it } HK Wye ity f uty ie abe tat a soee. “ “pb seen Pa ” Oe “ay uit peter petal ae SEN er Mr ya bOnYS ai qe ASS els vray [Fin rf BON se Tr 4 " ehayh (ahi es ee ye Payee Ta 2 meeiehs od eta thos at fhaiete pare ee ty a Midas “4 “er Ps ia i eet $ 4 ae " 4 i (pie Be , See Tovap to io ti } 6 ea) be Ry ara: Stee tater Preys ity Pyrite ues ate tet ee ath iy " ae, ioe - for ware hp Lats mae geese sg%s nyt pat 9 bee AS 4 we oo a Gepeetat Fr ‘ whee es " SMITHSONIAN IN STITUTION hake none BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY © - BULLETIN 128 . ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS - ie Numbers 13-18 s BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 1 Auri legendi ratio in rivis é montibus Apa- XL latcy decurrentibus. Rocrz abeoloco, in quo nofira arx cxtructa fuit, magni funt montes,Indorum lingua, ip Apalatcy cognominati,€ quibus sue ex topographica charta videre licet , oriuntur tres R) magni rivi,provolventes arenam, CHi multum auri, argenti C7 axis admixtum cf. Eam } ob cauam illius regionts incole fof]as in rivis faciunt , ut provoluta ab aqua arena, meas ‘ DS propter gravitatem cadat: ag oe inde eduCta in certum locum deferunt, er aliquanto poft tempore, denuo fo Sis arenam quae incidit ex aurientes,colligunt er cymbis impofitam per ingens fis- men devehunt, énoftris Maii nomine infignitum, quod in mare fefe exonerat. Opes qua inde proveniunt, nunc Hifpani in {unm wfum con~ wertere norunt. PLACER MINING BY INDIANS OF GEORGIA. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS Numbers 13-18 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1941 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. - - - - - + = Price 70 cents (Fo a) fs ySARP Rs eek yn oad LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Bureau or AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D. C., March 1, 1940. Str: I have the honor to submit the accompanying manuscripts, entitled ‘The Mining of Gems and Ornamental Stones by American Indians,”’ by Sydney H. Ball; “Iroquois Suicide: A Study in the Sta- bility of a Culture Pattern,’ by William N. Fenton; “Tonawanda Longhouse Ceremonies: Ninety Years after Lewis Henry Morgan,” by William N. Fenton; ‘“The Quichua-Speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecuador) and their Anthropometric Relations with the Living Populations of the Andean Area,” by John Gillin; ‘‘Art Proc- esses in Birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a Circumboreal ' Trait,” by Frank G. Speck; ‘Archeological Reconnaissance of Southern Utah,” by Julian H. Steward; and to recommend that they be pub- lished as a bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Very respectfully yours, M. W. Stiruine, Chief. Dr. C. G. ABzot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. PUBLISHER’S NOTE A separate edition is published of each paper in the series entitled ‘‘Anthro- pological Papers.’’ Copies of Papers 1-18 are available at the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, and can be had free upon request. List or ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS PUBLISHED PREVIOUSLY No. 1. A Preliminary Report on Archeological Explorations at Macon, Ga., by A. R. Kelly. Bull. 119, pp. v-ix, 1-68, pls. 1-12, figs. 1-7. 19388. No. 2. The Northern Arapaho Flat Pipe and the Ceremony of Covering the Pipe, by John G. Carter. Bull. 119, pp. 69-102, figs. 8-10. 1938. No. 3. The Caribs of Dominica, by Douglas Taylor. Bull. 119, pp. 103-159, pls. 13-18, figs. 11-37. 1938. No. 4. What Happened to Green Bear Who Was Blessed with a Sacred Pack, by Truman Michelson. Bull. 119, pp. 161-176. 1938. No. 5. Lemhi Shoshoni Physical Therapy, by Julian H. Steward. Bull. 119, pp. 177-181. 19388. No. 6. Panatiibiji’, an Owens Valley Paiute, by Julian H. Steward. Bull. 119, pp. 183-195. 1938. No. 7. Archeological Investigations in the Corozal District of British Honduras, by Thomas and Mary Gann. Bull. 123, pp. v-vii, 1-57, 61-66, pls. 1-10, figs. 1-11. 1939. Report on Two Skulls from British Honduras, by A. J. E. Cave. Bull. 123, pp. 59-60. 1939. No. 8. Linguistic Classification of Cree and Montagnais-Naskapi Dialects, by Truman Michelson. Bull. 123, pp. 67-95, fig. 12. 19389. No. 9. Sedelmayr’s Relacion of 1746. Translated and edited by Ronald L. Ives. Bull. 128, pp. 97-117. 1939. No. 10. Notes on the Creek Indians, by John R. Swanton. Bull. 123, pp. 119- 159, figs. 13, 14. 1939. No. 11. The Yaruros of the Capanaparo River, Venezuela, by Vincent Petrullo. Bull. 123, pp. 161-290, pls. 11-25, figs. 15-27. 1939. No. 12. Archeology of Arauquin, by Vincent Petrullo. Bull. 123, pp. 291-295, pls. 26-32. 1939. CONTENTS . 13. The Mining of Gems and Ornamental Stones by American Indians, byieydney HeiBalls:ciGel ep UA «Laue une thte yee 5) . 14. Iroquois Suicide: A Study in the Stability of a Culture Pattern, by Walliams NeHentonit] aspen eke pele), pyle bit 2h . 15. Tonawanda Longhouse Ceremonies: Ninety Years after Lewis Henry Morgan, by William N. Fenton_-.~..---2- 2222222 . 16. The Quichua-Speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecuador) and Their Anthropometric Relations with the Living Populations of the Andean Area, by John Gillin._____________ . 17. Art Processes in Birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a Cir- cumborealsTrait;, by PrankiG.Speck: 1 4) Patterns for birchbark utensils (Algonquin) ~-_-.--.-.--___-..-__--__ OOND . Rim reinforcements of Algonquin birchbark containers and decorative bordersideriveastrom, whem= = ee - = aes ee ee ee eS . Decorations below rims of birchbark containers (River Desert Band) — . Decorations below rims of Algonquin birchbark containers_________- . Cut-out patterns for decorating birchbark containers (a-e) and animal Heures srom Gecorabed Opjecws (f-f) 2. =. 202-22 e seo eee eee . Realistic decorations on birchbark maple-sap, or water pail (River LDYSSTEVE Te] BYE TANG DJ tele Bieta 0h ta pire whe ceria hoe pla esiget dl nikon we lafeod yaniey . Designs from birchbark containers (Timiskaming Band)___________- . Designs on birchbark containers (River Desert and Mattawa Bands) — . Symmetrical band floral designs from birchbark containers (River IDESCEUT IS ADC) rete ree aerate rere ee ee ere eee De eee ae . Designs from sides of birchbark basket (River Desert Band)________- . Birchbark cut-out patterns applied to surfaces of containers and baskets to outline decorative scraped-away designs.____________-_- . Designs from birchbark vessels and baskets (Timiskaming and River (LES EEN Bu ESOC (5) | eal gE ole Bane ne eh Rel cs 25 leh pe ei Ae wt plan Aelita ehertds ven Ml . Element designs from birchbark wall pocket (a-e), and birchbark cut- out patterns for decoration of containers (f-7) (River Desert Band) - Designs from sides of birchbark dishes (River Desert Band) __._____-_ . Design elements from birchbark water pail (River Desert Band) __-_-_- . Birchbark cut-out patterns for decorating containers, representing PeIMCES CI Ver Desert ano) a2) 2k ee eee CLT Ro ee ee . Pattern stencils cut out of birchbark, used in decorating containers PERE CREEIMCROFE: ESATIG)) Sepsis fos ae eh ee ee ee . Birchbark cut-out patterns for decorating containers, and designs taken from decorated objects (River Desert Band) ______________-_ . Designs from one side and end of birchbark container (Mattawa Band)- . Designs from birchbark containers (Mattawa Band) ____-____--_----_- . Assortment of plant-design elements from sides and covers of birch- bark containers derived from cut-out patterns, mostly pseudorealistic representations of yellow pond lily (River Desert Band) --_____-__-- . Sketch map of Johnson Canyon-Paria River region________________- . Sketch map of slab structures, site 39, Kitchen Canyon____________- . Sketch map of slab structures, site 41, Kitchen Canyon____________-_ . Sketch map of slab structures, site 42, Kitchen Canyon____________- . Sketch map of slab structures, site 86, near Clark Canyon_________-_- . Sketch map of slab structures, site 87, near Clark Canyon__________- . Sketch map of cave, site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon________-___-__-- . Sketch map of masonry houses, depressions, and slab structures, site ep ICAL NC AN VOM ete ed ate er ee et eee see ne were . Sketch map of masonry house and slab structure, site 60, Kitchen . Sketch maps of masonry houses, depressions, and slab cists, sites 76, 80, 81, and 82, Finn Little and Clark Canyons______._-________-- . Sketch map of masonry houses, depressions, and slab cist, site 119, TORNADO H At EeSCAN VON tment ter cee ke ee ek me. . Rim sherds and designs on Basket Maker black-on-gray. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region-____-_._-_--- VIII CONTENTS 38. Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region----- 301 39. Half of Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bow], site 123, Dairy Canyon.. 302 40. Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan black-on-red and polychrome bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River EG OW aetna ee A Siete eet 2 a ee 302 41. Tusayan black-on-red pitcher, site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon_-__--_--- 303 42. Bowl rims, Tusayan black-on-white and Tusayan black-on-red__-_-_- 303 43. Rim sherds and handles of plain ollas, Paria gray and Johnson gray- GEL Teta pe 0k Oh ong 2 ke ype eye an EY SIS Sm DSL 2 304 44. Variations inrims:of platn-ollas” 2.22.25 --22-2522<-52 5555255 305 45. Rim ‘sherds of Paria eray bowls:- <2 ._s5.2-.---2-----5.- 2545 306 46. Johnson corrugated pitchers, site 123, Dairy Canyon, and corrugated olla rim sherds from Johnson Canyon-Paria River region___------- 306 47. Chipped sandstone ‘‘hoes’’ from Johnson Canyon-Paria River region__ 310 48, 49. Metates from sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region_-_--_- 311, 312 50. Mullers, or manos, and cross sections of same from sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria: River region. 2-224. ee 313 51. Projectile points of chipped flint. Johnson Canyon-Paria River FOPION:: 6 eee cece wage ee Pet Ge ee ce heen oe 314 52. Knives, drills, and scrapers. Johnson Canyon-Paria River region--__ 315 535 Lextile impression, in adobe. 2.4 2252252_ oe eee ee 317 54. Crescent (“‘sickles’’) of mountain sheep horn in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utahvo co bee le ee 317 55. Wooden dippers in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utah___---------- 318 56. Two quartz objects. a, Quartzite lump (11744), site 2, Paria River region. 6, Crystalline pendant (11894), site 119, Johnson Lakes CanyOne win. oe eh ek ee ee de oe cee a A 318 57. Petroglyphs, sites 1 and 4, Molly’s Nipple Canyon______--_-------- 320 58. Pictographs, site 7, Molly’s Nipple Canyon; and site 29, Wildcat (Camyon. 210 tio ee! ee Sa ee es ee ee 321 59. Pictographs and petroglyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon_-_------ 322 60. Petroglyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon__..._._---__-_- 25222 =e= 323 61. Petroglyphs; site 11/7, Johnson Canyon .-—---- 2-25-22. 52 5——=eeee 324 62.. Petroglyphs, ‘site 130, Oak Canyon... +=... - 4. es eee 325 63. Petroglyphs, sites 130, 132, and 133, Oak Canyon, and site 141 near @lark’ Canyone t.ho ocr ee aes es ee 326 64. Distribution of sites of different periods in Johnson Canyon-Paria River TePion:. Sooo. he ee ee ee ee ee ee 327 65. Man of Glen Canyon, Colorado. River... --.--~.-=—+<- = — 328 66. Ground plan of large ruin and kiva, site 2, White Canyon-_-_---------- 330 67. House structures. a, Plan of ruin at site 3, Trachyte Canyon. b-f, Houses on the northern cliff of White Canyon, site 2___-_-------- 331 68. Cliff houses south of the large ruin, site 2, White Canyon__-_-_------- 333 69. Large ruin at. Redd Canyon; site 4... o.2..--- = 5. 336 70. Details of house structures at site 6 near Lake Canyon and site 22, Roek: Creek oye ee ee ees 339 71. Metates and manos, or mullers, from sites 6 and 9, near Lake Canyon; site 11, near Escalente River; and site 22, near Rock Creek_-_--_---- 340 72-/4. Petroglyphs at site 2, White Canyon_.2--__------_--2---5 = 345-347 75. Pictographs and petroglyphs at site 2, White Canyon___--_-_------- 348 76. Pictographs near Colorado River, on highway north of Moab, Utah_-- 348 77. Petroglyphs by highway bridge over Colorado River, near Moab, Utah_% 349 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 128 Anthropological Papers, No. 13 The Mining of Gems and Ornamental Siones by American Indians By SYDNEY H. BALL 1x 4 i ‘ & sh : oe ‘ yf at ; ve ay 7 oat *t, f , Ms b iA fae eet 582491 4 “EQUA Prat RAL mae! Py tet ‘tie LV CRIOE heared Ahi ete ey ee ea CR. et thant Dh i, OF Sean a Taka tame inth qt : 7 , ( ri : i r re t : ) F Pa “i ‘ a er ae WORDS hie) he eli Ae nae Sea Ne 1 is ¥ . i rr . ‘Pate red Pes eye ‘i ake : fo RC ee mS On bee, eft nes bide a y } ’ ge iy ihe i” ty fy iy Ah f , | rN , y | i # i ic ae Y aaa y j A; ry , ( ‘ ‘ ; f a ‘ / . 7 1 \ My ml ; ne, (he leh Mains CONTENTS PAGE 5 EP TY eh semen debe IN eee 8 SSR a ane ea a PY Uses of gems and ornamental stones by American Indians________________ 3 wma UTCOR OF LEN! SUPPly.. = [S25 feo ee Selo be eee eek J 29 Jealet 2) AI prin aie hal a ae fe fh di pay SO emma ene erty Rteee mene Sear lp a 30 TRE ECE RA (EN HE ey Peat ie andl a lh ter eat AE ae ET 2 30 p13 1 en a Nl ip A a alle AEN RD ORDIR ADE M IE 32 ELAS GT east ah ng Basa pp lad Re La epee ap PNAS 3 Se 33 oemeeciotiee fy ees. Ps ie isd ot Meee Ue eS 33 ME VROPLARC Sn, Cre mpm hae psc eres lh een NE Lee ees 33 aS tat ee ee Sk ANY ocr ee te 33 hts] BESTT e aa Bl ea eee EL eee Bee See 2 ere eed 33 HRT RT ERPROSE TROLS oe eI an hee Se re 34 TENG eg RE Pa naa age eee PRN a An ly ag 35 1 TSsa LT ee SAN & 9 oe ON a SR ie Ed | PR fot ee pe) 2 37 Minerals and ornamental stones mined by American Indians_-____________ 38 SIR Se ON ace sate ie eee 38 PUUMSRINRCIRIGG 2k oe Reh al be: Slee oe Sige A el aah a! 38 EPR RTE ert ee he MA ee ee sae See Brecon Sor he 38 Peep eee een ne Jee eee ee ek Oe sree eee 39 col i SSE CSRS SS 2, i Lt a oe ee See Te Lae Soe oR See EL 39 LSC acre TEE Rah ISP eee 2 ae oe cs eee eS eee a eee 39 miabasterand stalactitic calette. 1 2.522552) oo kes ee ket a3 39 raTE ee eee re SM ere ak ce CP Ls th SO tS 40 RL ee eee at sac enes Poa) a es eta Re eS 41 Pee Cee ARCS ee ee Oe oe ae tse ei ao 41 XII CONTENTS PAGE Minerals and ornamental stones mined by American Indians—Continued. Smithsonitesin-0 26 eee ee es Deere a Se ee 42 Atacamiteandibrochantites 3-8. Sessa se ee eee 42 Chrysocollasc ei ws stun see ee ee Lee 42 Payal he eats a nes esate Dee AD A a el le 2 oe 42 Cannelicoaljet;and lignite < Ua") Poe Set ee ee 43 IN ine sxe em ees tt wa eS NR ne Se ee satin Sten te) Os 44 Mabradonites sae. sew ase he Mee Ae a 45 Sunstoness= see so 3! Pea eee Re ee ee te 45 Moonstone st See een ee ee ee. = ee 45 AmazonstOnes ss— oo oe ee te eee Soe eee ten oe ee 45 SIAteeree eee eee owas MEE ee BS AU ee eee ee eo 45 WaATISCIEG NY Se 7 Dts I EOS thie CP ee See Coe 45 GCalam ine ee ee ee ee eee eins oho ae so 46 IBIMOTSsparess = See SPEC eee SEL Peele Re ee an 46 Am bere a= S8t: Sele em ee a ee Le oe ee 46 Soapstone (steatite). ca 525 ieee see tei ees eee 47 Catlinitemsaoe rises tse Ssed 2k ee Se ae eee 48 Obsidianess sate cho hoa 2 7 See ee SNe ee ee ee 52 Otherminerals' ss 2 025252 520220 ese ee eee 55 hist of mines operated by the Indians_ 2-25 2222522222225... 56 PibuogTaply sss sss fst see ses ooo S See ste oee et ee ee 59 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 1. Frontispiece: Placer mining by Indians of Georgia_________________- I 2 emlLostCerrillos Open CUt..o.2.occce eee oe ee eee ee 78 3.. Mining catlinite pipestone, Minnesota_-._-=. 2 78 4. Mines other than obsidian and soapstone worked by Indians prior to coming of whites (map) [22252220222 o Lh. ee 78 5. Obsidian and soapstone mines worked by Indians prior to coming of wihites (map) o<0 200. ote cola be ee 78 THE MINING OF GEMS AND ORNAMENTAL STONES BY AMERICAN INDIANS By SYDNEY H. BALL I tell thee, golde is more plentifull there [Virginia] then copper is with us * * * Why, man, all their dripping-pans * * * are pure golde: * * * and for rubies and diamonds, they goe forth on holydayes and gather ’hem by the sea-shore, to hang on their childrens coates, and sticke in their childrens caps, as commonly as our children, weare saffron-gilt brooches and groates with hoales in ’hem.} INTRODUCTION When Europeans arrived in America they found the American Indian largely in the Stone Age, although a number of tribes, and par- ticularly those of Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Peru, used certain metals. Imbued with our conception of racial superiority, we rarely think of the Indian as a capable prospector and a patient, if primitive, miner. Yet the rapid development of mining in Mexico and Peru after the conquests was mainly owing to the large number of ore bodies opened up by the local aborigines. Lust on the part of the Spaniards for gold, silver, and precious stones and, to express it mildly, canny concern on the part of the English and French for such wealth, were the activating forces behind much of the exploration of America. Both to the American Indian and the white man, mineral products were essential, but the former used coal mainly as an ornament and petroleum as a liniment, while the latter could not be inveigled to “rush” a new obsidian “‘find’”’ to supply weapons of war. This article treats of the gems and ornamental stones used by the Indian before he came in contact with the white man. His metal mining has been frequently described: The pits he dug on the Lake Superior Copper Range; his exploitation of the mercury mines of New Almaden and Peru for paint; his placer mining in Georgia, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, northwestern South America, and Brazil; and his gold and silver lode mining in Mexico 1 Seagull, a sailor, to Scapethrift in Eastward Hoe, a popular drama by Geo. Chapman, Ben Jonson, and Joh. Marston, 1605. See volume 3, p. 51, of The works of John Marston, 3 vols., London, 1856. 1 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But, 128 and Peru. Copper and gold were extensively used; silver, tin, lead, platinum, mercury, and iron (meteoric) less so. Within the United States copper and gold were treated as pebbles and pounded into the shape desired, but in Mexico, Central America, and western South America an elementary smelting technique had been evolved and in certain localities the skill with which metals were forged, cast, alloyed, and plated astonished the conquistadores. Platinum, it may be recalled, was used by the Indian long before it was known to white men. The Indian’s knowledge of gems and ornamental stones was, how- ever, much more comprehensive than that of metals and his most extensive mines or, at least, those known to us, were of ornamental stones. The Indian made use of a large number of gems and ornamental stones, some 84 being known to the writer. His acquaintance with minerals suitable for decorative purposes exceeded in number, at least, that of the peoples of Europe and Asia at the time of the dis- covery of America. The list, as presented (p. 56) is fairly complete for North and Central America but for South America could doubtless be appreciably extended. Of the early men who made the Folsom points, those of Folsom, N. Mex., used chalcedony, jasper, and obsidian, and those of the Lindenmeier site near Fort Collins, Colo., chalcedony, jasper, moss agate, lignite, quartz, hematite, and agatized wood. It can be said with considerable assurance that at the beginning of our era, or roughly 2,000 years ago, the American Indian used in addition the following precious and decorative stones: Agate, alabaster, azurite, bloodstone, calcite, jadeite, jet, lapis lazuli, malachite, mica, nephrite, common opal, pyrite, satin spar, selenite, serpentine, soap- stone, and turquoise. By 1000 A. D. or even earlier, the following, among others, had been added: Amber, carnelian, catlinite, chloro- melanite, emerald, fluorspar, galena, garnet, magnesite, marcasite, moonstone, noble opal, sodalite, and variscite. It is a curious instance of parallel cultural growth that of the 25 stones first used by early man on the eastern and western continents, 16 were common to the two cultures (Ball, 1931, pp. 683-685). As sources of material on the subject, we have: (1) Artifacts pre- served in public and private collections; (2) mine workings, although many which once existed have become obliterated; (3) early and present-day literature; and (4) the traditions and myths of the Indians. Evidence from the latter two sources must be used with discretion, as the mineralogic knowledge, particularly of the early Spanish writers, and of some archeologists, is, to say the least, inadequate, while myths may be of much later origin than the events they describe. AntHrop, Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 3 USES OF GEMS AND ORNAMENTAL STONES BY AMERICAN INDIANS Gems and ornamental stones were used by the aborigines for a large number of different purposes, for nonmetallic minerals served not only their special functions as we know them but also, at least among certain of the Indian tribes, all the uses of metals and, among all of them, certain of the functions of our metals. The principal uses may be listed as follows: a. Ornaments.—Ornaments consisted of pendants, beads, and carved figures: Gem mosaics were worn among the Pueblos, the semicivilized Mexicans, the Peruvian peoples, etc. The Indian adores vivid colors and he has a childlike love of beautiful pebbles, particularly if brightly colored. To the semicivilized peoples from Arizona to northern Chile, the blue and the bluish-green of the turquoise and the green of jade and emerald had a peculiar fascination. Such stones were eagerly sought and highly valued. The first gained its color from the cloud- less sky and the second symbolized the growth of crops; their value being increased by the supernatural power gained thereby. So highly regarded were they that jade could be worn only by nobles among the Aztecs, and among the Yavapai (central Arizona) only a chief (mastova) was privileged to wear turquoise bracelets (Gifford, 1932, p. 229). All green stones were treasured by the Yuma medicine men (Corbusier, 1886). The Indian used many materials in their jewelry which, until the introduction of the modern ‘‘novelty”’ jewelry, we would have scorned. Shell, for example, and wood, berries, seeds, iridescent beetle wings and fruit stones, and even worse, for Capt. John Smith, in his history of Virginia, tells us that some of the Virginia Indians wore in holes in their ears small ‘‘green and yellow colored snakes near one-half a yard in length’’; others ‘‘a dead rat tied by the tail.””, The Cheyenne Indians strung human fingers into necklaces (Bourke, 1890), and the Sioux wore hands as earrings (Mallery, 1893, p. 752, fig. 1278). On the other hand, the custom of the women of the southern Mexican coast and of British Honduras of placing fireflies in their hair, while a bit startling to the white traveler, has, after all, charm. The use of jade, hematite, turquoise, rock crystal, obsidian, and pyrite inlays in the teeth of Mayan and certain Mexican and South American tribes was, of course, for display rather than as an aseptic measure. b. Weapons.—Hard stones with conchoidal fracture were eagerly sought for arrow- and spear-heads, knives, and razors. That some of these weapons were effective, we learn from rough old Bernal Diaz, who asserts that a single blow of an Aztee sword, set with obsidian points, would decapitate a horse. The Hudson Bay Eskimo, when lead is scarce, use soapstone as bullets. c. Household utensils——Soapstone was widely used for lamps, particularly among the Eskimo, and for cooking utensils by many tribes. Pyrite and quartz were used to produce fire, particularly by the peoples of the extreme northern part of the American Continent (the Eskimo) and of the extreme southern part (the Fuegians). Angular fragments of quartz, and some say obsidian, set in a flat board, are made by a British Guiana tribe and are traded over considerable distances as manioc graters (Farabee, 1917, p. 77). Commerce in these graters was widespread (McGovern, 1927, p. 211). Similar graters were used by the Uaupes in the upper Amazon (Wallace, 1853, pp. 483-484). d. Surgical instruments.——Shaped rock crystal was used for blood-letting by the California Indians, and lancets of this material and obsidian by the ancient people of Peru. Obsidian knives served their grewsome role when victims were sacrificed to the gods of Mexico, and knives of this material were used in scarifica- 4 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buby 128 tion by California Indians and by the Araucanian and the Mapuchian shamans in bleeding the sick. e. Graving tools —The Hidatsa of North Dakota cut their pictographs on rock with sharp-pointed quartz fragments, as Richard Spruce infers the Amazonian Indians did. jf. Abrasives—The Indians of Racine County, Wis., crushed rock crystal to form an abrasive in pipe making (West, 1934, p. 341). Pumice was also used as an abrasive by the Nevada, Nebraska, Montana, and California Indians and by the Eskimo of Cook Inlet, Alaska. g. Mirrors.—Mirrors were made of obsidian and pyrite by the Aztecs, Mayas, and the Peruvians; and among the Mound Builders mica probably so served. The Eskimo of Hudson Strait use a plate of biotite ‘‘so fitted into a leather case as to be seen on either side’ (Lyon, 1825, p. 38). h. Windows.—Selenite and perhaps mica were used in windows by the Pueblos, and Mexican ‘‘onyx’’ by the Aztecs. Selenite was supposed to permit the Pueblos to see out but the keenest eye could not see what was passing in the interior of the feebly lighted rooms (Mé6llhausen, 1858, vol. 1, p. 157). i. Embellishment of buildings.—Precious stones were used in quantity by both the Aztecs and the Peruvians in their temples and palaces. Turquoise was, in instances, set in the lintels of the Pueblo houses. Arizona agatized wood was sometimes used as a building stone in constructing the ancient pueblos. j. Pigments.—Hematite, malachite, and azurite were not only widely used as pendants and in other ways in the mass but, when crushed, as pigments. The latter two furnished the Pueblo people their favorite colors—green and blue. Among the Navaho crushed turquoise was used to paint certain ceremonial objects (Pogue, 1915, p. 103). The green used to dye the wool of Chilkat blankets was derived from copper ores. The British Columbia Indians also used malachite as a pigment. The Pawnees and Mandans heated selenite and from the powder made a whitening used in tanning buckskin. The Navaho medicine men used gypsum as chalk in drawing and the Pueblos merely powdered, or burnt and mixed it with water as whitewash. Calcined gypsum powder was used by the Omahas to clean, whiten, and dry the sinews binding feathers to their arrows. The Aztecs used chimaltizatl (selenite) to whiten their paintings (Clavigero, 1807, pp. 16-17). The California Indians procured body paint from a ‘‘vermilion cave,” the outcrop of the New Almaden mercury mine. Cinnabar was also used by the Aztecs, the Mayas, and the Peruvian Indians. The beautiful pale green brochantite of the Corocoro copper deposit, Bolivia, was used by the local Indians as a source of green pigment before the Spanish arrived (Berton, 1936). The Indians used the brilliant red hewettite (a hydrous calcium vanadate) to make pictographs on the sandstone cliffs of Emery County, Utah. Within one-half mile are commercial vanadium deposits.2 Black pigments were produced from lignite (Pueblos), from manganese dioxide (Pueblos and Californians), from coal (Haidas), from graphite (New York, New England, and Alaska Indians and Kskimo), from sphalerite ore (Pueblos), from micaceous hematite (Yukon Indians), or from galena (Apache-Yumas). The latter also used calcite and magnesite as white pigments. The Oubeways, on the other hand, used iron sulphate derived from decomposing pyrite as a black dye. The Seri, inhabiting Tiburon Island, Sonoro, used dumortierite as a blue face paint (Kroeber, 1931, p. 27). The Pueblos used jarosite in addition to yellow ochre for yellows and browns (Cos- grove, 1982). k. Currency~—Among the Indians of California, large obsidian blades and beads made of magnesite were used as standards of barter. The larger of the 2 Written communication from Robert H. Sayre, Denver, Colo. AnrHrop. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 5 latter were worth up to $20 (Hodge, 1922, p. 16; Sumner, 1907, p. 152). Black obsidian blades of ordinary length were worth among the Yurok Indians of northern California about $1 an inch; the red obsidian, being rarer, was even more valuable. Blades of 30 to 33 inches in length were worth much more, indeed they were of inestimable value (Kroeber, 1925, pp. 26-27). Turquoise was, per- haps, as near to a unit of value as the Pueblos, Navahos, and Yaquis possessed and nephrite beads were used in somewhat the same way in British Guiana and in the Mayan cities. Like most primitive people, the American Indian saw in gems and decorative stones not only beauty but the supernatural and the awe- inspiring. The medicine men among the Cayapa Indians of Ecuador, for example, are unwilling to dispose of the pebbles used in their in- cantations lest the spirit in the stone become angry, an old Greek idea. Edward Bancroft (1769, pp. 21, 311) states that the Indians of British Guiana in his time would not touch agate pebbles locally abundant “from a principle of superstitious veneration, as they are dedicated to the service of their magical invocations.’ Precious stones, therefore, were important factors in their religious life as the following uses indicate: l. Objects of worship—Among the pre-Colombian aborigines of Manta, Ecua- dor, a large emerald was worshipped, and rock crystal and jasper appear to have served the same purpose, respectively, among certain of the Peruvian and Ecua- dorian tribes, until the Incan army forcibly showed them the error of their ways and they became sun worshippers. The Mixtecs worshipped a large jade at Achiuhtla, representing the god Quetzalcoatl. There is now at the University of Texas a meteorite from Wichita County, Tex., long venerated by the Comanche for extraordinary curative powers. It was known as Po-a-cat-le-pe-le-corre (Medicine Rock). In passing, all made votive offerings to it (Bolton, 1914, vol. 1, p. 296). m. Fetishes and charms.—Rock crystal among the Natchez (Le Petit in French, ’ 1851, pt. 3, p. 141) and the Pimas, nephrite among the Brazilian fishermen, sections of Baculites among the Cheyennes, turquoise among the Pueblos, and malachite among the Apaches, served as fetishes. Quartz crystals were used as charms by the Eskimo shamans, as was jasper, and the medicine men of the Tarahumara today use quartz crystals as charms (Bennett and Zingg, 1935, p. 369). Among the Yumas quartz crystals brought good luck. n. Votive offerings to gods.—Turquoise among the Pueblos and Navahos, emeralds among the Chibchas of Colombia, emeralds and turquoise among the Incan Indians, and precious stones among the Tahus of Sinaloa, served as votive offerings. The Zufii women ground corn and mixed it with powdered turquoise and white shell and offered it to their gods as food. o. Temple incense.—Amber was used as incense by the Aztegs. p. Means of divination.—Quartz crystal among the,Pueblos and the Cherokees (Olbrechs, 1930, pp. 547-552), hematite among the latter tribe, obsidian and pyrite mirrors among the Aztecs and the Cakchiquels of Guatemala, and jade globes and rock crystals (Brinton, 1883, p. 245) among the Mayas, were used in divination. The Navaho medicine men use rock crystal in diagnosing disease by star-gazing, the light of the star being reflected in the stone permitting him to see the cause of the sickness of the patient like a motion picture (Wyman, 1936, p. 245). 218558—40——2 6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 q. Medicinal use-—Gypsum, ochres, and other minerals were used medicinally. Among the Tehuelche, a Patagonian tribe, ‘“‘the new born babe is smeared over with damp gypsum” (Musters, 1871, p. 176), doubtless a reasonably good substi- tute for talcum. Powdered steatite was similarly used on Washoe and Yakut babes. Locally among the Colombian Chibchas the stomach of the desiccated corpse of the chief was filled with gold and emeralds before the body was wrapped in cotton and placed on a pedestal in a corner of one of their shrines. (Perhaps not medical, but interesting.) r. Musical instruments.—Like the Chinese, the Venezuelan Indians knew the sonorous tones when thin plaques of nephrite are struck (Heger, 1925, pp. 148-155). The Pomo Indians of California also recognized the sound-producing qualities of minerals for they suspended two blocks of obsidian in the tree above which their deer traps were fastened. The struggling deer caused the stones to clash together, thus appraising the trapper of his success. KNOWN SOURCES OF GEM SUPPLY The maps of North and South America (pls. 4, 5) and list of mines operated by the Indians (p. 56) show the sources known to the writer from which the Indians obtained gems and ornamental stones. The list is markedly fragmentary for a number of reasons; principally because the mines, quarries, and placer deposits, abandoned for the most part centuries ago, have disappeared or become inconspicuous and also because much of the product sought by the Indians was of little or no value to the white. For the latter reason the list of pre- Hispanic quartz mines is doubtless much less complete than are the lists, for example, of emerald and turquoise. However, in spite of these difficulties, 289 Indian mines are listed. Within the writer’s knowledge of the archeology of the various areas and, taking into consideration the extensive territory occupied by the tribes and the relative mineral wealth thereof, it may be stated that the tribes with the widest knowledge of decorative stones and gems were the Mayas, the Pueblos, the Aztecs, the Mound Builders and the Indians of our southeastern States; a list including most of the more advanced peoples who were not only more ingenious than the average savage but whose higher civilization demanded a greater variety of raw materials. As miners, the Pueblos, Aztecs, Peruvians, and the Indians of the southern Appalachians were outstanding while the Mayas and Mound Builders depended largely on commerce for their supplies of gems. THE INDIAN AS GEOLOGIST AND MINERALOGIST The Indian, generally using tools of stone, by long experience became a fair geologist, knowing the rocks most suited to his needs and their characteristics—indeed, probably much better than we do. This required a knowledge of texture, hardness, and mineralogic make-up, so that he could recognize the same mineral if found in two different places. One mineral was good for pipes, a second for arrow points, AnTHROP, Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 7 and still a third for axes. The Indian’s curiosity regarding minerals is shown by the presence in graves of mineral fragments apparently not valuable to him economically, such as zine blende and chalcopy- rite (Schenck and Dawson, 1929). Incidentally, the Indian mineralo- gist knew atacamite, sodalite, brochantite, pectolite, labradorite, dumortierite, hewettite, and variscite long before his European confrere. One reason the Indian so frequently sought material for his arrow- heads from stream gravel was that he realized that such material was fresh and did not shatter badly, as opposed to weathered material from surface outcrops or detrital boulders. Capt. G. F. Lyon (1825, p. 69), on his visit to Southampton Island, found both flint and agate pebbles on the beach, but the Eskimo use only the former, since the latter are prone to split along the banding. To obtain absolutely fresh arrow material, whether flint or obsidian, the Indian was at times forced to quarry, and, in quarrying, the partially weathered sur- face material was rejected. Similarly, the makers of catlinite pipes rejected all but a small part of the material quarried, for it had to be heat-resistant, of good color, and easily shaped. The Indian realized that soapstone absorbs and retains heat and that lamps or cooking utensils of it, once heated, gave up their heat slowly, keeping the oil fiuid or the game cooking. The California Indians used the softer, more micaceous Santa Catalina steatite for pots and the closer-grained darker rock for weights of digging sticks, pipes, and ornaments (Schu- macher, 1880, pp. 259-264). As the arrow-shaft straighteners were first heated, the Indian had to select for this use a mineral or rock resisting heat; soapstone and serpentine were common materials. The Pomo Indians of California anticipated the modern petrog- rapher’s ideas as to quartz by differentiating obsidian into two distinct types, bati xaga (‘“‘arrow”’ obsidian), which was especially suitable for flaking, and dupa zaga (‘‘to-cut” obsidian), which was harder, broke more cleanly, and was consequently, for instance, suitable for razors. The first came from Lower Clear Lake, the second from Cole Creek (Loeb, 1926, p. 179). The luminescence of rock crystal (q. v.) was known to the Pueblo Indians and it is not impossible some arrow maker of our own South- west many centuries ago was the first to observe this property of minerals. IDEAS AS TO ORIGIN OF PRECIOUS AND DECORATIVE STONES The Indian normally accepted minerals unthinkingly, but in some instances an aboriginal philosopher tried to explain their origin. His results were reminiscent of those of his Greek prototype: Minerals were the direct gift of the Great Spirit (the Sauk and Fox idea regard- 8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN HTHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 ing the galena of the Upper Mississippi Valley) or their origin was suggested by some striking physical property. Certain of the Indians of the north country saw in rock crystal a form of ice, as did the ancient Greeks and as do the modern Afghans; to the Mohawks, however, its glistening crystals were the congealed tears of a devoted mother, reminding us of a Greek myth as to the origin of amber. Sparks were derived from pyrite, therefore to the Point Barrow Eskimo it fell from the sky. Laminae of mica to the Delaware were scales of the mythical Horned Serpent. Catlinite from its color evidently was either stained by buffalo blood or was hardened human flesh. Again flint was associated with war and the chase; consequently to the Potawotomi, flint pebbles found here and there mark the sites of combat between an evil spirit and Nonaboojoo, ‘‘the friend of the human race’ (De Smet, 1847; Thwaites, vol. 29, 1904-7, p. 376). Similarly, the silicified wood found on the mesas near the Grand Canyon, Ariz., was known to the Indians as the arrows of Shin-ar’- ump (Powell, 1875, p. 190). The brittleness of obsidian accounts for the Pomo Indians’ explanation of the abundant fragments of the rock on Mt. Kanaktai, north of San Francisco Bay, Calif.; namely, that the obsidian-man, caught in a bush, in freeing himself fell and broke into thousands of pieces (Barrett, 1933, vol. 15, pp. 31, 220, 226, 231). In instances the Indian was poetical, as is well exemplified in his legend of the origin of the iridescent obsidian which occurs with the ordinary obsidian at Glass Butte, Lake County, Oreg. To kill off a particularly venomous type of yellow jackets, the Indians surrounded the mountain and set fire to the forest. After the mountain had burned for several days there came up a shower having a beautiful rainbow. The rainbow shone all day on one spot on the south side of the Mountain and at evening seemed to enter the ground at this particular spot. After the fire they found that some of the mountain had melted and had made heaps of glass for their arrow and spear points, but the rainbow had settled into one heap and left the beautiful colors there. This they called “rainbow” obsidian and used only for sacred and religious purposes (Forbes, 1935, pp. 307-309). On the west shore of Lake Champlain near the falls, the waves throw well-polished flint pebbles upon the shore. The Mohawk companions of Fathers Pierron, Fremin, and Bruyas, in 1667, threw tobacco into the water offshore, so that the nimble little people living under the water would continue to furnish them with abundant material for their arrows (Donohoe, 1895, p. 103). The medicine men of British Guiana teach that five classes of spirits direct the natural world and that each is represented by different stones (quartz, jadeite, etc.). Each neophytic medicine man is given two stones, representing the spirit and the spirit’s wife, for his ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 9g rattle. Provided the spirit is satisfied to be associated with the piaiyen, the stones breed and multiply, increasing the medicine man’s powers in proportion as he has more spirits to assign to tasks or errands (Gillin, 1936, pp. 158-159). THE INDIAN AS PROSPECTOR The search for game and the need of roots, berries, and fruit as food made the Indian observant as to nature and kept him out of doors much of the time. Whether on a hunt or on the warpath, he was on the lookout for promising material for his arrows and his ornaments. Certain tribes, it will be remembered, were nomads and in a year’s time covered a large area. The Toltecs are reputed to have been great gem fanciers and Aztec tradition ascribes to the former their own knowledge of the art of working precious stones. The Toltecs attributed its invention to the god Quetzalcoatl (Biart, 1887, p. 325). The Toltecs were also reputed to be remarkable prospectors, for Friar Bernardino de Sahagun (1829-30, vol. 3, pp. 106-114) states: Their knowledge of stones was so great, that, even though these were hidden deep in the earth, they discovered them through their natural ingenuity and knowledge, and they knew where to find them. Their manner of making such discoveries was the following: They would get up very early in the morning and go up to an eminence and turn their heads toward the place where the sun had to rise; when it rose, they carefully looked in every direction to see in what place any precious stone might be hidden; they would especially look for them in places that were damp or wet, and particularly at the moment when it was rising: then a slight smoke would go up quite high, and there they found tbe precious stones under the earth or inside of another stone, whence the smoke would issue. In instances, at least, the Indian recognized the value of mineral indicators, for on the Coppermine River, northern Canada, the local Indians dug for copper in the detrital deposits “‘wherever they observe the prehnite lying on the soil, experience having taught them that the largest pieces of copper are found associated with it”? (Richardson, in Franklin, 1823, pp. 528-530). The efficiency of the Indian as a prospector is conclusively shown by plates 4 and 5, on which are indicated, though admittedly incom- pletely, the sources of the Indian’s supply of gems and decorative stones. Note how many of the soapstone localities of the eastern States were known to him and how well the mica belt of the Southern Appalachians is delimited. Petrographers searching for glassy phases of igneous rocks might well be guided by the Indian’s obsidian mines while practically all of the known turquoise localities of our own Southwest and the emerald deposits of Colombia were worked by Indians in prewhite time. As to nephrite and jadeite, the aborigines had sources which are still unknown to their white successors. 10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn. 128 Many mineral occurrences were shown the whites by Indians, and Indian or half-breed prospectors have played no mean role in dis- covering mineral deposits in the United States and Canada in the past five decades. MINING METHODS 3 The Indian’s metal mining technique and his knowledge of smelting were inferior to those of the Greeks and Romans and probably those of the Carthaginians. As a gem miner, however, he was about as skillful as the Egyptian and Asiatic peoples, the great gem miners of the Eastern Hemisphere in classical times. To us his knowledge necessarily seems crude, but in fairness to the Indian it should be compared with the European knowledge of the early sixteenth century, a comparison considerably less disadvantageous to the Indian. We are dealing with a mining industry in its infancy, and in con- sequence the major portion of the Indian’s mineral products came from river gravel, although marine beaches, glacial moraines, and weathered outcrops furnished a second part and hard rock mining still a third. Predominantly, the Indian was a placer miner. George Catlin told G. E. Sellers (1886, p. 874) that the Indians considered chalcedony, jasper, and agate most easily chipped into arrowheads and the principal sources of their supply were ‘‘the coarse gravel bars of the rivers where large pebbles are found.” It is not unusual for one side of an artifact to be a segment of a pebble; for example, the jadeite of the Aztecs and Mayas. Alluvial mining for gems and ornamental stones presumably con- sisted largely of visual inspection and hand sorting. The rudiments of gravity concentration in gold placer mining appears to have been known to certain of the Indians of both North and South America (pl. 1) but it could rarely have had application in procuring gems and decorative stones. On one of the Aleutian Islands, however, amber occurs in a steep bank of friable material. ‘The natives spread a walrus-skin between two boats at the foot of the bank and dislodge the earth, which falls upon the skin and from this debris much amber is obtained’ (Dall, 1870, p. 476). It is by no means impossible that silicosis existed among the Indians, for the Yana arrowhead makers of northern California dreaded to breathe obsidian chips. They believed these caused many diseases and it was a function of the medicine man to “‘suck’’ out such frag- ments (Pope, 1918, p. 117). Mineral deposits, being rare and unusual phenomena essential to the natives’ well-being, appealed to the religious mysticism of the savage. Spirits guarded them and because of the savages’ animalistic religious viewpoint, these spirits were often fearsome and might be 3 Holmes, W. H. Handbook of aboriginal American antiquities. Pt. 1. Introductory. The lithic industries. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 60. 1919. ANTHROP, Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL ll assisted by birds of prey or hideous snakes. On the Red River near Lake Winnipeg, Verendrye, writing in 1729, tells us (1927, p. 46) there was “a small mountain, the stones of which sparkle night and day. The savages call it the ‘Dwelling of the Spirit’: no one ventures to go near it.’”’ Similarly, the salt springs of Syracuse, N. Y., through fear of their spirit, were not used by the Indian (for a western instance, see Irving, 1888, p. 74). Again, as the deposits were the property of the spirits, compensation must be made for minerals extracted,— a votive offering, perhaps of a little tobacco or a bracelet. The Indian was unwilling to discover his mines to the whites lest the spirits punish him and the Navaho Indians even invented terrifying tales to keep the whites from their garnet mines. Pedro Pizarro (1921, vol. 2, pp. 393-394) tells us that the “wizards” tried to keep the Indians from showing Lucas Martinez the mine of the Sun, an admonition successfully backed up by an eclipse of the sun followed by an earth- quake. Wabishkeepenas, who in 1820 attempted to show Governor Cass and H. R. Schoolcraft the large mass of native copper near the mouth of the Ontanagon River, was kept by the spirits from finding it. So incensed were the tribesmen at him that he was cast out of the tribe and almost starved to death (McKenney and Hall, 1933, vol. 1, p. 349). We may surmise, however, that some Indians sensed that with the discovery of mines, whites would appear, with conse- quent unsettlement of the Indian system of economics. Due to such beliefs, certain of the Indian miners, at least, and per- haps all, performed religious ceremonies to propitiate the spirits or gods before beginning mining. This was true of the aboriginal emerald miners of Colombia, of the Plains Indians in mining catlinite, of the California Indians in quarrying magnesite, and of the Eskimo in mining soapstone and jade. Sugar Hill, a California obsidian locality, was sacred ground, whose spirit the Pit River Indians feared to offend. The Oregon obsidian arrow makers abstained from water while making arrows; if a blade broke, in the making, the spirits were against the maker and the broken pieces were thrown away never to be touched again; if a maker showed anger, his punishment would be twice as severe; in consequence, he sang a hymn of praise to the spirits when he started to make another point (Forbes, 1935, pp. 307-309). Peter Martyr tells us that among the Indians of Veragua, Panama, gold was sacred and mining was preceded by fasting and penance. The Indians of Colombia only mined what placer gold they needed and any surplus was returned to the stream; if they took more than their need the “river-god would not lend them any more’”’ (Sumner, 1907, p. 142). The Pueblos while gathering salt at Salt Lake, near Estancia, N. Mex., were required to be quiet, silent, and serious. ‘‘If they speak or laugh or make fun they will stand just where they are and die’ (Benedict, 1931, p. 7). The Hopi, for 4 days prior to starting out for the Colorado 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 128 River to obtain rock salt, observed a taboo on sex relationship. The Pueblos of Isleta (Parsons, 1932, pp. 320-321) get their red paint from the Manzano Mountains to the east of their pueblo. Proper religious ceremonies soften the hard rock so that it can be scraped out with one’s fingers. One must not take more than he needs or it will return to its pristine hardness. In the West Indies religious ceremonies preceded placer mining and the miner for 20 days before starting on his expedition observed strict continence or else he got no gold (Joyce, 1916, pp. 67, 243-245). The Caribs of British Guiana get their best clay for pottery from a small hill near the mouth of the Cuyuni and long journeys are made to it. All mining is confined to the first night of the full moon and by break of day the natives are on their way homeward with a big supply. Pots made from clay obtained at any other time break and transmit disease to those who use them (Schom- burgk, 1922, vol. 1, p. 203). Many of the aborigines had, however, passed beyond the first stages of mineral exploitation, that of hand sorting the valuable component from stream gravels, morainal material, and outcrops, and actually attacked the ores and precious stones in place either by open cuts or by underground workings. The Indian, indeed, did much quarrying, the open cuts, particularly of turquoise and obsidian, being extensive. Before searching for gold in vein outcrops, the Panama Indians first burnt the grass, thus laying bare the rock. The Indian hard-rock miner used in primitive form most of the elements of modern mining. He had as mining tools stone hammers and sledges, deer- or caribou-horn picks and wood (one end often being hardened by being charred), horn, stone, and copper gads. Knowledge of breaking rock by building a fire against it and then throwing water upon it appears to have been widely spread (Lake Superior, southwest Wisconsin, North Carolina, and other southern mica mines, Pennsyl- vania jasper mines, Arkansas novaculite mines, the New Mexican and adjacent turquoise mines (pl. 2), Mexico lode mines, ete.). This great invention was a logical one as many Indians must have noted that the boulders, upon which they built their fires were fractured when, for safety, the embers were quenched with water. Most of the workings are pits or open cuts with their greatest dimension following the strike of the deposit. From them certain gem-bearing beds were stoped (Tylor, 1861). From such open cuts also, in instances, winzes extended, there being aboriginal workings in the Los Cerrillos turquoise mine to points 100 feet below the present surface. Short tunnels occur in the North Carolina mica mines and in the Mineral Park, Ariz., and San Bernardino County, Calif., turquoise mines. In the aboriginal salt mine, 3 miles south of St. Thomas, Nev., certain galleries are reported to be 300 feet or more long (Harrington, 1930). In the placer mines of the Chuchiabo district, province of Callao, Peru, Pedro Sancho, ANTHROP. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 13 Pizarro’s secretary, states that some of the galleries were 40 brazas (about 240 feet) long (Means, 1917, pp. 163-165). In the ancient salt mine at Camp Verde, Ariz. (Morris, 1929, pp. 81-97) 4 or 5 differ- ent levels exist, each following a highly saline horizon. Two of these, 8 to 12 feet apart, are connected by a winze. To carry out the product, hide and birchbark bags (Lake Superior copper mines and paint mines of Havasupai, Ariz.) were used and, in the Lake Superior open cuts, paddlelike wooden shovels for mucking have been found. In those mines, drainage was by ditching, supple- mented by cedar troughs, and wooden bowls were apparently used to scoop out the water. The Havasupai of the Grand Canyon region, Arizona, obtain their red paint from a mine on Diamond Creek and to reach the portal on a cliff face they use ladders. A ‘‘chicken” ladder, a tree with its branches lopped off, was found in the old Lake Superior copper mines and another in Mammoth Cave. In the former district, too, rock pillars were left at one point and at a second the hanging wall was supported by huge granite boulders. There, also, great masses of native copper were raised by the use of levers and wooden props. Certain features of lead mining by the Sauk and Foxes of the southwest Wisconsin lead district over 100 years ago are of interest although Indian methods may have been improved through inter- course with the whites (Meeker, 1872, pp. 271-296; History of Jo Daviess County, Ill., 1878, p. 836). There were then some 500 miners, largely women and old men for here, as opposed to most Indian min- ing, the able-bodied men were loath to mine. Some of the pits were 45 feet deep, the bottom being reached by a ramp. Ore and waste were removed by a mocock (a basket of birchbark or buckskin) which was dragged out by a rawhide rope. Rock was broken by the fire method. Drifts were run some distance into the side hills. The mining tools were originally buckhorns, but later European iron tools were introduced. Normally, as little waste rock as possible was broken but, to get at plates of native copper in the Lake Superior region, the gangue on either side was, in places, removed and, in other open cuts, flint nodules were mined by undercutting. In turquoise mining in the Southwest, as the gem occurs as thin veinlets or small nodules, the ore was removed in blocks which were then carefully broken into small pieces to extract the gem. The ratio of waste to product was large. In mining gypsum in Mammoth Cave a circular area was cleared on the cave floor and the valuable gypsum sorted from the limestone waste (Pond, 1937, p. 178). Most of the pits were sufficiently lighted by daylight but in Wyan- dotte Cave, Ind., mining was carried on over a mile from the cavern entrance. Flaming torches lighted the miners’ work, as they did in 14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 128 the Camp Verde, Ariz., salt mine and the selenite deposit at Gypsum Cave, Nev. On the Huallaga River, in eastern Peru, rock salt occurs in beds at the river’s edge and the Indians make long canoe trips to obtain it. The overburden is first stripped and then trickles of water are led over the salt, which gradually dissolve their way to bed rock and the blocks are broken up into fragments of convenient size to carry away (Dyott, 1923, p. 130; Kerbey, 1906, p. 185). That aboriginal mining had its major disasters is proven by the Pueblos’ tales of miners, who were robbing pillars, being entombed in the New Mexican turquoise mines. The disaster is always brought on by an irreligious act either, according to variants of the tale, be- cause of mining proscribed pillars or because a miner gave turquoise to his sweetheart, against which gift there was a taboo (Benedict, 1931, pp. 196-197, 236, 254). Alonzo W. Pond (1937) tells a dramatic story of an Indian gypsum miner trapped in Mammoth Cave. At Chuquicamata, Chile, in the pre-Hispanic pits, the mummified body of a woman was found, her head crushed by a fall of rock. From the modern point of view, most of the open pits were small but, at Flint Ridge, Ohio; Magnet Cove, Ark.; Los Cerrillos, N. Mex., and Hidalgo, Mexico, the material removed must be measured in hundreds of thousands of tons. In the quartzite quarry, 125 miles north of Cheyenne, Wyo., Wilbur C. Knight (1898) estimates the tonnage of rock moved ‘“‘by hundreds of thousands if not by millions of tons.’’ The great majority of the mines listed (p. 56) were small- tonnage operations and most of them, at least, supplied the needs of a small number of primitive people. But also in Europe and Asia four centuries ago most of the mines were small operations. “High grading” was feared at least in the Peruvian communal min- ing, for at the Chuchiabo gold placers, Pedro Sancho (Pizarro, 1917, 165) states “they [the caciques—S. H. B.] have taken such precau- tions in the matter that in nowise can any of what is taken out be stolen, because they have placed guards around the mines so that none of those who take out the gold can get away without being seen.” THE INDIAN’S KNOWLEDGE OF COMMERCIAL CHEMISTRY The Indian knew something of chemistry; he burned limonite to produce red ochre for paint, gypsum was dehydrated to produce whitening, salt was obtained by evaporating sea water or saline spring water, and the Peruvian Indians smelted simple ores. The Kamia leached the salt-impregnated earth of Salton Sink and crystallized the salt out by boiling (Gifford, 1931, p. 4); this was done also by Indians of eastern Peru (Smyth and Lowe, 1836, p. 145), and by the Chibchas (Thompson, 1936, p. 120). A Potawatomi chief stated that their tribe had first noted elks drinking at salt licks: the Indians ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 15 then tasted the water and, liking the flavor, boiled their meat and vegetables in it; finding this palatable “‘they boiled down the water in the manner that they had done the sap [1. e., hard maple sap—S. H. B.] and thus obtained salt” (Keating, 1824, p. 118). The Tapuyas, of Brazil, made saltpeter by leaching earth contain- ing it and then boiling the solution until the salt crystallized out (Warden, 1832, vol. 5, p. 209). Alunogen was used by the Navahos as a mordant. THE EFFECT OF INDIAN MINING ON THE COMMERCIAL CONQUEST OF AMERICA The hoarded mineral wealth of the Indians and the mines from which it had been obtained hastened to a remarkable degree the development of mining in America. Many of the earliest Spanish metal mines in Mexico and Peru were but further development of aboriginal mines. The natives’ knowledge of the occurrence of gold, silver, emerald, and turquoise expedited mining development by many decades. Further, the primitive system of roads, the Indian trails, were followed by the white man in his exploration and conquest of the country. INDIAN MINING LAWS Usually the mine belonged loosely to the tribe in whose territory it occurred but in most cases working parties from other tribes could take what was necessary for their own needs. The mineral mined north of the Rio Grande, at least, was the personal property of the miner and he could use it or trade it as he saw fit (Gilmore, 1929, pp. 99-100; Weyer, 1932, pp. 174-176). In some instances, a valuable deposit for a time was sacred ground, open to all comers; for example, the Minnesota catlinite deposits (see p. 48), the Wisconsin catlinite deposits, and the blue clay of Blue Earth River, Minn., and probably the Obsidian Cliff obsidian (Alter, 1925, p. 381). Among the Pomo Indians of north-central California, the magnesite deposits and the obsidian quarries were operated, after proper votive offerings, by all the Indians of the region. Should hostile villages meet by chance at such places, their quarrels were forgotten; naturally, however, each had its own encampment and each party went about his business separately (Loeb, 1926, p. 194). Flint Ridge, Ohio, also is stated to have been neutral ground (Wilcox, 1934, p. 174). Neutral ground was not confined to mining for it is said that among the Araucanian Indians of Chile warfare ceased during the pifion nut season (Latcham, Jr., 1909, p. 341). Such common use of mineral resources among the Indians probably originated through fear of angering the spirits of the mines. In cer- tain instances, however, tribal rivalry existed as to the ownership of mineral deposits, and the Modak and Pit River Indians fought for 16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN BHTHNOLOGY [ Bub. 128 the possession of the rich obsidian deposits west of Glass Mountain, Calif. Even monopolies existed in rare instances; for example, an old Natchez Indian alone made black marble pipes, nor did he permit his fellow tribesman to know the source of his raw product. For a common pipe he demanded “‘half the price of a blanket’’ (Schoolcraft, 1851-57, vol. 5, p. 692). Gold, silver, and precious stones found in the Incan Empire were delivered as tribute to the Inca and he and his family wore them and also those nobles and captains he delighted to honor; they were used also in adorning the temples. ‘‘They were merely valued for their beauty and splendor’ and were only mined when the Indians had no other work to do as ‘‘these were not things necessary for their exis- tence.” ‘Yet as they [the Indians] saw that these metals were used to adorn the palaces and temples (places which they valued so highly) they employed their spare time in seeking for gold, silver, and precious stones to present to the Ynea and to the Sun who were their Gods.” (Garcilaso, 1871, vol. 2, pp. 21-22.) The Incan government, appar- ently with parental care, did not permit mining to be so extensively carried on by any individual as to injure his health. TRADE Due to less perfected methods of transport than our own, the stones used by the Indians were more likely to be of local origin than they are with us. In consequence, the source of precious stones was likely to be near its user’s home—an aid in tracing its provenience but one to be used cautiously. Each tribe used the best stone his bailiwick afforded for the purpose required. A suitable mineral was much used by the tribe living where it occurred and from such centers gradually became less common until it disappeared where the limit of the local barter was reached. Conversely, if a region supplied no superlatively good material, for arrowheads, for example, the stones used might be of diverse origins. As the Indian liked variety and particularly brightly colored stones he was willing to barter articles of value for such as attracted his fancy. Much material from a distance was, however, used and, indeed, the Indians of the Argentine coast were wholly dependent on imports. In the first place, some of the tribes were nomadic and in tribal wanderings side trips were doubtless made to localities yielding desirable minerals. It is known that in 1680, a war party of Iroquois braves attacked tribes west of the Mississippi, distant from their New York home some 1,000 miles, and that other Iroquois war parties attacked the natives of South Carolina and of Lake Superior (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, pp. 12-13). In some instances periodical trips were made for the particular purpose of procuring the desired material; we may cite the excursions to the pipestone quarry in Minnesota and the long wanderings of Eskimo after soapstone and AntTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 17 other mineral substances. Roderick Macfarlane says the Eskimo “‘in singing and shouting boatloads” journeyed 400 miles to get flint from the quarries at Fort Good Hope (Stefansson, 1922, p. 12; 1914, pp. 17-18). Again, by barter from tribe to tribe, some mineral substances almost traversed the continent until they found owners who treasured them too dearly to part with them. In the eighteenth century, In- dians of the Northwest, even as far north as Montana, by intertribal barter possessed Spanish goods from New Mexico. Minnesota catli- nite was carried as far as New York and Georgia; the Mound Builders had obsidian in quantity, probably obtaining it from the Yellowstone National Park (1,500 miles), mica and soapstone from the Appalachian Mountains (250 miles), and copper from Lake Superior (600 miles). New Mexican turquoise reached Mexico City and the Mayan cities, and Colombian emerald was so common in Peru that for at least two centuries after the Conquest it was known as Peruvian emerald. Certain tribes, for example, the Nez Percés, were outstanding as traders and over 100 years ago the Chippewas told William Cameron that they sometimes went as far as Virginia to barter Lake Superior copper for the products of the Atlantic coast (Fowke, 1888-89, pp. 402-403). The Aztecs in particular, and the Mayas and Caribs to perhaps an almost equal extent, had a merchant class who journeyed far beyond the limits of their own countries. Colonel Church believes the Caribs traded along the seacoast of northwestern South America and the West Indies and probably in the entire Gulf of Mexico, including Florida (Church, 1912, p. 46). But the most interesting example of trade was the possession by the pre-Colombian Caribs, of the tiny island of Montserrat in the West Indies, of ornaments of amethyst, carnelian, jadeite, turquoise, rock crystal, chalcedony, lapis lazuli, nephrite, and cannel coal (Hodge, 1922, pp. 65, 75; Harrington, 1924, pp. 184-189). These semiprecious stones are all foreign to the island and strongly suggest that for their raw material the local Carib lapidaries were able to draw upon a number of different South Amer- ican localities, certain of which must have been 2,000 miles away. Charlevoix, indeed, states that the Haitians have a legend that the green stones with which they hollowed out their canoes came from off the island and he specifies from the upper Amazon (Schomburgk, 1922, vol. 1, p. 264). C. F. P. von Martius also reports that West Indian Caribs spoke of their green stone amulets as “polished from the far-off continent”? (Von Martius, 1867, vol. 1, pp. 731-732). [My attention was called to this reference by Miss Gladys C. Ran- dolph.] The “trade trail’ of nephrite along the Lesser Antilles to Cuba certainly suggests the South American origin of that stone. The materials reached the skillful Montserrat Island lapi- daries unworked. Since many rocks and some minerals possess char- 18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun 128 acteristics which indicate their source, it is suggested that petro- sraphic examination of artifacts might throw much light on early American trade routes. C. C. Jones (1859, p. 19) says that traditions then existed that arrow makers from the Georgia mountains in olden times left for the sea to trade their wares with the coastal peoples. Their avocation was honorable, they took no part in war, and were permitted to go wherever they pleased, being received everywhere hospitably. When, in 1584, Capt. Arthur Barlow and Capt. Philip Amados traded with the North Carolina coastal natives, they found the chiefs had precedence in the bartering and if they were present the commoner sort did not trade. When corn was ripe the Sioux arrived at the Hidatsa villages to trade and from ‘‘the time they came in sight of the village, to the time they disappeared there was a truce. When they had passed beyond the bluffs, they might steal an unguarded pony or lift a scalp and were in turn liable to be attacked’ (Matthews, 1877, p. 27). In South America also, traders were permitted to traverse the country of their enemies in part because they carried with them the latest news (Im Thurn, 1883, p. 271). Cabeza de Vaca could never have made his marvelous transconti- nental trip had he not received fair treatment due to the commodities which he gathered and exchanged en route. The wealth and variety of precious stones in the hands of the Aztecs was due in part from A. D. 1406 onward, according to Sahagun (1880, p. 547), to the Aztec traders who covered not only their own country but also penetrated the country of the surrounding tribes, traveling in the beginning of the sixteenth century as far south as Guatemala. As they had no beasts of burden, they packed their wares on their own backs, and it can be safely assumed that the cargoes they brought back with such difficulty to Mexico City were considered very pre- cious. Owing to their familiarity with foreign tongues, these traders also served as imperial spies and frequently as the entering wedge of conquest. As to when trade originated, we have no data but it presumably began soon after the Indians had stone artifacts. We can state, however, that it was well developed both in North and South America not long after the time of Christ (Coplico-Zacatenco culture, Mexico, the early Mayan Empire, Late Basket Makers, etc.). In Mexico City, the Spaniards were surprised to find in the market a quarter given over to the goldsmiths who sold goldware and gem-set jewelry equal to or surpassing the handicraft of their Spanish con- temporaries. Markets or fairs seem to have been held in many of the villages on set days which were attended not only by the people of the adjoining territory but by traveling merchants from afar. Bernal Diaz was greatly astonished “‘to see the vast number of people, ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 19 the profusion of merchandise exposed for sale, and the admirable police system and the order that everywhere existed.’’ Special magistrates held court and settled disputes on the spot; official weight- and-measure inspectors were present and falsification was severely punished (Joyce, 1914, p. 129-30). The Mayas, particularly after they moved into Yucatan, inhabited a country without precious stones. However, they kept in commer- cial contact with their old home, the mountainous part of Central America, from which they got opals, presumably jadeite and probably other gem stones, but they doubtless obtained the majority of their stones by bartering with the Nahua peoples of Mexico. Indeed, in discussing the various articles used by the Mayas as currency, Cogol- ludo (1688, lib. 4., ch. 5) includes “certain precious stones and disks of copper brought from New Spain which they exchanged for other things.”” Spinden and Mason (Mason, 1926, p. 439) are convinced that they had emeralds from Colombia, although the writer has never seen an emerald in Maya jewelry. The Maya merchants, like the Aztec, traveled far and wide. Their gods were Xamen Ek, god of the North Star, and Ek-chuah, god of commerce, and to the latter when on the road they prayed nightly for safe return home. Much of their trade, like that of the Caribs, was doubtless by water as their canoes, manned by from 25 to 30 paddlers, made relatively long voyages. Columbus on his fourth voyage, in 1502, sighted such a trading canoe in the Caribbean off Bonacca Island. For centuries, the Alaskan natives and those of northeastern Siberia have been in commercial contact. American soapstone, pectolite, and nephrite were traded with the Siberian natives (Kotzebue, 1821, vol. 3, p. 296). Alaskan nephrite is found in the ruins on St. Lawrence Island. On the other hand, Asian turquoise and amber (Weyer, Jr., 1929, p. 234) have been found in Aleutian graves. GEMS MINED BY AMERICAN INDIANS DIAMOND Richard F. Burton (1869, vol. 2, p. 107) states that diamonds in Minas Geraes, Brazil, were ‘used it is said by the Indians as play- things for their children.”” While not susceptible of proof, the state- ment is not improbable because when the Portuguese first visited Brazil, the fact that the natives mined the associated alluvial gold was evidenced by their possession of gold fishhooks. From time to time an Indian hunter or miner must have been attracted by a diamond in a stream and picked it up, just as the Brazilian gold miners had done, prior to the recognition of the stones as diamonds in 1720. We may add that the fine diamond, ‘‘The Star of South Africa,” was bought from an unsuspecting Negro sheepherder and that the Kashmir 20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn, 128 sapphires were used locally as gun flints—and they made good ones, too—before their true nature was known. It is probable that the Indians knew of at least some of the precious stones of Minas Geraes before the white man arrived, for Master Antonie Knivet, who was with Thomas Cavendish on his second voyage in 1591, says that at a village inland from Rio, the Tamoyes found ‘‘stones as green as grasse, and great store of white glistering stones like Christall, but many of them were blew and greene, red and white, wonderfull faire to beholde”’ (Purchas, 1905-6, vol. 16, p. 220). Still earlier, in 1572, due to in- formation received from Indians, the Governor of Bahia sent Se- bastian-Fernandez Tourinho on a long exploratory trip. In the hinterland, he found different colored precious stones and the Indians told him of the existence of other varieties (Warden, 1832, vol. 5, PDA rah). Travelers in British Guiana repeat a story, doubtless a myth, that some of the native manioc graters have inset in them small diamonds rather than quartz crystals (MacCreagh, 1926, pp. 276-279). CORUNDUM (RUBY AND SAPPHIRE) J. H. Howard (1936, p. 78) states that “Mr. Burnham S. Colburn, of Bellmore Forest, N. C., has in his gem collection a ruby bead found in a Cherokee Indian grave in western North Carolina.” He apparently believes it to be of Indian workmanship and it may be noted that rubies occur in that part of the State. At the Track Rock corundum mine, Union County, Ga., so named from an Indian pictograph nearby, blue and red detrital corundum is common. As the Indians spent considerable time in the vicinity, it is conceivable that they collected some of the brightly colored corundum (King, 1894, p. 133). EMERALD Emerald was used ornamentally by the Indians of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Panama (pl. 4). Among the Peruvian Indians under the Incas, the emerald (called Umina) was the king of gems, even the turquoise being “not so much esteemed by the Indians” (Garcilaso, 1688, pt. 1, p. 341). The Colombian emerald mines had been worked by Indians an unknown but long time before the Spaniards conquered the country, the Chibchas working the Chivor-Somondoco mines, and the Muzos the Muzo and Coscuez mines. (Pogue, 1917, pp. 910-84; Pamphlet of Columbia Emerald Syndicate, 1921; Bauer, 1904; Olden, 1912, pp. 193-209; Benzoni, 1857, pp. 109-12; etc.) The Chibchas, being great traders, also distributed the emeralds mined by the less civil- ized Muzos (Veatch, 1917, p. 249). They bartered part of the AnTHrop. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 21 emeralds with the tribes on the Magdalena below Neiva for gold (Joyce, 1912, p. 23). The Chibchas held fairs at which emeralds were featured, particularly that of Turmequé held every third day (Bollaert, 1860, p. 20). So relentlessly did the conquistadores plunder the peoples of Ecua- dor and Peru that the large exports to Europe temporarily broke down the price structure of the emerald market. The fleet in which Father Joseph de Acosta returned to Europe (A. D. 1587) carried over 200 pounds of emeralds (Acosta, 1880, p. 226). According to Joyce (1912, p. 42) emerald mining was inaugurated by religious ceremonies and was done in the rainy season, probably to take advantage of abundant water. Only the local Chibchas were permitted to dig at Somondoco and if a Chibcha permitted an out- sider to do so, the former would die within a moon. J. Eric Thomp- son (1936, p. 120) states that the miners indulged in herbs causing them to see visions in which pay lodes would be revealed. The earth, excavated with pointed stakes, was washed in ponds, fed by deep-dug water ditches. W. H. Holmes (1919, p. 135) adds that the Colombian Indians also worked the solid-vein matter. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish, emeralds in quantity were in the hands of the natives of northwestern South America and a few in those of Panama. The large number of emeralds in the hands of the Indians in the sixteenth century and their occurrence in old Indian graves in Peru and Colombia, support the thesis of a considerable age for the mines, as does the size of the pre-Hispanic workings at Somondoco. The Spanish chroniclers state that the keepers of the quipus said that Chimo Capac, a great chief of the Chimu period (perhaps 100 B. C——A. D. 600) received emeralds among other tribute (Means, 1931, p. 64). William Bollaert (1861, p. 84), reports that the ruler or Scyris of the Caras, who conquered Quito about A. D. 1000, wore a large emerald, the hereditary emblem of his sovereignty. Further, Montesinos, a priest resident in America from 1628-42 (Montesinos, 1920, p. 94), states that emeralds were among the spoils of the Inca, Sinchi Roca, when he entered Cuzco in triumph after defeating the Chancas Indians (about A. D. 1100). It is stated that after Huayna-Capac conquered the Scyris he added to the borla, the insignia of Incan royalty, the emerald of the Scyris (Myers, 1871, p. 229). The mines are at least a thousand years old. Recently S. K. Lothrop in his excavations at Coclé, Panama (1937, p. 186) found three emeralds; one, a pear-shaped double cabochon, was 1% inches long and about 1 inch thick (189 carats), while a second weighed 112 carats. This is most interesting proof that the natives of Panama knew of the existence of emerald to the south as recorded by Francisco Lopez de Gomara (1749): “Some say that 218558403 22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bute 128 Balboa received an account of how that land of Peru contained gold and emeralds.” Many archeologists believe that the Mayas and Aztecs possessed emeralds, but to the writer’s knowledge no emerald artifact has ever been found in any of the Mayan or Mexican ruins. I feel that the “emeralds” mentioned by the followers of Cortes were fine jades. Now, however, that S. K. Lothrop has found emeralds at Coclé, in Panama, a city which had trade relations not only with South America but with the cities to the north, the possession of emeralds by these people becomes less unlikely. Molina (1571) gives as the Aztec name of emerald quetzdlitztl (the stone of the brilliantly colored bird, the quetzél, Pharomachrus mocinno), an identification accepted by Pogue (1915, p. 109) and others (Squier, 1870, p. 246). I am inclined to believe, however, from Molina’s description that this may well have been but a finely colored translucent jade. While the South America lapidaries in some cases polished the stones into cabochon forms, they normally, like the Roman lapidaries, merely pierced the natural crystals so that they could be strung for necklaces or pendants. Emeralds in some instances were mounted by the Ecuadorian goldsmiths in gold jewelry. BERYL Beryl was not infrequently used by the Aztecs and it is one of the minerals mentioned in the Aztec Book of Tribute (Pefiafiel, 1890, p. 79) as coming from the present State of Veracruz. It seems reasonable that some local Mexican source was known. It was used also by the . Panamanians, Peruvians, and Brazilian Indians. At the Charleston Exposition in 1901, a crystal of golden beryl from an Indian mound, near Tessentee Creek, Macon County, N. C., was exhibited. It was 1% inches in diameter and 2), inches long. Dr. G. F. Kunz stresses the fact that the Littlefield mine nearby produces fine aquamarines (1907, p. 45). D. B. Sterrett (1907, p. 799) reports that two beryl crystals were obtained from an Indian squaw at Lewiston, Idaho. TOURMALINE When the Mesa Grande, San Diego County, Calif., tourmaline deposits were found in 1898, it was reported that the Indians had long known of the deposit, a rumor substantiated by the occurrence of colored tourmaline crystals in Indian graves in the vicinity (Kunz, 1905, p. 23). The rediscovery of several deposits in the district was due to the Indians (Kunz, 1905, pp. 55, 56). TURQUOISE * Green and blue stones were especially valued by the Pueblos. (See p. 3.) They highly prized turquoise as an ornament, as a votive «For further data on turquoise, see Pogue, Joseph E. (1915). AnTHROP. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 23 offering, and as a fetish; they decorated, in some instances, the lintels of their doors with it and used it as a measure of wealth and a means of investment. It may be added that the Navaho, to assist him in gambling, must needs have a fine piece of turquoise since Noholipi, the Gambling God in the Navaho origin legend, owed his remarkable winnings to a turquoise lucky piece (James, 1903, p. 150). Fray Geronimo de Zarate Salmerén (in New Mexico, 1618-26) says “‘to them it [turquoise] is as diamonds and precious stones” (Ayers, 1916, p. 217). In more recent times a string of turquoise fragments suffi- cient for an earring might well be worth the price of a pony (Blake, 1858, pp. 227-232). While Prof. J. S. Newberry (1876, p. 41) states that it was ‘“‘so highly prized that a fragment of fine quality no larger than the nail of one’s little finger and one-eighth of an inch in thick- ness was regarded as worth a mule or a good horse.’”’ He states that the Indians “discriminated accurately between the different shades of color’ and were ‘‘not to be deceived by any base imitation.’”’ The value of turquoise beads was judged by the delicacy and purity of their blue color (Eleventh Census, 1890, vol. 50, p. 186). The Pueblo Indians worked turquoise mines in our own Southwest at a number of places long before the Spanish arrived. Turquoise does not occur in ruins previous to those of the late Basket Makers and hence we can date the beginning of turquoise mining in the Southwest to about the fifth century (Roberts, 1929, p. 142). These people also apparently inaugurated the fascinating mosaic work of the Pueblo Indians. That the industry was an important one long before the discovery of America is shown by the many thousands of tur- quoise beads and pendants (30,000 in one room and 5,889 beads in a single burial) found at Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, N. Mex., dating from about A. D. 900 to 1100 (Pepper, 1909; Judd, 1925). It has furnished more turquoise ornaments than any other American ruin. George H. Pepper (1905, pp. 183-197) describes a turquoise pendant from Pueblo Bonito 3.4 centimeters (11% inches) long and 2 centi- meters (7%99 inch) broad at top and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) at the bottom. A single mosaic cylinder 6 inches long and 3 inches in diam- eter was set with 1,214 pieces of turquoise. One can well agree (Pepper, 1920, p. 377) that the nearby Los Cerrillos mines must have been diligently worked by these people 1,000 years ago. John F. Blandy reported that in one grave near Prescott, Ariz., half a peck of turquoises worth $2,000 was recovered (Kunz, 1896, p. 910). Arti- facts, indeed, suggest that over a thousand years ago the Pueblo peoples had greater wealth in turquoise than now and this opinion is strengthened by some of the Indian legends (Cushing, 1901, p. 385). Along the Salinas River, Ariz., ancient ruins are searched for turquoise after rains by modern Indians (Bartlett, 1854, vol. 2, p. 247). Tur- quoise is also prominent in the myths of the people of the Southwest 24. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 (i. e., the Zufii, Pima, and Hopi), including the Navaho creation myth, suggesting the length of time it has been known to them. The extent of the commerce in turquoise in the sixteenth century is further proof that the mines were relatively old. The most famous of these old turquoise mines, that at Los Cerrillos, N. Mex., the Tewa Indian place-name for which is the equivalent of “the place where turquoise is dug” (Harrington, 1916, p. 492), was reworked by the Spaniards until 1686, when the workings caved. From the size of the Cerrillos open-cut and of its dumps (pl. 2), and the large trees thereon, some of the latter being considered to be 600 years old, a considerable age for these pits is indicated. George H. Pepper, judging from country rock attached to some of the Pueblo Bonito turquoise pendants, is satisfied that Los Cerrillos was the mine from which they were obtained. In 1540 the Indians at the head of the Gulf of California told Captain Fernando Alarchon that the Pueblos dug the turquoises “‘out of a rock of stone” (Alarchon in Hakluyt, 1904, vol. 9, p. 300). Los Cerrillos workings have been described by many geologists. (Blake, 1858, pp. 227-232; Newberry, 1876, p. 41; Silliman, 1881, pp. 67-71; Kunz, 1890, pp. 54-59; Johnson, 1908, pp. 493-499; Sterrett, 1911, pp. 1066-1067, 1071.) Rather extensive ancient workings occur all over Mt. Chalchihuitl and on Turquoise Hill, 4 miles distant. Modern mining on Mount Chalchihuitl, according to Silliman, broke into open stopes in which were many stone hammers, some to be held in the hand and others grooved for handles. One of 20-pounds weight had the scrub-oak handle still attached by a withe. He adds that fire was used in breaking the rock. Sterrett says the “‘main pit on the northwest side of the hill’ is “about 130 feet deep on the upper side and about 35 feet deep on the lower side, the rim is about 200 feet across and the bottom nearly 100 feet across. The large dumps of waste rock removed from this are about 150 yards long by 75 yards wide and from 1 to 30 feet deep. These dimensions do not correspond closely with those given by the earlier writers since this would give the dump an area of less than 2% acres as compared with some 20 reported by Silliman.” It does, how- ever, suggest the removal of some 100,000 tons of rock. Silliman mentions aboriginal open chambers in solid rock, 40 feet long, and he states that at places modern mining has encountered aboriginal work- ings to depths of at least 100 feet. W.P. Blake says that 75 years ago it was visited by Indians from a distance and the Indians continue to this day to get turquoise at this mine. Although this mine is undoubtedly old, the Zufi tale of the migration of the Turquoise Man and the Salt Woman suggests that, before the discovery of Los Cerrillos, turquoise was obtained from some mine farther north (Bunzel, 1932, pp. 1032-1033), possibly from the locality of La Jara, Colo. AnrHrop, Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 25 There are also ancient Indian turquoise mines (Pogue, 1915, p. 55; Snow, 1891, pp. 511-512; Lindgren, Graton, and Gordon, 1910, p. 324; Zalinski, 1907, pp. 464-465, 474) presumably of pre-Columbian age in the Burro Mountains at several localities, on Hachita Moun- tains, and Jarilla Mountains (Hidden, 1893, pp. 400-402), Sierra County, near Paschal, N. Mex.; Sugar Loaf Peak, Lincoln County (anon., 1897, vol. 64, p. 456) and Crescent, Clark County, Nev. (Lincoln, 1923, p. 19; Vanderberg, 1937, pp. 24-25) ; Turquoise Moun- tain, Cochise County; and Mineral Park, Mohave County, Ariz. (pits and 20-foot long tunnels) (Blake, 1883, pp. 199-200; Mining and Science Press, 1902, vol. 85, No. 11, p. 102; Crawford and Johnson, 1937, pp. 511-522); Manvel, and Silver Lake, San Bernardino County, Calif., and near La Jara, Conejos County, Colo. (Kunz, 1902, p. 760). Several of the Burro Mountain localities known to white miners were discovered by evidence of aboriginal workings. The presence of char- coal indicates the use of fire in breaking the rock, followed by hammer work. The larger rock fragments were broken into small pieces in the search of turquoise. The stone hammers are ‘‘of rounded form, 4 to 8 inches or more in diameter and were evidently used without a handle” (Zalinski, 1907, vol. 2, pp. 464-465). Pits were sunk to a depth of 20 feet at least. Fire was also used at Turquoise Mountain, Cochise County, Ariz. Prehistoric turquoise mines occur over a large area in northwestern San Bernardino County, Calif., Manvel being one of the chief centers (Kunz, 1905, pp. 12, 107-109, 152-153; 1899, p. 580). Stone hammers and crude pottery occur in the old pits while pictographs are common in the vicinity. The pits, which occur in an area 30 or 40 miles in diameter, are from 15 to 30 feet across and up to 18 feet deep. Malcolm J. Rogers (1929, pp. 1-13) states that in the Silver Lake district, San Bernardino County, Calif., the pits occur in an east and west line 8 miles long and that short drifts were driven from the main pits. The aboriginal trade in the turquoise of the Southwest (pl. 4) was widespread, extending from the West Indies and Yucatan on the south to Ontario on the north (New York Times, September 20, 1895) and from California on the west to Mississippi and Arkansas on the east. About 1527, Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca obtained turquoise from his Indian patients on the Rio Grande, Tex. The men of Hernando de Soto (A. D. 1542), when they arrived in the province of Guasco (eastern Arkansas), found in the possession of the Indians “Turkie stones—which the Indians signified by signes that they had from the West’? (Purchas, 1905-7, vol. 18, p. 46). In a grave in Coahomo County, Miss., 100 turquoise beads and a small turquoise pendant were found (Peabody, 1904, vol. 3, p. 51). As glass beads were also found in the grave, this commerce with the Pueblos of the Southwest continued after the white man reached America. Vicente 26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 128 de Saldivar Mendoza in 1599 met, near the Canadian River in the vicinity of the present Texas-New Mexican line, a band of Apaches who had been trading for turquoise (‘some small green stones which they use’) with the Picuries and Taos pueblos of New Mexico (Thomas, 1935, p. 7). Agustin de Vetancurt writing between the years 1630 and 1680 says the Apaches visited the Pueblo of Pecos to trade for Chalchuites (1870-71, vol. 3, p. 323). Among the Apaches, precious stones had a directional symbolism: white shell, north; jet, east; turquoise, south; and catlinite, west. When Sieur Perrot (1911, vol. 1, pp. 363-364; LeRoy, 1753), arrived among the Fox and Sauk in 1683, he was informed that the latter had visited lands to the Southwest where they met Indians coming from that direction whence they had brought “‘stones, blue and green, resembling the turquoise which they wore fastened in their noses and ears.”” They had also seen mounted men resembling the French, that is, the Spaniards of New Mexico. Twenty-one years earlier Radisson claimed that the Crees of the Lake Superior region had beads of “‘a stone of Turquoise” as nose ornaments which they obtained by barter from the ‘‘nation of the buff and beefe’’ (Burpee, 1908, p. 216). Malcolm J. Rogers (1936) states that a piece of turquoise was reported from a Wisconsin Indian site. Jean Ribault (1875, p. 177) claimed that the French got turquoises from the Florida Indians in 1562 but his mineralogy may have been faulty or the material may have been derived from Spanish wrecks. That turquoise, Xiwitl, was known to the Aztecs in early time is proved by the name of their God of Fire and Water, Xiuhcoatl (‘‘The Turquoise Snakes’) (Verrill, 1929, p. 185). Turquoise was rather — commonly used by them, and also at the time of the Spanish occupa- tion by the Indians of Sinaloa, Sonora, and Chihuahua. The latter certainly got theirs from our own Southwest, largely by barter with the Pueblos, although perhaps in part in mining excursions which they, themselves, may have made. A Franciscan friar (probably Fray Juan de la Asuncion) in 1538 found turquoise among the Indians of Northern Mexico which they got as day laborers’ pay from the Pueblos to the north (Bandelier, 1890, p. 86) and the next year Friar Marcos de Niza repeats the statement. In consequence, at that time New Mexican turquoise in quantity was in the possession of at least the northern Mexican Indians and as, in the ruins of Pueblo Bonito sherds of Toltec pottery have been found, trade be- tween our Southwest and Mexico is indicated even 1,200 years ago (Coolidge, 1929, p. 216). While the gem does occur in Mexico at several localities, none of the deposits are important and no aboriginal workings are known, although the Aztec Book of Tribute and the statement of Sahagun (1880, p. 77) that it was found in the ‘‘mines”’ indicate without much doubt that the Aztecs had Mexican sources of AnrHrop. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 27 turquoise. Turquoise is said by Lorenzana to have been worked at Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs, about 1325 (Blondel, 1876, p. 294). In short, the Aztecs and their predecessors, the Toltecs, prob- ably got their turquoise largely from New Mexico and Arizona but in part from local sources now undiscovered or exhausted. It appears to have been available in smaller pieces to the Aztecs than to the Pueblos and particularly was used as thin plates in mosaic work. Its treatment suggests its high value and possibly its foreign source. That the Mayas had at their command considerable quantities of turquoise is shown by the 3,000 pieces set in the mosaic plaque found by Earl H. Morris at Chichen Itza in 1928 (1931, pp. 210-221). The turquoise, doubtless, was largely of New Mexican origin. Turquoise was a popular and relatively common gem among the Peruvian Indians. It was also used by the natives of Montserrat, West Indies; Bolivia; Colombia; Ecuador; Argentina; and Chile. Indeed A. Hrdlitka, in 1910, found a turquoise bead at Miramir, Argentina, on the Atlantic Ocean, 270 miles south of Buenos Aires. The natives of Ecuador had some fair-sized pieces of turquoise, a partially worked bead found on the Island of La Plata being 2% inches long and 1% inches in diameter (Dorsey, 1901, p. 266). No aboriginal South American mines are as yet certainly known but the gem occurs at certain places in the Andean regions of Peru, Argentina, and Chile. A suggestion as to a source is obtained from the name, Copiapé, which owes its origin, according to the Indian tradition to the great quantity of turquoise found in its mountains (Molina, 1809, p. 64). Further turquoise has recently been identified in the Chuquicamata copper deposit in Chile and as this mine was extensively worked by the Indians and as turquoise artifacts are found in the immediate vicinity, this was doubtless a source.® D. Jenness found a turquoise bead some years ago in an ancient Eskimo grave on one of the Diomede Isles in Bering Strait, which he judged to be of Chinese origin from etchings on it. GARNET Garnet was used by the Pueblos, although it appears to have been one of the later stones known, as it has not, to the writer’s knowledge, been found in Cliff Dwellers or Basket Makers ruins. Fray Geré- - nimo de Zérate Salmerén, who served in New Mexico from 1618-26, in his account of his missionary work states that in the Pueblo of Picuris (Taos County) ‘‘are garnet mines,” a garnet locality known to this day (Ayer, 1916, p. 217). Today the Navahos collect the gem from their reservation as do other Arizona Indians from several locali- ties, obtaining the gem both from the desert sands, from ant hills, and the source rock (Kunz, 1890, p. 80). j. ' Personal communication, L. W. Kemp. 28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 Of doubtful correctness is the reported occurrence of garnet in Mound Builders graves (Shepherd, 1890, p. 103). The Comanche Indians collected garnet at Jaco Lake, Chihuahua, Mexico (Bauer, 1904, p. 360) and it was commonly used by the Aztecs and was known to the Peruvian Indians. Don de Ulloa and Don George Juan, Captains of the Spanish Navy, who traveled in Peru in 1734 (Pinkerton, 1808-14, vol. 14, p. 550) state that ‘‘rubies” are found in a river near the village of Azogues in the vicinity of Quito. ‘Indians wash them recovering pieces as big as a lentil and sometimes larger. . .. But the inhabitants, con- tent with this piddling work, do not trouble themselves to trace the origin of the mine.”’ OLIVINE The Navahos collect from their reservation olivines which occur with garnets in the desert sands. That the pre-Columbian Pueblos possessed olivine, I cannot definitely state, although they probably did (Winship, 1896; James, 1920, p. xv). Olivine and bronzite are inci- dental constituents of meteoric iron found in Ohio Mound Builders mounds (Shepherd, 1890, p. 101). LAPIS LAZULI Lapis lazuli was possessed by the Indians of Montserrat Island, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile (pl. 4). One of the largest pieces of lapis lazuli known (24 x 12 x8 inches) was found in a Peruvian grave (Farrington, 1903, p. 202). Lapis lazuli is at present mined in Chile. By the Peruvian Indians, it was called huinzo. SODALITE Sodalite was used by the ancient Peruvians and by the Indians of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Argentina. Lapis lazuli, or more probably sodalite, was common at Tiaguanaco, Bolivia, where pounds of worked chips may be picked up, some as large as one’s hands (Uhle, 1903, p. 95). In 1928 Fr. Ahlfeld (Ahlfeld and Wegner, 1932, pp. 288-96; Ahlfeld and Mosebach, 1935, pp. 388-414) found old workings for soda- lite on the northern part of Serrania of Palca on the East Cordillera of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The mineral. occurs as veins in a dike of nephe- line syenite cutting Devonian sandstone. The works consist of open cuts and tunnels, the largest of the latter being 300 feet long and 16 feet high. The Jesuits worked the deposits after the Indians aban- doned them, the earliest workings being pre-Inca. Microscopically and chemically the sodalite resembles that of the Inca artifacts (Brendler, 1934, pp. 28-31). AntuRop. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 29 LAZULITE Lazulite was used by the ancient Peruvians and Bolivians. OPAL The fire opal of Mexico was known to the Aztecs. There is now in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, a head of the Mexican Sun God carved in fire opal, probably the work of an Aztec lapidary. Since the sixteenth century, it has been in European collections, and was one of the gorgeous gems owned by Philip Henry Hope. EI Aguila Azteca (‘‘the Aztec eagle’’) is a lovely Mexican opal weighing cut, evidently by an Aztec lapidary, 32 carats. It is carved in the form of an eagle’s head and is reported to have been found about 1863. It is said once to have belonged to Maximilian (anon., 1937, pp. 97, 99, 101). Snr. Garcia (1936, p. 559) reports the finding of worked opals in the mountains southeast of Lake Chapala near Jiquilpan, Michoacan. The accurate word picture of the opal in Sahagun’s Nahuatl text descriptive of Aztec lapidary work’ (Seler’s trans. in Saville, 1922, p. 33) is well known. Wm. T. Brigham (1887, p. 256) states that the Quiches, a Mayan tribe, in pre-Spanish times, used noble opals from Honduras commonly in their jewelry. The Mayas also had hyalite. W. Reiss and A. Stiibel (1880-87, p. 29 and pl. 80) recovered rela- tively large pierced opal beads from the Ancon, Peru, ruin. The min- eralogic determination was by Prof. H. Fischer, of Freiburg. Common opal was known to the Indians of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Wyoming, South Dakota, California, Panama, Brazil, and Argentina and to the Pueblos, Mayas, and Aztecs. That used in Oregon or Washington in part is, or approaches, gem quality. DISTRIBUTION OF QUARTZ GEMS Rock crystal and quartz, jasper and chalcedony were used by prac- tically all tribes. Agate was known to the Indians of British Colum- bia, eastern Canada, the North Atlantic States, Virginia, the Missis- sippi Valley, the northern plains, the western mountains, the American Pacific coast, and the Pueblos. It was also used by the Aztecs, the Mayas, and the Peruvians and the Indians of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Bolivia, British Guiana, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. Carnelian artifacts have been found in Georgia, Illinois, the western mountain States, California, Oregon, and Washington, and among the Pueblo ruins. It was used by the Aztecs and the Mayas and the In- dians of Costa Rica, Panama, Montserrat Island, Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, British Guiana, and Brazil. In cer- tain Colombian graves, as many as 8,000 beads, largely carnelian, have been found together with pebbles of carnelian, suggesting a stream 30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 origin. Such beads are readily sold to the present-day Indians living to the east, and a brightly colored one may be worth a mule. The local source is not sufficient for today’s demand and beads are actually imported from Germany to satisfy it (Mason, 1936, pp. 212-216). In North America amethyst was used by the Eskimo and by the Indians of eastern Canada, the southeastern States, the upper Mis- sissippi Valley, and California, and by the Pueblos and Aztecs. It was also used by the aborigines of Costa Rica, Panama, Montserrat Island, the Lesser Antilles, and Peru. Smoky quartz was used by the Eskimo, the Indians of Newfoundland, Rhode Island, the southeastern States, upper Mississippi Valley, Colorado, Washington, Oregon, and California, and the Pueblos and Peruvians. Other species of quartz were used as follows: Moss agate (Saskatchewan, New York, south- eastern States, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, Utah, California, Oregon, and the Pueblos); rose quartz (New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Geor- gia, South Dakota, Aztecs, and Brazil); gold quartz (Georgia, Califor- nia, and Arizona); citrine (Georgia, upper Mississippi Valley, and Dakota); prase (Pueblos and Aztecs); bloodstone (Oregon, Aztecs, Panama, and Peru); chrysoprase (Peru, Colombia, and perhaps Cali- fornia); iris (Mound Builders); Aventurine quartz (Aztecs and Mayas); plasma (Aztecs and Panama); and onyx (southeastern States and Washington). AMETHYST The Aztecs had some amethyst of fine color; finer, I am inclined to believe, than that of any of the Mexican sources we now know. Saha- gun (1880, p. 771) mentions Aztec amethyst mines. ROCK CRYSTAL Quartz was doubtless obtained largely in river, marine, and glacial gravels but pits were sunk on quartz veins in New England, New York, and in the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia and North Carolina and it must have been a byproduct of mica mining. Quartz was, indeed, quarried at many places in the Piedmont region of the south- eastern States, but since here, as elsewhere, it occurs so frequently as pebbles, gravels were the main source (Holmes, 1897). Master Alex- ander Whitaker, minister to Henrico Colony, Virginia, writing in 1613 (Purchas, 1905-7, vol. 19, p. 112) says that 12 miles above the falls on the James River is ‘‘a Christall Rocke wherewith the Indians doe head many of their arrows.”? When Albert de la Pierria founded Beaufort, Fla., about 1563, the Indians brought the Frenchmen presents of ‘‘pearls, crystals, silver, etc.’’ In 1587, the Frenchmen of Charles-fort were given by the chief, Ovade, pearls, fine crystal, and silver ore said to come from 10 days’ journey inland (Georgia prob- ably) where ‘‘the inhabitants of the countrey did dig the same at the foote of certaine high mountaines where they found of it in very good Anturor. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 31 quantitie. Being joyfull to understand such good newes and to have come to the knowledge of that which they most desired” the French- men returned to their fort (Laudonniere, 1904, pp. 481-482). When John Verarzanus, a Florentine writing in 1524, states that the Florida natives were the possessors not only of crystal but also of turquoise, we become skeptical of his mineralogic attainments (Hakluyt, 1850, p. 106). The Hot Springs, Ark., rock crystal locality was as well known to the Indians as to present-day mineralogists. Rock crystal and arrow- heads made of it are common in Arkansas Indian graves. In Cavelier’s account of La Salle’s voyage, he says “‘about 50 leagues from the spot where we were [mouth of Rio Bravo, Tex.] were two or three moun- tains on the banks of a river from which were taken red stones as clear as crystal,” possibly a distorted reference to Hot Springs (Shea, 1861, p. 28). Father Gravier (1900, pp. 138-141) in his voyage on the Mississippi in 1700 ‘“‘found in a small basket,’’ in a temple in the village of the Taensas, a subtribe of the Natches Indians, ‘‘a small piece of rock Crystal.” The Navahos are stated to light their ceremonial fire from the sun by means of crystal (Curtis, 1907, p. 53). The Pueblo Indians of the upper Rio Grande during their rain ceremonies beat the drum to imitate thunder, and rubbed together pebbles of white quartz to’ pro- duce an incandescent glow simulating lightning (Jeancon, 1923, p. 68). At Pecos, New Mex., A. V. Kidder (1932, p. 93) found a cylinder, set in a rectangle with a shallow groove into which the cylinder exactly fitted, both of white vein quartz. The cylinder is about 3 inches long and 1% inches in diameter. Knowing that ‘“‘lightning sets” still were used in religious ceremonies at San Ildefonsa, that night he rubbed the cylinder in the groove and finally the stones “‘became visible in a strange pale glow which flickered and died for all the world like distant lightning.’”’ Here we have a perfected machine perhaps 700 years old; the first Indian to observe the luminescence of quartz must have done so centuries earlier. The Hopi used rock crystal in religious ceremonies, as well as in divinition (Fewkes, 1898, p. 730; 1904, pp. 107-109). It was also used in the religious ceremonies of the Zufii, being, for example, placed on certain fraternal shrines, and by other Pueblos it was used to reflect the sun into kivas and into medicine bowls. Rock crystal was used in diagnosing disease both by the Pueblos (White, 1932, p. 110; Parsons, 1932, p. 285) and the Pima (Parsons, 1928, p. 459). Rock crystal is a common charm among the Yuma Indians (Forde, 1931, p. 196). The Australian medicine man paralleled his American con- frere in many uses of rock crystal in the curative art (Goldenweiser, 1922, pp. 105-107). 32 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun 128 According to a Shasta legend, a long time ago there was in the East a white and glistening firestone like the purest quartz. The coyote brought this to the Indians, and thus fire originated (Bancroft, 1886, p. 547). Quartz was supposed by the Chippewas to protect its owner against thunderstorms as the thunderbird would no more hurt it than a hen “the egg she has laid’ (Densmore, 1929, p. 113). The most prized possession of the Cherokee medicine man was a rock-crystal- like mineral once embedded in the head of the Horned Serpent so prominent in Iroquois mythology. It was invaluable in treating the sick and foretold which of the braves should shun certain raids as their deaths were shown by it to be probable (Oldbrechts, 1930, pp. 547-552). Among the Ojibways white flint was called mik kwum me wow beek, or ice stone and as the name was also doubtless applied to rock crystal, it parallels the Greek from which our word crystal is derived. Similarly certain Alaskan Eskimo believe rock crystals are the centers of ice masses so solidly frozen that they become stone: they are, therefore, prized amulets (Nelson, 1899, p. 446). A Mandan medicine man, among other wonderful performances vouched for by white witnesses, could roll a snowball in his hand “‘so that it at length becomes hard, and is converted into a white stone, which when struck emits fire’ (Maximilian, 1843; Thwaites, 1904-07, p. 342). Near the village of Lansingburgh, N. Y., is Diamond Rock, a mass of Quebec sandstone containing innumerable quartz crystals which glitter in the sunlight. According to Mohawk tradition, these are the joyful tears of a devoted mother upon her reunion with a wandering son (Syl- vester, 1877, pp. 207-220). Sahagun (1880, p. 771) reports that the Aztecs had crystal mines and Clavigero (1807, p. 16) states that these come from the mountains on the Gulf coast between Veracruz and Coatzacualco River, that is, those of Chinantla and the Province of Mixtecas. The present-day medicine men among the Yucatan Indians pretend that they can see hidden things with the aid of rock crystal, and it is successfully used in the diagnosis of the ills of their patients (Mendez, 1921, pp. 173-174). When Hans Stade was about to be eaten by his eastern Brazilian captors, an old woman of the tribe shaved off his eyebrows with a rock-crystal razor (1874, p. 63). The Venezuelan Indian lover must shape for his beloved, as a betrothal gift, a cylin- drical bead of rock crystal to be worn around her neck (Spence, 1878, vol. 1, p. 81). Spruce (1908) emphasizes the far-flung trade in rock crystal along the Amazon. AGATE Agate adorned the central mountain where, according to the Navaho creation myth, their tribe was created. The pebbles in the rattle of the Guiana medicine man are agate (Bancroft, 1769, p. 311). ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 33 JASPER In Bucks, Lehigh, and Berks Counties, Pa., there are some nine groups of jasper quarries. A depth of at least 14 feet was attained. Fire was used in quarrying. A tree in the bottom of one pit shows the quarries must at least antedate 1680-90. At one place almost 40,000 cubic yards were excavated (Mercer, 1894, pp. 80-92; Deisher, 1932, pp. 334-341). Jasper was also quarried in Chester and Lancaster Counties, Pa. Flint Ridge, in Licking and Muskingum Counties, Ohio, is the site of aboriginal flint quarries, affording also jasper and chalcedony, which cover an area 2 miles square. In the cavities of the flint are quartz crystals up to 1 and 2 inches across. They vary from limpid to almost black. The pits are up to 80 feet in diameter. Fire and water were used to supplement the stone hammers (from 6 ounces to 20 pounds in weight) in breaking up the rock (Wilson, 1898, pp. 868-871; Fowke, 1888-89, pp. 517-520). Sahagun (1880, p. 771) mentions Aztec jasper mines. Clavigero (1807, p. 16) states that jasper was quarried in the Mountains of Calpolalpan, east of Mexico City. R. H. Schomburgk (1846, pp. 28-29) states that jasper resembling verd antique is obtained by the Arecunas Indians from Mount Roraima on the Caroni River and is not only used but is traded to other tribes. CHALCEDONY Jasper and chalcedony occur as nodules in the quartzite of the Converse County, Wyo., quartzite quarry and were a byproduct of quarrying there (Dorsey, 1901, pp. 237-241). CHRYSOPRASE Near the California chrysoprase localities on Venice Hill, Tulare County, are depressions which D. B. Sterrett (1909, pp. 753-754) seems inclined to believe are aboriginal pits. IRIS Among the Mound Builders artifacts found at Mound City, Ross County, Ohio, were arrowheads of ‘‘transparent or hyaline quartz which from the brilliant play of colors upon their fractured surfaces are real gems” (Squier and Davis, 1847, p. 213). AGATIZED WOOD Agatized wood was used by the Indians from Oregon and Wyoming southward to Yucatan, Mexico. The Petrified Forest, near Adamana, Ariz., was, to the Indians and particularly to the Pueblos, a source of agatized wood, amethyst, smoky quartz, and other members of the quartz family. Agatized 34 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn, 128 wood was traded well out into the plains and southwest far into Mexico. Charles F. Lummis (1892, pp. 20-27; 1925, pp. 109-121) believes the Indians made special trips to gather chips from the shattered tree trunks. Agatized wood was used by the Basket Makers, but as neither they nor the Cliff Dwellers are known to have had either amethyst or smoky quartz, intensive exploitation of the Petrified Forest perhaps did not long antedate the coming of the Spaniards. Among the Arizona Indians, it was called Shinarump. Agatized wood, chalcedony, and other quartz minerals were also obtained by the Pueblo peoples from a ‘‘petrified forest’? 25 miles south of Chambers, Ariz., on the Sante Fe Railroad (Roberts, 1931, p. 5). The agatized wood used by the Wyoming Indians was pre- sumably of local origin, as sources are numerous in the West. Artifacts of silicified or agatized wood are found also in Florida, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, and the upper Mississippi Valley. More or less beautifully silicified fossils were also rather widely used (silicified coral, New York, southeastern States, upper Mississippi Valley and Pueblos; shark’s teeth, southeastern States; Baculites, Kan- sas; shells, Mound Builders, Pueblos, and Mayas; and crinoid stems, Pueblos). On account of their forms they were in high repute as charms. DISTRIBUTION OF JADE Jadeite was commonly used by the Aztecs and other Mexican tribes, the Mayas, all Indians of Central America, the West Indians and the Peruvians; it was also used less commonly by the Eskimo and British Columbia Indians, the Mound Builders, the Pueblos, and the peoples of British Guiana, Ecuador, and Brazil (pl. 4). Nephrite was com- monly used and highly prized by the Eskimo and the Indians of British Columbia, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil; it was also known to the Indians of Oregon and Washington, the Pueblos, the Aztecs, Mayas, the ancient Costa Ricans, and the Indians of Mont- serrat Island, Cuba, and the Lesser Antilles, and of Argentina and Chile. The single occurrence known to me among the Peruvian Indians is reported by Uhle in the Ica Valley. It was also probably known to the Haitian Indians (pl. 4). Jade was early used by the American aborigines. A jadeite tablet found in Guatemala bears in Maya numerals the date equivalent to A. D. 60, while a Maya stat- uette from Veracruz has the date corresponding to 98 B. C., by the Spinden correlation. The latter has been usually considered nephrite but more recently was determined to be jadeite (Washington, 1922, pp. 2-12). The annals of the Cakchikels Indians of Guatemala, a Maya tribe, stated that jade was used as tribute in the second of the four Tulans from which the four clans came. The researches of F. W. Clarke and G. P. Merrill (1888, vol. 2, 115-130) lead them to Anturop. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 35 believe that all the Alaska jade is nephrite while that of the ancient Mexicans and Mayas is largely jadeite although nephrite also occurs. Nadaillac and Moorehead report jade in Mound Builders’ mounds and jadeite is reported by Putman from a mound of these people in Michigan. (Putnam, 1886, pp. 62-63; W. Moorehead, 1917, p. 20; de Nadaillac, 1884, pp. 107-109.) This is most interesting, proving the extent of tribe by tribe barter, while suggesting, if we let our imagi- nation run riot, a more direct commercial connection with the Mexi- can civilization or, via Florida, with that of the West Indies. Jadeite, while in the possession of the northern Mexican Indians (Chihuahua), was exceedingly rare among the Pueblos although A. V. Kidder and S. J. Guernsey (1919, p. 148) report a jadeite pendant in a Cliff House Ruin in northeastern Arizona. These authorities know of no other occurrence of jadeite in the Southwest, although it isalsoreported from Casas Grandes in Chihuahua. Nephrite also was very rare among the Pueblos although a small round tablet from Cochise County, Ariz., made of “an impure variety of nephrite’ has been found (Holmes, 1906, p. 108). Warren K. Moorehead (1910, vol. 2, pl. 51) states that a jade effigy of a fish was found in a Pueblo ruin near Mesa, Ariz. Julian H. Steward (1937, p. 72) found a nephrite scraper in a cave on Promontory Point, Salt Lake, Utah. As much Southwestern turquoise reached Central Mexico and Toltec pottery occurs in the ruins of Pueblo Bonito, it would appear natural that jade would have been obtained from the south, particularly as the Pueblo peoples were passionately fond of green stones. The situation is perplexing. Did the Pueblos have a taboo against jade or was its export from Mexico northward prohibited by tribal decree? It reminds one of the rarity of amber among the Egyptians and early Mesopotamian peoples. Strangely enough, the Pueblos depended largely on local sources for their precious stones. JADEITE Jade (largely jadeite) was used early by the Mexican peoples. According to Toltec chronicles, Chimalman, the mother of the king Quetzalcoatl Chalchiuitl (about A. D. 839), became pregnant from swallowing a chalchihwitl (jade) (1886, vol. 5, p. 257). In the advice of a Toltec father to his son, the gods listened to the prayers of the wise men of old, “‘because they were of a pure heart, perfect and without blemish like Chalchihuitl” (Charnay, 1887, p. 179). Jade (chalchihwitl in part; the term also covers turquoise and other green and blue stones) was highly prized by the Aztecs, and Father Sahagun says they could only be worn by the nobles or ruling classes. To show that the Aztecs valued it highly, I need but to remind you that when Montezuma and Cortes gambled, the native chieftain first paid his debts in gold but on the second night he promised the Spanish 36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buby 128 marauder something much more precious; this, to Cortes’ disgust, proved to be four small carved jade beads. Montezuma had valued each one at two loads of gold, although I do not remember that the size of the load was specified. That it was relatively abundant among them is shown by the fact that Dr. H. M. Saville in 1900-1901 excavated the site of an ancient Aztec temple in Mexico City, and found therein over 2,000 jadeite objects. It is not unusual for Aztec and Central American jadeite carvings to retain on the reverse side a segment of the original pebble from which it was cut. The jadeite was evidently of alluvial origin. Friar Bernardino de Sahagun says chalchihuitl was found in Mexico. Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, from a close study of the Aztec tribute rolls (1901, pp. 227-238) in which jadeite is listed as the tribute of certain towns, concluded that the material was obtained from a number of places in southeastern Mexico, the country east of a north to south line drawn through Mexico City, Chiapas, and Guerrero being particularly likely sources. Almost a generation thereafter her predictions were verified by discoveries of jade in Zimapan (Davis, 1931, p. 182) and as pebbles in rivers in Oaxaca and Guerrero (Caso, 1932, p. 509). Jadeite was the most precious of Mayan possessions, and its owner- ship an insignia of wealth or power. A piece of jade was put in the mouth of the dead, curiously analogous to the Chinese custom. The Mayas had jadeite in relatively large pieces as some pectoral plaques of it are 6 inches square. In March 1937, the Carnegie Institution reported that Dr. A. V. Kidder had found in a pyramid mound near Guatemala City a water-worn boulder of jade 16 inches in diameter and weighing nearly 200 pounds. This beautiful light-green jade is certainly one of the largest ever found in America. A highly polished sphere of jade 1% inches in diameter, once used as a conjuring stone, — was found at Chichen-Itza in 1928 (Morris, 1931, p. 210). Mayan jade, in part at least, was derived from stream gravels, for at Copan, Honduras, a human figure was engraved on one side of a pebble 8 inches long, the reverse distinctly showing its pebble form (Gann, 1926, p. 183). Guatemala and Costa Rica are likely sources in addition to trade with Mexico. H. J. Spinden (1913, p. 145) reports that some of the jades found at Monte Alban, Mexico, appear to be of Mayan workmanship, and were doubtless obtained by barter with the Mayan merchants. In later times, the Mayans were supplied with jadeite not only from Guatemala but also from Mexico. Thomas Gann (1925, p. 274) states that jadeite artifacts were more common in the early days of the Old Empire than in the later days of that era or in those of the New Empire, suggesting, perhaps, the partial ex- haustion of a local alluvial source. The conclusion appears probable as in late Mayan times some of the artifacts are patently cut from larger ornaments of an earlier date. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 37 Jadeite was widely used in Costa Rica, although it is much less common in the highland than in the Pacific coastal graves (Hartman, 1901, p. 171). At Las Guacas, Nicoyan Peninsula, Costa Rica, jadeite occurs more abundantly than anywhere else in the American continent, the finds being numbered by hundreds. Included in them are partially worked pebbles and unworked blocks. The Nicoyans cut jade cleverly and had a considerable trade in it both to the north and south. A stream source must be nearby (Hartman, 1907, p. 85). NEPHRITE Lt. J. C. Cantwell in 1884 heard of nephrite on the Kobuk River, Alaska, but the natives through superstitious fear of the mountain refused to guide him to the mine. Lt. George M. Stoney, however, in 1886 found the aboriginal nephrite mine at Jade Mountains on the north side of Kobuk River (1900, pp. 56-57). His Indians refused to visit the place for fear they might not return as “only the medicine man could visit it and then not until after a long fast’’ (Stoney, 1900, p. 56). Shungnak, the local Eskimo name for jade, is given to one of the tributaries of Kobuk River (Smith and Mertie, 1930, p. 345). In addition to jade in place, the pebbles of the rivers of the region were doubtless collected by the Eskimo. The natives also collected neph- rite boulders occurring in the Fraser and Thompson Rivers, British Columbia, and on the high benches of the Fraser River (Camsell, 1912, p. 606), on the beaches of Puget Sound, and in southern Oregon. Nephrite boulders’ also?occur on the upper Lewes River, Yukon Territory, not far from the eastern boundary of Alaska (Dawson, 1887; 1888, p. 186) and on the Rae River in the Coronation Gulf region (Jenness, 1925, p. 432) although we do not know that these sources were exploited by the Indians. Nephrite was used by all the Eskimo of Alaska, and they often made long journeys to procure it. By barter it had reached the Eskimo of the west coast of Hudson Bay and Baffin Island as early as the ‘Thule stage of culture” (say A. D. 600-1600) (Mathiassen, 1927; 1927 a, pt. 2, p. 27). Nephrite artifacts are found also in the Eskimo ruins of Newfoundland (Jenness, 1932). In con- sequence, the finding of an axe supposed to be of jade at Balsam Lake, Ontario, is not surprising (Laidlaw, 1897, p. 85; 1897 a, vol. 19, p. 69). Indeed, jade was traded in all along the northern Pacific coast; the British Columbian sources furnishing material for the coast from the Straits of Juan de Fuca to Bering Bay and Jade Mountain, from the Aleutian Islands to the mouth of the Mackenzie River (Emmons, 1923). Of the various stone amulets, jade was the most valuable and among the Eskimo the stone had magical properies. A small bead was worth six or seven foxskins. A small adz blade among the Tlingits was 218558—40——-4 38 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bow 128 worth two or three slaves and while a Tlingit was using it, his wife refrained from frivolity lest the blade break. The Tlingit name was tsu (green), a close approximation to the Chinese Yu. The British Columbian father handed a nephrite tool down to his son as a priceless heirloom. Among the Salish Indians it was called Stoklait (green stone). The material of the jade (nephrite) ornaments in the possession of the British Guiana Indians is said by the natives of San Carlos to come from the source of the Orinoco River and by the Indians of the missions of the Caroni and of Angostura from the headwaters of the Rio Branco. The two localities are near one another (de Humboldt, 1814-29, vol. 2, pp. 395-402, 462). Tubular beads and labrets of this material were an object of barter through much of Brazil and British Guiana. Such are reported to have been used ‘‘as current money (Keymis, in Hak- luyt, 1904, vol. 10, p. 491). Sir Walter Raleigh (1595) reported that the tribes of the Amazons traded jade ornaments for gold and the English exported them to England to cure kidney diseases as early as 1604 (Pinkerton, 1812, vol. 12, p. 283). That the alluvial nephrite locality of Amargoza, Bahia, Brazil, was worked by the Indians seems probable from the abundance of nephrite artifacts in that region. MINERALS AND ORNAMENTAL STONES MINED BY AMERICAN INDIANS ACTINOLITE Actinolite, or a rock largely composed of it, was a material for axes prized by the ancient Hopi and Zufii (Hough, 1903, p. 322). It was also used by the California natives. CHLOROMELANITE Chloromelanite tools were particularly used by the Mayas of Gua- temala, and by the ancient people of the Valley of Mexico and the State of Guerrero (Hodge, 1922, vol. 3, p. 47). It is presumably of local origin. It was also used by the pre-Spanish Colombians and Chileans. PECTOLITE From a pale greenish or bluish slightly translucent pectolite, the Eskimo of Point Barrow make hammerheads. Both pectolite and jade are called Kaudlo and are said to come “‘from the East, a long way off’ (Murdoch, 1892, p. 60; Clarke and Chatard, 1884, p. 20). The Alaskan natives traded pectolite with the natives of Siberia. It was also used by the British Columbian Indians. AntHRop. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 39 SERPENTINE Serpentine was used by practically all Indian tribes. STAUROLITE While the writer has not been able to definitely prove the report, it is probable that the Indians of Virginia used the local staurolite as an ornament. Such a striking mineral, and one so locally abundant could scarcely have escaped their notice. MAGNESITE The Pomo Indians obtained magnesite at White Buttes, near Cache Creek, and at Sulphur Bank, Clear Lake, Calif. This was made into beads and baked, in which process the color changes from white to an attractive buff or salmon color. As elsewhere stated, this served as money and was traded from the coast to the Sierra Nevadas (Kroeber, 1925, p. 249; Loeb, 1926, p. 178). The magnesite of the Pueblo Indians may also have been of California origin. It was also used by the Indians of British Columbia. ALABASTER AND STALACTITIC CALCITE Alabaster was used by the Indians of Canada, the North Atlantic States, Georgia, the Mississippi Valley, the Rocky Mountains, Cali- fornia, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, and by the Pueblos, Aztecs, Mayas, and Peruvians. The Indians found that Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Ind., contained two desirable products, a jaspery flint and stalactites of satin spar. They carried on mining a full mile within the cave, lighting their labor with flaming torches. From the lenses of flint protruding from the limestone walls they hacked flint flakes, with granite hammers, and also cut from a giant stalactite some 1,000 cubic feet of glistening alabaster. The imprints of their moccasins were still visible on the floor of the cave 80 years ago. They also dug down from the surface in one place until the cave formation was encountered and mined alabaster open cut. Deer antlers were used as picks in this work. (Fowke, 1922, pp. 108-109; Blatchley, 1897, pp. 156, 165-169; Mercer, 1895, pp. 396-400.) The Aztecs quarried at Tecali, in Puebla, Mexico, what we now call Mexican onyx, and what they called tecali, probably derived from teocali or “lord’s mansion”’ (anon., 1891, p. 729). It was widely used for images and vases and as windows in their temples (Fortier and Ficklen, 1907, p. 190). 40 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 GALENA The brilliant luster of galena appealed to the Eskimo, the Indians of British Columbia, Canada, Florida, the upper Mississipp. Valley, Virginia, Mississippi, Utah, the Yavapai Indians of Arizona, and the Pueblos. The Wisconsin-Iowa-Illinois lead district was known to the Indians before the white man’s arrival and Nicolet (1634) and Radisson and Groseilliers (1658-59) were told of the deposits. Miami Indians brought to Perrot upon his arrival in the region in 1684 “lumps of lead’”’ found, they said, in rock crevices (Neill, 1858, p. 139; Carver, 1778, pp. 47-48). While the writer agrees that smelting was taught the Indians by the French, he cannot agree with those who state that mining was taught them by the French as galena is widely and abun- dantly present in the prehistoric mounds of the upper Mississippi Valley. When, in 1810, two St. Louisianians, Colonel Smith and Mr. Moorhead, purchased the Wisconsin-Iowa-Illinois lead fields from Augustus Choutou, the Sauk and Foxes ran them off the property. Fearing the effect of this action on the American Government, the tribes at once sent delegates to Governor Howard and General Clarke at St. Louis, who stated that ‘‘when the Great Spirit gave the land to the Red Men, their ancestors, he foresaw that the White Men would come into the country and that the game would be destroyed; therefore, out of his great goodness he put lead into the ground that they, their wives and children might continue to exist’? (Bradbury, 1904, p. 253; Lanman, 1856, vol. 1, p. 25). This was doubtless the principal source of the galena so abundant in certain mounds of the Mound Builders. There is also evidence that the Indians obtained galena from the outcrops of the southeast Missouri mines (Thwaites, 1904-07, vol. 26, p. 95). Probably the Tri-State district was known to the Indians for they informed Lieutenant Wilkinson ‘‘that the country to the northwest of the Osage village abounds with valuable lead mines’”’ (Coues, 1895, vol. 2, p. 561). John S. Newberry (1892, p. 191) states that near Lexington, Ky., the Indians sank a trench over 300 feet long and from 10 to 12 feet deep on a galena-barite vein. He adds that ‘‘trees growing in the trench show it to be at least 500 years old.”” The Blue Bell Mine, Kootenai County, Idaho, is said to have been discovered by the whites owing to the fact that the Indians made bullets by smelting its galena (Laut, 1918, p. 89). It is by no means certain, however, that this particular discovery by Indiaus is very ancient. F. M. Endlich near Cook’s Peak, N. Mex., in sinking a shaft broke into an old stope in which were stone tools and none of metal (Chapin, 1892, p. 30). Galena, found as pebbles on the sea beach of Coronation Gulf, is used by the local Eskimo to blacken skins (Stefainsson, 1913, p. 443). ANTHROP. PAP. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 41 HEMATITE Hematite was used by Eskimo, the Indians of Canada, many tribes in the United States, the Aztecs, Mayas, the old Panamanians, and Peruvians, and the Indians of Cuba, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil, and Argentina. Hematite was mined at Marquette, Mich., and at Iron Mountain, St. Francois County, and at Leslie, Franklin County, Mo. At Leslie, white miners have opened up an open cut in iron ore, 150 feet long, 100 feet wide, and from 15 to 20 feet deep. Honeycombing the area mined and extending beneath its deepest part are tortuous winzes, the work of Indians. Most of the openings are narrow and sinuous but some permit of a man standing up in them. Over 1,000 rude stone implements, all grooved and from 1 to 5 pounds in weight, were found in and around the workings. The material sought was soft hematite used as paint although solid hematite for implements and some flint were byproducts (Holmes, 1904, pp. 723-726). The Hopi got hematite for ceremonial pigment from Cataract Canyon, 110 miles west of the Hopi Reservation (Hough, 1902). The Peaux de Liévre Indians got hematite near Fort Good Hope on the Mackenzie River. From its appearance they called it Sa-ts-anne or “bear’s excrement”? (Chambers, 1914, p. 284). AZURITE AND MALACHITE Malachite was used by the Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, by the Aztecs, Mayas, and Peruvians and by the Indians of British Columbia, eastern Canada, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, and Argen- tina. Azurite was used by the Pueblos, Eskimo, the Mayas, and the Indians of Bolivia, eastern Canada, San Domingo, and Chile. According to Apache belief, a small bead of malachite attached to one’s gun makes it shoot straight (Bourke, 1892, pp. 588-591). The Pueblo Indians had many sources of these minerals. Appar- ently a squad from Ofiate’s expedition (1598) inspected a shaft three “estados’ (about 16 feet) deep from which these minerals were obtained (Bolton, 1916, p. 244) either in the Aquarius or Hualpai Ranges. In Father Geronimo Zarate Salmeron’s account of the same expedition, the blue used as paint in the Zufii province and the green from Xémez, where ‘‘whole cargoes could be gathered,’”’ were also presumably oxidized copper ores (in Bolton, 1916, p. 269). The Hopi got malachite for ceremonial pigment from Cataract Canyon, 110 miles west of the Hopi Reservation (Hough, 1902). Copper carbonates were obtained for pigments by the Pueblos in the elevated region west of Luna, New Mex. (Hough, 1907, p. 59). 42 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn, 128 SMITHSONITE Smithsonite was ornamentally used by the ancient Peruvians and probably by the Pueblos. ATACAMITE AND BROCHANTITE Beads of both these copper minerals have been found in Chile, near their source, the Chuquicamata mine. Atacamite was also used by the Peruvian and Argentina Indians, and brochantite by the Bolivian Indians. CHRYSOCOLLA Chrysocolla was popular among the old inhabitants of South America, artifacts of it being found in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. It was obtained at Quebrade de Cobres, northwestern Argentina, by the Diagiiites. Among their workings is a 45° inclined shaft 30 meters deep (Beuchat, 1912, p. 715). It was also used by Indians of California and Arizona. PYRITE Pyrite was rather widely used in both North and South America. It is not unusual for Maya pyrite mirrors and the firestones in Eskimo graves and those of the Maine Red Paint People to be altered to limonite, a possible scale of the rapidity of pyrite alteration. In Labrador, northern Canada, and Alaska, the Eskimo used pyrite to strike fire as did the Indians of northwest and northern Canada and Newfoundland. It may be mentioned that the Aleutians to obtain fire strike together two flints rubbed in sulfur, the spark falling on lint powdered with sulfur which is obtained from the nearby volcanoes (Dall, 1870, p. 370). At Point Barrow, the Eskimo miners believe the pyrite, which occurs massive and as spherical concretions, to have fallen from the sky and hence it is called ‘‘firestone”’ (Ray, 1885, p. 46; Murdoch, 1892, p. 60; Hough, 1890, p. 574). Among the Cumberland Bay Eskimo snapping a whip with a piece of pyrite at the tip drives away evil spritis (Boas, 1907, p. 138). These people believe that some seals break a breathing hole through the ice with a stone held under the flipper. A hunter, if he kills such a seal, should, without looking at the stone, throw it over his shoulder, which changes it into pyrite and thereafter insures good luck in sealing (Boas, 1907, p. 152). The Iglulik Eskimo protect themselves from thunderstorms by laying out an amulet consisting of pyrite, a piece of white skin, and a small kamik sole (Rasmussen, in Weyer, 1932, p. 182, footnote). The Haneragmiut Eskimo procure pyrite for fire-making to the northwest of Coronation Bay and trade this to the Copper Eskimo (Stefansson, 1919, pp. 74, p. 118). Anruropr. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 43 It is common in the Mound Builder mounds of Ohio, that of the Muskingum Valley presumably coming from the adjoining hills where pyrite abounds. In 1826 an English traveler, Ash, found in a mound what from its luster he believed a large lump of gold. His laborers carefully covered up their work and secretly in a private room gave it the fire test. Their ‘‘gold” turned ‘‘black, filled the place with a sulfurous odor and then burst into 10,000 fragments” (Mitchener, 1876, pp. 24-25). Pyrite was used extensively by Aztecs as inlays in their mosaics, as eyes for their statues, and, well polished, as mirrors. Zelia Nuttall (1901 a, p. 83) believes that pyrite mirrors were used in the sun-cult, to concentrate the rays of the sun and so light the sacred fire at noon on the days of the vernal equinox and summer solstice. Crushed marcasite was used as a face powder by certain Aztec priests (Ban- croft, 1886, vol. 3, p. 340). Don George Juan and Don de Ulloa (traveled, 1734) refer to ancient aboriginal mines of pyrite in Peru (Pinkerton, 1808-14, vol. 14, pp. 545-546). Pulverized pyrite was among the votive offerings to the gods. The natives of Tierra del Fuego who, like the Eskimo, used iron pyrite for fire-making, obtained it from at least two mines known to us; one on the northern part of Tierra del Fuego Island and another near Mercury Sound, Clarence Island (Cooper, 1917, pp. 191-192). As its use to produce fire is noted as early as A. D. 1580, it was doubt- less a pre-European custom (Lothrop, 1928, p. 64). The Fuegians prize it highly. Their neighbors, the Patagonians, not only used it for making fire but weighted the globular hide bags at the end of their bolas with it. Presumably they obtained it from the Fuegian country (Fitzroy, 1839, vol. 1, p. 62). CANNEL COAL, JET, AND LIGNITE Cannel coal, lignite, and jet were rather widely used by the North American Indians including the Aztecs and Mayas as well as by the Indians of Montserrat Island and Ecuador. These were used mainly as ornaments, although certain of the Pueblo people, the Assiniboin and other Northern Plains Indians, used it to a minor degree as fuel. The Indians of Blennerhasset Island, W. Va., used to a considerable extent for pendants cannel coal which they procured locally (Hodge, 1922, p. 151). Cannel coal adorned the northland in the Navaho Creation Legend. Jet occurs in Colorado and lignite widely in the Southwest, and their outcrops furnished abundant material to the Pueblo peoples. They mined lignite for fuel purposes 15 miles north of Holbrook, Ariz., and at Kokopuyama, northeastern Arizona (Hough, 1903, pp. 334, 335). 44 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bu, 128 MICA _ Mica was used by the Eskimo and the Indians of British Columbia, eastern Canada, the United States east of the Mississippi and Cali- fornia, by the Pueblos and Aztecs, and the Indians of Panama (para- gonite), San Salvador, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Argentina. Mica (largely muscovite) was mined by pits at many points in the Appalachian uplift from Alabama north-northeast to the St. Lawrence. It was an article of trade west as far as the Mississippi and south as far as Florida. Rock crystal and the more unusual pegmatitic minerals, often vividly colored, must have been occasional but prized byproducts. The Indians of North Carolina carried down some of their mica pits as far as surface weathering extended, that, is to ground-water level. Some of the pits were from 40 to 50 feet wide and from 75 to 100 feet long and, though in part filled up, are still from 15 to 20 feet deep. One North Carolina mica pit is 320 feet long and in places 30 feet deep (Smith, 1877, pp. 441-443). Old tunnels connect- ing pits from 50 to over 100 feet long are mentioned. They are from 3 to 3% feet in height and much less in width. Large trees have grown within the pits. When the North Carolina mica boom was on in 1868-69, such pits were of value in relocating mica mines and the Indians proved to have been good prospectors (Kerr, vol. 1, 1875, pp. 300-301; 1880, p. 457). Incidentally the mountaineers were obsessed with the idea that the ancient pits were silver mines worked by De Soto’s men (Foster, 1873, p. 370). D.B.Sterrett (1907, p. 401) found stone tools around some of the North Carolina mica mines and Wm. B. Phillips (1888, p. 662) states that the Indians used fire in breaking the rock. The latter reports that large pine trees (18 inches in diameter) have grown on the debris of the Alabama mica mines (Phillips, 1907, p. 671). Mica mines occur in 7 different counties in Alabama and at some 17 localities in North Carolina (Holmes, 1919, pp. 244-245). Theold traveler Laudonniére (A. D. 1564) was shown by Indians large mica plates found in the Appalachians with “‘christal” and “slate stone.’”’ Ralph Lane (A. D. 1585-86) heard also of a “marvelous and strange mineral” occurring in large plates, which was mined to the west of Roanoke (Packard, 1893, pp. 162-163). In Amelia County, Va., there are aboriginal mica pits 12 feet deep (Fontaine, 1883, pp. 330-339). Fire was used to break the rock. Mica was commonly used by the Mound Builders, and J. Priest (1838, p. 179) mentions one piece, 3 feet long, 1% feet wide, and 1% inches thick, a fair sized ‘“‘book.’’ From a single mound, as many as 250 mica objects and as much as 20 bushels of mica have been reclaimed. It doubtless came from the Appalachian mines. ‘Synthetic’ pearls were made by the Mound Builders by wrapping a coat of mica around wooden beads (Davis, 1931, p. 136). Again, beads of clay were covered with crushed mica (Lilly, 1937, p. 210). ANTHROP. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 45 Among the Delaware Indians, mica laminae are placed in medicine bags and are powerful “rain medicine” as they are believed to be scales of the great mythological Horned Serpent. Merely place a few “scales” on a rock beside some stream and the black thunder clouds gather and refresh the thirsty cornfields with rain (Harrington, 1913, p. 226). Fuchsite beads are reported from an ancient Guatemalan grave (Bauer, 1900, p. 291). LABRADORITE Labradorite, which was introduced to the scientific world by Mo- ravian missionaries in 1770, was presumably procured by them from the Eskimo, who still bring fine specimens from the interior of Labra- dor (Packard, 1891, pp. 272-283). They know it as ‘“‘the fire-rock”’ (Browne, 1909, p. 155). Captain Cartwright, who was in Labrador from 1770-86 (Cartwright, 1911, p. 347), mentions it being picked up by the Eskimo. Eskimo chiefs used it ornamentally over 50 years ago (Tuttle, 1885, p. 65). Anorthite was used in Panama. SUNSTONE Dr. H. P. Wightman states that the Apache Indians collected sun- stone (variety andesine) from their reservation not far from Globe, Ariz. (Sterrett, 1916, p. 322). MOONSTONE Moonstone was among the gems excavated at Ticoman, Mexico, in a grave of Toltec or pre-Toltec culture (Vaillant, 1930, pp. 610-616). AMAZONSTONE Amazonstone was used by the Aztecs, Mayas, and the Indians of Wisconsin, California, Trinidad, Venezuela, and Brazil. SLATE The Haidahs, skillful carvers in slate, obtained the raw product from a quarry on Queen Charlotte’s Island. VARISCITE Mr. Don Maguire, according to Dr. G. F. Kunz, reports that in the vicinity of the variscite locality near old Camp Floyd in Cedar Valley, Utah, artifacts and rock inscriptions are common. No old workings have as yet been found, however, but variscite was used by the ancient Pueblo people of the region. 46 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 CALAMINE Calamine of predominant blue color, but in part gray and green, is possessed by the Yaquis of Chihuahua, Mexico. They use it as votive offerings, believing it has magical qualities (Sterrett, 1909, p. 812). F'LUORSPAR Fluorspar was used as an ornamental stone by the Indians of Mis- souri, Illinois, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, and California, the Pueblos, Aztecs, and Peruvians, and the Bolivian Indians. The fluorite used by the Mound Builders was probably picked up from the outcrop as E. C. Clark® knows of no aboriginal pits in the Illinois-Kentucky field. He states that most of the fluorite employed by the Mound Builders apparently came from the Illinois part of the field. AMBER Amber was commonly used by the Eskimo and the Indians of Alaska and British Columbia, the Aztecs and Mayas, the Peruvians and the Indians of Santo Domingo and the Lesser Antilles and Colombia. A fossil gum was also used by the Brazilian Indians and a fossil resin closely resembling amber has been found in Mound Builder mounds in Ross County, Ohio. Reported occurrences of amber artifacts in Virginia and Tennessee may or may not be authentic. The Eskimo of Point Barrow find from time to time amber on the beach and use it rough as amulets and rarely cut it into beads. It is called atima, i. e., “‘a live coal,’ a descriptive figure of speech (Mur- doch, 1892, p. 61). Ernest de K. Leffingwell (1919, p. 179) saw the Point Barrow natives ‘‘pick up a few pieces [of amber] a quarter of an inch in diameter from the protected beaches between Harrison and Smith Bays.’’ The Eskimo also got amber for beads from the alluvium of the Yukon delta and from the Tertiary formations of the Fox Islands (Holmes, 1907, p. 48). The Koniagas of Kodiak Island prize labrets, ear ornaments, and pendants of amber which at times, particularly after earthquakes, is said to be thrown up upon the south side of the island. Broken beads and pieces of amber are placed on the graves of the wealthy. It is also an important, though rare and costly, article of commerce among them. (Cox, 1787, p. 212; Ban- croft, 1886, vol. 1, pp. 72-73; Dall, 1870, p. 403; Petroff, 1884, p. 138.) That amber was widely traded in among the Eskimo long ago is shown by the presence. of beads and uncut lumps in Thule culture ruins (about A. D. 600-1600) at Naujan on the shore of Fox Channel. Amber beads said to be of Asian origin were found in an Aleutian grave on Unalaska Island (Weyer, Jr., 1929, p. 234). ¢ Personal communication. Anrurop. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 47 Gerard Fowke (1894, p. 16) found in a grave in Rockbridge County, Va., a bead “resembling amber,’’ which, he suggests, possibly may be of European origin. The occasional finding of amber on the adjacent Virginian coast appears to render such a conclusion unnecessary. W. M. Clark (1878, p. 275) reported amber beads in a Tennessee mound but as these were stolen before being placed in a museum, the observation must be accepted with reservations. Amber and labrets of amber were among the tribute to be paid Montezuma by certain of the districts of Mexico, particularly the cities on the Atlantic coast and of Chiapas, a present-day locality. In Aztec times it was an important article of commerce. Sahagun (1880, p. 771) reports that amber was obtained by the Aztecs from “‘mines in the mountainous country.” Clavigero reports that it was used as an ornament mounted in gold. The amber of the north coast of Santo Domingo was gathered in pre-Columbian days. It was the first gem material recognized in the New World by the whites, as Christopher Columbus, in his account of his second voyage, says that the island contains ‘‘mines of copper, azure, and amber” (Kerr, 1811, vol. 3, p. 131). SOAPSTONE (STEATITE) Soapstone was used by practically all the North and Central American peoples, by the Indians of Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colom- bia, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, and by the Peruvians. The Cherokees of the Great Smokies, N. C., still make soapstone pipes, largely, however, for tourist consumption (Morley, 1913, p. 238) and Peter Kalm states that in 1748 soapstone pots were still used among the Delawares. Steatite was quarried in a large number of places in the Appalachian uplift from Newfoundland to Alabama, some 33 being known to the writer. Other localities were Wyoming and Lac de la Pluie, southwest of Lake of Woods, Ontario (Mackenzie, 1902, vol. 1, p. xci1). Soap- stone was also obtained in the Jacumba region, San Diego County, Calif. (Gifford, 1931, p. 29), and on Santa Catalina Island (Kroeber, 1925, p. 629). Stone hammers, mauls, and picks are common at such localities. A peculiar feature of the quarrying is the fact that bowls were in some instances largely shaped in place, then undercut, and only then broken off from the solid rock by gradual pressure of the chisel around the base of the bowl (Schumacher, 1879, vol. 7, pp. 117-121). At least the pots and other artifacts were usually roughly hewn at the quarry although they may have been finished at the home village. A. J. Pickett (1851, vol. 1, p. 177) states, from Indian testimony now over 100 years old, that in Alabama the Indians “cut out the pieces with flint rocks fixed in wooden handles. After working around as deep as they desired, the piece was pryed out of the rock.” 48 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL, 128 In Norway and Sweden in the Viking time, about 1,200 years ago, the Scandinavians cut pots from soapstone in place much as did the American Indians of that or later times (Grieg, 1930; 1932, pp. 88-106). The Laplanders of northwestern Sweden’ also cut their pots directly from the rock outcrop. At Johnston, R. I., the largest pits are 10 feet long, 6 feet wide, and are now 5 feet deep although originally doubtless 15 feet deep (Den- ison, 7n Chase, 1885, pp. 900-901). The Narragansett Indians were famous steatite artisans and traders, and their pipes made of local steatite were in demand not only among the Mohawk but also by “‘our English Tobacconists for their rarity, strength, handsomenesse and coolnesse”’ (Wood, 1634, p. 65). The Cumberland Sound Eskimo when breaking steatite from a quarry, ‘‘deposit a trifling present at the place, because otherwise the stone would become hard’”’ (Boas, 1907, p. 138). The Eskimo on the west coast of Hudson Bay and the Copper Eskimo believe that steatite should not be worked while the people are living on the ice (Boas, 1907, p. 149; Jenness, 1922, p. 184). The former some- times use steatite as bullets when lead is scarce. It is mined by Eskimo at the mouth of Tree River, which flows into Coronation Gulf, 75 miles east of the Coppermine mouth. The Coppermine Eskimo are dealers in soapstone lamps and pots, and at many of the soapstone localities the main occupation of certain Eskimo is pot making. Families from as far away as Cape Bexley visit the Tree River for the stone, being en route 1, 2, or more years and such trips are the subject of local songs. It is also distributed by tribal barter. It is believed by Stefansson that this and localities east of it once supplied soapstone cooking utensils as far west as Siberia (Stefansson, 1919, pp. 68, 112-113; 1914, p. 25). Stefansson (1919, p. 28) states that to make a pot takes all an Eskimo’s spare time for a year and that certain of the more skillful members of the tribe specialize in making such utensils. CATLINITE Catlinite (Eyanskah in Sioux) (Neill, 1858, p. 515) occurs in the Coteau des Prairies, Minn., on the Red Cedar branch of the Chip- pewa River, Wis. (Schoolcraft, 1853, p. 206; Strong et al., 1882, vol. 4, pt. 5, p. 578; West, 1934, pp. 72-73, 330-331; De la Ronde, 1876, pp. 348-349; Barrett, 1926; West, 1910, pp. 31-34; Brown, 1914, vol. 13, pp. 75, 80-82), in Scioto County, Ohio (Shetrone, 1930, p. 178), and in Arizona. The latter is probably the oldest of the localities, as catlinite artifacts occur in the Pueblo II culture stage of Utah (A. D. 200-800). The next oldest of the localities certainly worked by the aborigines was the Ohio locality. Its trade area was ’ Personal communication, Hans Lundberg. AnTHROP, Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 49 much more restricted than that of the Minnesota catlinite, but it was extensively used in Ohio and Kentucky and in some instances reached even Iowa and Wisconsin. The Minnesota and Wisconsin localities, while probably the youngest of the catlinite mines worked by the aborigines, are well over 300 years old. Sioux myths connecting catlinite with the creation of man suggest a greater age, but myths of the long ago conceivably can grow in a day. Catlinite was also ob- tained from the glacial drifts in the upper Mississippi Valley (pl. 5). To the Coteau des Prairies, the surrounding tribes from hundreds of miles around made yearly mining pilgrimages to obtain material for their pipes. The Great Spirit, after miraculously forming the pipestone, had dedicated the ground as neutral property where war was taboo, an admonition for a time respected. Even while en route to the quarries, the Indians’ bitterest enemies would not attack them. (For a poetical rendering of Indian catlinite myths, see Longfellow’s Hiawatha.) According to the Sioux, catlinite attained its color by being stained by the blood of buffalo slain by the Great Spirit, while to the Indians of the upper Missouri, it was the flesh of Indians drowned in a great flood (Armstrong, 1901, pp. 2-4, 11). L, N. Nicollet, who visited the quarry in the Coteau des Prairies in 1838-39 (1843, pp. 15-17), adds that the Indians believe that when they visit the quarry they are always saluted by lightning and thunder and that its discovery was due to a deep path worn down into the catlinite bed by the buffalo, the path being still visible at the time of ‘Nicollet’s visit. Three days of purification preceded the Indians’ visit to the quarry during which time he who was to do the quarrying must be continent. The Abbé Domenech (1860, vol. 2, p. 347) adds that during this period the miners fasted. Provided the pit, which the Indian miner sinks, does not encounter catlinite of good quality, he is considered to have ‘“‘impudently boasted of his purity. He is compelled to retire: and another takes his place.’’ A Sioux who visited the quarry about that time says that first there was a feast to the spirits of the place and then before quarrying a religious dance was held (Dodge, 1877, p. xtvi1). The Indians (Domenech, 1860, vol. 2, p. 273) were loath to have white men visit the quarry as their pres- ence was a profanation which would draw down the wrath of heaven on the Indians. Before mining began the medicine men invoked and propitiated the spirits of two glacial boulders nearby, symbolizing two squaws, the guardian spirits of the place (Schoolcraft, 1851-57: Catlin, 1913, vol. 1, pp. 25-26; vol. 2, pp. 186-195, 228-234). A small creek at the foot of a quartzite ridge probably originally exposed the thin bed (18 inches) of reddish fine-grained somewhat metamorphosed clayey sediment (catlinite). At the base of the wall and parallel to it is a prairie one-half mile wide. On it for a distance of almost a mile are many pits from 20 to 40 feet wide and from 4 to 50 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But, 128 10 feet deep sunk through the soil to procure the pipestone (pl. 5). The tools were roughly shaped hammers and sledges from the nearby quartzite ledges, some of the hammers being grooved. Hieroglyphics are common on the faces of the rock ledge and tradition says that each Indian before venturing to quarry Catlinite inscribed his totem thereon (Mallery, 1893, p. 87). Remains of ancient camp sites abound nearby and in them are found partially worked fragments of pipestone, the material in part having been carved at the quarry, perhaps because with age this rock is said by some to become indurated. (Holmes, 1892, p. 277; 1919, pt. 1, pp. 109, 253-263; Nicollet, 1843, p. 15; Winchell, 1884, pp. 541-542; Hayden, 1867, pp. 19-22; West, 1934, p. 329; Lynd, 1865.) Groseilliers and Radisson in A. D. 1658-60 were perhaps the first whites to see catlinite for they mention pipes of a red stone owned by the Nation of Beef living west of Lake Superior. Father Marquette (Repplier, 1929, p. 151) smoked a pipe of peace of catlinite in 1673 and Le Seur in 1699-1700 mentions the Hinhoneton’s ‘village of the red stone quarry”’ (Shea, 1861, p. 111). Father Charlevoix (1763) men- tions its source as among the ‘“‘Ajouez (Iowa) beyond the Mississippi.” Initial quarrying by Indians must have preceded the seventeenth century. Le Page du Pratz (1758, vol. 1, p. 326) states that when M. de Bourgmont, in 1724, was en route to visit the Padoucas, he saw a cliff on the banks of the Missouri, consisting of a ‘‘mass of red stone with white spots like porphyry” but soft, easily worked into pipes and fire-resistant; this lay between two valueless stones. ‘The Indians of the country have contrived to strike off pieces thereof with their arrows and after they fall in the water plunge in for them.” This strangely perverted account of the method of obtaining catlinite is similar to that by which Pliny states the Persians obtained turquoise. Jonathan Carver (1778, p. 99), who traveled in the upper Mississippi region in 1766-68, shows on his map Couteau des Prairies as “Country of Peace.”” Lewis and Clarke (1804-06) also speak of the Indian tribes meeting there in “friendship”’ to collect stones for pipes (Coues, 1893, vol. 1, p. 80) but in 1837 when George Catlin visited it (1848, vol. 2, p. 166) the Sioux were in possession and did not permit their enemies to procure pipestone. Indeed an old chief of the Sauk com- plained to Catlin that, while as a young man, he visited the place to dig catlinite “‘now their pipes were old and few.” ‘The Dakotans have spilled the blood of the red men on that place and the Great Spirit is offended” (Catlin, 1848, vol. 2, p.171). Thus, prior to about 1810 the quarry was neutral ground, but after that date was in the possession of the Sioux. About 60 years ago, Professor Crane reported that 300 Yankton Sioux took part in the annual pilgrimage to the quarry, and an Indian chief claimed 100 years ago he had seen 6,000 Indians encamped at the quarry for 2 months (Barber, 1883, pp. ANTHROP. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL a) 745-765). The Yankton Sioux by article 8 of the treaty with the United States, dated April 19, 1858, have the right in perpetuity to mine catlinite within about a square mile surrounding the quarry (S. Dak. Hist. Coll., 1902, vol. 1, app., p. 449). While these people and their friends, the Flandreau Sioux, still visit ® the locality, many of the pipes and trinkets sold since at least 1866 have been of white manufacture. Indeed, Indian traders had glass beads, imitating catlinite, by the end of the eighteenth century. The trade in catlinite was Nation-wide, extending from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to well within the Rocky Mountains Iowa Indians, according to Father Louis André (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 60, p. 203), in 1676, had Minnesota cat- linite and the Iroquois and Algonquin peoples on the Atlantic coast by intertribal barter late in the seventeenth century. Peter Kalm, Professor of Economy, University of Abo, Finland, who traveled in North America from 1748 to 1751 (Pinkerton, 1808-14, vol. 13, p. 516; Kalm, 1772, vol. 2, p. 43) says the chiefs of the Indians of Pennsylvania had pipes ingeniously made of “‘very fine red pot-stone or a kind of serpentine marble of the kind which Father Charlevoix says comes from beyond the Mississippi.’”? They were very scarce and were valued “‘as much as a piece of silver of the same size and sometimes they make it still dearer.’”’ Loskiel (1789, p. 66) says that the Delawares and Iro- quois got their pipes direct from Indians ‘‘who live near the Marble River, on the western side of the Mississippi, where they extract it from a mountain.” If so, these Indian merchants carried their wares 1,000 miles from their homes. Among the Wisconsin Menomini, the journey to the quarry in Minnesota being long, small blocks of cat- linite were locally valued at $100. At Fort Union in 1852, Kurz purchased a ‘‘charming”’ catlinite pipe from an Absaroka for $7, although among the Crows it would have been worth a packhorse (Kurz, 1937, p. 257). He adds that, though fashioned by the Sioux, they are articles of barter among all the other tribes. The red pipestone found in the Ohio Mound Builders mounds was doubtless largely obtained from the Ohio pits (Shetrone, 1930, p. 178, and personal communication) but that from the mounds in Lyon County, Iowa, presumably, as A. R. Fulton holds (1882, p. 89), came from the Minnesota quarry. The Ohio pipestone is of lighter color than that of the other localities, being pinkish or grayish. There are a number of catlinite quarries in Barron (at least five quarries) and Chippewa Counties, Wis. The largest quarry, situated on a hill, is about 25 feet square and not over 3 feet deep. In places, the indurated shale was stoped back beneath the overlying quartzite. The Indians worked here at least as late as 1914. The catlinite is reddish brown in color and was used extensively by the Indians. Dela 8 Personal communication, G. L. Chesley, postmaster, Pipestone, Minn. 52 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL 128 Ronde visited the locality over 100 years ago and states that the In- dians travel many miles to obtain the catlinite and that while there peace reigns. He tells a dramatic story of a Sioux and a Chippewa who by chance met at the mine and peaceably procured their pipe material but as soon as they were a respectable distance from the sacred spot fought a duel to the death. The Pueblos imitated catlinite in pottery, showing the esteem in which they held catlinite, some of which occurs in the ruins of Arizona. It doubtless came from the Jerome Junction, Arizona locality (Schra- der, Stone, and Sanford, 1917, p. 18). OBSIDIAN Obsidian was used throughout North and Central America, except in eastern Canada, New England, the North Atlantic (a single ob- sidian artifact has been found in Pennsylvania), and the southeastern States (artifacts have been reported from Georgia and Alabama, how- ever) and it was used in South America by the Indians of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, British Guiana, Peru, Argentina, Chile, and Brazil, and also by those of the Lesser Antilles. By trade it traveled vast distances. Obsidian was quarried at Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park, and elsewhere in thejYellowstone and Snake River Valleys as well as in Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada (Holmes, 1919, pp. 214-227). Apparently the Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park, was neutral ground to Indians seeking arrowhead material (Alter, 1925, p. 381). From shallow shafts, drifts were driven (Brower, 1897, pp. 20-24). Shell heaps around San Francisco Bay, in the opinion of A. L. Kroeber (1925, pp. 927-930), show that obsidian was used from 3,000 to 3,500 years ago. Unworked blocks are buried therein as if of great value. It is reported in Minnesota in deposits antedating the last glacial state (Hagie, 1936). Obsidian was obtained by the aborigines in some 10 California local- ities either in place or as pebbles. The Pit River Indians made long trips to Sugar Hill in the summer to procure obsidian pebbles (Kniffen, 1928). The hill was sacred and the Indians feared to offend its spirit. The Klamath Indians of southeastern Oregon believed that arrows made from obsidian obtained on a mountain west of Klamath Lake were poisonous (Spier, 1930, p. 32; Rust, vol. 7, 1905, pp. 688-695). Herbert J. Spinden (1908, vol. 2) states the Nez Percé’s name for the John Day River meant “obsidian river.’””’ The Mandan Indians remelted glass and cast characteristic beads: if, as tradition holds, they learned the art from the Snake Indians, their original raw material may have been obsidian from the Yellowstone National Park, rather than clay (Matthews, 1877, pp. 22-23). ANTHROP, Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 53 Obsidian was abundantly used by the Mound Builders and the Hopewell (Ohio) people had ceremonial knives 18 inches long and over 6 inches wide. Evidently blocks of obsidian were imported and the material worked up in the Mound Builders’ village. Shetrone (1930, p. 65) thinks that, as obsidian and grizzly bear teeth are found together in the Hopewell culture mounds and not in quantity, at least, to the west, the Hopewell men sent special expeditions to the Yellowstone Park to obtain obsidian. The pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona had obsidian at hand at many places. They not only quarried it but also apparently de- pended for their supply on the shattered outcrops. The Tewa In- dians of the upper Rio Grande Valley, N. Mex., believe that the flaking of the outcrop is due to lightning striking it (Harrington, 1916, p. 59). Obsidian was doubtless used a very long time ago by the peoples of the Southwest, as Earl H. Morris (1919, p. 202) reports that the obsid- ian implements from ancient ruins in southwestern Colorado are so old that they have acquired a “dull gloss,” or patina. That it was long in use among certain of the Indians is also indicated by the Athabascan folk tale in which it was one of the four substances existing before the world was created (Goddard, 1827, p. 180). The Aztecs and their predecessors used obsidian extensively, fash- ioning from it spear and arrow points, knives, razors, and swords, mirrors, beautiful masks, and dainty ear ornaments. The Aztecs called it iztlt and because of its many uses it was surnamed teotetl (divine stone) (Bancroft, 1883, vol. 3, p. 238). So abundantly was it used by the Aztecs that some of the refuse heaps around Mexico City are black with its fragments (Holmes, 1900, p. 406). Obsidian must have been long known to the Aztecs as one of their gods was Itzpopalotl (Obsidian Butterfly) (Verrill, 1929, p. 185). Further at Cuichuilco near Mexico City, Dean Byron Cummings in 1916 found a structure which, in its relation to certain lava flows, he believed long antedated the Aztecs. Nearby, Mrs. Zelia Nuttal found fragments of obsidian flakes ‘with a dull surface and a patina which unques- tionably indicate great antiquity’ in an ancient river bed, 17 feet beneath the lava bed (Mason, 1931, p. 30). Alexander de Humboldt rediscovered the old Aztec obsidian pits of Sierra de las Navajas some 10 miles east of Pachuca (1811, vol. 3, p. 122; 1815, vol. 1, p. 337). The aborigines, over hundreds of acres, according to W. H. Holmes (1900, vol. 2, pp. 405-416) in an area 1% miles long and in places one-half wide, sunk shallow pits and gophered out horizontally from them where the obsidian was of good quality. The spall heaps nearby run into the hundreds of tons. W. H. Holmes, who says that the deepest pits are now 20 feet deep although once deeper, estimates that the workings are about as_ ex- 218558—40—5 54 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLb, 128 KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TABLE 1 Central America: Northern South America: Costanhicas=s 2 22-2 ae C. British Guiande= Br. Nitarapiias 22s 22.) 2.22 N. Venezuela: 2-22 ve Panama wiring sce bee Pp} Colombia2.—. ae C. San Salvadoree ss) 2-2 2! Ss Heusdors 2.5.22 eee E. West Indies: Bolivia (in part Inean)__--- B. Santo Domingo (Hispaniola)_ S. Dutch Guianale 22 eee D. G. Montserrat -- 222. =e M. Southern South America: VRMIICH. 2 Se ee a kee J Argenting. 2 "222 _ eee A PuertosRicols est. ee iP Chiles. See Cc ecient}... HENS. ey Se C. Paraguay i: {1.9 2a ee P: Guadeloupe ls. 22.722. Gs Brazil_ Dass outs 7 3 ae > Ge ee > ee TasLe 1.—Precious and decorative stones used by Indians wep | | South west Mexico Central Americs pp) Western LS SS North Valley Lower Mountains ] Cen- AUantic | South. | (Minne- Mississippi, Northern | Southern | romero | } | tral eastern | sota, Mich-| Kentucky, | Plains Plains * |Oregon, Bouse] and | Ree | cow | states iqan, West | Tennessee, | (Dakotas, | (Okla- | Wyoming, Wash Call. | wag | West Indies Peru | Northern South America| Southern South Gems and stones fAretic | rusia jeastern| EDR | (New Mirstnia-| Virginis, | Missouri, | Kansas, boms, | colorado, | mieton tribes, | Pueb- | Astecs,| Wid | aravas|| Other than MM America Cana- Marg- | Floridn) | Ohio, * | to Loulsi: | Nebraska) | ‘Texas tah, Arito- | los | Toltecs| tribes then Mayas Tan Mlinois, ans Nevada) |x. a). 20 |x, A» X Br, 0. E.,B.,D.0,|X (A, Pa By V). x x x ye nw: nnn “A x -| X (C., B. Ad). HAA A ARR KAA X(C., B.. Ad. nw X(A,, B). wa! X (B,, A.) 6 cite.. oe em (CaC0s) (includes stalactites - and satin spar). Seoerd X (A.). -| X(C,, A. B.). AnAA AKA i Me |x @. |X). |x @., 4.0). | x @. X (B.). XA). X(C.). HAM: -Serp ntine (includes picrolite) Steatit #2 Shark’s teeth, coral. ¥ Wisconsin probable. ‘i te nine Texas. H ae ae 4 North Carolina and Mississippi. A heed seanmaatte Also ne hae eae 1 Saskatchewan ot Regina, Northwest Ontario, Quebec (?), — ** Caicos group of Bahamas. 48 Crinold stems. Also pyrthot! 1 Anorthite, Labrador, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, # Also satin spar. % Shell, coral, erinoids. a Otite, @ Caicas Islands, St. Kitts, Neat yaraey nA Neg: Vor, %# Manitoba, Saskatchewan. ¥ Shells, ‘ me Sys dag Kentucky. mviginia probable. 4 Georgia and North Carolina. # Isle Royal. ™ Shark’s teeth, 1 : : \ Georgia, ¥ Baeulites, Inoceramus. th (Colombis). ‘Saskatchewan. 15 Northwest Territories. % As far as Idaho. % Coral. %* Mastodon teeth (| Reported Wisconsin, \ Including Northwest Territories. ® Chihuahua, 21865810 (Face p. 54) AntTHrop. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 50 tensive as the great flit quarries at Hot Springs, Ark., and Flint Ridge, Ohio. Stone hammers, discoidal or globular in form, were found near the pits. In part, at least, the material was worked locally but it was also transported in the rough to distant markets. Loéwen- stern (1843, pp. 244-245) describes these mines as trenches from 1 to 2 meters wide and of varying depth. From the extent of the pits it is believed that mining began some centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards (Tylor, 1861). It was also quarried at Zacaultipan and 15 miles south of Tulancingo, Hidalgo; at Teuchitlin, Ixtlan de los Buenos Aires, and Etzatlan, Jalisco; Pica de Orizabo, Veracruz; Zina- pécuaro, Michoacan; and elsewhere in Mexico. At Teuchitlin some of the flakes are so very old that they are covered with a thick white crust (Breton, 1905, pp. 265-268). The Mayas got their obsidian doubtless in part, at least, from the extensive ancient quarries at La Joya, 18 miles east of Guatemala City. It also occurs at Fiscal (on the railroad from Guatemala to Zacapa) and near Antiqua (Holmes, 1919). At Flores, Guatemala, the local “‘small change”’ consists of oblong pieces of obsidian, the val- ue depending on the size and shape of the piece (Boddam-Whetham, 1877, p. 296). Don George Juan and Don de Ulloa (who travelled in Peru in 1734) refer to ancient aboriginal mines of obsidian in that country (Pinker- ton, vol. 14, pp. 545-546). The Ecuador Indians had an obsidian quarry at Guamani and a thriving commerce in it was carried on with the coastal Indians. In their Quichua language it was known as aya-collqui, “silver of the dead,” certainly an apt poetic name. OTHER MINERALS Diopside was used by the Indians of British Columbia and the Pueblos, as was actinolite by the California Indians and the Pueblos. Scapolite was utilized by the Pueblos and the Peruvian Indians. Sillimanite was used by the Pueblos and the Brazilian Indians. Saus- surite was employed by the Indians of Ecuador. Chlorite was commonly used in North America, only rarely in South America. Agalmatolite was made into artifacts by the Mayas and the Indians of Ecuador, Colombia, and Chile. Apatite was known by the Pueblos. Barite was used by the Indians of Kentucky and by those of Georgia. Artifacts are common in the vicinity of Cartersville in the latter State, a district in which barite residuals are abundant. Celestite was made use of by the Indians of New York. Gypsum was utilized widely by the Eskimo, the Indians of Eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, those of the upper Mississippi Valley, northern plains, the Rocky Mountain States and California; also by the Pueblos, the northern Mexicans, the Mayas, and the Indians of Costa Rica, Cuba, Bahamas, Chile, and Argentina. 56 Aga, Ag, Al, Am, Ga, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 LIST OF MINES OPERATED BY THE INDIANS (pls. 4, 5) Agalmatolite: Paccha, Ecuador. Agate: Southampton Island, Canada; AgateBay, Two Harbor, Minn.; Spedes Valley, Wash. (also opal, etc.); Millers Island, Wash. (also opal, etc.); cataracts, Demarara R., British Guiana; Parima, Mountains, Venezuela. Agatized wood: Petrified Forest, Adamana, Ariz. (also amethyst, smoky quartz, etc.); Petrified Forest, 25 miles south of Chambers, Ariz. (also chalcedony, etc.). Alabaster: Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Ind.; Tecali, Puebla, Mexico. Amber: Aliaska Peninsula; Aliaka Isle; Unalaska Island; Umnak Island, Yukon Delta, Alaska; Ookamak Island and south side Kodiak Island, Alaska; Point Barrow, Alaska; north coast, Santo Domingo; Chiapas, Mexico. Atacamite: Chuquicamata, Chile. Barite: Bartow County, Ga. Brochantite: Chuquicamata, Chile; Corocoro, Bolivia. Cannel coal: Blennerhasset Island, W. Va. Catlinite: Pipestone, Minn.; Chippewa County, Wis.; Barron County, Wis., five quarries; Scioto County, Ohio. Chalcedony: Warsaw, Coshocton County, Ohio (numerous quarries); Redondo Beach, Calif.; Ballast Point, 5 miles below Tampa, Fla.; Wagon Wheel Gap, Colo. (also jasper); Saugus Center, Mass.; 100 miles northwest of Pinto Basin, Calif. Chrysocolla: Quebrade de Cobres, northwestern Argentina. Chrysoprase: Tulare County, Calif. (possible). Emerald: Coscuez, Chivor-Somondoco, and Muzo, Colombia. Fluorite: Southern Illinois. Galena: Golovin Bay, Alaska; Coronation Bay, Canada; Anse-a-la Mine, Quebec; Wisconsin-Iowa-Illinois lead district; southeastern Mis- souri; Cook’s Peak, N. Mex.; near Lexington, Ky. Garnet: Picuries, Taos County, N. Mex.; Navaho Reservation, N. Mex.; northeast Arizona; north central Arizona; Jaco Lake, Chihuahua, Mexico; near Quito, Ecuador. ANTHROP, Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 57 H, Hematite and red ochre: Mackenzie River at Fort Good Hope, Canada; Tulameen River, British Columbia; Tanana River, Alaska; Leslie, Franklin County, Mo.; Iron Mountain, Mo.; Marquette, Mich.; 44° N., 111° W., Ross Co., Ohio; Cataract Canyon, Ariz.; Red Canyon, Green River, Utah; Wellington, Calif.; Manzano Mountains, N. Mex.; 4 miles southwest of Zufi, N. Mex.; Katahdin, Maine; Nodules, Kanawha Valley, W. Va.; Kaimak, Argentina. Iron pyrite: Point Barrow, Alaska; Rowsell Harbour, Labrador; northwest of Coronation Bay, northern Canada; 92°30’ W., 69°30’ N.; Victoria Island; creek east of Coppermine River; near Wager Inlet and Repulse Bay; Bad Creek, 70° N., 117° W.; Mackenzie 10 miles below Fort Good Hope, alluvial; Whitemud River, Saskatchewan; north part Tierra del Fuego Island; Mercury Sound, Clarence Island. Jasper: Saugus Center, Mass.; Chester Bucks, Lancaster, Lehigh, and Berks Counties, Pa.; Flint Ridge, Licking, and Muskingum Counties, Ohio (also chalcedony); Normanskill on Hudson River, N. Y.; Converse County, Wyo. (also chalcedony); Delaware River, Mercer County, N. J.; St. Tammany Parish, La.; 40 miles south of Twenty- nine Palms, Calif.; 40 miles north of Pinto Basin, Calif.; Cal- pulalpam, Mexico; Mount Roraima, British Guiana. Labradorite: Labrador, near Paul’s Island. Lignite: Fifteen miles north of Holbrook, Kokopuyama, and Tusayan, Ariz. Limestone: For pipes, Ottawa River at Portage du Grand Calumet; Lake Winni- peg River to west of Pike River; Falls of Montmorenci near Quebec; Sitka, Alaska; Lynn Canal, Alaska; Nipigon Island, Lake Superior; Flint River, Ga.; St. Joseph’s Island, Ontario. Magnesite: White Buttes, near Cache Creek, Calif.; Sulphur Bank, Clear Lake, Calif.; Kaolin, Nev. Malachite: Cataract Canyon, Ariz.; Azurite Mountains, N. Mex. Az, Malachite and azurite: Highland, west of Luna, New Mex.; Aquarius and Hualpai Ranges, Ariz. Moss agate: Between Fort Ellis and Yellowstone River, Mont.; valley north of Uinta Mountains and San Rafael Valley, Utah. Mica: Spruce Pine (two pits), Bandana (two pits, Mitchell County), Bakers- ville, (Mitchell County), Yancey County, and Macon County (12 pits), N. C.; Amelia County, Va.; Chilton County, Jefferson County, Coosa County, Clay County, Randolph County, and Cle- burne County, Ala. Nephrite: Jade Mountain, north side of Kobuk River, Alaska; Fraser River and Thompson River, British Columbia; Puget Sound; divide head- waters of Orinoco and Rio Branco Railroad, British Guiana. 58 BUREAU OF AMERICAN WIHNOLOGY [BULD, 128 6, Obsidian: Rocky Mountains, about 62°30’ N.; Mount Anahim, 100 miles north- east Prince Rupert, British Columbia; Mountains of Thompson River, British Columbia; Klamath Lake, Oreg.; John Day River, Oreg.; Glass Butte, Lake County, Oreg.; Obsidian Cliff, Yellow- stone National Park; Promontory Point, Great Salt Lake, near Willard; Shingle Spring (Sierra Nevadas), Clear Lake, lower Clear Lake, Head of Napa Valley, Upper Sonomo Valley, Cole Creek, Shasta County, Glass Mountain, Sugar Hill, Wheatland, Cortina, Mount Kilili (near Tuolumne), Mount Kanaktai (Sonoma County), and near Fillmore (Ventura County), Calif; near Pecos Church, headwaters Gila River, and Jemez Plateau, N. Mex.; east of Silver Peak, Nev.; Robinson Crater and Mount Sitgreaves (latter detrital) in San Francisco Mountains, Ariz.; Sierra de las Navajas, Zacaultipan, and south of Tulancingo (Hidalgo), Cerro Tepayo, Teuchitlan and Ixtlan de los Buenos Aires and Etzatlan (Jalisco); Pica de Orizabo (Veracruz), and Zinapecuaro (Michoacan), Mexico; La Joya, Antiqua, and Fiscal, Guatemala; Patagonia (detrital 48°10’ S., 72° W.); Guamani, Ecuador. O Olivine: Navaho Reservation, N. Mex. R, Rock erystal: Mackenzie River mouth, Canada; James River, 12 miles above Richmond, Va.; Hot Springs, Ark.; Little Falls, Morrison County, Minn.; west end Wichita Mountains, Okla. (also jasper); Yakima Valley, Wash.; Armonk, Westchester County, N. Y.; east end, Long Island, N. Y.; Tiquie River, Colombia; near Guayaquil, Ecuador; Pikin Mountain, Brazil; Manhattan Island, N. Y.; Compounce, Conn.; northern Oaxaca, Mexico. S, Selenite: Southern Nebraska; near Zufi, N. Mex.; southeast New Mexico.; near Santa Fe, N. Mex.; 44°10’ N., 104°18’ W., S. Dak.; Gypsum Cave, near Las Vegas, Nev.; Kaolin, near St. Thomas, Nev.; Mammoth Cave, Ky. Se, Serpentine: Two to two and one-half miles north of Phillipsburg, N. J.; Red Rock, Grant County, N. Mex.; streams near Jade Mountain, Alaska; Pipestone Lake, 54°30’ N., 93°30’ W.; Anderson Lake, British Columbia. Sl, Slate: Skidegateon, Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia; 5 miles up Mattawa River; Elk River, Canada. A, Soapstone: Ukasiksalik and Nachvok Fiord, (several localities), Labrador; Buck River, 95° W., 67° N.; Simikameen R., British Columbia; Pipe- stone Lake, Manitoba; Lac de Ja Pluie, Canada; Reindeer Lake, west shore 103° W., 57°30’ N.; just west of Great Slave Lake; Utkusikaluk about 111° W., 67°40’ N.; 68° 10’ N., 114° W., on Coronation Bay; 112°30’ W., 67°45’ N.; Reindeer Island in Great Slave Lake; Lake of Woods, Akkoolee, near Repulse Bay; 96° W., 66°30’ N.; 90° W., south of Pelly Bay; Arctic Ocean, 60 miles east of Mackenzie River; Cumberland Sound; mouth, Tree River; Fleur de Lis, Newfoundland; Johnson, Vt.; Westfield, North Wilbraham, and Millbury, Mass.; Johnston and Providence, R. I.; ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 59 Bristol, Nepaug, Portland, and Harwinton, Conn.; Christiana and Bald Hill, Lancaster County, Pa.; four localities Patuxent Valley (Montgomery and Howard Counties), Olney, and Clifton, Md.; Washington, D. C.; below Little Falls, near Washington, D. C.; Culpeper, Wayland Mill (Culpeper County, two localities), Orange (Madison County), Falls Church, 6 miles west of Lawrenceville (Brunswick County), Norwood, Amelia Court House (two localities, Amelia County), Caledonia (Goochland County), and Clifton (Fairfax County), Va.; Fawn Knob, Yancey County, N. C.; Roane Mountain, Tenn.; Coon Creek, Tallapoosa County, and Jefferson County, Ala.; Clam River, Burnett County, Wis.; Jacumba (San Diego County) and Santa Catalina Island, Calif.; Columbia River above Kettle Falls, Wash.; Pipestone Creek, southwest Montana; bordering Buena Vista Hills, San Joaquin Valley, Calif.; Tuolumne, Calif.; 4 miles northeast of Lindsay, Calif. So, Sodalite: Cerro Sapo, Cochabamba Cordillera, Bolivia. Su, Sunstone: Reservation near Globe, Ariz. To, Tourmaline: Mesa Grande, San Diego County, Calif. pi Turquoise: Los Cerrillos, Burro Mountains, Hachita Mountains, Jarilla Moun- tains, and Paschal, N. Mex.; Sugar Loaf Peak (Lincoln County), Columbus (Mineral County), Crescent (Clark County), Royston (Nye County), near Boulder City, and northeast of Searchlight, Landon County, Nev.; Turquoise Mountain, Cochise County, Ariz.; Mineral Park, Mohave County, Ariz.; Manvel, also Silver Lake, San Bernardino County, Calif.; La Jara, Conejos County, Colo.; Chuquicamata, Chile. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acosta, JOSEPH DE. 1880. The natural and moral history of the Indies. Edited by Clements R. Markham. 2 vols. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [Nos. 60—61.] London. ADAMS, JOHN. 1813. A voyage to South America. [Ulloa’s voyage.] Pinkerton’s Voyages, vol. 14, pp. 313-696. London. AHLFELD, F., and Mosrsacg, R. 1935. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., Geol. u. Paliontol., Beil-Bd. 69, Abt. A (8), pp. 388-404. Heidelberg and Stuttgart. AHLFELD, Fr., and WEGNER, R. N. 1932. Uber die Herkunst der im Bereich altperuanischer Kulturen gefundenen Schmuckstiicke aus Sodalith. Zeitschr.f. Ethnol., vol. 63, pp. 288-296. Berlin. ALARCHON, HERNANDO DE. 1904. The relation of the navigation and discovery which Captaine Fernando Alarchon made by order of . . . Don Antonio de Mendoga, Vizeroy of New Spaine [1540]. Hakluyt’s Voyages, vol. 9, pp. 279-318 Glasgow. AuTER, J. Crciu. 1925. James Bridger. Salt Lake City. 60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But, 128 ANONYMOUS. 1891. Mexican onyx mines. Eng. and Min. Journ., vol. 52, No. 26, p. 729. 1897. Turquoise in Nevada. Paragraph in Eng. and Min. Journ., vol. 64, No. 16, p. 456. 1902. Turquoise mining in Arizona and New Mexico. Min. and Sci. Press, vol. 85, No. 8, pp. 102-103. San Francisco. 1937. The Aztec eagle. Jewelers’ Circular-Keystone, vol. 108, No. 1, pp. 97, 99, 101, Oct. Armstronec, Mosszs K. 1901. The early empire builders of the Great West. St. Paul. AyEr, E. E., TRANSLATOR. 1916. The memorial of Fray Alonso de Benavides, 16380. Chicago. Batu, Sypnery H. 1931. Historical notes on gem mining. Econ. Geol., vol. 26, pp. 681-738. [BANcROFT, EDWARD.] 1769. Essay on the natural history of Guiana . . . interspersed with a variety of literary and medical observations in several letters from a gentleman of the Medical Faculty. London. Bancrort, HERBERT Howe. 1886. The works of. 39 vols., 1886-1890. The native races, vols. 1-5. San Francisco. BANDELIER, A. F. 1890. Contributions to the history of the southwestern portion of the United States. Pap. Archeol. Inst. Amer., Amer. Ser., vol. 5. 1890 a, The delight makers. New York. BarBer, EpwIn A. 1883. Catlinite, its antiquity as a material for tobacco pipes. Amer. Nat., vol. 17, pp. 745-764. BarRReEtTT, 8S. A. 1926. Field studies for the catlinite and quartzite groups. Yearbook Pub. Mus. City of Milwaukee, 1924, pp. 7-21. 1933. Pomo myths. Bull. Pub. Mus. City of Milwaukee, vol. 15. BARTLETT, J. C. 1854. Personal narrative of explorations and incidents . . . connected with the United States and Mexican Boundary Commission. 4 vols. New York. Bauer, Max H. 1900. Fuchsit als Material zu prahistorischen Artefacten aus Guatemala. Centr. f. Min. Geol. u. Palaeon., pp. 291-292. Stuttgart. 1904. Precious stones. Trans. fr. German by L. J. Spencer. London. BENAVIDES, ALONSO DE. 1916. The memorial of Fray Alonso de Benavides, 1630. Trans. by Mrs. Edward E. Ayer. Chicago. BENeEpIcT, Ruts. 1931. Tales of the Cochiti Indian's. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 98. BENNETT, WENDELL C., and Zinac, Rosert M. 1935. The Tarahumara, an Indian tribe of northern Mexico. Chicago. BENZzONI, GIROLAMO. 1857. History of the New World. Trans. and edited by W. H. Smyth. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [No. 21], London. Berton, ADRIEN. 1936. The Corocoro copper district of Bolivia. Amer. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., Tech. Publ. No. 698, New York. ANTHROP, Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 61 Beucuat, H. 1912. Manuel d’archéologie américaine. Paris. Brart, Lucien. 1887. The Aztecs; their history, manners, and customs. Trans. by J. L, Garner. Chicago. BuakE, W. P. 1858. The chalchihuitl of the ancient Mexicans: its locality and association and its identity with turquois. Amer. Journ. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 25, pp. 227-232. 1883. New locality of the green turquois known as chalchuite. . . . Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 25, pp. 197-200. Buatcuuey, W. 8. 1897. Indiana caves and their fauna. 21st Ann. Rep., Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., pp. 121-212. BLONDEL, S. 1876. Cartas de Hernando Cortes. Rev. Phil. et Ethnogr., T. 2,p. 294. Paris. Boas, FRANZ. 1907. The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 15. BoppaM-WHETHAM, J. W. 1877. Across Central America. London. BOLLAERT, WILLIAM. 1860. Antiquarian, ethnological, and other researches in New Granada, Ecuador, Peru, and Chili, with observations on the pre-Incarial, Incarial, and other monuments of the Peruvian nations. London. Botton, HERBERT E., EpitTor. 1914. Athanase de Méziéres and the Louisiana-Texas frontier, 1768-1780. 2 vols., Cleveland. 1916. Spanish exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706. New York. BourkE, Joun G. 1890. Vesper hours of the Stone Age. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 3, pp. 55-63. 1892. The medicine-men of the Apache. 9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1887-88, pp. 443-603. BRADBURY, JNO. 1904. Travels in the interior of America, 1809-1811. Early western travels, 1748-1846, vol. 5. Edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites. Cleveland. BRENDLER, WOLFGANG. 1934. Sodalite from Bolivia. Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 19, pp. 28-31. Breton, ADELA. 1905. Some obsidian workings in Mexico. Proc. Int. Congr. Amer., 13th sess., New York, 1902, pp. 265-268. BricHaM, WILLIAM T. 1887. Guatemala: the land of the quetzdl. New York. BrintToN, DANIEL G. 1883. The folk-lore of Yucatan. Folk-Lore Journ., vol. 1, pp. 244-256. BROWER, J. V. 1897. The Missouri River and its utmost source. St. Paul. Brown, CHARLEs E. 1914. A Wisconsin catlinite quarry. Wis. Archeologist, vol. 13, pp. 80-82. Brown, CHARues E., and SkavueMm, H. L. 1914. Notes on some archeological features of Eau Claire, Cheppewa, Rusk, and Dunn Counties. Wis. Archeologist, vol. 13, pp. 60-79. BROWNE, P. W. 1909. Where the fishers go; the story of Labrador. New York. 62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 Bunze., Rours L. 1932. Zufi Katcinas. 47th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1929-30, pp. 837-1086. BURPEE, LAWRENCE J. 1908. The search for the Western Sea; the story of the exploration of north- western America. Toronto. Burton, RicHarp FRANCIS. 1869. The highlands of the Brazil. 2 vols. London. CaMSELL, CHARLES. , 1912. The mineral resources of a part of the Yale District, B. C. Journ. Canadian Min. Inst., 1911, vol. 14, pp. 596-611. Montreal. CartTwRicut, CarTain. See Townsend, C. W., Editor. CARVER, JONATHAN. 1778. Travels through the interior parts of North America in the years 1766, 1767, and 1768. London. Caso, ALFONSO. 1932. Monte Albdn, richest archeological find in America, Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 62, pp. 487—512, Oct. CaTLIN, GEORGE. 1848. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians: in a series of letters and notes written during eight years of travel . . . among the wildest . . .-tribes. 2 vols. 7th ed., London. 1913. Illustrations of the manners and customs of the North American Indians. 2 vols. London. CHAMBERS, ERNEST J. 1914. The unexploited West. Ottawa. CHAPIN, FREDERICK H. 1892. The land of the Cliff Dwellers. Boston. 1892. CHARLEVOIX, PrerRRE F. X. DE. 1763. Letters to the Dutchess of Lesdiguieres, giving an account of a voyage to Canada and travels through that country and Louisiana to the Gulf of Mexico. London. CuHarnay, D&ésirh. 1887. The ancient cities of the New World. New York. Cuasz, Henry E. 1885. Notes on the Wampanoag Indians. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1883, pp. 878-907. CuurcH, GEORGE HARL. 1912. Aborigines of South America. Edited by Clements R. Markham. London. Cuark, W. M. 1878. Antiquities of Tennessee. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1877, pp. 269-276. CuaRKE, F. W., and CHatTarp, T. M. 1884. Mineral notes from the laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 28, pp. 20-25. CuARKE, F. W., and MERRI11, G. P. 1888. On nephrite and jadeite. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 11, pp. 115-130. CriavicERo, ABBf D’FRaNcIscoO S. 1807. The history of Mexico. Trans. by Charles Cullen. London. Coaoutuupo, D. L. DE. 1688. Historia de Yucathan. Madrid. AntHrop. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 63 CotumBIA EMERALD SYNDICATE, Ltd., PAMPHLET OF. 1921. New York City. CooLipGr, Mary Roserts. 1929. The rain-makers. Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. Boston and New York. Coormr, JOHN M. 1917. Analytical and critical bibliography of the tribes of Tierra del Fuego and adjacent territory. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 63. CoRBUSIER, WILLIAM F. 1886. The Apache-Yumas and Apache Mojaves. Amer. Antiq. and Orient. Journ., vol. 8, pp. 276-284. September. Coscrove, H.S., and C. B. 1932. The Swarts ruin. Pap. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 15, No. 1. Cougs, Exuiottr, Epiror. 1893. History of the expedition of Lewis and Clarke to the sources of the Missouri River and to the Pacific in 1804-5-6. A newed. 4 vols. New York. 1895. The expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike. 3 vols. New York. Coxr, WILLIAM. 1787. Account of the discoveries between Asia and America. 3ded. London. CRAWFORD, WILLIAM P., and JOHNSON, FRANK. 1937. Turquoise deposits of Courtland, Arizona. Econ. Geol., vol 32, pp. 511-523. Curtis, NATALIE. 1907. The Indians’ book. New York. Cusuina, F. H. 1901. Zufi folk-tales. New York. Dat, WILLIAM H. 1870. Alaska and its resources. Boston. Davis, Emity C. 1931. Ancient Americans; the archaeological story of two continents. New York. Dawson, Georce M. 1887. Note on the occurrence of jade in British Columbia and its employment by the natives. Can. Rec. Sci., vol. 2, No.6. April. 1888. Geological observations of the Yukon Expedition, 1887. Science, vol. 9, pp. 185-186. DEISsSHER, HENRY. 1932. South Mountain Indian quarries. Bueks County [Pa.] Hist. Soc., Coll. of Papers, vol. 6, pp. 334-341. Allentown. Pa. De La Ronps, Joun T. 1876. Personal narrative. Coll. State Hist. Soc. Wis., vol. 7, pp. 345-365. De Napariuac, Marquis. 1884. Pre-historic America. Trans. by N. D’Anvers. New York. DENISON, Frep. See Chase, Henry E. DENSMORE, FRANCES. 1929. Chippewa customs. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 86. De Smet, P. J. 1847. Oregon Missions and travels over the Rocky Mountains, 1845-46. New York. Donegs, R. I. 1877. The plains of the Great West and their inhabitants. With an intro- duction by William Blackmore. New York. 64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 128 DoMENECH, EMMANUEL. 1860. Seven years residence in the Great Deserts of North America. 2 vols. London. DonoHoE, THOMAS. 1895. The Iroquois and the Jesuits. Buffalo. DorsEy, GEorRGE A. 1901. Archaeological investigations on the Island of La Plata, Ecuador. Field Columbian Mus., Publ. 56, Anthrop. Ser., vol. 2, No. 5. April. Dyort, G. M. 1923. Silent highways of the jungle: being the record of an adventurous journey across Peru to the Amazon. London. ELEVENTH Census, 1890, P. 186. Emmons, Greorce T. 1923. Jade in British Columbia and Alaska and its use by the natives. Ind. Notes and Monogr., No. 35, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Founda- tion. FARABEE, WILLIAM CuRTIS. 1917. A pioneer in Amazonia: the narrative of a journey from Manaoes to Georgetown. Bull. Geogr. Soc. Phila., vol. 15, No. 2. FARRINGTON, O. C. 1903. Gems and gem minerals. Chicago. FEewkKEs, JESSE WALTER. 1898. Archeological expedition to Arizona in 1895. 17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1895-96, pt. 2, pp. 519-744. 1904. Two summers’ work in Pueblo ruins. 22d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1900-1901, pt. 1, pp. 3-195. FickuEN, J. R. See Fortier, Alcée, and Ficklen, J. R. Fitzroy, RoBERT. 1839. Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836. 3 vols. London. Fontaine, Wm. F. 1883. Noteson the occurrence of certain minerals in Amelia County, Virginia. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 25, pp. 330-339. Forsss, P. L. 1935. Iridescent obsidian. Gemmologist, vol. 4, No. 46, pp. 8306-309. May. Forps, C. DARYLL. 1831. Ethnography of the Yuma Indians. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 88-278. Dec. 12. Fortier, ALcEE, and FIcKuen, J. R. 1907. Central America and Mexico. The history of North America, vol. 9. Philadelphia. Foster, J. W. 1873. Pre-historic races of the United States of America. Chicago. Fowke, GERARD. 1888-89. Some popular errors in regard to Mound Builders and Indians. Ohio Archaeol. and Hist. Quart., vol. 2, pp. 380-403. 1888-89a. The manufacture and use of aboriginal stone implements. Ohio Archaeol. and Hist. Quart., vol. 2, pp. 514-533. 1894. Archeologic investigations in James and Potomac Valleys. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 23. 1922. Archeological investigations. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 76. FRANKLIN, JNO. 1823. Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1819-20-21-22. London. ANTHROP, Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 65 FrEncgB, B. F. 1846-1853. Historical collections of Louisiana, pts. 1-5. New York. 1875. Historical collections of Louisiana and Florida, 2d ser., Memoirs and narratives. New York. Futon, A. R. 1882. The Red Men of Iowa. Des Moines. GANN, THOMAS. 1925. Maya jades. Proc. 21st Int. Congr. Amer. Géteborg 1924, pt. 2, pp. 274-282. Gdéteborg. 1926. Ancient cities and modern tribes: exploration and adventure in Maya lands. New York. GarcIA, ICAZBAL-CETA JOAQUIN. 1936. Soc. Mex. Geogr., Bol. 2, da epoca t. 4, p. 559. GARCILASO (GARCILLASSO) DE LA VEGA. 1688. The royal commentaries of Peru. Trans. by Sir Paul Rycaut. Pts. 1-2 [in 1 vol.]._ London. 1869. Royal commentaries of the Yneas, vol. 1. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [No. 41]. London. 1871. Royal commentaries of the Yneas, vol. 2. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [No. 45]. London. GirrorD, E. W. 1931. The Kamia of Imperial Valley. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 97. 1932. The southeastern Yavapai. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 176-252, Feb. 6. GILLIN, JOHN. 1936. The Barama River Caribs of British Guiana. Pap. Peabody Mus, Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 14, No. 2. GitmorRE, Metvin RANDOLPH. 1929. Prairie smoke. New York. GopparD, PLtiny EARLE. 1927. Indians of the Southwest. New York. GOLDENWEISER, ALEXANDER A. 1922. Early civilization; an introduction to anthropology. New York. GRAVIER, JACQUES. 1900. Relation or journal of the voyage of Father Gravier of the Society of Jesus, in 1700, from the country of the Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi River. Jn Jesuit relations and allied documents, vol. 65, pp. 100-179. (See Thwaites.) GRIEG, SIGURD. 1932. Aarbok, 1930. Universitet, Oslo, Norway. Haain, C. E. 1936. Interglacial man in America. Sci. Amer., vol. 154, No. 6, p. 325, June. Hakwvuyt, RicHarRD, COMPILER. 1850. Divers voyages touching the discovery of America and the islands adjacent. Collected and published by Richard Hakluyt in the year 1582. Edited by John Winter Jones. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [No. 7]. London. 1903-1905. The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques, and discoveries of of the English Nation. 12 vols. Glasgow. HARRINGTON, JOHN PEABODY. 1916. The ethnogeography of the Tewa Indians. 29th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1907-8, pp. 29-636. 66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 128 Harrineton, M. R. 1913. Preliminary sketch of Lenape culture. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 15, pp. 208-235. 1924. A West Indian gem center. Ind. Notes, vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 184-189, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. 1930. Archeological explorations in southern Nevada. Rep. Ist. Sessions Exped., 1929. Southwest Mus. Pap., No. 4, June. Harrman, C. V. 1901. Archaeological researches in Costa Rica. Roy. Ethnol. Mus. Stock- holm. 1907. Archaeological researches on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Mem. Carnegie Mus., vol. 3. Pittsburgh. HaypbEn, F. V. 1867. Sketch of the geology of northeastern Dakota, with a notice of a short visit to the celebrated Pipestone quarry. Amer. Journ. Sci., 2d ser., vol. 43, pp. 15-22. HeceEr, FRANZ. 1925. Klanzplatten von Nephrit aus Venezuela. Proc. 21st Congr. Amer. Goteborg 1924, pt. 2, pp. 148-155. Géteborg. Hippen, W. E. 1893. Two new localities for turquoise. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 46, pp. 400-402. History or Jo Daviess County, ILLINo!s. 1878. [Published by H. F. Kett & Co.] Chicago. Hopes, F. W. 1922. Guide to the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Second floor. Ind. Notes and Monogr., Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. Houmes, W. H. 1892. Sacred pipestone quarries of Minnesota and ancient copper mines of Lake Superior. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 41, pp. 277-279. 1897. Stone implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake tidewater province. 15th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp. 3-152. 1900. The obsidian mines of Hidalgo, Mexico. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 2, pp. 405-416. 1904. Traces of aboriginal operations in an iron mine near Leslie, Mo. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1903, pp. 723-726. 1906. Certain notched or scalloped stone tablets of the Mound-Builders. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 8, pp. 101-108. 1907. [Article] Amber, in Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 48. 1919. Handbook of aboriginal American antiquities. Pt. 1. Introductory. The lithic industries. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 60. Hovuau, WALTER. 1890. Fire-making apparatus in the U. S. National Museum. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1888, pp. 531-587. 1902. A collection of Hopi ceremonial pigments. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1900, pp. 465-471. 1903. Archeological field work in northeastern Arizona. The Museum- Gates Expedition of 1901. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1901, pp. 279-358. 1907. Antiquities of the upper Gila and Salt River Valleys in Arizona and New Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 35. Howarp, J. H. 1936. The ancient lapidary. Rocks and minerals. p. 78. May. AntHrop. Par. No. 13] INDIAN MINING— BALL 67 HumBoupt, FriepERICcCH H. ALEXANDER DEF. 1811. Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne. 2d ed., 6 vols. Paris. 1814-29. Personal narrative of travel to the equinoctial regions of the new continent during the years 1799-1804. Trans. by H. M. Wil- liams. 7 vols. London. 1815. Vues des Cordilléres et monumens des peuples indigénes de |’ Amérique. 2 vols. Paris. Im Tourn, E. F. 1883. Among the Indians of Guiana. London. InviInG, JoHNn T. 1888. Indian sketches taken during an expedition to... the Pawnee and other tribes in 1833. First published in 18385. 2 vols. New York. JAMES, GEORGE WHARTON. 1903. The Indians of the Painted Desert region. Boston. 1920. New Mexico, the land of the Delight Makers. Boston. JBANCON, J. A. 1923. Excavations in the Chama Valley, New Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 81. JenneEss, D. 1922. The life of the Copper Eskimo. Ottawa. 1925. A new Eskimo culture in Hudson Bay. Geogr. Rev., vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 428-437. 1932. The Indians of Canada. Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. 65, Anthrop. Ser., No. 15. JoHnson, Douatas WILSON. 1903. The geology of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico. Pt. 1, General geology. (Cont.) School Mines Quart., vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 456-500. 1904. The geology of the Cerrillos Hills, New Mexico. Pt.3, Petrography. School Mines Quart., vol. 25, pp. 69-98. Jones, C. C. 1859. Indian remains in southern Georgia. Address before Ga. Hist. Soc., Feb. 12, 1859, 25 pp. Savannah. JouRDANET, D. See Sahagun. JoycrE, Tuomas A. 1912. South American archaeology; an introduction to the archaeology of the South American continent with special reference to the early history of Peru. London. 1914. Mexican archaeology; an introduction to the archaeology of the Mexican and Mayan civilizations of pre-Spanish America. New York. 1916. Central American and West Indian archaeology; being an introduction to the archaeology of the states of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and the West Indies. London. Jupp, Nei M. 1925. Everyday life in Pueblo Bonito. Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 227-262. September. Kam, Prerer. 1772. Travels into North America. 2 ed., 2 vols. London. Keatine, W. H. 1824. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter’s River, compiled from the notes of Major H. Long [and others]. 2 vols. Philadel- phia. 68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 128 KERBEY, JOSEPH ORTON. 1906. The land of tomorrow. New York. KERR, ROBERT. 1811. A general history and collections of voyages and travels. [18 vols.]} Vol. 3. Edinburgh. Kerr, W. C. 1875. Report of the Geological Society of North Carolina, vol. 1. Raleigh. 1880. The mica veins of North Carolina, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 8, pp. 457-462. Keymis, LAURENCE. 1904. A relation of the second voyage to Guiana performed and written in the yeere 1596. Hakluyt’s Voyages, vol. 10, pp. 441-501. Glas- gow. Kipprr, ALFRED VINCENT. 1932. The artifacts of Pecos. Peabody Found. Archaeol., Phillips Acad., Andover, Mass. Kipper, A. V., and Gurerney, S. J. 1919. Archeological explorations in northeastern Arizona. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 65. Kine, Francis P. 1894. A preliminary report on the corundum deposits of Georgia. Geol. Surv. Georgia, Bull. No. 2. KniIFFEen, Frep B. 1928. Achomawi geography. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 23, No. 5, pp. 297-332, Jan. 14. Knicut, WILBUR C. 1898. Prehistoric quartzite quarries in central eastern Wyoming. Science, n.s., vol. 7, pp. 308-811. KotzEsun, Orto von. 1821. Voyage of discovery into the South Sea and Behrings Straits in 1815-18. 3 vols. London. KRroeser, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 78. 1931. The Seri. Southwest Mus. Pap., No. 6, April. Kunz, GEorRGE FREDERICK. 1890. Gems and precious stones of North America. New York. 1899. Precious stones. 20th Ann. Rep. U. 8. Geol. Surv., 1898-99. Pt. 6 (cont.), pp. 557-600. 1902. Precious stones. U. 8S. Geol. Surv., Min. Res. U. S., 1901. Pt. 2, Nonmetallic products, pp. 729-771 1905. Semiprecious stones, gems, jewelers’ materials, and ornamental stones of California. 2ded. Sacramento. 1907. History of gems found in North Carolina. N. C. Geol. and Econ. Surv. Bull. No. 12. Kurz, RupotpH FRIEDERICH. 1937. Journal of Rudolph Friederich Kurz. Trans. by Myrtis Jarrell, edited by J. N. B. Hewitt. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 115. LarpLaw, Grorce E. 1897. Balsam Lake. Archeol. Rep. 1896-97. App. Rep. Min. Education, Ontario, Can., pp. 80-89, Toronto. 1897a. The aboriginal remains of Balsam Lake, Ontario. Amer. Antiq., vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 68-72. LANMAN, CHARLES. 1856. Adventures in the wilds of the United States and British American provinces. 2 vols. Philadelphia. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 69 Latcuay, R. E. 1909. Ethnology of the Araucanos. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 39, pp. 334-370. LAUDONNIERE, RENE. 1904. A notable historie containing foure voyages . . . into Florida. In Hakluyt, Richard, Voyages, vol. 8, pp. 439-486. London. Laut, AcnEs C. 1918. Pathfinders of the West. New York. La V&RENDRYE, PIERRE G. DE. 1927. Journals and letters of Pierre G. de La Vérendrye and his sons. Edited by L. J. Burpee. Publ. Champlain Soc. Toronto. LEFFINGWELL, Ernest De K. 1919. The Canning River region, northern Alaska. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 109. Le Pace pu Pratz, ANTOINE 8. 1758. Histoire de la Louisiane. T. 1-3, Paris. LeRoy, CLaupE CHARLES. 1753. History of the savage peoples who are allies of New France. Paris. Litty, Ext. 1937. Prehistoric antiquities of Indiana. Indianapolis. Linco, F. C. 1923. Mining districts and mineral resources of Nevada. Reno. LINDGREN, WALDEMAR; GRATON, Louis C.; and Gorpon, CHARLES. 1910. The ore deposits of New Mexico. U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 68. Logs, Epwin M. 1926. Pomofolkways. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 149-405, Sept. 29. LosKIEL, GEORGE HENRY. 1789. Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Briider unter den Indianern in Nordamerika. Barby. LotrRor, SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 1928. The Indians of Tierra del Fuego. Contr. Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation, vol. 10. 1937. Coclé, an archaeological study of Central Panama. Mem. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 7. pt. 1. LOWENSTERN, ISIDORE. 1843. Le Mexique. Paris. Lummis, CHARLES F. 1892. Some strange corners of our country. New York. 1925. Mesa, cafion, and pueblo; our wonderland of the Southwest. New York. Lynp, JAMES W. 1865. History of the Dakotas. Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. 2, pp. 57-84. St. Paul. Lyon, G. F. 1825. A brief narrative of an unsuccessful attempt to reach Repulse Bay. London. MacCreracu, Gorpon. 1926. White waters and black. New York. McGovern, Witt1amM MonTGomery. 1927. Jungle paths and Inca ruins. New York. 218558—40——6 70 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 McKenney, Tuomas L., and Hatt, JAMEs. 1833. The Indian tribes of North America. Edited by F. W. Hodge. Edin- burgh. MaAcKENZIE, ALEXANDER. 1902. Voyages from Montreal through the continent .. . to the frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793. 2 vols. New York. Mauuery, GARRICK. 1893. Picture writing of the American Indians. 10th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1888-89, pp. 3-807. Marxuam, C. R. See Garcilaso de la Vega; Col. George E. Church. Mason, GREGORY. 1926. Cities that passed in a night. New light on the tragic history of the Mayas. The World’s Work, vol. 52, No. 4, pp. 433-439, August. 1931. Columbus came late. New York. Mason, J. ALDEN. 1936. Archaeology of Santa Marta. The Tairona culture. Pt. 2, sec. 1. Objects of stone, shell, bone, and metal. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Publ. 358, Anthrop Ser., vol. 20, No. 2. MatTHIASSEN, THERKEL. 1927. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos. Copenhagen. 1927a. Archaeology of the Central Eskimos. Pt. 2. The Thule culture and its position within the Eskimo culture. Copenhagen. MatTHEews, WASHINGTON. 1877. Ethnography and philology of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Misc. Publ. No. 7. Maximi.ian, ALEX. P., PRINCE oF WEID. 1843. Travels in the interior of North America. London. Means, Puitip AINSWORTH. 1931. Ancient civilizations of the Andes. New York. Meeker, Mosss. 1872. Early history of the lead region of Wisconsin. Coll. State Hist. Soe. Wis., vol. 6, pp. 271-296. Madison. MenpgEz, Santraco. See Savitte, M. H., Epitor. Mercer, H. C. 1894. Indian jasper mines in the Lehigh hills. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 7, pp. 80-92. 1895. Jasper and stalagmite quarried by Indians in the Wyandotte Cave. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 34, pp. 396-400. MircHEeNeER, C. H. 1876. Ohio Annals. Historical events in the Tuscarawas and Muskingum Valleys and in other portions of the State of Ohio. Dayton, Ohio. Mouina, ALONSO DE 1571. Vocabulario en lengua Castellana y Mexicana. Mexico. Mouina, JUAN IGNACIO. 1809. The geographical, natural, and civil history of Chile. London. MOLLHAUSEN, BALDWIN. 1858. Dairy of a journey from the Mississippi to the coasts of the Pacific. 2 vols. London. MontTeEsinos, FERNANDO. 1920. Memorias antiguas historiales del Peru. Trans. by Philip Ainsworth Means. Hakluyt Soc. Publ., 2d ser., No. 48. London. AnrHrop. Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 71 MoorrenEAD, WARREN K. 1910. The Stone Age in North America. 2 vols. Boston. 1917. Stone ornaments used by the Indians in the United States and Canada. Andover, Mass. Morean, Lewis HENRY. 1901. League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee or Iroquois. Edited by Herbert M. Lloyd. New York. Mor.tey, Marcaret W. 1913. The Carolina Mountains. Boston. Morris, Earu H. 1919. Preliminary account of the antiquities of the region between the Mancos and La Plata Rivers in southwestern Colorado. 33d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1911-12, pp. 155-206. 1929. An aboriginal salt mine at Camp Verde, Arizona. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 30, pp. 81-97. 1931. The Temple of the Warriors; the adventure of exploring . . . the ruined city of Chichen Itza, Yucatan. New York. Musters, GEorGE C. 1871. At home with the Bataoniane! London. Murpocu, Jon. 1892. Ethnological results of the Point Barrow Expedition. 9th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1887-88, pp. 3-441. Myers, Henry M., and Myers, Pump Van Nzss. 1871. Life and nature under the tropics. New York. Neinut, Epwarp DUFFIELD. 1858. The history of Minnesota from the earliest French explorations to the present time. Philadelphia. Neison, Epwarp WILLIAM. 1899. The Eskimo about Bering Strait. 18th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1896-97, pt. 1, pp. 3-518. NEWBERRY, JOHN §. 1876. Geological Report. Jn Report of the Exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the junction of the Grand and Green Rivers . . . in 1859,, under the command of Captain J. N. Macomb. Washington. 1892. The ancient civilizations of America. Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 41. pp. 187-200. Nicouuet, L. N. 1843. Report intended to illustrate map of the hydrographic basin of the upper Mississippi River. 26th Congr., 2d Sess., S. Doc. 237. NUTTALL, ZELIA. 1901. Chalchihuitl in ancient Mexico. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 3, pp. 227-238. 1901 a. The fundamental principles of Old and New World civilizations. Pap. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 2. OLBRECHTS, FRANS M. 1930. Some Cherokee methods of divination. Proc. 23d Int. Congr. Amer. New York, 1928, pp. 547-552. OLDEN, CHARLES. 1912. Emeralds: Their mode of occurrence and methods of mining and ex- traction in Colombia. Trans. Inst. Min. and Met., vol. 21, pp. 193-203. 2 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLw, 128 PacKarp, A. S. 1891. The Labrador coast. A journal of two summer cruises to that region. New York. PAacKARD, R. L. 1893. Pre-Columbian mining in North America. Amer. Antiq. and Orient. Journ., vol. 15, pp. 152-164, May. Parsons, Evsiz CLEews. 1928. Notes on the Pima, 1926. Amer. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 30, pp. 445-464. 1932. Isleta, New Mexico. 47th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1929-30, pp. 193-466. PEABODY, CHARLES. 1904. Exploration of mounds, Coahoma County, Mississippi. Pap. Pea- body Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 23-63. PENAFIEL, ANTONIO. 1890. Monuments of ancient Mexican art. Berlin. PEPPER, GEORGE H. 1905. Ceremonial objects and ornaments from Pueblo Bonita, New Mexico. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 7, pp. 183-197. 1909. The exploration of a burial-room in Pueblo Bonito, New Mexico. Putnam Ann. Vol., pp. 196-252. 1920. Pueblo Bonito. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 27. Prrrot, NICOLAS. 1911. Memoir on the manners, customs, and religion of the savages of North America. In The Indian tribes of the upper Mississippi Valley and region of the Great Lakes. Vol. 1, pp. 25-272. Trans. by Emma Helen Blair. Cleveland. PetrRorfF, Ivan. 1884. Report on the population, industries, and resources of Alaska. U. 8. Dept. Interior, Census Office, 10th Census, vol. 8. Puitures, WILLIAM B. 1888. Mica mining in North Carolina. U.S. Geol. Surv., Min. res. U. S., 1887, pp. 661-671. Pickett, A. J. 1851. History of Alabama, and incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi from the earliest period. 3d ed., 2 vols., Charleston. Pixr, ZeEBuLON M. See Cours, Exxiott, Epiror. PINKERTON, JOHN. 1808-14. General collection of the best and most interesting voyages and travels in all parts of the world. 17 vols., London. PizARRo, PEDRO. 1917. An account of the conquest of Peru (1534). Trans. and annotated by P. A. Means. New York. 1921. Relation of the discovery and conquest of the kingdoms of Peru. 2 vols. Trans. by Philip Ainsworth Means. Documents and nar- ratives concerning the discovery and conquest of Latin America, No. 4. Cortes Soe. New York. Poausz, JosEpH E. 1915, The turquois. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 12, pt. 2, 3d mem. 1917. The emerald deposits of Muzo, Colombia. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 55, pp. 910-933. Ponp, ALtonzo W. 1937. Lost John of Mummy Ledge. Nat. Hist., Mag. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 39, pp. 176-185, March. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 73 Pork, Saxton T. 1918. Yahi archery. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 103-152, Mar. 6. PowELL, JoHN W. 1875. Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and its tributaries in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872. Washington. PRIEST, JOSIAH. 1838. American antiquities and discoveries in the West. Albany. PurcHAs, SAMUEL. 1905-1907. Hakluytus posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes. (Reprint of 1625 ed.) 20 vols. Glasgow. PutTNaM, FRED W. 1886. In minutes of Semiannual Meeting, Apr. 28, 1886. Proc. Amer. Antiq. Soc., n. s., vol. 4, pp. 62-63. RALEIGH, Str WattTER. See ScHompurGK, Rosert H., Epitor. Hay, P. H. 1885. Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. House Ex. Doc. 44, 48th Cong., 2d Sess. Reiss, W., and StTosst, A. 1880-87. The necropolis of Ancon in Peru. Berlin. REPPLIER, AGNES. 1929. Pére Marquette, priest, pioneer, and adventurer. Garden City, N. Y. RIBAULT, JEAN DE. 1875. Narrative of the first voyage of Jean de Ribault . .- - to make discoveries and found a colony in Florida, A. D. 1562. Jn French, Hist. Coll. La. and Fla., 2d ser., Memoirs and Narratives, 1527- 1702. New York. RICHARDSON, JOHN. 1823. Geognostical observations. Jn Franklin, John, Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1819-20, 21, and 22. App. 1, pp. 497-528. London. Roserts, Frank H. H., Jr. 1929. Shabik’eschee village: A late Basket Maker site in the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 92. 1931. The ruins at Kiatuthlanna, eastern Arizona. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 100. Rogers, Matcoim J. 1929. Report of an archaeological reconnaissance in the Mohave sink region. Archaeology, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-13. San Diego Mus. 1936. Archaeology, vol. 8, pp. 100-103. San Diego Mus. Rust, Horatio N. 1905. The obsidian blades of California. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 7, pp. 688-695. SaHAGtNn, BERNADINO DE. 1829-1830. Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espafia. 3 vols. Mexico. 1880. Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne. Tr. par D. Jourdanet. Siméon, Paris. SALMERON, GERONIMO ZARATE. See Botton, Hersert L., Epitor. Savitutze. MarsHart H. 1921. Reports on the Maya Indians of Yucatan, by Santiago Mendez [and others]. Edited by Marshall H. Saville. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 9, No. 8, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. 1922. Turquoise mosaic art in ancient Mexico. New York. 74 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 ScuHENck, W. E., and Dawson, E. J. 1929. Archaeology of Northern San Joaquin Valley. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 25, pp. 289-411. ScHOMBURGK, RICHARD. 1922. Travels in British Guiana, 1840-44. Trans. by W. E. Roth. 3 vols., Georgetown, B. G. ScuomBurGckK, RospertT H., Epiror. 1848. The discovery of the - - - Empireof Guiana. - - in 1595... . by Sir W. Raleigh. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. [No. 3]. London. ScHootcraFtT, Henry R. 1851-1857. Historical and statistical information respecting the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian Tribes of the Unitea States. Pts. 1-6 [6 vols.], Philadelphia. 1853. Scenes and adventures - - - in the semi-Alpine region of the Ozark Mountains. Philadelphia. ScuHRADER, FRANK C.; Stonn, Raupu W.; and SANForRD, SAMUEL. 1917. Useful minerals of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 624. ScHUMACHER, PAUL. 1879. U. S. Geographical Surveys of the Territory of the United States west of the 100th Meridian. Vol. 7. Archaeology. 1880. The method of manufacture of several articles by the former Indians of southern California. 11th Ann. Rep. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., 1878. [Reports for 1876-1879 in 1 vol.] Pp. 259-264. SELLERS, GroRGE E. 1886. Observations on stone-chipping. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1885, pt. 1, pp. 871-891. SHEA, JoHN GiuMaRy, EpIror. 1861. Early voyages up and down the Mississippi. Albany. SHEPHERD, Henry A. 1890. The antiquities of the State of Ohio. Cincinnati. SHETRONE, Henry CLYDE. 1930. The Mound-Builders. New York. SILLIMAN, B. 1881. Turquoise of New Mexico. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 22, pp. 67-71, July-December. Smitu, C. D. 1877. Ancient mica mines in North Carolina. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1876, 441-443. Smiru, Pururp 8., and Mrertis, J. B. 1930. Geology and mineral resources of northwestern Alaska. U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 815. Smytu, Lr. W., and Lows, F. 1836. Narrative of a journey from Lima to Para. - - - London. Snow, CHARLES H. 1891. Turquoise in southwestern New Mexico. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 41, pp. 511-512. Sours Daxora State HistToricau Sociery. 1902. South Dakota Historical Collections, vol. 1, appendix. Spence, JAMES Muptn. 1878. The land of Bolivar. 2 vols. Boston. ANTHROP, Pap, No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL 75 Spier, LEs.iz. 1930. Klamath ethnography. Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 30. SPINDEN, HERBERT J. 1908. The Nez Percé Indians. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., vol. 2, pt. 3. Spruce, RicHarp. 1908. Notes of a botanist on the Amazon and Andes. 2 vols. London. Squier, E. G. 1870. Observations on a collection of chalchihuitls from Central America. Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. N. Y., vol. 9, pp. 246-265. Squier, E. G., and Davis, E. H. 1847. Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley. Smithsonian Contr. Knowledge, vol. 1. June. StaDE[N], Hans. 1874. The captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse, in A. D. 1547-55, among the wild tribes of eastern Brazil. Trans. by Albert Tootal. Hakluyt Soc. Publ. No. 51. London. STEFANSSON, VILHJALMUR. 1913. My life with the Eskimo. New York. 1914. Prehistoric and present commerce among the Arctic Coast Eskimo. Can. Geol. Surv., Mus. Bull. No. 6, Anthrop. Ser., No. 3, Ottawa. 1919. The Stefansson-Anderson arctic expedition of the American Museum. Ethnological Report. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pt. 1. 1922. Hunters of the Great North. New York. Stewarp, JuLIAN H. 1937. Ancient caves of the Great Salt Lake region. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 116. Stoney, Lt. Grorce M. 1900. Naval explorations in Alaska: An account of two Naval expeditions to northern Alaska. U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md. Strona, Mosss, ET Au. 1882. The quartzites of Barron and Chippewa Counties from the notes of Messrs. Strong, Sweet, Brotherton and Chamberlin. Geol. Wis., Surv. 1873-79, vol. 4, pt. 5, pp. 573-581. Madison. SumNneER, WILLIAM GRAHAM. 1907. Folkways; a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals. Boston. SyLvesterR, NATHANIEL BARTLETT. 1877. Historical sketches of northern New York and the Adirondack Wilder- ness. Troy. Tuomas, ALFRED BaRNABY. 1935. After Coronado: Spanish exploration northeast of New Mexico, 1696- 1727. Norman, Okla. TxHompson, J. Eric. 1936. Archaeology of South America. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthrop. Leaflet 33. Tuwaites, ReEuseN Goxp, Epiror. 1896-1901. Jesuit Relations and allied documents. Travels and explorations of the Jesuit missionaries in New France, 1610-1791. 73 vols., Cleveland. (See Gravier.) 1904-1907. Early western travels. 32 vols., Cleveland. TOWNSEND, C. W., Epiror. 1911. Captain Cartwright and his Labrador Journal. Boston. 76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuL, 128 TuTrtTLe, CHARLES R. 1885. Our North Land. Toronto. TyLor, Epwarp B. 1861. Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern. London. Unie, Max. 1903. Pachacamac. Philadelphia. Uuioa, ANTONIO DE, and JuAN, GEORGE. 1813. A voyage to South America . - - by Don George Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa. Trans. fr. Spanish by John Adams, Esq. In Pinkerton’s Voyages, vol. 14, pp. 318-696, London. VAILLANT, GEorGE E. 1930. Reconstructing the beginning of a history. Nat. Hist., Mag. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 30, No. 6, November—December. VANDERBURG, WILLIAM O. 1937. Reconnaissance of mining districts in Clark County, Nev. U.S. Bur. Mines, Infor. Cire. 6964. Veatcu, A. C. 1917. Quito to Bogota. New York. VERENDRYE, PIERRE G. DE La. See LA VHRENDRYE. VERRILL, A. Hyatt. 1929. Old civilizations of the New World. Indianapolis. VETANCURT, AGUSTIN DE. 1870-1871. Teatro Mexicano. T. 4, Mexico. Von Martius, CARL FRIEDERICH PHIL. 1867. Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde, zumal Brasiliens. 2 vols. Leipzig. Watuace, ALFRED R. 1853. A narrative of travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro. London. WaRDEN, Davin B. 1832-1833. Chronologie historique de l’Amerique. 10 vols., 1826-44. (Vols. 5-6, Historie de l’Empire Brésil, 1932-33). Paris. WASHINGTON, H. S. 1922. The jade of the Tuxtla statuette. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 60, pp. 1-12. West, GEorRGE A. 1910. Pipestone quarries in Barron County. Wis. Archeologist, vol. 9, pp. 31-34. 1934. Tobacco, pipes and smoking customs of the American Indians. Bull. Pub. Mus. City of Milwaukee, vol. 17, pt. 1, June 11. Weyer, Epwarp MoFrrat. 1929. An Aleutian burial. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 31, pt. 3. 1932. The Eskimos; their environment and folkways. New York. Waite. Lesuie A. 1932. The Acoma Indians. 47th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1929-30, pp. 17-192. Witcox, Frank N. 1934. Ohio Indian trails. Cleveland. Witson, THOMAS. 1899. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives of prehistoric times. Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1897, pt. 1, pp. 811-988. AnTHROP. Pap. No. 13] INDIAN MINING—BALL Fee WINCHELL, H. N. 1884. The geology of Pipestone and Rock Counties. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn., 1872-82; final rep., vol. 1, Geology of Minnesota, pp. 533-561. Minneapolis. WInsuHiP, GEORGE PARKER. 1896. The Coronado Expedition, 1540-42. 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1892-93, pt. 1, pp. 329-613. Woop, WILLIAM. 1634. New England’s prospect. London. Wyman, LELaANp C. 1936. Navaho diagnosticians. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., vol. 38, pp. 236-246. ZALINSKI, EDWARD R. 1907. Turquoise in the Burro Mountains, New Mexico. Econ. Geol., vol. 2, pp. 464-492. 4h | tome ‘ae ee is 4 Nhs TWD ia Wien ale ds eeu h ‘ } ! fy iy i “ f 7 , . a) : er: nae ie m waa ‘ane , ler ty ue - An aildgayestMt | 1 ie-4 mf Lek cy, bay" Pi ly Aa ae Manu duly, Mz Pided ee gar “ands ant, gta (anitthogzl baie mur ? inept) oe eae a | Rite é hey Oee-S08 L fo. Tht ee bet PAY ey; ay eR ‘ ih, grams, a 7A gored inj a ie Hae Meta Mis cle Cg oth rod yo I ane te ois oes ait ‘BB. Hed a Pheer otha “ata sdebnl i O ae cde Fipinonesaam Boal rele ‘gifh > tobi g ag ry ny Layne : Pvt hacen "Se cura: Fs OL it f Nii 44 sets ject dwlt-e Meldaty ' iin Leman he ia oes te ABTEL “ent Sa} { Whee. Ti koe, Rr a, { i , hey A whee \ Ma ain ty, ted. VaR AE At ‘ ree eee it >. Corie “4 Lia hao Wome 1a ine: t V4) ] i wo va f eat at 4 ¢ . ig ‘ ‘ al a3 A 5 Wide Seton ety den ate ysl remote °F ie. oH ¥ vy NAY, a, Sale and bs ee r ‘ hi as Gaye i wt i een i- Me yon, ; K : , Fin wy 7 fates ‘A Cio aed t ake in | " ‘ ) ; ; watt Ves Uv v : o a ‘ AR | ~ 4 Si Al io ae | 1 . ¥ hg ( ’ ec 4 4 " wen ig , Ve if | } ‘ rab f Sita is 2 - a » Teh THN i v, J 1 wus ‘ his 4 ee | Hata wt Senin . hd ; mi i ae | 1% Fea a thi { : es ih ' , | ; i fe Biwi ; BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULELEETIN 128 PEATE 2 LOS CERRILLOS OPEN CUT. “VWLOSANNIW ‘“ANOLSAdId ALINIILVYD ONINIGWG a aye OO Mc py ee ee q ’ Tes ee tak, at Oe ee a Rast Sek — ae SO i ema BS oe Ee eh an 3 ze Bian Ee a — er by Od S3LV1d 8¢l NILS11NG ASOIONHL]A NVOIMSAWY AO Nvaena AN 5 wVewesrsiv AVY IYI SII ore \ FUINDIANS PRIOR TO G OF WHITES LEGEND L£merald Magnesite Fluorite Moss Agate Galena Nephrite Garnet Olivine Hematite & Red Ochre Ope/ tron Pyrite Rock Crystal _ Jasper Selenite Lignite Se Serpentine Labradorite S/ = Slate Limestone So Sodalite Mica Su Sunstone | Malachite 7 Turquoise z Malachite Azurite To Tourmaline Yravels x Ovicrops ® Mines or Quarries TO COMING OF WHITES. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ae ) o y WORKED BY INDIANS PRIOR TO COMING OF WHITES LEGEND Agate £ £Lmerald Agatized Wood =F Fluorite Agalnotolite G Galena Alabaster G Garnet Amber H Hematite & Red Ochre Alacamite lL fenhyrite Brochantite J Jasper Barite L lhignite Chalcedony la Labradorife Cannel Coa! Li Limestone Chrysocolla M Mica CHinite Ma Malachite Chrysoprase —_Ma-Az Malachite Azurite 7o BULLETIN 128 PLATE 4 MINES OTHER THAN OBSIDIAN AND SOAPSTONE Magnesile Mess Agate Nephrile Olivine Opa/ Rock Crysta/ Selenite Serpentine Slate Sodalite Sunstone Turquoise Tourmaline + River Gravels © Marine Gravels * Outerops * Mines or Quarries MINES OTHER THAN OBSIDIAN AND SOAPSTONE WORKED BY INDIANS PRIOR TO COMING OF WHITES. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY OBSIDIAN AND SOARSTONE MINES WORKED By INDIANS PRIOR TO COMING OF WHITES © Obsidian 4 Saapsione OBSIDIAN AND SOAPSTONE MINES WORKED BY INDIANS PRIOR TO COMING OF WHITES. BULLETIN 128 PLATE 5 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 128 Anthropological Papers, No. 14 Iroquois Suicide: A Study in the Stability of a Culture Pattern By WILLIAM N. FENTON 79 PHONETIC NOTE The orthography employed in this paper, except where I am quoting others, reduces Iroquois transcription to a minimum of characters required by the econ- omy of the dialects. The vowels: a (of English father); a (of English but) which Waugh and J heard in Mohawk; 4 (of English hat); e (of English met); e (of French été); 7 (of French fini); o (of English mote); and u (before an m closure in Mohawk of St. Regis and (of English boot) in Cayuga), I think can be reduced to four: a, e, 7, and o. They occur frequently in diphthongs and in Seneca less frequently in triphthongs. Nasalization is denoted by a hook beneath the vowel; vowel length by a raised period after the vowel. A raised comma indicates the glottal stop. In Waugh’s and Hewitt’s transcription, the spiritus asper (¢) occurs, but I have used h. The character § is c (of English shoe). s and ¢ followed by h are heavily aspirated. The weakly trilled r of Mohawk and Cayuga is related to the 1 series of Oneida. The asterisk * before a word indicates a reconstructed form; similar forms in capitals are so written where the pro- nuneiation is not certain. 80 CONTENTS Part 1: General information - ------------ ers aan RA Sa ee Rian te SU CUDA ET FG Re Se eS Gee eS eS a Lg TE SLC aN Spee Se oe See ee nee eer ey HS Lae oe PRR TeOMIGE NCS). 3S 8 oe Me Ee te ee faaamional methods and attitudes...._..-..2--=-2225-.-- 4. 4.22. hievconcept: of allottedilifes so o2)- 2). te ee. et Lee nmr ees Neat: Sie arg Et eat ee Se ee. Se ee DiewMUCARER <= 2 fo Dk SPAS Re Spt paler MA hace Bs ee ee OAC AABN: PP GINOMINg ER. 23200 Je ee eh he ee Temere cases: Viclent AUICIGCS 2-2. oe ee Miscellaneous modern types] 2-2-0 ee ee aM eke WA Ripe mearancay® io ee ECMO eee Bare is Sete es Ne 8 ol ee ae Hariy easesior root. poisonings Type A. sens. 2322-38 kes Crcnia poisanings. 1 720-lOs2.. oo.) UN Be ea Huron eases of poisoning prior to 1650________----------- hhendaentibycOLr GHe POISON. ose 2 Jeo as ee ey eee Violent suicides by stabbing, shooting, and strangling: Type B_- oe SOUT SEEN [i IRE Se De Ik aie Qube FS ane oe pe Part 3: Analysis, distributions, and conclusions_ = -—~___-..2---4.-+--.-=- TUMEUR 9 pty eS Ee OS hd Sy Eh ae ak lee A ee ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 6. 1, Jesse J. Cornplanter, Seneca of the Tonawanda Reservation. 2, Rev. Peter W. Doctor, ex-chief of the Tonawanda Band of Senecas. mabe Brooks; Tonawanda Senecaie.i lit ACL O ss. Leese el 7. 1, Waterhemlock, Cicuta maculata L. 2, Sarah Snow, Seneca herbalist of Quaker Bridge, Allegany Reservation_____._-_-_-_-------------- 8. 1, Kate Debeau (D’ Ailleboust), Mohawk herbalist. 2, Simeon Gibson, principal informant at Six Nations Reserve, Ontario-__--_-_---------- 138 138 138 rAyy a i hy / ii t= Y ee re a) HN Ay ita i hi My oF Very Li 5 i A My ; A . PPYAATIOD t i . “ ne SAS . 2 ; veh Osh, cia OS Sa eae See + weap areas eitok on ’ ' a : > : ~~ sea i atte 7 _ P 4 . Ne » ts ag a se ee ee nh _ouitgbbre, Bie iis | Vig a ue aobleti die bir dbodienn ps hp ee Nye UE Probod ta Teh ra ai el iaitiateos sgisinoaintl, Aes on pins dedaivet icons peal PY, aaah OD ns ey ecinesin® ae uP He Uae i SAE > ¥ : Ad puneriy t , ory sted Y + me AD») Ee a aE a ee, ee ee Oe Jal haion, soc Ta at APE sta lb Ni ablees diecast unk Repos pea EER at gvate Oe a) ne bis Aehn ne aay Ne TOI, BOMBED +t hea i 0 ia Caer eer 1 Sah meclint Bierce 0 DRI anid lo 2iiagn bib that)” nang bynes BAR poga spetigiclandy 2 alae 4 - . » BO or. soto aune DL heekecr Thaaees partion Bi Ai hethh ih ingen wild cat o> saeewiatigaae ing ito, Goh, ’ c er J a aN > Shygicttrt ene Ors re ah PA ete oppor og We RM NTAIN HEMEL CO) ay May 0 me ea ad? ‘ OT, vie Sue A at AS : , Mi ee , h, devin T datas Pai hg adda Ms CT ALS mT ns i v & wottevionsd abuyuawanoT aff te. aoaned rendtoeig mY uae amoonet lo bas abaswaaoP ot le datde~n's vodpod, Bit . Ril i, atodee show eauet om ig ladeded asonot wode deiak B&B id olbbiotine ob 2) : d. 225, hia re eos Subii em conrad Jeiledsed, diate Menddalti® ai gee ; ohn reef eave”, 36 te Lanai i IROQUOIS SUICIDE: A STUDY IN THE STABILITY OF A CULTURE PATTERN By WILLIAM N. FENTON PART 1; GENERAL INFORMATION INTRODUCTION The problem of suicide frequency, its causes, and methods of com- mission among the Seneca Indians of western New York became the subject of a brief field study in 1935 when I was stationed on the Tonawanda Indian Reservation for the United States Indian Service. The Indian Office requested information for a survey which Mrs. Elna N. Smith was conducting, and although her interests were the psychological questions surrounding changing Indian life, on which specific data were requested, the general problem fitted nicely my own interests in the remarkable stability of Iroquois culture pat- terns, and, furthermore, the data illustrated relations between the individual participant and the culture of his group. Informants on the Tonawanda Reservation supplied the modern cases of suicides occurring within their memory. First, Jesse J. Cornplanter (pl.6, fig. 1), a nearly fullblood Seneca of middle age, the son of Edward Cornplanter, the speaker of Newtown longhouse, and a Tonawanda mother on Cattaraugus Reservation, related the first case which occurred in the conservative Seneca neighborhood of Jesse’s youth. Following service in the World War, he lived at Allegany and later removed to Tonawanda, always living with the conservative longhouse people. Jesse’s accounts were checked by Peter Doctor (pl. 6, fig. 2), now in his seventies, one-quarter white from his maternal grandfather. Peter was born and lived his youth at Tonawanda, before he turned Christian and married an Allegany woman and lived at Allegany many years before returning to his birthplace in 1905. He was long a member of the Tonawanda council, and lately has served as pastor of the Presbyterian church. He is a reliable informant of remarkable intellect with an excellent memory and respect for the truth, and being one of the oldest Senecas in full possession of his mind, he represents what the ethnologist hopes for in an informant. I gathered additional notes from William 83 84 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 128 Gordon who used to live at Newtown before he married a Tonawanda woman with whom he has lived during the generation of his children, 20 years, more or less; he still remains an unyielding adherent to the “‘longhouse party’? who respect his knowledge of tradition. His genial wife, Abbie Brooks (pl. 6, fig. 3), principal female officer for her moiety in the Tonawanda longhouse, volunteered the case about the unsuccessful attempt of her father’s brother to take Cicuta. Addi- tional information on the medicinal uses of Cicuta and mayapple grew out of the extended investigations of F. W. Waugh, of the National Museum of Canada, the late J. N. B. Hewitt of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, and my own field work on the Allegany Reservation. The time perspective of this investigation runs from the recent to the past. Perhaps a bit unorthodoxly, the problem was pointed from the field to the library, rather than the reverse, and, therefore, the cases will be presented in the reverse of chronological order. This corresponds with the original interest in discovering the com- parative frequency of suicides in the last two decades and in pre- vious years, and my own interest in the stable character of Iroquois ? suicide patterns over a period of 300 years, when I readily saw that the first case paralleled in its general framework another case I recalled from the seventeenth century Jesuit Relations (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 57, p. 165). The library research followed several years after collecting the first cases among the Senecas, and several points have subsequently been pursued in the field and have yielded additional data. I originally attempted to determine the age, sex, degree of blood, and method employed by each participant. Informants generally volun- teered the causes, which may not be the real ones, but at least they are the stock excuses supplied by the culture, and I had to depend on them for the scanty data on the personalities of the participants whom, excepting three, I did not know nor had I materials for their life histories, so that the personalities of my informants are more familiar to me than the subjects of the cases. This paper, written in the spring of 1939, was first called ‘‘Seneca Suicide.”” However, I went to the field soon after and cleared up some of the problems that still remained in the first draft. Josephine Jimmerson, Dwight Jimmerson, and Sarah Snow (pl. 7, fig. 2,) Senecas of Allegany Reservation, furnished additional information on cases 1 and 3; and Charles Gordon, Harvey Jacobs, and Windsor 1 The Iroquois proper were the confederated Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes occupying central New York. Known also as the Five Nations, they became the Six Nations when the Tuscarora migrated north after 1714. The enemy Hurons of southern Ontario shared Iroquois culture and also spoke an Iroquoian language, but Cherokee and Tuscarora in the south were more distant lan- guages of the same stock. However, the Delaware, Pequot, Shawnee, Algonkin, Micmac, Saulteaux, Sauk, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Miami, and Pottawatomi in the north spoke various Algonkian dialects; the Winne- bago and Tutelo spoke languages of the Siouan stock. I have introduced this note here because these tribes enter later into our discussion, and may be confusing to the nonanthropologist. AnrHRoP, Pap, NO.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 85 Pierce, of the Cornplanter Band of Senecas, supplemented the data previously collected on waterhemlock and its uses, and one new suicide case emerged. Moreover, I visited St. Regis Mohawk Res- ervation, where I worked with Noah La France and Peter Hopps; and at Caughnawaga Mohawk Reservation near Montreal, I found Kate Debeau (D’Ailleboust) (pl. 8, fig. 1) with whom Waugh had worked in 1912. New cases gathered from the Mohawks parallel the Seneca cases, and Mohawk terms bridge the linguistic chasm between Seneca and Huron; therefore, the study is more properly called “‘Troquois Suicide.”” The Hurons of Lorette no longer speak their own language so that they were unable to identify the Huron names for Cicuta that appear in the Jesuit Relations, nor did my informants, the daughters of Prudent Sioui of La Jeune Lorette, 9 miles from Quebec, recognize waterhemlock when I pointed it out to them in the field. It remains for future field work among the Oklahoma Wyan- dots to absolutely establish the Huron uses of the plant. At Six Nations Reserve in Ontario, Simeon Gibson (pl. 8, fig. 2), added cultural and dialectic parallels for the Cayuga and Onondaga Tribes but he added no new cases. THE PROBLEM The problem, then, set for this study is to answer so far as is possible five rather elementary questions concerning Iroquois suicides. First, what are the attitudes toward suicide as a value, or how does public opinion regard suicides and what is believed to be the destiny of their souls? Second, what is the comparative frequency of suicides in the present reservation life and in the older Indian life? Third, what are the causes? Fourth, what are the methods? And fifth, to what extent are the current causes, forms, and attitudes cultural norms that have been preserved during 300 years of contact with European cultures? Besides, there is the further theoretical con- sideration of the relative permanence of pattern as a cultural con- tinuant for custom. LINGUISTIC E\VIDENCE ” The Seneca language lacks an abstract term for suicide. While this is typical of Iroquoian languages which generally have few abstract terms, it does show that the act was not frequent enough to cause the progressive reduction of the descriptive verb to an abstract concept. ‘She has killed herself” (wa’agodadi’‘yo’), [the third person singular reflexive form of the verb ‘‘to kill” (-dityo’), recent past], is the usual term for suicide among the Senecas. The third person singular feminine (nonmasculine) form is often made to thus stand 2 The orthography employed in this paper is explained in the Phonetic Note, p. 80. 218558—40 rf 86 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buu. 128 for the individual or society. One who is contemplating suicide will employ “I am about to kill myself” (egadadi’‘yo’), the future form (Cornplanter). When a death occurs through suicide and someone inquires how the person died, the informant simply replies, ‘‘she (some- one) killed herself”? (wa’agodadi’:yo’) (Evelyn Pierce).* The terms are similar in the other [roquoian dialects. TRADITIONAL METHODS AND ATTITUDES Suicide was known but informants believe that it was rather infre- quently practiced in the old Seneca culture. It occurred often enough, however, for public opinion to be marshalled against it, and there come down to the present day a well-defined method, a set of attitudes frowning on its practice, and some excuses to condone the few cases that occur. Thus, there is a traditional definition of the situation when the proper causes precipitate it. My informants recall a few cases where individuals ate a poisonous herb, indicating waterhem- lock, Cicuta maculata L. (pl. 7, fig. 1), as the source of the fatal root, and they express a seemingly old repugnance toward suicide as a means of departing this life. The old (Seneca) method of committing suicide is by eating the muskrat root which we call o’nghse¢’e. It is a white flowering plant with a tuberous root that exudes a strong, pungent smell. Itiseatenraw. It causes rupture of the internal organs and bleeding at the mouth. [Cornplanter.] 4 There is an old belief that anyone who is contemplating suicide by taking muskrat root need not necessarily know the plant, for he can easily findit. [Corn- planter.] The plant is said to call and show itself. You can go right up to it in the dark. It has a strong smell. [Peter Doctor.] The old people say that muskrat root is like any other herbal medicine which you want. They believe that when you want it, it stands up there where it grows calling to you. That is why it is easy to find a medicine which you seek, especially this one with its strong odor. [Cornplanter.] The Senecas do not use waterhemlock as an internal medicine. Chauncey Johnny-John pointed to it growing by the spring behind his house in Coldspring, Allegany Reservation, saying, ‘‘the root 3 Miss Evelyn Pierce, Assistant Guidance Officer, Office of Indian Affairs, went over the Seneca terminol- ogy with me at the time of writing (1939), and confirmed Cornplanter’s statements. 4 This plant, which has similar names in the several Iroquoian dialects (see p. 113), was collected on several occasions independently by F. W. Waugh and myself, and it was identified by informants and competent botanists (Prof. William P. Alexander and Dr. Robert B. Gordon, of the Allegany School of Natural His- tory, and E. C. Leonard, of the U. S. National Museum) as the ‘‘fatal root,” waterhemlock, Cicuta maculata L.; and only once did an Iroquois confuse it with another plant, although some Senecas consider that hairy Angelica, Angelica villosa (Walt.) BSP., is the female of the species, while others say Queen Anne’s Lace, Daucus carota L. [introduced], is in the same family. The Indian descriptions of its form, structure, and properties are fairly consistent with the facts established by modern research. (See Muenscher, 1939, pp. 170-173; Marsh and Clawson, 1914; Pammel, 1911, pt. 1, p. 49, pt. 2, pp. 652-656.) The root when cut exudes an aromatic oil of peculiar odor which contains a resinlike substance, cicutczin, but the leaves and fruits may be edible at certain seasons without poisoning. Evena very small quantity of the root produces fatal poisoning—a piece of root the size of a walnut will killacow. Thesymptoms of poisoning in man are: “pain in the stomach, nausea, sometimes violent vomiting, diarrhoea, dilated pupils, labored breathing, sometimes [bloody (Pammel)] frothing at the mouth, weak and rapid pulse, and violent convulsions. If free vomiting is promptly produced, the patient is likely to recover” (Muenscher, 1939, p. 173). ANTHROP, Pap, NO. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 87 looks like a radish and is poison; it is not used for medicine.’ It will kill you in ten minutes.’”’ When I showed the root to Josephine Snow, she said, ‘‘Women used to think it was poison, and my mother said the women used it to commit suicide.’ Her sister, a noted Seneca woman herbalist whose grandmother had taken the root, knew it. “It has a white flower. It is poison, and it does not mix with any other medicine. It is good for nothing [internally].” (Sarah Snow.) Another Seneca woman from Cattaraugus said, “I am afraid of it. Mother always said it was poison.” (Josephine K. Jim- merson.) Other Seneca men seemed afraid of the plant (Charles Gordon and Harvey Jacobs, of Cornplanter Reservation), but they all know it makes an effective poultice for dislocated joints. (Wind- sor Pierce, Cornplanter Reserve.) One informant remarked that it frequents graveyards, and he knew of a ceremony which was performed at Cattaraugus on the fourth night of the new moon to ask its help for strengthening some other remedy. A priest goes into the cemetery, clears the brush away, and builds a fire near the stalk. He offers tobacco and asks the plant to lend its strength to the medicine, but he does not use the root. (Windsor Pierce.) Another Seneca informant remarked: That plant is poison. All the Indians—every nation in western New York and Canada [the Iroquois tribes]—know that that plant is poison. They all know that Indians have taken it to commit suicide. That root will take effect immediately. They die in 2 hours. I know of no antidote that will counteract it.7 A teaspoonful of the root will killa man. I have tasted it and spit it out, and it does not taste badly. There is nothing good about the plant [and this informant does not even use it as a poultice]. Those who eat it die in 2 hours. It must be a painful death. It twists the arms and ankles and turns the head back. Finally they die in a last wretching con- vulsion. They say it turns the eyes back. They turn in awful shape. He had never heard that the plant grows on its victim’s grave. “There is no compulsion about the plant. Unless you want to take it, it will not make you.”’ (Dwight Jimmerson.) Dwight scouted the idea heard from other conservatives that the plant “‘grows inside the head of its victim until he takes it and then it comes up later from his grave.” (Cornplanter, David Jack, and others.) The Cayugas of Six Nations Reserve in Ontario call waterhemlock onas‘e’ and the Onondagas there call it onase’e’* (Simeon and § Herbalists throughout the Six Nations know that, although waterhemlock root is a deadly internal poison, the smashed root makes a powerful drawing poultice for quickly reducing swollen joints, particularly ankles, and for relief in cases of rheumatism and arthritis, but they caution against leaving the poultice on too long lest it draw out all the fluid leaving a stiff joint. This use is recorded for the Cayugas, Onondagas, and Mohawks of Six Nations Reserve, Ontario; the Mohawks of St. Regis, Caughnawaga, and Oka (Two Mountains Iroquois) in Quebec (Waugh, 1912, 1914; Fenton, 1939), the Senecas of Cornplanter, Penusy!- vania, and of Allegany, Cattaraugus, and Tonawanda reservations in New York (Fenton, 1935, 1938, 1939); and by a savage at Missilimakinak around 1720 (Lafitau, 1724, vol. 2, p. 369). 6 James Crow of Newtown, Cattaraugus Reserve, is reputed to know this ritual, but I have not had it from him directly. 7 He was very much interested when I read him the account in Muenscher, 1939, p. 173, after he had described the reaction so closely. 88 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 128 Jemima Gibson), but my informants were unable to analyze the terms. They know it is poison to take, but there have been no recent suicides there, and they only know that a woman on one of the Seneca reserves in New York (case 1) took it. Gibson thought it a wicked thing to take one’s life because Handsome Lake had said that suicides are deprived of a place in the hereafter; that it is as bad as murder. Nevertheless, Waugh’s data of a generation ago say that these people believe waterbemlock compels the potential suicide to seek it, and that contrary to the usual attitude of medicinal herbs that stand willing to respond to man’s call for assistance in curing, this one is willing to destroy him. A preacher in the longhouse will say that it [the plant as symbolic of the sucide fixation] will grow in your head. By this is meant that it is willing to kill you When eaten it will make a man crazy; he will die shortly. When the root is chewed and swallowed [it is believed that] it becomes whole again within the stomach. [David Jack; Waugh, 1912, No.4, p. 13.] Furthermore, we find the belief among the Mohawks that not only does the root of waterhemlock re-form within the stomach but that it subsequently grows upon the victim’s grave. The Mohawks of St. Regis, Caughnawaga, and Oka in the St. Lawrence Valley know water- hemlock as o‘nasg’’ra (St. Regis and Oka) and onghsarT (Caughna- waga), meaning ‘‘whitish feather” or ‘“‘white plumed’’—a name given to the umbellate blossoms so characteristic of the plant (pl. 7, fig. 1). They all use the root as a poultice, and fear the danger of taking it internally. Katie Debeau related to Waugh and me at intervals of 27 years the tragic case of two little St. Regis children. A brother and sister followed their father who was plowing new land one spring of the year. The plowshare turned up some roots which they picked up, washed and ate without knowing what they were. When the parents realized that the children had been poisoned, they tried every possible means to get them to throw up, but they failed and the children died from the effects. Later on, after they had been buried, the plant grew up on their graves. This was evidently one of those unfortunate spring accidents that recur infrequently wherever the plant grows. Katie recalled a second tragedy which occurred at Caughnawaga; it points a moral to the Troquois habit of tasting roots to identify them when ccllecting medici- nal herbs. “A boy and his brother here were looking for medicinal herbs. They had been instructed to procure a’dja* (Dentaria dyphylla Michx.) [which has a peppery taste], and they ate the poisonous root by mistake.”” (Kate Debeau.) The use of waterhemlock as a suicide poison has been recorded for all of the Six Nations, excepting the Oneidas, and including the Tusca- roras, the latest settlers in the North.® 8 Hewitt’s manuscript, ‘31 remedies for disease,”’ (Tuscarora ms. No. 435, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1888) lists, “14. Forthe commission of suicide it was customary to eat a piece of the root of Spotted Cowbane (o’nd-sén’-8’) .. ., Cicuta maculata.” AnrTHRoP. Pap. No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 89 THE CONCEPT OF ALLOTTED LIFE The concept of the allotted life span and the view of natural death as the departure on the long trail leading westward to the spirit world marshals Seneca public opinion against suicides. The conservatives still believe that a man has an allotted number of days which the Creator sets for him to live. When his time comes, whether he be abroad hunting, at home in bed, or down sick he will go regardless of medicine, science, or the persuasion of his relatives. The followers of Handsome Lake, the Seneca prophet who preached 15 years following 1800, believe ‘‘the events of all our days are foreknown” (Parker, 1913, p. 49), and they repeat in the funeral address the Creator’s message to the prophet: When you, the beings of earth, lose one of your number you must bury your grief in their grave. Some will die today and some tomorrow for the number of our days is known in the sky-world. [Parker, 1913, pp. 57, 108.] Some speakers make a special plea to the surviving relatives to take their minds off the deceased lest the fixation lead them to neglect their dependants or destroy their own lives (Henry Redeye). And our belief is that for anyone who will destroy his own life, his spirit will always be earth-bound (dedwadi). My father [Edward Cornplanter, speaker and ritual holder in Newtown longhouse who recited the Code of Handsome Lake to Arthur C. Parker] used to say that the spirit [of a suicide] will just wander around where the [waterhemlock] plants grow, and it will always be expecting another person to followitsexample. Indians [Senecas] believe it is a sin (gaiwane’’akshe’) to take one’s own life, to shorten the span of days which the Great Spirit has given to each one of us; therefore as a punishment he shall not go on the path to the spirit-world, but shall always remain on earth among the plants which he took for death. [Cornplanter.] To guard against seeing one of these earth-bound spirits people drop their curtains at dusk or pin up a white cloth or newspaper at the windows. They warn the children not to look out, partly for disci- pline, and partly lest they see one of these hungry earth-bound souls peering in after some food (John Jacobs). A maple leaf is the thickness of the partition between us and the dead. A person who has died of violence—witchcraft poisoning, suicide, and murder— remains earth-bound until judgement day. [Handsome Lake by Cornplanter.] These foreshortened souls are conceived as wandering about the scenes of their crimes, and they remind the living of their passage by mysteriously opening and closing doors. Occasionally the dead appear to the living during dreams to request food, or a song; the surviving clansmen should placate the ghost by sponsoring the great feast of Chanters for the Dead (ohgi’we), be- cause the dreamer might become sick and follow the relative, or, it would seem, there is danger that he might willfully take his life in a vain effort to join the deceased in the land of the dead. 90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buy. 128 My informants believe that there are fewer suicides among the Indians than among the whites, and this it seems is because the causes are fewer, although they cite the sanctions imposed by belief in the destiny of souls. We shall examine the possible extent of these beliefs into aboriginal culture when we have presented the cases, for it is likely that the bulk of them are aboriginal and antedate the com- ing of the Jesuits and Handsome Lake who borrowed Christian moral- ity and sanctions to bolster up a basically native religion (Wolf, 1919, pp. 59-65). My father always said that our mind, or will power is stronger than the whites’, and, therefore, we overcome those trifles under which they break down. We look upon life [death] with the prospect of an everlasting life beyond the grave, and we have no desire to forbid ourselves the path to the spirit-world. [Cornplanter.] Holding these beliefs and values has not prevented one Seneca from entertaining suicidal thoughts. According to his wife, he once threat- ened to kill her and then kill himself, and, fortunately, in a drunken shooting episode he was lucky enough not to hit his wife’s brother and bring himself to the position from which suicide might be the only easy exit. On a previous occasion he told me that after his regiment demobilized in 1918, he was considering jumping over the falls of the Genesee River at Rochester when an officer accosted him and persuaded him to spend the night at the station house. The modern Iroquois commit suicide for two principal reasons that appear in the following case studies. Women who have been mis- treated in love affairs or marriages in most instances revenge them- selves by taking poison and thereby bring critical public opinion on the head of the abusive male consort. Men who think that they have committed some violent crime and have lost face put an end to themselves to escape revenge or apprehension. ‘Their suicides are most apt to be violent. The first type of case is the one which the Iroquois condone and most frequently, mention. The only cause of suicide with us [Senecas] would be a love affair or marriage (ganghgwa’) [the same term is used for both], or a broken and unhappy marriage. {[Cornplanter.] Child suicides, to escape restrictions or in revenge of punishment, and the few cases of suicide among the chronically ill are mentioned infrequently. Iroquois suicides fall more surely into two fundamental types based on a formal method of commission. Here the ethnologist is on safer ground than when he is discussing causes and motives which cannot always be established after the fact. Type A are the cases of root poisoning, and type B are violent cases. The cases bear out the Iroquois who say that the type A cases are apt to be women following broken love affairs, whereas the type B cases are most apt to be men who seek to escape the consequences of violent crimes or loss of status. Anrunor. Par, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 9] Besides, there is a group of miscellaneous cases. We present all of the modern cases and then the earlier cases from the literature, pro- ceeding upstream historically. PART 2: CASES MODERN CASES TYPE A CASES: POISONINGS Case 1.—Josephine L., a full-blood Seneca woman of middle age. About 1902-3 there was living at Newtown on the Cataraugus Reservation a woman we shall call Josephine L. ‘She was one of those Seneca women of regal bearing whom I remember used to live at Newtown” (Cornplanter, my younger informant, was a small boy at this time). She was a fine looking woman, and she was prob- ably nearly a full-blooded Indian (Peter Doctor). Her husband came from Allegany (P. D.), he was a much younger man (C.); and while he was visiting at Newtown, they went to living together in her house, and it seems that he had been living matrilocally with her at the time of her death. ‘‘He caused her a lot of worry. He was undecided about her, and he was teasing her,” and my informant implied that he had made her feel his interest in other women (C.). Much of this is undoubtedly imputed Seneca behavior, but as such it is interesting cultural data. As the result of a quarrel she went to the woods, unknown to the others, where she secured and ate the fatal root. She got home and died quickly after her arrival. They say she went into spasms—she had convulsions—and that wit- nesses heard noises in her vitals. She emitted blood from her mouth as if she had burst internal blood vessels. [C.] Jesse Cornplanter was in district school at the time, ‘and when they heard she had died school was dismissed. Many were taken with the strangeness of her death and came to the funeral. Many wondered why she had reached a state where she could take her own life. It was discussed a great deal for many years.” Undoubtedly, my informant gained his knowledge of the attitudes toward suicide current at this time from his father who was well versed in Seneca traditions. It is also evident that the case of Jos- ephine L. made a strong impression on him, and that the Newtown community was stirred by the event. The news soon spread to Allegany and Tonawanda. It was one of those rare occurrences that a community recalls as happening infrequently but for which there was a well-defined pattern of behavior. There are other versions of this case, differing according to locality. My Cayuga informants had heard of the affair, but they were unfamil- "8 Probably all recent Seneca generations have carried some white blood. I have no genealogies going back over more than four generations which do not reveal a white ancestor. What Doctor means is that not Knowing any white antecedent in her pedigree, she appeared to be all Indian. 92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ BULL, 128 iar with details. However, at Allegany thec ase is better known among the Senecas. Dwight Jimmerson of Bucktooth (West Salamanca), in Peter Doctor’s generation, remembers the following story about a suicide at Newtown, Cattaraugus Reservation, about 1900, and he thinks it may concern the case of Josephine L.: At Cattaraugus Reservation in the Newtown longhouse community a young man and woman got together as man and wife, and they were living that way. It came fourth of July and the man wanted to go to Buffalo where there was to be a celebration, and his wife also wanted to go, but he did not want to have her with him. He knew the time that the train would leave the nearby Lawtons depot, and they walked toward the depot, and she was still teasing to accompany him. Not willing to give in, he stalled along leading her as far away from the depot as he calculated he could dash for the train, which only stops there briefly since Lawtons is a small station. When he heard the train coming, he sprinted for the depot. He made the train, but she could not run fast enough and was left standing breathless. She turned around and went into the woods and pro- cured and ate the root of waterhemlock. She barely reached home when she died. Case 2: A supplement to case {.—Louisa S., niece of Josephine L. William Gordon, who knew Cicuta by its Seneca name both as a reducing poultice for sprains and as a suicide poison, gave the following supplementary information on the case above: Louisa S. [whom] we called Ska’‘di’ at Newtown [William’s wife’s nickname] took that medicine. It is poison. It grows on wet ground. She was married once and she got mad and thought she kill herself. She was still [a] young woman when she took it. Now a year later and her aunt [mother’s sister], Josephine L. [case 1] took it. Alfred L. is her brother and he is now living at Cattaraugus. This informant thinks that Josephine L. “went to the woods,” procured the poisonous root, and did not take it until she had returned home and entered her house. Both Cornplanter and Gordon agree on the immediate cause of her suicide: ‘‘She must have been jealous of another woman.” They said that this trait is apt to run in families. Josephine K. Jimmerson has heard her mother tell how the deceased Ska’‘di’ (ska-di’géok) took waterhemlock, but she attributes the act to fear of blood revenge. Mother always said it [water-hemlock] was poison. Ska’-di’ who took that lived across from my mother at Newtown. They drink it, but I do not know whether they take it raw or boil it. Iam afraid of it. There was another case about the same time. Her sister, Hattie, took it. Something was wrong. They had a big quarrel around the neighborhood during which they murdered someone. Then they killed themselves before they could be punished. Since this informant is both very deaf and quite feeble, I could not press her for additional details which she did not seem willing to volunteer. Case 8.—Abandoned Seneca mother takes waterhemlock, circa 1885. Josephine and Sarah Snow of Allegany relate how their mother’s mother was abandoned by her husband (their mother’s father). AnrHROP. Pap, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 93 Another woman took her husband away from her when their mother was a baby just walking at her side, and she became angry and ate the root. This happened along the Allegheny river, Sarah calculates, in 1853 because her mother was 20 when Sarah was born in 1871. Both women had the story from their mother who learned about it later. She went after water and on her way she pulled that plant. She got the water all right, and on her way back she ate the root which she had washed at the spring which was quite a distance from the house. On the long carry she started puking blood [here Sarah rolled her hands from her stomach upward to her mouth to illustrate vomiting], and she fell by the way. Some men who were work- ing in the garden nearby saw her fall and rushed over. In her body she was having cramps and she soon began having convulsions. She was dead by the time they reached her. She was buried from the longhouse. ([Sarah.] She received a regular funeral and burial, and Sarah had never heard that the plant grows out of the victim’s grave. The attitude of both women is that their grandmother had revenged herself of her husband’s adultery, and though not especially proud of the suicide in their maternal family, Josephine had originally volunteered the informa- tion to me one day at breakfast, and neither sister seemed loath to discuss the affair. Case 8a.—Mary J., abandoned by her Seneca lover, circa 1889. Dwight Jimmerson gave me this case in the summer of 1939; it was one that he remembered vividly as occurring in the Allegany community during his youth. I knew these people well. George G. was older than I and he was going with Mary J. Both were Allegany Senecas. Finally they had a falling out, and he went home in the night telling her that he was leaving her for good, that he would notreturn. The following morning she went out and dug up the root of o’nd’’she¢’¢ [Cicuta] and ate it and died. Apparently, Dwight’s knowledge of how the poison affects its victims came to him from this case. (See p. 87.) Case 8b.—Neglected Mohawk wife takes Cicuta, Circa 1850. Katie Debeau of Caughnawaga, with whom I worked in 1939, re- called one case of suicide among the Mohawks that occurred within her grandmother’s time. This was presumably in the Catholic settlement near St. Regis. In the family living neighbors to my grandmother the husband was not sup- porting his wife. She became discouraged and told my grandmother that she intended to fix up a medicine to take, and only God knows whether it is a cure or a kill. That same evening the little girl of the family came running over to tell my grandmother that her own mother was very ill. So my grandmother, who was a great herbalist, prepared herself with different kinds of roots from her stock and went over to see her neighbor. When she arrived, she asked, ‘‘Where is the pain?” ‘All over my insides,” her neighbor replied. 94 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bub, 128 She did not last but a very few minutes before she died. Whenever my grand- mother would lift the woman to give her some medicine or water to drink, she would sigh and breathe a strange odor. Her eyes blinked and dilated rapidly, and she had difficulty swallowing. The odor she breathed was like liquor, and all around her mouth was black. She died a terrible death—she finally suffocated. The next morning when my grandmother looked around the house, she dis- covered the remnants of the root and the stalk of o-nasa‘ta [waterhemlock] that had been cut away. She broke the root in twain and it gave off the same odor that she had detected on the breath of her poisoned neighbor. Katie claims to know an effective emetic for cases of Cicuta poisoning. Take fresh cream and a pinch of baking soda and some sugar. Mix it and give it to the patient. Then turn the patient on his stomach and roll him and massage the stomach to mix the medicine in the stomach. They will throw up. If they throw up they will recover. Witnesses said that Katie had cured a child who had accidentally taken “Paris green’’ that his father had prepared in solution for bug- ging potatoes. This poison produces violent diarrhoea, she said, and ultimately death follows. Katie used the above treatment and em- ployed a feather to induce vomiting. Case 4.—Elijah Brooks who was saved from Cicuta poisoning. The following case is exceptional because it is the first of two modern cases of Seneca males attempting poisoning. Abbie Gordon (Ska’-di’) recalled that Elijah Brooks, her father’s brother, took Cicuta but he did not die. Somebody discovered him and doctored him quickly, giving him a large dose of mashed boiled beans (as an emetic(?)). Abbie did not know the cause of the attempt, and she seemed un- willing to discuss it further. Elijah died somewhat later of natural causes. (This case should be read in connection with case 12 of my informant and her daughter who wanted to die.) Case 4a.—Informants of the Cornplanter Band of Senecas in north- western Pennsylvania identified waterhemlock, which grows along the flats near the Allegheny River, as the fatal root which they call o’né’’she’e, which they think means, ‘it looks like onion.” (Charles Gordon, Harvey Jacobs, Ezra Jacobs, and Windsor Pierce.) Charles Gordon’s mother used to relate how a Seneca outlander, i. e., a Seneca from up the river or from Cattaraugus who is not a descendant of Cornplanter, came there to stay. ‘He came here to get a wife, and someone else got her away from him. He poisoned himself with this plant which you see here.”’ 1° This case interested me because it shows that one Seneca male was unable to endure the shame and ridicule that would follow losing a mate to another suitor. I recall one young man of Allegany who brought home a young Cayuga bride and soon lost her to a neighbor 10 At this particular sitting, my informants identified the suicide root from the illustration (fig. 54.— Cicuta maculata) on p. 171 of Muenscher. The following day we collected a specimen, which was inde- pendently identified by another informant. AnrHrop. Pap. No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 95 whereupon even his own father remarked that his son had just rented her for a while. However, in this case the youth soon acquired another wife from the same community, and his unsuccessful affair is no longer mentioned. While writing this paper, two type A cases that occurred near Onondaga were related to me by Earl Jones, a young Onondaga- Mohawk employed at the Smithsonian Institution. Similarly, both cases are of young women who found the adjustment between reserva- tion culture and city life difficult, and both cases involve lovers. One young woman recovered. The other was an Oneida girl living with an Onondaga man. They had been to the nearby city of Syracuse, and returning to the reservation a little drunk they got into an argu- ment. This continued after they entered the house. She went to the cupboard and drank the contents of an ammonia bottle. Her ‘‘boy friend” said afterward that she habitually took medicine, that she had been drinking this night, and that in the dark she had grabbed at a bottle, the wrong one. That was his alibi. Earl Jones has heard of a poison root that was anciently used at Onondaga for suicide. He recognized Cusick’s O-nah-san-a (Cicuta maculata L.)§ as probably o’ne’si’‘na’, which is close to the form Hewitt gives in Tuscarora (footnote 8, p. 88), but he does not know the plant. However, he suggested it should be a poisonous plant because the modern Onondaga apply the same term to poison ivy. Jones believes that Onondaga suicides were formerly less frequent, and they are certainly of less frequency than the cases he cited of whites who had married on the Reservation and among the neighbor- ing city dwellers. TYPE B CASES: VIOLENT SUICIDES Male suicides among the modern Iroquois are apt to be violent. Thinking they have committed a violent crime, they seek a violent end as an escape. In three of the following cases a jealous husband killed his wife and then killed himself to avoid blood revenge or crimi- nal prosecution. One gains the impression from talking with in- formants that he killed himself out of self-pity. The basic information in these cases came from Peter Doctor. Case 5.—Albert S., an unsuccessful-spouse suicide, 1925. Albert S. of Tonawanda Reservation, got very drunk and shot his wife Phoebe early on the morning of December 7, 1925, and then shot himself in the head. Phoebe died the following night, but he lived to be tried for murder and sentenced to the Atlanta jail, where he died May 29, 1928. Although Phoebe is survived by three sisters and two brothers (1935), I acquired no information about the motives, other than the bare facts and that he was drunk, which seemed sufficient to my informant. 11 See Beauchamp’s notes appended to Pursh’s Journal of 1807, p. 75. 96 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buby 128 Case 6.—Hiram Redeye, an unhappy-marriage suicide, circa 1900. Perhaps the most famous suicide is the case of Hiram Redeye, of Coldspring on the Allegany Reservation, who hurled himself under a passing freight after beating out his unfaithful wife’s brains with a trackmaul.”” Hiram Redeye, whom we nicknamed swé’ ’no, father of Newman and brother of Amos, lived at Coldspring around 1900. He was a great athlete, an especially talented runner and baseball player. He used to live with Phoebe Cooper, widow of Solon Jimmerson, of Jimmersontown [a settlement on the bank of the Allegheny below Salamanca]. After the death of her husband, she stayed with her brother, Hiram Cooper, at Coldspring. It was here that she met Hiram Redeye, and they went to living together at Hiram’s house. Hiram was abusive, he licked his woman, Phoebe, and he frequently threatened her life. He had a jealous disposition. Another informant ventured that she was unfaithful, and, whatever the fact, Hiram believed the rumor. Phoebe finally despaired and went back to her brother’s, to the house of her clansman; and while she was living there Hiram went over repeatedly and begged and coaxed her to come back to his house. However, she did not in the least want to return, but her kinsman kept urging her to make up with her consort, saying that everything would probably be all right from now on. [Peter added paren- thetically, ‘‘the old folks [parents and relatives in upper generations] usually try to patch up these broken affairs, just as they formerly selected mates for their children and arranged the weddings with the opposite parents.’”’] But Phoebe wept and carried on because her folks insisted that she return with Hiram.% Reluctantly, she packed her few clothes, her sewing, and a splint basket she was working on. In going she remarked, ‘‘If anything happens, it will be up to you [you will be responsible],’’ meaning that her relatives were responsible for her fate. They started out single file, Hiram going ahead. [It was customary for a man to walk in front of his wife.] She looked back again and again as they went along the path until finally, stopping to take one last longing look, she turned and followed. When they arrived at Hiram’s house, he opened the door and they went inside. She set down her burdens. Hiram locked the door and seized a hammer, a small track walker’s maul with a short handle. Then he went after her. ‘‘You did not want to come back,” he said, and he accused her of having had illicit relations with Jonas Titus. He was jealous of his neighbor, Jonas. She cried, “No,” 12 To appreciate the setting the reader must understand the fascination which the railroads hold for the New York Indians. Wherever tracks cross the reserves, the maintenance crew is apt to be composed of Indians. They take to this work with enthusiasm, although they may speak little English besides the rail- road jargon; and the central factor in the modern life of Coldspring is certainly the Erie Railroad complex: the dinner pail, overalls, caps, gloves, and the worn circle in the pants pocket indicating the presence or absence of the snuff habit. To the rest of the community the trains have brought, with railroad watches, a sense of time, and the tracks serve as a berrying ground, a highway up and down the river, and a sure but dangerous way home on foggy Saturday nights. It is impossible to tell what proportion of the frequent deaths during 50 years to Indian trespassers have been accidents to homeward-bound travelers, deliberate murders, or suicides. 18 This narrative has the ring of truth. The facts and causes of marital rupture and the attempts of the relatives to mend it agree point for point with cases of brittle monogamy which I have observed since 1933 on the Seneca Reservations. No sooner does the wife seek sanctuary in her clansman’s house, because her husband has beaten her or jealousy has induced a quarrel, than he is there the following morning teasing her to return. Unless one of the mates absconds ‘‘to play house’’ with another lover, a few days of isolation serve to draw the breach together until the next incident arises. ANTHROP. Par, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 97 saying that she had had nothing to do with Jonas, but he refused to believe her. He struck her on the head, and in his fury hit her again and again until her skull was completely crushed. [A Coldspring informant states that he also cut her throat with a butcher’s knife.] Then he opened the door and set out on the run through Coldspring settlement toward the ‘nip and O’ tracks [N. Y. P. & O. R. R., which has since become the Eric]. A west-bound freight train was coming down the valley, and he made for it. Thetrain beat him to the crossing, but he cast himself underthe wheels. I remem- ber the details of this case because Phoebe Cooper was of my wife’s relations. 14 [Peter Doctor.] Case 7.—Sam Parker, who hanged himself, circa 1875. “Sam Parker of Tonawanda Reservation hung himself because he thought he had killed two people.’’ Peter Doctor remembers the event clearly as happening either in 1874 or 1875, as he was in district school on Sundown Road at the time. Sam Parker, Peter supposes, was a full-blood, and he was around 50 years old but still active; he was still playing lacrosse and engaging in other equally violent exercise. He came of a remarkable family, being the son of Levi Parker, who was related to General Ely Parker, and his was the only suicide in that family known to my informant. Sam Parker stole a horse belonging to his sister, Clara Parker, and he sold it somewhere off the reservation. His sister persisted in her search and finally traced it. A man from Tuscarora stayed here at the time, and Sam’s sister acted as his interpreter as they searched together from farm to farm among the whites. The Tuscarora finally located the horse, and the sheriff returned it to its original owner because it was stolen property. The man who had purchased the horse described the seller and thief as Sam Parker, her own brother. When Sam knew he had been discovered he went after his gun. The tragedy below happened before the West Shore Railroad went through in 1882. Peter does not remember the sequence, but he thinks that the shooting at the sister came first, and then Sam went after the Tuscarora. The first shooting occurred toward the east end of the reserve at William Charles’ house. Clara Parker, the sister, lived there; she was the present William Charles’ aunt and Charlie Moses’ mother. When Clara’s mother and brother saw Sam approaching carrying the revolver, they hid Clara in the bedroom. He entered, and not seeing her, suggested she might be hiding in the bedroom. They attempted to block the door, but he shot through the wooden panels. Clara [who Peter says had a bad temper anyway, and adds that she was probably angry] screamed from within the bedroom, and Sam fled supposing that he had killed her. Next he went to the house where he knew the Tuscarora man was staying. This was at Seavor Blackchief’s at the time when the old people were still living. (Seaver’s mother’s brother had migrated to Tuscarora [where he had married], and a while afterward he returned. Therefore the Tuscarora man was staying 14 T gathered from Peter Doctor that the couple made such a din that the close neighbors were attracted to hear the shouted accusations and denials and that they saw part of the struggle. Much of the tale seems to have been reconstructed after the crime, and the years have not cramped Peter’s skill as a narrator, although I have never had cause to doubt his veracity. 98 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLy, 128 with them.) Sam went to the house inquiring for the Tuscarora who was up- stairs. As the Tuscarora emerged at the head of the stairs, Sam shot from where he was standing near the door. And again, thinking that he had hit him, he fled. Sam’s mother and sister and wife came running after him, but he went into the brush to the south of the present railroad track near McRae Skye’s place. Before they overtook him he had shinned up a leaning tree of nearly 2 feet in diameter. He was sitting on a limb with a rope tied around his neck and was busy tying the free end around the limb when the women came up. They told him he must not take his life, but he jumped anyway in full conviction that he had killed two people. He never hit either of them. We school children heard of the tragedy and the school teacher let us off to go over and see him. It is possible that the motive in Sam’s suicide was shame at having been caught in a theft rather than fear of revenge or prosecution. Case &.—Jealous husband hangs himself after ambushing wife and lover. Peter Doctor remembered one other case which occurred at Cat- taraugus Reservation about 1890. A jealous husband lay in ambush at the hill leading out of Gowanda. His wife must pass that way returning home in her lover’s wagon. He shot at her as the horses slowly climbed the hill, and thinking that he had killed his wife, he hung himself shortly afterward. Case Sa.—Sometime during the spring of 1939 while I was writing this paper, one of the Sachem chiefs whom I had known during my stay at Tonawanda hanged himself in his attic. Ididnot know him very well. During the time of our acquaintance he was frequently drunk and he kept pretty much to himself. A rather fine speaker and an exceptional singer, he seldom appeared to discharge his duties at the longhouse festivals, and he did not fraternize with the mutual aid singers’ society with whom I used to meet at Jesse Cornplanter’s. He did belong to another group of singers, but they seldom made pub- lic appearances at the longhouse dances. He had attended Carlisle Indian School where he had run the 100 yards in 10 seconds, and he had played considerable baseball after returning to the reservation. He lived in a little log cabin with a wife, who occasionally got herself very drunk, and they had several small children. A competent social worker, who knew him better than I did, had seen him intoxicated several times, and each time he had a crying jag. He wept a good deal begging her not to take him home, until she had straightened matters with this wife. The social worker had his con- fidence for he would regain control of his emotions when she agreed to intercede for him. It is perplexing just why he worried about his wife’s reactions since she was so given to drinking herself. It is reported that several times when he was drunk he had threatened to hang himself. It probably got to be an old story, and no one took him seriously. He used his own attic for the occasion. He had been working regularly at the Tona- wanda Community House [which was then being built by Indian labor under Anrurop. Pap. No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 99 WPA], until shortly before [his suicide]. He seemed to be in no difficulties pre- viously or [at the time of his demise]. [H. A. Wayne, correspondence, 1939.] He had an Indian funeral of the longhouse variety and his clansmen held the regular feast to thank the participants 10 days after. This is the only case that can be definitely attributed to a disor- ganized personality that developed out of the conditions that produced the break down of a culture. His death may be attributed to the introduction of liquor among the Senecas. In turn, the frustrations that young partly educated Indians experience in trying to adjust themselves to a changing life are, I think, responsible for the excessive drinking among them. Case 9.—Katherine K. who shot herself in revolt to parental discipline, 1932.% Katherine K., a Seneca Indian girl of about 15 years, shot herself with a .45 caliber automatic pistol in 1932. Katherine was in the first year of high school, and her degree of Indian blood is uncertain, but her family is an old one on the Cattaraugus Reservation. The cause seems to have been discontent with parental discipline. Her mother objected to Katherine’s running around like other Indian girls of her age, who with the break down of the old maternal discipline run about at will. On the occasion of the tragedy the family had gone to a lacrosse game in Buffalo, and they had left Katherine home to take care of six small children. (Perhaps I should explain that the indoor lacrosse games at Broadway auditorium attract large audiences from the reservations to the city whither the Senecas flock to see their young men bruise one another and to visit with relatives and friends. The young people have a chance to meet each other and to escape in the slums of the city the scrutiny of their neighbors at home. The consequences are sometimes disastrous from the view- point of conscientious parents, of which there are still a few among the Indians.) Thus the parents had indulged themselves in a pleasure they denied their daughter. The next morning a neighbor discovered footprints in the snow leading to a lonely shanty where he discovered her body. MISCELLANEOUS MODERN TYPES Case 10.—A Tuscarora Maid of the Mists, circa 1890. About 1890, a Tuscarora girl cast herself into the rapids above Niagara Falls because her parents refused to sanction her love affair. Clearly this type of suicide parallels the ‘‘Maid of the Mists” episode in Seneca folklore." 15 Information on this case also was obtained from Miss Helen 4. Wayne, Supervisor of Indian Welfare, New York State Department of Social Welfare, Buffalo. 16 The Seneca girl, who has become impregnated by a snake, is so ashamed that she stands a canoe through the Niagara rapids above the Falls, but as she goes over the brink she is saved by Hinon, the thunderer, who lives in the cave of the Winds beneath the Falls. Later he delivers her of serpents, and finally she returns home. (See Hinon Saves a Woman from Suicide, in Curtin and Hewitt, 1918, pp. 228-229.) Ihave another version of the same tale from Cornplanter. 100 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 128 This Tuscarora girl was Ike Patterson’s daughter, and she was probably 12 years old the last time I saw her when her father brought her to a Baptist con- vention here at Tonawanda. She would be nearly 60 were she living today [1935]. She promised to be a pretty girl. [Peter Doctor.] It is difficult to tell her degree of Indian blood because the Tus- caroras have incorporated so many white prisoners during their wanderings and there have been so many intermarriages with white soldiers from Fort Niagara that none of them are full-blood Indians. The girl grew up and met a white man at Niagara Falls, and she fell in love with him. The old Indian people, both her parents and her father in particular, resented the union and they broke it up. The girl decided that if she could not have the white man she would have no one. She went to Niagara Falls and waded into the rapids above the falls. [Peter Doctor.] Case 11.—Dennison M.’s two unsuccessful threats. Dennison M. is a Seneca male of 33 years (1935), nearly a full-blood (%), who lives when at home with his aged mother in the longhouse district of Tonawanda Reservation. He is the greatest wanderer of three vagrant brothers, and when at home he shares a workshop in the barn with his half brother Cephas. He spends long hours by him- self carving, and fashioning archery tackle. Frequently, he destroys what he makes, feeling, perhaps with the true sense of an artist, that the creation is no longer to his liking. (I asked him why he destroyed his crafts, and he replied that he was sick of them.) He seldom goes out when at home, and I have never seen him with the other reser- vation youths at the dances and singing society meetings. Neverthe- less, he is a famous dancer and showman, however reticent he may be about performing at home. On one of his excursions he bought a bicycle in Atlantic City and rode it all the way to Florida and the Gulf coast, making his living en route by staging a dancing and fancy- roping act on street corners. His misanthropic temperament emerges at home where, his brother says, he sometimes hides upstairs and refuses to come down when visitors call, in which situation they tell the visitor they do not know Dennison’s whereabouts. At other times the family come down in the morning to find Dennison suddenly home from a trip, and a few days later he is off again before dawn without saying farewell. He is apt to turn up unexpectedly in distant places; in California to pose for some sculptor, at the Art Students League in New York, or at a cabaret in some other city, but all of his jobs end on pay day in a prolonged inebriation. When Dennison gets drunk, according to Cephas, he frequently mentions killing himself. One night, when Cephas was fed up with his odd brother’s repetition of this old theme of killing himself, he handed him a rifle, saying, ‘‘Why don’t you do it and have it over with?” Dennison accepted the rifle and went outside. He has not mentioned suicide to Cephas since. AnruroP. Par.No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 101 Another time he was arrested in Niagara Falls when he was drunk. One of the Park Police patrolmen saw him staggering in the direction of the Falls and set after him. Dennison walked away through the park toward the Falls. The officer told him to halt, and asked him where he was going, and Dennison replied that he was going to kill himself. Naturally, the patrolman, thinking the lad was about to jump over the falls, arrested him. Case 12.—A mother and daughter who wanted to die, 1935. This case should be considered in connection with case 4 because it involves the same maternal family. It would appear that there is almost a strain of potential suicide in this family. Abbie Brooks remarked to the nurse that she did not want to live—“I want to die; I do not want to get well’’—when the nurse urged her to seek medical treatment for a large goiter, but, of course, since Abbie is hostile to white medicine, her reply may carry that bias. Last winter Abbie’s daughter Lucy died of a number of complicated disorders resulting from an abortion and virulent tuberculosis. During the time when Lucy might have been removed to the hospital with fair chances for recovery, she consistently refused to go, saying that she did not want to get well. She felt that she had been deserted by her lover. The child was unwanted. Her parents took the typical Seneca attitude of refusing to assume the responsibility for sending her. They left it with their daughter. I secured this information from a trusted neighbor whom I sent in to talk with the girl about going to the hospital, and this explanation was currently given about the long- house settlement. Her death temporarily cast a shadow over a num- ber of suspects reputed to be the fathers of the unwanted child. Her case is no longer mentioned but it is not forgotten.” EARLY CASES Early travelers and missionaries to the Iroquoian Tribes recorded cases of suicide that fell under their observation which are markedly similar to the modern cases above. The early cases group themselves by method of commission into cases of suicide by taking poisonous roots (type A) and violent deaths by stabbing, shooting, and stran- gling (type B); and here too we find the love, revenge, and escape motives as operating causes. It appears then that here are the his- torical antecedents for the modern suicide patterns, and with this in mind, let us see how far back we can trace the methods and motives, proceeding upstream historically. 17 There have been recent cases of suicides following long illnesses. About 15 years ago, Jerry Pierce, of Irving on the Cattaraugus Reservation, following a long illness hanged himself (E. Pierce). My informant had a theory that hanging goes with melancholia and violent suicides with choleric temperament. 218558—40——_8 102 BUREAU OF AMERICAN BHTHNOLOGY [Buy, 128 EARLY CASES OF ROOT POISONING: TYPE A Speaking of Cicuta in his Medical Flora, Rafinesque (1828, vol. 1, p. 110) remarks of the Indians generally, though his observations were probably among the Delaware but may also include Iroquois, “The Indians when tired of life, are said to poison themselves with the roots of this plant [Cicuta] and the Purple Angelica, Az. atropurpurea.” Case 13.—Two murderers forego self-shooting, but one finally takes Cicuta: Senecas of Genessee valley, 1817. Mary Jemison, the white woman of the Genesee, relates graphically how her quarrelsome son John, a prominent herbalist, following a premonition of death, was murdered in 1817 by Jack and Doctor, two Squawky Hill Indians, with whom he drank too freely. John had previously murdered his two brothers, and his violent passing made all the more deep his mother’s loss. She relates that after several weeks of lying in the woods, Doctor and Jack, hoping to compound their crime, sent the customary wampum to Mary, but she returned it, advising them to leave the country lest they be killed [by her clansmen]. Roundly condemned by Tallchief, a spokes- man for their own relatives, to wander the woods forever persecuted by their victim’s ghost and their own delusions, forbidden entrée to the spirit-world, and knowing that if they returned home they would be at the mercy of their victim’s relatives, they were abandoned to consult their own feelings as to whether they preferred prolonged exile or giving themselves up. As soon as they were alone, Jack said to Doctor, ‘‘I had rather die here, than leave my country and friends! Put the muzzle of your rifle into my mouth, and I will put the muzzle of mine into yours, and at a given signal we will discharge them, and rid ourselves at once of all the troubles under which we now labor, and satisfy the claims which justice holds against us.” Doctor heard the proposition, and after a moment’s pause, made the following reply:—‘‘I am as sensible as you can be of the unhappy situation in which we have placed ourselves. We are bad Indians. We have forfeited our lives, and must expect in some way to atone for our crime: but, because we are bad and miserable, shall we make ourselves worse? If we were now innocent, and in a calm reflecting moment should kill ourselves, that act would make us bad, and deprive us of our share of the good hunting in the land where our fathers have gone! What would Little Beard [a Chief who died in 1806] say to us on our arrival at his cabin? He would say, ‘Bad Indians! Cowards! You were afraid to wait until we wanted your help! Go (Jogo) [djago’] to where snakes will lie in your path; where the panthers will starve you, by devouring the venison; and where you will be naked and suffer with the cold! Jogo, (go,) none but the brave and good Indians live here!’ I cannot think of performing an act that will add to my wretchedness. It is hard enough for me to suffer here, and have good hunting hereafter—worse to lose the whole.” Upon this, Jack withdrew his proposal. They went on about 2 miles, and then turned about and came home. Guilty and uneasy, they lurked about Squawky Hill near a fortnight, and then went to Cattaraugus, and were gone 6 weeks. When they came back, Jack’s wife earnestly requested him to remove his family ANTHROP. Pap, NO.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 103 to Tonnewonta; but he remonstrated against her project, and utterly declined going. His wife and family, however, tired of the tumult by which they were surrounded, packed up their effects in spite of what he could say, and went off. Jack deliberated a short time upon the proper course for himself to pursue, and finally, rather than leave his old home, he ate a large quantity of muskrat root, and died in 10 or 12 hours.'8 His family being immediately notified of his death, returned to attend the burial, and is yet living at Squawky Hill. Nothing was ever done with Doctor, who continued to live quietly at Squawky Hill till sometime in the year 1819, when he died of Consumtion [sic]. [Mary Jemison.] Cicuta was also in current use at Onondaga, according to Pursh the botanist, who visited Onondaga Castle in the summer of 1807 during his botanical excursion through New York. He observed the plant growing there, and it is evident that several suicides had occurred within the memory of his informant. On July 18, in company with Captain Webster, Pursh set out to learn the names of some herbs in Onondaga which Webster claimed to know and promised to impart to him. Pursh observes, Cicuta maculata grows in great abundance throughout Onondaga: the Indians use it to poison themselves, when they have an inclination in going out of this world: it is a most powerful poison, as Capt. Webster tells me, who has seen the case on some Indians which had eaten the root, & was lost without being able to get anything as a remedy against it; it occasions Lockjaw & the patient is soon done. Elder bark or a Muskrat skin chopped fine, with the hair on is reckoned a remedy if soon applyed to.” In several cases emetics seem to have been successful. Here there is a sympathetic association between the muskrat who likes the root and the use of its hide and hair in an emetic, as if to transfer the poison to the muskrat. Mayapple poisonings.—The sources for the last three-quarters of the eighteenth century are disappointing where we expect them to be rich. Two able botanists, J. Bartram in 1743 and P. Kalm in 1748 and 1750, visited the Iroquois country, and neither mentions poison- ous roots in use among the Indians (Bartram, 1895; Kalm, 1937); both neglect to mention the common mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum L., which grows widely from Virginia to Lake Ontario, and only Kalm recorded a variety of waterhemlock (Cicuta ramis bulbiferus) growing in the low-lying country west of Lake Champlain, but he does not connect the plant with the Indians. Curiously enough, however, the Moravian missionaries, Heckewelder and Zeisberger, 18 When I read this account to Henry Redeye of Allegany, he said this is the plant they cal! o’nq’’s‘e’”’, which proved to be Cicuta maculata L. He also considered Seaver’s inclusion of djageq, meaning ‘‘take cour- agel’”’, a mistake; that go’ge’” was probably what Mary said. 19 Seaver, 1932 edit., pp. 127-132; quotation, pp. 132-134. 20 Pursh, 1869 (Beauchamp, ed., 1923, pp. 42-43). Beauchamp notes (p. 66), . . . ‘‘the deadly Cicuta maculata, found then throughout Onondaga and still [1920] frequent on the Reservation. We yet hear of fatal results from chewing or eating the root. It is frequently mentioned in Seneca stories and distinguished as ‘the root’.”” Beauchamp offers a list of Onon- daga plant names from Albert Cusick (p. 75), ‘Muskrat Root or Water Hemlock.—O-nah-san-a [o’ne’sa’°na’].”” 104 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 cite some interesting mayapple suicides among the neighboring Delaware, but it is possible that these are Iroquois cases, for both men are writing general histories. Zeisberger traveled among the Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca Tribes, and there were Senecas living adjacent to the Moravian mission in Ohio where Heckewelder minis- tered following 1770. If these are Delaware cases, that tribe shared the Iroquois suicide complex, and they are pertinent to this paper. Wild citrons (Podophyllum peliatum L.) or May Apples, grow on a stalk not over a foot high. The Indians enjoy eating the fruit, which has a sour but pleasant taste. The roots are a powerful poison which, who eats, dies in a few hours’ time unless promptly given an emetic. [Zeisberger, 1910, p. 47.] Zeisberger continues later— In the use of poisonous roots the Indians are well versed, and there are many melancholy examples where they have by their use destroyed themselves or others. If a case of poisoning is taken in time, the effect of the poisonous root may be prevented by inducing vomiting. In case assistance is rendered too late, death follows, as arule, in afew hours. There are poisonous roots that operate by slow degrees, in some cases illness may last a year or longer. [Zeisberger, 1910, p. 56.] Case 14a.—There is a generalized case by Zeisberger, in connection with marital infidelity, and he probably refers to the same events as Heckewelder. Not every Indian, however, is indifferent to the light behavior of his wife. Many a one takes her unfaithfulness so to heart that in the height of his despair he swallows a poisonous root, which generally causes death in two hours, unless an antidote be administered in good time; this is often done, the Indians knowing that the properties of certain herbs counteract each other and being able to judge from the effects, what poison has been taken. Women, also, have been known to destroy themselves on account of a husband’s unfaithfulness. [Zeisberger, 1910, p. 83.] 2! It is evident from this account that more than one poison was in use and that the practice was not confined to either sex. Heckewelder is a little more specific, and all of his cases are men who took Podophyllum. Suicide is not considered by the Indians either as an act of heroism or of cowardice, nor is it with them a subject of praise or blame. They view this desperate act as the consequence of mental derangement, and the person who destroys himself is to them an object of pity. Such cases do not frequently oceur. Between the years 1771 and 1780, four Indians of my acquaintance took the root of the may-apple, which is commonly used on such occasions, in order to poison themselves, in which they all succeeded, except one. [See case 14b below.] Two of them were young men, who had been disappointed in love, the girls on whom they had fixed their choice, and to whom they were engaged, having changed their minds and married other lovers. . . The two others were married men. Heckewelder goes on to cite the cases of the two married men. 31 The same account appears almost verbatim in Loskiel, 1794, p. 58. AnrHRoP. Pap, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 105 One. . . was a person of excellent character, respected and esteemed by all who knew him. He had a wife of whom he was very fond and two children, and they lived very happily together. . . half a mile from... where I resided. He often came to visit me, and he was of a most amiable disposition, I was pleased with his visits, and always gave him a hearty welcome. When I thought he was too long about coming, I went. . . to. . . hisdwelling. Here I always found the family cheerful, sociable, and happy, until some time before the fatal catastrophe happened, when I observed that my friend’s countenance bore the marks of deep melancholy... His wife had received the visits of another man; he foresaw that he would soon be obliged to separate from her, and he shuddered when he thought that he must also part from his two. . . children; .. . for it is the custom ... when a divorce takes place . . ., the children remain with their mother, until they are of proper age to chose for themselves. One hope... remained. The sugar-making season was at hand, and they were shortly to re- move to their sugar-camp, where he flattered himself his wife would not be fol- lowed by the disturber . . ., whose residence was about ten miles from thence. But this hope was of short duration. They had hardly been a fortnight in their new habitation, when, as he returned . . . from a morning’s hunt, he found the unwelcome visitor . . ., in close conversation with his faithless wife. This... was more than he could bear; without saying a... word, he took. . . a large cake of his sugar, and. . . came to my house,. . . eight miles from his tempo- rary residence. It was ...a Sunday, ... [10 a. mJ, that he entered... with sorrow strongly. . . on his. . . countenance. As he came in he presented me with his cake of sugar, saying, ‘‘My friend! you have many a time served me with a good pipe of tobacco, and I have not yet done anything to please you. Take this as a reward for your goodness, . . . from me as your friend.”’ He said no more, but giving me with both his hands a warm farewell squeeze, he... returned to the camp. At about two o’clock in the afternoon, a runner from thence passing through the town tonotify his death to the village two miles farther, informed us of the shocking event. He had immediately on his return, remained a short time in the house, indulging in the last caress to his . . . children; then retir- ing to some distance, had eaten the fatal root, and before relief could be admin- istered by some persons who had observed him staggering from the other side of the river, he was on the point of expiring, and all succours were vain. [Hecke- welder, 1819, pp. 258-259.] 146.—Heckewelder’s second case is also that of a married man, but he had no children. He lived happily with his wife, until one day that she fell into a passion and made use to him of such abusive language as he could not endure. Too highminded to quarrel with a woman, he resolved to punish her by putting an end to his existence. Fortunately, he was seen in the first stages of his fits, and was brought into a house, where a strong emetic diluted in luke-warm water, . . . was forcibly poured down his throat. ([He] . . . had poisoned himself with the root of the May Apple (Podophyllum peltatum). It [the emetic] consisted of a piece of raccoon skin burned with the hair on and finely powdered, pounded dry beans and gunpowder. These three ingredients were mixed with water and poured down the patient’s throat. This brought on a severe vomiting, the poisonous root was entirely discharged and the man cured.22, [Heckewelder, 1819, pp. 225-226.] He recovered after some time, but never was again the strong healthy man he had been before; his wife, however, took warning from this desperate act, and behaved better. ([Ibid., p. 260.] 22 It is interesting to note that Abbie Gordon said they gave an emetic of boiled beans to her uncle Elijah Brooks, case 4, when he took Cicuta. Pursh describes a similar emetic among the Onondaga. 106 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn, 128 Case 15.—An Iroquois woman eats mayapple root to follow her deceased husband: Onondagas (?) at Fort Frontenac, 1684. The Iroquois also did not entirely rely upon the poisonous water- hemlock. Zeisberger’s remarks suggest that the Delaware used other roots besides mayapple, and for a time the Iroquois, according to Lahontan and others, were using mayapple. This especially baffles me because Seneca informants, save one, scout the idea that mayapple is poisonous. They regularly stew the roots for a physic, and all the data which Waugh and I have collected point to waterhemlock as the suicide root. Nevertheless, regardless of failing tradition, Lahontan describes a plant like mayapple, without giving its Onondaga or Huron name, and the Baron was markedly impressed by the constancy of the Iroquois woman who took this root to follow her decreased husband. The Citrons of North-America are so call’d, only because their form resembles that of our Citron, Instead of a Rind, they have only a single skin. They grow upon a Plant that rises three Foot high, and do’s not bear more than three or four at atime. This Fruit is as wholsom [sic] as its Root is dangerous; for the one is very Healthy, and the juice of the other is a mortal subtile Poyson. While I stay’d at Fort Frontenac, in the year 1684, I saw an Iroquese Woman take down this fatal Potion, with a design to follow her deceased Husband; after she had took leaves of her Friends, and sung the Death Song, with the formalities that are usual among these blind Wretches.28 The Poison quickly worked the desir’d effect; for this widdow, who in Europe would be justly look’d upon as a model of Constancy and Fidelity, had no sooner swallowed the murdering Juice, than she fell into two or three shivering Fits, and so expir’d. [Lahontan, 1703, vol. 1, pp. 250-251.] Lahontan gives us the impression that among the Hurons (?) it was the regular sequence for spouse to follow spouse by suicide within a few months after the death of the first, and particularly when the survivor had dreamed more than once of the deceased mate. It is against just such contingencies that the society of Chanters for the Dead (hono’hgi'we’) attempt to placate the restless soul, and free the mind of the survivor. When the Husband of a Wife comes to dye, the Widowhood does not last above six Months; and if in that space of time the Widow or Widower dreams of their deceas’d Bedfellow, they Poyson themselves in cold Blood with all the con- tentment imaginable; and at the same time sing a sort of tune that one may safely say proceeds from the Heart. But if the surviving Party dreams but once of the Deceased, they say, that the Spirit of Dreams was not sure that the dead Person was uneasie [sic] in the Country of Souls, for asmuch as he only pass’d by without returning, and for that reason they think that they are not oblig’d to go keep him Company. [Lahontan, 1703, vol. 2, pp. 41—42.] CICUTA POISONINGS, 1720-1672 Cicuta was taken as well during this same period, which Lahontan describes, but, unfortunately, none of the relations say that both 33 The Personal chant (4dq‘.we’) was sung to return thanks in religious festivals, to boast at war feasts and during torture, and as a finale at death. ANrHRoOP. Pap. No.14] TROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 107 waterhemlock and mayapple were in use at the same time, or they give a native term without describing the plant, or the reverse, or neither. We can compare their accounts and attempt to equate the native terms with modern survivals in the same or related languages, which has profited little, because of linguistic drift or change of terminology. The accounts of specific Cicuta poisonings go back to 1672 for the Onondagas, and presumably the other Iroquois, and likely some of the earlier ambiguous accounts are of suicides by this root. The motives continue to be chagrin and revenge over reprimands or mis- treatment. Case 16.—A spiteful girl takes Cicuta: Lafitau, Iroquois, 1710-20. Lafitau, of whom Parkman (1885, p. Liv) has said, “None of the old writers are so satisfactory,’ paints the Iroquois, to whom he ministered for a decade following 1710, as a thin-skinned lot, who as children had been left to develop bad habits on the pretext that they had not yet attained the age of reason, whose most serious punishment was to have water thrown in the face, and who were never struck. And among them it was not extraordinary to see them poison themselves with Cicuta over a moderately severe scolding, and thereby make away with themselves. Les sauvages en general sont d’ailleurs si sensibles, que pour un reproche un peu trop amer, il n’est pas extraordinaire de les voir s’empoisonner avec la cigué, & se défaire eux-mémes. [Lafitau, 1724, vol. 1, p. 603.] In another place, when writing of the unequal status of souls in the hereafter according to their manner of death, he cites a specific case which occurred in the experience of a brother missionary. He speaks of a young Jroquois(?) girl who wept bitterly over her sister, who was dying from a quantity of Cicuta which she had taken in a huff and to ensure her death refused any antidote, because neither bonds of blood or friendship could touch her, and because she knew that her sister’s suicide would eternally separate them in the land of souls. Ce pais des Ames a aussi ses differens étages, & tous n’y sont pas également bien. C’est ce que conclut un de nos Missionaires, de ce qu’il entendit dire 4 jeune Sauvagesse. Cette fille voyant sa soeur mourante, par la quantité de cigué [Cicuta] qu’elle avoit prise dans un dépit, & déterminée 4 ne faire aucun remede pour se guarantir de la mort, pleuroit 4 chaudes larmes, & s’eforgoit de la toucher par liens du sang, & de l’amitié qui les unissoit ensemble. Elle lui disoit sans cesse: c’en est done fait, tu veux que nous ne nous retrouvions jamais plus, & que nous ne nous revoyions jamais? Le Missionaire frappé de ces paroles, lui en demanda la raison. Il me semble, dit-il, que vous avez un pais des Ames, ot vous devez tous vous réiinir 4 vos Ancétres; pourquoi done et-ce que tu parles ainsi 4 ta soeur? II est vrai, reprit-elle, que nous allons tous au pais des Ames; mes les méchans, & ceux en particulier, qui se sont détruits eux-mémes par une mort violente, y portant la peine de leur crime; ils y sont separés des autres, & 108 BUREAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 n’ont point de communication avec eux: c’est-la le sujet de mes peines. [Lafitau, vol. 1, p. 404.] Case 17.—Girls scolded by mothers eat Cicuta: Onondaga, circa 1690. Bacqueville de la Potherie, whose visit to the Iroquois, 1689-1701, preceded Lafitau’s, describes the same methods of rearing children, and the danger that scolding might produce child suicides. Onondaga daughters who have been scolded by their mothers eat Cicuta to poison themselves, while youths kill themselves with gun or knife. Les Filles d’Onnontaquez qui ont été reprises par leurs Meres, mangent de la Cigué pour s’empoisonner, les enfans se tuént avec leur fusil ou avec leur cofiteau. [La Potherie, 1753, vol. 3, p. 16.] Case 18 Annoyed young woman takes poison: Seneca, 1672. A generation earlier, the Jesuit Raffeix reported an isolated case from the Seneca mission. ‘“‘A young woman had poisoned herself, in consequence of serious annoyance that she had experienced.” ** The context conveys the impression that she was annoyed by unwelcome male agressors. Case 19.— Abandoned wife takes hemlock juice: Onondaga, 1672. About the same year Lamberville writes in the Relation of 1672-73 of an Onondaga woman who took hemlock juice (waterhemlock) over the loss of her husband to a rival. Neither Lamberville’s emetic brings up the poison, nor his persuasions convince her that she has sinned, and she dies asserting that the guilt is on her faithless husband. Another took some Hemlock juice, because she could not bear to see herself abandoned by her husband, who married her rival. I am summoned in the capacity of a physician who has already succeeded in counteracting the effects of that poison. I make her take orvietan [a popular antidote of the period], and shortly afterward some theriac,—on condition that no one else shall give Her any other medicine, lest it should take away the strength of mine. But hardly have I left the Dwelling than a woman makes Her swallow more than a pint of Colored water. Iask the attendant whether she thought that it was good medicine; she says that she knew nothing about it, but that, as she had been requested to give a medicine, she prepared one as she was able... [The Iroquois have not forsaken this ancient duplicity in medicine, and no modern practicioner on the reservations knows at what point his perscriptions may be upset by an overdose of herbal medicine.]. . . I give an emetic. . . The poison has already penetrated into the intestines. [Here a shaman intervened and the Father made the mother understand that her daughter had sinned, which she agreed.] Meanwhile, the sick woman is frothing at the mouth; she utters loud cries and is seized with dreadful convulsions.. . . ‘I have not sinned,” she says, ‘he who has abandoned me is The one who is Guilty.” [Lamberville in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 57, pp. 165-169.] % Dablon, 1672-74 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 58, p. 239). % William Penn mentions a similar case among the Delaware without naming the herb. He writes in a letter dated 1683, that they (the Delaware) are great concealers of resentment, how “‘a King’s [Chief’s] daughter thinking herself slighted by her husband in suffering another woman to lie down between them, rose up, went out, plucked a root out of the ground, and ate it, upon which she immediately died;” her husband later made an offering to her relatives for atonement and liberty to marry again (Penn, 1683, p. 210). Anrror. Par, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 109 Case 20.—More suicides of children and married women: Iroquois, 1656. From the Relation of 1656-57, we have the earliest cases from the Iroquois proper, perhaps the source for Lafitau’s interest in the sensi- tiveness of children, their horror of restraint, their predilection for revenge, and suicides by eating poisonous plants, of which he specifies Cicuta. Dablon writes of the Iroquois, while referring to the Onondaga nation whom he knew best, There is nothing for which these people have a greater horror than restraint. The very children cannot endure it, and live as they please in the houses of their parents, without fear of reprimand or of chastisement. Not that they are not punished sometimes by having their lips and their tongues rubbed with a very bitter root [probably one of the Hellebores]; but this is seldom done for fear that vexation might lead the children to cause their own death by eating certain noxious plants, which they know to be poisonous. These are most often used by the married women, to revenge themselves of the ill treatment of their husbands by thus leaving them the reproach of their death. [Dablon in Thwaites, 1896- 1901, vol. 438, p. 271.] HURON CASES OF POISONING, PRIOR TO 1650 Prior to 1650, the Relations concern the missions to the Hurons among whom there are several parailel cases of suicides by eating poisonous roots. These cases may be the prototypes of the suicide patterns we have been discussing, which were probably also current among the Iroquois of the period. However, there is the possi- bility that the Hurons may have introduced the custom among the Senecas who incorporated part of them following 1648. Naturally the plant identifications are confused or lacking in this early period because the observers were confronted with the double problem of learning an Indian language and a New World flora. Case 21.—Youth mysteriously poisons himself: Hurons, 1640. Neither Chaumonot nor Lalement was able to discover the reason why a young Huron poisoned himself, as they say, with aconite, and it is equally baffling why he chose their cabin as his death spot unless he hoped that he might gain some special advantage in the hereafter through the magic of salvation. The poison is probably not aconite, which was introduced and naturalized in the northeast somewhat later;*° and there is no record for native species as far north as On- tario (Gray, 1908, p. 407). Furthermore, the symptoms more nearly resemble those attending Cicuta poisoning (Muenscher, 1939, p. 173). Some days ago [March 21, 1640], a young man from Saint Frangois Xavier [west side of the Wye River, near Wyebridge, Ontario] entered our cabin early in the morning; he came with a firm step, and singing like those who go to war % Aconite (Aconitum napellus L.) was introduced from Europe to the northeast (Muenscher, 1939, pp. 77-79). ‘“‘None of this genus is weedy in Eastern North America’ (Pammel, 1910-11, pt. 2, p. 449). 110 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 [Personal Chant (a’dg° we’)].27 ... he was already tormented by the violence of the posion when he entered our cabin.*® Hardly is he seated when his heart fails him [Aconite and Hellebore act on the heart]; he falls to the gound and can- not rise again. We suppose that he is either acting the lunatic, or that he is one; we try to put him out; he gently begs us to wait [Lalement]. Having there suc- cumbed, he flings himself to the ground, foaming, with all the signs of approaching death [Chaumonot]. His eyes roll in his head, the foam comes to his mouth; we know not what these symptoms mean. Weask him his name, where he is from and who are his relatives, that one may go and fetch them: to that he answers, but ‘‘Alas!’’ he added, ‘‘I shall be dead before they come; only give them that,”’ he said, drawing from his tobacco pouch a piece of root [Lalement]. Being questioned ... his only answer was to present the remainder of the root that he had eaten,—bidding to show it to his parents after his death... [Chaumonot]. We are ignorant of his meaning: nevertheless, one of our Fathers leaves in haste to go and fetch his relatives; hardly had he crossed half the width of the lake, on which the ice was still quite firm, when he met here and there some Savages who were fishing. He said to one who was nearest, that such a young man from the next village was very sick in our house, and at the same time hands him the piece of root. This man puts it to his lips [a common Iroquois method of identifying roots], and without making other answer to the Father, exclaims to his comrads: ‘‘Such a one is dead,—he has eaten aconite [sic]; let us go and get his body.” They leave their fishing there, they run in haste; but ... Father... tries to anticipate them, .. . [to] baptize . . . [the] man... [if] possible, ...he had eaten posion ... the sickman had told us that poison was causing his death; . . . We were completing the act of his salvation, when these barbarians arrived in a crowd, and put him on a hurdle [toboggan ?] to draw him over the ice of the lake, and convey him to his house; but alas ! he soon began to vomit blood, and suddenly died by the way. It all lasted not an hour. This happened on the 21st of March [1640], day of St. Benoist. [Lalement.] Lalement questions whether they could have hit upon a more suit- able name. One wonders whether his coming to their house was a protest against Christianity, or whether he believed that baptism might gain him some special advantage in the land of souls. There remain three earlier cases of root poisonings among the Hurons. LeMercier, writing in LeJeune’s Relation of 1637,” reports that two young men in 1637 (case 22) and 1636 (case 23) poisoned themselves by eating a root, spelled variously Ondachienroa (1636) and Andachienrra (1637); and Brébeuf refers to a poisoning in 1635, the earliest recorded case of suicide in the Relations,® without speci- fying the plant. Case 22.—Young man poisons himself at Ossassané: Huron, April 15, 1637. On the 15th, we learned that a young man had poisoned himself at Ossassané; and in reference to this some Savages told us that one of the principal reasons why they showed so much indulgence towards their children, was that when the children saw themselves treated by their parents with some severity, they usually resorted to extreme measures and hanged themselves, or ate of a certain root that they call Andachienrra, which is a very quick poison. [LeMercier, 1637.] “iw Lalement, 1640 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 19, pp. 171-175). 2 Chaumonot to . . . P. Nappi, 1640 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 18, pp. 27-29). ° LeMercier, 1637 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 14, p. 37 and vol. 13, p. 27). 30 Brébeuf, 1635 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 8, p. 121). AnrHROP. PAP, No. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON 111 Case 23.—Chiefling sends daughter after the root: Hurons of Thonatiria, 1636. Writing in the same Relation (LeJeune’s Relation of 1637), Le- Mercier describes the death of Saronhes, Louis de Sainte-Foi, the principal native convert of the Huron town [honatiria, who had been markedly unfaithful to them by gambling on an island near Kebec. We did not see anything of him, and the first news we heard was that he was sick, and almost at the same time we learned of his death . . . some persons told us that he had not died a natural death, but the grief that he had felt for the loss of his son had so plunged him into despair that he himself had shortened his days. This is the way they say it occurred: One day, when he found himself alone in his cabin with one of his little daughters, he sent her to get a certain root that they call Ondachienroa, which is a quick poison. This child went for it very innocently, supposing that her father wanted to make some medicine, as he had shown some slight indisposition. She brought him some, but not enough to suit him, and she returned for it the second time. He ate his fill of it; a high fever attacked him, and carried him off in a little while. But his relatives do not admit that he died in this way. [LeMercier, in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 13, p. 27.] It is apparent that the good Father was a bit piqued because of the unchristian manner of his death. Case 24.—Wife taken away (death?), young man poisons himself: Hurons, 1635. Brébeuf implies that there was no distinction made in the hereafter between the souls of suicides and the ordinary dead, and cites the evidence that no distinction is made at burial, and that no punishment awaits the wicked in the hereafter. Referring to their myths, he says, ss they make no mention either of punishment or reward, in the place to which the souls go after death. And so they do not make any distinction between the good and the bad, the virtuous and the vicious; and they honor equally the interment of both, even as we have seen in the case of a young man who had poisoned himself from the grief he felt because his wife had been taken away from him. *! THE IDENTITY OF THE POISON It is my conviction, after an analysis of the sources and the linguistic terms, that the suicide root referred to in these cases is waterhemlock, Cicuta maculata L., rather than mayapple, Podo- phyllum peltatum L. Let us first consider the evidence from the sources. Heretofore, the root has been accepted as mayapple on the following grounds. Im case 23 to which LeMercier was not an eyewitness, there is the implication that the root might have been brewed into a medicine which was taken internally. Mayapple is a powerful physic, as we shall see; but this evidence has not been pre- sented by others. Thwaites, the editor of the Jesuit Relations 31 Brébeuf in LeJeune’s Relation, 1635 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 8, p. 121). Italics mine. 112 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 (1896-1901, vol. 13, p. 270), in a note on LeMercier’s account of 1636 (case 23), connects Ondachienroa with mayapple on the basis of Sagard’s Voyage to the Hurons (p. 268), and Laverdiére’s footnote to Champlain’s clear description of mayapple in 1615.” Laverdiére (and Biggar) cites Brunet, the Quebec botanist of the nineteenth century, as authority for saying, The fruit of this plant (Podophyllum peltatum L.) which one calls “‘citronier,”’ in the country, is good to eat; but the root is a violent poison which the savages made use of sometimes when they could not outlive their sorrow. [Trans.]* However, Champlain does not give the Huron name of the plant, and he does not connect it with suicide. Sagard (1865, vol. 1, p. 187) writes of Indian medicine and health in his Voyage (written, 1632) and in his Histoire written in 1636 (1866, vol. 3, pp. 603-607), refer- ring to several roots. The first, Oscar, has properties of bloodroot or sassafras, but phonetically, *oska: resembles Seneca, ’oska’’a, or hellebore, Veratrum viride Ait. The third, which he calls Ooxrat, *o-ksra’, has all the smarting properties of, and probably is, the hellebore, and his comparison of the root to a “peeled chestnut’’ (chastaigne pellée), or a “‘cabbage stalk” (naveau), fits the dried root of hellebore, which is still popular among the Iroquois as a snuff for catarrh. Wrong (1939, p. 195) suggests sarsaparilla, Aralia nudicaulis, for Oscar, and Indian turnip, Arisaema triphyllum, for Ooxrat, but he agrees with me that ondachiera is waterhemlock, Cicuta maculata L. This is Sagard’s second plant which he warns is very poisonous, and he warns that on no account should one eat any root which one does not know. He tells of the fright they experienced one day over a young Frenchman who had pulled it up in the woods. [Mayapple does grow in the shaded woods about villages.| He became seriously ill, and he was fortunately cured by an emetic composed of some tree bark that a Huron gave him. But Sagard does not describe the citron- like fruit of mayapple, nor does he say this root was used for suicides. A letter dated 1709, which C. M. Barbeau kindly excerpted for me from the Archives of the Seminary of Quebec (Archives du seminaire de Quebec, Fonds Casgrain. ‘Lettres sur l’Amérique septentrionale”’ ou ‘‘Relations/ Par Lettres de/ l’Amérique septentrionale,’’ Premiere lettre datée de 1709) reads, ‘‘Les hurons . . . s’empoisonment avec racine de Cigiie ou de citronnier.... [The Hurons .. . poison themselves with the root of waterhemlock or of mayapple. . . .]. The sources, then, give both mayapple and waterhemlock. The linguistic evidence favors waterhemlock. The modern Huron- Wyandot term for mayapple, uja’‘rawi’, ‘fruit in between,” or “‘sour fruit on’? (Barbeau), bears no resemblance to Ondachiera; uja’ ‘rawi’ 82 Champlain, 1615 (Laverdiére ed., 1870, vol. 4, p. 31; and Biggar ed., 1929, vol. 3, pp, 50-51). 83 Cited by Laverdiére, 1870, vol. 4, p. 31, from l’Abbé O. Brunet, Catalogue des Plantes Canadiénnes dans Vherbier de 1’Univ. Laval, livr. 1, p. 15, Quebec, 1865. This catalog is not available in the library of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture or the Library of Congress. AnrHrop. Pap. No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 113 is rather related to Seneca, o-gwa’’a, “round fruit on it” [hence, modern ‘‘orange’’], Cayuga, o’gwa’’; Onondaga, u‘gwa’a’, “berries on” (Waugh); and the other modern term, “shade maker” [hence, modern ‘‘umbrella’’] is also unrelated to ondachiera: Seneca, ade’- gnoshe’, ‘it makes shade,” Cayuga, y’tnosada’hkwa’; modern Onon- daga, ona’hutsde’ (Waugh), and Onondaga of 1650-1710, onehaensta (*ona’hwensta’), “citron” (Shea, 1860, p. 33); Mohawk, onyhuste’- u‘dera (Waugh), but even this last form hardly suggests ondachiera. All of these tribes know the cathartic property of the root, and prepare from it a physic by boiling, or roasting and then boiling, which likely reduces the percentage of podophyllin. Elijah David, a Tonawanda Seneca, advised Waugh to cut out the portion of the root where the rootlets branch as this contains the poison, and to use the rest of the root taken in spring before the plant flowers (Waugh, 1912, vol. 7, pp. 44-55). Some Senecas fear and dislike the plant (Fenton), other informants warn against overdoses of the powerful physic (Waugh and Fenton), and one foolhardy Cayuga recommended eating the roots raw (Waugh); and it is certain the mayapple has not been fashionable in recent suicide cases. Huron, Ondachiera (Sagard, 1632), Ondachienroa, Andachienrra (LeMercier, 1637), rather resemble the modern terms for Cicuta in the various dialects: Mohawk, *ONASA:RA from Caughnawaga, o’nahser, or o’nd’sér (Waugh), and St. Regis-Mohawk, onahsgq’ ra, “feather-white’ (Fenton); Onondaga of New York, o’ne’si’na’, Onondagas of Six Nations, Ontario, onashe’’e’’ (Fenton); and Tus- carora, o’-na-séii’-4’ (Hewitt) are derived from the old Onondaga, honachinra [*ONASE’‘RA’], cigiie, Cicuta maculata L. (French- Onondaga dictionary, Shea, 1860, p. 33). However, Cayuga, u’na*- sda’ (Waugh), onashe’” (Fenton) and modern Seneca, o’ng’’she¢’’e or o’no’hshe’e, ‘odorous fleshy tuber,’ or ‘looks like onion”’ (Fenton), are more differentiated from the other dialects. The close resemblance between the seventeenth-century spelling of the Onon- daga term, honachinra, for Cicuta, and the spelling of the Huron word, ondachiera, taken together with the modern Mohawk, onasa’ ta, clinches the matter because the resemblance is also clear between the seventeenth-century term, *ondhwensta’, and the modern Onondaga term, ondhutsde’, for mayapple. In the same way that Onondaga *ONASE-RA’ has become o:ne’si/na’, we would expect early Huron *ONDASIE-RA’, made up of *ONDAS- (or *ONAS-) mean- ing “plume” or “feather,” plus *-SERA’, meaning ‘‘whitish,” as in the Mohawk, to become *O NA SE:RA’in modern Huron. This will have to await verification among the Wyandots of Oklahoma because the Hurons of Lorette, P. Q., no longer speak their language. 114 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn. 128 VIOLENT SUICIDES BY STABBING, SHOOTING, AND STRANGLING: TYPE B From the seventeenth century also there are a series of suicides that resemble the type B modern cases where the escape motive in violent death predominates. Stabbing, shooting, and strangling appear to be as old as poisoning with the Iroquois, who resorted to the former methods under duress of torture and imprisonment pending certain torture, and less frequently under the unhurried circumstances of love affairs and chagrin following gambling losses, which usually led to poisoning. Case 25.—One Iroquois prisoner stabs himself to avoid torture, but his companion braves the fire: Quebec, 1692. Following a year of severe raids on the French settlements in the St. Lawrence valley, Governor Frontenac ordered burned two prisoners of the Five Nations, who had been taken early in the year when their party was defeated beyond Montreal; he hoped that their torture would serve as an example to ward off future Iroquois raiders on Quebec towns. Frontenac refused the pleas of his lady and the Jesuits who hastened to prepare the prisoners for death with Baptism. However, the haughty Iroquois dismissed the good Fathers, and prepared in their own way by singing the Death Song.** The one who stabs himself to escape certain torture is roundly condemned by his comrade as a ‘‘Coward, a Scandal to the Five Nations” (Colden) while he fulfills the role of the brave Iroquois warrior and faces death by torture unflinchingly. Some charitable Person having thrown a Knife to them in Prison, he who had the least Courage of the two, thrust it into his Breast, and died of the Wound immediately. Some young Hurons of Lorette, aged between fourteen and fifteen years, came to seize the other, and carry him away to the Diamant Cape, where notice was given to prepare a great pile of Wood. He ran to Death with a greater unconcernedness, than Socrates would have done, if he had been in his case. During the time of Execution he sung continually; ‘‘That he was a Warriour, brave and undaunted; that the most cruel kind of Death could not shock his Courage, that no Torments could extort from him any Cries, that his Companion was a Coward for having killed himself through the fear of Torment; and lastly, that if he was burnt, he had this Comfort, that he had treated many French and Hurons after the same manner.’ [Lahontan, 1708, vol. 1, p. 178.] Case 26.—Unsuccessful attempts of Miami captive to swallow stones and hang himself: Onondaga, 1682. This case is of interest only because it occurred at Onondaga and it illustrates the way traits spread from the Central Algonkians to the Iroquois. Here we have a Miami captive bound for certain torture at Onondaga who twice attempted to swallow stones during the journey, and thereby rob his captors of the honor of bringing him in 34 Lahontan, letter dated Oct. 25, 1692 (1703 vol. 1, pp. 177-179.) It appears that Colden (1902, vol. 1, p. 171) copied Lahontan. ANTHROP, Par. NO.14] TROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON H15 alive, a device which might readily occur to some Onondaga in future similar circumstances. When the warriors perceived [his fright on approaching Onondaga village], fearing that the apprehension of death might lead him to swallow some stones,—as He had already twice done,—in order to kill himself, and that they would not have the honor of bringing him in alive, They promptly made him march in their midst, always singing his Doleful air, his face being painted red.* That same night, seated high in an Onondaga house, he attempted to draw himself down on the rope that bound him by the neck to a house post, but the rope broke. Case 27.—Two mistreated old men: Onondaga, 1682. Two old men were potential suicides this same year at Onondaga, Lamberville reports, because they were mistreated by their cabin mates. One old chief mourned the loss of his wife, and the other had served too long as a butt for the village drunkards. The first hanged himself, and the other was found dead. Case 27a.—An old man hangs himself to join his deceased spouse. An old Captain who still retained his rank among the leading men of the Village . . . God had, 2 vears before taken away .. . his wife; Father Bruyas . . - had baptized her. [Persecuted by slaves of other nations adopted in place of deceased sisters who lived in the same cabin] He took the resolution to rejoin her as soon as possible; He frequently went to visit her grave, two leagues from here [at the site of the old village]. Two years . . . [he considered] causing his own death, that he might the sooner go to heaven to see his own wife again. He had a swollen Cheek, which they persuaded him was the effect of the pretended sorceries of certain half sorcerers or jugglers of the country. [Some Iroquois still believe that sorcerers can project disease objects into the body causing inflamed swellings.] This, Added to the bad treatment that the women of his cabin made him endure, induced him to put an end to his troubles by death. He asked me, on one occasion, whether Christians who were tired of life were not permitted to strangle themselves, so that they might the sooner go to the land of the blessed souls. [This may have been an Onondaga tabu against spouse suicides which he hoped to escape in the new Christianity.] I [attempted to turn] him from so detestable a purpose, but He always thought that he could abandon life, which he looked upon as something of which He could dispose; and on the very next night He hanged himself, at the same Spot where he usually slept. The women who had been the cause of his vexation were Awakened by some noise that he made, and Immediately hastened to the miserable man; but it was too late, for, after they had untied the rope, He expired in Their hands. The Whole village was horrified at this act. [Lamberville in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 62, pp. 61-65.]} Case 27b.—Another old man found dead. A poor blind Old man, nearly a hundred years old, who had formerly been bap- tized by Father Bruyas, . . . repelled by his relatives, and continually exposed to the fury of the drunkards,— Weary of his misery, and knowing not where to take refuge . . . or procure food, was found dead. ‘There are various opinions regarding him. [It was not clear whether his case wasasuicide.] [Lamberville in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 63, p. 65.] 35 Lamberville, letter dated August 25, 1682 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 62, pp. 85-87, 91). 116 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunw, 128 Case 28.—Convert remembers Jesuit teaching and throws away knife: Huron, 1659. Lalement tells of a third Huron who had miraculously escaped the flames at Onondaga. A friendly Huron, who had been previously adopted there, slipped a knife to his tribesman on the way to the village. Lalement takes particular delight in reporting this unusual case of fidelity to his teachings on the part of his pupil who prayed during the torture instead of singing the customary Death Song.*® At sight of Onondaga . . . I resolved to cut my throat in order to escape by a sudden death—and one, that was very gentle, in my opinion—the thousand deaths that I had before my eyes. I had the knife in my hand, and was already to deal the blow, when I recalled what the Fathers had told me in times past— that we are not the masters of our lives, that it is for God alone to lengthen or curtail our days, and that I could not employ this violence without committing a great sin. After this thought, which from the first made me waver a little in my resolve, I offered myself to god, . . . to free myself from temptation, which was a very strong one, I cast my knife far away from me, and bravely took up my march toward all the people awaiting me. [Lalement in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 46, p. 41.] Case 29.—Onondaga hostage cuts his throat when Mohawks over- take and massacre a Huron peace delegation: Huron country, 1648. Paul Raguenau writes from the Huron country in 1648 that an Onondaga ambassador, who had remained a hostage in the Huron village, killed himself when the Hurons learned that a party of Mohawks overtook and killed the Huron ambassadors returning from a good will mission to Onondaga. Hewitt (1928, p. 457) holds that this individual held the title of Skanawati, fire keeper of the federal council. At the beginning of the month of April, eden dnouati the Onnontaeronnon Ambassador who had remained here as a hostage, disappeared, and our Hurons thought he had escaped; but after some days his Corpse was found in the middle of the wood, not far from the Village where he had resided. The poor man had killed himself by cutting his throat with a knife, after having prepared a sort of bed of fir-branches, on which be was found stretched out. [Raguenau in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 33, p. 125.] It is difficult to decide whether his motive was shame of the great dishonor the Mohawk allies had done the League, or fear of the almost certain revenge torture which his Huron bonders would seek, or whether the motive was vanity, as Wisse (1933, p. 172) suggests. Case 30.—Onondaga captive dives into Huron kettle to avoid torture: Huron country, 1647. Early the previous year (1647), the Hurons had repulsed the Onondaga invaders, who were not always individually capable of taking the tortures which they sadistically practised on their enemies. The Hurons overtook and defeated an invading Onondaga war 36 Lalement, Relation of 1659-60 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 46, pp. 37-89). Anrurop. Pap, No.14] IROQUOIS SUIOIDE—FENTON M7 party, killing the leader and taking prisoners who, excepting Annen- raes, they burned. . . . one of those who was destined to the flames, seized with a horror of the cruelties that awaited him cast himself headlong into a great kettle of boiling water, to shorten his tortures with his life. [Raguenau, 1648 (Thwaites, 1896- 1901, vol. 33; p. 117).] Unless Raguenau refers to a trade kettle, the feat gives us a gage of the enormity of this Huron cooking pot. Case 31.—Three Algonkin women escape Iroquois torture and kill themselves, 1647-42. These cases are taken together because they occurred under similar conditions to three women taken from the Algonkin Tribe to Onondaga for torture or adoption; they stand in marked contrast to to the usual Iroquois women’s suicides by poisoning. a. The first woman failed twice to hang herself, and finally made her way to Quebec where she describes her awful experience (1646) to Father Lalement. She escaped from torture in an [Onondaga] Iroquois village and fled to the woods. Hiding daily at the wood’s edge in constant fear of apprehension, she soon despaired of stealing enough corn for a 2 months’ journey to Quebec, and decided to kill herself rather than be tortured. Having said her prayer, she fastens her belt to a tree, up which she climbs; she makes at the other end a running knot, which she slips about her neck, and throws herself down. The weight of her body broke the cord without doing her great injury; she mends it, tries it, and then climbs up again; but God willed that it should break for the second time. She, much astonished, begins to say... perhaps God does not wish me to die.*? 6. Another woman, more hostile to the faith, succeeded; although advised by other women of the band not to carry out her evil intention, . she heeded not this counsel. Laying hands on her child, she murdered it, and threw it at the feet of the Hiroquois; then, having slipped her head into a halter, she pulled with one hand to strangle herself, and with the other she cut her throat with a knife. [Lalement in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol 30, pp. 275-277.] c. A third Algonkin mother tried to drown herself after her child was burned. She was one of three Algonkin mothers taken in an evening raid in the fall of 1641 when the Iroquois wiped out a whole settlement above Montreal. A woman who subsequently escaped related to Father Buteux, whose account Vimont includes in the Relation of 1642 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 22, p. 257, et passim), these harrowing events. The next morning the Iroquois roasted the crying children and boiled them in a kettle and ate them before their imploring mothers. ‘‘When the dismal band reached the great falls of the chaudiere— this is a river which falls into the River of the three meadows, above 37 Lalement, Relation of 1647 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 80, pp. 263-265). 218558—40-—9 118 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLt. 128 Montreal”? (Vimont)—this captive woman cast herself into an un- frozen section of the rapids, preferring to perish in the water rather than die by fire; but the Iroquois, running up to a spot where the rapids cast her up, succeeded in snatching and beheading and then scalping her before she managed to drown. Case 32.—Young woman urged to marry attemps hanging: Algon- kin, 1640. We include another non-Iroquois case because it illustrates how Algonkin women employed hanging to escape male aggression where Iroquois women poisoned themselves. (See case 18.) Paul LeJeune writes of an Algonkin girl who tried to hang herself at Sillery near Quebec, 1640, A young woman, finding herself urged to marry a man whom she did not love, became so enraged, without showing any outward indications of it, that she tried to hang herself. People ran to her at once; they found her half dead; they cut the noose, and carried her, entirely unconscious to her cabin. A Christian... informed us . . . We asked her if she was not afraid of being damned. “I was not thinking of that ... but only of freeing myself from the annoyance of that man.”’ 38 Case 33.—Iroquois prisoner attempts strangling to escape torture: Hurons, 1639. Some Iroquois warriors also resorted to strangling to escape martyrdom; certainly, the following case shows that one attempted suicide as a welcome alternative to the idealized pattern of death by fire. Lalement writes from the Huron country in LeJeune’s Relation of 1639 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 17, p. 99) how on January 2, 1639, they almost lost the soul of an Iroquois prisoner who tried to choke himself on his last and fatal night 24 hours after they baptized him. They finally got him to accuse himself and ask pardon. “Having done this, he was granted absolution; and 2 hours later he was boiling in a kettle.” Case 34.—Chief’s son loses at gambling and hangs himself: Hurons, 1639. The Jesuits considered gambling a disruptive force in Huron society, and they describe both the Huron and Iroquois as greatly addicted to the evil pleasure which produced a harvest of assaults and murders, depending, probably, upon how individuals took their losses. Brébeuf writes to his superior at Quebec how the loss of the family wampum drove one melancholy lad to hang himself rather than face his relatives. On the fourteenth of April [1636], the son of Chief Aenons, after having lost at the game of straws a Beaver robe and a collar of four hundred Porcelain beads, had such a fear of meeting his relatives that, not daring to enter the cabin, he became desperate, and hanged himself to a tree. He had a very melancholy % LeJeune, Relation of 1640 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 18, pp. 163-165). AnrHRoP. Par. No. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 119 disposition. The first of the winter he was on the point of putting an end to him- self, but a little girl caught him in the act. When asked what had led him to this wicked resolution, [he said] “I do not know . . . but someone within me seems always to be saying, ‘Hang thyself, hang thyself.’ ’’ Gambling never leads to anything good; in fact, the savages themselves remark that it is almost the sole cause of assaults and murders.*° Case 35.—The sick beg mercy death, 1636. Suicides were rather frequent among the Hurons during the recur- rent epidemics of smallpox which struck the Huron towns from 1635-37 (Parkman, 1885, p. 87). In the Relation of 1636 (LeJeune in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 9, p. 117), we read that they “beg to be killed when very sick,’ and in 1640, a Huron man sick with smallpox had himself stabbed twice and then swallowed an awl (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 19, p. 171; vol. 18, p. 28). EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TABLE CoLumn: Case: Italic numerals in parentheses indicate frequencies known; with asterisk*, estimated frequencies; alone, data not included in cases. Source: F, my own field notes; JR, Jesuit Relations. Tribe: S, Seneca; M, Mohawk; Oa, Onondaga; Oe, Oneida; T, Tuscarora; D, Delaware; I, Iroquois; H, Huron; Mi, Miami; Mi/Oa, Miami at Onondaga; A, Algonkin. Sex: M, male; F, female. Age: ma, middle-age; yw, young woman; y, youth; m, adult man; ch, child; g, girl; ym, young man; om, old man. Blood: fb, fullblood; mb, mixblood; fractions, degree of Indian blood where known. x marks the incidence of the trait; in combination under certain columns it has the following specific meanings: Revenge and mistreatment: xp, revenge directed at parents; xd, revenge of aged on descendants; xd followed by arabic numeral, incidence. Sickness: xa, cause was old age. Lover’s leap: rr, railroad; mm, Maid of the Mist. Reaction: st, a known strong reaction. Under the general heading of Methods, xf indicates attempt at suicide and failure; xfx, first attempt at suicide followed by success. 3 Brébeuf, in LeJeune’s Relation of 1636 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 10, p. 81): [Butt. 128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 120 oe ok ee ee pe le ee XP Q) prying eae) | PING] 8 HCL | O8-12z1)"------ "789% “HOOH ‘eg “IQsTez, (9x) FI melee ree eel een koe a. eee 729 oy eer = eal a a | in| a ete aia LAN (1) a (6) (2) BO Sie [lie “eee xa sae es ones s > et ne ree |e 2 acim (fete Seal Pare a Uae laa | (aes | ( qy um Ww 8 Boe Se eel ee ee oil phen tal poe oa) oe eX I eo es ae ie se ces lola. \euny W g ao ae ee a PEP als cell eles ae ees ee Solas ae [Pea ogee | ee eae | ee ae SO Oe a g eas |e PT BEX gp Pea (Seniesa a tall” eng | Xs [oe lee el > wal ae gl ales | ee a eI mA WwW 8 450 |) SU0U0o |= salncae Bs Senge (eee eee or | ee ee ee es eee soa CX | se anlh Ur & a L ee |e mes 2S a fig |) Ua ec =| seen Pico ew ace) See ea (aes aka Me (0 bce ame loa 00 & a g OS (eal | eal a Keg | eeseal| o> Tall en oose ee Xi) gs tal | eel oe ge ea ee ell aS qu | em WwW g wetter lee eer ieee = Sle p Sry ee Feo i |e Ve [semi Kar eek Ver he | fe OO efor dial riat WwW g AS Bell aes licceall aes 5 WIE Sage el ee SS be Baa VF Ges «Ib age i ea gq} | vm W g 4s Tie eae ie ages | eee yee | oa a | Sea See beo ssa (sa XP lesan reer ani esses xX | gq} | vm WwW g se eel eal ale el eee ieee | tal ee | Rin fa gg Q)| qua | em | W 8 Sonia niet taal alee = ep | [aS Se Sree skeen |0> geil ek aaa fs see cage | eee al COT: | (An, a 20 ‘80 ete eee a Nico ape ey to cael, et > Goll aageme| E-L Sae Smeo. Sammi Cac aga Vat | | kal a torical ¢ (2) mA Ww 9g ete ar gaetiees oo aheaa||q ene: "al eeae 2 S| [ee eae Pees a [areal rates lee ica Spear fngee =| ee | Vee |G) (2) W $ SFE S| oe | ee | ce el bee Xoliege nla eels eee el eek eel Gur. |esur a W a ae et ee ea | eS | fe ie es (ean tar aie sgt ieeaprsa=saleoee| XK Se—= 5 Cir | coaAe a g reas een meee Ween ls ee ies a [ee Xora | Se aca eee (meats altos ek | se qure|aeun a g pa | el | Seat a aes (occa) (a (S| esa >. S| se a Nee Fe | ba eal | ee oma | Fo a eee | eas [ON xX | qua | MA rT f 8 OS) SSE el eae | pee are al sere (ae Se el | oe [ce eal ea [ae | x x qy} | em a rs) e/ Ss iFleiSi eg ls Si 2) 21 s| SFE SIS] Ple| e@le] ge sf so 4 Silols¢ 9 elai{s = a} © wilai]8 = rs ately lo) = 3 g 2 q 5 Slels| a 3 B 2 Ws eel) Sal aeelie SB ® re) a at jf Gee Shih S ° © @ lc | a 8 Hoa | G B _ ® 4 oo i=] Ey S aslo a a go | oO [o} + at & ol" RF le| 4 Blog ee 8 2 z z go a 4 st =H o _ B q & B o 9 {Ua]OI A, Suyuosog sae seouEploAy Sees I q edéy, y odA TL SOATIO—Sesneg, spoyyeyy OORT: a> GARD? moe Sees ee a op ‘Wsing | (6) LIST We veea ete ee ee PEI “d ‘IOAvOG | ET (i) al gap peearenie aa a Oe eore1g | (I) SEG Rr Sale ase eee eae ea Z| (820 OSB Aiea aaSs Se Se ea ee ee a | It OOS: | Soa sasce aes aoe a | OF COB) siise eee roma wae oucBM | 6 GLb ia ee eer paar 8 ousBM | 08 O68 ie tase ce oa ee a/|8 OUST esas r= gor ee oe gee Ge lh (01,3) can aie oe age a ie a|9 GCG. Slee Seas Soo are aig O26 1? ioe S5" So" ae ae eens a | @) Sia" SS tS es ee a | vp QOG T= lig sae cea soos gnc ee Ca 2 (021) Geo age ee gnesg pe ae e HX | Qe GSS Toh lpsenme terre roe gee ae a | 0g OUR TCG | erat ease seo seer eas tears ale NOGT) A|pscge= ge ee see oa ge eee no || fe FA Gare ees eee gs eee ns ae Wie 0 a eoinog 848p OSBD Se SS a ee era OS ee eee eS aTaVL OILATVNV 121 IROQUOIS SUICIDE—-FENTON ANTHROP, PAP. NO. 14] C61 938d cas ‘suolyBIA01qq8 jo UoT]BUBldxo 10,7) a ae SS se S| Ble ls ee a eS ae a eee a Oe Ra ee: lOP-Been| aa SE Tel ean eis | ae ee ee |e ee ee) ee ea aa ee WwW H GEOL 5-9 SS ae ee he SO a Fe Ss eg es | el Pim aes cileae Wee cael ee | ee a) ele Rie pea| ioe ae ee ee ag |] a | W I GROSS as ee ae 66 “LT “UL | £8 et. 5| Wea See es ee eel ogee We all ee eps Se re eal eee ca pel Sea Vv OAT <|----*—COT-20T “8h “ae | Be oo Neer | a |e ele S| ieee | ae lla eee | tee al | ae |S ea ae OE aly A cl Vv GPOL_ |e, ap ae a, mae ey e Cie an aie | aa ale Ses (a ae el ee ee slag | ge rah eye | ee | Ee cal cel A a Vv VOT TOS es 0S aD | Ore Seca ee aL ail cal |e RS a Ba a he) a Ope pet Vi Vc 9b a le (| 2 J a Vv LVOT | 55-5 5S 08 aE | BTS ess | et, ai el oe a ae ten | ee lhe i melee sl eal weed ae ae Ue a eee a | EA W SO cj Ale | ei a oe ta, AT 8 eg law aaly eae | eee eel ise | pes iat weal rane] | ee lie | eh eel |) A lh ER, [Oe AT SO: {| Sle Se San ae ee ee arg ee We | ees ee aed |i en foe ae] Pelee ie lee ee cal eal SOE 9, GEO H G20T a] ee a | Nal ang ge be a 2 | cara al a focatee cal bai = WE lr les X | epx |---| qy | wo} W (0 ie 2) oe es G9-€9 :29 “UL | (8)Lz i el ee cee ae lad eg 5 fay [lb | ani co es Va me Wc, Gi ea |i Se Wma ace PM W | BO/HN | G89 [omg 2e9 “AL | 9B a fe ft Se eae colieen| ee lap ales ele (cc eat eae Balen | eee cal” te qy | w Ww I Cola a ee ee BLT *T “WOHeT | 9% pelo al eae coe lcm tics eal eee | rsd sal (re aiae | fgcain Vaca Dc | eam] Pc enamel eect a | eg H REO S|" AS ie ce ole alae aaanie emlica al lee [a el aa a aa Fela tielll gee ae lc |e Bole il qy | ws | W H SS) a ie i a ia 22:81 “UL | &% Peas el at ct de ey | Rolo wel merle al seal eee ia al, ae OM mel yr) ee WwW H 12) Sy Veena Sita coaiaie eiey yr 6 gr CNB co wots ee see ee C2) ee eae Ge) ee 3 Ome eee Ie sa lee al ed, OE ait WwW H OPOT [--LG BT “SLT 36T “UL | TZ caer age - |e al al be Oe Ses ce ail | ma ee Te aa Se RS el aU SO a ie” BD. oe) “OUD T=) |e Se Se ore ea | ee et i ga a ee ne fs SAPS ate esl eal, ek LS Seal Meee i ee | en Sa ay a a C5055 Ore eae nD petit Pao ig ei a ha ad a a at Tl aca a] a he at il a x |x| q| a 80 BLOL S| soe ee ey SOR EG ee) caeaes. | Catach vad | | Ge Sol ele | Bee lee net ee [ee shee Ke eer a! GOs oak a 8 BAT eee ee Oi ON ROR [OT Sc eiaal aae ore =e ll Sa aaa (om 1? | ol Pe | a — leg aad Uma pel Pek bce nar COD da |r CL ne 80 OG0T= lee chen Gaus cae 10-8. ORDA SED | ZT TE al cages: eS eso en ies blend bs gee bai Uh alt ig dx |---| ay | 4 a 1: 0 ae aa i “FOF ‘£09: “IUeT | OF - Sen el lear |e Sale| ie i el ee ol el ee ee a Ee Ot. @) are OT] wer TS ‘09%: “Woye’T | ST Laps BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But 128 PART 3: ANALYSIS, DISTRIBUTIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS We have now presented the information extant concerning the known. cases of Iroquois suicide, and we have also presented earlier cases from the other related Huron-Iroquois Tribes, and a few Dela- ware and Algonkin incidents that seemed pertinent to our problem. The task now remains to answer the questions we posed as the problem for this study. Fortunately, two other scholars have reviewed the evidence from the sources on the Eastern Woodlands, removing much of the onus from our task: Wisse has considered the data from the area as a unit in a survey of the Americas by culture-areas, part of his scholarly world survey of Suicide and Fear of Death among Primitive Peoples (Wisse, 1933, pp. 159-185); and Dr. Flannery has assembled the principal references to suicide by taking a poisonous root in her indispensable Analysis of Coastal Algonquian Culture (1939, pp. 132-133, 181), coming to the conclusion from its limited distribution that the custom was probably original with the Iroquois. We shall postpone discussing attitudes toward suicide until after we have summarized our data on frequency, causes, and methods of commission. There are between 39 and 50 known Huron-Iroquois cases spread over a period of 300 years, dating from 1635-1935. As compared with the maximum of 20 instances in 16 cases going back to 1850 that I was able to recover during field work, the greater num- ber of cases, 22, come from the middle years of the seventeenth cen- tury at the height of the Huron versus Iroquois war, when there were some 20,000 Hurons and 15,000 Iroquois (Hewitt, 1912); and there are enough cases sprinkled through the 1700’s to bridge the interven- ing century, conveying the impression of continuity of custom. Our records show an average of a case every 9 years for the whole period: One every 4 to 5 years since 1855 among the 3,000 New York Senecas, but we have also recorded attempts and failures; it is likely that many more than seven escaped the notice of eighteenth century observers, although Heckewelder reports four cases in 10 years (1771-80) for the Delaware, which Wisse (1933, p. 160) regards as a considerable fre- quency; and we find one every 3 years for the seventeenth century, about equally divided between the Hurons and Iroquois. There has been no marked increase in frequency during the last decade; in fact, the highest frequency seems to have occurred between 1635 and 1650 when the 20,000 Hurons were feeling the impact of European civil- ization through the epidemics of smallpox carried by the French traders and the Christian teaching Jesuits, and the torture and perse- cution of the Iroquois who had received rum and guns from the Albany Dutch. This interpretation, if correct, would seem to bear out the theory of modern sociologists who derive from the conditions leading to mass suicides their concept of social disorganization. As AnrHRoP. PAP. NO.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 123 the recorded cases represent only a fraction of actual incidence, we cannot judge the actual frequency per 1,000 per year; we have only a clue to relative frequency from period to period. Lacking a summary of Iroquois frequency, Wisse (1933, p. 161) assumes that the cases were relatively frequent on the grounds that the great variety of causes, discussed below, is proportional to frequency— as contrasted with but one Winnebago case—and he places the Iro- quois, Hurons, and Delaware in column B (second rank) of his fourfold estimate of relative frequencies among primitive peoples, with the Onondagas in column C (Wisse, 1933, pp. 465, 467). Of greater sig- nificance, perhaps, would be a future study of the conditions leading to murder, rape, and incest, and the periodic changes in frequency of these counterpart crimes for which suicide might provide the escape. Breaking the data down by tribes, among the Huron-Iroquois no one tribe has a monopoly of cases. For the periods for which there are data, they usually concern one tribe, and the frequencies by tribes from period to period are similar, excepting the modern Senecas who re- ceived intensive investigation, although we suspect that there were many more unrecorded cases among the Hurons about 1648 when the Five Iroquois nations combined to wipe them out. There are 7 plus Huron, 8 Onondaga, 4 generalized Iroquois, 1 Mohawk, and 16 Seneca cases. Quantitatively, the Huron-Iroquois cases, excluding the four cases of Delaware men and four cases of Algonkin women, show no significant group differences between the sexes; whereas among the Algonkin and Saulteaux women’s cases predominate; only men are reported from the Ottawa, and the other eastern woodland groups do not seem to be differentiated along sex lines (Wisse, 1933, pp. 188-182). We do find interesting group differences between horizontal age erades. There are more than four references to children, whom observ- ors categorize plurally without enumerating individual cases, but it is my impression that they were fewer than adult cases. There are 5 inci- dents of youths (male and female) and 10 of young men and women, 14 of men and women, and 10 of middle age, and 2 of old men. The toll fell heaviest on the younger men and middle-aged women; the former were liable to be warriors, gamblers, and drunkards, while the latter were liable to desertion and mistreatment, significantly enough about the time that they approached climacteric. Therefore, these female suicides might be interpreted as protests against recognizing the transition from the adult to old-age status when their lovers have given social recognition to their physiological passage.*° Our data do not point to any significant relation between full- bloodedness and suicide rate. Rather, suicide rate does not appear 40 This interpretation springs from reading Professor Linton’s stimulating discussion of Status and Réle in his The Study of Man. (See Linton, 1936, p. 119.) 124 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 128 to increase with dilution, although mixed-bloodedness and culture conflict paralleled each other in the recent Seneca cases. However, we have no accurate measure, including genealogies for the recent generations of Senecas, of the extent of intermarriage; but it is likely that prior to 1700 we are dealing with full-bloods. The Jesuit Relations would be apt to tell us if any of the subjects were children of French fathers. Nevertheless, the question of degree of blood can be a factor preventing full participation in tribal society and, therefore, lead to suicide, as in case 10 of the Tuscarora girl whose parents pre- vented her marrying a white man, and it is easy to conceive how attitudes toward the children of such a union would not be favorable; but, unfortunately, I have no case of a mix-blood suicide growing out of tribal persecution. Iroquois suicides as failures in adaptation may be classified accord- ingly as they fulfill response, avoidance, or recognition-seeking motives." The love-motive, a response mechanism, figures in cases going back to 1635 either as jealousy, revenge of mistreatment, love of the dead, or escape from enforced marriage. Sometimes, several motives combine in a single case: Jealousy is combined with revenge of mistreatment in the type A cases of poisoning; women become jealous of a husband’s new mistress and seek revenge through poison- ing, as in cases 1, 2, 3, 3a, and 3b among the modern Senecas, and Mohawks, and cases 19 (1672) and 20 (1656) among the Onondagas. The same motive lies behind the suicides of four Delaware men (case 14) mentioned by Heckewelder, and one woman mentioned by Penn, 1680. Jealousy occurs 6 times, and spouse revenge 12 times, being the most frequent type of motive in our records. This is fundamentally an old pattern going as far back as there are records for women’s suicides. However, we have no such cases among Huron women, but the love-motive arising out of jealousy and anxiety over betrayed love operates in women’s suicides among the Central Algonkian Ojibwa, Sauk, and Ottawa (Wisse, p. 168). Wisse suggests that the superior position of Iroquois women is a factor in the infrequency of love-motive suicides arising out of anger, jealousy, and anxiety. Actually, there are more cases than he sus- pected, and my informants have emphasized jealousy and anxiety as the love-motives behind suicides in revenge of mistreatment. The Seneca concept of romantic tragedy views suicide as the final instru- ment to which an Iroquois woman may resort to bring public opinion upon her errant lover. Thus suicide might be considered the counter- weight opposing desertion in the patterned equilibrium of marriage, 41 Wisse has grouped the causes of these suicides as: Desire to escape physical suffering, insult or injury, unfaithfulness of loved-ones, and out of love of another; but my own thinking has been largely influenced by W. I. Thomas’ concept of the ‘‘Four Wishes” (new experience, response, recognition, and security) that lies behind his recent treatment of data from early societies in Primitive Behavior, (1937, see especially p. 358), and his earlier essay, The Configurations of Personality (1928, pp. 145-148). AnrHrop. Par,No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 125 focusing an adverse public opinion charged with potential blood revenge, society’s unconscious device for administering justice, on the guilty husband. The motive of revenge for mistreatment extends beyond love affairs to response situations between generations. As early as 1637 among the Hurons (case 22), there are child suicides revenging punishment or parental mistreatment. Children are seldom punished today, and we find the historical explanation of the customary parental attitude in the seventeenth century fear that they might kill themselves by taking a poisonous herb, usually Cicuta, or, less often, shoot or hang themselves. Then, the indulgent attitude of Iroquois parents toward their children, whom they seldom punish and then only to throw water in their faces, is the reciprocal of children’s potential revenge seeking in the patterned relationship between the end-point statuses of parent and child. Wisse explains child suicides as due partly to fits of anger growing out of personality variables determined before birth. He would, I gather, attribute them to congenital factors (predispositions) plus culturally determined values such as revenge seeking, the result of an attitude of sensitivity to personal injury, a prime Iroquois value from early days forward according to Dablon, Lafitau, and my own field experience. (Wisse, 1933, pp. 171-172; Dablon, 1676, on Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 60, p. 287; and Lafitau, 1724, vol. 1, p. 603.) That children might grow up to mistreat their parents is another stock excuse the Senecas give for not disciplining their children. While it is suggestive that the number of cases where Iroquois adults have maltreated their aged parents is great enough to warrant investi- gation, we have only two suicides of old Onondaga men in revenge of abuse at the hands of their descendants (case 27, Onondaga, 1682). In one of these cases, the secondary cause was his love for his deceased wife. Here we have the converse of the patterned relationship between parent and child explained above because here the relative statuses have been advanced a generation and the mistreatment reversed. Suicide becomes an escape for the lower and upper generations from the abuse of the middle generation. The Iroquois love their dead. Whether we read the Jesuit accounts describing the care which the Hurons lavished on their dead ancestors’ bones before burying them in huge ossuaries at the Dead Feast, or observe the behavior of modern Senecas during the long wakes pre- ceding burials, or listen to the funeral orator warn the mourners to bury their sorrows in the grave, or hear out the monotonous songs of the Chanters for the Dead, a ceremonial prophylaxis to remove thoughts of the dead from the minds of the living, we discover back- ground materials lending symbolic meaning to early suicides following the death of a near relative. Our four cases come from the seven- teenth century. Commencing with the earliest case in the Jesuit 126 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But, 128 Relations (case 24, Huron, 1635), a Huron kills himself over the death[?] of his wife, and the case of the melanchony young chief who took Cicuta over the death of his son (case 23), they end in 1684 with Lahontan’s eulogy on the amazing constancy of Huron-Iroquois spouses (case 15). For some of them love of the dead may have been a principal cause, but whether they really thought they could follow the dead to the spirit world is irrelevant to the actual deed which was more likely motivated by a fixation on the dead, bolstered by the Iroquois belief in the compulsive power of the dead over the living. ‘This is seen in a number of modern suicides where murder arising through jealousy suggests the sequence of self-destruc- tion (cases: 5, 6, 7, 8, and 13). Perhaps the Iroquois feel the com- pulsion which the dead exercise over the living less than they did in the seventeenth century when Lahontan observed the unequivocal case of an Iroquois who killed herself to follow her husband (case 15); but Lahontan explains that this spouse sequence was not obligatory unless the soul manifested its uneasiness in the spirit land by causing the survivor to dream twice within 6 months, in which case the survivor sang the Death Song and went cheerfully. At the present time, the Society of the Chanters for the dead still operates to free the survivor’s mind of any compulsion to follow the dead. Spouse suicides were a voluntary pattern condoned during the seventeenth century and successfully circumvented in the twentieth; and our records are incomplete for the eighteenth and nineteenth. Also we are unable to know how many men simply went to war and got them- selves killed following the death of a near relative.” Suicides out of love for the dead are reported also from the Algon- kin (case 31, 6 and c), Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pottawatomi, and Saul- teaux (Wisse, 1933, pp. 166-167). Suicides to escape enforced marriage are uncommon with the Iroquois, although they are reported from the Algonkin tribe (case 32) and possibly the Seneca (case 18, 1672). Among the Iroquois, the mothers arranged the marriages, divorce was easy, and remarriage regular. Probably, as Wisse suggests (1933, p. 170), the lack of such cases reflects the more favorable position of the Iroquois woman. Enforced marriages are certainly not consonant with a strong clan feeling which would resist aggression of outside males, and between clans the mothers attempt to build permanent bonds through effect- ing workable marriages. However, we have the one Tuscarora case where the family induced a suicide by preventing a desired marriage with an outlander, a white man (case 10). However, suicides to escape marriage were found among the Ojibwa (Catlin, 1841, vol. 2, p. 143) and Delaware (Schoolcraft, 1851-57, vol. 5, 42 T am indebted to Dr. Julian H. Steward for this observation. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 127 p. 683); and the seemingly Algonkin lover’s leap parallels the Maid of the Mist as a typical trait. Avoidances, the second general class of causes or motives, embrac- ing desires to escape martyrdom, punishment, or revenge, and suicides of the sick, raise a paradox. In the Eastern Woodlands, as on the Plains and in the Southeast, the regular pattern was for brave warriors to seek glory or death in warfare. This meant that regularly normal men died by torture without fear of death. Yet, the dishonor that attached to being taken captive and the love of freedom and dislike of restraint, that we have seen characterized Iroquois child rearing, led warriors, says Lahontan (1703, vol. 2, pp. 79-80), to kill them- selves rather than be taken captive. For this reason, Wisse (1933, p. 161) holds that suicide to escape torture was a secondary motive. Yet some Iroquois individuals did not conform to the norms set for them by their culture and committed suicides to avoid painful deaths. Thus we have an alternative pattern for escaping the traditional definition of the situation—the ideal pattern. We have three cases of Iroquois men who killed themselves from fear of martyrdom: The Iroquois facing torture among the Hurons who attempted to choke him- self (case 33, 1639), the Iroquois who dove into ‘the Huron kettle of boiling water, 1647 (case 30), and the cowardly Iroquois who stabbed himself at Quebec, 1692 (case 25). All of these come from the 1600’s; there are probably other later cases. We see a similar motive in the Miami who attempted to swallow stones (case 26) and later choke himself, the Algonkin women who drowned or at- tempted to hang themselves lest they be burnt (case 31), and the Pequots who in despair rushed into their burning houses to avoid capture (DeForest, 1851, p. 133). This type of suicide appears among Iroquois, Algonkians, and Sioux. The recent type B suicides to escape the consequences of violent murders, either punishment or blood revenge, are the modern variants of the old seventeenth century pattern of avoiding martyrdom by suicide. Cases 6, 7, 8, and 18 all follow the desire to escape revenge, avoid capture, or efface loss of status. Suicides of the sick parallel the former cases as efforts to avoid or foreshorten a painful death. Here come the many cases from the years of the Huron smallpox epidemics: The sick Huron who had himself stabbed twice, and then swallowed an awl (case 35); and re- lated to these are the suicides of the aged (case 27). This type of suicide seems more common among the Algonkin, Ojibwa, Saulteaux, and Pottawatomi who lived closer to the border of starvation. Suicides registering a feeling of lost status or recognition that in- volves the motives of shame and vanity, or a feeling of status or recog- nition never attained, as in the few cases of chronic misanthropes, are not many among the Iroquois. One might interpret the love-motive 128 BUREAU OF AMERICAN PTHNOLOGY [Butn. 128 suicides of women who have lost husbands as an expression of lost status, as in the case of the Seneca lover who lost his bride (case 4a). Shame is a motive in the case of the horse thief (case 7) ; the murderer of Mary Jemison’s son (case 13); and in two early cases, the Onondaga ambassador (case 29), 1648, and the melancholy Huron who gambled away the family wampum (case 34). Vanity appears also in the latter cases. Melancholia induced by drunkenness operated in the recent case 8a of the Seneca sachem. Gamblers committed suicide in Con- necticut (DeForest, pp. 16, 17), and melancholy seems to have been a cause with the Algonkin, while shame was a motive with the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Delaware (Wisse, 1933, pp. 172-174). This type of suicide is hardly typical of the Iroquois, at least in the light of the present evidence. Wisse (1938, pp. 174-175) has summarized the motives with some overlapping and has given their distribution by tribes. Taking his data together with ours, the following tribes furnish one or more illustrations of suicides recognizing lost status—wounded pride, injured honor, jealousy, and vanity (Wisse holds that loss of self- esteem leads to revenge suicides): Micmac, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Sauk, Delaware, Huron, and Iroquois (Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca), and Tutelo (Byrd). Avoidances of physical suffering—for reasons of age, sickness, fear of martyrdom or gruesome death, mauling, and hunger—occur among Algonkin, Miami, Pottawatomi, Ojibwa, Saulteaux, Shawnee, Pequots, Huron, and Iroquois (Onondaga and Seneca). Suicides in response to unfaithfulness of love mates (and here Wisse includes love of freedom and enforced marriages as sharing common nobility of feeling), are distributed among Algonkin, Ottawa, Ojibwa, Sauk, Winnebago, Delaware, Shawnee (Voegelin), Ontario [?], Huron, and Iroquois (Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora). These distributions are too widespread to be diagnostic for our pur- poses. However, Wisse groups Saulteaux, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Huron, and Iroquois cases together in a fourth category because these neigh- boring tribes share suicides growing out of love for another. I would interpret this as a northern Great Lakes area type motive since two of our four Huron-Iroquois cases are from the seventeenth century Hurons, and we have only one definite Iroquois case, and the custom seems to have gone out of vogue 50 years after the Huron dispersal. It is consistently Iroquoian only inasmuch as it fits their emphasis that the love motive is the only legitimate reason for suicide. The more typically Iroquoian love suicides are those of women who poison themselves to revenge unfaithfulness, a pattern that is continuously distributed over a limited area south from the Jroquois proper among Iroquois (Mohawk, Oneida [?], Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora), Delaware, and Shawnee [?] (Voegelin). ANTHROP. Pap. No. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 129 Our cases are about equally divided between poisoning (type A) and violent methods (type B). Our data show 24 instances of poison- ing: 10 men and 14 women. We are in doubt what poison 5 used, although 3 of these took herbs; 14, plus-or-minus 2, took Cicuta, which seems to have been the favorite with Iroquois women and a few men after 1672; and it was taken by Huron men as early as 1636, with the likelihood of contemporary use among the Iroquois; and 5 took mayapple, but 4 of these were Delaware men. Poisoning offered 14 to 10 odds for women over men, and odds were probably greater because women mentioned plurally are counted once. Byrd reports a Tutelo woman who ate trumpet plant root to protest a hanging (Byrd, 1929, pp. 310-312). Wisse and I are in agreement that poison- ing was the most common method among the Huron, Iroquois, and Delaware. The difference in the Iroquois cases is that predominately women killed themselves in this way, and there are relatively few references to men. Lahontan suggests that surviving male spouses took poison, as did Mary Jemison’s son’s murderer (case 13). Hanging or strangling is the next favorite method. Our data indicate 12 attempts and 5 failures, of which 3 are cases of Algonkin women (cases 31 a, b, and 32). The four recent Seneca hangings are males, two of whom avoided the consequences of violent crimes (cases 7 and 8); whereas a Miami attempted strangling at Onondaga, 1682 (case 26), and an Onondaga hanged himself to end old age (case 27) causing a stir that points to the rarity of these cases; and we have one isolated Huron case following gambling (case 34). Hanging was a favorite method with the Algonkin tribe and among the Micmacs of the Gaspé (Le Clercq, 1910, p. 247), along with drowning which was similarly uncommon among the Huron and Iroquois: The single Onondaga who plunged into a Huron kettle is hardly typical (case 30). However, three Onondagas and two Hurons facing torture attempted stabbing, one failing, and one Algonkin woman succeeded prior to 1690. After 1690 there are five attempts at shooting, including three failures. In the modern period, knife suicides gave way to gun suicides; perhaps the change was facilitated by the improvement of shorter firearms. These cases are more common later on the Plains. We have only one lover’s leap, the Maid of the Mists (case 10), and one male who cast himself under a train (case 6). “Suicide in any form [is] unknown among the far Northern Algon- quians” (Flannery, 1939, p. 132). If we look to the Southeast for the sources of Iroquois poisonings, we find only Byrd’s report of the lone Tutelo King’s daughter who ate the root of trumpet plant to protest a hanging and because she feared she might be mistreated as the last of her nation (Byrd, 1929, pp. 310-312). Olbrechts reports suicides as rare but not unknown among the Cherokee who, like their linguistic Iroquoian cousins, find 130 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Burn. 128 illness or incurable love troubles principal causes. A suicide causes a tremendous commotion, but there are no especial beliefs connected with the fate of the ghost. Olbrechts (1932, p. 144) could find only three cases, all men. Two shot themselves, and one strangled himself with a rope, while he was told that Cherokee women chewed and swallowed the roots of Cicuta maculata L. for 4 days consecutively to put an end to their conceptive abilities. I can well imagine, if there is anything to our Iroquois cases, that they might, as they allege, ‘‘be- come sterile forever”? (Olbrechts, 1932, p. 117). Among the Alabama suicides were deprived of burial and thrown into the river; a suicide was considered a coward.“ Suicides were relatively uncommon among the Chickasaw, according to Cushman, and the rifle was the favorite instrument of death (Swanton, 1928 b, p. 232). The only thing that approaches our northern cases cf root poisoning is the custom of lovelorn women drinking “‘bitter’’ cassava water in Guiana, and the reports that the natives committed suicide on a wholesale scale at the time of the Spanish conquest (Roth, 1924, p. 560). Eating wild parsnip root, a species of Cicuta, was an accepted mode of committing suicide as far afield to the west as among the Atsugewl, Achomawa, and Surprise Valley Paiute of northeastern California (Voegelin, 1937, p. 456). There is one other possible relationship with the southeastern custom of murder by administering poison which may have worked its way north to Virginia in the 1600’s from the country of the Siouan peoples. The Chitimacha killed enemies by poisoning springs, as did the Indians of Virginia and Carolina, where it was not uncommon for a chief to make way with the heir to his position, if the latter did not please him, by administering a poisonous plant (Swanton, 1928 a, p. 697). However, there are no reports that individuals poisoned themselves, nor have I discovered instances of Iroquois poisoning their enemies. We are left, then, with the conclusion that suicide by taking a poisonous root is an Iroquois culture trait that we have not succeeded in deriving from any other ethnic group outside of the area in which the Huron-Iroquois Tribes were living in the seventeenth century. Let us turn to the first question concerning traditional attitudes toward suicide as a value. Modern Senecas consider it a deplorable act and convey the impression that formerly there were fewer cases, but they recall cases of women who poisoned themselves and men who sought violent deaths after murdering someone. Everyone reproaches the murderers but they condone those unsuccessful lovers who suc- cumb to the compulsive attraction of taking waterhemlock. The rich lore surrounding this plant alone attests its long use; considering 4&3 Swanton, 1928, p. 397, citing Bossu, Nouv. Voy., vol. 2, pp. 49-50. AnrHROP. Pap. No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 131 cases going back to 1635, its use must be aboriginal. Nevertheless, we have information that suicides sometimes created strong public reaction. When women kill themselves society reacts hostilely by gossiping about the shameful behavior of the deserting lover and takes no action (case 1). While it may react strongly to suicides of murder- ers and thieves, it is comfortably relieved because it need not take action (cases 5, 6, and 13), and the ultimate suicide merely deepens the initial tragedy. Since Iroquois society values ties of consanguinity above conjugal links, grief attending spiteful child suicides was especially bitter (Lafitau, case 14); and likewise, when housemates and community drunks persecuted two old men to death in the same year (1682), Onondaga village expressed its horror to the relatives and the adopted cabin mates (case 27). One other warrior condemned his fellow’s suicide as cowardice for not fulfilling the ideal pattern of stoically enduring martyrdom. The individual himself manifested varying attitudes toward suicide. He might know all the traditional attitudes against the act, even having heard that it would exclude him from the land of souls, and yet perform the act in the traditional manner when circumstance demanded. Therefore, we cannot take too seriously the theory of a society whose tradition furnishes nicely patterned means for violating its values. Nevertheless, we may inquire whether the belief that souls of suicides are excluded from the land of the dead is aboriginal. Handsome Lake’s followers believe the creator has alloted the days each shall live and that suicide will render their souls earth-bound. On the surface one might suspect that this is the mark of early Jesuit teaching, but while I do not deny Christian influence, I think that very likely part of the belief antedates missionary teaching. Corn- planter’s version of Handsome Lake’s Code devotes half its length to admonishing the people about values that were commonly disregarded in daily life during the prophet’s time, 1735-1815, and the balance of the message describes his journey to the sky-world, a traditional type of visionary experience, during which he witnesses rewards reminiscent of the Book of Revelation, which his Philadelphia educated nephews read to him. But the code offers us negative evidence on suicide. The prophet inveighs against behavior that might furnish suicide motives—man deserts wife, man’s jealousy of children, wife’s mother slanders daughter’s husband, wife beating, gossip wife was unfaithful during husband’s hunt, polygamy, child punishment, drink, discredit- ing own child’s legitimacy, and unkindness to aged—but he does not treat of suicide directly (Parker, 1913, pp. 30-35). In the later sec- tions, he preaches the concept of allotted life, but does not describe suicides as being punished in the House of Torment (Parker, 1913, pp. 49, 57, 68-73, 107-109). Nevertheless, Edward Cornplanter, Parker’s informant, told his son, my informant, that souls of suicides 132 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut. 128 remain earth-bound, and probably he sometimes included this warning when reciting the code. Mary Jemison narrates that Senecas living along the Genesee in 1817 believed that suicides deprived their souls of good hunting in the land of the dead and excluded themselves from entering cabins where the good and brave warriors dwell. Yet learn- ing this doctrine did not prevent a murderer from ultimately taking Cicuta (case 13). The Delawares a generation earlier had no especial prejudices in the matter (case 14). Lafitau, with a century of Jesuit experience behind him, cites suicides that occurred despite the belief that they received differential treatment in afterlife according to manner of death, that souls of suicides were separated from the other souls and had no communication with them (case 16). This belief extends back to the early seventeenth century and can hardly be. reconciled with the contemporary belief that surviving spouses could follow their love mates to the land of souls when summoned repeatedly through dreams. However, ethnology no longer tries to resolve all the conflicts in its data because ethnologists have demonstrated that societies often furnish mutually contradictory patterns for the indi- vidual to follow. Our own notions concerning the destiny of souls are almost as contradictory as those held by the seventeenth century Iroquois (Wolf, 1919, p. 44). We might expect more variation concerning knowledge of the supernatural than about elements more closely connected with the daily life of the people. Charlevoix, contemporary of Lafitau, recorded the belief that souls of those who meet violent deaths have no commerce with the rest, that survivors burn or bury the bodies immediately and never lay them in the common burying ground, and allow them no share in the Feast of the Dead (Charlevoix, 1761, vol. 1, p. 192). Bressani’s Huron Relation of 1653 was probably Charlevoix’s source, for Bressani claims to have more than once seen those who die a violent death burned or buried immediately, and that not even those who freeze to death are removed for subsequent ossuary burial at— the feast of the dead,—they believing without reason that the souls of those unhappy ones who died miserably either in war, etc. [which probably includes suicides and tortures], have no communication in the other life with the other souls. 44 Brébeuf, relating in 1636 what the Huron opinion is regarding the nature of the soul here and hereafter, corrects his statement of the previous year.” His 1635 information based on mythology made no mention of punishment or reward in the afterlife, and he concluded that they made no ethical judgments; and they made no distinctions in burying suicides as they had observed in the case of a young man who had poisoned himself to follow his recently deceased wife, a pat- 44 Bressani, 1653 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 39, p. 31). 45 Brébeuf, 1635, 1636 (Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 8, p. 121; vol. 10, p. 145) (case 24). ANTHA IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 133 tern the Huron condoned in Lahontan’s time (1692). But his later report describes souls migrating to a large village toward the setting sun, except souls of small children and weak-limbed aged who remain, unable to make the journey, about old villages to harmlessly bang cabin doors; and each nation has its particular village from which they exclude aliens. The souls of those who died in war form a band by themselves; the others fear them, and do not permit them entry into their Village, any more than to the souls of those who have killed themselves. [Brébeuf in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 10, p. 145.] This leaves the souls of suicides without a destination, having no village of their own, a belief that persisted to Mary Jemison’s time (1817) and until recently among the Senecas. Therefore, they must remain earth-bound. The Hurons were still living their aboriginal life despite the intermittent efforts of Recollects after 1615 and the sustained efforts of the Jesuits, 1626-50, following Brébeuf’s advent among them; and their beliefs about the destiny of souls had been little affected by Christian teaching. The Hurons held two conflicting patterns of thought regarding souls of suicides—that spouse would follow spouse to the spirit world when summoned through dreams, which Huron culture valued above all other portents, and that souls of suicides remained earth-bound, excluded from towns of warriors and ordinary dead in the land of souls. Catholic doctrine supplemented native beliefs, and the Jesuits sowed the doctrine of sin where natives lacked any especial beliefs about the fate of their souls following suicide. Further, baptism for remission of sins saved the souls of those who, having sinned, confessed and repented. This must have given some comfort to those who desperately poisoned themselves and had misgivings about the fate of their souls (case 21). The fathers used every opportunity to instruct the natives. When a Huron woman felt compassion for a Seneca whom they were torturing (1636) and asked LeMercier if there could be harm in his committing suicide— The Father instructed them fully upon this point, and showed them that God alone was the master of our lives, and it was for him only to dispose of them; that those who poisoned themselves or made away with themselves by violence com- mitted a grievous sin; and that Saouandanoncoua . . . would lose the fruit of his baptism, and would never go to Heaven, if he hastened by a single moment the hour of his death.4” 46 Hewitt came to a similar conclusion (1895, p. 1), but his published statement is ambiguous and misled Wisse (1933, p. 177), while his original manuscript (Misc. Notes relative to the state of the Soul after death, etc., Ms. No. 3638, Bur. Amer. Ethnol.) indicates that Brébeuf and Lafitau, whom I have cited, and Sagard and LeJeune were his sources. Following Brébeuf, he states, the war dead as well as suicides ‘‘have sepa- rate villages, not being allowed to visit the others, since these fear them’’; but in compacting Brébeuf, he misquotes him. 47 LeMercier, 1637, in Thwaites, 1898-1901, vol. 13, p. 59. 218558—40——_10 134 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxr, 128 This teaching, coming later the same year that Brébeuf wrote, probably consolidated the older Huron belief. It may also date the introduction of the concept that God is the master of lives, a function the Hurons had already ascribed to their cosmological heroes (Hewitt, 1912) which readily attached itself to existing Huron belief, for in 1659 a Huron about to cut his throat recalled the Catholic teaching that man does not control his life and threw away the knife (case 28). By 1677, Cholenec reports how various Mohawks, Onondagas, and Hurons near Montreal have learned in the church to overcome cul- tural hypersensitivity that formerly led to revenge seeking or suicide (Cholenec in Thwaites, 1896-1901, vol. 60, pp. 287-289). Jesuit influence supplied religious sanctions to suicides where they were lacking among the Algonkin, as among the Delaware; it clarified Huron-Iroquois thinking by buttressing the ideas of differential status in heaven and the Creator as the controller of life by teaching that God is the master of lives. This may have led to the concept of allotted life and suicide as a sinful act. At any rate, by 1700 spouse suicides had ceased and the frequency of other suicides was lessening. Conclusions—An ambivalent Huron-Iroquois attitude toward suicide as a value crystallized into open hostility under Christian teaching. A definite concept of allotted life and exclusion from the land of the dead resulted. The latter belief was aboriginal. Public — opinion condemned as cowardice male suicides to avoid physical suffering, such as torture, but condoned cases of women who were mistreated by lovers. The greatest frequency came during the period immediately following white contact when conditions were ripe for social disorganization. We have not found a higher rate of mixblood suicides over fullbloods, nor any appreciable increase in recent years. The principal motive with women was revenge of mis- treatment by husbands who deserted them at middle age; children resented restraint, and men sought to avoid physical suffering, either martyrdom or blood revenge; some cases involve loss of status. Poisoning was the favorite Huron-Iroquois method, and Cicuta has remained the suicide root during 300 years, with mayapple running a close second; women prefer poisoning and men are more apt to seek violent ends, such as strangling and stabbing, which gave way to shoot- ing after firearms were introduced. Finally, the remarkable fact in Iroquois suicides is not the change that has followed the impact of European cultures but the stability of fundamental suicide patterns throughout the entire period of contact. The same motives, the same methods, and similar beliefs concerning the fate of souls prevail. Danger of capture and torture ceases with the wars, and blood revenge is giving way to white law enforcement on the reservation: The onus is shifted but throughout avoidance remains the dominating motive. ANTHROP, Pap. No. 14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON 135 Cases in revenge of mistreatment continue to arise in love-response situations, child suicides are now infrequent, and spouse suicides dis- appeared by 1700. Pattern then serves as a cultural continuant for custom, antecedents have already defined the situation for the indi- vidual, and once a fundamental pattern becomes established it tends to persist despite substitutions within its framework. ‘The uncon- scious nature of pattern and the illogical character of cultures are shown by the fact that social systems may offer the individual patterns as guides for his conduct that lead to the fulfillment of mutually opposite values. BIBLIOGRAPHY BarTRAM, JOHN. 1895. Observations on the inhabitants, soil, rivers, Productions, animals, (ete.) ... im... Travels from Pennsilvania [sic] to Onondaga, etc. [Reprint London ed., 1751.] Geneva, N. Y. BraucHamp, Wm. M., Epiror. See Pursu, FREDERICK. Brunet, Lv’ Asse O. 1865. Catalogue des Plantes Canadiennes dans l’herbier de Univ. Laval, livr. 1. Quebec. Byrp, WILLIAM. 1929. William Byrd’s histories of the dividing line betwixt Virginia and North Carolina. William K. Boyd, ed. N. C. Hist. Comm. Raleigh. CaTLIn, GEORGE. 1841. Letters and notes on the manners, customs and condition of the North American Indians. 2 vols. London. CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE. 1870. Oeuvres de Champlain. C.—H. Laverdiére, ed. Quebec. 1922-1936. The works of Samuel de Champlain. 6 vols., H. P. Biggar, ed. Champlain Soc. Toronto. CHARLEVOIX, PimrRRE F. X. DE. 1761. Journal of a voyage to North America. 2 vols. London. CoLpEN, CADWALLADER. 1902. The history of the Five Indian Nations of Canada. 2 vols. New York. Curtin, JEREMIAH, and Hewirt, J. N. B. 1918. Seneca fiction, legends and myths. 32d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1911-12, pp. 39-8138. DrForsst, JoHn W. 1851. History of the Indians of Connecticut, ete. Hartford. FLANNERY, REGINA. 1939. An analysis of coastal Algonquian culture. Catholic Univ. Amer., Anthrop. Ser., No. 7. Gray, Asa. 1908. Gray’s new manual of botany. 7th ed. B. L. Robinson and M. L. Fernald, ed. New York. HECKEWELDER, JOHN. 1876. An account of the history, manners, and customs of the Indian Na- tions, who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States. Mem. Hist. Soc. Pennsylvania, vol. 12. Philadelphia. 136 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buut. 128 Hewitt, J. N. B. 1895. The Iroquoian concept of the soul. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. 8, pp. 107-116. Boston and New York. 1912. Huron, Iroquois, and Teharonhiawagon: Articles in Handbook of American Indians. Frederick Webb Hodge, ed. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, 2 vols. 1928. Iroquoian cosmology, 2d pt. 48d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1925-26, pp. 453-819. JANNEY, SAMUEL McPHERSON. 1852. Life of William Penn. Philadelphia. Jesuit Revations. See THwaitTes, REUBEN GOLD. Katm, Prerer. 1937. Travels in North America. 2 vols. Adolph P. Benson, ed. New York. LAFITAD, J. F. 1724. Moeurs des Sauvages Amériquains. 2 vols. Paris. LAHONTAN, ARMAND Louis DE Lom p’ARcE, BARON DE 1703. New voyages to North America. 2 vols. London. La PotHeriE, M. pE BACQUEVILLE DE. 1753. Histoire de l’Amerique Septentrionale. Paris. Le Currca, F. CHRISTIEN, 1910. New relation of Gaspesia William F. Ganong, ed. Champlain Soc., Toronto. Linton, RALPH. 1936. The study of man. New York. LosKIEL, GEORGE HENRY. 1794. History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians of North America. C.I. Latrobe, trans. London. Marsg, C. D., Cuawson, A. B., and Marsa, H. 1914. Cicuta, or water hemlock. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 69. MvueENscHER, WALTER CONRAD. 1939. Poisonous plants of the United States. New York. Oxsrecuts, Frans M., and Moonsy, JAMES. 1932. The Swimmer manuscript: Cherokee sacred formulas and medicinal prescriptions. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 99. PamMgeL, L. H. 1910-1911. A manual of poisonous plants. Pt. 1, 1910; pt. 2, 1911. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. ParKER, ARTHUR C. 1913. The code of Handsome Lake, the Seneca prophet. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 163. Albany. PARKMAN, FRANCIS. 1885. The Jesuits in North America. 21st ed. Boston. Penn, WILLIAM. See JANNEY, SAMUEL McPHERSON. PursH, FREDERICK. 1923. Journal of a botanical excursion in the northeastern parts of the States of Pennsylvania and New York during the year 1807. Wm. M. Beauchamp, ed. Onondaga Hist. Assoc. Syracuse. RAFINESQUB, C. 8. 1828. Medical flora. 2 vols. Philadelphia. Rotu, WALTER EDMUND. 1924. An introductory study of the arts, crafts, and customs of the Guiana Indians. 38th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol 1916-17, pp. 27-745. AnrHrop, Pap, No.14] IROQUOIS SUICIDE—FENTON Lae SAGARD-THEODAT, F. GABRIEL. 1865. Grand Voyage du Pays Des Hurons. 2 vols. Tross ed. by E. Chevalier. Paris. 1866. Histoire du Canada et Voyages. 4 vols. Trossed. Paris. 1939. The long journey to the country of the Hurons. George M. Wrong, ed. Champlain Soc. Toronto. ScHootcrart, Henry R. 1851-1857. Information respecting the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States. 6 vols. Philadelphia. SEAVER, JAMES EVERETT. 1932. A narrative of the life of Mary Jemison, the white woman of the Genesee. Amer. Scenic and Hist. Preservation Soc. New York. SHEA, JOHN GILMARY. 1860. A French-Onondaga dictionary, from a manuscript of the seventeenth century. Shea Lib. Amer. Linguistics, vol. 1. New York. SwANTON, JOHN R. 1928. Social organization and social usages of the Indians of the Creek Con- federacy. 42nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1924-25, pp. 23-472. 1928 a. Aboriginal culture of the Southeast. 42nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1924-25, pp. 677-726. 1928 b. Social and religious beliefs and usages of the Chickasaw Indians. 44th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1926-27, pp. 169-274. Tuomas, W. I. 1928. The configurations of personality, im The unconscious: A symposium. Ethel 8. Dummer, ed., pp. 143-177. New York. 1937. Primitive behavior. New York. VOEGELIN, ERMINIE W. 1937. Suicide in northeastern California. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 39, pp. 445-456. Waueu, F. W. 1912-1916. Field notes on Iroquois medicines (unpublished manuscript). Canada Geol. Surv., Anthrop. Div. Wisse, J. 1933. Selbstmord und Todesfurcht bei den Naturvélkern. W. J. Thieme and Co. Zutphen, Holland. Wo.tr, Morris. 1919. Iroquois religion and its relation to their morals. Dissertation, Columbia Univ. Press. New York. Wronc, Grorce M. See Sacarp, 1939. ZEISBERGER, Davip 1910. History of.the northern American Indians . . . (1779-80). Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze, ed. Ohio Archeol. and Hist. Soc. Quart., vol. 19. Columbus. 4 Se eye ee Ue A Cott acme) Ot “ud ihe weit laieA§ rahe Cae bY j CUR ate agge | Be GPa Nein ed Bh Huapent he joa ey “oh ag enigar a Sy baat ity ee ELLA aioe tetas ais bey wadiiiGs ots Sh youn Ricoh “vit R tite 3 My RAE Ott hash yee tilatqgar a) Fists AME bch! nh Tht ere ee pant She 0 eee ant ott er . PA eisla bo Abas, Mtg ee arent art hota And to wats atid wit é, Hai Pe iterate Ru nee ‘Ayes Tudo seal toh seuehok cone Ho (Ail a3 So” ay hana Weg Naw me pnbtasadas. sat hes onion womta MEOW EY ie ' : ner Ms Tote oan fe4 Cinaaditsvies ok Mate ol tiiais & dirt Py sp 3083 t mp penbi > O-cuecantihy att wot ft Ll cisialogatd creak Wie P nade eee i te DRL ect . Le aif) Roten> dud At wrath re -amh}! ty nauitenditcicia. t ry fia th sina’ SR ee vn: LO to Inch oti Ataatedsst sinks, rena teareore uth. coe, “eK eho Chie EA aes he A ee Wy OTE Re. ap aaa toni Kiam h Hash iietvadd WoO donseu boa etoiled voir bus ie ASO Y ol WEES EE), Godel nA Ct? eee is , Beet hy | Mie 2 ae Fei bet, ear ait iF wtilaariae Si 5% ollernpb ome ; nt A rece bs Pe] “| ye § Pi Ri Ay yy hea MS) rrti (ee a tate ; ott? 97oet Sobre a iteyek te avid me o£ . ¥ i oak TF 41 : ae maa e 08 ey carports Fardeen ies : wits nib hates, roaeant nly fi J r. * ‘ f Bits ‘ ary Lirias iden ‘Nostaifdsigiem) ractibear sMolrpodt 10 kotor OMEN REE Sy oftna) Pardee I aGaney = 37 ane SO lV) ational woh tod Joesiehe D> Garters : “Oe GR ( ae allott hie oj aghey le 0) bea : rolieriaest( fb) elormit abe ook pitalieny al) DR Wong ie fre, ¥ wot. ‘wnat held widens oO - ORG aac Woah ie ; ? , 4 . s - g » , & rr ‘ = : vos plhettel paokrantt’A aeattson of) toe fasdurAnyiiie bib ranwntoe fe ian die vt mallihl bos dodth A tem ¥ x dainty Sekt ideation hi eit i kG by, Ly VR ad | ee Rie wit en at 4 \ ¥ c (we alirate a bp f aie , ea He kage Lig p 4” x VRE re me . bi ' a ’ c aris hy at j be, ; Nh m Cale, TREE toy aT hy ; ue iy nes ’ i yy | } OR : ’ kee (,/asnoyy suo] ay} JO spuaseT,, stojuvjdusoy 0} ad0rdsuoly 99 ‘ *SBIQUIS ot jo Ss Ippt Joy eof} SurplryM eyt Pp 3 SINS uo JUPUI ny) Joyvadg osnoyy 5UuO'T 17 fo yses pue JATYS oI M out Bul sJayiey Jay jo yduiaiie jnjssadonsun ayq uo uviiajAqsalg ay} Jo 1ojsed ouij-9u0 pur *sedsoueg jo -IvaM *SUIO]SND BIDUIG UO JURUTIOJUI pue JOY Ne fuOTIeA JURULIOJUI ‘eIaUag EPURMLUOT, ‘syooIg sIqqy ‘¢ pueg epurMVUOT, dq} fo fatyo-xa “10]90q "AA Joleg *ADY *Z -JasoY epurmvuo yz, ayi fo ‘eoauag ‘19,ue[dusog *f assaf *] fe 0 9 31iv1d zi NILa77Ina : —_ . ee — A DOIONHIS NVDINAWY 4O Nvayna | "A CN ‘Won earosoyy ¢ JOO1 9Y},, 007 Auesay[y ‘espiig Joyen?®) 1eou oinqsed jam ve ul Sulmols JoyJOU SAOyIOU JOFT “UOIWPAIasaY, AuvsaTTV ‘C7Q[ 9dUIS saploins sionboly ur ,O01 [e1eI,, ‘symeVYyory ‘asplig Jayend) JO ysljeqiey voauag ‘mouGg YrIeg °7 9} 0} , JoyIVafoUy MA ,, “'] VW]NIVW DINIIT) “YOTWIIYIBIe A *T ALV1d 821 NILAT1INGA ADO IONH.LA NVYOIMAWY AO NVvVadnd ‘OLIBJUG ‘aAtos -dYT SUOIIYNY XIG Jv sulO}sNd puv s}da][vIP eSepuoUGO ‘QploINs YMBYOT JO Sased UO JULUTIOFUI °C “_ -esnked uo juewiojur jedioutid ‘uosqif) uoaulig °7 ‘eSUMBUYSNLD JO IIMPIUI pur Isl]eqioy YMLYOT\ ‘(Jsnogally.q) Nvoqeqd wey ‘T ALV1d 821 NILA1T1ING ADOTIONHLA NVOIMAWYV AO Nvayna 7 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 128 Anthropological Papers, No; 15 Tonawanda Longhouse Ceremonies: Ninety Years After Lewis Henry Morgan By WILLIAM N. FENTON 139 PHONETIC NOTE The orthography employed in this paper is the same as that used in An Outline of Seneca Ceremonies at Coldspring Longhouse (Fenton, 1936). It reduces Seneca transcription to a minimum of characters required by the economy of the language. The vowels: a (of English father); @ (of English hat); e (of English met) ; e (of French ete); 7 (of French fini); and o (of English mote) may later be reduced to four: a, e,7,ando0. They occur frequently in diphthongs and less frequently in triphthongs. Nasalization is denoted by a hook beneath the vowel: Vowel length by a raised period after the vowel. A raised comma indicates the glottal stop. The character § is c (of English shoe); affricatives vary between dz and dj (of English adze and judge) depending on the speaker; s and ¢ are ordi- narily somewhat aspirated; heavily aspirated s and ¢ are followed by A (e. g., sh and th); h everywhere indicates aspiration; and T indicates a terminal whis- pered ¢ which is articulated after a glottal stop in a few words. 140 CONTENTS MEINE RTETUIR to SS ee ne et he hse ee 2 ee BIRT ESReR TOG TICHO VCC oe her ene ye fe kL eee ep a HMenogicweures and rene walsess. 2292228 2 sy ee es ee PIETESEOTATICIONTISUUCENS 24 25 ek acs 3. iS ee ee Bee ACOOUMNY, C1700 POS0cL 6 3. i oo le coe eee eee LEE ae PSSA UPS co nes Se ee AN Ye ee. er Appendix A. L. H. Morgan to E. S. Parker (letter).._...___._._-_---- Appendix B.. E.§. Parker to L. H. Morgan (letter)____._._.______..-- Appendix C. The Tonawanda ceremonial cycle__._-____-_------------ ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES . Tonawanda longhouse: 1, The longhouse and cook house. 2, Indian youths reshingle the longhouse under National Youth Adminis- Rte IRIERMEL TRAN Ret ek See Ne Se eno ee oe ee a oe ee eee . Faithkeepers prepare the Community Feast in honor of the ‘Three Sisters” at the Planting, or Seed, Festival in May___.____-___-_-_- . The men assist the women by pounding corn __.__-._-------------- . Our Uncles, “‘the Bigheads,”’ go through the houses announcing the RviLeTITeCrANeStivaleer seo SS Se ee Eyes, lene te eas Meee ee ee . 1, The False-face Beggar Dancers visit a house on second night of Midwinter Festival. 2, 3, Charlie Chaplin and the Devil capture the mEnn ation OF Chiloren 27 J Ne Se ee a . Groups and individuals stage impromptu dance contests__________-__-_ . Facsimile of first page of letter from L. H. Morgan to E. S. Parker written at Rochester, January 29, 1850__-__._..----.------------ . Facsimile of last page of letter from L. H. Morgan to E. S. Parker written at Rochester, January 29, 1850, showing signature_-___-__-_- . Facsimile of first page of letter from E. 8. Parker to L. H. Morgan written fn rancwuvile;bebruary €2;.1850. 52022-2820 <2 etree laced . Facsimile of last page of letter from E. 8. Parker to L. H. Morgan written at Ellicottville, February 12, 1850, showing signature_-_-_--.- 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 166 Ot herd 2. ek tay: shut ae jana’ yer er iat ey ital nnauibig Dy se ok ne to iH 0 wroe? adel To lame teal to. i oly ’ ‘ Rev ane ele a celine os ag ek MLA Spee rate a udev Pe ty Oi he wo de ir Ry aigiee et ne ALy FG a TY Ie Te ae wate Bs AY el eh ee RAY DON yee A se Craxtihat) waotralt A 4 easyer ts we it Ag fet) eaten Thy i ay sel aL Fa: al t 4 me A, alt BLsbandver alt i AWOLTAIT oq 8 i iH at P ovita ice hg Cabbie, A eter aa UNL ibs Cos a Foe wight pitt Ua debi, Ab Le pel ONE: tadiuhtei er eae tee Man Bae fg stage oe i ’ a ee ONS en Fide Fisly Srey Gill yeaa aah S wih s As a Net iD hie, jy eT te mc Ui tes Ve ii esia aed HA unis vito ehtoad Hit rywoada by * nate Reh Ry, Wee a idee coe aA oye aioe Up Seuin Thee: dono 2 war er dt ech Ge Zag Say ane wiitoins Vat. Se De RRL NS ola tae eee pets ag ame rib ade AM OUDCL OR MEDEN EN DCI w lsh. Wreosdkak dette 2uLeateos ol hfe al oe Teteta'y ea) BE Gp al JE Be ce oie he Sao i otia 2 RR ae ‘i nlip iy Sioa SOS by BS oecontiehn fsa ome ‘= » Bla chins Weve siadeSal eats a thors TR! (OS vette, teres Hae ty am wort Mf Eotasoel AUP won Lutte 10 Mic diene hee Pe riser ey foun a iene SOAt 3 viet 6th cena hl Ek ot Tota “i : “een th hinds te axpaet bind Vee i hed carartuors {i niivearhs OSGL BY waarenlal Ate oo MT uae rt = TONAWANDA LONGHOUSE CEREMONIES: NINETY YEARS AFTER LEWIS HENRY MORGAN! By WILLIAM N. FENTON METHOD During 30 months, February 1935 to September 1937, I was in almost daily contact with the Tonawanda Band of Senecas. Although occupied with official duties, I nevertheless witnessed the entire cycle of ceremonies that Handsome Lake’s followers have perpetuated at Tonawanda longhouse. At odd moments older Indians explained the present form and content of the rituals; they indicated unique features of the Tonawanda cycle; and they suggested possible changes in the last 100 years. I have followed the method which Dr. Frank G. Speck devised for recording the Cayuga yearly ceremonial calendar at Soursprings longhouse, which proved convenient for recording rituals at Cold- spring longhouse, classifying my field notes, and presenting a summary of results (Fenton, 1936).2. This approach reveals that although the same dances are shared by neighboring longhouse groups, patterning of the ceremonies differs from group to group; and that each longhouse repeats its ritual pattern several times during the yearly cycle. The yearly cycle is outlined, indicating the time, duration, and purpose of each festival; and the composition of ceremonies is listed day by day. Analysis of prayers reveals an Iroquois Pantheon of three orders: Spirit-forces on the earth, a midpantheon of appointed spirits above the earth, and an upper pantheon of forces controlling the universe. Prayers and thanksgiving songs, addressed to the unseen spirit world, commence on the earth and run the whole fixed gamut 1 This paper was delivered in part, as “‘The Pattern of Seneca Ceremonies at Tonawanda Longhouse,’”’ before section H of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on June 16, 1936, at the Uni- versity of Rochester. The present draught was read December 27, 1936, at the annual meeting of the Amer- ican Anthropological Association at Washington, D. C. The data presented here were collected during fleld trips spread over several years. The study began in 1934 with grants-in-aid of research from the Institute of Human Relations at Yale University, and it continued from 1935 until mid-1937 while I acted as Community Worker for the United States Indian Field Service in the New York area. Thanks are due Prof. Edward Sapir of the former institution and John Collier, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for their sustained interest in my Iroquois researches. My greatest debt is to my Seneca friends: Jesse Cornplanter, Cephas Hill, Rev. Peter Doctor, Chief Henan Scrogg and the “‘Salt Creek Singers,’’ a mutual-aid fraternity at Tonawanda, who in accepting me for member- ship anchored my labors to the rock of tradition. 2 Dr. Speck’s monograph is still unpublished. 143 144 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buux. 128 of stations upward to the Creator. Specific rites fall into three groups according to their function of bringing man into rapport with par- ticular spirit-forces. There is a group of worship rites addressed to the Creator, others to the spirits of cultivated plants; a group of medicine-society rites concern man’s relation to specific earth-bound tutelaries, frequently animals; and some societies restrict participation in their ceremonies to members only. The remaining rites fall under the general rubric of social dances which lack any direct religious purpose. Work at Tonawanda has been a projection of a program to obtain comparable data for all Iroquois ceremonial groups, trusting that the facts may ultimately lend themselves to historical interpretation. The approach recognizes an intense feeling of localism, which inform- ants voice in their replies to data obtained at other longhouses. Therefore, with Lewis Henry Morgan (1901, vol. 1, 175 ff.) as my illus- trious predecessor among the grandfathers of my oldest Tonawanda informants, I commenced work ill-prepared to discover vestiges of an even richer ceremonial life after 90 years of supposed deculturation.? THE LONGHOUSE The present Tonawanda longhouse, situated ‘down below” near the northwest end of the reservation, was built in 1876.* It is near the site of an older, log longhouse which still can be distinguished by an elliptical indentation near the present road where the feet of many dancers, emerging at intermissions to cool off and gossip, wore a path about the sunken foundation. South toward Indian Falls, another log longhouse stood on Sand Hill where the road emerges on a plateau. About 1870, the Faithkeepers tore it down in anticipation of erecting a new building of matched lumber, but, at that time, most of their membership passed over to the Christian party. No one now living remembers a third ceremonial longhouse which formerly stood in the middle of the original Tonawanda settlement of bark houses on the south bank of Tonawanda Creek near the canal feeder. As might be expected, where the longhouses were, at most, an hour’s walk apart, the yearly round of ceremonies is said to have been identical. THE CALENDRIC CYCLE The Tonawanda Senecas observe seven religious festivals of thanks- giving. The yearly cycle commences at midwinter on the fifth day of the new moon called ni-sgo’wakne when the Pleiades are on the meridian at dusk. This moon, when the game commences to rut, anciently marked the end of hunting and winter removal and witnessed the return to sedentary village life. 3 For ceremonies at Newtown longhouse, Cattaraugus Reservation, see Parker, 1913. ‘ Charles Blackchief, well over 80 years old, remembered that the lumber for the present building cost about $500, which the Faithkeepers raised by conscription of annuity moneys among the longhouse party; they have twice reshingled it. ANTHROP, PAP. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 145 Seven days are devoted to renewing rituals of shamanistic medicine societies as revealed in old dreams, celebrating new dreams, and returning thanks to the Creator for life and sustenance, and praying for an early spring. A lineal descendant of the shamanistic orgy, called the Feast of Fools by the Jesuits among the Hurons, the con- cepts of confession and renewal dominate the festival. Public con- fession of sin precedes the festival; and dreams are revealed and must be celebrated lest someone take sick and delay the coming of spring. Renewal implies “new fire,’ the repetition of every known ceremony and dance; it underlies the White Dog sacrifice, and es- pecially the rites associated with the planting, germination, pro- eressive growth, and harvest of cultivated plants5 Thanks-to-the- maple, or the Sap Dance, follows when the sap is collected from groves preempted by individual families. The Planting Festival, or Seed Dance, occurs early in May to soak and bless the seed before returning it to the earth. The Berry Festival, or Strawberry Dance, returns thanks for the first fruits ripening on earth. The Green Bean Fes- tival, or String-bean Dance, celebrates the ripening of the first culti- vated crop in August. The Green Corn Festival repeats the latter days of the Midwinter Festival, returning thanks that the crops have matured; and the Harvest Festival, or Bread Dance, late in the fall after harvesting and storing the crops for winter, completes the cycle before going into the woods on the fall hunt. The Tonawanda people formerly held a sun-shooting ceremony to dislodge from the sun a frog which they believed masked the orb and retarded the approach of spring. And then, in time of drought, the thunder ceremony, which Morgan describes, is still resorted to for rain. A priest burns tobacco imploring the Thunderers to water the crops and men dance the War Dance (wasa’se). During the recent dry summer (July 10, 1936), the ceremony failed to bring im- mediate rain, because, according to the faithful, “Too many people are wicked now!’ PERIODIC CURES AND RENEWALS Aside from their frequent public appearance during the Midwinter Festival, the False-face Company occasionally appears in early spring and late fall to drive pestilences from the settlement. The Little Water Medicine Society meets on the fifth night of the Berry Moon 5 Wissler (1917) has indicated a northern provenience for the medicine-bundle type of shamanistic societies allegedly derived from earth-bound animals, and he has suggested that the idea of renewal dominates cyclical rituals which appear to have spread with agriculture as gifts of the spirits in heaven. Possibly the Iroquois Midwinter Festival, and it is a strange palimpsest of ceremony, represents the result of the impact of an agricultural people upon a northern hunting environment. The Iroquois have both charm-bundle societies and those in which membership is indicated by dreams or hysterical possession, northern concepts, besides a regular cycle of first-fruits ceremonies closely integrated with the cultivation of maize, a peculiarly southern idea. Ceremonial buffoonery is widespread. Confession to avoid supernatural disaster occurs among the Eskimo and northern Athabaskans (Lowie, 1915, pp. 233-234). The idea of sin with fear of supernatural disaster has a greater distribution (Michelson, 1930, pp. 55-56). 146 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunz 128 (June), the fifth night of the Harvest Moon (October), and sometimes at midwinter when the medicine bundle has been used after the fall meeting to renew the. strength of the medicine. They sing four periods of songs recounting the origin of the society and the cure of the good hunter by animals whom he has befriended, but the Tona- wanda lodge sings a fifth group at their fall meeting. Chanters for the dead usually convene one night in March at the longhouse to rest the souls of the departed. Other medicine societies hold private meetings throughout the winter, but rarely in summer.® THE TONAWANDA PATTERN A combination of four dances, recurring together five times during the annual cycle of festivals, distinguishes Tonawanda celebrations from versions employed among the Seneca at Coldspring and New- town, and among the Onondaga near Syracuse. Five agricultural festivals repeat the same succession of dances—Women’s Dance, Feather Dance, Trotting (or Standing Quiver) Dance, Hand-in-hand Dance, and Women’s Dance—with the traditional songs to the plant spirits. This ceremonial pattern, except for particular speeches belonging to each festival, prescribes the procedure for the Planting, String-bean, last night of the Green Corn, Harvest, and the seventh night of the Midwinter Festival. The Maple and Strawberry Fes- tivals include two somewhat different patterns. Otherwise, on a given day of a longhouse festival, the arrangement of the ceremonies follows the general ceremonial pattern observed at all Seneca long- houses, which I have described in another paper (Fenton, 1936, p. 14; Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 185). The scope of this paper permits only a schematic summary of this 1 night in the cycle of ceremonies. After preliminary meetings, a collec- tion of food and money precedes communal cooking and the festival at the longhouse. Dances to the triad of agricultural patronesses—the spirits of the corn, beans, and squash: three sisters—should commence at dusk, because “‘the corn grows at night’? and the ceremonies are believed to assist its growth. An appointed speaker explains the significance of the meeting, returns thanks to all the spirit-forces from the earth to the Creator, particularly the growing plants and the . Thunderers who water them, and announces the names of the singers and dancers. Four dances follow. The women dance first. The Feather Dance to the Creator follows. The Trotting, or Standing Quiver Dance harks back to centuries of war parties dancing about their stacked arms when breaking camp. Hand-in-hand Dance sym- bolizes the bean and squash vines reaching out tendrils to grasp the erowing corn. The Tonawanda people call these the Four Rituals 6 Form and content of the series and the function of specific rites is presented in outline as an appendix. AnTuRoP. Pap. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 147 because they are invariably performed at these five festivals. However, the other Seneca refer to the Feather Dance, Thanksgiving Dance, Personal Chant, and the Bowl Game when they mention the Four Ceremonies. Lastly, the women dance about the food kettles to the accompaniment of the traditional songs of the three sisters—corn, beans, and squash—dramatizing the sisterhood of women and culti- vated plants. The speaker returns thanks to the participants, invokes a blessing on the people, and announces the next festival. An equitable distribution of the feast ends the meeting, and each family takes home its share of food provided for the communal cook house. Management of the festival rests with two women, one from each moiety, and they choose a chief as their speaker. Peculiar to Tonawanda is the performance of the Feather Dance and Thanksgiving Dance on the third and fifth days of the Midwinter Festival and the first day of the Green Corn, and the coincidence of the Bow! Game, Women’s Dance, and Personal Chant on the fourth and sixth days of the Midwinter Festival and the second day of the Green Corn Festival (Fenton, 1936, p. 21; Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, pp. 196, 213). Since daily arrangement of major rituals disagrees with Morgan’s statement of 1850, we must consider the possibility of change. MORGAN’S ACCOUNT, CIRCA 1846 Lewis Henry Morgan left us a somewhat complete account of the ceremonies current at Tonawanda in the middle of the last century, but attributed them to all of the Iroquois. While his description of the Midwinter Festival is full and rich, including difficult ritual prayers, which Ely Parker had ably translated, and there is an occasional bril- liant description of a social dance, like the Trotting Dance (Morgan, 1901, pp. 271-273), which could only have been done from notes taken on the spot, his work is, nevertheless, unbalanced by failure to mention other significant details. He mentions turtle rattles accompanying the Thanksgiving Dance, instead of the water drum and horn rattle (Morgan, vol. 1, pp. 192, 273). He says nothing of the almost nightly winter meetings of medicine societies. He does not complete the programs of minor festivals after the Maple Dance to demonstrate their essential similarity (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 185). His failure to make any reference to a Green Bean Festival arouses one to wonder how much he really saw, to what extent he depended on Parker, how long he was in the field, and where he did his work. His extraordinary interpreter and collaborator, Ely S. Parker, lived beyond the ford in Tonawanda Creek from Sand Hill longhouse, the probable locus of the rituals he describes. Parker had access to Handsome Lake’s successor, Jimmy Johnson (Soshe’owa’’, ‘‘Great-burden-strap”’), whose working knowledge of the rituals extended back beyond the advent of the prophet’s teaching in 1800. Nevertheless, in mulling over the 148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bouxx. 128 material which Parker furnished him for describing the religious system of the Iroquois, Morgan is frequently guilty of repeating Parker’s failure ‘“‘to describe Indian life in terms of itself,’’ a method on which Morgan later insisted. Since Morgan was at his best when describing phenomena which he had observed and later investigated, and since some of his observations were so penetrating that no less an authority than Lowie (1933, p. 206; 1936, pp. 169-170) has dubbed him a superb observer, it is especially interesting to learn which rituals Morgan actually witnessed. Morgan’s manuscript journals and field notes, in the Rush Rhees Library at the University of Rochester, disclose that all of his expeditions to the Seneca fell in the late fall and winter, by far the best season for field work among the Iroquois. Occupied with farming and hunting during the spring, summer, and fall, the Indians feel ‘‘free to talk while the earth sleeps.’? Nevertheless, he missed an opportunity to observe the periodic succession of first-fruits ceremonies, commencing with the Maple; he missed the migration of fish in Tonawanda Creek, planting, berrying, agriculture, the Green Bean Festival, if there were one, and summer harvest. He seems to have visited only Tonawanda and Buffalo Creek Reservations, appa- rently not going to Allegheny, and I find no entries of visits to Nichol- son Parker, Ely’s brother, at Cattaraugus. His first field trips were purposely made to gather information for embellishing the rituals of his ““New Confederacy,’”’ an idea which the Indians at first greeted with mixed feelings; and it was only later, when he commenced making collections for the New York State Cabinet, that his interests became primarily scientific. His intense interest in rank, adoption, and place names gradually made room for the manufacture of moccasins and the finer detail of ceremonies (Gilchrist, 1936).’ 7 Morgan commenced his study of the Iroquois in 1841 (vol. 1, No. 18). He discussed the Iroquois with E. S. Parker on September 27, 1845 (vol. 1, No. 19); and on October 1, 2, and 3, he and George Ripley of Rochester attended a Six Nations Council on Tonawanda Reservation (vol. 1, Nos. 12, 15). Jimmy John- son, successor to Handsome Lake, recited the prophet’s message on October 12 and 13, and Ely Parker sent Morgan an English Synopsis (vol. 1, No. 16), reprinted in A. C. Parker (1919, pp. 252-268). December 16, Morgan was at Onondaga (vol. 1, No. 6). The first of the year 1846 in Rochester, Morgan awaited reports from Ely Parker while the Tonawanda chiefs deliberated for 2 days the possible benefits Morgan’s ‘‘New Confederacy’”’ might achieve in their dispute with the Ogden Land Company (vol. 1, No.3). Field notes for January 27, 1846 (vol. 1, No. 5), were made while a guest of William Parker, Ely’s father, during the Midwinter Festival at Tonawanda (vol. 1, No.5, pp. 69-73). After a short excursion to Buffalo Creek, he returned on February 6 and observed the White Dog hanging outside the Council house on Sand Hill (vol. 1, No. 5, p. 92; 1901, vol. 1, p. 202). An archelogical reconnaissance in the Genesee valley intervened before his return to Tonawanda again on March 3, 1846 (vol. 1, No. 7, p. 138). In April and May, in fulfillment of the purposes of the ‘“New Confederacy,’’ Morgan carried a memorial to Washington to procure relief against the treaties of 1838 and 1842 at Buffalo Creek, when the Senecas com- promised the Tonawanda Reservation (vol. 1, No. 8; Rep. Special Comm., 1889, p. 29). The following fall, Morgan and two fellow members of the “New Confederacy” left Rochester, October 27, to attend the Harvest Festival at Tonawanda the following day; and in appreciation of the services of the “new society,’’ they were adopted into various clans on Oct. 31, 1846. They remained in the field a week and returned to Rochester, November 7 (vol. 2, No. 1; vol. 1, Nos. 9, 10). As late as 1901, Charles T. Porter vividly recalled their visit, but gives the year as probably 1847 (Morgan, 1901, vol. 2, pp. 157-161). Except for an excellent description of the War Dance (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, pp. 250 ff.), which Morgan says in a footnote occurred at a Mourning Council at Tonawanda in October 1846 (ibid., pp. 251-252), al- though I am inclined to think he meant the previous year, and a reference to a speech by Abraham LaFort ANTHROP, PaP. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 149 Morgan was also a prolific letter writer. A letter from L. H. Morgan to Ely [S. Parker] (see Appendix A), which turned up on Tonawanda Reservation in February 1936, discloses that Morgan was writing an article on the religious system of the Iroquois during the winter of 1850. Finding his notes inadequate, he asks Ely to: send him a description of ‘‘The Six Festivals of the Year,’ which he enumerates as Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green Corn, Harvest, and New Year’s, lamenting that he has only attended two of the six—the Harvest Festival and Midwinter, or New Year’s, Festival. The letter sheds light on several problems. The six festivals which Morgan enumerates in his letter are the same six which he describes in the League (1901) and which are still celebrated somewhat differently at Newtown and Coldspring longhouses. With a single exception, the Green Bean Festival, Morgan’s enumeration and de- scription is that of the present Tonawanda cycle. His journals and letter say nothing about a Bean Festival. There is the Bopaae which Simeon Skye first suggested to me in 1934, that. . . .. “The Tonawanda band have borrowed the Bean Festival, since Morgan’s day, from the New York Onondaga, who share it with their Canadian tribesmen.” ® However, Tonawanda’s oldest in- habitants—Charles Blackchief, well over eighty, and Peter Doctor, in his seventies—remember the performance of the Bean Festival as a well-integrated ritual from their earliest childhood. The process of culture change implies inevitably a progressive loss of older forms; this would mean a sloughing off of festivals, a process that Morgan had already noted in the abandonment of a Whortleberry Festival; and since the Bean Festival repeats the ceremonial pattern of Tona- wanda longhouse, which recurs at the five festivals of the year asso- ciated with agriculture when returning thanks to the Creator for the germination, progressive growth and fruition of cultivated plants, (Onondaga) as of 1847 (ibid., p. 222), the next field data are Speeches delivered at a council of the Iroquois held at Tonawanda, October 4, 5, 6, and 7, 1848, for the purpose of raising life sachems (Gilchrist, vol. 1, No. 1; Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 222). These speeches together with a transcription of Johnson’s recitation of the Handsome Lake Region, translated by Ely S. Parker, form the bulk of Book 2, Chapter 3, of the League (1901, vol. 1, p. 223 ff.). This seems to be the council for which Morgan, as we shall see presently, requested a report in his letter of January 29, 1850. In May 1849, Morgan visited Onondaga (Gilchrist, 1936, vol. 2, No. 2) and Oneida Castle (vol. 2, No. 3), recording the Sachem names for the confederate councillors. On November 30, 1849, he was once more a guest of William Parker’s Tonawanda home while studying material culture and collecting for the State Museum (Gilchrist, 1936, vol. 2, No. 4); and December 7, 1849 (ibid., vol. 2, No. 5), was Morgan’s last field trip to Tonawanda prior to his letter of January 29, 1850, to Ely. However, later in 1850, Morgan made two field trips: On October 28 to Grand River, Ontario (Gilchrist, 1936, vol. 2, No. 6), and another, December 26, to Tonawanda (ibid, vol. 2, No. 7), collecting for the State Museum, and prior to his publication of the League in 1851. Following the appearance of his famous work on the Iroquois, Morgan did not return to Tonawanda until 1858, and then for 6 days, November 6-11, to obtain degrees of relationship (Gilchrist, 1936, vol. 2, No. 11). The last entry of possible Tonawanda source material is a record in 1865 of a Conversation with E. S. Sha- wano, an Ojibwa, and N. Parker, Ely’s brother from Cattaraugus (ibid., vol. 6, No. 4). 8 Fenton, 1936, p. 6; Beauchamp, 1891, p. 42; 1922, p. 189 (where Beauchamp notes Morgan’s omission); Goldenweiser, 1913, p. 471. 218558—40——11 150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bur 128 I am inclined to believe that the Bean Festival is an old Seneca observance at Tonawanda rather than an idea which someone brought back from Onondaga and promoted within the old Tonawanda pattern. Confession, which used to precede all festivals, and the possibility that the wampum strings which were hung about the White Dog’s neck when it was burned on the fifth day of the New Year might be the confession strings, worried Morgan. In writing the League, he decided that the White Dog was not the scapegoat for the sins of the community. He was not quite sure that the festivals constitute a fixed recurring cycle, antedating the teaching of Handsome Lake. The nature of the Thunderers and the concept of a good and an evil spirit bothered Morgan. He asks about witches and the doctrine of supernatural personages; and his queries concerning the number, titles, and manner of election of longhouse ritual managers, whom he calls Keepers of the Faith, indicate a firm grasp of Seneca social structure. Since the answers to Morgan’s letter are incorporated in the first two chapters of book 2 of the League, the enigma of the Bean Festival renders Ely’s letter doubly interesting.? First, Parker’s letter reveals the degree to which Morgan depended on his Indian collaborator. Certain characteristic styles of expression in the League are not entirely Morgan’s, and they appear to have crept into Morgan’s writing from Ely’s letters. Ely, also, at times, reflects the flowery style of his tutor: the informant bears the mark of the ethnologist. Secondly, Morgan’s letter reached Ely at Ellicottville, 67 miles away from his Tonawanda people, where he was living among the whites as an Engineer for the Holland Land Co. Ely found the festivals difficult to recollect when considered apart from their natural setting. They are at best group phenomena closely integrated with village life and agriculture, celebrated by friends and relatives who share a common faith and a definite social organization which more or less prescribes the role of the individual. Lacking immediate nexus of kin and locality, Ely followed Morgan’s questions. Whether or not in 1850 his people considered a Thanksgiving Festival for the green beans a definite station in the yearly cycle of ceremonies, as my oldest informants now insist, Ely omitted any reference to it and so has Morgan. Certainly, Morgan’s regret of attending but two festivals, my failure to discover in his journals evidence that he ever visited Tonawanda in summer, Ely’s silence, and the memory of two old men have vitiated historical reconstruction on the basis of the six festivals which Morgan enumerated, and which, from present distribution and the testimony of Old Silverheels at Cattaraugus 9 Morgan methodically bound his correspondence and field notes into 8 journal volumes, containing 80 separate memoranda, which passed at his death to the University of Rochester. I am deeply indebted to Donald B. Gilchrist, Librarian of the University, who kindly helped me identify Ely’s reply in the first journal volume, and then cooperated in providing a photostatic copy (Gilchrist, 1936, pp. 385-390). AnTHRoP, PAP. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 151 before 1890 (Caswell, 1892, p. 215), I had believed were old Seneca festivals, asserting that the Bean Festival had diffused to Tonawanda since 1850. Morgan appends a list of 32 dances in his League, classifying them as mixed, women’s, and men’s dances. Of these, 3 are sacred rites addressed to the Creator; 2 war dances are now associated with the Sun and the Thunderers, respectively, in rain-making ceremonies; 4 social dances are associated with 5 festivals devoted to pro- pitiating food spirits; 11 of the song series belong to medicine societies whose rites are restricted to members only; and the rest are social dances. A few dances are now becoming obsolete. CONCLUSION The yearly cycle of ceremonies at Tonawanda longhouse fall into the general framework or pattern of all Iroquois longhouse rituals which Dr. Frank G. Speck discovered among the Cayuga. Seven festivals survive. The celebration of five festivals with the same succession of dances, the inclusion of a Bean Festival, and the sequence of the Four Great Ceremonies at the New Year and Green Corn Festivals constitute the ceremonial pattern which is peculiarly Tona- wanda. Lewis Henry Morgan has left us the best published account of the Tonawanda longhouse festivals; but his limited opportunity for observation prevented his grasping the importance of the medicine societies, and it caused him to omit one of the festivals; and he had to depend on his correspondent, Ely S. Parker, who was somewhat prone to compare Indian customs with those in the Bible. And lastly, Morgan realized and discussed the essential sameness of the festivals, describing how particular speeches are repeated from time to time, and perhaps he anticipated the pattern concept, but he attri- buted his treatment of the Tonawanda cycle to all of the Iroquois. APPENDIX A L. H. MorGAN TO E. S. PARKER RocHEstsErR, Jonuary 29, 1850. Dr. Exy: I wish to trouble you now for a favor which will require a little of your time and patience. I am now writing an article upon the Religious System of the Iroquois and find on many points my information is not sufficiently minute. I wish you would sit down as soon as you receive this and give me a description of the proceedings at the 6 festivals of the year. 1. The Maple Dance. When was it instituted? How many days does it last? What is done? give me a descrip- _ . tion. 2. Planting Worship. When was this instituted? How many days does it last. Is it before or after planting. What does the feast consist of.—Describe the mode of proceeding and what the leading motive is. 3. Strawberry Feast. [See pl. 15.] Does this come before or after Planting.— What does the feast consist of. If of Strawberries how are they prepared.—What is done at this festival and how long does it generally last. describe it. 4. Green Corn Worship. How long 152 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butr. 128 does it last. Is the feast of Succotash—Do you always have a religious discourse at these councils. or does it all consist of dances and short speeches which precede them. Neither of these four celebrations have I ever attended. and as I must describe each one minutely. I must look to you for a general and full explanation of them all. 5. Harvest Corn Worship This I have attended. Is that prayer you gave us giving thanks to the sun. & moon. & thunder & trees & birds used at this feast. or is it confined exclusively to the New Years. Give me the general idea of this festival. 6 & last the New Years. This I undersiand preity well from what I have seen & the explanations I have had from you and others. Still there are some things about it I do not comprehend. Does Each person go near the Dog and make a confession of his sins in silence? How is it about the String of Wampum. It is always put about the neck of the dog. I understand Each one talks his individual sins into this “string.” after which it is hung around the dogs neck & burned with him—Explain this whole proces minutely and you will oblige me greatly. The Spirit of the dog ascends to the Great Spirit and carrys the prayers of the people. Is that the idea of sacrificing the dog? What time in the 5th day is the dog burned. at Sunrise or towards noon. Is he taken down from the pole over night or does he hang on the pole from the Ist to the 5th day. I wish you would describe the proceedings of this day methodically. I have the prayer but none of the other speeches. If you can remember them, or any part of them I wish you would write them down for me as full as you can in their order. I have been anxious for years to get this ceremony written down. I have tried this (?) repeatedly but without success. How are dreams worked off by confession—Are the same round of ceremonies. and the same speeches and dances used year after year in these 6 festivals. Let me ask you also if these six festivals were not instituted long before Hand- some Lake began to preach. These I suppose are a part of the old system. Under the old System also the Great Spirit is not regarded as the Creator of the world. This idea appears to have been introduced by Handsome Lake. The idea of future punishments also I take to be a part of the New System. and no part of the old. How do you understand it—Under the old System & new the Iroquois believed in the Great Spirit, the Evil Spirit (Send me the name of the Evil Spirit) & He is the spirit of thunder. What other Spirits or Gods did they believe in. Give me the Indian names and office of each. I find in my notes that He-no consisted of four persons. Tell me the Indian name and office of each of this also (?) I suppose one of them must be the Chief God of thunder and the others assistants. The doctrine of Witches & supernatural personages. Will you explain it briefly—Do the Indians pretend that man ever saw the Great Spirit One other thing I wish explained and that is the Committee or Prompters or Managers as you call them who are appointed on each reservation (?) to take charge of the dances the festivals. & religious discourses. How many are there at Tonawanda, or about how many. Do they hold their office for life? Are they appointed by the whole people or by the Tribe or by the Chiefs or by the Women. Explain the manner of their appointment. the term of their office their duties. & their numbers. I wish to understand this part of the system. What is the name in Seneca of the whole Committee as a Body & what the name of each one, includes a single committeman— Now if you can write me about two sheets of Cap paper at least in answering all these questions as I wish them answered. and I shall esteem it a new favor if you will take your earliest leasure. [sic] and give me full answers to all these inquiries and such other explanations and discriptions [sic] as you may think 10 Ttalics added.—W. N. F. AnTHROP, Pap. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—-FENTON 153 suitable-—When you have finished your answer I wish you would then read over this letter again & see if any questions are passed over in your answer. ‘If it would not be asking too much of you at one time I would like exceedingly to have your Report of the Council which we have had so long in view.—I need it now to use. I will send you in a few days my Report to the Legislature on the Indian fabrics which I collected at Tonawanda for the Indian Collection. It is not yet printed '— Did you see the notice of the introduction by Mr. Burroughs of Orleans of my Bill for Support and Education of a limited number of Indian youths at the State Normal School (?) I wrote a memorial to the Regents of the University on the subject of opening this school to our Indian youth, and asked for an appro- priation to organise (?) and support a small class (?) at the Normal School. The Governor read my memorial, and recommended it in his message. I went to Albany Jany 1. and before I left. I got a resolution passed by the Executive Committee of the Normal School approving the plan. We also got (?) up a bill appropriating $1000 a year for two years, giving each student $100. a year & 3 cents a miles for mileage—This you see will support ten scholars. The Governor approves of the bill & I think it will pass. But we cannot tell of course as yet. Nic. Newt- and Caroline ® will go down I think if the law passes. It will take effect May 1. You must find a few at Allegany and Cattaraugus to try the experiment. Marsh the Resident Engineer said he thought he could give you a situation in his office in the Spring. if you wished to commence again as you did at Mt. Morris.4% You would have a fair chance to work your way up. If it would be any inducement to you let me know and I will keep watch for you, & I think you can obtain the situation if you wished it. [p. 17.] L. H. Morgan APPENDIX B E. S. PARKER TO L. H. MORGAN ELLICOTTVILLE, Feb. 12, 1850 Dear Sir: Upon much reflection, and having carefully read your letter, I am free to confess that I consider myself totally unable to answer your several inter- rogations satisfactorily [sic] either to you or to myself. I have at many different times written to you upon the subjects concerning which you now ask further information. I do not now recollect what I have said respecting them, and in my present answer I may say many contradictory things. And I will further, at the outset, tell you that I do not profess any great knowledge upon the several subjects and questions you have sent me to answer. [Pl. 17.] MAPLE THANKSGIVING I will answer your letter in the order you have put your questions, First then the Maple Dance. I cannot tell you when it was instituted, and I will say now in 11 Morgan, 1852, pp. 67-117. An abbreviation of this article appeared in Stryker’s American Register and Magazine, vol. 4, July 1850, Trenton, N. J. (Gilchrist, 1923). 12 Nicholson Henry Parker, Newton Parker, and Caroline Parker, Mount Pleasant, brothers and sister of Ely S. Parker, were among the first Indians educated at the New York State Normal School. 13 Morgan here refers to Ely’s early experience as a land engineer about Mount Morris in the Genesee valley. Later, after Ely learned he could not be admitted to the bar, this adventure led to his studying at Rensalaer Polytechnic Institute and to a post superintending the improvement of the western end of the Erie Canal (Parker, 1919, pp. 77, 79, 91). 4 This signature appears in the right-hand margin of the last paragraph of the letter. (See pl. 16.) 154 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Burt, 128 regard to all the dances that I cannot tell when any of them were instituted. They are all among the ancient customs of the Iroquois, and are all, besides many other feasts which are now discontinued, spoken off [sic] by all the early writers, both French and English—The Maple Dance continues only one day. This is a thanksgiving festival to the Honor of the Great Spirit, that he has caused the good tree to again produce its sweets for the comfort of man. There are a variety of ceremonies & dances at this time, but the principal one is the grand religious & or thanksgiving Dance. This dance you know is always in honor & praise of the Great Spirit. PLANTING FESTIVAL (SEED DANCE) 224 The Planting worship continues only one day, I believe—It is held at the most convenient season, but must & is always at or about planting time. There is no peculiarity in the feast, it consists of course of what they can get.—The leading object of this festival is twofold; first to return to the Great Spirit thanks for the return of the planting season, and second, that his blessing might rest upon the seed they should (?) & had sown to give them a plentiful crop and an abundant harvest— STRAWBERRY FESTIVAL 3'4 The Strawberry Feast, comes off of course when the strawberrys [sic] get ripe, which I believe is in June sometime, and would of course bring it after planting season or cornplanting time—They have all they can get to furnish this feast, but strawberries form the principal ingredient of the materials, and is prepared by being jammed and then sweetened with Maple Sugar,'® so that when it is prepared it looks like jelly, & of this each partake more or less as they have the opportunity. Sometimes water is put in, if the mixture is too thick, which is also taken either in a ladle or dipper. It is when taking this that many (?) make a thanksgiving prayer & talk to the Great Spirit—They return him thanks that he has again permitted them to taste of the first fruits of the Earth.—They pray him to spare their lives to another similar season. The whole proceedings is nothing more than a thanksgiving festival. The grand religious dance forms the principal drama in the feast." GREEN CORN FESTIVAL 4*® Green Corn Worship.—This generally lasts 3 days. The time is spent in feasting and dancing. It is opened by a religious discourse from the Grand High Priest or one of his Deputys.—They have a number of dances during the time, but the principal ones are the Grand Religious & Thanksgiving dance.—I say that this opened by a religious discourse, of course, you are not to understand that I mean a discourse like Johnsons annual,'8 but a statement of the invariable custom from time immemorial to celebrate this event with religious ceremonies, & says that it is a duty incumbent upon the people to recognize this custom & institution of the Great Spirit, who had ever required men to return thanks to him for every return & expression of his goodness—The speaker enjoins upon the people to examine themselves & see that they harbor no ill will to anyone, thus to come up to the festival with pure thoughts and right minds—. 16 The Thanksgiving Dance (gane’o’0) is not included in the program of the present Maple Festival at Tonawanda. 16 Now, about 5 pounds of granulated white or brown sugar is used to sweeten the “‘berry juice.” 17 Here again, I think Ely’s memory has failed; perhaps he means Feather Dance. 18 Ely refers here to Jimmy Johnson (Soshe’owa®”’, “Great-burden-strap”), the first priest of the Hand- some Lake Revelation, who was preaching at Tonawanda when Morgan visited it (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, pp. 223 ff). AnTurop, Pap. No.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON years HARVEST THANKSGIVING FESTIVAL (BREAD DANCE) 5‘® The Harvest Corn Worship.—This in its principal features is the same as the Green Corn Feast with the adoption of that speech I gave you.!® Thanks to the sun, moon, stars, the Thunderers etc., when they dance the Go-na-o-oh dance.2° The Grand Religious, Thanksgiving & Thunder dances are performed at this time.—This is intended only & purely as a thanksgiving festival, for the abundant harvest reaped, and the constant return of the great blessings bestowed by the Great Spirit. NEW YEAR OR MIDWINTER FESTIVAL 6 & last the New Years Festival—Ist in regard to the confessions of the people— All the confessing of sins is done publicly before the Festival commences. This custom is adhered to now & has been for a long time, and is required & enjoined by our religion that all may come to the Festival free from sin—These confessions are made also before the commencement of the green corn & Harvest festivals. At the New Years festival, I am not aware that any person approaches the dog to confess his or her sins, though I admit that many confess in silence but not near the dog intentionally. I am not aware also, though I am conscious of the opinion you entertain respecting it, that this string of wampun into which the confessions are put, is the same that is put around the dogs neck. I hardly believe it is. And whether it is or not, it will make no difference as to the object and result. Now with us the white wampum is an emblem of peace & purity.—The dog is the only & most faithful companion (the) Indian has in the hunters state. The Indians therefore consider the trusty character of the dog. & they sacrifice him as a messenger and present to the Great Spirit, & they put the wampum about his neck to show to the Great Spirit his character and intentions. My phraseology in the last sentence may be wrong. By his character, I mean, that he is only a thanksgiving offering. It does not appear, nor is it pretended, that it is a type of anything, as to the ancient Offerings and Sacrifices we read of in the Old Testament—The wampum, always put about its neck, indicate to the Great Spirit the continued adherance [sic] of the Nation to the primitive faith—The dog is strangled upon the morning of the first day, when the wampum is put about his neck, not by any particular person, but by someone, while others put upon him ribbons and paints, & for every favor and gift so bestowed, the giver expects a blessing. It is then, when so prepared, hung upon a pole, which is also decorated with paints and ribbons. It there hangs day & night until it is taken down to be burnt; and it is burnt early in the morning, just as the day dawn begins to appear in the east.—At this time, & during the time the dog is burning a speech is made by the High Priest or one of his Deputies. The altar is only a few sticks of wood. When the Dog is thrown in, the priest throws into the fire a quantity of tobacco, at the same time giving three whoops to call the attention of the Great Spirit. He then commences his speech. Great Spirit, Maker of us all. Listen now to what we shall say (3 whoops). Lend a kind ear to the thanks of thy people—.They thank thee that thy blessings have been so_plentifully bestowed upon them during the past year. (3 whoops) Great Spirit, Our words 19 Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 192. 2” (gane’o’?). During this dance aspeaker from each moiety or a single speaker interrupts the singers to intone prayers of thanksgiving to the Creator, hence Morgan called it Thanksgiving Dance. Prior to Handsome Lake, during the period of the Cherokee and the Catawba wars and earlier, it afforded an oppor- tunity for warriors to brag of the number of scalps taken on various expeditions; but the prophet advocated substituting thanksgiving prayers for war records which after cessation of the wars only incited domestic feuds [Henan Scrogg]. 156 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But. 128 continue to flow towards thee—Preserve us from all dangers. Preserve our aged men. Preserve our Mothers. Preserve our warriors. Preserve our children. Give us wisdom. (38 whoops) we burn here tobacco; may its smoke arise to thee. We have also offered another sacrifice. May its spirit arise to thee & be accept- able. (38 whoops) The wampum we send as our pledge of sincerity—(3 whoops) Great Spirit, Remember us. Great Spirit, Maker of us all, we have done— This is about the substance of the speech made upon the occasion—tenor of it is the same among the Iroquois so far as I have heard. I am unable to give you a minute description of each days performance, having never taken any notes,?! and can only relate from memory. The original custom of this festival was to burn two dogs. You know the clans among the Indians are divided into two classes, each styling the other ‘‘Cousins,”’ and it was the custom & still is among the Onondagas for each Class to provide and burn a dog. They meet in separate buildings & when they are burnt the two classes meet when the dogs are carried out together and burnt together.”2 As to dreams, I know not whether they are confessed. During the New Years festival there is a great deal of dreaming & guessing of dreams. The ceremony is simply this. A person apparently dejected advances into the room & says will some one guess my dream. Each person guesses, & when anyone guesses the person responds & feels much pleased. A present is then made to the Dream- er, & in this way presents accumulate, out of which a dance is got up from the presents. As to the many speeches that are made at this festival, I cannot send them to you. My memory is not powerful enough to recollect them, so many and diversified are they in their nature—This part of your answer will therefor remain unanswered. I send you in this connection a thanksgiving speech published by Baron Le [sic] Hontan in his work. I have frequently heard the same sentiments and 1 therefore have doubt but that it was used by the ancients. That portion however relating to enemies & huntsmen (?) are now omitted—‘“‘Great Spirit, Master of our lives, Great Spirit Master of all things visible and invisible. Great Spirit Master of the spirits whether good or evil—Command the good spirits to favor thy children. Command the Evil spirits to keep at a distance from them. O Great Spirit keep up the strength and courage of our warriors, that they may be able to stem the fury of our enemies. Preserve the old persons, whose bodies are not quite wasted that they may give counsel to the young. Preserve Our Children. Enlarge their number. Deliver them from Evil spirits to the end that they may prove our support and comfort. Preserve our parents and our beasts, if thou meanest that we should die of hunger. Take care of our villages, and guard our huntsmen in their hunting adventures. Deliver us from all fatal surprises when thou ceasest to vouchsafe us the light of the sun, which speaks thy grandeur and power. Acquaint us by the spirit of dreams, with that thy pleasure requires of us or prohibits us to do. When it pleases to put a period to our lives, send us to the great country of souls, where we may meet with those of our fathers, our mothers, our wives, our children, and our relatives, O, Great Spirit, Great Spirit, hear the voice of the nation. Give ear to all thy children and remember them at all times.’’ 21 T have employed italics here, as in the preceding letter, for emphasis.—W. N. F. 22 The Seneca and Onondaga clans are grouped into two phratries or moieties that perform reciprocal and complimentary ceremonial functions. 23 Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 192, says in a footnote, ‘‘For similar address in use among the Ottawas, see La Hontan’s North Am., Lond. Ed. 1735, V. ii, p. 34.” ANTHROP. PaP. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—-FENTON 157 THE OLD RELIGION None of the 6 festivals were instituted by Handsome Lake, but he dedicated the Grand Religious and Thanksgiving dances particularly & peculiarly to the worship of the Great Spirit.” You say that under the old system the Great Spirit is not regarded as the maker of the world. This is very true and it is further true that the new system intro- duced by Handsome Lake does not make him the creator of the world. It only confirms the ancient system of theology respecting him.—That He is the Maker of man and all the animals, which man can make useful to him in any way, Also that He blessed & sanctified some of the fruits of trees to the palate of man— They hold further that the Evil Spirit made all poisonous animals and put poison into some herbs and fruits of trees—The entire system consists simply in this that the Great Spirit made all that is good and beautiful, and the Evil Spirit everything that is poisonous and deformed.—Further that the Great Spirit is now the ruler of all things. He wills everything to be done that is good for man.— I do not understand that the idea of future punishments & rewards was unknown to the old system. It is said to have been/was one of its principal features. What is called the new system is only a systematic collection of their ancient notions on these subjects, and was intended only to refresh the memories of all upon their respective duties to one another as members of one great family & of their obligations to their Creator.—This I gather from the sayings of Handsome Lake himself, from the sayings of old men, who were taught before Handsome Lake preached, and from all the early writers upon Iroquois customs religion &c, who are all agreed. The Seneca name for Evil Spirit is 1st Ha-ne-go-ate,-geh, meaning Evil mind- ed.—2. H§i,-nis-ha-o, noh—His satanic majesty. Ha, nis-na-o-noh, geh, Hell or the place of Evil Spirits—. THUNDERERS I cannot give you the information you require respecting the 4 spirits of Thunder. Iam not aware that they have separate names. Still they may have. The oldest spirit is chief, & they are not Gods, but deputies of the Great Spirit to rule & dispense rain, & destroy Evil Spirits. The youngest of them is said to have been the offspring of a girl who lived at Cayuga above Niagara Falls, & who at one time was lost for the term of one year, during which time she was inter- married with one of the thunderers. Their offspring was a boy, who being at one time ill treated refused to remain longer with his earthly relatives & so translated himself to the clouds & became a juvenile Thunderer—The relation the thunderers sustain to the Indian race & the designating title for them is Grand Parents.— The Iroquois do not pretend to have any other God than the Great Spirit. But there are many spirits, who are considered only as messengers & assistants. WITCHES The Indian notion of witches is very vague—But they are all agreed that such a thing as a witch exists, and they believe that the witch is human, either male or female & may be either young or old. By some means or other, yet unknown to 2% Here, Ely refers to Grand Religious, really Great Feather (’osto’we’go’wa’’), and theso-called Thanks- giving Dance, literally skin drum head (gane’o’Q). Handsome Lake revised them, but they are oldenough to be included in the cosmologic legends (Hewitt, 1928, p. 559 ff.) For a treatment of the New Religion of Handsome Lake, see Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, pp. 217-248; Parker, 1913; Spier, 1935. 158 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Burt. 128 me & everybody else except witches, and hence their indefinite notions on witch- craft, a person becomes endowed with the power of doing evil, of destroying lives at their will and pleasure, by means of unseen poison—lt is said that there is a regular and ancient organization of these demons, & that they have a regular initiation and fee. The fee is the life of the nearest & dearest relative or friend of the candidate, and the deed of poisoning to be executed by the candidate upon the eve of admittance. This may or may not be all true, but such is the belief. A witch, it is said, can transform themselves into kind of an animal and assume their shapes & as soon as thought regain again the human shape. They can dwindle down to a mere fox, or assume the huge dimensions of the black Bear, or they can take unto themselves wings and go to distant lands. Now whether this be so or not is altogether immaterial for our purposes, it is sufficient for us that these are their notions & beliefs.—They believe it is an organization of the Evil minded one for there is no good in them, & therefore it was a capital crime for anyone to be convicted of being a witch, and any person is justifiable in killing a witch whenever they are found on their nightly demoniac excursions. I am not aware that the Senecas have any belief in any supernatural per- sonages.— Neither has it ever been pretended that anyone ever saw the Great Spirit. FAITHKEEPERS Your last inquiry respecting, Committees, Managers, & Prompters, I am wholly unable to answer. All I know is that they are elective & hold during the time they adhere to the faith—Their number is not definite or limited. Women can and must hold these offices as well as men.—They are called Ho.nun-de-unt. Literally the Keepers of the word or faith, because to them are entrusted the times of appointing extraordinary festivals & religious exercises; & upon the regular festivals they have all the responsibility upon them.— Now Lewis I have done. This will probably be unsatisfactory, but it is the best I can do for you.—I have made out to deceive myself and write more than I expected.—But I send you the whole as it is——The report I cannot send. It is very long & full & I have no time to copy it, & notwithstanding my promise, I do not feel disposed to copy it for anyone at present.—*% Iam &e Yours EE. S. ParKxer *6 APPENDIX C THE TONAWANDA CEREMONIAL CYCLE A. TIME, DURATION, AND PURPOSE OF THE PERIODIC FESTIVALS I. Midwinter, or New Year Festival: Dream Feast (Jesuits). gani’*ya’so’, derangement. hodinaé’‘ya’s, they are deranged (P. Dr.).?” gaiwanosgwa’’go'wa’’, difficult proposition, riddle (P. Dr.); the difficult ritual (HS). 38 Morgan has asked Ely for a copy of his report of the council, and the particular council is not clear from either letter; but Morgan’s journals contain complete speeches delivered at a council at Tonawanda in October 1848, which Morgan received from Ely S. Parker in 1850 (Gilchrist, 1936, vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-46). This appears in the League (vol. 1, p. 223 ff.). 36 This sheet is signed ‘‘Ely S. Parker’’ in the right-hand margin. (See pl. 18.) 2 Initials stand for various informants: P. Dr., Peter Doctor, Tonawanda; HS, Hanover Spring, Tona- wanda; NYSM, New York State Museum ms. by Nicholson Parker, circa 1850; Ch. B., Charles Blackchief, Tonawanda; HRE, Henry Red-Eye, Coldspring; and JJ, John Jimmerson, Coldspring. AnTuHRoP. PaP. NO.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 159 yosha’se’, new year (P. Dr.). gand‘yusta‘, (NYSM). Time.—Five days after the new moon of nisgowakneh (late January— February). Duration.—Seven days. Purpose.—Renew ceremonial associations revealed in dreams, renew old dreams, reveal new dreams; return thanks to all spirit-forces. Feature.—Medicine Societies’ celebrations (Feast of Fools); White Dog Sacrifice. II. Maple Festival, or Sap Dance; thanks to the Maple. gahada otoddinonio‘, tree thanking (NYSM). wainontchiiskot, sap boiling (NYSM). e’notcisgo’’, sap boiling (Ch. B.). otadinonyo” ne’ wa’hda’, thanks to the Maple(Morgan, HRE, JJ). Time.—At Maple harvest (March 30, 1935). Duration.—One evening. Purpose.—Thanks to the Maple, the harbinger of spring. II a. Sun Shooting Ceremony: Thanks to the Sun. deodi’nonyo” ga’hgwa’’, they thank the Sun (Ch. B.). Time.—Occasionally in early spring (now obsolete). Duration.—One day. Purpose.—Dislodge frog that is retarding warm weather by engulfing the Sun; implore Sun to grow warm. Feature.—Shooting at Sun; Feather Dance in honor of Sun. III. Planting Festival, or Seed Dance: Soaking of the Seeds. waing’no¢g gwa’So’’, they-the-seeds-soak (Ch. B.). wadno‘nigwa sho't (NYSM). ayent wa ta (Morgan, 1901, p. 186). Time.— When the dogwood is in bloom, early in May (15, 1935). Duration.—One evening. Purpose.—Ask the Creator to bless seeds going into the earth (Morgan) ; appeal to Our-Life-Sustainers, the three sisters—corn, beans, squash; appeal to Thunderers to water the growing plants. Feature.—Morgan says (1901, p. 187) that tobacco burning invocation used in later days, but anciently only at three principal festivals: Green Corn, Harvest, New Year. III a. Corn Sprouting Rite (?). ‘‘Towiissas, an annual thanksgiving ceremony led by the women, in honor of the corn, beans, and squashes’ (NYSM, list of annual festivals (Seneca)). This ceremony, now part of the Green Corn Festival, was apparently performed periodically during the year by the women to stimulate their cultivated plants. It was probably associated with first and second hoeings, celebrated again at Green Corn, and finally at fall harvest. It is sometimes performed at midwinter. IV. Berry Festival, or Strawberry Dance: Dipping the berries. hanunda’ yo (Morgan). wainoda’' yo: they-berries-dip (in water) (Ch. B.). wanondagaet (NYSM). Time——When strawberries ripen in June; fifth day of berry moon (oya’ikneh). Duration.—One morning. Purpose.—First-fruits thanksgiving; first fruit to ripen on the earth (Morgan). Feature—Communion with berry juice. 160 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bout 128 IV a. Whortleberry Festival (Morgan, 1:190). Time.—Ripening of huckleberries, not annual (now obsolete). Duration.—One day (?). Purpose.—Return thanks for first fruits of the shrubs. IV b. Thunder Ceremony, or Rain Dance (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 188). Time.—In case of drought (July 10, 1936). Duration.—One evening. Purpose.—To invoke the Creator to send the Thunderers to water the wilted crops. Feature—Tobacco invocation and War Dance (Sioux Type) to the Thunderers (Morgan); confession of sins which withheld rain, Thanks- giving Dance and Personal Chant. V. Green Bean Festival, or String Bean Dance: Boiling string beans.”8 : gowa’’seo’ (P. Dr.). waingdet{o re, (Ch. B.). wadnodetgowuhseoh (NYSM, in notes by HE. 8. Parker and N. Parker). Time.—When string beans ripen (July 30, 1934; August 6, 1935). Purpose.—Return thanks to Life-sustainers and make crops grow. Duration.—One evening. VI. Green Corn Festival, or Ingathering of Food. Fees aol *wels (P. Dr.) they-food-collect. kwe-k (Ch. B.) honodekweet (NYSM). AH-DAKE’-WA-O, a feast (Morgan). Time.—When the corn is in the milk (late August-September). Duration.—Four days, anciently (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1, p. 196); three days (1847), (Morgan); two mornings and one evening (1935, 1936). Purpose.—Thanks to Creator and Life-supporters that the crops have matured. VII. Harvest Festival, or Bread Dance: Boiling bread. waingti’hgo’’, they-bread-boil (Ch. B. and P. Dr.). Do-yo-nun-neo-qua-na Deoha’ko, thanks to Our Supporters (Morgan, 1901, vol. 1; p. 197). wanontekweet (NYSM). Time.—Late fall after gathering and storing crops for winter. Duration.—Four days (Morgan); one evening (1935). Purpose-—Return thanks to the Creator, his appointed ones, and Life- sustainers for a bountiful harvest. Feature.-—Council of Faith-keepers decides to hold the Midwinter Festival following their return from fall hunt. B. PERIODIC MEDICINE SOCIETY CURES AND RENEWALS I. False-face Society Visits. Time.—Early spring and late fall; also at midwinter. Duration.—One day. Purpose.—Drive sickness and disease from the settlements. 28 Lacking at Coldspring and Newtown, but present at Onondaga and the Canadian longhouses; it is mentioned in notes by E. S. Parker and Nicholson Parker in the files of the New York State Museum at Albany. ANTHROP, Pap, No, 15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—FENTON 161 II. Little Water Medicine Company Meetings. Time.—(1) Spring meeting, when berry moon is 5 days old (June); (2) autumn meeting, when moon of ge’okneh is 5 days old (in the middle of October) (October 19, 1936); (3) midwinter meeting, when the Medicine has been used since the fall meeting. Duration.—Throughout one night. Purpose.—Renew strength of the Little Water Medicine; rearrange the sacred bundles. Feature.—Fifth group of songs sung at fall meeting. III. Chanters for the Dead, ’Ohgi’we. Time.— Winter, about March (not regular—E. 8S. P. in NYSM). Duration.—One night until midnight or all night. Purpose.—Rest the souls of the departed, or the living who have dreamed of them. Feature.—Carry-out-the-kettle; a clockwise dance. C. COMPOSITION OF THE CEREMONIES I. Midwinter Ceremony. a. Preliminary Councils of Faithkeepers. (1) Senior lenghouse officers meet and appoint first meeting of Faith- keepers who meet at the same fireplace (Julia Peters’, January 12, 1936) each year, to commence advancing the “‘head’’ (feast fund). Appoint collectors from each phratry. (2) Hear report of collectors. Appoint day to commence Five Pre- liminary Longhouse Councils to meet 2 days apart until fifth day of the new moon, when the Festival begins. (January 14, 1936). (3) Council of Faith-keepers and Commoners convenes at house nearer longhouse (Wm. Gordon’s, January 16, 1936). Appoint day for Faithkeepers to sit in council opposite the Chiefs and present the ‘‘head’”’ to the Chiefs. (4) Chiefs meet Faith-keepers at house nearest longhouse (Sadie George’s, January 19, 1936). Sit spatially divided opposite each other. Faithkeeper presents ‘‘Head’”’ to Chiefs. Chief accepts. Chiefs instruct Faith-keepers, ‘‘Cut your firewood” (for the festival). Meet 2 days hence at noon at longhouse. b. Chiefs call Preliminary Longhouse Councils to determine the ‘“‘Uncles’”’— Heralds for the Festival. (1) Longhouse council when sun on meridian (January 21, 1936). Sachems ask: ‘‘Who has an old dream? Who has a new dream? Who has a white dog?” If no one replies, appoint 2 days later. (2) Question put before the Sachems (January 23, 1936). (3) Two days later, question put to Subchiefs. (4) Two days later, question put to Faith-keepers and the Common people (warriors). If no one volunteers, then they appoint two heralds. Other appointments for festival. Preliminary night—(January 28, 1936). Night watch of the Uncles. Gunshots at midnight, two shots at 3 a. m., three shots at dawn, then one, two, and three again. First day—The Uncles, ‘“‘the Bigheads,’”’ circuit houses announcing the Festival at 9 a. m., noon, and at dusk (January 29, 1936). 20 There were but four meetings in 1936; informants hinted that there were sometimes five. 162 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bown 128 Second day.—Stirring Ashes rite, Dawn Song (January 30, 1936). The Way is open for the False Faces. Medicine Society rites; dream renewals commence. Third day.—Faith-keepers stir ashes; Dawn Song. Feather Dance. Thanksgiving Dance; ‘‘go around town” through the houses traversed by Uncles. Fourth day—Morning; Dawn Song (February 1, 1936). Bowl Game. Women’s Dance for the Life-Supporters; make the circuit of houses. Last day of dream derangement and fulfillment; and on into the night. Fifth day.—Big day at the longhouse (February 2, 1936). Morning: White Dog Sacrifice and Tobacco Offering; Personal Chant; Feather Dance; Thanksgiving Dance (gane’o’9) ends at noon. Sizth day—Peach Stone game at the longhouse (February 3, 1936). Pt. 2. Large rite of Personal Chant, terminates at noon. Seventh day.—Nothing during the day. Dance for Life-supporters (djghe’hgo) at night at the longhouse: (1) Women’s Dance; (2) Feather Dance; (3) Standing Quiver (Trotting) Dance; (4) Hand-in-hand Dance; (5) Traditional Women’s Dance for the food-spirits, ‘‘Our-life-support- ers.”’ Final dance for the False Faces and the Husk Faces on the Sunday night following the Festival at the longhouse (February 28, 1936). Thanksgiving (da’hg) and floor managers from each moiety: (1) Standing-quiver Dance; (2) Hand-in hand Dance; False Face rite for E. Hill, passage of Husk Faces; (3) Corn Dance; (4) Shaking-a-jug Dance; (5) Sharpening-a- stick Dance, feints at door by False Faces (incomplete). II. Maple Thanksgiving. General Thanksgiving. Tobacco burning invocation to the Maple. Bowl game between the sexes. Social dances: (1) Pidgeon Dance; (2) Quiver Dance; (3) Hand-in-hand Dance; (4) Women’s Dance; (5) Fish Dance; (6) Coon Dance; (7) Shaking-a-bush Dance, or Naked Dance; (8) Duck Dance. (Note that the Feather Dance is absent.) III. Planting Festival. (Same as last night of Midwinter Festival.) IV. Strawberry Festival. Time.—One morning until noon. Purpose.—Thanksgiving. Feature.—Feather Dance in costume. (Intermission during which four women who have been appointed pass berry juice. Individual partak- ing and thanksgiving.) Feather Dance in costume (second part) ; distri- bution of Feast. V. Green Bean Festival. (Same as seventh night of Midwinter and Planting.) VI. Green Corn Festival. Ostensibly similar to last 3 days of the Midwinter Festival, omitting the sacrifice of the White Dog. Duration:—Two to three days depending on whether the bowl game is finished. VII. Thanksgiving or Harvest Festival. (Same as seventh night of Midwinter.) AnTHROP, Pap. NO. 15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—-FENTON 163 D. SPECIFIC RITES AND DANCES ARRANGED IN GROUPS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION Group I. Longhouse Celebrations. A. Rituals addressed to the Creator. 1. Four Longhouse Rituals. Morgan’s list.30 (1) Great Feather Dance. = om & f. (2) Thanksgiving Dance (gane’o’9). By (3) Bowl game. (4) Personal Chant (adg’ we’). 2. Confession. 3. Ashes Stirring Rite. 4. Tobacco invocation over burning White Dog. B. Rituals addressed to the mid-Pantheon and indirectly to the Creator. 1. gano’iowi ’ 2. Thunder Rite (ado’’we’) and War-dance (wasa’’se). 3. Sun Rite (occasionally War Dance, wasa’’se’ eni’’dje’). C. Rituals addressed to earth-bound spirits. 1. At Tonawanda, the following ‘‘Four Ceremonies’”’ are addressed to “the-sisters-our-life-sustainers’’—the spirits of the corn, beans, and squashes, the tutelaries of agriculture: (1) Feather Dance. ee mee fe (2) ga’da’Sot, Standing-Quiver, or Trotting Dance. 4. m. & f. (3) Hand-in-hand Dance, symbolic of bean vines climb- ing corn. By sine eg Ne (4) Traditional Women’s Dance, the dance of the three sisters 16. T. The appeal of these rites extends through B to A. Group II. Medicine Society Rites, restricted to members, and addressed to spirit-forces on earth or above it. 1. Bear Dance. 24. m. (& f. now) 2. Buffalo Dance. Dee m. (& f. now) 3. Eagle Dance. 27. m. 4. False-face. 30. m. (& some rites f.) 5. Husk Faces. ile m. 6. The Little Water Medicine Company and yei’do’s. 7. Otter. 8. Changing Ribs and Quavering. 17 & 19. fe 9. Dark Dance and Charm Holders. ie f. 10. Chanters for the Dead. 15. li 11. Carry out the Kettle. a; m. & f 12. Four-nights ceremony (from Cayuga-Tute- lo) is celebrated by several families. 30 The numbers at the right of the page indicate the place in Morgan’s list of dances; * stands for costumed rites; ‘‘m. & f.’’ for men and women participants. 164 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But 128 Group III. Social Dances. 1. Standing Quiver, or Trotting Dance. 4, m. & f. 2. Hand-in-hand Dance. 3. m. & f. 3. Women’s Dance, with ancient or modern songs. 16. i 4. Fish Dance. : 8.31 m. & f. 5. Coon Dance. m. & f. 6. Dove, or Pigeon Dance. 12. m. & f. 7. Corn Dance. 8. Duck Dance. 11.30 & f. 9. Chicken Dance. & f. 10. Naked, or Shaking-a-bush Dance. 9. & f. 11. Skin-beating Dance (Delaware). 12. Sharpening-a-stick Dance. 13. Robin Dance. 14. Shaking-a-jug Dance (from Cattaraugus). 15. Garter Dance (from Cattaraugus but known). 16. Ancient, or Devil Dance (dji’haya’) (obso- lete). 6. m. &f. 17. Grinding-an-arrow Dance (obsolete). 18. Grinding-dishes Dance (employ wood rasp on a bench for resonator). (Morgan marked this obsolete.) 13. 19. North Dance, or Cold Dance (obsolete). oe 20. Knee-rattle Dance (still known). 14. 21. Arm-shaking Dance (Morgan marked this obsolete. It is still performed by women) .®2 29. m. BIBLIOGRAPHY BEBEBEE & B & BBB ge BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM M. 1891. Iroquois notes. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. 4, pp. 39-46. 1922. Iroquois folk lore. Onondaga Hist. Soc. Syracuse. CaswELu, Harriet S. c. 1892. Our life among the Iroquois Indians. Boston and Chicago, n. d. Frenton, WituraM N. 1936. An outline of Seneca ceremonies at Coldspring Longhouse. Yale Univ. Publ. Anthrop., No. 9. GILCHRIST, DONALD B. 1923. Lewis Henry Morgan: His gifts to the University of Rochester, and a bibliography of his works. Rochester Hist. Soc., Publ. Fund Ser., vol. 2, 19 pp. 1936. Manuscript journals and record of Indian letters by Lewis Henry Morgan in the Rush Rhees Library. A descriptive table of contents. Univ. Rochester, 11 pp. GOLDENWEISER, ALEXANDER A. 1913. On Iroquois work, 1912. Geol. Surv. Canada, summary rep. . . for . 1912, pp. 464-475. Ottawa. 31 Morgan lists this as foreign in provenience, but it has long been an integral part of the dance programs. 32 The rest of the items on Morgan’s list were not identified by my informants. Evidently some dances have appeared since his time, and some others have become obsolete. There is also a possibility that his terms are but synonyms in faulty phonetics for dances now known by other names so that my informants do not recognize them. Antunopr. Pap. No.15] TONAWANDA CEREMONIES—-FENTON 165 Hewitt, J. N. B. 1928. Iroquois cosmology: Second part. 48rd Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1925-26, pp. 449-819. Lowis, Rosert H. 1915. Ceremonialism in North America. Jn Anthropology in North America, pp. 229-258. New York. 1933. Queries. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 288-296. 1936. Lewis H. Morgan in historical perspective. Jn Essays in anthropology presented to A. L. Kroeber, pp. 169-181, Berkeley, Calif. MicHEtson, TRUMAN 1930. Contributions to Fox ethnology—II. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 95. Morean, Lewis H. Ms. L. H. Morgan to Ely [S. Parker]. Letter, Rush Rhees Lib., dated at Rochester, Jan. 29, 1850. Ms. Manuscript journals and record of Indian letters. See Gilchrist, Rush Rhees Lib., 6 vols. 1852. Report on the fabrics, inventions, implements, and utensils of the Iroquois. Rep. N. Y. State Mus., pt. 5, for 1851, pp. 67-117. Albany. 1901. League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois. Edited by Herbert M. Lloyd. New York. Parker, ARTHUR C. 1913. The code of Handsome Lake, the Seneca prophet. Bull. N. Y. State Mus., No. 163. Albany. 1919. The life of General Ely 8. Parker. Buffalo Hist. Soc. Publ., vol. 23. Parker, Ety 8. Ms. Letter from Ely S. Parker to Lewis H. Morgan, Ellicottville, Feb. 12, 1850, describing various Indian ceremonies. See Gilchrist, Morgan journals, vol. 1, No. 21, pp. 385-390, 8 in. X 12% in. REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE TO INVESTIGATE THE INDIAN PROBLEM OF THE State oF New York. 1889. Albany. Speck, FRANK G. Ms. The Cayuga yearly ceremonial cycle, or ceremonial year. Spier, Les is. 1935. The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and its derivatives: the source of the Ghost Dance. Gen. Ser. Anthrop., No. 1, Menasha, Wis. STERN, BERNHARD J. 1928. Lewis Henry Morgan: American ethnologist. Social Forces, vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 344-357, March. 1931. Lewis Henry Morgan: Social evolutionist. Chicago. WIsSLER, CLARK 1917. Comparative study of Pawnee and Blackfoot rituals. Proc. 19th Int. Congr. Amer., Washington, December 1915, pp. 335-339. 218558—40——_12 fo iy st OR } Kay (th; i, * ete is on eh tH ‘gis Giakea ry his CARA oh vals yaad A iy ot eg acai a abs ads Houari jE tobe Minas ie 1a wale Ree tty cae ipaewiee ae & ak we lowe ps PUG: anak rgoldqorst) iin ah avenallh aN \gw bos died abot at inate SEDs Vos Yeti ed risetnonal 4 martin Veh: * ra MY Vaal SONA al tet A tet: CT nlaintle toF a ee ee FRI WS ay A ey i i whl t Sains egret geidTond cee ny a | 4 ¥ +h ‘at TMS aoe. ye at ah ‘hab Mae teh tees * acratiet Bokial th Brood hua niAteTieng ngth Mele with obi O fi nt) Je dlewratu. de ae moroehiyin dG | hebidal, nth) aa CELSNO ROMER aad er eA tad te atu { ‘ i Pat aA At ve JM droduoM ch hota, \wnion port ta, ooemtrgmon- iba mit ion BIN tot ; gale OY A) lie: \iuiea tg een ah ae wr eth Te abo ar ; ait vila ‘ Ph A. ait a BS May's eat Cope tart Wy hattotiivecre seas Ge qil Tot ths ae oh ik Te Af hed Ah Ax wale oman Te ha at aba wea t ‘4 vi at no z mse tol, waits tid REG cen eee ere sip pies 19: EES nhs CCE aio a tS eS Lin debate aH? Go MeatonT Witla wee yba ee D Cutie TUNG tues : on OR IME! cow allay whl bie Jheveddin Vy entivhy. ocala dear OW Acti MT Oh .domiath,toF Ag |cona Yeonnh am CLEn Tt Lap nies 0 tty nodte ll dnlonat Jaiofonyl roo endivaeg hs tena ie feday) ta | ira Ae Nise etree oF . MADE itictsvok rele ee eh aR da tettesinel rene i, oy. ‘ toh Hr! cee ookir ten iatS haa shawrat ha eGote wr beet q MED ARE NT NED qucbenpaet orgie «tebe va a po 4 ify i Daisy Hive Wi y ‘ Ty tas ” AL 4 if 4 Abs weting 7) i VPRE ey dy nih f i % wean j BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 9 1. The longhouse and cookhouse. 2. Indian youths reshingle the longhouse under National Youth Administration. TONAWANDA LONGHOUSE. Ol IVAILSS4 GagS YO 'ONILNV1d SHL LV ..SYSLSIS JAYHL,, JHL AO YONOH NI LSVa4 ALINDWWOD SHL Ae Vdadd SHAdsaayHHLIVA ALV1d 821 NILS311NaA ADOIONH LA NVDIYAWYV AO NVaYNa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 11 THE MEN ASSIST THE WOMEN BY POUNDING CORN. AVAILSSA YALNIMGIW SHL ONIONNONNY ‘SASNOH AHL HONOYHL OD ‘SAVFHSIG AHL ‘SAIONN YNO el SLVdd 8¢el NILSTIine ASOTONHLA NVOIYMAWYV AO NVAYNEaA BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULCERDIM, 126 PLATE AS 1. THE FALSE-FACE BEGGAR DANCERS VISIT A HOUSE ON SECOND NIGHT OF MID- WINTER FESTIVAL. 2, 3. CHARLIE CHAPLIN AND THE DEVIL CAPTURE THE IMAGINATION OF THE CHILDREN. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS STAGE IMPROMPTU DANCE CONTESTS. | OTE ym ew Sig - PIE TG 2 Bee Or sey ey oe 17017 heaprroyy, ¢ AG My page mo erg peg ay grey fe gies “of xy a py oy of ~ hy SG IE Aone wen: meaty Ry ideltidiads Pp Spe re rt 5 yy 59°) Ve hay : my LI st 9 gna RY FORE] Fay ae We a ee ee yon omen Domo arn ee fee be gen be ey of mo wtag gb 9% Gy yop pr en me Saeco y Sl beg 0 wakes ven gop ef se asin Aa , seperti apy ADSONONH LA NVOIMAWY AO NVaynNa By Pt ye ry EG 9 He On, Oe > -. Re ee re ee Ve ay on tb NA ht, Fes dis eee mee ad GC) ea ~of —f Yynn5 7 LOY 7 iy he : si At 2 ae aA y, yy’ : RTS ay —y os 7 seg Aatogy VF oof 2? rf pom Wh! Sp Ip GED BO hd OE A PPA. ee pe pt et opty mn en ong oh ok gone gp ad Sf wrt pe F C4 wort wy of ot > wo) pH pg 7 $e Wb *7e om PO A Be rpg pee aap hang Ey ah oper ~—yyen © tc tt tyme ey any y vamp tif oy 2 enn “Spry "pyre ne ee A os som 90 ay a | eae: Ae YW ye x aerg ~* we 7 ete of” SOY = naff rf ao 7 ee oy OW ih al ASOTIONHLA NVYOIMAWY AO NVvsayNa Seatac decinomisioroe Alario arto 4 2 ‘ Yep EC aps mn oo = .- dat the litiited a elite ite Zz era ce i gap nT ead adapta i ae wore dtd iit a I SOE | ae “AUNLVYNDIS ONIMOHS ‘OG8l ‘Zl AYUVNHESS ‘ATMALLOOINNIW LV NALLIYUM NVSYOW °H “7 OL YSaxMeVd SF WOYSF YSALLAT] AO ADVd LSV7] AO ATIWISOV4 CN A IY 10 y ap Pavan | Wl yorr gre ety y COC OP 7 tp 4 Cia las SAY ap foe i jg 4 “Ye J ay tg? yp 7 DY CL Y 29 4 ogy CHO OOO GDP IP LAO IPT OD Cay RPA ee) regs {OTD ys Y L0 SRS org 2 “fof * RS Dey yf 01 Dy Uprylpean y Dri ms gs Yl g2°"PO"Y » | | ay A LLY PD Ye 909 7 by aR -y DP ped Owe yy orf y yp 4 otk Copa ryty L7 ify | ie FZ GY IR. BA oR ge CT ay Pryor Oy. 790 yy Cho re yp Ty ry 1719 7K 19 hy oy Co eee whem Pe a sae TM? py en GL ale tage Si olorny (22 neg,“ Rei aa Let iG aren Ps, TR TL re meg ey log ES, bei ty 4 Ao? PY, s Ae ee 81 ALW1d 821 NILATINGA ADOTIONHLA NVOIWAWY AO NVvaena SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 128 Anthropological Papers, No. 16 The Quichua-Speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecuador) and Their Anthropometric Relations With the Living Populations of the Andean Area By JOHN GILLIN 167 a} yt rd Oo ee my, Is “ Ny , Whi “a ae TONES Sipe ‘ ; is a \ . al 5 ‘ ‘ By, . \ ' , ; i) Ai ’ of I : ? e VOMUTITant WRIM ORT t 7 + ee a ee Oe = thes ye: * Vas q Wren aol : r ae ee : CAOTTAR Pau er: a ip ¢ i i ROP ACES 7 Mouhled boa woulolh & .mumertadtta to oeality. salt te why i Ja wh +h ; ae yey oe, iets ara fet? molging oe ‘aiphibohaaae ‘a “ASN ge aaniiitada’ Cunt yy maid de ‘AUYA hia) AA te onthe eu ohagy ye “aly ils Laken Ve Witiial ce i sanhiey/ pad Slade it oy hom olaroj te ‘ eh OlGVOW) Then la eiiae rey che BB AB ER) WC Ral Ah OF it by OXI (ial eynot BE Av iy Hn _ sities? tore THE QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS OF THE PROVINCE OF IMBABURA (ECUADOR) AND THEIR ANTHROPOMETRIC RELATIONS WITH THE LIVING POPULATIONS OF THE ANDEAN REGION By Joun GILLIN INTRODUCTION The writer and his wife visited the Province of Imbabura in Novem- ber 1934, on behalf of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. A superficial survey of the culture was made, but the primary object of this visit was to obtain a series of anthropometric measurements and physical observations for the Indians of this region, which repre- sents the last conquest of the Incas toward the north. Measuring and observing were done at Otavalo, near the southern limit of the Province; San Roqué, lying on the western slope of Mount Imbabura about 7 miles northeast of Otavalo; Agato, a com- munity of free Indians about 6 miles south of Otavalo situated on the saddle which separates the basin of Otavalo from that of Lago de San Pablo; and Angachagua, a community of free Indians living in a closed valley at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera about 15 miles southeast of the city of Ibarra. The Indians of the first three locali- ties—Otavalo, San Roqué, and Agato—consider themselves more or less related and, consequently, in the discussion of their anthropometry will be treated as one group in distinction to those of Angachagua. According to available information, both verbal and published, these localities have been least subject to acculturation and least exposed to possible admixture with other stocks (Garces, 1932; Saenz, 1933, pp. 30 ff.). All individuals who admitted Negro or white ancestors or relatives, or for whom such were suggested by our informants, were eliminated from our series after measurement. Only seven such doubtful subjects appeared. Furthermore, adult males only were selected, cripples and other deformed persons being eliminated. Such deformities included two acromegalic giants. Otherwise no selection was practised. A total of 134 individuals was measured and observed, including 108 from Otavalo and associated localities, and 26 from Angachagua. The writer is indebted in the following quarters and hereby wishes, even if inadequately, to express his gratitude to Prof. E. A. Hooton 171 172 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxx. 128 of Harvard University, who advised and counselled him in all phases of this work and who placed the facilities of the Harvard Anthropo- metric Laboratory at his disposal; the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, which financed the expedition, and Mr. Donald Scott, Director; the Government of Ecuador and particularly Dr. Louis Alfonso Merlo, formerly Governor of the Province of Imbabura, who extended the expedition many favors which facilitated its efforts; Mr. Matthew W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, who has undertaken the supervision of the publication of this paper by the Bureau over which he presides; and the writer’s wife who contributed not only her presence but also her energy as recorder and assistant. It is now proposed (1) to tell something of the present mode of life of the Indians; (2) to review pertinent facts from the prehistory of the region in an effort to establish the antecedents of the population under discussion; (3) to present and analyze the results of the anthropological work; (4) to compare these results with apposite series from outside the area; and (5) to present such conclusions as may result from the facts. PRESENT MODE OF LIFE Each community of Iadians in the district is an ethnic group which possesses certain details of culture distinguishing it from other villages. For instance, the form of the large saucer-shaped felt hats worn by both men and women is a common feature of village identification (Garces, 1932; Saenz, 1933, pp. 30 ff.). Except for such minor dis- tinctions, however, the culture of the region is essentially of one pattern. The Indians are divided into two categories as regards social and economic position in the eyes of the law: (1) Those who own the plots of ground which they work and who are called ‘‘free’’ Indians; (2) those who live as tenant farmers on the lands of an hacienda, obtaining the use of a plot of ground in exchange for a specified number of days’ work each week on the lands of the patrén. The modes of life of these two types are not essentially dissimiliar except that the free Indians tend to be much more independent in their political and economic activities. Maize, barley, wheat, quinoa, potatoes, lentils, and beans are the principal vegetable crops, although many others are occasionally grown. The fields are cultivated by hand with wooden spades and sometimes with iron hoes. Mutton, guinea pigs, and, occasionally, wild rabbits contribute to the meat diet. Practically all of the fields, which are seldom larger than an acre, are irrigated with water which is brought from the mountain streams in ditches constructed by the community as a whole. Domestic animals consist of sheep, goats, Anturor. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN Ae guinea pigs (which are usually kept in the houses), dogs, chickens, and, more rarely, asses and horses. The latter are not plentiful among the Indians and are generally used for carrying loads rather than persons. The majority of persons depend upon the strength of their own backs for the transportation of goods. The houses are built of wattle covered with mud, giving an external appearance of adobe construction and have gabled or four-sided pitched roofs with ridge poles. They are thatched with pdéramo foe mee ee aa ow S presse sse2ce= hee ew ewe oem awe eww ww remem me t i] 4 i] t] 1 4 ( ‘ i] 6 ae FiagurE 1.—Angachagua house plan. A, Wood storeroom; B, open porch; C, wooden bed covered with mat of twilled leaves; D, loft for storage; E, rack for storing bags of wool and baskets. erass. Each house is, as a rule, occupied by one family. The dwellings are usually grouped into communities, but they are not situated closely together because each is surrounded by its fields. Associated with the house is usually a kitchen, built on somewhat the same plan, while two or three houses share a large free-standing oven made of clay. In the center of each community is a plaza where is situated the church and the office of the aleade (appointed by the government and usually a literate Indian), and from this center the houses of the community spread out over the cultivated lands to a radius of a mile or two. Beyond the cultivated lands, on the slopes of the nearby mountains, are the community grazing grounds. Figure 1 is a diagram indicating the plan of a typical house and 174 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 the uses to which the various parts are put. Figure 2 shows the construction of the roof frame. A group of four or five houses usually shares a watering hole and laundering place at one of the neighboring streams. In plates 19 to 21 are shown views of the houses and their furnishings. Physical types of the Indians of the Otovalo group and of Agato are shown in plates 22 to 29. Clothes are woven at home from home-spun and home-woven wool and cotton. The costume of both men and women includes the large, platter-shaped felt hats which are made by specialists. Women wear blouses embroidered with colors, full colored skirts, bright sashes, and woolen shawls, as well as brass and silver rings and many strings INTERIOR BRACE RAFTERS RID GE POLE STRINGER § z = Figure 2.—Angachagua roof frame. of gold or brass beads around the neck. Men wear loin cloths, shirts, pantaloons reaching to the calf, and ponchos. The clothing of both sexes is highly colorful and minor details of pattern differ according to the locality. Green dyes are made by mixing quillo and alpapoca plant juices. Most of the other colors are bought at the weekly markets, which move on a circuit and form the most important institution for the exchange of goods. All the people are nominally Catholics, although many survivals of ancient superstition remain. The aboriginal social organization seems to be submerged almost entirely. The language is a dialect of Quichua which is said to differ somewhat from that of Quito. In fact, the Angachagua dialect is in some respects different from that of Otavalo. The Quichua of the region contains a good many more or less modified Spanish words, but few AntHrop. Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN yD Indians are able to speak Spanish as such at all, and it is very unusual to find one who can speak it either fluently or grammatically. As Jijén says (1920, p. 103), the people are living in much the same condition as they probably were at the arrival of the Spaniards, except for the introduction of iron, certain domestic animals and their products, the Catholic religion, and European political control. Of these it seems that the latter has had the most profound influence, because the political and economic life has been much more seriously disrupted than the material culture. SOME ASPECTS OF THE PREHISTORY OF THE PROVINCE OF IMBABURA Before considering the anthropometric work it seems necessary to consider what is known concerning the history and prehistory of the region, since, to a certain extent, the significance of our findings depends upon the proper identification of the people we are studying. The people speak Quichua—are they predominately of Incaic or Peruvian blood; or, if not, what elements may have gone into their physical make-up? To shed some light on this question a survey of the literature has been made and the evidence will be summarized under the following heads: (1) Historical-traditional, (2) archeological, (3) linguistic. The physical evidence will be deferred to the fourth section after presenting the results of our own anthropometric investigation. The present Province of Imbabura had been conquered by the Inca Huayna Capac some 70 years previous to the arrival of the Spaniards (Reyes, 1934, p. 26) and the traditions of the previous sovereigns were extant in the time of the chroniclers who followed the European invaders. Before the coming of the Incas, therefore, this region, according to Velasco (1841-44, vol. 2, pp. 4 ff.), was occupied by the tribe of the Caras. They lived in the interandine valley in what is now the major part of the Province of Imbabura. Their territory was bounded on the north by the Rio Chota, which separated them from the Tucano-speaking Pastos. On the west beyond the cordillera, lived the Barbacoas, and east of the region on the Amazonian side of the mountains, were the Cofanes and the Quijos. The Cara had extended their dominion over the Canaris probably south of Riobamba (Velasco, 1841-44, vol. 2, p. 6), although Rivet regards 0/31” south as the southern limit of their effectual distribution, because of the absence of place names with the Cara ending, -pi, beyond this parallel. We are told that the tola burial mounds, associated with the Cara culture, are not found south of the Rio Guallabamba (Verneau and Rivet, 1912 and 1922, vol. 6, p. 15), and Cieza de Leén (1853, p. 392) reports that south of this river a 176 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxy,. 128 different language was spoken in the villages of Panzaleo and Ma- chachi. There is thus some disagreement as to how far south the Cara occupation extended, but all reports point to the fact that they did occupy the Province of Imbabura. In 1582 the villages inhabited by Indians in the region of Otavalo were enumerated by the local Spanish administrator who gave the Indian population of his district, which is roughly the southern two- thirds of the present Province of Imbabura, as 11,252 souls (Ponce de Léon, 1881-97, vol. 3, p. 111). According to Velasco (1841-44, vol. 2, pp. 2-9), the Caras were invaders who arrived in Manabi on the Pacific coast of Ecuador on large rafts, coming from the west. They first occupied the region between the Bay of Charapoté and the Cape of San Francisco, and founded a village, or town, named Caraques. They later migrated along the coast toward the north, because increase of population and dissatisfaction with the tropical climate demanded territorial expan- sion. They discovered the mouth of the Rio Esmeraldas and an easy way into the interior by ascending the river. About A. D. 980 the Caras found themselves far up the Rio Blanco, a tributary of the Esmeraldas, on the slopes of Mount Pichincha (Means, 1931, p. 147). After establishing themselves in the Otavalo region, they moved south under the leadership of the Scyri (meaning chief, or king) and conquered the so-called Kingdom of Quitu, which was apparently a loose confederation of rather low-cultured tribes or eroups established very anciently in the region surrounding the present city of Quito. The earliest conquests of the Caras, according to Velasco, lay north of Quito and included Cayambe, Otavalo, and Tusa (modern San Gabriel). The seventh Scyri extended the conquests south of Quito, conquering the present Province of Latacunga with little difficulty. Attempts to subdue the warlike tribe of Puruha, whose capital was Riobamba, were unsuccessful and finally a friendly alliance was made with this power. The eleventh Scyri, however, managed to arrange a marriage between his only child, a daughter named Toa, and the heir of the Puruha line, named Duchicela. Thus the Caras came into possession of the Puruha territory by marriage about the year 1300, continuing a peaceful expansion by making alliances with the Cafiar and other tribes farther to the south in order to resist the expanding power of the Incas. The Cara period came to an end about 1450 when the Inca Tupac Yupanqui began his successful campaigns against the southern allies of the Scyri. This account of Velasco has been accepted by Means (1931, p. 125), Gonzalez Suarez (1890-1903, vol. 1, chap. 1), and Verneau and Rivet (1912 and 1922, vol. 6, pp. 14-21), among others. The authenticity of the chronicler has been attacked principally by Jijén y Caamafo. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 177 Although there seems to be good reason to doubt some of the details of Velasco’s account of the Cara movements and political organiza- tion, there are, on the other hand, valid linguistic and archeological grounds for believing that the plateaux of Imbabura were populated by a people from the coast several hundred years before the Inca invasion. The culture of the Caras, mostly on the authority of Velasco, may be summarized briefly as follows: Clothing consisted of a large cloth draped over the shoulders and held with a sash around the waist. The weaving of cotton and wool, as well as the tanning of hides, was well known. Houses were small and round, of wattle covered with mud, and with roofs thatched with pdiramo grass on wooden frames. Principal foods consisted of maize, beans, potatoes, camotes, rabbits, quina, and a plant called huacamullu. The tribes in the valleys of Quilca and Pimampiro cultivated coca, which they traded to neigh- boring groups at a profit which gave them a higher standard of living than the others. Cultivation of the fields was performed with a sort of wooden dig- ging stick. Llamas were raised, but the meat was eaten by chiefs only. Arms consisted of the javelin which was used with a throwing stick, lance, and sling. Stones were used for axes and clubs. The people were very warlike, and in order to secure their victories, con- structed fortresses in conquered provinces in the form of quadrangular terraplanes of three or four stages, with palisades in which were located structures housing the store of arms. Near the forts were villages where the officers and chiefs of the Province lived. They used a war drum of cylindrical shape made from a single hollowed piece of wood and provided with ears at each end for suspension. In burying the dead, they first stretched the body on the ground at some distance from the house and surrounded it with the jewels and arms of the deceased. Then they raised around it a wall of rough stones, the nearest relatives having the privilege of placing the first stones. These structures are known as folas. The king’s graves were provided with a circular stone chamber with pyramidal stone roof and a door opening toward the east, which was opened only for the interment of a new corpse. ‘The bodies of the kings were “embalmed,” clothed in the royal insignia, and placed in a sitting position around the wall of the chamber. The Caras are said to have worshipped the sun and the moon, and to have venerated the two heroes Pacha and Eacha. The temple of the sun was on the Panecillo, an artificial (?) hill to the south of Quito. The temple was quadrangular in form, constructed of well-cut stone, with a pyramidal roof and a door facing the east. Inside was only an image of the sun in gold. On each side of the door were two columns which served as gnomons for observation of the solstices, and around 178 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buw. 128 the building was a circle of 12 columns, indicating the position of their shadows at the beginning of each month. Offerings to the sun con- sisted mostly of perfumes, resins, fruits, and animals. The temples of the moon were situated on a hill at the opposite end of the city to the north. It was of circular form with round windows, and in the center a silver image of the moon. Above the moon hung a piece of blue cotton cloth representing the sky in which were fixed silver stars. The first day of each lunar month was consecrated to this divinity. The foregoing is Velasco’s account of the Cara religion, but other sources mention such customs as the worship of pumas and large snakes, which we may assume represented the more primitive aspect of Cara religion.! Verneau and Rivet say ‘‘the sun cult seems to be of Peruvian origin as Cieza de Leén declares it to be in the case of the tribes of Chillo and Alangasi (near Quito). Before the coming of the Incas the Caras adored the sky, the high and snowy mountains, where they went under the conduct of their priests to carry sacrifices and offerings when they wished to obtain divine favors. The indigenes of Pimampiro and Chapi had wooden and stone representations of their gods to which they offered white maize, chicha, and coca” (Verneau and Rivet, 1912 and 1922, vol. 6, p. 19). The political organization, according to Velasco, was a centralized aristocratic monarchy consisting of three classes—the Scyris or kings the nobles, and the commoners. The power of the kings, as well as that of the nobles, was inherited by sons to the exclusion of daughters, and in default of sons the title passed to the son of the ruler’s sister’ The new king did not take power until recognized by an assembly of the nobles who, if they considered him unworthy, appointed one of their number to take his place. This assembly, together with the king, decided all questions of general interest and particularly those relating to war. Each social class had its special insignia. All those capable of bearing arms wore a feather crown with a single row of feathers. Nobles’ crowns had two rows of feathers. The king wore the latter type, decorated with a large emerald suspended in the center of the forehead. Real and personal property were both inherited. The Scyri had only one wife, but many concubines, a privilege which was allowed the nobles. Polygamy was prohibited for the common people but divorce was easy and frequent. The Caras were known to be very good lapidaries, especially skillful in cutting emeralds. Although they had no writing, they possessed a form of annotation of events and accounts which consisted of placing in compartments of 1 For summaries of Cara culture, see Verneau and Rivet, 1912 and 1922, vol. 6, pp. 20 ff., Means, 1931, pp. 145-155, Gonz&lez Suarez, 1890-1903, vol. 1, pp. 86 ff.; for original source, see Velasco, 1841-44, vol. 2, pp. 393 ff. AnruropP. Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 179 wood, clay, or stone little pieces of stone of different colors and forms. These records were kept in the temples. So much for a rapid sketch of the Cara culture at the time of the Spanish conquest, as reported by Velasco. Many features sug- gesting Peruvian influence on a substratum of independent culture will be at once recognized. From our point of view it is important to remember this Peruvian influence because it may indicate the possibility of the infusion of Peruvian blood as well. Other evidence also speaks for such admixture. The resistance offered by the Cara tribes to the Inca conquest in the present Province of Imbabura was very fierce, and they suc- ceeded in holding their own against the Peruvian armies for at least 17 years. In this struggle the people of Cayambe, Pifo, Otavalo, Cochasqui, and Caranqui were especially active, and they were only defeated in the end by a stratagem which resulted, as Cieza de Leén tells us (1853, pp. 255-260), in the slaughter of all the able-bodied men at Yaguarcocha (Quichua: Lake of Blood), some 5 miles north of the present town of Ibarra. The survivors were called Huam- bracunas, meaning “‘children.’”’ If this account is true, a large part of the Cara blood of the Province was wiped out about 1467. After the massacre, Huayna Capac is said to have repeopled the Province with mitimaes sent from Peru (Cieza de Leén, 1853, p. 258). Unfortunately, we do not know from precisely which part of Peru these colonists came, but Verneau and Rivet (1912 and 1922, vol. 6, p. 21) on the authority of a reference the writer has not been able to check, mention that the village of Zambiza, situated across a mountain spur some 10 miles to the northeast of Quito, was entirely peopled by Indians sent from the boundary between Peru and Bolivia. A review of the historical material, therefore, tells us of at least three physical strains which may be involved in the present popula- tion of Imbabura: (1) The first inhabitants of which we know anything, called Quitus by Velasco, the people who were inhabiting the plateau at the time of the Cara invasion; (2) the Caras, coming from the coast and probably possessing blood foreign to the territory of Ecuador, if the tradition of their arrival from overseas on rafts is to be taken seriously; (3) Peruvians of uncertain physical type, who came in as soldiers and colonists at the time of the Inca conquest. Let us see what light the other lines of evidence may throw on the problem. Jij6n (1920, pp. 103-105) summarizes the succession of cultures in Imbabura as follows: (1) Painted-vase period, which is earliest, characterized by painted vases of one or two colors on a clear ground; ” (2) well-grave period, in which bodies are buried in lateral gallery at 2 The author says that they are possibly associated with burials in wells under ¢olas, although this seems doubtful on the evidence which he presents. 180 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL. 28 the base of a well 2 to 4 meters deep; (3) Yola period, which the author and others have proved to precede the Inca period (Verneau and Rivet, 1912 and 1922, p. 125; von Buchwald, 1909, p. 156); (4) the Inca period, which in Imbabura was neither— very durable nor very intense. In those places like Caraqui in which the Inca founded stable cities the people were made vassals. In other parts of the terri- tory the Inca influence was confined to numerous intrenched camps and the leaving of vases, while aboriginal life went on side by side with the Peruvian. [Jij6n, 1920, p. 105.] In another work, Jijén (1930) has given a general chronology for the pleateau part of Ecuador, based principally on the stratified site of San Sabastian near the town of Guano in the Province of Cotopaxi. The succession of cultures, beginning with the oldest, is as follows: (1) Proto-Panzaleo I, wavy, comb-made figures incised on pottery, ?—200 B. C.; (2) Proto-Panzaleo II, large decorative motifs on pot- tery in negative painting, 200 B. C.—0; (3) Tuncahuan, pottery decora- tion consisting of negative and over-painting, A. D. 0-750; (4) Guano, pottery showing influence of Tiahuanaco, A. D. 755-850; (5) Elenpata, very stylized, small motifs of textile aspect in negative technique, common to Manta style of same date, A. D. 850-1300; (6) Huavalac, applied faces with bent noses, engraved figures, and remains of nega- tive painting of the preceeding period, A. D. 1300-1450; (7) Puruha- incaico and Inca, 1450-1532. The significance of this for us, lies in Jijén’s views concerning the foreign affiliations of these cultures, which he supports with a thorough study of comparative material. According to him, a primitive popu- lation, like that of the Fuegians or the ancient fishermen of Africa, was succeeded by another which was represented by the diffusion of an archaic culture element somewhat like that of the Valley of Mexico, and here represented by Proto-Panzaleo I. This archaic culture was followed by new cultural waves connected with the southern advance of the Chorotegas before 100 B. C. and represented in Ecuador by Proto-Panzaleo II. This culture was, in turn, followed by yet another wave of Chorotegan influence (Tuncahuan) which was already in- fluenced by the art of the old Maya Empire. The latter wave of culture was met by and blended with a wave of Tiahuanaco influence from Peru, represented by Jijén’s Guano. Jijén claims that Proto- Panzaleo II and the Guano types have been found in the Province of Imbabura, thereby indicating early intrusions of culture, and possibly of peoples, first from the Chorotegan area and, secondly, from Bolivia and Peru. Without repudiating the existence and direction of foreign influ- ences, Means has criticized Jijén’s succession of cultures as failing— to show the existence of any vivid and deep-reaching contrast between the various types. It is quite possible to lump all his types together and say they represent AnTHRoP. Par, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 181 merely a culture which, beginning as a low archaic culture (an integral part of that so widespread in Central and South America), gradually worked its way up through the various grades of the archaic stage until it attained a stage which, though preserving traces of archism (in modelled human faces particularly), was, nevertheless, on a par with Tianhuanco II art in its later years and, like it, was possessed of a metallurgic art. Throughout all this long and gradual upward climb, influences were received far more constantly from the north, i. e., from Colombia and Central America, than they were from the south. Nevertheless, there are clear evidences of influences of an aesthetic sort derived from Tiahuanaco II art toward the end of its career. [Means, 1931, pp. 158-159]. In going through the literature, the writer has been able to find no evidence that an extensive migration accompanied the Tiahuanaco cultural influences from the south, and, since the latter occur with some scarcity in Imbabura, we may conclude for the time being that little infusion of Peruvian or Bolivian blood took place prior to the Inca invasion. There is more to be said, however, for both cultural and physical connection with the north. Gonzalez Suarez was of the belief that the Caribs exercised a strong early influence in Imbabura, basing his belief on finds of occasional urn burials, which he apparently considered to be a Carib trait. Verneau and Rivet (1912 and 1922, vol. 6, p. 127), however, con- sider these interandiane urn burials to be diffusions from the coast, where such finds have been recovered as far south as central Peru. It is also claimed, on what seems to be rather insufficient evidence to date, that certain names, such as Imbabura, Cayambe, and Cotopaxi, are of Carib origin. One should not say, however, that there has been no Amazonian influence on the Plateau. Uhle (1922, pp. 205 ff.; 1932) has summarized the archeological evidence and has made out a good ease for the presence of strong Central American influence both on the coast and in the highlands, including Imbabura. This view is, the writer believes, accepted by most students of the subject (Means, 1921; Jijén, 1930, etc.), although Dr. Samuel Lothrop says that recent finds of Ecuadoran material in Nicaragua show that the cultural movement was not all in one direction. Let us now return to Velasco’s story of the Cara invasion of Imba- bura via the Rio Esmeraldas and see what archeological evidence exists in support of it. Jij6n has summarized three facts which indicate, at least, that the pre-Inca inhabitants of Imbabura must have come from a forested region with a climate different from that of Imbabura, presumably a tropical forest region, since the nearest temperate forest is some 1,500 miles away in Chile (Jijén, 1920, pp. 117-120). These three indica- tions are as follows, according to Jijén: 1. According to early accounts, the fort erected by the Caranquis for the defense of Yaguarcocha was made of wooden palisades 218558—40——13 182 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [But. 128 indicating an origin in a country where trees were plentiful. Except at. Yaguarcocha there is no other locality in Imbabura where it is possible to obtain trees for this purpose. 2. The Caranquis used rafts on Yaguarcocha and the Lago de San Pablo, the only two lakes of any size in the region. These lakes, however, contain no fish and are too small to necessitate building rafts to cross them rather than walking around. 3. The house construction, depending on much use of wood is more appropriate to forested regions than to Imbabura. The closest tropical forests are those of the Amazon valley and those of the Ecuadoran coast. Since the cultural elements in question are more like those of the latter region than the former, Jijén assumes that their presence among the Caras indicates a migration from the coast. In addition to these facts, we may mention that the counting devices mentioned by Velasco have actually been found in strata immediately preceding the Inca (Verneau and Rivet, 1912 and 1922, pl. 15; Means, 1931, p. 168) and tolas are found in Manta and Esmer- aldas which resemble those in Imbabura and also those described by Velasco. Further finds by Saville on the coast have been assigned to the Caras. There is, then, a strong presumption in favor of Velas- co’s account of an actual invasion from the coast. Furthermore, as we have said, there is good reason to believe that these people who came from the coast originally hailed from Central America. (See Gillin, 1936, p. 549, for short bibliography of coastal archeological finds attributed to the Caras.) The language of the Caras is completely extinct except for 10 place names and their meanings. Say Verneau and Rivet (1912 and 1922, vol 6, p. 20): insufficient as they are, their study has permitted the recognition in two of these names of a root belonging without doubt to the language of the Barbacoa Indians who lived on the western slope of the cordillera and who themselves belonged to a Chibcha stock. There is every reason to believe that the language spoken by the ancient inhabitants of the region was a Barbacoan (i. e., Chibchan) dialect. Beuchat and Rivet have established the fact that the three languages formerly known as Barbacoa, Paniquita, and Coconuco of the Ecua- doran and Colombian coasts all belong to the Chibchan stock. It also seems probable that the Chibcha languages were at some time spoken as far north as the frontier between Nicaragua and Costa Rica. This summary of background material has been made by way of uncovering clues regarding the antecedents of the present inhabitants of Imbabura. On the basis of this material we may say that the Imbabura population may be composed of the following strains: Anrurop. Par, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 183 (1) A very ancient aboriginal element; (2) a coastal element which possibly came to the Eucadoran coast from Central America or at least from the north; (3) possibly some Amazonian elements, although the linguistic, archeological and historical evidence is largely silent with respect to them; (4) a Peruvian factor which might have been introduced as a result of the Inca conquest; and (5) possibly some white admixture acquired since the Spanish conquest, although records of such miscegenation are lacking. We shall now consider the physical characteristics of the Indians actually studied. It should be understood, of course, that our use of the word ‘‘strain”’ here signifies only population elements derived from external geo- eraphical regions and does not necessarily imply major ‘racial’ distinctions. RESULTS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK In table 1 are given the statistical results of the measurements of all the Imbabura Indians studied. Attention may be called to a few of the more important features of the group as a whole. The mean stature of 156.48 centimeters places the group within the range of the “short”? portion of the human species (Martin, 1928, vol. 1, p. 246). With a mean cephalic index of 80.04, these Indians are on the average mesocephalic. The hypsicephalic mean length-height index of 72.44 and the acrocephalic breadth-height index of 90.26 indicate that the typical head is quite high relative to either the length or the breadth. The typical face is of medium length relative to its breadth as shown by the mesoprosopic mean total facial index of 84, while the upper face is relatively somewhat broader with a euryene mean upper facial index of 47.54. The nose is of medium width compared with its height as indicated by the mesorrhine mean nasal index of 72.34. The shoulders (biacromial width) are 23.12 percent of the stature, The average chest is 78.58 percent as deep as it is wide. The relative sitting height is 52.6 percent. The forehead is narrow in comparison with the head, the fronto-parietal index being 70.12, but the head itself is very nearly as broad as the face, as shown by the mean cephalo- facial index of 96.71. All the bodily and cephalic measurements fall within the small or medium ranges of the human species, with the exception of the head height, which is fairly large.‘ In table 2 are the results of the morphological observations of the group as a whole. 3 For indicial categories here mentioned, see Martin, 1928, vol. 1, pp. 199-202. 4 Measuring technique followed thesystem taught by Prof. E. A. Hooton, of Harvard University. Head height was taken with anthropometer from tragion on left side; chest measurements were taken with anthropometer at height of nipples on the normally deflated chest from in front and from left side; skin color was determined by comparison with the Von Luschan porcelain color chart; eye and hair color were judged without reference to a chart. Calculations were performed by machine in the Harvard Anthropometric Laboratory by Mrs. Sarah Cotton. All measuring was done by the writer, recording by Helen N. Gillin. 184 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buuy, 128 Skin color is overwhelmingly red brown, with less than 14 percent of the cases distributed among other shades of brown (brunet, swarthy, light brown). Seven-tenths of the cases show no vascularity, with about 30 percent showing small or pronounced vascularity. The same proportions hold for freckles. About 69 percent of the subjects have a few moles and 25 percent have many, while only 5 percent are free of moles. The hair form is more curly than might be expected a priori in an Indian group, with only 19 percent showing straight hair, while 56 percent have light waves, and 25 percent deep waves. Hair texture is predominantly fine and medium, with only one case of coarse hair recorded. The largest proportion of heads have a medium amount of hair, but 27 percent show a more than medium quantity. Less than 7 percent of baldness of any degree is recorded. The Imbabura men have scanty beards, 89 percent being recorded as “small” or “very small,’’ while only 11 percent have beards of medium heaviness. Body hair is also small in quantity, with only 6 percent having even a medium amount. One-tenth of the subjects showed gray hair on the head, while 17 percent showed grayness of some degree in the beard. Ninety-four percent of all head hair is black, with 5 percent dark brown, while 98 percent of all beards are black. Three-fifths of the eyes are black, with practically all the rest recorded as dark brown. Clear irises lead with 57 percent, followed by the rayed, zoned, and spotted types in order of diminishing frequency. Thus the pigmentation of these men is predominantly brunet, with only a small incidence of lighter factors which might indicate mixture with whites. In regard to eyefolds, a greater tendency toward the external and median types is found than toward the internal eyefolds, although all types are fairly well distributed. Thus 16 percent of the subjects show no indication of external eyefold, 11 percent show no indication of median eyefold, but 21 percent are devoid of the internal type. Sixty-six percent, however, show some degree of eye obliquity. About two-thirds of the eye openings are small, with one-third medium in size. The eyebrows tend to be small or medium in thickness, while nearly two-thirds of them meet over the nose, although the greater part of this concurrency is small. The greater part of brow ridges is small and less than 7 percent are medium in size. The forehead height is predominantly small or medium, with a slightly larger percentage falling in the latter category. The slope of the forehead is medium in slightly more than half the cases, but the two-fifths of nearly straight foreheads (as indicated by a “small” slope) is large enough to be remarked. AnrHropP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 185 A nasion depression is always present and in 16 percent it is marked. A nasal root of some height is typical, with seven-tenths showing a medium height and one-quarter of the subjects showing a nasal root of some height. Three-fourths of the nasal roots are medium in breadth, while the remainder are about equally divided between narrower and wider types. The lower border of the nasal septum in profile tends toward convexity, with three-fifths of the subjects in this category and the other two-fifths showing concave or straight septa. The nasal bridge is well elevated in the great majority of the cases, being of medium height in 69 percent and of more than medium height in 28 percent. The nose is not aquiline, however, for the bridge tends toward broadness with 97 percent showing double or triple-plus breadths. The largest proportion of noses are straight in profile (40 percent), while 23 percent are convex, and the concave and concavo- convex types are about equally divided with a little more than 17 percent each. Ninety percent of the tips show either medium or pronounced thickness, although the former type is twice as frequent as the latter. The up-tilted and down-tilted nasal tips occur in about equal proportions and only 15 percent of the nasal wings are com- pressed in some degree, with 66 percent medium and 19 percent flaring. The relatively high frequency of transverse nostrils (41 percent) indicates that there is no perfect correlation between shape of nostril and flare of wings in this group. The integumental lips tend toward thickness (45 percent), while the medium type with 37 percent is about twice as frequent as the thin type with 19 percent. ‘The membranous lips are for the most part of medium thickness but there are more full lower membranous lips than upper ones. Eversion is generally small and medium. About 95 percent show some midfacial prognathism, although it is mostly small in size. Alveolar prognathism is more pronounced. The chin is prominent in roughly two-thirds of the cases and small in one-third. The bilateral type of chin is twice as frequent as the median type. Only about 11 percent of the men show partial eruption of the teeth. The majority bite edge-to-edge, with the overbite type accounting for roughly 40 percent and the underbite occurring in less than 4 percent of the cases. Only about two-fifths of the men have all their teeth, 31 percent have lost between 1 and 4 teeth, 11 percent have lost between 5 and 8 teeth, 7 percent have lost 9 to 16 teeth, and nearly 10 percent have lost more than 17 teeth. The largest propor- tion show heavy wear and less than one-fifth of the teeth show little or no wear. Only about 1% percent of the men had no caries in their teeth and almost 30 percent had 17 or more cavities. Shortening 186 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 occurs in only a little over one-third of the cases, but crowding is present in about 86 percent. The helix of the ear is of medium size in exactly half the cases, but the well rolled helix is about 10 percent more frequent than the slightly rolled type. The antihelix is medium in slightly more than half the cases, but here the small type is twice as frequent as the pronounced type. Darwin’s point occurs in some form in 36 percent of the subjects. The attached ear lobe is most frequent (45 percent), while the soldered type occurs slightly oftener than the free type. Less than 10 percent of the ears are of markedly large size, while the majority are of medium size. Seventy-three percent show little protrusion. Temporal fullness tends to be medium (79 percent), while the inci- dence of submedium fullness (15.38 percent) is about three times as ereat as that of the pronounced type (5.38 percent). The author regards the recorded incidence of occipital and lambdoid shapes as somewhat unreliable, due to the difficulty of taking precise observations on subjects who wear their hair braided in the back as these do. However, little evidence of marked cranial deformation was found. The subjects are for the most part of medium or lateral body build, only 11 percent conforming to the linear type. The whole group has been divided into two subgroups, which we shall term the Otavalo group and the Angachagua group respectively. The Otavalo group includes, as previously stated, Indians measured at Otavalo, San Roqué, and Agato. The Angachagua group is geo- graphically more isolated than the Otavalo group and is also regarded by the Indians themselves and whites in the country as being of different physical aspect. The two groups have been compared statistically to see if this assumption is true from the anthropometric point of view. In table 3 are presented the statistical results of the measurements taken on the Otavalo group; in table 4 will be found the tabulation of the morphological observations on the same group. In table 5 are the results of the anthropometric measurements at Anga- chagua and in table 6 the listing of the morphological observations for the same group. In comparing the two groups we find slight differences in variability, indicating that the Otavalo group is a bit less homogeneous than the Angachagua group, as would normally be expected because of its greater size. The average coefficient. of variation for measurements of the Otavalo group is 5.37 as compared with 4.91 for the Angachagua group, while the average coefficient of variation for the indices is 5.57 for the Otavalo group as compared to 5.17 for the Angachagua group. (Coefficients of variation will be found in tables 3 and 5.) AnrHrop. Par. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 187 When we compare the differences between the groups as expressed by the “P.E.’ (table 7), we find them of such a degree and charac- ter as to make it impossible for us to consider the two groups as sam- ples of the same universe. An arbitrary measure of difference fre- quently used is 3X P.E., because, on the basis of the normal frequency curve, 95.70 percent of the differences between any two random samples of the same universe will fall below 3xP.E. In comparing the Angachagua and Otavalo samples (table 7), however, only 66.67 percent of the differences, both in measurements and indices, fall within 3XP.E. Actually, 69.23 percent of the measurements and 64.29 percent of the indices show X P.E.’s of under 3. In other words, the number of insignificant differences is only about two-thirds as great as it should be were we to consider the two groups as members of the same population physically. Angachagua exceeds Otavalo significantly in head height and sitting height, whereas Otavalo significantly exceeds Angachagua in head breadth and nose breadth. In indicial characters, Angachagua significantly exceeds Otavalo in relative shoulder breadth, length- height index of the head, and breadth-height index of the head, while Otavalo significantly exceeds in cephalo-facial and nasal indices. Thus these two groups, in accordance with popular belief previously mentioned, are actually different on the basis of the present samples. The Angachagua group typically has an absolutely and relatively higher head, an absolutely and relatively narrower nose, narrower shoulders relative to stature, an absolutely narrower head, and a face broader in relation to the breadth of the head. COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL WORK IN PROV- INCE OF IMBABURA WITH APPOSITE SERIES FROM OUTSIDE THE AREA In an effort to throw some light on the affinities of the Imbabura Indians we have collected a number of series of measurements made upon Indians who on the basis of historical, archeological, and lin- cuistic evidence may possibly have sprung from stocks represented in the ancestry of the Imbabura. In these series are included all the measurements on Quichua Indians which are known to the author, namely, those reported by Chervin and Rouma from Bolivia and those reported by Ferris from Peru. In tabulating the foreign series for comparison, males only have been selected and only those traits have been utilized in which the technique of the several investigators appears to have been identical with that of the present study. Since in only one case—Steggerda’s series of Mayas—has the statistical treatment accorded these various difference between two means 5 ee eg : = 7 XP. E. probable error of the difference Probable error of the difference=P. E.a?+P. E.,?. 188 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun 128 groups been sufficient to permit direct comparisons of any validity, putative probable errors and putative P.E.’s have been calculated for these comparative series. The reader who is sophisticated in the interpretation of statistics will realize at once how tentative must be any conclusions drawn from the available anthropometric material of the Andean area. Anthropo- metric series are in most cases too small to be of high validity statisti- cally. The factors which may have influenced investigators in selecting individuals for samples are not wholly clear in all cases. The number of traits measured by comparable methods varies from sample to sample. It will be clear, therefore, that the material as we have presented it is suggestive rather than conclusive. A service can be performed for future investigators, however, by drawing together the material available at the present time and giving it the statistical treatment which will make for ready comparison with new data as it is collected. In this sense it is hoped that the present paper may serve as a starting point for extensive anthropometric investigations which will finally provide us with a clear picture of the physical attributes of the Andean populations. A few cautions should be mentioned. We have compared all series from this area by means of differences and probable errors. This was done in order to provide the most refined check available regarding the significance of the arithmetic means involved. It should be remembered, however, that good judgment and common sense are also part of the statistical method. Thus, until vastly more material is available the reader should not be too quick to form the conclusion that several different ‘‘races’’ are represented in the Andean area. No two of the series when compared with Otavalo and Angachagua, or when compared with each other, are statistically parts of the same population universe. Yet we must remember that the samples are in all cases relatively small, in some cases very small. Further sampling may show the apparent differences to be less important than they appear to be at present. In the second place, the number of com- parable means provided by other investigators is in some cases very small. Thus Chervin provides only seven measurements and six indices which are comparable. A single significant difference between one of these means and that of another series will produce a percentage of significant differences between the two arrays sufficient to make it appear that the two populations involved are highly different. Yet, if a larger array of means were available for comparison, it is con- ceivable that the degree of difference would appear much less imposing. In short, the percentages of significant differences between means in small arrays and those in much larger arrays must not be considered of equal importance until more data is available. Third, it is never absolutely clear, unless the investigators have been able to compare ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 189 their methods of measurement in person, that the techniques are com- parable. Particularly is this true in the present case where few of the investigators, who have provided us with comparative material, have described their techniques fully. A very slight error in locating nasion, say, would be sufficient to produce significant differences. Finally, it must be repeated that, with the exception of Steggerda’s Maya series, all comparative series used here were published either in the form of raw data or were given that elementary mathematical treatment which consists of drawing up simple arithmetic means. In some quarters such simple treatment of anthropometric data at pub- lication is praised for its ‘‘simplicity’’ and ‘‘common sense,” but the fact is that it provides no check on the validity of the sample and greatly hinders the process of comparison with other samples. This lack of comparable statistical technique has meant that we have had to compare the series through putative probable errors, which we now proceed to do. The putative probable error for statistically untreated series is obtained by the following formula: 0.6745 standard deviation of own series + N of comparative series The use of this formula, of course, involves the assumption of the same variability in the comparative series as in our own series and, therefore, cannot be regarded as being as precise as the regular method. How- ever, with this putative probable error the « P. E. may be calculated for comparison. As a test of this method the = 107 |} 18-27 (c)} 21.56} +.09 1.42} +.07 6. 59 +. 30 Sitting height__.___._.____ 107 | 75-95 (c)} 82.18] +. 22 3.30] +.15 4.02 +.19 Headlenginese= ear aLe 108 | 167-208 (m)} 184.38 | -. 41 6.36 | +. 29 3. 45 +t. 16 Head breadth 2222222. 2 108 | 185-159 (m)} 147.55 | +. 32 4.98 | +. 23 3. 38 +. 16 eadihelghts =e se 84 | 110-153 (m)} 182. 54 =k. 50 6. 76 ck. 35 5. 10 xt. 27 Minimum frontal_____----- 108 | 89-120 (m)} 103.70 | -b. 29 4.40} +.20 4, 24 =k. 19 BIZ ZOMAti C2 see 108 | 130-164 (m)} 142.90 | +.33 56.05] -&. 23 3. 53 +. 16 Big omnia! sete ee yee 108 | 94-145 (m)} 107.14] -+.48 7.36 | +.34 6. 87 bk. 32 Total face height___________ 108 | 105-144 (m)| 120.25 | +. 38 5.85 | -.27 4, 86 ck, 22 Upper face height_________ 108 | 55- 79(m)} 68.05] +.30 4.60] +. 21 6. 76 +. 31 INoseiheightesss-e= ese 108 | 44- 67(m)} 52.74] +. 26 3.96 | +.18 7. 61 bk. 34 Nose breadth___._-_._____- 108 | 31- 57(m)} 38.57] +. 23 3.60 | +.17 9. 33 xk. 43 AV OLA POs 2 oan one ssn coe sae eee | Sete Se ee es eel ee | bet Vfl (ieee oo Indices: Relative shoulder breadth_ 108 | 16- 27 23.08 |} -&.09 1.32} +.06 5. 72 -k. 26 Thoracic index. -.__--...__- 107 | 65- 92 78.54) +.35 §.32 | +. 25 6.77 x. 31 Relative sitting height_____ 107 | 48- 57 52. 56 +. 11 1, 64 +. 08 3. 12 +. 14 Cephalic index____________ 108 | 68- 88 80.04 | +. 20 3.15 | +.14 3.94 +t. 18 Length-height index______-_ 84] 61- 81 71.93 | +. 27 3.72 | +.19 5.17 zk. 27 Breadth-height index______ 84] 76-111 89. 57 ck. 36 4.89 ck. 25 5. 46 bk. 28 Fronto-parietal index ____- 108 | 63- 83 70.21 | -+.20 3.15 |] +.14 4.49 ck. 21 Cephalo-facial index _____- 108 | 88-108 96.92 | +. 22 3.39 +. 16 3. 50 xb. 16 Zygo-frontal index_________ 108 | 64- 83 72. 50 +k, 21 3. 28 +.15 4. 52 cb. 21 Fronto-gonial index_______ 108 | 90-139 103.50 | +. 46 7.15 | +.33 6, 91 ck. 32 Zygo-gonial index__________ 108 | 66-104 75.16 | -.30 4.62] +. 21 6.15 ck, 28 Maclaltindex =a 108 | 70- 94 84.20 | +.29 4.40] +.20 §. 23 xk. 24 Upper facial index____.____ 108 | 37- 51 47.72} +.21 3.30} +.15 6. 92 ck. 32 xt. 51 7. 84 -k. 36 10. 74 ck. 49 INasaliindex2- 2222 ee 108 | 52- 99 73. 02 AVOTAROS 2 msn a FC SI Se ek ee tke ee ae | ee DIRT Sees ANTHROP. Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 199 TABLE 4.—Olavalo group: Morphological observations Observations Marital state: Vascularity: PAREN GE ho ae Freckles: PRDRON Gee coe soe Hair, form: Biralenten te 8 Bowswaves: 2122). ..-..-. Individuals Number | Percent 8 7. 62 94 89. 52 3 2. 86 Individuals Observations Number | Percent Baldness: AUDSBIE eee et eee henge 100 92. 59 yee Vi A . ee ae aes 6 5. 56 Mediums =2 2.222522. ee 2 1.85 BUEN ae a ES 12 Eee Slightet ea # ee 53 49.07 Smalls keer see 47 43. 52 Medinumie 3 8 7.41 UTC es ae a ine LOS eee Body hair: Absentee ess 1 . 93 Smislleer ee oe ee eee 104 97. 20 Mediumee 2.2 328 2. oho 2 1. 87 ROC RI ae aa ee Se etc LOZ Reese QGrayness, head: ADSen ewes es 96 88. 89 Gmighl Seer oe 11 10. 19 Pronounceds.-2 ee 1 93 Motel #22 - ate en ee 108) | 2222s - - Grayness, beard: ADEA 08 eeest a2 89 82. 41 Smplibe eee bee 16 14. 81 1 Reo by bo (ee coped ee 2 1.85 Pronounced... 2220-22 4-- 1 93 Rotal sae 2/22 eek JO8),| eae Ss Blagkmaee cise UE ee 100 92. 59 Darks brown. 2222+ ese ee 7 6. 48 SASh= Or ay seats ee 1 . 93 AMG) 42) [oe oe cet See ley 11) | See ree Hair color, beard, mustache: lacked eee 105 97. 22 Dark brownes--)2-=2- ==. 2 1.85 1M eae.) See See eee 1 - 93 otal esas sb ok oc HOSS |Ex seas = Eye color: Ley ht) cs See a Peers 73 67. 59 Darkibrowns. 222% 22-2222. 33 30. 56 Dark light brown_-_-_-_-_-- 2 1.85 200 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu, TABLE 4.—Otavalo group: Morphological observations—Continued Observations Eyefold, external: ANDSenty ete Eyefold, median: ADsentenees sees oases Eyefold, internal: Absent Eye, obliquity: Absent PLODOUNCEG! so o22 0-2 == 2 DOWNS WUE ee | ie ee Small and down_______- NOGA ewes eee De Eye, opening height: Mediums sb Ae]: Pe a Jee ee Eyebrow, thickness: Sigh pas: oe eee mer : MWeGia a. ee no eee eee Pronounced. 226s. ee Motaiesnn eee te oe Eyebrow, concurrency: Individuals Number | Percent 62 57. 41 24 Pp APA 21 19. 44 1 - 93 OSig| tee eee ae 17 15. 74 22 20. 37 44 40, 74 25 23.15 108' )) »=Fet Tie} 14 12. 96 9 8. 33 59 54, 63 26 24. 07 108; |Hsenet + = 26 24. 07 40 387. 04 32 29. 63 10 9. 26 108 | -t8a98 - 30 7.78 48 44. 44 22 20. 37 1 93 1 - 93 6 5. 56 LOS sees eee 70 64. 81 38 35.19 LOS) || eee 49 45. 37 57 52. 78 2 1.85 MUS ees ten c 45 41. 67 58 53. 70 5 4. 63 LORS ee ee Observations Brow ridges: Absent Forehead, slope: Small Nasal septum: Straight, concave_______-- Convex: te a2 6 ses ee 128 Individuals Number | Percent 1 0.93 101 93. 52 6 5. 56 108: | |e¢-f Pe. =e 51 47, 22 48 44. 44 9 8. 33 1084) -2-2eeoees 48 44, 44 56 51. 85 4 3. 70 108)'|22--s32cse 1 - 93 31 28. 70 62 57. 41 14 12. 96 108. eee 5 4. 63 74 68. 52 29 26. 85 LOS; Eee nena 13 12. 04 78 72. 22 17 15. 74 108.28 seek 42 38. 89 66 61.11 LOS |) oo ae oe 3 2.78 77 71.30 28 25. 93 TOS" Ets seee ee 2 1.85 76 70. 37 30 27. 78 LOSH28 Se eee AnTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN TABLE 4.—Otavalo group: Morphological observations—Continued Observations Chin, type: Median- ------- Lee pee GUC ae amp Teeth, eruption: Complete-.-..-2-..--wepit LODGE: Jee ee ee Edge to edge-_-_-__-___-_-_- Sm Overs-.-2.... 22208 Wiedinm, Over. o2es222-2:: Medium, 9-16___________- Pronounced, 17-+-..._--._- Teeth, wear: Absent, small________ Anes Lulz hobo: iS See Sere Pronounced, very pro- MOUMCOM oa Individuals Number | Percent 35 32. 71 72 67. 29 LOW oe eee Observations Malars, front projection: Absent, small____.______- Mediums 2sees ee Pronounced: 2232252224222 Ear, Darwin’s point: ADSONG =. Be ook Se Smale hss. sche be eA Bs a Medium. 53) - drdece.ts~ Ear, lobe: Solderad-=3s. 2245-45223 MWediumes east 328 e Pronounced: 4 sa2.28eseed 201 Individuals Number Percent 3. 70 65.74 1 - 93 51 47. 22 56 51.85 1084 |S aes 18 16. 67 56 51. 85 34 31. 48 TOS) Ss. ce Jos 71 65. 74 31 28. 70 5 4. 63 1 - 93 108 5|Be == osen-8 30 27. 78 51 47, 22 27 25. 00 108) aeesnrese 29 26. 85 69 63. 89 10 9. 26 108 =5 2=-25e5 78 72. 22 29 26. 85 1 - 93 108 s}a oc eS S25 202 BUREAU OF AMERICAN HTHNOLOGY [Buu. 128 TABLE 4.—Otavalo group: Morphological obse rvations—Continued Observations Temporal fullness: NVeGiIM Es ae ee ee Pronounced.<-1-.-5 += =. Nasal profile: Conesve: 2-2 452. -e ee Nasal tip, inclination: Wp; medium): 232222222525 Up Smalls asses ee eee Own, smallos fee ae Down, medium_-_-__-_----- Nasal tip, wings: @ompressede=2 = = VOGT cere See HO) Va Ve) 0 Sami Se Nostrils visible, front: PADSON Gee sea sheen eee Small, medium___________ Pronounced 2. 22" 22222222" Nostrils visible, lateral: (ADSAN Ger oo 2c erl es ae lat Nostrils, axes: Parallel bese a eee oe ae Oblique, small___________ Oblique, medium________ “ETANSVOPSO22 esas oe Individuals Number} Percent 18 17.14 82 78. 10 5 4.76 BUN) 9] SE yee 18 16. 67 45 41. 6? 24 22, 22 21 19. 44 LOS Se eee 8 7.41 63 58. 33 36 33.33 1 .93 108: |s:efe sar Observations Lips, integumental: Moedtumice=se24-- a Pronounced -224-====-2-=— Very pronounced____-___- Medium 22>... <02-s-< ; Pronounced: == ---------- Lip, seam: Absent: ci<- 2-22. 22 Midfacial prognathism: pAIDson tHe -< =.= te22se eee Alveolar prognathism: (AiDSenGs 52s ee eee Individuals Number | Percent 22 20. 37 46 42. 59 40 37. 04 108) |p oseeceeee 29 26. 85 57 52. 78 22 20. 37 108:4Jo% 3 oe ————=—=—=a_ 14 12. 96 61 56. 48 32 29. 63 1 . 93 108" se esos 54 60. 00 50 46. 30 4 3. 70 LOS) } 2 eSeeE 5 4.63 45 41. 67 28 25. 93 30 27.78 ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 203 TABLE 4.—Otavalo group: Morphological observations—Continued Individuals Individuals Observations — SSS SSS Observations See Number | Percent Number | Percent Occipital protrusion: Cranial asymmetry: snl So ee ere 4 66. 67 A DSOnt 3. SOEPUE ee el 1 50. 00 AGG 711 ro 2 33. 33 1) a. A ee eee 1 50. 00 TET Ee oe ee it 2 eee Ma) 8: | ence wy Re pa 7 1 AE rae Lambdoid flattening: Facial asymmetry: STE! | ae ee Pee eee 2 40. 00 ALDSOMG oon eae cla S i! 33. 33 IN 0 he 2 40. 00 DOSS RS Ae a ed oh 4 2 66. 67 PrFoOnonnCad. 2-2... =-= 1 20. 00 — othe: <2 eS pneeed yi | ele a agains Body build: Occipital flattening: ineareey Sees oe 5. 13 12. 04 AOU. oe ae 102 97.10 edie 2a eee se ee 50 46. 30 VPI es =k «ane ed 2 1.90 Watorelie pap h te 45 41. 67 TO GHRCOG t= o— . 5S = i 85 = UNA |S eee eae LOS s | Peete Sa TRG) eee Ee Se ee LOB ees ee TABLE 5.—Angachagua group: Anthropometric measurements and indices Trait Number Range Mean | P.E. | 8.D. | P.E. D PoE: Measurements: Se 0) 2S eet 26 | 143-169 (c)} 158.31 | +0. 71 5. 34 | +0. 50 3.37 | 40.32 Bincromilale...* =.= 2.2. 26 | 31- 39 (c)| 36.86] +. 22 1.68 | +.16 4.56 +. 43 Chest breadth__._.__--_-__ 26 | 26- 34 (c)} 28.74] +.22 1.71 16 5. 96 +. 56 iGhest depth---.: .---..-..- 26 | 20-29 (c)| 24.42) +. 24 1.78 | +.17 7. 29 +. 68 Sitting height___._-_______ 26 | 78-92 (c)| 83.74] +.37 2.79 | +. 26 3. 33 bk. 31 Hoeadlenpth:— 2 UP 26 | 170-199(m)}| 185.76 | +. 84 6.33 | +. 59 3.41 +. 32 FHerdibresdth: 22. eo 26 | 141-158(m)} 145.57 | +. 45 3.42 | +.32 2.35 +, 22 Headsneipnt:—.--—- aoe 26 | 130-153(m)} 187.98 +. 62 4.72 +. 44 3. 42 +. 32 Minimum frontal_-__-____- 26 | 93-116(m)]} 103. 58 +. 67 5. 04 +. 47 4,87 +. 46 Bizyeomatic_..--..---=._-- 26 | 130-164(m)} 142.40 | -+.65 4.95 | +. 46 3. 48 +b. 33 TBA Ey C1 be pl a Se Ree ame oh 26 | 94-125(m)| 106.74] -+.92 6.92] +.65 6. 48 +. 61 Total face height__________ 26 | 100-134(m)} 119. 50 +. 81 6.10 =k. 57 5. 10 +. 48 Upper face height __-_-___-_ 26 | 55- 74(m)| 66.40] -+.60 4.50 | =. 42 6.78 =k. 63 Nose ineighG. fe 26 | 44- 63(m)} 51.98 | +.49 3.68 | +. 34 7.08 +b. 66 Nose preadeh=_=- =. 25 | 31- 42(m)} 36.20] +.30 2.25 | +.21 6, 22 +t. 59 a ORT eee Oe eae Sigel (kak BPE 8 | Ml eee pee eae ens thee Senn (a 2 ee ee Indices: Relative shoulder breadth. 26 | 22 -25 23.60 | +.13 98} +.09 4.21 +. 39 Thoracic index___._-_____- 26 69-100 78. 66 +. 77 5. 84 zk. 55 7. 42 +, 69 Relative sitting height_____ 26 46- 55 52.80 | +. 22 1. 64 +.15 3.11 =. 29 Cephalic index_..________- 26 | 71- 88 80.07 | +. 44 3.30 | +.31 4.12 =. 39 Length-height index_______ 26 | 70- 81 74.12} +.32 2.43 | +.23 3. 28 b. 31 Breadth-height index______ 26 88-108 92. 45 xt. 57 4, 29 =k. 40 4. 64 ck. 43 Fronto-parietal index______ 26 | 66-77 69.64 | +.37 2.79 | =. 4.01 zk. 38 Cephalo-facial index_______ 26 | 91-102 95.81 | +. 25 2.70 | =. 25 2.82 +b. 26 Zygo-frontal index_________ 26 | 68- 79 73. 02 ct. 34 2. 56 +. 24 3. 51 kt. 33 Fronto-gonial index________ 26 | 90-114 102.95 | -+.75 5.70 | +.53 5. 54 tk. 52 Zygo-gonial index__________ 26 | 66- 86 76.19 | +. 56 4.20] +.39 5. 59 xk. 52 Macial Mdex: = 222s... 26 | 70- 94 83.15 | +. 74 5.80 | +. 52 6. 73 =b, 63 Upper facial index_________ 26 | 40- 64 46.76 | +.45 3.42 | +.32 7.31 +b. 68 Nasal index: . 25 56- 83 69. 34 ck. 94 7.00 ck. 67 10. 10 =k. 96 JS GVTs ER ad PRESS BSR) Se See) || cn ee ae A ee Ee a |e BiFole=-eo = 204 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETH NOLOGY TABLE 6.—Angachagua group: Morphological observations Observations Marital state: Skin color; beard, inner arm: iBriingt. 2 == =e Swaruny 0: a -ee ee Redibrowils2 So otecsoseaae Lightibrowi= 22-------- Vascularity: WASDSOIM He ee ee on eae ee Freckles: AND Seni tease ere Hair, form: Straight<. 2! +.-- 2. bis= 5 OW WANeS-= 3-55 5 Deep waveS- -----------+-- Hair, texture; coarse__------- Head hair, quantity: Meditimyt 22: oss eee. Pronowcede se Baldness: ‘A psenit0. i.) Sa oe eee Individuals Number | Percent 3 11. 54 22 84. 62 1 3.85 71h eee a pe 2 7.69 1 3. 85 20 76. 92 3 11. 54 26M ieee ee 14 53. 85 10 38. 46 2 7. 69 Of | bos eer 18 69. 23 8 30.77 opt) Te eee 15 57. 69 11 42. 31 Dial Ree 14 53. 85 5 19. 23 7 26.92 Ora fa a 26 100. 00 2 7.69 8 30. 77 16 61. 54 OB) |W tee eow 25 96. 15 1 3.85 26} ||| wage} 7 26. 92 12 46.15 7 26. 92 Observations Body hair: Grayness, head: ANSON Gi no. oe ae ee Hair color; head, black _----- Hair color; beard, mustache: Eyefold, external: Albsentec.-5=--' 25s ee Eyefold, median: ASONGH 222 cbao = Sees Eye, obliquity: Absente =. =---1b..7 Ne [Buxt. 128 Individuals Number | Percent 1 3. 85 19 73. 08 6 23. 08 OG |) LoS ahaa 23 92. 00 2 8. 00 25: | 222 26 100. 00 26 100. 00 9 34. 62 17 65. 38 26) | Ss5sess2e= 14 53. 85 8 30.77 4 15. 38 26% (taaney ee 5 19. 23 4 15. 38 16 61. 54 1 3.85 D6 i sen 1 3. 85 4 15. 38 18 69. 23 3 11. 54 26) | ee FRE 2 7.69 14 53. 85 8 30. 77 2, 7. 69 20a ae a oe 7 26. 92 3 11. 54 14 53. 85 1 3. 85 1 3. 85 Dhalee Boots. AnTHropP, Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS——GILLIN 205 TABLE 6.—Angachagua group: Morphological observations—Continued Individuals Individuals Observations Observations = Number | Percent Number | Percent Eye, opening height: Nasal septum: SE See Sees 16 61. 54 Straight, concave__--_----- 11 42.31 POON Se 2 oa 10 38. 46 Convers. nnn 5- = aes 15 57. 69 Pane ot 26 Voth = Rp tallies = eee it | |e Eyebrow, thickness: Nasal bridge, height: a be ee See I 19. 23 Meditmess.2-24eeeo5 ee 16 61. 54 Wiedinin 2... -1..--.-..- 18 69. 23 Pronounced - 2-4-2 —8 se 10 38. 46 Pronounced _—~.<-.--.--- 3 11. 54 — ed Motale=*. o2 3 Stk a bi eee ee (iG) tC ae 74) ee ee sd Nasal bridge, breadth: Eyebrow, concurrency: fshoats ttt, See ees Seat ae 2 7.69 UNG. i 7 26. 92 Mediums > 4-522 -.223 19 73. 08 Hie. a eee 15 57. 69 (Pronomnceds.. 34-2 54-5—- 5 19. 23 Mediumiies 22. J2-- +. 4 15. 38 —_—— ORG tas eee 1M ee, coe Motalsscas2s-- ee 22 Ai (ee ae 2 Pe Nasal profile: Brow ridges: (Eh ster (eee es ee 5 19. 23 Shi ee a See 23 88. 46 Straigiiaeeseise ae 9 34. 62 MWrettitimee. <2. 5-3-2225 3 11. 54 Wonyexe se se 7 26. 92 Concavo-convex---------- 5 19. 23 ARG) ae ee See 263 leat ee — Motaleiats st) Foy oa. 2632222. 5 ae Forehead, height: es ST [a ie 9 34.62 || Nasal tip, thickness: IWC Lar ee ee 17 65. 38 Smee: Ae 87s Bese 4 15. 38 oe Medi tsatet. fo... 20 76. 92 1) cE a 72iP | ee ee 8 Pronouneed...-22—--=-=)—— 2 7.69 Forehead, slope: Total___---------------- 26 |---------- Brin lbewe e+ Fao 8 30. 77 Miodiimiie coed... 8 14 53.85 || Nasal tip, inclination: Pronouneed |= ==2-— 22-22. 4 15. 38 WipySin ale ee eae 13 50. 00 Ow, smalls 2 ess oe 11 42.31 Tai ee eee Cr De eee Down, medium_---_-_-_- 2 7.69 Nasion depression: Total..----------------- Pores oy Was veel. SEOOTE | | aes eae, pa eee 4 15. 38 ; Bsa Medigm: 9). ..52- 2525522 15 57. 69 ae ee 6 93. 08 Prononneed.....-3322-2-=2- 7 26. 92 Hebe ey eens 19 73. 08 | oc ara ral. sete Mlamnpe.. 52-6225 23 oS 1 3. 85 MOtali tee ea 710 ]e\ Pee eet Nasal root, height: S| EN == on- mentor tten : 7.69 || Nostrils, visibility front: Mediam._—..-------==--+-- 19 73.08 peat 2) Cob 2 ae 11 42.31 i 5 19. 23 Small, medium.___-_----_ 15 57. 69 Total_._...---.---.----- 26 |= ------ Wotalestuses tee eee OTe eae Nasal root, breadth: Nostrils, visibility lateral: ETN (8 SS ee ae 3 11.54 THe 2 RERSE Sees Se 2 7.69 AVodtnmips.< 228 23 88. 46 Wedivine® 22. b = ee 24 92. 31 Motaluscocofe 2 22555 26) ins eS LO lieweoccteb ee 26'\ 5 aeeeee 206 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buu. 128 TABLE 6.—Angachagua group: Morphological observations—Continued Individuals Individuals Observations a Observations Number | Percent Number | Percent Nostrils, shape: Chin, prominence: Win its. ae te 11 42.31 Small ee... eee 12 46.15 Wied itm 2 222 Seaeiaes 2 13 50. 00 Mediums .2 bes ae 14 53. 85 WONNG! See ee ee! 2 7. 69 ——— Total? 2.2 2b6 sane 264M So DOU are he ee a) Oa} Me aes oe eed SS Chin, type: Nostrils, axes: Mediantaes 2.0 See mae 9 34, 62 Oblique, small_._..______ 2 7. 69 Bilateral®.\-- 7s 17 65. 38 Oblique, medium_______- 15 57. 69 — Se ALTANS Verse sss ses ese 9 34. 62 ‘Totalet are eee 26.2 deeee ne | _————SS=_&_ _ —————_— Totals ee 264 -oe eee Teeth, eruption: = SS es SSS GCompletex2...2.) 17 65. 38 Lips, integumental: Partial <2 s:) psineees 9 34. 62 Bimalleee ss ew eee ee 3 11. 54 a aM ya by re hare viens Sa Ty Ue 3 11. 54 Totaled. DG sae ae Pronounced: — 22 4e2 5225252 20 76. 92 == —_____-|—__——__ || Teeth, bite: Tetal.2o = eee 26h |i seek y > Edge to edge.____________ 19 73.08 SS SS SS SES = Smalloverse-6.4 2 ai 26. 92 [ohoatsN) LG $ Sie RR ple ease 4 15. 38 Totales. => poms sees 26k Danes Miedinm: ssc seen eee 17 65. 38 Pronounced ______.._._-_- 5 19. 23 || Teeth, loss: NON ee 13 60. 00 Mota fee remeeta See 2 264 | Sean eoe ek Slight? 1-4: so 4 see 7 26.92 ted Smal); 5-8. .....-222222552 1 3. 85 Lips, lower: Medium, 9-16____________ 1 3. 85 Sms lita a wa See eer r ae 2 7.69 Pronounced, 17-++-_________ 4 15. 38 Medinm= 2. < esac And oe 12 46.15 —-——-. IPrononnced sass ose 12 46.15 Totals aaa ae 28 || eo -- See Teeth, wear: Total_..---.----------.- oi Besae ease “Absent, smallen eee 6 23. 08 Lips, eversion: sa pean cere Ps . a SSra dea Te a Babs he hoes if ZOHO dil! eech ek A KA DURP ANG ice loa yp ae be Mina i tiet ane Medigm = ot. bey ea leat 18 69. 23 Pronounced =~. ---._-.-.-/ 1 3. 85 CMS ate, Seas is Mabe s Te Teeth, caries: Rar Hi Boy ro) [cds Bt See 26 dle see Slizghtl—4.2221- 5.22) ll 42.31 ——= Smallhp-882 0228020 Ss 3 11. 54 Lips, seam: Medium, 9-16___-.-_-_-_. 4 15. 38 AS rave) Tt eee ae eee as 13 50. 00 Pronounced, 17-+-______.-_- 8 30.77 Medium =. 220 Pky 8 30. 77 Pronounced. -_.___-__.___- 5 19, 23 Dotal. 222 eee 26)"s22 eee Teeth, shortening: Tote ----------—- =D | pceacscse Apeintel ke 18 69. 23 Midfacial prognathism Smallbss 4 222 2. ee 4 15. 38 Smiallt Aes ee 19 73. 08 Mediumt:: 2=.24.. 2 ee 3 11. 54 Medinme: 222 boo ra 7 26. 92 Pronounced ...----------= 1 3. 85 otalecs 222. 4anes eee PAG} eee elie Res Motels nnn ath ook 260 | see ee Alveolar prognathism: Teeth, crowding: Smale. J22 22 be 9 34. 62 JA Dsentze = 12 ot te 5 19. 23 Medium: = 32 222-2222 16 61. 34 Medi’ 2243 re 18 69. 23 (Pronouncedee. eas eeee i 3. 85 Pronounced] 2222-- 2-222 3 11. 54 Tota ee tase 5558 O44} ne ee Totals sas ee 26)\|a2252— 2556 ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 207 TABLE 6.—Angachagua group: Morphological observations—Continued Individuals Individuals Observations Observations Number | Percent Number | Percent —_—— | | | SS Molars projection, front: Ear, size: Mr Guib ies. 3. 22 SoS se 9 34. 62 Smale 2 ss es eee 7 26. 92 Pronounced = 2222252222222 17 65. 38 Medinms 222232" e 16 61. 54 ‘Pronounced 3---2-----2-- 3 11. 54 LES oe ak A eee 0 Palate il ea —SS Notale 2.2 /4224-5242-25- a eee Molars, lateral projection: Minwiiceet ss esses rsss2l2- 1 3.85 || Ear, protrusion: Wredignmtan 5 = 22259 252 c902" 7 26. 92 Bmialits* a. eae See ee 20 76. 92 IPronouneed 4942225 222=2 18 69. 23 Medium2: -22-22"2222-=2 5 19. 23 Pronounced: s222=2-2-2-== 1 3. 85 Ties wets er sess il i Ree Sema ——— Lo) 2) eee he eee 771) beeper Gonial angle: Mmnpiter ssa 225222222 5 19. 23 || Temporal fullness: LE ah rer a oa 6 23.08 Small’ 2+ -22- aka 2 8. 00 Pronounced... =-..=---- =.=. 15 57. 69 Mediwm:.-.- ---==.-- =~ =. 21 84. 00 Pronounced - ------------- 2 8. 00 NE) 4st So an 744 J ee elles Totals: ---<---=-2-=----— FN | ae ne Ear, helix: Bmgeeted ssescccscance 9 34. 62 || Occipital protrusion: Wiredinm=:.3.- 2e8 sit! 11 42.31 Absent: 2. -=222-852422=-~- 1 4.00 Pronounced ._2--—-=22...2 6 23.08 Smiallessu- 252 StS 2a25 = 5 20. 00 Medium-22-=---=2-22-2-- 18 72. 00 400) 30) Cee ee Yi} ae Dea Pronounced es=---=22e—==— 1 4.00 Ear, antihelix: Totalss52-eenose eee Obie hap wae h Sy 02) | See eS RL 7 26. 92 WVRoditam 5.250) Sih _ 15 57.69 || Lambdoid flattening: iPronoumced $2) =. .==-4 4 15. 38 Absent. -==-2=--=s=<=<---+- 2 8.00 Smalls. oe acte se aee oes 5 20. 00 136) 42) [EE Se oe Se Ot ee Soe eee Medinm=.---+:--=-.25 4 16.00 Pronounced: =-=.--.------- 14 56. 00 Darwin’s point: ANG = a ee 14 63. 85 Total. 2see cee Ses Sa AMR Ae. = Bmgieee st 232-0528 8 30. 77 Torre Cy | 9 ee eee 3 11. 54 || Occipital flattening: Pronounced 2-22" V2.2. 222 a} 3. 85 Absent iso-2edee e252 US 19 86. 36 Medium 1222.25. 22eeee2% 3 13. 64 at folie) Lee eae ee ees 26) \|Csbar els Totals 22. - sh ou bel ites a Ear, lobe: Solderedess=-2s.- eS. 10 38.46 || Body build: PRCLACHEO G8 ta 22s 222 9 34. 62 Linear. 25-2 .se8.2cce- 2 7. 69 1g DSS ee eee 7 26. 92 Medium: 232-6222 -2--—6= 12 46.15 Tateral: s2-5- 2222 es 12 46.15 208 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu. 128 TABLE 7.—Differences of Angachagua over Otavalo indices and measurements, with values in terms of X P. HE. Trait sere ie axes of Trait DBS ts ae Measurements: Indices: BA PUTOR Ne oe sae Lead +2. 28 2. 85 Relative shoulder breadth____| -++0. 52 3.47 Bincromigl ie. ss) ae eee eel E-lGR 2.31 Thoracic index__........------] --.12 .14 Sittinethelehtss2 S222 22 222 +1. 56 3. 55 Relative sitting height________ +. 24 1.00 Headtlenpthi22s oe sane ee +1. 38 1.47 @ephalicindex.--2_-..--_-=--- +. 03 . 06 Head breadth_-_-_____- pee Ber —1.98 3. 60 Length-height index_________- +2. 19 5.21 Headihibignht2-< aes ee +5. 44 5. 89 Breadth-height index________- +2. 88 4.30 Minimum frontal_____________ —.12 .16 Fronto-parietal index_________ —.57 1. 36 BizygZomatic!.-.-4_-2 2 ee —.50 . 68 Cephalo-facial index_________- —1.11 3. 36 IBIFOMIS tees ee nee ae —.40 38 Zygo-frontal index____.__-_-_- +. 52 1, 30 Total face height__._.._...-.. —.75 . 84 Fronto-gonial index __________ —.55 . 62 Upper face height__.__...____- —1.65 2. 46 Zygo-gonial index___.._______- +. 03 .05 INoseiheight= 222s eee ee —.76 1.36 Macialiindex: 32085 )82 aes —1.05 1.33 Nose: bread thisesce 2 ane —2.37 6.41 Upper facial index______---__- —.96 1,92 Nasal: index: 9-22-22 eee —3. 68 3. 44 1 Percentage of measurements under 3XP. E.=69; percentage of indices under 3XP. E.=64. TABLE 8.—Comparison of means for measurements and indices of Imbabura Indians with those of Quichua and Aymara Indians of Bolivia measured by Chervin} ‘ Imbabura2 | Bolivian Bolivian ine (eolumn A) | (column B) | (column ©) INumberintseries 2 22<) <-22- ct 22 sos oe et eo ee 133-4 66-67 lll Measurements: ehh! ee a ee Serene. | ie ae 1, 564 (m) 1, 580 (m) 1, 570 (m) Sittingiheight.2-1. 5. ==. arent Nb 91 E) en 824 (m) 840 (m) 870 (m) ead lonpth << ot 200 od ee a oe ee 185 (m) 182 (m) 183 (m) Head bresdths sot 222 28 ae bt eT 148 (m) 147 (m) 150 (m) Head! height (110/ceases)_— + ee ek EEE tier ere 134 (m) 134 (m) 130 (m) IBinygomabics 2. Pe fe ee ae ee 2 a 143 (m) 138 (m) 142 (m) Indices: @ephalicundex:-25.). = 2228 a Se ee a 80 82 $2 Wceneth-helehtundex 22. 2-252. a= Be a Se 72 73 69 Breadth-height:index. 2.206 eee ee a pa 90 87 89 ielativesitting height. .2. 2022) ee ee ae ee 53 §2 54 1 Chervin, 1907-08, vol. 2. 2 Round numbers. AnTuror. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 209 TABLE 9.—Differences of male Indians of the Province of Imbabura (including all measuremenis from Otavalo, Agato, San Roqué, and Angachagua) and male Quichua Indians measured in Bolivia by Chervin, calculated by means of the putative method ! Trait Difference ? Pak. XP. E. Measurements: [2110 {Lin ee Rl ae sepa sf SS i a ee ee ae eA ee —1.52 +0. 57 2. 67 ULI 1S age Be ee eee bE MSE —1.52 bh. 33 4.61 ELTA GA ee SA ieee eee aie ae BAe: +2. 65 +. 65 4.08 Pe MESTRPRMES SPIEL ENE Aces ar Ss ee oa Pee Se ee +. 76 +b. 46 1. 65 Moadiholehte.a-cn- =.=...) 5 A oh RE ste ano Lei —.18 +. 71 225 Rol SRST re eee AE oe UA ee a Ae eee eee Sree +4. 80 +. 51 9. 41 Indices: UISVELTLA EVE GY cS RE se SESE (UNA er se aaa vE ES Ne ao —1. 96 +. 32 6.12 TLDS ECL ea wa bat (ry ORR (i es ae es NN eee ea eS —.56 +. 37 1.51 Pema eetieip i GUNG OX: 5 ans oy Ae ne ee ce ee eee ae +3. 26 +. 51 6.39 Eee Ota Uitte MEO MEE Gea ee ee meee ee ee ce ory ae eae ee +. 60 4.17 3. 53 1 Percentage of measurements below 4X P. E.=50; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=50. 2? Differences calculated from actual values; ef. table 1. TABLE 10.—Differences between male Indians of the Province of Imbabura (including all measurements from Otavalo, San Roqué, Angachagua) and male Aymara Indians measured in Bolivia by Chervin,' calculated by means of the putative method 2 Trait Differences P. E. eel OF Measurements: SRDS oe Se SOE, i. See Py) Se See ee Se ee eee —1.87 +0. 65 5.95 np oo Se eee eo ee ee eee +. 03 xk. 23 le ‘Stine Las fe a i A Sey Re ena aoe = 9182 ai 7. 62 TRYEDG LGTY ee a SS ee EE oie eee ae Senne ee: -+-4. 38 +. 72 6. 08 FRE CG) (ET 2H 7 nope penne ote eh oe Rn oa a les oes ap hak tales Oo ely og ee : —.45 -k. 57 7S cpebhd LOGO ss Spe globe pt le dg src gt Klee te olla 3, Reda i neat cae nam ces +3. 54 +, 81 4. 37 Re ER EETERESTISTAL ICA ee tee eee ee te Pie ene te omer eee tee —7. 30 +t. 50 14. 60 LEU Wn TESTA tip pt ees cal pl nae JN nytt be Slat obealiel ‘icel Seleelle MATE ded +4.14 +. 84 4.93 ESTE LAGS VELA 2 ee eel aie I eee ae ct Ne le i ent esas Benoa Ady +2. 34 +. 45 onal Nose breadth________- ch acy. cra ence Ay sos eu Alig Sed ipa Ree +3. 07 -t. 41 7.49 Indices: “CHULA (i ia (2) a 2A eM, iow ee eae —1. 66 +. 35 4. 74 HP pit OL GON S oe ee ee ee oe ee +. 23 bk. 45 .51 Breadth-height index_____ See a RAS ean Da Lae +1. 67 +. 58 2. 88 Lae PTYTHNTA GEE GE Goes SE ee Oe ae ee ae eee +1. 46 cb. 52 2.81 LUPIN G Ie ake eee ee ee eee eee +1. 82 -b. 89 2. 04 SATUS TESTE Cf PTE OT 19 a —.54 +.19 2. 84 1 Percentage of measurements below 4X P. E.=20; percentage of indices below 4x P. W.=83.33. 218558—40 15 214 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 TABLE 18.—Comparison of means for measurements and indices of Imbabura Indians with those of Quichua and Machiganga Indians of Peru studied by Ferris in millimeters in round numbers } Imbabura | Peruvian | Peruvian ih iin Quichua | Quichua | Quichua + ganga Trait (column (column (colts (column A, B, , D No. 134) No. 124) No. 85) No. 18) Measurements: BS Geant tear es ee ee ee a 1, 565 1, 584 1, 584 1, 559 Blacronvighees S255 00 se ae ek ene ae 363 381. |-2=.---3398| eee @hest breadth. ---s- be2ks oo ee PC AM | ees. 304 275 @hest depth= 2-22 22 aee a fee See Sone iene as 1 mee |e 224 218 Sitting heighte iss 2-0 aa. wee Bao eae eee eee 825 836 830 781 éadiengthy= 2. o-b sae! nee Ee oben oe oce 185 185 190 181 Head breadth=-- =. Seeaeee Se eee 148 148 150 145 Head ‘helghts: s22-= te nee net een a ee 134 146 134 128 Minimunifrontal 232 ss) 422 oe eee eee 101 = | =~ =e. aa 2n3) =. ee BIZ VOUS Gs a te ee en ree 143 141 141 141 Bivonial: 2025502508 5- Se Meh i es) eee 107 104 ose ch go Eee Total facevnelght-—2 452 FL 2s Soe Soe een 120 116 9135 2125 (Uipperftaceibeie ht os esaen soe ees oe een 68 65. ||--22-.--e8| eee INose height sees te aoa tee ee oe eee 5256) || esas eee 57 50 Nose breadth] =--2-3- = 2.2 80223 22 eee SOL. qs Saute See 40 42 Indices: Relative shoulder breadth 222.02L_2222221242223.-2 23. 12 24..0') 44 22S ae See Relative sitting heights )22-=2-s-n—sa= =. eee ee 52. 60 51.8 52. 54 50. 09 ‘Phoracie indox:tyj+5.. 235 we oo ee __aet ee oad 78s68 Alecks - ee see 73. 83 79. 38 Gephblictindexss --~teee sete Ae eee bh 80. 04 79.9 79. 46 80. 38 ene hehele he iinid exe see eens ae 72. 44 68.6 70. 46 70.9 Breadth-heipht and ex = eee eee 90.26 | 2 2 oo ol ee Wronto-parietal index... 4.2422) aes sn 70.12) |_ 202-2222 eee @ephalo-facialindext=.-- 2 -=- 282 oe eae 96.\71 |--.-2. 32-22 sone es ZYZO-LONIBMINGOXS soe eae ee ee eee ae 75. 16 13.6 || --23202242 54 MaACIalindex 2. es Sinks. Ae ee eS ee eee 84. 00 82.9 196.35 788. 44 UW pperifacialtind exs2o 4 re see ee eee ans 47. 54 45.9 |-22- 2a eee eee Nasal index.) +2 1 ee ete oe CPR, | eee ee 69. 98 85. 37 1 The data in column B are from H. B. Ferris (1921), and comprise the pure Quichuas only, measured by Dr. L. T. Nelson, from the localities mentioned in pp. 62-63 of Ferris’ work. The data in column C are from Ferris (1916), and refer to Indians measured by Dr. D. E. Ford in the Provinces of Urubambaand Convenci6én of the Department of Cuzco. They comprise supposedly pure Quichuas, although the author states that there is a possibility of 8 percent admixture with Spanish whites. Data in column D are from Ferris (1921), and refer to Indians measured by Dr. Ford in the San Miguel Valiey. i Probably glabella-menton height. AntHRopP. Par. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 215 TABLE 19.—Differences between whole Imbabura group and Quichua series 1 reported from Peru by Ferris, wiih value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method ! 2 Trait Difference 1 oe yes 15) Measurements: MinimrGsseere. 2 tk Re ee. oes s shoe gen esse nok tele ss —1.92 £0. 47 4.09 LE TVEC TY CPR) Cai Span Sel ES Re St ee eee ee ee —1. 65 +. 17 9, 71 CEU ATECS STC 1h Sa 8 bt a Te eee eee oe eee ae —1.12 bk. 28 4,00 HD TG!) Qe e eee Be Te eee eee ee ee —.35 +t. 54 . 65 1 EPGSNEL | aC RAT Bh a Se ae Oe ek et oe eee ee ee ee eee —. 24 +. 40 . 60 TEED e LN ete SB hh Se Oe ee ee eee —12. 18 =k. 59 20. 64 TPE COE DE 3 a lie OE Ee ee tea gage Oe ae +1. 80 xk. 42 4. 29 LRTI So A I Set Re Ee en ee ee eee ee eee +8. 06 t. 61 5. 02 Total face height_-__-_-.-----_-- Jae RON» sticve Se a: cabs ea 5 ee J +4. 10 +k. 50 8. 20 iimpentacemeieht: 6 Se 2 Salata ses see ey eae és suk Mees +2. 75 bk. 39 7.05 Indices: PO amVOMnOUlGerureagthine = 2-4-2 fee — see oe Se —.88 +. 10 8. 80 LEVTUENT ASEH ARES 41S 1 gl lS ee eee eee +. 80 +. 14 5 71 Cephalic index----._-------- TE eee ere eee eae +. 14 sb. 27 52 Wp EH NGI ENO OK nh. cana we ERR been tn ray Lae we Seis +3. 84 ck. 82 12.00 ZED CTA by PAGES GI Bh ae gE eee eee +1. 66 zk. 50 3.32 TOG G L2) ¢8 2 pena Ot ae EO eee eee eer eee +1. 10 zk. 39 2. 82 (Ore AC ANTON etre see ca Lae eae 5 te 1th in eA erin Fe +1. 64 +. 28 5. 86 1 Percentage of measurements below 4X P. E.=20; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=43. 2 See table 18, column B. TABLE 20.—Differences between whole Imbabura group and Quichua Indians series 2 reporied from Peru by Ferris, with value in terms of probable error, calcu- lated by putative method }2 Measurements: @hest breadth. .--..1=..-=-.-- BAe oR iat Gs eee tere Dyn Se ey pine wynroanss CoE EUT) 5 CEE) oN Be, UIE SEROUS es Ce he. 2 ey arr ie ahs iecatnee tt ik Pe oe RTC ee oe et ha Se a eae eae aioe RCPS OFS 08 tees =e Br ee ee Se eco oeeee TECRIUE LO ATLA See Re a ae Ben atc eee sp pen Alene iia eee TERE SELECT CAI Fe SS eee RE ae en Ae ee ene ee ark rate ES GROTH Sl Oars ee ot ee oe EE oe Se pk non sun aoe ewoeeeeee WG TREAD O30 8G) Te Se ES Seg ane ARUN eter eae nee HEP Sy GTR DY 2 e S RR ES Die EUU en) eae Rs yap eines IRS aye tr SE PR os ee ee ere ae ree ees Indices: Pepe UI MOC OIG Mayan 8 toes Sy os ee soe ce ane SRC PREPERIC WU RETICL ONS MS SACO a a PS ee rg es ro OD OAVUE a FO At SO ee ire ae eae ee Sea eee LESTVENTG LTS Ed SY 0G Eh pee RR Ee ac ee ene a TEEN EIDY [Tea (ES Cea SS RCE Birch, ENC iI LDR PCR aga ay Seyi ceh-e er veel ineaes ANSSHIINGOK === sees te tere a cere rc see en ee eke = 1 Percentage of measurements under 4XP. E.=36; percentage of indices under 4X P. E.=50. 2 See table 18, column C, Difference 216 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buy. 128 TABLE 21.—Differences between whole Imbabura group and Machiganga Indians reported from Peru by Ferris, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method 12 Trait Difference pags “PLE. Measurements: Stature set Wy 530 wey Sa eee ae ee Se) +0. 58 +0. 96 0. 60 @hestipronc thie == See wee ar ee et a re ee + .19 + .29 . 66 @hestidep Gly sas-o. 7 eee ee re ee et ee ad ee ea — .06 x . 26 .23 Sitting yneient. ee ete ey el Tallon preei set ee eek n eee eenee +4. 38 + .56 7. 82 eadilangth sis. eet Sat ee an ed fe ee le +3. 65 +1. 09 3. 35 fries dibread ths.. 3 52: tee wes oe a ee ete ee ee Pee ee ee +2. 76 + .80 3. 45 WEVesy ane ta Gils 7d Lane ek See De eee ee ee +5. 82 +1.16 5. 02 IBIZY POUT C!s: 220s 2B ie Bile BES eet ee +1. 80 + .85 2.12 Moatal Tacaneight.-2_ 6 eto eee ee nl SR ee —4,90 +1. 00 4.90 INOseheitht:s 22 UP eae SLO eee ae ee ee Le ee +2. 58 + .66 3.91 INGSelbrena Gh. e: SS eee eee 2 Nae es as A te —3. 85 + .60 6. 42 Indices: Relativersittine heightws 23.2 ks ee ee +2. 51 + .28 8. 96 TMHOVACION AK. <2 ee NS ee ee ne — .80 + .92 87 Mophalic index. 222. Se eS ees ok See ee en oe — .34 + .55 - 62 hongth-heiehindex s 4422-22. oer ea ee +1. 54 x .62 2. 48 Racialiindaxtret:- 23 pete ee ese ee een eee oe —4, 44 + .80 5. 55 INAS 8 iG Gg: 2 eae ee in eee ete oe —13. 03 £1. 26 10. 34 1 Percentage of measurements under 4X P. E.=63; percentage of indices under 4X P. E.=50. 2 See table 18, column D. TABLE 22.—Differences between male Otavalo and Quichua Indians of Peru reported by Ferris (column B, table 18), series 1, with value in terms of probable error calculated by putative method } Trait Difference Pees SAP SIs Measurements: SU Thee AOS k Es ES yee eee Se we eee ee eee eS —2.37 +0. 50 4.74 VBS TEUei aya ts |S Ae ce ER BP 2 pa Ne a Soe eR he cy 6 la ooh, as Mate —1.87 + .18 10. 39 Bittinesneigh trerser are cme ne eo ee rere enn teeter eee —1.42 + .30 4.73 read eneth esis 58 see tones FES ee ee eae es Se eee — .62 + .56 1.11 ead bread nish et ja tele Se re oe ee ee ee ee — .45 + .44 1.02 eg dwheighte2 as. 28 easyer Fn ag tt by ee Se eee Se —13. 46 + .65 20. 71 IBIZVEOMACS tees Ee Ae Pee ae | ee ae Se eee 1. 90 + .45 4.22 IBIS ON ial sce 53a ee et ae Deal ST aa Tey ee rey Sere eee 3.14 + .66 4.76 Totalfaceheehts vet wala sn wales ete We Ce Ree ae 4. 25 + .52 8.17 Winperifaceshelgh tsetse ae oe eee oe oe Seen seme 3.05 + .41 7.44 Indices: Relativeshoulder bread thes sober are eee — .92 + .12 7. 67 Roelativesittine heights =< £5. - wea ee ee eee eee — .76 + .15 5.07 ZY 20-2 ODIANINGOXE bbs ae ie Fe en ee ee ee ee 1. 66 + .41 4.05 Cephalicindexs 22422. fs aap ee Se ee ee ee .14 + .28 . 50 NUON ET H-ROIPNTUNGOK- 225 see oe ee one ee ee ae ey 3. 33 + .36 9. 25 1 OPERONS Dee (25 Giatek Shee I SOS yee SC aca Bt Py Pala eh ee Sn i ole 1.30 + .40 3. 25 1 Percentage of measurements below 4XP. E.=20; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.= 33. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 217 TABLE 23.—Differences between Otavalo group and Quichua Indians, series 2, reported from Peru by Ferris, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method } Trait Measurements: CUE LEY OL SS i a ae Se Ea ee | eee eer ear CUCDHEEE LITT 0 ee, BRAS OS aS OR PSE S eS Sree : Gr OS Nene See LE UTE ee ae ee ae as eee: ere ee ae PEERS yee a Te I a ee Pe ee a eee | eee ae CEETG CL Se nee eee: eee | eee eee Boe UA RG TE Qe SR A a SE SSID GPL eee a eine SO SRG HBOI DION (a3) ke ae A ee et ee NP ES UD i Bs ae ee Se eee, | en: Bee LS) ES EU SoU Ne = areata = rae ep ere ene reg pee eae re see Indices: MORO ERIOUO INCOR es oe oe ne sa aape eee Le wb eae erste Neen hy. ses oes ae ie eeu k Voth ge enicmarmnnor 2 2 sytwk pes el) ye ee eros Sa es UIE MBS TOO UY ea ed Re a np i pe eS eee, Se 1 Percentage of measurements below 4XP. E.=27; percentage of indices below 4X P. E.=67. Difference —2.37 —2.95 —.84 — .82 —65, 62 —2, 45 —1.46 -++1. 90 —14. 75 —4, 26 —1, 43 +1. 47 —.02 +. 58 —12.16 +3. 04 +4. 71 a a XP. E. ~ $978 St SONS S290 ro] co a) ay oo es) TABLE 24.—Differences between Otavalo group and Machiganga of Peru reported by Ferris, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method | Trait Measurements: LVVDULEYE Es 22

er OT Measurements: SUS CULT weer 8 eee i Se a ee ee +1. 35 +40. 72 1.87 Sitting height. . 28-2 as Ee a TS VOR —1.20 +. 41 2.93 Bidcromigl 32s Ve SAM Bah ATT BOUIN AL TG. eat —3. 57 ck. 25 14. 28 Hea delong thes $8 eset regent oe in Scope tans eaten 2 tenants +6. 29 +. 81 Corks feuds bread tat sls 2 tis eee Shey a a os ee —1.18 +t. 59 2.00 (BIZ VP OMIA PICs sae raya ae cea Ce SO icra eh eR +2. 91 =k. 64 4. 55 ACO VNC EG ee eee AUR el AE ALLIS A TE ie 8 ol Se +8. 89 ct. 74 12.01 INOSeyeiD In Gas Seis Fe a A Be Ne EN ee ee ee le +5. 90 +. 50 11.80 IN OSCUDTRAC Nese ae a wen i ere See net eran te ae Ura eee +1. 73 hk. 45 3. 84 Indices: Relativesituur height.--weee esd sence ee ee ee eee Se ere eee —1, 28 +. 21 6.10 Mg cial singe: ce sa eRe Te Se ot ee Ce eee eee ener te +4. 41 +. 59 7.47 IN aSe tin GaKere aia eae oie We et ene ae Pet ae eT eC ene eee —6.12 +. 90 6. 80 MepHAlIGHNdext.: ioe ee at Ne eae ee te eee ene —3. 54 +. 41 8. 63 1 Percentage of measurements under 4X P. E.=44; percentage of indices under 4XP. E.=0. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16]: QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 219 TABLE 27.—Differences between male Otavalo and male Cayapas of Ecuadorean coast measured by Barrett, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method ! Trait Difference P.E. DOP. Measurements: SOS Tn, eS ee ee ee ee een eres +0. 72 +0. 73 0. 99 SHEE DSTO LON Yee ee ye ee ee a a ee koa! —1.50 bk. 44 3.41 FRO Blake ee Sem soe eee eee er ete ee —3. 69 cb. 26 14.19 PAPTEN RD eee Wek ees eS oe eee an deen eee +6. 02 +. 82 (ov PCB ORO Ne nee ete oh SR a ee Se ee ee eS —1.39 +. 65 2.14 TOSCO eS ee en eee eee +3. 01 +. 66 4, 56 EATD LEG eM Ee ee ee ee eee ener ess +9. 04 +. 76 11. 89 TNPRSTS Die ran Ree ee OR ee es ot te te +6. 06 -k. 52 11. 65 ENDED SWEET GH te eS ee a eee ene a a a +2. 15 bk. 46 4.67 Indices: ETE RATS 0 ne es Se ee eee —1.32 bk. 21 6. 29 TMT UTE GS oe re ee Se eee eee ee +4. 61 ch. 57 8.09 TSG Ty a ee Ee oe ee ee —5. 44 +1. 01 5.39 Cyr Riri se6G (> Cae Se ee as ee ea Been ae —3. 54 =k. 40 8.85 1 Percentage of measurements below 4XP. E.=33; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=0. TABLE 28.—Comparison of means for whole Imbabura group with those of Piro, Machiyenga, and Sipibo of eastern Peru reported by Farabee } Mache- Imbabura? Piro rca Sipibo Trait (column | (column | ( Sean (column A, series B, series Fi D, series No. 134) | No. 23) | G-Series | “No. 14) No. 19) Measurements: SHOUGHGL 22.2. ae Secor Ieee senate 1, 564 1, 613 1, 610 1, 586 STOLE HRs os 2. ek ek cen ceaeoe se 824 866 832 797 Tou GON ETRE TIT oe aces aee pepe pret Semi pe seperate ea 363 379 406 381 CHE HELE tl EN Se ee oe eee 277 283 293 292 (CROCS ANG TET eS ieee Se oe ae ee Se eee 217 237 234 235 TERT Go A eS Bee ee ee ee nee 185 194 184 182 PESTO Vee T ove A ae a ee eee ee 148 150 146 156 Lotro) eee TR Sie ee. eS ee eee 134 134 134 135 ICV POMIA NOME. - 8 eae eal coe os ee sa 143 145 145 147 POL SNACORNOION Gee ee eae oe oe 120 118 112 122 WTSI ACE AS Re Se ee eae See eae 53 48 50 48 WES eee ti es SS SER OE Sees See eee ee 38 41 40 41 WLC Th OT EE Re Be eee a 101 121 121 124 URGE 2 Oe ae Bee Se Soe ee ee 107 127 119 128 Indices: ~ Relanweasiubine helent.. - 222 22 oe 8 52. 60 53.77 5110 50. 97 MTC LPL GO Ke oe eae soe ee Ee Le Ee 78. 58 83. 87 80. 20 78. 58 TORR AIGNNOOK ea oat et oe te eee ee de 80. 04 77.43 78.99 85. 69 ene inNelen tr iNGexs. 22 |= Sa 8-2 oso of? 190A | OR Bal | See Se ol Laeieeie wk 8 TE rend LH-neienindex:2essc so. 2 Poe So 90. 26 89. 71 92. 50 86. 82 TOP CITA EG Fs OO oe eee eee oe 84. 00 81. 45 77. 50 82. 88 INGEN 5 i ee ee ee Sa ee eee ee eee 72. 34 86. 59 80. 10 84. 63 1 Farabee, 1922, pp. 168-179. 2 Round numbers. 220 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu 128 TABLE 29.—Differences between total Imbabura group and Piro Indians reported by Farabee, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method 1 Trait Difference | P.E. xP: Measurements: Stature: tos) 4c 6 sob SoU etl ase ae Oe ea ese —4, 82 0. 87 5. 54 Sitting Helgh pases 22 Wo yete, ole eer eet ONE ee RCN Ae enna eE Rd —4,12 . 50 8. 24 iplacromial® ees. 222d eee. 2 sR i ee eee eeneen —1.55 . 30 6.17 @hest'breadth:a 222. hoes sow ce), Deh hh eee RT an] ee apem —.61 . 26 2.35 Chest depener ess awd eS MUN rir Die hk 2 Bee EN —1.96 . 24 8.17 Head length tas 14 2 3 BA 5_ Vo) Cet ree eae oe ee ane ee —9. 35 97 9. 64 ead ibresa thes. + 2-420 Re nts oe eee ene Wa eee —2. 24 ay A 3.15 Head shee hte cae Aa EL See eee ee eae ee —.18 1,04 217 IB IZVRODIRGIC LO. S.A RENT Sis Ed Oe ee Or oe eae —2. 20 Ais 2. 86 otalifaceher sh bsea.5 S50 Ae Be eos EE Skee «ANA 3.10 . 89 2. 36 Nose heizht- 2. 2 ke eed 2s EER ee Ae 4.85 . 60 7. 63 INOse|Drcad ites. Seen. = SER en eer eens re eee NAL Reel: —2. 58 . 53 5. 38 Minimnmnrontal. 6202" oan one ed iors —19. 66 . 69 28. 49 Biponiall ---sse= s- a we Nee 5S Pee lee eee eh Ah shes Rd —19. 94 1.10 18.13 Indices: , Relativesittine heignt (ee we ee eee ee —1.17 .25 4. 68 ‘HHOTAGIC UNG Ox seas eee en gs ee eee, ee ee ee ae ae —5, 29 . 82 6. 45 @Gephalicindex eee a ee eae el ee Tee oes 2. 61 .49 5. 33 Breadth-heightiindex.<- 4-222 eeia sees ee ee 55 Wie .73 WaClal index soe es hee Pe En ea ges OO ROE 2. 55 ay 3. 59 Nasal index. 22-2228 32 EN. SEae Se Re SD OS Sea oe —14, 25 1.19 11,97 1 Percentage of measurements below 4XP. E.=36; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=33. TABLE 80.—Differences between total Imbabura group and Arawak Machiyenga hater by Farabee, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method } Trait Difference Pie er Ret Rees de eo er oe +4. 74 xk. 66 7.18 eS hESG 5 ae LYE ns Cpe ee pee a er aoe 5k a — 2. 43 xb. 58 4.19 PEPOAUO HOLE epee = nee wee ait is = be oe ERS 2 ee —1. 46 +1. 07 1.36 BHD oo Se SN Se ee Seer ee eee —19. 86 +1. 14 17. 42 ING he, SORE Se eee a ee aoe ee Se py ae ee —13. 57 +1. 21 11. 21 Indices: IVR TE EHCOn CAL ING GRs 5 oo hy os. 8 bee —17.30 +. 69 25. 10 neistive sisuing Noipniese f22 ob 222 68 See eee —1.21 bk. 25 4.89 MSHGEACIE UBS 225-9 Mee eens ie =. ea Srge s —5. 33 +. 82 6. 50 Wophaliotndex 229s ee dah ss et Beene asters anaeaene +2. 61 +t. 44 5.93 IS Youd Ui HOU kU TNGOK Sess see eet PE a oad —.14 +. 78 . 06 TOUTS Ce (2) oe es Seen eee ees Se ae hes See se +2. 75 +. 69 3.99 1 Percentage of measurements below 4X P. E.=36; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=33. 222 BUREAU OF AMERICAN PTHNOLOGY [Buxn, 128 TABLE 33.—Differences between Otavalo males and Arawak Machiyenga males measured by Farabee in eastern Peru with value in terms of probable error, calcu- lated by putative method } Trait Difference i Ea ir XP. E. Measurements: Statureds Spe kates 2 2 Re ee ee a ee con Oe —4,97 40. 94 5. 28 Sittin eheion tie oo. y koe Se Be ee ee ee ee ee oe a —1.02 bk. 56 1.82 IBA Crore limes a2 2 Loe Pied 2 Bee ee ee ee ee —4. 37 zk. 35 12. 48 @hestibrend tle). 50) £8 Saas oe a ee See —1. 85 bk. 28 6. 60 Ghestidan iinet: Sisl lige feat othe se ele a ee —1.84 zk. 22 8. 36 Head lengthi-4.-. 1 (ee EE Rae ite Seek le ee aa +0. 38 +1. 06 35 JE UGLY Uf] oy e¥s40 |] 0 faalbev mu, 2X Sn < TE Mies SAR ae see eg TRE Lp Ste +1. 55 zk. 84 1, 85 Head height. __._______. nee So ee eek Ue Me ets a he oh —1.46 £1. 16 1, 26 BIZVPOMatiCars-2- 2 tee eee SS se See Geeta —2. 10 ck. 85 2. 47 Cotalifacathelght 222 yet bes ve I a Oe SEE Poe ed oe Oe +8. 25 =k. 97 8. 50 NOSE HEIpEE ese} Ue J DAE Bn eer eh ee ee Mk +2. 74 =é. 71 3. 86 INose. breadth’._2---) #4S=. _- ie Rae ne et Oeste eees Bete DPR eTS —1. 43 tk. 61 2. 34 Vira mepron tal’... eee eaten oN ee ae ee he cee —17. 30 sEL73 23. 70 IB iO TEN Oe Ck ae AU ES eke ee ee ee eee le ee —11. 86 £1. 23 9. 64 Indices: Relative sitting heightst 6-2 ee ee ee ee +1. 46 = =P / 5. 42 (RHOraciG an Gexte so 2 bee ae ee Ee Se ee ee ee eee —1. 66 =k. 89 1. 87 Wephalicindex sake ak gle 2) ee ee aR el ee +1. 05 =k. 53 1.98 Breadth-heipht Indexsee so 2 week ee oe ee eee nae —2. 93 =k. 83 3. 53 AE EACUA S19 GLC ap oi a a a Ne ee ee -+6. 70 +. 73 9.18 INeSalinde@x:fee: 28 oie ae et Be ee ee eee —7.08 £1.31 5. 40 1 Percentage of measurements under 4XP. E.=50; percentage of indices under 4xP. E.=50. TABLE 34.—Differences between Otavalo and Pano Sipibo measured in Peru by Farabee, with value in terms of probable error, calculated by putative method } Trait Difference P.E. Det d Ds Measurements: Statnroses. ste. 8 See wn ee ee Ee PE A re Rk bea —2. 57 +1. 08 2. 38 Sarting Nelo se 5 Oe epee 8 ee ene oe +2. 48 +. 64 3. 87 Jabbve fosaa\tts) Ae Sewn OY See Bee ia ee ee ely Si —1.87 xk. 39 4.79 Chestibreddtiies 22! useSae Bee 2 RA tee a eee! —1.75 -k. 30 5. 83 Ghestdepthee 2... Bape ee Pee ee ee ee —1.94 ch. 28 6. 93 ead eng iimecs >: Cae Wes Bee ae 2 on Se ey +3. 38 1. 22 1.95 Head ibredad pies = i226 ei apie LS eal oe ep ie pete te Pe ee —8. 45 +. 95 8.89 Head neighimen st cease tl Bk hs ee ae oad oN pares —2. 46 -b1. 32 1. 86 1S) PArgefoy eats ritel: esemmmmps (Ve 2 20:5 ae aie BOE OE et ae) cor ie ee APN Stee ther ee —4.10 +. 97 4, 23 hotel Taceinelg hts. pwede oe —1.75 +1.12 1. 56 INoseiheigitt tte.) 2a By eeu A os eee et ee ae +4. 74 =. 79 6. 00 INGsei bread tins =. 9... skeen 2 ~ Bat etek rs pte ate gas ENS —2. 43 +. 78 Bae! IBivonial..44 Bytes yo iiee aes tN Ree bs ee —20. 86 +1. 41 14, 48 INGinimmmM frontal’: + pepe we se eee DN SE eas —20. 30 ch. 84 24.19 Indices: Relativersitting helehte sew a ee ey ee ee +1. 59 ck. 32 4.97 Mhoracioindex:. <1 Gi Adee 2 Seka ee oe baie Be eI —. 04 +1. 02 - 00 Gephalicundex>.'. -_t Iara ar Pine Brey cer eaee Wok aa rae —5. 56 +. 60 . 94 iBreadthibeight:in Geox: eases 15 eae eee Bie Debi ae eee +2. 65 +. 95 2.89 Mia cialedn dex 2 2 1 Gee eee mater ee fk eae iN Lean ee +1. 32 bk. 84 1. 57 IN aSalviad exci! a De RR ee nee ee Sree ae tas Ne ee ee —11. 61 +1. 50 7. 74 1 Percentage of measurements below 4XP. E.=43; percentage of indices below 4XP. E.=67. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 223 TABLE 35.—Measurements and indices reporied by Steggerda on Maya Indians of Yucatan! Trait Mean 8. D. XP. E. Measurements: SU RLUTEDO Dy Ee Be ee Se, RAR OR SEE Ay Ae ee eee 155. 11-b. 40 5. 25+. 29 3. 38+. 18 SVEN SEE TNT Ea AOS SA CPO ee aS eS es Oe 83. 674.28 | 2.964. 20 3. 54-b. 24 COU DEESTP 15) EEG Url i See REE SE SPS OOS Ge SS ee SEP See 28.05.13 | 1.39-+.09 4. 96-b. 33 ROTDSTAOE TOUT te cee ee eee Be kod ca are ae tat 2 ke ace 20. 55-b. 12 1. 22+. 08 6. 94-4. 40 STAKE VTEC SUS at BN 0S ee eee eee ene eee ene 30.01+.14 |} 1.51.10 3. 97=b. 27 Tare Narre. A oS pol eee ee eee eee ee eet 180. 41.41 | 5.33. 29 2. 95-4. 16 Lelonca toy e706 til) [aie WE Le ee ee ees etree 153. 714.36 | 4. 64+. 25 3. 02+. 17 LEGS cra To) oe ee oe ee ee ee ee ee 117. 504.37 | 3. 91+. 26 3. 33-4. 22 ECS Eeya (ce ee eee SE a es ee eee ere 142,984.49 | 5. 144.35 3. 59-- 24 SVIRELEN TE STINEVOT) Chl os toe AL Be Sk he ne ie eed ba he 110. 86.44 | 4. 58+. 31 4. 138+. 28 LEGO D [25 a OE gS ee ee ee See Lee 106. 06.53 | 5. 544.37 5. 22-4. 35 ONES EVLA 0) pe a ee ee Oe 2 eee ere 55. 78.30 | 3.144. 21 5. 63-b. 38 LIVERY L100 Ny OE Ss Te eee ee Pee eer meter ae me 38. 22.24 | 2. 514.17 6. 57k. 44 TOG G) (ala ts as OE ie ee een ere ee ee ee 118. 48-4. 64 6. 58-b. 45 5. 64-4. 38 Indices: elniivesinime heieh t= 2.2 sate oe nl ne Se | 68.02-+.11 ] 1.14.08 2.15-. 15 THOSE CG ey eS 2 Bee ee eee eee (2) (2) (3) eelauve suoliderbreagths === 203... ..sSzaee te 2k ek 24,284.08 | 0.80-+.06 3. 29+. 22 OTHE Gate 5 a SG OR A ae nee ee RE eae RS Ae 85. 01--.22 ; 2.80+.16 3. 29. 18 INFECES D2 (0 GV e) an ee ee eee ee 68. 50-+.57 | 5.95-+. 40 8. 28-4. 57 TRECIR NEG boca, = SO Se OS Ee SE Dee eee eee ea eee oe ae 82. 46-+.37 | 3. 90-b. 25 4, 73k. 32 1 Steggerda, 1932. 2 Not comparable. TABLE 36.—Differences between whole Imbabura group and Maya group reported by Steggerda, with values in terms of probable error, calculated by regular and by putative methods Regular method Putative method Trait a ee + eerie. |, Boks (OPS Speers | ABS da Scea cm Measurements: ShaVichis. Ua ee ee Seer 1.37 +0. 52 2. 63 1.37 £0. 55 2.49 Ripnineineitht= = eee ea 2 Ss —1.19 +. 33 3. 61 —1.19 ck. 36 3.31 Mes Dred$a@yu- ==. 2-6 ee —. 36 +. 16 2.00 —.36 +.19 1.89 iestidepe l= ste ek et ee 1.19 +.15 7. 93 1.19 .17 7.00 dare a ee 6. 34 +.18 35. 22 6. 34 bk. 22 28. 22 rendvenepaeec: 2-2 he Be 2 ek es 3. 24 zk. 55 5. 89 3. 24 -k. 60 6.31 PTeaG preqa th.» 2 se —5.95 bk. 46 12. 93 —5. 95 . 45 18. 22 ROTOR Cie te ee | a are 16. 32 -k. 57 28. 63 16. 32 +. 77 21.19 Wiinimem frontal 2322-22-22 2. 22 —9. 52 ck. 52 18. 31 —9. 52 +. 51 18. 67 Big gromiapicue= > 5 28 ee. + 2-8 8 —.18 +. 57 32 —.18 ck. 56 32 123 tn o ERE a ee ae es 1.00 xk. 68 1.47 1. 00 zt. 81 1. 23 Total face height_________ eee ee 1. 64 ck. 73 2. 25 1. 64 -k. 66 2. 48 OSO Nee RY =. ee —3. 20 x. 37 8. 65 —3. 20 ch. 44 7.27 Moceinrand pot {ee ae oe} Boy —.07 +b. 32 22 —.07 bk. 39 18 Indices: Relative shoulder breadth____.-.-_.-- —1.16 +. 11 10. 55 —1.16 +. 14 8. 29 Relative sitting height___._____.__..__ —.42 +. 15 2. 80 —. 42 +.19 2. 21 Wannaliggnders 22-22 02< 0202-3) e —4,97 =k. 29 17. 14 —4.97 +. 31 16.03 HEIN Tint (2) 2. oe ee Dee eee 1. 54 xk. 46 3. 35 1. 54 bh. 53 2.91 INST iG Ge a aed 3. 84 +. 73 5. 26 3. 84 bk. 87 4.41 AAV eee oe iy RS oad | RRO 1 ( Ses caged I eee oye 8.90 | pe Sea | Ee aan res | 7.74 2 24 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Buu. 128 TABLE 37.—Differences between Otavalo males and male Mayas measured by Steggerda in Yucatan 1 Regular method Difference P. E. Measurements: Stature. =. 2 ap ee STE Min eb he eee ee ee Seely Sitting height. sac. 2-0 ye he gyn te ee ee ee ee ote ree Ghest Dread thie st gk. os yp aie Bc ee ws Gest depth wn OKe 2h ene 2 vat, ep tes a Le eae Se ee he (BiSGronTight= 5 #06. 2b te we Meh py yD ee ce ee ae lead length... ¢ ei be a ere dN oe ee ae iead! breadthe: «25 4. 3k wey BE AS IS ened Fe) te MN oe es | HesG Height -2:28 2. ty oe ee ate! ee oe eae INMiinimumifromtalh 2 yar site ay eS eee ee : IBARVZOMIATIC + Pak Ae 8 ge, ek ce ae en eee ee IP ONIANS She pe tee tel ieee Se le eee Potalitace Neier G! see se ee ae ee eee Bae ee INOSOnOIgnt secs eek aes pe oe Pe as Se eee INOSselbread thiaee. cea Stic ae is See eee ae etnies So Se ale Indices: Rolative shouldenbreadthi== 32 2-) 0 oe ee eee eee Relativesittinas;heigh tus 4 a= sat ese ee ee ee Gephaliesindex 3-3 2 5 Ss Spy Ap tp hea, ap PM LTR Ho MaCiatnGOX= 2c 228 ee es ee ene nee onal ee ee ae DSRS Er ara 1.0 (Ep ci uecprne ta ance ye Merman, Peis er seta ol ate fin Scala eS J 1 Percentage of measurements under 3XP. E.=36; percentage of indices under 3XP. E.=20. TABLE 38.—Percentages of insignificant differences, as shown by putative X P. E. under 4, between total Imbabura group and various foreign groups Group Measurements Rank Percent 1. Expected differences in random samples of same uni- IVOTSG se eee ss BE RR Se SS Sc ee Rs ee ee ete 99. 38 2. Imbabura compared with Chervin Quichua (table 9)__- 2 50. 00 3. Imbabura compared with Rouma Quichuas (table 14) _- 8 18.18 4. Imbabura compared with Ferris Quichuas (table 19)____ 7 20. 00 5. Imbabura compared with Ferris Quichuas (table 20) ___ 4 36. 36 6. Imbabura compared with Chervin Aymaras (table 10)_- 2 50. 00 7. Imbabura compared with Rouma Aymaras (table 15)_- 8 18.18 8. Imbabura compared with Barrett Cayapas (table 26)___ 3 44.44 9. Imbabura compared with Ferris Machiganga (table 21) __ 1 63. 64 10. Imbabura compared with Farabee Machiyenga (table SD} ee ott oo, os RR RE tS aR OS gm 2 50. 00 11. Imbabura compared with Farabee Sipibo (table 31)____ 6 28. 57 12. Imbabura compared with Farabee Piro (table 29)______ 5 35. 71 13. Imbabura compared with Steggerda Maya (table 36)___ 2 50. 00 Percentage under 4XP. E. Indices Rank Percent conde 99. 38 2 50. 00 6 28. 57 3 42. 86 Z 50. 00 7 25. 00 1 71. 42 Sik hee 2 50. 00 2 50. 00 2 50. 00 5 33. 33 4 40. 00 AnTHROP. Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 225 TABLE 39.—Distribution of differences as expressed by X P. E., calculated by putative method, between total Imbabura group and respective apposite series. Distribution of X P. E. in categories of size by percentages Per- Per- centage] centage below 3} below 4 ee otkae|| Sede re Rank 1. Expected difference in random samples of same universe!___| 50.00 2. Imbabura compared with Chervin Quichuas (table 9) __| 10.00 3. Imbabura compared with Rouma Quichuas (table 14)__] 5. 56 4. Imbabura compared with Ferris Quichuas (table 19)___} 17.65 5. Imbabura compared with Ferris Quichuas (table 20)_-_} 11.76 6. Imbabura compared with Chervin Aymaras (table 10)_} .00 7. Imbabura compared with Rouma Aymaras (table 15)__| 11.11 8. Imbabura compared with Barrett Cayapas (table 26)_-| 0 9. Imbabura compared with Ferris Machiganga (table 21) _| 29. 41 10. Imbabura compared with Farabee Machiyenga (table SU 2 2 oe eee eee 10. 00 11. Imbabura compared with Farabee Sipibo (table 31)____] 10.00 12. Imbabura compared with Farabee Piro (table 29)______ 10. 00 13. Imbabura compared with Steggerda Maya (table 36)___| 10. 53 17.73 20. 00 11.11 0 5. 26 4. 30} 0.698) 0.074} 0. 005/0. 0002 10. 00/10. 00 {20.00 | 0 - 00) 5, 56 5. 88} 5. 88 - 00)17. 65 10. 00/10. 00 11.11] 5. 56 15. 38] 7. 69 11. 76/17. 65 15. 00/10. 00 5.00} 5.00 15. 00/10. 00 21. 05/10. 53 5. 56 17. 65 16. 69 17. 65 17. 65 10. 00 16. 67 20. 00 10. 53 30. 00 30. 00 35. 00 40. 00 42.11 36. 84 1 From Mathematical Tables from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 5th ed., p. 183, Cleveland, 1936. 226 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buy 128 TABLE 40.—Percentage of insignificant differences between Otavalo group and various foreign groups as shown by * P. E. under 4 in round numbers ule an 12. 13. Group Expected differences in random sample of same MATL OTC eee es 2 Ng ee . Otavalo compared with Chervin Quichuas (table (0-5) IS Se ea a Oa eae Dis ik SE ee Be Sa ee i re eee ee . Otavalo compared with Farabee Machiyenga (table.33) == soe ae) ee ee . Otavalo compared with Farabee Sipibo (table Percentage under 4 X P. E. Measurements Rank em OV OO538) | 22a eeae 67 3 18 7 20 5 27 2 67 6 20 1 33 8 64 3 50 3 43 2 36 4 43 4 Indices Measurements and indices Percent | Rank | Percent | Rank | Percent an TABLE 41.—Percentages of insignificant differences between Otavalo, whole Imbabura 1. Angachagua compared with Otavalo (table 7) 2. Imbabura compared with Maya, regular method (table 36) 3. Imbabura compared with Maya, putative method (table 36) 4. Otavalo compared with Maya, regular method (table 37) group, and Maya, as shown by X P. E. under 3 Group Percentage under 3 X P.E. Measure: ments 69 43 43 36 Indices 40 20 AntTHropP. Pap, No. 16] QUICHUA-SPEAKING INDIANS—GILLIN 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY Barrett, 8. A. 1925. The Cayapa Indians of Ecuador. 2 vols. New York. CuHERVIN, A. 1907-08. Anthropologie Bolivienne. 3 vols. Paris. Crmza DE Le6N, PEDRO DE 1853. Crénica del Perd. Madrid. FARABEE, WILLIAM CURTIS 1922. Indian tribes of eastern Peru. Pap. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 10, pp. 168-179. Ferris, H. B. 1916. The Indians of Cuzco and Apurimac. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc., vol. 3, pp. 59-148. 1921. Anthropological studies on the Quichua and Machiganga Indians. New Haven. Garcrs, Victor GABRIEL 1932. Condiciones psiquico-sociales del indio en la Provincia de Imbabura. An. Univ. Central Quito, vol. 48, pp. 125-184; vol. 49, pp. 159-174. GILLIN, JOHN 1936. Quichua-speaking Indians of Northern Ecuador. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 88, pp. 548-553. GonzALes SUAREZ, FEDERICO 1890-1903. Historia general dela Reptblica del Ecuador. 7 vols. and atlas. Quito. J1i36N ¥Y CaamMaNo, JACINTO 1920. Nueva contribucién al conocimiento de los aborigines de la Provincia de Imbabura. Bol. Soc. Ecuatoriana de Estudios Hist. Amer., vol. 4, pp. 1-120. 1930. Una gran marea cultural en el nord-oest de Sud America. Journ. Soc. Amér. Paris, vol. 22, pp. 107-197. MartTIN, RUDOLPH 1928. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in Systematischer Darstellung. 3 vols. Jena. Mans, Puitirp AINSWORTH 1931. Ancient civilizations of the Andes. New York. Ponce DE LEe6én, SANCHO Pas | 1881-97. Relacién y descripcién de los pueblos del partido de Otavalo, 1582. Relaciones Geogrdficas de Indias, 4 vols. Madrid. Reyes, Oscar EFREN 1934. Brevisima Historia del Ecuador. Quito. Rovuma, G. 1913. Les indiennes quichouas et aymaras des hautes plateaux de la Bolivie. Bull. et Mém. Soc. Anthrop. Bruxelles, vol. 32, pp. 281-391. 1933. Quichouas et Aymaras, étude des populations autochtones des Andes Boliviennes, extrait du Bull. Soc. Roy. Belge Anthrop. et Prehist., Bruxelles. Sarnz, Moises 1933. Sobre el Indio Ecuatoriano y su Incorporacién al Medio Nacional. Publ. Sec. Educacién Publ. Mexico. STEGGERDA, Morris 1932. Anthropometry of adult Maya Indians. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 434. 228 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLn. 128 Untn, Max. 1922. Influencias mayas en el alto Ecuador. Bol. Acad. Nac. Hist., vol. 4, pp. 205 ff. Quito. 1932. Las antiguas civilizaciones de Manta. Bol. Acad. Nac. Hist., vol. 12. Quito. Veuasco, Juan Dr 1841-44. Historia del Reino de Quito. 3 vols. Quito. VERNEAU, R., and Rivet, P. 1912, 1922. Ethnographie ancienne de l’Equateur. Are Méridien Equi- torial Amer. du Sud, vols. 6. Paris. Von BucHWALp, OTTo 1909. Ecuatorianische Grabhiigel. Globus, vol. 96, pp. 154-157. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 19 1. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VILLAGE OF ANGACHAGUA. 2. HOUSES AND FIELDS AT ANGACHAGUA. NOTE FOUR-SIDED ROOF CONSTRUCTION. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 20 1. HOUSE AT ANGACHAGUA. 2. QUICHUA INDIAN WOMAN SPINNING WOOL, ANGACHAGUA. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 2l 1. NATIVE QUICHUA INDIANS OF ANGACHAGUA, SHOWING TYPICAL COSTUME. 2. HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS; POTTERY VESSELS. “dNOUD OIVAOLO AO NVIGNI ¢¢ ALV1Id 821 NILSAaaMna ASOTONHL]A NVOIMAWY AO Nvayna “dNOYD OIVAOLO AO NVIONI €e ALV1d 8¢l NILATINGA ADSDOIONHL]A NVOINAWY AO NVaNNSG “"dNOYD OIVWAOLO AO NVIOGNI ve ALV1d 821 NILST1INA ASOTIONHLA NVOIYAWY SAO NV3AYNa dNOYD OWAOLO AO NVIOGNI G@ ALV1d 821 NILATINA ASONIONHALA NVOINAWY AO NVadNns “dNOYD OIVAOLO AO NVIOGNI 9¢ ALV1d se! NILATING ASONIONHLA NVOIMAWY AO NVvayna *dNOYUD OIVAOLO AO NVION] 4@ 31V1d 821 NILSAIINGA ASOIONHL]A NVODINAWY AO NVaYHNSa “dNOYD OIWAOLO AO NVIGNI 8¢ ALV1d 821 NILATINA ASOTONHL]A NVYOIMAWY AO NVvsaena “OI1WAOLO YVAN 'OLVSOYV AO NVIOGNI 6¢ ALVaId scl NILATIng ADOIONHL]A NVOIMAWY SAO Nvadne SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 128 Anthropological Papers, No. 17 Art Processes in Birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a Circumboreal Trait By FRANK G. SPECK 229 218558—40——-16 i + ; ” ie VAAN Vee gl an ey i 7 od he | t - ; uh i" 2 By / 4 ML, - ; \ ' « a 2, SS ee rs saa asUSAEEaT OCUNGATI Sie een \ e \ LOTT TITAVT MAIR ty rie ¢qoleahd esotmonA Yo rgevneil . BET citedlintt Lo esoqoh Isigologouliak wovist ott lo arsddowitl at asaconord pA" tisyT Inovodenue) 5 yoinpsoglA tromofh AOQATe 2 AVANT 2h aa RNY © aah w= enna Pome doin Atepd htmanienatinder re enily:stsiar rwanda sega rome He o Uy 4) a ‘ BTS us Ma it) at i ” i mann ey us P , ae i 2 7 = -- Pe i ee nite | CONTENTS PAGE Pemocuetion <==. 2ast Teh) Sov) Poe 2h Nh) Pee Sel eee 233 ivpes ef birchbark ‘containers 2s _ 02. DOL SLU sa be _ Skee 236 Types of designs on Algonquin birchbark containers__ ~~ _-------------- 243 The conscious elements of Algonquin design motivation__.---.--------- 268 Ghronology of designs scunt let keie! Oly Bl aeoy ERO LO eae 270 MMMIOGEAD IY <0 kane oes eee eees soe secon eee esses OUR eet 274 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 30. Birchbark containers, sap bucket, and round pail (River Desert Band). 274 31. Birchbark containers (River Desert Band) _____.__.__-.---_-------- 274 32. Birchbark sap pails and dishes (River Desert Band)_-_--.---.------ 274 33. Birchbark trunk (River Desert Band) and baskets (Mattawa Band)__ 274 34. Decorated birchbark containers (Timiskaming Band, Algonquin) ____- 274 35. Algonquin birchbark containers (River Desert Band) _-_------------ 274 36. Algonquin birchbark box with scene of beaver gnawing vegetation (River Desert. Band) ief) Seb 4) oe) SU ed Le 274 37. Algonquin birchbark containers for household articles with floral figures in sgraffito designing and with sewed-on cut-out pattern decoration (River Desert ‘Band)__22 + 2.810222 fe Sie eee 274 88. Birchbark containers (River Desert Band) __.-._._.__._..-_--__------ 274 39. Birchbark envelope container for bear bait (River Desert Algonquin, P. Q.) and birchbark container with spruce-root loops for decoration GriversMesert; band) 22.52. S52 eto es Pe a es ee 2 en 274 40. Birchbark cut-out pattern markers for decorating bark containers, representing undefined varieties of flowers and leaves (River Desert TES ELINGL)) et RRR ES OEE SE te a ee Se Se a 274 41. Camp of Algonquin birehbark worker and basket maker (Madenine Caan chiverslesert Bandy PN Os) es. ee 2 oie Sa ae 274 42. Mackusi*’k'we, ‘‘Beaver Meadow Woman” (Mrs. M. Buckshot), with decorated birchbark baby carrier for infant up to 1 month of age__ 274 TEXT FIGURES 3. Algonquin methods of sewing birchbark with stitches of spruce root in fastening the sides of containers. A basting tack_.__.___-------- 237 4. Patterns for birchbark utensils (Algonquin) .....-............_-__- 238 5. Rim reinforcements of Algonquin birchbark containers and decorative bordersiderivedsromitheme- See= 2s eee 9S eee aoe ee eee 244 6. Decorations below rims of birchbark containers____________-------- 245 7. Decorations below rims of birchbark containers (River Desert Band). 246 8. Decorations below rims of Algonquin birchbark containers_-—-_-_-_---- 247 9. Cut-out patterns for decorating birchbark containers (a-e) and animal figures from decorated objects (f-7) (River Desert Band) ---------- 252 232 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buct. 128 PAGE 10. Realistic decorations on birchbark maple-sap, or water pail (River Deserts Band) 22 535s ee il ge ee 253 11. Designs from birchbark containers (Timiskaming Band) _-_---------- 254 12. Designs on birchbark containers (River Desert and Mattawa Bands). 255 13. Symmetrical band floral designs from birchbark containers (River Desert: Band)s240. 2.2 ee ei ee 256 14. Designs from sides of birchbark basket (River Desert Band)--_---~-_-- 257 15. Birchbark cut-out patterns applied to surfaces of containers and baskets to outline decorative scraped-away designs (River Desert Bang) 2.2225 4eeul ber ehh sh ote ee te Ae tee 258 16. Designs from birchbark vessels and baskets (Timiskaming and River Deésert: Bands)22. a ee ee 259 17. Element designs from birchbark wall pocket (a-e), and birchbark cut- out patterns for decoration of containers (f-j) (River Desert Band). 260 18. Designs from sides of birchbark dishes (River Desert Band) -_--~_--__- 261 19. Design elements from birchbark water pail (River Desert Band) ---~_- 263 20. Birchbark cut-out patterns for decorating containers, representing flowers, (River Desert Band) 222.2) pje4e0) «240s oe eee 264 21. Pattern stencils cut out of birchbark, used in decorating containers (River: Desert) Band)so2220-bws-en! sepaetl see. bee ee 264 22. Birchbark cut-out patterns for decorating containers, and designs taken from decorated objects (River Desert Band) -____---------- 265 23. Designs from one side and end of birchbark container (Mattawa Band). 266 24. Designs from birchbark containers (Mattawa Band)____------------- 266 25. Assortment of plant-design elements from sides and covers of birch- bark containers derived from cut-out patterns, mostly pseudorealistic representations of yellow pond lily (River Desert Band) - ~~~ ------ 267 ART PROCESSES IN BIRCHBARK OF THE RIVER DESERT ALGONQUIN, A CIRCUMBOREAL TRAIT By FRANK G. SPECK INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the area over which birchbark basketry is used and decorated in northeastern America has now been extended to include a wide area in the Province of Quebec, from the Ottawa River north- ward to the St. Maurice, Lake Barrier, and Grand Lake Victoria. This is the territory inhabited by various bands forming the quondam Algonquin Nation, now widely dispersed throughout the Canadian forest region of the upper Ottawa from the River du Liévre on the east, taking in the Gatineau, Coulonge, and Dumoine Rivers, west to Lake Timiskaming and the frontier between Quebec and Ontario. A series of specimens of birchbark work from five bands of this his- torically famous group are to be found in the collections of a number of museums (as listed below), and seem sufficient to justify reproduction and discussion of the designs they offer as representing the work of the Algonquin proper. The specimens, numbering over 130, forming the original basis of this study, with locations and other pertinent data,! are as follows: a. River Desert Band: The National Museum of Canada (NMOC),? 37 specimens, collected (1915-18) by E. Sapir and F. G. Speck. The Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation (MAJ), 41 speci- mens, collected (1926-29) by F. G. Speck. The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania (UPM), 7 speci- mens, collected (1929) by F. Johnson. The National Museum of Denmark (NMD), 6+ specimens, collected (1928) by F. G. Speck. The Denver Art Museum (DAM), 15 specimens, collected (1937) by F. G. Speck. 1 A return to the River Desert Band in July 1937, made possible through a grant (No. 342) from the Faculty Research Fund, University of Pennsylvania, provided occasion for amplification of the manuscript in the field with the cooperation of informants as a final, and at the same time fortunate, step in its preparation. Opportunity was also afforded by this renewal of contact to examine 45 additional specimens of birchbark work of the band and to include discussion of their characteristics in the text. The investigation here presented is accordingly based upon study of 175 specimens of Algonquin birchbark containers. 2 I desire to acknowledge the courtesy of Dr. Diamond Jenness, Director of Anthropology of the National Museum of Canada, in providing the opportunity to have the specimens of Algonquin decorated birchbark containers photographed and studied, in 1928, when they were lent to the University of Pennsylvania for the purpose. 233 234 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn. 128 b. River du Liévre Band: The Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 5 specter, collected (1928) by V. M. Petrullo. c. Golden Lake Band: The Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 11 specimens, collected (1928) by F. Johnson. d. Mattawa Band: The National Museum of Canada (NMC), 3 specimens, collected (1915) by F. G. Speck. e. Timiskaming Band: The National Museum of Canada, 21 specimens, collected (1915) by F. G. Speck. A more precise delineation of the territorial boundaries of these bands will be found in my recent report, covering the River Desert group (Speck, 1929) and in a study of 1915 dealing with the Timiskam- ing and River Dumoine Bands (Speck, 1915). During this period of field work the specimens and etymological notes forming the basis of the following report were obtained. For the designs and bark work of the River du Liévre band the illustrations and information given in an article by V. M. Petrullo (1929) have been used. It is important to note before examining in detail the character of bark work and designs of the Algonquin that a close resemblance exists between the manufactures and decorations of this division and those of the Montagnais of Lake St. John (Speck, 1937), and that a marked differentiation is to be observed between the wares of these two when compared with those of the Tétes de Boule which intervene between the two, and those of the Barriére Indians, next neighbors on the north. In the case of the Tétes de Boule, we have the published results of the field work of D. S. Davidson (1928), whose collections from this tribe show almost no etched or scraped ornamentations on the sides of containers. A collection of bark objects from the Bar- riére Indians, made for the Museum of the American Indian by F. Johnson (1930, pp. 34-35), also shows the same lack of wall decora- tions on baskets. Aside from recognition of the efforts of those who by collecting actual material in the field have increased the portfolio of native art from which such studies as this are built, I am mindful of advantages derived from consultation in the preparation of the text with Dr. F. H. Douglas, Denver Art Museum; Dr. L. C. Eiseley, University of Kansas; and Dr. C. E. Schaeffer, University of Penn- sylvania. There has evidently been a factor at work in the St. Lawrence Valley and watershed affecting the art motives of the Algonquin and the Lake St. John Indians in a similar way; that is, toward profusion. And, in addition to this, the predominance of band-floral and leaf figures to the exclusion of human and animal forms has become char- Anrurop. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 235 acteristic of both peoples. ‘This is brought out in the illustrations of specimens now to be shown. The scope of the following report is not limited to aspects of Algon- quin art of the past. The forces active now in the historical develop- ment of decoration here may represent a continuity of systems em- ployed in at least protohistoric times in the region occupied, not necessarily derived from association with Europeans. ‘The assertion of European origin of the nongeometrical art forms of the northeastern Woodland tribes has frequently been made without adequate proof by writers dealing with the area. Despite evident influence of modern conditions which will continue to affect the growth or the decline of native crafts, certain principles of decoration will be manifest in the work of different tribal groups which bear witness to individual art traditions possessed by them. What their age may be it will only be possible to surmise in most respects. The decoration of useful articles for the pure satisfaction of such performance to their makers is evi- dently an ancient cultural trait of the Woodland peoples. The con- tinuation and even increase of these products for trade within or with- out the group, in other words, for gain, is also to be inferred as a native characteristic of every age of tribal life in the region. Even a lax form of professionalism may be marked for past as well as present phases of life, for there have been and are the more expert canoe makers, bowmakers and the art creators whose manufactures are in demand, and who command admiration among members of their band. At the present time there may be observed in various families of the River Desert Algonquin objects preserved for their value and some of them in use which have come from the hands of some half dozen experi- enced bark workers; the creations of Mackusi-/k:we (Mrs. Michele Buckshot) (pl. 42), Madenine Cesar (Mrs. Clement) (pl. 41) in parti- cular, and some of the women of the MacDougal, Ottawa, and White Duck families. Thus there is traffic among the Indians themselves for the neatly made and decorated handicraft of their own experts. Commercialism has, to be sure, influenced the art industries of the band, as it has elsewhere among Indians of the historic period in general, increasing the demand and producing a spirit of competition, for which the object is gain. We may not, however, say that contact with Europeans has empirically created the art of the people. The impulse to decorate articles of use and to create fancy articles of minor utility, as well as to excel in their manufacture, should be credited distinctly to a native phase of culture. In their conversion from old to newer currents of progress through dealings with the encroaching civilized world, the Algonquin artists have grafted their tradition upon the latter and expanded it. The line to be drawn between antiques in native culture and those utensils customarily 236 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 used which have on their part acquired acculturational features, is in reality a hazy and ethnologically insignificant one on the horizon of native culture history. The accompanying paper is, then, intended to form a contribution to our knowledge of living art phases of a people rather than a reconstruction of their art as a cultural possession of the past. The River Desert Band is numerically on the increase (469 in 1923, 552in 1937). With a revival of interest in folk art which, while not conspicuously imminent now, might take place under the stimulus of educational guidance, forces could swing into action to promote the decorative arts to a still further development. It need cause little surprise to find that pulsations of interest in the calling of art as a possibility for revenue have induced designers here to introduce cut-out pattern figures into their repertoire which seem strange to Indian traditions, such as the representation of a ribbon bowknot, a goblet, and even (1937) a representation of the Queen’s (literally, “chief-woman’s’’) coronation crown. This product was a spontaneous creation of Madenine Clement celebrating the occasion of the royal coronation in London in that year, an event which created some stir even among the distant Indian subjects of the Canadian backwoods. In the eyes of the historian who is interested in acculturation it also attests the vitality of an art in the process of acquiring the character of memorial documentation. TYPES OF BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS The five major types of bark containers and receptacles made and used by the Algonquin include the following, as they appear in the plates: 1. Wi'gwe’mat‘, “birchbark receptacle’ (pls. 30, a, 6, e; 31, a; 33, b-f; 34, a-e). A container of varying capacity, from 6 to 24 inches in length, with walls generally less in height than the length, and tapering in toward the top (construction pattern, fig. 4, a). The outside of the rim is reinforced with a maple hoop, bound on with spruce or basswood wrapping. It frequently has a fitted lid attached by a skin thong to prevent its loss. This container serves the purpose of sewing box, trunk, and general receptacle, as its name implies, for women’s effects and men’s tools and work materials. Food is also occasionally kept in it. The majority of these baskets, as they are termed locally, show decorative motives on their sides and lids. In the bush life the wi'gwe’mat‘ is an indispensable article of equipment although it is being replaced by the tin canister and paste- board carton among the Indians who dwell near the precincts of civilization. The grain of the bark is perpendicular to the rim. 2. Kik’*bana’gan, ‘‘vessel”’ (pls. 30, d, e, f; 31, b-e). Similar in construction to the preceding type (pattern fig. 4, a), except that the sides are higher, a bale or carrying handle of basswood is provided AnrHrop. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK Ia and the cover is lacking. The seams are coated with pitch made of spruce gum to make the vessel watertight. This is the carrying pail, of service in the transportation of maple sap in the sugar-making season, and of water to and from the spring. It is still used at all times except where it has become obsolete through the invasion of the commercial tin pail. Decorations on the sides are frequently seen. The grain of the bark is perpendicular to the rim. 3. P‘ski'tana’gan, “folded double” (pl. 32, a, b, c, d). A seamless aiiicaes in 1 4 ] Rt i Ficure 3.—Algonquin methods of sewing birch bark with stitches of spruce root in fastening the sides of containers. A basting tack. a, 6, Spruce root stitching; c, penis bone of black bear used in perforating bark for sewing with spruce roots (MALT, 16/4196). (For institutions indicated by initials see list on page 1. Catalog numbers are given when possible.) bottomed, troughlike vessel constructed on the plan of pattern c, figure 4. The folded ends are sewn with spruce roots or the bass- wood inner bark (wi'gub‘). This container, according to tradition over a wide region of the northern hunting area, is the original native 3 Other types of containers (‘‘bottles’’) were made and employed as watertight receptacles. A bear’s stomach, turned inside out, was used for bear’s oil, whisky, ete. Similarly a loon’s gullet or deer’s stomach was blown up and stretched, and turned for use as a container. These vessels were fastened with a twist of basswood fiber at the neck. The ear of a moose or deer was split and dried for use as a match container. 238 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bury. 128 cooking vessel. Having no seams it is naturally watertight. When placed over hot coals it will resist the action of heat, if thoroughly wet beforehand, sufficiently long to allow water or soup to boil. This operation has been witnessed by myself and others. In recent times the folded bark vessels have retreated from their position of former FOLD INS/DE FOLD OUTSIDE ' L FOLD OUFSIDE FOLD INGIDE } Figure 4.—Patterns for birchbark utensils (Algonquin). a, Pattern for bark pail and container for berries and women’s work materials (MAI, 16/4901); b, pattern for dish (MAI, 16/4900); c, pattern for seamless pail or boiler (MAI, 16/4902); d, pattern for rolled-up match box. importance to become sap troughs or receptacles for other liquids about the camp orfarm. The grain of the bark is parallel to the rim. 4, At‘oba’gan, “pail” (pl. 32, e). A variation of the seamless vessel in which the ends are not folded over but merely bent together and caught with a fastening of the usual materials, spruce root or bass- wood fiber. It is used in the same manner as the preceding type, ANTHROP. Pap. No.17} ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 239 usually for sap. Both of these containers (pl. 32, c, d) are of less permanent construction than the first two, and are not always pro- vided with hoops to strengthen their rims. Nor are they so fre- quently decorated. The grain of the bark is perpendicular to the rim. 5. Wigwasana’gan, ‘“birchbark dish,” (pl. 32, f). Constructed from the pattern (fig. 4, 6), this dish is of wide distribution in the birchbark culture area. It serves the purpose of an eating dish or bowl among the more remote hunters who are as yet not so generously provided with utensils obtained from the traders. The dish or food tray has a hoop and is occasionally decorated. 6. Figure 4, d, shows the pattern for making the cylindrical match box, by which the bark strip is rolled to form a tube and the narrow end tucked into a slit which holds and conceals it. These boxes are made of a size to fit the matches used and are not decorated. They are made similarly, according to our present knowledge, eastward through the territory of the Montagnais-Naskapi. 7. Pski'tona’ge, “folded.’’ This equally simple type of construction is to be listed separately although in native terminology the same designation is given it as type 3. A rectangular sheet of bark is folded double, the two lateral edges sewn with a whip stitching of spruce root (or basswood inner bark) to form a simple envelope (pl. 39, a). A section of the top of the bark (or flap) is left so that it might be turned down over the open end. To keep it from curling, strips of cedar wood are fastened inside the folder as stiffeners. A variation in construction is to place the cedar strips outside the folder and bind them so tightly that nothing can enter the orifice. These receptacles serve the purpose of preserving dried, or even fresh meat, from insects and also for the storing of clothing. Frequently such a “meat bag’? (wityfas owac) is made of green elm or cedar bark, in which to store foods like dried beaver tail (amikwazo awac, “beaver tail folded holder’’) and dried fish (naméteg) for a period as long as a year. The larger sizes serve as folded trunks in which to store fur clothing during the summer. When packed in one of these envelopes with quantities of cedar boughs, the furs are safe from insects. The folder is also used for the simple purpose of holding bait suspended temptingly in a bear trap, as a specimen from Mrs. Buckshot demon- strates (the scraped-away representation appearing on the front of this bait holder (pl. 39, a) is that of the pitcherplant, Sarracena purpurea, a symbol of the trap that nature grows in the plant realm to ensnare insects). The similitude of these bark folders to the parfleches of the Plains area is a feature of comparative ethnology not to be overlooked. It lies in their constructional simplicity and in their adaptation to the same economic purposes; namely, the preservation of dried meat and the storage of clothing. Spier has pointed out the characteristic 240 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 128 details of decoration which appear on the surfaces of the parfleches and their evident antiquity in Plains culture, and I have added some remarks along related lines in the study of birchbark techniques of the Montagnais (cf. Speck, 1937), showing that a similarity exists ostensibly between the primitive use of bark, or ‘‘tree skin” and animal skin, both serving in the raw state as materials of construction,‘ and also have drawn attention to the techniques of their ornamenta- tion in the Woodlands and on the Plains.’ It has been noted in describing the constructional types of Algon- quin containers that the principle followed here is to cut and sew the bark so that the grain of the bark forming the longer side (usually the decorated wall) runs perpendicular to the rim, The same principle is followed by artisans in birchbark among all the tribal bands from here eastward through the territory of the Montagnais and the Wabanaki divisions. And westward the observation holds true for Ojibwa and Saulteaux bark baskets, judging from available specimens. Western Cree and Athabaskan series, however, predominantly show the bark cut and patterned so that the grain runs parallel with the trim. I regard this as a feature of considerable significance in the distribution of types. While the forms of bark containers in the various Algonquin bands are also strikingly like those of the Lake St. John Montagnais, it is to be noted that the Algonquin manufacture and use the ash- splint baskets woven in the simple under-and-over twill as frequently 4 The textual quality of wet, green birch or elm bark (par écorceau) closely resembles that of green rawhide (parfleche), a fact not without interest in the consideration of resemblances between Woodland bark con- tainers and Plains rawhide receptacles, as discussed in the next paragraph. The Canadian French term above has passed over into the vernacular of eastern Canada in the form of corceau (c4so), while in the English-speaking area the common term is macock, derived from Algonkian (ef. definition by A. F. Chamberlain, Handbook of the American Indians, 1911, pt. 1, p. 824). 5 As the most recent contribution to literature on incised parfleche decoration I quote from Frederick H. Douglas (1938, p. 25): “The origin of the type and its historical relation to the painted parfleche are not known. The design styles of the two types appear to be identical. The oldest information known to me about painted parfleches is that given by the picture of one figured in the report of Maximilian’s 1833-34 expedition. The design and technic are like those of later times. As noted by Wissler, Sioux tradition states that the incising of parfleches came before painting. “There are two theories as to the origin of the technic. One suggests that it may be an adaptation of the scraped method of decorating birchbark utensils, and the second ascribes it to the influence of Spanish methods of decorating leather horse furnishings. “In support of the first it may be said that the Eastern Sioux certainly used birchbark; and that much birchbark was decorated by scraping. But the present center of incised parfleches is far from that of scraped bark. Dr. Verne Ray tells me that birchbark articles from near the incised parfleche area, as it is known from existing specimens, are not scraped or incised. The Crow crupper and sword case mentioned above are the evidence for the suggested Spanish origin of the practice. The Indian undoubtedly used Spanish horse furniture as a model for his own. Spanish leather was decorated by tooling, cutting and stamping, according to Arthur Woodward. The suggestion is that the Indian endeavored to imitate the effects created by these technics by means familiar to him, cutting and scraping. If he achieved effects pleasing to him on horse furniture, it seems as though the same methods might very well have been applied to other leather- work.” In another paper Dr. Douglas lists 53 tribes which used parfleches. ‘Of these the scanty available evidence ascribes incised parfleches to but five, Yakima, Sanpoil, Warm Springs, Crow and Nez Percé.” [Douglas, (1936).] AnrHror. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 241 as they do the bark wares.® The distribution of splint basketry, however, ends with the boundaries of the Algonquin proper going northward. It is not to be found among the Tétes de Boule, the Barriére Indians, or the Montagnais-Naskapi.’ Evidently the art of splint basketry has been creeping northward since the contacts of Algonquin bands with the Iroquois have begun. The reason for this assumption in regard to the origin of basketwork among more southern tribes may be found in pure ethnological theory, for the splint basket types of the Algonquin and the Iroquois are indistin- guishable. The Algonquin, being thrown into association, even cohabitation, with the Iroquois subsequent to the establishment of the missions on the St. Lawrence two centuries ago, have undoubtedly developed the craft in common with the Iroquois. I have made reference to this idea in two previous papers (Speck, 1920, p. 67; 1927, pp. 242-246). It will be observed from the illustrations of Algonquin bark wares that the forms correspond to those of the Montagnais throughout, except that the ovoid forms of the latter are absent among the Algon- quin,® and the cylindrical are infrequent. As for other particulars, we observe the wider base and narrower mouth, and the hoop of wood with spruce-root wrappings, which wrap- pings are never colored to produce the decorative effect that one finds on Tétes de Boule and Mistassini bark containers. Several divergences, in the form of basswood material sometimes employed for the wrappings, and the habit of more frequently applying pitch to the seams, mark off the work of the Algonquin from that of the Montagnais. The latter peculiarities appear more frequently as the border of the Ojibwa habitat is approached. The impression ob- tained from observing a series of Algonquin containers is that of constructional similarity with those of the Ojibwa, not only in the use of pitch for covering the seams but in the use of basswood bark for the binding material of the rims and occasionally for the seam stitching, and the use of hazelwood for the hoops. These peculiarities never appear in Montagnais bark containers. It will, however, be only when larger series of Ojibwa bark baskets shall have been col- lected, and especially those showing surface decorations which are as yet rare or absent altogether, that the diffusion of influence can be traced in this direction. The study made by Miss Densmore (1928, 1929) of birchbark forms and decoration in bitten patterns 6 This simplest form of basket production ranges eastward to the Wabanaki as the sole technique there. 7 The few specimens of ash-splint basketry collected at Lake St. John have in every case been traced to the hands of St. Francis Abenaki women who have migrated northward since about 1860 to join the Mon- tagnais at Chicoutimi and Lake St. John. 8 Specimens collected from the Iroquois at Lake of Two Mountains (Oka) in support of this statement are to be found in the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. 9 The Montagnais form of this container is shown in Speck, 1937, pl. 1, h; pl. 18, a, 0, c. 242 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 employed as suggestions for moccasin decoration affords some idea of general common properties in bark craftsmanship between the two peoples. Further observation of constructive details of the bark work of the River Desert Band shows that the pattern outlines of the containers of type 1 result in the line of joining (the construction seams on the lower ends of the vessel) being nearer the bottom than in forms seen among bands inhabiting districts to the north and west. The con- structed form is, therefore, similar to the work of the Montagnais on the east. The same holds true of the work of all of the Algonquin proper as far west as and including the Indians of Lake Timagami who are to be ethnologically classified with the Ojibwa. These re- marks are based upon material collected by myself from the bands concerned, and reposing in the National Museum of Canada. There- fore an area may be designated for this peculiarity of construction which would include also the next characteristic of technique; namely, the ‘‘basting”’ or “‘tack”’ stitch in the sewing of thebark with the spruce- root split (wa’dap‘). The tack stitch predominates, almost one might note, exclusively, in the method of bark attachment of this area. (The term ‘‘tack stitch” denotes that type in which the threaded root is made to penetrate the bark upward and down again within a short space, generally less than \ of an inch, then runs under the surface for a space of from 1 to 2 inches and comes out again, the whole attach- ment resembling the operation of ‘“‘basting.’’) (See fig. 3, 6.) Like the pattern outline just mentioned, this stitch predominates in Mon- tagnais work and throughout the work of the Algonquin proper. To the north and west it gives way to a more complicated and artistic type of stitching, the “embroidery”’ stitch, in which the stitches are made to form a solid line touching each other, each advancing stitch being made to come up through the preceding one. The latter is characteristic of Tétes de Boule work and that of the Cree to the north and west, and especially of the bark sewing of the Athabaskan divi- sions. The tack stitch, it may be added, is a characteristic of the work of the Wabanaki groups as well. Its distribution also seems to include the Ojibwa about the Great Lakes, as observed in old speci- mens. The few specimens extant from the Beothuk also show the same. Whence it may be considered as an old seaming technique, possibly antedating the ‘‘embroidery”’ type. The rim wrapping of Algonquin birchbark containers is of spruce root (wa’dap‘) in most instances, though shreds of boiled inner bark of basswood (wi’gub‘) and elm are occasionally substituted, since these materials are resorted to in the economy of the forests. When ash-splint baskets are being made, the presence of available strips of this material accounts for its use in fastening and rim binding. The rim wrapping is close and undecorated, the spruce roots being left in ANnTHROP. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 243 their natural color, except in a very few specimens where a dark shade appears as a result of being allowed to soak in tainted water. No cases of imbrication with quills or colored strands of material have been observed in the series of River Desert specimens examined, al- though they are invariably found in the bark work of the adjacent Tétes de Boule, and among the Cree to the northwest. Another feature in the construction of bark centainers of the Algonquin in general, as well as of the River Desert Band, is the fitted lid, with a hoop or ‘cuff’? underneath, stitched with the binding material to the under side of the cover, and fitting inside the mouth of the vessel. This virtually necessitates that the rim have one hoop (maple) on the outer side only. One might venture a hazard that any critical ethnologist who at a glance compares this cover with the constructive features of European boxes would pronounce it an innovation derived from contact with white people. And it may, indeed, be true. The same type of cover appears in the containers of the Montagnais to the eastward, but it becomes rarer in passing to the west and is replaced by the flat lid without cuff among the Cree and the Athabaskan groups. Among the latter it is a cover tied loosely to the rim of the container by strips of leather. It should also be mentioned here as an incident in the history of change in form of containers that an innovation has recently appeared in the types made by workers in this band (1938). Rectangular boxes sewed at the four corners, provided with fitted lids and decorated in the usual manner are being produced. I have not been able to trace the origin of this shape to my own satisfaction. TYPES OF DESIGNS ON ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS The Algonquin techniques of design, namely, the production of patterns on the dark surface of spring-peeled bark, by moistening and then scratching away the softened layer surrounding the pattern, as described for the Lake St. John Indians (Montagnais), follows identically the process of the latter tribe. The employment of bitten birchbark (miZi’ni‘katowé", ‘‘picture-biting’?) and cut-out birch- bark (maiZine’Ziga®, “‘picture-cut’’) patterns is fully as characteristic here as in the aforementioned tribe.!° Perhaps even more does the 10 The sequence of bitten pattern for decorative suggestion and symmetrical designs derived therefrom is fundamental to the Ojibwa of Minnesota as well. Miss Densmore’s report is one of the few on this area to mention the bitten patterns, or transparencies, in the evolution of design. The Ojibwa she describes do not, however, work these patterns into bark-vessel decoration but use them for designing beaded bands. (Densmore, 1929, pp. 184-185, figs. 22-24.) The Algonquin do not invariably transfer the bitten patterns to their decorated bark objects but practice pattern biting for an amusement. The same is true of the Penobscot. (See Speck, 1940, 185-186.) And while both groups are alike in this respect, they regard the patterns so produced to be suggestive of the geometrical and floral figures that are produced in their art. For these two peoples, at least, there is a gap in the sequence of evolution from bitten patterns to bark decoration. ‘There is some meaning in the Algonquin designation maiZini’zegan miguzéwinabézuwe, “cut-out decoration,” applied to bark ornamentation, as respects the evolution of art. Davidson (1928, footnote 6, p. 2a) also has treatment of bitten patterns in art composition of the Tétes de Boule. 244 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxn. 128 River Desert Algonquin woman rely upon her cut-outs for the transfer of pattern to her basket than does the artist at work farther north. And, again, the appearance of geometrical decorations in the bark etching is less frequently met with here than to the northward. An examination of designs, furthermore, shows the Algonquin, especially the bands nearer to the Ojibwa of Ontario, to be somewhat more given to the use of animal and human outlines for ornamentation than the Montagnais. But the feature of striking importance in a comparison of the bark- basket art motivation of this and the adjacent areas occurs in the Ficure 5.—Rim reinforcements of Algonquin birchbark containers and decorative borders derived from them. a, Rim with birchbark reinforcement below hoop for strengthening and for decorative effect, River Desert Band (NMC); 6, representation of reinforcement in scraped-away design for decoration, River Desert Band (NMO); c, rim reinforcement, River Desert Band; d, representation of same, River Desert Band; e, f, elaborated representations of reinforcement principle, Timiskaming Band and River Desert Band, respectively (NMC). decoration of the space just below the hoop and rim, with an encircling band of varied outlines. It is found in so many of the Algonquin bark objects as to challenge attention to its origin and its meaning in the puzzle of design distribution.!! This particular feature is shown in the sketches in figures 5-8 and plates 30,31. At first glance, indeed, it would seem probable that its origin might lie in some detail of con- struction, for technical ‘precursors of decoration have always a high probability as explanatory suggestions. In this case there is reason to close the assumption with an affirmative solution. Specimens in 11 Boas (1927, p. 55) emphasizes the importance of rim binding in North America and Siberia, both as a technical feature and as a field of decoration: ‘‘In a bark basket the rim must be strengthened by a band, to prevent splitting, and the band and the sewing set off the rim from the body.” ANTHROP. PaP. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 245 the National Museum of Canada from the River Desert Band, and from the Golden Lake Band in the Museum of the American Indian, and others recently (1937) added to the series—half a dozen in all— are found to have a reinforcement of birchbark sewed into the rim and extending a short way below it. This takes the form of a cut-out decoration as well as a reinforcement, serving the double objective of decoration and of strengthening. Among the Indians this feature of construction is called the “‘canoe wrapping,” since it is so often re- sorted to in sewing the gunwales of canoes where the bark of the sides join them, as a measure of strengthening the attachment. It also functions similarly in leather work as shown in the edging of moccasins. Ficure 6.—Decorations below rims of birchbark containers. a, b, River Desert Band (NMC, III, L, 19, 20); c, d, Timagami Band (NMC, III, G, 248, 256); e, from. birchbark dish (NMD); f, dish, River Desert Band (MAI, 16/1597) and dish 434-inches in diameter (NMD). Just why this peculiarity of bark-basket construction should occur with such frequency among the Algonquin and not among the Mon- tagnais is, however, not so simple to explain. Whether or not it has a distribution to the west or northwest in the direction of the Cree and Saulteaux remains to be found out. At present it would seem that it has, judging from the few specimens of Cree birchbark basketry that are available from the Saskatchewan area. We may hardly speculate further in this direction at the present time. The occurrence of the bark rim reinforcement in baskets of birch- bark of the Athabaskan and Sahaptian Tribes is stressed by Boas (in Teit, 1909, pp. 477-478), raising a question as to the history of this particular feature of construction that calls for more information on bark wares of the intervening territories. 218558—41——17 246 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxn. 128 In the decoration of the surface of the birchbark, it should be noted for the Algonquin that both the negative, and, to a slight extent, the positive, methods of bringing out designs are employed. In the former the cut-out stencil is placed upon the dark surface of the material and the area around the pattern is scraped away until the lighter undersurface is exposed. It bears the designation sgraffto, “scraped.”’ The design is accordingly not scratched into the dark coating of the bark, as it is in the positive process, but is left in the negative state after the background has been taken away.” All the bark decoration of this and the immediately neighboring groups follows this scheme, while the distant Wabanaki tribes," and the Ficure 7.—Decorations below rims of birchbark containers (River Desert Band). a, 6, c, From birchbark dishes, 10, 8, and 4 inches in diameter, respectively (MAI and NMD, 2 spec- imens); d, dish, 8 inches (NMD); e, pail (MAJ); f, dish, 8 inches (NMD). Ojibwa “ in some places, employ exclusively the positive (inscribed) process. The combining of the two, however, takes a certain form among the Algonquin, as well as, to a slight extent, among the Mon- tagnais. In these cases the interior of the space within the design is scraped out by the positive method, producing a smaller figure which follows in outline the general contour of the larger one. The effect is to show something suggesting partial open work. It is, however, 12 That sgraffito decoration in the Old World had so short a life-span as a development in ornamental technique (sgraffito was done on a coating of plaster at Bologna up until the seventeenth century), has been something of a puzzle to students of the history of art. A similar process occurs in calabash decoration in the West Indies and in enamel decoration in Mexico. 13 For illustrations of Penobscot decorations of this type, see Speck (1927 and 1940). 14 Specimens procured from the Indians of Long Lac, Ontario, show the positive process in producing geometrical designs. AnrHror. Par. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 247 not a common type of ornamentation, but one evidently favored by certain more skilled operators (fig. 24, a; pl. 33, ¢). One of the three specimens from the Mattawa Band and some of those from the River du Liévre Band show this development well worked out (pl. 33, ¢, and Petrullo, 1929, figs. 66 to 69). The containers (pl. 34) made by women of the Timiskaming Band show some deviation in ornamental conception from those of the eastern bands of the Algonquin, in the greater frequency of their animal figures. We might attribute this to the influence of the fi Set edi) satel Figure 8.—Decorations below rims of Algonquin birchbark containers. @ Timiskaming Band (NMC, III, L, 108); 6, ¢, d, Mattawa Band (NMC, III, L, 189-91); e, River Desert Band (Rochester Municipal Mus.); f, Timagami Band (NMC); g, 4, River Desert Band (MAT, 16/1595). Ojibwa in the older phases of whose art animal forms are outstanding.” Discussion of the decorative devices of this band would not be complete without mention of the process of sewing the birchbark cut- out figures themselves directly to the surface of the container with an edge stitching of spruce roots. This ornamental technique, called mi’ndjimegw4’de, is shown in figures a, d, plate 37. In these instances the cut-out figures are applied directly to the surface to form a positive motive of embellishment. No medium of transfer is brought into 15 Among the River Desert people esthetic appreciation seems to have turned in favor of floral designs, as typified by Mrs. Buckshot (see page 257). 248 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuL, 128 play, as in the case of the incised or scraped-away designing. It possesses an elemental character as one might estimate the growth of the decorative impulse from an historical point of view.° Yet no conclusions should be drawn from the nature of its simplicity or from its distribution until wider surveys and a fuller background of knowl- edge of changes in styles of ornamentation have come into our hands. As inquiry reveals, the functional purpose served by this particular device of ornamentation is, however, perfectly clear in the case of the artists of the River Desert Band. The sewed-on cut-out figures appear on the sides of containers only when these are made of “‘sum- mer” bark. This seasonal phase of the material lacks the dark coat- ing on its inner surface which alone makes the “scraped-away”’, sgraffito, process possible to be performed. There is, accordingly, no other manner in which decorated outlines could be applied than to cut them out and stitch them on, unless it would be by the use of colors, and this process, for some unexplained reason, has not been adopted in the area. Stitching-on is, then, a substitution for the more usual form of ornamentation when required by the nature of materials. And when, through paucity of winter bark, vessels are made of both summer and winter bark on opposite sides of the same article, then both processes of decoration are thought of. Four speci- mens, the handicraft of Madenine Cesar, have been obtained as evidence of the technique (pl. 37), and Mrs. Buckshot was familiar with it in her tradition of local methods preserved from the time of her childhood. Here, in short, is a technique of decoration which still retains its pattern source in full evidence as an initial step in designing without transfer to another medium. Sewed-on patterns are reserved for the garnishment of containers made of bark taken off in the summer time, as has been noted. The specimens show admirably the utilization of the sewed-on process as a substitute for scraping designs on surfaces which would otherwise be impossible to decorate. The objects in question are made of part summer bark and part winter bark, which would result in a one-side-only ornamentation distasteful to the maker. This explanation was given by both women who employed the device. One might wonder in turn why the idea of painting or stamping designs had not presented itself as an alternative in such cases. But it should be noted that Mrs. Buckshot (74 years of age), one of the oldest artisans of the band, could not testify to having ever seen bark containers so embellished, i. e., with figures in color. And this despite the recollection that stamped designs were applied to Ge Ab encanta ace pea in one instance a cut-out pattern of a ‘‘coiled snake’’ used for sgraffito on a con- tainer was later found sewed as an ornament upon a birchbark cup made of summer bark, and collected by J. Patman. ANTHROP. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 249 leather articles of clothing.” The sewed-on development seems to be practiced by only a few women of the band (Madenine Cesar, in particular) so far as contemporary material from the Quebec Algon- quin shows. Its appearance in the series of bark designing processes is significant in the history of northern Indian art, and somewhat exceptional forthwith. An extreme development of the cut-out, sewed-on technique is remarkable in the work of groups in Saskatchewan (Athabaskan and Cree), but how this relates to the similar, though weaker, development of the art so much farther east is to remain an unsettled question until intervening phases of artcraft have become known. Among the western groups referred to, the birchbark used in construction of con- tainers is the ‘‘uncoated” (summer) bark, from which it is evident that a connection exists between the use of sewed-on patterns and the uncoated bark.® There is still another feebly manifested inclination on the part of River Desert birchbark decorators to employ the idea of stitch-design- ing, or, as it might be termed, spruce-root embroidery. In this form of decoration the spruce root is treated as one would a thread to form a coarse embroidered outline. The figures so produced among Algonquin craftsmen are usually simple and geometrical and are not filled in. Neither are plant or animal outlines in evidence. This technique is here only a weak and incidental feature in the series of ornamental tricks. It would seem to be an adaptation of a functional process of sewed-fastenings to decorative purposes. Again we meet with this feature of root-designing among the Cree of Saskatchewan, in the same area where the sewed-on cut-outs are prevalent. A carry-over from the splint-basketry-rim fancy work of Algonquin (kidji'’gani'ga‘, “fancy-work”’) and Iroquois baskets appears in one example collected at River Desert (pl. 39). In the case mentioned it happens that the artist (Madenine Cesar) of her own accord com- bined the sewed-on, cut-out ornamentation with the spruce-root rim loop fancy work—both of them rather exceptional in the local forms of decoration. A survey and interpretation of the historical meaning of the spruce- root stitching and the cut-out, sewed-on designs leads to consideration of the possibility that these techniques may be antecedent to the porcupine-quill mosaic process which appears sporadically among Algonkian peoples in the Great Lakes region and the East. Spruce- root designing is associated with a skeuomorphic source of ornamenta- tion. Porcupine-quill designing stands out as being conceptual and 17 A specimen of deerskin leggins, worn by her defunct husband in winter, was so ornamented by Mrs. Buckshot. 18 In the collections of the Denver Art Museum are some Wisconsin Ojibwa containers with designs in surface painting, while examples of ‘‘sewed-on”’ figures in birchbark from the Ojibwa of Minnesota, identical with those figured in this paper, are reported in the same collection by Dr. F. H. Douglas. 250 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Bunn, 128 more definitely esthetic. The solidly filled decorated areas of birch- bark decoration in porcupine-quill mosaic bear resemblance to the solid areas of the bark cut-out decorations, and where the spruce-root stitching is arranged to form open decorative patterns a similarity appears to the open-work porcupine-quill small leaflike figures pro- duced in some central Algonkian bands. Thisisespecially true of work of tribes in the Cree-Athabaskan area where the roots are dyed in colors. Such connections, however, have little bearing upon the types of decorations in favor among the Algonquin proper, for it may be noted now that attempts on the part of the latter to utilize porcupine quills are few and irregular. The Algonquin have not adopted this form of bark decoration, either through the influence of their Ojibwa neighbors 200 miles to the westward or through their own art ini- tiative. The resort to the use of bitten patterns for the production of sug- gestions of design outlines to be transferred to the sides of bark con- tainers, a practice so characteristic among the Montagnais, is one, however, not entirely overlooked by artists among the Algonquin, Not all, however, are capable, through having been provided by nature with opposed pointed teeth to make design biting feasible, of operating their creative desires in this fashion. Madenine Cesar (Mrs. Pierre Clement), for instance, who is rated the most gifted among the River Desert Algonquin in this line, finds a particular and a, rich inspiration in designs bitten in outline into thin folded layers of the inner membrane of birchbark. Mackusi’’k'we, ‘‘Fair Meadow Woman” (Mrs. Buckshot), on the other hand, produces her designs for bark work by the cutting-out method. Both, however, achieve plant and floral patterns by their preferred systems. Madenine Cesar furthermore utilizes the bitten patterns usually for silk, yarn, or beadwork, by basting the bitten figures after they have been trimmed out upon the surface to be decorated and stitching the beads or colored thread atop the pattern. (Among bands more closely in contact with trade sources, patterns of paper are similarly used, the pattern beneath the finished design being picked out with a needle afterward to remove it.) Madenine Cesar, nevertheless, constantly uses cut-out figures for her bark decorations. I would regard the cut-out process for the present time (1930-38) to be more characteristic of designing in birchbark ornamentation among the River Desert Algonquin.” The method of producing patterns by means of biting may be de- scribed in more detail. They are usually executed upon a thin sheet 19 Since the above was written I had occasion again to observe Mrs. Buckshot, in the summer of 1938, making some thin birchbark patterns by folding the sheet double and cutting the ouline desired on one side only with scissors, producing a half-image in profile. This formed a single flower when opened up. This led me to inquire further, and it developed that she sometimes resorted to the method in trying out for new floralideas. Folded symmetrical patterns are not, however, made to produce a string of connected cut-out figures, as they are in the attenuated paper cut-out patterns snipped out by white children. Anrrop. PaP. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 251 or membrane of inner birchbark folded once or twice. The biting is done forcibly between opposing pointed teeth, usually the canines. The sheet is turned to this side and that, moved forward and back to track a series of impressions forcibly indented without perforating the . material. The results are ovals, curves and radiating lines. Then the sheet is removed from the mouth and opened up, displaying sym- metrical figures suggesting highly varied life forms to the beholder. Blind imagination alone directs the movements to produce outlines— imagination enriched by experience and maxillary control. For the most part they are given floral interpretations. The figures assume a still more marvelous character when held up to the light as trans- parencies. Next comes their utilization in the decorative system. Here among the River Desert people they are cut out with scissors and laid as patterns upon surfaces to be ornamented with beads or silk embroidery. Only rarely, weare told, are they employed as patterns for birchbark decoration when found suitable in the eyes of their creators. The design register of the Algonquin is not a very definite one as far as interpretation goes, nor is it particularly circumscribed in range. The functionally explainable border patterns on the surface below the rims of bark containers, discussed on a previous page (244), are ap- parently the most fixed characteristic that we can observe and a con- stant one among all the bands of Algonquin classification. The portrayal of human and animal forms covers the usual range of male and female, moose, deer, bear, dog, mink, otter, partridge, loon, duck, and beaver (figs. 9, 10, 11). Animal motifs are more numerous among the Timiskaming band, whose affinity in culture with the Ojibwa is marked (fig. 11). The band floral figures so suggestive of Montagnais work are com- mon in combination with simple loose elements (figs. 13, b, c, d; 14, 6). The smaller single elements of decoration (figs. 17, 19, 22) are strikingly present, however, in Algonquin ornamentation. In compo- sition over a broad surface they seem to form a favorite style of em- bellishment, as will be noticed by examining the sides of decorated bark pails and baskets (pls. 30, d, e, f, g; 31). Among these ele- ments the outlines of leaf (ani*’bi-c), berry (mi‘na’n‘) bud, flowers (wapi’gwun), and stems predominate. And it should be noted that the Indian’s fondness for playing cards has prompted the adoption of the diamond (kayes‘a’wes‘ek) (figs. 19, 22), heart (wede’’), club, and spade (both called leaves), so popular and appealing to the eye of mankind everywhere. In several instances the ribbon bow ap- pears as a design pattern.” The Algonquin artist is perfectly conscious of the origin of these particular patterns in her repertoire. Among all of those questioned, however, a native source of conception is claimed for the other simple pattern elements. Among these is 20 Represented by a specimen in the Denver Art Museum. 252 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun. 128 A / FicurE 9.—Cut-out patterns for decorating birchbark containers (a—e), and animal figures from decorated objects (f-1) (River Desert Band). a, Partridge; 6, bear; c, bear making his mark on tree; d, moose; e, beaver; f, deer; g, beaver; h, otter; #, duck. ANTHROP. PaP. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 253 emphatically the “‘arch” (ci’ba’usa) (figs. 14, ¢; 21, 6; 23, 6), which may have formerly been a representation of the rainbow (adegwa’ ni‘bisa, “holds back water’). The figure is consistently prominent with sky concepts of the area, although the informants do not so apply it now. The ellipse, the stem with three leaves, trefoil (both called Figure 10.—Realistic decorations on birchbark maple-sap, or water pail (River Desert Band). A dog chasing a partridge, and man and wife engaged in tapping sugar maple and collecting sap. The sugar barrel is shown at left. The spill inserted in the tree and sap pail at right. The bulge on the tree trunk is a burl out of which wooden food bowls are made. ani’’bi'c, “‘leaf’”’), the dome, the “toad’s legging” or pitcherplant (pls. 1, d, e, f, 9; (omakaki’’mi'ta’s) or twist,”! the scallop, and the dome with 41 This figure represents the leaf of the pitcherplant (Sarracena purpurea), which has similar significance in Ojibwa etymology (ct. Densmore, 1929, p. 14; 1928, p. 379). In Penobscot symbolism this is the ‘‘fiddle- head,” or fern crozier, underlying the double-curve series. Here it is also a powerful antidote. 254 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buu, 128 serrations on its straight edge (fig. 19, d),?? are among those of an old native derivation, according to the testimony of their users. For several others, namely, the mapleleaf (ana’tukw ani-’bi‘c) and the five-pointed star (fig. 16, a) and the cross (tci-ba’iatek, ‘“ghost- h GF Figure 11.—Designs from birchbark containers (Timiskaming Band). a, Hares (NMC, III, L, 108); b, beaver (NMC, III, L, 102); c, beavers opposed; d, beaver (NMC, III, L, 101); e, cocks opposed symmetrically (NMC, III, L, 103); f, g, doe and duck (on opposite sides of basket) (NMC, III, L, 102); h, bears opposed symmetrically under ‘‘double-curve” tree (NMC, L, 100). 32 An identical figure occurs in Delaware art under the name of “‘flame.”” To the Delaware this figure is an ancient one by tradition, as stated by Tom Half Moon’s wife, who employed it in her bead-and-ribbon work. Since the figure, which attracted some attention through these occurrences, is a possible legacy in the art register of the woodlands from an early period, I touk occasion to make a casual search for its appearance in the designs of living groups and in archeological material. Results so far have been to show its occurrence in Winnebago beadwork and Delaware-Munsee ribbon work, in Osage beadwork on a cloth coat, and finally (most significantly) as an incised ornamentation upon the body of a vessel excavated by Clarence B. Moore in a mound on Black Warrior River, Ala., and figured in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 2d Ser., vol. 13, pt. 2, 1905, fig. 74, p. 183. In all of these instances its form is identical with the figure illustrated herewith (fig. 19, d). Whence the native estimate of its age and character may be con- sidered as worthy of further attention by investigators of art history in the East. AnTHROP. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 255 wood’’),?3 a similar nativity is asserted, but I would quite agree with the sceptic who, upon critical consideration, places these, with the card emblems, in the category of patterns borrowed recently, that is, within 50 years, from decorations in common use among the Canadians, The element designs, nevertheless, lie strictly within the con- structional realm of the bark cut-out stencil patterns and we cannot deny without sufficient proof that they are as indigenous to the old art life of the region as the cut-out process itself is. After setting to one side those designs whose European origin need not be questioned, we observe the remainder to form elements in the ornamentations of peoples in the north as far as the Cree, the Naskapi, and others. Re Vad d Figure 12.—Designs on birchbark containers (River Desert and Mattawa Bands). a, 6, c, Designs from sides and ends of bark container (Mattawa Band) (NMC, III, L, 191); d, scene from side of basket, representing hares’ heads in setting of forest profile, as interpreted by Mrs. Buckshot (River Desert Band) (NMO, III, L, 89). Thus, it would seem, there existed an old category of design elements, common to a wide area in the northeast, which has descended more or less intact among the dispersed populations, suffering in the course of time some losses from the original body of motives as well as some accretions from the outside. And finally, whether the cut-out figures have ever possessed a different symbolism than they now have (see *3 The figure 14, a, is an unusually suggestive conception of the River Desert artist. She has combined the “‘cross’’ figure with that of the heart of Christ shown in the middle of the group, and, being unable to resist the habit of tradition, has introduced a floral modification above the heart and turned the arms of the cross into leaf figures. 256 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 p. 270), they have come to acquire a floral connotation, under the native name, pa’gwedji’ wapi’gwun, “wild (or orphan) flowers.” The cut-out patterns appearing in such profusion upon Algonquin bark receptacles are for the most part unspecified varieties of these growths. In the design register of this band the representation of the yellow water lily (Nymphaea advena) is repeated with great frequency and in a variety of modifications which do not always betray its identity to European eyes. Rarely are the botanic features so realistically RE DE Swe we Figure 13.—Symmetrica] band floral designs from birchbark containers (River Desert Band). a, 6, Flowers, on sides of baskets (NMC, III, L, 19, 20); c, d, from opposite sides of same container (III, L, 89); e, f, flowers from baskets. preserved as in figures 22, g, h; 25; plate 35, b,d. Inseeking the reason for its favor among artisans, an observation by Madenine Cesar an- swered the question. She said of the pond lily, ‘‘That is what the muskrat eats (waZackwé’de).’’? In native esteem this is a sufficiently cogent reason for the frequency of the yellow lily figure in decoration of storage containers intended for food and for other possessions. Do we need to be reminded of the hoarding habits of the rodentia to understand the curious force of symbolism habitual to the Algonkian ANTHROP. PaP.No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 257 mind? And the Nymphaea is furthermore edible, not only to beaver and muskrat, but to the Indian himself who hunts the creatures for food and fur. Beneath the symbolism here is linked an association ever- present in the connectivity of nature. I mention the instance of the yellow pond-lily symbol in particular, since it affords an opportunity to connect again the art motivation of the Algonquin with an indig- enous and locally characteristic object in the tribal environment. It is not, indeed, the French lily, introduced sporadically into the New World flora, which provides in this case the inspiration of art, nor is it d Figure 14.—Designs from sides of birchbark basket (River Desert Band) (NMC, III, L, 89). a, Elaboration of cross and heart; 6, flower (fern head?); ¢c, arch, rainbow; 4d, flower. the scented pond lily (Castalia odorata), in such favor among white people. The latter I have not as yet observed in the endroits of the reservation. Among those who, as I recall it, have indicated preference for one or another type of design, Mackusi’’k-we (Mrs. Buckshot) expressed her preference for floral over animal figures in her work. I believe I had a similar impression of the taste of artisans in talking with other women. 258 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 A formalism in plant representation is strikingly exhibited in the series of slightly varied contours which show little regard for specific botanical features of the plants chosen for reproduction. The rule 7‘ x Figure 15.—Birchbark cut-out patterns applied to surfaces of containers and baskets to outline decorative scraped-away designs. They represent flowers and plants, some general, some specific (River Desert Band) (MAI). which holds in the majority of cases seems to be to cut-out patterns representing floral growths leaving a thick vertical center stalk sur- mounted by a bulbous head (equaling the blossom or fruit), with symmetrically placed ovals in pairs placed below to represent leaves AnrHror. Par. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 259 branching from the stalk. The base line is often broadened, some- times a little domed, to represent the earth. (See the varied series in figs. 13, 15, 25.) Notwithstanding the prevailing disregard for bo- tanic accuracy just mentioned, the makers of the patterns, both cut-out and bitten, confess to seeing in them the likenesses of plant forms which they can name. The muster of named identities given in response to questioning includes berries of every kind, hawberry, leaves of every sort, maple, ‘‘trees,’’ white pine, spruce, balsam, elm and ash, and the favorite outlines of swamp vegetation, the pond lily and 2 \) c Figure 16.—Designs from birchbark vessels and baskets (Timiskaming and River Desert Bands). a, Star, five in series on one side of basket (Timiskaming Band) (NMC, III, L, 102); 6, band-curve design on cover ofc (pl. 34 c) (III, L, 104); c, maple leaf, four in series on one side (III, L, 102); d, sprout of a plant and leaf (River Desert Band); e, maple-leaf cluster (Timiskaming Band) (III, L, 103). pitcherplant occurring with the greatest frequency. One need not hesitate long in deciding what elements of environment engross the imagination of the simple people whose art we have here spread out before us. The placing of the design figures on containers is manifestly a matter of individual taste among the artisans of the band. Certain of them show preference for an arrangement of smaller design units on the basket walls. Others show a tendency to place a larger composite and symmetrical plant figure on the long side-wall and add smaller units as taste dictates. In such cases they are interpreted as unrelated single objects in nature. Those who combine the unit patterns into 260 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 128 a synoptic whole, introducing both animals and plants into a scene which shows also some celestial phenomena, may be rated among the master designers of their community. Reference will be made to the feature of composition in the course of a few pages. An observable characteristic of design location in the work of this group is the consciousness of need, in their esteem of beauty, to cover or disguise the ‘‘unsightliness” of seams. This is achieved by causing the decorative patterns to fall upon the seam spaces so that the stitches (in spruce-root material, of course) become the vertical center or midrib of an upright plant figure. The result makes the stitches and seams integrate into the decoration, becoming an adjunct I Y) 3 J FieurE 17.—Element designs from birchbark wall pocket (a—e), and birchbark cut-out patterns for decoration of containers (f—j) (River Desert Band) (MAI). ay Leaves; b, blossom; ¢, little diamonds; d, blossom and leaves; e, wild cherries; f, leaf; g, h, blossoms; i, jf, ornamental forms. instead of a detriment. A glance through the illustrations will furnish evidence of this. We might recall that Wissler in a study of the art principles of the Plains Indians focused attention upon a similar esthetic persuasion in the art of the Sioux. In the productions of the River Desert Algonquin the percentage of undecorated baskets and containers is relatively low. (See table of summary, p. 262.) This may be due to the more settled form of life of the band since the partial transformation of interest from hunting and trapping to farming began some 70 years ago. Proximity to whites has likewise to be considered. Specimens with undecorated sides but decorated lids are also in evidence. Lids or covers so orna- ANTHROP. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 261 mented usually show an arrangement of simple elements to form a whorl, the patterns being turned upon a center. The treatment of designs in composition among Algonquin artisans also runs to landscape representation, resulting in a stylicism which approaches the first steps of pictography. This tendency may be expected for a people so closely approximating, historically and geo- graphically, the cultural stature of the Ojibwa. The combination of animal and plant motives, with a smattering of celestial phenomena thrown in, comprises, in a certain proportion of the better decorated products, a panoramic display well suited to express the sylvan inter- ests of such a people. On the sides of the larger baskets where space invites a display of ornamentation, animals in silhouette appear posed in portraiture in the varied staging of pond, marsh, and clusters c d e Figure 18.—Designs from sides of birchbark dishes (River Desert Band). Elements of decoration representing flowers and blossoms (MAI, NMD, UPM). of deciduous and evergreen growths, especially lilies (the cow lily, Nymphaea advena) and pitcherplants, with easily recognizable reality of form and of action. The panoramic totalities are appealing in meaning to the eyes of the Algonquin, depicting to him in visible form the vision of his sleeping and his waking moments—the Utopia of plenty for a hunting and trapping tribe. So it happens that land- scapes of night as well as of day are laid out in composition on some of the containers. The distinguishing mark of night horizons is the presence of the star figure or the crescent moon above. The night scenes are strikingly realistic both in form and in concept, showing the familiarity of the artists with the activities of the wonderful animals chosen for portrayal—the bear, beaver, otter, deer. They stand out most vividly in the experience of the natives and seem to hold their place in the best achievements of their art. Without 2185584118 262 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 indulging in further discussion of the qualities of the woodscapes, a selection of examples will suggest for themselves what they may mean to their forest-minded makers. (See pls. 30, d, e, g; 35, a; 36; 38; and figs. 10, 11.) In the following tabulation the salient features of Algonquin tech- nique and design are summed up to conform with the purpose of this article, that is, the presentation of material from specific tribes to serve as a basis for future interpretative study. TABLE 1.—Summary of characteristics of birchbark container construction and decoration of various bands of Algonquin and neighboring groups ™ |oo S IE & |g 2 fie | (Sle 2 see 4018 |e] 2 [ele | 2 Salodl 2 [83 3 pslo8| 315 (Soles! § |esl8l a Ss Bands 3 |Z /e2/85/ a] & |SsiSe| 3 eeigai & ins Slela la |g|2isale | gle lee) $1.8 3\8is 2 |8lsig jg lal is | 8 fag qa oils |a a § & militate 5} Ba PIAA I< |Hia ls la |e la |O |S la Algonquin bands: River Desert: Museum of the American Indian_____} 20 | 26 |_-__}____]---- 5 gd re fos eee ee Se elt National Museum of Canada_-_-_-____- tg2N RO | ss 2)-- 22a 2 ey = || TC soe aru al|ehee University Museum ________________- 2) 6) | eee |e 1 UE Pen ee 3) |) -cs2] 2 ees eee ee National Museum of Denmark__-_-_--- eee 9 (| a aa 6 eee) 26)" = 2 Sees ees ea laters River du Liévre: Museum of the American Indian_____ gl). || ll a Bhs Been (ess Jie | ee Mattawa: National Museum of Canada__-_-____- ee | ai) || ae (Oe Saeeesie S lssct-s sie Belle et Golden Lake: Museum of the American Indian____- 5] ea eel |). 8) ee SS) |S 2 a ee ee eee Timiskaming. ...... See Qi jaram| (20s |---} eee B |e oe eee ee Sapo eon Ojibwa bands: Timagami: National Museum of Canada__-___-___ 72a We He (| FS SC ae Dla Ab ee te | ees | ee Museum of the American Indian_____ seen] 8) fesncf eh eee) +2 [eso] S2=. | Sees | eee ee ee Private collection] ee Pere (ae ht a fae at Ba Ie dl ee | ee) sf ee SI le Nipissing: % Museum of the American Indian_____|---- Yet Ee (emt Peer epee | PO Fes oe Leh 2k ee eee ees Depot Harbor: 4 Museum of the American Indian_____| 8 |{--__]_----|---_]_-__]_--_|----]----|---- @®) S220) ey ee. Long Lac: Museum of the American Indian_____|--.-} 7 |----|----|----|----]---- nie) eres) (ete fas 4 2 Algonquin (1937): River Desert: 6 Denver Art Museum (and private collection) =:22 3228 2222 tage. eevee 10 | 35 0 7) 26 | 24 2) 14 0 1 q 3 9 1 The large number of plain forms here is due, according to Mr. Leechman’s information, to their being a gift to the museum of newly made specimens of bark peeled in the summer, which is not suited to etching. 2 Origin doubtful, dated from about 1840. Quillwork vaguely remembered by informant (information, F. Johnson). 3 Collected by Dr. A. I. Hallowell, 1928. 4 Collected by Frederick Johnson, 1928. 5 Quantities of quill-decorated bark boxes are exported from this reserve to supply the trade. An enu- meration of specimens of this type would not affect the problem, although quill decoration in early times evidently extended to this area. 6 See footnote, p. 233. ANTHROP, PaP. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 263 Although at the present time of writing, studies of the art content of birchbark containers of the northern Indians have not progressed far enough to permit comparisons to be made, nevertheless something can and probably should be said since the printing of the material on Montagnais art in birchbark work (Speck, 1937). A few remarks summarizing the characteristics of decorations of this group may be made from an angle of comparison derived from the sources already available. Unlike the Montagnais, the Algonquin workers I have observed in the present generation do not create the patterns for their designs e A Figure 19.—Design elements from birchbark water pail (River Desert Ban d) a, ‘‘Toad’s leggings,’ pitcherplant (Sarracena purpurea); 6, e, leaves; c, heart; d, blossom of lily. so much from folded sheets of thin birchbark indented by the teeth. The Montagnais derive many of their symetrical patterns from these symmetrically unfolded impressions. The Algonquin depend more upon the cut-out figures trimmed with a knife or scissors in accord- ance with a visual image formed in the imagination or imitated from the observation of nature. (See p. 243.) Horizontal symmetry is produced by repeating the carving of the pattern to the right or to the left. Vertical symmetry (that is, where the design is repeated by turning the pattern up or down on its top or bottom) is not in evidence in the art of the bands dealt with here, so far as material warrants the statement. The cut-outs are both floral and animal. Floral suggestions are more in evidence among the eastern bands of 264. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 128 the group. Animal figures increase as one approaches the cultural strip nearer to the Ojibwa. I would infer from a general estimate of the evidence we possess that the animal figures are of prior dating to the floral motives. And that the latter are an acquisition, either having developed within the art horizon of the area as a natural outgrowth of internal stimuli or having resulted from imitation of other Indians or the French, is also highly probable. Knowledge of +4 ‘ky Ficure 20.—Birchbark cut-out patterns for decorating containers, representing flowers (River Desert Band). the absence or presence of surface decorations on bark containers of related and adjacent groups is now the lacking element in the art history of the northern Algonquin. To theorize, furthermore, upon the possible sources of origin here for the tree and flower designs would call for a play of imagination a c Fiaure 21.—Pattern stencils cut out of birchbark, used in decorating containers (River Desert Band). a, Scallop for decorating center or corner of basket; 6, arch or rainbow for side of basket; c, scallop element for decoration under rim of basket. hardly permissible in a report of this character. One need not, however, feel obliged to conjure up the remote past in the life of these forest denizens to seek for pointed suggestions in their function- ing experiences amid daily and constant environment which would lead to the adoption of floral, especially leaf, devices in ornamentation. It is a real experience in the retina of European as well as native eyes to witness the mottled shadows cast by the rays of the summer sun AnrHnor. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 265 through the canopy of the leafy crown of the forest thrown upon the flat surfaces of objects lying littered about the camps. The Indians themselves are not oblivious to the shadowed silhouettes in the cease- less panorama of sun-strewn patterns. In their contemplations, such displays of beauty have upon occasion been noted and the impressions voiced in my presence. Yet the association of leaf silhouettes with the origin of bark surface decorations still remains only a possible, if not a futile, suggestion of explanation emanating from the reasoning habit of the student—an unprovable hypothesis until ‘nature pho- w V pod “vo Figure 22.—Birchbark cut-out ey for decorating an and designs taken from decorated objects (River Desert Band). ¢ a, Arch (pattern for border design below rim); 6, bear’s head; c, canoe; d, diamond; e, tree (balsam); f, berries; g, pond lily; h, pond lily; i, j, flowers (unidentified). tography” shall disclose itself as a functioning concept of art * in aboriginal Algonquin culture history, be it ancient or modern. The modest array of designs from this band upon which judgment has to be formed, permits an observation; namely that the integral floral or the forest landscape, as conceived in native eyes, is a char- acteristic. This seems to accord with the economic eminence of the great environing forest and its animal denizens expressed in totality (as in fig. 12,a; pls.30, 6, d,e; 31,6, c, f, g; 34, f). And so pictographic art expresses here in symbols the ecology of a Canadian Algonkian group. %4 Since the above was written I have examined the volume Reflections, by Mrs. Marian Thayer MacMillan (N. Y., 1936, p. 55), in which an interpretation of the “‘double curve” motif is proposed. The author of this remarkable hypothesis suggests derivation of the curve patterns of the northern Indians from native observations of plant reflections along the edge of still water. One cannot fail to be impressed by the author’s logical views as supported by her text and illustrations. 266 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 128 The scenes are characteristically those of the food quest. In one, perhaps the highest flight of realistic genius of which these Indians are capable without instruction from the outside, we have the familiar and joyous event of late winter; the gathering of sugar-maple sap (fig. 10, b; pl. 30, d). This pictographic composition is reproduced from a spontaneously made water pail of bark, the seams pitched with a Figure 23.—Designs from one side and end of birchbark container (Mattawa Band) (NMC, III, L, 189). spruce gum, in constant use in the family of Mikweni’n1, ‘Willing Man.” It stands for the idea which I have expressed with some persistence, that the forest dwellers of the ‘snowshoe hunting”’ culture possess a natural inclination toward an art tradition in deco- rating utensils in common use. Another theme construed in the style Figure 24.—Designs from birchbark containers (Mattawa Band). a, Floral design in positive and negative technique (NMC, III, L, 189); 6, floral design on side of small container (III, L, 191). which may be called aboriginal so far as its conception and execution are concerned is the forest horizon in profile shown in figure 12, d. Two northern hares, their heads only showing above the hill, amid the tangle of a swamp, are portrayed realistically enough to excite interest in the eyes of hunters, whether natives or Europeans. Note also the dog chasing the partridge as a theme on a pail (fig. 10, a). ANTHROP, Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 267 Similar judgment may be pronounced upon the bears symmetrically opposed under the arching tree in figure 11, h. The dominance of the feeling for symmetricism is here apparent in the composition of animal and tree silhouettes. Another conception of the forest night scene of vital meaning to these Indians is the representation of a goose on the lake shore, the crescent moon above, with the hunter’s arrow on its way to its mark (pl. 36, 6, cover of basket). Upon the sides of a cylindrical pail (pl. 31, g) are two graphic pictures, one an Figure 25.—Assortment of plant-design elements from sides and covers of birchbark containers derived from cut-out patterns, mostly pseudorealistic representations of yellow pond lily (River Desert Band). otter racing over the flats beneath the full moon, and, on the opposite side, two does at a stand facing each other beneath a drooping ever- green tree. Here again the symmetrical ruling of Algonquin com- position has asserted itself. The otter scene just mentioned occurs twice on specimens collected from the River Desert Band. In plate 38 (upper figuré) appears a duck represented advancing toward a blossoming pond lily. Above is a butterfly and a disk representing optionally the sun or the moon. The specimen is a sap pail. The 268 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxu. 128 lid of a pattern holder made by a girl of about 12 years of age (Anne Clement), at Maniwaki, betrays what seems to rank as a work of more sophisticated skill, namely, a single pyramidally-formed balsam rising above a firmament of five stars and crescent moon (pl. 38, lower fig.). Algonquin realistic intention is evident throughout. The beaver in his nightly activity of feeding and storing is a favorite topic of thought and portrayal in the north. The subject appears occasionally in the work of this band, as in three instances observed (pls. 34 f; 33, a; 36, a). Its treatment is fairly simple yet falls into the holographic category. The partly gnawed stem of a plant or tree is shown before the animal climbing over rocks on the border of his pond (pl. 36, a). In plate 35, a, appears a most pleasing arrangement of outline and con- trast in a composition obtained by Mr. Patman from Madenine Cesar. It is scraped upon a large storage box made to protect her clothing and personal effects from misplacement in her camp. The subject chosen by her was a loon in flight above a setting of lake shore as stamped upon the memory of its creator. I dare not indulge in comment upon the quality of this composition more than to stress its appeal as well as its adaptability to the aims of modern decorative art. THE CONSCIOUS ELEMENTS OF ALGONQUIN DESIGN MOTIVATION To what extent the creation of animal and plant designs among the workers investigated is the result of deliberate intention, arises as a question to be weighed by evidence both objective and, as far as pos- sible, subjective. Responses to efforts through questioning of several of the more active workers in birchbark showed that in producing animal and plant figures by means of cutting out the imaginary sil- houettes, a conscious effort is made in the direction of portrait realism. Familiarity with plant forms in a multitude of varieties is a character- istic of woman’s life in these bands. The traditional knowledge of curative properties of herbs, barks, and roots marks their personalities. The same is true of their experience with animal life. Small wonder that these influences should dominate the realm of creative illustra- tion. One who considers the general aspects of design motivation among the Canadian forest tribes should also consider the importance of plant and animal beings in the milieu of environment. The past era of cultural development has been an era immersed in the influences of the woods—the ‘‘bush,”’ in the vernacular of the north. Camp life, camp food, desires, associations of wide variety, induce thoughts by day and dreams by night centered about the denizens of the dark forests, the shimmering lakes, the barren brulés, and the waving marshes. These environments harbor both blessings and haunting terrors. Their effect is deeply registered upon the imagination as AnrHROP. Pap. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 269 well as the daily-life horizon of the natives. An outgrowth of emo- tions determined by such influences resulting in productions of art form would seem to be inevitable.” Where, we may ask, might a subconscious motive in phytozoo- morphic representation be expected to appear in the art work of these groups? We might gain something by teaching ourselves to view the conditions with a freshness of outlook hitherto strange to ethnological trends of estimating the sources of native art inspiration. That there seems to be a suggestion of a hazy approach to subconscious rulings in the production of the bitten designs at least, is a point for considera- tion in an unbiased scrutiny of evidence. It requires an analysis of the purposes and practices of designing and of the feelings of the designers themselves for the outcome of their own habitual efforts. So far as the discussion of control factors in the making of the tooth- bitten decorative patterns has brought forth results, it may be said that the creators of these blind outlines do not profess to know just what patterns are to emerge from their teeth in most cases. There may be, indeed, a deliberate effort to mystify their art in the esteem of admirers when they profess to be moved by what we may consider as pure genius in discussing the matter. Yet there remains a shadow of accidency in the production of bitten designs attributable by one so inclined to subconscious influences. To what extent the profoundly personal emotions, and experiences of natives who have alternately suffered and reveled in the bosom of the wilderness, affect the forms of patterns produced by the teeth with eyes often closed and imagina- tion actively functioning, we may never learn. To admit such influ- ences, however, one would have to be a witness to the process. And that is not possible for contestants of the surmise just expressed. On the other hand, it is not the intention here to insinuate a surrealistic explanation of these instances of blind designing with the teeth. I should only add that those who are adept in the art of biting patterns, like Madenine Cesar, are widely known among their people and enjoy a reputation which could be rendered by our use of the term inspired. One would need to secure intimate personal histories of the few per- formers in the band. To obtain candid confessions from some of them by usual means would not be at all easy without courtship. The ques- tion raised in this paragraph is nevertheless fraught with interesting possibilities for investigation. I shall have to pass it on. The question of religious symbolism in the designs discussed may arise as a possibility here. The matter was given some attention during the course of contact with the people. In no sense, however, 25 Incidentally, and to lend emphasis to the question of origin so often approached by students of native art, it seems to be as plausible to regard these deep-seated stimuli as indigenous provocations of design motives in the woodlands as to pronounce them summarily to be derived from European promptings. To dispense with the deeper motives of nature representation in Woodland Indian art in favor of the Euro- pean derivation theory has become almost a habit in certain circles of thought. 270 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxn, 128 can Algonquin decoration be construed into being a conscious religious document as might be the case in groups socially more complicated. CHRONOLOGY OF DESIGN Confronting us constantly is the important question of the dating of decorations met with on these objects. It would be a most valuable addition to our knowledge of northern art history could we learn something from eighteenth century documents concerning the nature of basket designs of the area, or even as far back as a century ago. Here, as in the case of the Montagnais, however, early records have nothing sufficiently specific to say regarding birchbark wares and their decora- tions—topics too remote from the zeal-arousing subjects of soul salva- tion and education which engrossed the thoughts of missionary writers of the period. For the contemporary art figures (flowers, leaves, animals, arch, etc.) there is nothing for us beyond native tradition of antiquity to pierce the haze of uncertainty surrounding the time and manner of their adoption and the sources from which they owe their derivation. Many of the River Desert specimens figured are modern, that is, made within the last 15 or 20 years. Some, however, have a known age of three generations (Petrullo, 1929, p. 227). Mrs. Buckshot, of River Desert, now in her seventies, the maker of a number of those illus- trated, acquired her art from her mother without making any changes in the construction process or patterns of decoration of her bark work. Knowing that the River Desert Indians prior to 1854 were resident at the Lake of Two Mountains Mission, and nearer by about 150 miles to the settlements on the St. Lawrence, we cannot evade the conclusion that European influence has been operating upon the esthetic develop- ment of these Indians. Indeed, the River du Liévre Band shows such elaborate composition of its birchbark decorative figures, that the effect of French-Canadian farm life is only too apparent in the repre- sentations of flower pots and even bouquet groupings. The main difficulty is where to discriminate between native motives in the ornamentation of these old bark pails and the attempt to imitate European designs. While the critic may possess grounds for his own opinion on the question, it is evident that more material and especially more historical data will have to be obtained before the argument lurking beneath the surface will have been closed. It is apparent nevertheless, from what we know of the age, the economic character of the bark containers, and their decorations among these bands, that the craft they now represent dates back to the beginnings of the last century. There is, however, another aspect of recent history of the basketry problem involved in the art craftsmanship of the River Desert Algon- ANTHROP. PaP.No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 271 quin, if not that of the other bands as well. Among the older decora- tive techniques of this and the River du Liévre Band we meet with an art process having deep significance in the understanding of distribu- tion problems, namely the ornamentation of the splints of checker- work baskets by applying stamp designs to the broad splints by means of cut-out “pattern blocks” made of potato, turnip, or wood. Discus- sion of this form of art is a topic in itself, for the outline of which we may await the results of a study by Miss Gladys Tantaquidgeon. The provenience of the “block” printing basket ornamentation carries us to the consideration of art over a wide area extending from the Delaware, Munsee, and Mahican of the middle Atlantic region across southern New England, Mohegan, Pequot, and Nehantic, and then, after a break in distribution presented by the Iroquois,” who do not stamp or paint patterns on their baskets, back to the upper St. Law- rence where the process appears again among the Algonquin. The interruption in distribution of this remarkable decorative technique, caused by its nonoccurrence among the Iroquois wedged between the two areas where it flourished, is, to my mind, tacit evidence that it belongs to a period of art evolution among eastern Alognkian-speak- ing tribes when they occupied an extent of territory in common, at a time prior to their dispersion northward and eastward through pene- tration of the Iroquois into their domain. Block stamping in basket ornamentation is, therefore, probably an extremely early native de- velopment among the eastern Algonkian peoples, and one which by some trend of migration was diffused northward to the later Algon- quin proper. This has by now become blended with the primitive and natural decorative processes of a northern provenience, i. e., birchbark etching. It is, however, only with the latter that the present paper attempts to deal. A consideration to be included in our examination of Algonquin art is the knowledge that the making of birchbark baskets has witnessed both a decline and an expansion within the last two generations. The use of such articles in the band fell off to its lowest level in about the last decade of the nineteenth century. Introduction of industry into the forest sections of Quebec caused a withdrawal of the Indians lying near the centers of industrial activity, lurmg them from exclusive -hunting and trapping to pursuits of labor in the construction camps. The River Desert Band was one of those deeply affected by the change. Then came a feeble renewal of demand for the more esthetic forms of Indian labor. The women, on their part, found occupation in dull times and in winter in making birchbark and splint baskets for the more appreciative element of the incoming whites—the families of 26 Exceptions may be noted in the case of the Iroquois Oneida and Mohawk, who have produced these forms corresponding in design and technique to those of the adjacent Algonkian, from whom I believe they were acquired. 272 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn, 128 officers and staffs of the huge corporations. Contact with this class of Europeans had its results. The Indian of the ‘bush’ encountered gentler white people at last who admired some of his gifts and accom- plishments, and liked them. The discovery on the part of the latter that Indians could do something more than chop, drive, paddle, cook, sweat, and freeze in the ‘‘shanties”’ of the lumber and pulp operations created a spark of interest in the ‘‘inferiors.”’ The discovery of native arts of delicate form, skillful technique and tasteful ornamentation, of the symbolic language of picture writing in the alphabet of beasts, flowers, and trees, brought out something that both races could under- stand. The Indians slowly responded to the new demand put upon their abilities. This time they drew upon a form of production which appealed to their woods-loving nature. And so, while it is true and should be emphasized that indigenous arts and crafts both useful and beautiful never completely ceased, there has been a revival. Native groups in other parts of the country have passed through similar transitions in the rise and fall of their folk-crafts. In the case of the Algonquin another generation will write the answer to the question of ultimate survival or extinction of a promising art inspiration born somewhere in the birch-forest depths of the circumboreal area. Interest in the construction and decoration of bark containers is aroused by the position they hold in the history and evolution of in- vention from the world point of view. Containers for dry and for liquid properties may be thought of as extremely early products of invention beginning with animal skin (rawhide) and tree skin (bark) folded wrappers and troughs of the simplest forms, some of which sur- vive in use among hunting nomads of recent times. How can it be doubted that these products antedate in time and precede in tech- nology the lengthy series of containers and holders which appear evolved through boxes, basketry, and bags in manifold form from the simplest to most complex forms often within the same areas? The porcupine-quill decorative technique on birchbark containers char- acteristic of the area among the Algonkian of the Great Lakes region, where it has reached such an efflorescent stage, has developed, as I conceive it, from the incised floral decoration on birchbark discussed in this and in related themes of treatment. It seems a proper time for a more critical, even reformistic attitude to be taken toward treatment of historical as well as functional aspects of native American art. In a recent paper on Montagnais art in birchbark (Speck, 1937) I have evaluated certain evidence as set forth by commentators to prove European derivation of the floral and curve motifs so char- acteristic of design styles of Algonkian peoples of the Northeast. To many ethnologists this deduction may seem right in a superficial sense. In a profound sense, however, such an assumption in the guise ANTHROP. PaP. No.17] ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK—SPECK 273 of a conclusion is a delusive one. Yet it has swayed the arguments propounded in treatises which constitute in most instances secondary sources. The review and analysis arranged in the discussions just concluded should mean something in the future understanding of what these nature associations (flora, fauna, and hunter’s visions of land- scapes) stand for among groups culturally environed in the ecological set-up of the Canadian life zone. To stress social factors of art cul- ture, thereby thrusting aside a realization of what force is exerted by environmental conditions of nature, I am sure is to betray obstinate disregard for a great functioning influence. To drag in and stand up the historical art dummy of modern European origin in this case is subserving a sickly and overworked tradition of nineteenth century American ethnology. Someone may yet desire to attribute the pat- tern-biting process to as mythical a source as the old woman who bit holes in Swiss cheese with her one tooth, or perhaps to trace the Al- gonquin method of fashioning thongs from a single moose hide by spiral-centripetal trimming to Dido and the classical cutting of the bull hide! The material discussed in my several recent papers may at least inaugurate a contest of opinion with new bearings upon a subject of art which some of our profession have regarded as closed. It would seem, furthermore, that these nations of the woods had already started a few steps along the way leading to the formation of a crude scriptural system, at least as far as pictorial representation of object and idea might so be regarded. The symbols having values of floral glyphs, partially developed into curve ideograms, passed into use as fixed outline forms. Their wide range of significance pictorially embraces those most important elements of life and environment. They rise in the scale of literate culture traits, even to the extent of being carved upon the faces of blocks employed as stamps, whence they acquire the character of block designs consti- tuting a process of elementary printing with a color (ink) medium. If it seems presumptuous to lift these developments to such a high cultural rating in favor of a crude civilization, how may they be other- wise described? I shall take occasion subsequently to show in another paper how the block printing of designs was effected in the decorative art composition of other Algonkian groups of the Northeast (Munsee, Delaware, Mahikan, and the early southern New England peoples), a distribution which points toward a locus of specialization in art history that may be said to own some conventionalized type-forms for representation of ideas. May we not then boldly but justly call it an initial step on the part of Algonkian hunters in the production of an elementary system of writing and block printing amid an environment of uncleared forests? 274 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn. 128 BIBLIOGRAPHY Boas, FRANz. : 1927. Primitive art. Oslo. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. 1907. Article on Maycock. In Handbook of American Indians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, pt. 1, p. 824. Davipson, D. S. 1928. Decorative art of the Tétes de Boule of Quebec. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 10, No. 9, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. DENSMORE, FRANCES 1928. Use of plants by the Chippewa Indians. 44th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1926-27, pp. 275-397. 1929. Chippewa customs. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 86. Dovetas, FREDERICK H. 1936. Parfleches and other rawhide articles. Denver Art Mus., Ind. Leaflets 70, (8: 1938. An incised bison rawhide parfleche. Material Culture Notes, No. 6, April. Denver Art Mus. JOHNSON, F. 1930. An Algonkian band at Lac Barriére, Province of Quebec. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 12, No. 1, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. MacMituan, Marian T. 1936. Reflections, the story of water pictures. N. Y. Moore, CLARENCE B. 1905. Certain aboriginal remains of the Black Warrior River. ... Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 2d ser., vol. 18, pt. 2, pp. 125-232. PETRULLO, V. M. 1929. Decorative art on birchbark containers from the Algonquin, River du Liévre Band. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 11, No. 3, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. Speck, FRANK G. 1915. Family hunting territories and social life of various Algonkian bands of the Ottawa Valley. Geol. Surv. Canada, Dept. Mines, Mem. 70. Ottawa. 1920. Decorative art and basketry of the Cherokees. Bull. Pub. Mus. Milwaukee, vol. 2, No. 2. 1927. River Desert Indians of Quebec. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 4, No. 8, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. 1927 a. Symbolism in Penobscot art. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus, Nat. Hist., vol. 29, pt. 2. 1929. Boundaries and hunting groups of the River Desert Algonquin. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 6, No. 2, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Founda- tion. 1930. Mistassini notes. Ind. Notes, vol. 7, No. 4, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. 1937. Montagnais art in birchbark, a circumpolar trait. Ind. Notes and Monogr., vol. 11, No. 2, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. 1940. Penobscot Man. Univ. Penna. Press, Phila. TritT, JAMES 1909. The Shuswap. Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Jesup North Pacific Exped., vol. 2, pt. 7. Ed. note by F. Boas, pp. 477-478, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 30 BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS, SAP BUCKET AND ROUND PAIL (RIVER DESERT BAND) (NMC). a, b, c, Containers with similar designs on both sides; d, e, opposite sides of same bucket, scene of activity in sugarbush (Mz AI, 11X12 in.); ifs birc hbark pail for maple sap or water (River Desert Band), 1314 in. Designs represent ‘‘frog’s leggings,” pitcherplant (Sar- racena purpurea), and leaves (MAI, 15/3068); g, round pail for household possessions, tools, work material, etc. (height 12 ‘in.). Designs depicting night scene in woods, deer under tree. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 31 BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS (RIVER DESERT BAND). a, Workbox, 8X10 in. (both sides are the same) (MAI); b, c, maple sap pail (Rochester Municipal Mus.); d, water or sap pail, height 11% in. (MAI, 16/1595); ¢, water or sap pail, height 10 in. (MAI, 16/1596). Both have seams closed with pitch. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 32 BIRCHBARK SAP PAILS AND DISHES (RIVER DESERT BAND). a, b,c, d, Sap pails, height 4% in. (MAI, 16/1613—16/1616); ¢, large sap container, height 54 in. (16/1612); f, dish, height 3 in. (16/1597). (16I “O61 “681 “T ‘TH ‘OWWN) vourtoads autres jo sapis omy ‘f ‘2 Suaumtsads oures JO SapIs OMT, ‘9 ‘gq *(purg emrijiey) sioyseq ylequoag “f-q (yaedg -g “4 Aq peqa]]o9 ‘uvuned “7 ‘wAA Aq ydeizoj0yg) *(q-z-IVvD ‘SLAMSVG GNV MNNYL MYveHoulg €€ ALV1d 821 NILATINA ASOTONHLA NVOIMAWY JO nvayna ve ALlvid 8¢l NILS71NaA ‘fp ‘801 ‘F-ZOT ‘O01 “I II] OWN (NINONOD1Y ‘ONVG ONIWVHSIWIL) SYANIVLNOD MYVEHOYU!IG GALVYOOIGd dddadtavaddsasscadddssaljaeds ADOINONHL]A NVOIMAWY AO NVaHNSa (ueuneg “qu Aq sydeisojoyg) “syazmors ATI] YIM suas dureMs SuIMOoYs s1ouTeUOD ‘p ‘9 “gq SYSIy UL UOC] YITM d1oys eye] fo auads ‘(‘UI g] XRT) JoUTeIUOD a8v10}s aBsEy ‘P “(d-2-IVD ‘Wvd) “(GNv@ LYSassaqd YaAIYN) SYSNIVLNOD MYUVEHOYIG NINONOSTY G& ALV1Id 8¢! NILATIng ADOTONHLA NVYOIMAWY AO NVAYNs (ueueg J “wv, Xq ydesBor0yq) =(*d-Z-IVO ‘INV) “CNI G LHSISH) NAWIOSdS AO SACGIS HLOG ‘LHDSOIN LY MOYNYXY HLIM LOHS ONIFG YONG ANV SACIS NO NOISAQ IWHOT4 GNVG ‘NOILVLASSA ONIMVYNS YSAVEG AO ANSOS HLIM KXOG MYVEHOYIG NINONOO1IY | Wil Li (i* ¢t LEV IVIVTE TR he 9€ ALV1d 821 NILATINGA ASOTONHLA NVOIMAWYV AO Nvaynsa BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 37 AIGONQUIN BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS FOR HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES WITH FLORAL FIGURES IN SGRAFFITO DESIGNING AND WITH SEWED-ON CUT-OUT PATTERN DECORATIONS. Both sides of two vessels shown (66 in.) (DAM, CAI-II-P). (Photograph by Wm. F. Patman.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 38 BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS (RIVER DESERT BAND). Upper, decorated containers, night scene, duck, moth, or butterfly and moon on edge of lake; Jower, decorated container for woman’s possessions, sewing materials, cut-out and bitten patterns, with forest night scene on lid (10 in.) (DAM, CAI-14-P). BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 39 BIRCHBARK CONTAINERS. a, Birchbark envelope container for bear bait, with pitcher-plant figure, 944 X 11 in. (River Desert Algonquin, P. Q.) (DAM ‘CAI-16-P). 6, Birchbark container with spruce-root loops for decoration on rim, 534 & 4% in. (River Desert Band) (DAM, CAI-12-P). “(AIVW) (GNV@ LYSaS3q YSsAIY) SSAVAT ONY SYSMO74 JO SAILSINVA GANIASGNN ONILNSESSYdsyY SYANIVLNOD MYvVea ONILVYOOSG HOA SYSMYVW NYSaLLVd LNO-LND MYvsHoylae Ov ALlV1d 8¢l NILATING ADOIONHL]A NVOINSWY AO Nvaana BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 41 CAMP OF ALGONQUIN BIRCHBARK WORKER AND BASKET MAKER (MADENINE CESAR) (RIVER DESERT BAND, P. Q.). BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 42 MACKUSI’’K’WE, ‘‘BEAVER MEADOW WOMAN,” (MRS. M. BUCKSHOT) WITH DEC- ORATED BIRCHBARK BABY CARRIER FOR INFANT UP TO ONE MONTH CF AGE. (SPECIMEN IN NMD, 1938.) Le ‘hin, © he SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 128 Anthropological Papers, No. 18 Archeological Reconnaissance of Southern Utah By JULIAN H. STEWARD 275 OVE SUTTAL VATAOSE ie Cepstral ok vewnk do weal o bok eae yr! miais vk et ( Sf .6)! etn footulagordon A te ict 4 marltagr La 4ourdaenonooet [a CLL We Det A AS Leth i‘ 1 ‘ ie CONTENTS PAGE ST AI ap ae a ace uals CARA IPer, PRET SNR NONE aN. teh a gee 281 Part 1. The Johnson Canyon and Paria River region_________-_-------- 282 EES TEST Aegean Sp gE Somat SINNED ae RST) pemetr repee oN pings RS 282 RRS eA ANC CATCOIGCCUULG = 2265s ieee ee eR Ag ee Be ee ne 288 SLIT SYS) Foal EDO) rg 2 OS Gan eee Ramee Yan AE Sy etna 288 PROBE HIG LOGKOS =e cca baht Sete ieee Be ee 291 Rectanouiar masonry, NOUSESp. 2 yas oe pea eee 292 RPIeROMe Gs A GUROR oe 20 og Se ea = eg eee eee 298 a a a ko pa a rea ee 299 | jor yn i hatte 8 ed ieppma pa ol melee a yaa gm SE a A i a a pnt ate > 310 © ESET ay BS a veg ene a ta a an et ag eo ai Se ties 315 RPS PRETEEN Sd gE rg Be ge ee a a a ee eg 318 (ERLISTE FEV ON le a aD RN SYST SERIE LE tlh (ENE AEN is 319 Lo STLS 17%) S787 21 SAPS a Ali pa epee ie apt cn ae een ie ene cy aN ENA REN 319 East 2. Gien Canyon of the Colorado River__..-......-=_...---.----.= 323 OTE S, TOIT ai en pa oa rh a EN a RON A ey 328 "cs FE] TTS 2 0 RA A i i A a a li OR a, aD ra are pg 350 (LT 7 FETS TES a RI Ca Rg Nig AG Psp en Rie mma FI 356 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 43. Pit houses at site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon________-_-_-_-------_-_- 356 44. Site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon. a, House A. 6, Rubbed grooves in LOE Ee LS OS IRR a NO A RIND IRE ISDE, ATE AY 356 45. Masonry cliff houses and slab structures (sites 18, 37, 71, 83, 96, Jennson CAnyon-rarla River Hepgion)__...... 5. ne 356 46. Petroglyphs.at site 117, Johnson, Canyon__.._.._-__..--.--_.--_._- 356 47.,. Petroglyphs ait site 117, Johnson Canyon__......_....------------ 356 Zee Ceuopiyphs a. site, lag, Oak Canyon. =. 2-2 356 49. House ruins at White Canyon (site 2), Redd Canyon (site 4), and LeU PTET TEN ELL DR ag lS ela iAP aR NaN SRT NE IR TSR 356 50. Slab and masonry structures near Lake Canyon (site 6) and below Derr RMIPORIVGE (BEC Ee) dese ee ee oe eg 356 51. House types at Redd Canyon (site 4), Aztec Creek (sites 16, 17), and PES Gres Sa SF sR i eh Marc cnae MDa. 356 waenictopraphe andspetroglyphe...-.-.,--.- _------~- <= s-2--5-- = 356 TEXT FIGURES 26. Sketch map of Johnson Canyon-Paria River region__._______-------- 282 27. Sketch map of slab structures, site 39, Kitchen Canyon______-_----_- 290 28. Sketch map of slab structures, site 41, Kitchen Canyon______-_-_---- 290 29. Sketch map of slab structures, site 42, Kitchen Canyon________--_-- 291 30. Sketch map of slab structures, site 86, near Clark Canyon____---_--- 291 31. Sketch map of slab structures, site 87, near Clark Canyon____-_-_~-- 291 218558—_41——19 277 278 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Bun, 128 PAGE 32. Sketch map of cave, site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon___._____________ 292 33. Sketch map of masonry houses, depressions, and slab structures, site 48, Wildcat Canyons 222 shee .2 220k eee Lee ee 293 34. Sketch map of masonry house and slab structure, site 60, Kitchen Canyori 2s kU Ok See en oe ae ee er 294 35. Sketch maps of masonry houses, depressions, and slab cists, sites 76, 80, 81, and 82, Finn Little and Clark Canyons______.___________-_- 295 36. Sketch map of masonry houses, depressions, and slab cist, site 119, Johnson Lakes Canyon. 22.22.2222 22222 eee 295 37. Rim sherds and designs on Basket Maker black-on-gray. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region______------_- 300 38. Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region_____ 301 39. Half of Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bowl, site 123, Dairy Canyon. 302 40. Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan black-on-red and polychrome bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River TH EYL 0) 0 PS Es RN ILA NG AP Waa We UPA ENT PUR LN AC RCE HD se 302 41. Tusayan black-on-red pitcher, site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon_______-_ 303 42. Bowl rims, Tusayan black-on-white and Tusayan black-on-red_____-_-_ 303 43. Rim sherds and handles of plain ollas, Paria gray and Johnson gray- 12 0 le Na RN PI a he UCN etree eat enka Ani eeneRS Br 304 44., Variations in rims of plain ollas! 222 LS eee 305 45,, Rim sherds of Paria gray bowls. 25-5222 eee 306 46. Johnson corrugated pitchers, site 123, Dairy Canyon, and corrugated olla rim sherds from Johnson Canyon-Paria River region___------_- 306 47. Chipped sandstone ‘‘hoes”’ from Johnson Canyon-Paria River region._. 310 48, 49. Metates from sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region_____- 311, 312 50. Mullers, or manos, and cross sections of same from sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region... 9 2 .t 22-3) 313 51. Projectile points of chipped flint. Johnson Canyon-Paria River TOOT OMe ee niyo ace a ee re ae en ek 314 52. Knives, drills, and scrapers. Johnson Canyon-Paria River region_... 315 da., Lextile impression in adobe =< Se ee 317 54. Crescent (“‘sickles’) of mountain sheep horn in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utaheo ssi or ee eee ee ee 317 55. Wooden dippers in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utah____--------- 318 56. Two quartz objects. a, Quartzite lump (11744), site 2, Paria River region. b, Crystalline pendant (11894), site 119, Johnson Lakes CANYON. ofan no nee ees eee ee coe eee ee 318 57. Petroglyphs, sites 1 and 4, Molly’s Nipple Canyon________--------- 320 58. Pictographs, site 7, Molly’s Nipple Canyon; and site 29, Wildcat CanyOR = | eee fe ee 321 59. Pictographs and petroglyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon-_--_----- 322 60. Petroglyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon..___...-...-.--------- 323 61. Petroglyphs, site 117, Johnson Canyon... _-.._.-. 2.225 324 62. Petroglyphs, site 180, Oak Canyon-w2i5 uous.) sessed le puede 325 63. Petroglyphs, sites 130, 132, and 183, Oak Canyon, and site 141 near Clark. Canyon..Jo0i4!) wed al Le ole ew deus dale Yee 326 64. Distribution of sites of different periods in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. 20yce)) aga ww 0d adie Geouioutia dei ie ee 327 65. Map of Glen Canyon, Colorado River___.._.----.-----------+---- 328 66. Ground plan of large ruin and kiva, site 2, White Canyon______-_--- 330 AntTHRoP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 279 PAGE 67. House structures. a, Plan of ruin at site 3, Trachyte Canyon. 6-f, Houses on the northern cliff of White Canyon, site 2_-____________ 331 68. Cliff houses south of the large ruin, site 2, White Canyon__________- 333 iemoarec Tin atenedd Canyon, site 425... 22.2.0. 223 682 Le 336 70. Details of house structures at site 6 near Lake Canyon and site 22, POTS) ees Spe ee 0 OF ee | pe a 339 71. Metates and manos, or mullers, from sites 6 and 9, near Lake Canyon; site 11, near Escalente River; and site 22, near Rock Creek____-_-- 340 72-74. Petroglyphs at site 2, White Canyon___._.__............_. -_ 345-347 75. Pictographs and petroglyphs at site 2, White Canyon______________- 348 76. Pictographs near Colorado River, on highway north of Moab, Utah___ 348 77. Petroglyphs by highway bridge over Colorado River, near Moab, Utah. 349 cA Wet fond “age rent hte *; TaN Pare “int ey peabe i Tes ak hs att : vai nyt eet RRS Ph otal ies eee odtal nut te dyuoe ON cmt tre an pal “peek jp ane ini bbathda. pias aly. btn aoe hPa @ nts Be ba ce: ous it 0 ay cape iinet tes sieripttets wo aml ¥ inogust? ro BN 4 ieee. ‘haat instar) sax 144 scsi ra aout pias alia, bas i, ‘ophapal * . eS. seis father iss Mh ean Ort) ES otk te. i GRR dh icis bes ser Aaa nope MAN rae i ¥ pln, da acegrelan aay oo cates U.daoll } doit wods wee daitno. 6 PiLoheaaty BE ated “4! i hance Ua: r) ro acacia at sont ew D Ni i ‘ete ne ty, by \ ha er ; ah Vy ve AAT ty eR ai st i 2h i eae he boAP Ay ene a fi a Hyak mite : : | ; yer Nera Aer | m tag} a! rad a ; EI he i pained t 1 ? ee ne & Raimi gh Tan DNS Be unabe i is pe : if v tae We I i us) f 15 ies i Lee Bh ‘! ’ ve io a ‘i if Abs in COP ‘ 4 t an ‘9 ne Pit) Pt cr) ee Lae i i A we if / : . i } Pe i ‘ f ye it DI rte y vet oll * ate uo, 4 ALENT f Ms \ ‘ j i" i va y ae in b> i Fey 43) pho { « i ' TR SATS: Rye # vy a f he ee , ay ” yy 1 | A ‘i ‘ imi ms . j } aye vf , Poo AE | ' { ng wee PA mM : Bo APR OOM wee ine ERK gi OG ABT 1 4 ‘ uk * pon al ‘ Ot Fa at i i 6 Hat 4 me & i ty ae ; t ‘ p iy : Se f tne ytny rhc 4 Weng A f ce , Shae ANDi Cennahony wi sig ie least i swte meet Eh bib He ne a NA a f H : lohryticte | un Pe shits fold Min sy ‘Nias ep na | ARCHEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF SOUTHERN UTAH By JULIAN H. STEWARD INTRODUCTION Archeological investigations by Judd (1926) and by the present writer (Steward, 1933, 1933a, 1936) in the Northern Periphery of the Southwest, that is, in northern and western Utah, had revealed numerous remains of a prehistoric culture the main features of which were derived from the Anasazi or Basket Maker-Pueblo cultures of the San Juan River drainage. But whereas the cultures of the latter area are known to have developed through at least four compara- tively distinct chronological periods—Basket Maker (II), Modified Basket Maker (III), Developmental Pueblo (I and II), and Great Pueblo (III)!—present data indicate but two periods in the Northern Periphery. Neither true Basket Maker nor Modified Basket Maker is present. The early period, though Basket Maker in such fea- tures as ceramics and stress on clay figurines and anthropomorphic petroglyphs (which largely faded out in the San Juan Pueblo cultures), already contains some Developmental Pueblo elements, especially a jacallike pit lodge. The late period merely brought the addition of such San Juan Pueblo II elements as rectangular houses, intensive horticulture, ceramic features, and probably some brachycephalic people. In the entire portion of Utah which lies north of the Fremont River in the east and which falls within the Great Basin in the west, only these two periods are known. The outstanding problem of the Northern Periphery, therefore, was to discover the place and manner in which those culture elements which had been chronologically differentiated in the San Juan area had become blended into a single culture and spread northward into the Northern Periphery. Theoretically, there should be found a region with the two following cultural stages: First, a Modified Basket Maker culture lacking any Pueblo influence; second, a culture retaining certain elements of the first (which, in the San Juan area, faded out after the close of the Basket Maker periods) but having in addition certain early Pueblo elements. Work by Judd (1926) and 1 These terms are from Roberts (1937). Numerals in parentheses refer to the old terminology, i. e., Basket Maker II, III, ete. 281 282 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bout, 128 Nusbaum (1922) had shown that the cultures in the vicinity of Kanab in southern Utah were chronologically differentiated much as in the San Juan area, which ruled out that region as the source of the special Northern Peripheral culture. In order to shed light on this problem as well as to explore areas which were blanks on the archeological map, the writer undertook two trips in southern Utah in 1932 for the University of Utah. One trip was made in company with B. O. Hughes of Ann Arbor, Mich., R. F. Hosmer of Los Angeles, Maurice Howe of Salt Lake City, and Delbert Riggs of Kanab, Utah. Traveling with pack outfit, the party thoroughly explored the region of the lower Paria River and Johnson Canyon, east of Kanab. The observations made on this trip form the first part of this paper. The other trip was made in company with Hughes, Charles Kelly of Salt Lake City, and Hoffman Birney and John Shoemaker of Philadelphia. It was only through sharing expenses with the last three that the expedition was possible. Traveling by boat, 23 days were spent exploring Glen Canyon of the Colorado River between the Fremont River in central-eastern Utah and Lee’s Ferry in northern Arizona. Description of the archeology of this region forms the second part of the paper. The writer wishes to express gratitude to his companions on both trips, particularly to Hughes, who assumed responsibility for much of the reconnaissance on the second trip. The archeological collections obtained are in the Museum of Anthropology at the University of Utah. Numbers of specimens recorded in this paper are those of the museum catalog. PART 1. THE JOHNSON CANYON AND PARIA RIVER REGION SITES VISITED The lists of sites visited follows. The numbers refer to those on the map. Site 1—Mouth of Molly’s Nipple Canyon. Petroglyphs and plain pottery, probably Basket Maker. Site 2—1% miles west of Potter’s ranch. A large cave with three circular houses, having slab foundations and adobe, straw, and horizontally laid rocks above; two were excavated. Artifacts: Mostly plain and black-on-white sherds. A few sherds of corrugated ware and of unbaked clay; metates and miullers. Site is early (pls. 43, 44). Site 3.—\% mile south of Potter’s ranch. No architecture. Sherds like those of site 2. Site 4.—1% mile south of Potter’s ranch. Three masonry cliff houses. Corru- gated and black-on-white sherds. Petroglyphs in one cave. Site §.—100 yards south of site 4. Plain sherds scattered on hillside. Site. 6.—200 yards south of site 5. Plain sherds and small slab cists. Site 7—South side Molly’s Nipple Canyon, 4 mile south of Kitchen cabin. White animal and anthropomorphic pictographs in rock shelter. liver r¢ PS gear pe ae ty ie re i hl ce Sali ‘a Earl A cays ny 12% eenateleen ies : i aad en nee = on Ct! see _ - vermitto SUT eVepsom AAS AAS aos eae —Pahreah a £° pa-- Roa - Sr a oo 218558—40 (Face p. 282) Ficurn 26.—Sketch map of the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. Anrurop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 283 Site 8.—Head of canyon, directly opposite (south of) Kitchen cabin. Cave with one crude circular stone house. Site 9.—Back of Averett’s cabin. Late sherds and traces of houses. Site 10.—\% mile east of site 9, on promontory formed by Molly’s Nipple Can- yon and small side canyon. Sherds and stone ‘‘hoes”’ collected. Site 11—Cave just under rim rock between sites 9 and 10. Traces of stone walls. Site 12.—Cave at head of draw, southwest of Kitchen cabin. Plain sherd collected. Site 18—Potter’s ranch. Sherds and stone hoes scattered over sand hills. Site 14.—Molly’s Nipple Canyon just below Potter’s ranch. Stone hoes and sherds in canyon bottom. Site 15.—1\% mile northwest of Riggs’ ranch. Paria gray sherds in cave. Site 16.—%% mile east of site 2 where trail to Kitchen cabin leaves main canyon. Sherds and flints scattered on hillside. Site 17.—West of summit of trail from Molly’s Nipple Canyon to Five Pines Canyon. Plain sherds and flints scattered on waterless flat. Site 18.—East side of Kitchen Canyon, % mile north of Five Pines Canyon. Traces of stone and adobe walls. Plain and corrugated sherds (pl. 45, a). Site 19.—On hillside where trail drops into Wildcat Canyon opposite Wildcat Spring. Plain sherds. Site 20.—\ mile north of Wildcat Spring. Two small caves with traces of stone and adobe walls. Plain and corrugated sherds. Site 21.—1 mile south of Wildcat Spring at head of small canyon running east into Wildcat Canyon. Paria gray, and Basket Maker black-on-gray sherds. Site 22.— North side same canyon, 4 mile east of site 21. Small rock shelters containing layers of cedar bark, pine needles, and sand. No artifacts. Site 23.—West side Wildcat Canyon, sandy knoll north of Nephi Canyon. Plain and corrugated sherds, metates, and mullers. Site 24.—North side mouth of Nephi Canyon. Sherds and arrow points. Site 25.—South side of mouth of Nephi Canyon. Remains of masonry and cists; abundant sherds of late types. Also metates and mullers. Site 26—200 yards south of site 25. Remains of slab cists on hillside; sherds. Site 27.—East side Wildcat Canyon opposite canyon with sites 21, 22. Two caves with evidence of occupation and a semicircular stone and adobe granary under ledge near top of cliff. Site 28—¥% mile north of 27, east side Wildcat Canyon. Cave with water seep containing 18 inches of stratified ash and flint chips. Site 29.—West side Wildcat Canyon, % mile south of Wildcat Spring. Rock shelter with pictographs in white, cream, and black. Site 30.—300 yards south of 29. Cave containing corrugated and plain sherds. Site 31.—Above site 30. Small cave walled up to form granary. Site 32.—100 feet south of site 30. Rock shelter with late sherds and flints. Site 33.—\% mile north of site 30, in draw on east side Wildcat Canyon. Rock shelter containing sherds and flints. Site 34.—West side of Kitchen Canyon, 200 yards north of Five Pines Canyon. Sherds and flints scattered over small knoll. Site 35.—Opposite Five Pines Canyon. One metate and flint chips. Site 36.—300 yards below site 35, west side of canyon. Occupied cave with flint chips. Site 37.—East side Kitchen Canyon, 200 yards north of Box Elder Canyon. Caves and rock shelters containing masonry walls, also circular stone and adobe house (pl. 45, d). 284 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Butn. 128 Site 38—West side of Kitchen Canyon, 200 yards north of site 37. Rock shelter containing charcoal and worked flints. Site 39.—Junction of Kitchen and Box Elder Canyons, a knoll covered with nine slab cists, traces of more cists, sherds. Site 40.—%% mile south of site 39. Petroglyphs and pictographs in white. Site 41.—Kitchen Canyon, 4 mile north of Gidd’s Canyon. Knoll covered with 13 or more slab cists and houses. Sherds collected. Site 42.—North side of mouth of Gidd’s Canyon. Knoll covered with approxi- mately 13 slab cists and houses. Sherds and metate collected. Site 43.—North side of Gidd’s Canyon, 250 yards from mouth. Flint work- shop on small hill. Site 44.—Hill, junction of Gidd’s and Kitchen Canyons, south side mouth Gidd’s Canyon. Possibly cists; sherds. Site 45.—Knoll, Wildcat Cativon; east side, 4% mile below Nephi Cais: chipped flints, sherds, and metate. Site 46.—East side Wildcat Canyon, 300 yards below site 45. Sherds, worked flints, and muller fragment collected. Site 47.—Wildcat Canyon, 4 mile south of site 46. Sherds and flints on small hill. Site 48.—On sand knoll at junction of Wildcat and Kitchen Canyons. Several coursed masonry houses grouped around large circular depressions, possibly kivas. Also slab cists. Metates well worked. Sherds of late types. Site 49.—West side Kitchen Canyon, % mile above site 48. Sherds and slab cists. Site 50.—On small knoll opposite mouth of Kitchen Creek. Sherds, metate, and chipped flints. Site 51.—300 yards north of site 50. Nine slab cists, sherds, and chipped flints on knoll, 30 feet high, west side of Kitchen wash. Site 52.—On knoll 200 yards north of site 51. A cist, sherds, and chipped flints. Site 53.—West side of junction of Kitchen and Wildcat Canyons, on knoll 50 feet high. Four rectangular masonry rooms form a semicircle around the north side of a circular depression, probably kiva. Also two slab cists, sherds, metates, and mullers, of late types. Site 54.—200 yards north of site 53. A slab cist and late type sherds. Prob- ably is part of site 53. Site 55.—% mile north of site 54. Late types of sherds on knoll. Site 56.—300 yards above site 55. Small slab cist and plain sherds. Site 57.—% mile north of site 56. Sherds and chipped flints. Site 58.—% mile north of site 56. Small cist, sherds, and metate fragment. Site 59.—East side Kitchen Canyon, 300 yards above Gidd’s corral. Sherds, flints, and small slab cist. Site 60.—On knoll % mile south of Gidd’s corral. Coursed masonry, rectangular house and slab cists or houses. Sherds and flints. Site 61.—% mile south of site 60. Slab cist and sherds. Site 62.—Small knoll south of Elmo’s Spring. Sherds, flints, and metate. Site 63.—1 mile south of site 62. Plain sherds and flints scattered on knoll. Site 64.—\% mile west of Jenny’s Clay Hole. Flint workshop and plain sherds. Site 65—'% mile south of site 64, east bank of Finn Little Canyon. Knoll with thousands of sherds, flints, and metates. No evidence of houses. Site 66.—\% mile northeast of Jenny’s Clay Hole. Flint-chipping station. Sites 67-70.—Located on large flat 24 miles east of Jenny’s Clay Hole. Sherds and flint-chipping sites cover the flat. AnTHROP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 285 Site 71.—% mile northeast of Jenny’s Clay Hole. Knoll about 30 feet high with four slab cists and sherds (pl. 45, f). Site 72.—14 miles west of Jenny’s Clay Hole facing Finn Little Canyon. Rec- tangular houses with coursed stone walls, grouped in semicircle on north side of circular depression. Site 73.—% mile southwest of site 72. Coursed stone-wall houses and slab cists. Late pottery types. Site 74.—% mile east of site 73. Two coursed stone houses. Site 75.—% mile southeast of site 74. Two rectangular coursed stone houses and slab cist. Site 76.—300 yards southeast of site 75, or % mile from Finn Little Canyon. Five rectangular coursed stone houses grouped around semicircle. Late pottery types. Site 77.—1% miles southwest of site 76. Slab cists. Sherds: Plain, black-on- white. No corrugated sherds. Site 78.—% mile east of site 76. Five coursed rectangular stone houses grouped around circular depression. Late pottery types. Site 79.—¥% mile southeast of site 76. Scattered sherds and worked flints. Site 80.—\% mile west of Finn Little Canyon. Three rectangular coursed stone houses around circular depression. Late pottery types. Site 81.—300 yards north of site 80. Three rectangular coursed stone houses in semicircle on north side of circular depression. Also stone slab cist. Site 82.—East side Clark Canyon. Five rectangular coursed stone houses and slab cist. Site 83.—'%4 mile southwest of site 82. Rectangular coursed stone houses and slab cist (pl. 45, 6). Site 84.—200 yards east of site 838. Rectangular coursed stone house and cists. Site 85.—%4 mile northeast of site 84. Four rectangular coursed stone houses in semicircle on north side of circular depression. Site 86.—}4 mile northwest of site 85. Five slab structures on knoll top. Site 87.—1 mile west of site 86. Large rectangular slab structure on knoll top. Sherds: Plain, black-on-white. Site 88.—300 yards southwest of site 87. Scattered sherds and flints. Site 89.—\ mile west of site 88. Small slab cist, sherds, and flints. Site 90.—At mouth of Neaf Springs Canyon. Two slab cists and plain sherds. Site 91.—Cave opposite Neaf Springs previously dug. Sherds, muller, and corncob found. Site 92.—Head of Neaf Springs Canyon. Scattered plain and black-on-white sherds, metate, and muller fragments. Site 93.—% mile southeast of Neaf Springs on south side of canyon. Scattered sherds and flint chips. Sherds and other evidence of occupation were scattered in the general vicinity of Neaf Springs. Site 94.—On point above head of Seaman Canyon. Four rectangular coursed stone houses. Late pottery types. ‘ Site 95.—Head of Seaman Canyon. Rectangular coursed stone house. Late pottery types; flints. Site 96.—200 yards northeast of site 95. Rectangular structure of slabs, out- side of which was a coursed stone wall (pl. 45, e). Site 97.—150 yards northwest of site 96. A structure like that at site 96. Site 98.—% mile northeast of site 97. Large rectangular stone house on knoll. Site 99.—\% mile northwest of site 98. Scattered sherds, flints, metate, and muller. Site 100.—\ mile north of site 98. One small slab cist, plain sherds, and flints. 286 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 128 Site 101.—\ mile east of Johnson Lakes Canyon. Two slab cists, sherds, and flints. Site 102.—On small knoll 1% miles east of Johnson Lakes Canyon, 4% miles north of Flood Canyon. Slab cist, sherds, and flints. Site 103.—North edge of Flood Canyon, 4 mile south of site 102. Slab cist, sherds, and flints. Sites 104-107.—On north rim of Flood Canyon. Scattered sherds and flints and probably several house ruins. Site 108.—\% mile north of site 107. Twoslab cists. Sherds: Plain and black. on-white. Worked flints. Site 109.—On knoll west of upper end of Flood Canyon. Three slab cists, sherds, flints, and metate. Site 110.—¥% mile northwest of site 109. Traces of ruins on large flat knoll. Late pottery types. Site 111.—1 mile up Long Canyon. Cave containing two masonry wall houses and pictographs in blue-green, purple, and red. Also sherds and flints. Site 112.—On flat between Finn Little Canyon and Clark Canyon. Scattered plain and black-on-white sherds and flints. Site 1138.—At junction of Long and Johnson Canyons. Three circular slab and adobe houses 8 feet in diameter each. Previously excavated. Sherds. Site 114.—Knoll with two masonry rooms and cave, 200 yards above junction of Flood and Johnson Canyons. Sherds. Site 115—In Dairy Canyon, north side on sandy knoll 50 feet high, % mile west of Alvin Judd’sranch. Traces of coursed stone walls and slab cist containing burial. Flints and sherds scattered about. Site 116.—At Alvin Judd’s ranch, Johnson Canyon. Rectangular masonry houses, cists and slab-lined kiva (?). The kiva was partly excavated. Site 117.—Petroglyphs of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures on wall in James Bunting’s corral on east side of Johnson Canyon % mile north of Long Canyon (pls. 46, 47). Site 118.—Knoll 4% mile south of Neaf Hamblin’s ranch. Slab cists. Site 119.—'% mile east of Neaf Hamblin’s ranch. Several coursed stone houses and slab cists. Traces of two flexed burials. Sherds, flints, and metate fragments. Site 120.—North side Dairy Canyon, sandy knoll 1,000 feet west of site 115. Slab cist, sherds, and flints. Site 121.—50 yards north of site 120. Dumbbell-shaped petroglyphs on ledge. Site 122.—Sandy knoll north side of Dairy Canyon, 1,000 feet west of site 121. Ruins of coursed stone masonry houses and refuse heap. Late pottery types, flints, and muller fragments. Site 123.—Dairy Canyon, 1% miles from Judd ranch at junction of north branch and main canyon. Coursed stone houses on sandy knoll. One bowl and two corrugated pitchers found. Site 124.—Dairy Canyon % mile southwest of site 123, north side of main canyon. Slab cist, black-on-white sherds, and flints. Site 125.—Junction of upper forks of Dairy Canyon. Scattered sherds. Site 126.—South side Dairy Canyon 2 miles west of Judd ranch. Sherds, slab cist, and muller. Site 127.—South side Dairy Canyon 1 mile west of Judd ranch. Muller fragments. Site 128.—On bluff north side of mouth of Joel’s Canyon. Petroglyphs on ledge. Site 129.—North side mouth of Joel’s Canyon, bluff overlooking Johnson’s Canyon. Traces of stone and adobe walls and sherds. Site 130.—North side of mouth of Oak Creek. Zoomorphic, anthropomorphic, and geometric petroglyphs on wall (pl. 48). Anrurop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 287 Site 131.—Rock shelter just above site 130. Remnants of masonry walls and disturbed burials. Sherds: Plain, corrugated, black-on-white. Geometric petro- glyphs. Site 132.—North side Oak Canyon ¥% mile from site 131. Cave with masonry walls and geometric petroglyphs inside. Site 133.—South side mouth Oak Canyon. Geometric petroglyphs on ledge. Site 134.—'% mile south of site 133. Sandy knoll inside canyon with scattered sherds. Site 135.—Sandy knoll south side junction of Oak and Johnson Canyons. Scattered sherds. Site 136.—Sandy knoll north side of junction of Oak and Johnson Canyons. Scattered sherds. Site 137.—On knoll % mile east of Johnson Canyon opposite mouth of Dairy Canyon, north side of Joel’s Canyon. Masonry-wall traces and slab cists. Site 138.—Hillside north of Joel’s Canyon. Remnants of three coursed masonry houses. Site 139.—Rock shelter east side Johnson Canyon north of mouth of Joel’s Canyon. Sherds and debris. Site 140.—On flats between head of Clark Canyon and Finn Little Canyon. Slab cist and plain sherds. Site 141.—% mile northwest of site 112 on flats. Scattered sherds and flints. Site 142.—Cave with traces of masonry walls. Near mouth of Dairy Canyon, north side. Sherds. Summary.—Sites were found throughout the entire region explored, but increased in number toward Johnson Canyon, that is, in the better water localities. Evidence of several periods is clear. These periods are roughly comparable to the Basket Maker II, III, and Pueblo I and II periods of the San Juan drainage. Basket Maker II sites, however, are extremely rare. Sherds of unbaked clay found in site 2 may indicate Basket Maker II. Absence of pottery at slab houses is certainly no proof of Basket Maker II, for several masonry houses also had no associated ceramics. Sites with a basically Basket Maker III (Modified Basket Maker) culture are fairly common, especially in the western part of the region explored. Remains of this culture comprise slab cists and larger slab structures which have been inter- preted as houses. The associated pottery is usually a plain ware, Paria Gray, and a Basket Maker style of primitive black-on-gray, though later styles also occur at a few slab sites. Early Pueblo or transitional sites have structures with crudely coursed stone walls erected over slab foundations. The pottery wares resemble those of the preceding period. The late period has a culture roughly like that of the San Juan Pueblo II period, having rectangular coursed masonry structures and corrugated and black-on-white pottery. Late sites are more nu- merous than those of the other periods, most of the sites in Kitchen, Wildcat, Finn Little, Johnson Lakes, and Johnson Canyons being of this type. The typical site has several rectangular rooms (prob- ably houses) of coursed masonry forming a semicircle around the 288 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 128 northern side of a circular depression which probably contains a kiva. Pottery types are Johnson corrugated, Tusayan black-on-white, Tusayan black-on-red, Tusayan red, Johnson gray-tan, and a small amount of Tusayan polychrome. Late sites are generally on sandy knolls or other low eminences. Habitable caves frequently contain traces of late type masonry walls. Basket Maker and early Pueblo or transitional sites are often near the late sites or are on canyon rims. Petroglyphs and pictographs are fairly numerous in the region and apparently date from all periods. They have stylistic features peculiar to the region. Depredations have left few sites of interest unharmed. Caves especially have been dug. Many sites, however, would repay careful excavation, particularly the late-period masonry rooms with associated depressions, which have been little molested. VILLAGES AND ARCHITECTURE SLAB STRUCTURES Slab structures occur alone at some sites but at others belong to villages of rectangular masonry houses. As the pottery associated with the former is a black-on-gray and Paria gray, both distinctly Basket Maker wares, most of these slab-structure sites clearly belong to a culture which in ceramics and architecture closely resembles the Basket Maker III of the San Juan. A survival of the use of such structures into later times, however, is demonstrated by such sites as 41 and 42, where later wares, including corrugated pottery, are found. These sites are revealed by the tops of vertically set stone slabs projecting above the ground surface. Although no excavation was undertaken, the stones outline structures which, judging from a few that are partially eroded, were probably dug 2 or 3 feet deep. Small, circular cists associated with these were probably storage bins or fire pits of some kind. Larger cists, ranging up to 7 and 8 feet in diameter, may, however, well have been houses, for the grouping of half a dozen or more such structures in compact clusters must indicate small communities. Similar structures in the Zion Park region which are slab-lined, side and bottom, seem to have been small domiciles (Weth- erill, 1934). The limited number and extremely small size of these houses, however, shows that such communities were probably family groups or lineages Most of these sites are in canyon bottoms, on sandy knolls which rise 10 to 30 feet above the nearby wash. Such locations are near arable and well-drained land, but are by no means protected. Anrurop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 289 The important data on the slab-structure sites are tabulated below. Field sketches of sites 39, 41, 42, 86, and 87 are reproduced in figures ni tO ol. TABLE 1.—Slab structures Struc- Site shied Diameter Shape ture | Diameter Shape Remarks >. A Witecen cose” Circular_..--.- i A 6 ft.6in.X8 | Oval_..--=-.- F Ey | eae. ee Circular__-..- Village (?). Sherds ft. 6 in. and traces of other B Gitte -s\pa-= | dois GQ 4 | ea ee ro (0 ene cists nearby. C Cc 6 ft.><8i ft. 9) [2-22 do" == H Dit? Gunes a | hee s GOsss_2 53. has stone floor, 8 in. inches deep. D 6 ft. 6 in____- Circular_--._- I $:ft:i6in===4 L Sa GO-Se so sce E Ui Var be Sd ees GO ee Se ee ee I eee jit A OfteGin.-- 2s |o es doh 22522 H 6) ere ee ery (eS =e does A, D, C, E, F con- B Gft-£4.--2-- Spe eaG (eee I Kf fa ree © | ee do. tain charcoal. Cc 7 ft.X10ft__.| Rectangular-.| J Oiait:. 22 aE te does Traces of other D Ofc. cutee se Circular_-..-- Ke || Ott s oe do. cists. E Tite 5:1 Site: TUG ee aks cad 338 Sitet7 825232 seac 52 Site 1S ee eee eee 4:1 Site’SOL Bers meat 3:1 (or 4:1) Apparently the diffusion of Pueblo culture which first introduced late ceramic types, then masonry houses, also brought the tendency to community standardization, but before large, composite villages developed the cultures disappeared. The locations of these sites are similar to those of the slab structure sites. Knolls in canyon bottoms were preferred, but some are above the cliffs overlooking the canyons. There is a marked concentration of these toward the west, especially in Johnson Canyon, where greater water supply and fertile canyon bottom alluvium must have enticed an agricultural people. MASONRY CLIFF HOUSES It is but natural that suitable caves should have been used for houses or granaries by the occupants of the masonry villages. The important data concerning these are summarized below. Site 4.—Several small caves, partially walled with horizontal masonry; also retaining walls for floor. Late period. Site 11.—Somewhat similar to site 4. Site 18.—Suggestion of former masonry walls in a cave; also late pottery types (pl. 45, a). Site 20.—A small cave; contained traces of a wall of stone and adobe reinforced with sticks; also late pottery types. Site 27.—Traces of masonry in dwelling caves, and semicircular masonry gran- ary, 7 feet diameter, in ledge. Site 31.—A granary somewhat similar to last. Site 37.—Rock shelters and caves (pl. 45, d); one wall to fill cave en- trance, of alternating adobe and courses of stones, each 2 inches thick, 6 inches to 14 inches long, 7 inches wide; window, 18 inches high, 138 inches wide, with stone sill and log lintel; accompanied by small granaries of walled-up crevices, the walls usually having windows; also traces of a circular house, 8 feet 6 inches diameter of similar construction. This type probably preceded true masonry houses. Site 111.—Cave with two masonry granaries, each about 6 feet in diameter, 4 feet high, built against cliff. Site 129.—Traces of masonry and cists in cliffs. Site 131.—Traces of masonry in cave. Site 1382.—Small cave with mouth once closed by 12-foot wall; other traces of masonry. Site 8—A cave; one room crudely indicated by roughly piled rocks. No pottery. AnTHrop, Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 299 POTTERY The pottery of the Johnson Canyon and Paria River region has few distinctive features or novel types. The majority of the wares are so similar to well-known wares that it would but add confusion to the already formidable list of Southwestern pottery types and obscure historical connections to coin new terms merely to distin- euish minor local variations. For example, that tempering is almost invariably sand in this region that contains little but sandstone is not surprising and does not seem sufficient reason to distinguish by a new name a ware that is identical, except for temper, with a ware which is common elsewhere. New wares are named, therefore, only when there is no previously known ware to which they can be assigned, and when the number of sherds is sufficiently great and their char- acteristics sufficiently well defined to have significance. Scores of sherds were not readily assignable to any of the wares listed below. Perhaps some are variants of these wares, perhaps some are new types. In the tabulation at the end of this paper, pottery has been entered as E, early; T, transitional; L, late. Early wares are Basket Maker black-on-gray and Paria gray. ‘Transitional wares are probably Sevier black-on-gray and perhaps North Creek black-on-gray. Late wares are Tusayan black-on-white, Tusayan black-on-red, Tusayan red, Tusayan polychrome, Johnson gray-tan, and Johnson corrugated. Unbaked clay vessels—Site 2 yielded 10 sherds (11728 and 11716) of unbaked clay. These are about three-eighths of an inch thick, tempered with cedar bark; some bear impressions of coiled basketry on their exteriors. Vandals had despoiled this site, destroying any stratification and removing any other specimens. Similar sherds were found by Nusbaum (1922) in DuPont Cave, north of Kanab. Site 120 had a single unbaked, untempered rim sherd associated with a late, fired ware. Basket Maker black-on-gray—Paste firm; excessive sand and occasionally dark (igneous ?) temper which projects through both surfaces. Interior: Smoothed but not polished. Exterior: Rough, sometimes bearing fugitive red and frequently burned. Background: Brownish gray. Designs: Narrow lines, simple forms similar to San Juan and Little Colorado Basket Maker black-on-gray (fig. 37); Shapes: Bowls. Type site, 2, near Potter’s Ranch. Occurrence: Mainly in slab structures, associated with Paria gray. Sevier black-on-gray.—The absence of sufficient distinguishing minutiae to differentiate the ware of certain sites in this area from the black-on-gray of western Utah, described elsewhere (Steward, 1936, pp. 13-16), makes it inadvisable to coin a new term. This ware, apparently limited to bowls, has black on unslipped gray bowl inte- riors, the bowls having roughly smoothed or corrugated exteriors. It occurs here at transitional and late sites. 300 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY - [Bunn, 128 North Creek black-on-gray.—This ware, named and described by Spencer (1934, p. 74), has a very limited occurrence in this region. It is distinguished by a feldspar temper and a gray color and occurs at one or two sites that seem to be early. Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white—The most common painted ware at late sites is clearly related to and no doubt derived from Tusayan black-on-white. Spencer’s Virgin black-on-white (1934, p. 75) appears to be essentially the same ware. It has sand temper, fairly dense paste, a white slip, usually decoration with broad lines, and sometimes corrugated exteriors of bowls. Forms: Bowls with 7 P| S/ Figure 37.—Rim sherds and designs on Basket Maker black-on-gray. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. rims more frequently rounded or bevelled than square (fig. 42); a few ollas; only one ladle, which is of the bowl-and-handle type, from site 142. Designs: Broad lines, elements including straight lines, triangles, dots, dotted edges, and considerable diagonal hachure, like the black-on-red designs. (See figures 38 and 39.) Occasionally Basket Maker designs survive, even on corrugated bowls, site 41. Tusayan black-on-red——This ware does not vary sufficiently from that of Tusayan to warrant anew name. Paste: Gray to brick color. Temper: Relatively little, mostly quartz with occasional small Anrurop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOQLOGY—STEWARD 301 amount of sherd. Exterior: Smoothed, rarely slipped and polished; sometimes has more or less fugitive red wash, probably applied before firing. Interior: Slip, which is more orange and less polished than Tusayan ware. Forms: Bowls, with rims like those of black-on-white (fig. 42); seed jars; ollas; pitchers. One pitcher (fig. 41), with designs more like black-on-white designs. Designs: Predominately parallel Sele en Sel =! 7 alae) 48 95 Ficure 38.—Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. hachure in rectilinear figures (fig. 40), which are of a thinner, less permanent black than on Tusayan ware. Spencer’s Middleton black- on-red seems to differ from this mainly in consistent lack of slip and absence of sand temper (Spencer, 1934). Occurrence: At prac- tically all later sites, with Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white, corru- gated, etc., and masonry houses. 302 BUREAU OF AMERICAN HTHNOLOGY [ Bune, 128 Tusayan red.—A ware like last, lacking designs (possibly sherds are from undecorated portions of bowls). Tusayan polychrome.—This was probably made locally or nearby as it usually has quartz rather than sherd temper, as in Arizona. Paste: Red to gray. Inferior to Arizona ware, the red in designs being thick and somewhat fugitive. Designs on bowl interiors; exteriors have somewhat fugitive red slip (fig. 40). Paria gray.—Closely resembles Sevier desert and Great Salt Lake Figure 39.—Half of Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white bowl, site 123, Dairy Canyon, 21Z/| SI 25 Figure 40.—Rim sherds and designs on Tusayan black-on-red and polychrome bowls. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon—Paria River region. gray, to which it may be ancestral. Paste: Coarse, dark gray. Temper: Large quantities of quartz sand and some dark (igneous ?) particles. Thickness, averages five thirty-secondths of an inch to three sixteenths of an inch. Interior, poorly smoothed. Exterior: Smoothed, sometimes almost polished. (This polish and lack of designs, distinguish it from Basket Maker black-on-gray). Some- times has fugitive red. Forms: Mostly flaring-mouth ollas with collars, like the Sevier and Great Salt Lake gray, which distinguishes ANTHROP, Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 303 Ficure 41.—Tusayan black-on-red pitcher, site 2, Molly’s Nipple Canyon. Height, 5% inches. LL 13 ah 25 S28 54 556 2 7212 .72 G9 102 HS Ws PAT // 120 120 120 (23 123 /23 23 124 124 124 126 125 WHT 25 ile 72 Ficure 42.—Bowl rims. seat two rows, ia black-on-white. Bottom row, Tusayan black-on-red. Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. 304 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 the shapes from the later Johnson gray-tan (figs. 43, 44); two of these had mouths 7% inches and 8% inches in diameter; some deep bowls with thin lips (fig. 45). Occurrence: A Basket Maker and perhaps KG 37 43 98 Figure 43.—Rim sherds and handles of plain ollas. Paria gray: Sites 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 21, 37, and 87. Remainder are Johnson gray-tan. All from Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. 4 very early Pueblo ware, associated with Basket Maker black-on-gray, e. g., at sites 2, 3, 5,51, 116. Type.site: 2. Johnson gray-tan.—An extremely variable ware, somewhat like Johnson corrugated but thicker, more variable in temper often includ- ing sherds, and greater in color range, varying from gray to tan. Anrurop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 305 Interiors are smoothed, lacking horizontal striations of corrugated ware and rarely showing more than fine scratches. Temper roughens both surfaces. Forms: Ollas, including wide and small-mouth (fig. 43), the latter being characteristic. There is considerable variation in these neck shapes (fig. 44), some approximating the Paria gray flarimg-mouth olla forms. Some bear small vertical handles, which are either per- forated lugs or a short strip with one end fixed, the other bent down (fig. 43). This belongs to the latest, masonry-house period. Johnson corrugated.—Paste gray or brownish gray to tan. ‘Temper: Large amount of quartz sand; occasional trace of sherds. Interior: Smoothed and striated. Exterior: Variable; plain coils; coils pinched and tooled, i. e., stick punched; alternating bands of pinched and plain; or partially obliterated. Occurs with Tusayan (Virgin) black-on- Sage i eae ee ES Figure 44.—Variations in rims of plain ollas. white at late masonry pueblo sites. Corrugated ware from Zion National Park region associated with similar black-on-white ware and masonry houses is identical with this. Forms: Wide-mouth ollas, with rims slightly curved over to outside; some have short handle attached vertically under rim and turned down (fig. 46); or made of three interwoven strips of clay, site 65. A specimen in the Judd collection at Kanab measured: Height, 12% inches; greatest diameter, 12% inches; greatest circumference, 3 feet 9% inches; outside diameter of orifice, 5% inches; inside diameter of orifice, 4% inches. A few small pitchers. This belongs to the latest, masonry house period. Red-on-tan.—One sherd only (11907)? of this novel ware, site 142. Paste: Coarse, tan. Temper: Quartz. Incised ware-—Mr. Neaf Hamblin of Kanab has 8 similar pots found by him in a grave a few miles southeast of Johnson Canyon. One of these, 11904, loaned the University of Utah, is totally unlike the other wares found in the region, but closely resembles ‘‘Jemez 4 Numbers of specimens are those of the catalog of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Utah. 306 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY = (Bout. 128 [) 37 37 FIGURE see Loe of gr gray Naty Numbers indicate sites in Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. + we Figure 46.—a, 6, Johnson corrugated pitchers, site 123, Dairy Canyon. a, 55 inches tall. Corrugated olla rim sherds. Numbers indicate sites in the John- son Canyon-Paria River district. ANTHROP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 307 incised” (Jeancon, 1923, pp. 54-57) or Potsuwi’i incised (Mera, 1932) of the upper Rio Grande, Pueblo IV period. Paste: Medium fine, rich brown. Finish: No slip or polish but well smoothed. Shape: Jar, 6% inches high; widest body diameter, 8% inches; rim diameter, 5% inches; wall thickness, 6 to 8 mm.; slightly outcurving rim; steeply sloping shoulder; lower half, including bottom, rounded; bottom drilled with hole in center, % of an inch in diameter. Decoration: Shoulder bears large triangles which alter- nately project up from turn of shoulder and hang down from under rim, each paralled hatched with fine incised lines; crude punches or shallow pits, spaced % inch apart, encircle the neck, just under the rim. The only conceivable interpretation of the presence of these jars in the Johnson Canyon region is that they were left by a small group which wandered far afield from its home in the upper Rio Grande. This, however, may be the ware mentioned by Judd (1926, p. 45). The following table gives the major kinds of pottery (not named wares) occurring at different sites. Plain gray, for example, may be Paria gray or Johnson gray-tan, the former usually occurring at earlier sites, the latter at later ones. Percentages are given when the samples are sufficiently large. At such sites, sherds were collected, as nearly as is humanly possibly, at random. TABLE 3.—Major kinds of pottery occurring at different sites Plain Cor- Black-on-| Black-on-| Rog Poly- Sane Fugitive gray rugated white Ted chrome| cor- red rugated Sile La] hm i] _a|3|/8|/23|8/2) 8/2) 8/2) 8 |2]/e/2/e/2la $5/8} 2/81 2/8] 2/8) 8/8] 8 18/8) 8188/8 Bt | ies | ee fee | || Gee Ve Ll Oe 1 | eek Sil Gael | ee] | Be 7 dain aes Seapae fe 232 |201 87 Pad], CUES a1 22 bal UU Soa (ES teal ERS | Eg RE ak nee | (Dn Buea Goectesewice sae 58 | 51 j= nf fa eel ane jbl ik el emanate ae RD Baal el Ae Ps pees] | eel eee Cape =p see ep 25} 3 12} 13 52] 2 8] 3 oi nel hy ge (RT 1/4 3 /12 fa apy =p pee es aera Zid bes Del bhan TAG Uy Ls eel ape fs Dee De Bald pel be A ll UE ou) ERA UB ale Bl RB Wi ARTE | ag Le ee ea els leet eri By 5 )Dinh 8 G9 Yak, LLG il ge ee [Pa lg TB FE aaa cl i ee a a | oP) | Ue at Nt (ees (aaa steee & £9") 016")caeee" an ase san Tip be tense see 12 pape (As Bl PB | PO) bal ese ee ee Ree 39 | 35 SOP peewen| a see ee 4 TOM (S22 |e cesoes| sao] Soo (eee ee ae I i 1 Yas pepadras Sa f TN ol PND Jeon LAL Ds aba cape (8 agile alt EE) UP Ew ea Po as al WE P| ed | (ee ae Hy fapah Seeta CE Dual Cp lar Lie Thal bse ace set Ss) Bagge A | | Pp VRE ne Bll FE ee bn acl tb el 1s Page Gaara: See 1 '¢ jh ted Ed ad Son be ese tos 7a gems bee Od fn ee aren | EE al AER ind fet | | DS | eee S| [eed ae L6S- SSS l2- 2s Shell po] TAC | base pesado reset pe) pega be Ae tard ha a tL Bal [ep (te fe 1c, Joey Senet Berenice bs DOr estan oe pe cts 2 nl fe all Ba fo Rad I cP ad fla ll yA id eB Le) Dae [cee (i | ah eee Seles Fs 24 | 16 iY fagl peRe fepeeeal (Ea 8 rE Sal (Es) fe eal UE Bd Se jl Dl a Md lene 3 Bey a To | 7-5 ope eee ee PS fall ed Be Tel ees) Resse esa) es) [Eel aa PO ed pt | PE P| A et ee 1 ar sek ne Rea iso) he «Sf lee sete [a= eae he sea eeaeel (ea RE El dg TS ll i Pe | ae Rd el ee | RE et ye at eee ae be 221 | 44 20 | 88 40 |} 43 | 19.3 | 32 | 14.4) 10| 4.5] 0 2.9 1 2) 39 i pS eee See Chal he Th hy LANL) fs cose! = Sealed Bag Ea ade Te a || yl Ml a Lh Ze t ceed Seale Bulldog TOT hale ty raped el be peal pl ge] (A Rg a | 2 Bs A EF oe 308 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 TaBLE 3.—Major kinds of pottery occurring at different sites—Continued Site Op hepa ee 3 SR Joe eer ts 27 aa a 55 RSsee Sees ata 6 O74. 27h ett Ges 49 5) eee: 25 4S feel o eee 72 ADL yy Ys Se Fe 43 AA oe 7 45: Sus tee 7 G2 rey i is Be 148 te ee Ieee 13 CS hogan apes, Ba 536 4Dyshy sec: £45 18 Ee ee ee 18 [r) apap, “aap te 25 VAM Che ea ene 26 Sgt eee een 236 fe eee 144 ee 132 665225 -bs2-=3 20 bY fates mentee eee 15 ik ee ane 23 Li} ee ee Bene ae 8 60.29. 1. ee 49 612! eee 14 62202 Sree 30 63.8 14 O42 tS 6 GOP Se bee 258 66-70 eee ee 300 7:2 = Soe dS 43 (2uckooceeecoae 172 W303. - $5225 190 262222 eee Be 222 Up eee 209 74 ie aR ae Eee 10 fo eee uae See 247 82) Ses ee 21 8352.52. 2 ae 23 86...3 22h eee 20 87_-2.-- ees. 13 O22.) pet a 2 LS ee eee ee a 2 04.422 teen 265 052. 2:.-+ 223. 186 OS etn 3k ee 8 99.1. Fee 20 102. SocoL ba cee 13 10323202) 25s 12 UL Re Ee See a 323 pb Ce ees ee 20 WS se 2b See 12 116.2. ts ll —————q—| | qj] qq] | qm | —“— Number Number red =] ee it Bees et ee g 8 g ° S| 3 8 3 3 Gil, Poe es SF V IB | QBN E 9.3} 20} 8&3] 0 13.2)| 7) -4.8 7) 1 See 45) coals | eee | ee ee 1 ere ere Pee analy |=teoes| anes 10% 23 ees |S eA eee plone 1 Sees | 3,4) 2oe2| anaes] oan Beets Ue ees) ees 10.8 | 22} 83] 2 12.3 | 19 | 10.4 |--__ 8.1] 37] 11.4] 3 Black- Black-on- | Black-on- Red Poly- |on-white|Fugitive chrome] cor- red a/Zlalsie S$/8/38}8/8 S|53/3s/53/85 414) ala | a scyey ey EP eey_ 21 4 Be i jail 12-0 | eee et | ee ee | ae ih PY pac Pema i Yel YP eo Wp ste apes Sire bol et 1 | a TERE TB ase yee | eee ee 42s ee oe ee By (i FE | oh pee) i 7 Gl ia (fsa Aaa ee 74) | fala a A fk pe ees Py Ps 2 Pe fee 309 ANTHROP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD TABLE 3.— Major kinds of pottery occurring at different sites—Continued Plain Cor- Black-on- | Black-on- Red Poly- eae Fugitive gray rugated white red chrome] cor- red rugated Site atel eta a lea et are a terete asters ZEIEL EEL ESI EE) 2/8] 2/8/2122] 218 eg/zlai2imiz24laizlm izle lzlelalai2 |e 1p eS Se 121 | 98 | 81.3 Mat Osa) Wels tke a Oe se 1 see) Oech a MeN Beco 3 Dy Eee ee eee BE Ov Gok hy LO) paar tee) 1 a0n a 1 20) tesa ceo. es ee ee ee ee a 193. 3..Jee sh. 3 Te (ES 64 | 78 18 | 22 PAG Pao.) fe S| [Bey Pe | Pee ee 8 el SE, |. a a 1941 2S seo. LS Sy fal (as 0 Dh eee 7, (ES ee (HT ames 6s) Poem [eee | Ca) PO 2 (ee fee | |S SR OREO 125 2s. = 19 hig] ae Se Sapees- fi | aS Py oe ee i Le eer | eee fee el (ee eee |S Se eee 126: se) -2- mA Oe 68 | 92 6] 8 Os roS nel (Saees ew Sea oe 131. 2). 2. ..- 2 Eda bh 0 ee 1 Oa (ie ae Yay fe 2 eg 6 eS PS ee eS be eal ey Lee byes. . 1. Sa Dh Oe. 25 Syleeene- Cy eA Oe ke See De eee 1S) bees eee eee oN ba 130: =. Sy) | ee See (iid | ee Oe | eee Lg | seme (ESPs) oem) (ey (Ce (| (MR IP a" al |e 120 Oe here! aa OMe oacee uk ee 1 oe ee O'S Pecos oe Ee eee ee ee 142) et 40} 8 | 20 13 | 32.5 | 16 | 40 2 5 1 A (eee jee (2 PE See) Objects made of potsherds——A number of sherds were ground to roughly oval shape, perhaps for scoops or pot scrapers. These are: 11709, a fragment bearing fugitive red from site 25; 11830 and 11831, fragments from plain red sherds from site 65; 11876, a fragment made from a black-on-white sherd from site 99; 11849, 2 complete specimens made from plain gray olla sherds from site 73, the larger being 3% inches long, 1% inches wide, and 11851, a similar fragment from site 73. TaBLe 4.—Sherds ground to circles [Measurements in inches] Site Cale Ware Diameter | cee Remarks ae Se Eee P1710=1 | Black-on-white-<-¢ . 2.------ =. -2<.-- 8 <= es | (es SR No hole. fie opel 11710-2 |----- CUPS ee a eee. | ee PALS eee eee lees Do. 48.2.4 e. 11804 |_---- CCS 2 Ea ee eS Seay enti yy |e ee a Ree Do. 4S ee st M9804 [2222 rs (ye aes SO Se ee eae enn Seah Leg ie Eee ee Do. 48... St 11804 |_-._- (Ch RE, SE 22 8 EN eR eee ae Soe 1 | bees ee ee Do. ESS . 5. ae ISO) ROG 22ers osc. see ee oo oo NGGs | eee ete ae Do. 43 JN cteuc® 11804 |____- tr Fy) eee es ER Fie Oe es BA” og SS 1365) Se ee Do. ek Sa San TiS04 SP lsivigrays 2) es pa eS ia ya an (eee rae Do. (300s. Be 11804 |__--- CE es Se eee es. A See eee eo 11D) fics wa gc a Do. ee 2 ee DIST Weed aces demons. cee. oS eR 2 Eee RIRIG ED IBIADK-On-White:--. 22200 22k 2 196) Do. Gye tke .¥ IS90) | Medea eee Se ah es IS 1% 7 |i (ae eee 1166) Rigi pray.cf Jeendet ne tors 4 Wear iosteces.e. 2 Do. Fee eS > G40) Red-on-aranges- <2 -- 252 eee 136 A Uy ee. ee TIS4O PD laok-on-T60 =< ese 52-2 2 ee ge 1% He Tae Set TISAO A Corruvated set hl Peek Ane TE ee 156 Y% | Broken. (2 ee ML RAOH PNG eet asoe ee ee cous oes ft ee 2+ %{6} Do. lope See TISEO Bro wn-O-DIOWIL: 2. <2. 4-5: - Sacco 14% Xe Y fn pall ROS ate DE Gilead al Tua ge. bp Ri aL i a 164) ee No hole, OB) rs3ssicz SISHR UT White: 29 see sss eet dese zl ee eet 1% (2) ee eae cha FS aie 1% 3{6| Broken. poh at atl ye Es al Len ee oe Oe EES SORE et Ps ee PAU Sy (Se oe am No hole. hh i ee eee DI BOS BIRCK-OMGtAY: 25 oo222-2 52. She cect be 134 6|-=---eeeee Do. he DIRS) BrOWwds-Ol-PT Ay. 8 8 = eee ao ee LE | | ee eae Do. 1 Museum of Anthropology, University of Utah. 218558—41——21 310 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunh. 128 A number of sherds were ground to circles, some but not all being perforated in their centers with small holes. These are tabulated on page 309, the measurements being in inches. SUBSISTENCE Domesticated plants —There is no evidence to prove that horticul- ture belonged to the earliest period as specimens of domesticated Figure 47.—Chipped sandstone “‘hoes.’”? Numbers indicate sites in the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. The largest is 12 inches long. plants came only from caves which had been disturbed by previous digging. Site 2 yielded 15 specimens of maize, complete ears ranging from 1% inches to 5% inches in length and having usually 6 but sometimes 4 or 5 double rows of kernels. Sites 18, 37, 98, 113, and 131 also had similar maize. Anturor. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 311 Site 2 also yielded three small, yellow, nondent kernels of maize, a squash stem, and fragments of squash or gourd, and a red bean. Site 98 contained a brown bean (11874). ‘Hoes.’ —Sites 10, 13, and 14 yielded several thin slabs of sand- stone heavily impregnated with iron. The edges were chipped and NY polZ WINCHES Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. notched (fig. 47), as if they had been hafted as hoe blades, although there is no proof of this. A number were strewn in a meadow which would have made an excellent cornfield. Gillin (1938, fig. 25) found a somewhat comparable object in Nine Mile Canyon in northeastern Utah. 312 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BuLL, 128 11770, site 14, iron sandstone; length, 12 inches; width, 8 inches in center, tapering to 6 inches at each end; thickness, % of an inch to ¥ of an inch; notch cut in middle of each side, 1 inch deep, 2 inches wide; edges crudely chipped from both sides to sharpness. 11766, site 10, iron sandstone; probably broken; length, 6% inches; width, 6 inches, tapering to one end; deep notches in opposite sides, 3 inches from small end; thickness, % of an inch; edges partly chipped to sharpness. 11765, site 10, iron sandstone; one end broken; length, 5% inches; width, 4 inches to 44 inches; edge of end sharpened; remaining edges square; thickness, %._ of an inch; notches on opposite edges 24 inches from small end. 11768, site 13, iron sandstone; squarish; length, 5% inches; width, 5 inches; thickness, % of an inch to % of an inch; notches in middle opposite edges; edges mostly chipped to sharpness. 11769, site 13, fragment; iron sandstone; present length, 3% inches; width, 4% inches; edges sharpened except left side and broken end; notches on opposite sides, 2 inches from unbroken end. 11771, site 14, iron sandstone; circular, approximately 9% inches diameter; 54, of an inch thick; edges chipped to sharpness; traces of two notches in edges opposite each other. 53 $0 100 /27 pl2Inches : Figure 49.—Metates. Numbers indicate sites in the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. Metates—Metates were of two styles, both being of sandstone, rectangular and moderately thick. The earlier type, A, generally has an ovoid, basinlike grinding depression (figs. 48, c, f, 9,7, 1, m, 0, p; 49). The later type, B, is better squared and finished and has a rectangular grinding surface (figs. 48, a, b, d, e, h, i, m; 49). Some chronological overlapping of types is indicated, for example at site 45, where a specimen of type A was associated with a large number of type B. Although deeply troughed metates of the Basket Maker type are known from the Zion Park region (Smith, 1934), the only specimen definitely of this type from our region is from site 142, which, judging by the masonry walls, was late. Another specimen at site 119 may Anrurop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 313 have been similar. Types A and B specimens bear slight resemblance to the Basket Maker style in having a broad rim. But in these specimens the rim completely surrounds the grinding surface whereas in Basket Maker specimens the rim bounds it on only three sides. Flat metates, designed for a bin, like those of the later Pueblo cultures, were absent from the region. The metates illustrated in figures 48 and 49 are from field measure- ments and sketches. Difficulties of transportation prevented collec- tion of specimens. it QS Ue in aC Sn, 00 ae 19 oe Cie He aA); ‘a OF DIC LLL Ezz ms @; Cp eet ol ‘SL ZA pan QZ 8 Inches Figure 50.—Mullers or manos and cross sections of same. Numbers indicate sites in the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. Mullers—Miullers, although extremely variable in shape and size, are usually between an oval and rectangle in outline. Those from early sites (fig. 50, sites 2, 3, 26, 92, 126, and 127) are smaller and more oval, thus being suited to the smaller and more oval grinding surface on the metate. Those from later sites are larger and more rectan- gular (fig. 50, sites 25, 46, 53, 99, 119) in keeping with the more defi- nitely rectangular and flat depression on the metates. There is some 314 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 overlapping of the types, however. Although most cross sections are oval, wear has often produced a wedge shape. Many are pecked on the grinding surface as if they had been roughened from time to time. Some specimens are pecked on the side opposite that smoothed from grinding, as if this side were used for preliminary heavy grinding and smashing. Figure 50 illustrates specimens measured in the field as well as those collected. Projectile points.—Evidence of hunting is seen in petroglyphs as well as in projectile points. Many of the former, discussed below, woh AAA Figure 51.—Projectile points of chipped flint. Numbers indicate sites in the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. show clearly the bow and arrow. But as these can only be dated by inference, they have little value in the present connection. Most projectile points are relatively small and are of flint, chert, jasper, and somewhat opalescent or translucent flint. Two types are distinguishable on the basis of presence or absence of notching (fig. 51). Type A is notched from the corners of the base so as to leave a long, slender tang but no barbs. It varies from 1%. of an inch to 1} inches in length. These occur more often at early sites. Only one specimen AntHrop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 315 (11852), site 72, is side-notched like Basket Maker atlatl dart points. The later type B is a slender, triangular point with a concave base and no notches. These range from !%. of an inch to over 1% inches in length. Several points from site 72, however, have a slight tang within the concave base. This site is also of interest in that both types A and B were found here although architecturally and ceramically the site is late. Site 64 also had both styles. De Anal 48 48 NALA Fiaure 52.—Knives, drills, and scrapers. Numbers indicate sites in the Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. The largest is 3% inches long. 55 72 INDUSTRIES Azes.—The only stone ax known from this region is in the Judd collection at Kanab. It is crudely shaped of brown quartzite, 7 inches long, 4 inches wide, 1% inches thick. In place of a groove, it bears shallow notches on opposite edges. One end is sharpened, the other rounded, bearing a shallow notch. Knives, drills, and scrapers.—Cutting implements are so variable that it is impossible to define types and often even to distinguish knives from scrapers. Most of the specimens, however, appear to have been knives, ranging around 2 inches in length. Some are triangular, 316 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Buu, 128 some roughly oval, some have squared butts, and others are extremely irregular, the shape not being consistent in any site. (See fig. 52.) A number of small, oval flints are probably scrapers. Only one scraper (11746) from site 2 is a fragment which is retouched from one surface only, although this manner of chipping is very common elsewhere. Several scrapers are mere irregular, unretouched flakes: 12048, 4 from site 25; 12050, 2 from site 41; 12052, 1 from site 51. Of particular interest is the large flake (11842, fig. 52) from site 72, which has several deep serrations or notches in the edge and shows great wear. Two specimens, 11842, from site 72 appear to be drills. One is 1% inches long, !%. of an inch wide at the butt with a slender, tapering point. The other is a slender point 1 inch long, %¢ of an inch wide. Bags.—The Judd collection at Kanab has a woven cotton bag from somewhere in the region. It contains seeds or leaves and white paint. There is also a fragment of cotton cloth. Baskets.—No basketry was found at any site visited during the survey, but the Judd collection contains a complete coiled basket. Although it is not possible to assign this to any period, it is important in demonstrating the local occurrence of the usual Basket Maker- Pueblo technique. It is a flat bowl, 11 inches in diameter, 2% inches deep. Foundation: 2 rods and bundle of crushed yucca leaf. Coils: Noninterlocking, 16 stitches per linear inch or 80 stitches per square inch. Also in the Judd collection is a twilled ring basket, 3% inches in diameter. Cordage.—Data concerning the few fragments of cordage are summarized in table 5 below: TABLE 5.—Data on fragments of cordage Cata- | Num- Site log | berof| Direction of twist | DP!@™-| Material Remarks No.! plys eter Inches 7 eer oe 11718 2)} Olockwise:-. =. 2-2. 342] Yucca.._...- 2 strands, weaver’s knot. Basen hee 11718 i Ay) pee et dO. 6 ~ se Se ee es ce Go==2 255 Tied square knot. pe tae Se S| 11718 aby per ees GOs. hoo ees Se ene eee eed (eee 0 VER ESSA eee 11873 2 | Counterclockwise- --__- Yg}____- Gorigte Do 7 Sane ae 11752 pO) (eee (6 (i py eee ea ee | (ap ee | (ee ae (6 Ge Do Par 2 thes 11872 pin! |e (6 (a pepe te bead sok SSI Fy bn Deel dl Be ay (6 (0 ee Do. ) Ae ee uy 11738 2 | Clockwise__......-...- Ye] Fiber______- Laced through buckskin. hes eo 12046 i ee dos. 225s) ee 342] Soft fiber____ Do. 131........] 12046 ai feeooe (0s Pept fo PR ed Ge 6) Hard fiber-- Do. 06 Le a 12046 Hy (Eee GO ee ie eee Ye] Soft fiber____ Do. 1 Museum of Anthropology, University of Utah. In addition to these, site 2 yielded several bunches of shredded yucca fiber and what is probably a yucca quid. AnTuRoP. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 317 The Judd collection in Kanab has a human-hair rope from this vicinity. Itis3% feet long and consists of 16 strands, each two-ply and all twisted counterclockwise. The end is formed by doubling the strands back on themselves and tying them at the point of doubling with a small cord. Textiles.—Although no textiles were found, a lump of clay, 11890, site 116, bears an impression (fig. 53) which may have been made by a Figure 53.—Textile impression in adobe. (CECC Fieure 54.—Crescent (“‘sickles’’) of mountain sheep horn in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utah. Arrows indicate worn grooves. Pury pee — a ee 4 bye 14 2 “GE 15 glo OAS ES we Pua Ass . ‘ % ganna th Saget y Ay ‘ S VAG Ss 3 : yen 8 ’ yu f ‘ bd 5 ual a. ib nt lip ong {l (allitin® sandal bottom of the ornamented type common in the Basket Maker III culture. Awls.—11721, site 2, is a fragment of a very stubby, blunt awl. The Judd collection contains three awls tied in buckskin. Horn crescents.—The Judd collection contains five flat, crescentic objects made of mountain-sheep horn (fig. 54). These resemble so- called sickles from certain Basket Maker sites and might be inter- 318 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn 128 preted as sickles were it not for small, worn grooves on the inner edges which look as if cords had been drawn repeatedly across them. These range from 8% inches to 9% inches, tip to tip. One has its small end wrapped with cord. Another is perforated near the large end. Dippers.—The Judd collection has three wooden dippers of the bowl-and-handle variety (fig. 55), taken from “‘cists in solid rock” (a Ce (= oe = -—— Fiaur5 55.— Wooden dippers in the Judd collection at Kanab, Utah. in a cave at the head of Dairy Canyon. The measurements of these are: Bowl length, Bowl width, Bowl depth, Handle length, inches inches inches inches 6 5 2% 8 4\% 4¥% 1% 8 1% 1% % 54 Hammerstone.—The only hammerstone collected was from site 123 (11920), a fragment of water-worn quartzite pebble, about 2% inches in diameter, having one edge used slightly for pecking. gn Es @ Figure 56.—Two quartz objects. @, Quartzite lump (11744), site 2, Paria River region. Arrows Indicate facets. 6, Crystalline pendant (11894) site 119, Johnson Lakes Canyon. MISCELLANEOUS Stone objects—A sandstone slab (11739) from site 2 is approxi- mately 6 inches square, its smooth upper surface bearing a pastel shade of greenish-blue paint. An irregular quartzite lump (11744) from site 2 has several facets produced by rubbing (fig. 56). AyTuror. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 319 A small sandstone slab (11730) from site 2 is covered with some substance, possibly resin. Site 123 had a fragment of unworked petrified wood (11917). Ornaments.—These included a half Olivella shell bored with a small hole (11720) from site 2 and an excellently trimmed and polished pendant fragment of semitranslucent crystalline stone (11894) (fig. 56) from the burial at site 119. The latter is 14 inches wide, \-inch thick. Animal remains.—Site 2 yielded several turkey feathers (11731, 11741) and site 4 several turkey (?) bones (11758). Site 131 had a bundle of 45 hawk feathers, 12 inches long (11900), their butts bound together by a small, two-ply fiber cord wrapped six times around them. SKELETAL MATERIAL The only skeletal material came from two partially exposed burials at site 119, which is of the latest period ceramically and architecturally. It is noteworthy that these are distinctly Basket Maker rather than Pueblo in type. Both skulls are adults, long and undeformed. One has a cephalic index of approximately 70, which may, however, have been deformed in the soil. It has high orbits, an occipital bulge and something of a ridge where the parietals join. PETROGLYPHS Site 1.—A group of petroglyphs on the north side of the mouth of Molly’s Nipple Canyon. Figure 57, a, group 3% feet wide; b, 24 inches tall; c, 12 inches long; d, group 10 feet wide; e, 6 inches tall; e, group 4% feet wide. Site 4.—Petroglyphs on wall of masonry cliff house. Figure 57, f; pecked group 22 inches wide. Site 7.—Figure 58, white pictographs in rock shelter: a, 7 inches wide; b, 4% inches wide; c, 13 inches tall; d, group 18 inches wide; 0, petroglyph 10 feet long. Site 29.—Figure 58, pictographs in white and black, in small cave or rock shelter: e, f, white-on-black; g, creamy white, 12 inches across; h, 12 inches across; 1, j, black; k,l, paper white group, 24 feet across; m, creamy white group, 2% feet across. Site 40.—Petroglyph 10 feet 8 inches long, on rock on floor of canyon; very similar to that at site 7. In addition, pictographs in white include zig-zags and rectilinear figures somewhat resembling pottery designs. Site 111.—Figure 59, a, pictographs in Long Canyon in blue-green (plain), purple (shaded upward to left), and red (shaded upward to right) in cave asso- ciated with masonry rooms; b-j, petroglyphs. Figure 60, a-f, also petroglyphs. Site 117.—Figure 61, petroglyphs on cliff in James Bunting’s corral: a, group, 3 feet tall, pecked and rubbed smooth; c, apparently more recent than last, dull gray on faded black, 24 inches tall; d, like last, 12 inches tall; e, pecked 10 inches tall; f, incised group, double ended figure 13 inches tall; g, h, parts of same group of petroglyphs about 6 feet across. Plates 46, 47, large group of petroglyphs with last. Site 121.—A group of four petroglyphs, dumbbell shape, each 18 inches long, 6 inches wide; also two spirals. Site 130.—Petroglyphs stretching 100 feet or more along cliff on north side of mouth of Oak Canyon. Figure 62, portion of the group. Figure 63, a, group 8 feet across. Plate 48, continuous group, left to right. 320 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BULL. 128 Site 132.—Small group of petroglyphs, 24 inches wide, on wall inside masonry cliff house (fig. 63, 6). Site 133.—Figure 63, c-f, petroglyphs pecked on cliffs on south side of the mouth of Oak Canyon. Being 10 feet from the ground, they could have been reached only if the artist stood on something; but there were no signs of houses Figure 57.—Petroglyphs, a-e, site 1, and f, site 4, Molly’s Nipple Canyon. below them. c, 314 feet wide, incised 1 inch deep; d, incised, 24 inches across; e, like last, 18 inches tall; f, 9 inches square. Site 141.—Figure 638, g-k, petroglyphs. The petroglyphs in this area resemble those throughout western America in possessing certain common elements (Steward, 1929): Spirals (especially site 117, pl. 47; site 111, fig. 60; site 1, fig. 57, d; site 29, fig. 58, £), concentric circles (site 117, pl. 47; site 130, pl. 48; AnTHROP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 321 site 1, fig. 57, d), “sun disks” (site 130, pl. 48, fig. 63), wavy and zigzag lines (especially site 117, pl. 47; site 130, pl. 48; and elsewhere). Figure 58.—Pictographs, a-d, o, site 7, Molly’s Nipple Canyon, and e—m, site 29, Wildcat Canyon. The most common realistic picture is a square-shouldered, anthropo- morphic figure, derived from a simple style which started in Basket 322 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun 128 Maker II times.’ Several variations of this were at site 1 (fig. 57) and site 117 (fig. 61). A peculiar, probably local, style at each of these sites is a “‘double-ended”’ figure with a head at the top and Figure 59.—Pictographs and petrolgyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon. bottom (fig. 57, b, d, e; fig. 61, f). Other forms derived from the square-shouldered figure occur at site 7 (fig. 58), site 111 (fig. 60), site 130 (pl. 47), and site 130 (figs. 62, 63; pl. 48). Although most of For example, in Dupont Cave, Kane County, Utah. AnTurop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 323 these appear to be Basket Maker drawings, their association at site 130 with representations of the bow place them as Pueblo. Special attention should be called to the hunchback flute player at site 130 (fig. 63, a). Of particular interest are the hunting scenes depicting use of the bow at site 130 (pl. 48), and site 141 (fig. 63, h, k). Several peculiar, highly conventionalized anthropomorphic pictographs were at site 111 (fig. 59, a). Several animal species in varying styles are distinguishable with reasonable certainty: Mountain sheep (site 1, fig. 57; site 7, fig. 58, a; site 111, fig. 59, d (?), e (?), f (?), 2 (2); site 117, pl. 47; site 130, pl. 48; and site 141, fig. 63, h); possibly some antelope; deer or other antlered quadrupeds (site 1, fig. 57, c; site 111, fig. 60, a, e; site 117, pls. 46, 47; site 130, fig. 62, a; pl. 48); a bison (site 117, pl. 46); various other Figure 60.—Petroglyphs, site 111, near Johnson Canyon. quadrupeds; a centipede (site 130, pl. 48). Snakes may be repre- sented at several sites. Human or bear footprints appear at site 1 (fig. 57, d) site 117 (pl. 47), and site 130, (fig. 62, b, pl. 48). Site 130 (pl. 48), has a human hand. Site 111 (fig. 60, f), site 117 (fig. 61, g), and site 130 (fig. 63, a) have bird tracks. Several sites had geometric designs which appear to have been de- rived from pottery ornamentation, especially site 29 (fig. 58, e-m; also site 130 (pl. 48). PART 2. GLEN CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER Glen Canyon comprises the 170 miles of tortuous Colorado river gorge which lies between the mouth of the Fremont (Dirty Devil) River in Utah and Lee’s Ferry, Ariz. Although the river is relatively 324 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Bun, 128 calm through this stretch, and lacks such rapids as make Cataract Canyon above and Marble Canyon below dangerous to travel, the gorge is narrow and sheer cliffs rise out of the water for stretches of miles leaving few sites which were suitable for aboriginal occupation or which could have been reached without adequate boats: The gorge walls rise several hundred feet to a rolling sandstone plateau Figure 61.—Petroglyphs, site 117, Johnson Canyon. which is so dissected with deep, narrow canyons that it is almost im- possible to traverse it. The side canyons entering the upper 15 or 20 miles of Glen Canyon are fairly broad and contain a relative abund- ance of Pueblo sites, but below this they come in as box canyons which are flooded and filled with quicksand during high water in the Colo- rado, and which are too narrow through several miles of their lower reaches to have permitted any kind of settlement. Undoubtedly ANTHROP. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 325 these have many sites where they broaden out some miles back from the river, but in most instances it proved impossible to explore them. The trip required 23 days, July 1 to July 23, 1932, 19 days of which were spent on the river. July was chosen, as by that time the water in the Colorado River had passed its height and was said to be best for navigation. The party went via Torrey to the Trachyte ranch at the cP [=aTre ro) Fiacure 62.—Petroglyphs, site 130, Oak Canyon. eastern foot of the Henry Mountains by automobile. From here it was transported the remaining 30 miles down North wash to the river by wagon. Two portable canvas boats proved entirely adequate for river transportation. As the current averaged about 5 miles an hour, only 2 or 3 hours’ travel each day covered the necessary distance. 326 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Bunn. 128 FieurE 63.—Petroglyphs: a, Site 130; 6b, site 132; cf, site 183, Oak Canyon; and g-k, site 141, near Clark Canyon. 327 UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD ANTHROP, Pap, No. 18] "(O[qeNg) 94BI SI s[Zuvzoorl ‘[euorIsuvly st a[suvi1} [(19yBpY YOYSvG) Alive Sl spIIQ :UOIBoI IOATY vlIvg-uoAkusy uUoOsuYyOL UI spotted JUSIOyIp JO sozIs JO UOIYNGIIysSIq—FOQ TUAOIT ‘ Gg : \ £ Mr ayy, au ‘ a quant ME ey Ny anil tty OGM NV Ue hte Wy ve S$$71p UOT PUM aA Py, 2 > 328 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bunn. 128 SITES VISITED In North wash, about 10 miles below the wagon road, are a few rock shelters containing traces of occupation in the form of pottery sherds and charcoal but no house remains. Among the sherds collected, 11996, was one corrugated. Two were bowl sherds, unpolished and unpainted. The remainder were prob- ably from ollas, made of a medium fine paste containing a dark, igneous temper—probably a rock from the Henry Mountains. They are tan in color, and smooth, but unpolished. A few sherds are, “E Menry * Mountains <, veal 25 ; z, roe See a 2 *, .* TWicgs, fe SS 200 " Org + (e# gp) | Aero Boayid x ae Katparowits . + - (to= Alok; Plateau a Halls Crossing Lake Caz, ui e ° Hole-in- the-Rack is Klondike #43 Crossing of EA the Fathers ARIZONA Legend A Cave & Cliff Dwelling @® House 20 Miles mie Ficurs 65.— Map of Glen Canyon, Colorado River. however, polished and these are a dark gray with a slightly crackled surface, and greatly resemble the large ollas of western Utah. The vessel forms are not known. From the same locality were: 11998, a fragment of a bone point, perhaps a blunt awl; 11997, fragments of three flint points made with a fair chipping technique; 11999, a number of large, very crudely chipped lumps of beautiful red and yellow streaked jasper. Some of the last may be rejects, others extremely crude scrapers. Site 1.—A large cave in North wash about 12 miles from the Colo- rado River, situated on the western side of the canyon, facing south- Anruror. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 329 east. Along the top of the talus which slopes up to the rear wall under the cave’s high arch is a series of 12 rooms built of crude masonry. These are either roughly circular or rectangular and in all cases the walls are simply piled rocks. At several places are worn spots on rocks which look as though they might have been formed by grinding axes. Specimens included only corncobs and animal bone fragments. Not a trace of pottery was found. On the cliff wall back of the first room is a large, elaborate kachina- like pictograph painted in red with white dots and beside it, a large quadruped (pl. 52, a). At other points are two pecked horned quadrupeds and a small, squared-shouldered, phallic female (?). Below site 1 in North wash, the canyon affords little arable land and there was a corresponding absence of sites. At the mouth of North wash, however, were found small rock-shelters, which yielded a few potsherds like those found higher up in the canyon. A trip was made on foot to the mouth of the Fremont (Dirty Devil) River but no further traces of aboriginal occupation discovered. Site 2, White Canyon.—The party proceeded downstream to the mouth of White Canyon which enters the Colorado River from the east. Here are located the most extensive ruins in all of Glen Canyon. The conspicuous feature is a large house standing about 300 feet above the river on the southern side of the tributary canyon (fig. 66, pl. 49, a). The house measures 22 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, is of fair masonry, and must have had 2, possibly 3 stories, as the wall still stands at one point 15 feet 9 inches high. At four points along the southern wall, 7 feet 6 inches above the ground, were holes through which had passed the beams supporting the floor of the second story. The masonry is of carefully selected but untrimmed sandstone blocks which are fairly rectangular and are well laid, some parts of the walls being more or less coursed (pl. 49, e). Only small amounts of the cementing adobe remain. The average wall thickness is 1 foot 6 inches to 1 foot 7 inches, but this decreases to 1 foot 3 inches a short distance above the second floor. The house is built on a narrow ledge of flat sandstone which drops away more or less sharply on each side, especially on the river side. That protection was a consideration in choosing this spot is shown by the wall which runs out from the eastern side of the house to the cliff edge. This was 18 inches thick, and although it is now mostly in ruins, it must have served to block thoroughfare along that side of the ridge. The other side, which is narrower with a steeper drop-off down the cliff, could have been defended from the house. Just under the cliff edge on the eastern side is a small room tucked away under the cliff. 330 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bouun. 128 As the house is built on solid rock which could not possibly have been excavated for a kiva, it is probable that the circular enclosure at << VENTILATOR KIVA --" o coo” Es OC) Gwe COLORADO <— RIVER 200 YOS. <— SMALL HOUSE UNDER LEOGE WALL FALLEN eee . ee & WALL 19° THICK % \ DEFENSE WALL oh t t ic Ae FLOOR BEAM HOLES UPPER LEOGE ; vA Figure 66.—Ground plan of large ruin and kiva, site 2, White Canyon. 10 FEET the end of the ledge, 45 feet north of the house and built on a ledge slightly below it, served as kiva. The wall, 16, inches thick, built Anturop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD aok against the cliff, forms three-quarters of a circle. Its highest point is now 6 feet. A cleft in the southern side of the wall, one side being neatly squared, may be the remnant of the door. On the eastern side, 12 inches above the floor, is a square opening in the wall 12 inches high and 8 inches wide, which was no doubt a ventilator. Slightly below the cliff edge of the western side is a foot or more of refuse. Apparently this house was the center of a fairly large community, for just below it to the south and across the canyon to the north is a Figure 67.—House structures. a, Plan of ruin at site 3, Trachyte Canyon; b-f, houses on the northern cliff of White Canyon, site 2; b, house 2; c, house 5; d, houses 3 and 4; e, house 1; f, house 7. series of cliff rooms. Although the latter may, and in some cases very likely do, antedate the large house, it is probable that in the later days of the community the large house was erected as a place of refuge. Room 1, on the northern side of the canyon, is built between the cliff and a large boulder 11 feet out from it. Masonry walls enclosed the openings, but a door 18 inches wide is left on the eastern side (fig. 67, e). On the back wall of the room are two round-bodied, kachinalike petroglyphs faintly pecked. One of these is shown in figure 72, e. 332 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ But. 128 Structure 2, like the last, is built under an overhanging ledge. The walls, 15 inches thick, of rather poor masonry, enclose two rooms, one about 13 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, the other, east of this, 8 by 9 feet. At the base of the partition between the two and against the cliff is an opening 19 by 24 inches. There also seems to have been a doorway between the two rooms at the outer end of this partition, and another leading outside from the outer wall of the eastern room (fig. 67, b). Room 2 is 50 feet east of room 1. Structure 3, 150 yards east of last, is enclosed by walls 18 inches thick. There seem to have been two rooms, one about 8 by 16 feet, the other about 8 by 12 feet (fig. 67, d). Structure 4 is a platform of masonry orming a semicircle against the cliff, about 8 feet long and 6 feet deefp, and built 5 feet above the ledge. Room 5 is just east of the last and is a small, circular granary, 6 feet in diameter and 3 feet 4 inches high, built in under a ledge (fig. GiGi): Room 6 is a natural cave in a large crevice finished into a room by the addition of a few feet of masonry wall. It is 30 feet deep and averages 8 feet in width. Structure 7, 50 yards east of the last, has an outer wall 10 to 14 inches thick parallel to the cliff, behind which are three rooms, the western one very irregular but approximately 5 by 10 feet, the next 3 by 8 feet, the eastern one 5 by 16 feet. Most of the outer wall had reached up to the ledge or roof above, but has now fallen. Between the first and second rooms is a passage 18 inches wide with a slab, 6 inches thick, as sill. Other rooms had continued on east of the last, but the ledge, which is several hundred feet above the valley, had partially fallen away, leaving them inaccessible. On the southern side of the canyon, just south of the large houses and under a ledge overlooking the Colorado River, are several more cliff rooms. The ledge on which they stand has, in several places, been built and levelled up with masonry. The walls seem not to have continued to the roof, but to have enclosed certain areas. Doors, however, lead from one to another (fig. 68; pl. 49, 6). Pictographs and petroglyphs——A characteristic of the Northern Peripheral culture is a remarkable elaboration of anthropomorphic petroglyphs and pictographs. Probably originating in the square- shouldered and comparatively simple Southwestern Basket Maker pictographs, these attained greatest development in northeastern Utah where facial features and ornaments of both head and body are represented in detail. Site 2 at White Canyon is one of the . southernmost localities where this style occurs. ‘The White Canyon figures, though differing in some details from many to the north, AnTHROP, Par, No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 333 fall into this general class and are especially related to those on the middle Fremont River (Morss, 1931) and at Moab, farther up the Colorado River. Along the northern side of White Canyon, between and above the cliff houses, there is a series of round-bodied, anthropomorphic petro- glyphs having decorated bodies (figs. 72, 73, a; pl. 52, e). These are mainly pecked, some of the finer lines, however, being incised or rubbed. Other comparable circles which, however, are less clearly parts of anthropomorphic figures, are pecked on the rocks near the large ruins (fig. 75, e). In this group, the anthropomorphic figure was placed over the circle on the left which in turn was over the parallel lines with the dots between. ‘Two groups (figs. 73, c, and 74, f) show concentric circles and the last also has a circle containing zigzag OVERHANGING ROCK posts aot oS Pe EOGE . EE a8. \ te ae \ ar te Fi - \ ta/ \ eect : ) x Pe fy N x ge t »>—\ 8 N — > 10 FEET 3 Fiaure 68.—Cliff houses south of the large ruin, site 2, White Canyon. decoration. Other circles are painted. Plate 52, d, shows two compli- cated circles painted white. Where the paint has eroded from that on the left, rubbed lines appear, though this may be a recent bit of vandalism. Rubbed triangles appear above both figures. A red handprint appears in the center of each circle and two other red hand- prints, not shown in the plate, are on the cliff to the right. A circle made up of red, white, and yellow-buff lines appears in figure 75, c. All of these circles are approximately 3 feet in diameter. Although no weapons are clearly depicted in association with these figures, the writer hazards the guess that they represent shields. Two ornamented, rawhide shields were found on the Fremont River where somewhat similar circular petroglyphs appear to represent shields (Morss, 1931). Figure 76 shows several circles on the cliffs at Moab which no doubt belong to the same class of objects. 334 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Burn, 128 Another type of anthropomorphic figure is square-shouldered and, though less elaborate than those to the north, clearly of the same general style. The central figure in figure 73, 6, even has “tear streaks,”’ a device common in the Uintah Basin. Those in figures 73, c, and 75, d, e, are of this style. The three figures in figure 75, a, b, are painted in white and yellow-buff. That in plate 52, b, has the same colors. In addition to these anthropomorphic figures, several are of the complex curvilinear style common in the Great Basin. Two large groups of such petroglyphs are shown in figure 74, a, e. Although there is no proof whatever that the anthropomorphic and curvilinear styles were contemporary, it is probable that in western Utah and Nevada the latter, despite its great stylistic difference, was somewhat stimu- lated by the former. Small anthropomorphic figures, like those in figure 77, on the cliff near the bridge at Moab, occur in Idaho and Nevada beyond the Pueblo area in frequent association with the curvi- linear style, and yet seem related to the Northern Peripheral anthro- pomorphs. It is possible, of course, that chronological differences are involved in these styles of anthropomorphs. Plate 52, c, is a petroglyph, probably made by the Ute or Navaho, to represent a horse. Specimens from site 2.—Pottery from the northern side of the canyon, 11987, comprises ware which is definitely Mesa Verde in general style and appears to be Pueblo II or early Pueblo III. Corrugated sherds are from large ollas of the San Juan types. Their paste is coarse, quartz tempered, and the coiling rather crude. Coils run 3 to 7 per inch. Highty-five percent of the corrugated sherds have the coils “crinkled” or pinched at intervals. Some alternate several plain and | several crinkled to give a banded effect. For 1 to 2 inches under the rim, the exterior is smoothed. The painted ware has a much finer paste and temper. Bowls have a plain grayish exterior, showing hori- zontal striations from the smoothing implement. Their interiors have a slip which is slightly grayish white, sometimes crackled, on which are painted designs in black which are Mesa Verde in style. Bowl rims are generally. squared, the lip slightly projecting on the outside. Both ollas and bowls average 5 millimeters in thickness. Sherds from painted ollas and jars are like the bowl sherds, but the black design is usually painted on the polished surface which lacks a slip; sometimes, however, a white slip is present. Four sherds have deep, rich red exteriors; one is black-on-red. The pottery from around the large ruin, 11989, is much like the last. Corrugated ware is slightly better made, somewhat darker, and a little thicker—7 millimeters. Ninety-eight percent of the 48 corrugated sherds are crinkled. Clay and temper in bowls also resemble 11987. ‘The interiors have a slip which varies from paper ANTHROP. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 335 white to dark gray, like the ware of western Utah. Designs are in a good, solid black with good brushwork, and resemble Mesa Verde ware. A few are Kayenta style. Fine, parallel lines comprise a large portion of the designs. Twelve of fifteen rim sherds have one to five horizontal lines under the rim. Other forms include black and white ollas and ladles with solid handles. Artifacts of chipped flint are very crude. 11988 is a roughly shaped blade having a more or less diamond-shaped cross section, 2% inches long, 1% inches thick, % of an inch wide, of red jasper. 11944, from the large house, is a similar point, 2% inches long, 1% inches wide, % of an inch thick, having both ends somewhat rounded. These are common in Glen Canyon and are certainly not projectile points. 11991 is a crudely chipped “‘pick’’ of white flint, 3% inches long. Three small corn cobs were found at the large house, 11995. Two had ten rows of kernels and were 3% and 2% inches long; the third had 12 rows of kernels. The presence of this village, site 2, is probably to be explained by the several miles of arable land along the river shore and the thorough- fare to the central parts of San Juan County provided by White Canyon. Site 3, Trachyte Creek —Trachyte Creek empties into the Colorado River from the west, about 1 mile below White Canyon. Long stretches of tillable land made possible a village, the main ruin of which stands about 100 feet above the river and about 200 yards south of Trachyte creek. It had two main rooms, the western one measuring about 9% by 10 feet inside, the other 9% by 12 feet (figure 67,a). In front of,i.e.,south, of these were possibly two other rooms, but all of the walls are entirely crumbled. It may in part have been two stories. Just south of the ruins is a circular depression about 30 feet in diameter which may have been a kiva or plaza. Specimens from site 3.—Pottery, 11979, included a corrugated ware much like that at site 2, having a coarse, quartz temper and varying in color from gray to tan. The black-on-white ware was tempered with both chalcedony and a dark, volcanic rock. The clay is gener- ally gray, but 11979-3 is two sherds of red clay. The interior slip on bowls varies from white to gray. Bowls are 4 to 5 millimeters thick. The black designs are slightly inferior in quality of color and brushwork. 11979-5 has the design in brown instead of black. (A specimen from near Blanding, San Juan County, has designs in both this same shade of brown and in black, showing that the brown is not simply a faded black.) Other ware includes: 11979-1, having a red exterior and a chocolate- brown interior bearing red lines. 11979-2, 3, having plain exteriors and unslipped but polished orange interiors, bearing faint red and black lines. 11979-4, a bowl rim sherd, having a plain gray exterior 336 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun, 128 showing a thin wash of brown and a plain gray interior bearing brown lines. Stone work includes: 11981-1, a crudely triangular, unnotched point, 1% inches long; base width, % of an inch. 11981-2, fragment of a similar blade. 11981-3, a somewhat leaf-shaped point, 1% inches long. All are gray flint. 11980, a red flint blade 1% inches long, 1% inches wide, % of an inch thick. The base is somewhat straight, possibly for hafting; the other end is worn diagonally, making a blunt surface 4 of an inch wide; elsewhere the edge is retouched to sharpness. On the north side of Trachyte Canyon are several low rock shelters facing the river, under one of which was a masonry wall enclosing a low room about 8 feet in diameter. Nearby are several groups of -- 7A / ! { OEPRESS/ON ' \ 7 4 ‘ ‘\ —e = - BSS 40 FEET Ficure 69.—Large ruin at Redd Canyon, site 4. petroglyphs, some suggesting an early—possibly Basket Maker— style, others developed kachinalike anthropomorphs. Site 4, Redd Canyon (‘Red Canyon” on most maps).—Extensive flats along the Colorado at the mouth of Redd Canyon afforded possibilities of horticulture. A large ruin stands overlooking the river on the edge of a slightly higher plateau, about 4% mile north of Redd Creek (pl. 49, ¢, fig. 69). The main wing is 40 feet long, 15 feet 6 inches wide, and runs east and west. It contained two, possibly three rooms, and must have been two stories in height, for the north- west corner still stands 8 feet 1 inch high. The southern wing was apparently added later. It is 12 feet in average width, and 36 feet long, but only stood one story high as indicated by the smaller amount Anturop, Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 337 of wall debris. Walls are 18 to 22 inches thick and of masonry similar to that in the large ruin, site 2. In the angle of the two wings is a circular depression 30 feet in diameter and 2% feet deep. Although a hastily dug exploratory trench failed to reveal walls or other features of construction, a kiva very likely existed there. Under the ledge immediately below this ruin were several rooms built against the cliff, facing the river (pl. 51, a). There had been two, possibly three rooms, each two stories in height, for one wall still stands 11 feet 2 inches high and has the remains of three beams (probably cottonwood, one of which was collected) of the second floor at a height of 5 feet 6 inches. These walls are 18 to 24 inches thick and of fair masonry. Specimens from site 4, large ruin.—Pottery, 11982, included: A corrugated ware like that at site 2 but having a temper of coarse quartz, chalcedony, and a dark, igneous rock; painted bowls with an interior slip varying from white to gray (a few had no slip) and deco- tated with black designs like those at site 2, except for a few sherds which had heavy, black designs resembling Kayenta styles; spherical ollas with short, recurving necks and black-on-white exterior decora- tion. Chipped flint included: 11984, the square butt of a white flint projectile point or knife. Specimens from site 4, cliff rooms.—Pottery, 11985, included: A corrugated ware with paste like the last, but vessels which were extremely well made, with very regular coils which overlapped in shingle fashion more than is common, and with alternating bands of plain and crinkled coils, the crinkles being frequently exaggerated by pressing the depressions between them with the fingernail or a stick point (suggesting the “stick impressed” ware from Great Salt Lake); bowls of a fine paste tempered with chalcedony, bearing black interior designs on a finely crackled white slip or on a polished, unslipped gray. The designs are rather faint but in general resemble those at the large ruin. Below Redd Canyon, the river canyon narrows. There are few stretches of arable river bottom and many of these are rendered inaccessible by the sheer cliffs which rise out of the river above and below them. It is reasonable to suppose that the Pueblo and Basket Maker Indians did not have such means of river transportation as to be able to reach them. No traces of aboriginal occupation could be observed from the boat at those few places which would have been suitable, although a cliff room reached by steps is reported from the vicinity of Bullfrog Creek which enters the Colorado 120 miles up- stream from Lee’s Ferry and another is stated to be near the river, 4 miles above Hall’s Creek or just below the mouth of Bullfrog Creek. The greater part of a day was spent exploring the vicinity of Hall’s 338 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bun. 128 Creek (see site 10) but the deep gorges everywhere made it impossible to cover much territory. Sites 6 to 9.—On the northwest bank of the river about 2 miles below Lake Canyon (111 miles above Lee’s Ferry), where a few acres of tillable land parallel the river. Rolling sandstone domes, rising to 1,000 feet above the river, contain many caves, several of which have been occupied. Site 5.—In the largest of these caves, opposite the middle of a long island. The only trace of occupation is a small levelled space with showings of charcoal and ash. The butt of a large, chipped flint point, 11935, notched slightly at the corners, was found here. Site 6.—A long cave, well up on the cliff, containing several ma- sonry structures. At its western end is granary A (pl. 49, d), built of a circular wall, 7 inches thick, which extends to the rock ceiling, 3 feet 6 inches above the floor in front. It has a door, 1 foot 4inches wide and 24 inches tall with a stone lintel and sill; the sides of the door are coated with plaster (fig. 70, c). The doorway was covered with a neatly trimmed, rectangular stone slab. The cave floor has been levelled up by a retaining wall of crude masonry along the front of the cave. Twenty-nine feet east of granary A is a circular room built partly against the cliff, measuring inside 13 feet 4 inches across and 11 feet 6 inches from the cliff to the outside (fig. 70, a; pl. 50, c). This is semisubterranean although the walls in the front part extended several feet above the surface of the ground. Exactly opposite the cliff wall at the base of the house wall, is a ventilating opening 12 inches wide and 12 inches tall, the sides of which are formed of verti- cally set stone slabs (fig. 70, 6), across which are sticks supporting a horizontal stone slab (fig. 70, ¢). This room was undoubtedly a kiva. A space about 14 feet long by 11 feet wide adjoining the kiva on the east was enclosed by a circular wall made up partly of stone slabs standing 3 feet 6 inches high and partly of masonry (pl. 50, a). There seems to have been a door in this about 8 feet out from the cliff wall; the remainder of the wall was made up of perpen- dicularly set slabs which have fallen. Twenty-two feet east of this room is a short wall running out 8 feet from the cliff, leaving a narrow passage between it and the retaining wall which ends here. Ninety feet east of this passage (telescoped in fig. 70, a) at the eastern end of the cave is granary B (pl. 50, 6). It is semicircular, built against the cliff, and measures 4 by 6 feet. The door measures 18 by 18 inches and is built like that of granary A, except that the stone lintel rests on a horizontal stick (fig. 70, d). Specimens from site 6.—Pottery, 11933, included: 5 corrugated sherds; 1 plain grey sherd having a fine paste and white (chalcedony ?) temper; 1 red sherd having black designs outlined by white. Corn, 11930, included: 5 cobs 2% to 4% inches long having 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 Anturop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 339 rows of kernels in pairs. Stone work included: 2 flat metates (fig. 71, a, 6), each 11 inches long and 5 inches wide made of hard, coarse gray sandstone; 2 manos (fig. 71, ¢, d), each more or less rectangular in form and cross section, one being slightly grooved down each side for finger grips. Site 7.—A small cave directly below site 6, having a small rectangu- Vf Hj igo a “ERTICAL SLABS ; g ar a) aa Bie aie E O O SKF fie ae tas Set Ss (ae ee E oO O OW epee eee | Ra ee fee sek es L oO oO Ory eee te > irs || we onl Sie sae O oO O (2) O Ole | eee Crude stone house, cave. Ole ee te Tt Se O O O (0) eee 105 ye ee E oO oO Oo PACD Aiton ae oe ee 2 Bd ‘“Hoes.”” pb et wer are 2 O oO x< O O ODM Ee -= ten Cave. 12S eee ZA) oO O 0 ile gS Sena Fl a ee 2 Se Do. Bee E Oo O Ce a, 2 ae ee 2 “Hoes.’’ 14s Sir eie eS x 18) Oo Qe Ae ae reek ee | Do. 5 Up Be tee E oO O LO fe (apa | SS PA CI 2 Cave. 16__ ee hi < O oO OL 2 LED wie a bate Ae tee baal E(?) O O CO (ee ged (yt a S| Ea aaa D Sy ee tae L ~< O (0 Smes| RRR ak So (SB! ERR ee 19s 731h8. 3 E(?) oO oO Oy hi pa cs ae 2. Wa) te ERE D0 Ue ae L oO x Og zoetn sees ee eee ae Do. 21 ee ee E O O Oy dhe eee ee ea A yA ee oO oO oO OLA ie 228 St eae A Rock shelter. v8 Be ee Rane L oO oO (0 ym Pree) ewe Sere B DA OD hee E O O Oe Ste nek | a 71 aes RS L x O XK Mico See ae B 265) =. we A~ E O O Ma lease | ee al eee 7 plein ee O O x On Pee alee ee A ped SEO GO oO oO C01) || £5 Ae, S| ee os SL RL 20) Feetii en 2 O oO oO O) = Wate Mp lecsoncss SO sa staTe ee L oO O OMG sae aa 6 So ee Cave. SIs ate L oO * OD S| Eee eee eae ee ee Cave, granary. SOM Es ee 1, O O OTM | ESS Be Pe 2 eek Le A Cave. 1T, transitional pottery; X, element present; E, early pottery; L, late pottery; A, B, metate types described on pp. 299-309; O, element absent. ANTHROP. Pap. No. 18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD TABLE 6.—Cultiural content of sites—Continued Ma- Ma- sonry | sonry house | cliff cluster | house Slab struc- tures type a pe | | ee | en | | a | Site he See oO it ess sae E sie ee Oo Si) T-L hi ae L eee coke 1@) Ls aC L (ie ae ee a 0 Ces Se T-L eee T-L eo oO yl tah J) ib ae eee z L AG RSet SS L fa ed L fee ee a L ye ee Ei as(2) 1) ee ae ee L Lt Stet E iV joe ere AR [ee Bee L 177, frag L ‘les Soe eae L 77 L Uy ee ee S L [sh ee Tp i ee L | eae ee L (11 en, Pree te L iv no oe L Baie eee L i ee L Chee 544) L Con (?) Gy Oe eee E ee E i ee E nhs Seo: E Wits 26 oe se E 17s L i L (i: (?) i (?) (eine ae L (ie oe E 7} oie Rae L 1! ae L Ct L (3 es TG) Soa Te, L US T-L(?) (os O Soei54 2 L BGR Ss E |) Seen E Lis. | 5 a x js hes eee x aN ieee oe E (?) OTe sa tit t x ee L (2) XOSS0OKXK9ONOOCDDOCOOCOCOCOCOOC0OO ps ~ SCOSDDDOOXXXKXKXKXOXOXXXXXODSDDDODODODOODOOXD00090 oo RoRoRoKeokohoRoRolokohoKoko ohooh okokokokokokokokekololokokoo koko olok oleh koko ko kolonoho loko koko lolololheob solo lkeone) OOK OX OXI KO O10 KX OX 'O X OX O1O'S © OOO OO xX XK 351 Pro- Petro- + jectile Remarks glyphs type Eons (ety || ERS ete Do. Pee el tee Se Do. Pee) See | © Ream Soe Rock shelter. fh Pec a ae A _......_|________| Flint workshop. atte Le B _ ae ae) B So ASA ees Gos B Sevier black-on grey associated. es id | gee See Flint workshop. ., ,. eee | Bes Be Scattered sherds’and flints, eine. Re a8 Do. ee el |< meee, ws Do. bot et EE ees Do. ae ek A Eat ACS Sec SSee A Pere ae B pelo ones A,B eeeanat Cave 352 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buun, 128 TABLE 6.—Cultural content of sites—Continued Bein |e lh ceneatan 3 cd alba Pro- Site tee hous soli, | Struc eet SIC DRE Jectile Remarks cluster | house ype (es ee ae L (?) oO O Oe ee es | eee a Qaeibiae Cs L mK oO (OLA eaten (Sees Sy Ce lees ee L x oO LO) pm) (eee es A Se SN ee Obes eae O < O OM |ESar ares ee | eee eee Slab and masonry. OT tie oO x O Os) ees Dare Mie wee 2 Heed) ey ai Do. OS are Sar L x< oO Oar Geel es P| OOS rut oe? L O oO O FO Sofi) PN a a So LOO Se sae E (?) O O x AST AF eae BN Cees LOL see x O oO RU | ee | ee |e 1O2E See ee L (2) O Shae ce at Ce oaks ee | Renee LOB 2. N32 L O O > Se tye ee [ee Ol Ol Ie LS 104 Soe. 2 oY x C2): ieee Bee lal ee kell Ok oe Scattered sites. LOGE Uses 2 x C2) | eee co | See eee eh Oe | eee el | eee eee Do. LOGY Lutes x QE) pce See Bes Se oe ahr ae Se See Do. LO%ee ene x CO cP ecker tel | Ee BS Se ee eo one Do. LOSE ee eee E (?) O oO > 6 Say | ES se Se fa | So lh Uo 1 ee x oO O x phe beh [Lee eae LiObs es L MK 6) OF Sse ees Pt Sees Sel bs Sie 1 b eae ea L oO x O} esse >a Ty eee Granaries ?: special metate. MDE Sea E (2) O oO Or SSF ee ee 1 1 jane B RAY | Ka ee | Ee (ae a eons 228 IO en ||. Se he ae x x 10) Og Uys iae Ot ees iS es L MK oO P<) Ma (epee SERN PES A «oy Burial in cist. Ges 222252 E xX O > ie (ESR 8 3 AO SS Reet De shy Ape eoee es O O oO Opes | see Ke aa cees L1G eee O O O Ge ah me eres clon) [ree {pl Ye ae 500 el ae L x oO x< ACT si eoeted OnE soe Also burials. 120 Se e22 te L Oo Oo oO ta pl (SPAR ES is Poe ated || Dee A2te see O O O OF | Seen pS a ese 122 Eee L ~< oO OF a2 5e Seale ta ae ps os ne ae L 4 oO Ope OS ee eal eee ena DID Vane reat L O O Da alps) earn tes a) AE at A 2b seen eae L oO oO Op ee ee se Cada A 1260-2 2 L oO oO > Oy (eee ae ene Aras alk ek 5 Of ( ee Pa Oo Oo oO Oo By) eee ee 1285 MeO 2 O oO oO OR y eneeeey Shor ees eae 129s as XK x O eee ee a ey (a LO e ee O O oO CONS Mit esseee ts Wee My) asacotoS 1S 3 Le ear L O x OW |i eres Me tseeestes 132 son se O O x OV ee b th ee eee UBB isa eau) O O O OM asm MM ete 14s ese x O O COT Mpa) ere tees O)Pipieset Bes 13522 20aeeu x oO O OP sana Os ae eae 1s ese x O O OL aieknes Ba OFF |e LSTOS Sees L > oO Oy pn AE ae A | 13S eee O x oO CO pew SSB Ss) ran pe 130 Feral E (?) O oO OF ee ES a ps Rock shelter. 140L eee L oO Oo > Wigan Sees ne (RE Te dl | 8 A DA: 4 ea oe a oO oO r@) ON TA tetera ba eee TAQ Ene 1h; oO x Oe Mes a ee Basket Maker metate. The cultures encountered in the Johnson Canyon and Paria River region fall into the following chronological order: 1. Basket Maker —Although there is little evidence of this in the Johnson Canyon and Paria River region, it is well represented in DuPont Cave (Nusbaum, 1922) and in other caves, dug by ranchers in the vicinity of Kanab. AnTurop. Par. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOLOGY—STEWARD 353 2. Basket Maker slab-house culture (Derived Basket Maker) —This is characterized by slab houses and cists, arranged in small clusters and by ‘‘early’’ pottery—Basket Maker black-on-gray and Paria gray. 8. A transitional period of uncertain nature.—Late pottery types are appearing. Masonry is added to slab houses and perhaps to pit houses as at site 2. 4. Pueblo culture—Houses are of coursed masonry, in caves or on knolls near washes. The most standardized and probably latest. arrangement is half a dozen rooms forming a semicircle on the north- ern side of a kiva (?). No extensive amalgamation of these ‘‘units”’ into larger villages is observed. Slab cists and possibly houses ac- company these clusters. No doubt slabs are occasionally used in masonry houses. Pottery wares are Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white, Tusayan black-on-red, Johnson gray-tan, Johnson corrugated, with occasional intrusions of outside wares, such as North Creek black-on- white from the west (?), Sevier black-on-gray from the north. The metate is rectangular, having either an oval or, more commonly and perhaps later, a rectangular grinding basin. Although Hayden (1930) claims Pueblo III pottery in southern Nevada, the writer knows of no trait in the Johnson Canyon—Paria River region which can be attributed to influence from Pueblo III of the San Juan cultures. In fact, he regards skeptically the occurrence of any such influence farther west. This does not, of course, provide proof that the latest cultures of these regions may not have been in part contemporary with the San Juan Pueblo III. It does, however, demonstrate that the latter had become less liberal in its contributions to neighboring areas by this time. The number, size, and distribution of the various sites indicate appreciable ecological changes from period to period. Of 109 sites which can be dated by pottery or architecture or by both, 11 have slab structures and early wares, 14 early wares only and 4 slab struc- tures only (the last, may, of course, be later), a total of 29 Basket Maker sites. Thirty-one have masonry structures and late wares, 10 masonry structures only, and 21 late pottery only, a total of 62. Add to this 11 slab sites with late pottery and the total is 73 late sites, or more than twice as many Pueblo as Basket Maker sites. The late sites, moreover, are generally larger than the early ones. Very rough calculations of floor space of all structures combined at slab-structure site 41, probably the largest of its kind, give 285 square feet, and at site 39, also unusually large, 234 square feet. The masonry house site 82, perhaps the largest, had a total of 665 square feet in rooms and cists, site 48 had 643 square feet, site 53 had 401 square feet, site 72 had 379 square feet, and many others are of equal size. Althrough later quarters may have been relatively more luxurious, a marked population increase is indicated, a doubling at least. This, no doubt, 354 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [ Bun. 128 was coupled with increasing importance of horticulture. Pueblo migrations may also have contributed to the increase; only skeletal material can settle this. The distribution of early and late sites is shown in figure 64. A slightly greater proportion of Basket Maker sites in the northern and western portions of the area may correlate with greater importance of hunting to the culture. This possibility could perhaps be checked by a study of the distribution of game in the region and the mammalian remains in the sites. Puebloan sites are naturally found in or near fertile canyon bottoms, but there is a surprising number of masonry houses variously situated on mesas, remote from present water sources. There were, in fact, few localities, however uninviting, that did not yield sherds, flints, and other evidence of human occupation. Glen Canyon.—Although archeological evidence from this section of the Colorado River is very scant, a few positive conclusions appear permissible. First, the river canyon and the neighboring terrain were too rugged and too limited in farming possibilities to attract any great number of agricultural people. Of nonagricultural people, there is no certain evidence. The Ute are known to have inhabited it very sparsely in recent centuries. Evidently its population was always sparse. Second, most of the region cannot be definitely assigned to any geographical divisions of the Anasazi area. Comparison of these sites with those of other sections is somewhat handicapped by the scarcity of minor antiquities. It seems certain, however, that this region did not provide a source for the typical Northern Peripheral culture which was strongly implanted on the Fremont River (Morss, 1931) only a short distance to the north. Rather, it was a cultural depression into which influence had trickled from various directions. Some petroglyphs, especially at site 1, are definitely related to those of the Northern Periphery. Ceramic styles, however, affiliate it with both Mesa Verde and Kayenta more than with the north and west. Architecture also is San Juan and shows some influence even of the Great Period Pueblo which found here its northern limit. In short, it appears mainly to have been a kind of no-man’s land which had been very slightly settled by outposts from both Mesa Verde and Kayenta and which had come into contact with the North- ern Periphery but had not strongly influenced it. Farther south, however, toward the Arizona border, the sites increasingly resemble those of the Kayenta district and of the Johnson Canyon—Paria River district, to which they are geographically contiguous. Summary.—It had been hoped that these surveys would throw some light on one of the outstanding problems of the Northern Periphery—the problem of where the Basket Maker and Pueblo AnTurop. Pap. No.18] UTAH ARCHEOQLOGY—STEWARD 355 cultures blended prior to their diffusion to the north. This survey seems to eliminate the regions under consideration. The region east of Kanab in southern Utah is not related to the Northern Periphery. It is rather a part, both geographically and culturally, of the Lower Colorado Plateau, that is, the area of south- western Utah and northwestern Arizona. Whereas the Northern Periphery had no Basket Maker as distinct from Pueblo culture, development on the Lower Colorado Plateau followed closely the San Juan sequence, showing strong Tusayan influence which is most recognizable in ceramics. Moreover, the cultural inventory of south- ern Utah does not correspond with that of the Northern Periphery, indicating that there was little contact between the two areas. The former lacked the ‘‘Utah type” metate, elaborate anthropomorphic clay figurines, and petroglyphs, stone balls, ‘“Fremont moccasins,” gaming (?) bones, and such ceramic features as stuck-on decoration, all typical of the north. The Northern Periphery, on the other hand, lacked such local features as ceramic styles, the turkey, developed kivas, and elaborate textiles. Only two elements indicate a possible connection between the north and south: Sevier black-on-gray pottery and the jacal pit lodge. The former, which is scarce at Northern Peripheral sites in eastern Utah but very abundant in western Utah, may have originated in this area where, though it is not abundant, it seems to have been a trifle earlier than in the north. The jacal type pit lodge of the ex- treme north had been assumed to have come from the jacal type of the Early Pueblo culture of southwestern Colorado. It is conceivable, though unlikely, that it was an independent adaptation of shallow slab houses. Such slab houses are common in southern Utah and, though little is known about house types throughout eastern Utah, they appear again in Nine Mile Canyon in northeastern Utah (Gillin, 1938). Present evidence also eliminates eastern Utah as the source of the Northern Peripheral culture. Like southern Utah, the region south of the Fremont River in eastern Utah lacks the specific northern traits, with a few minor exceptions, and is related instead to the San Juan area. It if contributed at all to the north, it was in passing on masonry architecture which marks the second phase of the Northern Peripheral culture. It appears at present that the source of the original Northern Peripheral culture should be sought in western Colorado or extreme eastern Utah, a region which is virtually unknown archeologically. It should also be added that to date central and southern Utah has not yielded a trace of the Promontory culture. This is a hunting culture, using the bow and making a distinctive pottery and is found 356 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Buxn, 128 only in the Salt Lake basin. Negative evidence from other parts of Utah supports the belief based on the nature of this culture that it is of northern origin. BIBLIOGRAPHY GILLIN, JOHN. 1938. Archaeological investigations in Nine Mile Canyon, Utah. Univ. Utah Bull., vol. 28, No. 11. HarGRAVE, Kynpbon L. 1930. Prehistoric earth lodges of the San Francisco Mountains. Mus. Northern Ariz., Mus. Notes, vol. 3, No. 5. HaypDEN, IRwIn. 1930. Mesa House. Southwest Mus. Pap., vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 26-92. JEANCON, J. A. 1923. Excavations in the Chama Valley, N. Mex. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 81. Jupp, Nrit M. 1926. Archaeological observations north of the Rio Colorado. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 82. Morss, NogEt. 1931. The ancient culture of the Fremont River in Utah. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., Pap. 12. Mera, H. P. 1932. Wares ancestral to Tewa Polychrome. Lab. Anthrop., Santa Fe, N. Mex., Tech. Ser., Bull. 4. NvusBAUM, JESSE L. 1922. A Basket Maker cave in Kane County, Utah. Ind. Notes and Monogr., No. 29. Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye Foundation. Rosekrts, F. H. H., Jr. 1937. Archaeology in the Southwest. Amer. Antiq., vol. 3, pp. 3-33. Smit, ELMER. 1934. A brief description of an Indian ruin near Shonesburg, Utah. Zion and Bryce Nature Notes, vol. 6, pp. 13-18, January. Spencer, J. E. 1934. Pueblo sites of southwestern Utah. Amer. Anthrop., n. 8., vol. 36, pp. 70-80. STEWARD, JULIAN H. 1929. Petroglyphs of California and adjoining States. Univ. Calif., Publ. Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., vol. 24, pp. 47-238. 1933. Early inhabitants of western Utah: Mounds and house types. Univ. Utah Bull., vol. 23, pp. 1-34. 1933a. Archaeological problems of the Northern Periphery of the Southwest. Mus. Northern Ariz., Bull. 5. 1936. Pueblo material culture in western Utah. Univ. N. Mex., Bull. 287, Anthrop. Ser. 1, No. 3. WETHERILL, BEN. W. 1934. Summary of investigations by Zion National Park Archaeological Party. Zion and Bryce Nature Notes, vol. 6, pp. 1-9. AOYS BPM q asl Y jo UOTIIO q s]pemM Al seul V 3snoy id jo S|] eM pur poul[-qe “NOANV)D AlddIN S.ATIOW ‘2 ALIS S3ivid 8¢el NILATINGA ASONIONHL]A NVOIMAWY SAO NVvsaynNna *YOOI UI S9AOOIS paqqnyy ‘q *‘punoiga10f ul Aemioop ‘vy asnoT] ‘vo “NOANVD AlddIN S.ATIOW ‘Z ALIS vy ALV1d 82! NILA11INa ASOTIONHLA NVOIMAWY AO NvayHng “UOAURD TedpIA\ vou *TZ alts fajoato qeyg {f *uoAues ueUIRag ‘96 ays fainjonsqs qrys é I S$ [Jem Aruoseyy ‘a “uoAursy > ‘€Q atts ainjon.qs qeig ‘¢ usyory *7¢ aus ‘asnoy ys Aluosepy ‘yp “3sIo qvys eordAy, ‘9 ‘uoAURY YIP] ‘Bulidg afddiyy ‘gy aus ‘asnoy yo Aruoseyy ‘v ‘ “SAYNLIONYLS AVIS AGNV SASNOH 4ASAITD AYNOSYW SP ALW1d 821 NILA1TING ASDOTIONHLA NVYOIMAWY SO NvsaynNSG “GaN 1VHD ‘NOANVD NOSNHOfF ‘211 ALIS LV SHdATDONLSd 9 ALVW1d 821 NILA11INA ASOTONHLA NVYOIMAWY AO NVaHNa “VWyst O7 Tfey ‘joued SnONnUTJUOS & UNIO, gq pure D “GQSENMIVHD ATIVILYVd ‘NOANVD NOSNHOfF ‘Z1 1 S3LIS LV SHdAT1DONLSAd {vy alVid 8cl NILAAAnNS ASOTIONHLA NVOIMAWYV AO NVAYNSa *S UO] J90Ff OF JNOGe Vysti OF fe] ‘jaued SNONUTJUOD & WIOf 9S9q [, “GQSHMTVHD ATIVILYVd ‘NOANVD MVO ‘O€El ALIS LY SHdAT1DO0N 13d 8 ALV1d 821 NILAT1INa ASOTONHL]A NYOIMSAWY AO Nvayna BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 49 HOUSE RUINS. a, Large house, site 2, White Canyon. 5b, Cliff house south of large ruin, site 2. c, Large ruin, site 4, Redd Canyon. d, Granary A, site 6, near Lake Canyon (door is on ground in front of doorway). ¢, Detail of masonry of large ruin, site 2. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 50 SLAB AND MASONRY STRUCTURES. a, Slab and masonry wall, site 6, near Lake Canyon. b, Granary B, site 6. c, Kiva, site 6. d, Crude house walls, site 12, below San Juan River. ¢, Bin B, site 12. £, Bin A, site 12. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 128 PLATE 51 HOUSE TYPES. a, Cliff house, site 4, Redd Canyon. b, Masonry walls, site 16, Aztec Creek. c, Semisub- terranean house or kiva, site 22, Rock Creek. d, Cave with wall and leveled floor, site 15. e, f, slab cists, site 17, Aztec Creek. *pay[eyo 918 souly fyaarg uodurs Isa ‘67 ats ‘ydABoned ‘9 £7 ais ‘ydAjsomed ‘a fuodued any ‘7 ants ‘sydeizojoid ‘p *q fyseAy YON fairy pue pal ur ydeisojo1g ‘v “SHdAT9ON Lad GNV SHdVYSDOLD!d eG AlV1d 82! NILA1T1INA ADSOTNTONHL]A NYDIYXAWY AO NVaeNa INDEX Abrasives, rock crystal and pumice, 4. Achomawa, suicide via Cicuta poison- ing, 130. Actinolite, 38, 54. Agalmatolite, 54, 56. Agate, 32, 56. arrowheads, 10. beliefs concerning, 5. distribution, 29. See also Moss agate. Agatized wood, 33-34, 56. buildings, 4. Folsom points, 2. Agato, Ecuador, a location of field work, 171. Alabama, suicides deprived of burial, 130. Alabaster, 2, 39, 56. Algonkian, Central, love motive sui- cides, 124. Algonkin, lover’s leap, reference to, 127. suicide, mentioned, 117-118, 121, 127, 128, 129, 134. Algonquin birchbark containers. Birchbark containers. Alluvial mining, 10, 19, 46. Amazonstone, 45. Amber, 46-47, 56. Aleutian Islands, 10. incense, 5. mentioned, 2. origin, 8. trade, 19. Amethyst, 30. distribution, 33, 34. trade, 17. Anasazi culture, reference to, 281, 354. See also Basket Maker-Pueblo. Angachagua, Ecuador, a location of field work, 171. Angachagua group, contrasted to Ota- valo group, 186-187, 192. Animal remains, Johnson Canyon, 319. Anthropological work, Imbabura In- dians, comparison of results, 187-192. conclusions, 192-193. results, 183-187. Anthropometric measurements, Imba- bura Indians, tables, 193, 198, 203, 208-226. Apatite, mentioned, 54. Archeological reconnaissance of South- ern Utah (Steward), 275-356. Arrowheads, materials used, 10, 30, 31, 33, 52, 53. sources of material, 7, 8, 16. See also Projectile points. 218558—41 24 See Arrows, used in mining, 50. Arrowmakers, as traders, 18. beliefs and customs, 11. Arrow-shaft straighteners, materials, 7. Art forms, Algonquin, possibility of sueoeas origin, 235, 248, 264, 270— Art processes in birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a circumboreal trait (Speck), 229-274. Atacamite, 7, 42, 56. Athabaskan divisions, construction of birchbark containers, 240, 242, 243, 245, 249, 250. At‘oba’gan, ‘‘pail,”’ use, 238-239. Soni ae suicide via Cicuta poisoning, description and Averett’s cabin, Utah, mentioned, 283. Awls, Johnson Canyon, 317. Axes, Johnson Canyon, 315. Aztec Canyon, Glen Canyon, descrip- tion of ruins, 343, 344. Aztec Creek, Glen Canyon, locality of sites 15 and 17, 342-348. Aztecs, knowledge of opals, 29. possessors of emeralds (?), 22. use of beryl, 22. use of garnet, 28. use of turquoise, 26-27. value of jade, 35-36. Azurite, 2, 4, 41, 57. Bags, Johnson Canyon, 316. Ball, Sydney H. (Mining of gems and ornamental stones by American In- dians), ix—77. Barbacoa language, reference to, 182. Barbacoas, an Imbabura tribe, men- tioned, 175. Barite, 54, 56. Cee Indians, absence of baskets, bark work compared with Algon- quin, 234. Barter. See Trade. Basket Maker, Johnson Canyon-Paria River region, lack of evidence, 352. Beer Maker-Pueblo, reference to, 281, Basket Maker (II), San Juan River, reference to, 281, 287, 321-322. Basket Maker (III), San Juan River, reference to, 287, 288, 317. Basket Maker slab-house culture, John- son Canyon, 353. 357 308 INDEX Baskets, Algonquin, ‘ block” printing | Birchbark containers, Algonquin—Con- on, 270-271. splint, distribution, 241. undecorated, 260-261. Baskets, Johnson Canyon, 316. Bean Festival. See Green Bean Festi- val. Beliefs, concerning catlinite, 49. concerning frog on sun (Tona- wanda), 145. jade and jadeite, 35. malachite, 41. nephrite, 37, 38. obsidian, 52, 53. origin of stones, 7-9. pyrite, 42. rock erystal, 32. soapstone, 48. spirits in mines, 10-12. turquoise, 23. Beliefs, Iroquois, concerning life span, 89-91. concerning souls of suicides, 131. waterhemlock, 86, 87, 88. Beothuk, bark sewing, 242. Berry Festival. See Strawberry Fes- tival. Berry Moon, reference to, 146. Beryl, 22. Birchbark bag, use in mining, 13. Birchbark baskets, Sahaptian Tribes, mentioned, 245. Birchbark containers, Algonquin. area of use, 233. art motives, 234-235. compared to Ojibwa and Monta- gnais, 241, 242, 244, 261. compared to other tribes, 234-235, 242, 243. construction, 240, 262. Athabaskan divisions. Cree, 240, 242, 243, 245, 249, 250, 255. decoration, summary, 262. designs, animal, 261, 263-268. art content, 263-268. bitten, 243, 250, 263, 269. chronology, 270-278. crude scriptural system, 273. cut-out, 2386, 248, 255-256, 258-259, 263. floral or plant, 256-259, 263-— 265, 268. food quest, 266. forest horizon, 266-268. individual taste, 259-260. See also landscapes and woodscapes, 261-262. modern influences, 251, 253- 255 motivation, conscious elements, 268-270. placing, 260. poreupine-quill, 249-250, 272. sewed-on cut-out figures, 247— 249. sgraffito, 246, 248. tinued. designs—continued. single elements, 251, 253-255. Golden Lake Band, designs, 245, 262. location of specimens, 234, 262. invention, 272. Mattawa Band, designs, 247, 262. location of specimens, 234. Mistassini, 241. Nipissing, 262. reasons for decorating, 2385, 236. River Desert Band, constructive details, 242, 248, 245, 262. designs, animal, 267. bitten patterns, 250-251. chronology, 270. cut-out process, 2438-244, 250. sewed-on cut-out orna- mentation, 248, 249. spruce-root rim, 249. stitch-designing, 249. industry in, 271-272. location of specimens, 2383-234. River du Liévre Band: design, 247, 262, 270. location of specimens, 234. Saulteaux, construction, 240. Tétes de Boule, 234, 241, 242, 243. Timagami, 262. Timiskaming Band, designs, 247, 251, 262. location of specimens, 234, 262. types, 236-243. Wabanaki, 240, 246. Birchbark containers, Montagnais (Lake St. John): compared to Algonquin, 234, 241, 242, 248, 244, 245, 246. construction, 240. design, European influence, 272- 273. floral, 251. technique, 243, 250, 263. Birchbark containers, Ojibwa, construc- Hom 240, 241, 242, 244, 246, 250, 251, 2. Birchbark ornamentation, vitality of art, 236. Birney, Hoffman, member of field trip, 282. Bitten designs, inspiration of, 269. method of producing, 250-251. Blackchief, Charles, Tonawanda Seneca informant, 149. Bloodstone, 2, 30. Bowl Game, reference to, 147, 163. Box Elder Canyon, Utah, 283, 284. Bread Dance. See Harvest Festival. Brébeuf, J., quoted on Huron suicides and fate of souls, 111, 118-119, 138. Bressani’s Relation of 1653, quoted on fate of souls after death, 132. ‘Bridge Creek’? Canyon, Utah, descrip- tion of ruins, 343. INDEX Brochantite, 42, 56. as pigment, 4. early knowledge of, 7. Brooks, Abbie, Tonawanda Seneca in- formant, 84, 94, 101. Brunet, Quebec botanist, cited by La- verdiére, 112. Buckshot, Mrs. Michele, a bark worker, 235, 239, 248, 250, 257, 270. Buildings, embellishment, 4, 23. See also Houses. Bunting’s corral, James, 286, 319. Burials: tolas, description, 177. distribution, 182. mentioned, 175. period, 180. urn, 181. well-grave period, 179-180. Calamine, 46. Calcite, 2, 4, 39. Canada, National Museum of, bark- work specimens, 233-234, 242, 244— 245, 262. Cafiar, alliance with the Cara, 176. ba an Imbabura tribe, mentioned, 175. Cannel coal, 43, 56. trade, 17. Cara, culture summarized briefly, 177. former inhabitants of Imbabura, 175-176. houses, 182. invasion, archeological 181-182. language, 182. Peruvian influence on culture, 179. political organization, 178. polygamy and divorce, 178. records, 178-179. religion, 177-178. Caranquis, fort erected by, 181-182. resistance to Incas, 179. use of rafts, 182. Caribs, influence in Imbabura, 181. Carnelian, 2, 17. artifacts, distribution, 29. Cataract Canyon, Colorado mentioned, 324. Catlinite, 2, 48-52, 56. mining laws, 15. origin, 8. religious ceremonies of miners, 11. trade, 17. Cayambe, Ecuador, conquered by the Cara, 176. possible origin of name, 181. resistance to Incas, 179. Cayuga, terms for mayapple and water- hemlock, 113. women poison themselves, 128. Celestite, mentioned, 54. Cesar, Madenine (Mrs. Clement), a bark worker, 235, 248, 249, 250, 256, 268, 269. evidence, River, 309 Chalcedony, 33, 56. arrowheads, 10. distribution, 29, 34. trade, 17. used for Folsom points, 2. Champlain, described mayapple, 112. rat Fee for the Dead, Tonawanda, 161, Iroquois feast for departed souls referred to, 89, 106, 125. reference to spring ceremony, 146. Charms. See Fetishes and charms. Chaumonot, 1640, quoted on Huron suicide, 109-110. Chemistry, commercial, Indian knowl- edge of, 14-15. Cherokee, suicide among, 129-130. Chibcha languages, 182. Chickasaw, suicide among, 130. Chitimacha, poison springs enemies, 130. Chlorite, mentioned, 54. Chloromelanite, 2, 38. Cholenee, quoted on Iroquois hyper- sensitivity, 134. Chrysocolla, 42, 56. Chrysoprase, 33, 56. distribution, 30. Cicuta maculata L. See Waterhemlock. Cists, Glen Canyon, 348. Johnson Canyon, 288, 289, 293, 353. Citrine, distribution, 30. Clark Canyon, Utah, 285, 286, 287, 291. Clement, Anne, a bark worker, 268. Clement, Madenine, bark worker, 236. Clement, Mrs. Pierre. See Cesar, Madenine. Coal, as an ornament, 1. as black pigment, 4. Cochasqui, resistance to Incas, 179. Coconuco language, reference to, 182. noi an Imbabura tribe, mentioned, 175. Coldspring longhouse, mentioned, 143, 146, 149. Conquest, intertribal, effect of trading on, 18. Conquest of America, commercial, effect of Indian mining, 15. Connecticut, suicide among Indians, 128. Copper. See Atacamite; Azurite; Bro- chantite; Chrysocolla; Malachite. Cordage, Johnson Canyon, data on, 316-317. Cornplanter, Edward, preacher of Hand- some Lake Religion, 83, 89, 131. Cornplanter, Jesse J., Seneca informant, 83, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 98. Corn Sprouting Rite (?), 159. Corundum (ruby and sapphire), 20. Cotopaxi, possible origin of name, 181. Counting devices, mentioned, 182. Cree, construction of bark containers, 240, 242, 243, 245, 249, 250, 255. to kill 360 Crystal. See Rock crystal. Currency, 4-5. Customs, mining, 52. Dablon, quoted on Onondaga suicide, 109, 125. Dairy Canyon, Utah, 286, 287, 318. Dances, Tonawanda longhouse, 164. Dead Feast of Huron, mentioned, 125. Death Song of Iroquois, referred to, 114, 126. Debeau, Kate, Mohawk informant, 85, 88, 93-94. Delaware suicide, reference to, 102, 104, 106, 120, 124, 126, 128, 129, 132, 134. Denmark, National Museum of, bark- work specimens, 233, 262. Denver Art Museum, bark-work speci- mens, 233, 262. Depot Harbor, bark-work specimens, 2 child 163-— Designs in birchbark containers. See Birchbark containers. Developmental Pueblo (I and IT), San Juan River, reference to, 281. Diamond, 19-20. Diopside, mentioned, 54. Dippers, wooden, Johnson Canyon, 318. Disease, belief concerning, 12. diagnosis by rock crystal, 31. use of jade for, 38. Divination, stones and gems used, 5, 31. Divorce, Cara, mentioned, 178. Troquois, reference to, 126. Doctor, Rev. Peter, Seneca informant, 83, 86, 91, 92, 95-97, 100, 149. Douglas, F. H., acknowledgement to, 234. Dreams, guessing at Midwinter Festival, 6 Eeuador, Governor of, acknowledge- ment to, 172. languages, reference to, 182. succession of cultures, 180. Education, Indian, Morgan’s interest in, 153. Eiseley, L. C. acknowledgement to, 234. Elmo’s Spring, Utah, reference to, 284. Emerald, 20-22, 56. Cara use of, 178. Indian knowledge of present mines, 9. mentioned, 2, 15. religious ceremonies of miners, 11. trade, 17, 19. various uses, 3, 5, 6. Faithkeepers, councils, 161. mentioned, 144, 150. Parker on, 158. False-face Society, purpose, 145. visits, data on, 160. Feast of Fools, description, 145. Feast of the Dead, mentioned, 132. See also Dead Feast. Beater dance, reference to, 146, 147, 163. INDEX Fenton, William N. (Iroquois suicide: A study in the stability of a culture pattern), 79-137. (Tonawanda Longhouse Cere- monies: Ninety years after Lewis Henry Morgan), 189-165. pees and charms, objects used, 5, 23, Finn Little Canyon, Utah, 284, 285, 286; 287. Fire, from pyrite, 42, 48. origin belief, 32. use in mining, 12, 24, 25, 44. use in quarrying, 33. Fire, ceremonial, rock crystal used, 31. Hine Tues Canyon, Utah, mentioned, 283. Flannery, Regina, quoted on Northern Algonquian suicide, reference to work, 122. Flint, distribution, 17, 33, 39, 41. Flood Canyon, Utah, 286. Fluorite, mines, 56. Fluorspar, 2, 46. Folsom points, materials used, 2. Four Rituals (Tonawanda), compared to other Seneca, 146-147. Foxes, mining methods, 13. Galena, 2, 40, 56. for black pigment, 4. idea of origin, 8. Garnet, 2, 27—28, 56. mines, spirits in, 11. Gem mining, Indian compared to Euro- pean, 10, 14. Gems and ornamental stones, beliefs concerning, 5, 7-9. See also Beliefs. distribution, table 1 (faces p. 55). sources, 6. trade, 16-19. tribes with widest knowledge, 6. uses by American Indians, 3-5. Gems, mined by American Indians, 19-38. Geology, Indian knowledge of, 6. Gibson, Jemima, Onondaga-Cayuga in- formant, 88. Gibson, Simeon, Onondaga-Cayuga in- formant, 85, 87-88. Gidd’s Canyon, Utah, reference to, 284. Gidd’s corral, Utah, reference to, 284. Gil, Mrs. John, acknowledgement to, 172. Gillin, John (The Quichua-speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecuador) and their anthropometric relations with the living populations of the Andean area), 167—228. Glen Canyon, Colorado Canyon, de- scription, 323-325. exploration, 325. location, 282. sites visited, 328-349. Gold, alluvial mining, 19. as tribute, 16. bartered for emeralds, 20-21. mining, beliefs and customs, 11. INDEX eon Abbie Brooks. See Brooks, ie. Gordon, Charles, Seneca informant, 84, 87, 94. Gordon, William, Seneca informant, 83-84, 92. Grand Religious Dance, mentioned, 155. Parker’s reference to, 157. Great Pueblo (III), San Juan River, reference to, 281. Green Bean Festival, or String Bean Dance: analysis, 160. composition of ceremonies, 162. procedure at, 146. reference to, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151. Green Corn Festival, or Ingathering of Food: analysis, 160. composition of ceremonies, 162. dances, 147. mentioned, 155. Morgan’s questions on, 151-152. Parker on, 154. procedure, 146. reference to, 145, 149, 151. Guano, a town in Ecuador, 180. Gypsum, distribution, 54. for whitening, 14. mining methods, 13. Hall’s Creek, Glen Canyon, explora- tion, 337-338, 341. Hamblin, Neaf, pottery belonging to, 305, 307. Hamblin’s ranch, Neaf, 286. Hammers. See Tools. Hammerstone, Johnson Canyon, 318. Hand-in-hand Dance, meaning, 146. Handsome Lake, a Seneca prophet, a teaching of, 157. mentioned, 88, 89, 90, 131, 148, 147, 150, 152. Harvard Anthropometric Laboratory, mentioned, 172. Harvest Corn Worship, Morgan’s ques- tions on, 152. Parker on, 155. Harvest Festival, analysis, 160. composition of ceremonies, 162. Parker on, 155. procedure, 146. reference to, 145, 149. Harvest Moon, reference to, 146. ence felt, worn by Imbabura Indians, Heckewelder, Rev. John, quoted on Delaware suicide, 104—105. Hematite, 41, 57. various uses, 2, 3, 4, 5. He-no, the Thunder, mentioned, 152. a J. N. B., acknowledgement to, or Bread Dance, Hieroglyphics, in catlinite mines, 50. See also Petroglyphs; Pictographs. 361 “Hole in the Rock,”’ Glen Canyon, site 11, 341. Sr Land Company, reference to, 150. Hooton, Prof. E. A., acknowledgement to, 171-172. Hopps, Peter, Mohawk informant, 85. Bont crescents, Johnson Canyon, 317-— Horn rattle, mentioned, 147. eee R. F., member of field trip, Houses, Glen Canyon, description, 329-332, 335, 3386, 337, 338, 339, 341-342, 348-344, 349. Johnson Canyon, adobe-wall pit lodges, 291-292. masonry cliff, 298, 350-352. masonry house cluster, 350-352, 353, 354. rectangular masonry, 292-298. slab structures, 288-290, 293, 295, 296-297, 350-353. Howe, Maurice, member of field trip, 282. Huayna Capac, reference to, 175, 179. eee B. O., member of field trips, 82. Huron, cases of poisoning prior to 1650, 109-111, 121. mentioned, 85, 106, 112, 113, 124, 125, 128, 129, 184. Imbabura, Ecuador, heredity of popu- lation, 179, 182-183. Peruvian influence, 179. possible origin of name, 181. Quichua-speaking Indians, 167- 228. some aspects of the prehistory, 175-183. succession of cultures, 179-180. Imbabura Indians, Angachagua group, 186-187. anthropological work among, com- parison of results, 1838-192. anthropometric measurements, ta- bles, 193, 198, 203, 208-226. archeological evidence, 181-182. conclusions, 192-198. food, 172. morphological observations, table 2, 194-198. Otavalo group, 186-187. present mode of life, 172-175. social and economic position, 172. tools used, 172. See also Cara. Implements. See Tools; Utensils. Incas, conquest of Imbabura, 179, 180. mentioned, 171, 175, 176, 178. Incense, temple, amber used, 5. Instruments, musical, minerals used, 6. surgical, minerals used, 3-4. Iris, 30, 33. Iron. See Hematite. Iron pyrite. See Pyrite. 362 Iroquois Pantheon, 143-144. Iroquois suicide: A study in the sta- bility of a culture pattern (Fenton), 79-137. See also Suicide. Irrigation, Imbabura Indians’ edge of, 172. Jack, David, Cayuga informant to F. W. Waugh, 87. Jacobs, Ezra, Seneca informant, 94. Jacobs, Harvey, Seneca informant, 84, 87, 94. Jacobs, John, Seneca informant, cited, knowl- 89. Jade, distribution, 34-35. Eskimo name for, 37. mistaken for emeralds, 22. religion in mining, 11. worship of, 5. various uses, 38, 5. See also Jadeite; Nephrite. Jadeite, 35-37. mentioned, 2. of Aztecs and Mayas, 10. sources unknown, 9. trade, 17, 19. Jasper, 33, 57. mentioned, 29. method of ae 12. various uses, 2, 5, 10. Jemison, Mary, 103-103, 1eP7 SB) Jenny’s ‘Clay Hole, Utah, reference to, 284, 285. Jet, 2, 43. Jij6n y Caamaifio, Jacinto: archeological evidence bura, 181-182. nonagreement with Velasco, 176. summary of cultures in Imbabura, 179-180. Jimmerson, Dwight, Seneca informant, 84, 87, 92, 98. Jimmerson, Josephine, Seneca inform- ant, 84, 87, 92. Joel’s Canyon, Utah, 286, 287. Johnny - John, Chauncey, (Cayuga) Seneca informant, 86-87. Johnson Canyon- Paria River region, Utah: architecture and villages, 288-298. cultural periods, evidence, 287, 352-354. industries, 315-318. plants, domesticated, 310-311. sites, cultural contents, 350-352. sites visited, list and description, in Imba- 282-288. subsistence, 310-315. Johnson, Jimmy, Handsome Lake’s successor, 147, 154. Johnson Lakes Canyon, Utah, 286, esi Jones, Earl, Onondaga informant, Judd, Alvin, ranch, 286. Kanab, Utah, reference to cultures, 281-282. Kelly, Charles, member of field trip, 282. INDEX Kkik’*b ana‘'gan, ‘‘vessel.” description and use, 236-237. Kitchen cabin, Utah, mentioned, 282— 283. Kitchen Canyon, Utah, 283, 284, 287, 290. Kitchen Creek, Utah, reference to, 284. Kiva, reference to, 297-298, 330, 335. Klondike Bar, Utah, locality of site 21, 344, Knives, drills, and scrapers, Johnson Canyon, 315-316. Labradorite, 7, 45, 57. Ladder, use in mining, 13. Lafitau, J. F., quoted on Iroquois suicide, 107-108. La France, Noah, Mohawk informant, 85. Lago de San Pablo, use of rafts on, 182. Lahontan, Baron de, quoted, 106, 114. thanksgiving speech published by, 156. Lake Canyon, Utah, locality of sites 5—9, 338-341. Lalement, i quoted, 109-110, 116, 117, 118. Lamberville, quoted, 108, 115. Lapidaries, mentioned, 29. South American, 22, 178. Lapis lazuli, 2, 28. trade, 17. La _ Potherie, quoted, 108. Latacunga, Province of, conquered by the Cara, 176. Laws, Indian mining, 15-16. Lazulite, 29 Lead mining, Sauk and Foxes, 18. Lead, Tri-State district, 40. See also Galena. LeJeune, Paul, quoted, 118, 119. Le Mercier, 1637, quoted, 110, 111, 133. Lignite, 43, 57. various uses, 2, 4. Limestone mines, 57. Little Water Medicine Society, monies, 145-146, 161, 163. Long Canyon, Utah, 286, 319. Long Lae, birchbark specimens, 262. Machachi, an Imbabura village, 176. Magnesite, 2, 39, 57. mining laws, 15. religious ceremonies in quarrying, ills M. de Bacqueville de, cere- uses, 4. Malachite, 2, 41, 57. uses, 4, 5 Manabi, Ecuador, mentioned, 176. Manos, Glen Canyon, 339, 342, 345. Maple Dance. See Maple Festival. Maple Festival, analysis, 159. composition of ceremonies, 162. mentioned, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149. Morgan’s questions on, 151. Parker on, 153-154. Marble Canyon, Colorado River, men- tioned, 324. INDEX Marcasite, 2. face powder, 43. Marriage, Iroquois, reference to, 96, 26. Match box, cylindrical, description, 239. Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum): Iroquois terms compared with waterhemlock, 111-113. poisonings, 103-106, 134. See also Suicide, methods. Mayas, knowledge of opals, 29. possessors of emeralds (?) 22. Means, Philip A., quoted, 180-181. Medicinal herbs, identified by taste, 88. Medicine men, belief in stones, 3, 5, 7-8. ceremony before mining, 49. mentioned, 37. surgical instruments, 3-4. treatment, 10. use of agate, 32. use of gypsum, 4. use of quartz crystals, 5. use of rock crystals, 31, 32. Medicine, minerals used by Indians, 6, Medicine societies, cures and renewals, periodic, 160-161. rites and dances, 163. Merlo, Dr. Louis Alfonso, acknowledge- ment to, 172. Meskin Bar, Utah, site 24, 346. Metal mining, Indian, 1-2. gee. Glen Canyon, 339, 341, 344, Johnson Canyon, 312-313, 350- 352, 353. Miami, mention of suicides, 114, 121, 128. Mica, 44-45, 57. locality, 9. mentioned, 2, 30. mining methods, 12. origin, 8. trade, 17. uses, 4. Micmac, mention of suicides, 128, 129. Midwinter, or New Year Festival, analy- sis, 158-159. Iroquois, composition of ceremonies, 161— 162. Morgan’s questions on, 152. Parker on, 155-156. procedure, 146, 147. reference to, 145, 149, 151. White Dog sacrifice. See under White Dog. Mineralogy, Indian knowledge of, 6-7. Mineral products, sources of Indian, 10- Minerals mined by American Indians, 38-45. Mines, Indian compared with Euro- pean, 10, 14. Indian, list, 56-59. 363 Mining, Indian, disasters, 14. effect on commercial conquest of America, 15. laws, 15-16. light used, 39. methods, 10-14. tribes outstanding in, 6. Mining of gems and ornamental stones by American Indians (Ball), ix—77. Mirrors, as means of divination, 5. materials used, 4, 42, 43, 53. Modified Basket Maker (III), San Juan River, reference to, 281. Mohawks, reference to, 85, 88, 93, 95, 113, 120-121, 124, 128, 134. Molly’s Nipple Canyon, Utah, men- tioned, 282, 283, 292, 319. Money. See Currency. Montagnais, mentioned, 270. See also Birchbark containers. Montagnais-Naskapi, absence of splint baskets, 241. Moon, Cara temples, description, 178. Moon, Cara worship of, 177-178. Moonstone, 2, 45. Moravian mission in Ohio, mentioned, 104. Morgan, Lewis Henry: account of Tonawanda ceremonies circa 1846, 147-151. acknowledgement to, 144. analysis of his field work among Seneca, 148-149. letter to E. S. Parker, 151-158. “New Confederacy” of, 148. Morphological observations (Imbabura Indians). tables, 194-207. Moss agate, distribution, 30. Folsom points, 2. mines, 57. See also Agate. Mullers, Glen Canyon, 341. Johnson Canyon, 313-314. Museum of the American Indian, bark- work specimens, 233, 234, 245, 262. Musical instruments. See Instruments. Naskapi, designs in birchbark, 255. Neaf Springs Canyon, 285. Nephi Canyon, Utah, mentioned, 283, 284. Nephrite, 37-38, 57. distribution, 34-35. mentioned, 2. origin, 17. sources unknown, 9. trade, 17, 19. various uses, 5, 6. Newtown longhouse, mentioned, 146, 149. New Year’s Festival. See Midwinter Festival. New York State Cabinet (Museum), mentioned, 148. 364 Nipissing, birchbark containers, 262. North wash, Glen Canyon, artifacts and houses, 328-329. Oak Canyon, Utah, 287, 319, 320. Oak Creek, Utah, 286. Obsidian, 52—54, 58. belief concerning disease, 10. mining laws, 15. mining methods, 12. musical quality, 6. origin, 8. possession of deposits, 16. spirits in, 11. trade, 17. types, 7. various uses, 2, 3, 4, 5. Offerings to the Sun (Cara), 178. Offerings, votive, before mining, 11, 15. calamine, 46. gems and stones, 5. pyrite, 43. turquoise, 22-23. Ojibwa, mention of art forms, 247. mention of suicides, 124, 126, 127, 128. See also Birchbark containers. Olbrechts, Frans M., quoted on Chero- kee suicide, 130. Olivine, 28, 58. Oneida, mentioned, 95, 120. Onondaga, customs at White Dog sacrifice, 156. reference to, 95, 107, 109, 113, 120-121, 124, 128, 129, 131, 134. Onyx, distribution, 30. Ooxrat, root resembling hellebore, 112. Opal, 2, 29. trade, 18. Ornamental stones. mental. Ornaments, Indian, 1, 3, 43. Johnson Canyon, 319. Oscar, root resembling hellebore, 112. Otavalo, Ecuador, a location of field work, 171. occupied by the Cara, 176. population in 1582, 176. resistance to Incas, 179. Otavalo group, conclusions, 192-193. foreign groups similar to, 192. Indians included in, 186-187. a mention of suicides, 124, 126, 2 See Stones, orna- Paint, copper used, 41. from Manzano Mountains, 12. hematite used, 41. limonite used, 14. mercury used, 1, 4. source of red, 13. See also Pigments. Spite (Surprise Valley), mentioned, Paniquita language, reference to, 182. Panzaleo, and Imbabura village, 176. Parent-child relations, Iroquois, indul- gence to children, 125. INDEX Parfleches (of the Plains), compared to bark folders, 239-240. Paria River region, Johnson Camnyon-. See Johnson Canyon-Paria River region. Parker, Arthur C., quoted, 89. Parker, Ely S., collaborator with Morgan, 150. letter from L. H. Morgan, 151-153. letter to L. H. Morgan, 153-158. mentioned, 147, 148, 149. Parker, Nicholson, mentioned, 148. rere Tucano-speaking, mentioned, Pattern concept, as applied to cere- monies (Tonawanda), 1438, 146, 151. as cultural continuant, 83, 85, 124, 134-135. conflict between ideal and practical, 131-1382, 135. relations between statuses, 123, 125. Peabody Museum of Harvard Univer- sity, acknowledgement to, 171-172. Pectolite, 38. early knowledge of, 7. trade, 19. Pennsylvania. University Museum, bark-work specimens, 233, 262. Pequots, reference to suicide, 127, 128. Personal Chant, reference to, 147, 163. Petroglyphs, Glen Canyon, 346, 349. Aztec Canyon, 343. Trachyte Creek, 336. White Canyon, 332-334. Petroglyphs, Johnson Canyon, 282, 284, 286, 287, 288, 314, 319-323, 331. Petroleum, use as a liniment, 1. Physical observations. See Morpho- logical observations. Pe oule, Glen Canyon, 329, 332- 34 Johnson Canyon, 282, 283, 284, 286, 288, 319. Pierce, Windsor, Seneca informant, 84- 85, 87, 94. Pifo, resistance to Incas, 179. Pigments, sources, 4. See also Paint. Pipes, black marble, 16. catlinite, 7, 49, 50, 51. soapstone, 47, 48. Pipestone, sources, 16. Planting Festival, or Seed Dance, anal- ysis, 159. composition of ceremonies, 162. Morgan’s questions on, 151. Parker on, 154. procedure at, 146. reference to, 145, 149. Plasma, distribution, 30. Platinum, Indian knowledge of, 2. Podophyllum peltatum. See Mayapple. Polygamy, mentioned, 178. Population, Johnson Canyon, 294. Potsherds, objects made from, Johnson Canyon, 309. INDEX Pottawatomie, reference to suicides, 126, 127, 128. Potter’s ranch, Utah, 282, 283. Pottery, Glen Canyon, 338-339, 341, 342-3438, 344-345, 346-349. Aztec Canyon, 343. Kayenta style, 335, 337, 342, 343. Mesa Verde style, 334-335. Redd Canyon, description, 337. Trachyte Creek, 335-336. eee Canyon, description, 334- 35. Pottery, Johnson Canyon-Paria River region: Basket Maker black-on-gray, 283, 287, 292, 299, 353. black-on-gray, 288. black-on-red, 307-309, 350. black-on-white, 282, 285, 286, 287, 307-309. black-on-white corrugated, 307- 309. corrugated, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 307-309, 350. “early” wares, 299, 350-352, 353. fugitive red, 307-309. incised ware, 305, 307. Johnson corrugated, 288, 299, 350, 353 description, 305. Johnson gray-tan, 288, 299, 350, 353 description, 304-305. “late” types, 299, 350-352, 353. North Creek black-on-gray, 299, 300. black-on-white, 353. Paria gray, 283, 287, 288, 292, 299, 353 description, 302, 304. plain, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 307-309. polychrome, 307-309. Pueblo III, lack of evidence, 353. red, 307-309. red-on-tan, description, 305. Sevier black-on-gray, 299, 353. “transitional” wares, 299, 350-352. Tusayan black-on-red, 288, 292, 299, 300-301, 353. a ea black-on-white, 288, 299, Tusayan (Virgin) black-on-white, 00, 353. intrusion of, , Tusayan polychrome, 288, 299, 302. Tusayan red, 288, 299, 302. unbaked clay, 282, 299. Prase, distribution, 30. Projectile points, Glen Canyon, 342. Johnson Canyon, 314-315, 350-352. See also Arrowheads. Prospecting, Indian, 9-10, 44. P‘ski-tana’gan “folded double,” scription and use, 237-238. Pski-tonage, “folded,” description and use, 239 de- 365 ee culture, Johnson Canyon, 353- 54, Pueblo I, San Juan, reference to, 287. Pueblo IT, San Juan, elements, 281, 292. reference to, 287, 293, 294. Pueblos, value of turquoise, 22-23. Pumice, as an abrasive, 4. Pursh, Frederick, botanist, quoted, 103. Puruha, alliance with the Cara, 176. Pyrite, 42-438, 57. mentioned, 2. origin belief, 8. various uses, 3, 4, 5. Quartz gems, distribution, 29-30, 33, 34. various uses, 2, 3, 4, 5. Quartz mines, disappearance, 6. Quichua-speaking Indians of the Prov- ince of Imbabura (Ecuador) and their anthropometric relations with the living populations of the Andean area (Gillin), 167—228. domestic animals, 172-173. dress, 174. houses, 173-174. language, 174-175. ornaments, 174. religion, 174. See also Imbabura Indians. Suis, an Imbabura tribe, mentioned, 175. Quitu, Kingdom of, 176. Quitus, early inhabitants of Imbabura, 179 Raffeix, Jesuit, referred to, 108. Rafinesque, C. 8., botanist, quoted, 102. Raguenau, Paul, quoted, 116, 117. Rainbow Bridge, Glen Canyon, locality of site 20, 3438. Redd Canyon (“Red Canyon’’), Utah, description of ruins, 336-337. Redeye, Henry (Onondaga), Seneca in- formant, 89. Religion, Tonawanda, Parker on, 157. Religious ceremonies, in emerald min- ing, 21. rock erystal used, 31. pen festivals (Tonawanda Sene- cas): calendric cycle, 144. ceremonial cycle, analysis, 158-164. Religious mysticism, regarding mineral deposits, 10-12. Riggs, Delbert, member of field trip, 282 Riggs’ ranch, Utah, mentioned, 283. River Desert Band, Algonquin, increase in population, 236. See also Birchbark containers. River du Liévre Band (Algonquin), baskets, ‘‘block”’ printing, 270-271. See also Birchbark containers. Rock Crystal, 30-32, 58. luminescence, 7. mentioned, 29, 44. origin, 8. trade, 17. various uses, 3, 4, 5. 366 Ruby. See Corundum. Rush Rhees Library, mentioned, 148. Sahaptian Tribes. See Birchbark bas- kets. Salt mining, beliefs and customs, 11-12. light used, 13-14. methods, 12-138, 14-15. Sand Hill longhouse, mentioned, 144, 147. San Roqué, Ecuador, a location of field work, 171. San Sabastian, stratified site of, 180. Sap Dance. See Maple Festival. Sapphire, used for gun flints, 20. See also Corundum. Satin spar, a source of, 39. mentioned, 2. Sauk, mention of suicide among, 124, 128. See also Foxes. Saulteaux, reference to suicide among, 126; 127,/128: See also Birchbark containers. Saussurite, mentioned, 54. Seapolite, 54. Schaeffer, C. E., acknowledgement to, 234. Seott, Donald, 172. Seaman Canyon, Utah, 285. Seed Dance. See Planting Festival. Selenite, distribution, 58. light used for mining, 14. mentioned, 2. uses, 4. Seneca, reference to, 83-94 passim, 99, 104, 108, 109, 113, 120-121, 124, 125, 128, 130, 182, 133. Senecas, Tonawanda Band. See Tona- wanda Longhouse Ceremonies. Serpentine, 2, 7, 39, 58. Sex relationship, taboo on, 12. Shamanistic medicine societies, refer- ence to, 145. Shawnee, mention of suicide among, 128. Sherds ground to circles, Johnson Can- yon, 309-310. See also Pottery. Shoemaker, John, member of field trip, 282. Silicosis, possible existence among In- dians, 10. Sillimanite, mentioned, 54. Silverheels, Old (Seneca), reference to, 150-151. Sioui, Prudent, informants, 85. Sioux, mention of art, 260. mention of suicide, 127, 130. Skeletal materia], Johnson Canyon, 319. Skye, Simeon, Tonawanda _ Seneca, quoted, 149. Slate, 45, 58. Smelting of metals, Indian, 2, 14, 40. Smith, Mrs. Elna N., acknowledgement to, 83 acknowledgement to, daughters of Huron INDEX Smithsonite, 42. Snow, Josephine, Seneca informant, 87, 92-93. Snow, Sarah, Seneca informant, 84, 87, 92-93. Snuff, from hellebore, 112. Soapstone (steatite), 2, 47-48, 58-59. localities, 9. religion in mining, 11. trade, 16, 17, 19. various uses, 3, 6, 7. Social disorganization, concept, 122. Society of the Chanters for the Dead, reference to, 126. See also Chanters for the Dead. Sodalite, 2, 7, 28, 59. Soursprings longhouse, mentioned, 148. Speck, Dr. Frank G., acknowledgement to, 148, 151. (Art processes in birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a cir- cumboreal trait), 229-274. Spirits: Evil Spirit, attributes, 157. Great Spirit, attributes, 157. in gems and decorative stones, 5. in mines, 15. relation to mineral deposits, 10-12. spirits of the corn, beans, and squash, dances to, 146-147. Stalactitic calcite. See Calcite. Standing Quiver Dance. See Trotting Dance. Staurolite, 39. Steatite. See Soapstone. Steward, Julian H. (Archeological re- connaissance of Southern Utah), 275- 356. Stirling, Matthew W., acknowledgement too 2. a Stone objects, Johnson Canyon, 318- 319. Stones, precious and decorative: Apache directional symbolism, 26. distribution, table I (faces 55). ideas of origin, 7—9. mined by American Indians, 45—59. uses by American Indians, 3-5. Strawberry Festival, or Strawberry Dance: analysis, 159. composition of ceremonies, 162. mentioned, 145, 146, 149. Morgan’s questions on, 151. Parker on, 154. String-bean Festival, or String-bean Dance. See Green Bean Festival. Suarez, Gonzalez, cited, 181. Suicide, Iroquois, analysis, distributions, and conclusions, 120-135. attitude toward, 86-91, 107, 114, 120-121, 130-134. causes or motives, 90, 107, 114, 120-121, 124-128. frequency, 86, 88, 90, 94, 120-123. INDEX Suicide, Iroquois—Continued. fundamental patterns, stability of, 134-135. Eaeence of European civilization, 122. informants on, 838-85. individual names. linguistic evidence, 85-86. methods, 86-88, 90-121, 129-130. miscellaneous modern, 99-101. poisonings, 91-95, 102-111, 120-121. See also May- apple; Waterhemlock. potent 95-99, 114-119, 120— 121. sources of case material, 120-121. Sun, Cara worship of, 177-178. cult, origin, 178. dance, mentioned, 151. sun-shooting ceremony, 145, 159. ae of (Quito), description, 177— 178. See also analysis, Sunstone, 45, 59. oe religious, question of, 269- 270. yellow water lily design, 256-257. Taboo, against war, 49, 52. concerning turquoise, 14. possibility of, 35. sex relationship, 12. Tantaquidgeon, Miss Gladys, reference to work, 271. Tétes de Boule, absence of baskets, 241. See also Birchbark containers. Textiles, Johnson Canyon-Paria River region, 317. Thanksgiving Dance, mentioned, 147, in Algonquin Parker’s reference to, 157. Thanks-to-the-maple (Sap Dance). See Maple Festival. Thunder Ceremony or Rain Dance, 145, 155, 160. Thunderers, Parker on, 157. reference to, 150, 151, 155. Timagami. See Birchbark containers. Timiskaming Band (Algonquin). See Birchbark containers. Toltecs, beliefs concerning jade, 35. knowledge of precious stones, 9. trade with Southwest, 26. use of turquoise, 27. Tonawanda Longhouse Ceremonies: Ninety years after Lewis Henry Morgan (Fenton), 139-165. conclusion concerning, 151. cycle of, 144, 158-164. festivals analyzed, 158-160, 161-— 162. (See also names of festivals.) medicine society cures and renew- als, periodic, 160-161. specific rites and dances, 163-164. 367 Tonawanda Longhouse, location, 144. Tonawanda pattern (of ceremonies), compared with other tribes, 146-147. Tools: Cara, 177. eraving, 4. Imbabura, 172. Johnson Canyon, 311-312, 315-318. materials used, 38, 47. mining, 12, 13, 24, 25, 33, 39, 40, 44, 50, 54. Tourmaline, 22, 59. Trachyte Creek, Glen Canyon, speci- mens from, 335-336. village ruins, 335. Trade, agatized wood, 33-34. amber, 46, 47. catlinite, 48-49, 51. gems and precious stones, 16-19, jade and jadeite, 35. jasper, 33. magnesite, 39. mica, 44. nephrite and jade, 37-38. obsidian, 52, 54. pyrite, 42. turquoise, 25-27. weight-and-measure inspectors, 19. Trotting, or Standing Quiver Dance, reference to, 146, 147. eee Yupanqui, an Inca conquerer, Turquoise, 22—27, 59. another term for 23, 35. Indian knowledge of mines, 9. mentioned, 2, 15, 31, 50. mining disasters, 14. mining methods, 12, 138. trade, 17, 19. value compared to emerald, 20. various uses, 3, 4, 5. Turtle rattles, mentioned, 147. Tusa (modern San Gabriel), Ecuador, mentioned, 176. Tusayan culture, 292. See also Pottery. Tuscarora, reference to suicide, 99, 113, 120, 124, 128. Tutelo, case of suicide, 128, 129. Utah, comparison of cultures, 354-356. University, acknowledgment to, 281. Museum of Anthropology, spec- imens, Steward expedition, 282. Utensils, hewn at quarry, 47, 48. household, minerals used, 3. Johnson Canyon, from potsherds, 309. mining, 13. soapstone, 7. See also Metates; Mullers; Dippers. Variscite, 2, 45. early knowledge of, 7. present reference to, 368 Velasco, Juan de: account of the Cara, 183. archeological evidence, 182 176-179, 181- Verneau and Rivet, quoted, 178, 182. Vimont, quoted, 117-118. Votive offerings. See Offerings, votive. Wabanaki. See Birchbark containers. Water drum, mentioned, 147. Waterhemlock (Cicuta maculata L.), 86-88. cure for poisoning by, 94, 103. length of use as poison, 130-131, 134. medicinal use, 92. poisonings 1720-1672, 106-109. proof of identity, 111-113. use at Onondaga, 103. various tribal names for, 87, 88, 94, 95, 118. See also Suicide, Iroquois, methods, poisonings. Waterhemlock (Cicuta ramis bulbiferus), mentioned, 103. Waugh, F. W., reference to, 84, 85, 88. Wayne, H. A., reference to, 98-99. Weapons, materials used, 3. Webster, Captain (Onondaga), men- tioned, 108. West Canyon Creek, Utah, site 23, 346. White Canyon, Utah, description of house ruins, 329-332. specimens, 334-335. INDEX White Dog sacrifice, mentioned, 145, 150, 163. Morgan’s questions on, 152. Parker on, 155-156. Whortleberry Festival, analysis, 160. mentioned, 149. Wigwasanagen, “birchbark dish,” de- scription and use, 239. Wi'gwémat’ “birchbark description, 236. Wildcat Canyon, 283, 284, 287. Wildcat Spring, Utah, mentioned, 283. Windows, materials used, 4. Winnebago, mention of suicide, 128. Wie J., reference to work on suicide, Witches, doctrine of, reference to, 152. Parker on, 157-158. Women, Iroquois, superior position of, 124, 126. irae dance, reference to, 146, 147, 164. Worship, objects of, 5. See also Religious ceremonies, ete. Roo (Oklahoma), mentioned, 85, Yaguarcocha, defense of, 181-182. use of rafts on, 182. Zambiza, Ecuador, nationality of popu- lation, 179. Zeisberger, Rev. David, quoted, 104. receptacle,”’ Utah, mentioned, O iia De. all Pe ey ey Re ikl ij x } Ry ri Wey, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES ATEN 3 9088 01421 8721