BULB PROPAGATION AND TRADE STUDY

Phase II

by Sara Oldfield

Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit
World Conservation Monitoring Centre

funded by

World Wildlife Fund US

July 1989

DAG

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge

http://www.archive.org/details/bulbpropagationt89oldf

INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS

— Assessment of trade
— Propagation
.— Conservation

GENERA IN TRADE

— Allium

— Arisaema

-— Crocus

— Cyclamen

— Erythronium
— Fritillaria
-— Galanthus

— Iris

COUNTRIES AND REGIONS

— Afghanistan
— Austria

-— China

— Czechoslovakia
— Denmark

— France

-— F.R. Germany
— Greece

— Himalayas

— Hungary

— India

-— Iran

- Israel

- Italy

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONTENTS

Leucojum
Lilium
Narcissus
Sternbergia
Trillium
Tulipa

temperate orchid genera

Japan

Jordan
Netherlands
North Africa
Norway
Pakistan
Poland
Portugal
South Africa
South America
Spain

Turkey

UK

USA

CORRESPONDENCE AND PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

1. Bulb species wild-collected for international trade.
2. Status in the wild of rare bulbs in trade.

3.

4.

5. Temperate orchids recorded in Japanese trade.

6. Summary Reports of country visits.

Te

Production and import of minor bulbs in the Netherlands.
Bulbous plants recorded in Japanese nursery catalogues.

13

39

70

73

74

76

78

Definitions of the IUCN Conservation (Red Data Book) Categories.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27:

TABLES

Summary of propagation methods

Arisaema — status in cultivation, trade and in the wild
CITES-reported transactions in Turkish Cyclamen tubers.
Production of Fritillaria in the Netherlands

Imports of Galanthus to the Netherlands

Status of Leucojum species in the wild and in cultivation
Problems in commercialisation of Lilium spp. of Korea
Iberian species of Narcissus

Dutch production of rockery daffodils

Trillium species in trade

Cultivation of species Tulips in the Netherlands
Commercial imports of temperate orchids to the Netherlands
Species protected by law in Czechoslovakia

Bulbous plants protected by Presidential Decree in Greece
Species protected by law in Hungary

Bulbs imported to the Netherlands from Hungary

Bulb production in Israel

Imported species sold by Dutch bulb companies

Bulb species protected by law in Poland

List of Portuguese bulb species recommended for protection

Status, cultivation and commercial development of South African bulb
genera

The number of species and subspecies of the main geophytes and the
number of endemics of Turkey and adjacent region

Trade and conservation status for Turkish bulbous species
Dutch imports of bulbs from Turkey

Regulations on bulb exports in Turkey

Bulb imports to the Netherlands from the USA

Exports of bulbs from the Netherlands to the USA

INTRODUCTION

Bulbs have been cultivated as ornamental garden plants for centuries and
remain amongst the most popular plants in horticulture. The majority of bulbs
which are of ornamental value belong to three families, Amaryllidaceae,
Iridaceae, and Liliaceae. A range of species in other families are also sold
around the world as bulbs. No rigid definition of ‘bulb’ has been adopted for
this study and all the species generally sold by bulb companies have been
included in the survey of propagation and trade.

There has been increasing concern in recent years about the international
trade in wild-collected bulbs. Concern initially focused on the genus
Cyclamen, included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) when the Convention was
drawn up in 1973. CITES listing has allowed the trade in Cyclamen to be
monitored for over ten years and statistics collected over this period have
illustrated the volume of predominantly wild-collected specimens in
international trade.

Awareness of the exploitation of wild plants for horticulture has
increased generally during the past fifteen years. Although it has been more
difficult to quantify the range and volume of wild bulbous plants which are
traded internationally, it has become apparent that Cyclamen is not the only
genus which is routinely collected from the wild for sale to gardeners around
the world. Concern about the bulk collection of Lilium was expressed in the
early 1970s (Stoop van de Kasteele, 1974) and by the 1980s attention was drawn
to the dwindling supplies of wild Galanthus (Oldfield, 1984).

The wild origin of popular garden bulbs has not generally been appreciated
either by the gardening public or by the retailers who purchased bulbs from
wholesalers distanced from the source of supply. But over recent years, with
growing awareness of the threats to wild plants in general, and published
accounts of the wild bulb trade in particular, it has become difficult to
ignore the source of bulbs in trade.

The impetus for a closer look at the wild bulb trade was stimulated in
part by EEC CITES legislation, which brought the Netherlands into CITES
controls on the plant trade for the first time in 1984. Much of the
international trade in Cyclamen is routed through the Netherlands, with stocks
primarily originating in Turkey. Although Turkey is not yet a member of
CITES, clearly the Netherlands joining the Convention has had a significant
impact on the Turkish Cyclamen trade and indirectly on the trade in other
Turkish wild bulbs. As a result of growing concern about levels of
exploitation, the Turkish Government commissioned a study of the trade in
geophytes (Ekim et al., 1984) and this brought to light the extent to which
garden bulbs are dug up for export from Turkey.

The wholesale trade in wild bulbs from Turkey supplies species for the
general bulb trade around the world. At the same time specialist bulb firms
offer a far greater range of species in small quantities from the many
countries where bulbous plants grow in the wild. The focus of the specialist
bulb traders is on the rarer species which are sought by bulb and alpine plant
enthusiasts. Such horticulturalists collect more unusual plants which are
demanding and require greater skills in cultivation. Increasingly, it has
been argued that plant enthusiasts who desire rarer bulb species have a
special responsibility to ensure that they do not threaten bulb populations in
the wild, either directly through personal collection or indirectly by
purchasing wild bulbs from specialist firms.

The source of bulbs in trade is frequently unclear and it has not been
easy to know with certainty which bulbs are wild-collected and which are
cultivated. The situation has not been helped by the labelling of cultivated
plants in trade as wild species, which often happens, for example with TIulipa

species. Furthermore, it is an understandable assumption to expect bulbs
traded by the Netherlands to be of cultivated origin although the assumption
is not always well founded. Even where bulbs are labelled as ‘product of
Holland’ they may in fact be wild bulbs originating from another country. It
has been difficult, therefore, for conservation and horticultural
organisations to assess which species may be under threat from collection for
trade and to advise gardeners accordingly. Information on the extent to which
wild bulbous species are collected for trade is clearly necessary to highlight
problems of overcollecting and to devise strategies for conservation action.

In order to address such problems caused by international exploitation of
wild bulbs WWF-US commissioned a study of the international bulb trade in
1987. This initial study was carried out by Beverley Lear for the Wildlife
Trade Monitoring Unit (WITMU) of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (now
the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC)). The findings of the
research project formed the basis for a more comprehensive study of the
international bulb trade which is the subject of this report.

The study has attempted to assess the main geographical sources of bulb
species in international trade and whether collection of bulbs from wild
populations supplies the trade from various regions. At the same time the
extent and limitations of commercial bulb cultivation have been reviewed.
Information has been brought together from a wide range of published and
unpublished sources and supplemented by information from visits to the main
areas of origin for bulbs in international trade.

Work has focused on the Mediterranean region because this has
traditionally been, and remains, the main source of bulbous species for
horticulture. Other regions of the world with a rich native bulb flora, such
as the Himalayas, Japan, South Africa and South America, have also been
considered. The horticultural industry is constantly looking for novelty with
the possibility of introducing new bulb species to the market; therefore, as
far as possible, new sources of supply and potential new trends have been
identified.

Objectives of the Bulb Propagation and Trade Study

Phase I (completed in September 1987)

i) to identify the bulb_- species involved in the international
horticultural trade and their popularity in horticulture.

ii) to determine for bulb species the extent of information available on:

a) status in the wild
b) degree to which artificial propagation exists
c) level of trade

iii) to develop a data bank on the above information which will form a basis
for continuing efforts to monitor horticultural trade.

iv) to identify priorities for further investigation, particularly on
species of conservation concern, the regions in which they occur, and
the centres of the wild bulb trade.

Phase II (completed in January 1989)

To provide a more accurate assessment of the impact of collection on bulb
species in the wild, the extent of artificial propagation for species in
trade, and the need for stronger trade controls, based on the findings of
Phase I.

METHODS

Review of information collected in Phase I

Work carried out in Phase I of the Bulb Propagation and Trade Study resulted
in a card index of bulb species in trade and a preliminary report. The card
index was based primarily on a survey of UK bulb trade catalogues, together
with some bulb catalogues from the Netherlands. A card was prepared for each
taxon recorded in trade catalogues and the index consists of over 1000 taxa.
For each taxon, information was summarised on: availability, with each nursery
coded; price; distribution in the wild; habitat; conservation status; and
cultivation details.

The card index provided a basis for further data collection in Phase II of
the study. Information from it was summarised in an Appendix to the Phase I
report and this Appendix, which forms a list of those genera and species of
bulbous plants believed to be, at least in part, wild-collected for
international trade, was circulated to experts for verification.

Review of literature

A review of the literature on bulb trade, conservation and propagation was
carried out. The various recent reports on bulb trade and conservation were
consulted. Floras for the main countries involved in the export of wild
bulbs were used to check the names of bulb taxa recorded in trade and their
distribution in the wild. Red Data Books were surveyed for various countries
and a translation of the relevant sections of the unpublished Japanese Plant
Red Data list was prepared. The Threatened Plants Unit (TPU) of WCMC provided
a printout of references from its computerised database on plant conservation
for the regions and countries of origin of wild bulbs in trade. The
bibliography on pp. 76-77 provides a list of the references which have been
used in the compilation of this report.

Review of statistical information

Statistical information on buib production and trade for various countries was
collected and analysed for the survey. In general the published information
concentrates on the major bulbs in trade (Narcissus, Tulipa, Iris, Gladiolus)
and there are very limited data on minor bulbs. Data are rarely available to
species level and statistical information specifically on wild bulbs is
particularly scarce. The main value of official trade data is as an indicator
of the countries who supply bulbs. The Yearbook of the International
Horticultural Statistics, produced by the International Association of
Horticultural Producers (AIPH), provides data on bulb production and trade by
country, and was used as a general background reference for the project.
The most detailed information on bulb production and trade is available
from the Netherlands. The main Dutch sources of data used in the survey were:
i) Data on Dutch bulb production compiled by the Produktschap voor
Siergewassen(PVS):
A published report (PVS, undated) gives information for the genera
Allium, Anemone, Brodiaea, Chionodoxa, Colchicum, Crocus, Fritillaria,

Hyacinthus, Iris, Muscari, Narcissus, Oxalis, Puschkinia, Scilla and
Tulipa. Statistics on production are not included for those species
and cultivars produced by only one grower. A report by the
Internationaal Bloembollen Centrum (Anon., 1988) gives information on
the limited levels of production in the Netherlands and a further list

of over 80 genera, and indicates those genera which are imported only.

ii) Data on bulb exports from the Netherlands compiled by PVS (PVS, 1987):
Information is published on the quantities of bulbs, by genera, exported
to twelve countries and total bulb exports to a further range of
countries.

iii) Data on bulb imports to the Netherlands published by PVS:
Statistical data are also compiled by the Central Bureau of Statistics

(CBS) from Customs data. In addition, information on imports is
available from Planteziehtekundige Dienst (PD), the Netherlands
Government plant health service. PD checks imported bulb consignments

when these are reported by the importer. It is possible that if
material is unchecked, it will not be represented in the import
statistics. In some cases, the country of origin recorded in the
statistics is in fact a transit country, used for phytosanitary
reasons. Malta has, for example, been interpreted as a source country
for Narcissus whereas, in fact, these are likely to be Israeli exports
passing through Malta. For these reasons the statistics should be
treated with some caution. Information is given for over 50 genera
including several genera of terrestrial orchids.

For countries other than the Netherlands, detailed information on bulb
production and trade is generally not available; see, for example, country
accounts for the UK and USA. Statistics on bulb exports from Turkey are
compiled by the Turkish Government to generic level.

Customs information on Japanese bulb trade for the past ten years was
collected for the project by TRAFFIC(Japan). Information is aggregated under
the broad category heading: ‘bulbs, tubers, tuberous roots, corms, crowns and
rhizomes’, except for Tulipa bulbs.

Information on international trade in Cyclamen is reported in the CITES
annual reports of parties to the Convention. This has been used in
preparation of the report.

Review of nursery catalogues

In Phase I of the study, nursery catalogues were collected mainly from UK bulb
firms, both retail and wholesale suppliers. The most recent catalogues for
firms of particular interest were obtained for Phase II, together with plant
lists for additional firms. In addition 'The Plantfinder' (Lord, 1988) was
consulted. This is a compilation of names of UK firms offering hardy plants,
including bulbs. For each species, nursery sources are given.

Catalogues for Dutch bulb firms have been obtained and reviewed by
TRAFFIC(Netherlands) for Phase II, including plant lists for the main bulb
importing companies. A list of species in Dutch trade has been compiled from
these catalogues. Danish nursery catalogues were provided by
Ms E. Mikkelsen. The Danish catalogues included Five retail catalogues: among
them one for a firm specialising in ‘imported Holland bulbs’ and a translation
of the Dutch van Tubergen catalogue; one wholesale catalogue; and a ‘general
listing of the plants available from 39 Danish nurseries.

A list of the bulbs available from Japanese nurseries was prepared by
TRAFFIC(Japan) based on a review of 28 firms (see Appendix 4). Information
from this was incorporated into the card index prepared during Phase I of the
study. A list of terrestrial orchids in trade was also prepared for Japan
(see Appendix 5).

Information from a survey of bulbs offered in the USA has been made
available for the study. The survey has been carried out by Faith Campbell of
the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). It has included a survey of 25
US bulb catalogues carried out in 1986. ‘Wildflower’ catalogues selling US
native species such as Erythronium and Trillium were surveyed at the same
time. Various US bulb catalogues were provided for the current survey.

Correspondence and interviews with bulb experts

A wide range of bulb experts was contacted during the study to seek
information on bulb trade, propagation and conservation. In many cases, the
contacts were suggested by TPU. The response to correspondence has been
patchy with, for example, no replies received from India, very few from
Eastern Europe, but a very good response from Israel.

A standard letter was circulated to the 19 national members of the
Association Internationale des Producteurs de l*Horticulture (AIPH) requesting
information on production of bulbs by species, collection of bulbs from the
wild, imports of wild bulbs, and research into techniques of commercial
propagation.

Astrid van Senus of TRAFFIC(Netherlands) held interviews with a range of
bulb experts in the Netherlands, including representatives from PD, PVS,
Laboratorium voor Bloembollenanderzoek (LBO), Bloembollenkeurings Dienst (BD),
a service which inspects bulb health at nurseries and Hortus Bulborum.
Discussions were also held with seven of the main Dutch bulb importing
companies.

Country visits

Research within Spain, Portugal, Greece, Nepal, Japan and the Netherlands has
been carried out for the survey. The country visits to Spain, Portugal and
Greece were conducted by Mike Read, and investigations in Nepal by
Tim Inskipp. Research in Japan and the Netherlands was sub-contracted to the
national TRAFFIC offices, with consultation visits made by the project
co-ordinator. A summary of the country visits is provided in Appendix 6. The
research in Spain, Portugal and Greece also involved extensive correspondence.

Survey of UK trade

~

A survey of the UK firms involved in the bulb trade was carried out by
Gardening from Which? (a service of the UK Consumers’ Association) in
association with WIMU. A questionnaire asking about the source of bulbs was
circulated to 28 bulb companies and specialist nurseries in the UK, 17
supermarket and garden shop groups and several major suppliers in _ the
Netherlands.

Follow-up work looking at the origins of specified species and genera in
trade commenced in January 1989. Bulb companies listing the following bulbs
in their catalogues have been asked for information on the source of the
material: Arisaema, Cardiocrinum giganteum, Cyclamen, Eranthis cilicia,
Eranthis hyemalis, Erythronium, Fritillaria bucharica, F. camtschatcensis,
Fritillaria persica, Galanthus elwesii, G. nivalis, Leucojum aestivum,
L. vernum, Narcissus asturiensis, Narcissus bulbocodium, N. cyclamineus,
N. triandrus, Sternbergia and Trillium. Additionally the firms have been
asked if they have a policy on sale of wild bulbs and if not if they would
consider introducing such a policy as additional information becomes available.

Collection and review of additional information

Additional information for the study has been collected from interviews with
botanists and experts on bulb propagation and trade. Discussions were held on
the Turkish bulb trade with Professor Ekim during his visit to the UK in
September 1988. Professor Ekim (in litt., 1989) provided information on the
conservation status of Turkish economic geophytes from the unpublished Turkish
Red Data Book. Information has also been compiled from the TPU files and on
the status in the wild of bulbous species from the TPU Threatened Plants

Database. The conservation categories used by TPU in the database are the
IUCN Red Data Book categories. These have been used to denote conservation
status for species in this report and are defined in Appendix 8. Information
on bulbous species protected by conservation legislation was provided by the
IUCN Environmental Law Centre.

RESULTS
Assessment of the Trade

Research carried out during the Bulb Trade and Propagation Study has confirmed
the continuing international trade in horticultural bulbs of wild origin. It
is. difficult to uncover details of the trade and, in particular, to quantify
the volumes of wild bulbs traded around the world. In terms of the overall
international trade in horticultural bulbs, the wild bulb trade is very small
but for certain genera or individual species it remains significant even where
commercial propagation systems exist. The range of wild-collected bulbs in
international trade is indicated by the list in Appendix 1 of this report.

This list cannot be considered definitive because the origin of many bulbs
remains uncertain and the supply from the wild will vary from season to
season. Traders contacted during the survey have generally been reluctant to
provide details of the wild species which they supply. In part this is due to
commercial confidentiality and an unwillingness to supply source information
on unusual bulbs in trade. In addition, with the increasing conservation
awareness, traders may wish to protect themselves from adverse publicity. In
general it appears that the Dutch bulb merchants have not concerned themselves
with whether or not bulbs are wild dug as long as they are able to supply the
range of species they require from the cheapest source, and in compliance with
legal controls. In certain instances the bulbs included in commercial lists
are not actually available but are included to maintain consumer interest.

In general the bulbous plant species traded in bulk from wild sources are
widespread species and some of the commonly traded bulbs have been widely
naturalised, as for example the Common Snowdrop Galanthus nivalis. With
appropriate harvesting levels the trade could be sustainable, but during the
survey no examples were found of sustainable management of wild or naturalised
bulb populations to supply the international market. Management has started
in Turkey with a three tier system of export controls, quotas for the
harvesting of certain genera, and the introduction of cultivation
(see p. 63). The controls have only recently been introduced, however, and
are not yet fully effective.

Until effective management systems are in place the trade in all wild
bulbs should be viewed with concern. Even where species are not threatened
with extinction throughout their range, local populations are becoming
depleted and uncontrolled trade adds to the pressures of habitat destruction.
The sheer volume of trade in wild bulbs from Turkey has led to many
economically important species, including those with a wide natural
distribution, being considered as Vulnerable in the Turkish Red Data Book.
Species included in this category include Cyclamen _cilicium, lEranthis
hyemalis, Galanthus spp., Leucojum aestivum and Sternbergia spp., all of which
are popular in international trade.

As yet, insufficient information is available on the conservation status
of bulbs in the wild to determine what level of trade would be sustainable.
The TPU database of WCMC provides the main international source of information
on the status of plant species in the wild, but coverage is by no means
complete for bulbous plants. The national Red Data Book for Turkey, soon to
be published, will provide more information on bulbs for incorporation into

the TPU database. For many Asian countries, such as Iran and Iraq, national
threatened plant lists have yet to be compiled. At a local level harvesting
records for wild bulbs are generally unavailable and are probably not compiled
for most species. Harvesting may be from illicit sources, from areas
protected for nature conservation, as is the case for some Portuguese
Narcissus (see p. 104), or from privately owned land. For commercial reasons,
wholesale bulb companies generally will not release information on _ the
quantities of wild bulbs dug from particular sources, and Dutch wholesale
traders claim not to know the source of bulbs from exporting countries in some
cases. Without information on the status of bulb species in the wild and the
leveIs of harvesting, it is difficult if not impossible to assess the impact
of wild collection.

The history of commercial wild bulb collection and its peak in the late
19th century is summarised by Rix (1986). Collection at the turn of the
century took place in Argentina, Chile, China, Ethiopia, the Himalayas,
Israel, Japan, the Middle Kast, Portugal, N. Africa, South Africa, Turkey, USA
(California), and the USSR. As Rix (1986) points out, in recent years
"Professional bulb collectors have become fewer and their activities more
secretive as the need for conservation of wild populations has come to be
recognised.’

The continuing commercial collection of wild bulbs has been deplored for
reasons other than those related to conservation of plants in their natural
habitats. The quality of wild bulbs is generally inferior to those from
cultivated stock, it is difficult to guarantee that wild bulbs are
true-to-name species, and there are problems with the spread of pests and
plant diseases. Continued import from the wild of low-priced bulbs undercuts
attempts to establish species in commercial cultivation. One UK specialist
bulb grower has pointed out that some wild bulbs in trade are offered simply
because they can be easily ‘mined’ even though there seems to be no demand
from the customer. Geranium tuberosum is cited as an example.

In general the commercial bulb trade concentrates on cultivars from a
small selection of species from each genus. Specialist growers offer a wider
range of bulbs either propagated from wild-collected or limited cultivated
stock or directly imported from the wild. Specialist nurseries offer bulbs
supplied by a network of personal contacts, usually in limited quantities.
Wherever collection of rare bulb species exceeds propagation, conservation
problems will result. Many specialist nurseries are conservation-minded but
others are placing a strain on the wild populations of rare species. It is
particularly difficult to get detailed information on the specialist bulb
trade and this can only be successful with the co-operation of the aurseries
involved.

Information collected during the study is summarised over the following
pages. Sections are provided on propagation and conservation. Notes on
selected genera are given, followed by sections on the main countries and
regions involved in the bulb trade. The genera selected are those for which
there has been particular concern about wild-collection. Species from other
genera are also collected from the wild and a more comprehensive list is given
in Appendix 1.

Propagation

Commercial production of bulbs involves the propagation of species or

varieties in sufficient quantities to supply market demand. Stock material
may be grown in open fields, as with production of daffodils and tulips, or
under glasshouse conditions. Commercial production includes the maintenance

of stock material, propagation from nursery stocks, growing-on of new

material, harvesting and storage. There has been some confusion recently
about cultivation of bulb species in their countries of origin. Cultivation
may involve growing-on wild-collected bulbs in field conditions without any
artificial propagation. This will enhance natural bulb reproduction and
ensure that a greater number of small bulbs reach saleable size but still
depends on the exploitation of wild stocks. Traders who claim that all their
bulbs are of cultivated origin could in fact still be dealing in, and in some
cases contributing to the decline of, wild bulbs.

Once bulb species have been brought into cultivation (i.e. removed from
the wild) it should be possible te increase stocks through propagation,
removing the need for repeated wild collection.

Propagation of bulbous plants is possible by a variety of means, some of
which are very well established in horticultural practice and have been used
for centuries. Methods include removing and growing-on offsets and bulbils,
division of bulbs or corms which form clumps, and taking cuttings from
tubers. Some bulbous genera are generally raised from seed. The methods used
for the vegetative propagation of bulbous and bulbous-like plants are
discussed by Skelmersdale (1978). For bulbs, the main method described is
"twin-scaling’ (see below); corms freely produce ‘offsets'; tubers such as
Cyclamen can be propagated by cutting into pieces each with an ‘eye’; and
rhizomes can be propagated by cutting off the current season's growth at the
node.

Clearly nurseries specialising in the production of a range of small and
unusual bulbs will employ a variety of techniques which produce relatively
small quantities of each bulb. Production of bulbs by specialist nurseries
often involves considerable expertise and technical knowledge built up through
personal experience. The techniques may not be appropriate for large scale
production, but generally the types of bulb produced by specialist growers are
not those for which there is wholesale demand. The main methods of
propagation for a range of genera are summarised in Table 1.

Techniques have been developed to speed up the rate of increase of bulbs
in production for the wholesale commercial trade, but these have generally
been applied only to a very limited range of species and cultivars.
"Chipping’ and twin-scaling are the main methods used for true _ bulbs.
Chipping is used by growers in the UK and the Netherlands to increase stocks
of Narcissus. By this method bulbs are cut into radial segments, each with a
portion of the basal plate. The chips produced (usually 16 per bulb), are
treated with fungicide and can then be planted directly or following a period
of incubation.

Chipping was developed on a commercial scale in the 1970s following

concern about disease problems with Narcissus production. Prior to use of
this technique, commercial propagation of daffodils was through natural
increase by offsets. Chipping was primarily used to increase numbers of

virus-tested bulbs and has subsequently led to improvement of yield and
quality of bulbs produced. Using this method, small, round Narcissus bulbs
are produced which are ready for flowering in three to four years.

In the UK, research on chipping has mainly been carried out at Kirton
Experimental Horticulture Station. It has been tried for the small species
Narcissus but growing-on has been a problem. Production of N. lobularis and
N. minimus has been relatively successful in the experimental trials (Hanks,
1987). In the Netherlands, chipping has been successfully used for the small
‘rockery' daffodils.

Trials using chipping for a range of minor bulbs have met with varying
success. Species of Allium, Iris, Fritillaria, Tulipa and Muscari have been
subject to trials at Kirton and chipping methods have been successful for
Galanthus nivalis (Hanks, 1987). At present trials are being carried out on

four different Galanthus cultivars. In the Netherlands the chipping technique
is being used to propagate G. elwesii.

Twin-scaling is a similar method of propagation used by commercial bulb
growers. The procedure is similar to chipping but involves cutting each chip
again to produce two or four twin scales. This method is used in Narcissus
production. A related method of scaling, where individual scales are removed
from bulbs, is one of the techniques used in the propagation of lilies.
Propagation by bulb scales is being carried out for example in Turkey for
Lilium candidum (McGough et al., 1989).

Traditional propagation of TIulipa bulbs relies on the formation of
‘daughter bulbs'. Each bulb scale possesses one daughter bulb in its axil and
in cultivation a mature tulip bulb generally yields 3-5 daughter bulbs at the
end of a season. At this rate it may take 10-15 years to introduce a new
variety on the market in sufficient quantities for commercial production
(Paterson and Harper, 1986). It takes six years to obtain flowering bulbs
from seed. Propagation of Tulipa bulbs using tissue culture techniques is
being investigated but more research is needed before these methods are used
commercially (Nisiuchi, 1985).

Propagation of bulbs through tissue culture is commercially feasible for
bulbous plants such as Amaryllis, Gladiolus, Hyacinthus, Iris, Lilium and
Narcissus, which are capable of producing bulblets through scaling of bulbs.
Commercial scale micropropagation exists for Narcissus and is used for Lilium

cultivation in Japan (see p. 48). A major problem with the micropropagation
of Iris and Narcissus is the number of greenhouse growth cycles needed to
produce bulbs of adequate size for multiplication. Tissue culture is more

advantageous for Lilium because only two growth cycles are needed to increase
bulbs sufficiently to scale. A single bulb can provide 70-100 bulblets
through scaling (Anderson in litt., 1989).

Propagation by seed is the most common method for certain types of bulbous
plants such as Anemone, Cyclamen and Fritillaria meleagris. Cyclamen can be
raised to flowering size from seed in several years but commercial cultivation
remains on a very small scale. There is now some production from seed in
Turkey.

Research

Research on bulb propagation techniques is being carried out in various
countries with an interest in the bulb trade.

In the UK there is no tradition of growing minor bulbs on a commercial
scale and research into new techniques has been relatively limited. Recently,
however, the UK Horticultural Development Council has commissioned a review of
bulb production for minor bulbs, focusing on Narcissus spp., Galanthus spp.,
Crocus spp., Muscari spp. and [Iris _ reticulata. The aim is to review
production methods with a view to developing commercial cultivation in the
UK. The work is being carried out at Kirton Experimental Horticulture Station.

As would be expected, much of the research on bulb propagation is carried

out in the Netherlands, primarily by the Laboratorium voor
Bloembollenonderzock (LBO). LBO has its headquarters in Lisse and has
experimental gardens in Breezand and Zwaagdijk. Research currently carried

out by LBO on minor bulbs includes: propagation of Scilla _tubergeniana,
Chionodoxa luciliae, Hyacinthella azurea, Eucomis and Nerine; forcing of
Allium spp., propagation trials for Crocus; and methods of disease control.
Work on Galanthus at LBO focuses on growing conditions, disease problems and
storage. Other species being researched include Anenome blanda, small Allium

spp., Fritillaria meleagris, Eranthis, Hymenocallis and Muscari_armeniacum.
Research on minor bulbs is also being carried out at the Instituut voor

= Oh

Table 1

Summary of propagation methods

Se

Genus Methods Notes

a a ca a ee ee ee eee

Allium bulbils, pods, seed seed and offsets

(chipping), clump division used commercially in NL

Anemone seed

Arisaema seed

Canna rhizome division

Chionodoxa seed and bulblets used
commercially in NL

Colchicum offsets, seed

Crocus cormlets, seed

Cyclamen seed, (stalk cuttings)

Galanthus clump division some chipping used
commercially in NL

Gladiolus cormlets, scoring, seed

Iris (bulbous)

(micropropagation)
offsets, seed (chipping)
(micropropagation)

Lachenalia clump division
bulblets, seed
Leucojum offsets, clump division,
seed
Lilium bulbils, bulblets, bulbils, offsets, scales
clump division, scaling, used commercially in NL;
seed, micropropagation scales used for
L. candidum in TR
micropropagation in JP
Muscari clump division, seed

Narcissus

(chipping)

offsets, twin scaling
chipping, seed
(micropropagation)

Nerine offsets, seed

Scilla clump division, seed

Tulipa offsets, seed (chipping)

Fritillaria bulblets, cross cutting F. meleagris grown

seed (chipping)

from seed in NL;
seed and cross-cutting
methods used in Turkey

Sources: Anon., (1984b). Various including saving on bulbs. Gardening from
Which? August.

Veredeling van Tuinbouwgewassen (Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding)
(IVT) and Wageningen University (Anon., 1988).

In France research into commercial propagation techniques includes bulb
division of Narcissus and other members of the Amaryllidaceae, by the Comité
National Interprofessional de l1'Horticulture et des Pépiniéres (CNIH) and in
vitro culture of tulip and iris species by the Institut National de la

= i) =

Recherche Agronomique (INRA) (Mevel in litt., 1988). In Israel various
experts contacted have mentioned work on the introduction to cultivation of a
wider range of bulb species. These include Californian species of the
Brodiaea complex, Calochortus spp., the native Israeli bulb Allium
ampeloprasum (Halevy in litt., 1988) and native species Iris mariae and
Ixiolirion montanum (Friedman in litt., 1988).

It is clearly desirable that a wider range of bulbs be cultivated on a
commercial scale to take the pressure off wild populations. One of the
problems which has been raised has been obtaining suitable disease-free stock
from which to propagate bulbs.

Conservation

Increased information on the status of bulbous plants in the wild, and their
decline in natural habitats, has led to a range of conservation measures being
introduced, particularly over the past 20 years. Surveys of the status of
plant species in the wild and their listing in Red Data Books and similar
publications are usually the first conservation step. Using this information,
national protective legislation has been drawn up and threatened bulbous
plants are now protected by legislation in over 20 Buropean countries and
others such as China, Israel, South Africa, USA and USSR.

Turkey, the major wild bulb exporting country, has legislation regulating
exports under the General Nature Protection Law of 1923. This was modified in
1986 to set quotas for certain species (see p. 63) and to ban exports of bulbs
which could not withstand the trade. In addition, a governmental regulation
Decree No. 83/7540 bans the export of five endemic and rare Cyclamen species
from Turkey. There is no specific legislation protecting rare and threatened
bulb species in situ within Turkey or restricting private collection of rare
species.

Plant conservation legislation does not yet exist in other countries where
commercial collection of bulbs takes place. Portugal, for example, has no
specific conservation legislation for threatened plants or legal controls on
collecting. This is also the case in Japan.

Conservation legislation is necessary both to prctect the habitats of
threatened wild bulbs and aiso to prevent overcollection of horticulturally
desirable species. Protection in situ is the preferable method for all wild

species but for certain bulbs it is already too late. Quite a number of
bulbous species which are under severe threat, or are even extinct in the
wild, are more widespread in cultivation. However, as artificial selection

pressures operate in cultivation, it remains essential to protect the wild
populations of rare and threatened species wherever possible. Iris danfordiae
is one example of a species which has become extremely rare in its native
country, Turkey. This species is well established in cultivation and is
produced commercially in the Netherlands. The plants in cultivation are,
however, all triploid and have been substantially modified from the original
diploid plant populations in the wild. I. danfordiae from commercial sources
could never, therefore, be used to repopulate the wild (McMurtie, 1986).

Where bulbs are threatened by commercial collecting, the development of
commercial cultivation systems should help to reduce the pressures on wild
populations. This has happened, for example, for endangered species of Iris
within Israel (see p. 47). The maintenance of bulb species within botanic
gardens can help to provide technical knowledge on cultivation and propagation
of rare species, as well as acting as reserve stocks for depleted species in
the wild. In some cases botanic gardens have released propagated stocks of
rare bulbs to commercial outlets. This has happened, for example, with
Endangered species of Moraea in South Africa.

ee

Ex situ conservation of threatened bulbs in botanic gardens and special
collections includes the establishment of gene banks. At the University of
California Irvine (UCI), a gene bank is maintained with special emphasis on
Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae and Liliaceae. It consists of a living plant
collection, together with seed and pollen banks (Koopowitz, 1986). The IUCN
Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat (BGCS) takes a lead in co-ordinating
the conservation work of botanic gardens around the world. BGCS has over 200
member botanic gardens in more than 50 countries. Members with specialist
bulb collections include the Ezeiza Botanic Garden in Argentina, which has the
best collection of S. American bulbs in cultivation, and Wycliffe Hall
Botanical Gardens in northern England, UK. Wycliffe Hall Botanical Gardens
holds an important hyacinth collection established in co-operation with the
Dutch International Bloembollen Centrum and a Hortus Bulborum is being set up
in the garden. This will reflect the development and use of bulbs in UK
horticulture and will assess species not yet widely cultivated, for their
economic and decorative potential.

BGCS holds a database of rare and threatened plants held by its members in
ex situ collections. The database is currently being expanded to include
information on seed banks. As another service to its members, BGCS publishes
the Botanic Gardens Conservation News which includes articles on rare bulbs
and their cultivation.

In the Netherlands a special collection of Tulipa bulbs is maintained by
the Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding. This Institute started to
collect wild species of the genus in 1964. The collection now has about 100
species from over 250 locations. These may be of direct importance for
cultivation but may also serve as progenitors in interspecific crosses (van
Eijk et al., 1986).

The skilled bulb growers of specialist nurseries have the expertise to
propagate rare bulbs and thus contribute to the long-term conservation of

Overexploited species. However, commercial cultivation cannot be considered
of benefit to conservation where there is repeated reliance on wild stock
material of rare species. Initially wild-collected seed is necessary when

introducing or re-introducing new species or forms into cultivation, but for
conservation purposes, if material is not available from well-managed sources
in the wild, propagation should then be from propagules of cultivated stock .
Artificial propagation is technically feasible for all bulbous species but
there are limiting factors on commercialisation, particularly relating to
disease problems, and the development of economic propagation and harvesting

systems. Specialist bulb growers and research institutions contacted during
the survey expressed that there was a lack of funds for research and for
maintenance of stocks of rare species in cultivation. Increasing commercial

interest in minor bulbs may promote more research but, as De Hertogh
(in litt.) points out, ‘Worldwide our research budgets are being cut from
gBovernmental sources and industries will only pay for commercial products.’
In the UK the horticultural industry itself is supporting research into
propagation of minor bulbs, through the Horticultural Development Council
which collects a levy from growers and commissions research and development on
horticultural crops (see p. 64).

It is in the self-interest of the bulb trade to support bulb conservation
and, ideally, to protect stocks of bulbous plants in the wild because of their
long-term commercial value in breeding programmes. This has been pointed out,
for example, by Stoop van de Kasteele (1974) and is apparent in South Africa
(Ferreira and Hancke, 1986). In response to the publicity given to the trade
in wild bulbs, various bulb companies are stating their policy with regard to
wild-collected material. This is happening, for example, in the UK (see p. 66)
and in the USA. The American firm Smith and Hawken notes in its catalogue the

21D =

threats to wild bulbs from commercial collecting and states that all bulbs
sold by the company are commercially propagated.

In the Netherlands, conservation publicity is leading bulb traders to
consider their policy on wild bulb imports. In 1988 the Association of Bulb
Exporters called a meeting to discuss this issue and agreed that the trade in
wild-taken bulbs is unsatisfactory because the bulb supply is unreliable and
of inferior quality. Concern about the trade may be more for commercial than
conservation reasons, but it has been suggested by the Internationaal
Bloembollen Centrum that wild bulb imports to the Netherlands will have ceased
within the next five years.

Conservation campaigns about the bulb trade have been successful in
increasing public awareness and leading to changes in the trade. The Fauna
and Flora Preservation Society (FFPS) has been particularly active in this
field within the UK; and the Garden Club of America, Natural Resources Defense
Council (NRDC) and WWF-US in the USA. Articles about the origins of wild
bulbs have recently been published in popular magazines (see, for example,
Read, 1989, and Lear, 1988) and there is considerable media interest in the
subject. No campaigns are known in other countries although there has been
some publicity in the Netherlands and F.R. Germany. Many of the people
contacted during this project were aware of the problem, keen to have more
information and to be involved in promoting bulb conservation.

GENERA IN TRADE
Allium

Allium is a large genus of around 500 species which extends around the
northern hemisphere. Over 100 species occur in Europe and 141 are described
in the Flora of Turkey. Relatively few of the species are of ornamental value.

Most Allium spp. can be grown from seed or from small offsets and both
methods are used commercially. It takes about 4-5 years to produce a bulb for
sale when grown from seed and 2-3 years from offsets.

Most Allium bulbs offered by Dutch traders are Dutch grown. The area
planted with ornamental Allium for bulb production is around 60 ha in the
Netherlands. A. giganteum is the main species grown. The Netherlands also
imports Allium bulbs from France, and Israel (A. schubertii). One trader
imports from India but details of the species involved are _ unknown.
A. bulgaricum and A. siculum offered by several Dutch bulb firms are imported
from Turkey. A. triquetum has been imported from Portugal but this has now
stopped because the species is easy to propagate.

In Japan about thirty species of Allium are in trade. Some nurseries are
raising Allium from wild-collected seed but other forms of propagation are not
utilised. A. virgunculae is threatened by overcollecting in Japan.

Only one threatened species included in the Threatened Plants Unit (TPU)
database is recorded in the trade catalogues. This species is A. obliquum
which is classified as Rare in Romania.

Ekim et al. (1984) recommended that the rare Turkish endemic A. roseum
should not be collected from the wild for trade. Since 1986 the export of
this species from Turkey has been banned unless the bulbs are of cultivated

origin. A. roseum is cultivated commercially in the Netherlands and is
considered easy to propagate. One Dutch grower produces 40,000 bulbs
annually. Wild dug A. ursinum from Hungary has recently been offered
wholesale in the Netherlands. One of the main Dutch importing companies

reported importing A. ursinum from the UK. The origin of the species within
the UK is unclear.

73" =

Table 2

Arisaema — status in cultivation, trade and in the wild

Species in cult. in trade in trade in trade status in
in UK in UK in Japan in USA wild
(no. of
nurseries)

ee

Arisaema abei Japan V
overcollecting
A. amurense +
A. amurense subsp.
robustum +
A. barnesii India I
A candidissimum + + China
A. consangineum + oe” Himalayas
A. cucullatum Japan V
Overcollecting
A. draconitium +
A. flavum + + Himalayas
A. griffithii + + Himalayas
A. heterocephalum +1
A. heterocephalum Japan E
subsp. majus
A. heterophyllum +3 Japan V
S. Korea E
A. hypoglaucum Viet Nam R
A. iyoanum +1
A. jacquemontii + + Himalayas
A. kawashimae Japan Ex?
A. kiushianum + +8 Japan
A. kuratae Japan V
A. longipedunculatum Japan V
var. yakumontanum
A. minamitanii Japan V
A. murrayi India I
A. nepenthoides + Himalayas
A. ogatae Japan V
specialist coll.
A. ochraceum + Himalayas
A. ovale var. inaense Japan V
A. propinguam +
A. psittacus India I
A. pulcherum India I
A. ringens + +3 Japan
A. sachalinense Japan V
A. seppikoense Japan Ex?
A. serratum +
A. sikokianum + + +8 Japan V. locally
overcollecting
by specialists &
nurseries
A. speciosum + + + + Himalayas, Assam
China

a AR

Table 2 (ctd)
Arisaema -— status in cultivation, trade and in the wild

eee TT en eS ooo

Species in cult. in trade in trade in trade status in
in UK in UK in Japan in USA wild
(no. of
nurseries)
A. speciosum var. +
mirabile
A. ternatipartitum +3
A. thunbergii + + +6
A. thunbergii + + +7 Japan
subsp. urashima
A. tortuosum + + India
A. triphyllum + + + common in US
A. translucens India I
A. tuberculatum India I
A. tylophorum India I
A. undulatifolium Japan V
subsp. nambae
A. vulgare Medit.
A. wightii India I
Arisaema

There are about 150 species of Arisaema, mainly occurring in Japan, China and
the Himalayas. Scattered species also occur in tropical South East Asia, East
Africa, peninsular India and eastern North America. Only a few species are
well known in cultivation, the most popular being A. candidissimum native to
west China. The cultivation of around 15 species grown in the UK is described
by Mayo (1982).

In the UK, 17 species have been available from specialist nurseries in the
past two years. The genus is becoming more popular in Europe and North
America with the introduction of more species (Mayo, 1984). There is a
small-scale commercial propagation of some Arisaema spp. in the UK but for
several species the trade appears to be in imported wild-collected material.
One specialist bulb nursery has recently discontinued supplying plants of the
genus because the bulbs available were thought to be wild-collected.

Based on information collected for the Gardening from Which? survey, the
species currently propagated for trade in the UK are A. amurense (four
nurseries), A. candidissimum (three nurseries), A. consanguineum (one
nursery), A. flavum (three nurseries) and A. tortuosum (one nursery). Taxa
suspected to be wild-collected are A. speciosum and A. thunbergii subsp.
urashima. Other species such as A. ringens and A. triphyllum are propagated
by at least one nursery and imported by others.

Scarcely any Arisaema are produced commercially in the Netherlands (Anon.,
1988). Small quantities are imported from India. The Dutch Van Tubergen
catalogue for 1989 offers A. sikokianum and A. thunbergii subsp. urashima,
from Japan. Apparently the company does not sell many Arisaema bulbs and
imports small quantities (about 100 in a recent consignment).

SS =

Japan is thought to be a significant exporter of Arisaema but no
information has been located on the size of the trade. From the survey of
Japanese trade catalogues it appears that at present about ten species are
available commercially (see Table 2 below and Appendix 4). Interviews at
several of the nurseries revealed that Arisaema bulbs are collected from the
wild and these nurseries are involved in the export market. In Japan some
nurseries are attempting to propagate Arisaema using tissue culture methods
but as yet with no. success. All the bulbs available commercially are
wild-collected. Fourteen taxa are included in the Japanese Red Data list, of
which four are specifically threatened by collecting.

The TPU database lists the status of eight Indian species of Arisaema as
Indeterminate (i.e. known to be threatened but precise conservation status not
certain).

Species of Arisaema available from US nurseries include A. speciosum and
A. tortuosum, which both occur from the Himalayas to China, and the US native
A. triphyllum. A. triphyllum, commonly known as Jack-in-the-pulpit, is native
to eastern North America, where it is common and widely naturalised.

Crocus

The genus Crocus consists of about 100 species, distributed through Europe,
and from Central Asia to Western Pakistan; 42 species occur in Europe
(Grey-Wilson and Mathew, 1981).

Despite the popularity of the genus, only a few species are cultivated.
The crocuses which are cultivated are true species or selections. One of the
earliest crocuses in cultivation was C. sativus, the source of saffron. The
commonly grown and showy "Large Dutch crocus’ is C. vernus which is available
in a wide range of cultivars. Cultivars of C. chrysanthus and C. biflorus are
also common garden plants, together with the Dutch Yellow C. flavus.
According to Mathew (1984), there remains much scope for a breeding and
selection programme for the genus.

In the Netherlands, the area of Crocus production is around 490 ha.
Large-flowered type cultivars account for 85% of production and the remaining
area is taken up by two cultivars of C. chrysanthus. The Netherlands also
imports Crocus from France and F.R. Germany. Virtually all the specimens
offered by the Dutch firm Van Tubergen are grown by the company.

Wild bulbs of C. chrysanthus and C. flavus (from Turkey) are offered by
some specialist nurseries. One specialist grower in the UK claims that
nurseries do not produce the rare species of Crocus they sell, or maintain
emergency reserve stocks.

Four species of Crocus which are listed with threatened categories in the
TPU database are offered in the nursery catalogues surveyed. These include
two Greek endemic species C. robertianus and C. goulimyi, both of which are
protected by Greek legislation, and an Italian endemic C. imperati.
C. goulimyi is prolific in cultivation and may not be of conservation concern,
but trade in the recently discovered C. robertianus is more worrying.

A large number of other rare species, for which IUCN categories are not

available, are also recorded in trade. Turkish endemic species offered
include: C. abantensis, C. adanensis, C. ancyrensis*, C. antalyensis,

C. asumaniae, C. baytopiorum, C. biflavus subspp., C. candidus, C. danfordiae,
C. gargaricus, C. karduchorum, C. kotschyanus subspp.*, C. leichtlinii and
C. pestalozzae. The taxa marked with an asterisk are included in a list of
bulbs exported from Turkey (Demiriz, 1987) but no Crocus exports are included
in official records. According to Mathew (1984) C. baytopiorum, which was
described in 1974, is only cultivated in a few specialist collections, and
only limited material of C. abantensis, described in 1975, is available at

=F16 =

present. Since 1986 the export of wild-collected Crocus bulbs has been banned
by the Turkish Government.

It is thought that Crocus species are unlikely to be threatened by
collectors in Turkey (McGough et al., 1989). They rarely survive being dug up
when in flower and are difficult to locate when not flowering.

The genus Crocus is well represented in Yugoslavia. Endemic species to
that country which occur in trade include C. adamii and C. malyii.

In various parts of the Middle East, wild Crocus species are collected for
food. Widespread collection of crocuses for food also takes place in the
Amanus mountains of Lebanon, Syria and Turkey (Rix, 1986), and Crocus bulbs
are also eaten in Jordan (Al-Kisawi in litt., 1988). C. cancellatus and
C. kotschyanus are widely harvested for food in parts of Anatolia and are sold
in. local markets. It is possible that overcollection could eventually
threaten these species (Demiriz and Baytop, 1985). One nursery catalogue
records that the bulbs of C. kotschyanus suwarowianus offered were purchased
from shepherds in N.E. Turkey who ate them whilst tending flocks. Wendelbo
(1977) considered that certain Iranian species may be endangered through local
use for food and medicine.

Cyclamen
There are about 15 species of Cyclamen distributed in Europe and the
Mediterranean area, extending eastwards to Iran. All species are in
cultivation. There is, however, very limited commercial production of

Cyclamen except for the popular florists’ forms sold as house plants. These
have been raised by selection from C. persicum. Cyclamen tubers of all
species are almost exclusively wild-collected. The genus Cyclamen is the only
*bulbous’ genus covered by CITES. Listing on the Convention in 1973 reflected
concern about trade in wild Cyclamen and monitoring of trade under CITES has
allowed the extent of the trade to become apparent. Enforcement of CITES
controls for Cyclamen was weak until the Netherlands acceded to the Convention
in 1984. Trade in Cyclamen has been the subject of a report by van der
Plas-Haarsma (1987) and has therefore not been looked at in detail during the
present study. Change in the trade and new information on countries of origin
are, however, noted. Data on the Cyclamen trade for the years 1985-1987,
based on CITES annual report statistics, are given in Table 3.

Turkey remains the main country of origin for wild-collected Cyclamen
tubers in trade. Ten species of Cyclamen are native to Turkey. The main
species collected for export are C. hederifolium, C. cilicium and C. coum.
Since 1983 the export of five Cyclamen species from Turkey has been banned
under Decree No. 83/7540 of the Council of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Rural Affairs. These species are C. mirabile, C. repandun,
C. pseudibericum, C. trochopteranthum and C. parviflorum. Most of the wild
Turkish Cyclamen in international trade are traded through the Netherlands.
There is no commercial production of Cyclamen within the Netherlands except
for cultivation of C. persicum cultivars for the pot plant trade. According
to Dutch import statistics compiled by the Plant Health Service, 943 000
Cyclamen were imported from Turkey in 1985/86, 1 175 000 in 1986/87 and
801 000 in 1987/88. Other countries which import Cyclamen directly from
Turkey, according to CITES records, are France and Switzerland. The UK and
USA also import some Turkish Cyclamen direct. In 1987 one US bulb company
imported 71 000 C. hederifolium, 7500 C. cilicium and 7500 C. coum.

Following the accession of the Netherlands to CITES in 1984, the Dutch
CITES authorities approached the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Rural Affairs for clarification of export documentation concerning Cyclamen.
The situation remained unclear and as a result the EEC temporarily banned all

S57}

imports of Cyclamen from Turkey in 1985. The ban was later replaced by an
import quota, initially of one million Cyclamen tubers. The quota was
exceeded in 1986 and 1987, with exporters in Turkey claiming that replanted
stocks were available for export. In 1988 an EEC delegation visited Turkey to
investigate the Cyclamen trade and, in particular, the degree to which
cultivated stocks supplied the trade (McGough et al., 1989). The report of
this visit provides information on the extent of Cyclamen cultivation in
Turkey.

Production of Cyclamen from seed has now started in Turkey and it is
likely that some artificially propagated plants of C. hederifolium will be
available for export in 1990. The seed used for this cultivation is from wild
populations. There are also plans to produce C. cilicium from seed. Despite
these advances, most of the cultivation of Cyclamen within Turkey consists of
growing-on of wild-collected stock and cannot be considered artificial
propagation. The species which are being grown from wild-collected tubers are
C. cilicium, C. coum, C. graecum, C. hederifolium, C. mirabile and C. persicum
(McGough et al., 1989).

Ekim (in litt., 1989) has provided conservation categories for Cyclamen
spp. from the Turkish Plant Red Data Book due to be published shortly.
C. cilicium, C. graecum, C. hederifolium and C. persicum are considered to be
Vulnerable, C. mirabile to be Endangered and C. repandum to be Indeterminate.
These categories reflect the years of extensive collection and the need for
sustained conservation efforts. Extending the cultivation within Turkey
appears to be the most positive conservation approach, together with
enforcement of national and CITES trade controls.

Cultivation should also produce reliable and good quality tubers and
ensure that these are correctly named in trade. The growing potential of wild
tubers in trade is seriously reduced because of the length of time in storage
and transit, which causes the tubers to dehydrate. Mislabelling has also been
a major problem, with C. mirabile showing up, for example, as C. coum in trade
consignments.

Other countries recorded as exporting Cyclamen to the Netherlands in the
years 1985-1988 are Israel and Italy, according to Dutch Plant Health Service
figures. The quantities from Israel each year are small (less than 1000
tubers). Italy has three indigenous species of Cyclamen: C. hederifolium,
C. purpurascens and C. repandum. In the past, wild-collected tubers, mainly
of C. hederifolium, were exported from Italy and at least 75 000 were exported
in 1984 (van der Plas-Haarsma, 1987). Since 1985 there has been a total
export ban. The Cyclamen exported by Israel is C. persicum, produced at the
kibbutz Maarit. There have been recent reports of wild-dug C. purpurascens
from Hungary being offered in trade in the Netherlands. This trade is not
reflected in the CITES statistics. The origin of C. purpurascens recorded in
CITES statistics as imported from Turkey is unclear as this species is not
native in Turkey, or believed to be in cultivation there.

The other species of Cyclamen which are sold by specialist nurseries are
all propagated commercially on a small scale, usually from seed. Species
available in trade include some which are very rare in the wild, such as
C. rohlfsianum which occurs in Libya and is categorised by IUCN as
Vulnerable. According to one specialist grower in the UK, C. graecum,
C. persicum and C. africanum are not popular in trade and there is very little
demand for C. balearicum, C. creticum, C. mirabile, C. intaminatum and
Cc. rohlfsianum.

The Gardening from Which? survey sought information on the source of three
Cyclamen species offered by bulb firms in the UK: C. cilicium, C. coum and

C. hederifolium. At least six specialist nurseries are offering seed-grown
plants of these species. Two wholesale firms named the Netherlands as their
source of C. coum. One wholesale firm has stopped supplying all species of

= alts =

Cyclamen because it was unable to obtain sufficient quantities of propagated
material. Clearly seed-production of the genus is not sufficient to supply
commercial demand.

Various species of Cyclamen in countries other than Turkey are protected
by national legislation. Details of this are given by van der Plas-Haarsma
(1987). Under EEC Regulation 3626/82, three species of Cyclamen which occur
in the EEC - C. balearicum, C. graecum and C. creticum - are subject to
stricter controls than those imposed by CITES. Import to and export from the
EEC of wild-collected specimens of these species and sale within the EEC are
effectively banned.

The UK-based Cyclamen Society includes the promotion of Cyclamen
conservation in its Manifesto and has a conservation Code of Conduct. The
Code includes in its recommendations, "Never buy dry tubers offered for sale’
and ‘Never buy plants which might have been collected in the wild.’

Erythronium

The genus Erythronium in the Liliaceae has around 25 species mainly occurring
in North America and northern Asia, with a single species E. dens-canis found
in Burope.

A range of species is offered in trade with plants from both cultivated
and wild-collected sources. The area of production in the Netherlands is
around 1.5 ha and plants are also imported into the Netherlands from Japan and
the USA. The Japanese species E. japonicum (E. dens-canis var. japonicum) is
collected from the wild and is widely available from nurseries in Japan (see
p. 49). It is also grown from seed on a small scale. It is unclear to what
extent Erythronium spp. are wild-collected in the USA.

About nine species and various Erythronium hybrids are available from bulb
firms in the UK. Only one specialist nursery is known to be propagating
E. japonicum, using seed and vegetable division. At least three other firms
buy this species from a wholesale company. EE. dens-canis appears to be more
widely propagated, mainly by division. North American species which have been
offered by UK bulb firms in recent years include E. albidum, E. americanum,
E. citrinum, E. hendersonii, E. klamathense, E. tuolumnense and
EK. umbilicatum. Several of these, such as E. klamathense and E. citrinum, are
recorded in trade catalogues as rare in cultivation.

Erythronium tuolumnense, a species endemic to California, USA, is
considered to be threatened in the wild. According to Mathew (1973), it is a
very easy species to cultivate, which increases well and flowers freely when
grown in suitable soils.

Fritiliaria
Fritillaria is a genus with about 85 species. The genus is distributed
throughout the northern hemisphere, from western Europe through Asia to Japan,
and North America. The main species concentration is in Turkey and Iran.

Turkey has 31 species, 18 of which are endemic. Iran has about 20 species.
According to Mathew (1973), ‘practically all of the Near and Middle East
species are grown in Britain, although many are still rare, but those in China
and the USSR are still very poorly known." According to M. Hoog (pers. comm.
1989), North American species of Fritillaria are not strong-growing and so
will remain rare in cultivation.

Of the 26 European species of fritillary, the best known is the Snakeshead
Fritillary F. meleagris. This species is the most widespread in the wild and
is an easy plant in cultivation. F. meleagris is one of the most widely

2599). =

Table 3
CITES-reported transactions in Turkish Cyclamen tubers

Species 1985 1986 1987
Imp Exp Imp Exp Imp Exp

eS a ee ee ee ee ee ee

Cyclamen spp. AT SA 7500 US TR 3 NL TR 149775
CA NL 250
FR TR 17000

C. balearicum IL NL 5

SE NL 1

C. cilicium NL TR 247020 NL TR 235000 NL TR 57000
AT NL 8310 AT NL 8970 AT NL 6240
CA NL 200 CA NL 1000 CA NL 225
HK NL 2400 CH NL 6250 CH TR 4000
JP NL 200 NO NL 3600 SE NL 342
US NL 6100 SE NL 560 US NL 2100
ZA NL 2500 US NL 7845

Cc. coum NL TR 9700 CA NL 200 NL TR 72000
AT NL 2160 CH NL 3100 CA NL 150
CA NL 500 JP NL 3000 CH TR 5400
CH NL 17489 CE NL 50
JP NL 4000 JP NL 4500
NO NL 150 SE NL 30
SE NL 160
US NL 200

C. hederifolium NL TR 660878 NL TR 702500 NL TR 856000
AT NL 36197 AT NL 7375 AT NL 10535
CA NL 1750 CA NL 1460 CA NL 3127
CH NL 48946 CH NL 26890 CH NL 22560
CH TR 150 CH TR 10040 CH TR 6850
ES NL 825 FI NL 280 FR TR 20000
FI NL 840 FR TR 17000 IL NL 100
Is NL 60 IL NL 500 JP NL 4000
JP NL 9850 els NL 90 SE NL 942
KW NL 150 JP NL 6500 US NL 65739
NO NL 4560 MY NL 20
SE NL 17510 NO NL 1716
US NL 15450 SE NL 10555
ZA NL 2500 US NL 135755

C. pseudibericum AT NL 20

C. purpurascens NL TR 24300 NL TR 12500 NL TR 40000
AT NL 13998 SE NL 25 CH NL 4200
CA NL 1700 CH TR 600
CH NL 9575 SE NL 20
CH TR 1000 US NL 700
IL NL 1625
KW NL 150
US NL 9250

C. rohlfsianum SE NL 1

The above data are from the annual reports of CITES Parties. In this table,
only transactions where the country of export or origin is given as Turkey
have been included. The Netherlands is the only country recording re-exports

SOO s=

of Turkish Cyclamen in CITES statistics. Where the exporting and importing
countries record differing quantities the highest Figure is given.

Key to codes in Table 3

Imp Importing country Exp Exporting country

AT Austria FI Finland JP Japan SA Saudi Arabia
CA Canada FR France KW Kuwait SE Sweden

CH Switzerland HK Hong Kong MY Malaysia TR Turkey

CL Chile IL Israel NL © Netherlands US USA

ES Spain IS Iceland NO Norway ZA South Africa

available species in trade, from nursery raised material. F. imperialis is
another popular fritillary which is widely available commercially. In the
past F. imperialis has been wild-collected in bulk for trade and it is now
considered threatened in Iraq because of overcollecting. F. persica is also a
well known garden ornamental. :

In the Netherlands F. meleagris is produced from seed and F. imperialis
propagated by bulblets or by cross cutting into the base. Production areas
for the three most commonly cultivated Fritillaria species in the Netherlands
are given in Table 4. F. michailovskyi is also now raised commercially in the
Netherlands. Between 10 and 20 growers produce this species and there are no
apparent imports to the Netherlands. Other Fritillaria species grown on a
very small scale in the Netherlands, for example by Van Tubergen, include
F. acmopetale, F. assyriaca, F. camtschatcensis, F. pallidiflora, F. persica
and F. pontica. In the UK at least three specialist nurseries are propagating
F. bucharica and four offer F. camtschatcensis propagated by themselves.
F. persica is imported from the Netherlands or Turkey.

Most of the Fritillaria species in trade are only available from
specialist nurseries. Over 100 species and varieties are, for example,
offered by the Danish firm Ole Sonderhousen. These plants are all propagated
but, in many cases, from wild material collected by the owner.

There is now some propagation of fritillaries within Turkey, notably of
F. imperialis and F. persica. Cultivation by local farmers takes place in the
Bolu area. Propagation is by seed, small bulbs and bulb-cuttings (McGough

et al., 1989). Propagated material from Turkey had virtually replaced
collected wild bulbs of F. imperialis but disease problems several years ago
led to collecting from the wild once more (Ekim pers comm., 1988). Annual

rotation is helping to prevent further pest problems. Ekim et al. (1984)
called for a complete restriction on collection from the wild for F. persica
and F. imperialis and Turkish legislation now bans all export of
wild-collected Fritillaria species.

In Japanese trade about 11 Fritillaria species are offered. Some
nurseries are raising native Fritillaria species from wild-collected seed.

Concern about the effects of collection on wild populations of Fritillaria
spp. has led to calls for protection of the whole genus (Synge, 1980).
Wendelbo (1975) suggested that collection and export regulations might be
necessary for Iranian species. There are certainly a large number of species
under threat, with 28 species considered by TPU to be rare or threatened on a
world scale and a further eight species under threat in certain countries.
Twelve species of conservation concern which have been recorded in trade are
listed in Appendix 2. Greek botanists have identified all Greek species of
Fritillaria as being rare or comparatively so and, although most are in
cultivation, some are restricted to just a few botanic gardens and private
collections.

Eon]

In China, Fritillaria bulbs are used in the production of cough medicine,
and collection may threaten wild populations. There is also cultivation of
various species, however, such as F. thunbergii and F. pallidiflora in
villages of Sinkiang (Rix, 1986). Collection of certain rare species such as
F. delavayi is prohibited in China (Tan and McBeath, 1987).

Table 4
Production of Fritillaria in the Netherlands

Species Area of Production (ha)
1985/86 1986/87 1987/88

F. imperialis 23.6
F. meleagris 3.0
F. persica 0.3

Source: PVS, Netherlands

Galanthus

There are about 12 species of Galanthus, occurring in southern Europe and the
Mediterranean region, extending eastwards to Lebanon and Iran. G. nivalis the
Common Snowdrop is the most widespread species and the extent of its natural

range is uncertain. The Common Snowdrop has been cultivated for many
centuries in western Europe and has become widely naturalised. It is locally
common particularly in open woodland. A large number of forms are sold in

trade. The majority of these are dug from wild or naturalised populations. A
report by the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food published in 1984
drew attention to declining stocks (Anon., 1984a).

Production of Galanthus in the Netherlands is limited to an area of
2-3 ha, in the’ Texel region where’ G. nivalis is harvested, from
semi-cultivated, naturalised populations in old orchards. Production is about

1.5 million bulbs per hectare. The main source of G. nivalis in trade is
France, where the species is naturalised. Populations are ‘farmed’ in the
Loire Valley and exported to the Netherlands. G. nivalis is also harvested

from orchards in the UK. It is not known what proportion of the Galanthus
imports to the Netherlands from the UK is from these populations of
naturalised stock.

Of 16 companies selling G. nivalis that responded to the Gardening for
Which? survey only one propagates this species, by division; another buys
propagated material from a private source; and the rest obtain stocks of the
species from wholesalers in France, the Netherlands and the UK.

Most Galanthus bulbs traded by the Netherlands are imported from Turkey
and numbers of Galanthus exported from Turkey far exceed exports of all other
bulbs. The quantities of Galanthus imported to the Netherlands are given in
Table 5. \

In the Netherlands most Galanthus do not go through the usual auction
houses but to five or six wholesale companies which sell them directly to
retailers (van Vliet pers. comm.).

G. elwesii is imported into the Netherlands in large numbers. Apparently
it does not do well in cultivation in Holland, but there is now some Dutch
commercial interest in production using chipping.

= 22 =

Table 5
Imports of Galanthus to the Netherlands

a

Quantity x 1000 bulbs

Country of Export 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88
oS Eee ee ee ee ee ee
Turkey 31019 34839 23801
France 10744 17120 9186
UK 246 301 373
Hungary = 8 =

SS es ee ec

Source: PD, Netherlands

Galanthus populations have been severely damaged by collecting in Turkey,
especially in the Mediterranean region. Collecting is now restricted to steep
slopes, as the more accessible populations have been almost eliminated.
Galanthus has been harvested in the Black Sea region only for the last 10-15
years. There are fewer firms involved and the population has not yet been
damaged. Threats of collecting and export quotas increased the damage by
encouraging early harvesting (before the leaves had yellowed or seed set) of
immature bulbs which decayed in storage. Galanthus elwesii and G. ikariae are
the most common Turkish exports but, as these become more scarce, G. nivalis,
G. gracilis and G. fosteri are also collected.

Galanthus elwesii is widely distributed throughout Western Anatolia and
the Eastern Aegean Islands but is being harvested in significant numbers. As
a result this once common species has greatly diminished, especially in the
Taurus Region of Turkey and in some cases entire populations have
disappeared. Whilst the species as a whole is not faced with extinction
(isolated individuals survive in cracks in inaccessible rocks) entire
populations have been depleted by intense collecting (Demiriz and Baytop,
1985). Cultivation of G. elwesii has now begun in Turkey but most of the

cultivation is made up of wild-transplanted stocks. Very little true
artificial propagation takes place, so the massive export of this species
still places a strain on wild populations. Unfortunately the Turkish

Government considers wild-transplanted material of G. elwesii to be
artificially propagated and therefore not subject to export restriction
(McGough et al., 1989).

Two specialist bulb firms in the UK are currently known to propagate
G. elwesii on a small-scale, by division, but other specialist bulb companies
buy from a wholesale firm which imports wild plant material. At least one
major retail chain imports directly from Turkey. A leading wholesale bulb
company has ceased trading in the species because of its wild origin in trade.

Galanthus ikariae is relatively rare in cultivation. It is collected in
the Pontis Range, west Turkey, and is now being substituted for G. elwesii in
trade (M. Hoog pers. comm.). There is some research on the cultivation of
this species in the Netherlands.

= BQ =

Iris

Iris is one of the most popular bulbous genera in cultivation and is a leading
horticultural bulb crop in many countries. The genus can be divided into two
groups: bulbous and rhizomatous. There are about 300 species distributed
throughout the northern hemisphere. A very wide range of species and
cultivars is available commercially.

There are production figures for over 50 types of Iris in the
Netherlands. The total area planted with Iris is about 900 ha.

Imports of Iris to the Netherlands are recorded from France, Israel,
Italy, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, UK and USA. There are thought to be some
commercial exports of wild-collected Iris spp. from Turkey but no trade is
recorded in 1987 Turkish Government statistics. The species recorded by
Demiriz (1987) as exported from Turkey are: I. germanica (a species widely
cultivated and widely naturalised throughout Europe), I. iberica subsp.
elegantissima, I. paradoxa, I. persica, I. reticulata, I. sari and
I. tuberosa. Of these, I. reticulata (cultivars) are produced commercially in
the Netherlands, with a current production area of 16.68 ha (Anon., 1988).
I. tuberosa (= Hermodactylus tuberosus) increases rapidly in cultivation and
is grown for the cut flower trade in some countries. I. danfordiae, a species
now hard to find in the wild in Turkey, is also produced on a large scale in
the Netherlands.

Some Turkish Iris spp. are considered to be under severe threat from
specialist collectors. A number of I. sari populations have been lost,
probably to specialist collectors, and it is now considered Endangered.
I. pamphylica has been reduced at its only known locality and I. stenophylla
subsp. allisonii is also thought to have suffered from overcollecting (McGough
et _al., 1989).

In the UK I. sari is currently offered by three specialist bulb nurseries
and I. pamphylica by one nursery. Other Turkish species offered include

I. galatica, I. gatesii, I. histriodes (collected form) , I. paradox,
I. persica, I. purpureobractea, I. sprengeri and I. stenophylla. The

conservation status of these species, where known, is given in Appendix 2.

Exports of Iris from Israel are all commercially produced. In the wild,
populations of Israeli Onocyclus Iris spp. are now very restricted, in part
because of commercial exploitation in the past. Tira nurseries at the kibbutz
Tirat Zvi are cultivating I. atropurpurea, I. haynei, I. jordana, I. lortetti,
I. nigricans and I. samariae which are all considered to be severely
threatened in the wild (see Appendix 2). A pollination programme has recently
helped increase populations of these species in the wild (Rabinovitch
in litt.).

Various other very rare Iris species from other countries are available in
trade but it is not clear to what extent wild-collection continues to be a
problem. A range of species from Central Asia are included in catalogues of
UK bulb firms. I. winogradowii, a species included as Endangered in the IUCN
Plant Red Data Book, is now established in cultivation.

Leucojum

The genus Leucojum, commonly known as snow flakes, consists of about ten
species with a centre of distribution in the western Mediterranean. Leucojum
aestivum is the most widespread species, occurring from western Ireland
through to Asia Minor and the Caucasus. It is widely cultivated and
naturalised. Turkey is the main source of L. aestivum in trade. Exports for
the genus average eight million plants annually and the majority of these are
L. aestivum. There is a Turkish collection quotum of five million a year.

=A

Hungary is the main exporting country for L. vernum. In the season 1986/87,
92% of the Netherlands’ imports of all species of Leucojum were from Turkey
and 8% from Hungary. L. autumnale was imported from Portugal until about five
years ago. In the UK it is now obtainable only on a small scale from several
specialist nurseries.

Nursery production of Leucojum is very limited. Some artificial
propagation now takes place in Turkey (McGough et al., 1989). Dutch stock is
available of L. vernum but the majority of bulbs of this species in trade are
imported from eastern Europe.

In the UK there is some propagation of L. aestivum for commerce but only
on a limited scale. One UK wholesale company has ceased trading in Leucojum
because of the wild source of material in trade. Three specialist firms
responding to the Gardening from Which? survey propagate L. aestivum by
division. Other retail outlets buy from wholesalers in the Netherlands or
UK. Lvernum is also propagated on a small scale by three UK specialist
nurseries. ,

Table 6
Status of Leucojum species in the wild and in cultivation

Species Distribution Conservation Cultivation Recorded Source of
Status Status in Trade Wild Bulbs
Eur Jp US
L. autumnale W. Medit. W / /
L. roseum Corsica nt Corsica Ss /
Sardinia R Sardinia
L. valentinum Spain, Greece s
Morocco
L. trichophyllum Spain, Port. 1 /
Morocco
L. longifclium Corsica R s
L. nicaeense France Vv W /
L. vernum widespread nt Europe W / / Hungary
I USSR
L. aestivum widespread nt Europe W / / / Turkey
L. fontianum Morocco R

L. tingitanum Morocco

IUCN conservation categories:
V = Vulnerable

R = Rare

I = Indeterminate

nt = not threatened

Other codes based on information in Grey-Wilson and Mathew, 1981

1 = very restricted
W = widely cultivated
S = scarce in cultivation

STO

Lilium

Lilium is a genus of about 90 species distributed across the northern
hemisphere, including North America, with the greatest concentration of
species in S.E. Asia and Japan.

Some species of lily have been in cultivation since ancient times. Lilies
have been used by the Chinese for medicinal purposes for at least two |
millennia, and several species have also been grown for food. At first the
bulbs used medicinally were collected from the wild, but lilies have been
cultivated in fields for their edible bulbs at least since the tenth century.
They were probably also being grown for ornamental purposes in China by this
time. By the 17th century, about 12 species were in cultivation in Chinese
gardens including L. brownii, L. concolor, L. lancifolium and L._ pumilum.
Colour forms were being selected and various propagation techniques used (Haw,
1986).

OF the nine species of European lily, several such as L. martagon and |
L. candidum have been cultivated for centuries and have become naturalised
over wide regions. Despite the early cultivation of some lilies, however, the
range of lily species grown remained small, and cultivation was on a very
limited scale. Commercial cultivation did not become established until after
the Second World War. Most lily bulbs in trade are now cultivated in France,
Israel, Japan, the Netherlands and USA.

In the Netherlands, lilies are grown principally in the north of the
country on both sand and silt soils. Production is mainly of the hybrids
"Connecticut King’ and ‘Enchantment’ but there is a trend towards production
of a wider range. Several commercial firms and horticultural institutions are
active in breeding new lily cultivars. In Japan the area of lily production
is 370 ha (in 1985). The main species grown include L. longifolium,
L. nobilissimum and L. japonicum.

Lilium _candidum is grown in Turkey with around 4 ha under cultivation.
Some cultivation consists of the 'farming of wild-collected plants' but there
is also propagation using bulb scales (McGough et al., 1989). The export of
wild-collected bulbs of L. candidum and L. martagon has been banned by the
Turkish Government since 1986. L. candidum is also cultivated for export in
Israel. This is the only lily species native to Israel and, as a result of
conservation measures, its population size is increasing in three nature
reserves within the country. A detailed research programme is being carried
out on the pollination of L. candidum within Israel (Rabinovitch in litt.).

At the beginning of this century lilies were considered a luxury plant,
and the bulbs were generally dug from the wild for horticulture. According to
Fox (1982) the supply of lily bulbs from the wild is now virtually closed but
a limited amount of wild-collection may still continue. As recently as 15
years ago, 2 000 000 lily bulbs were gathered in Japan each year for export
(Stoop van de Kasteele, 1974). Now, although large-scale commercial
production of Lilium is established, some of the bulbs offered by Japanese
wild plant nurseries may be collected from the wild in Japan or countries such
as Korea and Taiwan. Problems with various aspects of the commercialisation
of a wider range of Lilium species remain; Table 7, for example, summarises
difficulties with Korean species.

It has been suggested that Lilium spp. are at risk from expert collectors
(Lancaster in litt., 1987). In the wild, 15 species of Lilium are considered
to be rare or threatened on a world scale by WCMC’s Threatened Plants Unit. A
further 11 are rare or threatened in parts of their ranges. Generally these

rarer species do not seem to be included in trade catalogues. Lilium
ledebourii was considered by Wendelbo (1975) to be one of the few species of
Iran to be really endangered. Grazing and agriculture have been the main

threats to this species.

= WY =

Table 7
Problems in commercialisation of Lilium spp. of Korea

Difficulty encountered Species
1. Difficult to propagate L. hansonii (scaling)
2. Difficult to store L. hansonii (drying); L. cernuum
3. Require longer periods L. concolor; L. amabile;
of cold treatment L. lancifolium
4. Non-uniform flowering L. hansonii
5. Few flowers L. concolor; L. amabile
6. Poor flower quality L. formosanum
7. Susceptibility to bulb rot L. hansonii; L. cernuum

Source: Roh in litt., 1988

Narcissus

The genus Narcissus has over 40 species with a primarily Mediterranean
distribution. The greatest species—diversity occurs in Spain and Portugal.
Some species have been cultivated for centuries and cultivated forms have
become quite widely naturalised.

There are many hundreds of Narcissus cultivars and hybrids in
cultivation. The UK is the world's main exporter of daffodil bulbs with five

varieties dominating commercial growing. In 1987 the UK exported nearly 87
million Narcissus bulbs with a value of over £4 million. The area planted
with Narcissus is around 17000 ha. Most of the work on breeding new

varieties of Narcissus is currently carried out in the UK. At present there
is very limited UK production of the small Narcissus species which are
becoming increasingly popular. Only two specialist bulb nurseries are known
to propagate N. bulbocodium subsp. conspicuous, for example; one propagates
N. bulbocodium subsp. tenuifolius; two produce N. cyclamineus; and one
N. triandus subsp. albus. Most bulbs of these species are bought from
wholesalers in the Netherlands and UK.

Apart from the UK, countries important for the commercial production of
Narcissus bulbs include Israel, Netherlands (production area around 1600 ha)
and the USA (production area around 1500 ha). In the Netherlands about 10% of
the production is devoted to dwarf Narcissus varieties and species (see
Table 9). There has been increasing trade in dwarf or rockery daffodils in
the past ten years.

Despite field cultivation of Narcissus as a major horticultural crop,
collection of certain species from the wild presents a serious conservation
problem. Narcissus pseudonarcissus is the most widely grown species and has
been used to produce an extensive range of cultivars. Nevertheless, some
wild-collected stock is still in trade and collection from naturalised
populations takes place for example in the Ardennes, Belgium. There are many
subspecies of N. pseudonarcissus, several of which are offered by _ the
specialist trade. N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus, which is raised by
some authorities to specific status, may now be extinct in the wild.

The major source of wild Narcissus bulbs in trade is Portugal and some
export of wild daffodil bulbs has also been reported from Morocco, Spain and

= op =

Turkey. Despite the routine collection on a commercial scale and the concern
of certain experts, the trade has largely been hidden and even some retailers
appear to have been unaware of the source of the material. This is partly
because small wild species have been used in breeding for many years and a
range of cultivars is available.

Information collected during this project confirms the continuing trade in
wild species of Narcissus from Portugal. Notes on collections within the
country are given in Appendix 6. The species involved are N. bulbocodium,
N. juncifolius (= N. requienii), N. triandrus, N. asturiensis and
N. cyclamineus. Several Dutch firms contacted also import N. lobularis and
one further company has stopped importing this species as the bulbs offered
are now too small. Of these species, N. asturiensis and N. cyclamineus are
considered to be threatened in Portugal and are included in a list of plants
reconmended for protection (Dray, 1985). Ten taxa of Narcissus are included
in this list. Despite contact with a considerable number of botanists and
conservationists in Spain, no evidence of recent commercial exploitation of
wild Narcissus populations there has come to light. There are, however,
various Spanish species which are of conservation concern and any resumption
of trade would be very damaging. Information on the status of Iberian
Narcissus species is summarised in Table 8.

N. willkommii is believed to have become extinct recently in Spain as a
result of building work. Fortunately this species has been introduced into
cultivation near Coimbra. It is considered to be Vulnerable in the Algarve,
by Dray, 1985. The Iberian species of Narcissus which are considered to be
possibly vulnerable to commercial use are N. calcicola, N. cantabricus and
N. scaberulus (Webb pers. comm., 1988). The autumn flowering green daffodil
N. viridiflorus has already suffered from overcollecting as well as from
development of its habitat and is now considered almost unobtainable in trade.

The North African populations of Narcissus include a large number of
varieties of N. bulbocodium and two desirable species related to N. rupicola,
N. watieri and N. marvieri. N. watieri is believed to be very scarce in the
wild, partly as a result of overcollection, but its status is unknown.
According to Koopowitz and Kaye (1983) it is occasionally, ‘advertised by
unscrupulous bulb merchants who substitute another variety’.

N. tazetta, a widespread species distributed from Spain to Japan, is the
main Narcissus exported by Turkey. There is now some artificial propagation
of this species within Turkey. N. jonquilla has also been reported as a wild
import to France from Turkey. N. serotinus is considered to be Rare in Turkey
(Ekim in litt., 1989). The Turkish Government has imposed a quota on the
export of bulbs of all native Narcissus spp. from the wild.

= A a

Table 8
Iberian species of Narcissus

De EEE

Narcissus species Present in Present in IUCN Available Notes2
Spain Portugal category in trade

i

Narcissus asturiensis x xX nt Ss

N. baeticus x - R NK

N. bicolor xK - NK

N. bulbocodium x xX W

N. calcicarpetanus XK - I NK

N.- calcicola = x nt NK

N. cantabricus XK - NK on sale JP

N. cuatrecasasii XK - nt NK

N. cyclamineus XK xX W Cultivars

N. dubius X - NK

N. elegans xX* - Vv NK

N. gaditanus x ».¢ NK

N. hedraeanthus K - nt NK

N. humilis x X NK

N. jacetanus 4 - nt NK

N. jonquilla xX xX s Cultivars

N. longispathus x - R NK

N. minor x - Ss

N. munozii-garmendiae x - nt NK

N. nevadensis K - E NK

N. papyraceus XK xX NK Cultivars

N. poeticus XK - Ss Cultivars

N. pseudonarcissus XK K s Cultivars

N. requienii Xx - NK

N. rupicola XK xX W

N. scaberulus - ».¢ Vv Ss Home grown
from seed

N. serotinus xX xX NK

N. tazetta XK XK Ss Cultivars

N. tortifolius xX - nt NK

N. triandrus XK xX W Cultivars

N. viridiflorus xX - Vv NK

N. willkommii - XK NK Extinct in

Spain

eee eee —————___

NK — not known to be in trade, though probably available through specialist
society, etc.

S - available through specialist trade catalogues.

W - widely available in trade, including large volume outlets.

1 'Spain' here includes the French Pyrenees.

2 "Cultivars’ indicates that artificially propagated horticultural forms
are also available.

* — Balearic Is.
XK - present

-— - absent

JP — Japan

-—- 29 -—

Table 9
Dutch production of Rockery Daffodils

Cultivar Area of production in ha
1985/86 1986/87 1987/88

Narcissus triandrus:

Hawera 11.80 13.53 12.19
Ice Wings - 0.07 0.07
Liberty Bells 1.16 0.76 0.66
Petrel - 0.03 0.04
Rippling Waters 0.27 0.27 0.27
Shot Silk 0.66 0.75 0.54
Thalia 5.86 5.33 5.33
Tresamble 0.96 0.99 0.94
Other 0.10 0.07 -
Subtotal 20.81 21.80 20.04
Narcissus cyclamineus:

Andalusia 0.03 0.25 0.25
Baby Doll 0.43 0.63 0.50
Bartley 1.51 0.71 0.50
Beryl 0.17 0.12 0.13
Charity May 1.51 1.00 0.65
Dove Wings 0.26 0.15 0.11
February Gold 29.52 27.79 24.27
February Silver 0.66 0.67 0.61
Foundling - - 0.00
Garden Princess 0.79 0.77 0.89
Jack Snipe 7.84 7.60 7.01
Jenny 1.42 1.23 1.53
Jumblie 4.73 5.77 6.96
Little Witch 1.88 2.01 1.77
March Sunshine 0.26 0.22 0.09
Peeping Tom 2.45 2.22 2.07
Quince - 0.02 0.05
Tete-a-Tete 62.23 82.05 109.87
Winged Victory = 0.12 0.18
Other 0.13 0.35 0.33
Subtotal 115.82 133.68 157.77

Narcissus jonquilla:

Baby Moon 2.14 2353 2.36
Bobbysoxer 0.01 0.02 0.01
Golden Perfection 0.55 0.50 0.39
Jonquilla Dubbel 0.07 0.05 0.06
Lintie 0.67 0.53 0.63
Pipit 0.06 0.18 0.42
Sugarbush 0.94 0.76 0.46
Sundial 0.78 0.78 0.85
Sun Disc 0.30 0.30 0.48
Suzy 4.98 4.46 3.86
Sweetness 0.78 0.89 1.00
Sweet Pepper 0.30 0.41 0.52

= Zio

Cultivar Area of production in ha
1985/86 1986/87 1987/88

Narcissus jonquilla (cont.)

Tittle-Tattle 0.29 0.40 0.42
Trevithian 2.99 3.30 2.94
Waterperry 0.52 0.45 0.50
Other #: 0.01 0.01 0.03
Subtotal 15.39 15.57 14.93
Narcissus tazetta:

Cragford 7.88 8.53 9.00
Canary Bird 0.14 0.14 0.17
Early Splendour 0.38 0.18 0.20
Elvira - - 0.11
Geranium 16.31 15.95 15.09
Laurens Koster 1.57 1.80 1.82
Minnow 10.98 14.42 16.94
Romeo 0.15 0.20 0.20
Scarlet Gem 5.25 4.98 6.34
Silver Chimes 0.25 0.17 0.15
Sint Agnes 0.20 0.17 0.21
Other 0.10 0.10 0.06
Subtotal 43.21 46.64 50.29

Narcissus poeticus:

Actaea 4.26 3.79 3.44
Other 0.05 0.06 0.11
Subtotal 4.31 3.85 3.55

Narcissus spp.:

bulbocodium conspicuus 0.02 0.13 0.08
canaliculatus 1.54 1.05 1.22
jonquilla 0.30 0.57 0.26
obvallaris 0.54 0.65 0.97
pumilus 0.17 0.12 ~ 0.07
recurvus 0.34 0.49 0.59
Other 0.09 0.07 0.03
Subtotal 3.00 3.08 3.22
TOTAL AREA IN PRODUCTION 202.54 224.62 249.80

Source: PVS, Netherlands

Sternbergia
The genus Sternbergia has eight species, with a centre of distribution in

Turkey, the Caucasus and western Iran. S. lutea is the species most commonly
offered by the trade and is a popular garden plant. Bulbs in trade are

ae 3) =

imported from Turkey where true artificial propagation is not yet taking place
(McGough et al., 1989). In 1987, 450 000 Sternbergia bulbs were exported.
Other species of Sternbergia exported from Turkey are S. clusiana,

S. fischeriana and S. sicula. S. clusiana is now frequently traded as
S. lutea because of declining availability of S. lutea. The Turkish

Government has banned the export of wild-collected bulbs of all native
Sternbergia species.

There is very little cultivation of Sternbergia in the Netherlands (around
17 000 sq. m) and all species of Sternbergia are considered difficult to grow
there. There is some small-scale propagation of S. clusiana and S. sicula in
F.R. Germany and a specialist grower in Czechoslovakia (M. Hoog in litt.,
1987).

In the UK there is some propagation of Sternbergia species by specialist
bulb nurseries. Sternbergia lutea is the most widely produced with at least
six firms propagating stocks by division.

The Netherlands is the major importer of Sternbergia from Turkey. In the
1987/88 season 324 000 bulbs were imported. Export from the Netherlands is
primarily to F.R. Germany (49%) and to Japan (24%). S. lutea is offered by
Japanese companies. At least five US bulb firms have recently offered
Sternbergia.

S. candida is the rarest species of Sternbergia in the wild and is
considered to be Vulnerable by IUCN. It is native to Turkey and, following
its description in 1979, commercial collection placed severe pressure on the
type locality. S. candida is currently offered by three specialist nurseries
in the UK from propagated stock.

The genus Sternbergia is considered vulnerable as a whole to commercial
collection, particularly because the trade switches from species to species,
as wild stocks decline. It is currently being proposed for listing in
Appendix II of CITES.

Trillium

There are about 30 species of Trillium, occurring mainly in North America and
with several in Bast Asia. Nearly the full range of species is represented in
trade (see Table 10). The information on species available in US trade is
based on a 1986 survey of 46 wild flower catalogues carried out by
Faith Campbell. Trillium spp. can be propagated from seed but this method is
slow and difficult. There is no commercial production of Trillium in the
Netherlands and plants are imported from the USA and Canada. - The import
figure for 1986/87 was 13 000. Trillium is also thought to be imported
directly to the UK. One Dutch nursery mentioned that Trillium is propagated
in Oregon, USA, but that generally all plants of this genus are of wild
Origin.

Tulipa

The genus Tulipa has around 100 species, the majority of which occur in
Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and the southern USSR. The historical interest in
tulips is legendary, with cultivation in the Netherlands since the 16th
century. Modern cultivated tulips are derived from Tulipa gesnerana which is
now widely naturalised in southern Europe. The wild origins of T. gesnerana
are obscure, but its ancestors are thought to have occurred in Turkestan.
Other species of tulip which have become widely naturalised include

= 92 =

Table 10
Trillium species in trade

Species Distribution in No. of trade outlets
the wild UK Japan US

Trillium catesbaei 5
T. cernuum USA 8 1 6
T. chloropetalum USA 4 1
T. cuneatum USA 1
T. decumbens 1
T. discolor 1
T. erectum USA 16 1 9
T. erectum album 5
T. erectum luteum 3 3
T. flexipes USA 1
T. grandiflorum USA 21 2 13
T. hibbersoni Canada 1
T. kamschaticum Japan 1 &

Korea

China
T. lancifolium 1
T. luteum USA 9 1 7
T. nivale USA 1
T. ovatum USA 5
T. recurvatum USA 6 1 1
T. rivale USA 2 1
T. rugelii 1
T. smallii Japan, Korea 1 5
T. stamineum 1
T. stylosum USA 2 1 2
T. tschonoskii Japan, Korea, China 2 4

Taiwan
T. undulatum USA 9 2 5
T. vaseyi 1 1
T. viride 2 1
T. viridescens 1
T. sessile 5

T. sylvestris and I. clusiana. T. sylvestris, known as the wild tulip, is the
most widespread in Europe and its wild flowers are often sold in Spanish and
Italian markets (Grey-Wilson and Mathew, 1981). TIT. clusiana used to be wild
dug in south-eastern France for commercial trade, but is now cultivated (Mevel
in litt., 1988). Only a small percentage of the known species of Tulipa are
in general cultivation and tulip bulb production is dominated by large showy
hybrids. The so-called ‘botanical tulips’ are smaller-flowered cultivars.

Most of the botanical tulips are grown on sandy soils of west and north
Netherlands. The area of botanical tulip production is around 600 ha which is
about 10% of the total tulip area.

Over 50 species of tulip have been recorded in the survey of nursery
catalogues with many of these offered by one or two specialist nurseries
only. About 30 tulip species are offered by the Dutch firm Van Tubergen which

~ ) =

has been responsible for increasing the general availability of species
tulips. Van Tubergen's stocks of Tulipa species are all ‘home grown',
including several species which are now very rare in the wild. The Dutch firm
of Michael H. Hoog grows 65 Tulipa species and forms of species, most of which

are former Van Tubergen_ stock. Other growers of species tulips in the
Netherlands include M. Thoolen at Santpoort, P.B. van Eeden at Nordwijk,
J. Zween's at "t Zand, van de Wereld at Breezand, W. Pennings at

Noordwijkerhout and P. Wisser at St Pancras (A. Hoog in litt., 1988).

Some commercial wild collection of tulips may still occur, but significant
imports into the Netherlands are not known. Kashmir, Nepal and Pakistan are
thought to export some wild tulips. Some of the bulbs in trade of
T. aitchisonii, a species distributed from Afghanistan to Kashmir, are of wild
source, and T. kurdica, an Iraqi species, is imported from wild stocks.

Species which have been exported by Turkey in recent years are T. hageri,
T. humilis, TI. praecox, and T. undulatifolia. Ekim et al. (1984) recommended
that T. humilis be totally protected and not collected for trade. Since 1986,
the export of wild bulbs of this species has been banned. It is grown
commercially on a large scale in the Netherlands and it is not thought that
Turkish imports would be competitive. T. hageri is grown from seed by several
Dutch nurseries (A. Hoog in litt., 1988). TI. praecox is considered to be
endangered in Turkey (Ekim in litt., 1989). This species is not included in
Dutch production figures for minor bulbs.

It has been suggested that controls be considered to prevent large-scale
collecting and export of Tulipa from Iran. Certain Iranian species are
thought to be rare including T. micheliana, TI. montana and TI. polychroma,
which occur in the Mohammed Reza Shah National Park.

Seventeen species of Tulipa are included in the list of species of
conservation concern which are offered in trade. Of these, 14 are rare or
threatened species of the USSR. The conservation status of tulips within the
USSR is well documented in Red Data Books and most rare species are in

cultivation in botanic gardens. Legislation protects rare tulips and,
although there may be collection of wild bulbs for propagation purposes,
export of rare species does not take place. (Beloussova in litt., 1988).

According to A. Hoog (in litt., 1988), exports of Tulipa from the USSR stopped
around 1940.

SP RyA =

Table 11
Cultivation of species Tulips in the Netherlands

Species Area Planted (ha)
1985/86 1986/87 1987/88

Tulipa bakeri ‘lilac wonder’ 0.71 1.20 1.56
T. batalinii 0.01 0.01 0.02
T. batalinii ‘bright gem’ 0.45 0.68 0.71
T. biflora 0.04 0.03 0.05
T. chrysantha = 0.29 0.52
T. chrysantha 'Tubergen'’s gem’ 0.32 0.22 0.20
T. clusiana 0.02 0.03 0.01
T. clusiana ‘cynthia’ 0.09 0.29 0.26
T. dasystemon 0.00 1.68 1.67
T. eichleri 10.58 8.36 7.84
T. fosteriana 0.13 0.20 0.15
T. greipii 0.50 0.73 0.98
T. hageri - - 0.01
T. hageri 'splendens' 0.02 0.02 0.03
T. kKaufmanniana 5.40 5.11 4.41
T. kolpakowskiana 0.10 0.14 0.20
T. linifolia 0.37 0.45 0.62
T. marjolettii 0.83 0.63 0.57
T. orphanidea flava 0.01 0.00 0.02
T. polychroma = 0.01 0.01
T. praestans 0.26 0.14 0.10
T. praestans 'fusilier’ 23.86 26.73 30.73
T. praestans 'zwanenburg var' 21.26 22.41 23.29
T. pulchella 0.16 0.37 0.37
T. pulchella ‘eastern star’ 0.15 0.24 0.34
T. pulchella ‘odalisque’ 0.04 0.13 0.24
T. pulchella ‘persian pearl’ 0.03 0.15 0.25
T. pulchella 'violace black base’ 0.06 0.13 0.14
T. pulchella ‘violace yellow base’ 0.06 0.13 0.14
T. saxatilis 0.94 1.30 1.31
T. sylvestris 0.05 0.05 0.06
T. tarda 6.85 6.60 8.70
T. tubergeniana - 0.02 2.01
T. tubergeniana 'keukenhof’ 0.32 0.23 0.20
T. turkestanica 1.16 1.37 1.83
T. urumiensis 0.96 0.97 0.99
T. vvedenskyi 0.09 0.10 0.07
T. vvedenskyi ‘tangerine bleu’ 0.14 0.40 0.61
T. whittallii 0.02 0.11 0.02
T. wilsoniana 0.10 0.11 0.13

Source: PVS, Netherlands

ee

Temperate Orchid genera

Various genera of temperate terrestrial orchids have tubers or rhizomes and
are offered in trade by bulb wholesale companies and specialist bulb
nurseries. A general review of terrestrial orchids in trade has not been
considered practicable within the scope of this study. Nevertheless the trade
in temperate terrestrial orchids presents serious conservation concerns
because few species have been successfully raised from seed and the trade
relies on repeated importations from the wild. The incidental information
gathered during the study confirms the scale of the problem.

All orchids are covered by CITES controls and over 100 &Suropean
terrestrial orchid species are given stricter protection than their CITES
Appendix II listing, by EEC Regulations on CITES. In addition, most west
European countries have national legislation protecting orchids in the wild
and restricting collection and _ trade. Importations from outside Europe
generally supply the trade.

The three main genera imported to the Netherlands are _ Bletilla,
Cypripedium and Pleione. There is no production of these orchids in the
Netherlands. Import statistics from the Dutch Plant Health Service are
currently available for Bletilla and Pleione (see Table 12). Both these
genera are propagated artificially on a commercial scale within Japan.
Wild-collected plants of Pleione from Taiwan were formerly imported and
re-exported by Japan, but this trade has been replaced by cultivated plants
produced mainly in western Japan.

Table 12
Commercial imports of temperate orchids to the Netherlands

Genus No. of Species Distribution Imports x 1000 pieces
in wild 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88
Bletilla 9 E. Asia JP 375 JP 179 JP 193
Cypripedium 50 N. Temperate Imported from India and Japan
Pleione 16 Himalayas Tw 31 TW 26 TW 46
China GB 4 ZA 5 CN 17
IN 2 GB The JP 1

Source: PD, Netherlands

Codes
CN China IN India Tw Taiwan
GB United Kingdom JP Japan ZA South Africa

International trade in Bletilla spp. is predominantly in B. striata, a
species which is now considered to be threatened throughout Japan and
Endangered or Vulnerable at a local level. Commercial collection, collecting
for medical uses and destruction of natural habitat are the main threats to
this species. It is propagated commercially within Japan. B. striata also
occurs in China and Taiwan. B. striata is currently available from seven
specialist bulb firms in the UK.

is Gp

Information on the species of Cypripedium imported to the Netherlands is
available from CITES statistics.

Six taxa of Cypripedium are included in the Japanese Plant Red Data List,
five of which are threatened by overcollecting (see Appendix 5). C. calceolus
is considered to be Endangered in Japan. It occurs in Hokkaido Prefecture but
could not be located during recent searching. The decline of this species in

Japan is thought to be through overcollecting. C. calceolus is also
threatened throughout Europe. It is close to extinction in the UK.

Commercial trade within the EEC is prohibited for wild specimens, and this
species is not yet produced commercially. Geographical forms of C. calceolus
are available commercially in the UK, such as C. parviflorum and C. calceolus
pubescens. Three species of Cypripedium are offered by one UK wholesale bulb
company. These are C. acaule, C. debile and C. japonicum.

Collection of native species of Cypripedium for trade occurs in the USA
and species such as C. calceolus and C. reginae were exported until the early
1980s. One Dutch importing company, contacted during the survey, reported
importing Cypripedium from Canada. Canada has very poor CITES controls for
wild plant exports. C. acaule is the most popular species of Cypripedium in
US trade, and in 1986 was included in eight wildflower catalogues. There is
no commercial propagation of this species in the USA and very little, if any,
of other species.

Over 70 species of orchids are included in the Japanese Plant Red Data
List, and 50 of these are threatened by commercial collecting. Thirty-five
taxa of Red Data List orchids were recorded from the current Japanese nursery
catalogues surveyed for this study (see Appendix 5). A number of these plants
have been exported by Japan in recent years.

The conservation situation for wild orchids in Japan is clearly very

serious. Both widespread and naturally restricted species have been
overexploited and, in some cases, intensive collecting has taken place over
the past few years. The genus Calanthe has been particularly popular with
collectors and subject to great pressure in the wild. Fifteen taxa are

included in the Red Data List. The species C. sieboldii was formerly abundant
in certain areas of Japan, such as Miyazaki Prefecture, but it is now hard to
find there. Collecting has mainly taken place over the past 15 years and all
plants in the specialist collections are wild-collected. C. aristulifera var.
amamiana, a taxon endemic to Kagoshima, is now considered Endangered. It has
declined dramatically in the wild since 1980 because of overcollection by
specialist nurseries.

Specialist collectors within Japan are prepared to pay very high prices
for unusual forms of native orchids. One nursery visited during the study
explained that prices are particularly high when unusual wild forms, for
example of Orchis graminifolia, are first introduced into the trade.

At present there is no legislation giving specific protection to
endangered orchid species in Japan. This is clearly needed, however, and the
Japanese Plant Red Data List calls for prohibition on horticultural collection
for the severely threatened species.

Japanese specialist nurseries also offer a range of terrestrial orchids
from countries such as China, Taiwan and Korea (see Appendix 6). It is likely
that many of these are wild-collected. An increasing strain may be placed on
wild populations in these countries as Japanese orchid populations are
collected to extinction. CITES enforcement needs to be rigorously applied to
ensure that Japanese imports do not lead to extinctions in other countries.

Exports of indigenous orchids from Japan are usually recorded as
artificially propagated in CITES statistics, but there is doubt about the
veracity of these figures for some species in view of the scale of
collecting. Various species of Japanese native orchids are on sale in the UK,
including Calanthe spp. which are in the Japanese Plant Red Data List.

= OF =

Calanthe sieboldii is, for example, offered by a wholesale bulb company and
two specialist bulb retail firms. The Dutch catalogue of Van Tubergen for
1989 lists the following orchid taxa stated to be from Japan: Bletilla striata
variegata, Calanthe ‘discolor’, C. sieboldii, Cypripedium japonicum, Habenaria
radiata, Pleione yunnanensis and P. formosana yellow.

The USA imports significant quantities of Japanese indigenous orchids

including Habenaria. With rapidly increasing popularity this genus was
extensively collected from the wild between 1965 and 1975. As a result of
overexploitation, it became difficult to satisfy the market. Fortunately

propagation techniques were developed and are now well-established.

The Japanese wild plant nurseries visited during the study were all aware
of the CITES requirements for exports of native orchids from Japan.

Japan is by no means the only country where collection places a strain on
wild terrestrial orchids but the commercial pressure is not known to be so
great in other countries. In Europe, despite legislation, losses still
occur. In the UK, for example, thefts from the wild continue to take place.
In July 1987, over 100 Early Purple Orchids Orchis mascula, Green-winged
Orchids Orchis morio and Greater Butterfly Orchids Platanthera chlorantha were
taken from four sites in one county. Specimens of Lady Orchid Orchis purpurea
and Early Spider Orchid Ophrys sphegodes were removed from other sites and
seed pods of the Lizard Orchid Himantoglossum hircinum were stolen.

= OO =

COUNTRIES

Afghanistan

The mountains of Afghanistan are rich in bulbous plants, Tulipa, Eremurus,
Allium and Gagea being important genera. The rich flora remained virtually
unknown until 1884 when Aitchison visited the country. Bulbous' species
collected by him included Fritillaria gibbosa and many new species including
Corydalis aitchisonii and Iris aitchisonii. Species discovered at this time
generally were not introduced into cultivation until the 1970s when a series
of expeditions by UK bulb experts once more explored Afghanistan. Only a
small percentage of Afghan introductions have remained in cultivation, notably
Fritillaria raddeana which is in commerce (Rix, 1986).

' There has been some commercial collection of wild bulbs in Afghanistan and
in the 1970s certain species of Chionodoxa and Iris were thought to be under
considerable pressure (Holloway, 1975). According to Hoog (in litt., 1988)
there have been no bulb exports from Afghanistan since 1980. Species native
to Afghanistan which are currently offered in trade include, Allium
rosenbachianum (on sale in the UK and Japan), Iris orchiodes, Corydalis
afghanica, and Tulipa aitchisonii (which occurs from Afghanistan to Kashmir,
northern India).

Austria

Production of flower bulbs in Austria is negligible and there are no data
available by species. Legislation prohibits the collection of wild bulbs and
no exploitation of wild populations is known.

Austria imported nearly three million flower bulbs from the Netherlands in
1987 (Nehammer in litt.).

China

Bulbous genera which have species mative to China include Arisaema,
Fritillaria, Lilium and Lycoris. Several species of Lilium have traditionally
been cultivated in China (see p. 26). During the 19th century collectors from
Europe introduced various Chinese bulbs into cultivation within Europe,
including species such as Lilium davidii, L. delavayi, L. henryi,
L. leucanthum, L. regale, Fritillaria davidii and F. delavayi.

It is not known to what extent bulbs are produced commercially in China,
but in recent years exports have been recorded. The Netherlands imported
25 000 Lilium bulbs in the period April 1986 to April 1987 and 67 000 in the
following year; 17 000 bulbs of the orchid genus Pleione were imported in the
year April 1987 to April 1988. Imports to the USA in recent years included
8000 Lycoris and 1200 Narcissus in 1985 and small quantities of unnamed bulbs
in the years 1986-1988 (Campbell in litt., 1988). Adams (1976) records the
impact of Lycoris from China and states that, ‘Increasing trade with China may
yield new species, a shipment from mainland China yielded no less than three
distinct new species: L. caldwellii, L. haywardii, and L. houdyshellii.'

A number of Chinese bulbous species are on sale in Japanese nurseries (see
Appendix 6). The list includes several species of Allium, Fritillaria, Lilium
and Nomocharis which are restricted to China. Collection from the wild of
certain rare bulbous species is prohibited in China.

2 i395

Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia has some nurseries producing bulbs but no data are available on
production by species (Holub in litt., 1988). There is increasing production
of Tulipa in the country and mechanisation for harvest and post harvest
treatment has been introduced. Cultivars of the group Apeldoorn are used for
forcing (Ondruskova, 1986). There is also import of bulbs, with 339 000 kg
exported from the Netherlands in the autumn period (June to December) of 1987
(PVS, 1987). It is thought that there may also be commercial importation of
wild-collected bulbs under the guise of scientific expeditions, and bulb
enthusiasts travelling overseas are known to collect in the Caucasus and
Soviet Central Asia.

Certain species are thought to be under threat in Czechoslovakia from
collecting, mainly for private gardens. Although legally protected, Galanthus
nivalis, Leucojum vernum and Cyclamen purpurascens are threatened by
collecting in localities with small populations. In 1979 the UK recorded
importing small numbers of Cyclamen from Czechoslovakia but there have been no
recorded imports of this genus since then. _

Certain very rare species from Czechoslovakia are offered in nurseries
Overseas, such as Crocus heuffelianus from the High Tatras, available from a
UK nursery. This species is protected by law in Czechoslovakia (see
Table 13).

Table 13
Bulb species protected by law in Czechoslovakia

* names used in Flora Europaea.
AMARYLLIDACEAE

Leucojum spp.

ARACEAE

Calla palustris

IRIDACEAE

Crocus albiflorus (= C. vernus subsp. albiflorus*)
C. heuffelianus (= C. vernus subsp. vernus*)
Gladiolus spp.

Iris spp. (except for I. pseudacorus)

LILIACEAE

Allium schoenoprasum sibiricum (Tatra National Park only)
Anthericum spp.

Convalaria majalis

Fritillaria meleagris

Gagea bohemica

Gagea minima

Lilium spp.

Lloydia serotina (Tatra National Park only)

Muscari spp.

Veratrum nigrum

PRIMULACEAE

Cyclamen europaeum (= C. purpurascens)

= AG) =

Denmark

Denmark is a significant importer of bulbs, primarily from the Netherlands.
In the 1987 autumn season (June-December), a total of over two million kg of
bulbs were imported from the Netherlands (PVS, 1987). A wide range of garden
bulbs is available including species which are known to be of wild origin,
re-exported by the Netherlands.

According to Ole Sonderhousen, a specialist grower of rare bulbs, there is
very little interest in bulb growing in Denmark and there is no society
specifically for that purpose. There is a small society for lily and iris
enthusiasts with about 80-100 members, mainly interested in cultivars
(Sonderhousen in litt., 1988). Sonderhousen offers a wide range of bulbous
plants, including over 100 species and subspecies of Fritillaria and all
species and subspecies of Cyclamen except for C. somalense. Of the bulbs
produced, 95% are for export, 60% of which are for the UK market. None of the
bulbs or corms offered by Sonderhousen are wild-collected, although about half
of all the species and subspecies are raised from stock material of wild
origin.

Genera exported to the Netherlands are Eranthis, Narcissus and Tulipa.

France

France is a major producer of bulbs, of mainly Gladiolus (260 ha), Tulipa
(120 ha), Iris (105 ha), Hyacinth (20 ha), Narcissus (20 ha) and a range of
other types (figures for 1980). There are around 350 French bulb growers
(Mevel in litt., 1988). According to Mevel (in litt., 1988) French traders
and retailers do have some wild bulbs for sale. Flower bulbs for the garden
and for commercial cut flowers are mainly provided by growers concentrating on
cultivars, but some species are imported mainly through the Netherlands. Wild
tulips and Narcissus jonquilla of Turkish origin are, for example, imported
from the Netherlands. In the autumn season of 1987 (June to December) the
Netherlands exported over 16 million kg of bulbs to France.

Of France's native bulb populations, there is some collection of
naturalised species. Formerly Tulipa clusiana, Galanthus nivalis and Cyclamen
neopolitanum were collected from south-eastern France, but material in trade
is now cultivated (Mevel in litt., 1988). However France remains an important
source of G. nivalis (see Table 5, p. 23), with naturalised populations
*farmed' in the Loire Valley.

Certain very rare French bulb species are in trade, grown by specialist
nurseries. Leucojum nicaense, considered by IUCN to be Vulnerable in the wild
is, for example, offered by eight UK nurseries. This species is protected by
Jaw in France. Fritillaria involucrata from the Department of Var is also
offered by four specialist growers in the UK.

Galanthus nivalis is thought to be the only ‘wild’ bulb exported in
significant quantities from France, but there may be some threat to rare bulbs
from specialist collectors. In the Eastern Pyrenees, for example, private
collecting is known to take place in the Eyne valley of the Cerdagne plateau.
Bulbs collected there include Lilium martagon, L. pyrenaicum and L. bulbiferum
var. croceum (Carr in litt., 1988).

Other bulbs imported to the Netherlands from France are: Allium, Anemone,

Amaryllis, Arum, Begonia tuberosa, Calla, Crocus, Gladiolus, Hyacinthus, Iris,

Ae =

F.R. Germany

F.R. Germany is a major consumer of horticultural bulbs and is the biggest
importer of bulbs from the Netherlands; 18% of the Netherlands’ bulb exports
are to F.R. Germany. Field production of bulbs and tubers within the country
is relatively limited. In 1984 the production area for Tulipa was 84 ha,
other flower bulbs 14 ha, Convallaria crowns 71 ha and tubers 49 ha. Small
quantities of the following genera have been imported to the Netherlands from
F.R. Germany in the years 1985-1988: Amaryllis, Anemone, Begonia, Crocus,
Freesia, Gladiolus, Gloriosa, Gloxinia, Lilium, Narcissus, Tulipa and
Zanthedeschia.

Unfortunately very little information on the bulb trade within
F.R. Germany has been gathered for this survey. Various correspondents have
suggested that the main source of information on the bulb trade is the
Zentralverband Gartenbau (the national member of AIPH) in Bonn. Several
requests for information have been sent to this organisation, but so far no
response has been received. The Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Naturschutz und
Landschaftsokologie (Federal Research Centre for Nature Conservation and
Landscape Ecology) also referred correspondence from WIMU on the bulb trade to
the Zentralverband Gartenban. Although this Federal Research Centre is
concerned about conservation problems associated with the bulb trade, it does
not hold relevant information (Fink in litt., 1988). Other botanists and
horticulturists contacted had no information on trade in wild-collected
bulbs. The Berlin Botanic Garden buys some bulbs of wild origin from
nurseries, e.g. M. Hoog in the Netherlands (Homberg-Wittkowski in litt.,
1988). According to Keimer (in litt., 1988) wild bulb species (Cyclamen and
orchids) are hardly ever seen for sale in F.R. Germany.

As F.R. Germany imports a significant proportion of bulbs from _ the
Netherlands, it is likely that some of these are wild-collected bulbs. No
details are available but nearly half the Sternbergia exported by the
Netherlands are destined for F.R. Germany, 62% of the Leucojum and 33% of the
Galanthus. There has been some publicity given to the Turkish wild bulb trade
in F.R. Germany (for example Fahrenhorst and Altan, 1988).

Greece

Greece has one of the richest floras in Kurope, with about 5500 species and
subspecies. There are over 300 native bulb species. Over 50 Greek bulb
species are protected by law. A range of Greek bulb species_is in the
horticultural trade, including certain species which are rare in the wild (see
Appendix 2) but there is not thought to be any significant commercial
collection of wild bulbs for export. It is likely that some of the Greek
bulbs offered by specialist nurseries originate from small quantities of
wild-collected stock.

Tulipa_clusiana, grown commercially in Thessalonika, is exported to the
Netherlands. Other genera imported by the Netherlands from Greece include

Arum and Calla. Dutch import statistics record the import of 39 000 kg of
bulbs from Greece in 1987, including 22 000 kg of Tulipa (PVS, 1987). It is
possible that the figures partly reflect bulbs in transit through Greece.

There is some interest from Dutch bulb traders in exploiting wild bulb
populations in Greece. The Goulandris Natural History Museum, among others,
has received requests from bulb traders for information on the localities of
bulb populations in Greece. This information has been withheld by the Museum.

a (AGI

Table 14
Bulbous plants protected by Presidential Decree in Greece

AMARYLLIDACEAE

LILIACEAE ctd.
Galanthus nivalis subsp. reginae-olgae
G. ikariae A. heldreichii

Bellevalia brevipedicellata
Chionodoxa nana

ARACEAE C. cretica

Colchicum macrophyllum
Biarum davisii C. pusillum
B. spruneri C. triphyllum

Fritillaria pontica
F. epirotica

IRIDACEAE F. davisii
F. rhodokanakis
Crocus cartwrightianus F. obliqua
C. goulimyi F. tuntasia
C. robertianus F. conica

F. euboeica
Hyacinthella leucophaea

LILIACEAE Lilium candidum
L. ‘albanicum’

Allium circinnatum L. chalcedonicum

A. phthioticum L. rhodopaeum

A. frigidum Merendera attica

A. sipyleum Muscari macrocarpum

A. favosum M. weissii

A. macedonicum M. pharmacusarum

A. parnassicum (= M. comosum)

A. luteolum Tulipa goulimyi

A. dilatatum T. saxatilis

A. gomphrenoides T. cretica

A. integerrimum T. clusiana

A. chaemaespathum T. boeotica

A number of bulbs are imported to Greece from the Netherlands, for
growing-on, for export as cut flowers. i

Certain bulbous plants are collected for commercial purposes within
Greece. It is believed, however, that apart from ‘salep" (orchid bulbs
collected in North Greece, dried and used for making a drink), this is
restricted to the use of Muscari_ comosum for decoration during Easter
festivals. Apparently local supplies of M. comosum are insufficient, extra
supplies being imported, probably from Italy and Turkey.

Himalayas

The Himalayas have been a rich source of horticultural plants but relatively
few of these are bulbs. Arisaema and Lilium are important bulbous genera in
the Himalayas and Nomocharis is confined to this region. Fritillaria and
Notholirion both have several Himalayan species (Rix, 1986).

Unfortunately very little information has been collected on the nursery
production of bulbs in the Himalayan region, and it is not known to what

= FAS. =

extent artificially propagated bulbs supply the international market. It is
thought that there may be some imports of wild-dug Tulipa to the Netherlands
from Kashmir and possibly also from Nepal (A. Hoog in litt., 1988). However
these are likely to be in small quantities and they are not recorded in Dutch
import statistics. There are some bulb nurseries in Kashmir and Nepal and
presumably also in the Himalayan states of India. According to Malla (pers.
comm., 1988), there are about five nurseries selling horticultural bulbs in
Nepal, but there is no licensed export of bulbs at present. The plant list of
one Nepalese bulb company gives wholesale prices for a range of native species
and commonly cultivated horticultural bulbs.

The firm of P. Kohli and Co., Srinagar, Kashmir, offers a wholesale price
list for ‘cultivated and alpine Himalayan wild flower bulbs'. A range of
nearly 60 species is listed and bulbs are offered ‘subject to their successful
collection from their natural habitats and availability’.

Kashmiri plants in trade in Europe include Allium griffithianum, Anemone
biflora, A. tschernjaewii, Corydalis cashmeriana and C. diphylla.
C. cashmeriana has an IUCN category of Endangered, and Anemone biflora is
Indeterminate in Kashmir. )

Nepalese species recorded in trade include Lilium nepalense (which has a
distribution extending into N.E. India), L. wallichianum, considered to be
Vulnerable by IUCN, and the orchids Pleione hookeriana and P. humilis. Other
Himalayan species recorded in trade catalogues include species of Arisaema
(see Table 2), Fritillaria cirrhosa, F. roylei, both in ‘short supply’,
Cardiocrimum giganteum and Roscoea_ spp. There has been a_e series. of
introductions of Arisaema costatum, a Nepalese species, to the UK in recent
years.

Hungary

Hungary is currently a source of wild bulbs in international trade. Wild-dug
bulbs of Anemone ranunculoides and Allium _ursinum have recently been offered
wholesale in the Netherlands, along with Leucojum vernum and Cyclamen
purpurascens.

The Netherlands imported 23 000 kg of bulbs from Hungary in 1987. OF
these, 16000 were Gladiolus (presumably cultivated) and the remainder
recorded as ‘various’ bulbs. Table 16 below shows the genera imported to the
Netherlands from Hungary according to Dutch plant health statistics. It is
likely that they include at least a proportion of wild bulbs, except for
Amaryllis and Gladiolus. According to one Dutch importer, Colchicum bulbs are
imported from Hungary when bad weather and other factors in the Netherlands
have resulted in a shortfall in stocks. Corydalis is also imported (Anon.,
1988), including C. solida.

A ee

Table 15
Bulb species protected by law in Hungary

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Narcissus stellaris (= N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus)
Sternbergia colchiflora

IRIDACEAE

Crocus spp.
Iris spp.

LILIACEAE

Allium suaveolens

A. victorialis
Anthericum liliago
Bulbocodium versicolor
Colchicum arenarium

C. hungaricum
Fritillaria meleagris
Gagea minima
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus
Lilium bulbiferum
Muscari botryoides

Polygonatum verticillatum
Scilla spp.

PRIMULACEAE

Cyclamen purpurascens

Table 16
Bulbs imported to the Netherlands from Hungary

Genus No. of bulbs

1985/1986 _ 1986/1987 1987/1988
Allium 20000 36000 26000
Amaryllis - ~ 843000
Anemone - 1000 8000
Colchicum 3000 - 9000
Galanthus - 8000 -
Gladiolus 3603000 1510000 =
Leucojum 783000 625000 605000

Source: PD, Netherlands

as =

India

India is a significant exporter of bulbous plants. Dutch bulb trade
statistics for 1987 record the import of 40 000 kg of bulbs from India (PVS,
1987). In the same year phytosanitary statistics in the USA record the import
of over one million bulbs from India (Campbell in litt., 1988). The UK also
imports bulbs directly from India.

The genera of bulbous plants imported to the Netherlands from India are:
Achimenes, Allium*, Arisaema*, Calla, Cardiocrinum*, Crinum, Cypripedium”,
Eucharis, Gloriosa*, Haemanthus, Hymenocallis, Pleione, Zephyranthus. (Those
marked with an asterisk have indigenous species in India.) The same genera
are also being exported to USA. Unfortunately, virtually no information has
become available on bulb production within India, and it is not known to what
extent wild collection of horticultural bulbs’ takes place. Outdoor
cultivation of Gladiolus takes place in the Punjab from planting stocks grown
in the Himalayan region (see also Himalayas).

Iran

Iran has many bulbous plants represented in its flora, with about 170 species
of Liliaceae, eight of Amaryllidaceae and about 30 of Iridaceae (Wendelbo,
1977). The north-west of the country is a particularly rich area for bulbs.

Commercial collecting of bulbs has not taken place in Iran on the same
scale as in neighbouring areas of Turkey. There has been collection of
flowers of species such as Eremurus stenophyllus, E. persicus and E. olgae for
sale within the country and this threatens wild populations. Other bulbs are
threatened by overgrazing, for example Lilium ledebourii, or by local use for
food and medicine, for example Crocus spp. and Allium elburzense.

Iranian bulb species which are in horticultural trade include Tulipa
polychroma, Iris kopetdagensis, Fritillaria gibbosa, F. kotschyana and
F. raddeana, and in some nursery catalogues Iran is quoted as the source
country. According to Hoog (in litt., 1988), there have been no bulb exports
from Iran since 1980. Wendelbo (1977) suggested that regulations be
established for genera such as Tulipa, Fritillaria, Eremurus, Hyacinthus and
Iris in case commercial collecting becomes a problem.

Israel

In the last century Israel was one of the prime areas for wild bulb
exploitation by European commercial interests. In contrast there is now
strict legislative protection for wild populations and no private collection
or commercial exploitation of wild bulbs is allowed. Formal permission may be
granted to collect material for research purposes. The Israeli Society for
the Protection of Nature is the institution responsible for supervision of
legislation relating to wild plant protection.

Israel is a major exporter of cultivated bulbs. It is the Netherlands’
second main source of Narcissus, after the UK, and is second only to the
Netherlands in the volume of bulb exports to the USA. In 1987 the Netherlands
imported 554 000 kg of Narcissus bulbs and 160 000 kg of other assorted bulbs
from Israel. Genera imported to the Netherlands from Israel from 1985-1988
include Amaryllis, Calla, Cyclamen, Hyacinthus, Iris, Liatris, Muscari,
Ornithogalum and Ranunculus.

Israeli-bred hybrids of the daffodil Narcissus tazetta papyraceus are one
of the most important flowering bulb crops in Israel. Flowering-size bulbs
are exported, while smaller bulbs and bulb offsets are replanted to produce

=whG) =

more export-—quality material. The other main bulbous plants’ produced
commercially are listed in Table 17.

Iris cultivation is currently conducted at kibbutz Tirat Zvi (Tirat
nurseries) and Cyclamen are grown at kibbutz Maarit. In both cases
commercialisation involves bulbs produced from nursery’ stock (Avishai
in litt., 1988). At the kibbutz Tirat Zvi hybrids of the Oncocyclus group of
Iris are produced and the resulting rare forms are sold to specialists
worldwide. Very rare indigenous Iris species are also produced for export
(see p. 24). There is not thought to be production of Oncocyclus Iris species
elsewhere in Israel.

Native genotypes of Cyclamen persicum have been grown commercially in
Israel together with cultivars. Flowers of Ixiolirion tataricum and Iris
mariae have been grown from seed for local consumption. Production was
however stopped because of the risk of wild-collected flowers of these species
being brought onto the market (De Malach in litt., 1988).

Current research on introducing native species to cultivation includes
work on Allium ampeloprasum at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Research
here is also being carried out on Californian species of Brodiaea and
Calochortus (Halevy in litt., 1988).

Table 17
Bulb production in Israel

Number of

Name of the crop Area Exported bulbs x 1000

x 1000 sq.m 1986 1987 1988
Cyclamen persicum 50 22 41 70
Iris (oncocyclus) 20 17 90 99
Lilium candidum 100 119 179 106
Ornithogalum 40 246 419 244
Allium 0.5
Amaryllis belladona 8 34
Anemone 22 1006
Dutch Iris 7803 9643 10432
Hippeastrum 35 75 140
Liatris 26 32 20
Liatris (cormlets) 24
Lilium longiflorum 1256 1000 843
Narcissus (10 var.) 19548 19735 22190
Polianthes tuberosa 21 140
Ranunculus 5558 5041 5351
Roman hyacinth 26 10 10
Zantedeschia aethiopica 258 389 282
Others 88 10 10

Source: Y. Ozeri in litt., 1989.

bs 7p

Italy

The native bulb flora of Italy consists mainly of species which occur
throughout the Mediterranean, or in Italy and the Balkans. There are only

three endemic species: Crocus imperati, C. estruscus and Bellevalia webbiana

(Rix, 1986).

Italy has three native species of Cyclamen: C. hederifolium,
C. purpurascens and C. repandum. In the past there has been export of wild
Cyclamen tubers but this is no longer permitted by the Italian Government.
Collecting for export mainly took place in the Campania province near Naples
(van der Plas-Haarsma, 1987). A nursery in Toscana has also been involved in
Cyclamen exports to the Netherlands. At present there is not thought to be
any export of wild bulbs from Italy and collection from the wild does not take
place in Sicily (Sajeva in litt., 1988).

Italy imports significant quantities of bulbs from the Netherlands; over
20 million kg of bulbs in 1987. In some cases propagation material is
imported from the Netherlands for commercial production within Italy. This is
the case, for example, with Ixia which is cultivated for cut flower production
in the San Remo area. Gladiolus is the main bulb grown in Italy.

Dutch trade and plant health statistics record the import of Gladiolus,
Gloxinia, Iris, Lilium and Tulipa from Italy.

Japan

Japan has quite a rich native bulb flora. The genera Lilium and Arisaema are
well represented, and species of Allium, Fritillaria, Iris and Lycoris also
occur in the wild, together with small numbers of species of other bulbous
genera.

Within Japan there is an interest in growing native bulb species and these
are offered by a number of ‘wild plant nurseries’. There is an association of
wild and alpine plant nurseries called the Japan Alpine and Wild Plants
Association, consisting of about 50 nurseries, each of which has an area over
1000 sq. m. The purpose of the Association is to exchange information between
members.

Japanese native bulbs are also available from specialist nurseries in
Europe and the USA. For some time there has been concern about the origin of
Japanese bulbs in international trade and the possibility that these may have
been collected from the wild.

Until about ten years ago wild-collected bulbs of Lilium were exported
from Japan in large quantities. Stoop van de Kasteele (1974) reported the
export of around 2 000 000 bulbs each year. This practice has now stopped for
the principal commercial species and there is cultivation of lilies for
export. Several major brewing and petrochemical companies are involved in the
production of Lilium using tissue culture techniques.

Kyowa Fermentation Industries Co. is one of the main companies producing
lilies and produces approximately 1 000 000 lily bulbs annually by tissue
culture. This company works closely with the Agricultural Examination Centre
of Kanawaga Prefecture. Tissue cultures obtained from the Centre are grown-on
at a nursery in Okinoerabu Island and the bulbs obtained are distributed to an
association of commercial nurseries. The cut flowers produced are sold within
Japan and bulbs are exported to the Netherlands.

The lilies cultivated in this way are, in order of popularity,
L. longifolium, L. nobilissimum, L. japonicum, L. speciosum, L. auratum and
various varieties of L. concolor. The total area of production of Lilium

species in Japan in 1985 was 370 ha. A range of other native Lilium species
is available from nurseries in Japan (see Appendix 4), in some cases grown

~ 48 —

from wild-collected seed, and there may also be some collecting of bulbs of
rarer species. In the Japanese Plant Red Data List, several taxa of Lilium
are considered threatened by collecting for specialist nurseries. L. concolor
var. buschianum is Vulnerable locally in Japan for this reason, as is
L. japonicum var. abeanum which is endemic to an area of serpentine rock in
Tokushima Prefecture. L. nobilissimum, endemic to Kagoshima Prefecture, is
considered to be Endangered in the wild because of overcollecting, but is now
propagated commercially.

For other genera of Japanese native bulbous plants, collection from the
wild still takes place, and wild-collected bulbs are exported. About five
members of the Japan Alpine and Wild Plants Association are involved in the
export trade. Two nurseries visited during the survey, both of which sell
some wild plants, quote prices in US dollars, clearly indicating that they are
intended for a foreign market. Arisaema is one genus which is exported to
foreign nurseries as wild-collected material and the level of trade has caused
concern (Brickell in litt., 1987). Four species are considered to be under
threat from overcollecting (see Appendix 4) including A. sikokianum which is
available from nurseries in the UK, for example, as Japanese imports. It is
likely that small quantities of the bulbs are imported directly from Japan and
there is no recorded trade in Japanese Arisaema bulbs’ through the
Netherlands. Small quantities of Japanese Arisaema are however imported to
the Netherlands, with A. sikokianum and A. thunbergii subsp. urashima
currently offered by Van Tubergen.

Erythronium japonicum is another species which is collected from the wild
in Japan and exported. Tissue culturing has been attempted at _ the
Agricultural Centre of Osaka Prefecture but this has not yet been successful.
Some Japanese nurseries are growing E. japonicum from seed but this species is
mainly wild-collected (Sako pers. comm., 1989). It is widely available from
‘wild plant’ nurseries in Japan. E. japonicum is currently offered by seven
UK specialist bulb nurseries, one of which advertises it as ‘Rare and unusual,
a new introduction from Japan’. It is also listed by a wholesale bulb company
in the UK. The Netherlands recorded the import of 10 000 Erythronium from
Japan during the period April 1987 to April 1988. Exports of Erythronium from
the Netherlands were to the USA (34%), UK (27%) and F.R. Germany. There is
very limited production of Erythronium within the Netherlands (about 1.5 ha)
and it is not known to what extent exports of the genus are re-exports of
Japanese material. At least one Dutch bulb trading company (C.S. Weijers and
Zone B.V.) offers E. japonicum in its wholesale bulb list for 1989.

Other bulbous genera exported from Japan to the Netherlands include
Allium, Eucharis, Fritillaria, Lachenalia, Lycoris, Oxalis, Ranunculus,
Rhodohypoxis, Sprekelia and Hyacinthus. Of these, Allium, Fritillaria,
Lycoris, Oxalis and Ranunculus are represented in the Japanese native flora.

Of the imports of Lycoris to the Netherlands 92% are from Japan. In the
1986/87 season this amounted to over 85 000 bulbs. Three species of Lycoris

are offered by UK specialist nurseries. These are: L. aurea; L. radiata, a
common species in the wild in Japan; and L. squamigera which is commonly
cultivated in Japan. Species of native Japanese Lycoris are commonly

cultivated in the USA. L. squamigera is the widest known species in the USA
and is commercially available from many sources. L. sprengeri and L. traubii,
also native to Japan, are commercially available in the USA. According to
Adams (1976), ‘other unnamed species from Japan are under observation by
botanists and may be distributed when their numbers are increased.' Most
species of Lycoris are considered easy in cultivation and are unlikely to be
wild-collected in trade.

According to the Japanese Plant Red Data List, three Japanese taxa of
Allium are considered Vulnerable because of overcollecting by specialist
nurseries. They are currently offered by nurseries within Japan but have not

2 4G) =

been recorded in the recent catalogues looked at for other countries.
A. victorialis is the only Japanese species currently offered by UK specialist
nurseries and it is recorded as being ‘in short supply’. Two species of
Fritillaria are Vulnerable because of overcollecting and one species is
Endangered. The Vulnerable F. japonica is available from one specialist
nursery in the UK which is known to import wild plant material from Japan.
F. camschatcensis is exported to the Netherlands from Japan and is thought to
be wild-collected material.

Two Japanese species of Corydalis are offered as rare plants by UK
nurseries. These are C. ambigua and C. decumbens.

Over 30 bulbous plant taxa are included in the Japanese Plant Red Data
List and, of these, 15 are threatened by overcollecting. Little information
has become available on how the collecting of wild bulbs is organised in Japan
but, through interviews at several specialist nurseries, it seems that bulbs
are collected by farm workers who supply both the retail and wholesale
nurseries. No information has been collected on the quantities involved.

A list of all the bulb species recorded in Japanese trade catalogues is
Biven in Appendix 4 and the Red Data categories are given for indigenous
species under threat.

At present there is no specific legislation protecting threatened bulbous
species in Japan and no permit system for collection of bulbs in the wild.
Under Japanese law 214, plant species and plant communities are classified as
Natural Monuments but this does not specifically include any bulbous species.
The habitat of some threatened bulbs is protected under the Natural Monument
legislation; for example Arisaema minamitanii is protected as part of the
vegetation of Mount Inao-take in Kagoshima Prefecture. Erythronium japonicum
and Lilium nobilissimum are also protected in certain plant communities. It
does seem that overexploited bulb species need to be protected on a national
level.

One nursery visited during the survey claimed that 90% of the bulbs
offered are propagated. It seems that a relatively small proportion of
species are wild-collected and, with the horticultural expertise available
within Japan, propagation systems could be developed for indigenous bulbs. At
present, Japan's international trade in bulbs is limited by strict
phytosanitary regulations.

Bulbs imported into Japan are placed in quarantine for one year. The
Netherlands is at present trying to expand its bulb exports to Japan, through
revised phytosanitary arrangements. The Netherlands exported 457 000 kg of

bulbs of various species to Japan in 1987. Exports included some genera
likely to be re-exported wild-collected bulbs such as 569 000 Galanthus bulbs
and 24 000 Eranthis bulbs. One nurseryman mentioned that G. nivalis and

G. elwesii are imported but are not especially popular in trade. A general
range of pre-packed bulbs is available within Japanese supermarkets and some
of these, at least, are home grown. In 1985 the areas of Japanese production
for various popular bulb genera were: Tulipa 494 ha; Gladiolus 198 ha; Iris
223 ha; Freesia 87 ha; and Crocus 32 ha.

Exploitation of indigenous bulbs in Japan, both for local horticulture and
for export, is placing a strain on certain species, but it does not appear at
present that the import of wild bulbs from overseas is a significant problem.

The trade in terrestrial orchids - both native species and species imported
from countries such as Korea and Taiwan - is, however, an area of great
conservation concern. Terrestrial orchids are sold together with bulbous

plants by the wild plant nurseries and are predominantly wild-collected (see
p. 37).

Appendix 5 provides a list of the terrestrial orchids offered by Japanese
nurseries with an indication of the Red Data category for species under
threat. Over 70 taxa of orchids are included in the Japanese Plant Red Data
List of which 50 are threatened by overcollection. The Red Data List calls

= 5%) =

for prohibition of collecting for horticulture for many of the species which
have been severely depleted in the wild.

The range of Japanese orchids available from overseas nurseries has not
been studied because detailed research on terrestrial orchids in trade is
outside the scope of the present survey. However, because all orchids are
covered by CITES, statistics are available on exports from Japan. Huxley
(1987) reports, 'A single order for the Japanese terrestrial orchid Pleione
formosanum was for 280 000 roots, and their bletillas and calatheas are
exported in similar quantities. However, the Japanese consider their wild
populations to be capable of withstanding such collection.’

Jordan

In figures on the export of Turkish bulbs, Jordan is recorded as a destination
of significant quantities, second only to the Netherlands. It seems likely
that the bulbs are in transit however, probably for phytosanitary reasons.
There has been some recent interest in bulb cultivation in Jordan but only on
a very small scale. Common garden varieties of Tulipa, Crocus and Hyacinth
are imported mainly from the Netherlands and Italy (Al-Eisawi in litt.,
1988). In 1987, 24 000 kg of bulbs were exported from the Netherlands to
Jordan (PVS, 1987). No commercial or personal collection of wild bulbs for
horticulture is known in Jordan. Some wild bulbs are collected for food,
particularly corms of the genus Crocus.

The Netherlands

The Netherlands is the world's major producer of and trader in horticultural
bulbs. Trading in bulbs is a long established tradition in Dutch society and
bulb fields form part of the typical Dutch landscape. Bulb growing accounts
for around 3.5% of the total agricultural production of the Netherlands and in
1987 approximately eight billion bulbs were produced. Two-thirds of the
production is for export; 60-70% of bulb export takes place to other EEC
Member States and the other two main countries of destination are Sweden and
the USA.

Tulipa is the major Dutch bulb export, accounting for 28% of the bulbs
exported. The total area of Dutch tulip production is about 7000 ha.
Gladiolus is the second most important type of bulb produced, with a
production area of over 2200 ha. Other important bulbs include Lilium (over
1800 ha), Narcissus (about 1700 ha), hyacinths (about 1000 ha), Iris (about
1000 ha) and Crocus (450 ha).

For these commercially dominant bulb genera a relatively wide range of
cultivars are grown but, in terms of natural variation in the wild, this
represents only a small proportion of the species and potential variation.
The number of tulip cultivars grown in the Netherlands is over 300. Of these,
the so-called botanical tulips account for about 10% of the production area.
Most of the botanical tulips are cultivars of T. kaufmanniana, T. greigii and
T. fosteriana. In addition, a range of cultivars of various species is
produced and Table 10 gives production figures for these. About 70 cultivars
of Narcissus are produced and production figures for the smaller ‘rockery
daffodils’ are given in Table 8.

In addition to the main commercial Dutch bulbs, a wide range of
miscellaneous or minor bulbs is grown in the Netherlands as field crops.
Information on Dutch production is summarised in Appendix 3. The total area
of minor—bulb production accounts for only about 1.2% of the bulb growing area.

Sil

Only a few companies concentrate on the production of minor bulbs.
Usually they are grown with a few major-bulb cultivars, sometimes as a
rotation crop and sometimes as a hobby. Most miscellaneous bulbs are grown on
the sandy soils in the area around Hillegom in the west of the Netherlands,
and around Breezand in the north. Often the holdings are small, 1-3 ha, and
rely on family and casual labour.

Supplies of bulbs traded by the Netherlands, both internally and for
export, are also supplemented by imported stocks, from a wide range of
countries. Some of the imported bulbs are of cultivated origin but there is
still a substantial import of wild-collected bulbs. The Netherlands is at the
centre of international trade in wild-collected bulbs because of its prime
position as the main bulb trading nation. Growing awareness of the threats to
wild bulb populations has led to a very real concern about the sale of any
minor bulbs from the Netherlands for fear that these may be wild-collected.

It is in fact difficult to ascertain the extent to which wild bulbs form
part of the Dutch bulb trade. Information can be pieced together from a
variety of sources on the genera involved, for example as more data become
available from the countries of origin, but information at specific level and
data on quantities traded remain hard to come by. As can be seen from
Appendix 3, some bulbs are both grown in the Netherlands and imported from
elsewhere. This is the case for certain Narcissus species which are partly
Dutch grown and partly wild-collected in Portugal. Appendix 1 to this report
Bives a list of species which are wild-collected in international trade; those
species traded in bulk are all sold through the Netherlands.

Tracing the origin of bulbs traded by the Netherlands is difficult because
of the complex structure of the trade within the country. There are in total
about 5000 bulb growers registered with the Produktschap voor Siergewassen
(PVS), the commodity board for ornamental plant products. Of the bulbs grown
in the Netherlands, 80% pass indirectly through auction markets and trade
bureaux to the domestic and export wholesale trade, 10% go directly to
exporting firms, 5% for ‘forcing’ within the Netherlands and 5% directly to
overseas customers.

There are five independent bulb auctions in Lisse which act as
intermediary agents between the growers and bulb trading companies. The
auctions establish prices for the bulb trade as a whole, but in fact the
majority of bulbs are traded by the auction companies without being auctioned.

There are between 60 and 70 Dutch firms involved in the import of bulbs.
Some imported bulbs are sold through the auction system and some are sold
directly to the exporters, of which over 1000 are registered with PVS. The
importers may themselves not know which of the species imported are
wild-collected and which are artificially propagated. Most of the bulbs
imported are for immediate re-export and only a few are grown-on within the
Netherlands. During this survey, bulb importing companies were contacted for
information on the import of wild-collected bulbs to the Netherlands.
Table 18 gives a list of the imported bulbs offered by these companies. This
list of plants imported to the Netherlands is based on interviews with, and
nursery catalogues of, the following firms: S. Admiral B.v., Bakker, Baltus,
Kapitein, Van Tubergen, C.S. Weijers and Zonen B.v., and Willemse.

(It is likely to be incomplete because it includes only species specifically
mentioned as imported during discussions or included in the catalogues.)

Traditional trading links between the Netherlands and certain bulb
exporting countries are well established. This appears to be particularly the
case with Portugal and Turkey. In some cases, large Dutch bulb companies have
employed collectors and have had their own dealers in exporting countries.
Links between Portugal and Netherlands in the Narcissus trade are described on
p. 56, and with Turkey on p. 61.

~ $2 =

Table 18
Imported species sold by Dutch bulb companies

L. vernum
Lilium candidum
Narcissus asturiensis

Hungary, Turkey
Israel, Turkey

Species No. of firms Source Comments
Allium spp. 1 India
A. bulgaricum 1 Turkey
A. schubertii 2 Israel propagated
A. siculum 2 Turkey
A. ursinum 3 Hungary, UK
Anemone blanda 6 Turkey also Dutch grown
Arisaema sikokianum 1 Japan
A. thunbergii subsp. urashima 1 Japan
Arum discoridis 1 Turkey
A. italicum 4 Turkey
A. dracunculus 5 Turkey ©
Calla aethiopica 2 Israel, Turkey, Italy
France, New Zealand propagated
Cyclamen cilicium 3 Turkey
C. coum 2 Turkey
C. hederifolium 1 Turkey
C. neapolitanum 1 Turkey
C. persicum 1 Israel propagated
Eranthis 3 Turkey, Denmark
E. cilicia 2 Turkey
E. hyemalis 3
Eremurus 3 F.R. Germany
Erythronium japonicum 1 Japan
Fritillaria acmopetala 3 Turkey also Dutch grown
F. camtschatcensis 2
F. persica 2 Turkey
F. imperialis 1 Turkey
F. pontica 1 Turkey
Galanthus elwesii 4 Turkey
G. ikariae 1 Turkey
G. nivalis 3 France
Haemanthus 2 India
Hyacinthus 7 Israel also Dutch grown
Leucojum aestivum 3 Turkey :
3
3
1
N. bulbocodium 3 Portugal

Narcissus conspicuus 2 Portugal

N. lobularis 2 Portugal

N. minimus 1 Portugal

N. triandus 1 Portugal

N. triandus albus 3 Portugal

N. triandus concolor 2 Portugal

N. tazetta 'paperwhite’ 1 Israel, France propagated
Ornithogalum arabicum 2 Israel

Ranunculus 1 Israel, S. Africa

Zimbabwe
Rhodohypoxis 1 Japan
Roscoea i Japan
Sternbergia 1 Turkey
Trillium 1 Canada
Tulipa 1 France, Italy
T. clusiana 1 Greece propagated
Zephyranthus 2 India

There are few specialist bulb growers in the Netherlands who concentrate
on propagating very rare species for commercial purposes. It has been pointed
out that the expertise exists within the Netherlands to produce all the
species in cultivation but this is unlikely to happen without the economic
incentive. Van Tubergen, one of the main firms concentrating on rare bulbs,
cut back on production of a wide range of bulbs over ten years ago, for
commercial reasons. M. Hoog Botanical Specialities maintains small stocks of
a very wide range of rare bulbs, often of known wild provenance, including
some of Van Tubergen's original stock. At present these plants are mainly
traded to botanic gardens. The nursery represents an important conservation
stock of valuable plants which have become rare in the wild.

There is increasing interest in growing minor bulbs in the Netherlands and
it has been suggested that wild imports will no longer be traded within a few
years. The Dutch Exporters Association held a meeting in 1988 to discuss the
trade in wild bulbs and agreed that this was damaging the reputation of the
Dutch bulb industry because of the inferior quality and unreliability of
wild-collected bulbs.

At present a major problem associated with the Dutch bulb trade is a lack
of control over labelling of country of origin of the bulbs in trade. Minor
bulbs are frequently labelled as ‘product of Holland’ when this is not the
case. This damages the credibility of Dutch growers and is highly misleading
to bulb consumers. The bulb pre-packs designed for retail outlets are
generally labelled with the type of bulb, illustration of the bulb in flower
and some cultivation details, and state that the bulbs are produced in
"Holland', regardless of the content. Standard pre-packs are produced and it
is considered too expensive to produce different labels for the relatively
small amounts of re-exported bulbs.

In the Netherlands, pre-packing of bulbs takes place at various stages
within the trade. It is carried out for example by import, export, wholesale
and retail bulb companies. Bulbs may be exported in pre-packs or in loose
consignments which are packaged in the importing countries.

The large consignments of bulbs for export are usually packed loose in
sacks or large boxes, which are nearly always marked ‘product of Holland’.
The sacks or boxes are not marked with details of the species but information
on the contents is presented in accompanying documents. The consignments must
be accompanied by the original or verified copies of the original health
certificate. Details of the country of origin are therefore known to the
importing companies, but importers may still decide to mention ‘Holland’ as
the country of production because this sounds reliable and, at least in the
past, has stood for good quality.

North Africa

Horticultural bulbs native to North African countries include species of Iris,
Leucojum, Narcissus and the rare Cyclamen species Cyclamen rohlfsianum which
occurs in Libya.

It is not known whether any commercial exploitation of wild bulbs

currently takes place in North Africa. No responses have been received from
the botanists contacted in Morocco and Tunisia during the course of the
survey. Morocco has been mentioned as a source of wild bulbs imported into

the Netherlands but no details of the species or quantities are available.
The rare species Narcissus watieri, native to Morocco, has declined in the
wild partly because of overcollection. It is possible that there has been
commercial interest in other species of Narcissus.

ES =

Norway

There are 444 bulb growers in Norway, ‘forcing’ popular bulbs of Tulipa,
Narcissus, Iris and Hyacinthus. The bulbs used are mainly cultivars imported
from the Netherlands. All importers of flower bulbs are registered and
require import licences. No commercial imports of wild bulbs are known
(Sandved in litt., 1988).

Pakistan

The Mediterranean type climate of northern Pakistan supports a rich bulbous
flora. It is thought that there may be some export of wild-dug bulbs,
possibly of Tulipa, but A.K. Khan, Vice Chairman of the Horticultural Society
of Pakistan, is not aware of any commercial collection (Khan in litt., 1988).

In recent years, Pakistan has imported flower bulbs from the Netherlands,
importing 8000 kg in 1987.

Poland

In Poland, horticultural agencies sell bulbs which have been commercially

produced. Various organisations were consulted by the Director of the
W. Szafer Institute of Botany to enquire about wild collection of bulbs within
Poland for the present survey. No commercial collection of wild bulbs is

known to take place at present. There are no data on import of wild-collected
bulbs (Zarzycki in litt., 1989). Poland imports bulbs from the Netherlands,
with Dutch exports of 494 000 kg imported in the year 1986-87.

Bulbs produced within Poland include Tulipa and Lilium and_ small
quantities of these two genera have been exported to the Netherlands in recent
years. Selection and development of new Lilium cultivars have taken place
within the country using traditionally cultivated old varieties (Mynett,
1986). Some greenhouse production of bulbs takes place in Poland; for example
Gloriosa rothschildiana is grown commercially. Certain wild bulb species are
protected by law in Poland, and these are listed in Table 19 below.

Table 19
Bulb species protected by law in Poland

Tofieldia calyculata Muscari comosum
Veratrum nigrum M. botryoides
V. album Convallaria majalis
Anthericum liliago Leucojum vernum
Colchicum autumnale Iris (all spp. except I. pseudacorus)
Fritillaria meleagris Crocus scepusiensis
Lilium martagon = variety of C. vernus subsp. vernus)
Ornithogalum gussonei Gladiolus palustris
(= 0. orthophyllum) G. imbricatus
Portugal

Portugal is the major source of wild Narcissus bulbs in international trade
(see pp. 27-28). The species involved are N. asturiensis, N. bulbocodium,

N. cyclamineus, N. juncifolius, N. rupicola and N. triandrus. Export of
Narcissus bulbs is believed to total about one million annually.

BSG he

It is thought that export is entirely to the Netherlands. In 1987,
figures for the Netherlands show the import of 519 000 Narcissus bulbs from
Portugal (PVS, 1987).

A total of 38 000 kg of bulbs were imported to the Netherlands from
Portugal in 1987 of which 9000 kg were Narcissus (PVS, 1987). Other species
in trade include Scilla spp., particularly S. monophylla which is thought to
be wild-collected, Urginea maritima also of wild origin and Chionodoxa
lucillae. Leucojum autumnale was exported until about five years ago when the

trade stopped.
Portugal has no national legislation protecting threatened plant species.

A list of species recommended for protection, Dray, 1985 is given in Table 20.

Table 20
List of Portuguese bulb species recommended for protection

A. baeticum R

A. ericetorum R
Allium narcissiflorum ?Ex

A. pruinatum Endemic
A. scorzonerifolium R
Allium senescens Ex

A. subvillosum E
Asphodelus bento-rainhae E
Bellevalia hackelii Endemic
Crocus serotinus spp. serotinus Endemic
Hyacinthoides vicentina R

Iris boissieri Vv
Narcissus asturiensis Threatened
N. calcicola Endemic
Narcissus cyclamineus R
Narcissus fernandesii Vv

N. paditanus Vv

N. humilis R

N. jonquilla I

N. scaberulus Vv

N. serotinus R

N. willkomii “Vv
Ornithogalum concinnum Endemic
Scilla beirana Vv

Source: Dray, 1985.

Note: The categories Ex, E, V and R above follow the IUCN Red Data Book
categories. Threatened is used to denote species known to fall into one of
these categories but the exact status is uncertain. I is used for species
suspected of falling into one of the categories.

South Africa

South Africa has a very rich bulbous flora, with petaloid monocotyledons
comprising 49% and 64% respectively of the genera and species of
monocotyledons (Stirton, 1980). About 2700 bulbous species from 15 families
are found within this country (Ferreira and Hancke, 1985). The Cape is a
particularly rich area for bulbs, hosting, for example, 23 genera of
Liliaceae, 12 genera of Amaryllidaceae and 31 genera of Iridaceae.

SS Ge

Several genera of South African bulbs, such as Freesia and Gladiolus, are
very well known in cultivation and about 20 other genera are cultivated on a
significant scale. Until recently, however, there have been few attempts to
breed indigenous bulbous plants for commercial exploitation on a wide scale.
Traditionally, breeding and commercial exploitation of South Africa’s petaloid
monocotyledons took place mainly within Europe (Stirton, 1980).

Today there is a growing interest in the cultivation of indigenous bulbs
within South Africa but there remains limited local demand. There are a few
nurseries in South Africa which cultivate indigenous bulbous plants for sale
of seed internationally and bulbs locally. Out of 1231 registered nurseries
in the Transvaal, for example, only 25 were involved in international trade in
bulbs (Boomker in litt., 1989).

Breeding programmes for indigenous bulbous genera are carried out at the
Horticultural Research Institute in Pretoria and current work is described by
Ferreira and Hancke (1986). The three main genera of commercial interest are
Lachenalia, Ornithogalum and Gladiolus; eight other genera are considered to
have significant commercial potential. Breeding programmes are summarised in
Table 21. In addition to the genera included in Table 19, a few species of
other genera such as Ferraria, Freesia and Galtonia are offered in UK trade.

The Indigenous Bulb Growers Association of South Africa (IBSA) promotes
interest in South African bulbous plants and is actively involved in
conservation. Seed and bulbs produced by members are exchanged within the
Association and some members are growing bulbs for replanting in the wild as
part of conservation projects (von Stein in litt., 1989).

South Africa exports bulbous plants and, in 1987, for example, the
Netherlands imported 92 000 kg of these bulbs (PVS, 1987). Genera imported by
the Netherlands include Allium, Amaryllis, Begonia, Babiana, Brodiaea, Calla,
Crytanthus, Freesia, Ixia, Nerine, Ornithogalum, Pleione, Ranunculus,
Sparaxis, Tritonia, Gladiolus, Hyacinthus, Lilium. The UK also imports bulbs
directly from South Africa.

Dr A. Ferrar of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
in South Africa kindly circulated a request for information on the bulb trade
to a range of conservation organisations in the country, on behalf of WTMU.
Little indication of commercial collection of horticultural bulbs from the
wild has become available. However, according to Boomker (in litt., 1989),
plants of Eucomis, Albuca, Brunsviga, Clivia, Scilla, Siphonochilus, Scadoxus,
Urginea and Zantedeschia are collected from the wild when propagation does not
meet demand. This is mainly for the herbal medicine trade. Collection of
bulbous species for traditional medicinal purposes is widespread and is
placing a strain on wild populations of certain species (Boomker in litt.,
1989). Collection of indigenous plants is generally prohibited except where
authorised by permit. Issuance of permits is subject to a prohibition on the
sale of plants.

Large quantities of poisonous species such as Urginea spp. and Dipcadi
glaucum are sometimes removed by farmers, and destroyed, to protect their
grazing stock (Wells in litt., 1988).

Table 21
Status, cultivation and commercial development of South African bulb penera

Babiana: More than 60 endemic species.

Many different hybrids are known. Variation in flower colour and morphology,
growth habit, size and fragrance among species is being exploited. South
Africa exported 22 000 bulbs to the Netherlands in 1987/88. B. pulchra and

Si,

RB. stricta var. rubrocyanea currently offered in the UK. Seven taxa are
threatened in the wild in South Africa.

Bulbinella: 12 species.
Several selections of B. floribunda are common in South African production;

selections of other species have potential for the cut flower trade.

Cyrtanthus: 54 species.
C. obliquus has been cultivated for over 150 years and hybrids are available.
15 taxa are considered to be threatened in South Africa.

Geisshorhiza: 64 species.
G. aspera and an unnamed species are offered by one UK nursery. Four taxa are
threatened in the wild in South Africa.

Gladiolus: About 200 species, 103 indigenous to southern Africa.

Less than 20 species used in the development of existing cultivars. Breeding
work in South Africa aims to introduce disease resistance, fragrance and new
flower colours and shapes. Techniques are being developed to screen wild
species and selections for disease resistance. G. carneus and G. papilio are
two South African species currently offered in the UK. Over 40 South African
species are considered to be threatened in the wild. G. aureus, a species
Endangered in the wild, is grown by several specialist bulb growers in South
Africa.

Ixia:

Breeding and development for the cut flower trade started in Europe over 150
years ago, mainly using cultivars of I. maculata, I. monadelpha and I. patens.
Ixia ranunculoides is currently offered by one specialist nursery in the UK.
Twelve taxa are considered to be threatened in the wild including I. maculata
var. maculata which is Vulnerable in the Cape Province.

Lachenalia: 78 endemic species.

Breeding and cultivation began in Europe nearly 200 years ago. Japan is now
an important source of bulbs. Intraspecific hybrids have recently been
developed and 15 selections are being evaluated. Cultivars will be released
to nurseries when sufficient quantities of propagated stock are available.
Nine species are threatened in the wild.

Lapeirousia: 30 species. :
L. viridis is offered by one specialist bulb firm in the UK. L. verecunda is

considered Rare in the Cape Province.

Moraea: About 100 species in southern Africa.

M. aristata was widely cultivated in Europe in the 18th century and became
popular in the USA. It is now offered by only one nursery in the UK. The
original sources of cultivated M. aristata are unclear. The species is now
Endangered in the wild in Cape Province. M. loubseri, a species discovered in
1973, is also Endangered in the Cape. It is easy to grow from seed and is now
quite widely available in cultivation. In the IUCN Plant Red Data Book it is
recorded as being successfully cultivated by amateur and commercial bulb
gZrowers in South Africa, California, France, New Zealand and Portugal. It is
offered by one UK specialist bulb nursery. Ten species of Moraea are
currently offered by nurseries in the UK. In South Africa eight species of
Moraea are threatened in the wild.

= Sf} =

Nerine: About 31 species in South Africa.

N. bowdenii and N. sarniensis are widely cultivated around the world and many
varieties exist. Species such as N. alta, N. undulata, N. angulata and
N. laticoma are being used in breeding programmes. One nursery in the UK
specialises in Nerine and offers newly described species such as
N. platypetala and N. ‘umtata’*. Three species of Nerine are listed as Rare in
South Africa.

Ornithogalum: About 245 species, 120 indigenous to southern Africa.
QO. thyrsoides and O. lacteum have been cultivated for many years and several
cultivars are available. 0. thyrsoides is imported to the Netherlands from

South Africa. New cultivars are being developed using O. maculatum,
O. dubium, 0O. conicum and O. hermanii. One species of southern Africa,

“QO. secundum, is threatened in the wild (IUCN Category I).

Tritonia:

The Netherlands imported 405 000 Tritonia bulbs from South Africa in 1987/88.
Tritonia and Crocosmia are well known in Europe and the USA, and Montbretia is
a hybrid between these genera.

Note: information on the conservation status of species is from the WCMC
Threatened Plants database.

South America

In South America, bulb species are found mainly in mountainous’ and
sub-tropical regions. The South American bulbous flora is relatively poorly
known, only a limited number of species being in general cultivation.

The Mediterranean climate of Chile, particularly in the Santiago region,
supports a diversity of bulbous plants, with Amaryllis, Alstroemeria and
Tropaeolum being particularly well represented. Tecophilaea cyanocrocus, the
well known bulb species thought to be extinct in the wild because of grazing
and overcollecting, was native to the Santiago area.

Other genera of bulbous plants occurring in South America include Cypella
and Tigridia in the Iridaceae, tuberous begonias, gloxinias and other
gesneriads (Rix, 1986). In general, collection for the horticultural trade is
not currently considered a problem for bulbous plants in South America.
Habitat destruction is considered to be the major threat faced by bulbs in
countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay.

According to Castillo, 1987, ‘all [bulb] species inhabiting land suitable
for agriculture in South America are threatened with extinction. Increasing
interest in South American bulbs may, however, lead to commercial pressures on
wild populations. Castillo considers that horticultural propagation may be
the only way to save such species. South American species which are listed in
the Threatened Plants database as threatened in the wild but are already well
established in cultivation include Cypella herberti and Ipheion uniflorum.

Spain

The Iberian Peninsula is the centre of distribution of the genus Narcissus and
Spain has nearly 30 indigenous taxa. Species occurring in the country are
listed in Table 8. Because of the strong horticultural interest in Narcissus
and the wild origin of some species occurring in trade there has been some
concern that commercial collection of Narcissus might take place in Spain.
During the present study, however, no evidence of wild collection of Narcissus
or other bulbs for international trade was found.

Certain species of Narcissus are scarce in the wild in Spain, including
widely cultivated N. cantabricus which occurs also in North Africa,

~t§9

N. nevadensis, considered by IUCN to be Endangered, the Rare endemic
N. longispathus, restricted to the Sierra de Cazorla, and N. viridiflorus
which occurs only in south-west Spain and Gibraltar. N. willkommii has
recently become extinct in the country.

Some commercial production of bulbs takes place in Spain and, for example,
Amaryllis, Freesia and Gladiolus have been exported to the Netherlands in
recent years.

Switzerland

Wild bulbs are protected by legislation in Switzerland and commercial
‘ exploitation is not known. Bulbs are imported primarily from the Netherlands,
France and UK (Cartier in litt., 1988).

Turkey

Turkey has a very rich bulbous plant flora and has been the origin of many
bulb species in cultivation and in _ trade. The number of species and
subspecies of the main bulb genera, and the number of endemics is given in
Table 22.

Table 22
The number of species and subspecies of the main geophytes
and the number of endemics, occurring in Turkey and adjacent regions

Genus Total number of (sub)species Number of endemics
occurring in Turkey in _the Turkish region

Allium 141 49

Arum 12 6

Colchicum 27 5

Crocus 32 30

Cyclamen 10 5

Fritillaria 31 18

Gagea 25 2

Gladiolus 9 4

Iris 37 12

Lilium 6 2

Muscari 20 9
Ornithogalum 23 2
Scilla 14 1

Sternbergia 7 2

Tulipa 14 2

Source: van der Plas-Haarsma (1987)

Export of bulbs from Turkey goes back at least to the 16th century.
During the late 19th century there was a considerable demand for
wild-collected bulbs and various European nurseries, such as Van Tubergen, had
collectors based in Turkey. European dealers based in Turkey were also
involved in arranging the export of wild bulbs. Most of the collecting had |}
ceased by the time of the First World War. By that time Galanthus and
Chionodoxa were probably seriously depleted in western Turkey (Rix, 1986). In
1923 the Turkish Government introduced a general Nature Protection Law with |
the main aim-of regulating commercial exploitation of wild flora and fauna.

= @O =

After the Second World War, Turkish bulb exports again entered into
international trade and there has been a steady increase in the quantities
exported since’ then. In the post-war- period commercial links were
re-established with bulb traders in the Netherlands and at least one German
bulb merchant was based in Izmir. By the 1970s concern was being expressed in
Turkey about the effects of commercial exploitation on the native flora.
Discussions between scientists and government officials in 1982 led to the
production of a regulation manual for the trade in wild-collected bulbs.
Between 1981 and 1984 a survey of the economic geophytes of Turkey was carried
out for the Turkish Government and the results published in 1984 (Ekim et al.,
1984).

Turkey remains the major source of wild-collected bulbs in trade, with
Galanthus the major genus exported by quantity. Commercial exports of bulbs
*from Turkey are subject to licensing carried out by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Afrairs. Official statistics for the bulb
trade are based on the quantities licensed. Turkish exports of the main
commercial genera in 1987 are given in Table 23.

The Netherlands is the main importer of Turkish bulbs. Dutch imports of
bulbs from Turkey are given in Table 24. Turkey also exports bulbs directly
to other countries, including F.R. Germany, UK and USA.

Concern about the scale of commercial exploitation of wild bulbs for
export from Turkey led to a series of recommendations by Ekim et al. (1984)
and revised controls under the 1923 Nature Protection Law were introduced in
1986. Under this revised legislation there is a three tier system of export
controls for bulbous plants. This is summarised in Table 25. It is clear
that the system of export controls is not yet working effectively. Genera
which are banned from export unless artificially propagated, such as
Sternbergia, were still exported in quantity in 1987-88 with the bulbs still
taken from the wild for cultivation.

Within Turkey there is increasing cultivation of native bulbs for the
export market. Fritillaria imperialis and F. persica are established in
cultivation and propagated from cultivated stock. The same is true for Lilium
candidunm. Cultivation of most other commercially important genera still
involves the growing-on of bulbs collected in the wild. This cultivation
using wild-transplanted stocks is considered by the Turkish authorities as
artificial propagation and export certificates are issued accordingly (McGough

et al., 1989). Importers and traders in importing countries may also be
considering these wild-transplanted bulbs as cultivated material when claiming
they sell no wild wmaterial. The genera which are known to be

wild-transplanted for commercial cultivation are noted in Table 23.

The legal controls and advances in cultivation introduced for bulbs in
Turkey over the past few years are important conservation developments.
Improvements remain necessary, particularly in the cultivation systems. The
forthcoming Plant Red Data Book for Turkey will draw attention to the threats
to wild bulbs and the need for strict enforcement of controls. The
conservation status of commercially important species and genera taken from
the unpublished Red Data Book are given in Table 23.

-- -The extent of private collecting of wild bulbs in Turkey is difficult to
quantify but is certainly placing pressure on certain species in the wild such
as Iris (see p. 24).

Conservation of wild bulbs in situ is taking place in Turkey within
protected areas. The Spildag (Manisa dag) National Park in the Aegean region
of western Turkey, for example, protects an area rich in wild Tulipa species.
This area is important culturally as it is thought to be the origin of
European tulips in cultivation. Current research within the National Park is
being conducted to restore the natural vegetation including the Tulipa
populations.

SG) =

Table 23
Trade and conservation status for Turkish bulbous species

A ee eet

Genus/Species Cons. Export figures Export Cultivation
cat. for 1987 controls in Turkey

(where known)

Allium roseum Vv

Anemone blanda Vv 7500000
Arum spp. R

Crocus spp.

Cyclamen spp. 995000
Cyclamen cilicium

Cc. graecum

Cc. hederifolium

Cc. mirabile

C. persicum

C. repandum

Eranthis hyemalis
Fritillaria imperialis
F. persica

Galanthus spp.

Onwoowp

10000000
275000
275000

30000000

(G. elwesii and
G. ikariae)

wild-transplanted
artificial propagation
artificial propagation
wild-transplanted

dsgmmsxHsmascsc

Owwso

Hyacinthus orientalis
subsp. orientalis

Leucojum aestivum

ss

8500000 Q artificial propagation
wild-transplanted
1335 artificial propagation

i]

Lilium candidum
L. martagon
Muscari spp. B/Q
Narcissus serotinus R
Pancratium maritimum Vv B

R

Vv

7)

Scilla spp. 100000

Sternbergia spp. 450000 wild-transplanted
(S. lutea and
S._clusiana)

Tulipa spp. R

T. praecox E

T. humilis 37000

Urginea maritima

Narcissus spp.

Dracunculus spp.

Ono Dw

Explanation of symbols

B ban on export j V Vulnerable
Q quota system for exports R Rare
E Endangered
I Indeterminate
Sources: Ekim in litt., 1989 Conservation categories provided by
McGough et al., 1989 Ekim in litt., 1989

==625=

Table 24
Dutch imports of bulbs from Turkey

Genus Quantity (pieces)

1985/86 1986/87 1987/88
Anemone 3845000 5853000 9104000
Arum 121000 863000 76000
Calla 149000 276000 235000
Colchicum 2000 / 1000
Crocus / / /
Cyclamen 943000 1175000 801000
Eranthis 9290000 11437000 12771000
Fritillaria 441000 711000 224000
Galanthus 42009000 52267000 33359000
Iris 146000 . 28000 47000
Leucojum 4706000 6842000 6094000
Lilium . 126000 170000 151000
Narcissus / / 192000
Ornithogalum 53000 25000 1622000
Polyanthus 154000 208000 149000
Scilla / (0) 100000
Sternbergia 257000 148000 324000
Tulipa 104000 93000 35000
Urginea 5000 2000 0

Source: PD, Netherlands

Table 25
Regulations on bulb exports in Turkey

Tier 1: Species and genera banned from export unless cultivated

Lilium candidum, L. martagon, Sternbergia, Allium roseum, Fritillaria, Muscari
(other than those listed in Tier 3), Pancratium maritimum, Tulipa humilis

(syn. pulchella), Hyacinthus orientalis, Crocus and orchids.
Tier 2: Species and genera for which an export quota on wild bulbs is given

Cyclamen spp. (1 000 000), Colchicum speciosum (50 000), Leucojum_ aestivum
(5 000 000), Galanthus spp. (9 000 000), Anemone blanda (10 000 000), Eranthis

spp. (10 000 000), Narcissus spp. (500 000), Urginea maritima (20 000),
Gladiolus spp. (10 000), Scilla bifolia (275 000), Oxalis spp. (20 000) and
Arum and Dracunculus spp. (300 000).

Tier 3: Species and genera for which trade is unrestricted

Geranium tuberosum, Ornithogalum nutans, Muscari_comosum, M. tenuiflorum,

M. longipes, M. neglectum, M. aucheri, Arisarum vulgare (being species
considered by the Turkish authorities to be exclusively wild-collected),

Polianthes tuberosa, Calla, Dahlia, Iris tuberosa, Pelargonium, Nerine
bowdenii, Crocosmia (being types considered by the Turkish authorities to be
exclusively cultivated).

Source: McGough et al., 1989

= =

UK

Bulb production in the UK is dominated by five cultivars of Narcissus grown as
a field crop predominantly in the east of England. The UK is the world’s

leading producer of Narcissus and in 1987 the total area of Narcissus

production was 4042 ha (provisional figures, MAFF, 1988). The area of field
production for other major bulbs in 1988 was Tulipa 193 ha, and Iris 28 ha
(provisional figures, MAFF 1988). Tulipa and Iris production has been in
decline (Gilbert, 1985).

Other major bulbs grown as field crops in the UK are Anemone, Gladiolus

and Hyacinthus. Iris and Lilium are also grown under glass. Production of
major bulbs is both for the cut Flower market and for sale of dry bulbs,
within the UK and for the export market. Bulbs imported to the Netherlands
from the UK in the years 1985-1988 include Allium, Anemone, Crocus, Freesia,
’ Galanthus, Gladiolus, Hyacinthus, Iris, Lilium, Narcissus, Pleione
(Orchidaceae), Ranunculus and Tulipa.

The range of bulbs produced on a wholesale scale in the UK is small
compared with the Netherlands and there is no tradition of producing minor
bulbs on a significant scale. There is, however, increasing interest in
producing miscellaneous bulbs. A wider range of such genera are being grown
as test crops initiated and encouraged by large traders and distributors to
show whether some bulbs, currently imported, can be grown competitively in the
UK (Gilbert, 1985). Some research on minor bulb production is being funded by
the Horticultural Development Council (see p. 9). Virtually all the bulbs
imported to the UK are imported from the Netherlands. These are predominantly
bulbs produced in that country but also include a proportion of re-exported
material including wild-collected bulbs. There has been growing concern about
the sale of wild bulbs within the UK. This has led both to the interest in
home production of a wider range of bulbs and also to statements by major
retail chains that they will no longer sell bulbs of wild origin. Until

recently the true origin of popular bulbs has not always been appreciated

because of the chain of trade from supplier to retail outlet.

In the UK there are a number of wholesale bulb firms, some of which are
members of the Bulb Distributors Association (BDA). This Association has a
policy of not providing lists of members to outside organisations. The
wholesale firms supply the wide range of retail outlets stocking bulbs in the
UK, including major high street chain stores and garden centres. Some bulb
retailers are also supplied directly by wholesale firms in the Netherlands.

_ In the UK there are also specialist bulb nurseries which sell directly to
the public a wide range of rare and unusual bulbs, and also export small
quantities.

The preliminary survey of the UK bulb trade carried out by Gardening from
Which? has provided initial information on the source of bulbs on sale within
the UK. Of the 51 UK firms contacted, 29 responses were received by the end
of January 1989. The firms responding included wholesale companies,
specialist bulb firms and retail chains.

The Bulb Distributors Association submitted an initial joint response on
- behalf of its members who include the major wholesale firms. At the time of
writing, no response to the survey had been received from the main UK bulb
wholesaler dealing in imported (including wild-collected) bulbs. This firm
was visited by Beverley Lear during Phase I of the present project (see
Appendix 7). The response rate of the wholesale firms generally has been
disappointing and, acting through BDA, the main firms have refused to disclose
information. However, several of the retail companies dealing with UK
wholesale firms indicated that the majority of the bulbs purchased from these
firms were grown commercially in the Netherlands.

RAN 1S

Of the 12 retail chains who replied to the survey, four buy all their
bulbs from UK wholesale firms and one obtains 95% of its bulbs from this
source. Others indicated that both Dutch and UK wholesale suppliers provided
all their bulbs, and one imports 85% from the Netherlands. The Van Tubergen
wholesale company based in the UK imports all its bulbs from the Netherlands.
Five companies buy a small proportion of their bulbs from wholesalers in
countries other than the Netherlands or the UK.

Belgium was named by several firms as the source of Begonia and Gloxinia.
Other countries listed as country of origin (both by those firms supplied by
wholesalers in the Netherlands and the UK, and by others) include Belgium,
France, Israel, Japan, Portugal, Spain, Turkey and the USA. Turkey was given
as the source of Cyclamen by two firms, one of which stated that it imports
Turkish Cyclamen via the Netherlands. France was quoted as a source of
snowdrops, and Portugal for Narcissus __triandrus subsp. alba and
N. bulbocodiun. Czechoslovakia, South Africa and Zimbabwe were named as
source countries by one specialist nursery selling rare and unusual bulbs.

Only one specialist firm refused to provide information for the survey.
This firm supplies a wide range of rare bulbs including species which are
likely to be of wild origin. Only one of the firms contacted indicated on the
questionnaire circulated that any of the bulbs sold were collected directly
from natural sources, and this was less than 0.1%. One of the specialist
nurseries stated that it could not guarantee that none of the bulbs offered
were of wild origin. However, this nursery is ‘attempting to eliminate all
wild-collected or suspect species from our list by growing and producing more
stocks and obtaining assurances from others’. The specialist bulb firms
themselves grow a varying proportion of the bulbs sold and specified a variety
of other sources.

Because of the importance of the Netherlands as a supplier of bulbs to the
firms contacted, it is possible that some firms may be offering wild bulbs
although they did not indicate as much on the questionnaire. This can only be
checked by looking at the actual bulbs on sale. There is a willingness
amongst the trade to stop selling wild bulbs when this information is
available.

Results of the second stage of the Gardening from Which? survey have
supplied more detailed information on the source of various species in trade.
Information on individual species is included in the sections on genera within
this report. By the end of March 1989, 23 responses had been received to the
questionnaire on species in trade. The responses reveal the complexity in the
supply of bulbs, individual species being propagated by specialist nurseries,
bought from private growers, purchased by wholesale companies and, rarely,
imported directly from the country of origin.

One wholesale bulb firm responding to the survey stated that ‘a few but
significant bulb types are most frequently obtained from wild sources.
Gathering of these bulbs does not present a major threat to these populations
provided the habitat remains undisturbed.’ Most of the other firms are,
however, opposed to the commercial sale of wild bulbs, even though some may
continue to sell them unwittingly. Twenty of the firms responding stated that
they have a conservation policy which usually amounts to not knowingly
purchasing wild bulbs. Most companies rely on an oral guarantee from the
suppliers but some request a written guarantee or visit the bulb fields to
check the source of material. Three companies which have no conservation
policy at present are interested in developing their own policies. Several
firms have taken the positive step of deleting certain genera from their plant
lists where these are suspected to be of wild origin. Arisaema, Cyclamen,
Galanthus and Leucojum have been discontinued by several firms. However, it
is clear that other firms, even those which propagate a wide range of unusual

S365

~T

bulbs, rely on wholesale suppliers for bulbs such as Narcissus spp. and
Galanthus which are likely to be wild-collected.

The UK supermarket chain Tesco claims to be the first company in the world
to have introduced a- policy of not selling wild bulbs. In 1988, the British
retail bulb supplier, Hortico, announced that none of its three mail order
catalogues will knowingly accept wild bulbs and called on other retailers to
follow suit. It advocates a total EEC ban on wild bulb trade. According to a
note in the Practical Gardening Book of Plants and Gardens (Wyatt, 1989),
‘other retailers tell us off the record that they support the idea in
principle but don’t see how such a ban could be effectively policed’.

At present, however, wild bulbs are readily available in the UK trade, and
the range of species on sale from the wild was indicated by Beverley Lear's
survey of UK bulb trade catalogues in Phase I of this project. All the bulbs
listed in Appendix 1 of this report are, for example, on sale in the UK, with
most listed by the specialist bulb firms. It is possible that, as a wider
range of bulbs are marketed through more popular outlets such as garden
centres, demand could place new pressures on wild populations.

The UK retail market is worth around £50 million and the potential for
expansion is considered to be mainly in more unusual varieties. An example of
growing commercial interest in unusual bulbs is described by an article in the
magazine Nurseryman and Garden Centre (see Dawson, 1988). This explains how
the seed company Thompson and Morgan introduced a range of 25 bulbs, only one
of which had been generally available through the garden centre trade in the
past. In this instance the company stressed that it was as certain as it
could be that none of the bulbs were of wild source.

The UK’s native wild bulb flora consists of around 50 species of Iris,
Crocus, Narcissus, Galanthus, Leucojum, Allium, Ornithogalum, Lilium and other
genera. Many of the species are naturalised or occur locally as garden
escapes. There is limited commercial exploitation of naturalised and truly
native wild bulbs. In its response to the Gardening from Which? survey, for
example, the Bulb Distributors Association stated that, with regard to
UK-grown bulbs, a very small proportion of stock is lifted and split from
natural sources within private estates. There is still some collection of
snowdrops from orchards in the Spalding area and one bulb nursery offered the
‘original wild daffodil of Wales’, the Tenby Daffodil Narcissus obvallaris, in
its 1988 bulb catalogue. No truly wild populations of this species, which is
listed as Rare in the British Red Data Book for vascular plants, are now
known. Some collection of the native Bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scripta
(Endymion non-scriptus, Scilla nutans) is known to take place for trade and
there have been reports of its export from the UK to the Netherlands. A Dutch
trading company imports Allium _ursinum from the UK and it is possible that
this is wild—dug.

Bulbous plants included in the British Red Data Book for vascular plants
which have been threatened by collecting include Cyclamen hederifolium (V),
Lloydia_serotina (V), Allium sphaerocephalon (V), Leucojum aestivum (R) and
Gladiolus illyricus (V) which suffered through flower picking. Bulbs
specially protected by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 are Romulea
columnae, Gladiolus illyricus, Allium sphaerocephalon, Lloydia serotina and
Gagea bohemica. It is an offence to pick, uproot, sell or destroy wild plants
of any of these species. Under the Act, no wild plants of any plant species
in the UK can be dug up without the landowner'’s permission.

USA

Commercial production of bulbs in the USA is mainly for cut flowers or forcing
for indoor bloom. Cultivars of Narcissus, Tulipa, Crocus, Lilium, Hyacinthus

= 66.

and Iris are the main bulbs produced, together with Amaryllis, Nerine and
Allium. Limited published information:is available on a national. scale about
US bulb. production..and none is broken down.:to species level... Information on
bulb production. is collected by the -decennial ‘Census of horticultural
specialities’. The last one was published in 1979 and information collection
for the next begins in mid-1989. Information is given by value; US$23.5
million in Barbed corms and rhizomes were produced in 1978 (Daigler in litt.,
1988). ;
The major source of bulbs imported to the USA is the Netherlands, and
Israel is the second most important source. The USA is the second major
importer of bulbs from the Netherlands and also from Israel. Concern has been
growing in the USA about the wild origin of bulbs imported from the
Netherlands and the impact that the US market has indirectly on wild
Mediterranean bulb populations.

Recent exports of bulbs from the Netherlands to the USA are given in
Table 27. Of the genera included in this Table, Anemone (mainly A. blanda),
Eranthis and Galanthus are predominantly wild-collected and the imports into
the USA can be assumed to be of wild origin. Others of the genera listed may
include a proportion of wild-collected material as, for example, with
Narcissus. :

The main country of origin of wild bulbs entering the USA via the
Netherlands is Turkey. The USA also imports some bulbs, including Cyclamen,
directly from Turkey and from a range of other countries which may be involved
in the wild bulb trade. There are, for example, sizeable imports from China
and India, but no details of species are available. Several Japanese wild
flower firms selling wild bulbs, for example of Arisaema, have direct trading
links with the USA.

A detailed survey of US bulb catalogues has not been carried out for this
study, but some of the main nursery catalogues have been collected and also
information is available from a survey carried out by Dr Faith Campbell of
NRDC. At least nine US firms sell Galanthus and the Turkish endemic
G. elwesii is listed by three. Leucojum, which is mainly traded as wild bulbs
from Turkey and Hungary, is available from a number of nurseries, six listing
L. aestivum and seven offering L. vernum. Narcissus bulbocodium, a species
wild-collected in Portugal, is offered by specialist nurseries, as are other
wild Mediterranean species.

Commercial wild bulb collection also takes place within the USA, with some
genera exported. One of the main genera of concern is Trillium. In the year
April 1986 to March 1987, 13 000 Trillium were imported to the Netherlands
from the USA (see Table 26). There is no commercial production of Trillium
within the Netherlands and all stocks are _ imported. UK specialist bulb
nurseries offer a range of Trillium species and several UK firms are believed
to import directly from the USA. A list of Trillium species in UK and
Japanese trade is given in Table 10.

Calochortus is another US genus popular in horticulture which has been
collected from the wild for trade. Farwig and Girard (1981) record collection
of thousands of Calochortus bulbs for export. In the UK, C. albus,
C. amabilis and C. luteus are offered by one firm as new introductions from
California.

A 67) =

fem) fen “Goss tees

Table 26 -
Bulb imports to the Netherlands from the USA

Genus ee 1985/86 ~~: 1986/87 Production in
Benes ae : Netherlands
St alin = i (ha)
Anemone 17000 53.0
Begonia | 1000
Caladium. 359000 539000 none
Calla 151000 232000
Canna -— a 5-10
Erythronium oo 1.5 Z
Eucharis Had ote , 1.0
Gladiolus | 6021000 2903000 2200
Gloxinia very little
Iris 1000 c. 1000
Lilium * 163000 178000 1800
Montbretia
Polyanthus 8000 very little
Ranunculus 1800000 3278000 2.0
Trillium 5000 15000 none
Watsonia 10000 very little
Allium ;
ee ee ee ee ee ee
Sources: PD, Netherlands Anon., 1988

PVS, Netherlands

="6Rr =

Table 27

Export of bulbs from the Netherlands to the USA
— = i ~* - =

Genus Quantity x 1000 pieces

1984/85 1985/86 1986/87
a i a el ie. nr SS on ie
Allium F 12507 13085 21870
Amaryllis 2251 2693 3057
Anemone 32019 35476 47767
Begonia 4618 4588 4249
Crocus 66479 79277 75120
Dahlia 8610 8814 9707
Eranthis 626 734 722
Freesia 13271 21572 25974
Fritillaria 796 1204 . 1045
Galanthus 2237 3156 4195
Gladiolus 147172 126570 148597
Gloxinia 161 154 138
Hyacinthus 26525 29318 30872
Iris 99784 87347 108198
Ixia 1429 1917 2996
Lilium 19490 33968 40541
Montbretia 861 1439 1503
Muscari 21740 27260 36708
Narcissus 58798 63128 64722
Nerine 346 84 327
Ornithogalum 889 921 1118
Oxalis 9755 5953 17504
Ranunculus 7017 10214 7732
Scilla 4439 5135 $567
Tulipa 231593 279877 284388
Others 19494 21812 37326

Source: PVS, Netherlands

2769) =

SUMMARY
Through’ the. two. phases of the Bulb Trade and Propagation Study and associated
projects - ‘a. substantial body of information has been compiled on the
international bulb trade and the extent to which wild bulbs enter into
Commercial trade. Gaps in:'the knowledge remain but there is now sufficient
‘information on which to base conservation action to prevent overexploitation
of natural bulb populations.

There is clear evidence that commercial collection of wild bulbs is
harming natural populations in Japan, Portugal and Turkey. The level of trade
in certain genera from natural populations in other countries, for example
Galanthus from France, Leucojum from Hungary and Trillium from the USA, may
also be a cause for concern, in the absence of any control mechanisms.

‘No examples have been found of the sustainable harvesting of bulbs from
wild populations for international trade. The collecting of Galanthus from
naturalised stocks under semi-cultivated conditions may be a form of
sustainable production but concern has been expressed about the long-term
supply of Galanthus for the international market.

“The elements of a long-term management strategy for trade in “Turkish bulbs
have been introduced but, although deserving of international support,
propagation systems still rely heavily on wild-collected bulbs and the export
controls are not yet fully effective.

It appears that technical knowledge is not generally a constraint to the
commercial production of bulb species, and the range of species which is still
largely wild-collected is determined more by economic factors and tradition.
In some countries commercial harvesting of wild species has been replaced by
artificial propagation on a commercial scale, for example with Japanese native
Lilium spp. In Israel, wild collection for the export trade has been replaced
by strict conservation legislation protecting wild bulb populations and
commercial propagation of indigenous species such as the threatened native
species of Iris.

Most of the commercial propagation of bulb species takes place in the
Netherlands. This country also remains the international centre for the bulb
trade and most of the wild bulbs sold internationally, particularly from
Portugal and Turkey, are traded through the Netherlands. The sale of wild
bulbs represents only a small proportion of the Dutch bulb trade, but in terms
of the loss of wild populations it may be highly damaging. Mislabelling of
wild bulbs as ‘produce of Holland* is a source of concern because it misleads
consumers and damages the reputation of the Dutch bulb industry.

Increasingly, retailers in countries such as the UK and USA are refusing
to stock bulbs of wild origin in response to information on the source of the
material and the effects of collecting on wild populations.

Bulb species are amongst the most attractive garden plants and have
widespread popular appeal. Fortunately very few examples are evident of bulb
taxa traded to extinction. There are, however, an alarming number of species
which are threatened, at least in part, by international trade and for which
protection is necessary both in situ and through effective trade controls.
The following recommendations, based on the findings of the report, are
proposed to help prevent wild bulb species moving closer to extinction.

= 70) =

10.

ll.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Information on wild bulb species in trade should be maintained and updated
in a central database. Information on the range of species in trade,
sources of wild-collected bulbs, quantity in trade and level of commercial
production should be maintained. The information should be readily
available, where appropriate, to conservation agencies and the
horticultural trade.

Dutch bulb trade organisations should compile and publish information on
the range of wild bulbs imported and exported by the Netherlands with
sources and the quantities involved. The work could be co-ordinated for
example by the International Bulb Centre in Hillegom. Interested
organisations could use such information for deciding priorities for
developing alternative propagated supplies.

Conservation organisations in partnership with bulb trade organisations
should promote the establishment of propagation schemes for rare and
threatened bulb species using the expertise of commercial growers both in
countries of origin and bulb importing countries.

Botanic gardens should be supported in their bulb conservation activities
and in particular through the work of the Botanic Gardens Conservation
Secretariat.

A requirement for accurate labelling on the origin of bulbs in trade
should be introduced by voluntary agreement if not through legislation, so
that consumers can make an informed choice of the bulbs they purchase.

Further information is needed on the status of bulbs in the wild for many
parts of the world, notably North Africa, Central Asia and South America.
Conservation organisations should ensure the compilation of such
information through literature survey, correspondence and, where possible,
field surveys. New information collected should be added to the WCMC
Threatened Plants Unit database and should be provided for the compilation
of national red data lists.

Threats to wild bulbs should be publicised widely, for example through the
publication of red data books and popular articles in the gardening
press. Emphasis should be placed on species threatened through trade and
accurate information provided on the effects of trade on such species.

National legislation should be developed to control trade in threatened
bulb species in Japan and Portugal and to protect rare species in situ in
Turkey.

Other countries which allow the export of wild bulbs should ensure that
adequate steps are taken to prevent overexploitation.

The EEC should introduce controls on the commercial collection of wild
bulbs within Community countries, particularly for Narcissus and
Galanthus, for example through the proposed Habitats Directive. Ideally
management plans should be obligatory for the commercial collection of any
wild bulb species within the Community.

Galanthus spp. and Sternbergia spp. should be listed in Appendix II of
CITES. Detailed information should be sought on Arisaema, Leucojum and
Trillium with a view to developing CITES proposals for these genera.
Turkey should be urged to accede to CITES.

= Fl =

12. Detailed information should be collected on the genera Fritillaria spp.,
Iris spp. and Lilium spp. to assess the status of the species in the wild,

in cultivation and in trade, and as far as possible the impact of
collection by specialists.

— ine

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Bulb Propagation and Trade Survey was funded by WwWF-US in recognition of
the growing concern about the depletion of wild bulb populations. I am most
geateful for the opportunity provided by this funding to investigate
conservation aspects of the bulb trade and to Lili Sheeline (WWF-US) and
Jonathan Barzdo (WIMU) for setting up the project.

Thanks are due to the people involved in gathering information for the
project and in particular to Beverley Lear who carried out much of the ground
work, providing a wealth of information and ‘leads’ in a limited period of
time. Mike Read, on behalf of the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society,
carried out valuable field work in Spain, Portugal and Greece, and contributed
useful information and ideas from his knowledge of the bulb trade in Turkey.
Tim Inskipp of WTMU gathered information on the Nepalese bulb trade, whilst
carrying out field work on the status of birds in the country. Kim Lochen
provided valuable assistance throughout the project, in particular through
tracking down reference material and preparing the report. Julie Gray and
Veronica Greenwood worked hard on the typing and final production for
publication.

Astrid van Senus of TRAFFIC(Netherlands), and H. Tokunaga and Kazuko Yokei
of TRAFFIC(Japan) have compiled and translated information on the bulb trade
in the Netherlands and Japan respectively and have been most generous with
their hospitality and help during visits to the two countries.

Rose Wood and Claire Bassett, through their interest in and survey of the
UK bulb trade, have extended the scope of the study and ensured that the UK
trade will be subject to increased public scrutiny.

Thanks are also due to Faith Campbell (NRDC), Professor T. Ekim (Ankara
University, Turkey), Mr M. Hoog, Mr A. Hoog, Chris Leon (TPU), Else Mikkelsen
and to all the correspondents who have taken time to provide information for
the survey.

Finally I wish to thank Mrs M. Arundel for her encouragement and support
of the project.

ae oe) =

CORRESPONDENCE AND PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Al-Eisawi, D., Professor of Botany, University of Jordan, in litt., December
1988.

Anderson, W., Manager, WSU Mount Vernon Research and Extension Unit, in litt.,
January 1989.

Avishai, M., Director of the Jerusalem and University Botanical Garden,
Jerusalem, Israel, in litt., December 1988.

Beloussova, L., in litt. to Dr F.T. Campbell, February 1988, Moscow, USSR.

Boomker, E., Director General, Department of Environment Affairs, Pretoria,
South Africa, in litt., February 1989.

Brickell, C., Director General, The Royal Horticultural Society, London,
in litt., to B. Lear, July 1987.

Carr, M., in litt. to M. Read, 1988, Sournia, France.

Cartier, A.H., Secretary, Association des Horticulteurs de la Suisse Romande,
Morges, Switzerland, in litt., August 1988.

Daigler, S., Director, Research and Education, Society of American Florists,
USA, in litt., August 1988.

De Hertogh, A., Department of Horticultural Sciences, North Carolina State
University, USA, in litt., January 1989.

De Malach, Y., Ramat Neger Agricultural Experiment Station, Israel, in litt.,
December 1988.

Ekim, T., Head of Biology, Ankara University, Turkey, in litt., January 1989.

Fink, H., Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Naturschutz und Landschaftsokologie,
Bonn, F.R. Germany, in litt., November 1988.

Friedman, J., Head, Botany Dept., Tel Aviv, Israel, in litt., December 1988. \

Halevy, A., Professor of Horticulture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel,
in litt., December 1988. |

Homberg-Wittkowski, C., Botanischer Garten und botanisches Museum, Berlin,
F.R. Germany, in litt., December 1988.

Holub, Jie Botanical Institute, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, |
Czechoslovakia, in litt., November 1988.

Hoog, A., M.H. Hoog Bot. Specialities, De Haarlem, Netherlands, in litt.,
December 1988.

Hoog, M., pers. comm. to B. Lear, 1987.

Hoog, M.H., Bot. Specialities

Keimer, Senator fiir Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz, Berlin, F.R. Germany,
in litt., November 1988.. }

Khan, A.K., Vice-Chairman, Horticultural Society of Pakistan, in litt., |
December 1988. :

Lancaster, R., Horticultural consultant and plantsman, Eastleigh, UK, in litt.
to B. Lear, July 1987.

Mevel, A., Bulb Station Officer, CNIH Station, Val-de-Loire, France, in litt.,
July 1988.

Nehammer, G., Bundesverband der Erwerbsgartner Osterreichs, Austria, in litt.,
August 1988.

Ozeri, Y., Agricultural Research Organisation, The Volcani Centre, Jerusalem,
Israel, in litt., January 1989.

Roh, M., Research Horticulturist, USDA Agricultural Research Service, |
Beltsville, USA, in litt., December 1988.

Sajeva, M., Department of Botany, University of Palermo, Sicily, Italy,
in litt., September 1988.

Sato, K., Dai-ichi Seed Co., Ltd, pers. comm. to H. Tokunaga, January 1989.

Sandved, G., Norsk Gartner forbund, Oslo, Norway, in litt., July 1988.

Sonderhousen, 0., in litt., December 1988.

van Vliet, G., pers. comm. to B. Lear, 1987.

eA

von Stein, P., Secretary of the Indigenous Bulb Growers Association of South
Africa, in litt., January 1989.

Webb, D.A., Professor of Botany, University of Dublin, Ireland, pers. comma. to
M. Read.

Wells, M., Botanical Research Insitute, Pretoria, South Africa, in litt.,
November 1988.

Zarzycki, K., Director, W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Krakow, Poland,
in litt., January 1989.

= IN =

REFERENCES

Adams, P: (1976). Lycoris - surprise Lilies. Pacific Horticulture 23-29.

Anon. (1984a). MAFF. Bulb and corm production. MAFF Reference Book 62 HMSO,

~ London.

Anon. (1984b). Saving on bulbs. Gardening from Which? August 1984.

Anon. (1988). Produktnota Bijgoed 1988. International Bloembollen Centrun,

> Hillegom.

Castillo, J.A. (1987). Notes on the cultivation of South American bulbous
plants (II). Herbertia 43(2): 2-11.

Committee for the Japanese Red Data Plant Study (1989). The Japanese Red_
Data Plant Study. Nature Conservation Society of Japan and WWF Japan.
Dawson, P. (1988) T & M choose the unusual. Nurseryman and garden centre

16 May 1988.

Demiriz, H. (1987). Endangered geophytes of Turkey. Poster Session, XIV
Botanical Congress, Berlin (abstract).

Demiriz, H. and Baytop, T. (1985). The Anatolian Peninsula. In:
Gomez-—Campo, C. (Ed.), Plant conservation in the Mediterranean area.
W. Junk, Dordrecht.

Dray, A.M. (1985). Plantas a proteger em Portugal Continental. Servicio
Nacional de Parques, Reservas e Conservacao da Natureza.

van Eijk, J.P., Eikelboom, W. and Hogenboom, N.G. (1986). The importance of
wild species and old cultivars for the breeding of flower bulbs. Fourth
International Symposium on Flower Bulbs. Acta Horticulturae 177: 399-404.

Ekim, T., Koyuncu, M., Erik, S., Giiner, A., Yildiz, B. and Vural, M. (1984).
Taxonomic and ecological investigations on the economic geophytes of
Turkey. Research Project TBAG, 490A. Ankara

Fahrenhorst, T. and Altan, B. (1988). Der export von geophyten aus der Tiirkei
und seine folgen. Natur und Landschaft 63(1): 21-25.

Farwig, S. and Girard, V. (1981). Neglected Calochortuses. Pacific
Horticulture 19-28.

Ferreira, D.I. and Hancke, F.L. (1986). Indigenous flower bulbs of S. Africa
- a source of new genera and species for ornamental bulb cultivation.
Fourth International Symposium on Flower Bulbs. Vol. 2 Acta Horticulturae
177: 405-410.

Fox, D-B. (1982). The propagation of lilies. The Plantsman 4(1): 16-28.

Gilbert, D. (1985). Changes offer a challenge to the bulb opportunist. The
Grower 24 January 1985, Supplement.

Hanks, G. (1987). Kirton chips into the minor bulbs. The Grower 22 January
1987, Supplement. i

Haw, S.G. (1986). The lilies of China. Batsford, London.

Holloway, C.W. (1975). Conservation of threatened vertebrates and plant
communities in the Middle Rast and south west Asia. In: Ecological

guidelines for the use of natural resources in the Middle East and South

West Asia, IUCN, Switzerland.
Huxley, A. (1987). Botanists strike back. The dangers of plant smuggling.
Country Life 7 May 1987. Pp. 96-98.

Koopowitz, H. (1986). Conservation problems in the Amaryllidaceae. Herbertia
42: 21-25.

Koopowitz, H. and Kaye, H. (1983). Plant extinction: A global crisis. Stone
Wall Press, Washington D.C.

Lear, B. (1988). Origins of garden bulbs. The Garden. November 1988.
Pp. 503-507.

Lord, T. (Ed.) (1988). The Plantfinder 2nd Edition. Published by Headmain
Ltd. for the Hardy Plant Society.
MAFF (1988). Bulbs-Crop notes. Unpublished information.

a

McGough, H.N., Mathew, B.F., Peter, H., Read, M., Wertel, N. and Wijnands, 0.
(1989). A report on the status and cultivation of Cyclamen species and
other geophytes in Turkey. Paper prepared for the Scientific Working
Group of the EC CITES Committee.

McMurtie, A. (1986). Have you ever thought of going to Turkey? The Iris Year
Book.

Mathew, B. (1973). Dwarf bulbs. Batsford, London.

Mathew, B. (1984). Rare and little known crocuses in cultivation. The Kew
Magazine 1(2): 68-75

Mayo, S. (1982). A survey of cultivated species of Arisaema. The Plantsman
3(4): 194-209.

Mayo, S. (1984). Some choice cultivated Arisaemas. The Kew Magazine 1(2):
$1-57.

Nisiuchi, Y. (1986). Multiplication of tulip bulb by tissue culture in
vitro. Vol. 2 Acta Horticulturae 177: 279-284.

Oldfield, S. (1984). UK trade in snowdrops. Traffic Bulletin 6(2): 40.

Ondruskova, L. (1986). Chemical control of Penicillium spp. on bulbs used for
forcing. Fourth International Symposium on Flower Bulbs. Vol. 2 Acta
Horticulturae 177: 493-496.

Paterson, A.D. and Harper, P.C. (1986). Are we any nearer commercial
micropropagation of tulips. Fourth International Symposium on Flower
Bulbs. Vol. 2 Acta Horticulturae 177: 285-290.

van der Plas-Haarsma, M. (1987). Cyclamen _in trade. TRAFFIC Rapport S.
TRAFFIC(Netherlands).

PVS (1987). Annual Report Produktschap voor Siergewassen. PVS, "s-Gravenhage.

PVS (undated). Bloembollen (voorjaarsbloeiers) Beplante oppervlakten 1984/85

tot en met 1987/88. PVS, ‘s-Gravenhage.

Read, M. (1989). Rape of the wild. In: Practical Gardening Book of Plants
and Gardens. EMAP National Publications, Peterborough.

Rix, M. (1986). Growing bulbs. Croom Helm, London.

Skelmersdale (1978). Propagation of bulbous and bulbous-like plants.
International Plant Propagators Society Combined Proceedings 28: 209-211.

Stirton, (1980). Aspects of research on South African petaloid monocotyledons
of horticultural importance. In: Brickell, C.D. et al. (Eds), Petaloid
monocotyledons, horticultural and botanical research. Academic Press,
London. Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser. No. 8.

Stoop van de Kasteele, F.S.C. (1974). Conservation of wild Lilium species.
Biological Conservation 6(1): 26-31.

Synge, H.A.S. (1980). Endangered monocotyledons in Europe and south west
Asia. In: Brickell, C.D. et al. (Eds), Petaloid monocotyledons,
horticultural and botanical research. Academic Press, London. Linn. Soc.
Symp. Ser. No. 8.

Tan, K. and McBeath, R.J.D. (1987). Notes on some fritillaries in
cultivation. Herbertia 43(2): 33-41.
Wendelbo, P. (1975). Endangered flora and vegetation, with notes on some

results of protection. In: Ecological guidelines for the use of natural

resources in the Middle East and south west Asia. IUCN, Switzerland.

Wendelbo, P. (1977). Tulips and Irises of Iran and their relatives.

Botanical Institute of Iran, Ariamehr Botanic Garden, Tehran, Iran.

Wyatt (1989). Practical Gardening Book of Plants and Gardens. EMAP National

Publications, Peterborough.

=i

APPENDIX 1

Bulb species wild—collected for international trade

The following list concentrates mainly on those bulbs which are readily
available in trade; where there is significant commercial cultivation this is
noted. It is possible that small quantities of the other species are
propagated commercially by some nurseries. The list of wild bulbs in trade is
by no means exhaustive and serves only as a guide.

Also in commercial
cultivation (Y = yes)

Genus/Species Country of Export

Allium bulgaricum Turkey -
A. siculum Turkey -
A. ursinum Hungary -
A. victorialis Japan -
Anemone blanda Turkey Y
A. coronaria Turkey Y
A. ranunculoides Hungary -
A. ringens Japan Y
A. speciosum uncertain -
A. triphyllum USA Y
Arisaema spp. Japan -
India -
Arisaema sikokianum Japan -
A. thunbergii
subsp. urashima Japan -
Arisarum vulgare Turkey -
Arum dioscoridis Turkey Y
A. dracunculus Turkey Y
A. italicum Turkey Y
A. orientale Turkey Y
Cardiocrinum giganteum India -
Japan -
Chionodoxa lucillae Turkey Ye
C. sardensis Turkey Y
Cc. tmoli Turkey -
Colchicum spp. Hungary Y
Colchicum cilicium Turkey Y
Cc. luteum India Y
C. speciosum Turkey Y
C. variegatum Turkey Y
Corydalis solida E. Burope -

The following Crocus

Crocus ancyrensis

have been listed as
years. Exports of genus now banned.

Turkish exports

Turkey Y
C. biflorus Turkey Y
C. cancellatus Turkey -
C. chrysanthus Y
C. flavus Turkey Y
C. fleischeri Turkey Y

oa

in recent

App. 1 Bulb species wild-collected for international trade (ctd)

Genus/Species Country of Export Also in commercial
cultivation (Y = yes)

Cc. kotschyanus Turkey -
C. pallasi Turkey -
C. pulchellus Turkey Y
C: sativus Turkey Y
C. speciosus Turkey Y
Cyclamen cilicium Turkey -
C. coum Turkey =
C. hederifolium Turkey -
C. mirabile Turkey -
C. purpurascens Hungary =
Dicentra USA -
Eranthis cilicia Turkey -
E. hyemalis Turkey -
Erythronium album -
E. americanum USA -
E. citrinum -
E. dens-—canis E. Burope Y
E. japonicum Japan -
Fritillaria acmopetala Turkey -
F. bucharica -
F. camtschatcensis Japan
F. gibbosa -
F. latifolia =
F. pontica Y
Galanthus elwesii Turkey -
G. fosteri Turkey -
G. gracilis Turkey -
G. ikariae Turkey -
G. nivalis France, Turkey Y
Geranium tuberosum Turkey Y
Iris acutiloba -
I. iberica subsp. ;

elegantissima Turkey =
I. kopetdaghensis =
I. paradoxa Turkey -
I. persica Turkey =
I. reticulata Turkey

(small quantities)

I. sari Turkey =
I. tuberosa Turkey
Leucojum aestivum . Turkey, India -
L. vernum Hungary -
Muscari aucheri Turkey =
M. comosum Turkey Y
M. longipes Turkey -
M. neglectum Turkey =
M. tenuiflorum Turkey =
Narcissus asturiensis Portugal =
N. bulbocodium subsp. conspicuus Portugal 4
N. bulbocodium subsp. tenuifolius Portugal =
N. cyclamineus Portugal cultivars

= 7@) =

App. 1 Bulb species wild-collected for international trade (ctd)

Genus/Species Country of Export Also in commercial
cultivation (Y = yes)

N. juncifolius Portugal -
N. pseudonarcissus Belgium cultivars
N. rupicola Portugal -
N. scaberulus Portugal -
N. triandrus albus Portugal -
N. triandrus concolor Portugal -
Ornithogalum nutans Turkey Y
Pancratium maritimum Turkey -
Sanguinaria canadensis -
Scilla bifolia Turkey Y
Sternbergia clusiana Turkey -
S. fisheriana Turkey -
S. lutea India, Turkey -
S. sicula Turkey -
Trillium spp. USA, Canada -
Tulipa aitchisonii Y
T. hageri Turkey Y
T. humilis Turkey Y
T. kurdica Iraq Y
T. praecox Turkey Y
T. undulatifolia Turkey

Urginea maritima Portugal

Uvularia USA

eae

~ 80 —

EFSF DSS APPENDIX 2

Status in the wild of rare bulbs in trade

This list has been compiled by comparing the taxa recorded in trade catalogues
with the bulb taxa included as threatened in the WCMC Threatened Plants
database. The conservation categories are IUCN categories - see Appendix 8.
Endemic species have also been listed, even when their conservation status is
unknown, and a few other taxa believed to be rare (according to information
from various sources) have also been incorporated.

i

Genus/species National Status Notes
ee
AMARYLLIDACEAE
Galanthus spp. Turkey V
G. elwesii Europe nt
USSR I
G. byzantinus Turkey Endemic
G. ikariae Greece R Endemic
Turkey
G. plicatus Romania R World status R/V
Ukraine V
G. reginae-olgae Greece V Endemic
G. rizehensis Turkey Endemic
Leucojum aestivum Turkey V
L. nicaeense France V Endemic
Narcissus scaberulus Portugal V Endemic
N. serotinus Turkey R
Sternbergia spp. Turkey V
S. candida Turkey E Endemic
ARACEAE
Arisaema sikokianum Japan V overcollecting
Biarum davisii Greece (Crete) R
FUMARIACBAE
Corydalis cashmeriana Jammu and Kashmir E Endemic
C. caucasia European USSR V
IRIDACEAE
Crocus abantensis Turkey Endemic
C. adamii Yugoslavia Endemic
C. adanensis Turkey Endemic
C. alexandri Yugoslavia Endemic
C. ancyrensis Turkey Endemic
C. antalyensis Turkey Endemic
C. asumaniae Turkey Endemic
C. baytopiorum Turkey Endemic
C. biflorus isauricus Turkey Endemic

=se1.—

App. 2 Status in wild of rare bulbs in trade (ctd)
8 en

Genus/species National Status Notes
SS i es eh ae wet ed Poe
C. biflorus
pulchricolar Turkey Endemic
C. boryi Greece nt
C. cambessedesii Balearics Endemic
C. corsicus Corsica nt Endemic
C. danfordiae Turkey Endemic
C. fleischeri
C. gargaricus Turkey Endemic
C. gargaricus subsp.
herbertii Turkey Endemic
C. goulimyi Greece R Endemic
C. hadriaticus Greece nt Endemic
C. imperati Italy I Endemic
C. karduchorum Turkey Endemic
C. kotchyanus subsp.
cappodocicus Turkey Endemic
C. kotchyanus subsp.
hakkariensis Turkey Endemic
C. leichtlinii Turkey Endemic
Cc. malyi Yugoslavia nt Endemic
C. minimus Corsica Endemic
C. nivens Greece Endemic
C. olivierii spp.
balansae Greece
C. pestalozzae Turkey Endemic
C. robertianus Greece V Endemic
C. sieberi spp.
sieberi Crete Endemic
C. speciosus
C. versicolor France V
Italy ?
Cypella herberti Argentina E World status E
Brazil £
Uruguay E
Hyacinthella heldreichii Turkey Endemic
H. lineata Turkey Endemic
Hyacinthus orientalis
subsp. orientalis Turkey V
H. orientalis
subsp. chionophilus Turkey Turkey
Iris atropurpurea Israel [I
I. bakeriana Turkey and Iran
I. danfordiae Turkey Endemic
I. galatica Turkey Endemic
I. gatesii Turkey ? World status R
Iraq ?
I. haynei Israel ? World status I
Jordan ?
I. hermona Israel ? World status R
Lebanon ?
Syria ?

= 7) =

App. 2 Status in wild of rare bulbs in trade (ctd)

Genus/species National Status Notes
I. histriodes Turkey Endemic
I. jordana Israel R World status V
Jordan E
I. kolpakowskiana USSR R Endemic
I. lortetii Israel E World status E
. Lebanon I
I. magnifica Asiatic USSR I World status I
I. nigricans Israel ?
Jordan E
I. orchiodes Central Asia
Afghanistan
I. paradoxa USSR V Endemic
I. reticulata European USSR V
I. samaria Israel E Endemic
I. sari Turkey E Endemic
I. sprengeri Turkey E Endemic
I. winogradowii Asiatic USSR I Endemic
I. paradoxa var.
choschap Turkey Endemic
I. parvula Central Asia Rare
I. stenophylla Turkey Endemic
Moraea gigandra South Africa V Endemic
M. loubseri South Africa E Endemic
Romulea tempskyana Greece R Endemic
Sparaxis tricolor South Africa E Endemic
LILIACEAE
Allium obliquum Romania R
USSR ?
A. roseum Turkey V
A. schubertii Israel
Chionodoxa albescens Crete Endemic
C. cretica Crete Endemic
C. nana Crete Endemic
C. forbesii Turkey Endemic
C. sardensis Turkey Endemic
Colchicum baytopiarum ?
C. boissieri Greece Endemic
C. bornolmelleri Turkey Endemic
C. chalcedonicum Turkey Endemic
C. cilicium Turkey Endemic
C. micranthum Turkey Endemic
C. pannonicum Romania
C. umbrosum European USSR R
Asiatic USSR ?
Erythronium caucasicum Asiatic USSR I Endemic
E. tuolumnense California I Endemic
Fritillaria alfredae subsp.
gilaucoviridis Turkey Endemic

= gai =

App. 2. Status in wild of rare bulbs in trade (ctd)
ee

Genus/species

National Status

Notes

eRe————...”””_.0 0

F. assyriaca subsp.
melanathera

F. aurea
F. carica

F. cirrhosa
F. davisii

F. drenovskii

F. elwesii

F. epirotica
F. imperialis

F. involucrata

F. japonica

F. michailovskyi
F. pallidiflora
F. persica

F. pinardii

F. pudica
F. raddeana

F. roylei

F. ruthenica

F. sibthorpiana
F. walujewii

F. whittalli
Ipheion uniflorum

Lilium candidum

L. martagon
L. philippinense

L. wallichianum

Muscari azureum
M. latifolium

M. macrocarpum
Ornithogalum reverchonii

Scilla litardieri
S. reverchonii
Trillium tschonoskii

Tulipa albertii

T. carinata
T. cretica
T. eichleri

T. prengiolensis
T. goulimyi

Turkey
Turkey
Greece R
Himalayas
Greece R
Greece R
Bulgaria R
Greece R
Greece R
Turkey E
France R
Italy E
Japan V
Turkey
Xinjiang Uygur v
Turkey E
Greece R
Turkey ?

?

Asiatic USSR I
Burma V

Jammu and Kashmir &

Buropean USSR V
Asiatic USSR ?
Turkey

Xinjiang Uygur v
Turkey
Argentina V
Uruguay V
Turkey £

Turkey £

Luzon V

Taiwan ?

Nepal V

Uttar Pradesh I
Turkey

Turkey

Greece R

Spain R
Yugoslavia R
Spain R

China V

Japan ?

Asiatic USSR I
USSR R

Greece nt
European USSR R
Iran ?

?

Greece V

SIBhy =

Endemic
Endemic

Endemic
World status R

Endemic
World status R

overcollecting
Endemic
Endemic

Endemic
World status V

Endemic
Endemic
Endemic
World status V

World status I

Endemic
Endemic
Worid status nt
Endemic
Endemic
Endemic

Endemic
Endemic

Endemic

App. 2 Status in wild of rare bulbs in trade (ctd)

Genus/species Country of Origin Status
T. greigii Asiatic USSR I Endemic
T. ingens Asiatic USSR I Endemic
T. lanata Asiatic USSR I Endemic
T. hissarica Western Pamirs Endemic
T. marjoletti South of France ?
T. mauritiana ?
IT. linifolia USSR R Endemic
T. ostrowskiana Asiatic USSR I Endemic
T. polychroma Egypt E

Israel R

Jordan V
T. praecox Turkey E
T. praestans USSR V Endemic
T. saxatilis Greece nt
T. schrenkii USSR V
T. sosnowskyi USSR £
T. sprengeri Turkey Endemic
T. tarda USSR R Endemic
T. undulatifolia Greece V

Turkey nt
T. vvendenskyi USSR R
T. zenaidae USSR R Endemic

PRIMULACEAE

Cyclamen creticum

C. cyprium
C. mirabile
C. rohlfsianum

RANUNCULACEAE

Anemone biflora
A. blanda

Greece nt
Cyprus nt
Turkey R
Libya V

Kashmir I
European USSR V

28S) =

ager ge ae Era it bt be
si ae Dt <4

"Th eae A A A SE ELIE ANE AN oe
; ; - 3 7
ere } ance Diteagh
te shevbsa t aury eee.
— ef. 2. shanbat 1 sree ijt
én ee os hao, Ged SRM

inet.

PST: oo tthadsd te kee.

? eanase

oP aeH

APPENDIX 3

Production and import of minor bulbs in the Netherlands

Genus/species Area of production Import 1987/88 (pieces)
(ha)

Achimenes <0.50

Acidanthera 5.00

Allium 61.35 125000

A. aflatunense 5.80

A. aflatunense ‘purple sensation’ 6.95

A. albopilosum 0.39

A. atropurpureum 0.08

A. caeruleum (=azureum) 0.55

A. christophii 0.45

A. cowanii 0.28

A. elatum 0.15

A. piganteum 11.79

A. piganteum ‘violet beauty' 0.39

A. galdiator 0.12

A. karataviense 1.65

A. lucy ball 1.03

A. moly (=luteum) 9.84

A. multibulbosum 1.59

A. neapolitanum 0.84

A. oreophilum (=ostrowskianum) 7.90

A. rien poortvliet 0.03

A. rosenbachianum 0.40

A. rosenbachianum album 1.19

A. roseum grandiflorum 0.53

A. sphaerocephalon 6.57

A. stipitatum 0.73

A. hirtifolium 0.08

A. unifolium 0.04

Amacrinum 20 m2

Amaryllis <1.0

Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) 92.6 '

Anemone 53.0 11084000

A. blanda 9.0

A. coronaria 36.5

Arisaema very little 1000

Arum 2.0 76000

Babiana very little 22000

Begonia tuberosa 62 1088000

Brodiaea 12.0 190000

Bulbocodium 702 m2

Camassia 1.5-2.0

Canna 5-10

Cardiocrinum very little

Chionodoxa 14.47 4000

C. gigantea 4.01

C. luciliae 9.12

C. pink giant 0.35

C. sardensis 0.75

— 86 —-

App. 3 Production and import of minor bulbs in the Netherlands (ctd)

Genus/species Area of production Import 1987/88 (pieces)
(ha)

Chlidanthus 3300 m@

Colchicum 4.1 10000

C. byzantium 0.8

Cc. lilac wonder 1.4

C. -giant 0.7

Convallaria 0.5-1.0

Corydalis 1000 m@

Crinum 0.5 6000

Crocosmia 5.0

Crytanthus very little

Endymion 10.13

Eranthis 3.0 13006000

Eremurus 6-10

Erythronium 1.5 10000

Eucharis 1.0 30000

Eucomis 2.0

Freesia 505.9 323000

Fritillaria 29.6 227000

F. imperialis 25.3

F. persica 0.3

F. meleagris 4.0

Galanthus 2-3 33359000

Galtonia <1.0

Geranium tuberosum 800 m2

Gloriosa 1.0

Gloxinia very little 6000

Haemanthus 1400 m2

Homeria 1.0

Hymenocallis 2.0

Ipheion <1.0

Iris 20213000

I. bucharica 1.0-1.2 ;

I. danfordiae 9.26

I. reticulata 16.68

I. xiphioides SS

Ixia 10.0

Ixiolirion 1.0-1.5

Lachenalia 200 m2

Lapeyrousia 1430 m2

Leucocoryne 1430 m2

Leucojum 6500 m¢ 6699000

Liatris 25-35

Lycoris <700 m2 12000

Montbretia 10

Muscari 75.03

M. armeniacum 59.67

M. armeniacum album 0.46

M. armeniacum ‘blue spike’ 4.93

M. armeniacum ‘early giant’ 1.78

App. 3 Production and import of minor bulbs in the Netherlands (ctd)

Genus/species Area of production Import 1987/88 (pieces)
(ha)

M. botryoides album 2.55

M. comosum 0.30

M. comosum plumosum 3.43

M. latifolium 0.32

M. tubergenianum 0.03

M. muscari alba 0.71

Nerine 68.7 7000

Ornithogalum 5-10 7595000

Oxalis 5.9

Polyanthus very little 193000

Puschkinia 3.97

P. alba 0.18

P. libanotica 3.79

Ranunculus 2.0 14403000

Sandersonia 285 m2 68000

Scilla 24.32 100000

S. campanulata 6.91

S. campanulata alba 0.21

S. campanulata excelsior 1.15

S. campanulata ‘rose’ 0.50

S. campanulata ‘sky blue' 0.38

S. campanulata overige 0.18

S. nutans 0.80

S. sibirica 19.53

S. sibirica alba 0.32

S. siberia ‘spring beauty’ 1.31

S. tubergeniana 1.46

S. scilla alba _ 1.50

Sparaxis 5.0 11000

Sprekelia 8600 m2

Sternbergia 1400 m2 324000

Tigridia 3.0 ;

Tritonia 0.5-1.0

Vallota 1.0

Veltheimia 1500-2000 m2

Watsonia very little

Zantedeschia 5-10 139000

Zephyranthus 2.0 2393000

Source: Information on production - Anon., 1988; PVS, 1988.
Information on imports - Plantenziektenkundinge Dienst; (PD)
Statistics.

Sey ee

APPENDIX 4

Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues

Note: The plant names and notes on distribution are as given in the trade
catalogues.

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
LILIACEAE
Allium aflatuense 100-233 CN 2
A. austrouscianum 120 1
A. caeruleum 1000 EEu-cA 1
A. cyaneum 100 CN 1
A. cyathophorum
var. farreri 700 CN 1
A. elatum 180-250 uz 1
A. flavum 350 Eu/cs 1
A. giganteum 370-850 Hm 5
A. karataviense 600 TR 1
A. moly 47-60 Med 3
A. monanthum 160 JP KR CN ur 1
A. montanum 500-600 Eu 2
A. narcissiflorum 600-800 Eu cs 3
A. neopolitanum 45 Med 1
var. cowanii 106 1
var. grandiflorum 100 1
A. oreophilum 50 cs S 1
A. rosenalba 475 1
A. rosenbachianum 250-500 cA 2
A. roseum 100-120 3
A. schoenoprasum 80 Eu S JP 2
var. orientale 30-400 JP sa § 4
KR
A. schubertii 1000 P 1
A. sphaerocephalon 96 Eu IR 2
A. splendens 80-500 JP KR 4
var. kurilense 20-400 ku ka 5
A. thunbergii 160 JP TR KR 3
CN
A. togasii 160 JP 1
A. victorialis JP
var. platyphyllum 160-300 CN KR JP 2
sa
A. virgunculae 500-600 JP 3 V overcollection
var. kiiense 160-400 2 V overcollection
Brodiaea bridgesii 70 1
B. californica 600 1
B. hyacinthina 150 1
Calochortus uniflorus 750
C. venustus 950 1

-— 89 -

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
Caloscordum inutile 200 JP 1
Camassia cussickii 220 NAm 1
Cc. esculenta 180-200 2
C. leichtlinii 490 1
Chionodoxa luciliae 60-92 TR 2
var. gigantea 42-100 2
Colchicum albapurena 3000 1
Cc. autumnale 350 1
C. major 180-250 1
C. cilicicum 950 1
C. speciosum album 1000 1
Dichelostemma congestum 250 NAm 1
D. ida-maia 950 rare 1
Dracunculus sp. 1100 1
Erythronium japonicum 40-280 sa JP KR 15
E. citronella 450 1
Ferraria longa 475 ZA rare 1
F. undulata 150 1
Fritillaria acmopetala 500 1
F. camtschatcensis 90-2400 JP sa NAm 21
F. imperialis 700-1000
F. aurora 700 1
F. japonica 400 JP 1 V overcollection
var. koidzumiana 45-500 JP 7
F. meleagris 120-330 2
F. michailovskyi 1200-1500 TR 2
F. pallidiflora 1800 Ss 2
F. persica 700-1000 2
F. pudica 1000 Am 1
F. verticillata
var. thunbergii 45-230 CN 7
Gagea lutea 400 JP Eu 1
Gloriosa rothschildiana 420-1000 1
Ipheion 'Wisley Blue’
Lachenalia glaucina 90 ZA 1
L. pendula 90 1
L. reflexa 160 1
L. unicolor 90 1
L. viridiflora 160 1
Lilium sp. 700-1000 CN 4
Lilium sp. ; 800-950 CN 2
L. alexandrae 2000-3000 JP 3 Vv
L. auratum 150-500 JP 11
var. platyphyllum 270-1500 JP 4
L. callosum 400 JP CN KR 1
Ta
L. concolor 45-250 JP KR CN 6

var. partheneion
CN

—- 90 -

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species

L. maculatum var.

davuricum 150-450 JP sa KR 10
L. formosanum NANA 450-1000 CN 8
L. hansonii 70-120 JP KR S 1
L. japonicum 220-1000 JP 14
L.: japonicum var. abeanum 2 1 1 V overcollection
L. lancifolium 250 CN KR JP 1
L. lankongense 1800-2000 CN 2
L. leichtlinii 120-400 JP CN KR 2
L. longiflorum 110-200 JP 2
L. maculatum 300-500 JP 2
L. mackliniae 1800-2000 CN (rare) 3
L. medeoloides 150-600 JP S KR CN 7
L. nobilissimum 1200-1300 JP 3 E overcollection
L. philippinense 300 1
L. rubellum 220-800 JP 18
L. speciosum 400 JP 1
L. tenuifolium 260 1
Massonia 3400 ZA 1
Muscari armeniacum 25-55 2
M. botryanthus 25 1
M. botryoides 50 Eu 1
M. botryoides var. alba 60 Eu 1
M. comosum plumosum 100-120 S Eu wA 2
M. moschatum major 900 1
M. neglectum 100 FR IT 1
M. tubergenianum ? IR 1
Nomocharis spp. 1000-1500 CN 5
N. aperta 3000 CN 1
Ornithogalum arabicum 90-166 2
O. aureum 263-475 2
QO. balansae 100-125 2
O. thyrsoides 40-183 ZA 2
QO. umbellatum 90 Eu 1
Polyxine spp. 250 1
P. odorata 160 ZA 1
Sandersonia aurantiaca 350-700 ZA 1
Scilla campanulata 50-52 1

var. albamaxima 50 1
S. peruviana 150-203 2
S. scilloides 400 JP KR CN 1
S. sibirica ? S wA 1
S. tubergeniana ? 1
Trillium cernuum 1000 NAm 1
T. chloropetalum 1200 NAm 1
T. erectum 1000 NAm 1
T. erectum var. luteum 1500 NAm 1
T. grandiflorum 800-1500 NAm 2
T. grandiflorum var. plenum 1500 NAm 1

= Of =

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species

T. kamtschaticum

. luteum

. recurvatum
- rivale

sessile

HAAR IA

T. stylosum
T. tschonoskii

T. undulatum

T. sellnum
Tulipa chrysantha
T. clusiana

T. grengiorensis
T. kolpakowskiana
T. linifolia

I. praestans

var. tubergenii
var. fusilier

var. violasera

. humilis
schrenkii

. turkestanica

. tarda
batalinii

. saxatilis

. wilsoniana

RIAA IA AIA IH

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Alstromeria pereguillira

var. alba
var. rosea
A. pulchella
A. rhiguts
Brunsvigia rosea

var. purpurea-major
B. rosea var. marginata

B. rosea var. minerba

Galanthus elwesii
G. nivalis

Haemanthus coccineus

Hypoxis hirsuta
Ixilirion pallasii
Leucojum spp.

L. aestivum

L. autumnale

- smallii (apetalon)

price in
JP Yen

distribution

(1US$=120Y)

140-700

1000

1000

1500
1000-1200
70-400
1500
100-400

1000-1200
1000
80
100
300
100
75
200
80
130
100
190
250
130
170
150
200
100

750-1000
750-800
475

700

120-200
9000
2500

45-120
150-275
1500-3000
230

60

400
50-150
45-70

Eu

= bh =

uc

JP

KR

no. of Conservation
nurseries status for

(total 28) Japanese species

SrPUNERE

PRP RP NP EP EP EPP BP PRP PREP BD

RPere NN

PRR RP REN WWRH Ee

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
Lycoris aurea 200-800 CN JP TW 4
L. albiflora 120-800 CN JP Iw 4
L. incarnata 300 CN 1
L._ squamigera 250-200 CN JP 2
L. sanguinea 200 JP CN KR 2
L.: sprengeri 80-800 CN 3
Narcissus almada 55 1
N. bardorhome 300 1
N. bulbocodium 35-500 Eu 5
var. conspicuus 55-100 2
var. obesus 180 1
var. monophyrus 330 1
N. canaliculatus 150 2
N. cantabricus 600 ES 1
N. cyclamineus 600 PT 1
N. garill 70-130 TR 2
N. kasata 250 1
N. jonquilla 150 1
N. selma lagenloef 50 1
N. titatita ? 1
N. tylitomba 300 1
N. ‘baby moon’ ? 1
Nerine spp. 750-1100 2
N. birgo 1500 1
N. bowdenii 300-560 1
Rhodohypoxis sp. 300 ZA 1
Spiroxene capensis 100 ZA 1
Sternbergia lutea 55-183 IR cs 3
IRIDACEAE
Babiana odorata 800 1
B. picmia 800 1
B. tubergence 54 1
B. villosa 450 1
B. zahnenberg 15-55 2
Crocus chrysanthus 43-55 1
C. laevigatus 125 1
C. limenblance 35-60 2
C. sativus 32-160 4
C. zonatus 120 1
Geissorrhiza erosa 480 1
G. rochensis 490 1
Gladiolus albiella 150 1
G. carmineus 475 1
G. floribundus 200 1
Hesperantha buhrii 160-666 2
H. stanfordiae 160-300 2
Homeria breiniallis 90 1
H. lilacina 250 1

793) —

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1USs$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
Iris spp. 35 1
I. dardanus 360 1
I. danfordiae 150-170 2
I. reticulata 100-170 3
Ixia julanus 20-33 1
I. mars 20-122 2
Moraea pigandra 2000 1
M. glaucopis 2100 1
M. polystachya 950 1
Romulea bulbocodium 300 1
R. clusiana 110-250 2
R. rosea 110-275 2
R. citrina 200 1
Sparaxis albamaxima 100 1
S. tricolor 150 1
Tritonia hiarina 50 2
Watsonia alba 425 1
W. humilis 300 1
BEGONIACEAE
Begonia spp. 200 1
B. evansiana 175-300 CN 2
B. evansiana var. alba 225-650 4
OXALIDACEAE
Oxalis adenophylla 160 CL 1
O. bowie 60 ZA 2
QO. comosa 110 1
QO. hirta 120 ZA 1
QO. lobata 150 CL 1
QO. variabilis 49-51 ZA 1
QO. versicolor 60-100 ZA 2
PAPAVERACBAE
Corydalis ambigua 130-600 JP sa CN 6
KR Ok
Cc. lutea 800 ur KR 1
ARACEAE
Arisaema spp. 2000 CN 1
A. heterocephalum 700 dP 1
A. heterophyllum 400-1000 JP TW CN $3 Vv
KR
A. iyoanum 800 JP 1
A. kiushianum 450-2000 JP (rare) 8

= byl e

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

eS SS SS ee

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
sc AP eh a st pe La NE
A. nakaianum 1000 JP 1
A. ringens 500-600 JP CN KR 3
A. sikokianum 380-1000 JP 8 V locally
: overcollection
A. ternatipartitum 700-800 JP 3
A. thunbergii 450-1500 JP 6
A. thunbergii
subsp. urashima 120-600 JP 7
ARACEAE
Arisarum sp. 1500 CN 1
Arisarum sp. 2000 CN 1
A. proboscideum 1000 IT 1
Zantedeschia albo-maculata 100-330 1
Z. rehmanii 240-500 1
PRIMULACEAE
Cyclamen cilicium 600 TR 1
C. coum 600-800 EEu-IR 4
C. europaeum (purpurascens) 600 Eu 1
C. hederifolium 600-700 Eu-TR 4
RANUNCULACEAE
Aconitum spp. 250-10000
A. apoiense 500-600 _JP 2
var. alba 4000 1
A. kitadakense 220-700 JP 6
A. napellus 600 Eu 1
var. alba 800-1000 Eu 1
A. senanense 220-600 JP 3
A. septentrionale ivorine 1500 Ss 1
A. yuparense 600 JP 1
Anemone blanda 80-250 S
A. decasne 15-65 3
A. flaccida 400 JP 1
A. fulgens 100 1
A. magellanica 600 Eu 1
A. magellanica var. major 500 2
A. nemorosa
A. obtusiloba 1000 Hm 1
alba 800
A. palmata 1200 S Eu 1
Caltha ficaria 250-400 2
var. collarette 500 1
var. cuprea 400 1
var. flore pleno 250-600 3
var. primrose 500 1
var: randall's white 500-600 2

= OF =

App. 4 Bulbous Plants Recorded in Japanese Nursery Catalogues (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation
JP Yen nurseries status for
(1US$=120Y) (total 28) Japanese species
Eranthis pinnatifida 100-700 JP 7
E. hyemalis 100-600 Eu M-E 3
BE. cilicica 50 TR 1

See p. 100 for key to distribution codes.

=196 =

APPENDIX 5

Temperate Orchids recorded in Japanese Trade

Notes:
1. Only taxa for which full name is given in catalogues are included in this
table. In many cases specific names are not given or unnamed varieties or

forms are offered, with the origin given as Japan, China or Taiwan. In many
such cases the prices are very high.

2. The taxa indicated as exported by Japan are those which have been recorded
in CITES data for the past ten years. Additional taxa, not recorded in the
nursery catalogues surveyed for the present study, have also been exported.

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation Exported
JP Yen nurseries status in by Japan
(1uUS$=120Y) Japan (Y = yes)
ORCHIDACEAE
Amitostigma gracile 200-600 JP KR CN 11 Vv
overcollection
A. keiskei 200-50000 JP 22 Vv
overcollection
A. kinoshitae 30-2000 JP 19
A. lepidum 200-3000 JP 3
Bletilla formosana 260-400 JP TW 5
B. striata 170-2500 CN JP TW LA 4 V/E Y
VN overcollection
forma. gebina 330-18000 (rare) 7
Bulbophyllum 800-1700 TW KR CN S Y
transarisanense IN MY AU
Calanthe aristulifera 300-700 JP 10 Vv Y
overcollection
var. amamiana 200-1200 JP 5 E
overcollection
var. bicolor 300-70000 10
(hybrid)
C. discolor 100-200000 JP CN KR 7 Vv
overcollection
C. fauriei 450-600 JP TW 3 E
overcollection
C. furcata 800-1000 PH 3
C. gracilis 1000 CN IN LA VN 1
C. higoebine (hybrid) 700-90000 9
C. hizenebine 1700-150000 JP 8
(hybrid)
C. izuinsularis 4300-60000 JP 8 ?Ex
overcollection
C. kawakamii 300-1200 Tw 2
C. x koozuebine 9500 JP 2
C. masuca 350-25000 BT CN ID IN 6 E
MY NP overcollection

App. 5 Temperate Orchids recorded in Japanese Trade (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation Exported
JP Yen nurseries status in by Japan
(1US$=120Y) Japan (Y = yes)
C. nipponica 300-1000 JP 5 Vv
overcollection
C. oblanceolata 15000-50000 1 ?Ex
overcollection
C. okinawensis 700-14000 JP TW 4
C. plantaginea 1500-6000 BI CN IN
NP PK 3
Cc. reflexa 150-1500 JP KR TW CN 14 Vv
overcollection
C. satsumaebine
(hybrid) 2300-200000 10
C. schlechteri 7000 JP 1 Vv
overcollection
C. sieboldii 75-400 JP 14
C. tokunoshimensis 700-2500 JP 5 E
overcollection
C. tricarinata 220-1500 JP BI CN IN
NP PK 14 Vv
overcollection
Cc. (discolor
x tricarinata) 7000-300000 JP 6
Calypso bulbosa
var. bulbosa 230-1800 JP 8 V/E
overcollection
C. bulbosa 600-1006 JP KR sa 4 Vv
var. speciosa S Bu overcollection
NAm
Cheirostylis dayanum 3600 JP Iw 1 E
var. austrojaponicum overcollection
Cirrhopetalum uraiense 2000 JP Tw 1
Cymbidium sp. 1800-2000 JP 2
Cymbidium lancifolium 300-1500 CN JF IW 3
to ID + IN
Cypripedium
sp. 'Formosana' 1500-3000 CN TW 6
C. sp. 'Formosana—
citrinum' 400-1000 Tw 9
Cc. debile 90-500 JP CN 13 V/E
C. guttatum var. 700-1500 JP 5 E
yatabeanum overcollection
C. macranthum var.
speciosum 1600-3200 JP KR S 11 E
sa EEu overcollection
C. macranthum var.
hotei-atsumorianum 1200-4500 JP 17 Vv
overcollection
C. macranthum var.
rebunense 18000-20000 JP 8 E
overcollection

— 198) =

App. 5 Temperate Orchids recorded in Japanese Trade (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation Exported
JP Yen nurseries status in by Japan
(1USs$=120Y) Japan (Y = yes)
Eleorchis japonica 80-7000 JP 16 Y
Eria reptans 800 JP TW NP 1
Gymnadenia camtschatica 350-800 JP ku sa ka 7
var alba 1500 1
G. conopsea 160-800 6 Y
G. cucullata 100-400 CN JP NP SU
PL DD 8
Habenaria dentata 800-1800 JP CN TW 8
Ic BU Hm
H. radiata 18-4000 JP KR 18 Vv
overcollection
H. rhodocheila 600-1200 TH TW CN HK
LA MY VN 7
H. sagittifera 400-500 JP CN 2
H. serapiace 400-500 1
Herminium inconspicuum 500 JP 1
H. monorchis 650-110000 JP SU Eu 14 Vv
overcollection
Liparis bicallosa 500-5000 JP CN TW Hm 4
L. fujisanensis 250-700 JP 11 at
overcollection
L. japonica 160-700 JP CN KR 5 Y
L. keitaoensis 325-800 CN 5
L. krameri 60-400 JP KR 11
L. kumokiri 100-330 JP KR 3
L. makinoana 250-500 JP 16
L. nervosa 300-400 JP +
pantropical 3
L. plicata 330-800 JP CN TW HK 2
L. sasakii 1750-2000 TW rare 2
Orchis aristata 160-2500 JP 19
forma albiflora 2500-3500 2
QO. chidori 550-50000 JP 17 Vv
overcollection
var. curtipes 2000-2300 JP 2 Vv
overcollection
O. cyclochila 50-600 JP KR ur 10
O. graminifolia var. f
Braminifolia 80-500000 JP KR 22 Vv
overcollection
O. graminifolia var.
alba 2000-25000 1
QO. graminifolia var.
kurokamianum 1000-80000 JP 16 E
overcollection
QO. graminifolia var.
micropunctata 550-100000 JP 16 E
overcollection

—~ 99 —

App. 5 Temperate Orchids recorded in Japanese Trade (ctd)

Species price in distribution no. of Conservation Exported
JP Yen nurseries status in by Japan
(1US$=120Y) Japan (Y = yes)
wees 8S Tn sev bene)" has eo Bee eae ee ee
QO. graminifolia var.
suzukiana 550-50000 JP 17 E
overcollection
Q. joo-iokiana 180-600 JP 11 V overcollection

Oreorchis patens 300-600 JP CN 5
Phaius flavus 500-600 JP TW PH Hm 3 Vv
ID MY overcollection
P. tankervilleae 800-5000 CN JP to AU 4 Vv
LK ZZ CU JM overcollection
Platanthera florenti 500 JP 1
P. metabifolia 150-500 JP sa ku 11
Pleione formosana 140-700 Tw 10 Y
P. formosana
var. alba 350-1300 Tw 10
P. forrestii 400-3000 CN BU 7 Y
P. limprichtii 800-2000 CN 5
P. pogonioides 800-2000 CN 3
P. yunnanensis 90-2000 CN 5 Y
Pogonia japonica 40-1000 JP CN KR TW 13 Y
P. japonica
var. albiflora 200-2000 JP 9
P. maculata 130 Hm BU LA 1
P. minor 500 JP TW 1
Spiranthes sinensis 60-10000 JP CN KR S 10 Y
IN MY AU
Explanation of distribution codes
AF Afghanistan IN India P Palestine
AU Australia IR Iran PH Philippines
BT Bhutan IT Italy PK Pakistan
BU Burma JIM Jamaica PL Poland
cA Central Asia JP Japan PT Portugal
CL Chile ka Kamchatka Ss Siberia
CN China KR Korea sa Sakhalin
cs Caucasus Ks Kashmir SU Soviet Union
CU Cuba ku Kurile Islands TH Thailand
DD East Germany LA Laos TR Turkey
EEu East Europe LK Sri Lanka TW Taiwan
ES Spain M-E Middle East uc Ussuri
Eu Europe Med Mediterranean uz Uzbek
FR France MY Malaysia VN Viet Nam
Hm Himalaya NAm North America WA West Asia
Ic Indochina NP Nepal ZA South Africa
ID Indonesia Ok Sea of Okhotsk ZZ Hawaii

- 100 -

APPENDIX 6

Summary Reports of Country Visits

Greece

Mike Read visited Greece 4-11 October 1988. During this time discussions were
held with Government officials, botanists and conservationists as listed
below. All the people approached whilst in Greece were willing to help with
the research. Other people who provided information on Greece for the project
are listed in Appendix 8.

Mr Byron Antipas
President, Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens.

Mr Peter Broussalis
Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens.

Mr George Chandrinos
Wildlife Management Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Athens.

Mr Costas
Forestry Service (Natural Parks), Athens.

Mrs Niki Goulandris
Goulandris Natural History Museum, Kifissia.

Mr Evangelos Passidis
Floriculture Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Athens.

Mr Giannis Petamides
CITES Management Authority, Wildlife Management Department, Ministry of
Agriculture, Athens.

Mr George Sfikas
Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens.

Mrs Stamatiadou
Goulandris Natural History Museum, Kifissia.

Mr Grigoris Tsounis
Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens.

Professor Yannitsaros
University of Athens, Athens.

Mr Yanoulis
Plant Protection Service, Athens.

2. Japan

Sara Oldfield visited Japan from 6-14 November 1988 to set up the Japanese
bulb trade study with TRAFFIC(Japan). Discussions were held primarily with
H. Tokunaga, the TRAFFIC officer responsible for the Japanese study, and
Miss K. Yokoi, the research officer employed to investigate the trade.
Department stores, wholesale plant companies and wild flower nurseries were
visited and accounts of the nurseries are included in Appendix 7.

- 101 -

App 6 (ctd)
3. Nepal

Tim and Carol Inskipp carried out preliminary enquiries on Nepalese
bulb trade during a visit to Nepal (April to June 1988, primarily to
carry out bird census work). Discussions were held with Dr S.B. Malla

of the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu. This
agency is responsible for the authorisation of plant exports from
Nepal. Dr Malla provided the names of five Nepalese nurseries which

trade in bulbs. He reported that no exports of wild bulbs had been
authorised. One of the nurseries was visited and found to be growing
hybrids for sale within Nepal. Another trader was contacted by
telephone.

Discussions were also held with Dr Shresthra of the Royal Nepal
Academy who is an expert on plant conservation in Nepal.

4. Netherlands

During Phase I of the Bulb Trade and Propagation Study, Beverley Lear
conducted research in the Netherlands (26-29 August 1987). Discussions
were held with Minouk van der Plas-Haarsma, TRAFFIC(Netherlands);
Mr T. Schleedorn, Ministerie van Landbouw en Visserij and Dr G. van
Vliet, Director of the Leiden Botanic Garden. Three companies trading
in species bulbs were visited and the Hobaho Auctions at Lisse. Dutch
research for Phase II of the Study was mainly carried out by Astrid van
Senus, TRAFFIC(Netherlands), who contacted the following experts,
institutions and various bulb companies.

Mr Water Planteziehtekundige Dienst (PD)

Mr Hueting Produktschap voor Siergewassen (PVS)

Mr P. van Leeuwen Laboratorium voor Bloembollenanderzoek (LBO)

Mr T. Schleedoorn Ministerie van Landbouw en Visserij

Mr van Hulst Me ee re Md of

Mr Schiirmann " * * oe iD

Mr B. van Reeuwijk Bloembollenkeurings Dienst (BD)

Mr van Ruiten Cooperative Nederlandse Bloembollencentrale
(CNB)

Mr B. van Duiyvenbode Koningklijke Algemene Vereniging voor

Bloembollencultuur
Sara Oldfield visited the Netherlands on 16-17 January 1989 to
discuss the Dutch research with Astrid van Senus. During this time
discussions were held with Mr Nimwegen, Director of the International
Bloembollen Centrum, and Mr M. Hoog and Mr A. Hoog of Hoog Botanical
Specialities. The CNB (Cooperatieve Nederlandse Bloembollencentrale)
bulb auction was visited.

5. Portugal and Spain

Mike Read carried out research on the bulb trade in Portugal and Spain
(primarily concentrating on wild Narcissus) from 25 May to 7 June
1988. Discussions were held with botanists, traders and government
agencies in the two countries and visits were made to areas where
collecting is known to take place.

The itinerary was as follows:
— Madrid, Spain.

—- Malveira, Portugal to meet Henning Christiansen, botanist and
horticulturalist.

- 102 -

App 6 (ctd)

-— Serra de Estrela, Portugal to search for localities of the species
most frequently in trade and for evidence of collecting, in a region
where this had been reported.

- Oporto, Portugal, to locate and establish the various
responsibilities of the government departments and meet with the
agricultural authorities.

- Oporto, Portugal, to visit the botanic gardens and meet botanists.

- Coimbra, Portugal, to meet several botanists at the University.

-— Madrid, Spain, to meet many botanists at the Botanic Gardens.

-, Picos de Europa, North Spain, to search for localities of Narcissus
and evidence of collecting in a region renowned for its floral
diversity and variety of species of horticultural interest.

The individuals and organisations contacted whilst in Portugal and
Spain were:

Portugal:

Direccao Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho
8° Andan, 128 Rua Goncalo Cristovao, Porto.

Direccao Regional de Agricultura de Entre Douro e Minho, Gabinete
Director Regional
11846 Estrada Circunvalacao (Rua Snra da Hora), Porto.

Dr Theresa Almeida
Instituto Botanico Dr. Julio Henriques, Universidade de Coimbra,
3049 Coimbra.

Henning Christiansen
Quinta das Flores, Casal do Boralho, 2665 Malveira.

Eng. Carlos Goncalves, Director
Parque Natural de Serra da Estrela, Rua 1° de Maio, 6260 Manteigas.
{unable to provide any. information, but was already concerned with
the problem and hoped to be able to look into it].

Dr Jorge Paiva
Instituto Botanico Dr. Julio Henriques, Universidade de Coimbra,
3049 Coimbra. [Is investigating the situation in Portugal. Has
some contacts in the trade. Recommended further contacts].

Snra. Maria Augusta Oliveira Rodrigues (Exporter)
Rua do Crasto 265, Valadares, Vila Nova da Gaia, Porto.

Direccao-General do Comercir Exterir
Praca D. Filipa Leucastre, 22, 3° Sala 52, Porto.

Spain

Snr. Alfredo Barra, (Gardens Staff, Narcissus specialist)
Real Jardin Botanico, Plaza de Murillo, 28014 Madrid. [gave
information on Narcissus species considered to be endangered in
Spain and threats certain species are under].

Prof. Castroviejo, Director
Real Jardin Botanico, Plaza de Murillo, 28014 Madrid.

-— 103 -

App 6 (ctd)

Teresa Farino (Independent Ecologist)
Casa de las Escalonas, Frama, Potes, Cantabrica.

Notes on Narcissus collection in Portugal

During this research only one trade exporter was identified in
Portugal, namely Oliveira Rodrigues of Oporto. Circumstantial evidence
of at least one other and larger exporter was gathered.

Rodrigues's business is an old family concern inherited some years
ago by the founder's grand-daughter who now appears to be letting the
business slowly wind down as she has insufficient time to devote to
it. The founder had apparently explored for bulbs all over Spain and
Portugal and set up a substantial trade with the Netherlands. The
cultivation of imported seed, from the Netherlands and the UK, was also
mentioned as having occurred in the past but did not appear to have
been particularly successful, probably because of the time taken to
reach a saleable size - approximately five years. Cultivation of
collected bulbs which were too small for immediate export had been
going on for many years, and continues to do so in an area near Oporto,
reputedly accounting for 40-50% of Rodrigues’ export. The present
owner, Maria Augusta, referred to another company exporting
wild-collected bulbs, based in Oporto, but did not know its identity.

Rodrigues reported that they did not export the rarer species as
they were ‘too difficult to get* and there was ‘no commercial
interest’. Collection from the wild was apparently carried out by
young boys and girls as it was reputedly considered undignified work
for adults.

Rodrigues claimed that their current levels of export were around
10 000 Narcissus annually, including both ‘wild-transplanted’ and
wild-collected stocks - exclusively from the Serra Caramulo. This
figure represents only one per cent of the known import to the
Netherlands from Portugal, indicating that there are other exporters
involved in the trade. Dr Paiva of Coimbra University reported that he
knew several individuals in the Serra da Estrela who were involved in
collecting bulbs but who would be very unlikely to provide reliable
information to an outsider. He volunteered to look carefully into the
situation himself, but as yet has made no progress. A trip to the
Serra da Estrela revealed no evidence of collecting and few and
scattered small populations of Narcissus species, including those most
often seen in trade, namely N. triandrus and N. bulbocodium. However,
the director of Serra da Estrela Natural Park, Eng. Carlos Goncalves,
was already aware of the problem which collection of bulbs posed in the
park, and asked for assistance in bringing the trade under control
although he knew nothing of the species, quantities and individuals
concerned. He stated that he would welcome the listing of Narcissus
species in the CITES Appendices, and regretted the inadequacy of
legislation protecting Serra da Estrela, as well as his near complete
lack of staff for looking after the park. The legislation covering
Natural Parks is weaker than that for National Parks.

- 104 -

APPENDIX 7
DEFINITIONS OF THE IUCN CONSERVATION (RED DATA BOOK) CATEGORIES
A. THREATENED CATEGORIES

Extinct (Ex)

Taxa which are no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated
searches of their type localities and other known or likely places.

Endangered (E)

Taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the
causal factors continue operating.

Included are taxa whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level
or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed
to be in immediate danger of extinction.

Vulnerable (V)

Taxa believed likely to move into the Endangered category in the near
future if the causal factors continue operating.

Included are taxa of which most or all the populations are decreasing
because of overexploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other
environmental disturbance; taxa with populations that have been
seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not yet assured;
and taxa with populations that are still abundant but are under
threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range.

Rare (R)

Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or
Vulnerable, but are at risk.

These taxa are usually localized within restricted geographical areas
or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range.

Indeterminate (I)
Taxa known to be Extinct, Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare but where
there is not enough information to say which of the four categories is
appropriate.

B. UNKNOWN CATEGORIES
Status Unknown (?)
No information.

Candidate (C)

Taxa whose status is being assessed and which are suspected but not yet
definitely known to belong to any of the above categories.

- 105 -

App 7 (ctd)
Insufficiently known (K)
Taxa that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to any of
the above categories, following assessment, because of the lack of
information.
C. NOT THREATENED CATEGORY

Safe (nt)
Neither rare nor threatened.
NOTES
1. Some combinations are permitted, falling into two series. Within

the threatened categories, the following combinations are

permitted, signifying that the plant is definitely in one or the
other of the two categories concerned:

Extinct/Endangered Ex/E
Endangered/Vulnerable E/V
Endangered/Rare E/R
Vulnerable/Rare V/R

Between the threatened categories and the safe (not threatened)
category, the following signify that the plant is on _ the
borderline between the two categories concerned:

Vulnerable/not threatened V/nt
Rare/not threatened R/nt

It does not signify that the plant could be anywhere on the scale
encompassed by those categories; if that was the case, the category
Unknown should be used. V/nt may, however, be used for plants
threatened in a major part of their range, but safe elsewhere.

- 106 -

APPENDIX 8

Not to be included for publication

Notes on nurseries contacted during the study

Japan

1. FUJIMI ENGEI
Tomihara, Fujimi-choo, Suwa-gun, Nagano-ken.

Visited by H. Tokunaga 3.11.88

This nursery has 7 greenhouses on approximately 1200 m?. It is
run by Mrs Yoshioka, her daughter, and one part-time worker. Located
in a popular mountainous resort area. The nursery specialises in
Rhododendron and the only bulb species currently offered is Lilium
davuricum. Plants are grown from wild-collected seed. No exports.

2. YOSHIOKA ENGEI
7801 Kotoh, Chino-shi, Nagano-ken.

Contacted by ‘phone 2.11.88

A mail order company selling Japanese and foreign alpine plants.
No plants are demonstrated and visitors not welcome.

3. SAKATA ENGEI CO., LTD.
Contacted by ‘phone 12.11.88

A major wholesale company dealing in garden plants, and involved in
import and export. Export is mainly of seed and not bulbs, sent to
commercial nurseries. No ‘wild' plants are exported. This company
sells bulbs in pre-packs as seen, for example, at the Mitsukoshi
Department Store. Pre-packs of Ipheion uniflora, I. ‘wisley blue’,
Allium _moly, Chionodoxa lucilliae var. gigantea, Herbertia sp., and
Allium aflatuense were on sale. :

4. HEIDIE JAPANESE RARE PLANTS NURSERY
2 Wariishi Niwasaka, Fukushima City, Fukushima 960-22.

Visited by S. Oldfield and H. Tokunaga, 11.11.88.

In the greenhouses a range of alpines and insectivorous plants was
seen together with some bulbous plants in pots, including Cyclamen,
Iris and Lilium. The proprietor's wife gave information about species
available and the nursery's trade. The proprietor was in Europe at the
time of the visit. When asked about dry bulbs wild-collected Arisaema
thunbergii subsp. urashima were shown. The problem of
misidentification of wild-collected bulbs was mentioned together with
the very high prices of certain orchid forms when first introduced to
the trade. The nursery deals in imported plants from countries such as

Korea and Taiwan. A separate species list is available for Chinese
rare plants. The family business started with local collection of
unusual forms of pine. S

-— 107 -

The nursery list includes native species of Allium, Fritillaria,
Lilium, Trillium and temperate orchids. A wholesale price list is
available. The nursery exports overseas and price codes are given in

US dollars. The proprietor's wife talked about CITES controls for
orchids.

5. CHUO ALPINE PLANT NURSERY
345-3 Hikima, Gunma machi, Gunma 370-35.

Visited by S. Oldfield and H. Tokunaga 11.11.88

The proprietor Y¥. Koyama showed the range of bulbs available and
discussed aspects of the trade. He has contacts in the UK and has had
plants confiscated at Heathrow Airport. Deals with specialist bulb
firms in the UK. Wild plants of Erythronium japonicum and Corydalis
ambigua seen. Y. Koyama said that 90% of the plants were of cultivated
origin and that virtually all the plants of interest are in cultivation
so there is no need for wild-collection. He mentioned CITES and the
limitation on trade imposed by plant health regulations, particularly
strict in the UK. The nursery was established about 18 years ago. The
nursery list includes native species of Arisaema, Fritillaria, Lilium
and Trillium.

6. THE YOKOHAMA NURSERY CO., LTD.
15 Karasawa, Minami-ku, Yokohama

Visited by H. Tokunaga and S. Oldfield 10.11.88

The Yokohama Nursery Company is a wholesale company selling
ornamental plants, bulbs and_ seeds. Discussions were held with
Y. Ishigo of the Foreign Trade Department, who provided trade
catalogues.

The Garden Catalogue of the Yokohama Nursery Company includes a
range of cultivated Tulipa, Narcissus, Crocus, Gladiolus, Hyacinthus,
Lilium, Allium and aAmaryllis, some of which are displayed in
pre-packs. The company sells rockery daffodils such as
N. bulbocodium. A range of terrestrial orchids including Habenaria and
Pleione is included in the catalogue. The specialist nurseries visited
said that the Yokohama Nursery Company is not a source of ‘wild

plants'. The terrestrial orchids are, however, likely to be of wild
origin, although no information was provided on the source by
Mr Ishigo. Large quantities of Habenaria have been exported by the

company to bulb firms in the USA.

7. MIZUSAWA ENGET
Kanagawa Prefecture.

Visited by H. Tokunaga and S. Oldfield 14.11.88.

This firm is a wholesale supplier of “wild plants” and was
suggested as a source of such plants by Y. Ishigo of the Yokohama
Nursery Company. Mizusawa Engei supplies retail firms such as Sakata
and Chuo Alpine Plant Nursery. Wild plants are bought from Japanese
plant collectors, usually farmers, particularly species from low
altitude areas which are popular in cultivation. Plants from high

-— 108 -

altitudes are difficult in cultivation and are not so readily available

from collectors. Plants are imported from China, Taiwan (for example
Pleione formosana and P. limprichtii) and Korea. Lilium species
available include L. auratum, L. leichtlinii, L. maculatum and

L. rubellum.
The Netherlands

1. C.S. WEIJERS & ZONEN B.V.
Hillegom.

Warehouse visited by Beverley Lear 27.8.87

Crates of wild dug Arum dracunculus and baskets of wild Cyclamen
seen. Lilium candidum and Iris bucharica were possibly of wild
origin. Cultivated Ornithogalum arabicum and Narcissus 'Paperwhites'
in orange crates from Israel (Carmel). This is a major company dealing
in bulbs from the wild as well as from cultivated sources and had
apparently imported large numbers from Turkey during 1987
(T. Schleedorn, pers. comm.). (The following bulbs are indicated as
‘imports’ in their 1987 catalogue: Amaryllis ‘belladonna’ Arum
dracunculus, Arum _italicum, Calla aethiopica, Cyclamen _cilicicum,
Cyclamen coum hybrid, Cyclamen neapolitanum, Cyclamen orbiculatum,
Eranthis cilicia, Fritillaria persica, Ornithogalum thyrsoides. )

2. MICHAEL H. HOOG
86 Koninginneweg, NL-2001 De Haarlem.

Visited by Beverley Lear August 1987.
Astrid van Senus and Sara Oldfield 16.1.89

Michael Hoog used to work for Van Tubergen where he was responsible
for miscellaneous bulbs. His nursery is now on the site of the old
Zwanenburg nursery and was established as a business 11 years ago. A
very specialist range of bulbs is offered and the firm has persuaded 15
Dutch growers to expand their crop range to include certain
miscellaneous species. The firm supplies RHS, Wisley, RBG, Kew, other
botanic gardens and specialist nurseries such as Broadleigh Gardens.

Some of the stock is of wild provenance; the relatively small
quantities obtained are used to build up stocks vegetatively or by
seed. Michael Hoog expressed a desire for closer links between
conservationists and growers, asking for grants and stubsidies to
support research into propagation techniques and to encourage growers
to raise more stocks of species currently collected from the wild.

3. VAN TUBERGEN B.V.

33 Achterweg-Zuid, Lisse.

Visited by Beverley Lear 27.8.87.

A major bulb supplier both retail and wholesale. Specialist in
species bulbs. Operates conglomerate of nursery sites known as

Zwannenburg nursery in the north of the Netherlands. The company also
operates in the UK and Denmark selling bulbs from the Netherlands.

- 109 -

Louis Kabbel provided information on the bulbs propagated, those
bought from Dutch growers and those imported from abroad, as listed in
the retail catalogue. Van Tubergen's major market is botanical and
zoological gardens worldwide.

4. Firms contacted by A. van Senus:
C.S. Weijers and Zonen B.V.
Van Tubergen B.V.
S. Admiraal
Bakker
Kapitein
Willemse
Baltus
Fa. Mantel
Fa. Stassen

- 110 -

1. JACQUES AMAND
Clamp Hill, Stanmore, Middlesex HA/ 3JS.

Contacted by ‘phone 3.9.87.

Extensive range of species sold at wholesale rates per 100 and per
1000. (Arisaema, Arum, Cyclamen, Cypripedium, Eremurus, Erythronium,
Fritillaria, Lilium, Nerine, Ornithogalum, Trillium, are sold per 10
and per 100.)

At the 1987 Chelsea Flower Show this firm exhibited a wide
selection of the above bulbs including Cypripedium, Trillium and

Arisaema. It was claimed that the original stocks of Arisaema,
Calanthe, and other bulbs were collected in the Himalayas and that
stocks are now propagated. The firm employs the help of interested
amateurs.

Claimed to be propagating most of their stock, whilst at the same
time having direct contact with dealers all over the _ world.
Fritillaria persica ‘from Dutch grower’, snowdrops from France, Lilium
candidum from cultivated source in Israel (Carmel), Trillium
(propagated by ‘chopping up the bulbs’), Leucojum aestivum from their
own stocks (although priced considerably lower than other species. At
first, contact said that they were propagating Narcissus species and
later said that Broadleigh Nursery were the only company propagating
Narcissus in this country. This company also has a retail catalogue.
It is generally regarded amongst the trade to be the most significant
UK dealer in collected bulbs (M.J. Brown, M. Hoog, pers. comm.) and is
believed to buy direct from Turkey (C. Skelmersdale, pers. comm.).

2. WINCHESTER BULB GROWERS LTD.
‘ Winnall Down Farm, Winchester, Hants. SO21 1HF.

Contacted by ‘phone 3.9.87.

Very important supplier to garden centres in the south of England,
having replaced Geest as market leader. Suppliers of large range of
Tulipa and Narcissus cultivars in display boxes and pre-packs. Usual
range of miscellaneous bulbs sold as pre-packs.

Grow their own daffodil cultivars, with some bought from the Scilly
Isles. They no longer grow Tulips. All miscellaneous bulbs and Tulips
are now bought through the Netherlands. They do not deal direct with
Portugal.

3. BROADLEIGH GARDENS
Bishop’s Hull, Taunton, Somerset.
Visited by Beverley Lear 21.7.87.

This is a small nursery specialising in small unusual bulbs, and in
particular Narcissus species. It is the only UK nursery known to be
Browing its own Narcissus stocks from seed.

-— 111 -

4. P. CHRISTIAN
Pentre Cottages, Minera, Wrexham, Clwyd.

Contacted by ‘phone 1987.

Specialist in rare and unusual bulbs. Some species propagated from
personal collections in Greece. P. Christian knows of no Greek
dealers. Imports Trillium from USA, exports mainly to F.R. Germany,
USA, Holland and Japan. In responding to the Gardening from Which?
survey, claimed to be eliminating wild-collected plants from the
nursery list.

5. POTTERTON AND MARTIN
The Cottage Nursery, Moortown Road, Nettleton, Caistor, Lincs.

Contacted by ‘phone 1987.

A specialist bulb nursery with a list of rare and unusual bulbs.
Iris reticulata and Iris histriodes offered by this firm are
wild-collected. Many other species at this nursery are also thought to
be wild-collected. This nursery refused to co-operate with the

Gardening from Which? survey.
6. CAMBRIDGE BULBS

40 Whittlesford Road, Newton, Cambridge

Contacted by ‘phone 10.8.87.

The proprietor is a keen conservationist and grows many bulbs from
seed (Botanic Garden collections). Probably the best UK nursery for

propagation of unusual bulbs. Also buys from London dealers (probably
J. Amand).

7. AVON BULBS
Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire.

Contacted at 1987 Chelsea Flower Show.

Staff claimed that the firm buys bulbs from abroad and from

Spalding Auction Rooms. In the Gardening from Which? survey,
Czechoslovakia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Germany and Eire, were

mentioned as sources of bulbs.

8. RUPERT BOWLBY
Gatton, Reigate, Surrey.

Contacted at 1987 Chelsea Flower Show.

The proprietor claimed that all plants are grown from seed and that
he disapproved of wild-collection.

- 112 -

MAS TAINAN .2 8
ayy 15 ee 7 i4¥ ‘eeejjo5 oosaq@.
4) vd beJoalsaand~ aa
x
' Ed Ea It edind Laeaeusc | Poe » 3s ifetong?

Fi v" ein 4 dre pai tseile ingozaeg ©

: ° os epadedctabsh Bp ees nd gated”
non a t ia mat saeey ; ha ed «ASR “he
: 4 it : te ar Ts Me ty Shem bs Comp « emaesal” vi

en kt wiveaem i
1 v Maries ro s!
j

en j i mi ; ims i Pie.
side out eT Meet Ink hae eerSsaclm:. , eae vt he

' ) ators ted 5
“ 2 ie | J DG yd beioadno? .
‘lay ; : ig 2* She \dae
Caudtien Di) sontaret dahds 4 citing Tanya tien te tive Doge |
(<> 0 a ra Ane 13 hayes io > epee! Py Essie ne Coe 0 vee V eb@aree iy ? ‘as
iSuar aka wepe goat neidd Ye :

‘ 29a Jo, weet,
oo3 i eee -Jognta peg at tom Galen. - Dae ed ee cath co
Be ccuslterayay ems ewer teed
ra wes pay ;
aPiery eer ‘
One

os wghtiedasd )~aadw> ir
“eo 1B. B wT ‘ iat
"i urkew (6 See ew Sores eed"

soy) sited pike peosy bas daisolzagvecnes wasd ip et qodeliquag |
ok qegeanr ae: tmebeed aroidedest tzapi seats id nabrad al aastog,

yidedouy) scosach Webiiewo meal, Gy ste Gye: > aabiee (eaiaienia to. aok

eerden cewle i= ee

wathet' Deeded... win eae, ne

=

re
:

bs

wees > lees je @ieekaey be
in liw #eid co sh pentars ery
evckivars, MIRY ghee, f<age .
rer’ bee. hae stip: dae nédecs., eves pare’ aoile: yore
hil ad nn SE pba ie tends: Teh we: baoHiles
vos ‘Vawiees ,cots dmot . .wwdadweh
sndfad to sais

Ld, dart ay) oe’ igs ty Y,

é