swallows, was in progress at “Kilo” between 30th April and 6th May, birds appearing singly or in small parties at all times of the day (Table IV). Altogether 32 birds were seen, and they usually stayed with the ship for a short spell of between 5 and 25 minutes before passing on. Those which entered the balloon shed perched on ledges and made short flights outside during their stay. Two late arrivals roosted on board, but another (6th May) continued its migration at 22.35 hours. The first arrival on 4th May flew into cabins and alleyways and was seen to catch several house-flies; it died at 16.45 hours, and this and two others caught in the balloon shed the same afternoon weighed only 14 gm. each. Table IV — Migrant Swallows ( Hirundo rustica) at ocean weather-ship at “Kilo”, spring 1958 Date Time (G.M.T.) Wind direction and force (knots) Visi- bility (miles) No. of birds Remarks 30 April 08.40 120709 (E.S.E.) 12 I Circled 10 mins 12.40 150708 (S.S.E.) 12 r Circled 20 mins 16.14 170° /02 (S’ly) 12 1 Circled 10 mins 1 May 06.30 140706 (S.E.) 2 2 Circled 25 mins 09.50 230713 (S.W.) 12 1 Circled 10 mins 2 Mnv >5-30 060720 (E.N.E.) 6 1 Circled 5 mins 16.30 060719 (E.N.E.) 6 1 Circled 7 mins 22.05 0607201 (E.N.E.) 6 1 Roosted on board 3 May 05.40 07s 7 17 (E’ly) 12 5 Found aboard; stayed 20 mins 16.25 150713 (S.S.E.) 12 1 Circled 20 mins 4 May 08.05 ,40715 (S.E.) 12 1 Found dead 16.45 'lrs (see text) 15.10 160725 (S.S.E.) 6 3 Flew into balloon shed; stayed 1 hour 23.00 220724 (S.W.) 12 2 Found roosting aboard 5 May O9.OO 220722 (S.W.) 6 4 Flew into radar cabin; stayed 15 mins 10.20 2207 20 (S.W.) 6 5 Flew into balloon shed; stayed 3 hours 6 May 08.56 190721 (S’ly) 6 1 Settled on lifeboat; stayed 5 mins 22.15 160730 (S.S.E.) 6 1 Flew into balloon shed, stayed 20 mins vol. lii] MIGRATION IN WESTERN APPROACHES 181 Other Swallows were seen when the ship was returning to port through the Irish Sea on 13th May. Two passed by to the north, flying at deck level, and at 11.00 hours another flew past heading for Ireland, which was clearly visible. Later a fourth passed to the north. House Martin ( Delichon urbica). — One was found on the balloon shed deck at 14.05 hours on 5th May (wind igo°/22): it was easily caught, and its weight was approximately 14 gm. (wing 1 10 mm., tail 56 mm.). It was placed on a ledge, whence it had flown half an hour later. Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia). — One, in company with a Swallow, circled the ship for 10 minutes from 08.40 hours on 30th April (wind i2o°/o9). Willow Warbler or Chiffciiaff ( Phylloscopus sp.). — One flew aboard at 07.30 hours on 13th April when the ship was in the Irish Sea; it was very active and restless, and had gone an hour later. Another flew aboard at 09.57 hours on the 15th (latitude 49°4i'N., longitude o8°3i'W.), but stayed only 4 minutes, flying away low to the S.E. A leaf-warbler was aboard at “Kilo” at 11.20 hours on 30th April (wind i2o0/o5), and stayed for 15 minutes; it was very active and was seen to take two small flies during its stay. Woodchat Shrike ( Lanins senator). — This easily identifiable bird settled aboard at 11.40 hours on 22nd April (wind 360° / 15). Although restless and easily disturbed on the 22nd, it was more approachable next day, when it was seen at 15.30 hours in fair weather (wind 295°/i7). Water and ants’ eggs were available at several parts of the ship, but it was not observed to show interest in them. It roosted overnight on the balloon shed deck- head. the weather A depression, approaching from the Atlantic, was centred on “Kilo” late on 19th April and during the 20th, with southerly wind backing easterly over Biscay and the Western Approaches. The Short-toed Lark may well have originated in the Iberian Peninsula, but the Woodchat Shrike of 22nd April could have come from as far north as the Channel region, then dominated by the southern part of an English anticyclone. With the low pressure moving towards North Africa on the 21st there was an east to north-east flow south of the English high, affecting most of the Biscay coast, Finist£re and Cornwall. This easterly air- flow broke down late on the 22nd, and for several days afterwards, with an Azorean high to the west of “Kilo” and a depression near Iceland, the wind at the weather-ship was westerly and no birds appeared. This high moved slowly north-eastwards, so that by 28th April “Kilo” was near its centre and there was again easterly wind to the south, between the Iberian Peninsula and the Azores (Fig. 1). Next day, with the centre of the high in sea-area Finist^re, this 182 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII easterly airflow was maintained and birds began to arrive. The first to do so, from mid-morning of the 29th, were Whimbrels ; then the Dunlins and first Hirundines appeared early on the 30th, followed by a lurtle Dove, and soon by the Ruffs and a Phylloscopus warbler. In the evening the female Kestrel arrived Figs, i and 2 — Weather situations in the Western Approaches at mid-day on 28th and 30TH April 1958 Fig. 1 : Probable anticyclonic drift from Mediterranean region to Azores. Fig. 2: Passage of Ruffs ( Philomachus pugnax), Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur), Swallows ( Hirundo rustica), etc., at “Kilo”. (Fig. 2). The passage of Swallows continued throughout 1st May, with another Whimbrel and more Turtle Doves, under similar weather conditions, though with the high now over the southern part of the North Sea and a low covering the Azores. The airstream from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa was south-easterly. There was little change in the pressure-distribu- tion on the 2nd and 3rd, and there was evidence at “Kilo” that the anticyclonic drift of Swallows out to sea continued (Fig. 3). An interesting change took place late on 4th May, the deepen- ing Azores depression expanding north-eastwards and bringing a veer of wind to the south-west at “Kilo”. From the afternoon of the 4th it held in this direction, and there was in fact a direct airstream from the Azores to the Channel region between this low and a Mediterranean high (Fig. 4). Yet in this period of south- westerly weather Swallows continued to pass the ship, mostly in small parties, and the likeliest explanation is that they were part of a strong re-determined passage of birds which had drifted west to the Azores in the anticyclonic airflow of the previous few days. Although this weather was maintained during the 7th and 8th the passage, as observed at “Kilo”, finished on the 6th. A complex low-pressure situation developed over the eastern Atlantic on 8th and 9th May, with centres south of Iceland and vol. li i ] MIGRATION IN WESTERN APPROACHES 183 off the Cornish coast. The effect of this change was to impose a north-westerly airstream across the ocean between Greenland and the Western Approaches, and this may well have brought the Sabine’s Gull which was observed on the ioth. Figs. 3 and 4 — Weather situations in the Western Approaches at mid-day on 3RD and 4T11 May 1958 Fig. 3: Continuing passage of Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur) and Swallows ( Hit undo rustica) at “Kilo”. Fig. 4: Re-determined passage at “Kilo” of Swallows from the Azores. MIGRATION AT IRISH SEA BIRD OBSERVATORIES St. Agnes, Scilly Isles. The migration at St. Agnes at the end of April and in early May shows a number of interesting similarities with that observed at “Kilo”. The main spring movement of Whimbrels started on 27th April and showed a well-defined peak on xst May (42) and 2nd (39). Ruffs, passing at “Kilo” on 30th April, were represented at St. Agnes by a single bird on ist-2nd May, with 2 on the 3rd. One Dunlin arrived on the 29th at 19.00 hours, and next day the number was up to 10, declining on 1st May but building up again to 29 on the 3rd-4th, a spring passage peak. Nine Turtle Doves arrived at mid-day on 29th April and 7 more came in the afternoon; 8 were present next day, 7 on 1st May. They did not put in an appearance till mid-day on 2nd May, when 10 were seen, and from 5 to 7 were present daily from the 3rd to the 9th, except the 6th. The main spring passage of Swallows took place between 1st and 4th May, with from 40 to 55 each day, this corresponding with the Great Saltee peak (see below). The next movement was not until ioth May, with over 70 birds. As regards Sand Martins, 10 on 29th April were the first for six days, and the same number was recorded on the 30th and on 1st May; one or two House 1 BRITISH BIRDS 184 [VOL. LII Martins appeared between xst and 4th May, but the strongest passage in this period was between the 5th and gth. Great Saltee, Co. Wexford. Great Saltee was manned during part of this period, from 3rd May onwards. Swallows were below average strength at the time, with no big peaks of up to 200 birds as in most years: there was a maximum on 3rd-4th May of 50-75 birds ; the number then dwindled, to rise to a minor peak of 30 or so on 8th May. Some of the birds in this later movement appeared to be exhausted: one ringed on 6th May was found dead on the 7th, and of two found dead on the 10th one had been ringed the day before. These birds, and another caught during the period, were very light, suggesting a long overseas migration ; and it is possible that this movement has a link with the passage seen at “Kilo” from late on 4th May to the 6th in south-westerly weather. Turtle Doves passed through Great Saltee in ones and twos from 4th May to the gth, Whimbrels were in their usual small numbers for the time, and Dunlins were more in evidence than usual with 4 on 3rd May, 7 on the 4th and 3 on the next day. Ruffs were not seen. Skokholm, Pembrokeshire. There was an improvement in Whimbrel passage between agth April and 1st May, and after a week’s lapse Dunlin movement recommenced on the 30th and was strong during the first few days of May. Ruffs were not recorded, but the first Turtle Dove arrived on the 30th and 2 were present on the 3rd, with another on the 6th-7th. Swallow passage, building up since the 27th, reached a peak with 500 birds on the 30th and was rather less strong till the 3rd, declining afterwards except for a minor peak of 25 or so between the 7th and gth. House and Sand Martins were most in evidence from 30th April to 2nd May, the latter predominating: and the peak of Willow Warbler passage was on the 2gth-30th with about 50 on the latter day. SUMMARY 1. A list is given of a dozen species of migratory birds observed at an ocean weather-ship at “Kilo” in the Western Approaches (latitude 45°N., longitude i6°W.) between 20th April and 10th May ig58. 2. Swallows were the most numerous species, followed by Ruffs, and there were several Whimbrels, Dunlins and Turtle Doves. Occurrences of Short-toed Lark, Woodchat Shrike and Sabine’s Gull are of interest. 3. A number of birds came aboard the ship to rest, a few roosting overnight. Whimbrels circled the vessel, alighting on it only momentarily ; Ruffs preferred to rest for a few seconds on the sea close to the ship, though in one case this proved fatal. Most of the Hirundines stayed for periods of from 5 to 25 minutes vol. lii] MIGRATION IN WESTERN APPROACHES 185 before continuing’ their migration. One Whimbrel, two Ruffs and a Swallow died from exhaustion. Water and ants’ eggs were put out, but were apparently ignored by most birds. 4. Considering the isolation of the ship, migration was heavy over the Western Approaches from 29th April to 6th May. During the first few days this was due to offshore drift in an easterly anticyclonic airstream ; but from late on 4th May there was a south-west cyclonic wind between the Azores and the Channel region, and continuing movement of Swallows was probably due to re-determined passage of birds which had previously reached the Azores. 5. Irish Sea movements at the end of April and early May 1958 are given for comparison. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS XCVHI. SQUACCO HERON Photographs by Eric Hosking (Plates 33-36) Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees DISTRIBUTION The herons and bitterns (Ardeidae) are a world-wide family of some fifty-nine species, and all but four of the fifteen in the Palaearctic have extensive breeding ranges that take them much or all of the way across Asia and Europe, while ten of these are also found in Africa, five of them in Australia and four of them in America. The Squacco Heron ( Ardeola ralloides ) is no exception to this, although its range is more limited than some. In the south of Europe, where it is a summer visitor, it breeds from Spain to the Balkans and south Russia, and from there it extends across Asia Minor, Iraq and Persia to Turkestan; at the same time it nests in Morocco and Tunisia, and over the southern half of the African continent including Madagascar. However, in Europe, and indeed over much of its range, it is scarce or even rare and forms but a small fraction of the great mixed colonies of, for example, Little Egrets ( Egretta garzetta), Cattle Egrets ( Ardeola ibis) and Night Herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax), in which it invariably nests. According to Dementiev and Gladkov (1951 ; see Harber, 1955), it is numerous in the area of the lower Dnieper and along the Kura in Transcaucasia, and in some years in the Astrakhan sanctuary, but “elsewhere over its range it is rare”. In 1956 James Fisher and the writer estimated only some 60-90 pairs of this species in the huge Coto Doiiana heronry in Spain, in a grand total of nearly 7,000 pairs of small heron species. Curiously, on the other hand, it has occurred nearly a hundred 186 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. Lll times in the British Isles — the last in Cambridgeshire and Glamorgan in 1954 ( ante a , vol. xlviii, p. 129) — and thus much more frequently than the other vagrant herons from southern Europe, with the exception of the Night Heron, though in the last eight years the Little Egret is the one that has become of annual occurrence. FIELD-CHARACTERS AND DISPLAY The Squacco is a bird of contrasting plumage : settled, particularly when on the ground, it appears predominantly yellowish-brown (and rather dingy at a distance), but the moment it takes the air it shows large areas of white and thus it seems almost as if it changes colour in a flash. This is because the white of the back, rump, tail, wings and lower under-parts is almost completely concealed by the long cinnamon feathers of mantle, scapulars and breast when the bird is at rest. The Cattle Egret always looks mainly white on the ground and so there is no chance of confusion between these two species as might be suggested by the plate in the Field Guide. In flight, even at a distance, the Squacco’s head always looks dark and stripy. At close range the Squacco has a strikingly serpentine appearance at times, due to the combination of a small and narrow head and a long, if thin, neck (plate 33) which merges into the body rather like a Bittern’s ( Botaurus stellaris). The serpent effect is somehow enhanced by the zebra-striped crest (plates 34 and 35) which is always present except in juvenile and first- winter plumages. In these plumages, and in the adult winter, the yellowish-buff of neck and throat is striped with more or less blackish lines, but in adult summer the throat and neck, as well as the long feathers of the lower throat and upper breast and the even longer filmy scapulars, become a uniform golden-buff — while the mantle changes to a rich pinkish, almost purplish-pink. All these feathers, and the crest, are raised in times of excitement at the nest (plate 34): they may be used in actual sexual display as well as in appeasing ceremonies during nest-relief, though the matter needs further study. As with the Little Egret, the feathers of mantle and scapulars have long, loose rami : these give a filmy effect to the raised spray of gold and pink, which because of these colours seems even more beautiful than the Little Egret’s white tracery. COLOUR-CHANGES IN SOFT PARTS More striking, however, than the summer plumage changes are those of legs and bill. In the last few years it has become increasingly realized that a number of heron species with soft parts that are brown, yellow or green tend to develop red, pink or orange legs and bills (and sometimes eyes as well) for a short period at the beginning of the breeding-season. Apart from a few isolated references to common Herons ( Ardea cinerea) with red or orange legs, bills and eyes — of which one of the earliest appears to have been that quoted in Salter (1904) — this phenomenon vol. lii] SQUACCO HERON STUDIES 187 was almost entirely overlooked until it was brought into prominence by Gough (1945)*. Her observations on common Herons in Co. Galway in 1944 were developed tentatively for this species bv Ruttledge (1949) and Tucker (1949), the former from systematic work at one colony and the latter from summarizing a number of isolated reports from various parts of the British Isles ; Tucker at the same time quoted Binsbergen (1941) as evidence from Holland and drew upon his own experience in Spain with Cattle Egrets (see also Tucker, 1936). A more detailed account, again with particular reference to the common Heron, then appeared in Lowe (1954) who summarized his own extensive observations and discussed the closely allied carotenoid pigments of yellow and red and the chemical changes involved. Lowe also showed that at times of excitement some reddening is momentary and akin to the human blush. Apart from common Herons and Cattle Egrets, other European species which have these changes include Little Egret (feet only), Night Heron (legs and feet) and Little Bittern ( Ixobrychus minutus). Our own work on the Coto Dohana suggested that the changes were entirely confined to the pre-nesting period and early stages of incubation, and this is confirmed by the observations on other species in India by Abdulali and Alexander (1952) and in Surinam by Haverschmidt (1953), though Gush (1952) in East Java gave records of four species which were mostly after the main local breeding-season. Reverting to the Squacco Heron, this has very marked colour changes. In winter, and indeed for most of the year, the legs and the basal half of the bill (including the bare loral patch) are varying shades of yellowish-green, while the tip and top of the bill are blackish and the eye is pale yellow. Our observations in Spain seem to show that most, if not all, breeding Squacco Herons develop bright red or at least pinkish-red legs at the onset of the nesting-season. These fade, as incubation advances, through dull pink and pinkish-brown to yellowish- brown and the normal off-season yellowish-green. The birds at the nest in these photographs (plates 33-35) were noted by Roger Peterson to take ai weeks to change from “red” to “greenish-yellow”. (No “blushing” was seen in this species, though momentary colouring was frequently noted in the Cattle Egrets in the Coto Dohana colony.) At the same time as the reddening of the legs, or more probably a little earlier (see below), the bill and loral patch apparently become a clear bright blue; this evidently fades more quickly until by the time the eggs are laid a typical individual has the distal third of the bill black (plates 33-35), shading through grey and grev-blue to bright blue at the base, which in turn gives way to a bright *lt is interesting to note, however, that some earlier writers, describing herons of various species from birds shot at breeding colonies, used the word “reddish” not infrequentlv — and Seebohm (1884), for example, generalized on the soft parts of the Squacco Heron from a stage which must have been not far past the peak of colour. 188 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII emerald green on the loral patch and round the eye. There is considerable variation in the amount of blue, perhaps indicative of the development of the individual, and in some cases the green of the loral area extends to the base of the bill. As far as the writer knows, the first people to comment on this blue colour- change, as recently as 1953, were Dr. P. R. Westall and John Wightman who visited the Coto Dohana colony on 26th April of that year : breeding was not so far advanced as it was in 1956 (“few, if any, completed clutches of any herons were present”) and they found that every one of about 20 Squaccos seen in the colony had “a uniform brilliant Cambridge blue bill without any noticeable dark tip”. It is interesting to note that all the Squaccos seen by Westall and Wightman still had yellowish-green legs, support- ing our impression that in this species the reddening of the legs begins later than the colour change in the bill. In 1956, when most of the herons had eggs by the time we arrived, we saw only two Squaccos with completely blue bills, but the leg colour was evidently at its peak. Also in 1956 there were a few Squaccos in the colony with the normal off-season yellowish-green bills and legs, and these were thought to be either first-summer or other non-breeding individuals. In 1957 when few herons and no Squaccos were nesting on the Coto Dohana, owing to drought conditions, only a small percentage of the Squaccos showed any blue on the bill or red on the legs, and only three (out of over a hundred examined) were in a condition approaching the incubation- stage colours of the previous year. At all stages the iris of the Squacco Heron appears to remain lemon-yellow. HABITAT AND NESTING Although The Handbook describes the habitat as similar to that of the Little Egret, there are distinct differences in Spain in the foraging zones and there, too, the Squacco Heron is more specialized in its choice of nest-site. Whereas the Little Egret feeds particularly in the open shallows and the Cattle Egret on dry or wet grassland, the more skulking and crepuscular Squacco Heron is found chiefly in lush water-meadows where it feeds mainly on aquatic insects and some fish (see also Mountfort, 1958; Valverde, 1958). Single birds may also be seen in stagnant ditches or vegetable plots, feeding on beetles, dragonflies and other insects. In other parts of its range the Squacco breeds in trees and reeds, as well as bushes, and a photograph of a more arboreal nest was published in British Birds in 1932 (vol. xlv, plate 64). But on the Coto Dohana, nests of this species are confined to denser parts of the tangles of bramble ( Rubus ) and tree-heath ( Erica arborea), and are seldom, if ever, to be seen in the surrounding cork oaks ( Quercus suber) like some of those of the Cattle and Little Egrets and Night Herons. The Squacco is slightly later than these others in settling down to breeding, though it had eggs in the Coto Dohana colony in the first week of May in 1956 ( cf . Handbook). VOL. LIl] SQUACCO HERON STUDIES 189 It is clearly irregular in its nesting-season and seems dependent on an established colony of other species. Nests vary from the extremely flimsy to the quite substantial. The light greenish-blue eggs are smaller than those of the other European herons; the clutch is usually 4-5, though quite often 6 eggs may be found. Incubation is by both sexes and the period is probably 21-22 days, though this needs confirmation. The nestling has been described in detail by Valverde (1953). REFERENCES Abdulau, H., and Alexander, H. G. (1952): “Ardeidae with red legs". Ibis, 94= 363- Binsbergen, N. ( 1 94 1 ) : Uit Neerlands Vogelleven. Amsterdam, p. 18. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. (1951): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. II, pp. 433-439. Gough, K. (1945) ‘‘Some observations on a remarkably coloured Heron”. Brit. Birds, xxxviii: 149-150. Gush, G. H. (1952): “Ardeidae with red legs". Ibis, 94: 687. Harber, D. I). (1955): Special Review of The Birds of the Soviet Union. Brit. Birds, xlviii : 275. Haverschmidt, F. (1953): “Ardeidae with red legs". Ibis, 95: 699. Lowe, F. A. (1954): The Heron. London, pp. 73-74 and 159. Mountkort, G. (1958): Portrait of a Wilderness. London. Ruttledge, R. F. (1949): “Bill and leg colouration of the Common Heron in the breeding-season”. Brit. Birds, xlii: 42-45. Salter, J. H. (1904): "Ornithological notes from mid-Wales”. Zoologist, 1904, p. 70. Seebohm, H. (1884): A History of British Birds. London. Vol. II, p. 491. Tucker, B. W. (1936): “The colouring of the soft parts of the Buff-backed Heron". Brit. Birds, xxx: 70-73. (1949): “Remarks on a seasonal colour change in the bill and legs of Herons”. Brit. Birds, xlii: 46-50. Valverde, J. A. (1953): “Description du poussin d'Ardcola ralloides”. Alauda, 21: 250-251. — -(1958): “An ecological sketch of the Coto Dofiana”. Brit. Birds, li : 1-23. THE PLUMAGE AND LEG COLOUR OF THE KITTIWAKE AND COMMENTS ON THE NON-BREEDING POPULATION Bv J. C. Coulson (Dept, of Zoology, Durham Colleges in the University of Durham) INTRODUCTION It is an advantage in ecological studies to be able to divide a population into age groups or into mature and immature stages In the Laridae (gulls and terns), where the majority of species have a distinctive “immature” plumage, it has been assumed in some publications that a bird in the plumage which resembles that of the breeding population is necessarily an adult bird, i.e. one capable of breeding.. This misconception probably arose, in part, from the name given to the final plumage — the adult plumage. It is now well established that sexually immature birds of many species may be found in apparent “adult” plumage, e.g. Fulmar 19.) BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI1 ( Fulmarus glacialis) (Fisher, 1952), Herring Gull ( Larus argentatus ) (unpublished observations) and Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla ) (Coulson and White, 1956). To avoid this confusion, the term “final plumage” is used in this present paper in preference to “adult plumage”. Stokoe (1958) has recently pointed out that the leg colour of the Kittiwake is not as constant as suggested in The Handbook (Witherby et al., 1938-41). He recorded that a proportion of the birds present at a colony had yellowish markings on the legs. The present paper presents observations made on the plumage and leg colour of Kittiwakes captured for ringing. The association of leg colour with age and the presence of non-breeding birds in the colonies is discussed. The birds examined in the present study were captured at Dunbar (East Lothian), the Fame Islands and North Shields (Northumberland) and at South Shields (Co. Durham). Observations on non-breeding birds were made at the Kittiwake colonies at Marsden (Co. Durham). PLUMAGE First year aiid second winter. During the first year of life, the young Kittiwake is in the characteristic “tarrock” plumage with brown-black wing-bar, collar and tip of tail. This plumage is moulted in July and August of the year following hatching, i.e. the “first summer” of the confusing notation in The Handbook. The characteristic tarrock plumage is lost during this moult in the first summer, and, from August onwards, the birds then resemble the “adult winter” bird in The Handbook's plate. However, close examination and particularly examination in the hand show the following differences : (i) Bill — Usually yellowish-green with dark tip to the upper mandible. (ii) Wings — Brown-black tipped feathers, often present in primary coverts, lesser coverts, or inner median and great coverts. These are probably unmoulted feathers and are the remnants of the broad black wing-bar of the tarrock plumage. (iii) 1st primary — Usually brown-black along entire outer web (see later). (iv) grd primary — Outer web with black tip usually penetrat- ing from 3 to 12 cm. further than on inner web (Fig. 1). Second summer. The characteristics of the second winter plumage are retained with the exception that the majority lose the dark tip to the bill. The dark nape, which in the breeding birds is lost during February or March, is often retained until June or July. These characteristics have been checked by examination of three birds ringed as nestlings and therefore of known age. Adult (breeding). The Handbook refers to the orbital ring being orange-red. In Plate 33 Eric. Hashing Squaccco Heron ( Ardeola ralloides) alert: Coto Donana, May 1956 Apart from the Little Bittern ( Ixobrychus minutus), this is the smallest European heron, only half the size of the common Heron (Ardca cinerea). A small, narrow head combines with a rather thick neck to give a serpent effect. The back, tail and wings are white; the rest is mainly yellowish-brown, striped on the neck, in winter and plain golden-buff and pinkish in the summer. White parts are conspicuous in flight, but at rest are concealed by the scapular plumes (see page 186). Platt. 34 Eric lloskiiig Souacco Heron (Ardcola ralloides) display : Goto Donana, May 1956 The feathers of crown and nape are whitish edged with black, and very long — thus forming a crest of zebra ribbons which make a striking spray when raised. During nest-relief the long golden-buff feathers of the throat and upper breast, and the filmy pink and gold plumes of the mantle and scapulars, are also raised (even more than in this photograph) and make this one of the most beautiful heron displays (see page 1 S(>). Both sexes incubate the 4-0 greenish-blue eggs. 1’i.ate 35 Eric Hosking Squacco Heron (.1 rdeola ralloides) at ease: Coto Donana, May 1956 As with some other herons, the yellowish-green legs become red early in the breeding-season, but in this species the bill (with the bare loral region) changes from black-tipped yellowish-green to a clear light blue (see page 187); the bill is soon black-tipped again (as here) and fades to blue-grey, while the loral area becomes emerald green. The iris remains pale yellow. The often rather flimsy stick-nests were 3-8 feet above ground in thickets of bramble and tree-heath. ■ Plate 36 Eric 1 1 asking Squacco Heron (Ardeola ralloid.es) perched: Goto Donana, May 1956 Nests may be in reeds, bushes or trees, though in this Spanish colony the species breeds only in the thickets. Like other small herons, the Squacco clambers about and clings to the most flimsy perches: here one is balancing on some dead twigs of tree-heath (in time the vegetation is mostly killed in the densest parts of the colony). The head always looks dark and stripy, and this is useful in flight when the bird might otherwise be confused with the Cattle Egret (A. ibis). vol.ui] KITTIWAKE PLUMAGE AND LEG COLOUR 191 Fig. i — The 3RD primary op the Kittiwake (Rissa tridaclyla) A is a breeding bird and B the second-summer. Note the extended base to the black tip of the latter. Lines show the measurements that have been taken of captive birds: from the base of the black on the inner web to the base of the black on the outer. Scale : about half natural size. a series of birds in final plumage, and caught in late August, the orbital ring was either very dark red or black. I have not examined, at this time of year, colour-ringed birds which are known to have bred, to confirm that these changes take place in breeding birds. VALIDITY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF DARK PIGMENTS ON 1ST AND 3RD PRIMARY AS A MEANS OF AGING Breeding birds. Colour-ringed breeding birds at North Shields and Dunbar were examined in 1958. Table I shows that only one of 21 breed- ing birds had more than 3 cm. of additional black coloration on the outer web of the 3rd primary. Birds with dark-tipped covert feathers ( second summer*). Table II shows that the majority of the birds in this group differed from the breeding birds shown in Table I. Only three out of 20 of these immature birds had less than 3 cm. of additional black coloration on the outer web of the 3rd primary. The data in Tables I and II suggest that it may be possible to distinguish second summer birds which have not retained dark coverts feathers from older birds with about 90% confidence. Non-breeding birds captured in breeding colonies and at a non- breeding resting site. Table III shows the condition of the 1st and 3rd primaries of non-breeding birds captured at a breeding colony, while Table IV *It has not been possible to show that all third summer birds lack dark- tipped covert feathers, but no breeding birds have been found in this condition. 192 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI1 gives similar information for birds captured at a non-breeding resting site. In both areas, birds in typical second summer as well as birds in final plumage were present, but there was a higher proportion of second summer birds in the resting area where no breeding takes place. LEG COLOUR The leg colour of breeding Kittiwakes is almost exclusively dark brown-black (Table V). As Stokoe (1958) has pointed out, there are Kittiwakes in final plumage which have aberrant leg Table I — Distribution of black on ist and 3RD primaries of breeding Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) ist primary 3rd primary Colour of outer web Amount by which black on outer web exceeds that on inner web Less than 3 cm. More than 3 cm All dark 1 O Half dark 3 - 1 All light grey 16 . Only two birds out of the 21 examined are above the diagonal line, i.e. 10%. Table II — Distribution of black on ist and 3RD primaries of non-breeding Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) with dark tipped feathers in coverts (second summer) ist primary 3rd primary Colour of outer web Amount by which black on outer web exceeds that on inner web Less than 3 cm. More than 3 cm All dark - _ 2 14 Half dark 0 - 3 Light grey Only one bird out of the 20 examined falls below the diagonal line, i.e. 5 0- Note; —Three birds in this table had been ringed as nestlings and were second summer. colour. Table V shows that the birds which have greenish-yellow markings on the legs (usually only on the outside of the tarsus) are probably immature birds in final plumage. Table V also shows vol.lii] KITTIWAKE PLUMAGE AND LEG COLOUR 193 that the leg colour of first summer birds is usually medium grey (lead grey) although The Handbook describes it as brown. Out of 174 birds examined in the hand, and of several hundred birds examined in the field through binoculars to see if they carried colour-rings, only one bird had outstandingly abnormal leg colour (other than the greenish-yellow already mentioned). This bird was seen at Marsden on 25th April 1956: it had conspicuous orange-red legs and feet and was almost certainly a non-breeding bird. It alighted on a number of unoccupied ledges Table III — Distribution of black on ist and 3RD primaries of non-breeding Kittiwakks (Rissa tridactyla) captured in a breeding colony of colour RINGED BIRDS ist primary 3rd primary Colour of outer web Amount by which black on outer web exceeds that on inner web Less than 3 cm. More than 3 cm All dark 2 13 Half dark 12 5 Light grey 26 0 34% are above the diagonal line and these represent the second summer birds. 66% have plumage resembling that of the breeding population. No birds in first summer plumage were captured, or seen in the colony. Table IV — Distribution of black on ist and 3RD primaries of all Kittiwakes captured at resting site (South Shields pier) ist primary 3rd primary Colour of outer web Amount by which black on outer web exceeds that on inner web Less than 3 cm. More than 3 cm All dark 8 22 Half dark 12 4 Light grey 14 o'" 57% are above the diagonal line and these represent second summer birds. 43% have plumage which represents that of the breeding population. Note: — in addition to the birds recorded above, 10 in the first-summer plumage (i.e. tarrocks), which increases the proportion of those with immature plumage to 63%. 194 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I and nests on the edge of the colony and was seen in two different colonies in the area on this day, but has not been seen since. The field record of the leg colour of this bird agrees closely with that recorded at the Bass Rock by Andrew T. Macmillan (Stokoe 1958), and may have been the same bird, since Coulson and White (1958a) have shown that non-breeding birds move from colony to Table V — Leg colour of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) according to age Black Medium grey Green- Yellow Red, yellow or brown Total Breeding adults I 2 I O I O 122 Non-breeding birds in adult plumage 21 O 2 O 23 2nd summer birds I I 2 6 0 19 1st summer birds I 9 0 0 10 colony. The possibility that this bird was a Red-legged Kittiwake ( Rissa brevirostris ), a species which breeds in the North Pacific, can be ruled out. The Red-legged Kittiwake has bright red legs and darker grey plumage than the “Atlantic” Kittiwake, while the bird seen at Marsden did not differ in wing colour from the neighbouring typical birds.* PROPORTION OF NON-BREEDING BIRDS IN THE POPULATION Coulson and White (1958b, 1959) have published information on the breeding success of the Kittiwake and also on the first- year and adult mortality. From these data it is possible to calculate the proportion of non-breeding (immature) Kittiwakes in the population as follows: Assuming that the breeding population remains approximately constant, Then 100 breeding pairs (year A) lay ... ... 205 eggs 56% of the eggs produce fledged young ... ... 115 young By the next breeding season (year A + 1), 21% of these have died, leaving ... ... ... 91 tarrocks By the next year (A + 2), a further 12% have died, leaving ... ... ... ... ... 80 birds In the next year (A + 3), two-thirds of these birds will breed for the first time, while the remaining one-third (after allowing for a further year’s mortality) are still non-breeding, that is ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 birds From these figures, which can be taken to represent the proportion of non-breeding birds in any year, it can be seen that during the early part of the breeding season there are 194 non- *Note that the Herring Gull occurs in forms which have either flesh or yellow coloured legs. vol.lii] K ITT I WAKE PLUMAGE AND LEG COLOUR 195 breeding- birds for every 200 breeding birds. Thus, 49% of the total population is non-breeding. At the end of the breeding season, with the addition of the birds of the year, there are 309 non-breeding birds to every 200 breeding Kittiwakes or 61% non-breeding. Of the 49% of the population which is non-breeding during the Fig. 2 — Monthly changes in the numbers of breeding and non-breeding Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) present at a colony at Marsden, Co. Durham Note that the breeding birds reach their peak in May while the non-breeders increase in numbers until August. breeding season, over half (58%) are in a plumage which, in the field, is unlikely to be distinguished from that of the breeding birds. By the end of the breeding season, the one-year-old birds have moulted out of the tarrock plumage and can also be confused with the breeding birds. The general trends of the numbers of breeding and non-breeding birds at a colony are shown in Fig. 2 (based on data in Coulson and White, 1956, 1958a, and unpublished data). It has also been 196 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII shown that the proportion of non-breeding Kittiwakes differ from colony to colony (Coulson and White, 1956), but the seasonal trends are the same; the majority of the non-breeding birds appear in the colony while the breeding birds have eggs or young. BEHAVIOUR OF NON-BREEDING BIRDS When the young have fledged, the breeding birds spend less time at the nests and these are often left unoccupied for short periods. These unoccupied nests are usually rapidly taken over by non-breeding birds. In addition, non-breeding birds take up sites on suitable ledges, both on the edge and within the colony. Thus there appears to be competition for suitable nest sites. On one particular nest site at Dunbar, seven different non-breeding birds were captured within twenty minutes ; one of these had been ringed as a nestling two years previously. Non-breeding birds often spend only a few minutes on a suitable ledge before flying off, circling several times and landing on the same or different site, an action which may occur repeatedly. Thus there is probably a higher proportion of non-breeding birds amongst birds flying about a colony, than there are in the colony as a whole. DISCUSSION Non-breeding Kittiwakes, which in the field are often indistinguishable from breeding birds, frequent colonies in large numbers and occupy suitable ledges, unoccupied nests, and even nests which contain eggs or young from which the parents are absent. These non-breeding birds and particularly the second summer birds, have a proportion of their members with greenish- yellow markings on the legs or feet. The majority of non-breed- ing birds appear in the colony during June and July and reach a peak in August. These findings may supply an explanation of the observations of Stokoe (1958), who, on 27th July 1958, observed that at least 12 out of 100 birds flying about the colony at St. Bee’s Head, Cumberland, had yellow markings on the leg. This observation was made at a time when it might be expected that there were a large number of non-breeding birds in the colony, and particularly amongst the birds flying about and alighting in the colony. REFERENCES Coulson, J. C., and White, E. (1956): “A study of colonies of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla (L.)”. Ibis, 98: 63-79. (1958a): “The effect of age on the breeding biology of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla”. Ibis, 100: 40-51. — (1958b): “Observations on the breeding of the Kittiwake”. Bird Study, 5: 74-83. (i9S9): “The post-fledging mortality of the Kittiwake”. In Press. Fisher, J. (1952): The Fulmar. London. Stokoe, R. (1958): “The leg colour of the Kittiwake". Brit. Birds, li : 398-399. Witherby, H. F., et al. (1938-41): The Handbook of British Birds. London. NOTES Increase in a Shetland Fulmar population. — During our residence in Shetland we took counts about once a week for two years of Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) on an area of cliffs in south- west Mainland. The counts are given in full and discussed in The Fulmar (1952) by James Fisher (pp. 347 and 482-48S). These Fulmar cliffs form part oftfie huge Fitful Head colony and, during subsequent visits to the district, we have gained a strong impression that the colony is still increasing. In 1938, therefore, we duplicated the counts during the first half of June and found a decided increase over our census area as a whole The increase, however, is not an even one: Villas and Blue Geo have gone up, North Geo is roughly unchanged and Stack of the Noun has gone down. Counts of “nest-sites”: first half of June 1948 319 305 317 Average 310 *949 33 1 329 Average 330 1958 416 408 Average 412 The figures given refer to “nest-sites”, not to birds (two or even three birds often sit at the same “nest-site”). No counts were taken during strong onshore winds or seas. L. S. \ . and U. M. Venables Frightened Common Scoters diving from the wing.— During- an attempted aerial survey from a light aircraft of wildfowl and waders in the Wash on 12th January 1958, we passed a flock of about 30 Common Scoters {Melanitta nigra ) living 100 feet below us, very close to the surface of the sea. Although some birds scattered as the plane overtook them, most dived into the sea from t e wing— a remarkable sight. Diving from the wing (under natural conditions) has been recored in some other sea-duck, e.g-. Long-tailed Duck ( Clangula hyemalis ) (see Handbook). C. H. Fry Golden Eagle with tuberculosis and aspergillosis.— At the end of Apri! 1958, I was sent the body of a Golden Eagle ( Aquila ch rysaetos) 1 which had been found lving dead in an eyrie in Perth- shire. I forwarded it at once to the Veterinary Laboratory, '.s 'gro\e, Lasswade, Midlothian, for a post-mortem examination as it appeared to be in good condition and there was no evidence hat it had been shot. The examination showed that the bird was affected with advanced and generalized tuberculosis and aspergillosis. Both lungs contained very large necrotic areas and the air sacs were distended with large masses of tuberculous 197 198 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII material. The liver and spleen were both affected, and there were lesions of tuberculosis in the heart muscle : this last is a very rare site of tuberculosis infection. Mr. J. E. Wilson, who carried out the examination, said that it was surprising- that a bird so badly affected with tuberculosis had remained in such good condition and apparently lived quite normally. It weighed 8 lbs., an average weight for a Golden Eagle. Mr. Wilson concluded his report by stating, “I have not examined many Golden Eagles, but this is the second one I have found to be affected with generalized tuberculosis”. George Waterston Kestrel’s unusual boldness in taking earthworms. — The Handbook includes earthworms in the list of foods of the Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ), but the following incident seemed unusual. At St. Ishmael’s, Pembrokeshire, on 25th November 1952, an immature female Kestrel used a fence-post, near which I was digging, as a look-out and repeatedly dropped down to take the freshly revealed earthworms from within 10 feet of me. This continued for about an hour. A cat frightened it away at one point, but it returned as soon as the cat disappeared'. It was eventually driven off by a passing dog that chased it and it did not then return. I took it to be a bird on passage. T. A. W. Davis Great Black-backed Gull diving from a height and submerging in an inland water. — During very cold weather at Cheddar Reservoir, Somerset, in December 1949, a Great Black-backed Gull [Laras marinas ) was seen by the writer attacking a Coot (Fulica atra ) which had become separated from many hundred of its companions. The latter, trying to escape, was forced to dive so often that it became exhausted and appeared slowly to be drown- ing. The gull, meanwhile, would sometimes rise to heights of 10-20 feet and then dive to attack its victim, with the result that it occasionally submerged partially or completely. The writer can trace no other record of Great Black-backed Gulls diving and submerging in an inland water, but a previous note ( antea , vol. xli, pp. 93-94) describes their doing so in two localities on the Pembrokeshire coast — with the editorial comment that ‘‘This habit is locally regular amongst Herring Gulls (L. argentatus), and Mr. J. E. Flynn has . . . frequently observed Great Black-backs diving for fish at sea. We have, however, no records for the latter species of the habit being observed close to land, although no doubt favourable conditions are all that are needed to evoke it”. Bernard King The separation of Subalpine and Spectacled Warblers in juvenile and first-winter plumages. — There is a very close similarity between juvenile and first-winter Subalpine Warblers (Sylvia cantillans) and Spectacled Warblers (S. conspicillata). Since only the former is at present on the British list and described in The Handbook, VOL. LIl] NOTES 199 there is a danger that conspicillata in one of these plumages might be identified as cantillans by an observer in this country. The best difference between the two species in these (and indeed in all) plumages is the colour of the closed wing. In conspicillata the greater coverts, primary coverts and outer webs of primaries, secondaries and especially tertiaries are chestnut brown, forming a conspicuous patch of colour that is reminiscent of a Whitethroat (S. communis) and usually distinct in the field. The tertiaries and inner secondaries have black centres bordered with a broad band of chestnut. In cantillans there is some brown on the closed wing due to the pale brown edges of the outer webs of the flight feathers (especially the tertiaries). It is, however, a rather pale brown, unlike the chestnut of conspicillata , and is hardly present on the inner webs; on the coverts it is very inconspicuous. The outer tail feathers of conspicillata are pure white on both webs, while those of cantillans, although sometimes white on the outer web, are usually suffused with brown/black. The length of the first primary is sometimes an indication of the species. In cantillans it is only rarely more than 3 mm. longer than the primary coverts, while in conspicillata it is often 4 mm. longer. Otherwise the wing-formulae are identical. The following wing-measurements are all of live birds trapped at La Tour du Valat in the Camargue : Subalpine Warbler ( Sylvia cantillans): 57-62 mm., and one each of 54, 55, 63 and 66 (90 measured) Spectacled Warbler (S. conspicillata): 53-62121111. (28 measured) It might also be added that these differences are valid for females of both species at all seasons of the year. J. J. Swift Abnormal growths on Starling’s head. — On 3rd April 1955, I watched a Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris), trying to get into a baited trap in my garden at Worcester Park, Surrey. The bird walked along the side of the trap, passing an open funnel leading to the bait, and not until it turned and retraced its steps did it sec the bait through the funnel and enter the trap: I caught the bird and found that its head — particularly the right side — was covered with growths to such an extent that it was sightless in the one eye. This probably accounted for the way in which it had missed the entrance funnel the first time. The growths were dark grey and wart-like in appearance and did not have the “tufts” or incisions as those on a Dunnock ( Prunella modularis) described by George Edwards ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 186-187). The beak was held open permanently by a growth at the back of the mouth and, as the bird would therefore starve, I killed it. Unfortunately I did not send the bird to a pathologist. W. D. Park House Sparrows soaking hard bread to soften it. — Our garden at Felixstowe, Suffolk, is well equipped to serve the needs of garden-loving birds and we have, besides a pool, a large earthen- ware saucer. We give the birds a variety of foods, but not hard 200 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI! pieces of stale bread. These must be provided by one of our neighbours and are a source of difficulty for the small birds. In May 1957, however, I noted that one cock House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus) was having no trouble : he would fly over the fence into our garden with a piece of hard bread, land on the lawn, hop to the earthenware saucer and drop the bread into the water. He would sometimes pick it out and drop it in again as many as four times. After wetting it, he would nibble the edible parts off the surface. The pieces were usually sufficiently large and softened for him to satisfy his appetite at once and depart, but he was - seen on more than one occasion to take a piece of bread back to the saucer and drop it in again. If, as sometimes happened, the saucer became dry, the sparrow would try it first and, on finding it useless, would carry the piece of bread to the water at the edge of the pool. As far as we saw, however, he never did this without trying the saucer first, perhaps because the water-level of the pool made it more difficult to retrieve the bread there. This behaviour was seen on a number of occasions during the summer of 1957, then again in 1958, when it was first noted on 12th May, and he is at it again this May (1959). G. L. Purser [Dr. J. D. Summers-Smith has drawn our attention to very similar behaviour reported by G. C. W. Clarke in Country Life in 1949 (vol. 105, p. 1131). Both observations are most interesting and it is to be presumed that the habit arose from the accidental discovery that water would soften bread, in the same way that tits [Pams spp.) learnt to open milk-bottles. — Eds.]. LETTERS FEEDING METHODS OF LONG-TAILED TITS WITH LARGE FOOD Sirs, — I was interested to read Mrs. J. Hall-Craggs’s description, together with Mr. Derek Goodwin’s comments, of Long-tailed Tits ( Aegithalos caudatus) eating largish morsels of food whilst hanging upside-down. I recall my own, evidently similar, observations on Long-tailed Tits feeding on spindle berries ( Euonymus ) in late winter near Oxford, of which I recorded (Ibis, vol. 96, p. 533): “Longtailed Tits first took the berries from the twigs, then later from the ground. Whereas the Parus species always clamped the berry to a branch between their feet to eat it, Longtailed Tits grasped the berry in one foot whilst hanging from a twig by the other. The leg with the food was usually un- supported, but was sometimes steadied against a twig”. This agrees well with the observations of Mrs. Hall-Craggs and Mr. Goodwin ; and I also agree with Mr. Goodwin that this is a fairly usual method for Long-tailed Tits to use in dealing with large morsels of food — but only if these are rather tough. They deal with equally large, but soft-bodied, caterpillars, for instance. VOL. LIl] LETTERS 201 by holding them in the bill and beating them against their perch: this is presumably the alternative method mentioned by Mrs. Hall- Craggs, when the bird was “in a beak-cleaning attitude’’. This, too, is the procedure adopted by Chaffinches ( Fringilla coelebs) and by many other small birds that have not the Pams tits’ un- usual ability to clamp food morsels to their perch, between their feet, to prepare them (c/. Gibb, Ibis, vol. 96, p. 532). I have also watched Long-tailed Tits eating in the third way described by Mrs. Hall-Craggs, namely by clamping large morsels to the perch • with their feet, whilst hanging upside-down. These attempts by Long-tailed Tits to deal with outsize morsels of food are certainly ingenious ; but I was greatly impressed by their inefficiency compared with the adept behaviour of the Pams tits when confronted with identical foods. Long-tailed Tits can- not really hack at their food whilst hanging upside-down, in the way that other tits do when standing upright with the whole weight of their bodies behind each stroke ; they are clearly better adapted for coping with their more usual, small-sized foods, which they can eat whole without preparation. Dr. W. H. Thorpe ( antea , vol. xlix, p. 389) has stressed the value of detailed observations on the feeding-habits of birds; and this is a field in which amateur observation can play a prominent part (see Gibb and Hartley, antea, vol. L, p. 278). John Gibb PHALAROPES IN 1957 Sirs, — Reading the paper by Bryan L. Sage and Bernard King on “The influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957’’ (antea, pp. 33-42), I note that no reference is made to the place of origin of the first two waves of Red-necked Phalaropes ( Phalaropus lobatus) that apparently arrived in S.E. England during the periods i4th-i6th and 24th-28th August in that year. Both these periods marked the termination of short interludes of predominantly south-easterly weather on the east coast, with establishment of col conditions across the North Sea ahead of depressions moving in from the Atlantic. The first of these periods saw the arrival of the first Little Stint ( Calidris minuta), Wood Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola), Spotted Redshank (T. erythropus) and Ruffs ( Philomachus pugnax) of the autumn in north-eastern coastal regions, while the second produced a second Spotted Redshank and numbers of Bar-tailed Godwits ( Limosa lapponica ), all birds of Scandinavian origin. Futhermore, during these periods considerable numbers of Black Terns arrived in eastern coastal waters. The evidence, then, appears to indicate that the first influx of Red-necked Phalaropes originated in Scandinavia, and this conclusion is substantiated by the absence of any numbers of Grey Phalaropes ( Ph . fulicarius) in these early movements. 202 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII Later influxes of waders (traceable to a Scandinavian origin) occurred on or about 13th and 22nd September, and it is possible that these may also have augmented the numbers of Red-necked Phalaropes along the eastern seaboard. James D. Parrack Sirs, — As a meteorologist, I was extremely interested in the recent analysis of the influx of phalaropes (mainly Grey Phalaropes, Phalaropus fulicarius) in September 1957 (Sage and King, 1959). As Kenneth Williamson does not say in his comments quoted there, I am wondering whether he deduced the origin of the birds by plotting trajectories? I feel that two points ought to be appreciated by the reader. Firstly, a study of the weather chart, which only indicates what is happening at any one instant, does not necessarily show the trajectory of the air arriving at any one point, as this must also depend upon the changing pattern of the weather charts. Secondly, the birds may not travel passively with the wind, but may fly on a heading, in which case their trajectory will be the vector resultant of the wind and the heading. Recently Lack (1958) has shown that, for the short North Sea crossing, birds do maintain a constant heading by means of their sense of direction, but make no allowance for wind drift. From Fisher and Lockley (1954) it can be implied that Grey Phalaropes normally head between south-east and south-west to their winter quarters. If it is assumed that they head due south at 25 m.p.h., this gives a second trajectory which, in general, would diverge from the corresponding air trajectory. However, birds probably do not keep on such a constant heading indefinitely ; hence in such instances when they are forced by strong winds to fly long distances they probably set off on a constant heading, but eventually give up and drift downwind. If this is true, then the birds’ real route will be, in general, somewhere between the air trajectory and the idealized trajectory just proposed. The above two trajectories arriving in Cornish waters on 12th and 13th September 1957 were not significantly different. Surely the depression which is suggested to have caused the minor peak on 28th September would have forced birds to arrive in the south-west of the British Isles from the 23rd to the 25th? This depression caused south to south-west winds of 23-34 ni.p.h. in the south-western coastal districts on 24th and 25th September. By the 26th the wind was north to north-easterly and 16-23 m.p.h., decreasing to about 5 m.p.h. as the depression moved eastwards and died out. d'he minor peak on 28th September occurred during a period of mainly anticyclonic conditions which began late on the 26th and continued to the end of the month with north-westerly winds of 5-17 m.p.h. Looking back to the major peak on the i3th-i4th, a decrease in wind from about 23 m.p.h. on the 14th to 10 m.p.h. on the 15th produced a sharp fall in the number of phalaropes VOL. LI I ] LETTERS 203 (less than half on the 15th). Normally only small numbers of these birds occur in the autumn in the British Isles, and phalaropes migrating- southwards over the sea would not be expected in this country unless the winds were strong (probably greater than 20 m.p.h.), and had a westerly component. During the period 27th-30th September an anticyclone extended almost from Iceland to the Azores, so that new arrivals of Grey Phalaropes into the British Isles would not be likely. Is it not possible that the birds in the south-west could have dispersed during the period i-j-th-iyth September, mainly up the English and Bristol Channels, or even back to the Atlantic? This is partly supported by the data which show a small wave of birds appearing first in Cornwall and Co. Wexford on the I3th-i4th, in Somerset on the 14th and in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight on the 1 4th- 1 6th. After these dates there were only sightings of ones and twos except for ten in Somerset on 21st September (col on the i9th-20th, wind increasing from south to about 5-15 m.p.h. on the 2 1 st), and thirteen in Cornwall on 28th September. It is significant that these higher counts occurred at week-ends. Peter F. Abbott REFERENCES Fisher, J., and Lockley, R. M. (1054): Sea -Birds. London, pp. 151-164. Lack, D. (1958): “Migrational drift of birds plotted by radar”. Nature, 182: 221-223. Sage, B. L., and King, B. (1959): ‘‘The influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957”. Brit. Birds, lii : 33-42. RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This month’s summary is confined to the observations of rarer birds during the period 22nd February-3rd May. UNUSUAL OCCURRENCES The most remarkable event of the period was the trapping on Fair Isle, on 27th April, of a Song Sparrow ( Melospiza rtielodia) which was still present — and singing — on 7th May. This American bunting has not previously been recorded in Europe and it appears to be almost unknown in captivity in this country. Another American occurrence, which is also considered very un- likely to have been an escape, was the male Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris) which appeared in the area of Reading (Berkshire) on 19th April and remained until the 27th, chiefly on gravel-pits at Theale and Burghfield. During the course of its stay it was 204 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. Lll watched by dozens of observers. There is only one previous fully authenticated record of this species in Britain ( antea , vol. xlviii, p. 377 ; vol. xlix, plate I), though it is interesting to note that one was reported from Holland during March. Other rarities have included a White-winged Black Tern ( Chlidonias leucopterus) off Selsey Bill (Sussex) on 18th April and a probable Caspian Tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ) — unfortunately the details are incomplete — at the same place on the 25th. A Moustached Warbler ( Lusciniola melanopogon) was identified at Lundy (Devon) on 2nd May, but on the whole, southern species were poorly represented during the period though there were un- confirmed reports of a Woodchat Shrike ( Lanius senator) near Penzance (Cornwall) on the early date of 31st March and of two Black-winged Stilts ( Himantopus himantopus) at Holy Island (Northumberland) on 13th April. Also there was a Purple Heron (Ardea pupurea) within a few miles of Cambridge from 4th to 6th April. Among more northern species, a Great Snipe ( Capella media) was identified on Farlington Marshes (Hampshire) on 4th April and what was presumably the same bird was also seen on 16th March and 21st April. As in 1958, there have been several reports of Cranes ( Megalornis grus), following the Slimbridge observation already mentioned (antea, p. 140), but these are being followed up to make sure that the possibility of escaped individuals of other species of crane can be ruled out. A Spotted Crake ( Porzana porzana) at Cliffe (Kent) on 1st February was the second observation there during the past winter ( cf . antea, p. 32), and the total of records of this species in recent months was brought to 5 by the ones which were picked up dead in Plymouth (Devon) on 23rd March and near Knightwick (Worcester) on 8th April: the latter was an adult male in breeding condition. A Dipper on Foula on 1st April was thought to be the Black-bellied form (Cindus c. aquaticus). All other observations are being held over until our next issue. mmcH NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trival alterations: t. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Willow Warbler, Black-tailed Codwit), but group terms should not (e.g. warblers, godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds. with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1933 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “1st January 1955” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “1st Jan.”, ‘‘Jan. 1st”, or even ‘‘Jan. 1”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form: Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds , xlii : 129-134. WiTHERBY, H. F. (1S94): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out of each Table should be carefully planned with an eye to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide); sketches of birds, however, should be onlv slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. Types C.F.18 and C.F.24 (8 X 30-5 mm.) are highly favoured by bird-watchers. C.F. 24 having an extra wide field of view which is particularly valuable for observing birds in flight. With those who prefer a higher magnification, type C.F.43 (10 X 42 mm.) is a firm favourite. •SUuKuiiVld. fot mm smuDLti ANNIESLAND, GLASGOW, W.3 London Office : Kinnaird House, 1 Pall Mall East, S.W.l Printed in Gt. Britain by Wituerby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H F & G. W1THF.RRY. LTD., 5, Warwick Coort, W.C.i BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address: 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £ 2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LI I, Number 7, July 1959 PAGE Wader migration in North America and its relation to transatlantic crossings. By Dr. I. C. T. Nisbet ... ... ... ... ... ... 205 Migrations of the Oystercatcher. By D. G. Andrew ... ... ... 216 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCIX — Alpine Swift. Photographs by E. Benz and F. Oberholzer (plates 37-42). Text by Hans Arn-Willi 221 An historic series of Cuckoo photographs. By Oliver G. Pike, Hon.F.R.P.S. (plates 43-44) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226 Visible migration in N.E. Norfolk in November 1956. By R. K. Murton 228 • Notes : — Duration of dives of Black-throated Diver (Mr. and Mrs. A. E. Joyce) 235 Hobbies attacking Peregrines (Georges Olivier) ... ... ... ... 236 Flightless Woodpigeon fed by another (M. J. Dawson) ... ... ... 236 Aggressive behaviour of feral pigeon towards House Sparrow (C. J. O. Harrison) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 236 Myrtle Warblers crossing the Atlantic on board ship (Miss Katherine Tousey; Prof. John M. R. Margeson) ... ... ... ... ... 237 Starlings affected by smog (W. M. Peet) 238 Reed Buntings alighting on water (Edwin Cohen) ... ... ... 238 Letters: — Blackbirds feeding on marine worms (Dr. C. Suffern) 239 The kites of sixteenth-century London (Dr. I. C. T. Nisbet) 239 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett. the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. 2 SEP 19® Vol. LI1 No. 7 JULY 1959 BRITISH BIRDS WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA AND ITS RELATION TO TRANSATLANTIC It is now generally accepted that the American waders which occur each autumn in western Europe have crossed the Atlantic unaided, in many (if not most) cases without stopping on the way. Yet we are far from being able to answer all the questions which are posed by these remarkable long-distance flights. Why, for example, do some species cross the Atlantic much more frequently than others? Why are a few birds recorded each year, and not many more, or many less? What factors determine the dates on which they cross? Why are most of the occurrences in the autumn? Why, despite the great advantage given to them by the prevail- ing winds, are American waders only a little more numerous in Europe than European waders in North America? To dismiss the birds as “accidental vagrants”, or to relate their occurrence to weather patterns, as have been attempted in the past, may answer some of these questions, but render the others still more acute. One fruitful approach to these problems is to compare the frequency of the various species in Europe with their abundance, migratory behaviour and ecology in North America. If the likelihood of occurrence in Europe should prove to be correlated with some particular type of migration pattern in North America this would offer an important clue as to the causes of trans- atlantic vagrancy. In this paper some aspects of wader migration in North America will be discussed from this viewpoint. The basic source of information on the distribution of North CROSSINGS By I. C. T. Nisbet SOURCES OF INFORMATION 205 206 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII American birds is the Fifth A.O.U. Check-List (1957). Brief accounts of migration routes of some species are given by Bent (1927-29), Pough (1951) and Snyder (1957); these have been supplemented by numerical data drawn from the state and regional avifaunas listed at the end of this paper, and by unpublished information and comments supplied privately by friends. British records are quoted from The Handbook (Witherby et al ., 1941), later information being derived largely from records published and abstracted in this journal. No claim is made to accuracy in detail, since much of the information used is unpublished or un- quantitative, and the author is not competent to judge the accuracy of many of the records of the rarer species. Minor errors in the data used will not impair their statistical validity. I am greatly indebted to Messrs. H. H. Axtell, J. Baird, J. A. Hagar and C. S. Robbins for their invaluable assistance in the preparation of this paper. AUTUMN MIGRATION PATTERNS IN NORTH AMERICA At the risk of oversimplification, the waders of eastern North America can be divided into six classes on the basis of their autumn migration patterns there. Spring migration will be discussed in a separate section. Class I. Coastal breeding birds of temperate and subtropical regions, usually with fairly short migrations. These include the following species, listed with their northern limits in summer and winter: American Oystercatcher* (39°N. to 35°N.), Eastern Piping Plover (5i°-34°), Wilson’s Plover (38°-28°), Eastern Willet (45°-37°) and Black-necked Stilt (32°-23°). Class II. Temperate and subarctic breeding species of the interior (“prairies”, etc.), which occur east to the Atlantic coast (more commonly towards the south) on autumn passage. These include: Western Piping Plover, Long-billed Curlew (increasing but still rare on the Atlantic coast), Western Willet, Marbled' Godwit (rare), American Avocet (rare but increasing) and Wilson’s Phalarope (rare). Class III. Temperate and subarctic species of inland habitat, which occur commonly on migration near the Atlantic seaboard but are less common on the coast itself: Killdeer, American Wood- cock, Wilson’s Snipe, Upland Plover, Spotted Sandpiper, Solitary Sandpiper. Class IV. Arctic or subarctic species of eastern or central Canada, which migrate in large numbers down the Atlantic coast and include the most numerous species there: Hudsonian Whimbrel, Greater and' Lesser Yellowlcgs, Short-billed Dowitcher, Least, Pectoral and Scmipalmated Sandpipers. A few of these ^Scientific names are given in an appendix; subspecific names are used where relevant to the discussion. vol. li i ] WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA 207 species, notably the Pectoral Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow- leg's, also occur in large numbers in fresh-water habitats inland. A number of Holarctic species (e.g. Ringed and Grey Plovers, Turnstone, Knot, Dunlin and Sanderling) also belong to this group, but fall outside the scope of this paper. Class V. Western arctic species whose main migration route is through the centre of the continent, but which occur in greater or lesser numbers on the Atlantic coast in autumn : American Golden Plover (immatures), Long-billed Dowitcher, Stilt Sand- piper, Western Sandpiper and Buff-breasted Sandpiper (rare on the coast). Baird’s Sandpiper, although breeding east to north- west Greenland, also has an overland migration route and rarely wanders east to the Atlantic coast. Class VI. Western or central arctic species whose autumn migration is considered to be largely offshore from eastern Canada to South America; these occur with varying degrees of abundance in the north-eastern United States but are rare in the south-east: American Golden Plover (adults), Eskimo Curlew, Hudsonian Godwit and White-rumped Sandpiper. Many Hudsonian Whimbrel also use this route, as does the Nova Scotia population of Eastern Willets, while some Pectoral Sandpipers and Lesser Yellowlegs probably use a shorter over-water route from the eastern United States to the West Indies. Each of these categories is somewhat arbitrarily defined, and 'Some species may qualify for inclusion in more than one. For example, Pough (1951) suggests that most of the species in Class W use the over-water route of Class VI, at least in small numbers, but he gives little evidence except their sporadic occurrence at Bermuda. A more detailed analysis of the migration routes of North American waders would require more data than are at Dresent available. (_ Quantitative information. To supplement the above accounts with comparative numerical lata, Table I has been constructed. This gives the size of some of he larger flocks or concentrations of each species which occur lowadays in four well-watched areas: the coasts of Massachusetts, Wew Jersey and Maryland, and the shores of Lake Erie near luffalo, New York. The figures should on no account be used as luantative measures of relative abundance, since they have been ollected in widely different ways, but they do give a rough idea f the comparative status of the various species in different parts f the eastern United States. Historical changes in abundance, ;hich have been profound in many species, are indicated briefly 1 the list for Massachusetts, but are less thoroughly known else- •here. For comparison, the total numbers of British records of ach species are also included in the table, and these will be iscussed in the next section. 208 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Table I — High counts of American waders on autumn migration in various areas, wit TOTAL NUMBER OF AUTUMN AND WINTER RECORDS IN TIIE BRITISH ISLES Data from Massachusetts and Maryland are the highest numbers normally expected in tli more favoured coastal areas, those from New Jersey and Lake Erie are the maximui numbers observed in sample counts during 3 and 15 years respectively. Published dat from Bailey (1955), Griscom and Snyder (1955), Urner and Storer (1949) and Stewart ar Robbins (1958); unpublished estimates by J. Baird (Massachusetts), ^ (Maryland) and H. H. Axtell (Lake Erie). C. S. Robbit Class Species Massa- chusetts New Jersey Mary- land Lake Erie Britain to 1940 since 19. I American Oystercatcher — I 1 h — — — Piping Plover (subsp.) 20 be 75 10 h — — — Wilson’s Plover — 1 2 h — — — Eastern Willet — e — e IOO f — — — Black-necked Stilt — — — — — II Long-billed Curlew — b 1 — — — — Marbled Godwit 2 b 2 5 — — — Western Willet 10 5lf — e 1 — — ’American Avocet — — 1 — — — Wilson’s Phalarope 1 2 — — — I III ’Killdeer 60 be 53 50 g 637 8 4 ’Wilson’s Snipe 12 a 10 10 g — i e i e American Woodcock 5 a 1 g — g — — — * Upland Plover 4 a 45 — — 15 1 ’Spotted Sandpiper 6 a 48 12 673 5 e — e ’Solitary Sandpiper 8 3 2 6 5 4 IV ’Hudsonian Whimbrel 50 1. 414 75 I I — 2 ’Short-billed Dowitcher 1,500 be 2,600 75 12 — — ’Lesser Yellowlegs 1,500 c 500 >50 1 13 13 c. 30 ’Greater Yellowlegs 250 d 900 25 m 4 5 ’Least Sandpiper IOO 3 °° 300 253 4 I ’Pectoral Sandpiper 40 135 40 l6o 62 c. 90 Semipalmated Sandpiper 20,000 4,000 1,500 1>348 I 2 V Long-billed Dowitcher 15 40 — e — 24 f 11 f ’Baird’s Sandpiper I 3 — 20 5 2 Western Sandpiper 12 552 75 5 — — Stilt Sandpiper IO 22 25 6 — I Buff-breasted Sandpiper 2 1 — 1 l8 10 VI ’American Golden Plover 40 bd 38 5 36° 4 e 1 e ’Eskimo Curlew — b — — — 8 — Hudsonian Godwit 20 bd 2 1 1 — — ’White-rumped Sandpiper 50 d 35 10 10 14 13 Notes — a: has decreased in recent years, b: c : decreased greatly in nineteenth century, has increased in last 50 years, d : has increased in last 25 years, e: probably overlooked. arbitrarily listed as this species, although it is not yet officially admitted to I British list. more common in winter, more common in summer. f: g: h: * denotes a species that has been recorded in Greenland. vol. lii] WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA 209 RECORDS IN GREAT BRITAIN In Table I the British records are separated into those made before 1940 (largely specimen records) and those made subsequently (largely sight records). The differences in relative frequency between the two sets of data (e.g. the decrease in records of the Upland Plover and the increase in those of the Lesser Yellowlegs) are thought to be due mainly to real changes in the relative frequency of the occurrence of the species, although other changes, such as the decline of indiscriminate shooting in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are doubtless also important. It is necessary, however, to realise the bias inherent in both sets of data. “Rarity-hunting” has always been concentrated on fresh waters inland and on lagoons and marshes along the coast, and this has preferentially favoured detection of birds characteristic of those habitats, against those which prefer open ffats (Short-billed Dowitcher and Semipalmated Sandpiper) or drier ground (e.g. American Golden and Upland Plovers). More- over, those species which closely resemble common European birds (e.g. American Oystercatcher and American Golden Plover) are much more likely to be overlooked than the others. With these factors borne in mind, perusal of Table I reveals two striking facts. In the first place, some species which have occurred in Britain are little more than vagrants to the Atlantic coast of North America (e.g. Baird’s and Buff-breasted Sand- pipers and Wilson’s Phalarope). The Buff-breasted Sandpiper, indeed, is almost as common in Britain as in any area of similar size in eastern North America! In the second place, many of the species which are most abundant on the North American coast are either unrecorded in Britain (Willet) or extremely rare there (Hudsonian Whimbrel, Short-billed Dowitcher*, Semi- palmated Sandpiper). Of these commoner coastal species (Classes I, III and IV), the Killdeer needs special consideration, since it usually occurs in Britain in winter, not in autumn like the other species. The Killdeer is in fact unique in that it is sometimes carried north- ward up the Atlantic coast bv late autumn and winter storms (Chadbourne, 1889; Palmer, 1949; Griscom and Snyder, 1955): occurrences in Britain may well derive from similar weather situations. Among the other species, Table I shows that those most frequent in Britain are birds of inland and fresh-water habitats (Group III plus the Pectoral Sandpiper and Lesser Yellow- *British specimens of dowitchers have not yet been critically examined (see Ibis, vol. 08, p. 168 and vol. 100, p. 300), but the dates of occurrence suggest that they must consist largely, if not entirely, of the Long-billed species (c/. Pitelka, 1050; Griscom and Snyder, 1955). This is confirmed by the field notes on some of the more recent birds (anted, vol. xl, pp. 153-154; vol. xliv, pp. 315-316; vol. xlv, pp. 425-426; etc.), which include all the diagnostic field-characters of this species. 210 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII legs), while the truly coastal species (Group I and the rest of Group IV) are comparatively poorly represented. In particular, the two species from this group with long over-water migrations (the Eastern Willet and Hudsonian Whimbrel) are extremely rare in Europe in autumn : the former has never been recorded in Britain at all, although there is one record in France (Mayaud, 1938). 1 hus little support can be found for the “drift” theory of transatlantic vagrancy (Williamson, 1954, 1955), for drift should act selectively on the species with coastal and over-water migration routes rather than on the inland forms. It could, of course, be argued that the coastal species are more likely to be overlooked in Britain than the others, but this could not apply to the Willet, Greater Yellowlegs or Short-billed Dowitcher, nor could it explain the extreme rarity of some of the other species. It seems safe to conclude that the inland species show a much greater tendency towards transatlantic vagrancy than the others, a point which will be discussed later. Turning to the arctic and subarctic birds (Classes IV, V and VI), it is surprising to find that the western species (Classes V and VI) are much more frequent in Britain than the species of more eastern distribution (e.g. Baird’s, Least and Semipalmated Sandpipers and the Short-billed Dowitcher). It is interesting to note that all these western species overlap on one area — the MacKenzie river delta in north-west Canada, which forms the western limit of the White-rumped Sandpiper and the eastern limit of the Long-billed Dowitcher — and that this area is also the only place on the arctic coast where the Lesser Yellowlegs and the Solitary Sandpiper breed. Indeed, as Mr. J. A. Hagar has pointed out to me, the MacKenzie delta is the only place in North America where most of the species which occur in Great Britain with the greatest frequency can be found together. The shortest route from the MacKenzie delta to southern England ( via northern Greenland and Iceland) is less than 3,500 miles, and it is tempt- ing to suggest that some birds from this area might be caught up in arctic storms and fly directly — perhaps even non-stop — to western Europe. This theory is attractively simple, but it has certain fatal dis- advantages. In the first place, records from Greenland (Table I) do not support such a theory of vagrancy from the western arctic. Secondly, the distribution of records in Europe, with a concentra- tion in south-west England and extremely few in Norway or Ice- land, suggests that the birds arrive from the W.S.W. rather than from the N.N.W., and the few records of the weather preceding arrivals of American waders in Europe fully support this interpretation (Boston et al., 1949; Anon., 1951, 1955a; McLean and Williamson, 1958 ; Williamson and Ferguson-Lees, in press). Thirdly, the MacKenzie delta enjoys relatively calm weather in autumn, the main storm track being well to the south and east, over Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Anon., 1955b). vol. li i ] WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA 211 It is in this area that we should look for the source of trans- atlantic vagrants, as Williamson and Ferguson-Lees (in press) have emphasized. However, we should not overlook the suggestion that many of the birds reaching Britain may derive ultimately from breeding areas in north-west Canada and Alaska, even though some of the species concerned also breed much farther east. Perhaps the most plausible explanation of the fact that the species of Classes V and VI are relatively more frequent in Europe than those of Class IV is that in all the former species a part of the population undertakes a long north-west to south-east (or W.N.W. to E.S.E.) migration within North America before turning south to its wintering ground. It might be surmised that birds with such a migration are more likely to wander eastwards over the Atlantic than birds following the coast southwards ; alternatively (or additionally), they might be more likely to continue eastwards once they have crossed the coast. In either case, once over water they would be likely to be picked up by Atlantic depressions and be carried E.N.E. to the British Isles. A theory of this kind would be the only possible explanation of the frequent occurrence in Europe of the Long-billed Dowitcher* and the Buff-breasted Sandpiper. It would explain why the Pectoral Sandpiper, which often wanders east of its migration route in the arctic (Snyder, 1957), is far more frequent in Britain than Baird’s Sandpiper, which is much more numerous in Green- land (Salomonsen, 1951), but whose straggling takes the form of a southward rather than an eastward flight. It could easily be extended to the Lesser Yellowlegs, whose breeding range extends north-west to the MacKenzie delta and which presumably migrates from there to the south-east. Finally, it derives strong support from the occurrence in Britain of Wilson’s Phalarope, a southern species which is rare on the Atlantic coast and which could hardly have reached Britain in any other way. It does not, however, apply to the Upland Plover and other southern species of inland habitat, which have reached Britain with surprising frequency, but which are not known to have a west-east migration route within the continent. It seems likely that these species, which occur very widely at inland localities in North America, have less precisely determined migration routes than the coastal species, and may hence be more likely to wander over the sea. EUROPEAN SPECIES IN NORTH AMERICA The best support for the above arguments arises from the fact that exactly the same conclusions apply in reverse to the occurrences of European waders in North America. Although fewer details of these records are available, the regular occurrence of the Ruff and the not infrequent occurrence of the Lapwing, Curlew Sandpiper and European Woodcock in autumn in eastern *See footnote on page 209. 212 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII North America combine with records of the European Curlew (2), Bar-tailed Godwit (3), European Snipe (several) and Jack Snipe to lay emphasis on species with extensive east-west migrations in Europe. Moreover, at least one of the transatlantic crossings by the Lapwing was proved to have resulted from a westward move- ment within the British Isles (Witherby, 1928). Per contra , many breeding-species of south-west Europe have never been recorded in North America, while of the breeding birds of Iceland there is only one record of the Black-tailed Godwit, only three of the European Whimbrel and none at all of the European Oystercatcher, Faeroe Snipe or Redshank! The surprising frequency of transatlantic crossings by European birds in face of the adverse prevailing wind may thus result merely from the great abundance of the species involved in the east-west movement. The species which migrate eastwards in North America are much less numerous. TRANSATLANTIC OCCURRENCES IN SPRING The few records of American waders in Britain in spring, listed in Table II, present a still more striking contrast to their status in North America. The Buff-breasted Sandpiper, for example, has never been recorded on the Atlantic coast of North America in spring, Baird’s Sandpiper has occurred there only a very few times, and Wilson’s Phalarope is not even recorded annually! Likewise the Lesser Yellowlegs, the American Golden Plover, and the White-rumped, Pectoral and Western3 Sandpipers are all more or less scarce on the coast (the spring migration routes of all these species are through the centre of the continent), while abundant coastal species such as the Least and Semipalmated Table II — Spring1 records of American wadf.rs in the British Isles Killdeer 5 American Golden Plover ... ... 1 Dowitcher (sp.)2 ... ... ... 1 Hudsonian Whimbrel ... ... 1 Spotted Sandpiper . . ... ... 6 Solitary Sandpiper ... ... ... 3 Lesser Yellowlegs ... ... ... 7 Greater Yellowlegs ... ... ... 2 Baird’s Sandpiper ... ... ... 1 White-rumped Sandpiper ... ... 4 Pectoral Sandpiper ... ... ... 6 Western Sandpiper3 ... ... ... 1 Buff-breasted Sandpiper 1 Wilson’s Phalarope 2 Notes — r: “Spring” is defined as the period mid-March to mid-June. 2: The other spring record in Europe was L. g. griseus (Salomonsen, >057)- 3 : For identification see Nisbet (in preparation); not yet officially admitted to the British list. vol. lii] WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA 213 Sandpipers are not yet represented by a single spring record in Britain. The spring records of European waders in North America are equally striking, including the regular occurrence of the Curlew Sandpiper and the Ruff, and one or two recent records of the Spotted Redshank. The only plausible interpretation of such discrepant records is that they do not represent transatlantic migration at all, but are of birds which have crossed the Atlantic much earlier — perhaps the previous autumn, perhaps between South America and Africa — and have migrated north on the wrong side of the Atlantic. That such an explanation is possible is shown by several cases of Killdeers and Lesser Yellowlegs wintering in Great Britain, and by records of American Golden Plover, Pectoral, Baird’s and Buff-breasted Sandpipers in Africa, and of Curlew Sandpiper and Ruff in South America ( A.O.U . Check-List ; also Williams, 1952, and Bourne, 1955). SUMMARY 1. The relative frequency of occurrence of various American waders in Great Britain is compared with the available information on their migration patterns and abundance in North America. Some species which have occurred in Britain are rare on the American coast, while there are especially few British records of the species which are most abundant there. Species of inland habitat are relatively more frequent than those of the coast; long- distance migrants are more frequent than short-distance migrants ; and species from western arctic America are much more frequent than species from eastern arctic America. Transatlantic vagrancy occurs mainly in those species in which a part of the population has an extensive west-to-east movement within North America. 2. Spring records in Britain bear still less relation to the relative abundance of the species concerned in eastern North America. It is suggested that the birds have either wintered in the Old World or crossed from South America to Africa on spring migration. 3. Similar conclusions apply in reverse to the records of European waders in eastern North America. REFERENCES American Ornithologists’ Union (1957): Check-List of Xorth American Birds. Baltimore. Anon. (1951): “Notes on some unusual occurrences during the autumn of 1950. Part 1”. Brit. Birds , xliv: 245-247. (1955a): “Lesser Yellowlegs in Britain, 1953-54”. Brit. Birds, xlviii : 363-366. 214 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii (1955b): U.S. Navy Marine Climatic Atlas of the World. Washington. D.C. Ai’stin, O. L. (1945): Birds of Newfoundland Labrador. Cambridge, Mass. Bailey, W. (1955): Birds in Massachusetts : When and Where to Find Them. S. Lancaster, Mass. Bent, A. C. (1927-29): Life Histories of North American Shore Birds, Order Limicolae. Parts I-II. Washington, D.C. Boston, F. K., Lousley, E. H., and Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Greater Yellowshank in Northamptonshire”. Brit. Birds, xlii: 155-158. Bourne, W. R. P. (1955): “The birds of the Cape Verde Islands”. Ibis, 97: 508-556. Burleigh, T. D. (1958): Georgia Birds. Atlanta. Chadbourne, A. P. (1889): “An unusual flight of Killdeer Plover ( Aegialitis vocifera) along the New England coast”. Auk, 6: 255-263. Cruickshank, A. D. (1942): Birds around New York City. New York. Griscom, L., and Snyder, D. E. (1955): The Birds of Massachusetts. Salem, Mass. Howell, A. H. (1932): Florida Bird Life. New York. Mayaud, N. (1938): Inventaire des Oiseaux de France. Paris McLean, I., and Williamson, K. (1958): “Waders at ocean weather ships in 1956”. Brit. Birds, li : 152-156. Nisbet, I. C. T. (in preparation): “‘Semipalmated Sandpiper at Fair Isle’”. Brit. Birds. Palmer, R. S. (1949): Maine Birds. Cambridge, Mass. Peters, H. S., and Burleigh, T. D. (1951): The Birds of Newfoundland. Boston, Mass. Pitelka, F. A. (1950): “Geographic variation and the species problem in the shore-bird genus Limnodromus” . Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 50 (1). pp. 108. Pouch, R. H. (1951): Audubon Water-Bird Guide. New York. Salomonsen, F. (1951): Gronlands Fugle. Copenhagen. (I957): “Sneppeklire ( Limnodromus griseus (Gmelin)) ved Thisted”. Dansk. Orn. Forcn. Tides., 51: 135-136. Snyder, L. L. (1957): Arctic Birds of Canada. Toronto. Squires, W. A. (1952): The Birds of New Brunswick. St. John, N.B. Stewart, R. E., and Robbins, C. S. (1958): Birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia. Washington, D.C. Urner, C. A., and Storer, R. W. (1949): “The distribution and abundance of shorebirds on the north and central New Jersey coast, 1928-1938”. Auk, 66: 177- 194- Williams, J. G. (1952): “American Pectoral Sandpiper in Kenya Colony". Ibis, 94: 538. Williamson, K. (1954): “American birds in Scotland in autumn and winter, 1C)53-5A"- Scot. Nat., 65: 13-28. (1955): “Migrational drift”. Acta NI Congr. Int. Orn. Basel: 179-186. and Ferguson-Lees, I. J. (in press): “Nearctic birds in Britain in autumn 1958”. Brit. Birds. Witherby, H. F. (1928): “A transatlantic passage of Lapwings”. Brit. Birds, xxii: 6-13. et al. (1941): The Handbook of British Birds. Vol. IV. London. vol. lii] WADER MIGRATION IN NORTH AMERICA 215 Appendix — Scientific names of species mentioned in the text Names used in the A.O.U. Check-List (1957), where different, are included in brackets. European Oystercatcher American Oystercatcher Lapwing Eastern Piping Plover Western Piping Plover Ringed Plover Wilson’s Plover Killdeer American Golden Plover European Golden Plover Grey Plover ... Turnstone Great Snipe ... Wilson’s Snipe European Snipe Faeroe Snipe ... Jack Snipe European Woodcock American Woodcock Long-billed Curlew European Curlew European Whimbrel Hudsonian Whimbrel Eskimo Curlew Upland Plover Short-billed Dowitcher Long-billed Dowitcher Black-tailed Godwit Bar-tailed Godwit Marbled Godwit Hudsonian Godwit Spotted Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper Redshank Lesser Yellowlegs Greater Yellowlegs Spotted Redshank Eastern Willet Western Willet Knot Least Sandpiper Baird’s Sandpiper White-rumped Sandpiper Pectoral Sandpiper Dunlin ... Curlew Sandpiper Semipalmated Sandpiper Western Sandpiper Ruff Stilt Sandpiper Buff-breasted Sandpiper 'Sanderling American Avocet Black-necked Stilt Wilson’s Phalarope Haematopus ostralegus H. palliatus V anellus vanellus Charadritis m. melodus Ch. m. circumcinctus Ch. hiaticula (& Ch. semipalmatus) Ch. wilsonia Ch. voci ferus Ch. ( Pluvialis ) dominicus Ch. (P.) apricarius Ch. (Squatarola) squatarola Aren aria interpres Gallinago ( Capella ) media G. (C.) gallinago delicata G. (C.) g. gallinago G. (C.) g. faeroecnsis Lymnocryptes minimus Scolopax rusticola Philohela minor Xumenius americanus N. arquata N. ph. phaeopus (islandicus) N. ph. hudsonicus N. borealis Rartramia longicauda Limnodromus griseus L. scolopaceus Limosa limosa L. lapponica L. fedoa L. haemastica Tringa hypoleucos ( Actitis macularia ) T. solitaria T. ( Totanus ) totanus T. ( Totanus ) flavipes T. (Totanus) melanoleuca T. erythropus Catoptrophorus s. semipalmatus C. s. inornatus Calidris canutus C. ( Erolia ) minutilla C. (E.) bairdii C. ( E.) fuscicollts C. (E.) melanotos C. (E.) alpina C. testacea (E. ferruginea ) C. (Ereunetes) pusilla C. (E.) mauri Philomachus pugnax !\ficropalama himantopus Tryngites subruficollis Crocethia alba Recurvirostra americana Himantopus mexicanus Phalaropus ( Steganopus ) tricolor MIGRATIONS OF THE OYSTERCATCHER By D. G. Andrew A — DEDUCTIONS FROM RINGING RECOVERIES One of the tentative conclusions reached in E. J. M. Buxton’s paper on this subject ( antea , vol. l, pp. 519-526) was that mature Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus ) “do not move so far away from their breeding- area as immature birds”. This conclusion came as something- of a surprise in view of the fact that one so often sees Oystercatchers in late summer migrating in family parties. It may be, of course, that these family parties break up before the migration flight is completed, but at least it is worth while reconsidering the evidence available. Buxton gave (p. 522) a list of six recoveries of birds ringed as full-grown (not necessarily mature) and commented that only one of these “seems to have travelled any distance from its presumed breeding area”. On referring to this list, however, it is at once apparent that of these recoveries the first (ringed 30th September), the second (ringed 21st September), the fifth (ringed 29th September — not May as stated by Buxton) and the sixth (ringed 19th January) all refer to birds that were marked either in winter quarters or at least on passage, and the location of their breeding areas cannot be known. The Faeroese bird mentioned by Buxton, which was recovered in Wigtownshire, had covered a very average (for that population) distance of 500 miles. The only recovery in the list which supports Buxton’s conclusion is the Fair Isle bird recovered in Orkney in mid-winter. This will be discussed later. The ringing recoveries of this species had previously been studied by Kenneth Williamson ( Edinburgh Bird Bulletin , vol. 2, p. 52) who pointed out that birds from different breeding areas tend to favour different winter quarters. From this it follows that there is little point in using the ringing recoveries to compare the relative distances covered on migration by adult and immature Oystercatchers unless due account is also taken of the origins of birds involved. It has therefore seemed desirable to review the available information and in Table I the ringing recoveries have been split up to distinguish between the main breeding areas where the birds have been ringed and the main areas where they have been recovered outside the breeding season. This table incorporates (a) all immature birds recovered between the October of their first year and the February of their third year (i.e. from approximately 3 months to 2% years old', during which period these birds appear to remain in what may be described as their “nursery areas”); and (b) all birds recovered as adults from the age of 3J years upwards between the months of October and February (when they 216 VOL. LIlJ OYSTERCATCHER MIGRATIONS > C£ u: tn X. Z c z < o z d: bJ M X H C/3 Z o H < J D Dh H ° n cu j cu O j) g ^ 5 2 w a w D5 ^ D3 2 H 1 Z to U3 ^ K U to U. 2 U. 0*5 "5 w 1 p e s- 5, c Q ir. w K S? id ~ X c Q > H < < U. o u w fcd < H W C/3 c K c z u. c t/3 W 5 w > C u M C* I u: £ < f- 0) tUD ft: T3 4-. C £ « TO *—* W O u in c3 «.S y to 5 CL 5 v} *sT C os J2 c/> tx CJ c *TO W C/i c TO W3 $ oC -a ^ TO u- "3 O C r- JH •£ 4-» U o o (/) c TO *5. £ TO u c O T3 C TO ' *— v-» 4-» 8-5 to C .2 ‘a. £ W ° n TO > 217 - o to vO - to to Norfolk imm 218 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII may be presumed to be in their winter quarters). A few September and one or two August records have also been included where the facts very strongly indicate that the bird had reached the end of its migration. All immature birds have been grouped together, as a more detailed analysis of the recoveries has revealed no clear tendency on the part of birds in their third winter to be found any further north than birds in their first or second winters. Looking first at the recoveries as a whole, without having regard to age, it is at once apparent that the average distances covered on migration vary widely among the different breeding populations. As might be expected, the Icelandic birds perform the longest migration and the distances covered shorten as one comes further south until in the Solway/Dee breeding area only one bird out of the 23 ringed and subsequently recovered had travelled more than no miles from the place of ringing. In fact, six of the birds ringed in this area were actually recovered north of the place of ringing, and it seems clear that a large part of the Solway /Dee breeding population is not migratory at all, the movements being more in the nature of a random dispersal. In brief, Ireland and the Solway/Dee area provide wintering grounds for the great majority of the birds breeding in and to the north of these areas (on the basis of the ringing recoveries this proportion is in the region of 80%). On the other hand, birds breeding to the south of the Dee show a marked preference for France as a winter resort, with some individuals getting as far as the north coast of Spain, and the distances covered on migration are consequently higher than those covered by the birds breeding immediately to the north of them. One minor point of interest is that birds from the Isle of Man largely ignore the Solway/ Dee and Irish wintering areas and migrate appreciably further south than those breeding on the mainland opposite. In this respect they show a much closer affinity with the Welsh breeding population. The Norfolk population is partly resident and partly migratory to the south coast of England and to France. It is clear from Table I that the place of origin must be taken into account in attempting to draw conclusions as to the relative distances covered on migration by the different age groups. Unfortunately, when the information available is split up in this way the number of recoveries from each area proves too small for anything but the most tentative deduction. The recoveries from the Solway /Dee area as shown in the table might seem to support the theory that immature birds migrate further than adults, but the picture may be unduly distorted bv one recovery of an immature bird that had moved as far as France, travelling 440 miles further than any of its colleagues. Moreover, this breeding area does seem to differ fundamentally from all the. others (with the sole exception of Norfolk) in that a substantial proportion of the locally-bred birds are not migratory at all. The only other breeding areas for which more than one adult recovery is shown vol. l 1 1 ] OYSTERCATCHER MIGRATIONS 219 in Table I are the Faeroes, Shetland/Orkney and north Scotland. In the case of the Faeroes and north Scotland recoveries the distances covered by adult and immature birds show a most striking- similarity which may well prove characteristic, at least of the genuinely migratory populations. The Shetland/Orkney group would show an equally close correlation between the two age-groups if it were not for the one recovery previously referred to as having been mentioned by Buxton — a bird ringed as a breed- ing adult on Fair Isle in May 1954 and found dead (in a fresh condition) in Orkney in December 1955, only 60 miles distant from the place of ringing. Until more data are available one can only reserve judgement on this recovery, which is in such striking contrast with the other recoveries from this area. One can only conclude that the evidence at present available does not support the suggestion that immature Oystercatchers migrate further than adults. B — Cross-country migration in south Scotland This seems an opportune moment to draw attention to one aspect of Oystercatcher migration which does not seem to have been properly1 recorded. The Handbook's description of this species (Vol. IV, p. 417) as “ Irregular and very scarce visitor on passage inland” may hold true in other parts of Britain, but in autumn it is both regular and abundant as a passage migrant across south Scotland. An indication that this must be the case is given in Table I which shows that, out of 12 birds ringed in east Scotland south of the Grampians (and so unlikely to use the Great Glen as a through route to the west), all but two were recovered on the west coast of England or in Ireland. The existence of this overland route has been widely known for many years to ornithologists living in Edinburgh, who are accustomed to hearing birds passing over the city on their way south, but even the published references — e.g. Eagle Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration (1912), vol. 1, p. 98 — seem to have been overlooked and it is desirable to publish a fresh summary of what we know about these movements. The most comprehensive records come from Gladhouse Reservoir, lying 12 miles south of Edinburgh at a height of 900 feet above sea-level. Weekly visits made by R. W. J. Smith and myself since 1949 have shown that, although the numbers observed vary a good deal from year to year, there is always a substantial passage of Oystercatchers during the months of July and August. No year has vet passed without at least 25 birds being recorded on one visit during these two months and on five occasions the numbers present have exceeded 100. As much of the migration takes places at night and as these migrant parties seldom stav long at the reservoir, the numbers recorded at Gladhouse can only represent a very small proportion of the birds passing through. The Gladhouse records, taken in conjunction with the very manv 220 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII records of birds seen and heard passing over Edinburgh, indicate that there is a heavy and regular passage of Oystercatchers in autumn proceeding more or less due south from the Forth to the Solway estuaries. The distance involved is about 70 miles in a straight line, and it will be remembered that the head of the Solway estuary actually lies east of Edinburgh. The great bulk of this passage takes place during the last three weeks of July and the first three weeks of August, with stragglers continuing up until the middle of September. This passage may proceed along a broad front, but the observations point to the existence of at least three main routes : (1) From Musselburgh up the South Esk to Gladhouse, and from there probably up the head waters of the Tweed and so down to the Solway through Annandale. (2) From Musselburgh up the North Esk, along the south side of the Pentlands and so through to the head waters of the Clyde, over the watershed at Elvanfoot (where Eagle Clarke, op. cit., mentions a record of Oystercatchers on passage) and down Annandale and possibly also Nithsdale. (3) Over Edinburgh and along the north side of the Pentlands (where there are many records from the local reservoirs) to join up with the last-mentioned stream at the head of the Clyde valley. In contrast, there is an almost complete absence of comparable records in spring and it seems probable that a completely different route may be followed at that season. Where this may lie is, at the moment, pure speculation. Possibly the hill-masses in south- west Scotland divert the birds further to the west than in the autumn so that the birds come into the Forth area from the west through the Clyde/Forth valley. Certainly the impression we have gained at Gladhouse is that our small breeding population of Oystercatchers comes in from the north in spring (as appears to be the case with the other species of waders breeding in the area). It should perhaps be emphasized in conclusion that this cross- country migration is something quite distinct from the inland colonization of the big river valleys. There are no such valleys in the Lothians and the Oystercatcher is a decidedly scarce breeding species in all three counties. My thanks are due to Kenneth Williamson and R. W. J. Smith for reading and commenting on this paper in draft; to Robert Spencer of the British Trust for Ornithology for making avail- able the unpublished ringing recoveries; and to the many bird- watchers in the Edinburgh area who have supplied me with their records of birds seen or heard on passage. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS XCIX. ALPINE SWIFT Photographs by E. Benz and F. Oberholzer (Plates 37-42) Text by Hans Arn- Willi The Alpine Swift ( Apus melba) is paler and considerably larger than its more wide-spread cousin, the Common Swift (.4. apus). It is brown instead of black, and has a white belly separated from a white throat by a brown breast-band (plate 38 upper). On average it is 21.5 cm. long and spans 52-560111. (about 20^-22 inches) with outstretched wings, while its weight of around 100 gni. is nearly 2\ times that of the Common Swift (c/. Lack, 1956). Males and females look alike, but the smaller of a pair is liable to be the female. The species is a summer-visitor to southern Europe and southern Asia as far east as India and Ceylon ; it also nests in the mountains of north-west, central and southern Africa, where it winters. The European breeding range is shown in the distribution map in the Field Guide and is confined to the south from Spain to the Balkans and S. Russia, though there is evidence that it is undergoing some northward extension at the present time. Since 1952, for example, Alpine Swifts have bred at Freiburg in Germany, whereas previously there were no colonies north of the Jura mountain range. The Handbook describes the species as a rare vagrant to Britain and shows that there were only about 50 records by 1938, but Mr. I. J. Ferguson-Lees tells the writer that in the last few years there have been three or four records annually. The following summary of the breeding biology of the Alpine Swift is based on the author’s observations since 1932 at colonies in the Jesuit church and the Bieltor at Solothurn in Switzerland. A much fuller account is shortly to appear in a book (Arn, in press). The Alpine Swifts do not come back from their winter quarters to their breeding haunts in large parties like the Common Swifts. They appear first in Switzerland in the second half of March and their numbers increase gradually until the last arrivals come in May. One ringed bird retrapped at the nest on 6th July 1957 (when it was feeding 3 young) had been caught at Tangier on 28th April 1957 on *ts return journey from Africa. Its first egg in 1957 was laid on 12th June and it bred again in the same nest the following year. After being silent at first, the birds begin to indulge in play and utter their loud chittering calls (quite different from the screams of the Common Swifts) once thegroup has grown to 20 or 30 strong and the weather is fine. The Alpine Swift in normal flight catches 221 222 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII insects at 60-100 kilometres an hour (37-62 m.p.h.) and it is estimated that the speed in wild chases and perhaps on journeys must reach up to 250 kilometres an hour (155 m.p.h.). It is calculated that in its daily flights this species must cover at least 350 miles and in some cases up to as much as 600 or more. The aerial play of these birds is a delightful sight to watch. After their summer stay of some six months on average, the last Alpine Swifts have departed from Solothurn again by the middle of October. Both observation and ringing recoveries confirm that the young are the first to begin the journey to winter quarters. We have recovery reports of young birds from the south of France at the beginning of September, and checks at the breeding places have shown no young remaining there after the middle of that month. Late broods are very uncommon. It is the nature of this bird to eat and feed its young only on insects taken on the wing. Analysis of food pellets gives a general picture of its diet. From aphis to butterfly, the prey includes the following main groups: Coleoptera (beetles), Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps), Hemiptera (bugs and aphides) and Arachnida (spiders). The spiders and other wingless prey, such as certain grasshoppers (Orthoptera), are always taken in flight as the bird skims under the eaves or low over the ground. As its name implies, the original breeding habitat of the Alpine Swift was in high mountains, on steep crags. For this reason its urban colonies are in buildings which permit easy free-flying access, as is illustrated by the case of the colony in the Lucerne water tower (plate 38 lower). The nest is small in proportion to the bird (plate 41). Basically it is a shallow, round saucer-shape with an inside diameter of 10.5 cm. and a cup-depth of about 3 cm. In more than 80% of cases a flat site is preferred (plate 39 upper). Provided that the nesting material is not eaten by mites and other parasites, and thus loosened from its foundations, a nest may be used for decades. All nest material is caught in the air and built in with sticky saliva. When the same nest is used year after year by the same pair — n years is the known maximum — we must not be misled into speaking of constancy to one mate. Too many examples point the other way and rather is it a case of faithful- ness to a chosen breeding place. One Alpine Swift bred in the same nest for 17 years ; it returned again in the 18th year, but was found dead in the nest at the beginning of the breeding season. This one was a male. The Alpine Swift’s egg is pure white and the measurements of 1 1 5 eggs gave an average of 30.45 x 19.29 mm., very similar to the figures in The Handbook. While much statistical material shows that the female normally lays a clutch of three eggs annually, there are often exceptions to this rule. Investigations have shown that the prevailing climatic conditions influence the Plate 37 E. Bens Adult Alpine Swift (A pus > nelba) and nest: Lucerne, Switzerland As it clings to the wooden wall by its nest in the water-tower (plate 38 lower), one can see the faint greyish tips on its mouse-brown upper-parts, not so conspicuous as in the juveniles (plate 40). The down just breaking through the skins of the young shows that thev are 7-8 davs old (see page 223): when first hatched (plate 39 upper) they are smooth and rosy, and the feather arrangement appears as black dots under the skin from the 3rd to 4th day. Plate 38 F. Obcrholzer Adult Alpine Swift (A pus melba): Solotiiurn, Switzerland Note the brown breast-band dividing the white throat-patch from the white bellv which is a clear distinction from the Common Swift (A, apus). It is also a much bigger bird, with a wing-span of up to 22 inches, and weighs 2) times as much on average (see page 221). Breeding-sites of Alpine Swift (A pus melba): Lucerne, Switzerland In the foreground is the water-tower where plates 37 and 42 lower were obtained, and there is another colony in the twin spires of _ the Hofkirche behind. ' Urban colonies are usually in buildings like these which permit easy free-flying access (see page 222). Plate 39 E. Benz Nest of Alpine Swift (A pus melba ): Lucerne, Switzf.ri.and Most nests are on flat sites like this (but cf. plate 42 lower). Built of straws, grasses, leaves and feathers cemented together with sticky saliva, they are flat saucers about 1} inches deep and a fraction over 4 inches across the cup (see page 222). F. Oberholzcr Nestling Alpine Swifts (A pus melba): Solothurn, Switzerland The fledging period averages 57 days (see page 223), so that these three four- weeks-old young are only about half-developed, although they are already completely feathered. This nest is stuck to the wall and is half overlapping unsupported. Plate 40 O O r- ws •- ~ N — " 13 — 3 r- (/) rf CL> •- £ X D q C ^ , > X fcj P JO S z -3 £ p £ £ "cT *■ £ 5o 3 ^ — C c ^ C- ^ g > J .. x fl1 0/ „ cr w -H£2 J2 . 0 »j w ~ F sc Plate 41 F. Oberholzcr Alpine Swift ( Apus melba) feeding young: Solotiiurn, Switzerland As the food-ball of up to 600 insects is passed (in just a few seconds) both adult nnd voung have their eyes closed. 1 he adult’s beak in thiust inside the nestling’s gape and the latter draws in the food-ball with its tongue (see page 224). E. Bci ic 4^*:' ■ " S' y ' Ai pine Swifts (Apus melba) roosting: Lucerne, Switzerland Looking up vertically at a group under the roof of the water-tower during a rainy period. Note the nest built out bracket-wise from a roof-tile. Some birds roost at the nest and non-breeders spend the night clinging near the entrances to the tower (see page 224). Plate 43 3 ami 4: There is no egg in her beak before she looks into the nest 5 and 6 : She picks up one of the pipit’s eggs and pauses a moment ,'uckoo (Cue ulus ranorus) laying in nest ok Meadow Pipit (Ant/ius pratensis) 30T11 May 1922 — 1 Photographs In Oliver <>. Pike (see pages 22(1-228) I M b'i ( t;.1 Plate 44 9 and 10: She lays her own egg and raises her tail to turn and leave 11 and 1 2: A spring into the air and she flies off with the pipit’s egg Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) laving in nest of Meadow Pipit (Autlius pratcnsis) 30T11 May 1922 — 11 Photographs by Oliver G. Pike (see pages 226-228) VOL. Hi] ALPINE SWIFT STUDIES 223 clutch size. At the same time, the young females in their second year, which is when they first breed, lay only two eggs. There are also females which occasionally lay four, and one which bred in the same nest for nine years laid such a clutch on four occasions. Analysis of 2,661 clutches at Solothurn shows that 0.9% had four eggs, 64.5% three eggs, 28.6% two eggs and 6.0% one egg. In a normal clutch of three, the eggs are laid at intervals of one day, but where there are only two eggs a day is invariably missed and they are laid with an interval of two days. Two- thirds of the eggs are laid before 9 a.m. and the remaining one- third between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. Egg-laying normally begins, according to the weather, in the middle or last ten days of May, but exceptionally it can be delayed until June. Incubation begins with the laying of the last egg whether the clutch is of two, three or four. Both male and female take part in incubation and the period averages 20 days, with 17 and 23 the extremes recorded. With few exceptions, the young of one brood hatch within a period of 24 hours. The young Alpine Swift emerges entirely naked from the egg (plate 39 upper). During the embryo stage before hatching, from the 10th to the 18th day of incubation, it shows a pimply pattern of the feather arrangement, but this disappears again shortly before the nestling emerges and its skin is then entirely smooth and pale rose in colour. From the 3rd to the 4th day of the Hedging period it shows little black points under the skin : these then develop into lines and on the 7th day break through the skin as the first down (plate 37). The young bird becomes fully feathered after about 4 weeks (plate 39 lower). The fledging period averages 57 days and by then the young bird is full grown. It can, however, be distinguished from the adults by the distinct white edges to the feathers (plate 40). The young bird weighs 5-6 gm. on hatching. After two-thirds of the fledging period it reaches its peak weight of up to 120 gm., and then falls back to the normal adult weight. As Professor Portmann has shown (Arn, 1945), the excess weight can be attributed to the growth of a reserve of fat for the last stage of development. The extremities grow in proportion as the young bird has to use them : by the 18th day, for example, the breadth of the bill is already fully developed because this is made necessary by the technique of taking in food (plate 42 upper). It is an unforgettable experience to see the day’s doings from 7 a.m. through until 8 p.m. in the Jesuit church at Solothurn. From the observation post in the apse one can watch unobserved, at a range of 6-8 yards, the family life that is going on simultaneously at about 100 nests (in all, there are over 150 breeding pairs in this church). The young are brooded up to the age of three weeks. In the first 10 days brooding is uninterrupted (plate 41) and the parents 224 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. L1I relieve each other to forage for food. The young of late broods are not left alone by the adults at all, even when their upbringing lasts until the end of September. Food is brought to the young in balls of saliva in the throat pouch. In the first few days each ball is divided up among all the occupants of the nest, but before long it is given whole to one of them. A food-ball can contain up to 600 insects. The number of feedings depends on the age of the young, on the occurrence of insects and also on the individual activity of the parent birds. In the technique of food transfer there is no set pattern. On arrival of the parent with food, the hungriest chick normally begs the most eagerly. The adult then usually thrusts its bill into the nestling’s wide gape which is still further enlarged by the regurg- itation of the food-ball. The chick draws in the food with its strong tongue and passes it to its crop by purposeful swallowing movements. Old and young keep the eyes shut during this act (plate 42 upper). The whole performance is carried through in a few seconds with great proficiency. In very bad weather the parents cannot be persuaded to sally forth, no matter how vigorously the young beg them. In the early days the excrement is carried off and swallowed by the parents. By the 7th day, however, the young begin to evacuate the lightly packed blob of excrement by shooting it over the edge of the nest. Before and after the breeding season the Alpine Swifts’ daily routine is to emerge between 8 and 9 a.m., then to play and hunt for a time over the city before flying away until between 5 and 6 p.m., when they return, play for a while and fly into the tower for the night. During the breeding season the adults take wing between 7 and 10 a.m., according to the weather, and do not give up the search for food until about 6 or 8 p.m. The breeding birds spend the night at the nest, while non-breeders remain near the entrance to the tower, clinging to the wall, either inside or out- side directly under the eaves (plate 42 lower). The time each bird takes before venturing forth in the morning is not spent in leisure. It preens with a thoroughness and care which surprises the observer. To anyone who has seen this species only in flight it is remarkable with what tranquillity its domestic life is conducted, being interrupted only by the loud cries of the assembly outside. As soon as the young are three weeks old, they start to climb out of the nest and move about in the neighbourhood. The nest, however, always remains the base. In the last few days before flying, the young cluster near the entrances to the tower and there arise many amusing and attractive scenes (plate 40) when a parent flies up with food from outside. The influence of weather on various phases of the breeding activity has already been mentioned several times. Just as prolonged periods of bad weather with low temperatures hold VOL. LII ] ALPINE SWIFT STUDIES 225 back the appearance of flying insects, so are heat-waves un- favourable to the development of the insect fauna, and this has been confirmed by a comparison between the annual figures. Even the living conditions within the separate colonies and the resulting indoor “climate” can result in measurable differences, as is shown in the following table which compares the 25-year averages from the Solothurn colonies in the Jesuit church and the Bieltor: Jesuit church Bieltor Total number of nests, 1932-56 1,992 668 Average number of eggs per nest 2.56 2.72 Average young hatched per nest 2. 10 2.41 Average young fledged per nest i-53 >•79 Lack (1956) made a comparison between the breeding success of the Common Swift in Switzerland and in England. In this species clutches of three also preponderate in Switzerland (as with the Alpine Swift and in a similar proportion) and he attributed the contrastingly low results in England to the generally chillier climate. The following brief summary of the investigation of clutch-size and mortality of young in the Alpine Swift is taken from an abstract of Lack in Arn (in press): — Of the clutches whose young hatched up to 30th June (normal broods) nearly three-quarters were of three eggs, average 2.7. Of those hatched in July (late broods) nearly two-thirds were of two eggs, average 2.3. Mortality in late broods is greater than in normal broods: in the normal broods 16% and in the late broods only 11% of the ringed young were afterwards accounted for. Alpine Swifts form a stable population with an annual adult mortality of 17.8%. By statistical analysis of capture-recapture data the expectation of life has been calculated at 5.6 years (Lack and Arn, 1953). The average age of ringed Alpine Swifts found dead was 5.95 years: of these birds six were 18 years old and two 19. Ringing totals provide further evidence of the Alpine Swift’s .great attachment to its breeding place. Of those which were ringed as nestlings and later accounted for as breeding birds in 'Solothurn, 75.2% (149 out of 198) bred three or more years in the same nest. Of those which were ringed as adults and found in the same colony in another year, 76.1% (12 1 out of 159) came back to the same site. Swiss Alpine Swifts begin their full moult in May, carry it on during the breeding season and do not finish it until they are in their winter-quarters; a juvenile moult does not occur (see Arn, in press). REFERENCES Arn, H. f 1 045) : “Zur Biologie des Alpenseglers, Micropus mclba mclba (L.)”. Arch. Suisses d’Orn., 2: 137-184. (in press): Biologische Studien am Alpensegler. Solothurn. Lack, D. (1956): Swifts in a Tower. London. and Arn, H. (1953): “Die mittlere Lebensdauer des Alpenseglers”. Orn. Beob., 50: 133-137. • AN HISTORIC SERIES OF CUCKOO PHOTOGRAPHS* By Oliver G. Pike, Hon. F.R.P.S. (Plates 43-44) In 1918 the late Edgar P. Chance began making an intensive study of the habits of a female Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus) on Arley Common, Worcestershire, and in the autumn of 1921 he offered to the film trade a cine-film with the title “The Cuckoo’s Secret”. This had been taken in the previous spring and summer by a commercial cine-photographer who had had no previous experience with birds. It showed several views of the forty-acre furze- covered common and, in addition, there were several shots of a female Cuckoo, with no egg in her beak, going to thick furze bushes, remaining out of sight for ten to thirty seconds, then emerging with an egg in her beak. After viewing the film at Chance’s invitation I was terribly disappointed, for I could realise what opportunities had been missed to show what actually happened at the nest itself. I there- fore asked Chance to allow me to spend part of the next spring and summer with him on the common, for I had then had eighteen years’ experience of photographing birds with a cin4-camera. He accepted my offer and during May and June 1922, when the female Cuckoo was visiting the same territory for the fifth successive year, I had the most wonderful experience of my life in looking on and photographing one of the first serious attempts at detailed bird research. The common was an ideal site: it was a wonderful open space for observation and it was the only breeding ground of Meadow Pipits ( Anthus pratensis), the fosterer used by this particular female Cuckoo, for two or three miles. Chance had brought his observations to such a pitch of perfection that he was able to predict, almost without fail, in which Meadow Pipit’s nest and on which day the Cuckoo would deposit her next egg. With a party of from four to twelve friends he kept the female Cuckoo in view on her laying days from early morning to about 8 p.m. and recorded all her movements. *Nearly forty years ago, great interest was aroused by the experiments and investigations carried out by the late Mr. Edgar P. Chance into the problems connected with the laying of the Cuckoo, and in 1922 a film showing the successive actions of a female Cuckoo visiting the nest of a Meadow Pipit was made bv Mr. Oliver Pike. It has so happened that the full sequence of the twelve stills reproduced on plates 43 and 44 has never been published in one place, though parts of it have appeared in books by Mr. Pike and Mr. Chance and in Illustrated London News. Mr. Pike filmed the laying of the Cuckoo in a Meadow Pipit’s nest on 7 occasions, but only this once was he able to obtain a side-on series showing every movement. We are sure that our readers will welcome Mr. Pike’s initiative in putting the whole of this unique sequence on record. We, for our part, are glad to be able to publish these photographs, and the accompanying text which Mr. Pike has kindly provided, as a tribute to one of our pioneer bird-photographers. — Eds. 226 CUCKOO PHOTOGRAPHS 227 VOL. LIl] There were thirteen pairs of Meadow Pipits on the common in 1922 and all the nests were located, numbered and marked on a map. Chance had discovered that the Cuckoo laid her eggs at intervals of two or occasionally three days and on this basis he made sure that there was always a Meadow Pipit’s nest with fresh eggs for the Cuckoo to use. He did this by destroying the existing pipit nests at intervals of two to three days in rotation until well into June. Usually from five to ten hours after each nest had been destroyed, the owners began their second nests, and these were also numbered, and marked on the map. When the new nest of the first pair contained one, two, three or four eggs the Cuckoo used this for her first egg, for it was the only pipit nest on the common containing newly-laid eggs. Two days later the new nest of the second pair was ready for the Cuckoo, and so it went on. Directly each Cuckoo’s egg had been deposited, it and the pipit’s clutch were taken. Some pipits then built a third nest and in that year, thanks to the ever-ready supply of nests with fresh-eggs, that female Cuckoo laid the amazing total of 25 eggs. When I started photography I had the greatest difficulty in persuading Chance to open up the surroundings of the nests sufficiently to show what actually happened when the Cuckoo visited them. He wanted the Cuckoo’s egg more than the photograph, for he was anxious to find out the greatest number of eggs that a Cuckoo could lay in one season. However, I pointed out that, if he wanted to prove his then disputed theory that the Cuckoo laid direct into the fosterer’s nest, it was essential that a cine-film should be taken to record all her movements. Chance eventually agreed and the nests I filmed, seven in all, were partly exposed. Even then, however, I had another difficulty to contend with, for I found that the Cuckoo approached the nest from the front, covering all her actions with her body, and it was not until my fifth attempt, on 30th May 19 22, that I was able to devise a scheme which I hoped would overcome this. On the Cuckoo’s laying days she always first settled on a tree, post or other prominent place where she was within gliding distance of the pipit’s nest, usually within fifty to two hundred yards, and on this occasion the only likely perch was a tree about eighty yards away. I therefore fixed my hide and camera at right angles to the glide, so that when she settled the only place was just to the right of the nest. My ruse was successful and she did exactly what I had hoped for. She made two glides to the nest without settling, each time returning to her tree, and then on the third glide landed sideways to the nest. She went quickly towards the nest as though she could not contain the egg anv longer, rapidly picked up one of the pipit’s four eggs, slipped on to the nest, remained there for barely four seconds, and then sprang into the air to fly away with the stolen egg. From the moment she settled (photograph 1 on 228 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii plate 43) to the time she flew off (photograph 12 on plate 44), just ten seconds passed. I was thrilled with my success : it was my greatest moment in a long experience of bird photography. My cin^-camera, taking twenty frames per second, had recorded every action of the Cuckoo and at last, after more than a thousand years of doubt and confusion, had stolen her secret from her. On this particular day Chance was away in London, but he was equally thrilled when he got my two-word telegram “successful profile” and in his book The Truth about the Cuckoo (1940) he described it as “perhaps the most remarkable egg-laying film ever taken”. Chance, and friends of his, watched Cuckoos lay their eggs direct into over a hundred nests of eight different species, and I myself observed this interesting event eleven times. Edgar Chance’s whole collection of Cuckoo eggs is now at the British Museum (Natural History), together with enlargements of the twelve photographs reproduced on plates 43 and 44. The only three other sets of these photographs in existence now have been deposited with the Nature Conservancy, the Royal Photographic Society and the London Natural History Society. VISIBLE MIGRATION IN N.E. NORFOLK IN NOVEMBER 1956 By R. K. Murton (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Tolworth ) INTRODUCTION In the late autumn of 1956 my wife and I watched for visible migration near Cromer in north-east Norfolk on thirteen days during the period 31st October-i5th November. Our actual observation point was the cliff top at East Runton which is about two miles west of Cromer. The numbers of all species seen during the watches were recorded, also their time of arrival and direction and height of flight, and these results are presented here. With the exception of the early work of Riviere (1930), and various isolated records in report form which were published in British Birds up to 1935, little information on visible migration in November is available for north-east Norfolk. The main move- ment during the autumn has been recorded as an immigration from the east. Riviere described the movements seen from light vessels as being west or north-west off the north coast of Norfolk and west or even south-west into the Wash when seen off the Wash coast. His watches on the coast itself often revealed the arrival of birds from the north and north-east, but only a small proportion travelling in these directions was noted at the light vessels situated to the north. Riviere suggested, therefore, that many birds flying on an east to west course and passing along the north coast turned on sighting land in order to arrive immediately vol. l 1 1 ] VISIBLE MIGRATION IN NORFOLK 229 at it. I noted a similar reaction during- a month’s watch from the South Goodwin Lightship, three miles off the south-east Kent coast (paper in preparation), and other workers have recorded the same effect. The appreciation of such a situation is important in interpreting the movements observed in Norfolk or for that matter at most coastal stations. MOVEMENTS IN GENERAL During the period of watching, all birds were first noted arriving from points between north and east — from points about north-east on most days and for most species. At any particular time, a few birds might be seen arriving direct from the sea, i.e. flying south, and simultaneously coasting from the east. On arrival at the coast, birds turned and continued bv coasting west towards the Wash. The influence of weather on the numbers of migrants observed was noticeable. For many days, unfavourable weather conditions with strong north/ north-west winds prevailed and no migrants were seen (Table I). With a change to light southerly winds there was a marked increase in the amount of visible migration. This is seen from Table II where the numbers of the different migrants passing between 06.00 hours and 12.00 hours are given for each day. We arrived at the end of a depression on 31st October. From then until 5th November anticyclonic conditions existed over the whole of the North Sea, bringing a northerly airstream, and during this period little or no movement was noted. On 6th November a series of depressions broke up this anticyclone; winds changed to being predominantly southerly and it was then that most visible migration took place. Flight direction varied with the prevailing wind and this was most noticeable on the good days. Thus on 7th November, with light west to south-west winds after 09.30 hours, nearly all birds arrived from the east. On 8th, 9th and 10th November when winds were light to moderate south-east and south-west, birds were arriving from the north and north-east. On the 12th, with light westerly winds, most arrivals were again from the east. The peak arrival times varied slightly for different species, but on most days were usually from about 07.00 hours to 09.00 hours. 6th and 7th November were exceptions as arrivals were mainly from the east, with a peak around 10.00 hours which was later than usual for all species. On these days migrants would have encountered head winds and this might have delayed their arrival, although on 15th November with strong head winds migrants were not arriving late. SPECIES ARRIVING Starling ( Stumus vulgaris). — This was the commonest migrant seen. The birds arrived travelling just above the cliff-top ( ca . 70 feet above sea level). On 8th, 9th, 10th and 13th November large numbers were moving west, usually following the coast. The Table I — Weather conditions at East Runton, Norfolk, from 31ST October to 15TH November 1956 F orce Date Wind direction (Beaufort Scale) Cloud Visibility General conditions 230 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. C u > > > 7 •-> z 7 1 7 7 . W ^ ^ ^ ui < ^ v: ^ w IS) in ro "D C O > o > o 7. X3 u ro > O X X X X X ■*-* *0 4-J vO 1^ 00 O'. > > > > > 0 O O 0 0 O z z z z z z > o 7 X fN o 7 > o /. > o zs > c 7 LIl Table II Numbers of migrants seen between 07.00 and 12.00 hours at East Runton, Norfolk, October/November 1956 VOL. l 1 1 ] VISIBLE MIGRATION IN NORFOLK E "2 o > § « 'Z (O U "O 0) U •■I3 .E-S ^ £ u V CL (/> O o c -2 CC -c to U C W UJ Z z U3 2: O q O' 0 u 'c5 ui W ui ui z z z z z I *2 <0*0 0- SO in to U3 ui ui M O I vD .2 s I w - \D ~ ~ CN - to »0 ro ^ O tT O CT> "3“ o t£^ C 2 — ^ u C3 5 (7: s to o 10 VO C nO to IN I (s C' oc * VO {/> 4-1 to "C c u J = J2 JC J2 -C SZ O .£ SI to £ .£ VO to (N to VO vC CC Cv ** Q > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > u 0 0 c c c C 0 0 O O O O 0 0 O 0 w X X X 7. 7. 7. X. X. X X X X X 7. 231 On 4th and 14th November we were at different observation points, but no migration was seen. Heavy rain on the nth made watching impossible. No observations were made on 5th November owing to absence from the area. 232 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII maximum number observed was between 07.00 hours and 08.00 hours on 1st November when 2,000 passed, coasting west. The movement usually started at about 07.00 hours and finished by about 08.00 hours, and was rather puzzling as all the other species seen during this period on these days arrived from quite different directions, usually north and north-east. This was not a local roosting movement, being absent on other days. It could presumably, however, have originated from migrants which had arrived the previous day and were continuing their passage soon after daybreak. A few Skylarks also did the same thing but to a much lesser extent. Riviere referred to similar coasting move- ments. Omitting this west-flying group, a peak in other Starling arrivals also occurred at around 07.00 hours to 09.00 hours. Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus).— Lapwings were very noticeable migrants in Norfolk and were the second commonest species seen. Most birds arrived between 08.30 hours and 09.30 hours. They first appeared flying from north and north-east on 8th, 9th and 10th November and from the east on 7th and 15th. They arrived in steadily flying, compact flocks of up to fifty birds. On arrival they continued by coasting west towards the Wash. Large flocks were also counted in the surrounding countryside, feeding and roosting in suitable places, such as Cley. Increasing numbers in the area suggested that many birds were arriving unseen by us. Rook ( Corvus frugtlegus). — The peak arrival time of Rooks was between 09.30 hours and 10.30 hours on 7th November, but was one hour later on 10th November. Like the Lapwings, they arrived directly from the north and north-east on most days. How- ever, on 7th November they arrived from the east, as did other migrants. In Kent, Rooks were usually the earliest to arrive; here they were later than Chaffinches or Lapwings, but usually earlier than Skylarks or Starlings. On 7th November, 210 arrived in half an hour in spread-out flocks of up to 70 birds flying about 100 feet over us; they often called in flight as they passed over- head. Soon after day-break we also saw numerous Rooks which had left a roost near-by (further inland), but these movements ceased by 07.30 hours and were quite distinct from those of the true migrants. Skylark ( Alauda arvensis ). — On 8th, 9th and 10th November Skylarks reached a peak in numbers between 07.00 hours and 09.00 hours. On these dates, like the other migrants, they arrived from points about north/north-east. However, on 6th and 7th November, when all birds including the Skylarks arrived from the east, their peak was between 09.00 hours and 10.00 hours. They arrived in small parties of up to five birds. Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs). — Few Chaffinches were seen and both Deelder (1949) and Lack (1954) have suggested that this species normally flies higher than others and so is less often visible. There were more Chaffinches on days when few other species were seen (Table II) and bad weather conditions may have vol. lii] VISIBLE MIGRATION IN NORFOLK 233 caused them to fly lower. Our arrivals were from the north-east and east, and most were seen between about 08.00 hours and 09.00 hours. Other land-birds. — Of these, Snow Buntings ( Plectrophenax nivalis ) were the most interesting. The largest flock was of about 50 individuals which arrived at 10.07 hours on 7th November and which, when first noted, were coasting west over the sea. Altogether we recorded about 120 birds arriving and during the period a flock of about 70 birds was present at Cley. Snow Buntings have a limited breeding range on the Continent, roughly extending along the mountain chain of Norway and Sweden, but not breeding further south than about latitude 61 °N. The most direct migration route to Norfolk would be across the sea from the southern tip of Scandinavia. Snow Buntings were less often observed in Kent, which supports the view that they followed a different route from that used by the other species which reach there. Other species seen arriving in Norfolk in smaller numbers were Heron ( Ardea cinerea ), Hooded Crow ( Corvus corone cornix ), Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris), Redwing (T. musicus), Blackbird ( T merula), Robin ( Erithacus rubecula), Meadow Pipit ( A nth us pratensis ), Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ), Redpoll (C. flammea), Brambling ( Firing ill a montifringilla), Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella ) and Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus). Sea-birds. — Sea-birds were seen frequently, but their move- ments seemed to be in random directions. Razorbills (.4/ca torda) and Guillemots ( Uria aalge) were often noticed coasting, but a movement west might immediately be followed by other birds going east. The same situation applied to Common Scoters ( Melanitta nigra). However, Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos) were observed arriving only from the points between north and north- east on some days. Three swans, believed to have been Whooper Swans ( Cygnus cygnus ), were seen coasting west on 7th November. We also saw seven Long-tailed Ducks ( Clangula hyemalis) coasting east on 6th November. The last species was also recorded at Cley where five were seen by several observers during the period of our stay (see Norfolk Bird Report, 1956). DISCUSSION Birds arrived from various directions and this seemed to depend on the wind direction. Most frequent arrivals were from around the north-east although on 7th and 12th November, when larger numbers of birds were seen, they arrived from the east and there was also a later arrival peak on these days. Normally a peak occurred between 07.00 and 09.00 hours. The situation is in contrast to the movements recorded in Kent and the east coast of Suffolk (Lack, loc. cit.), in which immigrants were mostly from the east or south-east. The arrival peak for Starlings in Kent was at about 09.00 hours and was 234 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. Lit progressively later further north so that at Minsmere in Suffolk it was at 11.00 hours. Other species had similar arrival times. On ist and 2nd November 1958, two watches were carried out from the cliff tops at Corton, near Lowestoft, Suffolk. Starlings were the commonest species and they arrived from the east/east- south-east. Skylarks and Rooks were also frequent arrivals, and a few other species were noted. On ist November the peak arrival times were around 11.00 hours and movements continued until 15.00. Virtually no immigrants were seen before 10.00 hours. On 2nd November 42 Starlings arrived between 09.00 and 10.00 hours, 295 between 10.00 and 11.00 hours, and 68 between 11.00 and 11.07 hours, when we stopped watching. These results help to confirm the late arrival peak in Suffolk compared with north Norfolk. Lack has explained this situation in terms of a dawn departure from the opposite part of the Continent and the distance between the two coasts. The Norfolk results sugg'est that on some days the migrants were not leaving the nearest part of the Continent at dawn (had they done so, peak arrivals would be expected after 11.00 hours) as seems to have been the case for the Kent and Suffolk birds. If, as Riviere maintained, immigrants came from the east-north-east, the closest point of departure would have been the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein, about 320 miles away, in which case birds would pass along the north Friesian coast of Holland. Allowing a flight speed of 25-30 miles per hour, this would necessitate a dusk departure, from the Baltic area, for those birds arriving at about 07.00-09.00 hours. Alternatively, if migrants were from the north-east, as seemed possible, the nearest departure point would be the southern tip of Norway, about 400 miles away. A dusk departure from there would also cause an arrival peak between 07.00 and 09.00 hours. The nearest point to the Norfolk coast is the east coast of Holland, a distance of about 150 miles, and if birds left there at dawn then the arrival peak should have been around 11.00 hours, or before daybreak if they had left at dusk. The facts are more consistent with a dusk departure from the Baltic region or Scandinavia. Lack (1959) has recently produced evidence, based on radar studies, for a direct migration of birds from Scandinavia to Norfolk. His records relate to various thrushes (Turdidae), but the possibility seems high of other species making such flights. Further investigations would seem worth-while. SUMMARY i. A watch for visible migration was made from 31st October to 15th November 1956, at East Runton in north-east Norfolk. Migrants were seen arriving from points between north and cast, but predominantly from the north-east. Immigrants turned on arrival at the coast and continued bv coasting west towards the Wash. vol. lii] VISIBLE MIGRATION IN NORFOLK 235 2. Both flight direction and the numbers of birds seen arriving varied with the weather conditions. Most visible migration coincided with light southerly winds, and little or no movement was seen during strong north/ north-west winds. 3. Starling, Lapwing, Rook and Skylark were the commonest species seen. Movements of the same species have been observed in Kent and Suffolk by various workers, but the peak arrival times for those seen in Norfolk were not consistent with these others and apparently they did not come from the nearest parts of the Continent. Reasons for this argument are presented. 4. The possible origin of the migrants seen in Norfolk is discussed and the conclusion made that some of the arrival peaks Indicated a dusk departure from the Baltic or from Scandinavia. REFERENCES Deei.der, C. L. (1049): “On the autumn migration of the Scandinavian Chaffinch ( Fringilla c. coelebs L.)”. Ardea, 37: 1-88. Lack, D. (1954): “Visible migration in S.E. England, 1952”. Brit. Birds, xlvii : 1-14. ( 1 950) : “Migration across the North Sea studied by radar. Part I. Survey through the year”. Ibis, iot : 209-234. RivtiiKE, B. B. (1030): A History of the Birds of Xorfolk. London. NOTES Duration of dives of Black-throated Diver. — In Sutherland on 25th May 1955 we were able to make continuous observations for nearly four hours on the diving of a Black-throated Diver ( Gavia nretien). The site was a loch half a mile wide and seven miles long. The bird, one of a pair, was first seen at 12.45 p.m. as it made its way up the loch by a series of long dives. Our subsequent observations were then made in an area about half a mile square, which was fed by two substantial mountain streams. Here the bird began diving repeatedly, presumably for food, and after some 15 minutes we began to record the duration of both dives and rests. We continued this for 3 hours 25 minutes until at 4.35 p.m. the diver was finally lost to view in rough water. During this period there were 201 dives and only three relatively long periods of rest — of i|, 8 and 7 minutes respectively. The Handbook quotes the maximum diving times recorded for this species bv four observers and these vary from 43 seconds to 2 minutes. The last was when a bird was travelling a distance of a quarter of a mile and we suggest that the duration of dives greatly depends on whether the bird is feeding or travelling. During our observations the longest single dive was 63 seconds, the shortest 5 seconds and almost half (96 out of 201) were between 48 and 50 seconds. The rests were mostly of 10-18 seconds. Consecutive dives of 50 seconds and over were always followed by a series of dives of under 40 seconds and rests of over 18 seconds. In all, 2 hours 17 minutes 33 seconds were spent 236 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII underwater for i hour 8 minutes 25 seconds on the surface. The three long rests were not spread evenly over the period. In the short rests the bird often dipped its bill in the water, shook its head, stretched its neck and gave an occasional cry. In the long rests it also preened feathers of breast, back and rump for anything up to two or three minutes. Irene A. Joyce and Alan E. Joyce Hobbies attacking Peregrines. — On 1st May 1955, I was walking with one of my brothers near Fecamp, Seine-Maritime, France, when our attention was drawn to two Hobbies ( Falco subbuteo) flying near a clump of pines. While we were watching them, two Peregrines (F. peregrinus) came into view and began to hover as they reached the breeze from the valley below. After hovering for a few seconds they flew round in a circle and began again. At that moment the two Hobbies launched themselves upon one of the large falcons. The latter avoided the attack and tried to strike its assailants with one of its talons — as Buzzards ( Buteo buteo) often do when attacked by Rooks ( Corvus fugilegus) or other birds of prey. The two Hobbies attacked ten or twelve times and one of the Peregrines tore out several feathers from one of them. After about five minutes the Peregrines flew off in the direction of the sea. Apart from the fact that I had only once before seen a Peregrine hovering, this was the first time that I had ever observed a determined attack by a bird of prey of any kind upon this falcon. Hobbies nest regularly in that area, but not of course until June. — Georges Olivier Flightless Woodpigeon fed by another. — When I approached an ivy-covered tree at Patcham, Sussex, on 1st October 1955, a Woodpigeon ( Columba palumbus ) flew out and another was seen sitting very still with neck stretched out, in the “frozen” attitude. This bird made no attempt to fly and, when I shot it, proved to have no primary feathers at all except the outer one (the 2nd) in each wing; the others were newly growing, being about i|-2^ inches in length. The pigeon was warm and fat and had a half crop of barley grain. There was no barley field within half a mile and I estimated that the bird had probably not been able to fly for at least ten days, perhaps more. It seemed obvious that the other pigeon had been feeding it, although it was an adult bird with white neck-patches, etc. M. J. Dawson Aggressive behaviour of feral pigeon towards House Sparrow. — On 2 1 st September 1958, I was at an open-air cate in a London park, surrounded by a hopeful flock of House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus) and about a dozen feral pigeons (Columba livia ), all awaiting crumbs after some food had already been distributed. A shrill, squealing note from a sparrow drew my attention to a pigeon which was giving it several vigorous pecks for no obvious VOL. LIl] NOTES 237 reason. A moment later I heard the same note and was in time to see the same pigeon seize another waiting sparrow by a bunch of its mantle feathers and lift it high into the air, shaking it from side to side. I reacted with a sudden movement and both birds flew off. This would appear to be a case of aggressive behaviour prompted by competition for a limited food supply. C. J. O. Harrison Myrtle Warblers crossing the Atlantic on board ship. — The following report may be of interest in connection with the apearance of the Myrtle Warbler ( Dendroica coronata ) in Devon in January 1955 ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 204-207). Miss Wynne Waite of Bognor Regis Training College told me that in September 1954, while crossing the Atlantic from Canada on the “Empress of France’’, she saw on the ship a bird which she recognized as an American warbler. She first noticed it on 10th September 1954 (ship’s position for that date was 54°N., 46°W., or approximately 400 miles east of the Straits of Belle Isle). She saw it on board during most of the rest of the voyage, but not after the ship sighted the Irish coast on 13th September. She described it to me as being greyish-brown in colour, with light under-parts streaked with dark markings and with yellow patches on the sides of the breast. In flight it showed a conspicuous yellow rump and some white towards the edges of the tail-feathers. At the time she gave me this description Miss Waite had not heard that a Myrtle Warbler had been observed in Devon. In January 1956, Miss Waite came with me to the Natural History Museum where I showed her specimens in various plumages of the eastern North American wood warblers (Parulidae) with yellow or yellowish rumps. Miss Waite chose an adult male Myrtle Warbler in autumn plumage as similar to the bird she had seen. She had noted all the field marks with the exception of the yellow on the crown. Katharine Tousey On 24th May 1955, my wife and I set sail from Montreal on the “Saxonia’’ and landed in Liverpool a week later. Soon after we left, when we were still in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, we noticed a bird on the upper deck which I identified as a Myrtle Warbler ( Dendroica coronata): it remained on board and we last saw it on 30th May as we were passing the coast of North Ireland and approaching Scotland (land in sight). We watched it each day because we realized that it was unusual for a small bird to remain with a ship and we wished to see how long it would stay. It seemed to adjust itself to the confined limits of the ship and to accept human beings fairly readily: often we were within six feet of it as it hopped about the after deck. If anyone approached too close, however, it would fly to a lifeboat or to one of the masts. The crossing was not a rough one — there were no gales and little heavy rain — but the bird was always near the stern. Several people scattered crumbs for it, but although it was 238 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I often hopping about among them we did not see it take any. It appeared to be searching crannies and corners, behind benches and tackle on the deck, though I could not say whether there was any insect food there and it may just have been seeking shelter. Whatever the way it managed to survive, it certainly appeared very lively and strong on the wing. The bird was dull blue above and almost white beneath, striped with broken black marks and with pale yellow at the sides ; the throat was white, and there was a yellow patch on the head and another on the rump. John M. R. Margeson Starlings affected by smog.- — Fog persisted nearly all day at Sleaford, Lincolnshire, on gth February 1959, but at dusk it became a dense blanket with its base more or less level with the top of the church spire. There was almost a complete lack of breeze. Next morning (10th February) the main thoroughfares in the northern half of the town were littered with dead Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) over a distance of half a mile. The information was passed on to me after the roadmen had been at work for some time, but from their estimates and an examination of the unswept parts a total of 250 to 300 dead Starlings seemed reason- able. All appeared to have been injured by impact in some way. It was learned later that on the night of the fog a large roost formed in the village of Leasingham, 2 miles north of Sleaford, for the one night only, although flight lines passing in a northerly direction had been noted for a fortnight previously. A random selection of seven Starlings, and also a House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus) found dead in the area, were sent the same day to Dr. A. R. Jennings, at the Department of Animal Pathology, Cambridge. His report stated that deaths were largely due to asphyxia resulting from severe smog. It is suggested that flocks of Starlings entered the Sleaford area on their usual south-to-north flight line, were gradually overcome by smog concentrated under the thick fog blanket and descended to the roads in the northern half of the town. Here, being unable to fly, they were probably killed by heavy traffic. No birds were found in gardens or on traffic-free roads and only one or two odd ones were reported in other parts of the town. W. M. Peet Reed Buntings alighting on water. — On 12th March 1939, mv wife and I were walking along the north shore of Hengistburv Head, Hampshire, when a male and female Reed Bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus) flew out very fast and close together (presumably in a courtship chase) about 40 to 50 yards from the shore and alighted simultaneously on the water of Christchurch Harbour which was quite calm at the time. They were on the water for not more than two seconds and then returned separately to the shore, landing some 30 yards apart. Edwin Cohen LETTERS BLACKBIRDS FEEDING ON MARINE WORMS Sirs, — I can confirm the note by Mr. Roger Harkness ( antea , p. 97) on Blackbirds ( Turd us merula) feeding on marine worms, strangely enough from the same part of Hampshire — at Hill Head, which is only about two miles from Lee-on-Solent. On xoth June 1953, I watched a hen Blackbird pulling out and swallowing marine worms from the mud on the beach. Then on 9th June 1955, I saw a cock Blackbird eating marine worms about two inches long, which he pulled out from the mud on the river bank at Hill Head harbour. On 6th April 1957, a cock Blackbird on the beach was hunting and eating pale brown marine worms about one inch long, and what was probably the same bird was doing likewise on the next day. Lastly, on 3rd June 1957, I watched a hen Blackbird feeding on marine worms pulled out of the harbour mud. C. SUFFF.RN [Since writing the above, Dr. Suffern has reported that on 19th June 1959 he watched two adult male Blackbirds and one juvenile together extracting and eating marine worms from the muddy shore of Hill Head harbour at low tide, and that in the following month he repeatedly saw Blackbirds doing this — possibly, he suggests, because of the hard state of the adjacent dry ground through the drought. He has also drawn our attention to a statement by Miss H. M. Quick in the 26th Annual Report of the Cornwall Bird-Watching & Preservation Society (1956): — “Black- birds are one of the commonest of our shore-birds (on St. Agnes, Isles of Scilly) ; there are always some in the line of cast-up sea- weed Thrushes are usually less numerous, but there is often one among the low rocks beating out a periwinkle just as it does a garden snail. Occasionally as many as a dozen at once may be seen on the low tide sand, digging for lugworms instead of garden worms.” Dr. Suffern adds that on 23rd May 1959 he watched an adult Song Thrush (T. philomelos), on the muddy beach of Hill Head harbour, pull out and reject at least three lugworms in quick succesion. — Eds.] THE KITES OF SIXTEENTH-CENTURY LONDON Sirs, — From time to time the question arises whether the kites which swarmed in London in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were Red Kites ( Milvus milvus) or Black Kites (M. migrans). Their urban habitat and scavenging habits, of which there is abundant contemporary documentation, are nowadays characteristic of the Black Kite, but Turner (1544), who clearly distinguished between the two species, stated that he had only seen the Red Kite in the British Isles. Turner’s statement is usually considered conclusive evidence for identifying the London birds as M. milvus, but this has recently been questioned by Ferguson-Lees (1957), who raises evidence which appears to point the other way. This is the quotation by Fitter (1945) of a state- ment by the contemporary Flemish naturalist Charles Lecluse 239 240 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII (.= Clusius), who visited England in 1571 and thought that there were as many kites in London as in Cairo. Ferguson-Lees points out that the kites of Cairo are Black Kites, with the implication that if those in London had been Red Kites L^cluse should have noticed the difference. Lest Ferguson-Lees’s article be thought to cast serious doubt on Turner’s identification, it seems desirable to examine L^cluse’s original statement. Fitter does not mention the source of his information, but it is evidently derived from the footnote to page 108 of “ Petri Bellonii Cenomani ab ipso conspectorum Observationes ”, contained in Lecluse’s ‘‘Ten books of Exotica ” (Clusius, 1605). This, however, is notan original work, but merely a translation of a book published fifty years earlier by the great French naturalist Pierre Belon (1555a). Belon is known to have visited England (Ray, 1678), but he himself made no comment on the London kites, and the footnote was in fact added by the translator. Indeed, the wording of this passage — “ Vix majorem in Cairo milviorum frequentiam conspici existimo, quam Londini Trenobantum in Britannia . . . .” — makes it clear that Lecluse was merely commenting on Belon’s description of the kites in Cairo, and that no direct comparison had been made. However, the same passage also contains a clear statement that the London kites were permanent residents — “ .... quinullo non anni tempore frequentissuni istic apparent . . . .” — while the Black Kite was then (as now) only a summer visitor to France, and was considerably less common there than the Red Kite (Belon, 1 555b). Thus we see that Lecluse’s statement actually provides additional support for the identification of the London kites as M. milviis. Their occupation of an urban habitat in the absence of M. migrans is an interesting example of ecological replacement, and is matched to the present day by the situation in other areas where migrans is lacking, such as the Cape Verde Islands (Bourne, 1955). I. C. T. Nisbet REFERENCES Belon, P. (1555a): Les observations de plusieurs singularitez et choses mcmorables, trouuies en Grece, Asie, Egypte, Iudee, Arabie et autres pays estranges. Paris. (1555b); L’histoire de la nature des oyseaux, avec leurs descriptions et naifs portraicts. Paris. Bourne, W. R. P. (1955): ‘‘The birds of the Cape Verde Islands”. Ibis, 97: 5°8-556- Clusius, C. (1605): Exoticorum libri decent Item P. Bellonii Observationes C. Clusio interprete. Leiden. Ferguson-Lees, I. J. (1957): “Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. LXXX. Kite”. Brit. Birds, l: 155-160. Fitter, R. S. R. (1945): London’s Natural History. London. Ray, J. (1678); The ornithology of Francis Willughby. London, p. 306. Turner, W. (1544): Avium praecipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, brevis et succincta historia. Translated by A. H. Evans: Turner on Birds (Cambridge, 1903). In order that this number, long delayed by the printing dispute, may be published as quickly as possible, the “Recent reports and news” covering the months of May and June is being held over to the August issue. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Bird s publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts ol their range. Except for records of rarities f perS ,and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Prools of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers sent tree to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations- 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearlv written and XsKr spoc,ne' e *° Wp in ",is ma'v «»■'■ «ayS "0 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted the mt f b<\0n 3 seParate sheet- with signature and address repeated. In w u tjec°rds' ,any suPPortmg description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately V Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- foimity ol any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic lasts, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should insult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials tor each word, except after a hyphen (eg Willow Waibler Black-tailed Cod wit), but group terms should not (e.g ^warblers godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds’ with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1955 (vol. xlvi, pp' '3|' ,.Tbe\ ?cientl.fic aame of each species should be given (in brackets' and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name Sub fonClfiTt-n-ameS S1tOU C n0t be used exrePt where they are relevant to the dLcuss- 1 is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix Dates should take the form 1st January 1955” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “1st Jan.”, “Jan. ist”, or even ”Jan whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which .Xrwhe cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form ■ Tlog“wB' ‘ililt'ri-Tjt S“'>!peci'! : * f” 8'"-' oniltbo. ' Witmerby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34 Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted bv consulting previous examples 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title tvned .‘SS! 7 tbonal cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. Types C.F.18 and C.F.24 (8 X 30-5 mm.) are highly favoured by bird-watchers. C.F. 24 having an extra wide field of view which is particularly valuable for observing birds in flight. With those who prefer a higher magnification, type C.F.43 (10 X 42 mm.) is a firm favourite. BARRS STROUD Ltd ANN1ESLAND, GLASGOW. W.3 London Office : Kinnaird House, 1 Pall Mall East, S.W.l Printed in Gt. Britain by Withbrby it Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. it G. WITHERBY. LTD., 5, Warwick Court, W.C.i. V ^Birelt UGUST 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. YVitherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents oe Volume LI I, Number 8, August 1959 PAGH Editorial: Records of rare birds 241 The spread of the Eider in Great Britain. By J. H. Taverner ... ... 245 Watching migration by radar. By Dr. David Lack, F. R.S. ... ... 258 Notes: — Display flight of Bitterns (G. B. G. Benson) ... ... ... ... 267 Flightless condition of Common Scoter (R. W. Robson) ... ... 268 Early roding of Woodcock (L. J. Raynsford) ... ... ... ... 268 Adult male Cuckoo being fed by Dunnock (G. B. G. Benson) ... ... 269 Swallows following man to catch insects disturbed from ground (Derek Goodwin) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 269 Woodchat Shrike killing mouse (B. A. E. Marr) ... ... ... 269 Great Spotted Woodpeckers killing nestling tits (Guy Mountfort) ... 270 Recent reports and news. By Kenneth Williamson and I. J. Ferguson-Less ... -/ Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas. 6 S. - 3 OCT 1959 PURCHASr- Vol. LI1 No. 8 AUGUST iQ59 " • *- •> * V- BRITISH BIRDS EDITORIAL Records of Rare Birds During the past year or more there has been a growing- realization that a large number of birds formerly thought to be rarities are reaching the British Isles regularly, and even in some numbers. In some cases a change of habit or expansion of breeding distribution may be responsible, but in all probability many of these species have been overlooked in the past and their discovery now is due to the larger numbers of bird-watchers, the considerable advances in field-identification and the enormous increase in bird observatories and trapping. The position has been reached where the flood of records of un- usual species reaching British Birds has swamped the system for dealing with them, as two examples may show: it was as recently as 1953 that we were still publishing full details of any Woodchat Shrike, but it is now clear that this bird is an annual visitor and over a score were reported in 1958; similarly, there were some 14 records of Melodious Warbler last autumn, yet twenty years ago The Handbook was able to include an all-time total of only 3 occurrences of this species. Obviously we cannot now provide space for the publication of full details of all the rarer birds, and the county reports in general have less room available than we have. On the other hand, the publication of details enables the reader — now, or 50 years hence — to make some assessment of the record for himself ; it has on occasion led to the rejection of a record which should not have been accepted; it often brings to light useful field-characters; and it encourages the taking of field-descriptions. We are therefore proposing still to publish descriptions of birds falling into the following limited categories: (1) all species (and some well defined races) which have occurred in Great Britain and Ireland not more than 10 times; (2) all species which have not occurred at all during the previous 25 years. 241 242 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII There remain a large number of lesser rarities. Many are reported to us direct or through the courtesy of the county report editors and, although most of these records are subsequently published in the regional reports, we feel we owe our readers a more considered opinion than is possible in “Recent reports and news’’, which feature is, in any case, not intended to have any great value as a permanent record. It was at this point that it was realised how interesting and helpful it would be to bring together, year by year, all records of rarities, both lesser and greater, collected from as many sources as possible. Accordingly we propose to institute an annual rare birds report, drawn up on the brief lines of a county report and published in this magazine. The first will cover the year 1958 and these annual reports will be additional and complementary to the “Recent reports and news”. The decision on what constitutes a rarity is necessarily some- what arbitrary, but as a guide we print below the list of species selected at this stage. Even with this limited list there are some 400 observations to be considered for the year 1958. White-billed Diver Snow Goose Black-browed Albatross Red-breasted Goose Wilson’s Petrel Egyptian Vulture Madeiran Petrel Griffon Vulture Frigate Petrel Golden Eagle (outside Scotland) Little Shearwater Spotted Eagle Audubon’s Shearwater Goshawk (except southern half of Cory’s Shearwater England) Bulwer’s Petrel Kite (outside Wales) Kermadec Petrel Black Kite Collared Petrel White-tailed Eagle Capped Petrel Pallid Harrier Magnificent Frigate-bird Gyr Falcon Purple Heron Red-footed Falcon Little Egret Lesser Kestrel Great White Heron Crane Squacco Heron Sora Rail Cattle Egret Baillon’s Crake Night Heron Little Crake Little Bittern American Purple Gallinule American Bittern Great Bustard White Stork Little Bustard Black Stork Houbara Bustard Glossy Ibis Sociable Plover Flamingo Kentish Plover (except coast from Black Duck Wash to Isle of Wight) Blue-winged Teal Killdeer American Wigeon Caspian Plover Red-crested Pochard (except Asiatic/ American Golden Plovet London) Dowitcher Ring-necked Duck Great Snipe Ferruginous Duck Upland Plover Buffelhead Eskimo Curlew Surf Scoter Solitary Sandpiper Harlequin Spotted Sandpiper Steller’s Eider Greater Yellowlegs King Eider Lesser Yellowlegs Hooded Merganser Marsh Sandpiper Ruddy Shelduck Terek Sandpiper Lesser White-fronted Goose Least Sandpiper vol. lii] EDITORIAL: RARE BIRD RECORDS 243 Baird’s Sandpiper White-rumped Sandpiper Pectoral Sandpiper Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Semipalmated Sandpiper Buff-breasted Sandpiper Broad-billed Sandpiper Black-winged Stilt Stilt Sandpiper Wilson’s Phalarope Pratincole Cream-coloured Courser Ivory Gull Great Black-headed Gull Mediterranean Black-headed Gull Bonaparte’s Gull Ross’s Gull White-winged Black Tern Whiskered Tern Gull-billed Tern Caspian Tern Sooty Tern Bridled Tern Royal Tern Briinnich’s Guillemot Pallas’s Sandgrouse Eastern Turtle Dove Great Spotted Cuckoo Yellow-billed Cuckoo Black-billed Cuckoo Scops Owl Eagle Owl Snowy Owl Hawk Owl Tengmalm’s Owl American Nighthawk Red-necked Nightjar Egyptian Nightjar Alpine Swift Needle-tailed Swift Bee-eater Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Roller White-winged Lark Short-toed Lark Lesser Short-toed Lark Crested Lark Red-rumped Swallow Nutcracker Crested Tit (outside Scotland) Bearded Tit (outside East Anglia) Wallcreeper Dusky Thrush Black-throated Thrush Siberian Thrush American Robin White’s Thrush Rock Thrush Olive-backed Thrush Grey-cheeked Thrush Desert Wheatear Black-eared Wheatear Pied Wheatear Isabelline Wheatear Black Wheatear Red-flanked Bluetail Thrush Nightingale Lanceolated Warbler Savi's Warbler Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler Moustached Warbler Thick-billed Warbler Great Reed Warbler Marsh Warbler (outside England) Blyth’s Reed Warbler Paddyfield Warbler Aquatic Warbler Melodious Warbler Icterine Warbler Olivaceous Warbler Booted Warbler Orphean Warbler Sardinian Warbler Subalpine Warbler Dartford Warbler (outside England) Rufous Warbler Greenish Warbler Bonelli’s Warbler Arctic Warbler Yellow-browed Warbler Pallas’s Warbler Dusky Warbler Radde’s Bush Warbler Firecrest (outside England and Wales) Brown Flycatcher Collared Flycatcher Alpine Accentor Richard’s Pipit Tawny Pipit Pechora Pipit Red-throated Pipit Yellow-headed Wagtail Lesser Grey Shrike Woodchat Shrike Isabelline Shrike Red-eyed Vireo Black-and-White Warbler Myrtle Warbler Northern Waterthrush Yellowthroat Rose-coloured Starling Summer Tanager Baltimore Oriole Rose-breasted Grosbeak Arctic Redpoll Citril Finch Serin Scarlet Grosbeak (outside Fair Isle) Pine Grosbeak Two-barred Crossbill White-throated Sparrow Song Sparrow Pine Bunting Black-headed Bunting Red-headed Bunting Yellow-breasted Bunting Rustic Bunting Little Bunting 244 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII For the sake of completeness this list includes several species which are at the moment under consideration for addition to the B.O.U. List, but it is probably unnecessary to add that any bird new to the British Isles is automatically included. The above list, in any case, should not be regarded as finalized and it will inevitably have birds added to it and taken off it in the course of time, but it is published now as a guide to the many recorders and observers who we hope will be kind enough to co-operate with us in making the national rare birds report as complete as possible. As already indicated, the report will largely be confined to the bare details of dates, places and observers, and it is unlikely that full descriptive accounts of any but the extreme rarities will appear in print anywhere except in those county and regional publications which arc still able to provide the necessary space. To compensate as far as possible for the loss of safeguards which this entails, it was regarded as essential to establish a large committee with wide experience in as many aspects as possible of the problems and pit- falls of field-identification, to be responsible for checking all the descriptions and other evidence for all the records included in the annual list. We are therefore very grateful indeed to FI. G. Alexander*, D. D. Harber, A. Hazelwood, H. P. Medhurst, M. F. M. Meiklejohn, G. A. Pyman, R. F. Ruttledge and Kenneth Williamson who have agreed, together with P. A. D. Hollom and I. J. Ferguson-Lees, to form our Rarities Committee. In particular we are indebted to G. A. Pyman who has given up all his commitments with the Essex Bird-Watching and Preserva- tion Society, save the senior editorship of the Essex Bird Report, in order to become the Honorary Secretary of the committee and compiler of its annual report. It is hoped that this committee of io members will carry enough weight in all departments from field identification to taxonomy to command general respect and confidence. Work is already well under way on the rather heavy accumula- tion of records awaiting consideration, and we should like here to express our appreciation of the prompt and generous help we are receiving from the editors and recorders of county and other regional publications. Over 200 records have already been circulated, and the remainder will be as soon as full details are received. The committee hope in turn to be able to arrive at decisions reasonably quickly and, where they favour acceptance of a record, they will normally invite the comments of the recording organization in the county concerned before finally accepting. In conclusion, we ask that all records, with the supporting descriptions and other evidence, should continue to be sent to the editorial address in Bedford and not direct to Mr. Pyman. Chairman of the British Records Committee of the B.O.U. THE SPREAD OF THE EIDER IN GREAT BRITAIN By J. H. Taverner The purpose of this paper is to trace the spread in the winter range of the Eider ( Somateria mollis sima ) in the southern half of Great Britain since the Second World War, and also to describe the increasing' number of birds which are recorded in summer along the same parts of the coast even though they are far removed from the breeding areas. At the same time, apparently connected increases at certain breeding grounds are outlined, particularly those at the Fame Islands and in Holland. Finally, possible causes and consequences of the spread are discussed. The material has been drawn largely from county bird books and reports, from the editors of some of these reports or, for areas where no such publications exist, from individual local observers. A request for unpublished records was printed in British Birds (antea, vol. li, p. 447). The data should therefore include practically all known Eider records for the period under review. However, two factors may cause some bias. Firstly, the last few years have seen a very great increase in the numbers of watchers, particularly in counties such as Dorset, Hampshire and Lincoln, so that a straight comparison between, say, 1946 and 1958 may sometimes be misleading. Secondly, certain parts of the coasts of Ireland and Wales are still comparatively poorly covered. These points are mentioned in the text wherever it is felt they may have altered the pattern. DISTRIBUTION UP TO 1945 Breeding numbers and range. Scotland was the headquarters. On the islands off the western coast Eiders bred abundantly in places and were generally well distributed. They also nested commonly in Orkney and abundantly in Shetland. On the mainland they were not found in any numbers in south-west Scotland, but they bred commonly from Kintyre to Cape Wrath and also in some numbers along the north coast of Sutherland. Apart from recent records from Caithness, no Eiders were found breeding from that part of the coast round to and including Banff, but the species was a common resident from Aberdeen to Forth and was plentiful on the East Lothian coast, the northern corner of Berwickshire and on some of the adjacent islands. There was no breeding reported from the extreme south-east. A very detailed account of the Scottish breeding range is given by Baxter and Rintoul (1953). The only colony in England at that time was in Northumberland, on the Fame Islands. Numbers were very small, however, for during the war the eggs had been taken, the sitting birds shot and some family parties used as targets for troops practising with 245 246 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii machine guns. Thus in 1945 only a score were present (Watt, I951)- In Ireland, Eiders were resident on the northern coast, mainly on islands off Co. Donegal, but also on the mainland of that county, on the mainland and islands of Co. Antrim and on one group of islands off Co. Down (Kennedy et ah, 1954). This distribution was the result of a remarkable spread that began around a hundred years ago. Eiders had been breeding on the Fame Islands for several hundred years, but at the open- ing of the nineteenth century the only known mainland colony was on the East Lothian coast. Otherwise the birds were confined as breeders -to the islands off the west coast of Scotland. Then began the tremendous expansion which carried on through the first half of this century until the birds had colonized the area outlined. The present spread is thus by no means unprecedented and is possibly a continuation of the original movement. Apparently when the birds were colonizing the mainland of Scotland new nesting areas were often heralded by arrival offshore in preceding winters. Again, this original spread has been fully documented by Baxter and Rintoul (op. cit.). There is one other breeding area that is probably of great importance to this paper and that is the one on the islands off the Dutch coast. Eiders were first recorded as nesting on the island of Vlieland in 1906, the number of “observed” breeding females rising to 16 in 1928, 25-30 in 1931, 134 in 1934 and ca. 200 in 1935, but van Oordt (1954) points out that the true numbers must have been higher. By 1936 some 300 breeding females were estimated and by 1940 the number had risen still more. In spite of the heavy toll taken by the Germans during the occupation, this level was maintained until the war ended, but during this time the birds had established two new colonies at Texel and on the Boschplaat. The Handbook (Vol. Ill, p. 338) refers to Brittany as a breed- ing area, and this part of the French coast is also included in the map in the Field Guide (1954). However, no nesting has been proved there since an isolated case in 1925. Eiders have been seen since then, but some in the springs of 1954 and 1955 behaved like non-breeding birds (R. D. Etchdcopar, in lift. ; see also Bannerman and Lodge, 1958). Winter range. The winter range of the Eider at that time is not absolutely clear. Most authorities say that the birds were largely sedentary and the few ringing returns support this view. In winter Eiders were thus found on nearly all the breeding coasts, but to the south they were uncommon visitors to most areas. (More information appears later in this paper when a summary of the spread is given under individual county headings.) In some places the species kept so much to its breeding grounds that it vol. li i ] SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN 247 was uncommon in winter even on adjacent coasts. Thus in east Sutherland, which lies between two breeding areas, the birds were very scarce in winter . The Handbook summarizes the situation by saying: “In winter scarce visitor south of breeding range but occurs irregularly in small numbers all coasts Oct. (exceptionally Sept.) to March, exceptionally April and May and even between June and Aug.”. However, a certain amount of movement was evident. It was known, for example, that some Eiders from more northern latitudes came south in winter and such passage was reported at Fair Isle. Similarly, there was a dispersal from some of the Scottish breeding islands while at others there were reports of winter arrivals in large numbers. H. W. Robinson recorded an almost complete absence of immature drakes during the winter months in Orkney and suggested that they could have moved south (see Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). Before the war Eiders were apparently only uncommon or rare visitors to English and Welsh coastal counties except Northumber- land, Sussex, Glamorgan and possibly Anglesey (records for the last are too few for certainty). Off the Sussex coast adults and immatures were of annual occurrence, mainly out in the Channel but also in estuaries and harbours, never being plentiful although “large flocks” were sometimes detected (Walpole-Bond, 1938). Walpole-Bond seemed to consider that the majority of these birds were “from north-west Palaearctic regions” and expressed surprise that the county bird books of both Kent and Hampshire included the Eider only as an irregular visitor. At least as far as Hampshire is concerned, this surprise was probably justified since the coastline there was poorly covered in those days. As to Glamorgan, or the Glamorgan/Carmarthen border, small numbers have wintered in the area of the Burry estuary for at least ninety years and even before the war were seen in summer as well, although a similar situation was not reported from any other part of Wales. The past winter status of the Eider, particularly on the south coast, must remain obscure, but the species was probably commoner in some areas than was suspected. THE POST-WAR SPREAD Breeding numbers. There has not been a great increase in the actual breeding range since 1945, though some new localities have been colonized. In Scotland, the Clyde has had more nesting reports and, as mentioned above, it is only recently that the species has spread to Caithness. In England, Eiders now breed on new parts of the Northumberland mainland and have colonized the west coast for the first time — at Walney Island, Lancashire. There they were first reported in 1940 (a single nest) and except for 1931, they have bred every year since. There has apparently been very 248 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII little new colonization in Ireland (although Major R. F. Ruttledge tells me that parts of the coast are so poorly covered that the birds may have been overlooked), but the Dutch Eiders have extended their breeding range to the islands around the original locality. Although there is then only small evidence of an actual spread in the breeding range, there has been a spectacular rise in the numbers in certain established colonies and it is fortunate that detailed figures are available for two important and outstanding areas — the Fames off the Northumberland coast and the Dutch islands of Texel, Terschelling and Vlieland (see Table I). If the increases in these two fringe parts of the Eider’s range continue, a point of saturation will presumably be reached and it seems reasonable to expect a dispersal to new colonies. Table I — Numbers of pairs of Eiders ( Somateria mollissima) breeding on the Farne Islands, Northumberland, and on various Dutch islands Total counts are not available for all years. In connection with the Dutch figures it is worth noting that as many as 5,000-6,000 non-breeding birds have also been seen in the area during recent summers. Year Fames 1946 I 20-1 32 1949 370-385 >95i ca. 445 1952 532 1953 ca. 643 1957 1,200 + Year Texel Terschelling Vlieland Others 1946 10-15 50 500-600 — 1948 ca. 80 5° 500-1,000 2 1953 50 240 2,300 3 1955 ca. 60 45o 2,000-3,000 ca. 100 1958 No count No count 6,000 No count Eiders are birds which respond quickly to protection and in both of the above areas they have been well protected since the war. The numbers on the Farne Islands in the past have shown a close relationship to the degree of interference. Furthermore, the Walney colony has only been successful because of the efforts of the lighthouse keepers in warding off predators in the early days. Winter flocks and non-breeding birds in summer. The following is a county-by-county summary of the winter and summer status of the Eider off the coasts of England, including a section for Wales, areas being taken in geographical order down the east coast, along the south and up the west. Names of authorities in brackets, apart from references to published works, indicate information given in personal correspondence. Through- out this section the term “1949/50” refers to the period from 249 vol. li i ] SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN ist July 1949 to 30th June 1950 inclusive and similar terms refer to the same dates in other years. Northumberland/Durham. — Being a breeding area, the Northumberland coast had wintering Eiders in some numbers before the spread started (thus in a census during 25th-28th March 1949 a total of 623 were counted along the whole coast), but in Co. Durham they were much less regular. By 1953, however, the species was more abundant than ever in Northumberland and reports were more frequent from Co. Durham as far south as the Tees. 1955 saw numbers steadily increasing and by this time Durham records were still more frequent. Yorkshire. — Previously of very occasional occurrence off the coast (R. Chislett). A few were reported in 1949/50, three in 1950/51 and four in 195I/S2- There was a marked increase in 1953/54 when over 30 birds (including 16 together) were seen and, following this, the 1955 Ornithological Report said: “Too many records of both sexes to enumerate”. There was a large influx in November 1957, and in 1958 Eider were at Flamborough in all months with a maximum of 74 on ist March. Lincoln. — Formerly a very scarce and irregular winter-visitor (R. K. Cornwallis). In 1952/53, however, the species was more numerous and greater numbers have been seen in subsequent years, with “unusual numbers” in the Wash in 1955/56 and 1957/58. (Greatly intensified watching in recent years, especially on the Wash, could mean that birds were missed in years before i952/5 3-) Norfolk. — Before about 1948 an occasional winter visitor in small numbers (M. J. Seago). Since then, there has been an increase on the north Norfolk coast and in the Wash with the maximum at any one place reaching 18 in 1952/53, 4° 'n 1 953 /54 and 200 'n I955 /5^; in 1954/55, although numbers were small, the birds were more widespread. On 4th December 1955 there were 200 together at Hunstanton, the previous maximum for the Wash being 6; there were 150 at the same place on 22nd January 1956 and in the first part of April of the same year. Eiders now appear regularly, monthly maxima for the Brancaster area in 1958 being 90, 80, 120, 120, 100, 100, 80, 125, 50, 120, 180 and 160. As the winter totals increase, so summer records become more frequent and 200 were reported off Wells, 12 miles out to sea, in May/July 1958. Suffolk. — Formerly very rare (F. K. Cobb). The first sign of change was in 1953/54 when there was a flock of 12 at Walberswick for nearly four months. By 1956 Eiders were not uncommon in winter and were also recorded in moderate numbers during summer. 29 at Lowestoft, 20-25 at Shingle Street and 22 at Dunwich are the maximum counts. Essex. — Up to 1950 a very rare vagrant (G. A. Pyman). Four birds in 1950 were followed by increasingly regular occurrences and larger numbers. In 1952/53 the maximum at any one place was 15, in 1953/54 the figure was 23, and in 1954/55 there were 52 at Bradwell in January. In late 1957 there was a considerable influx and 100+ were reported from the Naze in the following April. There were also two inland records at this time. By 1957 Eiders were present on and off throughout the summer in most years. Kent. — Up to the mid-i94o’s a very rare visitor (Harrison, 1953). An increase was noticed in the late 1940’s and one on 19th Julv 1946 was the earliest record for a place so far south. By 1954 the Kent Bird Report was recording numerous observations from January to December. Eiders were seen on the north, south and east coast but mainly on the north where there were several parties of up to 24. Subsequent years have been similar with winter parties up to over 20 and summer numbers regular but low. Sussex. — As already briefly mentioned, the position here was so different from that reported from other southern counties that it must be reviewed in more detail. Even before the recent spread began, the Eider had long been a regular visitor to the Sussex part of the English Channel. Adults and 250 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII immatures were considered to be of annual occurrence between autumn and spring, mainly on the open sea but also in estuaries and harbours. They were never plentiful but large parties had been detected. They occurred as early as 4th October and as late as 8th April, but most did not arrive until early November and had left by early March (Walpole-Bond, 1938). The Sussex Bird Report for 1949 stated that there were “more records than usual”, and from then onwards observations have become progressively more frequent. In 1950/51 the county had its first September record. 1955/56 saw “larger numbers than usual” with up to 40 at one locality and in 1956 came the first Sussex records for June, July and August. The 1958 Sussex Bird Report said, “More recorded than ever before” — with ca. 70 at one place, which was a larger flock than any previously known for this county. Most left the county by the end of April 1958, but at Langney Point the numbers increased through June to 22 and then fell away in August. Mid-October saw the start of the main arrival again and off Selsey Bill on 5th April 1959 there was a flock of 85, the largest number for Sussex to date (A. B. Sheldon). Hampshire. — Until the spread a very uncommon winter visitor. The first signs of change were in 1953/54 when two birds were seen. The following year one female wintered and up to 12 were present in another place in 1955/56. Small numbers were recorded in 1956/57 from more places than before. Then in 1957/58 there was a marked increase, Eiders being reported from ten localities, in some of which they stayed all winter : the maximum was 35. One was seen in the summer of 1958. Dorset. — Previously a rare vagrant (Blathwayt, 1943). The spread was first noticed in 1949/50 when up to three were seen on several occasions at the mouth of Poole Harbour. One was there the following year and eight in 1951/52. Since then Eiders have been seen at this locality in small numbers each year, with 30+ in 1955/56, and they have also been recorded in the Weymouth area, staying progressively longer each spring. Devon. — Before 1946 an uncommon winter visitor (F. R. Smith) and none had been seen in the previous five years. In 1946/47, however, one was observed off the north coast and one off the south; and the next year Eiders were reported from three localities, including six birds off the Taw estuary. 1948/49 saw none, but in 1949/50 as many as 13 were seen off the Exe. I95°/5r had small counts, 1951/52 none and then in 1952/53 there was a marked increase with 16 off the Exe and 18 in Start Bay. The Exe numbers increased to 45 in 1953/54 and since then the species has been regular with counts of up to 35, mainly off the Exe, Taw, Torbay and Start Bay. On 16th November 1958, 150 were seen flying west off Sidmouth. The spread has been accompanied by summering on a small scale. Cornwall. — Previously a very irregular visitor (Ryves, 1948). One in March 1948, another in May 1949 and then none for the next three winters. Two were seen in 1952/53 and at least six the following winter. None was reported in 1954/55, but in 1955/56 Eiders occurred in five localities, though there were no more than three at any one. Similar small numbers have been recorded in subsequent years. Somerset. — Previously a rare visitor. There had been no outstanding increase by the end of 1958, but Eider records have become more frequent in the 1950’s (G. H. E. Young). Wales. — Previously almost unrecorded except from the Burry estuary, Glamorgan, where flocks of 15-20 were seen not only in winter but all the year round, and Anglesey, though there were not many records from the latter. Between Merioneth and Pembroke, however, there are few observers and this may have been the reason. The first sign of increase was in 1954/55 when Eiders were reported as more frequent than usual from the Dee. 1957/58 seems to have been the main period of increase, but it does not appear to have continued in 1958/59 and it was not general for Wales. Thus, the only Welsh counties that can boast Eiders as regular visitors at the moment are Glamorgan (mostly Burry estuary), Carmarthen (Gwendraeth estuary only, 251 VOL. li i ] SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN which adjoins Burry), Merioneth (maximum io, at Harlech), Anglesey (up to 23) and Flint (Dee Estuary). In the Burry estuary in 1957 and 1958 the highest numbers were in summer, as is shown by the following monthly maxima for the latter year: 12, 21, 22, 22, 43, 45, 20, 43, 54, 22, 22, 22. Eiders are still apparently very scarce on the remainder of the Welsh coast (M. P. Harris). Cheshire. — 1939 saw the first Eiders recorded for many years. Several at Hilbre in December 1941 were the only ones noted in the 1940’s, however, and there were but four records for 1951/55. Then in 1957/58 there were unusual numbers at Hilbre from 21st September to 22nd June, the maximum being 17 on nth and 13th April (A. W. Boyd). Lancashire. — Up to 1949, in which year breeding was first proved on Walney Island, it was a very rare vagrant with only three records (Oakes, 1 953)- Since then winter records have increased out of all proportion to the numbers nesting with a particularly marked rise in 1958/59 — until on 16th March 1959 “Eiders are about in hundreds” in the Walney area (Miss E. Wheeler per K. G. Spencer). At the same time an increasing number of non-breeding adults and immatures linger into the summer, in addition to the nesting pairs: 33 on 15th June 1956, 39 adults and 14 immatures on 28th June 1957, 21 adults and 14 immatures on 14th July 1957. Cumberland. — Odd birds recorded on a very few occasions (Canon G. A. K. Hervey), with some small increase in frequency since the Lancashire colony became established. Arrival dates. As might be expected, the increasing frequency of winter records in each area has resulted in progressively earlier dates of arrival. This tendency is very difficult to trace in such counties as Norfolk and Kent, as first arrivals are confused by the summer- ing birds which became not infrequent a few years after the winter spread began. In some south coast counties, however, where Eiders do not as yet summer regularly, figures show this trend clearly. For example, the recorded arrival dates at the mouth of Poole Harbour, Dorset, from 1950/51 to 1957/58 were as shown in Table II (though it must be remembered that watching has very much increased in this county during this period). Table II — Dates of arrivals of wintering Eiders (Somateria mollissitna ) at Poole Harbour, Dorset, 1950/51-1957/58 1950/51 1951/52 1952/53 1953/54 *954/55 1955/56 1956/57 *957/58 16 Jan. 25 Dec. 7 Dec. 2 Dec. Dec. 20 Nov. 12 Oct. 11 Nov. However, at Portland Bill, also in Dorset, the first birds were seen on 23rd September in 1954 and on 9th/ioth September in 1958. This tendency for odd birds to occur some time before the main arrival has been noticed at St. Catherine’s Point on the Isle of Wight, which like Portland projects into the Channel a little, and it seems possible that these early records are either of ones moving along the Channel or of ones that do not at first come close inshore. Further east along the south coast the arrival dates are a little earlier. In Sussex, for example, the first date in 1953-54 was 27th November (apart from two September birds), in 1954/55 it 252 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII was ist November and in 1955/56 19th November (apart from some summer records). Later years have continued to produce earlier dates than those given in Table I for Dorset, but the increase of summering birds off the Sussex coast now confuses the picture there. Nearer to the breeding grounds, in Norfolk and Kent, Eiders were being recorded in all months by 1954, and the position in Essex was very similar. However, numbers in these counties tend to increase in November and December, so that it seems clear that the period of arrival in both East Anglia and on the south coast is from mid-October to mid-November onwards. Summering. The increasing number of summer records in the southern half of Britain has already been mentioned and the position was briefly outlined in the county-by-county summary above. Nevertheless, it is convenient to be able to examine these records on their own and so the position from Yorkshire and Wales southwards is briefly summarized below. Yorkshire. — The Y.N.U. Ornithological Report for 1058 states that the species was noted “at Flamborough in every month of the year’’ and there were other summer records from other parts of the coast. Norfolk. — Reported in summer from 1953 onwards. Suffolk. — Recorded in modest numbers in summer for the first time in 1956. Essex. — Present on and off through the summer in most years now. Kent. — Recorded in all months in 1054 and seen in each succeeding summer. Sussex. — 1956 saw the first June, July and August records and there have been more in subsequent summers, over 20 in 1958. Hampshire.— One summer record 1958. Dorset.- — -No summer records during this period. Devon. — Summering on a small scale from 1953 onwards. Cornwall. — One summered 1957. Wales. — Summering long regular at Burry, Glamorgan, as mentioned. Elsewhere recorded from three localities in summer in four post-war years. Picture could be very incomplete. Thus, as might be expected, those counties which first experienced the widening winter range have generally been those in which summering first occurred. In this connection it is interesting to note that, apart from the eastern and south- eastern counties, Devon was one of the earliest to have summer records and it will be remembered that Devon was also very early with the winter spread. By 1958, then, summering in small or moderate numbers occurred in all counties from the north-eastern breeding grounds round to and including Sussex, but summer records were very unusual in Hampshire and unknown in Dorset. Further west, summering on a small scale was regular in Devon and in one or two localities in Wales, but there is only one such record for Cornwall. Age and sex. The data are not complete enough at the moment to show the exact proportions of adult drakes, adult females and immatures. vol. lii] SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN 253 It would appear, however, that adult males are the least common in all non-breeding areas of England and they become less frequent as one proceeds westwards along the south coast. Generally speaking, however, there is a tendency for the proportion of adult drakes to rise as the spread gathers pace. The exact ratio of immature birds to adult females is rather vague because many reports refer to “females or immatures” or simply even “brown birds’’. However, some observers have distinguished fairly fully between the various plumages and, although it would be unwise to make a categorical statement, it does appear that the immatures are mainly responsible for the spread but that adult females are recorded far more often than adult males. Much more information is needed on the question of sex and age, and it is particularly important that changes in the proportion be noted as the spread continues. In more detail, Co. Durham and Yorkshire report birds of both sexes frequently, but the proportion in Yorkshire identified as adult drakes has been small. Further south, in Lincoln and Norfolk, adult drakes form a very small proportion of the whole; in Norfolk up to one third of large parties have been males, but most of these have been immature. In Suffolk immatures and females form the bulk of the records and in Essex adult drakes are definitely uncommon: there is very little doubt that the vast majority of those in the latter county are immatures, although a few adult females have been identified (G. A. Pyman, in lilt.); the 100+ at the Naze in early 1958 did not include a single adult drake. In Kent adult drakes become more frequent. Thus in 1956 “In parties over five, the number of adult males seldom exceeded one third of the total’’ ( Kent Bird Report , 1956). This, however, appears to be a recent increase because in 1954 the Kent Bird Report stated that parties over 10 seldom included more than one or two drakes — except in April and May 1954 when a third of the highest totals were old males. Sussex reports few adult drakes and in 1958 most of the summer- ing birds were immatures (though a record pack of 85 off Selsey Bill early in 1959 included 8 males). In Hampshire, out of a total of about 70 birds in the last few years, only three have been mature drakes. In Dorset, on the other hand, 10% of all recent records have been adult males (but most of these have occurred in the last two or three years). Further west, in Devon, in the eleven years up to 1957/58, only two adult males were seen out of about 200 individuals, but of the party of 150 in 1958 a third were drakes in full plumage. Otherwise, the majority of Devon’s birds have been immatures, around two-fifths being young males. There are no details available from Wales of adult females and very few records of adult males, though in 1058 over a third of the Burry estuary flocks were full drakes. In that same area 254 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii there is usually a large proportion of immature males — a third or a half of some flocks in recent years. DISCUSSION Summary. If we summarize the above data, the following picture emerges. About a hundred years ago Eiders began a great extension of their British breeding range, which at that time was confined to the Western Isles of Scotland apart from the Fame Islands and a colony on the East Lothian coast, until many parts of the coast of Scotland had been colonized by the 1930’s (see pp. 245-6 and The Handbook, vol. Ill, p. 337). Even then, however, the birds were no more than scarce winter visitors away from the breeding- grounds except off the coasts of Sussex and Glamorgan (Burry estuary): in both these localities they had long been noted fairly regularly in winter and in the Burry estuary a few had usually summered since at least the late nineteenth century. But in the 1930’s breeding numbers were still increasing, especially in colonies on the southern fringe of the range, and this trend has accelerated enormously in the post-war years. Since 1945 a slight extension in the breeding range has been accompanied by a quite remarkable spread in the winter range until almost all English coastal counties now have Eiders as regular winter visitors. Summering has also become regular in all counties from Yorkshire to Sussex (save Lincoln) and also in Devon. Norfolk, Kent and Sussex all noted a winter increase about 1948/49, Yorkshire a small one in 1949/50 and Essex in 1950/51. About this same time the first sporadic occurrences were recorded in Dorset and even a little earlier in Devon. Yet it was not until 3:952 / 53 and 1953/54, by which time the spread in the south-east was well advanced, that Lincolnshire and Yorkshire reported any marked change (although in the former county the then scanty coverage could have been partly responsible). It was in i953/54, too, that Hampshire had more Eiders for the first time. Meanwhile, there was no evidence of an increase off the coasts of Wales until a small influx in 1954/55 and much bigger numbers in 1057/58 (though scanty coverage should again be borne in mind). Years such as 1955/56 and 1957/58 resulted in very marked changes in many areas, but the spread has been uneven and 1954/55, for example, brought only small increases or even decreases: in that winter Sussex recorded only three birds. The origin of the wintering birds in southern England. The curious pattern that emerges from the last paragraph, show- ing that the south-eastern quarter of England was the first area to experience the effects of the main spread, raises several questions. Above all, where have the birds come from? The possibility of an origin far removed from the British Isles needs further investiga- tion, but for various reasons (some of which will become apparent vol. lii J SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN 255 in what follows) this is thought to be unlikely and will not receive further consideration in this paper. Three sources therefore remain: western Scotland (with north Ireland), south-eastern Scotland and the Fame Islands, and Holland. The west coast, however, can certainly be ruled out. There is no evidence of an increase in the breeding numbers there on a scale large enough to account for the spread and, in any case, everything points to the east rather than to the west : the east experienced the spread first and still has much larger numbers ; the extension to Walney Island and Lancashire did not begin until the southward movement was in full swing in eastern and south-eastern counties; the progression of arrival dates along the south coast, and the spread of the summering habit, are both from cast to west. Even the reports of passage, which are unfortunately few, suggest the east as the source. In Sussex Eiders have been seen moving west in late summer and autumn, and east in spring. At St. Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, 15 flew east and only one west in spring 1958. At Portland, Dorset, two passed east in March 1957 and four flew in the same direction the following May. Correspondingly, the 150 seen in Devon in November 1958 flew westwards. This all points to birds moving to and from breeding grounds in the east, though the increase at Walney, the very large numbers seen off Lancashire in 1958/59 and the inexplicably isolated summering ground in South Wales do suggest that there is some influence growing in the west. That this influence is likely to become more important is shown by the fact that 1957/58 and 1958/59 have seen the greatest changes in numbers wintering on that side of Britain. The south-east of Scotland' (with the Fames) and Holland thus seem to be more likely dispersal points. The numbers on the Fame Islands over this period have probably been insufficient to allow this colony to be the main source of the spread since that area and the Northumberland coast hold large numbers of Eider themselves in winter. Indeed, Dr. E. L. Arnold writes, “I think the majority of Eiders on our coast do not move very far and there are large numbers of wintering birds offshore which almost certainly form part of the Fame breeding stock”. Further, if the Fames were the main source, it would be difficult to account for the fact that Yorkshire experienced no marked increase until after the spread had established itself in counties further south. The proximity of such a rapidly increasing colony to the areas experiencing the winter spread is surely more than mere coincidence, however, and the Fames have probably been a minor point of dispersal, perhaps affecting all the east coast counties of England to some extent. The bulk of the evidence seems to point at Holland as the major source of the spread which, let it be remembered, first affected the parts of England closest to that country. In 1958, there were upwards of 18,000 Eiders on the Dutch coast in summer 256 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII (Hoogerheide, 1958; M. F. Morzer Bruijns, in litt.) which represented a considerable increase on the immediate post-war years. Still more important, however, is the fact that these birds gradually leave the breeding grounds and the waters near the coast when nesting operations are completed. Thus, the maximum numbers seen per month on Terschelling during 1951/53 and at Vlieland during 1953/56 are as follows: Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Terschelling o o 10 450 820 300 no 60 15 o 6 10 Vlieland 225 300 2,000 4,500 4,000 3,000 2,500 1,000 300 600 600 500 In May on Vlieland only breeding birds are counted. M. F. Morzer Bruijns writes: “Most Eiders in our opinion leave the Waddensee coast and perhaps even the Waddensee itself in August/September. Up to 1950 only very few birds were seen in autumn and winter on our coasts. After 1950 more and more observations of birds during winter were made. Great numbers, however, have always been an exception”. The exact position in Holland in winter is not yet known. Although some do winter on the North Sea coast of Holland and smaller numbers on the northern coasts of Belgium and France, the general opinion in Holland seems to be that most of the breeding population go away, and begin to return in February. However, there is one school of thought which believes that the birds winter in the Waddensee (Verwey, 1956; Hoogerheide, 1958) even though there have apparently been no records for that area during visits in December and January. If the majority opinion is correct in thinking that most of the birds leave the country in winter, then this could well be the source of the British birds, particularly if one bears in mind the order in which different parts of England first experienced the spread and that adult drakes, the birds least inclined to wander far in winter, are seen more often in Kent than in counties further north. However, only extensive ringing returns, or better still colour marking, will bring the final answer. It must suffice here to summarize by saying that the evidence suggests that Holland is the main source affecting our East Anglian and southern counties, and that the Fame Islands are probably another dispersal point which began a little later to influence counties down to East Anglia or thereabouts. Lastly, the western colonies seem to be having some influence so that perhaps the winter range will spread down the coast of Wales if breeding numbers continue to increase. The possibility of the winter spread being a prelude to breeding, as was originally the case in Scotland, is an exciting one that becomes more likely as the existing colonies approach a point of saturation. The reasons for the spread. The most vital question is, why has the spread taken place? vol. li i ] SPREAD OF EIDER IN BRITAIN 257 Before this can finally be answered the source must be definitely established, but one factor that can already be said to be of prime importance is protection. Both the Fame Islands and the main colony in Holland have been vigorously protected since the war and this must have been fundamental to the increase. Local opinion in Northumberland, indeed, believes that protection is the sole cause (Dr. E. L. Arnold, in litt.). However, the Fame Eiders have had some fair degree of natural protection for centuries owing to their connection with St. Cuthbert (Watt, 1 95 1 ) , which resulted in the local fishermen leaving them unmolested, and yet this did not produce a spread like the one that is happening today. Furthermore, protection could not possibly have been the cause of the original spread from the Western Isles. Food has been suggested as a factor. Thus in the Clyde area, the increase in Eiders has been linked with the increase in mussels. But food can be of only local importance in this way since mussels and other crustaceans on which Eider feed have always been plentiful in parts of the country where the birds have hitherto been rare. On the other hand, food could be involved to the extent that the increased breeding might result in the supply being insufficient to support the total population in the nesting area. It seems unlikely that the general amelioration of the climate could be involved in the spread of a northern species like the Eider, but weather conditions almost certainly influence the numbers and localities of Eiders seen inshore. 1957 illustrates this point well. In November of that year there was a large influx of these birds on the Yorkshire coast about the 9th and in Norfolk around the second week, the maximum count in Kent occurred during the 9th-2oth and Lincoln also reported unusual numbers. On 7th November a high pressure system had moved from the vicinity of Rockall to the north of Scotland. This led to continuous north- east winds up to and including the nth; these reached 25 knots on the 8th and 30 knots on the gth-xoth over the North Sea. The wind then turned easterly until the 16th. At this time there were unusual numbers of skuas ( Stercorarius spp.) and auks ( Uria , Alca ) off the Yorkshire coast, and the arrival of Eiders in Hamp- shire coincided with westerly weather-movements and an unusual appearance of Long-tailed Ducks [Clangula hyemnlis). Thus this analysis is intended as a preliminary report which it is hoped will stimulate further work, including observations of movements and counts of sex and age proportions in flocks. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am particularly grateful to Mr. I. J. Ferguson-Lees for his help in completing this paper, to Mr. M. P. Harris who collected most of the data from Wales, and to Dr. M. F. Morzer Bruijns and his fellow Dutch ornithologists who sent so much information from Holland. I am also much indebted to the following county recorders and other observers, some of whom contributed at great length: Dr. E. L. Arnold, A. W. Boyd, J. V. Boys, H. O. Bunce, 258 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I R. Chislett, F. K. Cobb, R. K. Cornwallis, R. D. Etchecopar, J. C. Follett, D. D. Harber, Canon G. A. K. Hervey, E. L. Jones, R. M. Lockley, A. Y. Norris, G. Olivier, G. J. van Oordt, G. A. Pyman, E. I. S. Rees, Major R. F. Ruttledge, M. J. Seago, A. B. Sheldon, F. R. Smith, R. W. J. Smith, K. G. Spencer, R. D. Wilson and G. H. E. Young. Material has also been drawn from the published annual reports of Northumberland and Durham, the Fame Islands, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, Cornwall, Somerset, Lancashire and Cheshire, and the Lake District. REFERENCES Bannerman, D. A., and Lodge, G. E. (1958): The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh. Vol. VII, p. 176. Baxter, E. V., and Rintoul, L. J. (1953): The Birds of Scotland. Edinburgh, pp. 426-435. Blathwayt, Rev. F. L. (1943): Revised List of Dorset Birds. Harrison, J. M. (1953): The Birds of Kent. London. Vol. I. pp. 175-178. Hoogerheide, J. and C. (1958): “Het Aantal Eidereenden bij Vlieland”. Limosa, 31: 151-155. Kennedy, P. G., Ruttledge, R. F., and Scroope, C. F. (1954): The Birds of Ireland. Edinburgh, p. 66. Oakes, C. (1953): The Birds of Lancashire. Edinburgh, pp. 234-235. Oordt, G. J. van (1954): “The Eider Duck and the Spoonbill in the Nether- lands”. Oryx, 2 : 379-380. Ryves, B. H. (1948): Bird Life in Cornwall. London, p. 21 1. Verwey, J. (1956): “De Waddenzee als voedsel-areaal voor vogels bij strenge kou”. Ardea, 44: 218-224. Walpole-Bond, J. (1938): A History of Sussex Birds. London. Vol. Ill, pp. 36-38. Watt, G. (1951): The Fame Islands. London, pp. 71-85. Wituerby, H. F. et al. (1939): The Handbook of British Birds. London. Vol. Ill, pp. 334-342. WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR By David Lack (Edward Grey Institute, Oxford ) HISTORY So far as I know, the first time that radar echoes were definitely identified as coming from birds was in the spring of 1940, when an experimental equipment on a wavelength of 50 cm. at Christ- church, Hampshire, detected gulls ( Laras spp.) (Shire, 1958). Unidentified echoes, some of them doubtless from large birds, were reported on 150 cm. equipment round the British coasts during the ensuing year, but the next identified records appear to be those of R. G. Finnis, who between nth August and nth November 1941 regularly plotted a migration of Herons ( Ardea cinerea ) by radar over Tobruk (Stanford, 1954)- In September 1941, echoes from sea-birds for the first time became a serious operational nuisance, on the newly developed 10 cm. equipment (Lack and Varley, 1945, who also refer to other early records). During the war years, only large birds were usually detected, vol. lii] WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR 259 though a big roost of Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris), repeatedly disturbed by Vi bombs passing over it, caused a scare that the enemy had invented a new form of radar jamming. The only other migration plotted in this period was of raptors in the Suez area in October 1945 (Goodwin, 1947). Thereafter the ornithological problem was allowed to languish for more than a decade, though in the latter part of this time, both in Britain and U.S.A., radar equipments much stronger in power than those used during the war were regularly plotting bird- migration, unknown both to the operators and to the investigating scientists who ascribed the echoes in question to unidentified meteorological phenomena (“angels”). I am, however, indebted to Dr. Stuart Smith for an overlooked record, in this period, of a hard-weather south-westward movement of Lapwings (F anellus vanellus) detected by the airport radar on Jersey, Channel Islands, and confirmed visually on 26th January 1952 (Graham, 1953). Three years later Lapwings were tracked by radar at Zurich Air- port (Hoffmann, 1956), and the next year Sutter (i957ab) not only showed convincingly that “angels” recorded on radar at Zurich Airport were echoes from migratory Passerine birds, but by thorough and imaginative techniques explored the possibilities of this new tool in the study of migration: his speeded-up films of a radar display with migration in progress provided a sensation at the International Ornithological Congress at Helsinki in 1958. Harper (1957, 195S), working independently in England, also established that “angels” were echoes from migratory birds, while for some further references see Lack (1958) and Tedd and Lack (1958). From 1955 onward, the Royal Radar Establish- ment, and later the Research Branch of R.A.F. Fighter Command, collected regular records of “angels” on their new high-powered equipment, at first by operators’ reports and later by repeated photographs, and this material they generously put at my disposal for analysis, while also allowing me to watch at their stations. THE ILLUSTRATIONS Good photographs of “angel” displays have been published for radar equipments of lower power by Sutter (1957 ab) and Harper (1958), and some for high-power R.A.F. equipment by Tedd and Lack (1958), one of which is reproduced here, as plate 48a, by kind permission of the Air Ministry and the Royal Society (in whose Proceedings it appeared). The other photographs shown here were supplied by the Royal Radar Establishment through Mr. H. K. Sutcliffe, to whom I am extremely grateful, and, of these, plates 45b and 46b have previously appeared in The Ibis and are reproduced by the editor’s permission. All these pictures are Crown Copyright. They demonstrate better than a lengthly description in words what bird migration looks like on a radar display, and though movement is absent, bird-echoes do not move at a visible rate on the scale used, so at any one moment the human observer does not see more than what is shown here. 260 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII On the plan-position display, all radar echoes appear as bright points of light against a dark ground. Each is in its correct geographical position with respect to other echoes, and the range from the station is indicated by concentric rings. Not all the photographs have been reproduced here on the same scale, but the scale is readily seen because the bright rings in all the photographs on plates 45, 46 and 47 are 50 miles apart, while the fainter rings on plates 45a, 46b, 47 and 48b are 10 miles apart; plate 48a, without range-rings, has a scale at the bottom. All the plates have been arranged with north at the top. Plate 45a shows an eastward emigration of moderate size from East Anglia in March at 0400 hours, i.e. near the end of the night movement. The large bright echoes on the left of the picture are mainly from land, while those from migrating birds are smaller points, in a dense mass near the station, and extending from it fairly densely to 50 miles and in more scattered form to 80 miles. Plate 45b, a picture of the same movement taken at 22.00 hours, which is near to the peak time for nocturnal departures seaward in spring, shows an extremely heavy eastward emigration, with bird-echoes extending in the north-east to 130 miles from the station. Plate 46a, again of the same display, was taken at 06.00 hours next morning, when the nocturnal emigration had nearly ceased and the morning emigration was under way. The latter movement was of moderate size, with echoes to about 70 miles in the north-east. Note particularly the sharp boundary running from north-east to south-west in the bottom right-hand part of the display, with many bird-echoes to the east of it but bardly any to the west of it. This line is that of the coast, and the effect, as I interpret it, is due to many migrants flying over the land so low as to be out of radar range, and then rising higher, into radar range, on putting out to sea. This effect was often seen on spring mornings, and a drawing from another photograph in Lack (1959, Pt. 2) shows both the Suffolk coast and the Wash outlined in this way. The effect was never seen at night ,when eastward-moving echoes were usually as dense over the land as out to sea. This presumably means that migrants leaving at night immediately rise high while over the land. Plate 46b, taken at 21.00 hours in mid-November, shows to the east of the station a typical immigration of moderate extent. The birds involved in this movement presumably took off after dusk from northern Holland, travelling just south of west. There were, as usual, few echoes to the north of the station because, owing to the Heligoland Bight, there is no land immediately north of Holland from which birds could come. This is the characteristic pattern for westward movements in autumn, by day and night, except that there are not infrequently more echoes to the south of the band shown in plate 46b. The picture is very different for the south-westward immigrations in autumn, which are usually densest to the north-east of the station, but I have no Plate 45 I u Plate 46 Royal Radar Establishment Migration on radar: (a) Moderate morning emigration in March, and (b) Moderate westward immigration on a November night The rings in (a) are 50 miles and the faint rings in (b) 10 miles apart. In (a) the sharp boundary on the bottom right, with many bird-echoes to (lie east but few to the west, is the coast-line which shows up because diurnal migrants rise high, into radar range, before putting out to sea (see page 260). In (b) is a typical westward autumn pattern, with few echoes to the north because there is no land immediately north of Holland from which the birds can come (see page 260). (Crown copyright reserved; by permission of the Coni roller of II. M. Stationery Office) Royal Radar Establishment Migration on radar: (a) Eastward emigration north of cold front, and (b) WNW ARRIVAL INSIDE 45 MILES AND SPARSE X E MOVEMENT ELSEWHERE The faint rings are io miles apart. In (a) the dense echoes given by rain show the position of the cold front. In (b) — taken at 09.45 hours — the centre is blacked out, the opaque smears are from rain and the rest from birds; this was a short time-exposure, so that the bird-echoes appear as direction-giving lines, not dots (see page 261); the W.N.W. movement inside 45 miles was probably drift arrival and the N.E. beyond was the remains of a morning emigration which had been much denser. ( Crown copyright reserved; by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office) Plate 48 R.A.F. Fighter Command, reproduced by permission of the Royal Society Royal Radar Establishment Migration on radar: (a) NE departures and a belt of rain, and (b) Enlargement of bird-echoes going west, to show after-glow tails In (a), a 5-h our time-exposure of spring emigration at another station, the bird-echoes appear as lines moving north-east; the rain-belt on the left was travelling 10° east of north. Directions can also be noted immediately from the after-glow tails — -as shown in (b), a greatly enlarged picture (rings 10 miles apart) of a June movement, presumably of Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus ): these tails result because the glow from each echo takes time to die away (see page 261). (Crown copyright reserved; by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office) vol. lii] WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR 261 photographs of these. Plate 46b also shows a moderate number of bird-echoes over the land. Rain also gives radar echoes, and plate 47a taken at 17.30 hours on 30th March 1958, of the same display as plates 45 and 46a, shows many birds moving E.N.E. to the north of a cold front. Plate 47b, again of the same display but enlarged, was taken at 09.45 hours next day. The centre of the station is blacked out, the opaque bright smears are from rain, and the remaining echoes are from birds. This was a time-exposure, so that each bird- echo appears not as a dot, as in previous pictures, but as a line, this representing successive positions of the same echo and thus showing the track of the bird, though not the direction in which it moved along it. Most of the echoes over the land between west and south of the station were moving N.E., and most of those out to sea between north and east of the station beyond a range of 45 miles were moving E.N.E. ; these were the remains of a typical morning emigration. But out to sea inside 45 miles from the station was a dense group of echoes moving about W.N.W. The comparatively short range at which they ceased to be detected suggests that the birds concerned were flying lower than those on the eastward emigration (but they could not have been really close to the waves, or they would have been out of radar range). I earlier postulated (Lack, 1959) that this north-westward move- ment was part of the big drifted arrival of Continental night- migrants into eastern Britain in the period concerned (Ferguson- Lees, 1958), but observations in late March 1959 showed that north-westward arrivals also occur at this season with westerly winds when drift from the Continent can be excluded, finches [Carduelis spp.) and Meadow Pipits (Anthus pratensis) probably being involved. Hence my early conclusion that this was an instance of down-wind drift must unfortunately be regarded as unproven, though it may well have been correct. Plate 48a, taken at a different radar station, was a ^-hour time- exposure, and shows bird-echoes moving north-east out to sea, also a large belt of rain which was travelling 10 degrees east of north ; hence the birds were not moving directly away from the rain. While directions can be obtained photographically by a time exposure, and on an actual display by tracking individual echoes, they are most quickly obtained on the present type of radar equip- ment in another way. The glow from each echo persists for some time, so that previous positions of the same echo are normally visible as a “tail” to the main echo in the direction from which it has come. After-glow tails are not easily photographed, but can be seen in the enlarged portion of a radar display in plate 48b. The birds are arriving west in June and are presumably Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus). MAIN ORNITHOLOGICAL FINDINGS The following are some of the main ornithological findings so 262 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii far, most of which are being- published in detail in The Ibis (Lack, 1959), while others have not yet been written up. (1) Radar confirms that the migration visible by day may be not merely incomplete but also unrepresentative of what is passing overhead. For instance, depending mainly on the wind, sometimes much and sometimes nothing was visible of the big eastward emigrations from Norfolk on April mornings in 1958. Further, the direction of migrants flying within visual range is sometimes different from that of birds migrating high up. It follows that great caution is needed in interpreting results from visible migration. (2) Radar similarly confirms that the grounded night-migrants seen next morning represent a variable fraction of those which came through the area during the night. A particularly good instance of this occurred in September 1958, when on four different occasions I observed by radar fairly large south-westward arrivals from the North Sea into Norfolk during the night and morning. On the first of these movements there was a big “fall” of Continental night-migrants, many individuals and species alighting in the bushes at Blakeney Point, on the second a moderate number and variety were seen there, on the third extremely few were seen, and on the last none — though Redwings ( Turdus musicus) and Fieldfares (T. pilaris ) were heard at night. (3) The density of bird-echoes on a radar display provides an objective measure of the volume of migration. This measure is on an arbitrary scale which cannot, so far as I can see, be related to the true number of birds in the air. For one thing, echoes from single birds and small flocks cannot be distinguished, nor can those from different species. There is also a gap in the radar coverage since birds flying just above the waves are not detected; and at the same time echoes from other objects, such as rain, may obscure those from birds. Otherwise, however, the radar record is complete, and this allows one to establish (a) the main patterns of migration through the year, and (b) variations in the volume of migration due to the weather and other factors. With respect to (a), it is important to have simultaneous visual observations, and my radar findings in Norfolk have been fully discussed with R. A. Richardson of Cley Bird Observatory, to whom I am most grateful. (4) The three biggest migratory movements of the year in the southern part of the North Sea are demonstrated, by combining the results from more than one radar station, in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, prepared from photographs by Research Branch, Fighter Command, and reproduced by their permission, as well as that of the Royal Society in whose proceedings they have previously appeared. Fig. 1 shows a typical eastward emigration across the North Sea on a spring night. Note, however, that in the Pas de Calais the main movement over the land was north-east. Fig. 2, on an October morning, shows a big south-westward immigration, vol. lii] WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR 263 but also a movement W.S.W. My own later inspection of the photographs on which this was based revealed clearly that two different movements were involved, one with a mean direction near to S.S.W., which presumably left Norway around dusk, and the other with a mean direction near to W.S.W. , which presumably left northern Holland around dawn. Note that some of the birds on the S.S.W. movement passed through the Straits of Dover and evidently did not make their landfall until they reached France. Fig. i — A typical eastward emigration in spring, at 20.00 hours on 3RD March 1957 For discussion see page 262. This often happens on movements of this type and, on the assumption that the birds concerned came from Norway, means that they had a sea-crossing of about 600 miles. Fig. 3, on a morning in mid-December, shows a westward immigration to Norfolk and a south-westward movement along and off the Belgian coast and the Pas dc Calais. It occurred during cold 264 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. L1I weather on the Continent, so might be termed a “hard-weather” movement, though a similar pattern is often observed in late October and early November. In addition to these three main movements, radar plotted movements off Norfolk north-westward in spring and south-east- FlG. 2 — A TYPICAL SOUTH-WESTWARD IMMIGRATION IN AUTUMN, AT 10.00 HOURS on 15T11 October 1957 Two separate movements are involved here, S.S.W. and W.S.W., presumably of birds which left Scandinavia at dusk and Holland at dawn respectively (see page 263). ward in autumn, presumably of British summer residents, but they are smaller than those of the British winter residents shown in Figs. 1-3. (5) The amount of spring emigration from East Anglia in March and April 1956-58 was large with clear skies, light winds and warm weather, and small with rain, clouds, high wind and vol. lii] WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR 265 cold, while it was unaffected by pressure-pattern and wind- direction as such. (6) Nocturnal emigration usually reached its peak out to sea between 21.00 and 22.00 hours, while the morning emigration For discussion see page 263. was usually densest about an hour after sunrise. In spring, emigration was usually much heavier by night than by day, but in autumn westward immigration was about equally dense by night and day. (7) All night movements and nearly all day movements were on a broad front, and radar provides no support for the view that night-migrants follow coast-lines, though big coasting movements were sometimes tracked by day in autumn. (8) An analysis of the directions of emigration over the sea in relation to the wind showed that, in clear and fairly clear weather by both day and night, the track could best be interpreted 266 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII as the resultant between a heading- maintained by the bird and lateral displacement by the wind. In spring, for instance, the track was almost always north of east with a southerly wind and south of east with a northerly wind. This is the commonest type of “drift”, indeed it is invariable in fine weather, but it is not the type usually responsible for big drifted “falls” at bird observatories, which seem to be associated with overcast weather. (9) On 17th April 1958, a big evening emigration rather north of east later met widespread drizzle at sea, and thereafter no steady tracks were obtained, the birds clearly being disoriented. Under such conditions they would gradually drift down-wind (but as the wind was light and individual echoes could not be tracked for long, a down-wind drift would not have been detectable by radar). Since the birds might well be tired if they flew in this way all night, this type of drift could be responsible for big “falls” at observatories, though there is as yet no direct evidence of this. (10) I have been personally present at a radar station during two big drift-arrivals of night-migrants into Norfolk, which is not, of course, enough to justify any generalization. As already mentioned, during the drift-arrival at the end of March 1958 many bird-echoes, presumably but by no means certainly from this move- ment, travelled north-west, i.e. down-wind. But the passage appeared to differ from Williamson’s picture of down-wind drift in not being very close to the waves. Further, though for much of the time there was a cold front or fog at sea, it seems almost certain that the sky was clear enough to see sun or stars during part of the time when this movement occurred. On the second movement, in the first week of September 1958, there were clear skies and south-easterly winds. The bird-echoes that I presume to have been from the drift-movement moved south-west, so the track of the birds was presumably a resultant between their normal southerly heading and the wind. The puzzling feature about this movement is not the direction taken, which was that to be expected with a laterally displaced move- ment, but the fact that so many of the migrants alighted on arrival, suggesting that they had come a long way. I should add that, throughout the period concerned, there were simultaneous west- ward arrivals corresponding to dawn and dusk departures from northern Holland, but these birds travelled high and fast, and I infer that they were waders and not the Passerines of the drifted movement. (11) Following both big drift-arrivals, movements were tracked by radar in early April heading south-eastward and in September eastward, which must, I think, have been redetermined movements of the same birds correcting for their previous drift. I would in conclusion stress that experience and judgement are needed in observing and interpreting radar data, just as they are vol. li i ] WATCHING MIGRATION BY RADAR 267 needed for all other forms of bird-watching, and I would not want the reader to think that, because a new and highly technical tool of research is being used, the conclusions based on it are infallible. Difficulties in observation arise particularly when two movements take place simultaneously, and difficulties in interpretation in relating the radar record to the ornithological situation. SUMMARY After a brief history of bird-detection by radar, photographs of bird-echoes under different conditions are described, and the main ornithological findings so far are reviewed. REFERENCES Ferguson-Lees, I. J. (1958): “Recent reports and news”. Brit. Birds, li : 203-5- Goodwin, E. G. M. (1947): “Radar and the speed of birds”. III. London Neios for 15 Nov. 1947, p. 552. Graham, C. S. (1953): “Ornithological Reporc for 1952”. Bull. Soc. Jcrs., 16: 24-24. Harper, W. G. (1957): ‘“Angels’ on centimetric radars caused by birds”. Nature, 180: 847-9. (1958): “Detection of bird migration by centimetric radar — a cause of radar ‘angels’”. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 149: 484-502. Hoffmann, H. (1956): “Kiebitze auf dem Radarschirm”. Orn. Beob., 53: 79-81. Lack, D. (1058): “Recent Swiss and British work on watching migration by radar”. Ibis, 100: 286-7. (1959): “Migration across the North Sea studied by radar”. Ibis, 10 1 : 209-234. and Varley, G. C. (1945): “Detection of birds by radar”. Nature, 156: 446. Shire, E. S. (1958): “Watching migrant birds by radar”. Listener for 6 Nov. 1958, p- 74 '• Stanford, J. K. (1954): “A study of the ornithology of northern Libya”. Ibis, 96: 450-1. Sutter, E. (1957a): “Radar als Hilfsmittel der V'ogelzugforschung”. Orn. Beob., 54: 70-96. (1957b): “Radar-Beobachtungen fiber den Yerlauf des nachtlichen Vogelzuges”. Rev. Suisse Zool., 64: 294-303. Tedd, J. G., and Lack, D. (1958): “The detection of bird migration by high- power radar”. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 149: 503-10. NOTES Display flight of Bitterns. — On 18th May 1959, at midday, I saw three Bitterns ( Botaurus steUaris) rise from a reed-bed near Walberswick, Suffolk, and mount in a fresh N.E. breeze to a height which I estimated to be 600 or 700 feet. Not much wing- flapping was needed. For about 10 minutes they remained circling, repeatedly performing two actions which I have not seen described in any work of reference. One was for a bird to flv immediately above another and appear to attempt to rest on its back : this was so marked that one of my companions asked if Bitterns mated in the air. The other was for one bird to fly up behind another 268 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII and then, stretching its neck, either to peck or stab (it was too high to see whether the bill was open) at its tail ; in so doing, it lost way each time and fell considerably behind. Both these actions were performed four or five times, after which all three birds planed down and landed in the reed-bed, two close together and the third probably a hundred yards away. G. B. G. Benson Flightless condition of Common Scoter. — On 3rd November 1957, while walking over the sands at Humphrey Head, Grange- over-Sands, Lancashire, my son and I picked up one male and two female Common Scoters ( Melanitta nigra), all of which were practically flightless with primaries partially sheathed. They bore no trace of oil and were in good condition : they were caught only after we had cut them off from the water and driven them inland. Three other observers have told me of Common Scoters in a similar state. Mr. J. A. G. Barnes has seen birds in this condition, at the same time of year, on the Kent estuary. Mr. Robert Spencer found and ringed an immature female, with primaries in complete moult, on the Blackwater in Essex on 3rd November 1951: there was no trace of oil and it was apparently in perfect health, but it was recovered dead 2 miles away four days later. Finally, Mr. H. Shorrock recorded completely flightless Common Scoters on six occasions during 1952-57 on the Lancashire coast, 10 birds being involved altogether: one of these was an adult male (30th October) and the rest were females between 1st and 19th November, except for one on 26th March. R. W. Robson Early roding of Woodcock,. — On 30th March 1957, near Milford, Surrey, while searching for the nest of a Woodcock ( Scolofiax rusticola), A. Smith and I were very surprised to find the broken shells of eggs already hatched. The female must thus have begun to incubate not later than the beginning of the second week of March and, in fact, the evidence led us to the conclusion that she must have started to lay in the closing days of February. In early 1958, as the weather in the first few weeks of the year seemed to be following the same favourable pattern as in 1957, we decided to visit this same area each week-end from ist/2nd February to ascertain when the roding began. There was no activity that week-end or during the Hth/gth, but by 15th February we found that roding had started. That same evening we moved to another section of woods about a mile away, where A.S. had noted roding the previous summer, and here also we found that a Woodcock had already begun this display flight. L. J. Raynsford [It will be remembered that, following the unusuallv mild winter and early spring of 1957, a number of species laid their eggs somewhat earlier than normal in that year — see “Early breeding in 1957”, by M. J. Goodacre and David Lack ( milea , pp. 73-83). The above record was included in that analysis. — Fns.] NOTES 269 VOL. LIl] Adult male Cuckoo being fed by Dunnock. — On 18th June 1959, at about 7 p.m., I saw a Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) perched on a fence post at Reydon, near Southwold, Suffolk. It was an adult male with clearly defined grey throat and no buff below. It was repeatedly uttering a thin drawn-out note, and the bright red inside to its mouth showed very clearly. As I watched, a Dunnock [Prunella modularis) landed on the post and fed it. A few seconds later this was repeated, either by the same or another Dunnock. At this point I unfortunately alarmed the Cuckoo as I sat down, and it flew swiftly away. G. B. G. Benson Swallows following man to catch insects disturbed from ground. — I was interested in Mr. H. G. Alexander’s observations on the Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) which persistently followed him. I think that the habit may be not uncommon, as I have often seen similar behaviour (sometimes involving cattle and machines also), but unfortunately 1 have never made such pertinent observations and experiments as he did. I saw this behaviour in very marked degree in Libya in April and May 1942, during or after dust- storms which had “grounded” flying insects. The many migrating Swallows then appeared weak for lack of food and desperate to obtain it. At such times they would fly close to and even flutter around one’s feet as one walked, and attempt— usually without success — to seize disturbed Painted Lady butterflies ( Vanessa cardui ) before these dropped again to cover. In good weather these butterflies were ignored. The Swallows would also eagerly try to seize cicadas (Cicadidae) thrown into the air, but they were unable to hold these large insects in their short bills. Spotted Fly- catchers ( Muscicapa striata) caught, held and carried off cicadas thrown to them without much difficulty. A weak and starving young Swallow picked up in an army camp in Egypt in 1942 showed how quickly individuals of this species can learn to “put two and two together” in such matters. After only two flies had been swatted and then given to it, it flew at once to the third man it saw swat a fly (in a large tent with several men inside it) and begged to him before he had even had time to lift the swatter from his victim. Until satisfied, the Swallow continued to fly at once to whichever person it saw strike with the swatter. Derek Goodwin Woodchat Shrike killing mouse.— On 9th October 1958, an immature Woodchat Shrike ( Latiius senator ) which R. J. F. Child and I had under observation in a large garden at Portslade, Sussex, was seen to fly down to a vegetable patch and there kill a fair- sized mouse with two swift stabs of its bill. It then carried the rodent in its bill, by the head, to some trees near-by; there we saw it pecking fiercely at the corpse. In The Handbook (Vol. I, p. 286) mice are not listed among the recorded prey of L. s. senator, although (p. 289) they are included for the Corsican race (L. 5. badius). B. A. E. Marr 270 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Great Spotted Woodpeckers killing nestling tits. — With reference to the recent note by Messrs. R. A. O. Hickling and I. J. Ferguson- Lees on predation by Great Spotted Woodpeckers ( Dendrocopos major) on nestlings in nest-boxes ( antea , pp. 126-129), it may be of interest if I report some observations made at Possingworth Park, Sussex, in the spring of 1959. The park consists of some 200 acres of mixed woodland and scrub, with an additional 60 acres of grazing. In part of the wooded area 122 nest-boxes were erected in the winter, the distances between them varying from 50 to 250 feet. These were speedily occupied by 56 pairs of Blue Tits ( Parus caeruleus ), 25 pairs of Great Tits ( P . major), 2 pairs of Coal Tits ( P . ater), 1 pair of Marsh Tits (P. palustris) and 3 pairs of Nuthatches ( Sitta europaea). The area contained about 4 pairs of Great Spotted Woodpeckers. The first sign of typical woodpecker damage to the nest-boxes was noted in early March. On 17th April a Great Spotted Wood- pecker was seen enlarging the entrance hole of a box containing the eggs of a Blue Tit. In the territories of two pairs of Great Spotted Woodpeckers at either end of the park the attacks on nest- boxes soon multiplied and in some later instances the damage was extensive. This increase coincided with the hatching of the tits’ eggs and it continued until the young were on the point of flying. On 27th May the remains of a newly-hatched Blue Tit were found on the roof of a damaged nest-box which still contained eight out of the original ten nestlings. On 31st May a box which had held twelve young Blue Tits aged twelve days was found badly damaged, with the remains of the nest on the ground. Two adjacent boxes were similarly attacked : one contained only two of the original ten nestlings and part of the nest had been pulled out; the other box, which had contained twelve young Blue Tits aged io-ii days, was empty and the nest was on the ground. The total number of boxes attacked in the two areas during the breeding season was 13, of which 6 had had the entrance holes enlarged sufficiently to enable the woodpeckers to insert either their heads or their whole bodies. In all instances but one the boxes contained Blue Tits ; in the remaining case a brood of young Great Tits survived in spite of the entrance-hole of their box being greatly enlarged, possibly because of the greater ability of the larger species to harass the intruder. Elsewhere in the park the boxes were undamaged and it was assumed that the other pairs of Great Spotted Woodpeckers had not yet learned the habit. When they do so, as seems inevitable, the losses may become severe. During the month of July, i.e. after all the young tits had flown, the entrance holes of several additional nest boxes were attacked by Great Spotted Woodpeckers. It would be interesting to know whether the attacks represent a deliberate search for nestlings as food, or whether the mere sight of a hole in a nest-box has an irresistable attraction for the woodpeckers. I have previously VOL. LIl] NOTES 271 observed only one other instance in which young; birds have been killed by Great Spotted Woodpeckers. This was in 1958 when a brood of young- Great Tits was lost and the nest pulled out of a box in my garden at Woldingham, Surrey. Guy Mountfort [We should like to take this further opportunity of drawing attention to the British Trust for Ornithology’s Great Spotted Woodpecker Enquiry, organized by Mrs. P. V. Upton, Park Lodge, Margaretting, Ingatestone, Essex (see Bird Study, vol. 6, pp. 28-29). Apart from investigating the question of attacks on nest-boxes, the Enquiry is concerned with the present status of this species in the British Isles and with its apparently increasing practice of visiting bird-tables. We hope that the publication of the above note will encourage anyone who may have any relevant observations, past or present, to get in touch with Mrs. Upton. — Eds.] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By Kenneth Williamson and I. J. Ferguson-Lees The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary covers the months of May and June and follows the one published in our June number (anted, pp. 203-204). It is hoped to deal with the months of July and August in our next issue. UNUSUAL BIRDS IN EARLY MAY A few geese stayed into May in the south. A Barnacle ( Branta leucopsis) remained at Lundy (N. Devon) from 26th April to 5th May, and there were 5 of the same species at Hanningfield Reservoir (Essex) during 2nd-3rd May ; a week later, on the gth, a party of 4 appeared at Pitsford Reservoir (Northamptonshire) and 3 of these were still there on the nth. A Whitefront (Anser albifrons) was at Sheppey (Kent) on 2nd May and a solitary Pink- foot (.4. brachyrhynchus ) at Gosforth Park, Newcastle-upon- Tyne, next day. Kent also produced a Brent Goose (B. bernida ) on the 13th, near Sittingbourne. Other latish winter-visitors about this time included a Great Grey Shrike ( Lanins excubitor ) at Cley (Norfolk) on 1st May, joined by another on the 3rd ; 3 Lapland Buntings ( Calcarius lapponicus) at Fair Isle on the 1st; an immature Iceland Gull (Lams glaucoides) at Farlington (Hampshire) on the 3rd; an adult Glaucous Gull (L. hypcrboreus) at Teesmouth (Co. Durham) on the 1 2th; and 4 Little Auks (Plautus alle ) flying east past St. Catherine’s Lighthouse (Isle of Wight) on the 17th. In Fife, where Little Gulls (L. minutus) winter in some numbers (antea, 272 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII vol. xlvii, pp. 170-172), as many as 42 of these birds were seen in the last week of April and some remained until at least 7th May. Little Gulls were also seen at Walberswick (Suffolk) on the 1st and at Portland (Dorset) on the 3rd and 5th; at Portland, too, an adult lived in the colony of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla ) from mid-May until 25th June. Among rarer birds, Spurn (Yorkshire) reported a Mediterranean Gull (L. melanocephalas) on 2nd May, and 7 Gull-billed Terns ( Gelochelidon nilotica) were identified at Poole Harbour (Dorset) on the 3rd. There was a Dotterel ( Charadrius morinellus ) at Cley on the latter day, and a female Little Bustard ( Otis tetrax) was found on Salisbury Plain, near Everleigh (Wiltshire), on the 5th. A Spoonbill ( Platalea Jeucorodia) visited Minsmere (Suffolk) on the 6th, and from the 6th to the 17th 1-2 Collared Doves ( Streptopelia decaocto ) remained on Bardsey (Caernarvonshire) : this is the most northerly observation of this species on the west side of Britain so far. The most interesting Passerines of this period were a Moustached Warbler ( Lusciniola melanopogon) at Lundy on the 2nd ; a Woodchat Shrike ( Lanins senator) at East Chaldon (Dorset) on the 3rd ; a Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica ) trapped at the Isle of May (Firth of Forth) on the 6th ; and two Red-throated Pipits ( Anthus cervinus ) at Lundy on the 7th, one being trapped the following day. An inland Bluethroat ( Luscinia svecica ) was seen at East Mailing (Kent) on the 4th ; earlier there had been one at St. Catherine’s (Isle of Wight) and a probable at Portland on 25th April. There was also a Water Pipit ( Anthus s. spinoletta) in summer plumage at Island Barn Reservoir (Surrey) on 3rd May; Blue-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla f. flava) at Spurn on the 2nd, at Fair Isle on the 5th and at Cley on the 6th; and a Grey-headed Wagtail (M. /. thunbergi) and a Greenland Redpoll ( Carduelis flammea rostrata) at Fair Isle on the 6th. BLACK TERNS THE FIRST INVASION May was notable for two big invasions of Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger), one at the beginning of the second week and the other in the fourth ; and it was also of interest for the variety of eastern and south-eastern rarities which occurred, particularly in East Anglia, during the same two periods. The first of these spectacular influxes began on the gth — a Saturday, it is true, but as not a single bird has been reported to us for the previous day the sudden onset of the movement appears to be genuine enough. The figures for most places were small on that day, with Essex showing the biggest number: there there were 26 at Abberton Reservoir and independent observers recorded 12 and 28 at Hanningfield Reservoir, which suggests a build-up during the day. A few reached Yorkshire (3 in the Aire valley, 2 at Halifax, 1 at Doncaster), but the area of England involved on this day was evidently small and Northamptonshire (18 at Pitsford) and Leicestershire (9 at Eye RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 273 VOL. LI I ] Brook) were the most westerly counties from which Black Terns were reported. On the next day, however — the ioth — an increase and general spread were apparent. Single birds in Radnor and Glamorgan, three in Shropshire and n in Somerset (Chew Valley Reservoir, 6.55 p.m.) indicated an extension westwards. To the north, there were more reports from Yorkshire and a single bird was noted at Tcesmouth, on the border of Co. Durham. In Leicestershire numbers at Eye Brook rose to 30-40 and in Northamptonshire at Pitsford to 58 — the latter accompanied by 24 Common or Arctic Terns ( Sterna sp.), an unusual number for an inland reservoir. Other midland counties like Nottingham (15 at Attenborough) and Bedford (5 at Stanford) had a share in the movement on this day and, in the south, the first ones were noted in Kent and Sussex while at Portland (Dorset) 27 were seen moving eastwards past the Bill. Black Terns, some 80 in all, were also moving eastwards at Cley (Norfolk). Next day, Monday the nth, saw a general movement back towards the east coast, though numbers were still good over a wide area. Yorkshire, for example, had observations of 9, 12 and 18: 1 1 of the 18, in the Aire valley near Leeds, were seen heading off very high to the east. There were no reports from the west of England or Wales, however, and the Pitsford total was down to 20. Swithland Reservoir (Leicestershire) had 10, but otherwise only ones and twos were reported from the Midlands. A dozen were seen at Staines and King George VI Reservoirs (Middlesex), apparently travelling east, and at Wisbech sewage- farm (Norfolk/Lincolnshire border) small parties were passing north-east towards the Wash most of the day. 10 at Cley and 17 at Rockland Broad (Norfolk) were otherwise the biggest numbers reported from East Anglia that day. Bv the 12th the invasion was virtually over, the only reports to reach us being 12 at Tring (Hertfordshire), 8 at Rockland Broad and one at Eye Brook Reservoir. The main thrust of the terns, judging by their distribution on the 9th, was across the southern sector of the North Sea, and it seems fairly clear that they came in on the light easterly winds, like the rarities which appeared at this time. RARER BIRDS IN MID-MAY At this period, with a high over the Baltic and an easterly air- stream across central Europe, the wind was generally light easterly along the North Sea coasts; southwards, in France, conditions varied from calm to light southerly and cloud-amounts were small. Thus the weather was excellent for migration, but there was no big Passerine movement on our east coast and, next to the Black Terns, events were dominated by rarities of eastern and south- eastern origin. The first day of the Black Tern invasion saw the arrival at Cley (Norfolk) of a Spoonbill, a Purple Heron ( Ardca 274 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII purpurea) and a male Red-footed Falcon ( Falco vespertinus) ; and on the ioth there followed a Crane ( Megalornis grus) and an Avocet [Recurvirostra avosetta ) — while an Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) was seen not far away, at Snettisham. A Black Stork ( Ciconia nigra) came in from the sea at Cullernose Point (Northumberland) on the ioth. A Bee-eater ( Merops apiaster) at Wimborne (Dorset), a Kentish Plover ( Charadrius alexandrinus ) at Cley and 22 Pomarine Skuas ( Stercorarius pomarinus) passing Dungeness (Kent) were the most noteworthy birds of the nth, and on the 12th two Gull-billed Terns were watched flying over ploughed fields between Weybourne and Sheringham (Norfolk). Blue-headed Wagtails were identified on the 9th at Sheppey (Kent), Abberton (Essex) and Gladhouse Reservoir (Midlothian); but much more remarkable was the occurrence on the ioth of single male wagtails with the characters of Ashy-headed (M. /. cinereocapilla) at Perry Oaks sewage-farm (Middlesex) and aboard S.S .Mahseer when she was passing the Cross Sands Light Vessel off the Norfolk cost; the former was seen at Perry Oaks on a number of occasions to 12th June. A glance at the weather-map shows that Fair Isle had a south-east “drift-migrant” wind, and interesting arrivals there included a Wryneck ( Jytix torquilla) on the 9th ; a Bluethroat and an Ortolan (_ Emberiza hortulana ) on the ioth; and a Wryneck, two Bluethroats, two Ortolans and Yellow (M. /. flavissima) and Grey-headed Wagtails on the nth. On this last day there was also a Wryneck on the Isle of May, and this little group of these birds is of interest in being a full fortnight later than the entry of presumed English Wrynecks into Kent — 19th, 2 1 st and 27th April and 1st May at Sandwich Bay, and 2nd May at Dungeness. Another glance at the same weather-map shows that the Irish Sea stations also had a “drift-migrant” wind — south-south-east from Finist£re and north-west France ahead of the cold front of a low nearing Ireland — and this seems to have carried some interesting birds to that region. In addition to several Hoopoes ( Upupa epops) at various points (we are preparing a separate analysis of this season’s Hoopoes and would be glad of all records), an Alpine Swift ( Apus melba ) reached Lundy on the 9th and Golden Orioles ( Oriolus oriolus) appeared there and at Plymouth (Devon) on the ioth. A Nightingale [Luscinia megarhynchos) at Great Saltee (off Co. Wexford) on the nth, Blue-headed Wagtails at Skokholm (off Pembrokeshire) on the 12th and 14th, and a male Woodchat Shrike at St. Agnes (Isles of Scilly) on the 13th were other interesting Passerines. As Britain lay under the beneficent influence of an intense anti- cyclone from 1 2th May, with calms and light breezes everywhere, it is possible that a number of the vagrants which continued to be seen were “left over” from the earlier drifts. On the other hand, it is perhaps equally likely that many were new arrivals because 275 vol. l 1 1 ] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS from the 14th to the 18th, without any appreciable change in the winds (and even allowing for the fact that a week-end is included), the reports of such vagrants increased. There was also increased evidence of wader passage at this time : there had been an un- usually large number of reports (for the spring) of Wood Sand- pipers ( Tringa glareola) and Spotted Redshanks ( T . erytliropus), for example, at intervals since the second week of April, but these seemed to reach a peak during the I2th-i5th when several Wood Sandpipers were reported from Kent to Northumberland ; a Temminck’s Stint ( Calidris temminckii) at Wisbech sewage farm (Norfolk/Lincolnshire) on the 13th and two on Walland Marsh (Kent) on the 15th should also be mentioned. Reverting to the rarer birds, a female Black-winged Stilt [Himantopus himantopus) stayed at Lodmoor near Weymouth (Dorset) from the 14th to the 16th. On the 15th a Great Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus arundinaceus) appeared at near-by Port- land, another Woodchat reached St. Agnes, a female Bluethroat was seen on St. Kilda and, in Norfolk, there was a Spoonbill at Hickling Broad and a male Red-footed Falcon at Blakenev Point. This last bird may have been the same as was seen at Cley on the 9th, but on the next day, the 16th, a first-summer male was identified at Burton Bradstock (Dorset) and no fewer than five Red-footed Falcons, 2 males and 3 females, were found in the New P'orest (Hampshire). The Burton Bradstock bird was seen again on the 17th and up to 3 of the New Forest ones remained for the next three weeks. Also on the 16th, there was a White- winged Black Tern ( Chlidonias leucopterus) at Sidlesham Ferry (Sussex); a Spoonbill at Teesmouth (which stayed till the 24th); an Osprey at Wilstone Reservoir, Tring (till the 22nd); a Red- headed Bunting ( Emberiza bruniceps) at Skokholm (till the 21st); and a Red-throated Pipit at Fair Isle. Moreover, there was a further trickle of Black Terns on this day, with odd reports in the Midlands and Home Counties and a single bird as far west as Great Saltee (Co. Wexford). The catalogue continued the next day, the 17th, but with the emphasis back on East Anglia. A Red-throated Pipit at Scolt Head Island (Norfolk) brought the May total for this species to four birds (see Lundy and Fair Isle above). There was a Broad- billed Sandpiper ( Limicola falcinellus) at Wisbech sewage farm, an Osprey at Hickling Broad (Norfolk), a Spoonbill and a probable Icterine Warbler ( Hippolais icterina) at Easton Broad (Suffolk) and a Goshawk [Accipiter gentilis) at Walberswick (Suffolk). A Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos) called at St. Kilda. On the 18th Dungeness had a male Red-headed Bunting (and either this or another was seen there on the 22nd). A few Black Terns were reported on the 17th and 18th, chiefly in east coast counties up as far as Teesmouth but also including counties as far inland as Surrey and Nottingham, and there was another peak of Wood Sandpipers on the latter day with observations in Kent, Surrev, East Anglia and as far north as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 276 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII The 19th was apparently a poor day — though the few Black Tern records included 5 at St. Ives (Cornwall) and 2 at Crosemere (Shropshire) — but at least it served to “clear the decks” for better things to come. FIELDFARES AND FULMARS Before any discussion of the events of the fourth week, two other matters seem worthy of comment. The first was a crop of late Fieldfares ( Turdns pilaris) in and after this period. Perhaps the most notable was one at Beddington (Surrey), first seen on 17th May, which stayed throughout June and July. There was also one at Copeland (Co. Down) during the I2th-i6th, one on the Calf of Man on the 15th and 2-3 there on the 17th, one at Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) on the 20th, one at Holy Island (Northumberland) on the 22nd and, finally, 2 at Spurn (Yorkshire) on the 31st. The other was the occurrence of a steady migration of Fulmars ( Fuhnarus glacialis) past the Isle of May (Firth of Forth) on the 20th, a total of 237 being counted in numbers up to 7 at a time. There was also a report from the Shipwash Light Vessel (off the Suffolk coast) of large numbers in parties up to 5 on the same day, and the coincidence of two curious inland records soon afterwards may perhaps have been connected: on 22nd May single Fulmars were found near Huddersfield (Yorkshire) and near Stourport-on- Severn (Gloucestershire), the former subsequently dying and the latter being sent to Bristol Zoo. BLACK TERNS THE SECOND INVASION On 20th May there began a further period of light easterly winds on the North Sea coasts and perfect weather for migration all over middle Europe. The next few days were completely dominated by Black Terns, a far bigger movement than the first one. On the 20th there were over a dozen Black Terns as far west as Porthkidney Beach (Cornwall) and up to half that number at places in Leicestershire, Bedfordshire, Norfolk and Surrey. On the 2 1 st there were at least 14 at Tring (Hertfordshire), 15 at Swithland (Leicestershire), 20 at Cley (Norfolk) and 13 flying west between the Hayle estuary and St. Ives (Cornwall), apart from smaller numbers in East Anglia, Surrey, Huntingdon, Nottingham and Gloucester. Then came the three-day peak, with Black Terns widespread and numerous. During the next three days Black Terns were reported from 23 of the 32 English counties that lie between Lancashire and York- shire in the north and Somerset and Sussex in the south. Outside this area no records were received from Scotland, Northumberland or Cumberland, and only one each from Co. Durham (17 at Tecs- mouth on 22nd) and Westmorland (6 at Sunbiggin Tarn on 22nd); only one record from Wales (4 at Llyn Hilyn, Radnor, on 23rd); and complete negatives from Devon and Cornwall (though it 277 vol. lii] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS should be remembered that parties had been seen in the latter county on the previous two days). Doubtless we have not received all the available observations, but we beleive we have a sufficiently large percentage to make the following daily totals useful as a guide to the size and duration of the movement: Wednesday 20th 5° Sunday 24th 440 Thursday 21st 80 Monday 25th ISO Friday 22 nd 660 Tuesday 26th GO Saturday 23rd 1,050 Wednesday 27th 10 The maximum numbers were thus again at a week-end, but the fact that the Friday had the second highest total seems significant and observations from regularly watched areas support the impression that the Friday-Saturday was the genuine peak. On the 22nd totals of 30 or over were reported from Kent (80 off Dungeness), Essex (70 at Abberton), Norfolk (50 at Cley, 65 at Rockland Broad), Leicester (40 at Eye Brook, 33 at Swithland), Nottingham (40-43 at Attenborough), Cheshire (28-30 at Redes- mere) and Gloucester (31 at Witcombe). Thus there were most in the east and south-east but also a fair number in the west, and this pattern was repeated on the next day with greater numbers in the west: on the 23rd the biggest flocks were in Somerset (106 at Chew), Gloucester (70 at Frampton-on-Severn), Warwick (60+ at Shustoke), Lancashire (57 at Pennington Flash), Lincolnshire/ Norfolk (180 at Wisbech sewage farm), Cambridge (“hundreds” at Wicken Fen) and Norfolk (50+ at Rockland, 50 at Cley), while other counties with parties of around 20 included Huntingdon, Essex, Nottingham and Yorkshire. On the 24th few were reported from the west and north-west and most parties everywhere were much smaller; thus only Norfolk (120+ at Rock- land, 20 at Cley), Hertford (60+ at Tring) and Gloucester (20-25 at Coombe Canal, near Cheltenham) could muster gatherings of over 20, though Surrey (19 at Island Barn Reservoir) and Bed- fordshire (15 at Houghton Regis, 13 at Arlesey) were not far behind. The directions of flight were given in a number of cases: in every instance except one (a single bird flying north in Somerset) arrivals on each day were from the west or south-west and departures were to the east (this applies to records as far north as Westmorland, as far south as Somerset and as far east as Lincoln, Leicester and Norfolk). Black Terns are to some extent night migrants, and in many places numbers were static during the day or dusk departures were seen. However, the Chew total on the 23rd was a gradual build-up from 22 at 10.20 hours and 68 at 12.30 to 87 at 13.20 and 106 at 14.35. By the 25th the invasion had clearly contracted and the only reports came from East Anglia, Bedfordshire, Berkshire and Nottingham, apart from over too in the Lea Valiev near the Hertford/Essex border, passing from King George V Reservoir towards Rye Meads. On the 26th the only reports were from 278 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Hertford (50 at Tring), Buckingham, Huntingdon and Norfolk, and on the 27th from Hertford (only 6 at Tring), Buckingham and Lincoln. The invasion ended with 2 at Cley (Norfolk) and 2 at Attenborough (Nottingham) on the 29th. OTHER INTERESTING BI1RDS IN LATE MAY The east wind lasted from the 20th to the 23rd and was followed, as in the earlier period, by a strong anticyclonic development. The only worth-while drift of the month, a small one, took place during these few days, but in the still and calm period that followed it would appear the rarer extra-limital species continued to arrive. St. Kilda recorded its first Quail ( Coturnix coturnix) on the 20th, and a pair of Blue-headed Wagtails appeared on Marazion Marsh (Cornwall) : the latter subsequently nested, as did a pair unsuccessfully on the Exe marshes (Devon). There was a further arrival of Bluethroats at Fair Isle, and on the 21st a Phylloscopus with a single wing-bar was seen at Cley : this was thought to be a Greenish Warbler (P/i. trochiloides) and is of interest in view of the Red-breasted Flycatchers ( Muscicapa parua), birds of very similar distribution, reported during the next two days (see below). Also on the 21st a Little Gull visited Great Saltee (Co. Wexford), followed there by a Quail, Nightingale and Short-toed Lark ( Calandrdla cinerea) on the 22nd. A Kentish Plover was at Wisbech sewage-farm (Lincoln/Norfolk) on both these days. Bluethroats at the Isle of May and Dungeness on the 22nd coincided with the peak of this species (5 + ) at Fair Isle, where 2 Wrynecks were also seen. There was an influx of Spotted Fly- catchers (M. striata) and a few Pied (M. hypoleuca ) on the east coast on 22nd May (as well as a big movement in the Irish Sea — see Bird Migration, no. 2) and 2 Red-breasted Flycatchers were found among the commoner species at Holy Island (Northumber- land). Red-breasted Flycatchers are rare in spring, but on the same day one was handled on the Shipwash Light Vessel (off Suffolk) — as well as one Pied and one Spotted — and on the 23rd another was found at Spurn (Yorkshire), together with a Blue- throat. Fair Isle still had 5 Bluethroats, mainly new birds. The 23rd saw the appearance of a Roller ( Coracias garrulus) at Oxshott (Surrey) — which stayed until the 29th — and a Golden Oriole was heard at St. Margaret’s (Kent). This week-end, how- ever, as indeed the previous three days, was mainly notable for an unusually strong wader movement (in addition to the Black Terns). Apart from an increase in Spotted Redshanks, Greenshanks (Tringa nebularia ) and Ruffs ( Philomachus pugnax ), and another peak in Wood Sandpipers, there were several records of Curlew Sandpipers ( Calidris testacea ), including one as far west as Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) on the 21st and as many as 4 at Wisbech sewage-farm on the 23rd. There were also Temminck’s Stints at Wisbech and at Harty (Kent) on the 23rd and 24th respectively. At Cley on the 23rd the limelight was stolen by 5 279 vol. li 1 ] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS Avocets and there was another at Foulness (Essex) (which stayed to the 24th), whilst a Spoonbill visited Breydon Water (Suffolk). Fair Isle had an Icterine Warbler on the 24th — and 4 Blue- throats, again mostly new: one of these was recovered 4 days later (28th May) at Ostend, Belgium. Also on the 24th a White- spotted Bluethroat (L. s. cyanecula) appeared at Bluebell Hill (Kent), 2 Blue-headed Wagtails at Spurn, and a Hoopoe at Mon- mouth : there were many fewer reports of Hoopoes after the first half of May than there had been earlier, but several birds seemed to settle down and breeding was later proved in Kent. On 25th May a Scops Owl ( Otus scops) was identified on Bardsey (Caernarvonshire) and a Woodchat, the fourth for the month, was seen at Craster (Northumberland). There were also Bluethroats at Dungeness and inland in Wiltshire (at Idmiston, near Salisbury) and an Osprey was seen flying to the south-east at North Cotes (Lincolnshire). On this day, too, the occurrence at Aberlady Bay (East Lothian) of a Wood Sandpiper and a Little Stint ( Calidris minutus), both unusual in Scotland in spring, typified the wader movement: Little Stints became more in evidence during the next three weeks until on 16th June as many as 8 were seen in the West Riding of Yorkshire. MAY OUT AND JUNE IN The last few days of May and the first of June provided a curtain-call of practically all the east and south-east vagrants which had dominated the spring season. Counts of 13 and 15 Black Terns were made at Cley on the 30th and 31st, and single White-winged Black Terns appeared again at Sidlesham Ferry (Sussex) on the 30th and at Grantham (Lincolnshire) on 3rd June. Ospreys were seen at Saxilby (Lincolnshire) and Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) on the 28th, and at Eastwell Park (Kent) the next day. A single Avocet at Eye Brook on 27th May stayed until the 29th, on which day there was also one at Christ- church Harbour (Hampshire), 5 at the Midrips (Sussex) and up to 6 at Wisbech sewage-farm. Lundy had a Dotterel on the 27th, Fair Isle a thunbergi wagtail on the 28th, and Spurn a Bluethroat and a female Ortolan on the 30th. A female Red-footed Falcon at Dungeness on the 28th was probably the same bird as that seen at Lydd-on-Sea (Kent) on the 31st, and what was thought to be a male of this species was watched at Havergate (Suffolk) on 1st June: unfortunately it was seen only in flight in a poor light but, if confirmed, it would have brought the number of Red-footed Falcons reported in under four weeks to a round 10. A Spoonbill at Minsmere (Suffolk) on 30th May was joined by 3 others next day, and on 1st June there were also 4 at Havergate. At Havergate, too. on the latter day were 2 Temminck’s Stints. An Alpine Swift was identified at Hollywell Ponds, near Earsdon (Northumberland), on 31st May, and in the first ten days of June there was a Short-toed Lark at Soutlnvold (Suffolk) on the 3rd, 280 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII a Bee-eater at Aymestrey (Herefordshire) on the 5th, a male Woodchat at Foulness (Essex) on the 6th and 7th, a Golden Oriole at Walberswick (Suffolk) on the 7th, and a White-winged Black Tern at Portland on the 7th and 8th. The last brought the spring total of White-winged Black Terns to 5 and thus did the curtain finally fall on four weeks completely dominated by south-eastern species. June provided a scattering of unusual birds, but no significant movements and the rarities were mostly of a different character from those of the previous weeks. Fair Isle continued an interest- ing run with single Marsh Warblers ( Acrocephalus palustris) trapped on 12th, 13th and 30th June, and an Alpine Accentor ( Prunella collaris ) on 27th and 28th June. There was also a sub- adult Glaucous Gull there on nth June and a Red-necked Phalarope, only the third record for the island, on the 18th. Other Red-necked Phalaropes were reported from Sutherland and Lincoln about the same time, and a fortnight earlier from Caithness. A drake King Eider ( Somateria spectabilis) was seen at St. Ninian’s Isle (Shetland) on 24th June; and a party visiting the Flannan Isles (Outer Hebrides) found 2 Quail on the 23rd, a male Red-headed Bunting next day and 4 Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra ) on the 27th (see below). Other June records included a Collared Dove at Trethewey, Porthcurno (Cornwall), on the 10th ; a Crested Lark ( Galerida cristata ) on Bodmin Moor (Cornwall) on the 14th; a Gull-billed Tern at Covehithe Broad (Suffolk) on the 19th ; a Whiskered Tern ( Chlidonias hybrida ) at Chew Valley Reservoir (Somerset) from the 22nd to the 25th ; 6 Spoonbills at Cley on the 27th ; and a male Blue-headed Wagtail at Grangemouth (Stirlingshire) on 22nd June and 4th July. There was an adult Mediterranean Gull at Hove (Sussex) on 30th June and two as yet unconfirmed reports of Sabine’s Gulls [Xenia sab ini ) in Suffolk and Cardiganshire: the first between Covehithe and Easton Broads on the 19th and 24th, and the second at New Quay “during the week i3th-20th”. The Crossbills on the Flannan Isles were the first intimation we received that there might be a new irruption, though it was not until mid-July that any significant reports came from Fair Isle arid the east coast. Since then, however, and particularly since early August, many observations have come in of Crossbills on the move: Fair Isle had up to 50 in late July and sizeable flocks have been seen in various parts of Scotland and England, with a few reports from the Irish Sea and Ireland. We hope to include a preliminary summary in one of our next issues. THE LAST THREE WEEKS OF JUNE CROSSBILLS NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Mr .c t n , pUb lshes matf.nal dealinS with original observations on the b.rds ot Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material .s not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing .good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Prools of all contributions accepted are sent to authors belore publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent tree to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided it oidered when the prools are returned. sa?e?!hlbwarJear,e aSlTd m ^T-'6 the fol.lowi"g points, attention to which saves the waste ol much editorial tune on trivial alterations- Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the it" nnl V s 1 1 f* t r* I- ! 1 ...» i • , t ... ' * .. tAii'a un uuc MUC OI Uie 'tuh n °r-er co,'tnnmons- lf ”ot typed, must be clearly written and ■ ou b li c at7oi l 3 ' SpaClng‘ 1,ailure to lleIP m this way may result in delays to .2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s : address clearly written on the same sheet. 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London, p. 34. ’arious other conventions concerning references, including their use in the ?xt, should be noted by consulting previous examples. ; Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed bove in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the able should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for Z E.dltor. 'nd,cate *e type to be used. It is most important that the lay- ut of each Table should be carefully planned with an eve to its final appearance- bove all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width f a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should e self-explanatory. • Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed n a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality 1 awing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph aper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, tc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for ie normal 4 width the original should be 8" wide); sketches of birds, however aould be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should ppear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into 16 Page; A-lhe, neat infrTtion of. lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps ie most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had eonsider- ble experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled raughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future e only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. 11x60 WRAY £36 13x60 ROSS £32.16.8 A NEW BINOCULAR For Birdwatching SENT ON 14 DAYS FREE TRIAL FIVE YEARS’ GUARANTEE Two of Britain’s oldest established and leading optical manufacturers have proven once again that British instruments are second to none. Both binoculars are particularly suitable for bird-watchers who desire high-power coupled with extra clarity and brightness. Both models are centre focussing and fully coated. Supplied in solid hide case, they are well worth £60 each, and at today's prices represent phenomenal value. CHARLES FRANK 67-75 SALTMARKET, GLASGOW, C.l. TELEPHONE: BELL 2106/7 TELEGRAMS: BINOCAM GLASGOW We have .specialised in fine quality Binoculars and optical equip- ment for over half a century and carry Europe’s greatest stocks of New , Used or Ex-Govt. Binoculars and Telescopes. Evpry purchase is covered by our money back guarantee. Send for Catalogue. Printed in Gl. Britain by Witherby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Hkrts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY. LTD.. 5. Warwick Court. W.C.i EPTEMBER 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Ybates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LIT, Number 9, September 1959 PAGE Variation in a population of Yellow Wagtails. By B. S. Milne ... 281 Test of an automatic nest-recorder. By Dr. Tomoo Royama ... ... 295 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. C — Ruff. Photographs by C. C. Doncaster and J. B. and S. Bottomley (plates 49-56). Text by Dr. N. Tinbergen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 302 Obituaries: Gustav Kramer (1910-1959) 306 James Parsons Burkitt (1870-1959) 308 John Hugh Owen (1877-1959) 309 Notes: — Breeding of Leach’s Petrel on the Flannan Isles (T. B. Bagenal) ... 31 1 "Head-lagging” by a Buff-breasted Sandpiper (J. F. Naylor) ... ... 312 Great Black-backed Gull attacking migrant Starling (P. R. Colston, B. Newport and M. J. Carter) ... ... ... ... ... ... 312 Gulls attacking migrant thrushes (J. N. Hobbs) ... 313 Communal bathing by Black Terns in deep water (C. G. Bennett and Bernard King) ... 3*3 Kestrel catching a fish (L. A. Batten) ... ... ... ... ... 314 Great Tit stung to death by bees (Lt.-Col. W. E. Almond) 314 Apparent triple nestling by Blue Tit (Guy Mountfort) 314 Redwings breeding in Ross-shire (E. G. Holt) ... ... ... ... 315 Snail-eating by Blackbirds (Miss Sybil M. Butlin) 315 A second Gray-cheeked Thrush at Fair Isle (Peter Davis) 316 Bonelli’s Warbler in Cornwall (Bernard King) 3>7 Pallas’s Warbler in Kent (Dennis F. Harle) 3 '7 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson 3 18 C. Pearson Douglas. ~ \ ^ pURC.HASt.0 Vol. LI1 No. g BRITISH BIRDS VARIATION IN A POPULATION OF YELLOW WAGTAILS By B. S. Milne INTRODUCTION During 1957 and 1958 several greyish-headed yellow wagtails, which appeared to be identical in appearance with Sykes’s Wag- tail (Motacilla flava beema ) of western Siberia, bred at Beddington sewage farm, Hackbridge, Surrey. Since the discovery by Arnold (1935) of a small breeding colony of similar birds near Eastbourne, Sussex, there have been numerous records of passage and breed- ing along the south-east coast of England. Other breeding colonies have been reported in the Rother Valley in Sussex (Ticehurst, 1936; White, 1936; Walpole-Bond, 1938) and on a marshland area in south-west Kent (Gregory and Hale, 1942). The Kent colony was particularly interesting as the five breeding males showed a gradation in head colour between beema and the Blue- headed Wagtail (Af. /. flava). In recent years there has been considerable controversy over this not infrequent occurrence of birds resembling beema in south- east England. Most British writers (Harrison, 1945; Tucker, 1949; Smith, 1950) have supported the view expressed by Stresemann (1926) that the various races of yellow wagtails produce mutants closely resembling birds found in distant breed- ing populations, a phenomenon well known throughout the group. Williamson (1955) exposed many inconsistencies in the “genetical instability” theory and suggested that migrational drift and hvbridization might well account for much of the vagrancy found within the group. Recent observations on the Continent and outside Europe (Mayaud, 1952; Meinertzhagen, 1954; Schwarz, 1956; Sammalisto, 1958) have shown that, where the various greyish-headed forms meet, considerable areas of hybridization 281 282 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii occur, these zones having- greatly increased the degree of variation found in the local population. Mayr (1956), in a general review of the situation, drew attention to the complete absence of field-work where the greyish-headed and yellow-headed populations meet and suggested possible lines of study, expressing the opinion that “the field ornithologist will have the last word”. This paper gives details of the field and colour-ringing observations made at the Beddington colony between 1957 and 1959 inclusive. THE BEDDINGTON COLONY Beddington sewage farm covers an area of approximately a square mile and consists mainly of grass meadows which are periodically grazed by cattle and flooded with sewage effluent. The Yellow Wagtail (M. /. flavissima) is a common passage migrant and breeding bird on the farm. Since 1947 small numbers of flava and “ flava-type ” variants have regularly been recorded accompanying the larger movements of flavissima, whilst occasionally birds referable to other races are seen. A breeding colony of flavissima is known to have existed there since the beginning of the century (Homes et al., 1957), but details of the numbers involved are extremely vague. Breeding censuses between 1950 and 1955 revealed a fairly stable population of 18-22 pairs, but in 1956, 1957 and 1958 there was a marked increase in the number of breeding pairs. In some years flava and “ flava-type ” variants have remained throughout the breeding season and breed- ing was suspected, though not proved, in 1950, 1951 and 1952. In 1955 a “ flava-type" male bred successsfully with a hen flavissima. Degree of Variation at the Colony. Any field observer who watches the spring migration of the yellow wagtail group at Beddington cannot fail to be impressed by the bewildering variety of colour forms that appear every year. Observations show that there is a complete lack of these variants until the third week of April when typical flava arrive, and as a result most field observers have tended to lump the variants together under the non-committal title of “ flava-type ” variants. It seems desirable in this present study to try to sort through the mass of records that have accumulated over the past ten years, for it is obvious that the birds resembling beema are only a small part of a very much larger problem. Sushkin (1925) suggested it was desirable on taxonomic grounds to separate the yellow-headed races from the greyish-headed races. More recently Grant and Mackworth-Praed (1952) and Williamson (op. cit.) have worked along these lines. As our own field observations show agreement with this approach, it is proposed to analyse the records in the two separate groups. vol. hi] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 283 Yellow-iieaded Group The yellow-heads can be divided into two types: — (1) Typical flavissima. (2) Birds showing a more intense coloration of the crown and resembling the Kirghiz Steppes Yellow Wagtail (M. f. lutea). flavissima — typical birds showing yellow forehead and greenish-brown crown and mantle. "lutea” — six birds present in 1958 showed a marked gradation in head colour, the extent of yellow varying from covering most of the crown to covering the whole crown and nape. These birds did not show the “orange glow” mentioned by Wallace (1955) as being a field characteristic of lutea, nor was the mantle brighter than flavissima. Williamson, after a critical analysis of the British Museum collection, stated that “many of the more intensely coloured forms of flavissima are quite indistinguishable from lutea”. Greyish-headed Group The greyish-heads can be divided into four types: — (1) Dark-headed birds — typical examples of the Grey-headed Wagtail (M. f. thunbergi). (2) Blue-headed birds — either typical flava or "flava- type” variants, many of which show a gradation between flava and beema. (3) Pale blue-headed birds — some closely resemble beema, whilst others are not attributable to any of the recognized races. (4) White-headed birds — some of which resemble the White-headed Wagtail (M. f. leucoccphala). thunbergi — a typical bird of this northern race was recorded on 8th September 1956: dark blue-grey crown and nape, faint suggestion of white eye-stripe behind eye, blackish lores and ear-coverts, white chin. flava — typical birds with blue-grey crown and nape, complete white eye-stripe, greyish ear-coverts, white chin. "flava- type” — birds falling under this heading are exceptionally variable with seldom two alike, though many undoubtedly fall into the normal range of variation found in flava. type I — the majority of these show a gradation in head colour from blue- grey (as in flava) to pale blue-grey (as in beema). There is also a gradation in the length of the white eye-stripe, but this bears no simple relationship to the gradation in head colour, type II — occasional birds show changes in the direction of the northern thunbergi, with darkish crowns and ear-coverts and poorly developed eye-stripes. type III — several birds did not fit into the general pattern of variation described above and extreme examples showed a blue-grey crown as in flava, but had a complete yellow eye-stripe and a yellow chin. Some of these birds resembled the form “Budytes perconfusus” (see pages 290-291). "beema” — pale blue-grey crown and nape, incomplete white eye-stripe running from above and behind eye, pale grey ear-coverts, pure white chin and throat. Typical beema has a complete white eve-stripe, often broader before the eye than in most flava. "beema- type” — pale pearl-grev crown nape and ear-coverts, poorly developed pale yellow or white eye-stripe, frequently absent altogether. Pale yellow under-parts, with the yellow being frequently confined to the under tail- coverts only. Sexes are difficult to distinguish in the field. Occasional birds show a tendency towards flava, with a more intense blue coloration of the crown. "leucocephala” — a bird with a pure snow-white head was recorded on 15th May 1958. This was considered to be a white-headed flava and not an example of the eastern leucocephala as the upper-parts were too dark for the latter race. 284 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII Meinertzhagen (1956) mentions similar white-headed birds collected by him- self and van Someren in Egypt and Kenya, which he considered to be aberrant flava and not examples of leucocephala or beema. Clearly both the yellow-headed and greyish-headed groups are subject to an abnormal degree of variation with certain individuals being impossible to attribute to any of the recognized races. An examination of the county bird reports for south-east England reveals that the position at Beddington is by no means unique, rather that it is a picture which is true for the whole of this part of the country. The Colony in igs7- (a) Spring Migration. Immigration started early, the first male flavissima arriving on 27th March, whilst a male flava on 8th April was the earliest ever to be recorded at Beddington. During the next two weeks only a few male flavissima and the single flava were recorded. The main passage began during the third week of April and accompanying a “rush” of flavissima on the 2 1st were three flava, two males and a female. By the following day most of these birds had moved on and the next noticeable movement occurred on the 30th. From then until 20th May there were numerous records of flava, '‘flava- type” variants and “beema”. The first “beema” was seen on 26th April and subsequently there were many records of single birds, the first “beema x flavissima ” pair being noted on 19th May. (b) Breeding. In 1957 ca. 30 pairs of yellow wagtails were estimated to be breeding on the farm. Eight of the male birds appeared to be almost identical with beema, showing the typical pale blue crown and ear-coverts, a fairly conspicuous white eye- stripe running from above and behind the eye and a striking white chin and throat. With one exception all these males were breeding with females which closely resembled flavissima, though some observers thought that the eye-stripes of some of them were rather too whitish and well-defined for this race ; the only one of these females to be trapped was undoubtedly a hen flavissima. The other male was paired with a female almost identical in appearance with the hen of the Norfolk pair portrayed in Smith (fig. 2, plate 6). Subsequently either this bird or an identical female was seen consorting with a male flavissima. A “flava- type” variant male was breeding with a hen which appeared to be a flavissima. Yellow Wagtails breed over a large area of the farm in a wide variety of sites, but show a marked preference for the water- meadows and the cross-bars of the sludge lagoons. Crop fields, areas of waste ground and the rank vegetation bordering the farm paths are used to a lesser extent for breeding. The results of an enquiry into the bird population (Milne, 1956) showed that the field rotation system of grazing and flooding the grass meadows has disastrous results on the field-breeding population, Yellow Wagtails being one of the species most affected. Three “beema vol. li i ] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 285 x flavissima” pairs are known to have lost their nests owing- to the rotation system. Of the remaining- four pairs, one bred successfully in a hundred-acre wheat field, and as far as is known the other three bred successfully on partially flooded water- meadows. (c) Ringing-. During the year 78 Yellow Wagtails were trapped and marked with British Trust for Ornithology and colour rings. A simple colour-ringing scheme was used with orange as the key colour; all interesting catches were ringed with individual colour combinations. Perhaps the chief interest of the "beema” males lay in the fact 1 that three of them were noted to be ringed. One of these was eventually trapped and proved to have been ringed at Beddington as a juvenile Yellow Wagtail in 1956. Subsequently this bird was recovered in Portugal. The full ringing details are as follows : Ringed at Beddington as juvenile Yellow Wagtail on 21st July 1956 Retrapped at Beddington as adult male “ beema ” on 6th July 1957 Recovered near Ovar (Beira Litoral), Portugal, on 15th September 1958 It seems not unreasonable to assume that the other two birds had also been ringed as juveniles at Beddington. Both at least were -similarly ringed on the right leg. Other wagtails trapped included one of the unringed “ beema ”, a male flava on spring migration, and the "flava- type” variant male recorded as breeding. The Colony in ig$8. (a) Spring Migration. For the second consecutive year immigration began early and the first flavissima male arrived on 28th March. During the first two weeks of April numbers steadily built-up until the peak passage started on the 18th, when several "flava- type” variant males were seen. The first male “beema” arrived on the 26th and two days later five were present. During the first three weeks of May there were the usual records of ‘ flava-type" variants, whilst the only flava to be recorded on -spring passage, a hen, was seen on the 17th. A variant showing ' .vhite on the crown and nape was seen on the 12th, and on the 15th 1 pure white-headed bird was recorded. (b) Breeding. In 1958 ca. 35 pairs of Yellow Wagtails were estimated to be breeding on the farm. For the second consecutive 'ear eight of the males resembled beema and were identical with he birds present in 1957. Some of these males were paired with musually1 marked females. These females had muddy-brown ipper-parts and a complete lack of yellow on the breast ; the letailed field description resembled none of the recognized races. At least five other males appeared to belong to the form onsidered by some workers to be an interspecific hybrid, “ Budytes >erconfusus ” (see pages 290-291). Two of these males were also 286 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII paired with muddy-brown females. No ‘‘flava- type” variants remained to breed, but a male bird resembling the male of the Norfolk pair (op. cit .) bred with a hen flavissima. Some of the breeding flavissima were noted to be exceptionally yellow on the crown and appeared to be close to lutea, whilst three others had almost complete yellow heads and napes. The most remarkable pair present was that in which the male showed a complete yellow head, whilst the female had a faint blue-grey “wash” on the crown but was otherwise similar to a hen flavissima. Breeding success in 1958 was exceptionally low owing to the very heavy rainfall in June (a total of 4.2 inches was recorded in London during the month). A trail of flooded nests and floating eggs left ample evidence of the seriousness of heavy rain at the height of the breeding season. (c) Ringing. During 1958 work was concentrated on interpret- ing the results of the previous year’s colour-ringing, rather than on attempting to ring large numbers of new Yellow Wagtails. Green was substituted for orange as the key colour in 1958. Once again three of the eight “ beema ” carried rings. One had a B.T.O. ring only on the right leg and was almost certainly one of the 1957 breeding birds. Orange colour rings on the other two birds indicated they had been ringed as juvenile Yellow Wagtails in *957- Numerous colour-ringed flavissima returned to breed and these included one of the birds close to lutea and one of the completely yellow-headed birds. The ‘‘lutea” was trapped and in the hand confirmed our field observation that the yellow extended over the greater part of the crown. This bird had been ringed in 1957 as a nestling of normal flavissima parents. The most interesting wagtails ringed during the year were a pair in which the male was of the form “ perconfusus ” whilst the female appeared to be a normal flavissima. The male had a pale blue crown “washed” with greenish-yellow, a faint suggestion of greyish in the ear-coverts and a yellow eye-stripe and throat. Colour-ringing indicated that another male “ perconfusus ” had been ringed as a juvenile Yellow Wagtail in 1957. Recoveries of Beddington-ringed wagtails during the period i5th-i9th September 1958 gave an excellent demonstration of the autumn migration route down the Atlantic west coast of Europe. As already mentioned, on the 15th a male ‘‘beema” was recovered near Ovar, Portugal. On the 17th an adult male flavissima was trapped and released at Ushant, Finist^re, France, and on the 19th a bird ringed as a juvenile in 1957 was recovered near Fanzeres, Oporto, Portugal. The Colony in 1Q59. (a) Spring Migration. Immigration began on 4th April with the arrival of a single male flavissima. On the following day eight vol. li i ] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 287 males, including a bird ringed as a juvenile in 1957, were present. The main passage of flavissima started on the 17th when a bird resembling lutea was also seen. On the 18th a “flava- type” male and the first hen flavissima were seen, and on the following day the first male "tema” arrived. Although this “beema” was recorded again on 1st and 2nd May, it was not seen subsequently. Birds resembling lutea were seen on several dates in late April and early May, but they did not stay to breed. (b) Breeding. In 1959 only ca. 18 pairs of Yellow Wagtails were estimated to be breeding on the farm. This marked drop was probably in part due to the very low success of the previous season. During May two or three unusually marked birds were recorded, but there was no evidence that any of them stayed to breed; these all showed a pale greenish-blue “wash” on the crown and were considered to belong to the form “perconfusus” . With the exception of a single hen closely resembling the muddy- brown females recorded in 1958, all the breeding birds were remarkably normal in appearance. (c) Ringing. During 1959 red was substituted for green as the key colour. Several colour-ringed flavissima returned to breed, and these included about six birds ringed in 1957. It seems probable, however, that rather more 1957 birds were in fact present as a pair trapped on 30th May had between them lost a total of three colour-rings put on in 1957. Another limitation of colour- ringing is the marked degree of fading that occurs after a period of two years, some being quite unrecognizable even in the hand. ARE THE YELLOW-HEADED AND GREYISH-HEADED GROUPS SPECIFICALLY DISTINCT? With the foregoing to serve as a guide to the events at the Beddington colony, we can now attempt to make a more detailed analysis of the observations and try to answer some of the biological problems posed by the Yellow Wagtail complex. As has already been stated, several workers have separated the two colour groups on taxonomic evidence, but this alone is insufficient .grounds for regarding them as two distinct species— the yellow- headed Motacilla lutea and the greyish-headed Motacilla flava. Williamson (op cit.) showed that the available field evidence -supported this claim to specific distinction, but unfortunately there appears to have been an almost complete lack of field study of this problem. Mayr (op. cit.)} writing on this subject, posed a number of questions to the field worker and it is proposed to take each of these in turn in an attempt to answer them in the light of the observations at Beddington. "Are they out of step physiologically?” The arrival dates for all three years suggest that there is a marked difference between those of the two colour groups ; the 288 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii following averages are based on the records available for the last ten years : Yellow-headed Group flavissima " lutea " Greyish-headed Group flava “ flava-type ” “beema" (The date for “lutea" is based on two average for five years.) April 3rd April 12th April 19th April 2 1st April 2 1st years only, and for “beema" on the Clearly the yellow-heads arrive well in advance of the greyish- heads, and colour-ringing observations in 1958 showed that male flavissima have taken up territory and in many cases obtained a mate before the males of the greyish-headed group arrive. This was particularly well demonstrated in one of the years under study. The first male “beema" arrived on 26th April and two days later five were present. Less than a week later all the flavissima pairs were carrying nesting material and several already had their first eggs. Support for our observations that the yellow- heads move earlier is provided by Boyd (1919) who, whilst watch- ing migration in France at Brie-on-Somme, recorded that on 21st April flavissima were moving with flava in the ratio of ten to one. With the later arrival of the greyish-headed birds it is not unreasonable to expect that the whole of their breeding cycle will be correspondingly later. Smith (p. 44) gives a breeding table for flavissima in Cheshire and, using this as a guide, the following time-table of events was drawn up for the Beddington colony: flavissima flava-beema variants (1) Arrival of males ... April 3rd April 20th (2) Arrival of females ... April 18th May 3rd (3) Pair formation complete April 25th-3oth May i5th-22nd (4) Nests and first eggs ... May3rd-nth Late May /early June The significance of this table will be discussed under the next heading for obviously it can have considerable bearing on the question of whether or not reproductive isolation exists. “ Does reproductive isolation exist?" The question whether or not reproductive isolation exists has caused considerable controversy. Observers on the Continent (Mayaud, 1949 ; Gladkov, 1954) state that reproductive isolation is achieved where the yellow-headed and greyish-headed groups overlap. Smith (op. cit .) took the reverse view and considered the Russian statement to be “rather improbable”, whilst Mayr (op. cit.) drew attention to the fact that there are enough published records to show that reproductive isolation is not complete and wonders “whether it exists at all”. With the later migration of the greyish-headed' group into south- eastern England the stage is set for a state of reproductive vol. lii] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 289 isolation, for, as has been shown, many hen flavissima are mated a clay or two before the arrival of the greyish-headed males. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the greyish-headed group are on the extreme edge of their breeding range, and Tucker (op. cit.) pointed out that in some years of flava immigration one or other sex predominates, Williamson (op. cit.) stating that this is governed by the operation of North Sea drift. In these conditions it is not unreasonable to expect a number of mixed pairs to occur, for there is a considerable overlap in the arrival of the greyish- headed males and the later hen flavissima. It is precisely due to these circumstances that the majority of mixed pairs consist of a greyish-headed male and a yellow-headed female. The chances of the reverse happening are exceedingly remote as the period between the arrival of the yellow-headed males and the greyish- headed females is frequently as much as five weeks, during which time the males will have found a yellow-headed mate. If our observations hold true for the French channel coast then there is an explanation why no mixed pairs occur at the small remaining isolated breeding colonies of flavissima. If male flavissima take up territory upon arrival then they have the whole of the passage of hen flavissima from which to choose a mate, before the hens of the greyish-headed group have started arriving. Lender these conditions a state of reproductive isolation is liable to * exist. Some observers have drawn attention to the fact that the .greyish-headed birds attempt to form “closed” colonies despite the close proximity of breeding flavissima. Gregory and Hale (op. cit.) noted this at the colony in Kent, and in Norfolk Riviere (1941) recorded variants breeding together on an area populated bv flavissima. At Beddington there was no attempt by the "beema” to form a closed colony, pairs of both colour forms breeding on the same meadows. " Do flava arrive as solid flocks and colonize areas?” Our observations are in complete agreement with those of Smith that the females of both colour forms arrive 10-14 days after their respective males. Obviously as a result there can be no question of flava immigrants arriving as a solid flock, colonizing a breeding area as a flock and then pairing with individuals within the flock. There are, however, a few records where the possibility of birds arriving as a solid flock cannot be ruled out. Perhaps the most striking example was the breeding of two pairs of Ashy-headed Wagtails (M. f. cinereocapilla) in Ireland (Ennis and Dick, 1959). The arrival of the birds as a solid flock must surely be the explanation of this remarkable breeding record in the Belfast Docks area, for it seems quite unreasonable to assume that two hen cinereocapilla should arrive in the same area a fortnight after two males, when there are only two previous British records. 290 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII “How many mixed pairs occur in the area of overlap?" This is probably the most difficult question to answer for it relies on the field observer accurately identifying the hen birds. At best this is a difficult task, and frequently quite impossible. Assuming our field identifications to be correct, then several mixed pairs occur in our area of overlap. However, it must be remembered that the Beddington colony raises other problems. Firstly the greyish-headed forms are on the extreme edge of their breeding range, and, as has been shown, other factors may well contribute to the number of mixed pairs that occur. Secondly, during the three years under study not a single hen “ beema ” was recorded, which must immediately throw suspicion on the field observations unless some other fact can be found to explain the phenomenon (see below). “ Are there any ecological differences?" The peculiar distribution of the yellow-headed birds, flavissima in Britain, lutea in the Kirghiz Steppes and the Kurile Yellow Wagtail (M. /. taivana ) in eastern Siberia, has prompted some workers to look for a common ecological factor between these apparently closely related races. However, on the face of it, these widely separated breeding grounds have little in common, nor are there any obvious ecological preferences between the two colour forms, though Wallace (op. cit .) recorded that in Kenya on migration the yellow-headed forms appeared to show a preference for drier ground, whilst the greyish-headed birds occurred in damper localities. The sewage farm at Beddington presents a marsh area with occasional crop fields and it is not surprising that all pairs showed a marked preference for breeding in the damper localities. Only a single “ beema x flavissima ” pair were recorded breeding in the wheat field in both 1957 and 1958. Smith (p. 58) mentions that on the Continent various writers have shown that individual colonies may show a marked preference for certain highly specialized localities. On this evidence it would obviously be un- wise to try to draw any conclusions concerning ecological preferences from observations on a single colony. THE NATURE OF THE INTERSPECIFIC HYBRID If, as in fact the available biological and taxonomic evidence suggests, the two colour forms should be regarded as distinct species, then with the not infrequent records of mixed pairs breeding in southern England it should be possible to find a colour form which is in fact the interspecific hybrid. Grant and Mackworth-Praed (op. cit.) raised to species level, on the evidence of five adult males, the form “ Budytes perconfusus" . Birds of this form have a yellow or yellowish-white eye-stripe, some yellow on the grey-brown ear-coverts and the blue-grey crown “washed” vol. lii] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 291 with yellowish-green. Williamson, and A. L. Butler who collected two of the birds, considered that this “new species” was in fact an interspecific hybrid, the wide distribution of the known specimens adding considerable support to this suggestion. If their beliefs are correct, and the birds we recorded breeding with the male “ beema ” in 1957 were in fact hen flavissima, then it was reasonable to assume that birds of the hybrid form would be present on the farm in 1958. With this aim in view a two-day breeding census was carried out in late May but despite much careful observation no birds suggestive of the hybrid form were found. However, a repeat census five weeks later revealed the presence of at least five males of the hybrid form, colour-ringing indicating that some of these had been passed over in the earlier census as slightly pale flavissima males. It was thought that these birds were probably overlooked in May due to the yellowish- green “wash” obscuring the pale blue-grey of the crown. This was subsequently confirmed when one of these birds was trapped and the crown feathers were found to be well worn and showed a mixture of yellowish-green and blue-grey feathers. The hen accompanying this bird appeared in the hand to be a typical flavissima. In view of the difficulty of identfiying the males of this hybrid form in the field early in the season, it is problematical whether in fact the hens can be distinguished from flavissima, and apparently nobody has described the hen of this form. Moreover, the fact that the morphological difference in male perconfusus only develops through abrasion rules out the possibility that the perconfusus head-pattern could have any selective value, since at mating time it is to all outward appearances a flavissima. Although the bird handled at Beddington closely resembled those obtained by Butler, it is obvious that this hybrid form originating from two known variables must itself be exceptionally variable. The available field evidence at Beddington suggests that while many closely fit into the general pattern described by Grant and Mackworth-Praed, others may show definite tendencies towards one or other of their respective parents. This was particularly well demonstrated by a bird seen on 2nd May 1959. This bird closely resembled a male beema but had the crown and ear-coverts “washed” with greenish-blue, and a complete yellowish-white eye-stripe. In view of this wide range of variation it seems probable that several of the birds attributed to “ flava - type III” in fact represent further examples of the interspecific hybrid. DISCUSSION The field observations at Beddington raise a number of practical questions which have considerable bearing on whether or not the greyish-headed yellow wagtails appearing in southern England should be regarded as genuine beema. Birds resembling beema have been recorded at Beddington in 1953, 1955, 1957, 1958 and 292 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII 1959, and ringing indicates that, whatever the cause to which the colony owes its origin, there is no doubt that these birds are now arising from the breeding population. The recovery in Portugal suggests that these birds are migrating with flavissima down the Atlantic west coast of Europe, presumably to wintering grounds in West Africa. The suggestion put forward by some observers that the Beddington colony is receiving an annual influx of “drifted” beema is entirely without foundation as the annual return of birds ringed as juveniles the previous summer clearly indicates. Whilst there can be little doubt that a small number of migrants affected either by drift or migrational drag reach our shores, there is as yet no evidence of the massive drift and resultant gene-flow that would be required to bring about the enormous degree of variation found in southern England. If, in fact, the “beema” colony at Beddington owes its origin to drifted birds, then it is not unreasonable to assume that both males and females will be thrown up by the colony in roughly equal proportions. Yet such is not the case, and during the three years under study not a single hen beema was recorded. There can be no question of these birds being overlooked in the field, for Witherby et al. (1940) say that hen beema “cannot be distinguished from that of flava” — a bird which we have never experienced any difficulty in identifying in the field during the spring and early summer — and the complete absence of hen flava during the breed- ing season rules out the possibility of there being any confusion between the two forms. With this apparent complete absence of hen beema we must look for another answer to this puzzling problem. Our observations have, of course, been based on the assumption that the hens of the greyish-headed males would in fact look like hen beema , but if the males are not genuine beema then there is no reason why the hens should resemble beema. The available field evidence suggests that the unidentified muddy-brown females may well be the hens of this colour form. These birds showed muddy-brown upper-parts and whitish under- parts with some yellow on the under tail-coverts. Without exception they were all paired with “beema” or “perconfusus” , so it seems not unreasonable to assume that they are connected with the greyish-headed males. Our observations show quite conclusively that it is the problem of identification of the hens of the yellow wagtail group that is the biggest stumbling block to the field observer, for whilst most of the males fall readily into one or other category, many of the females cannot be attributed to any recognized race and it is anybody’s guess to what form they rightly belong. We do not know what the hen of the interspecific hybrid looks like and there appears to be no way of finding an answer until such time as an intensive colour-ringing scheme can be carried out at a mixed breeding colony. The nature of the breeding area at Beddington makes this an unsuitable colony for intensive study. vol. li i ] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 293 During- recent years much work has been done on the zones of hybridization that occur where the greyish-headed races over- lap with each other. These zones have greatly increased the degree of variation in the local population and Sammalisto (op. cit.), working on the Fennoscandian population, found that where / lava and ihunbergi met he was able to identify on the basis of head colour “variants practically inseparable from nine of the thirteen commonly recognized races of the greyheads”. This mass of recent evidence suggests that hybridization alone might well account for much of the apparent genetical instability found in the yellow wagtail group. Our own observations show agreement with this new approach and suggest that the variation found in southern England is in part due to hybridization between the two colour forms. Although some writers have hinted that inter- breeding between the two colour forms occurs rather more frequently than the records suggest, there is as yet no evidence that it occurs on a scale large enough to prejudice their claims to specific distinction. Rather than draw any hard and fast conclusions from the observations at a single colony the various findings at Beddington are best given as a series of inferences: — (1) That the new field evidence presented suggests support for the postulate that the yellow-heads ( Uitea ) and the greyish- heads ( flava etc.) are specifically distinct. (2) That there is evidence to suggest that the basis of “genetical instability” rests on this interspecific hybridiza- tion, of which “ perconfusus ” is clearly one product. (3) That, in view of this, the postulate that M. f. beema is in anyway regular as a spring drift-migrant to Britain must be discarded. Such is the incidence of variations in the local populations that it would be impossible to detect natural vagrancy of beema even if it occurred. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks are due to all the observers who contributed to make the observations at Beddington as complete as possible, and in particular to Mr. G. J. Harris and Mr. R. E. Scott who also helped with the analysis of the results. Several ornithologists who read this paper in manuscript were kind enough to offer their comments, criticisms and advice. They include Dr. Stuart Smith, Mr. Kenneth Williamson, Mr. D. I. M. Wallace, Mr. A. Hazelwood and Mr. I. J. Ferguson-Lees. I am indebted to the London Natural History Society for the use of the facilities available at their ringing station at Beddington. For access to the sewage farm my thanks are due to the farm managers, the late Mr. F. W. Toon and Mr. E. Hodgson, and to Croydon Corporation. SUMMARY 1. Details are given of the field-work and colour-ringing 294 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII observations made on a breeding- colony of variant yellow wag- tails at Beddington sewage farm, Surrey, in 1957, 1958 and 1959. 2. An analysis of the observations shows support for the suggestion, previously based only on museum taxonomy, that the greyish-headed races should be regarded as a distinct species from the yellow-headed races. 3. Observations at the colony show support for the suggestion that “Budytes perconjusus” is in fact an inter-specific hybrid. 4. The limitations of the value of field observations are discussed in the light of the difficulty in identifying the hen birds, particularly of the hybrid form. 5. The enormous degree of variation found in the yellow wag- tail group in south-east England is thought to be due to inter- specific hybridization, rather than the result of gene-flow from “drifted” migrants. REFERENCES Arnold, E. C. (1935): “Sykes’s Wagtail as a British breeding bird”. Brit. Birds, xxix: 199-200. Boyd, A. W. (1919): “Birds in the North of France 1917-18”. Ibis, Ser. 11, 1: 56-77- Ennis, T., and Dick, H. (1959): “Breeding of the Ashy-headed Wagtail and Yellow Wagtail in Northern Ireland”. Brit. Birds, lii: 10-12. Gladkov, N. A. (1954): In The Birds of the Soviet Union, vol. 5. Grant, C. H. B., and Mackworth-Praed, C. W. (1952): “On the species and races of the yellow wagtails from western Europe to western North America”. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Zoology, 1 : 255-278. Gregory, T. C., and Hale, J. R. (1942): “Varieties of Blue-headed Wagtails breeding in Kent”. Brit. Birds, xxxvi: 112-113. Harrison, J. G. (1945): “Some remarks on the problem of Sykes’ Wagtail in the British Isles”. Ibis, 87: 69-72. Homes, R. C., et al. (1957): The Birds of the London Area since 1 goo. London. Mayaud, N. (1949): “The races of Motacilla flava breeding in France”. Ibis, 91: 171-172. (1952): “Motacilla flava L. en France, ses races, leur distribution geographique, et leurs migrations”. Alauda, 20: 1-20. Mayr, E. (1956): “The interpretation of variation among the Yellow Wagtails”. Brit. Birds, xlix: 115-119. Meinertzhagen, R. (1954): The Birds of Arabia. Edinburgh. (1956): “Yellow Wagtails in Kenya”. Brit. Birds, xlix: 240. Milne, B. S. (1956): “A report on the bird population of Beddington sewage farm, 1954-1955”. London Bird Refort, 20: 39-54. RiviIsre, B. B. (1941): “Abnormally coloured pair of Yellow Wagtails in Norfolk”. Brit. Birds, xxxv: 127-129. Sammalisto, L. (1958): “Inter-racial hybridization as an adaptation mechanism in the Fennoscandian Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava L.) population”. Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A, 41 : 1-46. Schwarz, M. (1956): “Uber die Variationsbreite der Camargue-Schafstelzen und die Schafstelzen-Einwanderung in die Schweiz”. Orn. Beob., 53: 61-74. Smith, S. (1950): The Yellow Wagtail. London. (1956): “The interpretation of variation among the Yellow Wagtails”. Brit. Birds, xlix: 508-509. ’ Stresemann, E. (1926): “ Anmeldelse af Domanjevskis ovennaevnye Arbejde”. Orn. M-onatsber., 34: 59-61. Suskin, S. (1925): “Notes on Palaearctic birds”. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 38: 31. vol. lii] YELLOW WAGTAIL VARIATION 295 Ticehurst, N. F. (1936): “Sykes’s Wagtail as a British breeding bird”. Brit. Birds, xxix: 239-240. Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornithologists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 193-205. Wallace, D. I. M. (1955): “The mixing of the races of the Yellow Wagtail in Kenya”. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 337-340. Walpole-Bond, J. (1938): A History of Sussex Birds. London. White, W. W. (1936): “Sykes’s Wagtail as a British breeding bird”. Brit. Birds, xxix: 240-241. Williamson, K. (1955): “Migrational drift and the Yellow Wagtail complex”. Brit. Birds, xlviii : 382-403. Witiierby, H. F. et al. (1940): The Handbook of British Birds. London. TEST OF AN AUTOMATIC NEST-RECORDER By Tomoo Royama ( Institute of Forest-Zoology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tokyo, Japan) Various devices have been described by various authors for the purpose of registering visiting frequencies by birds to their nests (see Kendeigh, 1952; Gibb, 1956). An ordinary nest-recorder is most effectively used for those species in which one sex alone is responsible for incubation or feeding young but is less useful when both share the part, not only because it cannot distinguish which sex makes the visit but because, as arrivals and departures by both sexes are not made in regular sequence, confusing figures are often registered, from which even the total number of visits is hard to read. The apparatus described here was designed for the purpose of MAGNETIC P/CK- UP /oov A.C (A) Fig. 1 — Diagrams of the apparatus used for separately recording the VISITS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GREAT TlTS ( Parus major) TO THEIR NEST, Fuji, Japan, July 1958 (A) shows the circuit system and (B) a front view of the nest-box equipped with the magnetic pick-up and the perch contacts (see page 296). *4 irr*C ™HX ^ *rr» 1*0* - osncro* TXi ELECTRO- MAGNET fKlTlMC Pt* cem/icrto •~rr“ r*e co*-r»crS PAPER TAPE SpW 296 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII recording the visiting activities of male and female separately. A test was carried out at a nest-box occupied by a pair of Great Tits (Pams major ) at the University Forest in Fuji, Japan, in the summer of 1958. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS The apparatus consists of three main parts, a recording unit, an iron-detector and a double set of perch contacts (Fig. 1). The double perch contact system is, in principle, the same as that adopted by Kendeigh (1952) in his itograph. Two perches are attached to the entrance hole of a nest-box, one outside and the other inside, each with a pair of silver contacts. Each pair of contacts is connected to one of two electromagnets placed in parallel with each other at the recording unit ; and a writing pen is set between the magnets. When a bird enters the box the outer perch is pressed down first, with the result that the electric circuit is closed and one of the electromagnets pulls the pen towards it. Next moment the bird gets into the box and presses the inner perch down, so that the other magnet pulls the pen. When the bird leaves the nest the pen moves in the reverse order. Since there is no spring on the pen, it swings freely in each direction and, when once pulled by one of the magnets, remains in that position even after the circuit is opened as the bird leaves the perch. There- fore when a bird visits the nest and leaves it after brooding or feeding the young, a rectangular sidestep in the otherwise straight line drawn by the pen will be registered on the paper tape (see Fig. 2). The length of the gap thus caused in the line indicates the duration of the visit. The differentiation of one sex from the other can be made by ensuring that some additional mark is registered on the tape when a particular individual arrives at and leaves the nest. The iron-detector system plays this role. The principle here is that when a small piece of iron passes near the magnetic pick-up of the iron-detector, the density of the magnetic flux changes and an electric current thus induced is amplified to operate a relay switch connected to another single electromagnet with a writing pen. This writing pen, unlike the one in the double perch contact system, is balanced by a spring, and after being pulled by the magnet it returns to its original position as soon as the circuit is opened. An iron-detector made by Sanwa Electric Co. for the purpose of detecting a needle in clothes or a nail in timbers was used in slightly modified form. The pick-up is attached to the nest-box just by the entrance hole, so that a bird bearing iron rings (parmaroy was used in this test) on both its legs cannot enter the box without mak- ing the pick-up sensitive to at least one of the rings. (It should be noted that the effective range of the pick-up is so small that the bird with the iron rings must pass as near as possible to the pick-up.) VOL. li i ] AN AUTOMATIC NEST-RECORDER 297 Fig. 2 — Specimen of the activity record produced by the visits of the Great Tits (Pams major) to their nest, Fuji, Japan, 17TH July 1958 This shows the paper tape produced on one day when the oldest nestling was 16 days old. Each gap on the left-hand side of each two-hour section represents one visit to the nest and the size of the gap shows the duration. When the visit was by the ringed female, the iron-detector caused the corresponding marks on the right-hand side of the tape (see page 296). On this day there were 46 visits by the male and 47 by the female. 298 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII The recording unit is of a multiple type (see Kendeigh, 1952), consisting of a clockwork-operated drum (which unwinds the paper tape) and five sets of pens and magnets. Three small rubber wheels are brought into contact with the surface of the drum to provide enough pressure and friction to unwind the tape. The clock is adjusted, by removing its pendulum, to move the tape at a speed of 5 mm. per minute which proved to be the optimum for registering the Great Tit’s nesting activities. The recording unit and the amplifiers of the iron-detectors are set in a small hut built in the study area, from which electric cables lead to five nest-boxes placed around at a distance of less than 100 metres; this distance may be the maximum for this type of iron-detector to be effectively operated, ioov. A.C. was used for the operation of the iron-detectors and xov. A.C. for the operation of the electro-magnets with pen attachments. RESULTS The results described here were obtained for the last five days of the fledging period at a nest-box occupied by a pair of Great Tits with seven nestlings. Although the data are incomplete, they are sufficient to show how the nest-recorder works. The nest-box occupied by this pair of birds was replaced by the one equipped with the recording apparatus on the morning of 14th July when the oldest nestling was 13 days old. The nest and the nestlings were moved to the new nest-box and, at the same time, the female was caught and ringed. Both adults showed hesitation in entering this new nest-box, but they had got used to it by the evening and from the next morning their behaviour became normal again. The female did not show any sign of being affected by the parmaroy rings and the magnetic pick-up. Table I — Number of feeding visits per hour made by the male and female Great Tits ( Parus major), Fuji, Japan, 1958 Age of oldest nestling in days i4-5 1 5- 5 Male 16.5 i7-s 18.5 !4-5 T5-5 Female 16.5 17-5 18.5 Hour beginning* O4.OO 0 I O 0 0 O I 0 O 0 05.00 0 O I O I 3 3 4 2 4 06.00 J I I I 7 6 9 I 4 6 3 07.00 10 8 6 2 2 5 7 6 4 6 08.00 7 5 I 6 I S 6 4 4 1 O9.OO I 6 0 2 3 4 3 2 3 0 10.00 7 5 5 2 — 3 I 4 5 — - 1 1. 00 6 4 2 2 — 6 3 5 4 — 12.00 4 2 8 4 — 5 3 4 4 — 13.00 5 9 4 9 — 3 5 I 2 — I4.OO I 6 5 3 — 5 6 4 3 — — 15.0° 5 4 2 2 — 3 6 2 2 — 1 16.00 7 4 O 3 — 5 I 3 3 17.00 I IO I 5 — 2 6 3 3 ' — 18.00 5 O O 2 — 3 0 I 1 Totals 62 65 46 49 13 6l 52 47 46 14 ♦Japanese Standard Time (meridian I35°E.) is used throughout this paper. VOL. li i ] AN AUTOMATIC NEST-RECORDER 299 The visiting frequencies are shown in Table I. The number of nest-visits per day decreased towards the end of the fledging period in the cases of both male and female, and they were a little more frequent in the male than in the female. There is no apparent correlation between the two birds in the numbers of visits per hour except in the morning peaks which occurred between 06.00 r/ME OF DAY Fig. 3 — Four-day totals of nest-visits by the pair of Great Tits ( Pams major) in each two-hour period, Fuji, Japan, 15TH-18TH July 1958 At each two-hourly point the sum of the visits recorded during the preceding and following hours over four days has been plotted (the figures are given in Table I). The male (continuous line) showed two peaks of feeding, in the early morning and the early afternoon, but the female (broken line) only the former one. and 08.00 hours every day coincidentally in both sexes. When these daily records are combined (those on the last day, 19th July, not included), there appear two distinct peaks in the visiting frequency of the male; the one in the morning around 07.00 and the other in the afternoon around 13.00 (Fig. 3). In the female, however, only the morning peak is distinct. Table IT — Average lengths OF NEST-VISITS BY THE MALE AND FEMALE Great Tits ( Partis major) on each OF FIVE DAY'S, Fuji, Japan, 1958 (a) Averages of all times (in seconds). Age of oldest nestling in days D-5 *5-5 16.5 i7-5 18.5 Male 18.0 25-3 14.2 14.4 12.9 Female 53-6 65-3 30-3 25.6 24-5 (b) Averages of short periods only (long visits of over 1 minute excluded). Age of oldest nestling in days 14-5 15-5 16.5 17-5 18.5 Male l6. I 14-5 14.2 14.4 12.9 Female 23.0 41.2 19.2 20.3 i9-3 Plate 50 Plate 51 Plate 5 Plate 54 1 rs & N C CD CD O T5 O' , ^ ~ 5 * 2 £ « , o Q ^ E CD 4-1 O W 5 J> c ^ 5 ^ CD ■OJ0 c CD ~ CD 3 c/: o £ ’w C ' - £ w .= — cd .j" h il . Ci o? o .~ - ID - t2 C3 -J r~i £ o ~~ cr “ ■OJO tn •f; c cd c/3 'rp ^ D ^ D O O CD £■§ S' = «■£ D )DZ)^ O c c •- O -C -C C/3 CD ^-v*3 C3 ' X C . n ?P LO~ ~ cd cr $> o o 3 I .£ I b~ S P u O •- C3 O Cu c — D 2S°"257> vo'- x'x> PP- *20-124; vol. xx, pp. 91-101. VOL. LIl] JAMES PARSONS BURKITT 309 then 76, but almost at once he showed his amazing- stamina and activity : our first obstacle was an eight-barred gate, but he was over it before I had had time to offer the helping hand that I realized afterwards would have been politely refused. Constantly throughout that week with him I learned things of value, not least the kindliness of his home, his delightful personality and character. He was a deeply religious man, extremely humble and of great intellect. He had a brilliant academic career and was County Surveyor of Fermanagh for 40 years ; for a similar period he was a member of the Synod of the Church of Ireland. An oustanding mathematician and engineer, he brought to his study of birds a mind as sharp as a needle and he was ruthlessly thorough. Beyond doubt he was a good ornithologist, but an even greater Christian. R. F. Ruttledge John Hugh Owen (1877-1959) J. H. Owen, M.A., who died at Oswestry General Hospital on 2nd August 1959, at the age of 82, made substantial contributions to ornithology, particularly by his studies of the Sparrowhawk and Red-backed Shrike. Born at Kinton, Nesscliffe, Shropshire, he was educated at Oswestry Grammar School and Jesus College, Oxford, and after filling other teaching appointments became an assistant master at Felsted School in 1907. His subjects were mathematics and science, while he also acted as games-master and later became a house-master. He was an accomplished all- round sportsman — an Association footballer, cricketer and oars- man in his younger days, and later a first-class shot. But throughout his life his main hobby was natural history, and particularly the study of birds, though his interests were catholic and embraced mammals, insects and plants as well. Through the Felsted School Scientific Society he initiated many of the boys into the delights of bird-watching, and inspired them with some- thing of his own devotion to the study of nature. He was an excellent bird-photographer: his papers on the Sparrowhawk and other species were admirably illustrated by his own photographs, and his remarkable collection of lantern-slides was used to good effect in the lectures which he sometimes delivered to natural history societies. In 1937, anticipating his retirement from Felsted, Owen gave his collection of British birds’ eggs to the Essex Field Club Museum at Stratford (see Essex Natziralist, vol. xxv, pp. 273-277). This contained over 6,100 eggs of 105 species. More than three- quarters of them had been obtained in Essex and a feature of the collection was 122 Cuckoos’ eggs, representing seventeen species of fosterers. On leaving Felsted in 1939, Owen, who had remained un- 310 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII married, retired to his native border country, where he had spent most of the vacations during his residence in Essex. He went to live at Llanymynech, a village through which the boundary between England (Shropshire) and Wales (Montgomeryshire) actually runs. Here he settled down to pursue his natural history and sporting interests in a countryside which afforded ample scope for both. He took an active part in the work of local natural history societies on both sides of the border, leading excursions, giving lectures and contributing observations to their publications. In recognition of his services to natural history and to the club, the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club elected him an honorary member in 1947. Owen remained remarkably active until within two or three years of his death, and his powers of observation — and particularly of nest-finding — showed little diminution. In 1950, for example, at the age of 73, he recorded 307 nests of two species only — 108 Spotted Flycatchers’ and 199 Robins’ — on which he presented a paper to the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club in February 1951. Just over a year later, in a letter to the writer of this memoir, dated 25th March 1952, although he complained of fail- ing sight and activity, he recorded having found seventeen Robins’ nests, as well as nests of Moorhen, Blackbird, Song Thrush, Long- tailed Tit, Lapwing, Tawny Owl, Dipper, Mallard, Kingfisher, Rook and Raven. As an observer, indeed, Owen was outstand- ing. His patience and his meticulous attention to detail are exemplified in his breeding studies of several species, while his facility in finding nests seemed uncanny to the uninitiated, though it was actually due, of course, to his quick eye, long experience and understanding of the minutiae of habitat and behaviour. I remember an incident that illustrates the point. Owen was lead- ing a party of twenty or thirty naturalists in Indian file along a narrow path when he suddenly stopped, turned, and said, “You have all passed a Robin on its nest without seeing it’’. He pointed to a spot in the hedgebank, and there was the nest with the bird sitting. A first-rate observer rather than a scientific ornithologist in the full sense of the term, Owen was essentially a field-worker. He relied little upon books, and, indeed was apt to express some impatience with the statements of authors which he found at variance with his own experience. For this reason his papers and lectures were always based solely upon his own observations, which was at once a strength and a weakness ; a strength because the facts he described were authenticated by his own knowledge and experience, a weakness because they sometimes lacked completeness and comparative material. There can be no doubt, however, about the substantial value of the work he did and of the recorded observations he has left behind him. Most of Owen’s published work appeared in the pages of VOL. LIl] JOHN HUGH OWEN 311 British Birds , beginning in 1911 with a note on the food of young Barn Owls (1). During the next forty years there are few volumes that do not contain notes and papers from his pen. Most notable of his contributions was the series of papers on the Sparrowhawk, of which the first appeared in 19x5 and the last in 1936 (2). Collectively these form an exemplary species monograph based entirely upon personal observation. Another species on which he did outstanding work was the Red-backed Shrike, on which he published several papers between 1917 and 1951 (3). Throughout his life, too, he took a particular interest in the Cuckoo and was often in communication with that greatest of Cuckoo-students, the late Edgar Chance. Owen contributed many notes on Cuckoos to the pages of British Birds, and between 1913 and 1921 supplied annual notes on fosterers, and other aspects, in the Felsted district. Other species on which he wrote papers — largely concerned with nesting habits — were Swallow (4), Great Spotted Woodpecker (5), Long-tailed Tit (6), Whitcthroat (7) and Chaffinch (8). Owen’s papers and diaries were bequeathed to the Shropshire branch of the British Empire Naturalists’ Association, and are therefore in safe keeping. He was a Vice-President of the Shropshire Ornithological Society from its inception in 1955. For certain biographical particulars I am indebted to Owen’s niece, Mrs. J. F. Franklin. L. C. Lloyd SELECTED LIST OF J. H. OWEN'S PUBLICATIONS MENTIONED IN THE TEXT (1) British Birds, vol. v, pp. 112-113. (2) British Birds, vol. viii, pp. 193-195; vol. x, pp. 2-10, 26-37, 50-59, 74-86, 106-115; vol. xii, pp. 61-65, 74-82; vol. xiii, pp. 1 14-124; vol. xv, pp. 74-77. 256-263; vol. xx, pp. 1 14-120; vol. xxv, pp. 151-155, 238-243; vol. xxvi, pp. 34-40; vol. xxx, pp. 22-26. (3) British Birds, vol. x, pp 175-180; vol. xv, pp. 109-110; vol. xxiii, pp. 95-96; vol. xli, pp. 200-203; vol. xliv, pp. 166-170. Transactions of the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club, vol. xii, p. 59. (4) British Birds, vol. xi, pp. 226-227. (5) British Birds, vol. xix, pp. 125-128. (6) British Birds, vol. xxxviii, pp. 271-273. (7) Trans. Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club, vol. xii, p. 127. (8) Trans. Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club, vol. xiv (in press). NOTES Breeding of Leach’s Petrel on the Flannan Isles. — Leach’s Petrels ( Oceanodroma leucorrhoa ) have been known to breed on the Flannan Isles, some 20 miles west of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides, since 1904 (W. Eagle Clarke, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1905, pp. 8-19 and 80-86). However, apart from the discovery of colonies on Eilean Tighe in 1955 (R. Atkinson and B. Roberts, Scot. Nat., vol. 67, pp. 109-110), the only proved nesting has been on Eilean M6r (R. Atkinson and J. A. Ainslie, Brit. Birds, vol. xxxiv, pp. 50-55) ; Eilean M6r and Eilean Tighe are the two 312 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII largest islands of the group. It is therefore interesting to record that, during a visit to the Flannan Isles in June 1959, breeding was also proved on Soray, Sgeir Toman, Roareim* and Eilean a’ Ghobha by the finding of one or more adult Leach’s Petrels in burrows, each incubating an egg. No Leach’s Petrels were found on Sgeir Righinn or the only three stacs that have a suitable cover of soil and vegetation — Lamh a’ Sgeir Mhor, Lamh a’ Sgeir Bheag and the unnamed stac between Roareim and Eilean a’ Ghobha. It was not possible to be on the islands at night, other than Eilean M6r, and we could not estimate the size of the colonies. A full account of the general ornithology of the Flannan Isles is in preparation. T. B. Bagenal ♦When this note was in proof, there appeared in Scottish Birds (vol. 1, pp. 110-117) a paper on “Birds of the Flannan Isles” by Michael Robson and Peter Wills. This gives the results of a short visit paid there in the summer of 1957, in the course of which breeding of Leach’s Petrels was proved on Roareim. Credit for the first discovery of these birds on that particular island therefore belongs to Messrs. Robson and Wills. “Head-lagging” by a Buff-breasted Sandpiper. — A Buff-breasted Sandpiper ( Tryngites subruficollis ) remained at the Midrips, Sussex, from 17th September to 2nd October 1955 (see Sussex Bird Report, 1955, p. 13). While watching it on 24th September 1955, I saw it perform what seemed a most remarkable feat. It was very tame, but when approached too closely it would stop feeding and stretch its head and neck upwards — a characteristic action of this species which has been commented on by many observers. Then, however, it would move its body and lower neck forward while keeping its head where it was ; having completed a step, it would bring its head back to the normal position. There was absolutely no forward movement of the head until the body had stopped, as could be seen by “fixing” the head in relation to some object in the background. I also observed this action when watching another Buff-breasted Sandpiper on Ushant, France, on 24th September 1957, although here it was less exaggerated. J. F. Naylor [This would seem to be another example of head-stabilization, akin to the case of the Stone Curlew ( Burhinus oedicnemus ) settling on its eggs ( antea , p. 20). — Eds.] Great Black-backed Gull attacking migrant Starling. — Mr. George Gamble’s note on “Great Black-backed Gull attacking migrant Blackbird” (antea, p. 164) encourages us to record a similar occurrence at Cley, Norfolk, on 3rd November 1957, when a Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus ) attacked a migrant Starling ( Sturnus vidgaris). Hordes of Starlings were arriving from the north, flying at about 20 feet above the sea into a strong S.W. wind. Some, which were too tired to keep up with the VOL. LI I ] NOTES 313 main flocks, were flying- alone just over the sea and collapsing- on to the beach just above the tide line. One of these tired Starlings, when only some 200 yards from the safety of the shore, was pursued and chased by a Great Black-backed Gull and forced down on to the sea. It flew off again, and was then chased by two of these gulls, one of which caught it in the air with its beak and then settled on the sea where waves interrupted our view. On the same day gulls showed interest in other tired Starlings, and a Great Skua ( Catharacta skua) twice chased migrants so that they were forced to take evasive action. P. R. Colston, B. Newport and M. J. Carter Gulls attacking migrant thrushes. — Whilst on convoy duties off the east coast of Britain during the 1939-45 war, I found the habit of gulls attacking migrant thrushes ( antea , vol. lii, p. 164) to be a not uncommon form of predation. Thrushes, mostly Blackbirds (Turdus merula) and Redwings ( T . musicus), mainly migrated in a concentrated movement, many thousands passing at one time. When flying into strong headwinds, the birds would be forced down to wave-top level. Progress under these conditions was difficult and slow. Frequently, exhausted birds settled on the water and were unable to take flight again. When the ship crossed the path of such a movement, the gulls following astern quickly availed themselves of the easily obtained food. Any floating bird was seized and others in flight would be swooped on and knocked into the water. As each bird was seized and the attacking gull sought to make off with it, the usual fights and squabbles took place, the unfortunate victim being repeatedly dropped and picked up again, until a gull was able to cram it down its throat. Herring Gulls ( Larus argentatus), the main assailants, had little difficulty in swallowing whole both Blackbirds and Redwings. Common Gulls (L. canus) and even Black-headed Gulls (L. ridibandus ) were also seen carrying and dropping thrushes, but I never confirmed that they were able to eat them, as invariably they were left well astern, still squabbling over their victims. J. N. Hobbs [Some comparable observations have also recently been published by D. A. Rushforth in The Naturalist for July- September 1959 (No. 870, pp. 91-92). These refer mainly to attacks on Starlings (Stumus vulgaris) by Common and Great Black-backed Gulls which, in two cases at least, made no attempt to eat their victims once they were dead. — Eds.] Communal bathing by Black Terns in deep water. — At Chew Valley Reservoir, Somerset, on 23rd May 1959 — a hot and sultry day — we witnessed the gradual gathering of at least 106 Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger) (see antea, p. 277). Many of these occasionally left the main party and in groups of 30 or more bathed 314 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII communally in one of the deepest parts of the reservoir. Flying at heights of 20 feet or less, they would swoop down to the water and there in compact “rafts”, with vigorous movements of feet and wings, they splashed not only themselves but also their companions. Some of the terns momentarily turned on their sides or wholly on their backs during these displays which lasted anything up to two or three minutes. When we left the reservoir, in the early afternoon, all the Black Terns were flight-feeding in the normal manner. C. G. Bennett and Bernard King Kestrel catching a fish. — The Handbook makes no mention of fish in the diet of the Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus). On 9th November 1957, at the Brent Reservoir, Middlesex, I noticed a Kestrel flying low over the water. Suddenly it swooped down and caught a small fish in its beak, in the manner of a Black Tern ( Chlidonias niger). I have seen a kestrel attempt to catch a fish in this way on one other occasion, but it was unsuccessful. L. A. Batten [Mr. Derek Goodwin comments: “The seizing in the bill seems an interesting point; captive Little Owls ( Athene noctua ) pick up small insects in the bill, and mice and large insects in the feet”. — Eds.] Great Tit stung to death by bees. — On 24th July 1959 I found a young fledged Great Tit ( Parus major ) lying dead by the side of one of my bee-hives, near St. Breward, Cornwall. It had apparently died from the stings of bees ( Apis mellifera) and there were five of these still in position — two on the forehead, one a little above the left eye, one below the left eye and one on the carpal joint of the right wing. All the stings had gone through the feathers and had penetrated the skin. This spring and summer an adult Great Tit has been seen, on numerous occasions, to fly down in front of the hives and pick up dead bees from the ground. On no occasion has it been seen to attack living bees. The dead ones taken have all been workers, but generally there are no drones lying about dead. It is possible that the young Great Tit had learned from the adults to pick up bees but had not confined itself to dead ones. W. E. Almond Apparent triple nesting by Blue Tit. — My brother, Mr. E. R. Mountfort, has a nest-box in his small suburban garden in Bristol. This is cleaned out each winter and so was emptied at the end of 1957. At the end of 1958 it was found to contain three nests of Blue Tit ( Parus caeruleus), one on top of another. The top nest had contained a brood of young which had been successfully reared. Beneath was a second nest with seven eggs and at the bottom was a third, also completely lined, with four eggs. No more than one pair of Blue Tits had been observed in the garden at any one time during the breeding season. There was no indication of interference with either of the first two nests and the eggs were undamaged. Guy Mountfort VOL. LIl] NOTES 315 Redwings breeding in Ross-shire. — On 22nd June 1959 I heard the 3-5 descending flute-like notes of a Redwing ( Turdus musicus) in a garden in Ross-shire, and had a good view of the bird; on being disturbed, it flew off with a harsh cackle. On 23rd June, about 300 yards from this spot, I again heard a Redwing singing and watched two adults feeding at least 4 fully fledged young perched in a birch tree. What I presumed to be the nest, now empty, was in another birch near-by: it was about 6 feet from the ground and was made of moss, birch twigs and wool, the cup lined with a brittle earthy material. On 26th June a Redwing’s nest containing four young 3-5 days old was found in the top of a beech hedge, about 12 feet from the ground, at the site where the original bird had been seen singing on the 22nd. This nest was made of moss and birch twigs, together with some wool ; two adults were watched feeding the young. On 27th June another Redwing was heard singing (but not seen) in a third site half a mile away from the second, in a thick spruce wood. The identification of all the birds and their songs was confirmed by D. Pollack who is familiar with Redwings in Norway. At the particular request of the owner of the property, the locality has not been divulged in the hope of an undisturbed return next year. E. G. Holt [Previous instances of Redwings nesting in the British Isles have usually involved single pairs. Here we have breeding proved in the cases of two pairs with some evidence that a third pair was present. — Eds.] Snail-eating by Blackbirds. — On three occasions recently, at Frocester, Gloucestershire, I have watched a male Blackbird (Turdus merula ) extract snails from their shells. As in the interesting paper on “Snail-eating behaviour bv Thrushes and Blackbirds” ( antea , vol. xlvii, p. 46) Mr. Desmond Morris stated that in his experience Blackbirds were always unsuccessful in their efforts, it may be of value to describe the methods used. On 7th June 1959, for example, the Blackbird found a Common Snail ( Helix aspersa) on the flower border. It did not beat it on a stone nor, so far as could be seen, hold it by the rim of the shell as a Song Thrush ( T . phi]ome]os) does. Instead, taking the body of the mollusc between its mandibles, the Blackbird eventually extracted it by shaking, wiping and jabbing movements. Time and again the bird lost its grip and the snail dropped or was thrown several inches, and many times it pecked into the mouth of the shell, but this may have been when trying to get a firm grip on the body. The wiping action was from side to side, the bird sweeping the shell slowly and firmly over the ground, and the shaking was a very vigorous movement, also from side to side. It was during shaking that the shell fell off and landed on the bird’s neck. The whole operation took 3$ minutes; this compares with the 2-2} minutes taken by a Song Thrush that was timed with three 316 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII snails of identical size. The shell aperture measured 18 x 15 mm. in diameter at the widest points and was intact except for a small sliver off the rim. Perhaps the long-continued dry weather at the time of brood-rearing caused the Blackbird to be more persistent in its efforts to obtain the food. Sybil M. Butlin [Snail-eating by Blackbirds has often been recorded in the literature, even as far back as George Montagu (1802) and William MacGillivray (1839). The former wrote in his Ornithological Dictionary that “shelled snails . . . are most dexterously broken against a stone in order to get at the animal” and MacGillivray in his A History of British Birds said that in the winter months “its food consists principally of snails, especially Helix aspersa and H. nemoralis, the shells of which it breaks by raising them in its bill, and dashing them against a stone or other hard surface . . . occasionally breaks them open by pecking against the spire, in which the shell is much thinner”. Miss Butlin’s careful observations seem to have something to add to our knowledge, however. — Eds.] A second Gray-cheeked Thrush at Fair Isle. — A first-winter Gray-cheeked Thrush ( Hylocichla minima ) was caught by Peter Hope Jones in the Vaadal trap on Fair Isle at noon on 29th October 1958. This is the second British record of this small American thrush; the first, on 5th October 1953, also on Fair Isle, was described in detail by Kenneth Williamson ( ante a , vol. xlvii, pp. 266-267; and Bull. F.I.B.O., vol. 2, pp. 3-8). The 1958 bird was identified with the aid of Roger Tory Peterson’s A Field Guide to the Birds , Williamson’s notes, and Allan D. Cruickshank’s photographs ( antea , vol. xlvii, plates 45-46). Its determination as H. minima rather than the very similar Olive-backed Thrush ( H . ustulata ) was based on the lack of a well-defined buff eye-rim — there were only small whitish patches before and behind the eye — and the grey, not huffish, lores and ear-coverts. It would be tedious to reproduce the full plumage- description which resembles that of the 1953 bird in every respect, including the presence of a pale buff suffusion on the upper breast - — a feature said by Peterson et al. in .4 Field Guide to the Birds of Great Britain and Europe (1954) to be absent in this species. The bird’s age was deduced from the presence of whitish tips on the greater coverts, most marked on the inner ones. The main measurements taken were: wing (maximum) 99, bill from skull 16.5, tarsus 31, and tail 66 mm. The weight was 27.8 gm, and, since this is 3 gm. heavier than Williamson’s bird was and nearer to the normal weights he gave for autumn migrants in North America, it seems likely that our specimen was not newly arrived when caught. October 195S brought a great deal of strong westerly wind and there were several extensive gales earlier in the month, which could have been responsible for this arrival. Peter Davis VOL. LIl] NOTES 317 Bonelli’s Warbler in Cornwall. — On 14th September 1958, I visited Marazion Marsh, Cornwall. At about midday my attention was attracted by a warbler which perched in full view for at least two minutes on a bramble bush not more than seven feet high. It appeared to be about the shape and size of a Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita), but it differed from that species in having a white eye-stripe and a conspicuous yellow-green lower back and rump, the latter being easily the bird’s most striking character. It was quite unlike any warbler known to me and I was convinced it was a species that I had not seen before. Later I consulted the Field Guide, as well as the third volume of The Birds of the British Isles by David A. Bannerman and the paper by H. G. Alexander on “Field-notes on some Asian leaf-warblers” ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 293-299 and 349-356), and from these it was evident that the bird could be none other than a Bonelli’s Warbler (P/t. bonelli). The following are the plumage details I noted: Crown, nape and hind neck pale greyish -brown; mantle and upper back deeper greyish-brown; lower back and rump conspicuous vellowish-green, this colour being suffused into the brown of the upper back. Tail brownish but thought to have paler edging to the outer feathers. Wings greyish- brown but paler margins to some secondaries. Noticeable whitish eye- stripe; face even lighter than crown and head and with some very whitish grey-brown smudgings. Under-parts ‘warm’ whitish throughout. Bill duli brown; leg-colour not noted. Later in the month I visited the British Museum (Natural History) and through the kindness of Messrs. R. W. Sims and G. S. Cowls I was able to examine skins of Bonelli’s Warbler. The bird I had seen in Cornwall closely resembled specimens obtained in late summer. This appears to be the first record of Bonclli’s Warbler for Cornwall and the fourth for the British Isles. Bernard King Pallas’s Warbler in Kent. — A Pallas’s Warbler ( Phylloscopus proregulus) was located at Sandwich Bay Ringing Station, Kent, at 9.30 a.m. on 23rd November 1958. It was present for most of the day, but it could not be found on the 24th. The 23rd was windless and cloudy with some mist, following a day of N.E. wind at force 4. Other species present and not seen previously included a few Goldcrests ( Regulus regulus ) and Blue Tits ( Purus caendeus). When first seen, the bird was feeding in sea buckthorn and seemed to prefer this low cover, returning to it if driven out. Later, however, it was found in a rose-bed surrounded by tall conifers. It allowed close approach at times, but was somewhat difficult to follow with binoculars for it was extremely active — far more so than Yellow-browed Warblers (Ph. inornatus) I have seen on other occasions. The following detailed description was noted : Crown and nape darkish green with broad central stripe of yellow (extend- ing from base of bill to nape) and broad superciliaries of the same colour; 318 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI1 blackish line through eye; ear-coverts greyish, tinged yellow. Mantle and back paler and brighter green than head. Rump conspicuous yellow- green. Tail-feathers dark brown with pale edges. Primaries and secondaries dark brown edged with yellow; median and greater coverts broadly tipped with yellow, so that two wing-bars were formed, the median one not so conspicuous as the greater; scapulars greenish with dark centres. Under-parts greyish- white, the sides of the face and under tail-coverts being tinged with yellow. Legs, bill and eye dark. The general impression was of something like a Firecrest ( R . ignicapillus) with a pale rump. The bird was also seen by Messrs. G. Dunkling and j. Websper. This appears to be the fourth British record, almost exactly a year after the one trapped in Norfolk on 17th November 1957 ( ante a , vol. li, p. 197 and plate 36). We attempted to catch the bird in a mist net, but had the misfortune to see it pass through the mesh. Dennis F. Harle | The above three records are the first ones of species recorded in Britain less than ten times to be published under the scheme announced in the August number ( antea , pp. 241-244). All have been accepted by the new Rarities Committee. — Eds.] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary is confined to July and August, and deals almost exclusively with a selection of the rarer species. In the next issue it is hoped to outline the general movements and only a few essential features are mentioned now as background. An early and unusually large passage of northern waders reached a climax towards the end of August with the vanguard of an exceptional influx of Curlew Sandpipers ( Calidris testacea). Wood Sandpipers ( Tringa glareola) and Spotted Redshanks (T. erythropus ) were also prominent. The Passerines presented a contrast. There were local falls of flycatchers ( Muscicapa spp.), Redstarts ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and various warblers on the east coast on nth August, on several days between the 17th and the 25th, and again on the 31st; on the 25th as many as 30 Nightingales ( Luscinia megarhynchos) were estimated at the Naze (Essex); and Tree Pipits (Anthus trivialis ) were widely reported as unusually numerous in southern England between the 7th and the 23rd. Nevertheless, in general small Passerines were conspicuously absent on passage, presumably because the prolonged spell of calm and clear weather provided perfect migration conditions which enabled birds to continue without stopping. THE RARER WARBLERS IN JULY AND AUGUST Against the background of these small numbers of the common Passerines, the proportion of extra-limital vagrants was surprisingly high — a situation which continued through September. The. Aquatic Warbler ( Acrocephalus paludicola) was perhaps the most striking species. In 1038 The Handbook was able to list only 31 British records plus “several other seen”. Yet in VOL. Lir] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 319 August and September of this year nearly 20 were identified. The first was trapped at Dungeness (Kent) on 2nd August. A week later, on the 9th, single birds appeared at Stanpit Marches near Christchurch (Hampshire) and at Portland (Dorset); the Stanpit bird was seen until the 12th (and later, in September, no less than three were to be ringed there). Then, nearer the end of August, there were two at Portland on the 23rd (one staying till the 24th), one between Brasted and Westerham (Kent) on the 23rd and 24th, one at St. Agnes (Isles of Scilly) on the 27th and another trapped there on the 29th; and also on the 29th one at Ham Tsiand, Old Windsor (Berkshire). Icterine Warblers ( Hippolais icterina) were again a feature of August. At Fair Isle there were one or two most days during the i2th-29th, and 4 were trapped. There was one at Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) on the 22nd, one at Cape Clear (Co. Cork) on the 26th and one north of Spurn (Yorkshire) on the 31st, and three separate birds were identified at Portland (Dorset) on the 21st, 23rd and 25th. Among several unidentified Hippolais one at Holme (Norfolk) on the 2 1 st was very probably this species. Rather fewer Melodious Warblers (II. polyglotta) than in 1958 were reported, but one was trapped at Dungeness (Kent) on 2nd and 3rd August, one at Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) on the 18th, one at Portland during the 27th-29th and one at Cape Clear on the 31st. A Booted Warbler (H. caligata) which was ringed at Fair Isle on 29th August and remained until the 31st was only the second recorded in Britain. Other uncommon warblers included a Great Reed Warbler (A. arundinaceus) at Dungeness on 3rd August and a Bonelli’s Warbler ( Phylloscopus bonelli) at Bardsey (Caernarvonshire) from the 19th until 5th September (there are only four previous records of the latter, but later in September there was to be a second one at Bardsey). Barred Warblers ( Sylvia nisoria), which were to be another great feature of September, began to appear in mid-August. The first ones were at Fair Isle where they were seen every day from 19th onwards (with 6 on the 21st and 5 on the 30th) and at Foula (Shetland) where single ones were noted on the 20th, 21st, 22nd, 27th and 31st. Later the species appeared at Rendall (Orkney) on the 30th and 31st, near Spurn (Yorkshire) on the 31st, at Cley (Norfolk) on the 28th and, more remarkable, at Dungeness on the 29th and at Shoreham (Sussex) on the 31st: this species seldom appears on the south coast and the Sussex record was, in fact, only the second for that county. OTHER UNUSUAL PASSERINES Another herald of things to come was the Red-breasted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa parva ) at Foulness (Essex) on the 30th: this was the only report in August, but it was to be followed in September and October by the greatest number ever recorded in one year. The irruption of Crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra) ( antea , p. 280) continued into August and on the 21st two Two-barred Cross- bills (L. leucoplera) were recorded, an immature on Foula (Shetland) and a freshly dead adult male at Newtonmore (Inverness); unusual numbers of Two- barred Crossbills have apparently been seen this autumn in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Another colourful vagrant was an adult Rose-coloured Starling (Sturnus rosetis) at Street (Somerset) on 26th July. A Red-rumped Swallow ( Hirundo daurica ) at Murston (Kent) on 28th August was only the ninth or tenth to be identified in Britain. Buntings play quite a part in the picture. There was a male Red-headed Bunting (Emberiza bruniceps ), which may or may not have been wild, at Bardsey in the last week of Julv and an influx of Little Buntings ( E . pusilla) at Cape Clear (Co. Cork) at the end of August (one on the 29th, 4-5 on the 30th, 2 on the 31st). The first Ortolan Buntings (E. hortulana) of the autumn were also seen in the west in late August — at Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) on the 27th, at Marloes (Pembrokeshire) on the 29th, at Cape Clear on the 30th and at St. Agnes on the 31st. Another southern species which is now regarded as a regular vagrant, especially in the west, is the Woodchat Shrike ( Lanius senator) and single ones, mostly birds of the year, appeared at Dungeness on 13th August, at St. Agnes 320 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii on the 20th, 26th and 27th (different birds) and at Great Saltee (Co. Wexford) on the 30th, the last staying till 9th September. Among the colourful near-Passerines, we should mention single Bee-eaters ( Merops apiaster) at Havergate (Suffolk) on 3rd July and at the mouth of the Halladale River (Sutherland) on 14th August; a Roller ( Coracias garrulus) at Northmavine (Shetland) on 20th and 21st July; an Alpine Swift ( Apus melba) at Clyro (Herefordshire) on 14th August; and a Great Spotted Cuckoo ( Clamator glandarius) from then to the 30th. After the unusually good spring passage, a pair of Hoopoes ( Upupa epops) reared three young in Kent, but the species was then apparently rather scarce in July and August and we have received only a handful of reports from Kent, Sussex, Hertfordshire and Scilly. TERNS AND GULLS, WADERS AND OTHER WATER-BIRDS After the total of 5 in the spring ( antea , p. 280), White-winged Black Terns ( Chlidonias leucopterus) were identified in August at Radipole Lake (Dorset) during the i9th-23rd, at Farlington Marshes (Hampshire) on the 20th and at Murston (Kent) on the 28th and 29th (two different birds). All were birds of the year except that on the 28th. What may well have been another young White-winged Black Tern was seen at Chichester (Sussex) on the 18th. Caspian Terns ( Hydroprogne caspia) appeared at Abberton Reservoir (Essex) on 2nd August and at Windermere (Westmorland) on the 15th, while one seen at Hickling Broad (Norfolk) in September and early October was apparently present from June. Adult Mediterranean Gulls ( Larus melanocephalus) appeared at the Naze (Essex) on 6th August and at Hartlepool (Co. Durham) on the 9th — each for the fourth successive autumn. Other Mediterranean Gulls were seen in Sussex: an adult at Portobello, Brighton, on 12th July, adults at Selsey Bill on 18th July and 29th August, and an immature at the latter place on 9th August. Few American birds were seen in July and August and all were waders. The first Pectoral Sandpiper ( Calidris melanotos) was reported from Farlington Marshes (Hampshire) on 26th and 27th July — an unusual date. There was then one in Co. Kerry on 12th August, followed on the 30th by a sudden flush of three American species — a third Pectoral at Hanningfield Reservoir (Essex) (stayed till 5th September), a Lesser Yellowlegs ( Tringa flavipes ) on the Torridge estuary above Instow (Devon) and a Wilson’s Phalarope ( Phalaropus tricolor) on the Flintshire side of the Dee estuary (stayed till 4th September). (The last was only the fourth British record, but was soon to be followed by another in Northamptonshire in mid-September.) Other less common waders included a Pratincole ( Glareola pratincola) at Ecton sewage-farm (Northamp- tonshire) on 23rd August, Kentish Plovers ( Charadrius alexandrinus) in Hampshire (2 on 15th July) and Kent (29th August), a scattering of Temminck’s Stints ( Calidris temminckii) in Kent, Essex and Staffordshire — about 7 in all reported — and Red-necked Phalaropes (Pli. lobatus) in Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, as well as an early Grey Phalarope ( Ph . fulicarius) at Holbeach (Lincolnshire) on 19th August. We must also mention the remarkable trip of 47 Dotterel ( Ch . morinellus) at Terrington Marsh (Norfolk/Lincoln border) on 20th August. A Crane ( Megalornis grus) appeared on the Co. Durham side of Teesmouth on 4th August and was still present in September. Another long-legged wading bird which stayed some time was an immature Little Egret ( Egretta garzetta) which first appeared at Farlington Marshes (Hampshire) on 26th July and then moved to Chichester Harbour (Sussex) where it was seen in various places until about 25th August. Spoonbills ( Platalea leucorodia) were noted in Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent and Flintshire, the last at Shotton Pools from end-June to mid-August. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates ol papers are sent free to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. 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The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted Types C.F.18 and C.F.24 (8 X 30-5 mm.) are highly favoured by bird-watchers, C.F. 24 having an extra wide field of view which is particularly valuable for observing birds in flight. With those who prefer a higher magnification, type C.F.43 (10 X 42 mm.) is a firm favourite. JjiwtuilafcL vy BARRS STROUD Ltd ANN1ESLAND, GLASGOW, W.3 London Office : Kinnaird House, 1 Pall Mall East, S.W.l Printed in Gt. Britain by Witherby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY, LTD., s, Warwick Court, W.C.i. £> IAO \VO O L-'— BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LI I , Numbers io-ii, October-November 1959 PAGE Observations on the Fulmar in Spitsbergen. By C. J. Pennycuick and D. Webbe (plates 57-62) 321 The food of nestling Rooks near Oxford. By Dr. J. D. Lockie ... 332 The September drift-movements of 1956 and 1958. By Kenneth Williamson : Part 1 — General summary and weather conditions ... ... 334 Part 2 — The occurrence of extra-limital vagrants ... ... 357 Fulmars in the North Atlantic in the summers of 1956 and 1958. By Dr. and Mrs. William H. Drury ... ... ... ... ... ... 377 Notes : — Feeding behaviour of Gannets and Great Black-backed Gull with Mackerel shoals (Dr. David Boddington) 383 Reactions of nestling Oystercatchers to intruding sheep (the Misses M. and F. Penrose) 3^4 Wilson’s Phalarope in Bedfordshire (H. Cole) ... ... ... ... 385 Wilson’s Phalarope in Anglesey (John P. Wilkinson) 386 Common Tern nesting on vegetation above water (Major-General C. B. Wainwright) ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 3^7 Skylark carrying dead half-feathered fledgling (C. J. Lewis) ... ... 387 Carrion Crow attacking young Magpies in nest (Miss Sybil M. Butlin) 387 Rook nesting on the ground (R. E. Scott) (plate 64) ... ... ... 388 Feeding behaviour of Choughs (Brian C. Turner) ... ... ... 388 Two Robins laying in one nest (G. des Forges) (plate 63) 390 Abnormal song of Chiffchaff (R. S. Dove) ... ... ... ... 39° Review : — Fundamentals of Ornithology. By Josselvn van 1 vne and Andrew Berger ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 391 Letters: — St. Kilda Wrens on Stac an Annin (I)rs. J. Morton Boyd, David Boddington and Derek A. Ratcliffe; Jeffery Boswall) 392 The birds of Staffordshire (J. Lord and A. R. M. Blake) ... ... 392 C. Pearson Douglas. Vol. LI1 Nos. io and 1 1 OCTOBER and NOVEMBER 1959 BRITISH BIRDS OBSERVATIONS ON THE FULMAR IN SPITSBERGEN By C. J. Pennycuick and D. Webbe (Plates 57-62) INTRODUCTION The writers spent the period 23rd July-i8th August 1957 observing a colony of Atlantic Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis ) on the south-east shore of Tempelfiord, West Spitsbergen, adjacent to the east side of the mouth of Sassendalen. Although the Fulmar is a well-documented bird, and our period of study was short, we have observations to add to the literature on behaviour at the breeding place, manner of flight, proportions of the colour phases at this particular colony, and the departure of adults at the end of the breeding season. The breeding area was a vertical cliff about 3! kilometres long and 150 metres or so high, with a further 100 metres of very steep grass-covered scree below, sloping down to a narrow shingle beach. The cliff consisted of horizontally-bedded crumbly rock, mostly gypsiferous limestone, in which harder and softer bands formed ledges or rows of holes where the Fulmars laid their eggs (plate 57 left). To estimate the number of breeding pairs, in the colony we divided the cliff into 30 sections with roughly equal numbers of birds, and counted the number of chicks on one of them. The result was approximately 10,000 chicks on the whole cliff. Fisher (1952) regards all calls made by Fulmars as variants of the cackling display, but we feel this is an over-simplification. Although our birds cackled in many different situations, they also had a small repertoire of distinct calls with sharply defined BEHAVIOUR IN THE BREEDING COLONY Calls. 321 322 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii associations. The calls which we could distinguish may be classified as follows. (i) Cackling. This is the usual note on the cliffs, and there are two forms of it : (a) Fast cackling — “ cock-cock-cock-cock-cock-aawww- cock-cock-cock- . . .” The syllables are uttered at a rate of up to io per second, and the “-aawww-'’ , a rasping note, is the inspiration at the end of a stream of syllables. (b) Slow cackling, aptly referred to as “braying” by Kritzler (1948) — “ AAARK — aawww — AAARK — aawww — A A ARK — ...” This is a more emphatic form, and the breath is drawn in between each syllable. Some very excitable birds can utter up to 4 syllables per second, but 3 per second is the usual maximum. When not very excited or provoked the birds usually cackle in discrete outbursts. Typically the outburst starts with a very slow “ cock .... cock .... cock . . . with the bill hardly open, develops into a crescendo often containing some braying syllables, and then dies away. We often saw a bird begin and end an outburst with its bill under its wing, but in vigorous cackling the bill is opened widely, and the neck and throat are inflated and waved about, often into extreme attitudes (plate 57 right). When a pair of birds are displaying together, the cackling is normally accompanied by bill fencing and mutual nibbling, which is sometimes instigated by one partner and apparently resented by the other. One chickless pair, whose displays we observed from a hide, was timed on two occasions, giving respectively 27- and 30-cackle out- bursts in half an hour, each outburst lasting usually 10-20 seconds: these were days when the birds were especially lively. Cackling has no specific meaning (Fisher, 1952). It is used by pairs in mutual display, by established birds towards intruders, by parents when approaching their chicks, and by single birds without apparent provocation. Kritzler (1948) found that, in captivity, Fulmars would cackle when two or more were together, but not when alone. Small groups of Fulmars may sometimes be seen cackling together on the water near the colony, but we agree with the prevalent view that cackling is essentially an activity of the breed- ing cliffs, and concerned with generating a social atmosphere conducive to breeding. (2) Spitting. This display and the ejection of oil sometimes associated with it is discussed at length by Armstrong (1951). Largely on the basis of Duffey’s (1951) observations, he regards it as mainly a defensive reaction of the chick. However, these authors do not emphasise the associated call, a squeaky “ f-chee , f-chce” > vol. l 1 1 ] OBSERVATIONS ON FULMARS 323 which in the adult is superimposed on a low growling note. When provoked, a chick can perform the spitting movement and call as fast as 3 times per second. Quite apart from the deterrence of predators, this display is used by parents and chicks in aggression towards other Fulmars approaching their territory, and produces an immediate effect. Trespassing Fulmars would always retreat promptly from even a small chick spitting, whereas they would often ignore an adult cackling aggressively until it began to spit. Probably as a result of the extreme effectiveness of this display, the Fulmars hardly ever seemed to fight, and even the ejection of oil was unusual. We saw only one fight. A parent on its chick cackled progressively more intensely at an intruder, which was gradually sidling up to it, and at length seized the other bird’s wing in its bill. Both birds flew off locked together, but the parent was back on the ledge within a minute. This was a case of aggression without the spitting display being used. Fights may be more frequent earlier in the breeding cycle, for Prevost (1953) describes the closely related Antarctic Fulmar (F. glacialoides) as fighting in defence of territories when these are being established. The rest of his account of this species’ behaviour agrees closely with our observations on the Atlantic Fulmar. The peaceable behaviour of our birds is in strong contrast to the continual and often vicious fights in, for example, Guillemot ( Uria nalge ) colonies, although these birds have developed the colonial habit further than Fulmars and reduced the territory to the space occupied by the brooding bird. (3) Feeding the chick. Our observations on the care of the chick were made mostly during a total of 24 hours’ watching from a hide on the cliff face, from which we were able to observe three nests at a range of about 10 feet. Both parent and chick make special calls in connection with the feeding process, which has been described in detail by Duffev (1951). He, however, apparently missed one important part of the appeasement routine, namely the chick’s soliciting call. Briefly, the routine is as follows. The young chick seems unable to recognize its parents, and spits at anything which moves. The adult therefore alights a short distance from it and approaches gradually, cackling every time the chick spits and thus eventually appeases the latter’s aggressive behaviour. The chick then starts its soliciting note, which is a low, very regular and monotonous cawing sound. The syllable rate is about ii-3 per second, and the syllable length about \ second. When the parent hears this it begins to retch, making thin whining sounds like a small puppy, and food is passed to the chick in the manner described by Duffey (plate 58 left). 324 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Duffey does mention a “shrill note, continuously repeated’’ uttered by chicks older than five weeks during- feeding, but does not seem to connect this with soliciting food. Armstrong (1951) remarks on the absence in Duffey’s account of a definite releaser for regurgitation. The cawing note was a very constant feature of our birds’ feeding process, and it seems improbable that Duffey would have interpreted it otherwise if he had heard it at all. The most likely explanation is that conditions for listening are probably very much better in inland fjord areas of Spitsbergen than in Orkney where Duffey worked. Days of flat calm are frequent in late summer, and there is then no swell at all ; what noise there is from the sea does not echo on account of the scree ancf beach below the cliff. The noisiness of cliffs exposed to ocean swells probably accounts for a general tendency, in describing the displays of cliff-nesting birds, to pay little attention to the associated calls, although when they are noted they are often found to be clearly differentiated and to form an important part of the displays. For instance, one of us (Pennycuick, 1956) found a well-developed set of calls in Brunnich’s Guillemot ( Uria lomvia), and two such studies on colonial sea birds which nest in quieter places are those of Sladen (1953) on the Adelie Penguin ( Pygoscelis adeliae ) and Warham (1956) on the Great-winged Petrel ( Pterodroma macroptera). The calls described by the latter are broadly analogous to those set out in the present paper, although the actual notes uttered are different. (4) Calls on the wing. There are two types of call given on the wing : (a) Alarm or mobbing note. This is a sharp quiet sneeze, rather like the sound of a large focal plane shutter. It is made firstly when a flying bird is surprised — for example, when one gliding steadily along a cliff top is suddenly confronted by a human being and swerves to avoid him. Secondly, one of us (C.J.P.) has heard Fulmars in Scotland repeatedly make this call while they were hovering beside him in an updraught, when he was sitting close to their nests ; in this case the call seemed to be a very mild form of mobbing. (b) Fulmars flying steadily along, generally in flapping flight, sometimes make a repeated call, instances of which are described by Fisher (1952). The syllable rate varies (1-3 per second), but the syllables are not necessarily synchronized with the wing beats. The nature of the syllables is very variable, but in calm conditions the rasping inspiration note can be heard between each one. These calls may be an aerial form of cackling, although they are usually not very loud. vol. hi] OBSERVATIONS ON FULMARS 325 Vestigial nest building. Movements which may originally have been concerned with nest building are common among adult Fulmars. A bird will repeatedly lean forward and pick up a piece of grass or dirt, or a stone, then slowly drop the object over its shoulder. The objects are not all deposited in one place, and we often saw a Fulmar which had used up all the pebbles within reach move gradually some distance along a ledge doing the same thing further along. We once saw a strange performance which might be concerned with vestigial nest building. This was the pulling of large tufts of down from the breast of a partly fledged chick by an adult, evidently its parent. The chick spat at the adult which thereupon tried to seize its bill. The chick cawed intermittently and the parent tried again to seize its bill, but the young bird fought it and spat. The parent then pulled out more down but stopped after about two minutes and fed the chick normally. FLIGHT Although it spends most of its time at sea, the Fulmar is especially well adapted for hill soaring, that is, making use of the upcurrents formed when the wind blows on to a hillside or cliff face. It is a noticeably better performer in this respect than other cliff-nesting pelagic birds, such as the auks (Alcidae) and cormorants ( Phalaerocorax spp.). These birds have a higher wing loading and therefore glide faster, and need a stronger wind in order to soar. The reason for this difference is probably that the diving birds require smaller wings for use as paddles under water, whereas the Fulmar, being a surface feeder, has been able to evolve its flight mechanism more independently of its aquatic activities. On account of the Fulmar’s fondness for soaring in front of the cliff face, it is relatively easy to observe the details of its gliding flight. The control movements agree well with Hankin’s (1913) account of thermal soaring in kites (Milvus spp.) and vultures (Aegypiidae), and may probably be regarded as illustrating the general principles of the control of gliding flight in birds. The main points are shown in plates 58-62 and are as follows. Basic controls. Control in pitch is effected by fore and aft movements of the wings, moving the centre of lift relative to the centre of gravity, and so producing a pitching moment. Since this involves pivoting the wings about the shoulder or carpal joints, these movements also alter the amount of sweep back or forward of the wings and so affect lateral stability. These movements are accompanied by alterations of dihedral in such a sense as to oppose their effect on lateral stability, and probably sweep and dihedral are reflexly interlocked so as to keep the lateral stability constant. 326 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. L1I Sharp vertical movements, such as are necessary when flying in very gusty conditions, can also be produced by rotating both wings together at the shoulder joint, altering their incidence relative to the body. Since the moment of inertia in pitch of the wings is much less than that of the body, this results in a change of angle of attack of the wings, and a sudden drop and acceleration (or climb and deceleration), without much change in the attitude of the body. Changes of speed which are maintained, as opposed to corrections of changes caused by bumps, are normally initiated by the other method. In normal cruising flight the wings are held with zero sweep and slight anhedral (plate 58 right). To increase speed, the wings are swept back, mainly from the carpal joint, and also bent downwards, while to decrease speed they are swept forward, spread and raised. In this case the incidence of the wings relative to the body is not drastically altered. The positions described are also maintained for longer periods in other situations. For instance, when the bird is gliding at increased speed the wing is swept back from the carpal joint and the anhedral increased (plate 60 upper), whereas in a sustained turn at normal speed the wings are swept forward and up (plate 59 left). The reduction in wing area with increasing speed would tend to make the angle of attack constant over a wide range of speeds. It is possible that the Fulmar is thus able to fly at its optimum lift/drag ratio irrespective of speed, which would give it great “penetration” — that is, the ability to effect a large increase in speed with a small increase in the angle of descent. This would be an important advantage in the long overland journeys which Fulmars make by soaring in hill lift, and would be even more important in wind gradient soaring as described for albatrosses (Diomedeidae) by Idrac (1924 ab). Control of roll is effected by differential twisting of the wings. For fine control movements the twisting is effected by deflecting the primaries alone (plate 60 lower), whereas in coarse movements at low speeds the whole wing is rotated bodily at the shoulder joint (plate 59 right). Recent cind-films have shown that rates of roll up to 360 degrees per second can be achieved by momentarily retracting one wing to about half the length of the other, but only at the expense of some loss of height. In balanced turns the drag moments of the two wings are presumably equalized by flexing the elbow joint to alter the length of one wing relative to the other (plate 61 upper), there being no control corresponding to the rudder in aircraft which could produce yawing moments. An intentional sideslip is often induced when a bird is hovering or flying slowly in a strong updraught. If the bird wishes to remain sideways on to the cliff, so as to avoid colliding with it, or to observe an intruder, the relative airflow is then coming steeply upwards and from the seaward side; in other words, the bird must sideslip to seaward, which it does by flexing the seaward wing more vol. lii] OBSERVATIONS ON FULMARS 327 than the other, and raising it more from the carpal joint (plate 62 left). The tail. It will be noticed that the tail has not been mentioned in connection with any of the basic control movements ; in fact, moulting Fulmars can fly and manoeuvre at normal and high speeds just as well without a tail. The tail probably serves as a subsidiary minor control in pitch and yaw: it can be twisted through large angles around the longitudinal axis and also rotated up and down, and these move- ments are made in cruising flight, but not in any consistent relation to direction of turn or other manoeuvres. The movements are probably concerned with minor corrections of bumps. At cruising speeds the tail is normally furled with its edges parallel, and curled slightly concave upwards. The main function of the tail is at low speeds, when it is spread to provide extra lifting surface, its area being thereby increased by a factor of about three, compared with its cruising configura- tion (plates 59 left and 60 lower). This is well demonstrated by a Fulmar approaching the cliff to land, which it does by diving down at a high speed, then pulling up and approaching the cliff in a rapidly decelerating climb. In this latter phase the wings are smoothly swung forwards, spread and raised, as described above, and at the same time the tail is spread. The Fulmar does not use its tail as an airbrake, but relies on its feet for this purpose (plate 60 upper and 62 right). In this it resembles the auks and cormorants, but differs from some more lightly loaded birds such as gulls ( Larus spp.). The stall. A Fulmar will often make repeated approaches to the cliff without landing, climbing up to within a few inches of a ledge in which it is interested, then turning and dropping away again. At the peak of the climb, as it turns, the speed is often very low, and the wings may be seen suddenly to start fluttering, a rapid oscillation about the leading edge, which does not itself vibrate appreciably. At the same time feathers, particularly at the trail- ing edge, may be seen to be lifted up (plate 61 lower). This is probably an intentional stall, carried out in a stable configuration with the wings well spread and raised. The movement is usually seen in an updraught in front of the cliff face, but often the sudden drop as the wings begin to flutter is clearly visible. The feet. When fully retracted the feet are folded up forwards under the flank feathers in the space occupied bv the manus when the wing is folded, but near the cliffs they are normally carried straight back below the tail, whence they can be lowered quickly into the 328 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII airflow when required. When gliding with little updraught near the cliff face, the feet are often lowered slightly below the spread tail, hanging at an angle of io degrees or so below the axis of the bird’s body (plates 59 and 60 lower). In this position it is possible that the feet may act as split flaps and produce a small increase in the lift developed by the tail. The more important function of the feet is to act as airbrakes in steep, slow descent, or during hovering in a strong updraught (plate 62 right), which is the same thing aerodynamically. In this type of descent the wings are well raised, with the carpal joints drawn in by flexing the elbows, and the primaries swept upwards and back. The tail is not used as an airbrake, but is furled and raised steeply, so that it is in line with the airflow coming up from below. The feet, however, are extended with the webs fully spread and curved forwards, and back-and-forth movements of them are used to control accurately the angle of descent whilst maintaining the speed constant. In this way the bird can hover steadily in an updraught. This process can be observed more clearly in a ponderous bird like a Shag ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis ) : when a Shag is trying to glide at a constant height in a strong updraught the sharp back-and-forth movements of the feet can be very plainly seen. COLOUR PHASES We endeavoured to establish the proportions in our colony of the four colour groups described by Fisher (1952). Fisher’s (arbitrary) divisions are : (1) Double light (LL), in which the head and neck are pure white. (2) Light (L), in which there is some pure white on the breast. (3) Dark (D), in which there is a dusting of grey or brown (however slight) on the breast. (4) Double dark (DD), in which the head, neck and breast are as dark as the wings. This last category we thought unsatisfactory, as some very dark birds have the wings considerably darker than the head and neck, whereas other much paler ones are of a uniform tint all over. The distinction between L and D is difficult to dissociate from lighting conditions. Also birds may appear paler when at rest than in flight owing to breast feathers being spread out in the sitting position (although our results showed a reverse tendency). Counts of birds at rest on the cliff were made from nine observation points, each commanding a view of between 12 and 65 nests and many ledges frequented by adults. Counts of colour phases were made from the same points on 10 different days, although not all the points were covered on each day. Thus the same birds may be assumed to have been counted repeatedly on different days, which should tend to even out variations in our vol. li i ] OBSERVATIONS ON FULMARS 329 estimate of a bird’s category due to varying lighting conditions. VVe made three counts of airborne birds flying in hill lift along the cliff or the neighbouring hillside, and these are listed separately in Table I, in which the percentages of the different forms are given. Table I — Proportions of the different colour phases of Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis), West Spitsbergen, August 1957 The divisions used are those proposed by Fisher (1952) (see text). The observations of Burton and Thurston, made in the same season, are included at the foot. %LL O/ | /O ^ %D %DD Total Sitting 0.2 5-° 85.1 9-7 5.352 Flying 0.7 16.2 73-o IO. I 148 B&T (Hying) o-5 6-3 93-2 1,000 j We also quote, by permission, the counts made in the same season by P. J. K. Burton and M. H. Thurston (B&T in Table I) of airborne birds at Kapp Linne on the west coast. This is about 80 kilometres west-south-west of our colony and the Fulmars concerned were probably from Gronfjord. Their count of 1,000 birds was divided into 10 groups of 100 each, and the mean percentage of L and LL together was then 6.8%, the standard error between samples being 0.51. DEPARTURE OF THE ADULTS Besides the colour phase counts, we made regular counts from the same nine observation points of (a) the total number of adults visible on the cliff, and (b) the number of unattended chicks. The totals of these counts are represented in Fig. 1, and the actual counts are given in Table II. For various reasons some points were missed out on some days, and the method of estimating the missing values is explained in the Appendix. Table II — Total numbers of adult Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis) on cliff and PERCENTAGE OF UNATTENDED CHICKS, WEST SPITSBERGEN, AUGUST 1957, TO ILLUSTRATE DEPARTURE OF ADULTS WITHOUT YOUNG No. of % adults on chicks Date cliff unattended August 4th 926 5th 846 6th 789 7th 684 44.8 8th 824 49-7 10th 66 2 56.1 1 ith 677 12th 64S 54-4 14th 457 62.4 15 th 440 54-4 16th 393 53-4 17th 170 55-o 1 8th 259 59-o 330 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII It can be seen that throughout the period of the counts the number of adults declined progressively, but there was no verv marked corresponding increase in the proportion of unattended chicks. I his we take to indicate that the decline in the adults was due mainly to the departure of birds which, through non-breeding or failed breeding, had no chick to tend, while the amount of time spent on the cliff by parents with their chicks had not yet begun to decrease. No chick had been seen to fly by the time we left, but some of them were practically indistinguishable from adults. Fig. i — Decline of non-breeding population of Fulmars ( Fulmanis glacialis), West Spitsbergen, August 1957 The open circles show the total numbers of adults visible on sample sections of the cliff; the black circles indicate the percentages of unattended chicks on the same sections. While the number of adults declined steadily, there was no corresponding increase in the proportion of unattended chicks. This suggests that the birds which left were non-breeders or unsuccessful ones and that, even though some chicks were almost indistinguishable from adults by the end of the period, they were still being regularly tended by their parents. It can be seen from Fig. 1 that at the beginning of our stay the number of adults which could be seen sitting on the cliff was nearly three times the total number of chicks, whereas by the time we left there were only about half as many. We had no means of distinguishing birds of pre-breeding age from the others, but we noticed that in some adults the nostril was light blue-grey, whereas in most it was brown. The difference was clear cut, and it would be worth investigating whether it is correlated with, for instance, age. APPENDIX The method of filling in the most probable values of missing counts, so that totals for all the counting points could be added, vol. lii] OBSERVATIONS ON FULMARS 331 was as follows. On five out of the 13 days concerned complete coverage of all nine points was made. The counts for these five days were added to give a total for each point, and the average of these totals was calculated. A multiplier was then found for each point which would bring its total to equal the average. Every value in the Table was now multiplied by the figure appropriate to its counting point, thus eliminating the differences in average number of birds counted from each point. Daily averages could now be calculated and finally these were divided by the multipliers for individual points, so providing estimates of missing values. Table III — Numbers of adult Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis) visible from nine COUNTING POINTS, WEST SPITSBERGEN, AUGUST 1957 Estimated values are given in italics (see above). Date I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total August 4th 123 130 21 I 77 31 79 143 69 63 926 5th I l6 113 186 6l 32 82 132 65 59 846 6th 96 118 128 i°5 32 80 i'5 58 57 789 7th 78 81 151 58 24 68 IOQ 58 57 684 8th 93 114 ic)7 84 30 69 126 57 54 824 10th 76 92 160 44 26 65 102 58 39 662 1 ith 78 05 150 53 30 68 106 59 38 677 12th 78 85 132 41 35 64 IO4 54 55 648 14th 58 68 105 28 21 40 74 32 3i 457 15th 59 58 103 27 18 46 65 34 30 440 16th 48 54 97 24 22 39 53 32 24 393 17th 19 27 24 I I 1 1 17 39 I I I I 170 1 8th 26 45 60 8 10 36 40 21 !3 259 The counts of adults are shown in Table III, with estimated values given in italics. The counts of unattended chicks were similarly treated. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Our thanks are first of all due to the other members of our party for their part in running the expedition, namely E. Carr- Saunders, R. C. Plowright, M. L. Blake and C. Coulton. We are also very grateful to the Governor of Svalbard and the Store Norske Spitsbergens Kulkompani for their co-operation and for facilities extended to us during our stay in Spitsbergen. SUMMARY 1. An account is given of the calls associated with various activities in a breeding colony of Fulmars in Spitsbergen. 2. The movements used in the control of gliding flight are described and illustrated with photographs. 3. The proportions of the colour phases proposed by Fisher were found to be approximatelv as follows: LL ca. i%; L 5%; D 85% ; DD 10%. 4. From counts of adults visible on the cliff and of unattended chicks, it was deduced that adults without young were leaving 332 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii the colony during our stay, but that the time spent by parents with their chicks was not decreasing appreciably. REFERENCES Armstrong, E. A. (1951): “Discharge of oily fluid by young Fulmars”. Ibis, 93: 245-251. Dukfey, E. (1951): “Field studies on the Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis”. Ibis, 93= 237-245. Fisher, J. (1952): The Fulmar. London. Hankin, E. H. (1913): Animal Flight: a Record of Observation. London. Idrac, M. P. (1924a): ‘‘Contributions a l’^tude du vol des albatros”. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 179: 28-30. (1924b): ‘‘Etude th4orique des manoeuvres des albatros par vent croissant avec l’altitude”. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 179: 1136-1139. Kritzler, H. (1948): “Observations on behaviour in captive Fulmars”. Condor, 50: 5-15. Pennycuick, C. J. (1956): “Observations on a colony of Briinnich’s Guillemot Uria lomvia in Spitsbergen”. Ibis, 98: 80-99. Provost, J. (1953): “Notes sur la reproduction du fulmar antarctique Fulmarus glacialoides". Alauda, 21: 157-164. Warham, J. (1956): “The breeding of the Great-winged Petrel Pterodroma macroptera". Ibis, 98: 174-185. THE FOOD OF NESTLING ROOKS NEAR OXFORD By J. D. Lockie ( Nature Conservancy, 12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh ) INTRODUCTION This short paper describes an aspect of a study of Rooks ( Corvus frugilegus) carried out while I was holding a Nature Conservancy Post-Graduate Studentship at the Edward Grey Institute, Oxford, in 1952 and 1953. All four rookeries concerned were within 10 miles of Oxford and were on rather similar farming land. The food obtained refers to the first three weeks of the nestlings’ life, a period previously ignored in work on the food of Rooks. I am grateful to Dr. David Lack, F.R.S., who supervised the work, and D. F. Owen who gave much assistance. TECHNIQUE The method was that used by Kluijver (1933) on young Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). A collar is placed around the neck of the nestling, sufficiently tightly to prevent swallowing and loosely enough to allow breathing. The parent is allowed to feed the young and, when the former has left the nest, the food is then removed from the gullet of the nestling and placed in 70% alcohol. This technique allows food to be obtained whole and undigested and, in addition, can be made quantitative; however, it requires practice to apply the collars with the correct degree of tightness. As might be supposed, the very small and very large young are the most difficult to deal with. On several occasions the extent VOL. LIl] FOOD OF NESTLING ROOKS 333 to which food passed the collar was tested on large young by the placing of two collars around the neck. It was found that, provided the young were not left with food in the throat for more than 20 minutes, very little, if any, slipped past the first collar. Kluijver used aluminium collars but I found plastic-covered wire as efficient ; it is important, however, to stretch the plastic insulation beyond the rough end of the wire in order to avoid cutting the nestling. No nestlings died under this technique. FOOD Species of animals taken. Rooks brought various species of earthworms to the nest : most frequent were Lumbricus terrestris, Allolobophora longa and A. caliginosa; in addition, however, Dendobaena mammalis occurred occasionally in large numbers and was probably obtained from cow-pats and when dung was spread on the fields. They took few leatherjackets (larvae of crane-flies, Tipulidae) in April, for these were then mostly too small for them to locate. Other food consisted of such animals of grassland as the caterpillars of the moth Celaena secalis , ground beetles, weevils and Lycosid spiders. Differences between rookeries . The percentages by volume of the main foods of nestlings in 4 rookeries at Oxford are shown in Table I. Earthworms formed the bulk of the food in all rookeries in each year except rookery A in 1953. The percentage by volume of grain brought to the young varied greatly between rookeries. Table I — Food brought to nestling Rooks ( Corvus fragile gus) at four ROOKERIES NEAR OXFORD IN APRIL 1952 AND 1953, EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES BY VOLUME The four rookeries were King’s Spinney, Rousham (A); Frilford Heath (B); Appleton (C); and Marcham (D). % % Year Rookery No. of samples O/ /o Earthworms Leather- jackets Other animals % Grain 1952 A 12 73 8 6 13 B 13 52 14 6 28 C 24 80 2 17 I D 6 68 9 12 II 1953 A 26 32 28 40 C 21 53 — 29 18 Differences between years. Table I shows that in both rookery A and rookery C the proportion of earthworms was much lower in 1953, which had a cold dry April, than in 1952. The reduction in the proportion of this protein food was not wholly compensated for by a correspond- ing increase in production of animals other than earthworms. Instead much more grain was given to nestling Rooks in 1953 than in 1952. 334 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Changes in composition of food with age of young. 1 he proportion of non-protein food (mainly grain but including potato, turnip and a little bread) increased as the young- Rooks grew older. The food brought to nestlings in each of three age classes (1-7, 8-15 and 16-22 days) was analysed and in 1952 the percentages by volume of grain, etc., were respectively 1, 6 and 22. In 1953, the corresponding percentages were 16, 11 and 37. I his increase in the amount of carbohybrate with increasing age was to be expected since it is the rapidly-developing small young which need much protein food. But in 1953 even very young nestlings were fed with appreciable amounts of grain: as already mentioned, April 1953 was dry and cold, and parent Rooks may have been forced to use grain owing to shortage of animal food. The percentage survival of broods of 5 in 1953 was 55% whereas in 1952 it was 69% (Lockie, 1955). REFERENCES Kluijver, H. N. (1933): “Bijdrage tot de biologie en ecologie van den Spreeuw (Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris L.) gedurende zijn voortplantingstijd”. Wageningen. Lockie, J. D. (1955): “The breeding and feeding of Jackdaws and Rooks, with notes on Carrion Crows and other Corvidae”. Ibis, 97: 341-369. THE SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS OF 1956 AND 1958 By Kenneth Williamson [Migration Research Officer, B.T.O .) Part 1 — General Summary and Weather Conditions INTRODUCTION During the first week of September in 1956 and 1958 there were extensive drift-arrivals of migratory birds on the east coast of Britain. These were made up almost entirely of species which are summer-visitors to Europe and widely distributed in Scandinavia and the countries surrounding the Baltic Sea. As might be expected from the coincidence in the time of these falls, the chief participants were much the same in both years. A number of wader and other non-Passerine birds were concerned, but by far the most important numerically were the mainly night- migrating Passerines, among which Wheatear, Whinchat, Red- start, Garden and Willow Warblers and Pied Flycatcher* were dominant. The discussion which follows largely concerns these Passerine species. In this part of the paper the migration is summarized and its general character is considered in relation to the meteorological environment. Part II is concerned with a more detailed examina- *Scientific names of all species and races mentioned are given in an Appendix on pages 376-377. vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 335 tion of various aspects, especially the occurrence of extra-limital vagrants, and with a theoretical discussion of this material, particularly on the 1958 season. These drift-movements are worth a detailed analysis because, although much the same species were concerned in the two years, there were some rather striking (and unexpected) differences in composition and differential abundance ; and a comparison clearly demonstrates the vitally important effects of meteorological phenomena on bird migration, and throws interesting light (some of it new) on the function of drift in the evolutionary sphere. Migrational drift, which in brief is concerned with the directional influence of wind on migratory movements in circumstances when accurate navigation is not possible, has been discussed in a number of recent papers (particularly Williamson, 1952, 1955). Perhaps the three most striking differences between the early September falls in the two years were: (a) that certain species which reached “avalanche” strength at Fair Isle in 1956 were more numerous in the south-east than the north-east in 1958; (b) that the movements were almost confined to the east coast in 1956, but were more general and noticeable as far west as the Irish Sea in 1958; and (c) that while certain of the rarer migrants, such as the Wryneck, Bluethroat, Red-backed Shrike and Ortolan Bunting, were well represented in both years, it was only in 1958 that eastern and north-eastern vagrants were concerned, a feature being the remarkable influx of Red-breasted Flycatchers. One aim of this paper is to compare the meteorological developments over the Continent and the North Sea in the two seasons, and enquire what part these developments played in determining these differences. The full data of the 1956 migration have not previously been presented, except in species lists in the separate annual reports of the bird observatories. The general pattern of the 1958 migration has, however, already received brief mention, with detailed accounts of the birds involved, in Bird Migration (vol. 1, no. 1) and the “Recent reports and news” feature of British Birds, (vol. li, pp. 361, 405, 432-445). For this reason the 1956 move- ments are given a fuller treatment in the present paper, those of 1958 being drawn upon mainly for comparison and for the discussion of instructive and important points which emerge. The data are taken mainly from the “Daily Census” record books of the bird observatories, from their annual reports and (in a few cases) their ringing records, and from the two publications cited above. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks are due to the bird observatories for so readily placing their records for these periods at my disposal, and to many migration students who were “in the field” at these times and have kindly made their observations available. I am grateful to Sir Landsborough Thomson, R. C. Homes, I* Fig. i — The locations of the more important places mentioned in the text (1) Foula, Shetland (2) Dunrossness and Sumburgh, Shetland (3) Fair Isle, Shetland (4) Dornoch, Sutherland (5) Isle of May, Fife (6) Aberlady, East Lothian (7) Holy Island, Northumberland (8) Monks’ House, Northumberland (9) Fame Islands, Northumberland (10) Whitley Bay, Northumberland (11) Teesmouth, Co. Durham /York- shire (12) Flamborough Head, Yorkshire (13) Spurn Point and Kilnsea, York- shire (14) Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire (15) Holme, Norfolk (16) Cley and Blakeney Point, Norfolk (17) Walberswick, Suffolk (18) Bradwell, Essex (19) Dungeness, Kent (20) St. Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight (21) Portland Bill, Dorset (22) Jersey and Guernsey, Channel Islands (23) St. Agnes, Isles of Scilly (24) Lundy, North Devon (25) Skokholm, Pembrokeshire (26) Great Saltee and Tuskar Rock, Co. Wexford (27) Bardsey, Caernarvonshire (28) Copeland Islands, Co. Down (29) Tory Island, Co. Donegal vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 337 R. K. Cornwallis, R. Spencer, P. A. D. Hollom and J. H. B. Munro for kindly reading- through preliminary drafts of the manuscript and offering valuable comments and suggestions, and I am especially indebted to I. J. Ferguson-Lees for much advice and help, including the extraction of data from county reports. Thanks are also due to the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office for permission to reproduce drawings based on the weather-maps published in the Daily Weather Report of the Meteorological Office (Air Ministry). MIGRATION AND THE WEATHER IN 1956 During the last week of August 1956, European weather was characterized by low pressure disturbances affecting a very extensive area between the Baltic countries and the British Isles. There was a complicated depression with centres over the Baltic Sea, the north German coast and southern England on the 25th, and this system moved northwards to envelop the whole of Scandinavia next day. The British Isles were then in a trough which brought moderate-to-fresh W.S.W. winds to England and the whole of west and middle Europe. A col developed briefly over south Norway and Denmark on the 27th, but there was much rain in the area, with continuing S.W. wind, and on the 28th another cold front, stemming from a low which developed over Jutland, swept eastwards across the Continent. A low centre moved into the Skagerrak from the North Sea on the 29th, remaining there throughout the 30th; but with anti- cyclones building up in mid-Atlantic and over north-eastern Europe the weather showed much promise of improvement. Spreading eastwards, the Atlantic high enveloped Britain on the last day of the month, and a considerable ridge probed far into Europe. A cyclonic disturbance, however, covered Finland and the east Baltic countries, so that winds were westerly except in southern Europe on the south side of the ridge. This ridge extended to southern Scandinavia and most of middle Europe on 1st September, giving easterly winds as the low retreated into northern Russia. During 1st September the two highs joined up to create an extensive anticyclonic ridge penetrating southern Scandinavia, the Baltic region, Poland and western Russia, again establishing an easterly airflow across middle Europe. On the assumption that fine, clear weather is needed as an inducement to begin migration, considerable movement was probably in progress between latitudes 50° and 6o°N. 2nd September 1956. Late on the 1st a somewhat restricted warm front, producing much rain, was associated with a low moving northwards along the Biscay coast of France. The front crossed the English Channel before nightfall and pursued its way through East Anglia, reaching the Humber Estuary at dawn. From Dungeness north to Spurn it was responsible for bringing down a large number 338 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII of drift-migrants caught whilst journeying southwards through the Continental maritime region. These seem likely to have had their origin in southern Norway or Denmark where calm air and clear sky had prevailed the previous evening. Dungeness , Kent. Many birds were already at the lighthouse at 02.30 hours, these including Wheatears and Pied Flycatchers. Assuming they had travelled in a S.W. “standard direction” for some y\ hours in the N.E. airstream at 20 knots plus their own flight-speed, an origin in Denmark seems likely for the vanguard. When the traps were driven at 06.15 hours it was obvious that there was a great increase in birds from the previous day, and at that time most of these were still in the neighbourhood of the lighthouse. The Garden Warbler was the commonest Passerine, Fig. 2 — Position of the warm front at 06.00 hours on 2nd September 1956 closely followed by Redstart, Pied Flycatcher, Whitethroat, Wheatear, Whinchat and Willow Warbler in that order. How- ever, although Whitethroats showed a tenfold increase from 1st September it is more than likely that a proportion were of British origin, since 5 of the 30 trapped had been ringed previously at Dungeness. The same probably applies to the Sedge Warblers, since of the three captured one had been ringed before. Cley, Norfolk. There was rain during the night and early morning on the north Norfolk coast. Redstarts were dominant, Garden Warblers less so — a reversal of the situation at vol. li i ] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 339 Dungeness, and this may indicate a different area of origin, perhaps the Skagerrak crossing. An increase in Wheatears was noted, and Pied Flycatchers and Whinchats were common, but Willow Warblers were few and there is no suggestion that either Sedge Warblers or Whitethroats were involved. Holme, Norfolk. At the north-eastern corner of the Wash the numbers of most species doubled between 14.00 and 18.00 hours, perhaps the result of coasting in the Wash area leading to concentration at this point, although another explanation might be that the birds had passed the front in clear weather to east- ward and had been brought to the coast by the veering wind. Pied Flycatchers were dominant, followed by Garden Warblers and Redstarts, but only two Willow Warblers were seen. Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire. On the opposite, north or north- west coast of the Wash, Garden Warblers were the commonest birds, followed by Redstarts and Pied Flycatchers, and no Willow Warblers or Whitethroats were present on the 2nd. Spurn, Yorkshire. The drift appears to have spent itself by the time the Humber was reached : the poverty of the immigration and the totally different numerical relationship of the species involved suggest a different place of origin, perhaps the south- west coast of Norway. Garden Warblers dropped below Whin- chats and Redstarts (which were about equally common) and, in fact, were fewer than Willow Warblers. There were more Wheatears, and Pied Flycatchers were scarce. The differential fall at the various points from the Humber south certainly does not suggest a “broad-front” immigration from the east. 3rd September 1956. At 18.00 hours on the 2nd the warm front lay across the North Sea between Denmark and the Northumberland coast. By mid- night, it stretched from the Forth to the Skagerrak, and a change had occurred in its configuration, a subsidiary front extending southwards parallel to the Northumberland coast, joining a cold front which stretched from the Humber into Belgium and France. These fronts had moved very little by morning. There was a N.E. wind with rain in the Forth, a more northerly breeze with fog off the Northumberland coast, and a S.E. breeze behind the cold front at Spurn. Ahead of the cold front, on the coast of the Low Countries, there was mist at midnight, but the weather was clear and winds were light farther north in Denmark and southern Norway — conditions suitable for emigration from the Scandinavian peninsula. Monks’ House, Northumberland. Events on the Northumber- land coast on the morning of 3rd September have been described by Ennion (1957). Overnight there were E. to S.E. squalls rising locally to force 5 or 6, but the wind dropped by dawn. There were Whinchats, Pied Flycatchers and Redstarts “in extra- 340 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii ordinary numbers”, many Garden Warblers and smaller numbers of Wheatears and Phylloscopi. Fame Islands, Northumberland. A team on the Inner Fame reported mist with heavy rain early on, the mist persisting- so that the mainland, only a mile and a quarter away, could not be seen until evening. Immigration went on, apparently, until mid- afternoon and the species involved were Redstarts and Pied Fly- catchers, with about half as many Wheatears and Willow Warblers and some Tree Pipits and Garden Warblers. Isle of May, Fife. It is clear from entries made in the Isle of May “log” that a very big fall of birds took place on the 3rd, after a night of strong E.N.E. wind (locally at force 6) and driving rain, but little field-work was possible under the wretched conditions which marred the day According to Eggeling (1956) Fic. 3 — Frontal developments at 06.00 hours on 3RD September 1956 ‘‘it was not possible to obtain a very clear idea of just what birds were involved, though clearly there were many Garden and Willow Warblers, Redstarts, Whinchats and others.” 4th September 1956. The cold front closed up on the warm front during the 3rd and by midnight the occlusion stretched across the North Sea between the Forth and northern Denmark. The weather-maps show a westerly airstream in the Forth area at midnight and 06.00 hours, vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 341 though the breeze became E.N.E. at the Isle of May later in the morning. The rain died out before dawn, when the occluded front spanned the North Sea between the Moray Firth and the Skagerrak, with rain and east wind ahead of it. At 10.00 hours on the 4th “about 70 Pied Flycatchers and 300 Redstarts” were still present on Holy Island and in the Monks’ House area, and many remained on the Inner Fame. Isle of May, Fife. With the wind westerly after midnight it is unlikely that any additional drift-migration reached the isle, and in view of the continuing rain it is extremely improbable that any of the previous day’s arrivals moved out: doubtless the great majority had made their landfall during the atrocious weather of the preceding day. Wheatears were the most common species (possibly with diurnal arrivals after the wind-change to E.N.E.), Fig. 4 — Frontal developments at 06.00 hours on 4TH September 1956 with Pied Flycatchers a good second and Garden Warblers third. Redstarts and Whinchats each numbered about a score, and there were rather fewer Willow Warblers and Tree Pipits — while the total of Whitethroats, as elsewhere, was negligible. The May, positioned just ahead of the warm front on the night of the 2nd/ 3rd probably got its complement from farther north. Fair Isle, Shetland. At about 10.00 hours the front, swinging north-westwards, reached Fair Isle and a heavy downpour ensued. The wind, at first N.E., veered to S.E. as the front went through. 342 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII When the rain slackened at 11.00 hours it was apparent that a veritable “avalanche” of Redstarts, Whinchats and other small birds was taking- place. Redstarts were everywhere, and much more uniformly distributed about the isle than the also abundant Whinchats, which tended to concentrate in the crofting area. There must have been hundreds of the former along the 4-mile reach of the west and north cliffs , with considerable overspill on to the hill and moorland. There were 35 Whinchats in and around one small crop of oats, clinging to the ears and perching along an adjacent wire fence. Willow Warblers were fewer but never- theless exceedingly common, and next in order were Pied Fly- catchers and Garden Warblers. Some little time after the cessation of the rain and the appearance of these birds, Tree Pipits began dropping from the sky by the score, calling continuously, and by mid-afternoon this species was about as numerous as the Whinchat. Small Wheatears, with an average wing-length and weight less than that of the local stock (and considerably less than that of schieleri of north-western origin), were also concerned in the “rush”, appearing mostly during the afternoon. Assuming a dusk departure, these birds must have been on the wing for 15- 17 hours and, since their migration was clearly diverted by the front, the journey must have been a circuitous one. Wind-fl6ches at stations in southern Scandinavia show a maximum force of 3 and the average wind-speed would be about 6 knots, so that a ground-speed of about 25 miles per hour is probably a fair estimate of their progress if moving down-wind. This would add up to 350-400 miles and indicate the Skagerrak crossing as the likeliest source. The only other explanation is that this immense horde of small birds was “precipitated” on meeting the front when travelling in a S.W. “standard direction” from western Norway — in which case one must assume that these thousands of normally nocturnal migrants elected to leave the Norwegian coast in daylight. $th September 1956. The wind had returned to S.E. all along the east coast from Fair Isle to Dungeness on the night of the 4th/ 5th, but there was little to show for this change at the bird observatories, except at the extremities of the line. Only in the north and south did this airstream encompass the North Sea crossing from the opposite coasts, the wind round the shores of the Heligoland Bight being southerly to S.W. At Fair Isle there was, in all probability, renewed drift from the Skagerrak and northern Denmark in this S.E. wind (which was part of the circulation of a low centred outside St. George’s Channel), as some species, notably Willow Warbler and the two flycatchers, showed an increase on the previous day ; the Wheatear was the most important species in the trapping record. At the Isle of May, after good visibility over- night, most of the birds had left. At Dungeness the gain was in vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 343 Willow Warblers and Whinchats, probably drifted across the Channel before a warm front which entered the southern North Sea. 6th September 1956. The warm front advanced northwards during" the nig"ht, followed by a cold front associated with the same depression, and the changes in status at the various observatories were more White- throats at Dungeness, Whinchats at Cley and Spurn, a new influx of Pied Flycatchers at Spurn, Redstarts and Tree Pipits at the Isle of May, and a few extra Bluethroats at Fair Isle. Additional arrivals at Holy Island were some Willow Warblers and 2 Blue- throats, but no Passerine movement was observed in the Wash. As conditions on the Continental side were very poor for migration, owing to the frontal activity, no large-scale influx was to be expected. 7 th September ig*,6. Overnight on the 6th / 7th there was still easterly wind in the region of the cold front between southern Norway and Shetland, and Bluethroats increased at Fair Isle, coming probably from the west coast of Norway ahead of the front. Cyclonic weather prevailed in southern Norway, the Skagerrak and Denmark and in all likelihood emigration was inhibited. There was thick fog at the Isle of May overnight, clearing in the early hours: most of the birds at the lighthouse were Pied Flycatchers, and one caught at midnight was found to have been ringed on the island four days before. There were still Passerine migrants, Redstarts predominating, on Inner Fame. 8th September 1956. With the fronts disappearing beyond the north of Scotland and a filling low in the North Sea leaving the British Isles in a col, calms or light westerly breezes with clear skies in the Irish Sea and the south of England made conditions suitable for redetermined passage. In such ideal weather, however, outward movements would pass unnoticed by most bird observatories. SOUTH COAST MOVEMENTS IN 1 956 There were no spectacular movements on the Channel coast during the first week of September 1956, and indeed drift did not develop on any scale until the fronts of a low situated south-west of Ireland on the night of the 8th/9th swept eastwards, penetrat- ing France and the Low Countries. This resulted in a big influx of ca. 250 Turtle Doves at Portland Bill, Dorset, together with a large number of Whinchats, many Pied Flycatchers, and smaller numbers of Redstarts, Phylloscopi, Sedge Warblers and Whitethroats. The main “rush” at St. Catherine’s Lighthouse, Isle of Wight, was after 05.00 hours (though Turtle Doves were arriving from 02.00 hours) and the dominant Passerines there were Wheatears, Whinchats and 344 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII especially Whitethroats, with less of the other warblers and many Pied and fewer Spotted Flycatchers. In Hampshire, a big- Wheatear increase was noted at Farlington and Stanpit Marshes, with smaller gains in Whinchats and Redstarts. This movement affected the east coast as far north as Holme, in Norfolk. Wheatears and Whinchats came in at Dungeness, but the biggest falls there were of Whitethroats and Garden Warblers, with a new influx of Pied Flycatchers. Pied Flycatchers and Redstarts increased at Cley, while at Holme Wheatears were dominant with Whinchats less so and Redstarts, Garden Warblers and Pied Flycatchers also present. With the low receding southwards to the Iberian Peninsula, and filling slowly, Britain came under the influence of anticyclones lying to east and west, and the night of the 9th/ioth was calm with overcast sky along the Channel coast. A local fall of birds in the south-east, mainly Whinchats and Redstarts at Dungeness and the same species plus Pied Flycatchers at Holme, was probably due to drift from the Low Countries, where there was mist and easterly wind. Movements at Portland and St. Catherine’s (where passage was in full swing at the light at 01.00 hours) seem certain to have been emigration ; all the major immigrants of the preceding day were fewer at Portland, but at St. Catherine’s the “rush” was greater, the bulk consisting of Wheatears, Whitethroats, Pied Flycatchers, Redstarts, Sedge Warblers and Phylloscopi. At no time in the first ten days of September 1956 was any significant drift-movement detected in the Irish Sea. MAIN PASSERINE SPECIES OF SEPTEMBER 1956 Wryneck ( Jynx torquilla). — Although this species is not actually a Passerine, it is convenient to treat it as such in migration studies. In fact, in view of its normal scarcity on autumn passage, it must be regarded as an important participant in the 1956 drift-movements. A number of Wrynecks appeared at the bird observatories and other regularly manned sites on the east coast as follows (a dash, as against a complete blank, indicates that none was seen although observers were present, while in others of these tables question marks have been used where precise information has not been forthcoming): September 1st 2nd 3rd 4 th 5th 6 th 7th 8th 9th 10th Dungeness — 3 — — — — — — 3 — Cley/Blakeney I 2 Holme — 1 2 — — — — — — — Gibraltar Point — — 3 — — — — — — • — Spurn — 1 3 3 I I I I I — Inner Fame — 2 — — 3 Isle of May — — — 5 3 2 3 I — — Fair Isle — — — — I — I — — — In addition, there were 2 at Holy Island, Northumberland, for some days from the 2nd and a number of other scattered reports on other parts of the east coast during this period. These included a total of about 7 further birds in Norfolk and 10 in Suffolk (with 4 at Walberswick on the 2nd) — though, curiously, none in Essex (see Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex Bird Reports for 1956). Although the main influx was on the 2nd-3rd, one of those at the vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 345 Inner Fame on the ioth came in off the sea at 10.15 hours, and newcomers appear to have reached the Isle of May on the yth. Similarly, there seems to have been an influx on the Channel coast on the 9th, for, in addition to the new birds at Dungeness, there were 2 at Portland Bill then. Another reached Portland on the nth and there were single birds there on the 14th, igth-20th and 23rd. Records in the Irish Sea area were more numerous than usual, the first being at Bardsey on the 7th, while on the 8th there was one off the north-west coast of Ireland, at Inishtrahull, Co. Donegal. Great Saltee had one on the 17th and a dead bird at Tuskar Rock light, also off the Co. Wexford coast, on the 18th had probably arrived a day or two before. Wrynecks were recorded at Lundy on the nth and nth, from the 14th to 18th, on the 20th and 2 1st, and from the 23rd to 26th; while Skokholm had single birds on the 21st and 22nd and the 24th and 25th. Wheatf.ar ( Oenanthe oenanthe). — This was one of the more important species in the invasion. There were about 30 at Dungeness on the 2nd, and increases at Cley and Spurn (20, after only one on the 1st). Next day there were 20 on the Inner Fame (after 2 on the 2nd), and a big increase at Monks’ House, where all those handled proved to be of the typical race. It is probable that the majority of the 70 recorded at the Isle of May on the 4th had arrived the previous day. At Fair Isle on the 4th 8 of the 9 Wheatears trapped after mid-day, and most of the 44 caught next day, were Continental immigrants, paler, lighter in weight and shorter-winged than the local stock; these were followed by a renewed influx with other small Passerines on 7th September, when numbers were also high at the Isle of May (65). There were substantial increases at Holme, Dungeness and along the south coast on the 9th, and the fall assumed “avalanche” proportions at St. Catherine’s next day with ca. 400. Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra). — A common and very widely distributed bird in the drifts all along the east coast, with numbers at Fair Isle on the 4th reaching “avalanche” strength. Although the invasion began on the 2nd in the south, the numbers were highest next day. Dungeness had subsequent increases on the 5th and ioth, Cley and Spurn on the 6th and ioth, and Whinchats were common in the Wells-next-the-Sea and Holme areas of the Wash on the latter day. As there were 8 on the Brownsman (Fame Islands) on the ioth this later influx seems likely to have reached the Northumberland coast. There was a good increase at St. Catherine’s and a heavy fall at Portland (over 100) on the 9th, but fewer next day. Records at the Irish Sea observatories were of from one to 4 irregularly (except at Skokholm, where the species was present throughout), with an increase at all stations on the ioth. East coast summary: September ISt 2nd 3rd 4 th 5th 6th 7 th 8th 9th ioth Dungeness 6 20 40 12 40 20 IO i5 20 40 Cley/Blakeney — IO 18 !3 IO 24 I seen 2 more Holme — — 2 I I — — 17 3 1 1 Gibraltar Point 2 4 — — — — — 6 — — Spurn 2 IO 20 20 IO 25 20 p p 30 Inner Fame — 12 >5 4 2 Isle of May — — 3 20 20 20 IO 3 2 3 Fair Isle 5 I I 500 300 200 200 200 50 15 Redstart ( Plioenicurus phoenicurus). — A common and widely-distributed bird, with the first peaks on the 2nd-3rd and reaching “avalanche” strength at Fair Isle on the 4th. Spurn had a second influx that day, the Isle of May another on the 6th and Cley on the 9th- ioth, whilst there seems to have been movement from Dungeness north as far as the May on the ioth (there were 20 then at Wells Point, Norfolk, in addition to birds at Holme). There was a considerable increase, from 15 to 50, at St. Catherine’s on the 9th, with about the same number next day, but very few indeed at Portland. Redstarts were practically absent from the Irish Sea (except for 2 at Bardsey on the 2nd) 346 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII until odd birds appeared during the 8th-ioth. East coast summary: September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5* 6th 7 th 8th 9 th 10 th Dungeness — 50 10 10 6 2 2 4 5 20 Clev/Blakeney 2 50 seen 9 4 I — — 12 15 Holme — I 2 — — — — — 8 7 Gibraltar Point — 5 3 3 3 3 2 4 — 4 Spurn 2 1 1 2 30 ? p ? ? ? p Inner Fame — 40 20 8 3 Isle of May — — 3 20 12 20 10 10 3 12 Fair Isle — — I O O O 500 35° 200 100 30 10 Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros). — One at Cley on the 6th and one at the Isle of May on the i3th-i4th were the only observatory records in the first half of September, but it is worth adding that there was also one at Dunross- ness (Shetland) on the 5th. Nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos). — Noted only at south coast stations: one at Dungeness from the 2nd to the 5th and one there on the 10th, one at Portland on the 9th, and one at St. Catherine’s on the 10th. Bluetiiroat ( Cyanosylvia svecica). — In view of its normal scarcity as an autumn migrant, this species must be regarded as an important element in the drift since it occurred widely along the east coast. Numbers at Fair Isle showed a steady increase from the 4th and there were probably over 20 birds there on the 9th. Apart from those in the summary table below, there was one at Bradwell, Essex, on the 2nd; one or two at Lowestoft, Suffolk, from the 5th to 8th and one at Benacre on the 7th; one at Dunrossness, Shetland, on the 5th; one at Holme on the 9th; one at Gibraltar Point on the 12th; from one to 4 at Cley after the influx of the xoth until the 1 8th ; and another at Lowestoft on the 19th. On the south coast, Portland had one on 2nd September and 3 with the drift of the 9th, while on the latter date there was also one at Farlington Marshes, Hampshire. The Bluethroat is a very scarce vagrant in the Irish Sea, so that records there are of particular interest: there were single birds at Skokholm on the 12th and 14th- 1 5th ; one at Great Saltee on the 1 1 th ; and single birds at Lundy on the 19th and 21st. East coast summary: September I St 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7 th 8th 9 th 10th Dungeness I I — — — — — — — Cley/Blakeney I 4 3 I — I — — I 7 Gibraltar Point — I I I — — — — — — Spurn — — I — — — — — — — Inner Fame — I I I I Holv Island 2 2 I Isle of May — — 5 3 3 2 2 I — — Fair Isle — — — I 5 7 12 16 20 + 2 Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustella naevia). — Migrants during this period included one at Dungeness on the 4th, one at Cley on the 5th, and one at the Isle of May from the 4th to the 6th. There were several at Portland on the gth. Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus). — Single birds at Dungeness on the 2nd and 9th, and 2 at the Isle of May on the 4th (one remaining till the 7th), provide the only evidence that this species was concerned in the drift, but in some places the position of this species and the Sedge Warbler is obscured by the wanderings of local populations. Sf.dcf. Warbler ( Acrocephalus schoenohaenus). — Apart from Dungeness, the east coast observatories recorded very few Sedge Warblers. There were 5 at Dungeness from 2nd to 8th September (7 on the 3rd), but as one of the 3 captured on the 2nd was a locally-ringed bird it is quite possible that the others likewise had no connection with the drift. Elsewhere occurrences were sporadic and concerned single birds only, except at the Isle of May with vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 347 2 on the 5th and 7th and 4 on the 8th. None was present at Fair Isle where this is always an exceedingly rare species in autumn. There was some move- ment of Sedge Warblers at St. Catherine’s and Portland on the south coast on the 9th and 10th, but the only notable movements in the Irish Sea were of 15 at Great Saltee on the 4th and 8 at Lundy on the 8th. Aquatic Warbler ( Acrocephalus paludicola). — One at St. Catherine’s on 10th September. Barred Warbler ( Sylvia nisoria). — Barred Warblers occurred both just before and during the period of the main drift, and were clearly part of it in Northumberland and at Fair Isle. There was one at Cley/Blakeney on 30th August and 2 on the 31st, after which on 1st and 2nd September there were single birds both there and at Holme. The Inner Fame had as many as 3 on the 3rd, and a tired bird trapped near Ripon, Yorkshire, on the next day may have crossed the coast at the same time. One at Fair Isle on the 4th was followed by 3 next day, and there was also one at Dunrossness, Shetland, on the 7th. Meanwhile, for East Anglia, one at Benacre, Suffolk, on the 5th and one at Morston, Norfolk, on the 6th should be mentioned. Single birds were seen at Fenwick and Fenham, Northumberland, on the 8th and one at Holy Island on the nth, while at Holme again there were 2 on the 9th and one on the 10th. The only Barred Warbler recorded on the south coast was one at Portland on 9th September. Blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla). — A scattering of records at bird observatories provided evidence that this species played a small part in the drift: one at Cley on 2nd September; one at Gibraltar Point on the 2nd-3rd and again on the 9th; one on the Inner Fame on the 3rd; 2 females at Fair Isle on the 5th and 7th, and a male on the 8th; one at Dungeness on the 10th. Garden Warbler ( Sylvia borin). — This was one of the chief participants, generally distributed but more important in the south-east and in Scotland than along the middle reach of the east coast. As with other species, there were subsequent increases apart from the main influx on 2nd-3rd September, notably at Fair Isle on the 7th and Dungeness on the 9th. On the 9th also there was a movement at St. Catherine’s (21 after one on the 8th), and 6 occurred at Portland on the 10th. The Irish Sea observatories had scattered occurrences during the period, the most being 3 at Skokholm on the 10th. East coast summary : September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5 th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10 th Dungeness — 75 IO IO 2 I I 2 3° IO Cley/Blakeney — 10 5 5 — — I 2 4 5 Holme — 1 1 2 2 — — — I 6 I Gibraltar Point — 10 3 — — — — 2 — — Spurn — 6 4 2 ? ? ? p ? p Inner Fame — 6 6 4 Isle of May — — IO 40 20 20 IO 8 I 2 Fair Isle — — 3 50 30 IO 20 20 20 5 Whitethroat ( Sylvia communis). — Nowhere was this an important species during the influx on the east coast, and in some places like Dungeness, and perhaps also Spurn, though a number of Whitethroats were recorded, it is difficult to know to what extent local birds were involved. A significant pointer would seem to be that of the 35 trapped at Dungeness on 2nd September no less than 5 had been ringed there before — one in 1954 and 2 each in the summers of 1955 and 1956. However, the summary table below clearly shows that the species did play a part in the drift, even if to a very minor degree. There was strong evidence of movement at Dungeness, Gibraltar Point and the Isle of May on the 8th (when three were also seen on the sea-wall at Holme) after an obvious influx at the Scottish stations on the 7th; and there were increases during the 8th-9th at Portland (about 50) and during the 9th-ioth at St. Catherine’s (over 200), at a time when Whitethroats were also moving at the 348 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Isle of May. Whitethroats were regular on passage at the Irish Sea observatories, as is usual at this period, but the 8th was a day of increase at Lundy and between then and the ioth a heavy movement developed at Skokholm. East coast summary: September I St 2nd 3rd 4 th 5th 6th 7 th 8th 9th ioth Dungeness 5 50 20 15 15 25 20 80 120 90 Cley/Blakeney I I 3 7 seen seen 1 2 I 4 Gibraltar Point — — 8 5 3 2 — 20 — 2 Spurn 4 10 12 6 p p p p ? p Inner Fame — 2 2 3 Isle of May — — I 2 — 3 10 30 10 30 Fair Isle — — — 2 3 3 10 10 5 I Lesser Whitethroat ( Sylvia curruca). — Although clearly concerned, Lesser Whitethroats were scarce. On 2nd September 5 appeared at Dungeness and one at Cley. Then on the 3rd there were 2 at Gibraltar Point and single birds at Spurn and Monks’ House. There were 3 at Spurn and Fair Isle on the 4th, and one at Dunrossness (Shetland) next day. The Isle of May had its only record for the period on the 7th, but then on the 8th there were 3 at Gibraltar Point, single birds at Spurn and Fair Isle and also one at Holy Island. Cley and Dungeness each supplied one record on the 9th and the next day there was one at Holme. There were 2 at St. Catherine’s on the 9th-ioth. Icterine Warbler (Hippolais icterina). — One at Dungeness on 2nd September was the only record during the period, an interesting comparison with 1958. Willow Warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus). — This species was of widespread occurrence, but numbers were small on the 2nd except at Dungeness and Spurn. Willow Warblers were better represented in the fall of the 3rd and large numbers reached Fair Isle next day, the figure increasing still further on the 5th as in the case of the Pied Flycatcher. Subsequently a marked movement occurred at Gibraltar Point on the 8th, this being reflected in the Wash area and as far away as Dungeness and the Isle of May. At Portland there were a few between the 8th and the ioth, and a rush of about 200 took place at St. Catherine’s on the latter date. Movement was almost continuous at the Irish Sea bird observatories, the numbers fluctuating from day to day, but the only considerable fall took place at Great Saltee ( ca . 160) on the 4th. East coast summary : September I St 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7 th 8th gth ioth Dungeness 5 25 25 20 45 25 IO 25 20 ? Cley/Blakeney — 3 3 I 3 — — 2 2 4 Holme — 8 4 — — — — 2 3 I Gibraltar Point I — I I I I I 30 2 Inner Fame I 20 15 6 IO Isle of May I I 8 12 5 6 6 IO 3 p Fair Isle 6 I 20 300 500 400 250 200 75 ? Wood Warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix). — Single birds were recorded at Cley on the 2nd and at Gibraltar Point on the 8th. Spotted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa striata). — Although represented in the move- ments along the east coast, the Spotted Flycatcher was relatively scarce every- where. It appeared at Dungeness (2), Cley (4) and Gibraltar Point (1) on the 2nd, and singly at Spurn and Inner Fame on the 3rd when an increase to 8 was noted at Dungeness. About 10 reached Fair Isle on the 4th and this number increased to 20 on the 5th, whilst the Isle of May had one or 2 from the same day. Later influxes were on the 7th at Dungeness (4) and on the ioth at Cley (5), Spurn (4) and the Isle of May (3). At Portland, 6 on the 9th increased next day to 10, wdiile the number at St. Catherine’s rose from 1 1 vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 349 to 17. There was fairly steady passage through the period in the Irish Sea, with notable increases at Bardsey and Great Saltee on the 4th, and at Lundy on the 8th and 12th. Brown Flycatcher ( Muscicapa latirostris). — One at Holy Island, Northumberland, on 9th September (see anted, vol. li, pp. 125-126). Pied Flycatcher ( Muscicapa hypoleuca ). — Pied Flycatchers played a great part in the invasion along the east coast (and later in the Channel area), being widespread and especially common in the falls of 3rd and 4th September from Northumberland northwards. As with the Willow Warbler, a further substantial increase occurred at Fair Isle on the 5th, but otherwise the only evidence of a “follow-up” seems to have been on the 6th at Spurn and on the 9th at Dungeness and in Norfolk, with 25 at Wells on the 10th. On the south coast, there were 25 at St. Catherine’s on the 9th and over 100 there on the 10th, while Portland had 40 on the former date. This is a comparatively scarce migrant in the Irish Sea and there were only sporadic occurrences in that area during the period. However, E. M. Nicholson reported an unusual number in the Isles of Scilly. There were 1-3 daily at Lundy and occasional ones elsewhere, though there was evidence of a bigger movement when 12 were recorded at Great Saltee on the 10th and 8 increased to 15 at Lundv during the uth-i2th. East coast summary: September I St 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10 th Dungeness 4 5° 20 5 2 I — — 25 10 Cley/ Blakeney I 20 15 2 — — — — 6 3 Holme — 35 1 1 I — — — — 3 14 Gibraltar Point — 5 / 4 3 4 2 2 — 2 Spurn — 2 4 2 — 10 P ? P 12 Inner Fame — 40 15 — 3 Isle of May — — 5° 30 30 25 15 5 2 Fair Isle — — — 100 200 5o 25 IO 5 I Red-rreasted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa parva). — Single birds at Cley on 3rd and 9th September were the only ones at an observatory during the period, but one at Pakefield in Suffolk on the 2nd (the first for that county) and one at Fenham in Northumberland on the 8th must also be mentioned, and on the 1 8th and 26th single ones were recorded at Blakeney. Tawny Pipit (An thus campestris). — Several were recorded in coastal counties from Norfolk to Dorset during September, the following in the period under review : 2 at Camber, Sussex, on 3rd and 5th September and one there on the 6th; one on the Crumbles, Sussex, on the 4th; one at Blakeney Point on the 6th; one at Dungeness and 3 at Portland on the 9th; and one at Hove, Sussex, on the 10th. Tree Pipit ( Anthus trivialis). — A widespread species in the south on the 2nd, more plentiful from Northumberland to the Firth of Forth on the 3rd, and at “avalanche” strength at Fair Isle on the 4th and 5th. There was an increase at the Isle of May on the 6th when the numbers were still high at Fair Isle. On the south coast, there were some at Portland on the 1st (10), the 8th-gth (6), the 10th (12) and 12th (20), while several appeared at St. Catherine’s on the 8th. The species is normally a scarce migrant in the Irish Sea and 1-3 were occasionally recorded at the various observatories during the period; the only significant passage was of 17 at Lundy on the 8th. East coast summary: September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Dungeness Cley/BIakeney Gibraltar Point Spurn Inner Fame Isle of May Fair Isle 10 2 — 6 — 5 00 6 500 12 200 8 100 2 2 2 6 25 2 1 — 2 ? ? 1 — 25 seen 350 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Red-backed Shrike (Lanius cristatus collurio). — A very scarce species, but there is some evidence that a few were involved in the drift. On 3rd September there were two on Inner Fame and one at Scolt, Norfolk (which stayed until the 9th). On the 4th the Isle of May recorded 3 and Cley one. From the 10th to the 13th one stayed at Spurn. In addition, two were present on Holy Island on 31st August and 3rd September, also on the 6th and from the 8th to the 13th. In the south, there was a migrant at St. Catherine’s on the 10th. Woodchat Shrike ( Lanius senator). — A juvenile appeared at Dungeness on the 5th, was trapped on the 7th and was last seen on the 8th. On the 12th there were 2 immatures a mile apart near Shoreham, Sussex. Crossbill ( Loxia curvirostra). — This “irruption” species, which had been on the move through Britain since June, reappeared in the drift of 3rd-4th September. A big flock reached the Isle of May on the 5th, and Fair Isle had a second influx on the 8th. The only Irish Sea record, however, was of 10 at Lundy on the 6th. During the week from 3rd to 7th September several large flocks were seen on Holy Island, Northumberland, and numbers in the Kyloe-Fenwick woods opposite grew to ca. 600 birds. East coast summary: September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Dungeness — — — — — — — — 1 — Cley/Holme — — 1 1 — — — — — — Gibraltar Point — — — — — — — — 1 — Spurn — — — — — — — — — 2 Inner Fame/ Monks’ House — — 2 2 — 6 — — — — Isle of May — — — 2 35 2 — — — — Fair Isle 11 — 12x31102 2 Red-headed Bunting ( Emberiza bruniceps). — In spite of the possibility of escapes from captivity, single males at Lundy from the 4th to the 10th and at Spurn from the 9th to the nth should be mentioned. Ortolan Bunting ( Emberiza hortulana). — Considering its normal scarcity as a passage migrant, this was an important participant in the drift movements — at first best represented in the south-east, but later also in the extreme north. Towards the end of the period, on the 9th, a fresh influx occurred at Cley and on the same day at least 5 were seen at Portland (and there was one at St. Catherine’s on the xoth). This bird is normally rare at the Irish Sea stations and the number of appearances there was quite remarkable : at Lundy there were 2 on the 6th and one next day, one on the nth and 12th and 2 on the 13th and 14th; at Skokholm 2 on the 9th, 4 on the nth and 3 on the 12th; at Bardsey one on the 8th and 15th; and at Great Saltee one on the 4th and 15th, and 2 on the 16th which remained for several days. East coast summary: September 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7 th 8th 9th 10 th Dungeness — • 3 Cley — Gibraltar Point/ 5 7 4 I 5 3 Spurn — Inner Fame __ I Isle of May — — I — I I I — — Fair Isle — — I 5 5 2 4 3 MIGRATION AND THF. WEATHER IN 1958 A depression which had been active over the Scandinavian peninsula and north-eastern Europe filled on 26th August and in its place col conditions developed over the whole area, between an vol. liiJ SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 351 anticyclone centred on Germany and a polar high developing over northern Norway. The build-up of anticyclonic conditions was rapid, the polar high uniting with the other to cover the whole of middle Europe from northern Russia to Sicily and Greece on the 28th. This high expanded eastwards and on the 30th-3ist was centred on Novaya Zemblya and the Arctic Ocean between Cape Cheliuskin and Murmansk, so that between latitudes 50° and 7o°N. there was a light to moderate easterly airflow across Europe from western Asia. 31st August 1958. On the last day of August the high was well entrenched over Scandinavia and the North Sea, with the wind S.E. at forces 2-4 between the Skagerrak and northern Britain. Light easterly airs or calms were reported by most of the Continental weather stations, and there was considerable cloud in the south of Scandinavia and on the Danish and Dutch coasts. With a front extending from N.N.E. to S.S.W. across St. George’s Channel the wind in the approaches to the Irish Sea was light S.S.E. and there was some rain. The first migrants at Cley were Willow Warblers, with a few Tree Pipits and a single Barred Warbler, Blackcap, Whitethroat, Spotted Flycatcher and Red-backed Shrike. As the wind was light easterly throughout the night this was probably a drift influx from Holland and southern Denmark. In the Isles of Scillv the over- night wind was southerly at force 2, veering west by dawn, and there was rain from the front mentioned above. From its composition, the influx of migrants at St. Agnes seems likely to have come by drift from north-west France rather than as a southwards movement from the Irish Sea, where visibility was poor owing to the influence of the front. The most important migrants were Willow and Sedge Warblers, Wheatears, White- throats, Pied and Spotted Flycatchers, some Turtle Doves, 2 Reed Warblers, a Wood Warbler and a male Black-headed Bunting. 1st September igjS. During the night visibility was excellent over much of Europe, including the whole of Germany; but there was mist with force 3 E.S.E. wind on the south-west coast of Norway and heavy over- cast on the Dutch and Belgian coasts — and although the sky conditions improved there towards dawn, they deteriorated around the Skagerrak. These conditions of atmospheric stability by night in the maritime regions marked the beginning of the drift move- ments along the east coast generally. Calm and fairly clear weather existed over England, and it is probable that emigration from the British Isles was also going on. At Fair Isle the first arrivals, few in number, were mainly Willow Warblers (20), Garden Warblers (10) and a few each of Pied and Spotted Flycatchers. Red-backed Shrikes (2), Tree 352 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Pipits (2), a Lesser Whitethroat and a Barred Warbler were other migrants, and with overcast and rain in western Norway it seems likely that these birds came from no farther north than the Skagerrak. As evidence of movement within the country, “Northern” Wheatears were on passage at Monks’ House; but a big “rush” of Whinchats and Pied Flycatchers began at 11.00 hours, and with this drift influx were Bluethroats (2), Blackcaps (2), a Wryneck, a Wood Warbler, a Red-backed Shrike and a Red-breasted Flycatcher. There was Wheatear passage, again probably internal, at Cley, but Garden Warblers (10) and a few Whinchats were most likely derived by drift from the Low Countries. A Whitethroat peak at Bradwell, Essex, was probably due to local movement. A Wheatear increase was noted at Dungeness and a Hoopoe appeared there, whilst an Icterine Warbler was recorded at Portland. Spotted Flycatchers increased to 20 and Pied Flycatchers to 6 at St. Agnes ; with calms in St. George’s Channel and the West Country this was probably emigration, especially as it was followed diurnally by Hirundine and flava wagtail passage. There was a Woodchat Shrike at Lundy. Warblers — Phylloscopi , Sedge and Whitethroat — were dominant at Great Saltee, with Grasshopper Warblers and Spotted Flycatchers less so, a picture suggestive of emigration. However, a Marsh Warbler (the first Irish record) and 3 Red-throated Pipits were also recorded. Skokholm had a Spotted Flycatcher peak, and Whitethroat and Spotted Fly- catcher were the most numerous birds at Bardsey. 2nd September igp8. Visibility was excellent throughout the night over north- western Europe, the only areas with mist being the southern tip of Norway and the Channel coast of Belgium and north-eastern France. Elsewhere the air showed instability on the Continental side, but was stable along the east coast of Britain where it was in contact with the moister air on the periphery of an Atlantic low. Nearer the heart of this depression, in the Irish Sea basin, there were force 2-5 easterly or south-easterly winds and consider- able cloud associated with a warm front which moved northwards through St. George’s Channel. Conditions were therefore un- suitable for emigration from that region, and the birds that arrived overnight probably came ahead of the front on the southerly air- stream from north-western France. There was much migration at Fair Isle, probably out of the high pressure area in western Germany as well as from the Skagerrak region. Common Gulls (500) and various waders were mainly concerned, but among Passerines there were big increases in Willow Warblers (40), Whinchats (25) and Pied Flycatchers (ro). Others affected were Tree Pipits (6), Redstarts and Garden Warblers, and making a first appearance were Wryneck, Blue- throat, Whitethroat and Red-breasted Flycatcher. Unfortunately vol. li i ] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 353 the Isle of May was not manned, but the lighthouse keepers reported a heavy fall of Redstarts, warblers, flycatchers and 2 or 3 Wrynecks between the 2nd and 5th. At Monks’ House Redstarts and Whitethroats were common, and Wrynecks (2) and Bluethroats (3) appeared. Pied and Spotted Flycatchers and Willow Warblers were present and Nightingale and Red-backed Shrike were trapped. At Gibraltar Point there were small numbers of Wheatcars, Redstarts, Pied and Spotted Flycatchers, Willow Warblers, Tree Pipits and Whitethroats, with a single Wryneck. A “rush” of Willow Warblers (100) took place at Cley, together with Pied Flycatchers (50), Tree Pipits (25) and Redstarts (10), in addition to good increases in Wheatears, YVhin- chats and Garden Warblers. A Wryneck, a Lesser Whitethroat and 3 each of Grasshopper Warbler, Spotted Flycatcher and Ortolan Bunting appeared. There was a Water Pipit at Portland Bill. At St. Agnes Passerines included a few Willow Warblers, Pied Flycatchers, Whinchats, 2 each of Garden and Wood Warblers, and a Hoopoe. It would seem likely that this was a drift-movement ahead of the warm front. At Great Saltee there was a general decrease on the previous day’s numbers. 3rd September 1958. By night the cold front of this low, which had occluded hardly at all, overhauled the warm front, so that generally southerly winds remained in the Channel region, and a heavy overcast combined with southerly winds afFected the Irish Sea — so that again such movements as occurred in the area seem more likely to have been due to drift from north-western France than to emigration. By contrast, the night sky over the North Sea and its adjacent coasts was remarkably clear, the light S.E. airstream continuing. West Norway had clear sky and a light to moderate N.E. wind south of latitude 63°N., but mist beyond. Fair Isle reported big increases in Whinchats (40), Tree Pipits (12) and Tree Sparrows (7), while Pied Flycatchers (12) and both species of whitethroat increased slightly. Additional Wrynecks and Bluethroats appeared, and, for the first time, there were Fieldfares, Blackcaps, Ortolan Buntings and Great Spotted Wood- peckers (2). A decrease in waders and some Passerines (e.g. Willow and Garden Warblers) suggested some outward movement. At Monks’ House this was the peak day for most species, though Redstart and Whitethroat were perhaps fewer than on the 2nd. The dominant birds were Garden Warblers, Willow Warblers, Redstarts, Pied and Spotted Flycatchers and White- throats and there were a single Icterine Warbler, Red-breasted Flycatcher and Ortolan Bunting. Two Reed Warblers, a Blue- throat and a Red-backed Shrike were also trapped. At Hartley, Northumberland, there were many Pied and Spotted Flycatchers, Redstarts and Whinchats, and a Red-breasted Flycatcher. 354 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LII Spurn had large numbers of Wheatears, Redstarts, Willow Warblers and Pied Flycatchers, and a heavier passage of Garden Warblers than usual. A Barred Warbler and Red-breasted Fly- catcher were trapped, and Wryneck, Bluethroat, Icterine Warblers and Red-backed Shrike were seen or trapped on the following days. Gibraltar Point had Redstarts, Willow Warblers and Pied Flycatchers in large numbers, and fewer Garden Warblers, Spotted Flycatchers and whitethroats (both species). Two Wry- necks and a Greenish Warbler were trapped. There was an Icterine Warbler at Holme on the opposite corner of the Wash, and at Cley Willow Warblers (200), Redstarts (100) and Garden Warblers (70) were dominant, Spotted Flycatchers (25) and White- throats (10) less so. The numbers of Whinchats, Pied Flycatchers and Tree Pipits remained steady, but there were increases in Wheatears, Wrynecks (3), Lesser Whitethroats (3) and Ortolan Buntings (6). The first Icterines (3) and Reed Warblers (2), as well as Sedge and Wood Warblers and Blackcap appeared. At Walberswick Pied Flycatchers and Whinchats were present in large numbers, with many Tree Pipits, but there were no Redstarts. Apparently drifted ahead of the fronts from across the Channel to Portland Bill were Dotterels (2), Hoopoes (2), immature Red- backed Shrike, Marsh and Melodious Warblers, and Pied Fly- catchers (7). At St. Agnes there were increases in Willow Warblers (60), Pied Flycatchers (23), Whinchats (20), Wheatears and Spotted Flycatchers, and another Hoopoe appeared. At Great Saltee an increase in Turtle Doves, the reappearance of Whinchats (4) and Woodchat Shrike, and arrival of an Aquatic Warbler and Ortolan Bunting, were the main features — strongly suggestive of drift from north-western France, as at St. Agnes. 4th September 1Q58. The now occluded front of the Atlantic low spanned the country from Kent to Northern Ireland at dawn, leaving calm air with moderate cloud behind it, and S.E. wind at forces 1-2 in the North Sea. Once again, the night sky was remarkably clear over an extensive region of north-western Europe, including the Scandinavian peninsula. The only mist and drizzle was in the extreme west of Norway between latitudes 590 and 66°N. almost at the centre of the high : inland, the weather was calm and clear, with not the slightest danger of westwards drift, and, as the influx at Fair Isle had a similar composition to that at the east- coast bird observatories, we may assume that it came from the south-east. A ridge of the high protruded into south-west England, so that the wind was light S.E. (with a clear sky) in Finist£re and more southerly (with overcast sky) in the Isles of Scilly. At Fair Isle there were more Redstarts and Spotted Flycatchers, Bluethroats (5) and Lesser Whitethroats (5), but the dominant vol. l 1 1 ] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 355 Passerines were Willow (60) and Garden Warblers (20). Wry- necks increased to 4, Fieldfares to 2. Wood Sandpipers, Song Thrush and Icterine Warbler also appeared. Fewer Redstarts, Willow Warblers, Garden Warblers and Pied Flycatchers were trapped at Monks’ House, but captures included 2 Red-backed Shrikes, a Bluethroat and another Red-breasted Fly- catcher. Observations indicated a Bluethroat arrival all along the east coast, with 2 at Aberlady Bay, East Lothian, and 3 at Tees- mouth, Co. Durham, whilst at Spurn the first Bluethroat, Icterine Warbler and Wood Warbler were recorded. Redstarts were dominant at Gibraltar Point, and other migrants increased. Icterine Warblers (2) and an adult male Bluethroat were present at Holme. At Cley, Redstarts increased (150) and Wheatears numbered about the same, a considerable movement. There was a decline in the number of Whinchats, but Garden Warbler, White- throat, Willow Warbler, Pied Flycatcher and Tree Pipit were steady. Spotted Flycatchers increased to 50 and Wrynecks to 8. The first Bluethroats (2), Black Redstarts (2) and Red-backed Shrikes (2) appeared. An increase took place at Dungeness in Tree Pipits (20), and there was also a Wryneck. St. Agnes had an increase in Wheat- ears and both flycatchers, with several Turtle Doves, Tree Pipits, Redstarts, Swifts and a Corncrake; but at Great Saltee a general fall in the numbers of Passerines was noted. $th September 1958. With the disappearance of the frontal zone in the eastern part of the English Channel the region of excellent visibility extended farther to the west in France, and the only cloud was associated with a stationery occlusion which embraced Finist^re, Cornwall and southern Ireland. The wind continued S.E. at forces 1-2 in the North Sea, but was more easterly on the Continent. There was again poor visibility, with light westerly airs, on the coast of western Norway. Fair Isle arrivals included Turtle Doves (3), additional Whin- chats (40), Pied Flycatchers (7), Red-breasted Flycatchers (5), Ortolan Buntings (3) and Tree Sparrows (1 1), with one Reed Warbler. Most of those indicate a drift from the south-east. Both Garden and Willow Warblers decreased. There were more Redstarts and Willow Warblers at Monks’ House, with Bluethroats (2) and Lesser Whitethroats (2), whilst at Spurn Bluethroats increased (3) and a second Icterine Warbler was trapped. At Gibraltar Point, Pied Flycatchers increased and they and Redstarts were the dominant birds ; there were also 2 Wrynecks and a Bluethroat. There was a decrease in all the main migrants at Cley, but more Bluethroats (6) and a Barred Warbler were seen. Wheatears and both flycatchers reached peak numbers at St. Agnes. At Great Saltee there were increases in Phylloscopi and Spotted Flycatchers (20), with decreases in 356 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Sedge Warbler and Whitethroat ; Melodious Warblers (2) and a Tree Pipit appeared. Bardsey had a few Spotted Flycatchers (6), Garden Warblers (3) and Sedge Warblers (4), but Phylloscopi were dominant; there was a Melodious Warbler here, too. 6th September 1958. With the Atlantic low filling to the west of Ireland the anti- cyclonic weather became even more widespread, embracing the whole of Britain. Clear night skies were maintained on the Continent and a generally S.E. breeze in the North Sea. There was some fog and drizzle in northern Scotland and south-eastern England at night, and along the Scottish and Northumberland coasts in the early morning. A light S.E. breeze blew in St. George’s Channel. Fair Isle reported additional Wrynecks and Bluethroats, an Aquatic Warbler and a Great Spotted Woodpecker, but other- wise a general decrease in Passerine species, so that the new birds may have been on redetermined passage. This was the first day that the Isle of May was manned. The dominant birds there were Redstarts (50), Willow Warblers (50), Garden Warblers (20) and Pied Flycatchers (20) ; and other species present were Blue- throat, Sedge Warbler, Blackcap, Lesser Whitethroat, Red- backed Shrike, and Ortolan and Lapland Buntings. Redstarts, Willow Warblers and Pied Flycatchers were fewer at Monks’ House, but 2 Red-breasted Flycatchers appeared and a Reed Warbler was trapped. There were more Bluethroats (4) at Spurn — and one or two elsewhere in Yorkshire — and another Icterine Warbler was trapped. A general decrease was noted at Gibraltar Point, but new arrivals included 2 Red-backed Shrikes. The main migrants remained steady at Cley — except for Pied Fly- catchers, Tree Pipits and especially Wheatears, all with substantial decreases. There was an additional Wryneck, and an Icterine was trapped at Titchwell near-by. Portland Bill had a peak of Whinchats (21) and a Wryneck, and Great Saltee an increase in Spotted Flycatchers (20) and Phylloscopi, with the first appearance of Pied Flycatchers (5), a few more Turtle Doves, Whinchats, Whitethroats, Sedge and Grasshopper Warblers, and also Woodchat Shrikes (3) and Red- throated Pipits (3). A Hoopoe and the first Chiffchaff were noted at Skokholm and at Bardsey there was a peak of Pied Flycatchers (20) and a second Melodious Warbler. yth September 1958. The filling low moved eastwards to cover Ireland and the Irish Sea, so that the North Sea airstream veered S. to S.W. at force 2, though continuing S.E. and stronger in the Skagerrak, with overcast sky. The night skies continued clear on the Continent. Garden Warblers were reduced to one at Fair Isle and neither Redstart nor Whitethroat remained, while the less important Plate 57 1 Plate 58 Plate 6o C. J. Penny cuick Fn. mar ( Fulmarus glacialis) flight: Spitsbergen, July /August 1957 (a) The wings are reduced in area and swept back from ihe carpal joint as the bird glides at increased speed in a steep descent, the angle of which is controlled by use of the feet (not tail) as airbrakes (see page 328). (b) In a gentle turn at low speed, the tail is spread and the feel are drooped (plate 59), while fine control is achieved with the application of slight outside aileron by deflecting the primaries of one wing (here the left) more than the other (see page 326). Plate 6i C. ]. Penny cuick Fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis) flight: Spitsbergen, July/August 1957 (a) Yawing moments are produced by altering differentially the lengths of the wings, there being no counterpart to the rudder of an aircraft (see page 326); here the right wing is shortened in relation to the other by the flexing of the elbow joint, (b) Feathers are lifted up at the trailing edge of the wing as the bird stalls, probably intentionally, at the peak of its climb to the cliff- face before turning away again without landing (see page 327). Plate 6 rt cj -3 ;• o <1 .E ~ .S2 o ; ?n fc Lr o ° £ ,g c c C/3 £ S -CJ > — w T! D C fl D C3 -3 ” G; > c c rt 0 C3 uC jr > U Jc* • • “ *55 S . w c/; ra Z- — 5 '> 5 &«- - - o St •o C. ' Oi v s. u -C H 3 •“ tL 3 .£> P “■ T3 « C P~3 3 3- C/3 U C3 Plate 63 Plate 64 IF. S. Kevin Nest ok Rook (Cor, ms frugilegus) on ground: Kent, April/May i breasted Flycatcher Fair Isle 4 4 3 2 13 1 12 Isle of Mav 4 3 4 I I I 6 Monks’ House 3 3 — 3 Gibraltar Point 2 I 3 — 3 Totals 13 8 7 2 30 2 24 • British Museum (Natural History) collection contains 4 Icterine Warblers, 10 Barred rblers and 5 Red-breasted Flycatchers taken in the British Isles: all are first winter mples. The Norfolk Bird Report records a minimum of 36 autumn Barred Warblers in ■six years 1953-58 on the N. Norfolk coast: all of them were immature. I further suggest that this eruptive dispersal of the young birds is an ephemeral phase, to be reckoned perhaps in days rather than in weeks, and of strong adaptive value, necessary to the well- being of the species as a whole. Clearly it would be dysgenic if the young birds’ ability to orient in the direction of the true winter home were already developed in this period, since in such case all the young would disperse in onedirection only — namely, towards the winter range. It is obvious that if post-juvenile dispersal is to have any adaptive significance some factor must operate against such a contingency, so that the young can spread outwards from the home range in all directions, more or less at random. It is not unlikely that this inhibiting factor is a delayed development of the navigational instinct. Conversely, it would be equally dysgenic if the faculty for directional orientation were too long delayed in its implementation, since in that event the dispersal would be without any potential value for the race, these pioneers of range-expansion perishing long before their autumn exploration could bear fruit. We must therefore assume, I think, that the faculty for a one-directional orientation is latent in all young birds, but does not mature until 374 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII a short period of random dispersal has been fulfilled. A dichotomy in the orientation mechanism of adults and young, of the type found by Perdeck, seems clearly to be of great benefit to migratory species : if the young inherited a true-goal orientation, they would eventually reach the true winter home, with less likelihood of consolidating the territorial gains of the autumn pioneering on the spring return ; whereas a one-directional orientation seems well designed to enable them to open up a new winter as well as summer range, with new migration routes between, thus dispersing the species more widely and evenly over all suitable terrain. What looks well in theory may not always work out well in practice, and we would do well to examine more closely the benefit gained from post-juvenile dispersal among the summer visitors to the northern Palaearctic, when a long winter season in a far country must necessarily intervene before the autumn pioneering can be put to good account. If we suppose that, following the brief exploratory phase, a faculty for directional orientation matures, then the survivors (no matter how far they may have been drifted from their home) will pursue a migration parallel to the normal one for the species, and, like Perdeck’s Starlings, open up a new wintering area. If they winter successfully, they will return approximately (allowing for the vagaries of drift) along this same track in the spring to colonize new summer areas beyond the periphery of the established breeding range. Thus, always provided that the range of tolerance of the species is compatible with the ecological conditions in the “new” winter and summer areas, and that the annual wastage of the pioneers is therefore small, some range-expansion should result. It is conceivable, however, that a number of species are held to their present summer boundaries, not by inability to survive the hazards of migrational drift and still less by ecological conditions in potential new breeding areas, but by the heavy annual wastage of young pioneers in new winter-quarters totally unsuited to the species’ requirements. It may be that this winter mortality of displaced birds, in migratory species, is the most powerful of those “density dependent mortality factors” (see Lack, 1954), which combine to maintain animal populations at a stable level. It might be thought that if this hypothesis is close to reality in portraying the pattern of range-expansion in migratory Passerines, we should expect to have seen an apparent westwards “push” in the summer area of the Red-breasted Flycatcher in 1959. This may have happened, but on the other hand there are good reasons why it may not have. The normal winter range of the Red-breasted Flycatcher is peninsular India — and for a long way westwards of India, between the same latitudes, there is a vast expanse of mainly desert country in Arabia and Africa which is totally unsuited to the survival of this (and many other) species. So the winter wastage of these autumn pioneers may be very severe. It is indeed possible that this vast desert region acts as f vol. lii] SEPTEMBER DRIFT-MOVEMENTS 375 a check to further westwards colonization by several east European species, and the fact that the limit of breeding distribu- tion in a number of cases runs south-eastwards from Denmark or northern Germany to Italy or Greece may reflect this situation. It is perhaps also significant that in Europe practically all the notable range-expansion in recent years has been from east to west, or south-east to north-west — i.e. in the general direction of drift-aided dispersal occasioned by the airflow of Continental highs. It would be a mistake to argue, if the pattern outlined above bears some relation to the facts, that in view of the conditions prevailing to the westward of the Indian sub-continent, the phenomenon is without adaptive significance; for, wasteful though such drift-aided dispersal may seem at the present day, this may not always have been the case, and may not be so in the distant future. Evolution is a continuing process, and over a few thousand years regional physiography may undergo vital changes, small or considerable, due to new methods of land utilization, different climatic trends and other factors, bringing new areas for winter and summer habitation within the species’ range of tolerance. The important thing is that the species, by virtue of its high productivity and the design of the orientation mechanism in the young, is always in a strong position to turn such changes to its own advantage as and when conditions change for the better. SUMMARY 1. East-coast drift-movements in early September 1956 and 1958 are described and compared. In 1956 there were falls of nocturnal migrants on three successive days at points from Dungeness (Kent) northwards to Fair Isle (Shetland), coinciding with the northward movement of frontal disturbances through the North Sea basin. In 1958 the influx was a “broad-front” movement along the full length of the coast in clear anticyclonic weather. 2. In 1958 (but not 1956) an unusual number of east European vagrants, whose “standard direction” of autumn migration is to the south-east, appeared first along the east coast, and at a later stage on the Channel coast and in the Irish Sea. Red-breasted Flycatchers and Icterine Warblers were prominent. Evidence is given to show that these arrivals resulted from down-wind directed drift in the anticyclonic airstream. 3. Also in 1958 an unusual number of southern vagrants, chiefly Melodious Warblers and Woodchat Shrikes, occurred on the Channel coast and in the Irish Sea. These records are discussed in relation to the current meteorological conditions, and their value in interpreting the nature of migratory movements in the Irish Sea is shown. 4. Finally, the unusual strength of this invasion of eastern and southern rarities in early September 1958 is considered in the 376 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I light of current theories of migrational drift. It is shown that such vagrants are predominantly young of the year. The suggestion is offered that the orientation mechanism is similar to that shown by Perdeck (1958) for the Starling, but that it does not mature until after a brief phase of random post-juvenile dispersal. In a season so markedly anticyclonic as 1958, the light easterly winds produced a drift-aided dispersal far to the west of the normal range. REFERENCES Browne, P. W. P., and Ruttledge, R. F. (1957): “The status of the Pied ^ Flycatcher and the Tree Pipit in Ireland’’. Brit. Birds, l: 424-432. Eggeling, W. J. (1957): “Isle of May — autumn 1956”. Edinburgh Bird Bull., 7: 19-22. f 1 957) : “Isle of May Report for 1956”. Scot. Nat., 69: 129-144. Ennion, E. A. R. (1957): “Drift migration on the east coast in early September”. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland (N.S.), 12: 69-76. Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford. ( 1 959) : “Migration across the sea”. Ibis, 101 : 374-399. and Williamson, K. (1959): “Bird migration "terms”. Ibis, ior: 255-256. Meinertzhagen, R. (1941): “August in Shetland”. Ibis, 83 (1941): 105-117. Perdeck, A. C. (1958): “Two types of orientation in migrating Starlings, Sturnus vulgaris L., and Chaffinches, Fringilla coelebs L., as revealed by displacement experiments”. Ardea, 46: 1-37. Peterson, R. T., Mountfort, G., and Hollom, P. A. D. (1954): A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe. London. Sauer, F. (1957): “Die Sternenorientierung nachtlich ziehender Grasmiicken ( Sylvia atricapilla, borin und curruca). Z. Tierpsychol., 14 : 29-70. Williamson, K. (1950): Fair Isle Bird Observatory First Annual Report 194Q. Edinburgh. (1951): Fair Isle Bird Observatory Second Annual Report 1950. Edinburgh. (1952): “Migrational drift in Britain in autumn 1951”. Scot. Nat., 64: 1-18. (1955): “Migrational drift”. Proc. XI Int. Orn. Congr., 179-186. (1958): “Bergmann’s rule and obligatory overseas migration”. Brit. Birds, Li : 209-232. Yapp, W. B. (1956): “Two physiological considerations in bird-migration”. Wilson Bull., 68: 312-319. Appendix — Scientific names of species mentioned in the text Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus) Corncrake ( Crex crex) Dotterel (Charadrius morinellus) Wood Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola) Common Gull ( Larus canus) Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia turtur) Swift (Apus apus) Bee-eater (Merops apiaster ) Hoopoe (Upupa epops) Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) Wryneck (Jynx torquilla ) Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) House Martin ( Delichon urbica) Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) Fieldfare (' Turdus pilaris) Song Thrush (T. philomelos) Ring Ouzel (T. torquatus) Blackbird (T. merula) Wheatear ( Oenanthe oenanthe) Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra) Redstart (Phocnicurus phoenicurus) Black Redstart ( Ph . ochruros) Nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos) Bluethroat (Cyanosylvia svecica) Robin ( Frithacus rubecula) Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustella naevia) Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus) Marsh Warbler {A. palustris) Sedge Warbler (A. schocnobaenus) 377 SEPTEMBER DRIFT- MOVEMENTS VOL. LIl] Aquatic Warbler (A. paludicola) Melodious Warbler (Hippolais polyglotta) Icterine Warbler ( H . icterina) Blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla) Barred Warbler (S. nisoria) Garden Warbler (5. borin) Whitethroat (S. communis) Lesser Whitethroat (S. curruca ) Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus) Greenish Warbler ( Ph . trocliiloides) Chiffchaff (Ph. collybita) Wood Warbler (Ph. sibilatrix) Arctic Warbler (Ph. borealis) Yellow-browed Warbler (Ph. inornatus) Goldcrest ( Regains regains) Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata) Brown Flycatcher ( M . latirostris) Pied Flycatcher (M. hypoleuca) Red-breasted Flycatcher (M. parva) Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) Tawny Pipit (A. campestris) Tree Pipit (A. trivialis) Red-throated Pipit (A. cervinus) White Wagtail ( Motacilla a. alba) Pied Wagtail (M. a. yarrellii) Grey Wagtail (A/, cinerea) Yellow Wagtail (A/, flava) Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator) Red-backed Shrike (L. cristatus collurio) Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) Scarlet Grosbeak (Carpodacus erythrinus) Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) Black-headed Bunting (Emberiza melanocephala) Red-headed Bunting (E. bruniceps) Ortolan Bunting (E. hortulana) Lapland Bunting (Calcarius lapponicus) Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) FULMARS IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC IN THE SUMMERS OF 1956 AND 1958 By William H. and Mary Drury In 1956 we made two crossings of the North Atlantic on the small Royal Netherlands ship “Groote Beer”, from Montreal to Southampton in June, and back in September. We kept records of all the birds we saw, but the following notes, compiled from half-hourly watches, are confined to the distribution and colour- phases of the Fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis). Table I on pages 378- 379 covers the eastward trip, while Table II on pages 380-381 deals with the westward voyage. In late June and early July 1958 R. Stackpole crossed from Liverpool to St. John’s, Newfoundland, and at our request kept comparable notes which have been included at the end of this paper as Table III. Table I — Notes on Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis) in North Atlantic, Montreal to Southampton, June 1956 L = Light phase LL = Light with light tail D = Dark phase DD — All dark -O g 3 o a, 3 Q a o o 5 CN o o g 03 -a o & o „ ZD i, Q £ c i§ XJ t n C >'$ O CO O o cO rf- •4) a, C/3 G o O .O C tj) V c W c o ^ 3 £ G >T 3 3: 0 > A 2 w. ’-t: o 3 T3 •GJ-G 2 § £ « =3 u 3 G O u2 £ = o /. C3 71 ■5 v c 3 ^ s ■ — ! ) +-» 'ta ! o . i-o’g 0) -7* ] G *j J 03 OJ ?Z DC )‘u « : ^ «£ > g-s l * s * C/3 >T ; s> .A 03 u G J3 OT3H - o> c o O 3S uoa £ "§>2 S o 3 - v- .G iZ •£ £ 1 03 I •*= H * ! 03 CG j « 0^ _ a) rG c/3 G 9 2 Z 3 o 5 "3 £ G x: u a £ G 0) > xt a, o> 3 2 o £ v. 01 xt 0 01 St o o ft« St o o 01 Q JJJ J J J 0) J* 3 £ o o 10 f CO Tf o . CO i 01 %> o >8| .* £°2 S>^~ 6 o 3.~ To E o CC low O .-, C3 *3 3 *3 .. o i a o 15 c j ■-r *!> to pm J >J JO o O , c S rS *3 3 D3 o in £ o co 55 7) 3 01 C/i 3 X* o o £ 7* JZ *-> 00 (] c 3 01 c 3 ►J J < < ttf C t>X3 3 tiX) H o . CC O O O 3 c ^ o o _ ^ PM to o co o o o o OX) CL 01 c *° § 01 C x: 3 C • — ^ oi o v- c 01 3 * 01 to T3 01 ^O ■° a: •g S §-° .*•3 tuo.c ■e* u . - g 5 C 3 01 CC '*- *5 , ' in s- 2 = O 01 3 S.o E « 01 ^ HZ o o oo o o c X* 3 u i > T3 C 3 O 3 O CO £ Cn 01 c 3 01 0£ -a c c <£ >, C 3 2 01 3 «— *r xc £ ?o«« o u £ 2 X'E S S.ts s « - o “ C X3 01 71 O £-5 2 S5.fr ^ o w x: u **“■ «fl w 3 cs S « ° 3 Xt C ~ — O ~ -o > c “ > 01 Sow. o tuo.c ’ 01 > z V Cl, O u 3 01 o ~ 3 01 > 01 sz •*_> o 3 ed 01 01 -3 '— o -X 3 3 that 3 3 C u u 01 0 3 01 CQ 3 3 xc 71 71 3 *71 01 "3 o 3 *3 01 01 71 o E ut 3 o 3 1 2 C 01 3 £ .o *5 “ S ^ .0 M O & tuo-S • c o 2 c C F 8 h xo c O c 0) 01 01 4, U j- > ^ 01 srx H c O C H cS S u 3. X 01 -z — > -3 ^71 “ >5 of oi z» tuc SZ 01 C « u a.: 0X) c x: o a o X2 3 O SX) *3 C3 - *^L SZ O 3 ’3 3 i"3 01 3 U- g So s »- o OX) 3 >,.E C0 1 ^ X- LC t*- 71 w H Tt 3 U 3 01 > cs u ■S-.fr 71 T3 2 " to ‘0X3 C3 3 oi zr CJ 01 '— *S "5 c-g C « •f. I I T: T i t>- ! k j I: '• Si l * Kv i it; fc r- * Table II — Notes on Fulmars ( Fulmarus glacialis) in North Atlantic, Southampton to Montreal, September 1956 L = Light phase LL = Light with light tail D = Dark phase DD .= All dark a -e ft. ro JJ i i co CO . J J iJ - — — n p o o a. p o o Q s; o CO o z o N lO 7) 05 CD co C3 X U O & C3 e 3 o c P TT O 0) 0) t"1 a) x j§:s o > o C3 JP P 73 P •O Lx o 3 0 cs z E ^ 00 fS P O O k. -O y C ,0 O £ a> X b P c CD no > u 03 p H-) -*-> CO 73 UP CO 0 z~ 0 CO 0 «o 1— 0 > 0 0) CO p two •O c 0 4-* H 05 CL 0 P c O 05 no CD 0 JP H to CL CD m iuce I xvoon Position I Weather j Hour \ A umber I Phase •J J J »o £ *3 C 00 't- Jz; c CO 3 0) cr cj o ij j M . « O. N ro ;Q ' ^ */5’^ CO N G *0 .a - j j g CO :Q CO 3 C ox: c ox: OX) c C w ^ _-zz o c 3.C ~X a; " a. ■ o o lo - *0 O »o »o 0 O O c 0 O VO 00 6 n 4- O 0 3 1 ^ c -o cj x e o O OX) c c — U3 C/3 § *fU £ C C C/. r- £ £ 3 H ~ C o- x 2 n -O - r x o.2 C.X CJ X o »x C « n 2 o o C u x 3 a £ 3 O "3 C CJ *3 C 3 CJ X £ E 3 O *P C U « — ^ -T" o c co.E a. x u 3 E c cj *3 52-g X 3 C T3 ° c U*5 £ 0 3 C/3 w O c •£ o 3 o o C X — OX) OX) c C/3 X CJ .3 C £ c TJ 4/ c X £ « 3 O E CJ X 3 U ^ 3 « u ■£ c ~ c c °- C c/> -3 > 0) £ a >> (S. • — : cj ; x ■vi C£ i O ^ N CO N e.So O T3 E.s C r- O X C : v — ; . c £ c G u ■2 3 x > — £ r* CJ C &§•* - C P n C3i £ c'S.S-a) E c "5 ^ ^ b ** cl • b “ c 3 *c 55 « E c i 3 C/5 •3 O v: i; tii o c?£ *C c* 3 r>r. Q X 0) c v: CJ -3 G-fc E *° 8 ~ 0 3 * z 3 CJ - X > '- 3 Cj qj X CL 3 o° W3 03 3 S 3 CL.E .3 u w > <15 CJ > IS. a. x 3 c c _ u H 3 CA C/3 • C/3 C U 3 C/3 OX ' ox 2 c c *3 CJ S|«g|| OX "33 v; C c Jz u 3 u 3 CJ X 3 . ; jl, £ u a> ^ x _ H.E > > 3 U. ox tA c cr C C c 03 CJ TD & *xz 3 C 3 3 0 3 *3 *» >" s. c g c ■r X we c c * •j: 3S2 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII The 1956 trip from Montreal to Southampton passed south of Newfoundland, but the return voyage was through the Straits of Belle Isle. We met fog for two days near Newfoundland on the east-bound passage, but the rest of that journey was fair, with 10-12 knot westerly winds. The westerly trip had no fog, one day of rough weather and force 7 winds (Beaufort) in the Reykjanes Tongue and eastern Cape Farewell seas. We met no fishing vessels except in continental waters. These notes on the Fulmar are intended to follow James Fisher’s discussion of the feeding distribution of the colour phases of this species in the North Atlantic ( The Fulmar, 1952, pp. 266-288). Nothing emerges which would not have been anticipated. The Fulmars were in the cold waters on the western side of the Atlantic, and the occurrence of the plumage types approximately followed the location of main breeding concentrations of those colour-phases as outlined by Fisher. Fisher divided the colour-phases of the Fulmar into four groups — LL, L, D and DD. The first two of these are the light phases with head, neck and under-parts almost or completely white. D birds are smoky grey all over the body and belly, with flight- feathers darker. DD birds are all dark chocolate brown or grey, as dark as their flight-feathers. At sea we had real trouble distinguishing colour-phase LL from L, perhaps because we did not see a good sample of British birds. Fisher separates them on the white versus grey crown and nape. We could not see these at sea, and have used instead a system based on divisions that we made on the spot and compared later with Fisher’s classification and that of Bernard O’Reilly which he quotes (p. 28). Most of the birds we saw had grey mantles and pale grey tails ; about 40% had darker grey mantles with grey tails, and a small percentage had white tails with either pale or dark grey mantles. Using Fisher’s classification, and O’Reilly’s which foreshadowed it by over a century ( Greenland , the adjacent seas, and the north-west passage . . . , London, 1818), we have, in assigning our field notes, called birds with a white tail LL and those with a grey tail L. There were no individuals whose phase assignment was a problem between L and D or between D and DD. In all three of the tables, each day is treated separately with general location given, both according to E. M. Nicholson’s classification of the ocean areas of the North Atlantic ( Proc . Xth Int. Orn Congr., 1950, pp. 600-602) and according to the noon position as posted for the ship’s passengers. vol. lii] FULMARS IN THE ATLANTIC 383 able III — Notes on Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) in North Atlantic, Liverpool to St. John’s, June/July 1958, based on observations by R. Stackpole L = Light phase D = Dark phase Date Place Noon Position Hour Number Phase June 28th British Seas Liverpool Docks 16.20-17.40 I L i9.4O2i.OO I L June 29th Rockall Seas 55‘34'N, ii°49'W 06.30-07.30 20-25 09. 15-10. 15 20 + I 1. 00-12. 30 25 + L 13.45-16.15 40 19.30-20.30 10+ Jfune 30th Outer Bailey 55’05'N, 22°42'W 09.OO-O9. 15 12 I 1. 00-12. 15 12 *4- I5‘I5-45 15-20 L 17.00-18.00 8-10 J July 1 st Reykjanes Tongue 53°49'N,3i°55'W 08.50-09.50 I 1 1. 45-12. 30 4 !4- I5’I5-3° 15+ L 17.30-18.00 10-15 20.00-20.30 I JJuly 2nd Cape Farewell Seas 5i034'N. 4i°2o'W 09.30-11.30 30+ 12.00-12.30 15+ 16.45-18.00 15 + L 20.00-20.45 5+ J July 3rd Outer Bank 49°2i'N, 48°io'W 09.15-11.15 2 + I3-5°’I4-55 2 L(iD) 15-55-16.45 10+ JJuly 4th 08.30 into St. John’ s, Newfoundland 06.30-08.30 5+ L NOTES Feeding behaviour of Gannets and Great Black-backed Gull with Mackerel shoals. — During the months of July, August and September, Mackerel ( Scomber scomber) habitually enter the Village Bay of Hirta, St. Kilda, in the late afternoon and evening. These shoals are often pursued by Grey Seals ( Halichoerus gryphus ) and the fishes crowd together near the surface of the sea, actually breaking the water over an extensive area. Gannets (SuJa bassana ), from the huge adjacent colony on Boreray, Stac an Armin and Stac Lee, are usually diving for fish in the bay at 384 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII this time, but they persistently ignore these Seal-driven shoals, although sometimes Hying over them slowly. In fact, during a year spent on Hirta, from September 1958 to August 1959, Gannets were seen diving into the Mackerel shoals on only three occasions. The first time was in September 1958. A Gannet twice circled overhead and then dived quite deeply into the edge of the shoal. From a cliff 100 feet above I was able to watch Seal, Gannet and Mackerel clearly. One of two Seals chasing the fish turned aside and swam towards the Gannet, though it did not reach it before the latter resurfaced. During the same month, however, a Gannet was seen to emerge from the water in a state of slight distress and a Seal appeared on the same spot as it started to fly off. The third occasion was in August 1959, but then the divet into the pursued shoal was uneventful. The only other occasion on which a bird was seen making use of this apparently ready supply of food was on 3rd August 1959, when an adult Great Black-backed Gull ( Lams marinus), after much preliminary circling, landed in the shoal and picked up a fish which I estimated to be between 12 and 14 inches long. Holding its head high, with the wriggling fish transversely in its beak, it swam with open wings 20 yards to the rocks — where it pierced the Mackerel behind the gills and swallowed it. Reactions of nesting Oystercatchers to intruding sheep. — In June 1954, in a rushy pasture beside the shores of Loch Inchard, Sutherland, a ewe was grazing. Her lamb ventured too near to the eggs of a pair of Oystercatchers ( Haematopus These sketches illustrate the behaviour of the birds when the ewe (a) was facing the nest and (b) had her back to it. ostralegus) close by. The cock bird reacted violently and the lamb retreated. Next the ewe seated herself with her nose immediately over the nest. The hen bird hastily covered the eggs while the cock flapped his wings and pecked repeatedly at the ewe’s nose. The ewe slowly became aware of the bird’s vexation; she rose and turned herself round, and resettled with her David Boddington VOL. LIl] NOTES 385 tail towards the nest, thus resuming- her chewing- of the cud. The cock Oystercatcher, although still apprehensive, became much calmer when faced by the rear end of the sheep, although the animal was just as close to the nest. The hen Oystercatcher remained imperturbable throughout. M. and F. Penrose Wilson’s Phalarope in Bedfordshire. — On ioth May 1958 my wife and I visited a gravel-pit at Stanford, near Shefford, Bedford- shire. One end of this pit had been cleared of gravel and the clay base that remained held shallow pockets of rain water which formed good feeding areas for waders. By the largest of these pools, which measured approximately 100 yards by 20 yards, we noted three waders. Two of these were Redshanks (Tringa totanus ), but the third was quite strange to us. As we tried to approach closer, the Redshanks took alarm and flew off, and the other wader went with them. Fortunately it returned after about 15 minutes, without the Redshanks, and we were able to take detailed notes on it. We had no reference books with us, but we hoped to identify it readily as its head and neck plumage were outstanding. That evening, however, we could find nothing to agree with it in either The Handbook or the Field Guide. Further observations were made on nth and 12th May, on the latter occasion with F. C. Gribble and R. Whymant, Jnr., and the bird was seen again on the 13th by F.C.G. and I. J. Ferguson-Lees who identified it as a female Wilson’s Phalarope ( Phalaropus tricolor) in almost complete summer plumage. Later that day it was watched by several other people, including H. P. Medhurst and M. P. Roseveare, but it was not seen after about 5.30 p.m. in spite of repeated searches that evening and during the next few days. I took the following details: Size between Redshank and Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius dubtus), both of which were present: nearer to Redshank, but more slender. Bill blackish, straight, very slender and slightly longer than head. Legs long and slender, blackish, with much of tibia exposed. Grey-blue stripe from bill to eye, with a narrow white stripe above. Forehead and crown grey- blue. Prominent white band from back of crown down nape and hind neck to mantle. Blackish band (a little wider than eye) running back- wards from eye in line with bill and then curving downwards, widening and shading into dark chestnut colour at sides of breast. White patch below eye. Throat and breast lightly tinged chestnut. Belly and under- tail white. Back and folded wings brownish, with some chestnut flecks visible on the back at close range. Rump white, tail duskier than rump but not seen properly in flight and completely hidden by the folded wings on the ground. Flight rapid and direct, with quick wing-beats; the pointed wings appeared more delicate than those of the Redshanks, with a smaller spread. No wing-bar. When the bird settled, the undersides of the wings were seen to be dull greyish. Although it was not as shy as the Redshanks, the closest view I had was at a range of about 12 yards and that only after waiting half an hour in an exposed position near its favourite feeding area. It was very active, walking with rapid steps, jerking its head to and fro, and picking under the water as it tripped along. When 386 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII suspicious it would stand still for a few seconds with its slender neck stretched and looking very long. No spinning action was ever seen, but it often waded in the water up to its belly and once I saw it swim vigorously with neck very erect and head jerking. Other observers also watched it swim on different occasions. It made no call. All other birds were tolerant of it and it showed no aggression towards them. This is the second authenticated occurrence of Wilson’s Phalarope in Europe, the first having been in Fife in 1954 ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 15-17). H. Cole Wilson’s Phalarope in Anglesey. — At 11.30 a.m. on 15th June 1958, at Malltraeth, Anglesey, I found a wader which I thought at first was a Red-necked Phalarope ( Phalaropus lobatus) in almost complete summer plumage. As time went on, however, several features puzzled me, especially its greyish-white nape, uniform grey-brown wings without any streaking or bars, and white rump and tail. In addition, it fed by wading instead of swimming. I was watching the bird at distances down to 30 yards in a good light and began taking notes from which the following description has been compiled: Size larger than Dunlin ( Calidris alpina) and Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula), but much smaller than Redshank (Tringa totanus); these were the only waders near-by for a direct comparison, but the size was estimated to be about that of a Common Sandpiper (T. hypoleucos). Horizontal stance of longish body, and attenuated neck especially when bird on the alert, noted particularly. Bill long, black and needle- like, thickening at the base. Head small in comparison with body and neck. Crown grey bordered on each side by a short and narrow white superciliary. A black stripe ran through the eye and broadened down the side of the neck into a dark chestnut patch on each side of the upper breast which was rosy-pink. Nape greyish-white merging into greyish- brown back and very conspicuous. In flight the upper-wings were uniform pale greyish-brown with no streaking or light bars; rump pure white and tail white streaked with grey, very much like Wood Sandpiper (T. glarcola) but with fainter marks. Under-parts (including undersides of wings) white. Legs appeared olive-brown and projected beyond the tail in flight. Throughout this and a later period of watching — a total of about three hours — the bird was constantly on the move, wading through the shallows and feeding greedily and hurriedly by pick- ing insects off the surface of the water. Not once was it seen to swim, but its general behaviour was typical of a phalarope pick- ing rapidly in all directions around itself. At 1.45 p.m. I tried, without success, to contact Mr. D. P. Morgan and by the time he was able to come it was well on in the evening and distance and light were not good for detail. Early the next morning, 16th June, I compared my notes with those published in British Birds in 1955 on the Wilson’s Phalarope ( Ph . tricolor ) (antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 15-17 and 30-32, and plate 2) and was convinced that this was what I had been watching the VOL. LIl] NOTES 387 previous day. I immediately telephoned Mr. Morgan and told him of my conclusions. Fortunately he and Mr. C. F. Tunnicliffe were able to locate the bird again, and their observations — supported by Mr. Tunnicliffe’s sketches — left no doubt that it was indeed a female Wilson’s Phalarope in summer plumage. This appears to be the third record for Britain and the first for Wales. John P. Wilkinson Common Tern nesting on vegetation above water. — On ist August 1959 I watched a young Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo) being fed by an adult on the island in Abberton Reservoir, Essex, and the next day, landing there, I found that it was at least six days old. Incubation must therefore have started on 5th July at the latest (taking The Handbook’s minimum of 22 days), but then the surface of the island had been 15^ inches under water. There is no possibility that the nest was on the mainland and that the youngster swam over, so the eggs must have been laid either in the floating weed over the island or on the very old remains of a nest of Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus) or Coot ( Fulica atrci) in the horizontal stubs of a dead willow bush. This bare platform came out of the water on 30th June or ist July, but the surface of the island not until 20th July. C. B. Wainwright Skylark carrying dead half-feathered fledgling. — I was looking through binoculars at Nook Beach, Rye Harbour, Sussex, on 21st July 1958, when a bird flew across my field of vision carrying a fluffy mass in its bill. This it dropped from a height of about 4 feet. I lowered my field-glasses and watched the bird which alighted on the ground some 30 yards from where it had dropped the object: it was a Skylark ( Alauda arvensis). I then went to the place where the object had fallen and found a beheaded fledgling Skylark which was still warm. The corpse was not so very young as the feathers on the back and the wing were quite well developed. C. J. Lewis [Passerines usually remove dead young from their nests during the first two or three days after hatching, but after that any which die are normally left to become trampled into the bottom of the nest. — Eds.] Carrion Crow attacking young Magpies in nest. — On 27th May 1957, at Frocester, Gloucestershire, a battle took place between two Magpies ( Pica pica) and a Carrion Crow ( Corvus corone ) which was trying to reach the young in their nest. I did not see the struggle begin, but it lasted, without pause, for 21 minutes while I watched. The commotion was first heard at 06.19 G.M.T. The nest was in the thick upper canopy of a Scots pine, 35-40 feet above the ground. The Crow repeatedly got to the dense part near the nest with the frenzied Magpies flying at it. The robber would 388 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII then fall several feet, perch again and, with wings partly spread, jab viciously at them. The cries of the young Magpies were heard for the first time at 06.36, but again the Crow was beaten off, only to return immediately to the attack. At 06.40 a fledgling fell to the ground, followed by the Crow and both Magpies, and it was obviously killed there. At 06.51, just after the Crow had gone, a second youngster fell to the ground, trying unsuccessfully to cling to the branches, and was ignored by the old birds. One corpse was found, pecked and bleeding about the head, but uneaten; the second had disappeared in thick nettles. The survivors left the nest on the following day. Sybil M. Butlin Rook nesting on the ground. — Through the kindness and interest of Mr. Percy Weaver of Lydd, Kent, I was able to examine a very unusual Rook’s ( Corvus fnigilegus) nest on his land on 23rd April 1959. At the time I was accompanied by Messrs. D. M. Broom, M. J. Harding, D. Shepherd and S. D. G. Stephens. The nest was builton theground and surrounded by asmallclump of rushes ( Juncus communis), near the corner of a lambing field that was in use throughout the time that it contained eggs. The nest, approximately 12 inches in diameter and with a rather deep cup, was built basically of dried grass, reed from the lambing wattles and wool. The entire structure was rather reminiscent of the normal lining to a Rook’s nest — i.e. lacking sticks — but much thicker and bulkier. There appeared to be an attempt at an additional lining of wool over the basic construction. Small pieces of moss were attached to the wool and the lining also contained a Rook’s feather, a few chicken’s feathers and a little bit of brown paper. When the nest was examined, the full clutch of three eggs was present, the third having been laid about 19th April. Two of the eggs were typical, but the third was smaller and paler, with less markings and a more blue-grey ground colour. The three eggs measured: 40.5 X 29.6mm., 42.3 X 28.5mm. and 39.9 x 28.3 mm. The bird could readily be watched incubating and the presumed mate was continually to be seen in the vicinity of the nest. Mr. Weaver informed me that late in the evening, after the large numbers of Rooks feeding in the field had returned to the rookery to roost (about a mile away), two Rooks remained in the field, one incubating, the other standing near-by. When I was next able to visit the site on 16th May, the nest was empty and I was informed by Mr. Weaver that the eggs had disappeared one at a time, the last going on 9th May. Mr. W. S. Nevin visited the site and obtained the accompanying photograph (plate 64) when the nest contained only two eggs. R. E. Scott Feeding behaviour of Choughs. — During the past five years I have made regular observations on the feeding behaviour of three VOL. L 1 1 ] NOTES 389 captive Choughs ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) which I keep at Ipswich, Suffolk, and it is especially interesting to note what these birds do with surplus food after their appetites are sated. When they are fed with fly pupae, they apparently swallow more than they want, because some of the pupae — still whole — are invariably regurgitated afterwards and inserted into cracks between the bricks which form a surround on the aviary floor (these bricks are simply laid end to end on the ground and have become half buried in the loose earth). About 2-4 pupae are inserted into a crack, on top of which the bird then places 3-6 small stones. Often, after depositing anything up to half a dozen lots, a Chough will inspect the caches and take out the contents, sometimes replacing them, sometimes swallowing them and at other times reburying them elsewhere. On one occasion one of the Choughs was seen to place three pupae in a small hole at the base of an upright post, then lightly cover them with soil and finally put three or four stones carefully on top: these it rearranged several times, furtively inspecting the site as it did so. This done, the bird left the cache and indulged in such irrelevant activity as flying round the aviary and bickering with its fellows before finally going to rest in the sleeping-quarters. After a period of about five minutes it flew down to the ground and without any hesitation picked up a stone, went straight to its cache and placed it on top. It was just leaving again when one of the other two Choughs — a bird which was dominant over it — approached, removed the stones and ate some of the pupae. The first bird stood by in a mildly challenging posture, but appeared afraid to attack. When the dominant Chough withdrew, the first bird removed the pupae that were left and reburied them in a fresh place. During periods of observation of some 15-30 minutes after feeding, all three Choughs are sometimes seen burying and digging up pupae. Almost invariably they either unearth food or, after making a small hole, bury some — so that all the digging activity appears to be purposeful, without any sign of the random searching that a bird indulges in when it is hungry. All the dozens of pupae that I have seen buried are actually swallowed and regurgitated, sometimes only after great difficulty, and are never merely carried in the beak. The little stones used for covering the hiding places range in size from Jin. to fin. in diameter. Un- like my Ravens ( Corvus corax) which have a few large holes (see antea, pp. 129-131), the Choughs appear to use any little crevice or rapidly make a small hole by digging: as a result of this activity and of their normal random searching for beetles and grubs the entire floor of the aviary is pitted and uneven. By contrast, when the food consists of meal-worms the surplus is usually carried in the tip of the beak to the place where it is to be buried. Further, the Choughs never bury the soft food given as a staple diet: they snatch up odd beakfuls as they dig through 390 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII the mass and any food thus scattered is simply wasted. Earth- worms are never eaten by my Choughs ( cf . The Handbook ) — even if they are small ones — although they are not infrequently un- earthed by the birds when they dig for beetles. Brian C. Turner Two Robins laying in one nest. — On 17th May 1959, at Balcombe, Sussex, I was shown a nest on which two Robins (. Erithacus rubecula ) were then sitting. This was in a large hole in an apple tree, about four feet from the ground, in a much used part of a private garden. The lady of the house told me that the two Robins had then been sitting for a day or two at least and that during the period of laying, eggs had appeared at the rate of two a day. The final number of eggs was 11 or 12. I visited the nest on several occasions up to 4th June. On each visit both Robins were sitting and their usual positions were one in front and one to the side and behind (see plate 63); on one occasion, however, one bird was sitting on top of the other. The nest cup was not measured, but appeared much larger than normal and both birds could at least partly cover the eggs : probably they had stretched the rim in settling on the eggs together. I was away for a time after 4th June and when again able to visit the nest was told that the two Robins had continued to sit, though with diminishing intensity, until about 10th June. The nest was then deserted. I was informed that the eggs were removed and some were purposely broken : apparently at least three had well-developed embryos and others were thought to be infertile (though it seems possible that those at the bottom of the nest might not have had a chance to develop). On only one visit did I see a third Robin near the nest. There appeared to be no animosity between the two Robins sitting, either when off the nest or returning to it. G. des Forges Abnormal song of Chiffchaff. — A Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus colly - bita) near Radipole Lake, Weymouth, Dorset, in April 1959 consistently produced an abnormal song. The bird was found on 2nd April by Miss H. Betchley and D. W. Betchley, and later seen by Miss H. Brotherton, Miss M. D. Crosby, Dr. J. S. Ash, K. D. Smith and the writer; it was last recorded on the 19th. Everyone agreed that in all respects except song the bird was a typical Chiffchaff. The song was written “chi-chi-chi-chi-chi-churru-churru churru- chi-chi-chi-chi-chi”, and when sung in full lasted about five seconds, though it was frequently cut short. The first and last phrases were written as “chip” by M.D.C. and “chiff” by K.D.S., but >vere quite unlike the normal song and clearer and more decisive. The middle phrase was slower and lower pitched, written as “tirra” by M.D.C. and “wich-it” by K.D.S., and was almost thrush-like in its richness. Between each group of phrases a faint squeak was audible. The whole was astoundingly different from VOL. LI I ] NOTES 391 the normal song, which was not once produced, though when J.S.A. imitated normal Chiffchaff song the bird became very excited, fluttering up towards him, calling “tui” continuously. R. S. Dove REVIEW FUNDAMENTALS OF ORNITHOLOGY. By Josselyn van Tyne and Andrew Berger. ( John Wiley & Sons, New York, and Chapman & Hall, London, 1959). xi + 624 pages; many text illustrations. 94s. The distinguished senior author unfortunately did not live to see the completion of this useful work of reference. It is a well produced and suitably illustrated volume, of which about two- thirds constitute a text-book on the structure and life of birds in general, and about one-third a review of the characteristics of all the families represented in the world today. There are also a short section on ornithological sources, a convenient glossary of terms, and an index. The general part consists of twelve chapters, each of which is a summary of a large subject. The first three are mainly structural, covering palaeontology, anatomy and plumage (including moult). Three others deal with physiology and action — senses and behaviour, voice and sound production, and flight. The chapters on distribution and migration are written mainly from a North American angle. Three others are concerned entirely with behaviour — food and feeding habits, breeding behaviour, and social relations. Finally there is one on taxonomy and nomenclature. The presentation is clear, and as adequate as the limitations of space permit. The part devoted to separate families provides a compact systematic survey of the birds of the world. The authors have, however, imposed on themselves the handicap of a uniform plan which allots one page to each family ; this involves sometimes giving the same space to a single species as elsewhere to a group including hundreds of diverse forms, and the treatment of the larger families is thus inevitably in the most general terms. The authors also appear to have followed certain views of their own on taxonomy; thus, the inclusion of the Carduelinae (in addition to the Passerinae) in the Ploceidae is unusual and unexplained, while the position assigned to the estrildid weavers can be inferred only from another part of the book. The information about each family is conveniently arranged under the heads of physical characteristics, range, habits, food and breeding, with references to the literature on technical diagnosis, classification and general points. A.L.T. LETTERS ST. KILDA WRENS ON STAC AN ARM IN Sirs, — Following the publication of the recent letters by the Rev. E. A. Armstrong and Mr. Kenneth Williamson on the St. Kilda Wren ( Troglodytes t. hirtensis ) ( antea , pp. 136-138), we feel that the following information is both timely and interesting. On 13th May 1959, at midday, we climbed Stac an Armin (627 feet) to the summit. During the ascent we heard at least three Wrens in full song and saw Wrens on more than six occasions. The birds were seemingly as numerous per unit area as on Dun and Carn Mor, and much more so than in the village area of Hirta. They were concentrated in the locality of the old bothy and the cleits on the east-facing slope about one-third of the way up, but they seemed to range in all directions from this part. There was an abundance of insects on the wing, the numbers doubtless encouraged by the great quantity of semi-digested fish which lay strewn about the colonies of Gannets ( Sida bassana) and Puffins ( Fratercula arctica). The vegetation of the stac is generally sparse and often confined to lichen and algal growth but the least precipitous parts have a luxuriant sward of red fescue ( Festuca rubra) and scentless may- weed ( Matricaria maritima). With food and rock sites for nests in obvious abundance, Stac an Armin is a very favourable habitat for the St. Kilda Wren. J. Morton Boyd, David Boddington and Derek A. Ratcliffe Sirs,— It may be worth recording that on the afternoon of 7th July 1959, I heard a Wren ( Troglodytes t. hirtensis ) singing on the north-east face of Stac an Armin, St. Kilda. Dr. J. Morton Boyd tells me that this is some distance from the sites at which, two months earlier, he and others heard and saw several birds. I was put ashore by a motor-boat of H.M.S. Adamant (Captain John Adams, M.V.O., R.N.) and spent half an hour on the rock. Jeffery Boswall THE BIRDS OF STAFFORDSHIRE Sirs, — The Research Committee of the West Midland Bird Club has decided to bring up to date T. Smith’s The Birds of Staffordshire, which was published in parts from 1930 to 1938 in the Transactions of the North Staffordshire Field Club. The prime objective will be to report on the status and distribution of species recorded in the county since 1938. Could we therefore appeal to your readers to let us have any unpublished information on Staffordshire birds since 1938? A questionnaire has been prepared and copies may be obtained from A. R. M. Blake, 102 Russell Bank Road, Four Oaks, Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, to whom all information and all enquiries should be sent. J. Lord, Editor, and A. R. M. Beake, Hon. Sec., West Midland Bird Club 392 L/Pr-,.. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Willow Warbler, Black-tailed Godwit), but group terms should not (e.g. warblers, godwits). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds, with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1953 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “1st January 1955” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “1st Jan.”, “Jan. 1st”, or even “Jan. 1”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form : Tucker, B. W. (1949): "Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 129-134. \\ itiierby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out of each Table should be carefully planned with an eye to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide); sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. My Year with the Woodpeckers HEINZ SIELMANN Foreword by James Fisher Heinz Sielmann, with camera and pen, here reveals a year’s cycle in the life of a group of rare and beautiful birds. In so doing, he conveys, to expert and lay- man alike, the excitement of his patient, ingenious, and rewarding work. Photographs in colour and black and white by the author, Eric Hosking and others. 21s. A History of the Birds of Hertfordshire BRYAN L. SAGE Foreword by Peter Scott ‘Will certainly become the definitive work on the birds of Hertfordshire,’ said James Fisher of this book. It is a detailed account of the status and distribution of every species, with a Systematic List and Appendixes, and it deals fully with geographical and geological considera- tions, collections, topo- graphy, migration, etc. 5 plates. 275. 6d. Barrie & Rockliff 2 CLEMENT’S INN, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.2 ZOOLOGICAL RECORD SECTION AVES 1958 The Aves section of the Zoological Record , the only comprehensive bibliography published annually of ornitho- logical literature, is an indis- pensable work of reference for those desiring knowledge of the world’s literature on recent research and developments in the study of birds. Compiled by Lt.-Col. W. P. C. Tenison, D.S.O., the current issue documents references to nearly 2,500 articles and books appearing mainly in 1958, of interest to ornithologists. Obtainable from the pub- lishers, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.I., England. Price 1 0/5d. post free. SMALL ADVERTISEMENTS BINOCULARS AND TELESCOPES. New and used. Descriptive lists and expert advice on request. Exchanges, overhauls. J. R. Hebditch, f.b.o.a., f.s.m.c., 44 Hallgate, Doncaster. 9x40 Wrayvu Binocular ^Ji8/i8/o, exchanges, repairs, lists. Bass & Bligh, 18, Market' Arcade, Leeds 1. BINOCULARS AND TELESCOPES, repaired, cleaned and adjusted ; send your instrument for estimate by return. Hatton Optical Co. Ltd.. Lansdowne. Bournemouth, Hants. BINOCULARS AND TELESCOPES, new and reconditioned, at reasonable prices. Approval allowed, also part exchanges. Lists from Hatton Optical Co. Ltd., Lansdowne, Bournemouth. Hants. (Established 1940). SKOKHOLM BIRD OBSERVATORY. Assistant Warden wanted Feb. to Nov. i960. Suit anybody going on to University. Details from Warden, Dale Fort Field Centre, Haverford- west, Pembs. Printed in Gt. Britain by WlTlIF.RBV fc Co.. Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published bv H F X- C. WITHER BY. LTD . 5. Warwick Court. W.C.i DECEMBER 1959 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address: 30 St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £ 2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5 Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LII, Number 12, December 1959 PAGE Bewick’s Swans in the British Isles in the winters of 1954-55 and I955S6- By Dr- I- C. T. Nisbet 393 Obituary: Arnold Whitworth Boyd (1885-1959) (plate 65) ... ... 417 Song Sparrow at Fair Isle: a bird new to Europe. By Peter Davis and Roy H. Dennis (plate 70) ... ... ... ... ... ... 419 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. Cl — -Ross’s Gull. Photographs and text by J. Kist (plates 66-69) ••• ... 422 Pollen contamination of birds. By Dr. J. S. Ash ... ... ... 424 Notes: — Birds drinking the sap of a birch tree (C. K. Mylne) ... ... 426 Ring-necked Duck in Berkshire (J. T. R. Sharrock and Robert Gillmor) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 427 Green Sandpiper breeding in Inverness-shire (F. R. Clafton) . . . 430 Blue Tit feeding young Treecreepers (N. J. Antoine) (plate 72) ... 432 Greenfinches building in old nests of other species (J. Lawton) ... 433 Goldfinches undoing tie-on labels and using them as nest-material (R. C. Muir) (plate 71) ... ... ... ... ... ... 434 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 435 Cover design by E. A. Tomsett, the Buzzard being based on a photograph by C. Pearson Douglas PURCHASED Vol. LII No. 12 DECEMBER 1959 BRITISH BIRDS BEWICK’S SWANS IN THE BRITISH ISLES IN THE WINTERS OF 1954-55 AND 1955-56 By I. C. T. Nisbet Among the most striking results of the periods of severe frost in the winters of 1954-55 and 1955-56 were the unprecedented numbers of Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii) which occurred in Great Britain. The influx in early 1956 was particularly spectacular, and the birds were seen in greater or lesser numbers at over 200 different places in England alone, the total numbers certainly running into thousands. This paper is primarily a summary of the records available for the 1955-56 winter in England and Wales, in relation to the movements elsewhere in Europe. However, the influx of 1954-55 provides an interesting comparison with that in the following year, and a brief account is also given of this as observed in England and Wales. Records from Britain have been drawn mainly from the county and local bird reports for the years concerned. In 1956, thanks to the Express Information Service of the International Wildfowl Research Bureau, a considerable mass of data was also collected by Mr. G. Atkinson-Willes through the medium of the National Wild- fowl Counts organisation. Other records from Britain have been supplied directly by a number of ornithologists (listed in the Appendix on p. 416), and information from other areas is derived from sources quoted later in the paper. The records are much too numerous to list in detail, but all counts of large numbers and other important records are quoted directly in the text. Copies of the full list of records have been deposited at the Wildfowl Trust and at the Edward Grey Institute, Oxford. PAST STATUS OF THE SPECIES IN GREAT BRITAIN Although the unprecedented influxes of Bewick’s Swans to Great Britain in 1954-55 and 1955-56 can be related to unusually severe 393 394 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII weather in their Continental wintering-areas, the species had been increasing as a winter visitor in England for some years previously. This had been most spectacular on the Ouse Washes in Cambridge- shire and Norfolk, where a regular wintering population has built up since the winter of 1950-51 (Nisbet, 1955). Table I, which gives the maximum numbers recorded in this area in each winter since that of 1944-45, shows that a rapid increase took place between 1950 and 1956. Perusal of local reports and county avifaunas shows that the increase has been equally striking in other areas — notably Essex, Somerset and the Midlands- — although there are no established wintering flocks comparable to that on the Ouse Washes. Table I — Largest numbers of Bewick’s Swans {Cygnus columbianus bewickii) on the Ouse Washes (Cambridgeshire) and adjacent waters IN EACH WINTER SINCE I944-45 (MAINLY DERIVED FROM NISBET, I955) 1944-45 I 1949-50 5 1954-55 254 1945-46 Nil 1950-51 30 1955-56 7°5 1946-47 33 1951-52 7 1956-57 270 1947-48 2 1952-53 120 1957-58 250 1948-49 5 1953-54 41 1958-59 343 Detailed records have not been collected for winters subsequent to that of 1955-56, but there has been little sign that the increase has continued since then. On the Ouse Washes, for example, the population seems to have become stable at around the 1954-55 figure (Table I), and in other areas the numbers generally seem to have been smaller than in that year. Thus the two major influxes in 1955 and 1956 do not seem to have led to the establishment of any new wintering areas in England, although we may anticipate that future cold spells will again produce large numbers. IDENTIFICATION Many observers still do not realise that Bewick’s Swan is now much more common than the Whooper Swan (C. cygnus ) in southern England, and there have been many cases of misidentification in recent years. Since it is unlikely that many Whooper Swans are misidentified as Bewick’s, it is necessary to consider whether the recorded numbers of the latter are thus seriously underestimated. The problem is complicated by the fact that there was undoubtedly an abnormal influx of Whooper Swans into southern England in early 1956, and probably in 1955 as well. However, none of the well-authenticated records of Whoopers south of the normal range (which extends south to North Wales, Yorkshire and Norfolk) involved herds larger than 25 or 30. Significantly, all the records of larger herds of “Whoopers” in southern England in these winters coincided with the main periods of passage of the Bewick’s, even flight directions being the same in some cases: such coincidences would be remarkable in view of the wide differences between the wintering areas and migration routes of the two species (Hilprecht, vol. lii] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 395 1956). The writer suspects that many, if not all, of these records refer to Bewick’s Swans, a suspicion which is supported by a few proved cases of misidentification. On this assumption some 5% to 10% of the Bewick’s Swans which visited England in 1956 were misidentified, and this would have a serious effect on the estimates of the total numbers if these birds were omitted. For this reason all records of large herds of “Whooper Swans” and ‘‘unidentified wild swans” will be mentioned in the text, with suitable qualification, but allowance will be made for the possibility of error when these birds are included in the tables. For those still unfamiliar with the species it may be remarked that size is not always a reliable guide to the identification of wild swans, particularly in flight. When the bill pattern of adults cannot be distinguished clearly, the best identifying features of Bewick’s are its relatively short, thick neck, and its small head with short, shallow bill. These points were well illustrated in the photographs published in this journal in 1951 ( antea , vol. xliv, plates 59-60). The voice of Bewick’s is also distinctive, higher-pitched and softer, less bugle-like than that of the Whooper, but the calls of both species vary, and identification by voice alone is not recommended to the inexperienced observer. Good recent accounts of the field- characters of this species have been published by Hilprecht (1956) and Robyns de Schneidauer (1958). RECORDS IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN THE I954-55 WINTER Records before 6th February In the winter of 1954-55 only three Bewick’s Swans were seen before nth December — single birds in Suffolk on 8th November and 5th December, and in Lincolnshire on 21st November. Twenty- nine were seen in Cambridgeshire during i/th-ipth December, 5 in Northumberland on the 20th and 9 in Nottinghamshire on the 23rd-24th, and there were a number of other scattered records in late December and the first week of January. The main influx started on 9th January (when 20 flew west at Clev, Norfolk) and continued until early February. There were no new records between the 10th and 13th, but on the 14th the first large numbers were seen on the Ouse Washes in Cambridgeshire, and a count there a few days later gave a total of 105-110 birds. Thenceforwards new arrivals were reported somewhere in the country on almost every day until the end of the month. At Cley 45 flew west on the 14th, 16 flew west on the 15th, 50 flew south-east on the 20th and 57 flew west on the 23rd; these birds probably formed at least part of the herd of over 100 birds seen on the 24th in Blakeney harbour, a few miles to the west. Fifty were seen flying south in N. Lincolnshire on the 25th. In North Kent there were three separate parties of 4, 15 and 23 birds on the I5th-i6th, and the birds in the latter party may perhaps have been the same as the 23 seen at Abberton reservoir in Essex (30 miles to the north) 396 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII from the 17th to the 23rd, and those seen in other parts of Essex from the 23rd onwards. At the same period there were several records in Sussex, including 9 at Pett Level on the 14th and 16 on the Glynde during the 26th-28th, and on Walland Marsh in S. Kent, where there were 35 on the 30th. Farther to the west, 18 arrived in Somerset on the 30th, and 84 were seen in Anglesey from about the 25th onwards. There were also many records of single birds and small parties. No new arrivals were reported on the east coast during the first week of February, but the numbers on the Ouse Washes, still only 100-120 on 2nd February, had increased to 254 by the 6th. Most of the birds seen during this period remained for only a few days, or were seen only in flight; thus some may have been seen two or three times, and it is very difficult to estimate the total number involved. However, well over 200 were seen passing through Norfolk and Lincolnshire between 14th and 25th January, and these were almost certainly different from the birds on the Ouse Washes, where the numbers were more or less stationary during this period. It is very probable that the birds seen in Kent and Sussex were also different, so that even if those in the midlands and the west had all been seen earlier in the east, the total number must have been well over 500 individuals. Records during February The birds on the Ouse Washes remained there until the usual departure date in late March, but most of the other birds soon passed on: the chief exceptions are 20 to 30 birds in Essex, 24 or more in Somerset, up to 12 in Suffolk, and probably 23 in Lincolnshire. The total number which spent the whole winter in England and Wales cannot have exceeded 400, and was certainly less than the number seen in January. There is evidence, however, of a second influx into the country about 20th February, at the height of a second period of severe weather, which again raised the number in the country to a total which for a few days approached 500. New arrivals in this period included 46 in Suffolk between the 12th and 15th, about 25 in Norfolk from the 20th onwards, 35 at Durleigh reservoir, Somerset, on the 20th, 14 in Sussex on the 19th, and there were several other records of smaller parties. Departure and return passage Most of the wintering birds left during March, with a few stragglers remaining into April. However, between 6th March and 5th April there were 28 records of new arrivals, involving a total of 268 birds. Unlike the birds seen earlier in the winter, most of these herds were seen on only one day, and only one stayed for more than five days. These records probably represent return passage, which was very marked at the same period in 1956 (see pp. 401-403), and has often vol. lii] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 397 been noted in previous springs in Cheshire (Anon., 1957) and other counties. Typical examples are the herd of 50 seen in flight in Cheshire on 19th March, 18 in Buckinghamshire during ioth-i5th March, 23 in Nottinghamshire on the 20th, two herds of 25 and 8 in Somerset on the 13th, 27 in Sussex on the 29th, and 18 in Yorkshire on the 27th. There are several records of late stragglers after the middle of April: 4 in Leicestershire from 25th to 28th April, 1 in Yorkshire on 30th April, 1 in Lincolnshire from 23rd April to 15th May, 1 in Warwickshire from 17th April until 22nd May, and 1 in Somerset on 12th May. One bird spent the whole summer on Tealham Moor, Somerset, and was last seen at the end of July. RECORDS IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN THE 1955-56 WINTER The influx of 1956 differed from that of the previous year, not only in being more spectacular, but also in taking place in a single wave, coinciding with a long period of exceptionally severe frost. The influx attracted a good deal of attention, and the detailed observations made at the time permit a fairly complete reconstruc- tion of the birds’ movements. Records before 27th January The early part of the winter was unusually mild on the Continent, and there were only 15 records of Bewick’s Swans in England and Wales before 27th January, these involving a total of 64 individuals. Only four sizeable herds were seen : 8 at Durleigh reservoir, Somer- set, on 25th November 1955, and 10 there during 2nd-4th January 1956; 14 at Crindon Lough, Northumberland, from mid-December onwards; and 12 at Horsey Mere, Norfolk, on 4th January. 27th January to 12th February The first two Bewick’s Swans reached the Ouse Washes on 27th January, only two days after they had been flooded, and there were already 32 there on the 29th. Twelve arrived in Glamorgan at about the same time. The main movement, however, began with the onset of the severe weather on 31st January-ist February, and continued steadily thereafter, with large flocks arriving daily. Table II, which enumerates the flocks seen migrating, shows that the movement was mainly from east to west. Other large flocks seen at this period include the following: 21 at Tring, Hertfordshire, on ist-2nd February; three or four herds of 15 to 27 in Somerset from the 2nd and 9th onwards; herds of 26 and 12 in Sussex on the 5th, and many subsequent records in the same county ; 30 in N. Kent on the 5th; two herds of 14 and several smaller parties in Yorkshire from the 5th onwards; up to 50 at Blakenev, Norfolk, on and after the 7th ; 40, perhaps up to 100, at Abberton reservoir, Essex, with arrivals on the 8th, 9th, 10th and nth; and herds of 39 and 48 on the Leicestershire reservoirs on the 9th and 10th. Large numbers fat least 150) had also reached the Ouse Washes by the 6th. 398 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii Table II — Herds of Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii) seen MIGRATING IN ENGLAND AND WALES DURING FEBRUARY 1956 Date County Locality Number Direction Comments 3rd Norfolk Cley 10 W 7th Norfolk Cley 53 W Essex Abberton reservoir 52 W 8th Lincoln Holbeach St. Mark’s 4 w circled 9th Essex Abberton reservoir 28 w arrived Norfolk Cley 4 w York Gouthwaite reservoir 17 ENE arrived 10th Norfolk Snettisham 2 S coasting Essex Abberton reservoir 6 W arrived 1 ith Essex East Tilbury I I wsw coasting Hampshire Langstone harbour r4 w arrived 1 2th Warwick Alvecote Pools 61 w some alighted 15th Essex Abberton reservoir 12 w 1 6th Essex Abberton reservoir 40 w 17th Norfolk Cley 23 w departed 1 8th Stafford Rugeley 26 w Stafford Belvide large flock W Bedford Luton 58 NW Essex Girling reservoir 49 N Hampshire Langstone harbour 20 W Norfolk Cley 19 W 19th Bedford Luton 15 N Norfolk Corton lightship 2** ssw Pembroke Skokholm 47* W Stafford Cannock reservoir 4 NW departed 20 th Kent Botany Bay 12* WNW 2 1st Hampshire Langstone lrarbour 14 W Norfolk Newarp lightship 4** WNW York Gouthwaite reservoir 31 WSW departed 22nd Essex Manningtree 3°** NW 24 th Gloucester Clifton 12 w Norfolk Holt 29 SE 25th Hampshire Langstone harbour 28 W departed *originally reported as Whooper Swans (C. cygnus) **reported as “unidentified wild swans” At the height of the movement of Bewick’s Swans, about 175 Whooper Swans were also reported in Norfolk and Suffolk, and the writer suspects that many were misidentified. The records seem to indicate that the largest numbers arrived between 5th and gth February, but this conclusion should be accepted with caution, since the period ist-5th February was extremely cold and may well have discouraged observation. 12 tli February 12th February was a fine Sunday which coincided with a scheduled National Wildfowl Count, and observation of wildfowl was unusually thorough throughout the country. Bewick’s Swans were seen at 36 different places in England and Wales, including fifteen high counts listed in Table III. The remaining counts included 81 vol. lii] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 399 additional birds, and the presence of about 63 more can be reasonably inferred at places from which precise counts are not available for this day. In addition, 86 unidentified “wild swans” were seen on the same day, mainly in Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire, where the occurrence of large herds of Whoopers is very unlikely. Table III — Counts of Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii) in England and Wales on 12TH February 1956 County Locality Number Cambridge, etc. Ouse Washes 376 Warwick Alvecote Pools 6l Leicester/Rutland Eye Brook reservoir 55 Essex Abberton reservoir 52 Norfolk Blakeney harbour 50 Northampton Pitsford reservoir 3<> York Gouthwaite reservoir 3i Somerset Blagdon reservoir 27 York Bottomboat 26 Somerset Durleigh reservoir 20 Gloucester New Grounds 17 Wiltshire Coate Water, Swindon 17 Somerset Southlake Moor 15 Hampshire Langstone harbour 14 Essex Hanningfield reservoir 12 Other places (see text) 230 Total 1,039 Adding these figures, it appears that the total number of Bewick’s Swans in England and Wales on 12th February was probably rather over 1,000, and could not possibly have been less than 950. 13th to 25 th February With further intensification of the cold weather the westward movement was resumed, especially from iSth February onwards, and many more large herds arrived in this period. In addition to those noted in Table II, noteworthy new records were: a maximum of 94 at Eye Brook reservoir, Leicestershire, on the 19th; an increase to 89 at Abberton reservoir on the 24th; 64 at Pitsford reservoir, Northamptonshire, on the iSth; 38 on the Essex coast on the 21st; 35 on the Orwell, Suffolk, on the iSth-ipth; up to 26 at Rockland Broad, Norfolk, from the 18th onwards; 23 in Titchfield Haven, Hampshire, on the 25th; 17 at Fletton, Huntingdonshire, on the 18th; 17 on the River Medway, Kent, on the 19th; and 15 at Horn- sea Mere, Yorkshire, on the 19th. There were also two questionable records of “Whooper” Swans at the same period, 45 in Norfolk and 40 in Suffolk. However, the total numbers present in the country did not in- crease much, for as the large fresh waters on which they had settled gradually froze over, most of these birds, and others which had arrived in earlier weeks, departed and continued westwards (see 400 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I Table II). The Ouse Washes, where there had previously been almost 400 Bewick’s Swans, were almost completely frozen by 18th February, and it is probable that most of the birds left, for only 10 were seen in a virtually complete count on the 22nd. However, the records quoted above from other parts of the country cannot possibly account for the Ouse Washes birds, and most of them cannot have gone far — perhaps only 30 miles, to the coast of the Wash, where several hundred wild swans were seen at this period. In any case they were back on the Ouse Washes by the 25th, in greatly increased numbers. 26th February Thanks to a hastily organized enquiry by the Wildfowl Trust, almost all the major haunts of the species were again visited on 26th February, the last day of the frost, and the day on which the largest numbers appear to have been present in the country. The larger counts are given in Table IV. Table IV — Counts of Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus colmnbianus bewickii) in England and Wales on 26th February 1956 County Locality Number Cambridge, etc. Ouse Washes, etc. 7°5 Essex Abberton reservoir 9.5 Norfolk Blakeney harbour 54 Somerset Chew Valley reservoir 53 Norfolk St. Olaves 50 Norfolk Rockland Broad 4i Somerset Blagdon reservoir 34 Anglesey Llyn Coron 33 York Bottomboat 26 Hertford Cheshunt gravel-pits 25 Northampton Pitsford reservoir 24 Anglesey Malltraeth iS York Hornsea Mere 15 Other places (see text) 440 Total 1,613 In addition, 114 birds were seen at 19 other places in England and Wales, and there is reason to suppose that about 200 more were present at various places (notably in Yorkshire, Suffolk and Sussex) from which precise counts are not available. Besides these, there was also a large herd on the Fleet at Abbotsbury, Dorset, which was thought to have contained perhaps 200 birds in all: these were originally reported as Whoopers, but were later shown to have been Bewick’s (Miss M. D. Crosby, in litt.). Allowing a conservative figure of 100-150 for this herd (which was never carefully counted), we reach an estimate of approximately 1,600 birds for the number present in England and Wales on 26th February; it is unlikely that the total could have been below 1,500 or could have exceeded 1,700. vol. lii] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 401 An estimate of the total number of Bewick’s Swans which were seen in Britain in February 1956 is made very difficult by the species’ habit of constantly moving about in small flocks. In several areas (e.g. Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Leicestershire, Yorkshire and Somerset) the birds were found to be flying freely up to 10 miles from one water to another, causing considerable danger of duplication in records. It is also cpiite possible that some of the migrant flocks seen on the east coast of England were later seen in the west. On the other hand, a detailed analysis of the records of the large herds, in relation to the east-to-west movement revealed by Table II, has failed to show even a single instance where this seems to have been true. Even if a liberal allowance is made for such duplication of records, it appears that at least 1,000 Bewick’s Swans must have passed through England and Wales before the count was made on 26th February, in addition to some 300 to 400 others which were reported as Whooper Swans or which were not definitely identified. The total number of different individuals involved in the February influx thus appears to have been roughly 3,000, with a possible maximum of 3,500 and an absolute minimum of 2,500. In view of the fact that only about 4,400 Bewick’s Swans left the Continent during this period (see below), this figure is an indication of the thoroughness with which birds are observed in Great Britain. At least it seems clear that virtually all of the birds must have passed through the country on their way west to Ireland. Departure W’ith the thaw on 26th February the westward movement stopped abruptly, and the numbers present in the country began to dwindle almost at once. On the Ouse Washes, for example, the numbers remained at 650-700 for about a week, but by 6th March almost all the flood water had drained away, and the count had dropped to 550 by the 8th. Many more were seen flying off to the east and north-east on the 10th and nth, and by the 13th the numbers were down to about 400, at which level they remained constant until the 23rd. All left overnight on the 23rd/24th — exactly the same date as the departure in earlier years (Nisbet, 1955). Departures from other areas followed a similar pattern. Most of the coastal flocks left immediately after the thaw, and many of the smaller herds inland dwindled and disappeared during the first half of March. However, some large flocks which were well settled — notably those at the Somerset and Essex reservoirs, at St. Olaves in Norfolk and at Bottomboat in Yorkshire — remained together for three or four weeks after the thaw, and left between iSth and 25th March. Return passage Overlapping the period of departure, and extending until well 402 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII into April, there was a very large eastward movement, evidently the return passage of the birds which had reached Ireland during the frost. As at the same period in 1955, the birds passed mainly in flocks of 10 to 50, and those which stopped to rest and feed usually did so only for a matter of hours, very few staying for more than two days. Fig. 1 shows the places where herds of more than 4 birds were seen during this movement (omitting those seen on or before 26th February), and the total numbers seen week by week are sum- marized in Table V. Fig. 1 — Eastward movement of Bewick’s Swans ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii) through England and Wales in March and April 1956 Each place where more than four birds were seen is marked with the total number recorded and the direction of flight (if observed). Areas in Ireland where the species was seen in numbers in February arc marked in black. vol. lii] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 403 Table V- — Total numbers of Bewick’s Swans (Cygnus columbianus bewickii) SEEN FLYING EAST, OR NEWLY ARRIVED AT WATERS IN ENGLAND AND WALES, in March and April 1956 The geographical distribution of these records is shown in Fig. 1. Dates No. of flocks No. of birds 26 Feb. -4 March 8 105 5-1 1 March 20 288 12-18 March 24 404 19-25 March 17 l6l 26 March-i April 33 539 2-8 April 20 M3 9-15 April 8 83 16-22 April 7 25 23-29 April I I 30 April-6 May 4 7 Totals 142 1.756 The total number of birds seen in this return migration was about 1,750, including some 170 which were not seen well enough for definite specific identification. This figure, of course, contains an unknown number of duplications, and may also include some of the birds which were leaving wintering areas in England. However, most of the latter left between 19th and 25th March, when relatively little eastward movement was seen (Table V), while the remaining birds passed through so quickly that duplication of records of large flocks seems rather improbable. The writer believes that about as many birds were seen on their way east through the country in March and April as had been seen passing west in February. Only stragglers remained in the country after the third week in April, and only four birds were seen after 4th May. One remained at Hickling Broad, Norfolk, from 6th to 21st May, and two single birds (one reported as “unwell”) were seen in Yorkshire as late as the 29th. A single bird spent the whole summer in Anglesey. Summary In the winter of 1955-56 only 64 Bewick’s Swans were seen in England and Wales before 27th January. Between 31st January and 26th February (with peaks probably in the periods 5th-gth and iSth-2oth February) large numbers arrived from the east, some passing directly westwards, the remainder staying at suitable fresh waters so long as they remained unfrozen. It is estimated that 1,000 (±40) were present in the country on 12th February, and 1,610 (±90) on 26th February. The total number of birds seen in England and Wales during February was probably between 2,500 and 3,500. The birds present at the end of February departed during March, the largest numbers leaving between the 18th and 25th. There was also a large eastward passage through the country in March and April (peak: 16th March to 1st April), involving some 1,500 (±250) birds. 404 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON THE BIRDS IN BRITAIN IN 1956 M ovements Despite the very wide scattering of single birds and small parties (records were received from over 200 different places in England alone), most of the birds travelled in medium-sized flocks containing some 12 to 50 birds; even the enormous numbers on the Ouse Washes appeared to arrive and depart in flocks no larger than 60. Indeed, almost every observer who watched large flocks saw them break into independent groups which fed or migrated separately, and on many favoured waters the numbers changed almost daily. The larger flocks seen migrating (e.g. those listed in Table II) were usually in V-formation at moderate heights, often 200 to 400 feet from the ground. However, there are two records of birds seen much higher than this: a herd of 17 which arrived at Gouth- waite reservoir, Yorkshire, on 9th February was seen to descend at a steep angle from at least 1,500 feet (A. F. G. Walker), and another of 50 flying north-east at Hunstanton, Norfolk, on 17th March was so high that it could scarcely be seen with the naked eye against the bright sky (A. J. Holcombe). There is only one, un- certain, record of birds heard passing after dark, but some un- doubtedly travel at night : many were seen leaving the Ouse Washes at sunset on nth March (C. D. T. Minton; cf. Armitage, 1940; Hilprecht, 1956). Habitat and feeding As usual, most of the birds were seen on fresh waters inland, showing a preference for flooded grassland and the grassy edges of lakes and reservoirs. A certain number of birds also stopped briefly in coastal estuaries, and others resorted to the coast at the height of the frost, but these visits to salt water usually lasted at most a few days. An exceptional case was that of a herd of up to 54 birds which remained in Blakeney harbour, Norfolk, from 2nd to 26th February, flighting up and down with the tide (G. H. Hunt). The birds were reported as feeding on both submerged and exposed vegetation, and in the former case several observers noted them “paddling” with their feet before feeding — probably to clear the mud from the roots of their food plants (Brouwer and Tinbergen, 1939). The birds on the Ouse Washes were unperturbed when the flood water receded in early March, leaving only a network of small ditches, and they remained there for several weeks afterwards, grazing like geese on the marshy grassland. At the height of the frost, when food was otherwise scarce, these same birds were seen climbing a 20-foot high flood bank to feed on exposed grass at the top. Age composition and mortality Comparatively few observers noted the proportion of young birds, especially in the larger herds, but an amalgamation of the vol. li i] BEWICK’S SWANS IN BRITISH ISLES 405 reports received gives an average of 26% young (137 out of 525). The birds on the Ouse Washes have been excluded from these totals, but a count there on 12th February gave 28% young (105 out of 37b). These figures are in good agreement, but are much smaller than the counts of 35% and 44% young on the Ouse Washes in previous winters (Nisbet, 1955). However, a count in the Nether- lands (Oostelijke Flevoland), on 30th October 1955, gave a figure of 34% young in a flock of 1,063 birds (M. F. Morzer Bruijns, in litt.). Remarkably few birds are known to have died in Great Britain during the winter. One was shot and two others injured in Kent, and two or three were shot in Glamorgan, but apart from these the only mortality reported concerned two birds on the Ouse Washes, two on the Norfolk coast, one in Kent, one in Northamptonshire and one in Yorkshire. Recalling that over 1,000 birds were present in the country for fully two months, it would seem that the average mortality rate — including that due to shooting — barely exceeded \°/0 per month. The same figure is given by Over and Morzer Bruijns (1957) for the mortality of all geese and swans in the Netherlands during the February frost. Although these figures should not be taken too literally, mortality at this rate obviously cannot account even for the normal annual population turnover, reflected in the high counts of young birds. It seems evident that hard winter weather, even if exceptionally severe like that of 1956, does not act to limit the population of the species. OTHER RECORDS IN EUROPE IN THE 1955-56 WINTER In order to trace the source and destination of the large numbers of Bewick’s Swans which passed through England and Wales in February 1956, records have been collected from the other European wintering areas of the species. The following account is concerned primarily with events between the beginning of November and the end of February: the return flight in March and April is less well documented. Most of the important localities mentioned in the text are marked on Figs. 1 or 2. Germany Bewick’s Swan is primarily a passage-migrant in north Germany (Niethammer, 1938; Thielcke, MS.), and its only major wintering .ground in that country is in the marshes of Emsland, in the Leda- Jiimme area of Ostfriesland: here the numbers in recent years have varied between about 300 and about 1,000 (Thielcke, MS. ; R. Drost, in litt.). About 300 were seen there on 26th January 1956, when the weather was still relatively mild, but all had left by 12th February, when the flood water was completely frozen. A few birds were seen by the Rhine river near Wesel, Nordrhein-Westfalen, during the February frost, as well as at a few other places along the Rhine (Drost, in litt.). Farther east, at least two were seen at Hiddensee on the Baltic on 19th December 1955 and again on 9th 406 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII o jZ d +-> "n -Q ^ a £ -0.2 J~< r-* CTj T3 <1) 3 g C/D U o -s ^ 5" ^ C3 • — u fa ^ c z ~ : Q .5 a ^ £ o u d p *3 '/) H 5 *5 C/D ^ t: * t) y w = ie V* .2 s *- •- •? - J o £ fc — 1 ' * o T) a U 5 * Z bJD rx r** r- U ^ .2 . CO in o 2 u — O SH . CO o w £ .5 o > ' * 5 •j o X ~f. x .£ ct r- »- c c 5f H ■ aJ •: 72 o C3 C -J > hr ^ I 2 ? o- ol 2 i - c I O ^2 O J >J D 72 72 o Plate 69 Plate 70 r~ tijQ bC ; 77; O O' 10 O' C/3 «2 2 ^ 0 Oj K P < cj — ■+H C O £ 4J r- *-• £ ►H Q *-J 0 P c/3 — ; ^ c3 O, 1 Ih o rj C/3 C 1;-- 0 ,£p c 2 ^ C/3 Co r-j Cl ) £h.& 0 — Ph 'M S -*-> cti • • CO ^ .3 b£ C/3 l 0 0 cs • o o 06 06 < pu C/3 O £ c C/3 W ►J <0-- S C/3 0 &e ri P, 0 0 -3 C/3 V-i ^ 0 £ W 'C 0 >3 — ^ CJ u W-|* _, rt C u •- O < 0 C3 bC 0 » 9 x C/3 0 JH .2 gJ C/3 Oh O •- x "O ■ C « 0 ' ^ S rP .a «■-• •— 1 ^3" ' 0 a s c p 8 dj C a_ 01 x o . T d >1 ui 2 « tuO-M C/3 2 rf 0 “ Vh 03 .£> U3 O 1^ 2 cd *— l-H C/3 r- -*“* H p C r; A 0 H m 0 I ’lath 71 Plate 7 2 N. J . A ntoive Blue Tit ( Pams caeruleus) feeding young Trkecreepeks ( Ccrthia familians ): Stapleford, Nottinghamshire, May 1958 In the upper photograph the Blue Tit is actually feeding one of the nestlings, and in the lower it and the adult Treecreeper are approaching the hole at the same time. This male Blue Tit regularly fed the young Treecreepers and probably did so for most of their time in the nest. The tit’s nest was only two feet away (facing the opposite direction), but he was not seen to feed his own young (see page 432). OBITUARY Arnold Whitworth Boyd (1885-1959) In a note in the third volume of British Birds, the late T. A. Coward mentioned some ducks seen at Marbury Mere in Cheshire on 10th April 1910 by one A. W. Boyd, and during the space of nearly 50 years which has passed since then only three volumes — two in the First World War and one in the Second — have appeared without some contribution from him. On 1st March 1944 he became an Assistant Editor and he continued to share the editorial load until his death, in his home county of Cheshire, on ibth October 1959. These simple facts begin to show how much he meant to this journal and how keenly he will be missed. Born in 1885, the younger son of James and Mary Boyd of Altrinc- ham, he was educated at Rugby and Oxford. In early life he was a fine Rugger player, turning out for Sale and for Cheshire on many occasions. He also did much climbing and he once survived a fall of 1,800 feet (into snow) on the Obergabelhorn. Early in the First World War he left for overseas service in Egypt with the 7th Lancashire Fusiliers and quickly rose to the rank of Captain. In 1915 he won the Military Cross in Gallipoli for gallantry in covering the evacuation from Suvla. He was twice wounded and one legacy of the war was the loss of an eye. In spite of this, he managed to rejoin the army and became a Major in the Second World War. Even before 1914 he had shown by his records of Willow Tits in the field that he was an exceptionally gifted and thorough observer. He had early extended his attention from natural habitats to sewage farms, the attraction of which to migrants he was among the first to recognise. From 1918 onwards his contributions in the form of notes became more frequent, not only from Cheshire and Lanca- shire, but also from Cornwall where in September 1920 he secured a most indifferent but interesting snapshot of a flock of Glossy Ibises at Marazion ( antea , vol. xiv, p. 137). One of his chief bird-watching companions between the wars was Kenneth Fisher, Head Master of Oundle, who was his brother-in-law and the father of James Fisher. Earlier he had been out much with T. A. Coward and Charles Oldham, both among the best field observers of their time. In the ’twenties he became a keen ringer, in some years achieving the second highest total in Britain. Already a third of a century ago he was obtaining significant results from systematic trapping; in this he was one of the pioneers and some of his most notable work was on Tree Sparrows and Swallows which he studied around his small farm, Frandley, in the Cheshire parish of Antrobus. He also recognised early on the great possibilities of regular observations at reservoirs, giving much attention to those in Staffordshire and seeking to fill in the hitherto fragmentary picture of inland move- ments and distributions of waders and waterfowl. He was remarkably well-informed, not only from his first-hand knowledge, 417 418 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII but also from his close contacts with neighbouring observers of all sorts and ages and with ornithologists in other parts of the country. Like his friend T. A. Coward he was so deeply rooted in his Cheshire region that he contributed a special character and flavour to British ornithology. Cheshire country, Cheshire ways, Cheshire dialect and Cheshire humour were for him something to be enjoyed with gusto; and he would never fail to raise his hat to any passing Magpie, explaining that this was an old Cheshire custom. Yet despite this he was always ready to appreciate other places and other people. Indeed, his intuitive responsiveness to others was a significant handicap to him as a book reviewer and an assessor of sight records, when his kindliness sometimes got the better of his critical judgement. Yet he spoke his mind with forthrightness, although never brusquely or without tact, and he was a vigilant opponent of verbosity, jargon or sheer dullness in ornithological literature. His own beautifully small script and pithy sentences, with plenty of down-to-earth humour, were always a pleasure to read. He was a most interesting and agreeable companion, indoors or out, and had a great capacity for making friends. Full of charac- ter himself he was a connoisseur of character in others. His occupation as a Manchester yarn agent seemed badly matched with his love of the outdoors and of country scenes and ways, and above all with his skill and enthusiasm in natural history, especially ornithology. His interests were, however, unusually wide, and he was remarkably well-read with a keen critical sense and a flair for good straightforward English without any nonsense about it. Characteristically, The W rong Box was among his favourite books. His wife Violet, who died before him, was a talented writer of both prose and verse, and he himself contributed regular nature notes to “A Country Diary” in The Manchester Guardian. A decade ago these notes of many years were collected together as The Country Diary of a Cheshire Man. This delightful book gave pleasure to many, but his most ambitious work was A Country Parish, published in the “New Naturalist” series in 1951. In this book he wove together an astonishing collection of facts about the Cheshire village of Great Budworth and its neighbourhood, showing how the birds, mammals, insects and plants were influenced by the human history and the effects of man on the land. Hardly any other ornithologist of his time, or indeed any other naturalist, could have written so broad and many-sided a book on ... a country parish. Arnold Boyd was called to office in many fields in the world of ornithology. From 1938 to 1943 he served on the Committee of the British Ornithologists’ Union, and from 1953 to 1955 was one of the Union’s Vice-Presidents. The British Trust for Ornithology greatly interested Boyd from its very beginning in 1933 and he served on its Council for a number of years, becoming Chairman in 1949-50. Nor was he content to sit back in an advisory capacity and let others do the work. In 1934 and 1935 he piloted one of the B.T.O.’s first national enquiries, that into the brood-size and density VOL. LIl] ARNOLD WHITWORTH BOYD 419 of the Swallow ( antea , vol. xxix, pp. 3-21; and vol. xxx, pp. 98-116), and he was an active member of the Bird-Ringing Committee for a number of years right up to his death. Nearer home, he compiled the “Reports on Birds’’ for the Lancashire and Cheshire Fauna Committee from 1914 to 1949. But, in spite of his many commit- ments, he never lost his enjoyment of familiar birds in familiar places and, above all, he was always ready to help and advise the young; indeed, this was one of his greatest pleasures and many a now expert ornithologist owes much to his wise guidance. He was ahead of his time, too, in being a keen conservationist. He never had any illusion that, if there were to go on being interesting creatures to watch in pleasant places, someone would have to work hard to protect them and their habitats. He was an active member of the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, for whom he looked after Marbury Mere and other Cheshire sites. He was also an energetic Fellow of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and was long a member of its Council: he played a leading part in the work of the Home Office Advisory Committee which framed the basis for the Protection of Birds Act 1954. Not content with such indirect measures, he was sworn in as a Special Constable and took his share in bringing to book offenders against the bird protection laws. He managed to do all these things with a twinkle in his remaining eye, as if they were not a duty but good fun. His zest and humour, as well as his common sense and wisdom are not readily replaceable, and for those who knew him life has lost some of its tang. E.M.N., I.J.F.-L. and P.A.D.H. SONG SPARROW AT FAIR ISLE: A BIRD NEW TO EUROPE By Peter Davis and Roy H. Dennis On the evening of 27th April 1959, R.H.D. found an unfamiliar small bird— “like a cross between a Hedge Sparrow and a bunting” — skulking in a tangle of rusty barbed-wire near the derelict radar- station on Ward Hill, Fair Isle. He came down to the Observatory to report this find, and it was still present when we returned to the hill an hour later. It proved difficult to get an adequate view of the stranger, since it was very shy and kept closely to the cover, but we saw it well enough to know that it was one of the North American “sparrows” (Emberizidae). The size, generally drab coloration and skulking habit were reminiscent of a Dunnock ( Prunella modular is), but the bill and head-pattern suggested a bunting. At 10-15 yards, in indifferent light, we made out a chestnut crown with a greyish central streak, grey superciliary, a brown stripe through the eye, and pale grey and black moustachials. The under-parts were seen 420 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I to be whitish, with heavy dark streaking on the flanks and on the breast, coalescing into a conspicuous dark smudge in the centre. The upper-parts were mottled grey-brown, the wings sandier brown, the tail apparently uniform mouse-brown. The bird hopped when moving slowly, but broke into a rapid run when disturbed outside the cover; when flushed, it flew rapidly into cover, but sometimes emerged near the top to watch us. Within half an hour it was caught in a single-panel mist-net and was then identified in the laboratory as a Song Sparrow (. Melospiza melodia), with the aid of Peterson (1947) and Forbush and May (1939); being distinguished from Lincoln’s Sparrow (M. lincolnii) by the broad, not fine, streaking below, and the lack of a buff band across the breast. The following description was made: Head : crown chestnut with narrow grey central streak; superciliary pale grey ; eye-stripe (obvious only behind eye) chestnut ; ear-coverts and lores greyish brown; moustachial pale grey, bounded above with a narrow chestnut stripe and below with a narrow brown-black one. Upper-parts : all feathers blackish-centred with a varying amount of chestnut outside the black, and with more or less pale grey edgings. W ing : Coverts similar to upper-parts, but more foxy in general colour due to smaller black centres and paler red-brown webs; tips of median and greater coverts whitish, forming two rather indistinct wing-bars; flight-feathers dark brown with sandy-brown edgings; axillaries and under wing-coverts washed greyish-brown. Tail : grey-brown, rather warmer towards the base; slightly rounded in shape. Under-parts: white basically ; feathers of breast and flanks (not chin or belly) with blackish centres bordered by slight chestnut streaks; the black breast-spot so obvious in the field was not very apparent in the hand; under tail-coverts washed buffish, with grey-brown centres. Soft parts: eye dark brown; legs brownish-pink; bill dark grey on upper mandible, pale grey on lower. The measurements taken (apart from wing-formula) were: wing (maximum) 65.5 mm.; bill (from skull) 14; tarsus 24; and tail 69. The tips of the primaries were rather abraded, the tail less so. The weight was 24.5 gm. at 19.45 G.M.T. ; this had fallen to 22.9 at 06.30 on the following day, when the bird was photographed by Angela Davis (see plate 70) , and released at the Observatory, bearing ring K81690. Kenneth Williamson kindly despatched to us a copy of Mrs. Nice’s celebrated study of this species (Nice, 1937), which includes a long series of weights and measurements. In a sample of 137 males and 123 females Mrs. Nice found only four females with wings as long as 65-66 mm., and only twelve males with wings shorter than 65 mm. In the same sample no female had a tail more than 66 mm. long, whereas males ranged up to 72 mm. It would therefore have been fairly certain that the Fair Isle bird was a male, had not this already been shown in a more striking way; for early on 1st May the Song Sparrow was heard singing from a low wall outside the hostel kitchen, and on most early mornings until 7th May (also on two occasions in the evening) this performance was repeated. The song — a sweet note repeated three times and followed by a short jingle — was tape- recorded by David Bradley on the 7th, and one sequence is now in VOL. I.ll] SONG SPARROW AT FAIR ISLE 421 the B.B.C. Record Library (DBS 14826). No other note or call was heard at any time. The Song Sparrow lived near the Observatory until 8th May, apart from a brief half-mile excursion to the Gully trap early on the 6th, whence it was quickly retrieved (weight 24.0 at 06.30). On qth and 10th May it was by the stream at Vatstrass, a few hundred yards away, and after that it was not seen again. During its stay the bird was usually shy and often difficult to locate; when found, it would elevate the crown feathers, and then vanish in a singularly accomplished manner. The usual refuge was a cliff in South Haven, where it was occasionally seen feeding in the short turf at the cliff- edge. On 7th May, however, when the island’s human population was swollen to about five times its normal size by the arrival of the National Trust for Scotland’s “Islands Cruise” and also an excursion- steamer from Shetland, the Song Sparrow unaccountably lost its shyness and showed itself throughout the day to scores of visitors, including such well-known names as those of Irene Waterston, Kenneth Williamson, W. J. Eggeling, Seton Gordon and Jeffrey Boswall, with our “resident” bird-watchers, William Crawford, David Bradley, Barrie Juniper and Terry Brown acting as guides and controlling the crowds! To several American bird-watchers on the cruise, this attention was a source of restrained amusement, for in eastern North America the species is numerous and widespread. On the east coast the breeding area extends as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland, and the bird occurs sparsely in southern Labrador (Harper, 1958). The northern population is migratory, but the spring return appears to be very early (by March in New England, according to Forbush and May), and it is unlikely that the Fair Isle bird was freshly arrived on 27th April. This is supported by the high weight of the specimen; Mrs. Nice gives the mean weight of 63 males in April as 22.4 gm. (iq.6-25.8). Kenneth Williamson and I. J. Ferguson-Lees investigated the possibility of escape from captivity in Europe, but were informed by leading aviculturalists that the species is not imported as a cage- bird, and is not known to be kept alive on this side of the Atlantic. There appears to be no previous record of M. melodia in Europe, though the closely allied M. lincolnii has been found once, in Germany. REFERENCES Forbush, E. H., and May, J. B. (1930) : A Natural History of American Birds, Boston. Harper, F. ([958): Birds of the Ungava Peninsula. Lawrence, Kansas. Nice, M. M. (1937): A Population Study of the Song Sparrow. New York. Peterson, It. T. ( 1 94 7) : A Field Guide to the Birds. Boston. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS CI. ROSS’S GULL Photographs and text by J. Kist (Plates 66-69) Ross’s Gull ( Rhodostethia rosea) is indeed, as Fisher and Lockley (1954) put it, “one of the most mysterious birds of the world”. It is also still true that very few ornithologists have seen it alive and so we were extraordinarily fortunate when the discovery of an adult in Holland in the summer of 1958 enabled us to obtain what must be some of the first close-up photographs ever taken of this species. This Dutch bird was discovered by A. L. Spaans on 6th June 1958 in a small muddy polder on the Friesian isle of Vlieland (see Spaans, 1959). His identification was confirmed by Dr. H. N. Kluijver on 23rd June, and on the 25th Spaans managed to capture the bird with an old fishing net. He put a ring on its leg (which can be seen in these plates) and set it free again. Jan P. Strijbos filmed and photographed it on 27th June, and I myself took over a hundred photographs in colour and black-and-white on the 29th. The bird was last seen alive on 10th July and was found dead seven kilometres away five days later. It proved to be an adult female and the skin is now preserved in the Rijksmuseum of Natural History at Leiden. It could easily be identified by its small size (markedly smaller than a Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus) , delicate black neck- ring, very small black bill, reddish legs and feet, light pearly grey upper and under wings (without black, except on the outer web of the 2nd primary) and large dark eyes. Several of these features, particularly the neck-ring, bill and large ej^es, and the black on the outer primary, can be well seen in these plates. The bird lacked the rosy tinge on the white parts which is a normal character of an adult at this time of year, and which gives the species its other name of Rosy Gull. This may have been due to the fact that it had not yet attained full sexual maturity, as the post-mortem showed, or it may have been a result of its generally poor condition. The tail- feathers were very worn, so that the wedge-shape was difficult to observe. The flight was tern-like and the wings appeared long and pointed with a broad white hind-border (plate 69 shows the bird in the air, but at an angle which brings out only the last of these features). When flushed it uttered a single subdued “kew”. Having been able to watch the bird closely on several days, Spaans (1959) recorded a number of interesting observations. Foraging never took place in deeper water, but always in a muddy part at the edge of a pool. The bird was seen to take insects from the surface of the water, and on dissection its stomach was found to contain some remains of small Hying insects, several fragments of 422 VOL. LIl] ROSS’S GULL STUDIES 423 amphipods (probably Gammarus), pieces of small snails ( Hydrobia ulvae), some strands of green algae (Enter omor pha) , and such lesser items as a wisp of Sphagnum, as well as 21 tapeworms, some nema- todes and 2 trematodes. The bird usually rested in a squatting attitude and was very intolerant of other species— for example, several times chasing away a Redshank ( Tringa totanus) that came close. Twice it was seen swimming ( cf . The Handbook ), and this is perhaps of interest in connection with the remarks of Bateson (1959) on the aversion to water of another Arctic species, the Ivory Gull (Pagopkila eburnea). There are only a handful of records of Ross’s Gull in Europe, owing to the “abnormal” preference that seemingly tiny bird has for wintering in the Arctic. Spaans lists the following as the only 12 known European occurrences: England (1846 or 1847), Heligoland (1858), Sardinia (1906), l-'rance (1913), Faeroes (1863, 1922 and summer 1927), Shetland (1936), Norway (1909 and 1949), Germany (1953) and Holland (1958). The Shetland record, which does not appear in The Handbook, was described by Kay (1942). This species was first discovered in June 1823 by James Clark Ross, a member of W. E. Parry’s second expedition, at Alagnak on the east side of Melville Peninsula in the Canadian Arctic. The fas- cinating history of efforts during the next 80 years to unravel the mysteries surrounding this beautiful gull in the Polar Basin have been described in detail by Fisher and Lockley (op. cit., pp. 234-237). S. A. Buturlin, in 1905, was the first naturalist to discover its breed- ing place in the delta of the Kolyma River in eastern Siberia. He showed (Buturlin, 1906) that it nested in marshy areas of alder scrub in the lower valleys of the Indegirka, Alazeya and Kolyma rivers, not on the tundra. According to Dementiev (Dementiev and Gladkov, 1951; quoted by Harber, 1955), little information has been added since Buturlin’s day though the species may nest at the mouth of the Yana and on the lower Khroma, and may extend about 100 miles east of the mouth of the Kolyma. There is also a single breeding record from western Greenland, which according to Salomonsen (1950) has been the subject of unjustified disbelief. There two adults and two eggs were collected on a small islet in Disko Bay on 15th June, 1885. Neither Salomonsen nor Snyder (1957) excludes the possibility that Ross’s Gull may breed in the Canadian Arctic. The exact winter range of the species is still unknown, but it has been established from the observations made in the Polar Basin outside the breeding-season that Ross’s Gull does not migrate south- wards, but apparently moves north, north-east or north-west into the Arctic Ocean. It is usually thought of as wintering on the pack ice, but Dementiev states that it apparently winters in those parts of the Arctic Ocean that are free from ice. Point Barrow in Alaska has long been known as a concentration point where big flocks of Ross’s Gulls may be observed in September and October. Fisher and Lockley summarized observations there over the last 424 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII eighty years. A few are occasionally seen in the spring, but “thousands” may appear in the autumn, always on a north-west wind and always flying east. REFERENCES Bateson, P. P. G. (1959) : “Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XCVI. Ivory Gull”. Brit. Birds, lii: 124-125. Buturlin, S. A. (1906): “The breeding grounds of the Rosy Gull”. Ibis (8) 6: 131-139. 333-337. 661-666. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. (1951) : The Birds of the Soviet Union. Moscow. Vol. III. Fisher, J., and Lockley, R. M. (1954): Sea-Birds. London. Harber, D. D. (1955) : Special Review of The Birds of the Soviet Union. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 344. Kay, G. T. (1942): “Ross’s Gull in Shetland”. Brit. Birds, xxxv: 276. Salomonsen, F. (1950): Grenlands Fugle. Copenhagen. Snyder, L. L. (1957): Arctic Birds of Canada. Toronto-London. Spaans, A. L. (1959): "Eerste waarneming voor Nederland van de Ross’ Mecuw Rhodostethia rosea (MacGillivray), op Vlieland”. Limosa, 32: 1-7. POLLEN CONTAMINATION OF BIRDS By J. S. Ash During the springs of 1957 and 1959 an unidentified substance was found adhering to the bills of four migrant species trapped at Portland Bird Observatory, Dorset. This has now proved to be an accumulation of Citrus pollen, and the following birds have been recorded carrying it : 28.4.57 Adult Whitetliroat ( Sylvia communis ) 30.4-57 Full-grown Whitethroat 1-5-57 Full-grown ? Blackcap (S. atricapilla ) 1-5-57 Full-grown ? Blackcap 4-5-57 Full-grown ? Blackcap 5-5-57 Full-grown ? Whitethroat 5-5-57 Full-grown Northern Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus acred id a) 28.4.59 Full-grown Whitethroat 1-5-59 Full-grown 585 35,7i8 126,303 4,063 1954 (1. 10.53-31. 12.54)1 77,809 36,684 114,493 3,043 1953 63,318 35T99 98,517 T3 1952 56,867 39,459 96,326 oj '■a i95i 49,364 36,379 85,743 i-< O 1950 42,112 33,994 76,106 ? 74 0 X pull. 24.6.56 4.10.58 Grassholm: 5i°44'N. 5°29'W. (Pembroke) SBO Brighton (Sussex) 185m. ESE. rn addition to those listed above, 27 birds were recovered abroad as follows: Table A — Country and month of recovery of Gannets (Sula bassana) 1 try of •very Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July ‘■‘■ay (2) r. vark (3) 1 any (2) mnd (1) tee (7) (6) ‘-gal (3) ■ ;co (3) t ties A-G in this Report are subject to error in cases where it has been necessary to assume that the date of ery was approximately that of the letter reporting it, whereas the bird may have been dead for some time before found or reported. Records of this type are bracketed when they are the only ones for the months concerned, Mis treatment is not, of course, possible when there are several records for the same month. (1) - — — — (>) Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo) (65: 100 miles) O pull. 24.6.57 Nr. Nigg : 57°4 1 'N. 3°59'W. (Ross) J L X 26.1.58 Douglas, Isle of Man 245m. S. 78 O pull. 13-6.57 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) X 25.11.58 Barbatre: 46°56'N. 2°io'W. (Vendee) France '83 0 pull. 7-7-51 Puffin Island: 53°i9'N. 4°oi'W. (Anglesey) T&H + 26.1.58 River Fowey (Cornwall) 200m. SSW. 43 0 pull. 22-7-53 Puffin Island T&H /?/ 0.1.58 Boiro: 42°39'N. 8°53'W. (Coruna) Spain 43 0 pull. 21.7.58 St. Margaret’s Island: 5i°3S'N. 4042'W. (Pembroke) WWFS 0 10.11.58 Nr. Vigo: 42°i5'N. 8°44'W. (Pontevedra) Spain 92 O pull. 3-7-54 St. Margaret’s Island WWFS /?/ 22.1.56 Sada: 43°22'N. 8°i5,W. (Coruna) Spain 03 O pull. 27.6.58 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°40'W. (Devon) + 21.9.58 Lanildut: 48°29'N. 4°45'W. (Finist^re) France 454 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI i Most of the remaining recoveries are of birds ringed in Wigtown at Castle Loch near Mochrum (54°47'N. 4°34'W.) and in Northumberland on the Fame Islands (55°37,N. i°37'W.) and may be summarized as follows: Ringed at Castle Loch Miles Direction of movement N. NE. E. SE. S. sw. w. NW. 0-75 2 — 6 — I I I 1 76-150 .. I 5 — 2 — — — — 151-225 .. — 1 — — I — — 226-300 .. . — — — I — — — — Miles Ringed on Fame Islands Direction of movement N. NE. E. SE. S. SW. w. NW. 0-75 ... — — — 3 3 I — II 76-150 ... — — — — — — 3 I 151-225 ... — — — 4 — — — — 226-300 ... — — — — — — — — 301-375 ... — — — I — — — Shag ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis ) (119: 100 miles) Birds ringed on the west coasts of England and Wales showed the regular tendency to move southwards and eastwards during the first year of life, there being French recoveries in Seine-Maritime on (26.2.58) and 12. 11.58 and in Cotes-du-Nord on 6.6.58, and a Spanish one in Santander on 5.8.58. A bird from the Fame Islands was recovered in Pas-de-Calais, France, in January. The following recoveries are given in full because relatively few Shags have been ringed in the north and west and the movements of these populations are less well known : 136x90 O pull. 12.8.57 Foula: 6o°o8'N. 2°07'W. (Shetland) D&Q X 14.6.58 Portessie (Banff) 175m. SSW. 518617 0 pull. 21.6.58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) Nr. Holmengr& Lighthouse: 6o°5i'N. 4°39'E. (Sogn og + 7-9-58 Fjordane) Norway 518614 0 pull. 21.6.58 Fair Isle 0 4-9-58 Fladen Grounds: ca. 58°25'N. o°i7'E. North Sea 509648 0 pull. 3-7-57 Rhum: ca. 57°oo/N. 6°2o'W. (Inverness) CH /?/ 3-7-58 Nr. Portaferry (Down) 185m. SSE. During the early part of 1958 many young Shags from east coast colonies 1 19 were recovered inland (see Brit. Birds, vol. li, pp. 84 and 130). The pattern of movements is similar to that which occurred in 1954 (see Brit. Birds, vol. xlviii, p. 471) but much more protracted and thus more difficult to relate to one set of weather conditions. For this period all recoveries over 100 miles are listed below (in recovery date order) : ILL. LIl] REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 455 f-ne Is. Ringed pull. 11.6.57 21.12.57 rrne Is. pull. 6-7-57 3II2-57 r: ne Is. pull. 29.6.57 (2.1.58) f May pull. 3-6.57 25-1-58 ne Is. pull. 10.6.57 27.1.58 me Is. pull. 6-7-57 3-2-58 A May pull. 3-6-57 9.2.58 me Is. pull. 6-7-57 13-2-58 ne Is. pull. 10.6.57 15-2.58 •f May pull. 2.6.57 (18.2.58) f May pull. 4-6-57 19.2.58 -•ne Is. pull. 6-7-57 19-2.58 f May pull. 26.6.57 21.2.58 •f May pull. 3-6-57 22.2.58 f May pull. 3-6-57 (27.2.58) ••is Rock pull. 2-7-57 3-3-58 rrne Is. pull. 21.6.57 ca. 9-3-58 4 May pull. 26.6.57 I5-3-58 rrne Is. pull. 29.6.57 16.3.58 ;-f May pull. 14.7.56 16.3.58 sss Rock pull. 2-7-57 16.3.58 rrne Is. pull. 4-8-57 16.3.58 rrne Is. juv. 4-8-57 (I7-3-58) of May pull. 5-7-57 2-5-58 Recovered ♦Hertfordshire 270m. SSE. Gloucestershire 300m. SSW. Essex 285m. SSE. ♦Essex 330m. SSE. Norfolk 210m. SSE. ♦Kent 310m. SSE. Norfolk 260m. SE. * H u ntingdonshire 240m. SSE. * Cambridgeshire 220m. SSE. ♦Lincolnshire 250m. SSE. Yorkshire 200m. SE. Caithness 200m. NNW. Banffshire room. NNW. Lincolnshire 240m. SE. Ross-shire 1 20m. NNW. ♦Cambridgeshire 290m. SSE. Norfolk 210m. SSE. Banffshire 100m. N. Norfolk 245m. SSE. Norfolk 255m. SSE. Suffolk 320m. SSE. Orkney 240m. NNW. ♦Bedfordshire 255m. SSE. ♦Cambridgeshire 280m. SSE. ♦Inland locality Heron (Ardea cinerea) (40: 100 miles) 0123 O pull. 17-4-52 Nr. Downpatrick: 54°og'N. 5°43'W. (Down) JAB X 30-3-58 Nr. Bowes (York) 150m. E. i'820 O pull. 12.5-57 Deeping St. James: 52°4o'N. o°i7'W. (Lincoln) CBC + 2.11.58 Tambo I.: 42°24'N. 8°42'W. (Pontevedra) Spain ’ 909 O pull. 28.4.56 Deeping St. James DRW + autumn 1958 Nr. Stroud (Gloucester) 100m. SW. 607 O pull. 26.4.58 Denver: 52°35'N. o°22'E. (Norfolk) CBC + (16.10.58) Aveiro: 40°38'N. 8°4o'\\. (Beira Litoral) Portugal Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) (630) 837 + f-g- 3 15-2.56 0.10.58 Ludham: 52°42'N. i°33'E. (Norfolk) Toke: 59°o7'N. g°o5'E. (Telemark) Norway 100 f-g- 3 28.4.57 Deeping Lake: 52°4o'N. o°i7/W. (Lincoln) V 12.8.57 Anna Jacoba Polder: 5i°38'N. 4°o8'E. (Zeeland) Netherlands _L (n.1.58) Ollerton: 53°i2'N. i^iAV. (Nottingham) 255 f-g. 3 14-5-57 Deeping Lake + 17.8.58 Tjaereborg: 55°28'N. 8°35'E. (Jutland) Denmark 918 f-g- 3 14-1-58 Peakirk: 52°38'N. o°i7'W. (Northampton) + 30.11.58 Nr. Brody: 50°i5'N. i3°2o'E. (Bohemia) Czechoslo- vakia 327 f-g- 9 ir. 1.57 Peakirk + 1.10.58 Roykenvik: 6o°25'N. io°29'E. (Opland) Norway 943 f-g- 3 27.1.58 Peakirk + 3-9-58 Nr. Orje: 59°28'N. n°4o'E. (Ostfold) Norway BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII 456 943954 f-g. ? 30.1.58 Peakirk V ( with young) 6.6.58 En&nger: 6i°3i'N. i7°oo'E. (Gavleborg) Sweden + 1.9.58 Nr. Enanger 938458 juv. 2.9.56 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Leiden V 1.8.57 Anna Jacoba Polder: 5i°38'N. 4°o8'E. (Zeeland] 284065 + 24.1.58 Netherlands Aldeburgh : 520og'N. i°36'E. (Suffolk) 940446 ad. cJ 2.6.58 Abberton + (7.8.58) Hiintel: 52°48'N. 7°i5'E. (Niedersachsen) Germany 938608 f-g- $ 8.6.57 Abberton X A (17.1.58) Nr. Rannoch Station (Perth) 390m. NW. 940060 juv. 26.8.57 Abberton + 16.8.58 Lisheen (Tipperary) 360m. W. 944846 + istW. 1512. 57 28.10.58 Slimbridge: 5i°44'N. 2°25'W. (Gloucester) Cserkeszollo : 46°52'N. 2o°i2'E. (Jasz-Nagy-Kun- Szolnok) Hungary 941981 f-g- .S.R. and laltic States (25) — 9 1 — 11 3 1 — — — _ — ‘Total includes three undated recoveries. See footnote to Table A. 36 Teal ringed at Abberton and 3 at Slimbridge were recovered in Ireland, the remaining 152 recoveries in the British Isles, 3 show a movement of er 300 miles, 9 a movement of 200-299 miles, 27 a movement of 100-199 miles, d 1 13 a movement of less than 100 miles. Garganey (Anas querquedula) (4) 4531 + ad. cJ 21.8.53 14.9.58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Bozzolo: 45°o7'N. io°2g/E. (Lombardy) Italy 7590 + ad. <$ 10.6.55 4-3-58 Abberton Nr. Udine: 46°04'N. i3°i4'E. (Venezia) Italy 24170 + ad. $ 9-4 57 3i-3-58 Abberton Lac de Grand-Lieu: 47°o6'N. i°4o'W. (Loire-Atlan- tique) France 24202 + ad. 3 30- 7-57 31- 3-58 Abberton Nr. Audenge: 44042'N. i°oi'W. (Gironde) France Gadwall ( Anas strepera) (5: 15 miles) 24187 + ad. $ 24-5-57 1 1.10.58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Gressenhall (Norfolk) 60m. N. 24196 O + pull. 1-7-57 5-1-58 Abberton Vauvert: 43°4i'N. 4°i6'E. (Gard) France 458 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii 3024197 0 + pull. 14-7-57 0.2.58 Abberton Vaccares: 43°32'N. 4°35'E. (Bouches-du-Rhone) France 304*475 + ad. ? 23-5-58 11. 11. 58 Abberton Nr. Le Havre: 49°3o'N. o°o6'E. (Seine-Maritime) France Wigeon ( Anas penelope) (26) 918868 + f-g- ¥ 2.4.56 24.11.58 Deeping Lake: 52°4o'N. o°i7'W. (Lincoln) Lough Erne 330m. WNW. 919085 + f-g- c? 5-4-57 3-3-58 Deeping Lake Vespolate: 45°2i'N. 8°40'E. (Novara) Italy 3021632 + istW. c? 5-12.56 I9-3-58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Ponte Buggianese: 43°5o'N. io°47'E. (Toscana) Italy 3024049 + istW. ca. I4-I-57 17.12.57 Abberton Holy Island (Northumberland) 285m. NNW. In addition to the above, Wigeon ringed at Abberton during December-March were recovered as follows. France: Vendee, 1.2.58; Loire-Atlantique, 24.1.58. Netherlands: Friesland, 6.11.58. Denmark: Jutland, 21.9.58; Fyn, 2.9.58; Sjaelland, 29.10.57. Sweden: Norrbotten, 21.8.54, 6.6.58; Ostergotland, 3.10.58. U.S.S.R.: Kaliningrad, 20.10.58; Arkhangel, 18.8.58; Komi, spring 1957, 20.5.58. Eight birds were recovered in England at distances up to 130 miles from the ringing locality. Pintail ( Anas acuta ) (10: 20 miles) AD9617 O + pull. 2-7-55 0.12.58 Killyleagh: 54°24'N. 5°39'W. (Down) PPM Maren: 5i°48'N. 5°23'E. (Noord-Brabant) Nether- lands 918837 /?/ f-g- ? 21-3-56 22.5.58 Deeping Lake: 52°4o'N. o°i7,W. (Lincoln) Leshukonskoe : 64°54'N. 45042'E. (Arkhangel) U.S.S.R. 3007556 + f-g- <$ 30.12.57 20.5.58 Peakirk: 52°38'N. o°i7'W. (Northampton) Leshukonskoe, U.S.S.R. 932758 + ad. 5-3-53 11.9.58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Hyllekrog: 54°36'N. ii°30/E. (Lolland) Denmark 932958 X ad. ? 15. 11. 56 early 12.57 Abberton Meissen: 5i°io'N. i3°28'E. (Sachsen) Germany 932971 /?/ ad. L. LIl] REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 461 2TJJ )}222 This is r 789 '■4775 11770 7 1096 79538 : 18603 U8636 186 44 U8670 1 87 06 I8714 K8728 118742 f 8753 K8783 >100 Red-legged Partridge ( Alectoris mfa) (1) fg- 29.9.56 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) + 30.12.58 Thwing (York) 40m. NW. Water Rail ( Rallus aquations ) (2: 20 miles) ad. 4-12.57 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) X 24-4-58 Broumov: 5o°36'N. i6°2o'E. Czechoslovakia the first recovery of a British-ringed Water Rail in Czechoslovakia. Corncrake ( Crex crex) (1) f-g- xi-5-58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i037'W. (Shetland) South Ronaldshay (Orkney) 70m. SW. x A (30-7-58) Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus) (19: 20 miles) istW. 6.10.57 HighRoyd: 53°43,N. i°5i'W. (York) HSS X 23-5-58 Nidd (York) 24m. NE. juv. 25-7-57 Nr. Colchester: 5i°53'N. o055'E. (Essex) MSJS X ca. 22.7.58 Chevington (Suffolk) 26m. NW. Coot ( Fulica atra ) (23 : 100 miles) ad. I5-I-53 Abberton: 5x°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Langedijk: 52°4i'N. 4°49'E. (Noord-Holland) Nether- + 15.2.58 lands ad. 20-3-54 Abberton + 27.10.58 Maarsseveenseplassen : 52°o8'N. 5°04'E. (Utrecht) Netherlands juv. 24.8.56 Abberton + 1.11.58 Nr. Berck: 5o°24'N. i°36'E. (Pas-de-Calais) France juv. 30.12.56 Abberton X 0.1.58 Zwaagvvesteinde : 53°i6,N. 6°o8'E. (Friesland) Nether- lands ad. 2-1-57 Abberton 0 1 1 .10.58 Veenwouden: 53°i4'N. 6°oo'E. (Friesland) Nether- lands ad. 21.2.57 Abberton + 12. IO. 58 Tange So: 56°2o'N. 9°37'E. (Jutland) Denmark ad. 24-5-57 Abberton + 15.12.58 Blithfield Reservoir (Stafford) 130m. NW. ad. 4-7-57 Abberton + 15-2-58 Langedijk: 52°4i'N. 4°49'E. (Noord-Holland) Nether- lands ad. 29.10.57 Abberton + 15-1-58 Weston (Stafford) 135m. WNW. ad. 2S.1x.57 Abberton /?/ 17.8.58 Nr. Ringkobing: 56°io'N. 8°i4'E. (Jutland) Denmark ad. 19.12.57 Abberton /?/ 23-1-58 Seghill (Northumberland) 240m. NW. ad. 18.3.58 Abberton + 0.10.58 Nr. Ringkobing, Denmark Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) (27: 100 miles) O pull. 6.7.57 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) X 8.2.58 Parkgate (Cheshire) 430m. SSE. 462 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII 385153 0 pull. M Cn 00 Fair Isle X 27.11.58 Morecambe (Lancashire) 380m. S. 359383 0 pull. 20.6.53 Durness: 58°33'N. 4°45'W. (Sutherland) EGH + 4.12.58 Lahinch (Clare) 420m. SSE. 380049 0 pull. 3-7-57 Durness EGH + 5-1.58 Ventry (Kerry) 500m. SSW. 3205355 0 pull. 10.6.57 Strath Nairn: ca. 57°i8'N. 4°i7'W. (Inverness) ESS x A 4-5-58 Walney (Lancashire) ca. 240m. S. 390817 O pull. 17.6.58 Aviemore: 57°i2'N. 3°5o/W. (Inverness) RPC /?/ 30.8.58 Cahirciveen (Kerry) 530m. SW. 3016526 O pull. 13-6-57 Nr. Moniaive: 55°ii'N. 3°55/W. (Dumfries) TT X (8.1.58) Nr. Swansea (Glamorgan) 240m. S. 327806 0 pull. 23-6.57 Nr. Arnside: 54°i2'N. 2°5o'W. (Westmorland) JAGB I T 4.8.58 Dragey: 48°43'N. i°3o'W. (Manche) France 388502 0 pull. 12.6.57 Bardsey: 52°46'N. 4°48'W. (Caernarvon) 0 0.8.58 Arteijo: 43°i9'N. 8°29'W. (Coruna) Spain 3011851 0 pull. 1.7.58 Scolt Head: 52°59'N. o°45'E. (Norfolk) EAGD xA 26.12.58 Imsouane: 3i°oo/N. 9°5o'W. Morocco Lapwing ( Vanellus vancllus) (36) 273611 O pull. 96.57 Milton of Clova : 56°5i'N. 3°o6'W. (Angus) GBC /?/ 18.7.58 Nr. Sjorring: 56°56'N. 8°3i'E. (Jutland) Denmark In addition to the above, birds ringed in Scotland and northern England were recovered between November and February as follows: Ireland, 2; France, 3; Spain, 3; and Portugal, 1. Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula ) (8 : 30 miles) X30035 juv. 26.8.54 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i0377W. (Shetland) + 27-5-56 Santander: 43°28'N. 3°48'W. Spain S78328 O pull. 18.6.57 Criccieth: 52°56'N. 4°i4'W. (Caernarvon) LAP /?/ 10.3.58 Nr. Milford Haven (Pembroke) 90m. SSW. S56345 O pull. 23-6.57 Foulness: 5i037'N. o°57'E. (Essex) F&H + 15-8.58 La Barre des Monts: 46°52'N. 2°07'W. (Vendee) France Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius dubius) (3: 10 miles) S76530 O pull. 27-5-57 Nr. St. Albans: 5i°46'N. o°2o'W. (Hertford) DJTH + 18.4.58 Nr. Melilla: 35°i7'N. 2°57'W. Spanish Morocco V 78207 O pull. 4-7-58 Nr. Canterbury: 5i°i7'N. i°05'E. (Kent) DFH Tour du Valat: 43°3o'N. 4°4o'E. (Bouches-du- v 23-8.58 Rhone) France Snipe {Capella gallinago) (10: 35 miles) V10402 0 pull. 15-5-57 Nr. Appleby: 54°36'N. 2°2g'W. (Westmorland) RWR + 21.1.58 Loch Ryan (Wigtown) 100m. W. S13407 0 pull. 6.5-56 Nr. Abbeystead: 53°59'N. 2°4o'W. (Lancashire) RMB + 26.10.58 Portumna (Galway) 230m. WSW. S33606 ad. 3.10.55 Abbcrton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) /?/ 28.9.58 Primorsk: 54°46'N. 20°oo'E. (Kaliningrad) U.S.S.R- This is the first recovery of a British-ringed Snipe from the U.S.S.R. REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 463 ad. ? 2-7-57 Abberton + ca. 20.2.58 Nr. Winsford (Cheshire) 165m. WNW. ad. 13-10.57 Abberton + 13-1-58 La Belle lie: 47°i7'N. i°54'W. (Loire- Atlantique) France ad. 3.10.58 Abberton 0 1.11.58 Gatica: 43°22'N. 2°54'W. (Vizcaya) Spain Jack Snipe [Lymnocryptes minimus ) (1) f-g- 7-12.57 Epsom: 5i°2o'N. o°i6'W. (Surrey) DP + 3-i-58 St. Augustin: 45°42'N. i°o6'W. (Charente-Maritime) France Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola) (2 : 5 miles) 0 pull. 24-5-58 Ilkley : 53°56'N. i°49'W. (York) WNS + 18.12.58 St. Evarzec: 47°56'N. 4°oo'W. (Finistere) France Curlew [Numenius arquata ) (12: 70 miles) 0 pull. 21.5-56 Langwatliby: 54°42'N. 2°39'W. (Cumberland) WH + ca. 19.1.58 Nr. Spiddal (Galway) 285m. WSW. 0 pull. 22.6.58 Raisbeck: 54°28'N. 2°35'W. (Westmorland) RMB + 13.12.58 Nr. Lismore (Waterford) 270m. SW. 0 pull. 6.8.57 Nr. Harrogate: 53°59'N. i°33'W. (York) S&W + 4.10.58 Nr. Kilkeel (Down) 175m. W. 0 pull. 31-5-55 Nr. Harrogate S&W + 8.11.58 R. Exe (Devon) ca. 240m. SSW. 0 pull. 11.6.54 Whitewell: 53°56'N. 2°33'W. (Lancashire) RMB X ca. 4.3.58 Pwllheli (Caernarvon) loom. SW. f-g- I4-9-58 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°4o'W. (Devon) X 28.10.58 Nr. Brest: 48°23'N. 4°3o'W. (Finistere) France Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus ) (1) ad. $ 24-4-57 Dungeness: 5o°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Grande Briere : ca. 47°24'N. 2°i8'W. (Loire-Atlantique) + 25-3 58 France Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus) (i) ad. 30.9.55 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) + 8.12.55 Navalvillar del Pela: 39°05'N. 5°28'W. (Badajoz) Spain Common Sandpiper [Tringa hypoleucos) (6: 20 miles) f.g. 21.8.58 Nr. Wisbech: 52°44'N. o°n'E. (Cambridge) CDTM -f ca. 14.9.58 Nr. Figueira da Foz: 400og'N. 8°5i'W. (Beira Litoral) Portugal ad. v 16.5.56 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) 19.7.58 Nr. Wisbech (Cambridge) 65m. NW. X ad. 13.6.56 Abberton 12.5.58 Douglas (Lanark) 320m. NW. juv. 31.7.56 Abberton 31.5.58 Aysgarth (York) 200m. NW. X 464 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. lii Redshank ( Tringa totanus ) (4: 10 miles) S89972 f-g- 13-9-57 Fenwick: 55°39'N. i°54'W. (Northumberland) ND&N Laugabaer: ca. 64°37'N. 2i°33'W. Borgarfjordur, X 5-6.58 Iceland VI0386 0 + pull. 16.5.58 12.10.58 Appleby: 54°36'N. 2°29'W. (Westmorland) RWR Gayton (Cheshire) 90m. SSW. S89972 is the first recovery of a British-ringed Redshank in Iceland. Dunlin ( Calidris alpina ) (8 : 10 miles) S42958 + ad. 2.9.56 (25-3-58) Nr. Seahouses: 55°35'N. i°39'W. (Northumberland) MHBO La Teste de Buch: 44°34'N. i°09'W. (Gironde) France S42918 + ad. 31.8.56 15-3-57 Nr. Seahouses MHBO Nr. Lufon: 46°28/N. i°io'W. (Vendee) France S21072 X istW. 19-8.55 10.6.58 Beadnell: 55°33'N. i°37/W. (Northumberland) MHBO Hvitarbakki : ca. 64°09'N. 2o023/W. Arnessysla, Iceland 601009 + f-g- 19.8.58 ca. 0.11.58 Holme: 52°58'N. o°33'E. (Norfolk) CDTM Nr. Vila do Conde: 4i°2i'N. 8°45'W. (Douro Litoral) Portugal R23188 + juv. 23.8.58 6.10.58 Nottingham: 52°57'N. i°o8'W. JASB Noirmoutier: 47°oi/N. 2°i5'W. (Vendde) France Si 754- + f-g- 21.8.57 9-5-58 Nr. Camber: 5o°56'N. o°5o'E. (Sussex) DBO Bassin d’Arcachon: 44°43'N. i°io'W. (Gironde) France S21072 is the first recovery of a British-ringed Dunlin in Iceland. AH9506 O X Great Skua ( Catharacta skua ) (5: 5 miles) pull. 8.7.58 Hermaness: 6o°5o'N. o°53'W. (Shetland) Sm&W early 10.58 Nr. Montrelais: 47°24'N. o°57'W. (Loire-Atlantique) France AJ 10528 O 0 pull. 9-7-58 i7-I2-58 Hermaness Sm&W Setubal: 38°3i'N. 8°54'W. (Estremadura) Portugal 409690 0 X pull. 24.6.56 28.7.58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i037'W. (Shetland) Julianehdb Fjord: ca. 6o°45'N. 46°oo'W. Greenland 412004 Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus ) (22 : 70 miles) O pull. 24.6.57 Castlecraig : 57°4i'N. 3°59'W. (Ross) JL X end 4.58 Barnton (Midlothian) 120m. SSE. 412019 O /?/ pull. CO in w CN Castlecraig JL Mull of Kintyre (Argyll) 180m. SW. 412061 0 X pull. n-7-57 22.1.58 Castlecraig J L Troon (Ayr) 150m. S. Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus) (71) 25 birds were recovered in the British Isles, only six showing movements of more than 50 miles. The following are from areas where British-ringed birds are seldom recovered : AF8779 AH7586 O pull. /?/ O pull, v 10.8.53 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) c 3.9.55 Reus: 4i°io'N. i°o6'E. (Gerona) Spain 18.8.57 Fame Islands 7.12.58 Nr. Algiers: 36°5o'N. 3°oo'E. Algeria OL. LIl] REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 465 J2118 O pull. 18.8.57 Fame Islands 27.12.58 Funchal: 32°4o'N. i6°55'\V. Madeira This ring number was read through binoculars on the live bird. J2747 O pull. 26.7.58 Rockcliffe: 540 56'N. 2°59'W. (Cumberland) RHB v 10.12.58 Nr. Algiers, Algeria In addition to the above, 38 birds were recovered abroad as follows: Table D — Country and month of recovery of Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Larus fuscus) ) untry of tecovcry Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. I France and 'N. Spain (4)* — 1 1 — — — — — — — 1 — . Spain and i Portugal (jo) 3556143 — 11 — 1 'W. Africa (4) — — — j — 1 — — — — — — •Total includes one undated recovery. See footnote to Table A. Herring Gull ( Larus argentatus ) (75 : 200 miles) rr ii6j O x pull. 17-6-57 2.2.58 Castlecraig: 57°4i'N. 3°59'\V. (Ross) JL Sale (Cheshire) 300m. SSE. J4063 O X pull. 2-7-57 (5-8-58) Nr. Rosemarkie: 57°36'N. 4°07'W. (Ross) JL Broughshane (Antrim) 200m. SSW. J3102 0 X pull. 17-7-57 21.2.58 Nr. Rosemarkie JL Walthamstow (Essex) 440m. SSE. IH4611 0 X pull. 10.6.56 7.8.58 Copeland: 54°4o'N. 5°32'W. (Down) 1st Kroonspolder : 53°i6'N. 4°58'E. (Friesland) Netherlands ■ jiioi X A 4th year I3-II-55 20.4.58 Steep Holme: 5i°2i'N. 3°07'W. (Somerset) DMC Nr. Longcroft (Stirling) 320m. N. F2154 X juv. 9-7-58 10.12.58 St. Margaret’s Bay: 5i°o9'N. i°24'E. (Kent) DFH Berck-sur-Mer: 50°25'N. i°34'E. (Pas-de-Calais) France ; '3311 X Common Gull ( Larus canus) (2 : 10 miles) istW. 26.2.55 Chelmsford: 5i°44'N. o°28'E. (Essex) P&B (15.9.58) Geta: 6o°23'N. ig°5o'E. (Aland Islands) Finland D0S49 0 + Black-headed Gull ( Larus ridibnndus) (177) pull. 26.6.57 Ravenglass: 54°2i'N. 3°25'W. (Cumberland) ROMF (7.1.58) Vecinos: 40°47'N. 5°52'W. (Salamanca) Spain >02602 0 X pull. 3-7-57 (26.2.58) Marston: 52°39'N. o°4iW. (Lincoln) WMP Alpiarca: 39°i5'N. 8°35'W. (Ribatejo) Portugal '9749 0 -f- pull. 26.6.58 31-8-58 Nr. Strata Florida: 52°i6'N. 3°54'W. (Cardigan) PJC Oporto: 4i°09'N. 8° 37'W. (Douro Litoral) Portugal 10874 V V ad. 28.2.52 17-4-55 4-12.58 St. James’s Park: 5i°3o'N. o°o8'W. (London) TLB Wroclaw: 5i°o7'N. i7°oo'E. Poland St. James’s Park 18673 X ad. 412. 52 I3-4-58 St. James’s Park TLB Sjolunda: 55°35'N. i3°oo'E. (Malmohus) Sweden >17047 0 + pull. 20.6.56 25-1-58 Stoke: 5i°27'N. o°38'E. (Kent) F&M Nr. Oporto, Portugal 466 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII 3017177 0 X pull. 19-5-57 17.1.58 Stoke F&M Nr. Madrid: 40°25'N. 3°43/W. Spain 3031 15- 0 + pull. 9-6-57 19.1.58 Stoke F&M Nr. Oporto, Portugal 3031531 0 0 pull. 22.6. 57 10.8.58 Stoke F&M Nazard: 39°36'N. 9°04'W. (Estremadura) Portugal 3044003 0 0 pull. 14.6.58 o.ri.58 Stoke F&M Llauri: 39°io'N. o°2o'W. (Valencia) Spain 3025330 0 + pull. 16.6.57 early 2.58 Nr. Low Halstow: 5i°22'N. o°4i'E. (Kent) PRG Nr. Guisona: 4i°47'N. i°i8'E. (Ldrida) Spain 368430 X istW. 3Q-I-54 1.7.5S Sandwich: 5i°i7'N. i°20,E. (Kent) DFH Oslo: 59°56'N. io°45'E. Norway 3010266 + ist\V. 18.2.56 early 7.58 Sandwich DFH Kuddby: 58°32'N. i6°33'E. (Ostergotland) Sweden 368450 X ad. 21.2.56 20.4.58 Sandwich DFH Beerse: siTg'N. 4°5i'E. (Antwerp) Belgium 3030198 0 + pull. 18.6.58 Rye Harbour: 5o°56'N. o°46'E. (Sussex) DDH (13. 12. 58) Mira: 40°26'N. 8°44'W. (Beira Litoral) Portugal A total of 39 Black-headed Gulls ringed as pullus were recovered in the British Isles at distances between 50 and 435 miles from their natal colonies. Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla ) (36: 100 miles) 384612 ad. 23-7-54 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37,W. (Northumberland) + 21.3-58 O/fTroldhoved: 6i°56'N. 7°22'W. Faeroes 3004907 O pull. 10.8.55 Fame Islands X ca. 15.12.58 Laytown (Meath) 225m. WSW. 3017651 O pull. 7-7-56 Fame Islands + 28.7.58 Nr. Frederiksh&b : ca. 62°oo,N. 49°3o'W. Greenland 3017658 O pull. 7-7-56 Fame Islands + 12.8.58 Nr. Frederiksh&b, Greenland 3023478 O pull. 6-7-57 Fame Islands X 28.6.58 Skegness (Lincoln) 190m. SSE. 3023671 0 pull. 6-7-57 Fame Islands + 27.8.58 Marrak: 63°24'N. 5i°i8'W. Godth&b, Greenland 3023673 0 pull. 6-7-57 Fame Islands X 3-7-58 Donna Nook (Lincoln) 165m. SSE. 3052034 0 pull. 10.7.58 Fame Islands 0 15-11-58 Off lie d’Yeu : 46°4o'N. 2°3o'W. (Vend6e) France 3052717 0 pull. 10.7.58 Fame Islands V (23.10.58) Nr. Terschelling Lightship: 53°29'N. 5°o8'E. Nether- lands 3022063 O pull. 18.7.58 Fame Islands 0 15-11-58 Off He d’Yeu, France 3052361 0 pull. 18.7.58 Fame Islands 0 17.x2.58 At sea: ca. 58°oo'N. s^do'E. Skagerrak (Norway) 3052597 0 pull. 19.7.58 Fame Islands 0 26.12.58 At sea: ca. 45°3o'N. 2°2o'W. Bay of Biscay (France) 376771 0 pull. 17-6-55 North Shields: 55°oi'N. i°26'\V. (Northumberland) ND&N + 17.8.58 Fxeringehavn : ca. 64°oo'N. 5i°oo'W. Greenland )L. LIl] REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 467 Common Tern [Sterna hirundo ) (15: 35 miles) » 14° 1 5 O pull. 28.6.57 Ravenglass: 54°2i/N. 3°25'\V. (Cumberland) ROMF /?/ 20.4.58 Aflao: 6°07'N. i°ii'E. Ghana 6627 O pull. 18.6.57 Kirkby-on-Bain : 53°o8'N. o°o9'W. (Lincoln) ADT 0 18.4.58 Nr. Saltpond: 5°i3'N. i°oo'W. Ghana .>2720 0 pull. 30.6.58 Scolt Head: 52°59'N. o°45'E. (Norfolk) EAGD + 00 in ►H d M M’Bour: i4°22'N. i6°54,\V. Senegal 41450 0 pull. 2-7-57 Scolt Head EAGD 0 2.2.58 Yoft: i4°43'N. i7°i9'\V. Senegal 1^1466 0 pull. 3 7-57 Scolt Head EAGD 0 15-6-58 Monrovia: 6°2o'N. io°46'W. Liberia 1:2447 0 pull. 21-7-57 Nr. Great Yarmouth: 52°36'N. i°45'E. (Norfolk) YNS 0 15-6-58 Monrovia, Liberia 1:2464 0 pull. 18.6.58 Nr. Great Yarmouth YNS X 11. 12. 58 Dakar: i4°38'N. i7°27'W. Senegal V 5348 0 pull. 6.7.58 Nr. Great Yarmouth YNS 0 (22.11.58) Joal: i4°09'N. i6°5o'W. Senegal 146658 0 pull. ”-7-57 Rye Harbour: 5o°56'N. o°46'E. (Sussex) DDH + 27-3-58 M’Bour, Senegal '39442 0 pull. 19.7.58 Rye Harbour DDH 0 6.9.58 Honfleur: 49°25'N. o°i4'E. (Calvados) France '*9444 0 pull. 19.7.58 Rye Harbour DDH + ca. 0.10.58 Nr. Vila do Conde: 4i°2i'N. 8°45'\V. (Douro Litoral) Portugal Arctic Tern [Sterna macrura ) (31) 42714 0 pull. 9-7-55 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) X ca. 15.5.58 Beaufort (Monmouth) 270m. SSW. 93528 0 pull. 16.7.58 Fame Islands X 17-8-58 Luro: sS^S'N. i3°n'E. (Vhrmland) Sweden 148910 0 pull. 13-8.58 Fame Islands 0 ca. 12.10.58 Quarteira: 37°04'N. 8°o6'W. (Algarve) Portugal Roseate Tern [Sterna dougallii) (2) ,9206 0 pull. 17-7-58 Firth of Forth: ca. 56°05'N. 2°55'W. MOC 0 ca. 12.10.58 Quarteira: 37°04'N. 8°o6'W. (Algarve) Portugal 35032 0 pull. 24.7.58 Firth of Forth MOC /?/ I5-9-58 San Esteban: 43°33'N. 6°o5'\V. (Oviedo) Spain Little Tern [Sterna albifrons) (1) 33205 0 pull. 18.7.58 Tentsmuir: 56°27'N. 2049'W. (Fife) WJE + ca. 0.10.58 Nr. Vila do Conde: 4i°2i'N. 8°45'W. (Douro Litoral) Portugal Sandwich Tern ( Sterna sandvicensis ) (32) 2417 0 pull. 21-7-55 Fidra: 56°04'N. 2°47'\V. (East Lothian) HM&M x A ca. 15.7.58 Charron: 460i9'N. i°o6'W. (Charente-Maritime) France 13081 O pull. 14.7.56 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) Prat deLlobregat: 4i°23'N. 2°o7'E. (Barcelona) Spain + 22.1.58 468 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII 276687 0 pull. 4-7-55 Fame Islands X 25-5-58 Nr. The Hague: 52°04'N. 4°i4'E. (Zuid-Holland) Netherlands 2007605 0 pull. 5-7-57 Scolt Head: 52°59/N. o°45'E. (Norfolk) EAGD + 0.9.58 Nr. Cartagena: 37°36'N. o°59'W. (Murcia) Spain In addition to the above, 23 birds were recovered abroad, as follows : Table E — Country and month of recovery of Sandwich Terns ( Sterna sandvicensis) Country of recovery Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Spain and Portugal (3) S6n6gal (7) Ivory Coast and Ghana (6) Belgian Congo and Angola (6) S. Africa (i) i 2 4 3 2 See footnote to Table A. Of the nine birds recovered in the British Isles, only two showed movements of more than 50 miles. Razorbill (A lea torda) (14: 100 miles) AT 28 37 1 O pull. 8.7.56 St. Kilda: 57°49'N. 8°34'W. Outer Hebrides DRW 0 12.6.58 Viderejde: 62°23'N. 6°3i,W. Faeroes AT16619 O pull. 14-7-53 Skokholm: 5i°42'N. 5°i6'W. (Pembroke) X (22.5.58) le Verdon: 45°33'N. i°04'W. (Gironde) France AT29418 0 pull. 30.6.55 Skokholm X A 9.2.58 Hengistbury Head (Hampshire) 160m. ESE. AT 29 526 0 pull. 6-7-55 Skokholm X 9.1.58 Nr. Lacanau Ocean: 45°oo'N. i°02'W. (Gironde) France AT 40446 0 pull. 1.7.56 Skokholm X 4.6.58 La Barre de Monts: 46°52'N. 2°07'W. (Vendee) France AT 40393 0 pull. 3-7-56 Skokholm X 1511-58 Grouville Bay: 49°ii,N. 2°o2'W. Jersey AT 4051 3 0 pull. 4-7-56 Skokholm + I4-3-58 lie de Noirmoutier: 46°5S'N. 2°i4'W. (Vendee) France AT 3592 1 0 pull. 23.6.56 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°4o'W. (Devon) X (22.1.58) Golfe de Fos: ca. 43°23'N. 4°55'E. (Bouches-du- Rhone) France AT36022 ad. 2.7.56 Lundy X 2.8.58 Menai Strait ca. 130m. N. Guillemot (Uria aalge ) (12: 100 miles) AT33712 0 pull. 26.6.57 Isle of May: 56°ii'N. 2°33'W. (Fife) + (17.1.58) Off Torbjorn Lighthouse: 58°56'N. io°4i'E. Oslofjord, Norway AT 51894 0 pull. 1.8.58 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. x°37'W. (Northumberland) + 22.10.58 Oslofjord: ca. 59°oo'N. io°4o'E. Norway 3055164 0 pull. 11.7.58 Skomer: 5i°44'N. 5°ig'W. (Pembroke) SBO X 19.8.58 Dawlish Warren (Devon) 110m. SE. REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 469 OL. LIl] T 187 2 3 O pull. 26.6.55 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°4o'W. (Devon) X 23-4-58 Shanklin, Isle of Wight 160m. ESE. TI4836 ad. 4-7-56 Lundy 0 11.8.58 lie Houat: 47°24'N. 2°58'W. (Morbihan) France T6I587 0 pull. 4-7-58 Menavaur: 49°58'N. 6°ig'\V. Scilly HE&W Nr. Pasajes: 43°2o'N. i°55'W. (Guipuzcoa) Spain 0 20.x1.58 Puffin ( Fratercula arctica) (10: 100 miles) T55I49 0 pull. 11-7-58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) X 25.12.58 Seaton Carew (Durham) 340m. S. T55204 0 pull. 00 in Fair Isle + 24.11.58 Sardloq, J ulianehAb: ca. 6o°oo'N. 45°oo'W. Greenland X9003 0 pull. 22.7.51 Flannan Isles: 58°i7'N. 7°36'W. Outer Hebrides DGA X 27.4.58 Tangier: 35°47'N. 5°5o'\V. T45408 0 ad. 1.6.57 Fame Islands: 55°37'N. i°37,W. (Northumberland) X (28.2.58) Camperduin: 52°44'N. 4°38'E. (Noord-Holland) Netherlands ! T41465 ad. 22.7.56 Skokholm : 5i°42'N. 5°i6'W. (Pembroke) /?/ (22.1.58) lie d’Yeu: 46°42'N. 2°i8'W. (Vendde) France AT55204 is the first recovery of a British-ringed Puffin in Greenland. Note 5 hat AT55149, which was ringed on the same day, was apparently wintering in British waters. AX9003 is the most southerly recovery for this species. Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia turtur) (4: 5 miles) '85997 O + ad. 4-6-55 I5-9-58 Billericay: 5i°38'N. o°25'E. (Essex) D&SC Elvas: 38°53'N. 7°io'W. (Alentejo) Portugal '86847 O + pull. 27-5-56 I3-9-58 Billericay D&SC Nr. Chamusca: 39°2i'N. 802g'W. (Ribatejo) Portugal 010863 + f-g- 7-8-58 5-9-58 Nr. Cranborne: 50°55'N. i°56'W. (Dorset) RFH Alcaudete de la Jara: 39°48'N. 4°52'W. (Toledo) Spain Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus) (4) 08791 O X pull. 2.6.57 (8.2.58) Nr. Gisburn: ca. 53°56'N. 2°i5'W. (York) D&Q Ramsgate (Kent) 240m. SE. IF2363 0 + pull. 16.5-53 o.n.57 Everingham: 53°53'N. o°46'W. (York) JWL Glenamaddy (Galway) 320m. W. 0.H6314 0 X pull. 16.6.57 2.12.57 Morston: 52°57'N. o°59'E. (Norfolk) CBO Nr. Andilly: 46°i6'N. i°02'W. (Charente-Maritime) France IH6327 0 pull. 16.6.57 Morston CBO X ca. 25.11.57 Nr. Sleaford (Lincoln) 56m. W. AH6314 is the third foreign recovery for this species, there being previous ecords from Spain and Malta. Swift [A pus apus) (41: 15 miles) '22434 0 f-g- 1.8.56 25-5-58 St. Osyth: 5i°49'N. i°05'E. (Essex) RWA Falkirk (Stirling) 350m. NW. <53037 0 0 pull. 22.7.58 3-8.58 Oxford: 5i°45'N. i°i6'W. EGI Puente de Vallecas: 40°24'N. 3°4o'W. (Madrid) Spain ' 42657 X ad. 29.7.56 5.8.58 West Ewell: 5i°22'N. o°i6'W. (Surrey) C&E Halstead (Essex) 54m. NE. 470 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII E50058 ad. X 27-7-57 17.8.58 West Ewell C&E Alegrfa: 43°c>7'N. 2°o6'W. (Guipdzcoa) Spain K4I058 O juv. X 30-7-58 3-8-58 East Mailing: 5i°i8'N. o°26'E. (Kent) F&M Ouddorp: 5i°48'N. 3°56'E. (Zuid-Holland) Nether- lands K53037 and K41058 provide interesting evidence of the promptness with which young Swifts may quit the breeding area after fledging. The Oxford bird is known to have fledged on the morning of 31st July and thus took not more than four days to reach the vicinity of Madrid. The bird recovered in the Netherlands is considered to have fledged on 29th July and is the first British Swift to have been recovered in that country. Kingfisher ( Alcedo atthis) (3: 5 miles) K45270 V ad. 4.9.58 27.9.58 Bradwell: 5i°44'N. o°54'E. (Essex) BBO East Tilbury (Essex) 27m. SW. Green Woodpecker ( Picus viridis ) (1) 287233 X ad. $ 3-H-57 ca. 10.6.58 Beddington: 5i°23'N. o°o8'W. (Surrey) LNHS Sevenoaks (Kent) 16m. ESE. This is the greatest movement ever recorded for this species by ringing in the British Isles. Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) (42 : 35 miles) C26775 0 X pull. 20.7.56 13-4.58 Nr. Ripley: 54°o6'N. x°34'W. (York) S&W Mon6tay-sur-Loire : 46°26'N. 3°5o'E. (Allier) France K51310 O V pull. 4-7-58 8.9.58 Nr. Cheltenham: 5i°54/N. 20o4'W. (Gloucester) NH Sandwich (Kent) 150m. ESE. K52408 0 0 pull. 15-8.58 0.10.58 Harpenden: 5i°49'N. o°2i/W. (Hertford) GAD Viver: 39°55'N. o°36'W. (Castelldn) Spain Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia ) (20: 30 miles) K48350 X juv. 12.7.58 8.8.58 Nr. Knaresborough: 54°oi'N. i°28,W. (York) JASB North Newbald (York) 37m. ESE. K48272 V juv. 6.7.58 5-8.58 Hoveringham : 53°oi'N. o°58'W. (Nottingham) JASB Nr. Romford (Essex) nom. SE. 40725 + juv. 8.8.58 30.8.58 Nr. Romford: 5i°35'N. o°ii'E. (Essex) RRS Luceni: 4i°49'N. i°i4'W. (Zaragoza) Spain This is the first British-ringed Sand Martin to be recovered in Iberia. Rook ( Corvus frugilegus) (52 : 20 miles) 3016184 O X pull. 22-4-57 31.10.58 Marsham: 52°46'N. i°i6'E. (Norfolk) CBO Rockland (Norfolk) 20m. SW. 3023219 O X pull. 30.4.57 I5 4 58 Hainault: 5i°37'N. o°07'E. (Essex) P&S Audley End (Essex) 26m. N. Great Tit [Parus major ) (113: 20 miles) C92768 X f-g- 19.10.57 4-3.58 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) Bridlington (York) 35m. NNW. C72812 X ad. 24-I-57 24-3-58 Leicester: 52°38'N. i°05'W. FAB Bath (Somerset) 100m. SW. REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 471 OL. LIl] -39571 V istW. 10.1.58 19.4.58 Colchester: 5i053'N. o°537E. (Essex) MSJS Tourcoing: 5o°44'N. 3°io'E. (Nord) France -70572 V fg- 3°-H-57 12.3.58 East Tilbury: 5i°28'N. o°26'E. (Essex) HE&W Aubers: 50°36'N. 2°5o'E. (Nord) France 59463 0 f-g. 9 19.10.57 4-4-58 Nr. Margate: 5i°23'N. i°27'E. (Kent) DCHW Colmesnil: 49°5i'N. i°oi'E. (Seine-Maritime) France '■? 9298 X f-g- 7-4-58 7-5-58 Sandwich Bay: 5i°i7/N. i°2o'E. (Kent) SBRS Sandling (Kent) 36m. W. ■15940 X ad. 28.3.58 26.4.58 Littlestone: 50°59'N. o°58'E. (Kent) DBO Balen-Wezel: 5i°io'N. 5°io'E. (Antwerp) Belgium 17668 ad. 29-3-58 Littlestone DBO X ca. 30.3.58 Quend: 50°i9'N. i°39'E. (Somme) France :25*32 V fg- 3-4-58 I3-4-58 Littlestone DBO Sandwich Bay (Kent) 26m. NE. 55 5 5 59 X fg- 3-H-57 5-3-58 Eastbourne: 50°46'N. o°i7'E. (Sussex) DDH Maidstone (Kent) 35m. NNE. 556613 V fg- 26.11.57 27-3-58 Eastbourne J&AP Dungeness (Kent) 30m. ENE. Following the irruption of Pams species in the autumn of 1957, Great Tits id Blue Tits were ringed in large numbers. Subsequent recoveries indicated ; uch more movement than in a normal year, with a return to the Continent i the spring of 1958 (see also Brit. Birds, vol. li, pp. 477-478, and the paper by Cramp, A. Pcttet and J. T. R. Sharrock shortly to be published in this ' urnal, as well as page 490). Blue Tit ( Pams caemleus) (325: 20 miles) -79739 X istW. ir. 1. 58 14.12.58 Middlesbrough: 54°35'N. i°i4/W. (York) IFS Nr. Eastbourne (Sussex) 270m. SSE. 79765 V istW. 9.2.58 18.5.58 Middlesbrough IFS Ripley (York) 39m. SSW. ' 13I70 X fg- 23-1-58 20.4.58 Giggleswick: 54°05'N. 2°i6'W. (York) JDM Kirby-le-Soken (Essex) 210m. SE. 'S7527 X f-g- 18.2.58 7-4-58 Ackworth: 53°39'N. Drg'W. (York) AS Bewdley (Worcester) room. SSW. •37192 X fg- 6.4.58 12.4.58 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) Tourcoing: 5o°44'N. 3°io'E. (Nord) France • 12731 V fg- I-3-58 (25.4.58) Doncaster: 53°32'N. i°o8,W. (York) AEP Nr. Cheadle (Stafford) 47m. SW. 74041 V fg- 15-12-57 18.4.5S Llanrwst: 53°o8'N. 3°48'W. (Denbigh) AEM Nr. Abergavenny (Monmouth) 95m. SSE. 73544 X f-g- I5-3-58 (9.12.58) Nr. Bleasbv: 53°03'N. o°56'W. (Nottingham) JMM Much Wenlock (Shropshire) 70m. WSW. 56761 V f-g- 12.1.58 1.4.58 Oaken: 52°37'N. 2°i2^V. (Stafford) PWEC Broadway (Worcester) 42m. SSE. ) 6348 X fg- 29-9-57 9-4-58 Ketley: 52°42'N. 2°29'W. (Shropshire) ELEW Newnham Bridge (Worcester) 25m. S. 58218 X f-g- 22.12.57 I3-4-58 Nuneaton: 52°32'N. i°28AV. (Warwick) JW Rottingdean (Sussex) 130m. SSE. 096 X ad. 17-H-57 I3-4-58 Clent: 52°24'N. 2°o67W. (Worcester) CAN Nr. Abergavenny (Monmouth) 46m. SW. 472 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. lii E5333I X f-g- 27.10.57 I5-4-58 Walberswick: 52°i8'N. i°4i'E. (Suffolk) DBC Little Plumstead (Norfolk) 25m. NNW. C35928 juv. 18.8.57 Welwyn Garden City: 5i°48,N. o°i2'W. (Hertford) DJTH Attenborough (Nottingham) 85m. NW. V 3I-3-58 C89688 0 X pull. 1.6.57 I7-9-58 Parkend: 5i°46'N. 2°33'W. (Gloucester) C&C Limpley Stoke (Wiltshire) 30m. SSE. E2787I X f-g- 2-3-58 26.4.58 Bradwell: 5i°44'N. o°54'E. (Essex) BBO Blaxhall (Suffolk) 35m. NE. AI9I39 X f-g- 14-3-55 25-2-58 Nr. High Wycombe: 5i°39'N. o°45'W. (Buckingham) HSH Nr. Northampton 38m. N. A 30973 0 X pull. 22-5-57 (27.2.58) Reading: 5i°27'N. o°58'W. (Berkshire) LPS Louth (Lincoln) 135m. NNE. C57941 V istw. 1.1.58 3-4-58 Reading K&K East Horsley (Surrey) 26m. ESE. A39816 V f-g- 1-12.57 25.12.58 Nr. Windsor: 5i°29'N. o°36'W. (Berkshire) IMW Havering (Essex) 33m. ENE. C57423 X f-g- 12.10.57 (18.4.58) Morden: 5i°24'N. o°i2'W. (Surrey) MJC North Chapel (Sussex) 30m. SW. 28062 X f-g- 7-12.57 (8-3-58) Worcester Park : 5 1 °24'N. o°i5,W. (Surrey) WDP Horsham (Sussex) 21m. S. C89301 /?/ f-g- ca. 10.1.58 21.4.58 Sandwich Bay: 5i°i7'N. i°2o'E. (Kent) SBRS Nr. Horsham (Sussex) 53m. WSW. E26767 V X f-g- 12.12.57 30-3-58 4-5-58 New Romney: 50°59'N. o°57'E. (Kent) DBO Littlestone (Kent) ca. 2m. E. Nr. Blomberg: 5i°57'N. 9°05,E. (Nordrhein-West- falen) Germany E46596 X istW. 9.10.57 (14.1.58) Dungeness: 50°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Midhurst (Sussex) 72m. W. E46652 V istW. 11. 10.57 20.3.58 Dungeness “Le Havre” lightship: 49°32'N. o°09'W. ( off Seine- Maritime) France K44152 X f-g- 1.9.58 19.10.58 Shoreham-by-Sea : 5o°5i'N. o°i6/W. (Sussex) JS Nr. Petersfield (Hampshire) 30m. WNW. F16218 X istW. ca. 2-3-58 21.4.58 Dibden Purlieu : 50°5i'N. i°25'W. (Hampshire) KHP Micheldever (Hampshire) 20m. NNE. E80252 X ad. ca. 16. 11. 57 28.5.58 Southwick: 5o°5o'N. o°i4'W. (Sussex) BAEM Polegate (Sussex) 20m. E. K12460 V ad. 18.4.58 26.9.58 Eastbourne: 5o°46'N. o°i7'E. (Sussex) DDH Dungeness (Kent) 30m. ENE. Ei4537 X f-g- 8.10.57 22.3.58 St. Agnes: 49°53'N. 6°2I/W. Scilly SABO Nr. Marazion (Cornwall) 44m. ENE. Long-tailed Tit ( Aegithalos caudatus ) (5: 5 miles) C85296 ad. 2.7.57 Winchester: 5i°c>4'N. i°i9'W. (Hampshire) WC X ca. 24.1.58 Stubbington (Hampshire) 16m. SSE. This is the most distant recovery so far reported for this species. Mistle Thrush (Turdus viscivorus) (21: 25 miles) S68736 O pull. 30.4.57 Kentmere: 54°26'N. 2°5i'W. (Westmorland) JWA v 9.2. 58 Nr. Apperley Bridge (York) 60m. SE. )L. LIl] REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 473 Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris) (3) '8873 + fg- 8-5-57 30.11.58 Dungeness: 50°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Septeuil: 48°54'N. i°40,E. (Seine-et-Oise) France -7362 X Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) (207: 100 miles) juv. 14.6.56 Glen Clova: 56°5o,N. 3°o6'W. (Angus) GBC 1 3-3-58 Cullen (Tipperary) 370m. SW. >3471 O V pull. 22.4.54 23-1-58 Torrance: 55°56'N. 4°i3'W. (Stirling) JB Nr. Claremorris (Mayo) 240m. SW. 5 856 O X pull. 18.557 (25-1-58) Fenwick: 55°39'N. i°54'\V. (Northumberland) ND&N Clonmel (Tipperary) 330m. SW. ,3641 /?/ ad. 30-3-58 28.6.58 Nr. Seahouses: 55°33'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) MHBO Pennington (Lancashire) 145m. SSW. 1-7003 X f-g- 23-1-58 ca. 17.6.58 Belfast: 54035'N. 5°56'W. GTF Arden (Dumbarton) 110m. NNE. . 3298 V fg- I2-3-55 12.2.58 Ilkley: 53°56'N. i^g'W. (York) WNS Nr. Belfast 170m. WNW. ->40 /?/ f-g- 16.9-53 i7-2-55 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) Cdnete de las Torres: 37°53'N. 4°i9'W. (Cdrdoba) Spain '• >3°27 /?/ f-g- 26.2.55 1. 10.55 Spurn Point Montoro: 38°o2'N. 4°>3'W. (Cordoba) Spain .3028 /?/ fg- 5-3-55 1-10.55 Spurn Point Montoro, Spain : [2060 V V f-g- 27-2-55 18.3.58 29-5-58 Rathfarnham: 53°i8'N. 6°i8'W. (Dublin) RGW Keswick (Cumberland) 155m. WNW. Keswick 5000 X istW. 16.10.56 23-58 Bardsey: 52°46'N. 4°4S'W. (Caernar\-on) Nr. Bailleul: 50°44'N. 2°44'E. (Nord) France -7708 X f-g- 9-H-55 21.6.58 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°4o'W. (Devon) Pampisford (Cambridge) 220m. ENE. 'Note that X93027 and X9302S, both ringed at Spurn, but a week apart, :re apparently recovered on the same date in the same Spanish town. Redwing (T urdus musicus) (7 : 50 miles) ■8682 + istW. 7.10.56 6.358 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) Nr. Libourne: 45°oi'N. o°i3'W. (Gironde) France 7423 X istW. 17.10.57 241.5s Fair Isle Nr. Athlone (West Meath) 490m. SW. 0198 X istW. 1.11.58 13-11-58 Fair Isle Nr. Tomintoul (Banff) 1 70m. SSW. 5002 X f-g- 16.10.56 25.11.58 Bardsey: 52°46'N. 4°48'W. (Caemarv-on) Robertstown (Kildare) 90m. WNW. 5987 + f-g- 28.10.57 I5-I-58 Guildford: 5i°i4'N. o°34'W. (Surrey) NJW l’lsle-Jourdain: 43°37'N. i°05'E. (Gers) France 5821 + f-g- 18.4.58 14.12.58 Sandwich Bay: 5i°i7'N. i°2o'F. (Kent) SBRS Monclar d’Agenais: 44°27'N. o°33'E. (Lot-et-Garonne) France 474 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Ring Ouzel X5I724 0 pull. 12. 5-55 X 28.3.58 V4I58I 0 pull. 22.5.58 + ca. 2.11.58 (Tardus torquatus ) (4: 5 miles) Nr. Keighley: 53°53'N. i°52'W. (York) N&L Cliadderton (Lancashire) 27m. SSW. Wainstalls : 53°46'N. i°57'W. (York) HSS Puebla de Valverde: 40°i4'N. o°56'W. (Teruel) Spain Blackbird ( Tardus merula) (548) 38 Blackbirds ringed in Great Britain and recovered on the Continent or in Ireland are summarized in Table F. Three birds ringed in Ireland during October-February were recovered in eastern Britain during March- June. Those published in full include the first recoveries of this species from Finland (see also page 490), a recovery in S.W. France, an interesting example of drift, and all long-distance movement within Great Britain and within Ireland. Table F — Country and month of recovery of Blackbirds ( Turdus merula) Country of recovery Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Norway (10)* — — 2 — — — 4 X — — X (1) Sweden (4) — — — — — — X — — 3 — — Denmark (5) I X X — I — — X — — — — Germany (n) — — — — — 2 3 I 2 2 — X Holland and Belgium (6) — — — — I — 4 — — X — — Ireland (2) — — X — — I — — — . — — •Total includes one recorded as “autumn 1956’’. See footnote to Table A. X88496 R4937I R49445 S16108 S76754 S24777 W40029 S61073 S61045 OV2IO V45086 S77432 V 0 x x x istw. $ 13.9 55 ca. 12.2.58 Foula: 6o°o8'N. 2°05'W. (Shetland) CKM North Ronaldshay (Orkney) 55m. SSW. istW. cJ 21. 11. 58 1.12.58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) Egersund: 58°37'N. 60oi'E. (Rogaland) Norway istW. . Vendas Novas: 38°4i'N. 8°3o'W. (Alto Alentejo) Portugal E77788 juv. 8.7.58 Gibraltar Point : 53°o6'N. o°2i'E. (Lincoln) V 13.8.58 Ringwould (Kent) 140m. SSE. K65108 juv. 7.8.58 Gibraltar Point V 4.9.58 Dungeness (Kent) 150m. SSE. C61178 f-g- 29-4-57 Bardsey: 52°46'N. 4°48rW. (Caernarvon) X 3I-7-58 Nr. Newtownards (Down) 130m. NNW. E28873 0 pull. 5-6-57 Mundford: 52°3t'N. o°39/E. (Norfolk) CRD + ca. 21.9.58 Valpafos: 4i°36'N. (Tras os Montes) Portugal E24498 juv. 24-7-57 Abberton: 5i°5o,N. o°53'E. (Essex) + ca. 24. xi. 58 Nr. Abrantes: 39028'N. 8°i2'W. (Ribatejo) Portugal 35045 f-g- 10.5.58 Skokholm: 5i°42'N. 5°i6'W. (Pembroke) + ca. 18.9.58 Pereiro: 4I°ii'N. 8°4o'W. (Douro Litoral) Portugal K69709 juv. 21.8.58 Lundy: 5i°i2'N. 4°40'W. (Devon) V 27.8.58 Sandwich Bay (Kent) 255m. E. E82910 f-g- 5-9.58 Burgess Hill: 50°57'N. o°o8'W. (Sussex) JAW + ca. 21.9.58 Boticas: 4i°4i'N. 7°40'W. (Tras os Montes) Portugal F25307 ad. 19932 O pull. 22.6.58 Nr. Pateley Bridge: 54°o6'N. i°45'\V. (York) S&W () ca. 21.9.58 Bustos: 40°3o'N. 8°38'\V. (Beira Litoral) Portugal Rock Pipit ( Anthus spinoletta ) (5: 10 miles) e5 2613 juv. X A 3-7-56 10.3.58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37/W. (Shetland) Den Helder: 52°57'N. 4°45'E. (Noord-Holland) Netherlands H0683 juv. V 28.8.57 9.2.58 St. Kilda: 57°49'N. 8°34'\Y. Outer Hebrides SKBO Benbecula, Outer Hebrides 50m. ESE. Pied/White Wagtail ( Motacilla alba ) (44: 25 miles) '’6225 + juv. 24.8.57 0.10.58 Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. (Shetland) Nr. Boutilimit: i7°4o'N. i4°46'W. Mauritania This bird was identified as Motacilla a. alba. O X pull. 5.6.57 ca. 28.2.58 Nr. Aviemore: 57°i2'N. 3°5o'W. (Inverness) PRE Luton (Bedford) 390m. SSE. 116001 O + pull. 21.6.57 17.10.58 Nr. Ayton: 55°5i'N. 2°07'W. (Berwick) IJP Eibar: 43°i2'N. 2°28'W. (Guipdzcoa) Spain 0733 /?/ juv. 30.7.58 i5-IO-58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Arbonne: 43°25'N. i°33'W. (Basses-Pj-renees) France Yellow Wagtail ssp. ( Motacilla flava) (17: 25 miles) >0831 X ad. cJ 24.4.56 I7-4-58 Rainham: 5i°3o'N. o°i2'E. (Essex) BPH Nr. Centenero: 42°25'N. o°i9'W. (Huesca) Spain 18287 V + juv. cJ 21.7.56 6-7-57 ca. 15.9-58 Beddington: 5i°23'N. o°o8'\V. (Surrey) LNHS ibid. Nr. Ovar : 40°52'N. 8°3S'\Y. (Beira Litoral) Portugal This bird showed characteristics of the race Motacilla f. beema. 1-8249 V juv. 3°-6-57 I7-9-58 Beddington LNHS Ushant: 4S°28'N. 5°05'\V. (Finistere) France 1,9119 + juv. 30-7-57 ca. 19.9.58 Beddington LNHS Nr. Fanzeres: 4i°io,N. 8°32'\V. (Douro Litoral) Portugal Waxwing ( Bombycilla garrulus) (1) 2067 /?/ istW. c? 9-3-57 ca. 15.12.58 Pegswood: 55°ii'N. i°38'\V. (Northumberland) ND&N Ovre Grorud: 59°57'N. io°53'E. (Akerhus) Norway Red-backed Shrike ( Lanins cristatus collurio) (2: 5 miles) 1 18904 O pull. 6.7.58 Guildford: 5i°i4'N. o°34'W. (Surrey) ERG () (25.9.58) Pylli: 36°5i'N. 27°i2'E. Kos, Dodecanese The Red-backed Shrike is a common migrant through the eastern Mediter- nean. There is one earlier recovery from Sicily. 480 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris) (1,097) A total of 149 Starlings were recovered abroad, as shown in Table G. Table G— -Country AND MONTH OF RECOVERY OF Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) Country of recovery Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. France (2) — — — — — — — — I — — I Belgium (n) 2 — — I — — — 4 4 — — — Holland (26) 5 I 8 4 I X X I — I — 3 Denmark (15) (0 2 4 3 2 — X I — — — I Norway (13)* — — 4 3 — X I — — — X 2 Sweden (6) — I X I I (■) X — — — — — Germany (38) t 5 IO 4 — 8 5 4 — I — — — Poland (14) 4 5 — I — X — 2 — — X — Baltic States (1 1) — 5 X — — 3 X — I — — — Finland (5) — — — 2 — I 2 — — — — — U.S.S.R. (8) I I 2 2 — 2 — — — — — — ’Total includes a bird recorded as “spring”, t Total includes a bird recorded as “October/November”. See footnote to Table A. The months of ringing of the birds of presumed Continental origin were: September, 1; October, 13; November, 21; December, 15; January, 40; February, 36; March, 17; and April, 2. The extreme dates were 14th Septem- ber (Northumberland) and 18th April (Kent). The list below includes cases of interesting movements by birds of probable British origin and recoveries abroad at unusual dates. The foreign recoveries amongst these have been included in Table G. W21233 X istW. cJ 16.1.55 2.1.58 Avoch: 57°34'N. 4°io'W. (Ross) JL Bjorkevoll: 68°44'N. i6°32/E. (Troms) Norway X92649 X f-g- 20.11.54 20.1.58 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6/E. (York) Nr. Ketrzyn: 54°o5/N. 2i°24'E. (Olsztyn) Poland S96435 + ad. 2-5-57 16.9.58 Breaston: 52°54'N. i°2i'W. (Derby) JBCC Nr. Butzow: 53°54'N. ii°49'E. (Mecklenburg) Ger- many Si 1087 X A juv. 16.7.55 19-5-58 Abberton: 5i°50/N. o°53'E. (Essex) Schoorl: 52°42'N. 4°4i'E. (Noord-Holland) Nether- lands V36004 X juv. 22.6.57 13-2.58 Nr. Romford: 5i°35'N. o°n'E. (Essex) RRS Culdrose (Cornwall) 260m. WSW. V 7 5423 X juv. 14.6.58 8.8.58 Nr. Romford RRS Nr. Meppen: 52°4i'N. 7°i8'E. (Niedersachsen) Ger- many V27539 V juv. 21.6.57 3-6.58 Southampton: 50°54'N. i°24'W. (Hampshire) KVE Sturko: 56°o5'N. i5°42'E. (Blekinge) Sweden Of the birds recovered within the British Isles, only 17 showed movements of more than 100 miles. Greenfinch ( Chloris clitoris) (226: 75 miles) S94316 X ad. ? I2-7-57 1.2.58 Troutbeck: 54°25'N. 2°56'W. (Westmorland) JMBK Nr. Dunbar (East Lothian) 105m. N. X55014 O X pull. 15.6.56 23-3-58 Warton: 53°46'N. 2°53'W. (Lancashire) MHP Blyth Bridge (Peebles) 130m. N. REPORT ON BIRD-RINGING FOR 1958 481 )L. LIl] *593 X ad. ? ca. 2. 11.57 27.4.58 Gibraltar Point: 53°o6'N. o°2i'E. (Lincoln) Sandal (York) 80m. WNW. 0059 V f-g- ? 1.3.58 19.4.58 Caldecote: 52°33'N. i°29'W. (Warwick) JW Fairburn (York) 85m. N. 3120 X f-g- c? 21-3-54 2.4.58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Ulvenhout: 5i°33'N. 4°48'E. (Noord-Brabant) Nether- lands 4491 0 f-g- c? 17.10.57 19.1.58 Abberton Guines: 5o°5i'N. i°52'E. (Pas-de-Calais) France '■8836 X f-g- $ 21.2.58 4-7-58 Reynoldston: 5i°36'N. 4°n'W. (Glamorgan) HD Charlwood (Surrey) 170m. ESE. 't59I X ad. cj ca. 23.11.56 22.7.58 Dungeness: 50°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Bamber Bridge (Lancashire) 250m. NW. >578o X ad. c? 25-2.58 (24.6.58) Holwell: 5o°55'N. i°56'W. (Dorset) RFH Nr. Haywards Heath (Sussex) 77m. E. 0448 X istW. cJ ca. 13-2.58 23 4-58 Shoreham-by-Sea: 5o°5i'N. o°i6'W. (Sussex) JS Colchester (Essex) 85m. NE. Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ) (17: 20 miles) ■j6i8 0 0 pull. 10.6.55 4.1.56 Harrogate: 53°59'N. i°33'W. (York) S&W Nr. Haro: 42°32'N. 2°52'W. (Logrono) Spain SU82 0 + pull. 25-5-57 11. 11. 58 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) Capbreton: 43°38'N. i°25'W. (Landes) France K57i X ad. $ 25-4-58 4.6.58 Abberton: 5i°5o'N. o°53'E. (Essex) Hadley Wood (Hertford) 44m. WSW. + juv. 3-6-57 19.1.58 Dungeness: 5o°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Zaragoza: 4i°39'N. o054'W. Spain :’454 0 X pull. 2-5-57 (5.11.58) Nr. Cranborne: 5o°55'N. i°56'W. (Dorset) KBR Toulon: 430o7'N. 5°55'E. (Var) France Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ) (80: 20 miles) :-883 0 ad. 16.11.57 26.10.58 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6'E. (York) Renaix: 50°45'N. 3°36'E. (East Flanders) Belgium 1* 6ig X f-g- c? 29-3-58 27-4-58 Attenborough: 52°54'N. i°i4/W. (Nottingham) JASB Bracke: 62°44'N. i5°3o'E. (Jamtland) Sweden 781 X f-g- 6 13.12.56 (7-5-58) Sutton Park: 52°34'N. i°5o,W. (Warwick) NH Twyford (Oxford) 40m. SE. 820 X f-g- <$ 19.1.58 15-8.58 Nr. Nuneaton: 52°32'N. i°28'W. (Warwick) JW Avesta: 6o°09'N. i6°io'E. (Kopparberg) Sweden \.2l8 X f-g- $ ca. 20.10.56 6.1.58 Great Saltee: 52°o7'N. 6°35'W. (Wexford) Nr. Newquay (Cornwall) 135m. SE. M424 V V ad. $ 1.2.58 0.558 4.8.58 Chessington: 5i°2i'N. o°i8'W. (Surrey) DP Steinkjer: 64°oo'N. ii°3o'E. (Nord-Trondelag) Norway Ibid. 1 'his bird had already raised one brood and was sitting on a second clutch 4.8.58. 907 X f-g- c? 19.1.58 3-6-58 Damerham: 50°57'N. i°52'W. (Hampshire) A&R Nr. Neukloster: 53°48'N. ii043'E. (Mecklenburg) Germany 063 X f-g- ? 24-2-57 22.4.58 Fordingbridge: 50°56'N. i°48'W. (Hampshire) A&R Nr. Maschen: 53°25'N. io°05'E. (Niedersachsen) Germany 482 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII E46427 X f-g. $ 2.10.57 18.4.58 Dungeness: 50°55'N. o°59'E. (Kent) Wilhelmshaven : 53°3i'N. 8°o8'E. (Niedersachsen) Germany EI7987 V f g. ? 14.10.57 9.11.58 Portland Bill: 50°3i'N. 2°27'W. (Dorset) Postliuis: 53°i6'N. 4°58'E. Vlieland (Friesland) Netherlands Reed Bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus ) (14: 5 miles) E52397 X ad. cJ 20.2.58 21.4.58 Attenborough: 52°54'N. i°i4'W. (Nottingham) JASB Bury (Lancashire) 63m. NW. C50399 V f-g. 17.10.56 25-3.58 Walberswick: 52°i8'N. i°4i'E. (Suffolk) DBC Abberton (Essex) 47m. SW. E26I46 X istW. $ I4-9-57 17.2.58 Dungeness: 50°55/N. o°59'E. (Kent) Nr. Shoreham (Sussex) 53m. W. There are very few recoveries of British-ringed Reed Buntings showing move- ments of more than 20 miles. Snow Bunting ( Plectrophenax nivalis) (2) 477726 f.g. $ 5.2.56 Spurn Point: 53°35'N. o°o6/E. (York) X 25.3.58 Sandwick (Orkney) 400m. NNW. Ayy8gi istW. $ 25.2.56 Spurn Point X 24.4.58 Nr. Steigen: 67°57'N. ^oo'E. (Nordland) Norway This notable recovery is the first British-ringed Snow Bunting from Scandi- navia. Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus ) (5: 5 miles) Ei66y8 f.g. 15. 12.57 Cley: 52°58'N. i°o3'E. (Norfolk) X 19. 11. 58 Nr. Rheine: 52°i6'N. 7°26'E. (Westfalen) Germany This is the first foreign recovery of a British-ringed Tree Sparrow. BRITISH RECOVERIES OF BIRDS RINGED ABROAD Communicated by E. P. Leach Selected List of Recoveries Reported The symbols and terms are the same as those used in the “Report on bird- 5 ringing’’ (see page 451), with the exception that the term “juv.” cannot always be relied upon to signify a young bird that is able to fly freely: owing to lack of unanimity in the various ringing schemes, this term may sometimes mean a nestling or chick. Abbreviations used for Ringing Stations B. Brussels P. Paris C. Copenhagen P-V Polonia Varsovia (Warsaw) G. Gothenburg R. Radolfzell (ex-Rossitten) H. Heligoland Rk. Reykjavik Hki. Helsinki Stav. Stavanger Hki.R.S. Helsinki Riista Saatio (Game St. Stockholm Research Institute) St. Orn. Stockholm “Ornis” (Sveriges L. Leiden Ornithologiska Forening) M. Moscow S.J.F. Svenska jagare F6rbundet O. Oslo T. Tartu ll , )L. LIl] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 483 [Perhaps the most remarkable of the present series of recoveries from abroad is the •/edish Curlew found in Norfolk in its 32nd year. No less interesting in another way, wever, is the fourth-year Mute Swan from Lithuania whose recovery in Dumfriesshire January 1959 adds to the complexities of interpreting recent increases in the population :this species. It is to be hoped that this unexpected occurrence will give an extra stimulus the efforts at ringing Mute Swans which have already enabled 1958 to surpass the total all previous years in the British Isles. A Great Tit ringed in Germany and Blue Tits marked there and in Belgium, all as veniles during May-J uly 1957, are interesting as defining points of origin of the remarkable irruption of that autumn. The further development of the influx in autumn and winter, lowed by some return movement in the next spring, is indicated among the numerous overies in the British-ringed section of this Report (see pages 470-472). I iufteen Barnacle Geese ringed in 1955 in east Greenland have yielded an interesting pattern recoveries, a dozen in the Hebrides and the rest in north-west Ireland. Six others tged at the same time in the same part of Greenland had already been reported wintering •the same two areas ( antea , vol. li, p. 62). It is interesting that none of these birds has n found on the Solway where two Barnacles were recovered after being ringed in i tsbergen in the previous year, which is suggestive of a separation of the wintering areas the two stocks. This matter is being further investigated. Several of the Greenland aite-fronted Geese listed had attained a fair age, and two were found wintering in Argyll, hn unfortunate Osprey which crossed the Yorkshire coast in an exhausted state a few 1 iks after fledging in 1958 was revived in vain, and the possibility that it may have been >tt is disturbing. A Kestrel from Finland is of some interest, and two Turnstones covered on the east coast had been ringed two or three years earlier as far north as latitude in east Greenland. A Greenland Kittiwake in South Wales points to a west-to-east, well as the more familiar east-to-west, transatlantic movement. Once again there is ^welcome evidence of a mass influx of foreign Great Black-backed Gulls, this time from sssia as well as Iceland and Norway, the immigrants being widely spread over the •tish Isles. — Eds.] Manx Shearwater (Pr ocellar i a puffinus) -2264 v ad. 30-7-57 9-4-58 Phare du Creac’h: 48°28'N. 5°05'W. Ushant, France Annet: 49°54'N. 6°22'W. Scilly Isles 655 O X pull. 10.6.56 0.2.57 Heron (Ardea cinerea ) Sund: 6o°i7'N. 5°io'E. (Hordaland) Norway Moffat: 55°i9'N. 3°26'W. (Dumfries) f /. <022 0 X pull. 12-5-57 2.4.58 Kvarven: 6o°25'N. 5°i5'E. nr. Bergen, Norway Burravoe: 6o°3o'N. i°03'W. (Yell) Shetland K97I 0 X pull. 19-5-55 (3-4-56) Clairmarais: 50°45'N. 2°i5'E. (Pas-de-Calais), France Chippenham: 5i°27'N. 2°07'W. (Wiltshire) ^5280 0 + pull. 15-5-57 11.1.58 Lac de Grand Lieu: 4 7 “05 'N. i°4o'W. (Loire Atlantique), France Hungerford: 5i°25'N. i°3i'W. (Berkshire) .R.S. 0 no + pull. Mallard [Anas platyrhynchos) 21.6.58 Korsholm: 63°io'N. 2i°3i 'E. Finland 10.12.58 Frogden: 55°33'N. 2°24'\V. nr. Kelso (Roxburgh) •159 V 3 14.8.5S 22.12.58 Pori: 6i°3o'N. 2i°45'E. Finland Nr. Peterborough: 52°4o'N. o°i7'W. (Northampton) ' 046 i ”T juv. 1.8.58 26.12.58 Kokkola: 63°5o'N. 23°o8'E. Finland Chirnside: 55°48'N. 2°i2'W. (Berwick) • 660 6 I3-3-58 0.9.58 Le Sambuc: 43^31 'N. 4°42'E. (Bouches-du-Rhone) France Eastchurch: 5i°24'N. o°53'E. Isle of Sheppey (Kent) in addition to those set out in detail above, there are records of Mallard „;ed on passage and recovered in the British Isles in autumn and winter. 484 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Eight with Brussels rings were obtained in the counties of Lincoln, North- ampton, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Kent, and thirteen with Leiden rings were recovered in Northumberland, Cumberland, Lincoln, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Flint, and Cornwall. There is also one record from Co. Cork. M. E111432 + 10.7-57 23-1.58 Teal {Anas crecca) Staraya Russa: 58°oo'N. 3i°2i'E. (Novgorod) U.S.S.R. Brundall: 52°37'N. i°26'E. (Norfolk) S.J.F. 38591 + ad.(J 17-5.56 4.1.58 Lannavaara: 68°03'N. 2i°57'E. (Lappland) Sweden Usk: 5i°43'N. 2°54'W. (Monmouth) S.J.F. 48212 O + pull. 14-7-58 22. XI. 58 Hangasjo: 56°39'N. i3°54'E. (Smdland) Sweden Pwllcrochan: 5i°42'N. 5°oi'W. (Pembroke) C. 584676 + juv. I-9-57 13. 11. 58 Amager: 55°4o'N. i2°38'E. Denmark Lough Beg: 54°47'N. 6°29/W. Northern Ireland P. EB2015 + 1st W.(J 20.2.56 0.12.58 LeSambuc: 43°3i 'N. 4^2 'E. (Bouches-du-Rhone) France Pagham: 50°46'N. o°43'W. (Sussex) P. EC7565 + 1st W.J 2312. 57 20.12.58 Le Sambuc, France Downham Market: 52°26'N. o°24'E. (Norfolk) Just over one hundred Teal ringed at decoys in Belgium and Holland were recovered during the period of this report. These recoveries are distributed over twenty-one counties in England, six counties in Wales, five counties in Scotlanc and eighteen in Ireland. Wigeon ( Anas penelope) Pk. O pull. 2.8.57 Fnjdskadalur: 65°46'N. I7°53'W. Iceland Ullapool: 57°54'N. 5°io'W. (Ross) 45448 + 5-2.58 Pk. O pull. 26.7-53 Fnjdskadalur, Iceland 44725 + 10.12.58 Mouth of River Ness: 57°28'N. 4°i3'W. (Inverness) Pk. add-cJ 12.8.51 Myvatn: 65°39'N. i6°58'W. Iceland 43216 X 16.12.58 Hascosay: 6o°37'N. o°59'W. Shetland L. ? 1312. 55 Texel : 53°o6'N. 4048'E. Holland 348381 + 30.1.56 Paglesham: 5i°36'N. o°49'E. (Essex) L. ad. c? 30.1.56 Texel, Holland 3848385 + 28.9.58 Dornocli Firth (Sutherland) L. juv. 2. 11. 54 Lekkerkerk: 5i°55'N. 4°43'E. Holland 253874 + 10.2.56 Mouth of River Towy: 5i°47'N. 4°23'W. (Carmarthen L. ad. (J 27.10.56 Lekkerkerk, Holland 271049 + 2.12.56 Tramore: 52°io'N. 7°o9'W. (Waterford) Pintail {Anas acuta) L. ad. 8.10.56 Texel: 530o6'N. 4°48'E. Holland 346348 + 23.11.56 Burton Marshes: 53°i6'N. 3°02'W. (Cheshire) Shoveler ( Spatula clypeata) Hki. 0 pull. 19.7.58 Luvia: 6i°24'N. 2i034'E. Finland H29654 + 31.10.58 Hickling Broad: 52°45'N. i°35'E. (Norfolk) Pochard ( Aythya ferina) M. juv. 28.7.57 Lake Juvintas: 54°28/N. 23°38'E. Lithuania Loch of Tingwall: 6o°io'N. i°i5'W. (Shetland) D276540 + 11.1.58 P. 0 pull. 29.6.58 Clepp6: 45°46'N. 4°i3'E. (Loire) France DC4161 + ca. 20.12.58 Nr. Colchester: 5i°54/N. o°55'E. (Essex) OL. LIl] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 485 Goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula ) JF. < 30426 + ad. $ 196.57 3.1.58 Kattstrupeforsen : 63°2o'N. i4°33'E. (Jamtland) Sweden Sleaford: 53°oo'N. o°25'W. (Lincoln) White-fronted Goose ( Anser albifrons) 71647 + 1st S. 3-7-47 4.11.58 Jakobshavn Dist. : 7o°o6'N. 52°o8'W. Greenland North Slob: 52°20/N. 6°28'W. (Wexford) 74029 + juv. 4.8.49 5-1-57 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland North Slob (Wexford) ■74002 X 12.7.49 I5-I-57 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland North Slob (Wexford) •70134 + juv. 4.8.49 19-2.57 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland Isle of Lismore: 56°3o'N. 5°3o'W. (Argyll) 73366 + ad. 29-7-55 14.1.58 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland Isle of Lismore (Argyll) 72834 + juv. M-7-57 1510.57 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland Burrin: 53°09'N. 9°04,W. (Clare) -'3°63 + juv. I4-7-57 27.10.57 Jakobshavn Dist., Greenland Rochestown: 52°i9'N. 7°oi'W. (Kilkenny) 0:4387 V ad. $ 16.3.56 21.2.58 Bunschoten: 52°i4'N. 5°22'E. (Utrecht) Holland Slimbridge: 5i°44'N. 2°25'W. (Gloucester) Pink -footed Goose ( Anser arvensis brachyrhynchus) Reports of recoveries of Pink-footed Geese have been fairly numerous, and leearly all were shot on the usual wintering grounds in the British Isles. Most iaad been ringed on the Central Iceland breeding-grounds in 1953, but a few Late from the Wildfowl Trust’s earlier expedition in 1951. Barnacle Goose ( Branta leucopsis) The following Barnacle Geese had all been ringed in 1955 in East Greenland, ftt two neighbouring localities ( ca . 7i°3o'N. 23°2o'W.), and recovery details ,rre set out with age and sex at the time of ringing. •• ad. $ 9-1-57 South Uist, Outer Hebrides '75476 ad. $ 7-i-58 Eochar: 57°23'N. 7°25'W. South Uist V499O ad. $ 0.2.58 Flodday: 57°29'N. 7°i6'W. Benbecula, Outer Hebrides 75496 ad. ? 8-4-57 West coast of Barra, Outer Hebrides -75227 III57 Staffin: 57°39'N. 6°i3'W. Isle of Skye : 75406 juv. ca. 27.1.58 Isle of Coll (Argyll) 75351 juv. 28.12.56 Gruinart: 55°5o'N. 6°2o'W. Isle of Islay (Argyll) 75159 ad. c? 25-1-58 North coast of Donegal 75466 juv. 8. 3-58 Sheephaven Bay: 55°io'N. 7°52'W. (Donegal) 75157 486 BRITISH BIRDS C. 376577 ad. ? 23-I-57 Sound of Harris, Outer Hebrides c. 376578 ad. 22.1.57 Sound of Harris c. 275316 ad. $ 12.2.57 Drinnishadder : 57°52'N. 6°47'W. Harris c. 376567 ad. $ 12.2.57 Drinnishadder c. 275422 3-1.58 Ascrib Is.: 57°35'N. 6°32'W. Isle of Skye c. 376580 juv. 2.2.57 Rosse’s Point: 54°i9'N. 8°34'W. (Sligo) Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor) M. A7587 juv. X 12.8.55 12.1.59 Lake Juvintas: 54°28'N. 23°38'E. Lithuania Annan: 55°02/N. 3°i6'W. (Dumfries) [VOL. LII This unique record has been advanced from 1959 in view of its great interest. Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) St. Orn. O pull. 8.7.58 Strangn&s: 59°2i'N. i7°02'E. (Sodermanland) Sweden 876122 v 21.8.58 Mouth of Humber X 26.8.58 Rise: 53°52'N. o°i4'W. (York) This Osprey was rescued from the water in an exhausted condition by a member of the crew of a pilot-cutter. He succeeded in feeding and restoring it, and after five days released it in good order. It was capable of flying at least the fifteen miles to Rise on the day it was liberated, and it is feared that it may have been shot. Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus) Hki. ad. $ 14.7.58 Bjorkoby: 65°25'N. 2i°io,E. Finland C70170 -f- 13.9.58 Wolseley Bridge: 52°47'N. i°59'W. (Stafford) There is no other record of a ringed Kestrel from Finland recovered in the British Isles and the only one also showing an eastern European origin is a bird ringed in Silesia, near Breslau, in 1936 and recovered near York the following year. Coot ( Fulica atra) M. juv. 4-9.56 Lake Juvintas: 54°28'N. 23°38'E. Lithuania C56487 x [wires) 18.1.58 Greenford: 5i°32'N. o°2i'W. (Middlesex) This is the first Coot to be recovered in Great Britain after being ringed so far east, but there are a few parallel cases of British-ringed birds having been recovered in eastern Europe. Lapwing ( V anellus vanellus) C. O pull. 3.6.56 Eastern Lolland, Denmark 782976 + 5.1.58 Banagher: 53°ii'N. 7°59'W. (Offaly) L. O pull. 18.6.56 Ureterp: 53°o6'N. 6°io'E. (Friesland) Holland 264009 + 8.2.58 Ballycotton: 5i°5o'N. 8°oi'W. (Cork) H. O pull. 11.5.58 Suderwich: 5i°38'N. 7°i5'E. (Westfalen) Germany 571960 X 24.11.58 Mildenhall : 52°2i'N. o°3i'E. (Suffolk) S/av. O pull. 28.5.57 Orland: 63°42'N. 9°37'E. (Sor-Trdndelag) Norway 624255 + 31.12.57 West Newcastle: 52°27'N. 9°o6'W. (Limerick) )L. LIl] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 487 a%V. O pull. 3-6-57 H295 X 30.12.57 nv. O pull. 8-5-57 .2719 X (26.12.57) Golden L\ 0 ad. $ 19-6.57 639 + 5-3-58 Orland, Norway Beverley: 53°5o'N. o°26'W. (York) Madia: 58°57/N. 5°4o'E. Stavanger, Norway Fnjdskadalur: 65°46'N. X7°53,W. Iceland Buckland Monachorum: 50°29'N. 4°o8,W. (Devon) Turnstone ( Arenaria inter pres) '80x5 V ad. 8.6.56 17.8.58 Daneborg: 74°2o'N. 20°oo'W. East Greenland Bradwell-on-Sea : 5i°44'N. o°54'E (Essex) '8054 X ad. 2.6.56 25-1-59 Daneborg, East Greenland Sea Palling: 52°47'N. i°38'E (Norfolk) .2680 + 30.8.57 3-H-57 Nanortalik: 6o°o9'N. 45°i9,W. South Greenland Inishark: 53°37'N. io°i8'W. (Galway) b. O pull. 22.6.56 Snipe ( Capella gallinago) Fnjdskadalur : 65°46'N. i7°53'W. Iceland -746 + 11.1.58 Sneem: 5i°5i'N. 9°54'W. (Kerry) O pull. 28.6.57 Skipaldn: 65°47'N. i8°I2,W. Iceland -712 + 5-12.58 Ballintra: 54°34'N. 8°o8'W. (Donegal) 1 l IV. .4707 Ut. -8324 iii. 0203 Ui. '•8579 hi. 7608 i si. 0586 1 tn. =4836 266 2985 Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola) O pull. 19-5-57 Idsal: 58°59'N. 6°oo'E. (Rogaland) Norway + 10.11.57 Fermoy: 52°io'N. 8°2o'W. (Cork) O + pull. Curlew ( Numenius arquata) 6.6.56 Pori: 6i°3o'N. 2i°45'E. Finland 15.1.58 Stiffkey: 52°57'N. o°56'E. (Norfolk) O + pull. 1.6.57 0-9-57 Pori, Finland Teesmouth: ca. 54°36,N. i°io'\V. (York) O + pull. I7-7-58 25-9-58 Pori, Finland Killingholme : 53°38'N. o°i6'W. (Lincoln) O + pull. 3-6-57 23.10.57 Karkku: 6x°24'N. 22°57'E. Finland Wlxitton Sands: ca. 53°43'N. o°4o'W. Humber O X pull. [skeleton) 19-6.57 2.3-58 Kangasala: 6i°33'N. 24°i5'E. Finland Millom: 54°i5'N. 3°i6'\V. (Cumberland) 0 + pull. 16.6.54 5-9-58 Bjerkreim: 58°37'N. 6°oo'E. (Rogaland) Norway Teesmouth (Durham) O + pull. 4.7.26 25-1-58 Stromsholm: 59°3o'N. i6°I5'E. (Vastmanland) Sweden Blakeney: 52°58'N. x°oi'E. (Norfolk) V f-g- ca. 29.8.57 7.1.58 Amager: 55°4o'N. i2038'E. Denmark Canonbie: 55°04'N. 2°56'W. (Dumfries) Goteborg D1266 is an extraordinary instance of longevity and there is no ison to doubt that this bird was really in its thirty-second year: most careful vestigations were made both by the Bird-Ringing Office and by the Museum thorities at Gothenburg, and the ring itself was fortunately available for animation. 48 8 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Knot ( Calidris canutus) Stav. fg- 30-9-56 Revtangen: 58°45'N. 5°3o'E. (Rogaland) Norway Z2422 + 0.12.57 Drogheda: 53°43'N. 6°2o'W. (Louth) St. juv. 11-8.53 Ottenby: 56°i3'N. x6°25/E. Oland, Sweden YE9359 X 22.2.58 Foulness Island: 5i°36'N. o°55'E. (Essex) Dunlin ( Calidris alpina) Slav. f-g- 20.8.51 Revtangen: 58°45'N. 5°3o'E. (Rogaland) Norway Ruthwell: 54°59'N. 3°2o,W. (Dumfries) 9382 + 26.1.57 Stav. fg- 24.9.52 Revtangen, Norway 82x276 X 25-12.57 Hessle: 53°44'N. o°26'W. (York) Stav. f-g- 10-9-57 Revtangen, Norway 852216 V 19-9-57 Beadnell: 55°33'N. i°37'W. (Northumberland) Stav. f-g- 29-9-57 Revtangen, Norway 851551 X 13.12.58 Terrington Marshes: 52°48'N. o°i8'E. (Norfolk) St. ad. 23-7-58 Alius: 55°55'N. I4°i8'E. (Kristianstad) Sweden Cleethorpes: 53°33'N. o°oo' (Lincoln) ZBJ7638 x 26.10.58 St. Orn. ad. 22-7-54 Ottenby: 56°i3'N. i6°25'E. Oland, Sweden 506486 X 13.12.58 Marchwood: 50°53'N. i°27'W. (Hampshire) St. Orn. ad. 28.7.58 Ottenby, Sweden 2427x5 + 8.11.58 Belfast: 54°35'N. 5°5o'W. (Antrim) St. Orn. fg- 25.8.58 Falsterbo: 55°23'N. i2°5o'E. (Skine) Sweden 225876 V 6.12.58 Canvey Island: 5i°32'N. o°35'E. (Essex) H. fg- 18.9-57 Nr. Varel: 53°24'N. 80i5'E. (Oldenburg) Germany 7275061 + 1.1.58 Spalding: 52°47'N. o°09'W. (Lincoln) Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus) M. 0 pull. 6.7.58 Great Ainov Is.: 69°5o'N. 3i°35'E. U.S.S.R. D429233 + 26.12.58 Littleton-on-Severn : 5i°37'N. 2°35'W. (Gloucester) Rk. 0 pull. 17-6-55 Skipalon: 65°47'N. i8°i2,W. Iceland 36126 X 22.2.58 Aberlady: 56°oi'N. 2°5i'W. (East Lothian) Rk. 0 pull. 26.6.55 Skipaldn, Iceland 36145 + 251-58 Ennis, 52°5x'N. 8°59'W. (Clare) Rk. 0 pull. 27.6.57 Skipal6n, Iceland 21538 X (wires) 0.1.58 Burton Port: 54°58'N. 8°27'W. (Donegal) Stav. 0 pull. 22.6.53 Kinn: 6x°34'N. 4°45'E. (Sogn & Fjordane) Norway 036225 X (15-3-57) Canvey Island: 5i°32'N. o°35'E. (Essex) Stav. 0 pull. 6-7-55 Kinn, Norway 307614 V ca. 10.2.57 Gravesend: 5i°26'N. o°22'E. (Kent) Stav. 0 pull. 6-7-55 Kinn, Norway 308I71 X winter 57/58 Tynemouth: 55°02'N. i025'W. (Northumberland) Stav. 0 pull. 26.6.55 Rott: 58°55'N. 5°3o'E. (Rogaland) Norway 415389 X 5-8-57 Skipsea: 53°58'N. o°i2'W. (York) Stav. 0 pull. 29.6.56 Rott, Norway 410499 0 30-3-57 Off Orford Ness: ca. 52°o6'N. i°38'E. (Suffolk) Slav. 0 pull. 29.6.56 Rott, Norway 414819 X 21. 11. 57 Saltburn: 54°35'N. o°57'\V. (York) Stav. 0 pull. 17-6-57 Rott, Norway 3x1506 X 16.11.57 Teesmouth: ca. 54°38'N. x°io'W. (York) Stav. 0 pull. 27-6-57 Rott, Norway 411903 X (I3-H-57) Havant: 5o°5i'N. o°59'W. (Hampshire) iLL. LIl] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 489 liU. O pull. 27.6.57 1 969 X 4.1.58 H V. 0 pull. 3°-6-54 1 47° X 15-10.57 M- 0 pull. 12.7.58 irI59 + 19.12.58 Her IV. 0 pull. 29.7.56 ^284 X 5-1-57 11 y. 0 pull. 12.6.57 5.286 X (9.1.58) 0 pull. 20.8.56 5 780 X 26.4.58 Rott, Norway Holbeach Marsh: 52°52'N. o0o5'E. (Lincoln) Klepp: 58°44'N. 5°33'E. (Rogaland) Norway Newbiggin: 55°ii'N. i°3o'W. (Northumberland) Klepp, Norway Teesmouth: ca. 54°38'N. i°io'W. (Durham) Bleik: 690i7'N. i6°oo'E. Vester&len, Norway Bedlington: 55°o8'N. i°35'W. (Northumberland) Hovden: 6i°43'N. 4°53'E. (Sogn & Fjordane) Norway Grimsby: 53°35'N. o°04'W. (Lincoln) Rottumeroog: 53°33'N. 6°35'E. West Frisian Is., Holland Wootton Marshes: 52°48'N. o°27'E. (Norfolk) Common Gull ( Larus canus) Twenty-two Common Gulls were recovered during the period covered by this port : three in the western counties, three in Scotland and the remainder in sstern and south-eastern counties. Their countries of origin were Finland, reeden, Norway, Denmark and the Baltic coast of Germany. Black-headed Gull ( Larus ridibundus) 'Thirty-three recoveries of Black-headed Gulls come under review for 1958. the birds concerned only five penetrated westwards in the British Isles, the rest having been found in eastern and south-eastern counties. The 1 mtries in which they were ringed were Finland, the Baltic Republics, south 1 land, Germany (Schleswig-Holstein, Baltic coast, Brandenburg and Saxony), t echoslovakia, Scandinavia and Holland. Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla) Murmansk Coast : ca. 68°49'N. 37°2o'E. U.S.S.R. Donna Nook: 53°2g,N. o°io'E. (Lincoln) Runde: 62°25'N. 5°38'E. (Sunnmore) Norway Atlantic Ocean: 50°3o'N. g°3o'W. Runde, Norway Aberystwyth: 52°25'N. 4°04'W. (Cardigan) Cuxhaven: 53°53'N. 8°42'E. Germany Bridlington: 54°o6'N. o°i2,W. (York) Jakobshavn District: ca. 7o°o6'N. 52°o8'W. Greenland Port Talbot: 5i°36'N. 3°47'W. (Glamorgan) ve been from the Murmansk coast, so that the appearance of the names of •ee other ringing-stations in the list is noteworthy, and the bird from Green- id is of special interest. O pull. 22.7.57 32714 + 6.4.58 11 V. O pull. 28.6.57 >575 0 2.12.57 V. 0 pull. 28.6.58 793 X (2.1-59) 1st W. 15-3-58 .4651 X 9-4-58 juv. 26.7.55 •641 X 4-3-57 The only foreign -ringed O pull. 137° x O ad. •2733 X Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo) 4.7.58 Someri Island: 58°5o'N. 23°25'E. Estonia 6.9.58 Legsby: 53°22'N. o°i9AV. (Lincoln) Arctic Tern ( Sterna macrura ) 13.657 Scharhorn Island : 53°58'N. 8°25'E. Germany 1.8.58 Redcar: 54°38'N. i0O4'W. (York) 490 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia) P. ad. JK1154 17.4.58 22.6.58 Le Sambuc: 43°3i'N. 4°42'E. (Bouches-du-Rhone) France Petworth: 50°5g'N. o°37'W. (Sussex) This is the first record of a Sand Martin ringed abroad and recovered in the British Isles. Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula) B. 4E9996 + ad. 26.4.58 12.6.58 Le Zoute: 5i°2o'N. 3°i7'E. (West Flanders) Belgium High Halstow: 5i°27'N. o°34'E. (Kent) Great Tit ( Parus major) H. 0 89216S3 V juv. ? 31-5-57 I5-3-58 Riddagshausen : 52°i6'N. io°3i/E. (Brunswick) Ger many Sevenoaks: 5i°i6'N. o°I2'E. (Kent) Blue Tit ( Parus caeruleus) R. H352016 V juv. 25-6-57 28.4.58 Hammerstein : 5o°28'N. 7°22'E. (Rhineland) Germany Portland Bill: 5o°3i,N. 2°2j'W. (Dorset) B. 17A1076 X juv. 28-7-57 0.2.58 Opbrakel: 5o°48'N. 3°45'E. (East Flanders) Belgium Thirsk: 54°i4,N. i°2o'W. (York) Fieldfare (T urdus pilaris) Stav. 726620 O X pull. 10.6.53 2.2.58 Al: 6o°37'N. 8°33'E. (Hallingdal) Norway Kildangan: 53°o7'N. 6°59'W. (Kildare) Hki. A78246 O X pull. Blackbird ( T urdus merula) 23-6.57 Helsinki: 6o°o9'N. 24°57'E. Finland 9.3.58 Ponteland: 55°03'N. i°44'W. (Northumberland) Stav. 740143 + ad. 19-2-57 18.11.57 Runde: 62°25'N. 5°38'E. (Sunnmore) Norway Roscrea: 52°57'N. 7°48'W. (Tipperary) Stav. 716120 X ad. $ [hawk) 21-3-52 12-3-57 Line: 58°43'N. 5°38'E. (Rogaland) Norway Alford: 57°i4'N. 2°43'W. (Aberdeen) Stav. 752547 V ad. S 24-3-57 24.1.58 Line, Norway Kilshanny: 52°59'N. 9°i8'W. (Clare) St. YR 1007 X ad. S 20.8.58 23.12.58 Ledskar: 6o°3o'N. i7°38,E. Bay of Lovsta, Sweden Dudgeon Light-Vessel : 53°i3'N. i°oo'E. G. B53778 /?/ ad. $ 13-4-57 (7-2-58) Ytterby: 57°5i'N. ii°48'E. (Bohuslan) Sweden Ventry: 52°o8'N. io°22'W. (Kerry) G. B52443 V ad. S 24-3-57 0.1.58 Stora Mellosa : 59°i2'N. i5°3i'E. (Orebro) Sweden Garvagh: 54°59'N. 6°42'W. (Londonderry) G. B56494 O X pull. 20.5.57 1.1.58 Ballingslov: 56°i2/N. i3°5o'E. (SkAnc) Sweden Bryanston: 5o°52'N. 2°n'W. (Dorset) H. 7309449 V 1st W c? 13.10.58 16. 11. 58 Heligoland: 54°ii'N. 7°55'E. Germany Cley: 52°58/N. i°03'E. (Norfolk) H. 7310302 V ad. $ 17. 11. 58 29.11.58 Heligoland, Germany Fair Isle: 59°32'N. i°37'W. Shetland B. 6D9218 O V pull. 23-6-57 25.10.58 Wassmunster: 5i°o7'N. 4°05'E. (East Flanders) Belgium Skokholm: 5i042'N. 5°l6'W. (Pembroke) )L. LIl] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 491 53598 V 12232 V Garden Warbler ( Sylvia borin) {-g- 8.6.58 7.9.58 Heligoland: 54°ri,N. 7°55'E. Germany Minsmere: 52°i5'N. i°38'E. (Suffolk) f-g- 23-8.57 27-5-59 Heligoland, Germany Isle of May: 56°ii'N. 2°33/W. (Fife) The Garden Warbler recovered at the Isle of May in 1959 is included in this t for 1958 on account of the interest in comparing its dates with those of the . iffolk bird. Compare also the British-ringed bird recovered at Heligoland, (erred to in the Report on bird-ringing for 1955 ( antea , vol. L, p. 68). Ghiffchaff ( Phylloscopus collybita ) juv. 14.8.54 Heligoland: 54°xi/N. 7°55'E. Germany 007178 x 4-5-58 Dunoon: 55°57'N. 4°56'w- (Argyll) This is the first recovery in the British Isles of a Chiffchaff ringed abroad. Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris) 0 ad. 23-5-58 Bcloviezha Reserve: 52°4o'N. 24°io'E. U.S.S.R. .26340 V 23.12.58 Runcorn: 53°2o'N. 2°44'W. (Cheshire) 0 pull. 7.6.58 Ristikula: 58°ii'N. 24°47'E. Estonia Isfield: 50°57'N. o°04/E. (Sussex) 14035 X 29.12.58 O pull. 1.6.58 Kandava: 57°o8'N. 22°44'E. Latvia -6763 X 5 11-58 Inner Dowsing Light- Vessel : 53°i3'N. o°34'E O pull. 2.6.58 Ogre: 56°49'N. 24°37'E. Latvia 39732 X 31.12.58 Dogger Bank, North Sea: ca. 55°oo'N. 2°5o'E. 0 pull. 16.6.56 Rakvere: 59°27'N. 26°oi'E. Estonia .260 X 21.9.58 Ballyclare: 54°45'N. 6°oo,\V'. (Antrim) let. 0 pull. 30.6.57 Oulu: 65°o3'N. 25°35'E. Finland ’•4997 + 23-3-58 Dunfermline: 56°04'N. 3°29'W. (Fife) i:t. 0 pull. 306.57 Pori: 6i°3o'N. 2i°45'E. Finland 14671 X {cat) 12.12.57 Watten: 58°29'N. 3°i8'W. (Caitliness) \".V. 0 pull. 4 6-55 Hoyland: 58°5o'N. 5°45'E. (Rogaland) Norway b >219 X 5.2.58 Hull: 53°45'N. o°2o'W. (York) KV. 0 pull. 28.5.56 Sokndal: 58°2o'N. 6°i7'E. (Rogaland) Norway 1^918 X (snow) 9.2.58 Norham: 55°43'N. 2°io,W. (Northumberland) WO. 0 pull. 12.5.57 Madia: 58°57'N. 504o'E. (Rogaland) Norway 5> 236 X 28.11.57 Limavady: 55°o4'N. 6°56'W. (Londonderry) v\v. 0 pull. 24-5-57 Sokndal, Norway >276 -4- 15 H-57 Scarborough: 54°X7'N. o°24'W. (York) rev. 0 pull. 27-5-57 Sokndal, Norway . ’4 1 1 V 18.1.58 Greenlaw: 55°42'N. 2°28'W. (Berwick) I V. 0 pull. 10.6.57 Helleland: 58°28'N. 6°i5'E. (Rogaland) Noi*way Stannington: 55°07'N. i°39'W. (Northumberland) >056 + 12. 11. 57 0 pull. 3-6-55 Resterod: 58°i5'N. iic>54,E. (Bohuslan) Sweden C3124 X 27-3-58 Malpas: 53°03'N. 2°49'W. (Cheshire) 0 pull. 4.6.56 Bohus: 57°52'N. i2°ox,E. Sweden ,1894 X 31.1.58 Thurlby: 52°44'N. o°22'W. (Lincoln) 0 pull. 24-5-57 Ryda: 58°i7'N. I2;>53'E. (Vastergotland) Sweden Dudgeon Light-Vessel: 53°i3/N. i°oo'E. 7908 X 19.10.58 0 pull. 13.6.58 Aker: 57°23'N. X40oo'E. (Smiland) Sweden Walmsgate: 53°i7'N. o°03'E. (Lincoln) ^783 -1- 26. n. 58 492 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII P-V FI92452 O X pull. 16.6.57 31-1-58 Miescisko: 52°45'N. i7°2o'E. (Poznan) Poland Goonbell: 5o°i7'N. 5°i2/W. nr. St. Agnes (Cornwall) H. 7225219 0 V pull. 15-5-55 7.2.58 Nordhorn : 52°27'N. 7°o5'E. (Hanover) Germany Hythe: 5i°04'N. i°o6'E. (Kent) H. 7285366 O X pull. 22-5-57 9-3-58 Saerbeck: 52°ii'N. 7°39'E. (Westfalen) Germany Loddiswell: 50°2o'N. 3°47'W. (Devon) Numbers of Starlings ringed as full-grown out of the breeding-season, whose countries of origin are uncertain, were recovered extensively in Britain during autumn and winter. Such birds had for the most part been trapped in Germany and Holland. The records that follow show two further examples of re-orientation on the part of migrants interrupted and displaced en route. L. K20407 V ad. £ 21.10.53 16.3.58 Loosduinen: 52°o4'N. 4°i5'E. Holland transported Geneva: 46°i2'N. 6°io'E. Switzerland Alderford: 52°44'N. i°o9'E. (Norfolk) L. K42315 X ad. 0 26.10.57 10. 11. 58 Wassenaar: 52°o9'N. 4°22'E. Holland transported Basle: 47°34'N. 7°35'E. Switzerland Easton: 52°5i'N. o^S'W. nr. Grantham (Lincoln) P. HV2809 X 9 Greenfinch ( Chloris chloris) 9.1.56 Carentan: 49°i8'N. i°i4'W. (Manche) France 16.4.58 Selsey: 50°44'N. o°48'W. (Sussex) Hki. P6389 O X pull. Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) 18:6.57 Eckero: 6o°i4'N. i9°3o'E. Aland Is., Finland 25.3.58 Minster: 5i°2o'N. i°2o'E. (Kent) H. 8864836 V 9 20.2.56 24.1.58 Wilhelmshaven : 53°32'N. 8°o8'E. Germany Brawdy: 5i°53'N. 5°oj'W. (Pembroke) L. h54275 V •A O 20.10.55 25-3-58 Wassenaar: 52°o9'N. 4°22'E. Holland Colchester: 5i°54'N. o°55/E. (Essex) L. H96160 X juv. 2.10.57 27-3-58 Wassenaar, Holland Nacton: 52°oi'N. i°I4'E. (Suffolk) L. H97682 V NDY FIELD STATION AND OBSERVATORY, via Bideford, Devon. Warden: W. B. Workman. Write to: Prof. L. A. Harvey, University of Exeter, Devon. Accom- » odation : 5/- per night. Station: Bideford. Boat (m.v. Lundy Gannet) : £2 5s. return; irr Campbell Line steamer from Ilfracombe: £1 5s. return. INNKS’ HOUSE BIRD OBSERVATORY AND FIELD STATION, Seahouses, North- umberland. Director: Dr. E. A. R. Ennion, from whom particulars may be obtained Itt the address above (please send stamped reply envelope). Accommodation and Board: 7 or £9 9s. per week, or 30/- per day for less. Stations: Chathill (south) or Belford north) . IRTLAND BIRD OBSERVATORY, Dorset. Write to: A. J. Bull, The Gallop, i ryanston, Dorset. Accommodation : 5/- per night. Station: Weymouth (subject to alteration during i960). :l-EAT SALTEE BIRD OBSERVATORY, Co. Wexford, Ireland. Write to: Major L. F. Ruttledge, Mount Armstrong, Donadea, Co. Kildare, Ireland. Accommodation : 0/- per week. Station: Bridgetown (boat from Fishguard to Rosslare; train from 1 osslare to Bridgetown) . Boat: £1 return. OKHOLM BIRD OBSERVATORY, Dale, Haverfordwest, Pembs. Warden: K. D. i mith. Write to: The Warden, Dale Fort Field Centre, Haverfordwest, Pembs. Accom- 1 odation and Board : £6 16s. 6d. per week. Station: Haverfordwest. Car and Boat: £1 i :turn. i JRN BIRD OBSERVATORY, Kilnsea, Yorks. Write to : G. H. Ainsworth, 144 Gillshill t oad, Hull. Accommodation: 3/- per night. Stations: Hull (bus to Kilnsea) or Patrington ! axi or bus). E NEW GROUNDS, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire (Headquarters of the Wildfowl Trust). i on. Director: Peter Scott. Assistant Director {Research): Dr. G. V. T. Matthews. I r rite to : Bookings Secretary, at address above. iddition to the above observatories, two representatives from each of which form the 1 Observatories Committee, there are several which have not yet applied for formal gnition. These include: Bradwell (Essex), St. Agnes (Isles of Scilly), Cape Clear Island Cork), Tory Island (Co. Donegal), Sandwich Bay (Kent), the Calf of Man (I.o.M.) and berswick (Suffolk). Enquiries concerning these stations may be made through the ging Officer, Bird-Ringing Committee, c/o British Museum(Natural History), London, •7- A BRIEF HISTORY OF BIRD-RINGING IN THE BRITISH ISLES Although from 1890 there had been several enterprises of limited scope, bird-ringing on a large scale in this country began in 1909 with the independent launching of two schemes — one by H. F. Witherby in connection with British Birds (rings marked “Witherby High Holborn London”), and the other by A. Landsborough Thomson in Scotland (rings marked ‘‘Aberdeen University”). Of these, the first-mentioned developed into the national scheme of today; the other came to an end during the First World War, its promoter afterwards becoming associated with Witherby’s scheme. In 1937 Witherby transferred the control of his scheme to the British Trust for Ornithology, which appointed a Bird-Ringing Committee to manage it : Miss E. P. Leach, who had latterly assisted Witherby, carried on the work as Honorary Secretary of this Committee. At the same time, the headquarters were moved to the British Museum (Natural History) where the Trustees had agreed to provide accommodation and also to allow the use of the Museum address on rings. British Birds continued to support the scheme and to be the chief medium of publication. The Leverhulme Trust made a non-recurrent grant for special projects. For a long time the scheme was mainly self-supporting, the ringers paying— as they still do — for the rings they used. Its rapid growth after the Second World War, however, eventually made it impossible to maintain the ever-increasing load of headquarters work on a voluntary basis, although some help towards expenses was afforded from the general funds of the Trust. Fortunately, the Nature Conservancy agreed to give financial support, at first on a small scale but from 1954 in an annual amount to cover the salaries of a whole-time Ringing Officer (Robert Spencer) and other staff. This substantial support and the continuing active co-operation of so many ringers are evidence of the importance attached to the scientific results. A report on progress, with a selected list of recovery records, is published each year in British Birds, an extra number of the magazine being entirely devoted to this and related purposes. Analyses of particular sections of the accumulated data are also published from time to time. Printed in Gt. Britain by Diemer &■ Reynolds Ltd., Easlcotts Road, Bedford Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD., 5 Warwick Court, W.C.i INDEX Compiled by Mrs. N. I). Bla.mire Entries are in a single list with references to: (i) every significant mention of each species, not only in titles, but within the text of papers and notes, including all those appearing in such lists as the Report on bird-ringing for 1958 ; in such groups as “Warbler”, "Thrush”, “Duck”, etc., there are cross-references to those members of the family which do not bear the family name and so appear elsewhere, e.g., “Blackcap”; (ii) scientific nomenclature under generic names (following the 1952 B.O.U. Check-list of the Birds of Great Britain and Ireland, but without strict adherance to original orthography and amended as in Ibis, 98: 157-168); (iii) authors of all papers, notes and letters; and photographers; (iv) a few subject headings, i.e., “Breeding”, “Display”, “Field-characters”, "Food”, “Migration”, “Obituaries”, “Voice”; (v) “Reviews” which are listed together under this heading in alphabetical order of authors reviewed. Abbott, Peter F., Letter on phala- ropes in 1957, 202. Accipiter nisus, see Sparrowhawk. Acrocephaius paludicola, see Warbler, Aquatic. palustris, see Warbler, Marsh. schoenobaenus, see Warbler, Sedge. scirpacens, see Warbler, Reed. Aegithalos candatus, see Tit, Long- tailed. Aegolius future us, see Owl, Teng- malm's. Alauda arvensis, see Skylark. Alca torda, see Razorbill. Alcedo atthis, see Kingfisher. Alectoris rufa, see Partridge, Red- legged.' Alexander, H. G., Note on Swallow persistently following man to catch insects disturbed from ground, 164. Almond, W. E., Note on Great Tit stung to death by bees, 314. Anas acuta, see Pintail. crecca, see Teal. penelope, see Wigeon. platyrhynchos, see Mallard. querquedula, see Garganey. sirepera, see Gadwall. Andrew, D. G., Migrations of the Oystercatcher, 216-20. Anser albifrons, see Goose, White- fronted. anser, see Goose, Grey Lag. arvensis brachyrhynchus, see Goose, Pink-footed. Anthus campestris, see Pipit, Tawny. cervinus, see Pipit, Red- throated. ■— gustavi, see Pipit, Pechora. pratensis, see Pipit, Meadow. novaeseelandiae richardi, see Pipit, Richard’s. spinoletta petrosus, see Pipit, Rock. spinoletta, see Pipit, Water. trivialis, see Pipit, Tree. Antoine, N. J., Note on Blue Tit feeding young Treecreepers, 432-3, pi. 72. A pus apus, see Swift. melba, see Swift, Alpine. Aquila chrysaetos, see Eagle, Golden. Ardea cinerea, see Heron. Ardeola ralloides, see Heron, Squacco. Arenaria interpres, see Turnstone. Armstrong, Edward A., Note on display by Swifts, 97 ; letter on the behaviour and breeding environment of the St. Kilda Wren, 136-8. Arn-Willi, Hans, Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: XCIX. Alpine Swift, 221-5. Ash, J. S., Pollen contamination of birds, 424-6. Asio flammeus, see Owl, Short-eared. otus, see Owl, Long-eared. Athene noctua, see Owl, Little. AUK, LITTLE, ringed 1958, 448. AUKS, see also Guillemot, Puffin, Razorbill. 493 494 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI I Avent, C., see Vernon, J. D. R. AVOCET, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , AMERICAN, migration in N. America, 206, 208. Aythya collaris, see Duck, Ring- tailed. ferina, see Pochard. fuligula, see Duck, Tufted. marila, see Scaup. Baan, G. van der, see Swennen, C. Bagenal, T. B., Note on breeding of Leach’s Petrel on the Flannan Isles, 311-2. Bannerman, David A., Letter on an error in “The birds of the British Isles”, 65. Barlramia longicauda, see Plover, Upland. Bateson, P. P. G., Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: XCVI. Ivory Gull, 124-5. , , and Plowright, R. C., The breeding biology of the Ivory Gull in Spitsbergen, 1 OS- 14, pi. 21-24. Batten, L. A., Note on Kestrel catching a fish, 314. Bennett, C. G., and King, Bernard, Note on communal bathing by Black Terns in deep water, 313-4. Benson, G. B. G., Note on display flight of Bitterns, 267 ; on adult male Cuckoo being fed by Dunnock, 269. Benz, E., Photographs of Alpine Swift, pi. 37-39, 42. BITTERN, display flight, 267; num- bers ringed 1958, 447. BLACKBIRD, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; feeding on marine worms, 97, 239; migrant at- tacked by Great Black-backed Gull, 164; hen killing young, 165; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; migrants attacked by gulls, 313; eating snails, 315-6; September drift movements, 1958, 366, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 474; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 490. BLACKCAP, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 347, 351-4, 356, 368; bills of immigrants contaminated by pollen, 424-5; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 476. Blake, A. R. M., see Lord, J. BLUETHROAT, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 343, 346, 352-6; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 475. Boase, Henry, Shelduck counts in winter in east Scotland, 90-6; notes on the display, nesting and moult of the Mute Swan, 114-23. Boddington, David, Note on feeding behaviour of Gannets and Great Black-backed Gull with Mackerel shoals, 383-4. , , see Boyd, J. Morton. Bombycilla garrulus, see Waxwing. Boswall, Jeffery, Letter on St. Kilda Wrens on Stac an Armin, 392. Botaurus stellaris, see Bittern. Bottomley, J. B., and S., Photo- graphs of Little Gull, pi. 9; photograph of Reeve, pi. 56. Bouldin, L. E., Survey of House Martin colonies in east Lanca- shire, 141-9. Boyd, J. Morton, Note on Fulmar incubating eggs of Great Black- backed Gull, 163. , , Boddington, David, and Ratcliffe, Derek A., Letter on St. Kilda Wrens on Stac an Armin, 392. BRAMBLING, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. Branta canadensis, see Goose, Canada. leucopsis, see Goose, Barnacle. BREEDING: Mute Swan, 120-2; Ivory Gull, 105-14; Arctic Tern, 149-61; — — : NESTS: Lesser Black-backed Gull, 60; Common Tern, 387; House Martin, 141-9; Rook, 388, pi. 64; Robin, 390, pi. 63; Goldcrest, 133; Greenfinch, 433- 4; Goldfinch, 434-5, pi. 71. Broekhuysen, G. J., Letter on infor- mation wanted on marked Swal- lows, 169. Brown, R. G. B., Note on House Sparrows feeding on young frogs, 98. Bucephala clangnla, see Goldeneye. BULLFINCH, early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and re- covered, 1958, 447. BUNTING, BLACK-HEADED, Sep- tember drift movements, 1958, 351. — , CIRL, numbers ringed 1958, 447. , CORN, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. VOL. LIl] INDEX 495 BUNTING, LAPLAND, September drift movements, 1958, 356; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , LITTLE, ringed 1958, 448. , ORTOLAN, September drift movements, 1958, 350, 353-6, 368; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , RED-HEADED, September drift movements, 1958, 350. , REED, early nesting in 1957, 80; alighting on water, 238; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 482. , RUSTIC, ringed 1958, 448. , SNOW, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 482. , YELLOW, see Yehowhammer. , YELLOW-BREASTED, photo- graphic study, 161-3, pi. 25-32; ringed 1958, 448. Burhinus oedicnemus, see Curlew, Stone. Burton, P. J. K., and Thurston, M. H., Observations on Arctic Terns in Spitsbergen, 149-61. Buteo buteo, see Buzzard. Butlin, Sybil M., Note on snail- eating by Blackbirds, 315-0; on Carrion Crow attacking young Magpies in nest, 387. Buxton, E. J. M., Note on Pied Wagtail remaining on ship from Thames estuary to Mediter- ranean in spring, 98. BUZZARD, head-stabilization, 20; early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445. Calandrella cinerea brachydactyla, see Lark, Short-toed. Calcarius lapponica, see Bunting, Lapland. Calidris alpina, see Dunlin. bairdii, see Sandpiper, Baird’s. canutus, see Knot. fuscicollis, see Sandpiper, White- rumped. maritima, see Sandpiper, Purple. mauri, see Sandpiper, Western. melanotos, see Sandpiper, Pec- toral. minuta, see Stint, Little. minutilla, see Sandpiper, Least. pusilla, see Sandpiper, Semi- pal mated. testacea, see Sandpiper, Curlew. Capella gallinago, see Snipe. delicata, see Snipe, Wil- son’s. Carduelis cannabina, see Linnet. carduelis, see Goldfinch. flammea, see Redpoll. flavirostris, see Twite. spinus, see Siskin. Carpodacus erythrinus, see Grosbeak, Scarlet. Carter, M. J., see Colston, P. R. Calharacta skua, see Skua, Great. Catopirophorus semipalmatus inorna- tus, see Willet, Western. semipalmatus, Willet, East- ern. Certhia familiaris, see Treecreeper. CHAFFINCH, early nesting in 1957, 80; voice, 83-4; injury-feigning, 166; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 232; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 447, 481; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 492. Chapman, S., King, B., and Webb N., Note on Pintail diving, 60. Charadrius apricarius, see Plover, Golden. dominicus, see Plover, American Golden. dubius, see Plover, Little Ringed. hiaticula, see Plover, Ringed. melodus circumcinctus, see Plover, Western Piping. melodus, see Plover, East- ern Piping. morinellus, see Dotterel. squatarola, see Plover, Grey. vociferus, see Killdeer. wilsonia, see Plover, Wilson’s. CHIFFCHAFF, early nesting in 1957, 79-80; September drift movements, 1958, 356, 368; abnormal song, 390; bill of immigrant contaminated by pol- len, 424; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 477; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 491. Chlidonias niger, see Tern, Black. Chloris chloris, see Greenfinch. CHOUGH, feeding behaviour, 130-1, 388-90; numbers ringed 1958, 446. Cinclus cinclus, see Dipper. Circus aeruginosus, see Harrier, Marsh. cyaneus, see Harrier, Hen. pvgargus, see Harrier, Mon- tagu’s. - Clafton, F. R., Note on Green Sand- piper breeding in Inverness- shire, 430-2. Clangula hyemalis, see Duck, Long- tailed. 496 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Coccothraustes coccothraustes, see Haw- finch. Cohen, Edwin, Note on Reed Bunt- ings alighting on water, 238. Cole, H., Note on Wilson’s Phalarope in Bedfordshire, 385-6. Coles, C. L., Letter on game research congress in Holland, 66. Colston, P. R., Newport, B., and Carter, M. J., Note on Great Black-backed Gull attacking migrant Starling, 312. Columba livia, see Dove, Rock. oenas, see Dove, Stock. pcilumbas, see Woodpigeon. COOT, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 461 ; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 486. CORMORANT, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 453. CORNCRAKE, September drift movements, 1958, 355; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 461. Corvus corax, see Raven. cor one, see Crow, Carrion. cornix, see Crow, Hooded. frugilegus, see Rook. monedula, see Jackdaw. Coturnix coturnix, see Quail. Coulson, J. C., The plumage and leg colour of the Kittiwake and comments on the non-breeding population, 189-96. CRAKE, SPOTTED, numbers ringed 1958, 448. CRAKES, see also Corncrake. Crex crex, see Corncrake. Crocethia alba, see Sanderling. CROSSBILL, invasion, 1956, and breeding, 1957, 1-9; at Fair Isle, 1956, 135-6; early nesting in 1959, 166; September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 350; numbers ringed 1958, 447. CROW, CARRION, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; co-operative preening, 164-5; attacking young Magpies in nest, 387; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , HOODED, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. CROWS, see also Chough, Jackdaw, Jay, Magpie, Raven, Rook. CUCKOO, photographed laying in Meadow Pipit’s nest, 226-8, pi. 43-44; adult male fed by Dunnock, 269; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. Cuculus canorus, see Cuckoo. CURLEW, N. American records, 212; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 463; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 487. , ESKIMO, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-8. , LONG-BILLED, migration in N. America, 206, 208. , STONE, head-stabilization, 20; numbers ringed 1958, 445. Cutbill, J. L., Photographs of Ivory Gull, pi. 21-24. Cyanosylvia svecica, see Bluethroat. Cygnus columbianns bewichii, see Swan, Bewick’s. cygnus, see Swan, Whooper. olor, see Swan, Mute. Davis, Peter, Note on a second Grey- cheeked Thrush at Fair Isle, 316. , , and Dennis, Roy H., Song Sparrow at Fair Isle: a bird new to Europe, 419-21, pi. 70. Davis, T. A. W., Note on Kestrel’s unusual boldness in taking earth- worms, 198. Dawson, M. J., Note on flightless Woodpigeon fed by another, 236. Delichon urbica, see Martin, House. Dendrocopos major, see Woodpecker, Great Spotted. minor, see Woodpecker, Lesser Spotted. Dendroica coronata, see Warbler, Myrtle. Dennis, Roy H., see Davis, Peter. Des Forges, G., Note on two Robins laying in one nest, 390, pi. 63. Dick, Hill, see Ennis, Thomas. DIPPER, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446. DISPLAY: Little Grebe, 96; Bit- tern, 267; Mute Swan, 114-20; Swift, 97. DIVER, BLACK-THROATED, duration of dives, 235. Doncaster, C. C., Photographs of Little Gull, pi. 10-12; photo- graphs of Ruff, pi. 49-55. DOTTEREL, September drift move- ments, 1958, 354; numbers ringed 1958, 448. Dove, R. S., Note on abnormal song of ChiffchalT, 390. DOVE, ROCK, ringed 1958, 446. , STOCK, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. VOL. I.Il] INDEX 497 DOVE, TURTLE, migration in West- ern Approaches, 179, 182; migra- tion at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958. 343, 351, 354-6, 366; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 469. DOVES, see also Woodpigeon. DOW1TCHER, LONG-BILLED, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-8, 210-11. , SHORT-BILLED, migration in N. America, 206, 208-10. Drury, William H., and Mary, Fulmars in the North Atlantic in the summers of 1956 and 1958, 377-83. DUCK, LONG-TAILED, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233. , RING-NECKED, in Berkshire, 427-30. , TUFTED, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 459. DUCKS, see also Eider, Gadwall, Garganey, Goldeneye, Goosan- der, Mallard, Pintail, Pochard, Scaup, Scoter, Shelduck, Shovel- er. Teal, Wigeon. DUNLIN, migration in Western Approaches, 178, 182; migra- tion at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 464; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 488. DUNNOCK, early nesting in 1957, 79; feeding adult male Cuckoo, 269 ; numbers ringed and recov- ered 1958, 447. EAGLE, GOLDEN, early nesting in 1957, 80; dead bird with tuber- culosis and aspergillosis, 197; numbers ringed 195S, 447. EDITORIAL, 73-4; 177; 241-4. EIDER, nesting in Arctic Tern colony in Spitsbergen, 154-5; increase in Britain since 1945, 245-58; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444. Emberiza aureola, see Bunting, Yel- low-breasted. bruniceps, see Bunting, Red- headed. calandra, see Bunting, Corn. cirlus, see Bunting, Cirl. citrinella, see Yellowhammer. hortulana, see Bunting, Ortolan. melanocephala, see Bunting, Black-headed. pusil'la, see Bunting, Little. Emberiza rustica, see Bunting, Rustic. schoeniclus, see Bunting, Reed. Ennis, Thomas, and Dick, Hill, Breeding of the Ashy-headed Wagtail and Yellow Wagtail in Northern Ireland. 10-12. Erithacus rubecula, see Robin. Fa/co columbarius, see Merlin. peregrinus, see Peregrine. subbuteo, sce'Hobby. tinnunculus, see Kestrel. FALCON, PEREGRINE, see Pere- grine. FALCONS, see also Hobby, Kestrel, Merlin. Ferguson-Lees, I. J., Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: XCIV. Little Gull, 56-59; XCV. Terek Sandpiper, 85-90; XCVII. Yellow-breasted Bunt- ing, 161-3; XCVIII. Squacco Heron, 185-9. , , see Hickling, R. A. O. , , and Williamson, Kenneth, Recent reports and news, see Reports and news. FIELD-CHARACTERS: Fulmar, 328-9, 377-83; Kittiwake, 189- 94; Orphean Warbler. 20-21; Subalpine Warbler, 31, 198; Spectacled Warbler, 198; Menetries Warbler, 31. FIELDFARE, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; September drift movements, 1958, 353, 355; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 473; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 490. FIRECREST, numbers ringed 1958, 447. FLYCATCHER, BROWN, at Holy Island, 349. , PIED, early breeding in 1957, 76-7; nest attacked by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 128; Sep- tember drift movements. 1956, 1958, 338-44. 349 351-6, 366-8; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 478. , RED-BREASTED, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 349, 352-6, 360-3, 370, 372-4; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , SPOTTED, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 344, 348, 351-7, 366, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 478. 500 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Kallander, Hans, Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: XCIII. Tengmalm’s Owl, 12-15, pi. 2, 3. KESTREL, migration in Western Approaches, 178, 182; unusuai boldness in taking earthworms, 198; catching fish, 314; num- bers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 460; foreign-ringed re- covery in Britain, 4S6. KILLDEER, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-9, 212. King, Bernard, Note on Great Black-backed Gull diving from a height and submerging in an inland water, 198; on Bonelli’s Warbler in Cornwall, 317. , , see Bennett, C. G. , , see Chapman, Stephen. , , see Sage, Bryan L. King, J. M. B., Note on orientation of migrants over sea in fog, 125-6. KINGFISHER, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 470. Kist, J., Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: CL Ross’s Gull, 422-4, pi. 66-69. KITE, RED, in sixteenth-century London, 239. KITTIWAKE, dates of laying, 1952- 57, 76-7; attacking Grey Seals carrying fish, 96; plumage and leg colour in relation to age, 189-94; numbers and behaviour of non-breeding birds, 194-6; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 466; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 489. KNOT, feeding tracks, 16, pi. 6; numbers ringed 1958, 445; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 488. Lack, David, Watching migration by radar, 258-67, pi. 45-48. , , see Goodacre, M. J. Lagopus scoticus, see Grouse, Red. Lanius collurio, see Shrike, Red- backed. excubitor, see Shrike, Great Grey. minor, see Shrike, Lesser Grey. senator, see Shrike, Woodchat. LAPWING, early breeding in 1957, 78-79; N. American records, 211-2; migration in N.E. Nor- folk, 232; migration tracked by radar, 259; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 462; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 486. LARK, SHORT-TOED, migration in Western Approaches, 179, 181; numbers ringed 1958, 448. LARKS, see also Skylark, Woodlark. Larus argentatus , see Gull, Herring. canus, see Gull, Common. fuscus, see Gull, Lesser Black- backed. hyperboreus, see Gull, Glaucous. — — - marinus, see Gull, Great Black- backed. minuius, see Gull, Little. ridibundus, see Gull, Black- headed. Lawton, J., Note on Greenfinches building in old nests of other species, 443-4. Lewis, C. J., Note on Skylark carry- ing dead half-feathered fledgling, 387. Limnodromus griseus, see Dowitcher, Short-billed. — — scolopaceus, see Dowitcher, Long-billed. Limosa fedoa, see Godwit, Marbled. — — ■ haemastica, see Godwit, Hud- sonian. lapponica, see Godwit, Bar- tailed. limosa, see Godwit, Black- tailed. LINNET early nesting in 1957, 80; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 481. Lloyd, L. C., John Hugh Owen (Obituary), 309-1 1 . Lockie, J. D., Tire food of nestling rooks near Oxford, 332-4. Locustella naevia, see Warbler, Grass- hopper. Lord, J., and Blake, A. R. M., Letter on the birds of Staffordshire, 392. Loxia curvirostra, see Crossbill. Lullula arborea, see Woodlark. Luscinia luscinia, see Nightingale, Thrush. megarhynchos, see Nightingale. Lymnocryples minimus, see Snipe, Jack. McLean, Ivor, and Williamson, Ken- neth, Migration notes from the Western Approaches, spring, 1958, 177-85. MAGPIE, early breeding in 1957, 78-79; young attacked in nest by Carrion Crow, 387 ; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. MALLARD, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; migration in N.E. Nor- VOL. LIl] INDEX 501 folk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 455; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 483. Margeson, John M. R., Note on Myrtle Warblers crossing the Atlantic on board ship, 238. Marr, B. A. E., Note on Woodchat Shrike killing mouse, 269. MARTIN, HOUSE, survey of nesting sites in east Lancashire, 141-9; migration in Western Ap- proaches, 181; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 184; September drift movements, 1958, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , SAND, migration in Western Approaches, 181 ; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; September drift movements, 1958, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 470; foreign- ringed recovery in Britain, 490. Melanitta nigra, see Scoter, Common. Meiospiza melodia, see Sparrow, Song Mergus merganser, see Goosander. MERLIN, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 445, 460. Micropalama himantopus, see Sand- piper, Stilt. MIGRATION: orientation of mig- rants over sea in fog, 125-6; in Western Approaches, spring 1958, 177-85; in North America and its relation to transatlantic crossing, 205-15; visible, in N.E. Norfolk, 228-235; tracked by radar, 258-67; autumn, 334-77. , Bewick’s Swan, 393-416; Oystercatcher, 216-20; Grey Phalarope, 33-4 1 ; Red-necked Phalarope, 35-6, 41-2; White- throat, 131-3; Crossbill, 1-9. , see also Ringing report. Milne, B. S., Variation in a population of Yellow Wagtails, 281-95. Milvus milvus, see Kite, Red. MOORHEN, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 445, 461. Motacilla alba alba, see Wagtail, White. yarrellii, see Wagtail, Pied. cinerea, see Wagtail, Grey. flava, see Wagtail, Yellow. cinereocapilla, see Wagtail, Ashy-headed. Mountfort, Guy, Note on Great Spotted Woodpeckers killing nestling tits, 270; on apparent triple nesting by Blue Tit, 314. Muir, R. C., Note on Goldfinches undoing tie-on labels and using them as nest-material, 434-5, pi. 71. Murton, R. K., Visible migration in N.E. Norfolk in November 1956, 228-35. Muscicapa latirostris, see Flycatcher, Brown. parva, see Flycatcher, Red- breasted. striata, see Flycatcher, Spotted. Mylne, C. K., Note on birds drinking the sap of a birch tree, 426-7. Naylor, J. F., Note on “head- lagging” by a Buff-breasted Sandpiper, 312. Netta rufina, see Pochard, Red- crested. Newport, B., see Colston, P. R. Nicholson, E. M., Bird numbers in Finland: a bold effort towards estimating a nation’s avifauna, 22-30. NIGHTINGALE, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 346, 368; numbers ringed 1958, 446. , THRUSH, ringed 1958, 448. Nisbet, I. C. T., Wader migration in North America and its relation to transatlantic crossings, 205- 15; letter on the kites of six- teenth-century London, 239; Bewick’s Swans in the British Isles in the winters of 1954-55 and 1955-56, 393-416. Norberg, Ake, Photographs of Teng- malm’s Owl, pi. 1, 4. Numenius americanus, see Curlew, Long-billed. arquata, see Curlew. borealis, see Curlew, Eskimo. phaeopus, see Whimbrel. hudsonicus, see Whimbrel, Hudsonian. NUTHATCH, early nesting in 1957, 80; drinking sap of birch tree, 426; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446. Oberholzer, F., Photographs of Alpine Swift, pi. 38-42. OBITUARIES: Arnold Whitworth Boyd (1885-1959), 417-9; James Parsons Burkitt (1870-1959), 308-9; Gustav Kramer (1910-59), 306-8; John Hugh Owen (1877- 1959), 309-11. Oceanodroma leucorrhoa, see Petrel, Leach’s. 502 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI I Oenanthe oenanthe, see Wheatear. Olivier, Georges, Note on male Robin taking part in nest-con- struction, 61 ; on Hobbies attack- ing Peregrines, 236. ORIOLE, BALTIMORE, ringed 1958, 448. OSPREY, foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 486. OUZEL, RING, September drift movements, 1958, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 474. OWL, BARN, early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446. , LITTLE, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , LONG-EARED, numbers ringed 1958, 446. , SHORT-EARED, early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 469. , TAWNY, early breeding in 1957, 75-6, 80; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , TENGMALM’S, photographic study, 12-15, pi. 1-4. OYSTERCATCHER, feeding tracks, 16, pi. 5; early breeding in 1957, 78-79; migration, 216-20; re- action of nesting birds to in- truding sheep, 384-5; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 461. , AMERICAN, migration in N. America, 206, 208-9. Pagophila eburnea, see Gull, Ivory. Pandion haliaelus, see Osprey. Park, W. D., Note on abnormal growths on Starling’s head, 199. Parrack, James D., Letter on Phala- ropes in 1957, 201. PARTRIDGE, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 448. , RED-LEGGED, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 448, 461. Parus ater, see Tit, Coal. atricapillus, see Tit, Willow. caeruleus, see Tit, Blue. cristatus, see Tit, Crested. major, see Tit, Great. palustris, see Tit, Marsh. Passer domcsticus , see Sparrow, House. montanus, see Sparrow, Tree. Peet, W. M., Note on Starlings affected by smog, 238. Pennycuick, C. J., and Webbe, D., Observations on the Fulmar in Spitsbergen, 321-32, pi. 57-62. Penrose, M., and F., Note on reactions of nesting Oystercatchers to intruding sheep, 384-5. Perdix perdix, see Partridge. PEREGRINE, attacked by Hobbies, 236; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 445, 460. Perrins, C. M., Note on Jay killed by weasel, 60-61 ; on melanistic adult Great Tit and brood of young, 131. PETREL, LEACH’S, breeding on Flannan Isles, 311-2; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 451. , STORM, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 451. Phalacrocorax aristotelis, see Shag. carbo, see Cormorant. PHALAROPE, GREY, numbers re- corded in autumn 1957, 33-41; letters on origin, 201-3 ; numbers ringed 1958, 448. RED-NECKED, numbers re- corded in autumn 1957, 35-6, 41-2: letters on origin, 201-3. , WILSON’S, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-9, 211-2; in Bedfordshire, 385-6 ; in Anglesey, 386-7. Phalaropus fulicarius, see Phalarope, Grey. lobatus, see Phalarope, Red- necked. tricolor, see Phalarope, Wilson’s. Phasianus colchicus, see Pheasant. PHEASANT, early nesting in 1957, 80. Philohela minor, see Woodcock, American. Philomachus pugnax, see Ruff. Phoenicurus ochruros, see Redstart, Black. phoenicurus, see Redstart. Phylloscopus bonelli, see Warbler, Bonelli’s. collybita, see Chififchaff. inornatus, see Warbler, Yellow- browed. — — ■ proregulus, see Warbler, Pallas's. sibilatrix, see Warbler, Wood. trochiloides, see Warbler, Green- ish. trochilus, see Warbler, Willow. acredula, see Warbler, Northern Willow. Pica pica, see Magpie. Picus viridis, see Woodpecker, Green. PIGEON, WOOD, see Woodpigeon. VOL. LIl] INDEX 503 Pike, Oliver G., An historic series of Cuckoo photographs, 226-8, pi. 43-44. PINTAIL, diving, 60; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 458; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 484. PIPIT, MEADOW, early nesting in 1957, 79; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; September drift movements, 1958, 357, 366, 368; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 447, 478. , PECHORA, ringed 1957, 448. , RED-THROATED, September drift movements, 1958, 352, 356, 366, 368. , RICHARD’S, ringed 1958, 448. , ROCK, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. , TAWNY, September drift movements, 1956, 349. , TREE, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 340-343, 349, 351-4, 356-7, 366-8; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. , WATER, September drift movements, 1958, 353; num- bers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. Plautus alle, see Auk, Little. Plectrophenax nivalis, see Bunting, Snow. PLOVER, AMERICAN GOLDEN, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-9, 212. , GOLDEN, numbers ringed 1958, 445; foreign-ringed recov- ery in Britain, 487. , GREY, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , LITTLE RINGED, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 462. , PIPING, migration in N. America, 206, 208. , RINGED, early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 462. , UPLAND, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-9, 211. , WILSON'S, migration in N. America, 206, 208. Plowright, R. C., see Bateson, P. P. G. POCHARD, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 444; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 484. POCHARD, RED-CRESTED, status in British Isles, 42-56; numbers ringed 1958, 447. Podiceps auritus, see Grebe, Slavon- ian. cristatus, see Grebe, Great Crested. ruficollis, see Grebe, Little. Porzana porzana, see Crake, Spotted. Procellaria pujfinus, see Shearwater, Manx. Prunella modularis, see Dunnock. PUFFIN, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446, 468. Purser, G. L., Note on House Spar- rows soaking hard bread to soften it, 199. Pyman, G. A., The status of the'Red- crested Pochard in the British Isles, 42-56. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, see Chough. Pyrrhula pyrrhula, see Bullfinch. QUAIL, numbers ringed 1958, 448. RAIL, WATER, early nesting in 1957, 80; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 461. Rallus aqualicus, see Rail, Water. Ratcliffe, Derek A., see Boyd, J. Morton. RAVEN, feeding behaviour, 129-30; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. Raynsford, L. J., Note on early roding of Woodcock, 268. RAZORBILL, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 468. Recent reports and news, see Reports and news. Recurvirostra americana, see Avocet, American. avosetta, see Avocet. REDPOLL, migration in N.E. Nor- folk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. REDSHANK, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 464. , SPOTTED, N. American re- cords, 213; numbers ringed 1958, 448. REDSTART, early breeding in 1957, 79 ; September drift movements, 1956, 1958. 338-45, 352-6, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 475. , BLACK, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 346, 355; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 475. 504 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII REDWING, migration in N.E. Nor- folk, 233 ; migrants attacked by gulls, 313; breeding in Ross- slxire, 315; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 473. REEVE, see Ruff. Regulus ignicapillus, see Firecrest. regulus, see Goldcrest. Reports and news, 31-2, 66-72, 101-4, 140, 170-6, 203-4, 271-80, 318-20, 435-40. Requests for information: breeding of Pratincoles and Bee-eaters in France, 136. REVIEWS: Burton: Phoenix re-born, 166-8. Gilliard : Living birds of the world, 30-1. Greenway: Extinct and vanish- ing birds of the world, 98-9. I ngram and Morrey Salmon : The birds of Brecknock, 100. Koenig: Tales from the Vienna woods, 133-4. Merikallio: Finnish birds, their distribution and numbers, 22-30. North and Simms: Witherby's sound-guide to British birds, 62-5. Uspenski: The bird bazaars of Novaya Zemlya, 134-5. Van Tyne and Berger: Funda- mentals of ornithology, 391. Rliodostethia rosea, see Gull, Ross’s. Richardson, R. A., Note on downwind immigration of British White- throats, 131-3. Ringing report, 441-492. Riparia riparia, see Martin, Sand. Rissa tridactyla, see Kittiwake. ROBIN, male taking part in nest- construction, 61 ; early nesting in 1957, 79-80; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; nestling taken by Great Spotted Wood- pecker, 127; September drift movements, 366, 368; two hens laying in one nest, 390, pi. 63; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 475. Robson, R. W., Note on flightless condition of Common Scoter, 268. ROOK, early breeding in 1957, 75-6; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 232; food of nestlings, 332-4 ; nesting on ground, 388, pi. 64; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 470. Royama, Tomoo, Test of an auto- matic nest-recorder, 295-302. RUFF, migration in Western Ap- proaches, 178, 182; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; N. American records, 211, 213; photographic study, 302-6, pi. 49-56; numbers ringed 1958, 445. Ruttledge, R. F., James Parsons Burkitt (Obituary), 308-9. Sage, Bryan L., Letter on the influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957, 169. , , and King, Bernard, The influx of phalaropes in autumn 1957,33-42: letters, 201-3. SANDERLING, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445. SANDPIPER, BAIRD’S, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-12. , BUFF-BREASTED, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-8, 211-2; “head-lagging”, 312. , COMMON, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 463. , CURLEW, N. American re- cords, 211, 213. , GREEN, breeding in Inver- ness-shire, 430-432 ; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 448, 463. , LEAST, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208, 210. , PECTORAL, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-9, 21 1-2; num- bers ringed 1958, 448. — - — ■, PURPLE, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , SEMIPALMATED, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-10. , SOLITARY, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208, 210, 212. , SPOTTED, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208, 212. , STILT, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 207-8. — • — , TEREK, photographic study, 85-90, pi. 13-20. , WESTERN, migration in N. America, 207-8, 2i2. VOL. LIl] INDEX 505 SANDPIPER, WHITE-RUMPED, migration in N. America in rela- tion to British records, 207-8, 210, 212. , WOOD, September drift move- ments, 1958, 355; numbers ringed 1958, 448. Saxicola rubetra, see Whinchat. torquata, see Stonechat. SCAUP, numbers recovered 1958, 447, 459. Scolopax ruslicola , see Woodcock. SCOTER, COMMON, diving from the wing, 1 97 ; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; flightless condition during moult, 268. Scott, R. E., Note on Rook nesting on the ground, 388. SHAG, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 454. Sharrock, J. T. R., and Gillmor, Robert, Note on Ring-necked Duck in Berkshire, 427-30. SHEARWATER, MANX, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 452; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 483. SHELDUCK, feeding tracks, 16-17, pi. 6-7; early nesting in 1957, 80; winter population in east Scotland, 90-6; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 459. SHOVELER, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 444, 458; foreign- ringed recoverv in Britain, 484. SHRIKE, GREAT GREY, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , LESSER GREY, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , RED-BACKED, September drift movements, 1956, 1958,350, 351-7, 368, 370; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. - — — , WOO DC HAT, migration in Western Approaches, 181; kill- ing mouse, 269; September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 350, 352, 354, 356, 365, 367-8; numbers ringed 1958, 448. SISKIN, numbers ringed 1958, 447. Sitta europaca, see Nuthatch. SKUA, ARCTIC, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445. , GREAT, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 464. SKYLARK, early breeding in 1957, 78-79; migration in N.E. Nor- folk, 232; carrying dead half- feathered fledgling, 387; num- bers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. Smith, F. R., The Crossbill invasion of 1956 and the subsequent breeding in 1957, 1-9. Smith, K. D., Letter on the identifi- cation of some warblers, 31. SNIPE, N. American records, 212; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 462; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 487. , JACK, N. American records, 212; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 445, 463. , WILSON’S, migration in N. America, 206, 208. Somateria mollissima, see Eider. SPARROW, HEDGE, sec Dunnock. SPARROW, HOUSE, early nesting in 1957, 76-7, 80; feeding on young frogs, 98; soaking hard bread to soften it, 199; attacked by feral pigeon, 236; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. , SONG, at Fair Isle, 419-21, pi. 70. , TREE, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; September drift movements, 1958, 353, 355; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 482. SPARROWHAWK, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 460. Spatula clypeata, see Shoveler. Spencer, Robert, Report on bird ringing for 1958, 441-92. STARLING, early nesting in 1957, 79-80; abnormal growths on head, 199; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 229; affected by smog, 238 ; migrant attacked by Great Black-backed Gull, 312; Sep- tember drift movements, 1958, 366, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 480; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 491 . Stercorarius parasiticus, see Skua, Arctic. — - — - skua, see Skua, Great. Sterna albifrovs, see Tern, Little. dougallii, see Tern, Roseate. hirundo, see Tern, Common. macrura, see Tern, Arctic. — — • sandvicensis, see Tern, Sand- wich. STILT, BLACK-NECKED, migra- tion in N. America, 206, 208. STINT, LITTLE, numbers ringed 1958, 448. STONECHAT, early nesting in 1957. 80; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446, 475. 508 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII Stveptopelia turtur, see Dove, Turtle. Strix aluco, see Owl, Tawny. Sturnus vulgaris, see Starling. SufEern, C., Letter on Blackbirds feeding on marine worms, 239. Sula bassana, see Gannet. Summers-Smith, D., Note on co- operative preening by Carrion Crows, 164-5. SWALLOW, early breeding in 1957, 79-80; migration in Western Approaches, 180, 182; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; following man to catch insects disturbed from ground, 164, 269; September drift move- ments, 1958, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 470. SWAN, BEWICK’S, winter influx in Britain, 1954-55, 1955-56, 393-416. , MUTE, early breeding in 1957, 78-9 ; display, nesting and moult, 114-23; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 460; foreign- ringed recovery in Britain, 486. , WHOOPER, migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233. Swennen, C., and Baan, G. van der, Tracking birds on tidal flats and beaches, 15-18, pi. 5-8. SWIFT, dates of laying, 1948-57, 76-7 ; display, 97 ; September drift movements, 1958, 355; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 469. , ALPINE, photographic study, 221-5, pi. 37-42. Swift, J. J., Information wanted on Pratincoles and Bee-eaters in France (letter), 136; note on the separation of Subalpine and Spectacled Warblers in juvenile and first-winter plu- mages, 198. Sylvia atricapilla, see Blackcap. borin, see Warbler, Garden. cantillans, see Warbler, Sub- alpine. communis, see Whitethroat. conspicillata, see Warbler, Spec- tacled. curruca, see Whitethroat, Lesser. hortensis, see Warbler, Orphean. melanocephala mystacea, see Warbler, Mdndtrids. nisoria, see Warbler, Barred. undata, see Warbler, Dartford. Taverner, J. H., The spread of the Eider in Great Britain, 245-58. Taylor, L. S., Letter on list of Northamptonshire birds, 65-6. TEAL, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 444, 456; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 484. TERN, ARCTIC, breeding behaviour in Spitsbergen, 149-61; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 467 ; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 489. , BLACK, communal bathing in deep water, 313-4. , COMMON, unusual nest-site, 387; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 445, 467; foreign- ringed recovery in Britain, 489. , LITTLE, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 467. , ROSEATE, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 467. , SANDWICH, numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 467. Thorpe, W. H., Letter on “sub-song” and “secondary song”, 101. THRUSH, GRAY-CHEEKED, at Fair Isle, 316; ringed 1958, 448. , MISTLE, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 472. , SONG, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; September drift move- ments, 1958, 355, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 473. THRUSHES, see also Blackbird. Fieldfare, Ouzel, Redwing. Thurston, M. H., see Burton, P. J. K. Tinbergen, N., Photographic studies of some less familiar birds: C. Ruff, 302-6; Gustav Kramer (Obituary), 306-8. TIT, BLUE, early breeding in 1957, 75- 6; nestling taken by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 127-8; apparent triple nesting by, 314; feeding young Treecreepers, 432- 3, pi. 72; drinking sap of birch tree, 426; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 471 ; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 490. , COAL, early breeding in 1957, 76- 7 ; drinking sap from birch tree, 427 ; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , CRESTED, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , GREAT, early breeding in 1957, 75-6; nestlings taken by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 128 ; Tadorna tadorna, see Shelduck. VOL. LIl] INDEX 507 melanistic adult and young, 131; nest- visits recorded by automatic nest-recorder, 295- 302; stung to death by bees, 314; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446, 470; foreign- ringed recovery in Britain, 490. TIT, LONG-TAILED, feeding- methods with artificial food, 21 ; early breeding in 1957, 76-7; feeding-methods with large food, 200; drinking sap of birch tree, 426; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446, 472. , MARSH, drinking sap of birch tree, 426; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , WILLOW, numbers ringed 1958, 446. Tousey. Katharine, Note on Myrtle Warblers crossing the Atlantic on board ship, 237. TREECREEPER, early nesting in 1957, 80; nestling taken by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 1 27 ; young fed by Blue Tit, 432-3, pi. 72; ringed 1958, 446. Trelfa, G., Note on early nesting of Reed Warbler, 165-6. Tringa erythropus, see Redshank, Spotted. flavipes, see Yellowlegs, Lesser. glareola, see Sandpiper, Wood hypolencos, see Sandpiper, Com- mon. melanoleuca, see Yellowlegs, Greater. nebnlavia, see Greenshank. ochropus, see Sandpiper, Green. solitaria, see Sandpiper, Solitary. terek, see Sandpiper, Terek. totanus, see Redshank. Troglodytes troglodytes, see Wren. hirtensis, see Wren, St. Kilda. Tryngites subruficollis, see Sandpiper, Buff-breasted. Turdus merula, see Blackbird. musicus, see Redwing. philomelos, see Thrush, Song. pilaris, see Fieldfare. torquatus, see Ouzel, Ring. viscivorus, see Thrush, Mistle. Turner, Brian C., Note on feeding behaviour of Ravens and Choughs, 129-131; on feeding behaviour of Choughs, 388-90. TURNSTONE, feeding tracks, 16, pi. 5; numbers ringed 1958, 445; foreign-ringed recoveries in Britain, 487. TWITE, numbers ringed 1958, 447 Tyto alba, see Owl, Barn. Upupa epops, see Hoopoe. Una aalge, see Guillemot. grylle, see Guillemot, Black. Van der Baan, G., see Baan, G. van der. Vanellus vanellus, see Lapwing. Venables, L. S. V., and U. M., No*r on increase in a Shetland Fulmai population, 197. Vernon, J. D. R., and Avent, C., Note on Lesser Black-backed Gull nesting on a bush, 60. VOICE: Fulmar, 321-4; Chiffchaff, 390 ; Greenfinch, 84-5 ; Chaffinch. 83-4. WAGTAIL, ASHY-HEADED, breeding in N. Ireland, 10-12. , GREY, early nesting in 1957, 80 ; September drift movements, 1958.368; numbers ringed 1958, 447. , PIED, early nesting in 1957, 79; carried on ship from Thames to Mediterranean in spring, 98; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. , WHITE, September drift move- ments, 1958, 366, 36S; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479 , YELLOW, breeding in N. Ireland, 10-12; variation in breed- ing population, 281-95; Septem- ber drift movements, 1958, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 479. Wainwright, C B . Note on Common Tern nesting on vegetation above water, 3S7. Walton, P. D., Letter on list of Flintshire birds, 169. WARBLER, AQUATIC, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 347, 354, 356, 368; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , BARRED, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 347, 351-2, 354-5, 370-3; numbers ringed 1958, 447. , BONELLI’S, in Cornwall, 317. , DARTFORD, numbers ringed 1958, 448. , GARDEN, September drift movements. 1956, 1958, 338-42, 344, 347, 351-6, 367-8; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447; SOS BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LII foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 491. WARBLER, GRASSHOPPER, Sep- tember drift movements, 1956, 1958, 346, 352-3, 356, 368; num- bers ringed 1958, 446. , GREENISH, September drift movements 1958, 354; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , ICTERINE, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 348, 352- 6, 363-5, 370, 372-3; num- bers ringed 1958, 448. , MARSH, September drift move- ments, 1958, 352, 354, 368; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , MELODIOUS, September drift movements, 1958, 354, 356-7, 363-5, 367-8, 370; numbers ringed, 1958, 448. — — -, MENETRIES, field-characters, 31. , NORTHERN WILLOW, bill of immigrant contaminated by pol- len, 424. , MYRTLE, crossing Atlantic on board ship, 237. , ORPHEAN, variant eye colour, 20-1. , PALLAS’S, in Kent, 317-8. , REED, early nesting in 1958, 165-6; September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 346, 351, 353- 6; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 476. , SEDGE, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 338, 343-4, 346, 351-2, 354-6, 366, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 476. , SPECTACLED, plumage of ju- venile and first-winter birds, 198. , SUBALPINE, field-characters, 31; plumage of juvenile and first- winter birds, 198; numbers ringed 1958, 448. , UPCHER’S, voice, 31. , WILLOW, early nesting in 1957, 79-80; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 184; Sep- tember drift movements, 1956, 1958, 338-43, 348, 351-6, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 477. , WOOD, nestling taken by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 127; September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 348, 351-5; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. , YELLOW-BROWED, num- bers ringed 1958, 448. WARBLERS, see also Blackcap, Chiffchaff, Whitethroat. Waterston, George, Note on Golden Eagle with tuberculosis and aspergillosis, 197. WATERTHRUSH, NORTHERN, ringed 1958, 448. WAXWING, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 448, 479. Webb, Nigel, see Chapman, Stephen. Webbe, D., see Pennycuick, C. J. WHEATEAR, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 338-45, 351-6, 366, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446, 475. WHIMBREL, migration in Western Approaches, 178, 182; migration at Irish Sea observatories, 183-4; N. American records, 212; num- bers ringed and recovered 1958, 448, 463. , HUDSONIAN, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-10. WHINCHAT, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 338-45, 352-7, 366-8; numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 446, 475. WHITETHROAT, early nesting in 1957, 79-81 ; downwind im- migration into Norfolk, 131-3; September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 338, 341, 343-4, 347, 351-7, 366, 368; bills of immigrants contaminated by pol- len, 424-5; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 476. -, LESSER, September drift movements, 1956, 1958, 348, 352-7, 368; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447, 477. WIGEON, numbers ringed and re- covered 1958, 444, 45S; foreign- ringed recoveries in Britain, 484. Wilkinson, John P., Note on Wilson’s Phalarope in Anglesey, 386-7. WILLET, EASTERN, migration in N. America, 206, 208-10. , WESTERN, migration in N; America, 206, 208. Williamson, Kenneth, Letter on Crossbills at Fair Isle, 1956, 135-6; on the behaviour and breeding environment of the St. Kilda Wren, 138-40; the Sep- tember drift movements of 1956, and 1958, 334-77. , , see McLean, Ivor. Wilson, D. R., Note on display of Little Grebe, 96. VOL. LIl] INDEX 509 WOODCOCK, early nesting in 1957, 80; N. American records, 211; early roding, 268; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 445, 463; foreign-ringed recovery in Britain, 487. , AMERICAN, migration in N. America, 206, 208. WOODLARK, numbers ringed 1958, 446. WOODPECKER, GREAT SPOT- TED, predation on nestlings in nest-boxes, 126-9, 270; Septem- ber drift movements, 353, 356; numbers ringed and recovered 195S, 446. , GREEN, numbers ringed and recovered, 1958, 446, 470. , LESSER SPOTTED, numbers ringed 1958, 448. WOODPIGEON, early breeding in 1957, 77-9; flightless bird fed by another, 236 ; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. Wootton, A. G., Note on unusual site of Goldcrest’s nest, 133. WREN, early breeding in 1957, 78-9; nestling taken by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 127; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 446. , ST. KILDA, letters on behavi- our and habitat, 136-40; on Stac an Armin, 392. WRYNECK, September drift move- ments, 1956, 1958, 344, 352-8, 368; numbers ringed 1958, 446. Xema sabini, see Gull, Sabine’s. Xenus cinerea, see Sandpiper, Terek. YELLOWHAMMER, early nesting in 1957, 80; migration in N.E. Norfolk, 233; numbers ringed and recovered 1958, 447. YELLOWLEGS, GREATER, migra- tion in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208, 210, 212. , LESSER, migration in N. America in relation to British records, 206, 208-12. Printed in England by diemer * Reynolds ltd., eastcotts road, Bedford ;V