Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestiy- Plate I. LL.INUI.C..I I'li.L. PlNUS PALUSTRIS). Bulletin No. 13. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. THE TIMBER PINES OE THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D. TOGETHER WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD. By FILIBERT ROTH. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF B. K. FERNOW, CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY. WASIimGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Washington, 1). V., May L>6, 1896. Sir: I have tlio honor to submit herewith for publication a series of monographs on the five pines of economic importance in the Southern Tiiited States, a result of many years' study by Dr. Charles Mohr, the well-known autliority on the botany of tiie Southern States and agent of the Division of Forestry . The first draft of these monographs was prepared several years ago, but it was then found that in order to make them fully satisfactory and useful to the practitioner much additional infor- mation was needed, especially regarding the rate- of growth and other sylvicultural as well as technological questions. This infornuition has been gradually accumulated as our facilities have permitted. The extended investigations carried on in this division may be considered (piito exhaustive, especially in regard to the mechanical projierties of the wood of these pines. An interesting chapter on the wood structure by !Mr. Filibert lloth has been added, and a compar- ative study of the economic, sylvicultural, and technical characteristics and value of the pines under consideration^a resume'', as it were, of the contents of the monographs — is to be found in the introduction by the writer. The pineries of the South furnish now, or will in the near future, the most im]iortant staples of our lumber industry. According as they are treated, carefully or wastefully, they will continue for a longer or shorter time to be a wealth-producing resource of the South. To aid in securing a true conception of the extent, condition, and value of this resource, and of the nature, development, cliarMcteristics (botanical, sylvicultural, and technological) of tliese pines, these monogra])hs have been written, with the hope of inducing rational forestry methods in their use and rei)roduction. Eespectfully, B. E. Fernow, Chkf of Uicision. Hon. J. Sterlincj Morton, /Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Pago. Intiodnctiou. l\y B. H Fehnow 11 Botanical diagnosis of the I'mir inincipal piiu's occurriuji in the Sontbern States 12 Nonu'nclatnre of Sontbern pines 1'5 Characteristics of the wood of .Southern pines 1-i Mechanical properties 11 Relation of strength to weight 14 Weight relations 15 Distribution of weight and strength throughout the tree It' Effect of age 17 Range of values for weight and strength 18 Inlluence of locality 18 Influence of nioistuie 19 Weight and moisture 20 Shiinkage 20 Effect of "boxing," or "lileeding" 21 Use of the wood 21 Rate of growth 22 Statistics and conclnsions 23 Lougleaf Pine {I'inus 2}(dn!itri!j Miller). By Ciiaui.ks Momt, Ph. 1) 27 Introductory 29 Historical — ' Geographical distribution ^" Characteristics of distribution in different regions ''0 Timber regions — supply and production ■ ■■■ ''1 The Atlantic pine legion '^1 The maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf region •^•^ The central pine belt of Alabama '1 The forests of Lougleaf Pine in north Alabama 11 The region of L(mglcaf Pine west of the Mississippi River H Products. 1(3 Value and uses of thi> wood Resinous products of the Longleaf Pine Products obtained from the leaves of Longleaf Pino 18 Nomenclature .and elassitication Botanical description and morphology Root, stem, and branch systi^m Leaves and their modifications Floral organs Seeds '^ The wood Growth and development '^' Conditions of development ' Demands upon soil and climate ' Associated species ' Enemies Exploitation Fires "^ Til ... 62 Live stock „. 62 Storms Fungi , . Do Insects 5 6 CONTENTS. Lon^'lraf Pino ( I'iint.i jMlustria Miller). By Charles Mohr, Ph. D.— Continued. Paje. Natural reproduction *^^ Forest management 64 Conclusion f>6 Appendix. — The Naval Store Industry G7 Resin, or crude turpentine ■ ''7 Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine ()7 Kosin of colophony 'i^ Pine tar 68 Common pitch GS Historical remarks 68 Turpentine orcharding in the forests of Longleaf Pine 69 Distillation 70 Cost of establishing a ])lant and working the crops 71 Eflects of the production of naval stores upon the timber, the life of the tree and the conditions of the forest 72 The(.'ul)an Pino {I'iiius hetcrophyHa (KU.) Sudworth). By CiiAni.ES Moitu, Ph. 1) 73 Introductory 75 Oeographical distribution 75 Products 71) Kesinous products 76 Classilication and nomenclature 76 Description and morphological characters 77 Flowers 77 The wood 79 Progress of development 81 Requirements for develoj)ment 84 Soil 84 The Short leaf Pine (Pinus ichiitala Miller). By Charles Moni;, Ph. D 85 Introduction 87 Historical 87 Geographical distribution 87 Characteristics of distribution in ditfereut regions 88 Produ c ts 93 Nomenclature and classification 93 Botanical description 95 Leaves ' Si5 Flowers 95 Cones 95 Seed 95 The wood 97 Progress of development 9!^ Conditions of development 101 Soil and climate 101 Relation to light and as.soeiated species 102 Enemies 102 Forest managenwnt 104 The l,(>l)lol]y Pino (/'()/ »s tiitia Linn). By CiiARLKS MoiiR, Ph. D 105 Introduction 107 Historical 107 rieograi)hical distribution and economic history 108 Products Ill Value ;ind uses of the wood ' Ill Resinous ]iroduets 112 Nomenclature and classilicatiiui U3 Botanical description and morphology 113 Root, stem, and branch system 113 Leaves 115 Floral organs 115 The wood 117 Progress of development 118 Rate of growth , 118 Conditions of development 121 Soil ami climate 121 Relation to light and associated species 122 Enemies 122 CONTENTS. 7 Tlie Loblolly Tine (Piini« inda Linn). By Charles Moiir, Ph. D.— Continued. P^e Natural reprodnction ^i Conclusion The Spruce Pine {Pinus gJahra Walter). By Charles MoHU, Ph. I) ....!!. 125 Introductory ^ i^_ Historical , ,,_ Distribution ^^_ Economic importance ^n- Botanical descri])tiou ,qo Progress of development , ,jg Enemies ^ „„ Requirements of development -.on Notes on the structure of the wood of the five pines, Pinus pine hills, or pine barrens proper, with a width of 50 to 120 miles, tin' true home of the Longleaf Pine, which occupies it almost by itself; (3) the belt of mixed growth of 20 to (iO miles in width, in which the Longleaf Pine loses its predominance, the Shortleaf, the Loblolly, and the hard woods associating and disputing territory with it; and (4) the Shortleaf Pine belt, where the si)e(;ies i)redominates on the sandy soils, the Longleaf being entirely absent and the Loblolly only a feeble competitor, hard woods being interspersed or occupying the better sites. Within the terri- tory the species that occur occupy ditt'erent situations. Thus the Cuban, which accompanies the Longleaf, usually occupies the less well-drained situations, together with the Loblolly, which, although it can accommodate itself to all soils, reaches its best development in the rich lowlands and is s|)ecially well developed in the Hat woods which border the coast marshes of eastern Texas, where it associates with the Shortleaf Pine it also seeks the moister situation. The Longleat and vShortleaf ])ines are, in quantity and (luality combined, the most important, while the Loblolly or Oldlicld Pine, as yet not fully apjueciated, comes next, occupying large areas. The Cuban Pine, usually known as Slash Pine — always cut and sold without distinction with the Longleaf Pine — a tree of as fine ijuality and of more rajiid growth than t-he Longleaf Pine, is associ- ated witli the latter in the coast pine belt, scattered in single individuals or gronjjs, but api)ears to increase in greater proportion in the young growth, being by its manner of development in early life better fitted to escape the dangers to which the aftergrowth is ex])osed. P>esides these four most im])ortant pines, there are a number of others of less significance. The White Pine {Finns stroMis) of the North extends its reign along the higher mountain regions of North Carolina into (ieorgia, forming a valuable timber tree, but of small extent. The Spruce Pine, to which a. short chapter is devoted in this bulletin, develops into timber size, but is found only in snnill (juantities and mostly scattered, and has therefore as yet not received attention in lumber markets; but its cpudities. and especially its forestal value, being a pine which endures shade, will probably be appreciated in the future. The other four species of pine found in the South, which ai)pear in the table below, which gives their botanical distinctions, do not develop into timber trees of value, excepting that the Scrub Pine, occupying large areas of abandoned fields in Virginia, furnishes a considerable amount of firewood. BOTANICAL DIAGNOSIS OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL PINES OCCURRING IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. Species. Pinui' pahistritf Miller. Pinus heteropkylla (EU.) Sudw. Leaves Cones (open) Scales Tlireeinabundio,9fo 12 (exceptionally 14 to 15) inclieslong. 6 to 9 inehen lonp, 4^ to 5 inches in diameter Seveu-eifibtliH to 1 inch broad; tips much wrinklud; lijilit chestnut brown ; gray with age. Two and three in a bundle; 7 to 12 (nsnallv 9 Ut 10) inches long. 4tof>.i (usually 4 to 5) inche.shnig; 3 to 42 inches in diameter. Eleven-sixteenths to hcvcu eighths incli broa*l; tips, wrinkled; deep russet brown ; whiuy. Three-fourths inch long, one-half inch in diameter, silver white. About one-half inch long; onefonrth inch in diameter; brownish. Species. Pinv^ echinata Miller. Pinua t moderately hard (hard for pine), requiring al)out 1,000 pounds per square inch to indent one-twentieth inch; stiff', the modulus of elasticity being from l,."iOO,000 upward; strong, re(iniring from 7,000 pounds per s(|uare inch and npwai'd to break in bending and over 5,000 pounds in comi)ression when yard-dry. The values given in this circular are averages based on a large number of tests from which only defective pieces are excluded. In all cases where the contrary is not stated the weight of the wood refers to kihi-diied material ami tiie strength to wood confaining 1.5 per cent moisture, which may be conceived as just on the border of air-dried condition. The first table gives fairly well the range of strength of commercial timber. Average etrenrilh of Southern Pitie. [Air-dry niateri:il (about 15 jier cent moi,sture).] Compression strength. Bending strength. " £ With grain. Across grain (3 per cent indenta- tion ) . per square inch. At rupture , , 3Wi modulus 2 jft,- At elastic limit mol„lIy Pine... .Sluirlluat Pine.. Pounds. 1. 850 6,850 6,500 5,900 100 87 83 75 Poitnda. 6.50O 5,650 5,350 4,800 100 87 82 74 Pounds. 1,050 1,000 990 940 Pounds. 11,950 10, 900 10, 100 9,230 100 91 84 77 Pounds. 8, 750 100 8, 800 101 8, 100 1 92 7, 000 ' 80 Poundjt. 9, 4,10 8.500 8,150 7,20U Pounds. 2, 305. 000 l,h90. OUO 1, 95U, 000 1,600,000 Pounds. 2.5 2.3 2.25 2.05 Lbs. 14,300 15,200 14,400 13,400 Lbs. cso 70S 090 688 KELATION OF STRENOTH TO MTIIGHT. The intimate relation of strength and specific weight has been well established by the exjieri- ments. The average results obtained in connection with the tests themselves were as follows: Transverse stronglh Specific weight of teat pieces. Cuban, i Longleaf. I Loblolly. I ShorUeuf. 100 100 91 94 77 77 WEIGHT RELATIONS. 15 Since, in the determination of the specific gravity above given, wood of the same i)cr cent of moisture (as is the case of the vahies of strength) was not always involved, and also since the test })ieces, owing to size and shape, can not perfectly represent the wood of the entire stem, the following results of a special inquiry into the weight of the wood represents probably more accurately the weight and with it the strength relations of the four species. WEIGHT RELATIONS. [These data refer to the average speciiic weight for all the wood of each tree, only trees of approximately the same age being involved.] Average age of trees years . Number ot trees involved. Specific gravity of dry wood : "Weight i)er cubic foot pounds Relative weight (Transverse strength *) uban. Longlcaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. 171 127 137 131 6 22 14 10 0.63 0.61 0.53 0.51 39 38 33 32 100 97 84 81 (100) (91) (84) (77) * The values of strength refer to all tests, and therefore involve trees of wide range of age and consequent^- of quality, especially those of Longle.af ; involve much wood of old trees, hence the relation of weight and strength appears less distinct. From these results, although slightly at variance, we are justified in concluding that Cuban and Longlcaf Piue are nearly alike in strength and weight and excel Loblolly and Shortleaf by about i'O per cent. Of these latter, contrary to common belief, the Loblolly is the heavier and sti'onger. The weakest material would differ from the average material in transverse strength by about •2(i per cent, and in compression strength by about 30 to .'5;j per cent, e.\ce])t Cuban Pine, for which the difference appears greater in transverse and smaller in compression strengtli. It must, of course, not be overlooked that these figures are obtained liom full-grown trees of the virgin forest, that strength varies with physical conditions of the material, and that therefore an intelligent inspection of the stick is always necessary before applying the values in practice. They can only represent the average conditions for a large amount of material. DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT AND STRENGTH THROUGHOUT THE TREE. Weight and strength of wood at different lieiijlits in the tree. strength of Longleaf Pine (pounds per square inch). Specific weight. Mean of all three species (relative weight). Relative strength of Bending strength. Compres- sion endwise (with grain). Longleaf. Loblolly. Shortleaf. Pine (mean of com- l)ression and bending). 56 150 (over! 22 127 14 113 12 131 48 56 Number of feet from stump : 0 .751 106 .705 100 .674 06 .624 SO .590 8-1 .560 80 .539 77 .528 75 .629 106 .695 100 .578 97 .534 00 .508 8G .491 Si .476 80 .470 79 614 6 12,100 100 11,650 9B 10, 70O «.< 10,1110 84 9,500 7,9 9,000 8,600 71 7,350 100 7,200 OS 6,800 OS 6,500 80 6,300 86 6,150 »J 6,050 83 105 KIK 585 ion 07 00 86 82 79 76 10 100 .565 97 .523 00 .496 85 .472 SI .455 78 .454 78 100 97 90 85 81 78 77 20 30 40 .50 60 Note. — Relative values are indicated by italic figures. 16 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. In any one tree the wood is lighter aiul weaker as we pass from the base tu the top. This is true of every tree and of all four species. The decrease in weight and strength is most pronounced in tlie first 20 feet from the stump and grows smaller upward. (See fig. 1.) 49.6 20 20 30 40 Feet from Stump. Fig. 1. — Diagram showing variation of weight, willi h<'ight of tree. 50 This great difference in weight and strength between butt and top finds explanation in the relative width of the suinmerwood. Since the specific weight of the dark summcrwood band in each ring is in tlirifty growth from ().()() to 1, wliile that of the springwood is only about O.JiO, the relative amount of summerwood furnishes altogether the most delicate and accurate measure of these differences of weight as well as strength, and licncc is the surest criterion forocular inspection of quality, especially since this relation is free from the disturbing inlluence of botli resin and moisture contents of the wood, so consi)icu()iis in weight determinations. The following figures show tlie distribution of the summerwood in a single tree of Longleaf Pine, as an example of this relation: At Uh' Htnnip 32 fi-i-t from wluni]i 87 foul froiii stumi) 111 till- 10 ^" *''® '" ' I 111 (uo 1 rings Nns. Average for Specific rings nixi jp,, ,y ,,„ g„,j„. ,^1,;^ weight. to tliobiirli. from bark. Per cent. Per cent. 37 .52 2S 38 IS 37 Per cent. 50 33 26 0.73 .59 .55 EFFECT OF AGE. 17 Logs from the top cau usually be roeosiiizod by the hiiger pereeiitage of sapwood and the sinaller i)rop()itioii and more regular outlines of the bands of sumnierwood, which are more or less wavy in the butt k)gs. Both weight and streugth vary in the different parts of the same eross section from eeuter to periph- ery, aud though the variations appear frequently irregular in single individuals, a detinite law of rela- tion is nevertheless discernible in large averages, and once detern)ined is readily observable in every tree. A separate inquiry, avoiding the many variables which enter into the mechanical tests, permits the fol- lowing deductions for the wood of these pines, and especially for Longleaf; the data I'eferriiig to weight, but by inference also to strength : 1. The \ariation is greatest in the butt log (the heaviest part) and least in the top logs. •2. The variation in weight, hence also in strength, from center to periphery depends on the rate of growth, the heavier, stronger wood being formed dur- ing the period of most rapid growth, lighter and weaker wood in old age. 3. Aberrations from the normal growth, due to unusual seasons aud other disturbing causes, cloud the uniformity of the law of variation, thus occasion- ally leading to tlie foiiuation of heavier, broad ringed '"^^' wood in old, and lighter narrow-ringed wood in young- trees. 4. Slow-growing trees (witli narrow rings) do not make less heavy, nor heavier wood than thriftily grown trees (with wide rings) of the same age. (See tig. 2.) EFFECT OF AGE. The interior of the butt log, representing the young sapling of less than fifteen or twenty years of age, and the central portion of all logs containing the pith and two to live rings adjoining, is always light and weak. The heaviest wood in Longleaf and Cuban Pine is formed between the ages of fifteen and one hundred and twenty years, with a specific weight of over 0.(50 and a maxinuim of 0.G6 to 0.08, between the ages of forty and sixty years. The wood formed at the age of about one hundred years will have a specific weight of 0.62 to 0.03, which is also the average weight for the entire wood of old trees; the wood formed after this age is lighter but does not fall below O.oO ui) to tlie two hundredth year; the strength varies in the same ratio. In the shorter-lived Loblolly and Shortleaf the period for the formation of the heaviest wood is between the ages of fifteen and eighty, tiie average weight being tlieu over 0.50, with a maximum of O.o7 at the age of thirty to forty. The average weight for old trees (0.51 to 0.52) lies about the seventy-flfth year, the weight then falling off to about 0.45 at the age of one hundred and forty, and continuing to decrease to below 0.38, as the trees grow older. 17433— No. 13 2 tr^iyi BOO Sc/ti£ i^£ffr/CAi /s M. = //vr Fig. 2. — Schematic section through stem of Lon;:ie:if Piue, sliowiug variation of specific weiglit witli lieiylit, iliamctcr, and age at twenty (a/^fi), sixty (t/ct/), one huiulrcd ami twenty {eeee), and two liundrod (/^//) years. 18 .TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. That these statements refer only to the clear portions of eacli log, and are variably attected at each whorl of knots (every 10 to 30 inches) according to thi-ir size, and also by the variable amounts of resin (nit to 20 per cent of the dry weight), must be self-evident. Sapwood is not necessarily weaker than heurtwood, only usually the sapwood of the large- sized trees we are now using is represented by the nariowringcd outer part, whieli was formed during the old-age iteriod of growth, when naturally lighter and weaker wood is made; but the wood formed during tin; more thrifty diameter growth of the first eighty to one hundred years — sapwood at the time, changed into heartwood later— was even as sapwood the heaviest and strongest. RANGE OF VALUES FOR WEKillT AND STRENGTH. Although the range of values for the individual tree of any given species varies from butt t<) top, and from center to periphery by 15 to 25 per cent, and occasionally more, the deviation from average valutis from one individual to another is not usually as great as has been believed; thus, of 56 trees of Longleaf Pine, 42 trees varied in their average strength by less than 10 per cent from the average of all 50. The, following table of weight (wliicli is a direct and fair indicatiou of strength), representing all the wood of the stem and excluding knots and other defects, gives a more perfect idea of the range of these values : liaiKje of tpvcific weight with aije (kihi-dritd u-ood). [To avoid fractions tlie valuer are multipUod by 100.] Cuban. Longleaf. LobloUy. Shortleaf. Nuinbor of trt-en involved 24 61 63 96 59 60.5 62 61 55 00 50 Trees Olio hiimlrid jind (itty to two liniidred years old. .. 50 53 53.4 53 48 51 55 57 53 61 55 51 Though occaf onally some very exceptional trees occur, especially in Loblolly and Shortleaf, the range on the whole is generally within remarkably narrow limits, as appears from the following table : lUinge uf specific weight in trees of the same age apin-oximatvlg ; averages for whole trees. [Spt^iilli! gravity inultiyjliid by 100 to avoid fractions.) Kamo. Number of trees. Agfi, years. Single trees. Average. Cuban Pino 10 12 150-200 60-100 100-150 125-15U 100-150 50 60 59 51 45 68 ' 62 58 1 00 66 1 57 65 59 62 51 47 62.5 1 60.9 60.5 52.8 50.8 67 60 55 SO •58' 53 51 59 54 55 57 55 55 57 55 53 66 52 51 59 62 57 51 47 53 53 50 S3 From this table it would appear that single individuals of one species would approximate single individuals of another species so closely that the weight distinction seems to fail, but in large numbers, for instance carloads of material, the averages above given will prevail. INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY. In both the Cuban and Longleaf IMiio the locality where grown appears to have but little influence on weight or strength, and there is no reason to believe that the Longleaf Pine from one State is better than that I'rom any other, since such variations as are claiimd can lie foninl on any 40-aere lot of timber in any State. Hut with Loblolly, and still more with Shortleaf, this seems not to be the case. Heing widely distributed over many localities ditVerent in soil and climate, the growth ol' the Shortleaf Pine seems materially inlhieneed by location. Tiie wood from tlie Southern Ooastand (iulf region and even Arkansas is generally heavier than the wood from localities (art her north. Very light and line grained wood is seldom met near the southern limitof the range, while it is almost the rnlt^ in jVIissoiiri, where forms resembling the Norway Pine are by no nieans rare. The Loblolly, occupying both wet and dry soils, varies accordingly. INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE ON STUENQTII. 19 INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE. This influence is among the most important, hence all tests have been made with due regard to moisture contents. Seasoned wood is stronger than green and moist wood; the ditlereuce between green and seasoned wood may amount to 50 and even 100 per cent. The influence of seasoning consists in (1) bringing by means of shrinkage about 10 per cent more fibers into tlie same square inch of cross section than are contained in the wet wood; (li) shrinking the cell wall itself by about 50 per cent of its cross section and thus hardening it, just as a cowskiu becomes thinner and harder by drying. In the following tables and diagram this is fully illustrated; the values presented in these tables and diagrams are based on large numbers of tests and are fairly safe for ordinary use. They still require further revision, since the relations to density, etc., have had to be neglected in this study. Jnjhieiice of iiinistiire on sirenijth. Dending strength : (Ireon ]l:ilt' ilry Yard dry Kcjoni dry Cruehing endwise: Green , Half dry Yard dry Koorii dry Mean ut' both bending and enj«hing strength: Green Half dry Yard dry Boom dry Per cent of mois- ture. 3^+ 20 15 10 33 + 20 15 10 33+ 20 15 10 Average of all valid tests. c-"-- "CI 8,450 10. U50 11, 950 15, 30U 5,000 6.600 7,850 9, 200 7,060 8,900 10, 900 14, 000 4,450 5,450 6, 850 ',), 200 Lob- lolly. 7,370 8, 050 10, 100 12, 400 4,170 5,350 6,500 8,650 Short- leaf. 6,900 8,170 9,230 11, 000 4,160 5,100 5,900 7,000 Kelative values. Cuban. 100 118 142 181 100 132 157 184 100 125 149 182 Long- leaf. 100 116 142 182 100 122 1,54 206 100 Hi) 148 194 Lob- lolly. 100 117 138 168 156 200 100 122 147 187 Short- leaf. 100 118 134 160 100 122 142 168 100 120 138 164 Aver- age. 100 117 139 173 100 126 152 191 100 122 146 182 4 S & 7 S S Fia. 3 — Uia^'ram showing variation of compression strength with uioiaturo. It will be observed that the strength increases by about 50 per cent in ordinary good yard seasoning, and that it can be increased about 30 per cent more by complete seasoning in kiln or house. Large timbers require several years before even the yard-seasoned condition is attained, but 2-inch and lighter material is generally not used with more than 15 per cent of moisture. 20 TIMBElt PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Si>c'(;ifl(' gravity = WEIGHT AND MOISTURE. So far the weight of only the kiln-dry wood has been considered. In fresh as well as all yard and air dried material tliero is contained a variable amount of water. The amount of water contained in fresh wood of these pines forms more than half the weight of the fresh sapwood, and about one-lifth to one fourth of the lieartwood. In yard-dry wood it falls to about 12 to IS i>er cent, while iu wood iicpt in well-ventilated, and especially in heated rooms it is about ."> to 10 per cent, varying with size of ))iece, part of tree, species, temperature, and lnunidity of air. Heated to 150^ F. (Ct't^ C), the wood loses all but about U to 2 per cent of its moisture, and if the temperature is raised to 175o F. there remains less than 1 per cent, the W(jo(l dried at 212'-' F. being assumed to be (though it is not really) perfectly dry. Of course, large pieces are in practice never left long enough exposed to become truly kiln dry. though in factories this state is often approached. As long as the water in the wood amounts to about 30 per cent or more of the dry weight of the wood there is no shrinkage ' (the water coming from the cell lumen), and the density or specific gravity cliaugco simply in direct i)roportion to the loss of water. When the moisture i)er cent falls below about 30. the water comes from the cell wall, and the loss of water and weight is accom- panied by a loss of volume, so that both factors of the frac- tion weight volume are all'ected. and the change in the specific giavity no lon- ger is simply projjortional to the loss of water or weight. The loss of weight and vol- ume, however, being unequal and disproportionate, a marked reduction of the sj)ecilic grav- ity takes place, anu)unting in these pines to about S to 10 i)er cent of the specific weight of the dry wood. SHRINKAGE. Tlie behavior of the wood of the Southern pines in shrink- age does not differ nuvterially. Generally the licavicr wood shrinks the most, and sapwood shrinks about one-fourth more than lu^artwood of the same si)ecific weight. Very resinous pieces (••light wood'') shrink uuich less than other wood. In kcei)ing with tlu^se general facts, the shrinkage of the wood of the uiii)er logs is usually 15 to 20 per cent less than that of the butt pieces and the shrinkage of the heavy lieartwood of ohl trees is greater than that of tiie lighter periidieral jtarts of the same, while the shrinkage of the heavy wood of saplings is greatest of all. On the whole, the wood of these iiincs .shrinks about 10 percent in its volume — 3 to 4 jier cent along the radius, and ti to 7 percent along the tangent or along the yearly rings. After leaving the kiln the wood at once begins to absorb moisture and to swell. In an experiment with short pieces of loblolly and sliortleaf, representing ordinary flooring or siding 'In oriliuarv liiml)«r iiiiil all liiigc size iiiatorial the oxtorior parts coiiiiiKHily dry »» iniuli sikiihi- than thr Imlk of the stick that cliccking ol'tou occnre though tlu' inoistiiri' ]>i'r rent of the whole stick is still far aliove 30. BO / «; / ^ / ■^ $ / ^ / 5 <5L / '^ 1 1 11 r ^ ..ge^g:^ / 1 \ V .J^ ^ -^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ml' ^ aJS^ w =1 \c\ \ '^MojsvmJ^s^i ^jJ^JJ^ i i\\\ 6 uj 1/ ^ >< « s J; fo// 1 \ir 0 \ / A/0 Of OAYS Out OF /fU/V C/V SHfLF /*iRo/fr ff/iAfOfff fO ao 7/ ■334- Fig. 4.— Bla^ram showinp loss of water in kiln drying and rcabsorptiiin in air, shrinking and 8 well in jr. USE OF THE WOOD. 21 sizes, these regained more than half the water and underwent over half the total swelling during tlio first ten days after leaving the kiln (see flg. 4). Even in this less than air-dry wood the changes in weight far excel the changes in volume (sum of radial and tangential swelling), and, therefore, the specific gravity even at this low per cent of moisture was decreased by drying and increased by subsequent absorption of moisture. Immersion and, still more readily, boiling cause the wood to return to its original size, but temperatures even above the l)oiling point do not prevent the wood from "working," or shrinking and swelling. In fig. 4 are represented the results of experiments on the rate of loss of water in the dry kiln and the reabsorption of water in the air. The wood used was of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine kept on a shelf in an ordinary room before and after kiln drying. The measurements were made with caliper. EFFECT OF "BOXING," OR "BhEEDING." " Bleeding" pine trees for their resin, to which only the Lougleaf and (Juban Pine are subjected, has generally been regarded as injurious to the timber. Both durability and strength, it was claimed, were impaired by this process, and in the specifications of many architects and large con- sumers, such as railway companies, "bled" timber was excluded. Since the utilization of resin is one of the leading industries of the South, and since the process affects several millions of dollars' worth of timber every year, a special investigation involving mechanical tests, physical and chem- ical analyses of the wood of bled and unbled trees from the same locality were carried out by this division. The results prove conclusively (1) that bled timber is as strong as unbled if of the same weight; (2) that the weight and shrinkage of the wood is not atfected by bleeding; (3) that bled trees contain practically neither more nor less resin than unbled trees, the loss of resin referring only to the sa])wood, and therefore the durability is not atfected by the bleeding process. The following table shows the remarkable uumerical similarity between the average results for three groups of trees, the higher values of the bled material being readily explained by the dirt'ereuce in weight: Longleaf Pine. Number of tests. Specific weiglit of test pieces. Bending strength per square inch. Compression strength per square inch. Unboxed trees 400 390 635 I'er cent. 0.7-t .79 .76 Pounds. 12. 368 12, 961 12, 586 rounds. 7, ise 7,813 7,575 lioxed and recently abandoned Boxed and abandoned fivB years The amount of resin in the wood varies greatly, and trees growing side by side differ within very wide limits. Sai)wood contains but little resin (1 to 4 per cent), even in those trees in which the heartwood contains abundance. In the heartwood the resin forms from .5 to 24 per cent of the dry weight (of which about one-sixth is turpentine), and can not be removed by bleeding, so that its quantity renuiins uiiattected by the process. Bled timber, then, is as useful for all purposes as unbled. USE OF THE WOOD. In its use the wood of all four species is much alike. Tiie coarse grained, heavy, resinous forms are especially suited for timbers and dimension stuff; while the fine grained wood, whatever species it may belong to, is used for a great variety of purposes. At present distinction is but rarely made in the species and in their use; all four species are used much alike, although differentiation is very desirable on account of the difference in ([uality. Formerly these pines, except for local use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers, but especially since the use of dry kilns has become general and the simple oil finish has displaced the unsightly painting and "graining" of wood. Southern pine is cut into every form and grade of lumber. Nevertheless, a large proportion of the total cut is still being sawed to order in sizes above 0 by G inches and lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which the Longleaf and Cuban Pine furnish ideal material. The resinous condition of these two pines make them also desirable for railway ties of lasting quality. 22 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Since the custom of painting and graining woodwork lias given way to natural grain witli oil finish, the wood of tlicsc hard ])iiR'S is becoming very popular for inside finish. Kiln-drying is successfully practiced with all four species, but especially with the Shortleat and Loblolly pines which, if not artificially seasoned, are liable to "blue." The wood can be dried without great injury at high temperatures. RATE OF GROWTH. The species naturally develop somewhat differently, according to the soil coiulitioiis in which they occur. Without going into a detailed discussion, which will be found in tlie body of this work under each species, a comparison of the rate of growth of the four species, based on a large number of measurements, gave, for average trees and average conditions, the results shown in the accompanying diagrams (figs. 5 to 7), which ijermit the determination of the rate of growth at different periods of their life. 110 i^« 100 t 90 i^ ^ " r\ no A W^ ,^^ ^ vjii>^ 70 / / 1/V j/VV«^ JS^ 60 / / J ^ ^ so / /. ^ y r'' 40 1 / ^ / 30 / Y/ / 20 J '/// 7 / '0 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 s 0 £ D 7 0 & 0 9 0 1 10 1 0 \l 0 i: 0 14 0-' ISO Fig. 5. — Binp-ani showinff comparatiTe propreas of height growth in average trees. From these it api)ears tliat tlic Cuban I'inc is by far the most rapid grower, while the Longieaf Pin(^, wliic^h usually grows associated with the former, is the slowest, i>obl(illy and Shortleaf occui)ying a position between the two. The Longieaf shows for the first five to seven years hardly any development in height and begins then to grow rajtidly and evenly to the fiftieth or seventieth year, and even after that period, though the rate is somewhat (limiiushed, progresses evenly and steadily, giving to the height curve a smooth and persistent character. The diauieter growth shows the same even and ])ersistent i)rogress from the start, and the volume growth also piogresses evenly alter the rapid height growth rat(i is passed at seventy years. The Cuban Pine ceases in its maximum rate of height growth at thirty years, starts with its diameter growth at about the rate of the Loblolly, but alter the twenty-fifth year leaves the latter STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. 23 behind for the next twenty-five to thirty years, then proceeds at about the same rate, but persisting longer than the Ijoblolly. At the age of fifty years the Cuban Pine with 4G cubic feet has made nearly twice the amount of the Loblolly and more than four times that of the Longleaf, but at one hundred years the difterence is reduced, being then 115, 90, and 55 cubic feet, respectively, for the three species. Both Loblolly and Shortleaf Tine reach their maximum growth sooner than the other two species. While these still show a x>ersistently ascending line at one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty years, tlie rate of growth in the Loblolly shows a decline after the one hundredth year, and the Shortleaf has done its best by the eiglitieth year. These facts give indications as to the rotation under which these various species may be managed. 22 vc^ve/. 1 ^ 20 ^ __^ 18 ^ -^ "^ 16 ( n 7 ,^ -^ 14 f\ r J 0,(l(lO,(iO(i,000 feet, and STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. 25 more likely will fall far below :-'0(),000,()00,()00 feet, while the figure for present and lowest future aunual cousuniption may l>e approximated at near 7,()()0,0(M),(Kt(i feet, board measure." There is nobody who knows or can know the actual condition of supi)lies, and whoever has an opinion on the subject will have to bring at least as good a basis or a better one for such o])inton than the data furnished in the following monographs. There is no attempt t(t predict from the foregoing figures tlie absolute exhaustion of the pine supplies of the South within forty or fifty years, although such a result would appear not unlikely. Competition of other timbers, and substitutes for the use of wood (which, to be sure, never in the history of the world have reduced wood consumption), and especially changes in present methods of exploitation, may lengthen out supplies for a short time; or, if we begin rational forestry now, these forests may be kept a source of continuous supplies, even though reduced. Those who rely upon the spontaneous natural reproduction of these pines to fill the gaps made in the virgin timber will do well to read the chapters on natural reproduction and the incidental remarks regarding the conditions for renewal and the appearance of the aftergrowth; or, better, tramp through the vast region of culled pine woods and observe what the basis of their reliance is, as the writer of these monogiaphs has done through forty years of his life. If, in addition, they study the chapters on conditions of development, they will realize that the Longleaf Pine is bound to disappear largely even in the regions where it reigned supreme; that the Cuban Pine, no desj)icable substitute, will take its place in the lower i)ine belt, if allowed to propagate at all; but on large burnt areas the growth of scrubby oaks and brush will forever exclude this species which ( minently needs light. Loblolly and Shortleaf, better fitted for warfare with other species. Mill do much in their respective habitats to recuperate, except in the mixed forest, where thej'are culled and the hard woods are left to shade out the aftergrowth; or where the continuous conflagrations have destroyed the mold and aftergrowth and given over the soil to scrubby brushgrowth, which for ages will either prevent the gradual return of the i)ines or impede their renewal and growth. Considering that the timber on which we now rely and on which we l)ase our standards comes from trees usually from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years or more old, and that none of these pines makes respectable timber in less than from sixty to one hundred and twenty-five years, the necessity of timely attention to their renewal is further emphasized. The owners of timber laud and the operators of mills are the only people who can improve these conditions, and this by a more rational treatment of their property. If they can be made to realize now that what they own and hold as a temporary s[ieculation will, in a short time, when sui>plies have visibly decreased, become a first-class investment, and, by its revenues, become a greater source of wealth under competent maTiagement with a view to reproduction than that which they have derived from it by the mere robbing of the old timber, they might take steps at least against the unnecessary damage done to it by fire and cattle. Permanency and continuity of ownership appear to be the first condition to insure such results, and therefore corporations which are not of an ephemeral character and men of large wealth are most desirable forest owners. The monographs here presented will, it is hoped, aid in tliis realization, and the information regarding the conditions of development of the diiferent species will furnish suggestions as to the forest management which, modified according to local conditions and economic considerations, may be employed to secure the perpetuity of the Southern pineries. B. E. Fernow. Washington, D. C, June 3, 1896. ' Tlio entiro region within wliicli theso piiK^s iicBiir in merchautalilo comlition comprises about 230.000 square miles or, in roiinil numbers, 147,000,000 acres; for land in fiirius, etc., 10,000,000 acres must be deducted, and allowing as much as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine l.inds (the other to hardwoods), we would have about 90,000,000 acres on which pine may occur. An average growth of 3,000 feet per acre, an extravagant figure when referred to such an area, would make the possible stand, 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was iu virgin condition and not mostly culled or cut. Bulletir. No. 1 3, Division of Forestry Plate II. Fig. 1. LoNGLEAF Pine Forest in Luuisiana Flats, Virgin. Scorched by Fire as Usual. REST AFTER REMOVAL UF MLRCHANTABLL TIMBER. THE LONGLEAF PINE. 'PINUS PALUSTRIS Miller.) Geographical distribution. Products and uses. Botanical description. J^escription of wood. Progress of development. Conditions op development. Forest management. Appendix: Tue Naval Store Industry. 27 THE LONGLEAK l^IME. (I'iuiiK pnlKxIris Miller.) Synonyms: riiiuii paluslris Miller, Gaid. Diet. eil. X, No. 14 (176S). rinm lutea Walter, Fl. Car. 237 (1788). Piniis (lustralis Michaux f.. Hist. Arb. Am. i. 64, t. G (1803). Piiius serotina Hort. Cf. Hon Jard. 976 (1837) ex Antoine, Conif. 23 (1840-'47), not Miclix. (1803). Pinits I'dlmiensis Fr. Gard. ex Gordon, Pinetnm ed. 1, Suppl. G3 (1862). rinus I'almitri Manctti ex Gord., 1. c. (1862). LOCAL OR COMMON NAMES. Longleaved Pine (DeL, N. C, S. C, Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., La.. Tex.). Sonthern Pine (N. C, Ala., Miss., La. ). Yellow I'ine (Del.. N. C, S. C, Ala., Fla., La., Tex.). Tiupentine Pine (N. C). Rosemary Pine (N. C). Urown Pine (Tenn.). Hani Pine (Ala., Mis-s., La.), (ieorfjia Pine (Del.). Fat Pine (Sonthern States). Southern Yellow Pine (general). Southern Il.ird Pino (general). Southern Heart Pine (general). Sonthern Pitch Pine (general). Heart Pino (N. C. and Southern Atlantic region)- 28 Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Lousrleaved Y'ellow Pino (.\tlautic region.) Longleaved Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Long-straw Piue (Atlantic region). North Carolina I'itcU Pine (Va., N. C). Georgia Yellow Piue (.\tlantic region). Georgia Piue (general). Georgia Heart Pine (general). Georgia Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). Georgia Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Florida Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Florida Pine (Atl.iutic region). Florida Longleaved Pine (.Atlantic region). Texas Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Texas Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). THE LONGLEAF PINE. By Charles Moiir, Ph. D. INTRODUCTORY. The Longleaf Pino is the tree of widest distribution and of greatest commercial importance in the Southern Athuitic fnest region of eastern North America, covering, with scarcely any interrui)tiou, areas to be measured by tens of thousands of square miles and furnishing useful material. The timber wealth of the forests of Longleaf Pine, much of which is still untouched, has given rise to industries which involve the outlay of vast capital and an extensive employment of labor, thus closely affecting the prosperity of a large part of the Southern States as well as the indus- trial and commercial interests of the whole country. With the impending exhaustion of the pine forests of the North, the lumber interests of the country are steadily tending to center in the South, attracted chiefly l)y the forests of Longleaf Piue. The Old World, which has heretofore depended almost entirely upon the i)ine forests of Canada and of the Northern United States for timber for heavy construction, is already importing a large amount of hewn and sawn square timber and of lumber from the Southern pine forests. Most of the lumber used for ordinary building purposes in the West Indies, on the coast of Mexico, and in many of the States of South America is furnished by the mills situated in the Longleaf Pine region. The unprecedented increase, during the last quarter of a century, of the population in the timberless regions of the fiir West, as well as in tlie country at large, enormously augment tlie drafts made upon these forests, threatening their eventual exhaustion and ultimate destruc- tion unless measures are taken by which these supplies may be perpetuated. The solution of the difficult problem of devising such measures can come only as a. result of a study of the life history of the Longleaf Pine, of the conditions required for its growth and best development, of the laws regulating its distribution, and of the possibilities for its natural or artificial restoration. HISTORICAI>. The economic importance of the Longleaf Pine was well recognized in early times. Bartram,' in the year 1777, in his wanderings along the western shore of Mobile Bay, had his attention attracted by three very large iron pots, or kettles, each with a capacity of several hundred gallons, near the remains of an ohl fort or settlement, which he was informed were used for the purpose of boiling down the tar to pitch, there being vast forests of pine in the vicinity of this place. " In Carolina," this writer proceeds, "tlu^ inhabitants pursue a dilferent method. When they are going to make pitch they dig large holes in tlie ground, which they line with a thick coat of good clay, into which they conduct a sufiBcient quantity of tar and set it on fire, sufieriug it to burn and evaporate for some time, in order to convert it intopitcli, and when cool, put it into barrels until they have consumed all tlie tar and made a sufficient quantity of pitch for their purposes." Humphrey Marshall, one of the earliest writers on North American forest trees/ mentions the Longleaf Pine under the name of the "largest three-leaved marsh pine, as accounted equal to any for its resinous products." In North Carolina crude resin, tar, and pitch figured as important and valuable exports during the later colonial times. During the period from 17G6 to 1769, $130,000 ' Bartram's Travels through North and South Carolina. Philadelphia, 1790. « Humphrey Marshall: Arbuetum Americanum, or the American Grovu. Philadelphia, 1785. 29 30 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. worth of these stores were exported yearly; among them were 88,111 barrels of crude resin, valued at 811,244.85. F. A. Michaux, iu his travels west of the Alleghany Mountains, speaking of the low country of the Garoliuas, says:' "Seven-tenths is covered witli pine of one species, I'inus paluHtris, which, as the soil is drier and lighter, grows loftier; these pines, encumbered with very few branches and which split even, are preferred to other trees for building fences on plantations." In his subseipieut work Michaux gives for the first time an accurate and detailed account nf the products of this tree and their industrial and commercial importance, as well as of its distribution and a description of its specific characters.^ Note. — In sketching the topograi)hical features of those rpfrinns of tho Longleaf Pine forests, which diil not come under the personal observation of the writer, the jjhysiographical (Icscriptious of the Cotton States on the Atlantic Coast and the Gulf region published in Professor Hilgard's n'port ou cotton production in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Census of 1H80 were freely drawn upon, and these re]>ort8 were also consulted, together with Table VII in the statistics published in the census report on productions of agriculture in the computation of forest areas. In the statements of the amount of Longleaf Pine .standing in the several tStates in 1880 and of the cut during the same year, the figures given in Prof. Charles S. Sargent's report, Vol. IX of the Tenth Census, were introduced, and for those which rehite to Alabama and Mississippi the writer is mostly responsible. No eft'orts have been spared to arrive at a correct estimate of the total amount and value of stiuare timber, lumber, and naval stores produced during the decade ending with tlie year 18'.I0 and during the business year 18113, in order to i)hue in a proper light the economic importance of the tree and its hearings upon the industrial and commercial interests of the country, and also to show the rapid increase of the industries depending directly upon the resources of this tree. The state- ments given are, however, of necessity only approxinuitions falling below the limits of truth, as it was impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the quantities entering into home consumption. Thus a factor of no little importance had to be neglected. The thanks of the writer are due to the gentlemen who kindly assisted him by their prompt replies to his inquiries in his search for information, and who in other ways have afforded him aid. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The LoDgleaf Pine is principally confined to a belt about 125 miles in width in the lower parts of the Southern States which border upou the Atlantic and the Gulf shores. The northern limit of tlie tree is found on the coast near the southern boundary of Virginia below Norfolk, north latitude 36° 30'. Prom here the forests of the Longleaf IMne extend southward along the coast region to Cape Canaveral, across the peninsula of Florida a short distance south of Tampa Bay, westward along the Gulf Coast to the uplands which border upou the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi. West of that river forests of this species continue to the Trinity liiver in Texas; in that State its northern limit is found to reach hardly 32° north latitude, while in Louisiana and Mississijjpi it extends hardly more than half a degree farther noith, and in Alabama under 34^ 30' the tree is found to ascend the extreme southern spurs of the Api)alachian chain to an altitude of between 1)00 and 1,000 feet. Thus the area of the distribution of the Longleaf IMne exteuds from 76° to 90° we.st longitude and from 28° 30' to 36° 30' north latitude. (See PI. III.) With reference to the distribution of this species as dc])('nding upon geological formation, it may be said that its forests are chiedy confinetl to the sandy and gra\ elly de|)osits designated by Professor Hilgardas the orange sand, or Lafayette strata of Post-Tertiary formation, which of late isregarded as the most recent nuMuber of theTertiary formation. Thcsesiliceoussands and pebbles, which to such vast extent cover the lower i)art of tlie Soutliern States and lorni also more or less the covering of the surface throughout the older Tertiary region, offer the physical conditions most suitable to the growth of this tree. CnARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. This great maritime ])ine belt east of the Mississii)i)i b'iver presents such ditferences iu toi)ographical features and such diversity of i>hysical and nieciianical conditions of the soil as to permit a distinction of three divisions going from the coast to the interior: 1. The coastal ])lain, or low [line barrens within tlie tide water region, extends from the seashore iidand for a distaiu'c of from 10 to 30 miles and over. The forests of the Longleaf Pine which 'Travels West of the AUeghauios, by F. A. Michaux. Paris, 1803. 'V. A. Michaux, Uistoiru dcs Arbres forestiers do TAinor., Sept. Paris, 1811, Phihulelphiu Edition, 1852, Vol. Ill, p. 100 et soq. Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestr' Plate III 4' » 2; a. fc < H c ?5 0. K 0 h3 0 C 2; ? H z s c rn D5 z HI 0 c 3 1 — 1 ■< CO >' bo H CO _^ tt rri ^ 0; hH ;d W ^ hJ m OJ 0 < t-i K CO CO 0 CO' ^ TIMUEK REGIONS — SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 31 occupy the poorly drained grassy flats of the plain are very open, intersected by numerous inlets of the sea and by brackish marshes. They are also interrupted by s\vam[)S densely covered with Cypress White Cedar, White and Eed Bay, Water Oak, Live Oak, Magnolia, Tupelo (ium, and Black Gum and again by grassy savannas of greater or less extent. On the higher level, or what might be called the hrst terrace, with its better drained and more loamy soil, the Longleaf Pine once prevailed, but almost everywhere in the coastal plain the original timber has been removed by mau and replaced by the lioblolly Pine and the Cuban Pine. 2. The rolling pine lands, pine hills, or pine barrens proper are the true home of the Long- Leaf Pine. On the Atlantic Coast these uplands rise to hills over 000 feet in height, while in the Gulf region they form broad, gentle undulations rarely exceeding an elevation of .iOO feet. Thus spreading out in extensive table lauds, these hills are covered exclusively with the forests of tliis tree for many hundreds of square miles without interruption. Here it reigns supreme. The monotony of the pine forests on these table-lands is unbroken. 3. The uiiper division, or region of mixed growth. With the appearance of the strata of the Tertiary formatiou in the upper part of the pine belt, the pure forests of the Longleaf Piiie are con- fined to the ridges capped by the drifted sands and pebbles and to the rocky heights of siliceous chert, alternating with open woods of oak (principally Post Oak), which occupy the richer lauds of the calcareous loams and marls. However, where these loams and marls, rich in plant food, mingle with the drifted soils, we find again the Longleaf Pine, but associated with broad-leaved trees and with the Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Here the Longleaf Pine attains a larger size and the number of trees of uuixiinum growth per acre is found almost double that on the lower division. TIMBER REGIONS — SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. The forests of Longleaf Pine can bo conveniently discussed by referring to the following geo- graphical and limited areas : The Atlantic pine region; The maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf States; The central pine belt of Alabama; The forests of Longleaf Pine of north Alabama (Coosa basin, etc.); The regions of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi River. THE ATLANTIC PINE REGION. The Atlantic pine region in its extent from the southern frontier of eastern Virginia to the peninsula of Florida embraces the oldest and most populous States of the Longleaf Pine district, and here the forests have suffered most severely by lumbering, the production of naval stores, and clearing for purposes of agriculture. Virginia. — The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the southeastern border of Virginia have almost entirely disappeared, and are, to a great extent, replaced by a second growth of Loblolly Pine. North Caroliiin.— In North Carolina the area over which this tree once prevailed may be estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 square miles, leaving out of calculation the coastal plain with its extensive swamps, wide estuaries, and numerous inlets. From the northern frontier of the State southward, some distance beyond the Neuse River, in the agricultural district, the forest growth on the level or but slightly undulating pine land is of a mixed character, the Longleaf species being largely superseded by the Loblolly Pine, together with widely scattered Shortleaf Pine and decid uous trees— White Oak, Red Oak, Post Oak, Black Oak, and more rarely Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, and Dogwood. In this section the lumbering interests are chiefly dependent upon the Loblolly Pine (Pinm tmla), better known to the inhabitants as the Shortstraw, or Shortleaf Pine (not to be confounded with the true Shortleaf Pine). The forests of Longleaf Pine begin at Bogue Inlet, extend along the coast to the southern boundary of the State, and inland for a distance varying between 50 and 135 miles. The highly siliceous soil of these pine barrens offers but little inducement for its cultivation; the inhabitants, tlierefore, from the earliest time of the settlement of the State have chiefly been engaged in pursuits based on the products of the pine forests. Here the production of naval 32 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. stores "was first carried on ; rosiu, tar, aud i)itcli figured in early colonial times among the most important articles ol' export. In consequence, the forests of the Longleaf Pine have been, with but slight exceptions, invaded by turpentine orcharding, and at the present time by far the greater part of the timber standing has been tapped for its resin. The forests of the Loiigleaf Pine in this State cover the largest area in the basin of Cape Fear River, with Wilmington tlie main port of export for their products. The export from this port had increased from 21,000,000 feet of lumber in 1880, to nearly 40,000,000 annually, on the average, for the years l.S,S7 to 1891. The forests of the Longleaf I'ine on the banks of the Neuse Kiver, in -Johnston County and in Wayne County, are almost exhausted; about 40 to 50 per cent of the timber sawn at Goldsboro and Dover is Longleaf Pine timber from that section, and is invariably bled. A considerable number of tlw trees from tlie old turpentine orchards, with the excoriated surface of the trunk ("chip") over 2.5 feet in length aud bled again after a lapse of years, show that they have been worked for their resin for twenty to twenty-four years in succession, and after a longer or shorter period of n^st have; been subjected to the same treatment coiitiiuially for the same number of years. Such old martyrs of the turpentine orchard are unfit for lumber, but, iniiireguated as they are with resin, are used for jtiling and for posts of great durability. East of the Neuse River, from the upper part of Johnston County, in an almost southern direction to Newbern, no Longleaf Pine has been observed. Single trees of the Sliortleaf Pine [I'litus evhinafn) liave been Ibuiid scattered among the growth of deciduous trees which cover the ridges between the Trent and Neuse rivers, and isolated tracts of a few acres of the Longleaf sjiecies are met with in tlic low Hats of tiie same section, which were in 1S94 almost exclusively occupied by the Loblolly Pine. As reported for tlie Tenth Census, the amount of Longleaf Pine standing in North Carolina at tlic beginning of the (•ciisiis j ear was estimated to be 5,22!I,C00,000 feet, board measure. Xo reliable information could be obtained as to tlie amount of timber (-ut since 1880, consequently no data are at hand from which to compute the amount now standing. Tlie cut for tlie year 1880 is given in the census report at 1(18,400,000 I'eet, board measure. In 1890. eighteen mills were enumerated as engagc'*="""« The total yield of merchantable lumber of this acre would be 9,050 feet, board measure rei>re- seuting the average of the better ciuality of these timber lands. As in the adjoining States the fore-sts along the railroad lines for a wide distance have been subjected to turpentine orcliardiiio- and but a small perticntage of the timber standing has escaped the ax of the "box" cutter The receipts of uaval stores at Charleston during the ten years from 1880 to 1890 averaged annnallv 57,570 casks (50 gallons to a cask) of ,spii-its of turpentine and 225,920 barrels of rosin with the largest receipts in 1880 of 60,000 casks of spirits of turpentine aud 259,940 barrels of rosin, and the smallest of 40,253 casks of spirits in 1888, and 170,060 barrels of rosin in 1880. Tah„l„r.'1. IX. !S SUPPLY AND PKUDUCTION. 37 at a little over 40.000 .square iniles. It i)reseiits no material differeuces from the Atlautie region, ot whicU it is a direct ('oiitiimation, beinj-' similar to it in both soil and climate. This eastern Gulf rejjion is unsurpassed in the advantages it offers for the development of the industries based ou the products of the pine forests. Its genial climate throughout the year permits the uninterrupted exploitation of its abundant resources of resinous products and of timber of the best (juality. The fine harbors and safe roadsteads on the Gulf Coast are reached by navi- gable rivers, which, with their tributaries, cross the lower division in every direction, and give Fv^ady and cheap transportation to its ports, while great railway lines afford easy comnuuiication with inland markets. This region thus presents inducements scarcely found elsewhere for the investment of capital and labor in the development of the resources of its forests. It is impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate estimate of the amount of timber standing at present, or of the rate of its consumption, since in the returns of the annual lumber product that needed for home consumption has not been included. Wrxtrrn Florida. — Placing the eastern limit of that part of Florida to be considered as belonging to the Gulf pine region at the lower course of the Suwanee liiver, the area included comprises about 7,200 Sijuare miles, exclusive of the swam|is and marshes of the coast. The forests of Longleaf Pine form a narrow strip along the course of the Suw^anee L'iver and along the coast to the Appalachicola liiver, covering about 1,280,000 acres. At their northern limit they merge into the oak and hickory uplands of middle Florida. Along the coast they are sur- rounded by marshes and swamps, rendering them dififltuilt of access, consequently they have remained untouched. The same may be said of the pine forests between the Api>alacliicola and the Choctawhatchee rivers. These have been invaded to some extent along the banks of the latter river to supply the small mills situated on the bay of the same name. The pine lauds of western Florida rise slowly above the coastal plain and form a vast expanse of slightly undulating surface. Those surrounding Perdido, Pensacola, IJlackwater, and Mary St. Galves Bay, the oldest sites of active lumber industry in the Gulf region, were stripjied of their valuable timber more than thirty years ago, and since that time have been cut over again. The largest tracts of liiiely timbered virgin forests of Longleaf Pine are found in the undulating uplands from the Perdido and Escambia rivers along the Alabama State line to the banks of the Choctawhatchee Eiver. East of this ri%er, in the same direction, where the younger Tertiary strata make their appearance, Longleaf I'ine liecomes associated with hard woods, with southern Spruce Pine added in the valleys. Since the opening of the Pensacola and Atlantic Railroad considerable (piantities of sawn scpiare timber find their way to Pensacola from these remoter forests. A large i)ortiou of the timber supplied to the mills along the coast having been derived from Alabama, it is impossible to arrive at an exact estimate of the products of the forest of western Florida. Statement nl' e.cpoil of lieicii miKarr iiiiilier. siiini s(iiinre timber, and himher to foreii/n ami domcstie iiorln from- I'eiiaacola, Fid., from 1S7'J-S0 to 1892-93. [From Uyor Sc Kro. .s aDiiual circulars.] Tear. Square hewu timber. Square sawn timber and lumber. Total. 1879 80 . Cubic feet. 2, ISO. 000 4.603.000 5. 479. Or.O 2, 109. OUO 2.031.000 1, 627. 000 1, 700. (100 1,036.000 1, 2.83, 000 1,574.000 1.367,000 1.550,133 I, 488. 272 1 449 ttln Feet, B. M. 176, 00(1, 000 209. 998. 000 104. 305, 000 18,S. 1110,(100 194, 390, 000 195. 570. 000 215, 7.-iO, 600 231,884.600 238, 299. 400 310, 255, 000 276, 587, 000 254. 125. 000 325.081,000 ieet. B. M. 202, 000. 000 204, 000, 000 230, 000, 000 211,386,000 219, 286, 000 211,131.000 228, 590. OUO 245, 231, OUO 253, 699, 000 329, 153, 000 292, 991, 000 271, 728, 800 294, 958, 700 270, 208, 000 1880-81 1881 82 1882-83 1883 84 1884-83 1885 80 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 1889 90 1890 91 1891 92 1892-93 Total 3, 534, 352, 300 In the shipment of these ])roducts in ISS."), valued at $2,,'?0r),.500, there were 471 vessels engaged, of 294,595 tons, of which 370 of 95,922 tons cleared for foreign ports. 38 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Dtuiiif; these fourteen years tlie i)rice of square timber and Imnber taken in the aggregate averaged about §12.50 per 1,000 feet, board measure. On this basis the value of the mill products for these parts of the forests of Longleaf Pine amounted to s;j,1.55,G70 a year. For the past forty years, during which the lands of the peninsula part and in middle Florida have passed mostly into ])ossession of small proprietors, no naval stores liave been jiroduced ill this section. In western Florida, however, in proximity to the L trees were 2o inches in diameter at breast lii<;li, the clear timber averaging 50 feet in length; 12 trees 22 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber 50 feet, and 28 trees 16 to 18 inches in diameter, average length of timber estimated at 30 feet. Such a stand would indicate a yield of merchantable timber of at least 15,000 feet, board measure, to the acre. All over this lower division boggy tracts are frequently met with, in which the sour, black soil is covered with spliiignum, or bog moss; these support only a few scattered pines. On many of the steeper ridges the soil is pure sand and the pine growth is small and inferior, being largely replaced by Barron Oak, Sparkleberry, and the evergreen heather like shrub Ceratiola ericoides. Ill this lower division of the maritime pine belt the manufacture ot' lmnl)er and rhe i)rodnc- tion of naval stores is carried on most actively. These products find tlieir outlet cliietiy at Mobile, while more than one-third of the lumber exported from I'ensacola (to the amount of at least 100,- 000,000 feet annually for the past few years) is also derived from this division. In the upper half of the maritime i^iiie belt, with the ai)pearaiice of the outcrops of limestones and limy marls of tlie Lower Tertiary (Eocene) formation, the country becomes more broken, with steeper hills and wider valleys, and a change in the character of the flora takes place, particularly manifest in the nature and distribution of the tree growth. In the fertile valleys and on the lower flanks of the hills broad-leaved trees, mostly Post Oak, Black Oak, Mockernut, Bitternnt, Pignut, and Magnolia prevail, interspersed with Shortleaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, and Red Cedar — the Longleaf Pine occupying sporadic patches of drifted sands and pebbles. On the steep and frequently wide ridges capped by these deposits, and on the rugged hills of the buhrstone and flinty cherts tliis tree forms the principal growth, and is in the openings more or less associated with broad-leaved trees. From this commingling of cone-bearing and deciduous trees and the alternations of pine forest and oak woods, this ui)pcr division has been designated as the region of mixed growth, which at a rough estimate can be said to cover about 5,000 square miles. In the deep soil of light loam and strong loamy sands the Longleaf Pine attains a splendid growth and the number of large trees on a given area is greater than found in the lower division. The following measurements of 5 trees felled for test logs fairly represent the average dimensions of the timber from these hills in the vicinity of Thomasville, Clarke County : Measurements of five trees. Number of tree. Rings in stump. Diameter breast high. Diameter below crown, or lop end oftimber. Mean (lianietev oftimber. Lrnstb oftimber. Total beisbtof trt-e. 202 163 210 100 110 Inches. 20 21 22 20 17 Inches. 15 14 16 19 13 Inches. 18 17 19 22 15 Feet. 45 40 40 40 30 Feet. 108 115 110 111 92 17 18 . -. . 19 20.., --- - 171 15.4 18.2 39 100.2 Many of the trees of larger size were found affected by wind-shake in the direction of the rings of growth (ring-shake), in many instances impairing greatly the tpiality of the timber. The forests on these hills are open, with a comparatively small number of young trees. Upon 1 acre selected at random 40 trees were counted; of this number were found 4 trees of a diameter of 25 inches breast hi,gh, and the length of timber about 40 feet; 10 trees of a diameter of 22 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 3(! feet; 2G trees of a diameter of 18 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 30 feet; 6 trees of a diameter of 15 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 25 feet. On the average each one of these trees would yield about 400 to 450 feet, board measure. On another acre 44 trees were found differing in their average dimension bat slightly from the above, and indicating a yield between 18,000 and 19,000 feet of lumber to the acre. In this up])er part of the coast pine belt lumbering and turpentine orcharding have not developed to any great extent, owing to its inaccessibility. LLowever, where railroads traverse the section, the manufacture of- 40 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. lumber is carried on extensively, tlie output going to Northern markets. Much of the heavy hewn timber that is exported from Mobile and Pensacola is funiished by tliis section. In collec-ting the statistics on the lumbering interests in the maritime pine belt of Alabama the information kindly furnished by firms engaged in the sawmill business or the lumber trade has chiefly been relied upon. Tiie annual production was arrived at by multiplying the average daily output reported by iiOO, the assumed number of working days of the year. From these data it ai)pears that during tlie year 18!t;5 the daily outiuit of the 25 jioiiits reported from amounted in the aggregate to about 7US,0()0 feet, or to l'J2,0()(t,000 ieet, board measure, for the year. This ligure can be said to rejircseut the average of the annual production for the past three years. To this amount, at a low estimate, 8r),()()(l,(i(l() feet of round timber are to be added, cut in Alabama and sawn in westei'u I'"l()ii(la, including the hewn square timber shipped from the State to I'ensacola, thus swelling the present annual ])rodu(!tion of lumber and square timber in the maritime pine belt of Alabama to a total of about 277,()()(l.(K)0 feet, board measure. The statement of the annual exports of these products from i\IobiIc by water and by rail for the past fourteen yeary will aptly illustrate the steady increase of tlie lumbering interests during this period. Statement of erpnrts of square t'lmher, hiirn ami Sdirn, and of lumber shipped from Mobile to foreign and dumestie porta from the year 1879-SO to the end of the year 1S94. Year. Square timber, hewn and sawn. Lumber. Total hiniber :iijd sf[uari.' limber. Value. 1879-80 1 880-8 1 188 1 82 Cuiic feet. 745, 000 1, 725, 000 1, 674, 000 1,652,804 3,810,714 3,121,794 2, 973, 206 1. 863, 259 2,450.257 3, 049, 440 3, 81 ». 987 3, 592, 924 5,072.088 5 377, 009 4,147,825 Feet. B. M. 13.572,000 18,101,000 32, 230, 000 26, 753, 843 22.251,000 22, 256, 000 21.435,500 29, 340, 000 29, 257, 000 48, 284, 000 52, 879, 0(J0 60, 892, 000 01, 805. 895 79, 304, 505 67, 209, 715 Feet.B.M. 22, 525, 000 38, 872, 000 53, 350, 000 46, 588, 000 07,978,000 59, 945, 000 50, 580, 000 60, 723, 000 $280, 825 400, 348 710,012 582, 000 801.099 636, 953 588, 148 041,215 077. 804 1882 83 . 1883-84 1885-86 .. 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 .-' 100,000.000 1,081,828 111.659.810 1,2111,934 122,000,000 1 1.415,000 141,793,700 1,695,000 102,600,700 1 1,590.900 120,084,500 1.270.000 1889-00 1890 91 1891-92 . 1892 113 1893-94 The first statement of the production of naval stores in Alabama is that reported to the census of IS.JO, mentioned in that year as of a value of $L7,S0(). In 1870 the production had increased to 8,200 casks of sjjirits of turjieiitine and r),'?,175 barrels of rosin, valued at .$280,203. In 1873 the receipts in the market of Mobih^ had fully doubled, amounting to nearly 2(i,(i(lO casks of sjiirits of turpentine and to from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of rosin, besides 1,000 barrels of tar and pitch, of a total value of ,$7.50,000. The largest production was reached in 1875, when the receipts reached a value of >^I,l!(H),(M)(», up to the ])resent only ai)i)i'oxiniatcd in 1883 with 4.3,870 casks of spirits of turpentine and 2(10,025 barrels ot rosin, valued at *l,10'.t,7()0. Since 1888 a steady decline in the receipts of these pidduets has taken place, due to the exhaustion of the supplies near the commer- cial highways. table of e.rports of narnl stores from Mobile dnriny the period of 18S0-1S04. Spirits 1 Year. turpen- lino. CaaH. 187D-80 2.1,209 1880-81 25. 224 1881-82 30. 937 1882-83 43, 870 1883-84 41,804 1884-85 41,713 1885-86 38, 733 1886-87 40, 149 Uosin. Barrels. 1.58.482 170.010 172,438 200, 125 210.572 200. 688 17.5, 817 182, 955 Total value. Year. Spirits 1 turpon- : tine. 1887-88 1888..89 1889-90 1890-91 1891 92 Vtukt. 28.725 23, 927 21,029 21,080 22, 172 IS, 000 24, 091 1892-93 1893-94 Kosin. Total value. BarreU. 1»2.055 106.129 I 93,906 I 89,872 I $J3.">. 690 87.920 I 458,002 09, 120 355, 180 85,019 453,656 LONGLEAP PINE IN ALABAMA. 41 THE CENTUAI. PINK HELT OF AI.AllAMA. The middle portion oC the State is crossed from its eastern boundary nearly to its western, with a decided northern trend alonj; the western border, by a belt of drifted loamy sands, pebbles, and liglit loams covered in the eastern and central i)arts with an almost continuous forest of Lony-- leaf Tine, interrupted only by strips of hard wood which ocrupy the bottom lands. In its eastern extent the Longleaf Pine becomes associated with upland oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, the Longleaf Pine beiiiji' entirely replaced in tlie northern extension of tliis belt by tlie latter species. This region of giavciiy hills, as it is designated in the agricultural reports,' is 200 miles in length, 5 to 35 miles in width, and extends over about 2,000 square miles. In the sections where the forest consists almost exclusively of Longleaf Pine tlie stand of timber is heavy and of fine quality. Operators claim for these timber lands a yield of from 5,000 to (;,000 feet of merchantable timber to the acre, excluding all trees under 12 inches diameter. Ever since the oiieiiing of the great railroad lines leading to Northern markets the manufacture of lumber in this central pine belt has been carried on with unabated activity. In ISSO not less than 80,000,000 feet, board measure, were transported by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad alone, mostly to the great Northwestern centers of commerce. In 18S(i the production declined to 50,000,000 feet. At present most of the older mill sites have been abandoned and a few new ones established in other localities. Colonel Wads worth reports 12 mills in opeiation located along tiie Louisville and Nash\ille Kailroad, with au output of a little over 40,000,000 feet a year on the average of the past few years. To this is to be added the production of the few mills on the IMobile and Pirniingham Railroad, which will increase the present production in the central pine belt to about 50,000,000 feet a year. THE FORESTS OF LONGLEAF I'INE IN NOUTH ALABAMA. Forests of Longleaf Pine prevail with more or less interruption in the basin of the Coosa River, principally on the beds of flinty pebbles and light, sandy loam which follow the ui)per course of the river from the base of the Lookout JMountain range near Gadsden to a short distance beyond the State line in Floyd County, Ga., where the Longleaf Pine finds its northern limit in about ;U'^ north latitude, at au elevation above the sea of about 000 feet. With the reajtijearaiice of the above deposits south of Calhoun County the pine forests extend on the eastern side of the valley south to Childersburg. On the isolated ridges of old Silurian sandstone (Potsdam), and the met- aniorphic region adjoining, the Longleaf Pine is scattered and stunted and is not found at a greater height than 1,000 feet above the sea. In proximity to the mineral region tlie rugged hills and mountain sides have been completely denuded, the pine having been cut for charcoal to supply the blast furnaces. In the valleys the forests of Longleaf Pine are of average density and the timber is considered of excellent ([uality, particularly in the northern jiart of the valley in Etowah and Cherokee counties. On the lower hills the timber is less abundant and somewhat inferior iii si/,e. The measurements of five trees felled in the hills near Renfroe, Talladega County, cau be said to fairly represent the average quality of this pine timber. The undergrowth in the open forest covering the low ridges and the narrow valleys is dense, consisting of Blackjack, Spanish Oak, Pignut, and Bitternut Hickory. Meanuri-menU of fire trees. Number of tree. Riugs ou stifrnp. Diameter breast high. Mean diameter. Length of timber. Total height of trees. 237 135 165 170 215 206 Inches, 17 21 21 21 20 Inches. 12 17 18 18 15 Feet. 50 35 45 45 511 Feet. 95 95 108 112 109 238 239 240 241 178 20 16 45 104 ' E. A. Smith: Agricultural Kescurces of Alabama, Vol. V. Reports of Geological Survey of Alabama. 42 TIMBER PINES OF TUF. SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. The extinction of Longleaf Pine in tlie forests of north Ahihaina, as far as economic value is concerDed, appears to be certain. The dense uudergrowtli of deciduous trees sui)presses completely the second growtli of the Lougleaf Piue in the closed forest as well as iu tlie openings. On the inoniitain slopes a young pine is rarely seen, no tree being left to serve for the future dissemination of the spei-ics, and the few seedlings sporadically springing up are iuvariably destroyed by the firing of the herbage one year after another. The output of t!i(^ mills at Gadsden and the mills iu Talladega County along the Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad combined appears scarcely to exceed .5(),0(IO,(I()0 feet, board measure, on the average per year. A line forest of Longleaf Piue is fouud iu Walker Gouuty, strictly confined within an isolated i)atch of silicious pebbles and sands, said to cover about (l(),()(i(t acres. Distant about 10 miles from the nearest railroad this forest has been but slightly invaded, and that to serve a small local demand. Summaii/ slntitnint af xliipmtiils i>f hiiiiher mid sr/iidiy; timhcr from chief ccnier.i of jirodnrlioii in Ahibamii ihirinij Ike ijcar ISOJ. I'-oot.B.M. Mobilo exports to foreifiii porta, coastwise, and shipments l)y rail ' 11.% SOI), 000 Estiiiiati'd cut in Alabama ami sawn in western Florida 8.5, 000. 000 Transported by rail, mostly to northern markets- '.).'), 200, 000 Central pine belt ' 51,000,000 Coosa basin < 50, 000, 000 Total 425, 000, 000 MississijJpi. — ^^'hat has been said of the forests of the maritime piue belt iu Alabama applies in general to the same region in Mississippi. The coastal plain above the extensive grassy marshes lining the seashore and the wide estuaries of the streams covers a larger area, being from 10 to 20 miles in width and embracing, at a rough estimate, about 728,000 acres of the 10, 410 square miles within the limits of the pine belt. The broad, scarcely perceptible swells, with a soil of sandy loam and loamy sand, were originally well timbered, tlie widely spreading depressions with soil of flue, compacted sand, poorly draiued, bearing a spar.se and inferior timber growth. The timber produced on these Hat woods, or '"ijine meadows," as they are aj)!!}- called in the adjoining section of Alabama, being of slow growth, is hard ami of tine grain, frequently with the tibers of the younger wood contorted and of varied tints of color. This so-called curled pine is susceptible of high finish and is much appreciated for fine cabinet work. There is comparatively little valuable timber Icit in this coastal plain. The remainder servi^s largely for the makiug of charcoal and cord wood for the New Orleans market. The rolling pine lands, rising sudileidy above the plain, almost exclusively covered by the Long- leaf Pine, cover (roughly estimated) about 7,712,000 acres. The western limits of these forests are difficult to define, numerous outlying tracts being found to extend into or even beyond the region of the loamy hills. The region of mixed growth, characterizing tiic upper division of the maiitime pine belt iu Alabama, enters the State in the shape of a triangle, with the i)ase along the Alabama State line from J'.ucatunna to Lauderdale and its apex near Brandon, iu Bankiu County. The generous soil of the arable laiuls in this region is mostly under cultivation. The forests of Longleaf Pine covering the steej) hills, rather remote from the high roads of commerce, have been as yet but little exploited. About 12,000,000 feet, board measure, of lumber are shipped annually by the way of the Mobile and Oiiio liailroad, mostly to Mobile, from this region of mixed growth. From the information that could be obtained, it appears that the cut of Longleaf Pine timber in this State on the average for the jiast three years reached between 122,000,000 and t2.'i,000.000 feet. The chief center of the lumbering industry is located above the Pascagoula liiver, at Scran ton and Mossi)oint, where it has made great progress during the past thirteen or fourteen years. In 1880, G0,000,()0() feet, board measure, were shipjxMl to fort'ign and domestic ports, which in the 'Annual stati'nient of comnuree of Moliili'. Mobile Uegistei', September 1. 1S!I2. Compileil from returns inaile to the Mobile Hoard of Trade. ■-Production of mills south of Montgomery, etc. ■'Production of mills on Louisville and Nashville i;ailroa feet; 0 of Li inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 30 feet. In tiic (.pinion of experts, the average yiehl of 1 acre of these pine lands at a fair estimate is not less than (i,0(H» feet, board measure. According to the statements of Mr. Sues, at Levins Station, 56,000,000 feet, board measure, were shipped, in 1S!»2, from the mills of this section. South of the Kcd River bottom the forests of Longleaf I'iiie continue nnlirokcn to the Sabine ■River and south to the treeless savannas of the coast in Calcasieu Parish, tlieir eastern boundary parallel witli the eastern boundary of that parish. Roughly estimated, the.se forests cover an area of about :i,(>(;s,(tU() acres. From the marshy lowlauds of the coast to the upper tributaries of the Calcasieu River, up to Uickory and Beckwith creeks, the country is poorly drained, almost perfectly level, with a highly retentive and somewhat impervh)us clay subsoil. In consctpicnce, these ])ine flats are, for the greater part of the year, more or less covered wiili wat.T. Tlicse low, wet pine forests were stripped some years ago of all their mcrclianfabic (iml.cr, and only a comparatively small number of trees of less than 12 inches in diameter were left standing. On DISTRIBUTION OP LONGLEAF PINE IN LOUISIANA. 45 these abandoued tiiiiber laads a yi)uiig pine is rarely seen, the seeds shed in the fall being apt to rot in the water-soaked soil, or, if they happen to germinate, the seedlings are drowned (hiring the winter rains. On the lands rising gently above the tlat woods, with the ridges still low and wide and often more or less imperfectly drained, Longleaf Pine is fonnd of an exceedingly line growth. The trees in the dense forest are tall and slender, and their timber is e(jualed only by the timber of the same class growing in the valley of the ifeches Kiver, in Texas. The following measurements of five trees felled for test h)gs in the forests in the upper part of Calcasieu Parish, between Hickory and Beckwith creeks, will serve as a fair representation of the timber growth ou these low, broad ridges: Mcaxiiremeiits of fire trees. Number of tree. Kings on stump. Diameter breast bigb. Diameter below crown. Mean diameter. Lengtb of timber. Total heigbt of tree. 201 .... 190 195 190 1811 107 Inche."!. 28 23 21 19 10 Inches. 23 16 14 15 13 Inches. 24 19 17 17 14 Feet. 50 50 40 40 37 Feet. 119 127 117 102 127 202 204 205 18:> 21 16 18 43 118 Upon 1 acre, selected ou the back of a low swell which might be said to represent the average of the timber standing, 44 trees in all were counted. Of these, ','> trees measured 25 iuclies diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 6 trees measured 23 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 19 trees measured 18 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 40 feet; 14 trees measured 14 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 30 feet, corresponding in tlie aggregate to somewhat over 15, ()()(> feet, board measure. On another acre considered tirst class, rather level land, the soil fresh to wet tliroughout tlie year, 72 trees were counted. Of this number, 14 were found 27 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 5(» feet; 5 were found 24 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet ; V-> were found 2.j inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 8 were found 21 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated lengthof timl)er of 40 feet; ]0 Avere found 20 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found IS inches diameter nt breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 1 1 were fonnd 18 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 30 feet. According to the.se flguies the timber standing on this acre would amount to not less than 35,000 feet, board measure. The chief site of the lumber industry of western Louisiana is at Lake Charles. According to the infoimation furnished by Mr. George Lock, of Lockport, La., the annual output of the sawmills in the vicinity of Lake Charles for the years 1892 and 189:5 averaged about 1.54,000,000 feet, board measure, all ship])ed West and Northwest. It can be assumed that over one-half of the lumber sawn at Orange, in Texas, is cut on the eastern banks of the Sabine River, which amount has to be credited to the cut of Louisiana. Siimmarii of the production of Lomjleaf Pine liimher iii. the State of Louisiana in lSi)2. Feet, B. M. Parishes east of the Mississipjii, about 25,000,000 Parishes imrth of the Red River M, 000, 000 To the .Sabine River, sawn at Lake Charles 154, 000, 000 Sawu at Orange, Tex., estimated 10,000,000 Total cut iQ Louisiaiia 275. 000, 000 T-f.jrt.s.— The forests of Longleaf Pine extend from the Sabine west to the Trinity River and from the grassy savannas of the coast region north to the center of Sabine, San Augustine, and 46 TIMliER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Augeliua counties, and include an area of about 2,800,000 acres. In amount and quality of the timber these forests are unsurpassed and are only ecjualed by the forest of the adjoiniiiji region in Louisiana. Toward tlicir southern borders the country, like the pine flats of southwestern Louisiana, is perfectly level and poorly drained, with the soil water-soaked for a greater part of the year. These flats have been almost completely stripped of their merchantable timber. North of Nona the surface rises gradually above the water level in broad, low swells, and, being underlaid by strata of stiff loams, is more or less deficient in drainage. The intervening wide flats are frequently covered with a dense growth of large shrubs and small-sized trees, consisting of various species of hawthorn {Cratccgiis crus-galli, G. viridis, G. mollis., C. bcrbcridi/olia), the Deciduous Holly (Tier decidua), Dahoon Holly (Ih'.r caroliniaiui), Privet (Adrlia acuminatd). plane trees, and magnolias. These impenetrable thickets are common, and often cover many scpiare miles, like the so-called Big Thicket in the lower part of Hardin County, said to be from 10 to 15 miles wide, either way. The growth of Longleaf Pine which covers the gentle, wide swells, is dense, of tine proportions, and of remarkably rajud development. The average age of five trees felled northwest of Nona, 15 to 25 inches in diameter, is but little over one hundred and fifty years, as the following measurements show : Measurements of five trees. Number of tree. Kings on stump. Diameter breast bigh. Mean diameter. Length of timber. Total height of tree. 188 240 208 105 113 94 Inches. 26 22 18 21 15 Inches. 20 IS 16 18 12 Feet. 40 50 50 45 40 Feet. 110 101 113 110 107 ISO 190 191 132 152 20 17 45 104 In this region, owing to the direct communication of several railroad lines with I lie great centers of trade in the North and with the treeless plains of the far West, the manufacture of lumber has made a wonderful progress during the past twelve years. In 1880 the cut of Longleaf Pine in this State has been estimated at (56,450,000 feet. From information I'eceived from parties engaged in tht; lumber business, the cut during the year 1S92 can safely be estimated at 440,000,000 feet. The centers of lumber production are Uraiige and Beaumont, but a great amount is cut at the mills ah)ng the several lines of railway passing through this region. Output of Longleaf Vine lumber in Texas diiriny the i/car 1S92. Feet, B. M. Orange (iDchisivo of 10,000,000 of feet ileriveil from Calcasieu) 45,00(1,000 Bciuimoiit 75,000,000 Sabiue Valley, Texas ami Northern Railroad 157, 000, 000 Mi.ssouri, Kansas and Texas Rail mad 143, 000, 000 Houston, Kansas and Texas Railroad 20, 000, (XIO Total 110,000,000 For the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region there is as little hope under their ]>reseiit management as in the adjoining region in Louisiana. In this cold, wet soil the seeds find but a poor chance for germination, and the surviving plantlets soon succumb to the same cause. In the pine flats seedlings are rarely observed among the tall broom sedge grasses (Androjxigov) which, under the influence of light and a damp soil, thrive luxuriantly in the flat woods deiiudid of their timber growth, imparting to tliem the asi)cct of waving meadows or savannas. PRODUCTS. VAUK AN1> I'.^KS OF THE WOOD. ic wood ot' the Longleaf i'inc is hardly suii)ass('d by Tlic wood ot' the Longleaf i'inc is hardly surpassed by any of our timber trees of economic iu)i)(irtance, and is practically unsurpassed by any member of its own order in the qualities which are required for i)urposes of construction, thus taking the first place among its congeners. VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD. 47 The timber from the damp Hat woods of the coastal plain east of the Mississippi Eiver, with a soil of almost pure, fine, closely compacted sand, is of slow growtli and generally of the finest grain, often exhibiting in the sapwood that irreguhirity known as -'curly pine." In the perpetually damp to wet soil of the pine fiats in southwestern Louisiana and in Texas, with a deep retentive subsoil richer in nutritive elements, causing a better and quicker development of the. tree, the wood is of a more open grain. Owing to tlie excellent qualities of tin; wood of Longleaf Tine, its use in the various mechanical arts and industries is as extensive as it is manifold. Its greatest value rests in its adaptability for heavy constructions— in naval architecture, for masts and spars; in civil engineering, for the building of bridges, viaducts, trestlework, and lor supports in the construction of buildings. Large (juantities of long and heavy sticks of square timber sawn or liewn fur such purposes are shipped to the British ports and to the dockyards of the European continent, with a constantly increasing demand. In the building of railroad cars, where great strength and elasticity is needed, the tind)er of Longleaf Pine is preferred to any other. For this purpose sticks from 3G to 42 feet, 10 by 12 inches, are required, free from blemish. Enormous (piantities of the younger timber of this tree are cut every year to serve for cross- ties, used by the railroads not only in the pine regions, but in other parts of the country. The demand for these ties forms a constant and increasing draft upon the forest. The ties delivered are, on the average. Si feet long, 9 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, and must be all heartwood and free from blemish. The trees selected for this purpose are from lo to 10 inches in diameter, and preferably only the butt cuts are accepted. On an average 10 cross-ties are cut from 1 acre, 'each tie representing a log which would make at least 75 superficial feet of lumber. Since such'a tie, ready for the roadbed, contains not more than 50 feet, board measure, it will be readily seen what an enormous waste results from this practice. On the damp, sandy tracts of the lower South, such ties will last five or six years, and .^OOO ties are needed for 1 mile of road. Hence, for the construction of the 3,210 miles of railroad traversing the forest of Longleaf Pine east of the Mississippi Kiver, nearly 10,000,000 ties have been required, which being renewed every six years involves an annual cut of 110,000,000 feet, board measure, to which must be added the amount exported to other regions. In the Southern States, the West Indies, many places on the coast of Mexico, and Central and South America the lumber of the Longleaf Pine forms the chief, if not the oidy, material in the construction of houses. For similar purposes considerable quantities are of late years shipped to northern markets. East and West, replacing in many cases, at least in parts of the buildings, the lumber of the White Pine, on account of its increasing scarcity. The fine-grained and "curly" varieties of Longleaf Pine lumber, by their beauty and the high polish of which they are susceptible, begin, of late years, to take a place among the higher-priced kinds of wood for ornamental inside work. The importance and value of Longleaf Pine lumber as a material for constructions can not be better evidenced than by the fact that little less than 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure, or about one-third of all the lumber manufactured in the South, is being exported from Soutlierli ports annu- ally to domestic and foreign ports, besides furnishing almost the only material used at home in the construction of dwellings and all kinds of buildings. It also supplies material for furniture, as well as fuel, both in the form of firewood and charcoal, and its exploitation atlords the means of subsistence to thousands. Li(/htwu<)(J.~W]ienevet the sapwood of the tree is laid bare copious exudation of resin takes place and the surrounding wood becomes charged with it. Thus the wood of the trunks of the trees tapped for the extraction of their resin soon becomes charged with this along the scarified surface, ami, as with the evaporation of water from the dead wood, the resiniflcation proceeds and the wood increases in weight and durability. In low, damp places particularly this process takes place more extensively. This resin-charged wood is termed lightwood. The lightwood timber, con- sidered very durable when exposed to alternating conditions of moisture and dryness, is much preferred for posts, etc. Being highly inflammable, it serves for torches and kindling, and hence its name. Of late years a profitable industry has been started to utilize the lesiiious stumi)s of abandoned orchards as kindling material by cutting the same close t(j the ground and then, veneor 48 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. fashion, into long, narrow strips three-fourths of an inch thick, whicli are subsequently steamed and rolled in small bundles to make a convenient package for shipment. The knots, limbs, roots — particularly "fat," i. e., highly charged with resin— are used in the making of tar. Charcoal burninf/.—Wheia a market is found the trees left standing, after the removal of the larger timber fit for sawlogs, are burned for charcoal. This industry is carried on to a greater or less extent in the mineral regions to siipi)ly the blast furnaces operated for tlie manufacture of charcoal iron. Large areas of the forests of the Loiigleaf, covering the hills in north Alabama, have been entirely denuded of their tree (iovering to meet the demands for such purpose. Fuel ralite. — The airdry wood of the Longleaf Pine is much esteemed for fuel; containing but asnuill percentage of ash — not ovcr0.1!5 per cent — with a small amount of water, ami a dense and close fiber, as indicated by its high specific gravity, its fuel value is necessarily high. Being also easily intiammalde, it is preferred where quick and intense beat is required, as, for instance, in bakeries, brick kilns, potteries, etc., and in the raising of steam for stationary engines on steam- boats and railroad locomotives throughout the pine region, where mineral coal can not be cheaply obtained. liESlNorS PRODUCTS OF THE LONGLEAF PINE. It can safely be asserted that among the trees of the same order there is found no other equally rich iu resin. The manufacture of naval stores from the resin of the Longleaf Pine forms one of the most widely deveh)ped industries in the pine forests of the coast pine belt of the South- ern States, and is scarcely less important than the manufacture of its lumber. A full account of these industries will be found iu the accompanying appendix. Concerning the manufacture of tar, pitch, tar oils, and other products of destructive distillation of the wood and of rosin oil, see the Report of the Chief of Forestry, 18'.t2, page 350, etc. PItODUCTS OliTAINEI) FROM THE LEAVES OF LONGLEAF PINE. The green leaves of the tree furnish by distillation an essential oil of balsamic odor closely resembling spirits of turpentine. The so-called ])ine wool is made from their cellular tissue, being treated with a strong alkaline solution at boiling heat, the remaining fiber being cleaned and carded. Tliis i)ine wool is used in upholstery, and is said to be of value as an antiseptic dressing for wounds. Of late years it is manufactured into various kinds of textile fabrics. One fal)ric is a carpet \vhu;h resembles cocoa matting somewhat, but is closely woven and is naturally of a lich-brown color and very durable. This industry, only recently established, has already met such success that the manufacturers have added twenty nine looms to their work. NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION. This tree was first described by Miller in the year 1768 under the name of Pinus palustrin. The younger Michanx substituted for it the more approi)rmte one of rinus (iitstralis, under which name it was descril)ed by succeeding writers and generally known to botanists of recent date. To satisfy the law of priority, the name given by Michaux h.is recently been dropi)ed and the old one reinstated, iu the Catalogue of North American L\u-est Trees,' published in the ninth volume of the census reports of 18S0. (See vernacular nomenclature in introduction.) BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND MOUPIIOLOGY. Leaves three, in a long light-colored sheath; commonly from 9 to l.S (sometimes 14 to 15) inches long; of a bright green color and closely set in bnish-liko clusters at the ends of the stout branches. Cones largo, dark tan colored, l> to sometimes S inches long and 2 to 2i inches in diameter when closed, .5 to (i inches when ()i)eu; scales abont 2 inches long and one-half to 1 inch wide— ratlicr uniform in wi). The male flowers consist of a slender axis, the staminodial column, around which the numerous naked anthers are densely crowded, forming a cylindrical catkin-like flower from 2 to 2i inches and over in length, surrounded at the base by a calyx-like involucre consisting of twelve ovate somewhat leathery bracts, of which the lowest pair or exterior ones are laterally compressed, strongly keeled, and much smaller. The connective of the dark-rose purple anthers spreads out in a semiorbicular denticulate crest: a number of these male flowers are crowded around the base of this year's shoot, forming a dense whorl. After the discharge of the pollen the withered flowers remain for several months on the tree. The pollen remaining for a long time suspended in the air is often wafted to widely distant localities. In the latitude of Mobile its discharge takes place during or shortly after the second week of March. The female flowers (see PI. V, «) are united in a subterminal oval, erect, short-stalked catkin, which is also surrounded by an involucre, the bracts being more numerous, longer, moi'e acuminate, and membranaceous than those of the male flower. The carpellary scales bearing ovules are ol)l(jng oval, tipped with a strong reflexed point, and are almost hidden by the thin flat scales by which they are subtended, which, however, they soon surpass in size. During the first year the young cones make but slow progress in their growth. On the opening of the second season they are scarcely over an inch long; during the summer they increase rapidly and reach their full size during the latter part of the fall. The cones are placed horizontally on the branches below the terminal bud (subterminal), sessile, slender, conical with a .slight curve and from G to 8 inches long; of a dull tan color; the thick scales are light to dark chestnut brown on the inside, 2 inches or slightly over in length, and bear on their exposed end, or apophysis, a small but i)rominent tubercle armed with a short recurved prickle (see PI. VI). Plate VI exhibits truly and fully the open cone and especially the flue markings on the apophysis of the scale. The cones are shed in the latter part of the winter of the second year, rarely remaining to the following spring. On breaking from the branches they leave the lowest rows of the scales behind. SEEDS. The seeds are strongly convex, oblong, oval, less than a half inch long, and surrounded by the long oblique wing (see PI. VI). The shell is whitish, at the front face marked by three promi- nent ridges, flat, smooth, and darkly spotted on the posterior side. It incloses an oily kernel, covered by a white seed coat; rich in nutritious matter and palatable, the seeds furnish in fruitful years an abundance of mast. They are shed before the fall of the cone during the dry weather, most abundantly during the latter part of the fall (end of October or November the best time for their collection) and in a lesser degree during the winter. They germinate easily after reaching maturity, and it often happens, in wet, sultry weather, that they begin to sprout before leaving the cone, in which event the whole crop is destroyed. This, together with the killing of the flowers by late frosts, seems to be one of the main causes of failure of the seed crop so frequently observed. From the behavior of the seed just mentioned and from its oleaginous character it is to be inferred that the period of time during which the seeds retain the power of germination under ordinary circumstances is but a short one, but as a matter of fact seeds a little over a year old have been known to germiuate. EXPLANATION OF PLATES V AND VI. Plate V. Fig. a, branch with two female amenta (second week of March), at the end of terminal young shoot of the season densely covered with fimbriate silvery bract subtending the leaf buds which are still hidden in their axils; l)elow are two ininiaturo cones of one season's growth and mature closed cone of two seasons' growth (( )ctober) ; b, branch with the male inllorescence, the leaves cut away to show the dense cluster of male Howers which closely surround the apex of the young shoot; c, fem.ale anient with basal .scales forming the calyx-like involucre; d, (I, (I, carpellary or seed-bearing scales of female Mowers more advanced, lateral, ventral, and dorsal views— magnilied ."> diameters; ,: detached male llower with basal iuvolucral scales, before opening (dehiscence); f, male llower, after discharge of the pollen: g, three detached anthers, lower sides showing longitudinal slits of the pollen sacs .just opening; lateral view of an effete anther; another seen from upper side showing the transverse semilunar crest- all raagnitied ."> diameters ; h, detached female flower seen from above ; the cuspidate carpellary, or seed scale, bears two strongly bilid naked ovules at its base ; i, female flower viewed from below, dorsal side ; the bract almost covers the carpellary scale, leaving only the tip of the latter and the cusps of the ovules visible; magnilied .5 diameters. I'l.ATK VI. Fi"-. II, mature open cone, after shedding seed; h, cone scale seen from lower or dorsal side showing the apophysis with low umbo and small, weak prickle; c, cone scale seen from upper or ventral side witli seed in place; d, seed, upper side; e, seed detached from c, lower side; /, seed detached from wing, ujjper side, and ines of the lada group. (For the details of structure see the comparative study by Mr. Koth appended to these monographs.) 'This statement is fiirnislu'il by Mr. Filil)crt Roth, in charge oi timber iiivesfcigatious iu the Division of Forestry. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL [Figures natural size, except wliens otherwise! noted.] Fig. «, germinating soed; h, yonng see.Uing (early spring) with the 8 cotyledons just uufol.l.-d; c, seedling a tow wetks'ohlei-, showing central cluster of primary leaves just unfolding; <1, seedling at the end of the first or he.Munim; of tlio second season, showing bundles of true foliage (secondary) leaves succeeding the primary leaves which have disappeared; ., young tree, 3 to 4 years old, with characteristic large root system ; one-third natural size. 51 Bulletiii No 1 3, Division of Forest a PiNUS PALUSTRIS: SEEDLINGS AND YOUNQ PLANT. PERIOD OF EARLY GROWTH. 55 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMKNT. lu a fruitful year, before the close of the season, witli the advent of spring, a dry and sunny state of the atmosphere favoring the fall of the seed, the seedlings are ibund to come up abun- dantly iu every opening of the forest where the rays of the sua strike the dry ground. The lower (hypocotyledonary) parf of the axis of the plantlet is close to the ground, with eight to tea erect colyledous from 1 to li inches in length, their tii)s inclosed iu the shell of the seed, with the long wing persistent and borne banner-like at the top of tiie plantlet (PI. VII, a). The elongation of the ascending axis proceeds slowly, growth iu length l)eing retarded until a certain thickness h;us been attained, resembling in this respect the growth of the stem of endogenous trees. Upon examination of a seedling iu the latter part of April the cotyledons had disappeared and the caulicle was found to be from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch long, its length not exceeding its diameter, hidden by a dense tuft of the needle-shaped primary leaves, which closely invest the terminal bud. At this stage a few fascicles of secondary leaves are already showing themselves, still inclosed in their slieaths. During the first three or four years its energy of growth is mainly expended upon the development of its powerful root system (see PI. VII, e). Before the first spring season has passed, tlie stout spindle-shaped taproot of the seedling is found to be over 3 inches iu length and provided with several fine lateral lootlets, sometimes nearly as long as the main root. With the opening of June the primary leaves covering the axis are nearly all withered, only a few remaining to the end of the season. With the development of the suppressed secondary axes from which the foliage leaves proceed, the primary leaves are reduced to chafty fimbriate bracts. Only few of these primary leaves retain the needle shaped form and green color, namely, those from which no leaf-bearing brauchlets were developed. During the first season many of the fascicles of the foliage leaves contain only two leaves, and sheaths inclosing only one leaf are frequently observed. By the end of the first year the stem of the plantlet is rarely over three-fourths of -an inch iu length, the main root having attained a length of from 8 to 10 inches. Having reached the end of the second year the taproot is found from li to 3 feet in length, the stem scarcely 1^ inches long, with an increase of diameter hardly perceptil)le. The conical terminatiojj of the spring shoot is now densely covered with the delicately fringed bracts inclosing the buds of the foliage leaves, which impart to it the appearance of a silvery white tuft, by which this species is recognized at first sight. Daring tlie following two years the growth proceeds but slowly, the length by the end of the fourth year averaging not more than 5 inches with a thickness of three fourths to seven-eighths of an inch. During the same time the taproot is found to gain constantly both in thickness and length (see PI. VII, e). A few single branches now make their appearance on the main axis. The increase of growth from one season to another up to the seventh or eighth year is difQcult to follow, since the ditterence in the appearance of the spring and summer wood cells in the spongy -wood of young trees is hardly perceptible, and the rings of annual growth, even as seen in cro'ss sections prepared for micro i and 11 inches, and in height between 45 and .50 feet, showed from .30 to 35 rings of growth. The length of the spring shoots on the main stem of these trees was fimnd (June 8j to be from 21 to 24 inches. In another fine grove, covering a field which was known to have been cultivated for the last time during the years 18.35 and 1830, a number of trees were cut down for measurement. The nund)cr of rings was found not to exceed 48. These trees also showed great unil'oniMty in size, measuring near the base IH to 12 inches in diameter and from 08 to 72 feet in height. Thi; wood was sa])py throughout and useless, except for fuel and tor making charcoal. For this jmrpose th(5 land is rented at $4 to $5 per acre. In this grove, ranking as best pine-woods land, tlie soil of wliich was nearly level, well drained, and with a light, loamy subsoil, 110 trees of the above dimensions were counted on 1 a(;re. Among the trees taken from the forest for determining the difference between forest growth and field trees, one measuring 12 inches in diameter and 70 feet in height sliowed 85 rings of annual giiiwtli, with 0.] inches of heartwood. Two others, 14 and 15 inches in diameter and 70 and 71 feet high, showed 1)0 rings each. The shoots of the year (June 8) on the ]irinnir\ and lateral axes of these trees were found to be but little over 1 inch in length. In a third grove, uiion poor, sandy, undulating ground, a nnml)er of trees below medium size were found cut down to serv(^ for posts and logs. In 25 of thes(> trees the diameter varied between 7;,' and 8 inches, with a nearly uniform hciglit of 00 to 02 feet, the first lin b being 18 to 20 feet above the ground. The nund)er of rings varied between 48 and 50. The forests in the same vicinity were strijiped of their more valuable timber a number of years before. Tlie largest trees of the original forest growth remaining were from 12 to 15 implies in diameter. Several were brought down for measurement and I'ound to be 73 feet in height by 1 1 inclies in diameter, with 12(5 rings and 0 inches of heartwood; 73 feet in height by 13 inches in diameter, with 04 rings and 0 inches of lieartwood; and 89 feet in height by 14 inches in diameter, with 107 rings and 8 inches of heartwood. When the tree has reached its second decade it begins to ])roduce llowers and fruit. Having during tlie course of the following ten to lif'teen years reached a length of from 10 to 45 fe<'t, with tli(! main stem clear of limbs, tlie growth of branches does not ])roeeed with the same regularity; consecinently, they are no longer arranged in regular whorls, but ai)pear irregularly, and thus the symmetry of the tree is lost. ' On the TolliDg pine uplamls near spring; Hill. Mobile County. Nnmber of trees. PERIOD OP RAPID GROWTH. Table I. — Measurements of young Irces of Long} eaf Pine. 57 Num- ber of rings. Diame- ter breast high. Height. To crown. Total. Locality. Remarks. I... 2... 3... i... 18.. ,5... 6... 319. 19.- 8.-. 32). 318. 9... 10-. 248. 317- 11.. 260. 199. 198. 194. 12.. 13.. 14.- 15.. 259. 246. 316. 195. 194- . 196., 209.. 210... 21 IS... 315... 207... 256... 258... 16.... 17-21. •Sia . 723.. 24(1 . 25a . 26... 27... 10 10 10 11 11 U 12 12 13 12 13 13 13 13 14 15 10 18 19 211 20 i;l 21 25 22 20 21 25 39 40 40 43 43 43 43 55 71 87 95 105 105 Inches. 1} H 6 10 10 10 11 11 8 5 Feet. 11 14 10 24 2U 17 15 17 21 17- 33 28 34 47 Feet. 5,S 22 10 11 23 17 16 22 15 14 24 15 19 20 24 35 16 23 20 47 49 45 5) 511 21 29 28 47 44 44 35 3.1 51) 60 53 47 56 60 61 58 40 59 58 56 59 Springhlll, Al.i do do do Levins Station, La. Springhill. Ala do Eidgelaud, S. C .... do Levins Station. La. .... do Ridmland, S. C .... .do Springhill, Ala do Tlioniasville. Ala . . Eidm-lanrt. S. C Springhill. Ala Thomasvillc, Ala . . Nona, Tex do do Sju-inghill, Ala do do iiressed. In open forest. Old (lasture, on poor broken ground. 6 trees from grove !)fohl pasture; yiidd, sticks and building: averaging 20 feet in length. Grove with 115 to 120 trees to tlle :icre; on field and rented to charcoal burners. Old jiastnre. Old turpentine orchard; bled; e\posi-d for over 20 years, one se;ison after another, to fire. Under cover of forest. Old turpentine oic-bard; bled and scorf 10, 3, and 1 in the three successive periods. Tlie decrease in the accretion of wood corresponds with the reduction in the growth of the branches and conse- quent reduction of foliage. From what has been said, it is seen that the Longleaf Pine attains maturity of growth, witJi the best finalities of its timber, at an age of from one hundred and eighty to two hundred years. After jiaving passed the second century the trees are found frequently to be wind shaken and otherwise defective. The deterioration of the weather-beaten crown les.sens the vitality of the tree, and the soil, under prevailing conditions, becomes less and less favorable. In consequence, the trees become liable to disease and mostly fall prey to the attacks of parasitic fungi (red heart). Instances of trees which have reached the nia.xiinum age of two hundred and seventy-five or tbree hundred years are exceptional. In order to ascertain the age required to furnish merchantable timber of first quality, ineas- nrements were made of a number of logs in a log camp in the rolling pine uplands of the lower division of the coastal pine belt near Lunibertim, Wa.shiiigton (bounty, Ala. From the results obtained i'. a))pears that in this section of tlie eastern Gulf region, at the lowest figure, two hundred years are requisite to produce logs of the dimeusious at present cut at the sawmills. 58 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTUERN UNITED STATES. Table II. — Measurements of LongUaf Pine — period of slower growth from one hundred to two hundred years. be a 'u Vi o .a a a 'A 1 1 -2 5 3 Height. 1 u s. « 5 1 t4 o i* Locality. 1 o s s o S 3 Cm o o Increase in diam- eter for eacb sjiccessive half century, in inches. Number of years re- quired for ev<-ryinch of wood for oacii suc- cessive half century. l^murks. a 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 190 105 110 105 105 110 !I2 113 114 115 115 UC 116 118 123 125 133 135 )45 145 140 155 155 160 165 167 170 170 180 182 183 189 lilO In. 19 17 9 14 14 15 20 12 12 17 12i 13 15 17 18 18 17 19 22 20 23 18 24 21 10 21 21 19 19 16 19 21 n. 62 36 38 40 45 50 53 30 38 70 46 48 45 40 61 44 54 49 62 63 03 65 43 35 84 50 62 56 70 53 57 58 n. 113 92 8r> 85 78 97 no 83 83 90 81 87 84 84 102 93 95 96 102 99 122 98 111 97 125 108 117 102 113 111 111 117 in. 11 In. 4 Nona, Tex Wallace, Ala "WilBon. Ala Chunchnla, Ala... Flat; soil, deep «andy loam, damp; vir- gin forest close; exposure free. Gently rolling, jiine upland, close: vir- gin torest; .slightly under cover and ui)l)ressed. Bored timber; abandoned for five years; dry pine, rolUug pine forest; exposure free. Open forest; exposure free. Do. '>0 70 5i 11.1 63 9.5 *i 5i 11 15 Levins Station, La. NoDa, Tex Kidjicland, S. C ... Chiiucliula, Ala... Nona. Tex Cbuuchula, Ala... Wilson, Ala Eastman, Ga Cbuuchula, Ala... Springbill, Ala.... Eastman, Ga Renfroc. Ala do ... . Do. 191 4J Flat woods ; closed forest ; damp, etc. Clearing in forest; soil dry, sandy. Rolling pine lands; dry, sandy. Flat woods : soildam p ; crown oppressed. Rolling ]iine woods; dry. sandy. Bored; dry uidands; open forest; par- tially tree. Gently rolling uplands, dry; open for- est ; exposure free. Do. 3i:s 9 3 5§ *» 9.1 11.1 200 54 5 9.7 10 07 253 11 24 2J 21 f 6J 5J 7.7 5.5 7.8 9.1 23 Exposed slope; open forest; soil, loamy sand; exposure free. Open forest: dry. sandy; exposure free. Rocky hillside; dry subsoil, loam; expo- sure free. Rocky hillside; dry subsoil, loam; i>ar- tially free. Gently undulatini^ open forest; loamj- sand; txposun? free. Open pine forest; sandy loam, dry; exposure free. Do. 251 13 10 14 16 237 24 252 309 5 2J Ridjrelaud, S. C do 312 177 Levins Station, La. Springbill. Ala.... Wallace, Ala 24 6 5J 5* 8.-1 8.7 9.1 Open pine for* st ; loamy sand, dry; ©x- ])osure free. Close fctre.st ; deep sandy loam; expo- sure free. 10 238 15 8 U 13 11 205 2 sure Ir&e. 230 »ieu Parisb, La. do sure Iree. Do. 178 Levins Station. Hai>ides Tarisb, La. Wallace, Ala do Rolling open forest; sandy loam ; expo- sure free. Rolling pine woods; deep sandy loam; partially free. Rolling pine woods; dt-eji saudy loam; slightly upprt-ssed. 204 4 5 C do partially free. Rolling pine woods; deep sandy loam; partially under cover. Flat wouda; loamy, damp; free. 203 11 Ityausville, Calca- sieu Parisb, La. PERIOD OF SLOW GROWTH. 59 Table III. — Measiiremenis of Longleaf Pine — period of slowest growth from two hvndred to two It nndred and sixty-six years. fcD a ew O ID s C -S o 9 S Height. Z o I u 1 S 1 0 Locality. 1 "8 1 — S ■s o to © 1 3 Increase in diam- eter for every half contury, in inches. Number of yoarii required for every * iuch of wood for eacb' successive half century. lieinarka. ^ 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 ?o? 200 216 202 206 209 210 215 210 215 220 235 245 240 250 248 263 264 264 266 In. 23 26 29 21 22 22 21 26 2C 23 22 27 25 23 24 26 28 28 26 60 55 56 54 61 50 50 5b 64 45 41 49 52 46 40 50 45 52 ,Ft. 127 il06 108 109 101 110 112 106 120 117 108 106 110 102 101 103 102 103 In. 14 In. 3* Ryan-sville, Calca- sieu Parisli, La. Wallace, Ala do Flat wood.-?; damp soil; sandy, cold loatii; I'xiiosurt? free. ■i 16 exjiosurc free. '•11 14 12 3 li Kenfroe, Ala Nona. Tex Kenfroe, Ala Wallace. 4.1a loamy sand ; exposure free. Eoeky'hills; open forest; esposui-o free. Level, dense forest; damp; expo- sure free. liocky liills ; forest open ; under- growth dense; exposure free. 1S1 IS 'in 144 1 dt-nse; loamy sand; exposure somewhat njipressed. Undulaliiii; tjiUIe-hind; dense for- est; expdsiu-tf tn-i.'. Undulatiti^ tabh' land; open forest; fxpusuro free; timber bled. fii Wilson, Ala do 60 ?4<) 15 21 17 10 15 '26' 18 3i H I' 2 Eastman, Ga do Undiilatini; tableland ; opt-u fore.st ; loamy sand; esi)08ure free. ?'in 188 Nona, Tex Lumljerton. Ala . . . do Level, damp; forest dense; .sorae- wbat oi)]»re.ssed. Rolling uplands; forest open; free. Do I, I' 3i •li 2J 34 2 1* 6.3 5.7 9.5 8 3 13.3 11.1 18 14.3 25 33 do Bo. 74 8? 45 M 3 6.6 6.6 6.3 5.7 5.7 8.7 12.6 12.6 8.7 15.5 16.6 15.5 16.6 12.6 25 do Do. 74 8} 8 m 4^ 3 5?l 31 do Do. do Do _.„ _J The following table and diagram (fig. S) pre.seiit the average results of a detailed .study of over sixty trees collected in ditferent localities. Since only the part of the sleni from stump upward is repre.seiited, the seedling jieriod of slow growth liiids no expression. It will be observed tliat the growth in height is a maximum between the age of ten and tliiity years, amounting; to It feet for each decade; that it is but half of this at sixty and little over one-third at the age of one hundred years. As plainly indicated in the tine, uniform grain of the wood, the growth in diameter is remarkably uniform until the tree reaches the age of about one hundred years. From this on it decreases ra])idly and is scarcely more than one-fourth as great at one liundrcd and eighty as it is at one hundred. Tlie rate of growth in volume increases steadily up to the one luindredth year, reaching a maximum of over 1.2 cubic feet per year, but decreases, though very slowly, from that time forward, being only about one-half cubic foot per year when the tree reaches the age of one hundred and eighty years. Half of groirth of LonijJeaf Pine. Diam- eter with hark (breast high). Length of tim- ber, with upper diame- ter of-5 inches. Height of tree. Volume. Periodical accretion. Average annual .accretion. Ago. Tree. Log. Decade. Diame- ter. Height. Area of cross sec- tions. Volume. Curri'nt .accretion. 10 Inches. 2.0 3.8 5.5 7.0 8.1 9.6 11.5 13.0 14.5 16.0 18.0 19.5 20.5 21.3 Feet. is' 34 34 44 52 56 60 65 72 KO 85 Feet. 9 23 37 48 56 62 67 72 76 80 87 93 98 103 Cu.feet. 0.12 1.20 3.35 7.06 10.75 15.26 24.16 33.18 43.57 55. 85 76.87 96.44 112,30 122. 00 Cu.feet. First Inches. 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.8 1.6 .8 .75 Feet. 9 14 14 11 8 6 5 I 4 7 6 5 5 Sf/.foot. 0.01 .04 .07 .08 .08 .12 .17 .19 .16 .17 .30 .29 .16 .12 Cu. feet. 0.12 1.08 2.15 3.71 3.09 4.51 8.90 U. 112 10. 39 12. 28 21.02 19. 02 15.86 10.70 Cu. feet. 0.01 .06 .11 .18 .21 .25 .35 .41 .48 .56 .64 .69 .70 .67 Cu. feet. 0.01 20 .11 30 Third .21 40 5.61 9.30 13.99 23. 11 32.27 42.66 .54. 94 75.87 95.49 111.50 121.20 Fourth .37 50 Fifth .37 60 Sixth .45 70 Siventh .89 80 Eifilitb .00 90 Kinth 1.04 100 Tenth 1.23 120 Eleventh and twelft h 1.05 140 160 180 Thirteenth and fourteenth Fifteenth and sixtientli Seventeenth and eighteenth .. .98 .79 .53 60 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. ■2l(iBf5.5|7.0f 8J--T- 9.6--H ' -5-* -• 1 3.0-- f -1 4.5-- ^f- - • 1 6.0- - -f- -■ 1 8.0 ip.5---f---20.5--f-- 21.3- DIAMETERS. IN INCHES. Klo. 8 Growth of I.oiiKlcuf IMue; HfiKht, ili.tinotcr, niiil culiii- contenta of average treoa .at 10. 20, etc., years of age. CONDITIONS Ol'' DEVELOPMENT. Dcmandx upon xoil mid rUiiiatr.—\u its deniiiucLs upon tlie soil this pine is to be counted among the most fru>;al us far as mineral constituents, wliieli are considered as plant food, are coneerued, ifonlytlie mechanical (londititms \vhi(-li iulluenee favorable soil moisture are not wanting. It thrives best on alight siliceous soil, loamy sand or pebbles or lij^lit sandy loam, with a slightly clayey sub.soil sufficiently porous to insure at least a partial undcrdrainage and to permit unim- peded value for its timber. "It is neither temperature alone, nor rainfall and moi.sture conditions of the atmosphere alone, that influence tree growth, but the relation of these two climatic factors, which determiues the CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 61 aiiiouiitof traiisiiiratiou to be perfurmecl by the l'oIiaj,'e, aud again with most species we must place this traiispiiatiou movement into relation with available soil moisture, in order tt) determine what the requirements and the most suitable habitat of the species are" (B. E. Fernow). Hence we find that east of the Mississippi Kiver the Longieaf Tine occurs in greatest frequency along the isotherm of GO^ l'\ ranging to the Si"^ north latitude, while west of the Mississippi it follows a line between the isotherms of 03° aud 04° F. and is scarcely found north of the tiiirty second parallel of north latitude. Within this area of its distribution it is exposed to wide variation of temperature aud moisture conditions. Under the influence of the vapor-laden breezes from the Mexican Gulf and an evenly distributed rainfall ranging from 4L> to 03 inches during the year, the Longieaf Pine appears of the same thrift and vigor of growth in the interior of Alal)ama under 34° to 35'= north latitude, with the ther- mometer falling as low as 4° F. (10° C.) and a range of temperature of 93° (at Tuscaloosa), as it is found in the subtropical belt of the coast with a maximum temperature of lO-^o F. (40'^ O.) and a range of temperature of 04^ west of the Mississippi liiver, although tlie temperature reaches rarely a minimum of 15° and 12o, respectively, at the iiorthern limit of the tree in these States, the diminished humidity of the atmosphere and lesser rainfall, particularly during the warmer season, acciiunt for its absence. There can be no doubt that the greater exposure to the violence of the sudden gusts of dry and cold wind known in Texas as <' dry northers " exercises also no small influence in limiting the Longieaf Pine. A.SSOCIATED SPKCIES. The Longieaf Pine is eminently a gregarious tree, covering areas of wide extent, to the almost complete exclusion of any other species. In the flat woods of the coastal plain, particularly near its northern limit on the Atlantic Slope, it is not iufre((uently associated with the Tvoblolly Pine- farther south and along the Gulf Coast to the Mississiiipi lliver, more or less fre(juently with this tree and the Cuban Pine. In the upper part of the maritime pine belt it not rarely occurs together with the Shortleaf Pine and the Loblolly Pine intermixed with the deciduous trees of the u])laiids, viz, the Black Oak, Spanish Oak, Black-jack, Bitternut, Mockernnt Hickories, and Black Gum. It will be apparent, from what has been said regarding the demands for light, that the asso- ciated species must be either slower growers or later comers, if the Longieaf Pine is to survive in the mixture. As has been pointed out elsewhere, with the culling of the Longieaf Pine from the mixed growths it nuist soon cease to play a part in them, since its renewal under the shade of the remaining associates is impossible. ENEMIES. The greatest danger threatening the existence of the forests of Longieaf Pine must be ascribed to the agency of man, since their destruction is caused chiefly by the reckless manner in which they are depleted without heed to recuperation. The right of ownership has been generally acquired on such low terms that since no value has been attached to the land without the timber, despoliation has been carried on with no other object than the quickest return of momentary profits. EXPLOITATION. Such management could not but entail tremendous waste, a large percentage of the body of the trees felled being left on the ground to rot or to serve as fuel for the conflagrations which scour these woods almost every year. Infinitely greater than the injuries inflicted ui)on the forest by the logger and by getting out cross-ties and hewn square timber, which consist chiefly in the accninulation of combustible waste, are those caused by the production of naval stores. When the fact is considered that the production of the 40,000 barrels of spirits of turpentine, which on an average during the latter half of this decade annually reached the market of Mobile alone, implies the devastation of about 70,000 acres of virgin forest, the destruction caused by this industry appears in its full enormity. Under the management of the turpentine orchards prevailing at i)resent, trees of such small size are tapped that they are unable to resist tlie foi-ce of the winds, and in a few years are inevitably prostrated, while the larger trees, weakened by the severe gashes on almost every side, become largely wind-shaken and the timber after a few years almost worthless. g2 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. While a judicious tapping is not only justified, but demanded, by an economic system of exploitation, the i)revailiiig methods of orcharding are unnecessarily destructive. Tlie tapping of sai)i)ling timber not yet ripe for the saw, and the destructive fires started in connection with this industry, auniliilating all young growth, prevent any renewal of the forest, wliile the working of large bodies of timber years before milling facilities are available leads often to 20 per cent and more of loss in both quality and quantity of the merchantable product. FIRES. The greatest injury to which the pine forests are subject in consequence of turpentine orcharding arises from the fires which are started every spring for the purpose of getting rid of the combustible matter raked from around the tapped trees in order to protet-t them from accidental contlagratious while they are worked. These forest tires, si»readiug far beyond their intended limits, destroy entirely the youngest progeny of the pines, stunt the growth of the more advanced trees, and cause the ruin of a large number of older ones in the abandoned turpentine orchards. Burning deeply into tlie gashes aiul othi^r exposed surfaces of the tapped trees, these fires hasten their prostration by the gales. Moreover, the fire causes cracks in tlie surfaces laid bare by the ax and the puller occasions greater exposure to atmospheric action, thus inducing more or less rapid decay. A test, made by sawing through twenty-two logs taken at random from a turpentine orchard after it had been abandoned for a period of sixteen to eighteen years, showed that about one-half of the timber was jjartially decayed and shaky. Besides the production of naval stores as a cause of forest fires, there is another scarcely less j)otent. This is the ju-actiee prevailing among the settlers of burning the woods ni)on tlie approach of every spring in order to hasten the growth of grass for their famished stock. Fires are also frequently started through the carelessness of loggers and hunters, in the preparation of the ground for tillage, and by sjiarks from locomotives. These fires, occurring at least once during every year, cause the total destruction of the young growth of the Longleaf fine. The danger to this species is much greater than to any other Southern wood, because of the greater length of time it requires to reach a size at which it can otter some resistance to fire. In the open forests of Longleaf Tine the, fires are not so destructive to the larger timber as in the dense forests of coniferous trees farther north, trees of larger size being, with some exceptions, but slightly, if at all, directly damaged. Another serious damage, however, resulting from the frequent recurrence of fires is the destruction of all vegetable matter in the soil. Deprived of tla; mulching needed for the retention of moisture, the naturally porous and dry .soil, now rendered absolutely arid and barren, is no longer capable of supporting any laiger toee growth or other useful vegetation. LIVE STOCK. Of no l(-ss danger to the existence of tlie forests of Longleaf Pine is the injury caused by live stock. This agency, slow in its action, is sure to lead to their destruction unless restricted to some extent. IJesides the damage due to the trampling down and mutilation of the young growth by herds of cattle roaming through the woods, the smaller domestic animals— goats ami shee])— eat the tufts of the tender foliage of the seedlings, while hogs are seen digging up and chewing the spongy and lender roots of the young i)lants. As a further agency in the way of the renewal of this species, the destruction of the mature cones might be mentitmed, caused i)rincii)ally by the squirrels, which peel otf the scales clean to the core in search of the sweet, nutritious seed. STORMS. Full-grown trees are frequently uinooted Ity the iiurricanes whicli I'roni time to time pass through The pine belt. Timse having tlie taproot sliorteiied by impenetrable layers of indurated clay interi)ose(l in the subsoil at varying depths an' invariably the first victims of the high winds. In trees grown in such places the taproot is found with a tumid and round base as smooth as if polished. ENEMIES. 63 FUNGI. Frequently full-gTown trees are found to show signs of rapid decay. These are recognized by the gradually dying of the smaller limbs and their falling off, in consequence of the rotting of the wood surrounding their base; and after having been cast off a hole or diseased sixit remains in the trunk, which is infested by a large fungus of the genus Pohjporits (punk holes, punk stools). The heartwood of such trees is of a reddish color, soft, sappy, and full of small channels, caused by the breaking down of the walls of the wood cells, tilled with the mycelium, the so-called spawn of the fungus, the threads of which also penetrate the medullary rays. Such puuky or red-heart timber is found mostly on the ridges in the poorest soil. Apparently superannuated trees are most frequently found afllicted with this rot. The Longleaf Tine, throughout its existence, is exposed to the danger of destruction by the ravages of insects, hosts of which, belonging to various orders, are found to infest it from the earliest stages of its development. Upon the tufts of the tender primary leaves of the seedling are often found feeding large numbers of a yellow, black-striped caterpillar, the larviB of a species of sawfly (Lophi/rus). The cambium of trees felled in the latter part of tlie summer is soon found swarming with the larval brood of bark beetles, which after a short time infest the trees growing near by, causing, as has been again and again observed, the death particularly of the trees of younger growth over extensive areas. Hence the necessity of stopping the practice of felling trees during the summer season. According to information kindly furnished by Mr. Schwarz, of the Entomological Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, most if not all the species of the bark beetles the family Tomicithv have more than one annual generation, and in the Southern States tliey have in all probability, three. The summer generation develops in a very short time, possibly within four or live weeks, and the perfect beetles issuing from the trees felled in August will in Septem- ber attack the healthy trees near by for want of more suitable food. The ravages spoken of by Michaux refer, no doubt, to these species of Tomicidw beetles which enter the solid wood of trees e. g., (hiathofrichus inuteriarius and Xylcborus jmbescem. The galleries of these timber beetles or allied species are found to penetrate the wood to the heart. The grating noise made by the larvffi of the large ceramboid beetle, the Moiiohammns, while engaged in its work of destruction frequently strikes the ear in the forest. That there is a large number of species belonging to different orders i^reyiug on the Longleaf Pine and more or less destructive to the life of this tree is apparent from the following communication ft'om Mr. Schwarz: Tho number of insects to be found on the Longleaf Pine is very large and comprises species of most orders, but a complete list of tbem has never been publislied and the habits of most of them have never been carefully studied. Only those which are really injurious to the tree need to be considered. Order Hiimenoptera: Several species of sawtlies (Tcnthredinido-), occasionally verj' injurious to the younger tress, the larvin defoliating the branches. The species tliMs far observed are Loiihi/run Jbbotii, Leach; Lophijrus Lecaiitei, Fitch, and three or four less common sjiecies. Order CoUoptcra, slip B : Kound-headed borers (larv;e of Cerambi/cichr) att'ect the trees similarly to the Buprcntidif, but their burrows are always cylindrical, and some species bore only under the bark. The most abundant and destructive is Monohammnx litillator, Fabr., but there are many other species, of which the following is a partial list: ScaphiniiH 8ohwrkollis, Lee. ; Asciiium moestiiiii, Hald. ; Criocej>hali(S niibilutt, Lee. ; Eiipoyoniiis lomeiitosus, Hald. ; Jcantlio- cinii8 nodosits, Fabr. In the family Curculionida; the worst enemy of the pine tree in the more Northern States, Piaxodes strobi is rare in the region of the Longleaf Pine, but another species, Paehylobiiin picivoriis, Germ., the larvic of which bore under the bark, is quite common and greatly injurious to tho Longleaf Pine. Of its more dangerous enemies tho Scolytid beetles, which mostly bore their galleries under the bark, only a few species entering the solid wood, the following are known to infest Phuis j)aliitlri.s: Piti/ophihoriin pulcarim, Zim. ; /'. unnectiux, Lee; Tomicus calliij)-ai)hus,ijeT.; T. anihus, Eich. ; T. caco/jraphus, Lee; Crypiuryiis atoiniis, Lee; Dindrocloniis terebrans, Oliv. ; D.froiilalia, Zira.; Hijlastes porcnlus, Er. ; H. esilin, Chap. Tho few species entering the solid wood are Platypus quadrldentatus, ()\i\-. ; Gnathotrivhiis materiariu«, Fitch, and XyloljoriiK piibescenn, Zim. Most of these Scolytid.c. are extremely numerous in specimens, and although they usually infest injured or diseased trees, yet in cases of excessive multiplication or for want of proper food they often attack healthy trees, which within one or two years succumb to their attacks. 64 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. NATURAL REPRODUCTION. Certain peculiarities iiihereiit to this species form a series of obstacles iu the way of its spoutaiieous reproduction. These are, tirst, the rare occurrence of seasons of abundant crops of seed, and, second, its slow growth during the earliest part of its development, rendering the voung otispring of this pine liable to be suppressed by (competing species of quicker growth. To these causes is to be further added its dependence upon the intluence of direct sunlight, which is required for its germination as well as during the subsequent stages of its growth to maturity, and the sensitiveness of the seeds and seedlings to moisture; placed in a wet, undrained soil, the germinating power of the first is destroyed and the latter will perish on exposure to the same conditions. A study of the young giowth of the Longleaf Tine over the dift'erent regions of its habitat leads unavoidably to the conclusion that the chances for the reproduction of its forests, left to the ordinary course of nature, are quite limited, even if the adverse conditions arising from human ageuc-ies are left out of consideration. On the lowlands of the Atlantic Coast toward its northiirn limit this pine is almost invariably replaced by the Loblolly I'ine, while farther south and in the coastal plain of the Gulf States east of the Mississippi River, after its removal, it is replaced partly by the I^ohlolly Pine and largely by the Cuban Pine. On the wide expanse of uplands rising above the coastal plain with their broad ridges of a soil of sandy loam, the young trees of the Longleaf Pine are met with in every stage of growth. Attaining, however, during the first five (tr six years scarcely a greater height than the surrounding herbage, the seedlings are irredeemably ruined by the various destructive agencies to which they are exposed. On land liable to repeated conflagrations, a scrubby growth, chiefly of barren oak and other upland oaks already mentioned, takes possession and excludes by its shade the pine. If upon the rolling pine lands or drv pine barrens the removal of most of the original tree covering is followed by a succession of barren years, the ground will surely be invaded by the hard wood trees mentioned, wliich will letaiu possession. Under the shadeof these trees the Longleaf Pine can neveragaiu find ahome. In the stronger soil of the upper division of the maritime pine belt, the region of mixed growth, where the seedlings of the Longleaf Pine spring up siniidtaneonsly with thehaid wood trees and the seedlings of the Shortleaf Pine, these latter will eventually gain tlie supremacy and sujjpress those of the Longleaf Pine; consequently the latter is seldom observed in mixed forests of second growth, in the Hat woods, i)articularly in the i)ine fiats of southwestern Louisiana and Texas, with a soil water-soaked during the winter and spring, the offspring of the Longleaf Pine is stiil more rarely met with for the reasons stated. From tiiese facts it is evident that, owing to natural causes, combined with the unrestricted sway of tlie intluences leading to its destruction by human agency, theofl'si)ring of the Longleaf Pine is rarely seen to occupy the place of the parent tree, even in the region most favorable to its natural renewal, and that final extinction ol' the Ibiests of the Longleaf Pine is inevitable unless proper forest management is applied. FOREST MANAGEMENT. The time for the acquisition of timber lands or of tiie right of working them for their products at prices far below what could be considered as an adequate return f(n' their instrinsic value has well-nigh passed away. The opportunities wliicli existed during the last twenty-five years for acquiring Longleaf Pine lands, which were open to purchase by the hundreds of thousands of acres have now in a great measure ceased to exist. The greater iiart of this kiiul of i)riq)erty has passed into the possession of capitalists, and the rest will soon be similarly controlled. Under this new order of things the price of these timber lands is gradually approaching figures more in proi)()rtion to their true value. The depredations committed unbbishingly on the public lands, and on the lands of railroad corporations and i)rivate owners, are rendered less ea.sy every year under a mutual protection of interest. Reckless waste and devasfation, heedless of the interests in the future, are giving way to a more economical managenu-nt of the timber resources in the logging camp and in the mill. No measures have been attempted to maintain these resources by sparing the younger timber in its best stage of growth from the ax. or to provide in any other way for the iirofection and preservation of the younger growth. FOREST MANAGEMENT. 65 What has been said of the geographical distribution of this tree and its demands upon climate, soil, aud exiwjsiire, demonstrates that east of the Mississippi River it can be successfully urowii all over the maritime plain of the Southern States (Austroriparian zone) and in the interior of Ala- bama, through a large region of the Carolinian aud the extreme southern extension of the Appa- lachian zone to an elevation above the sea falling little short of 1,0()(» feet. And the sandy soils of this region, largely too poor for agricultural use, are par excellence Longleaf pinelands. In the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine, ui)on areas denuded, the fact must be borne in mind that to produce timber which is under present conditions considered of fiiir merchantable quality a period of not less than one hundred and fifty years is required, and that to produce timber of the strength, clearness, and durability for which it is held in such high esteem the slow growth under the severe aud hardening conditions involved in the struggle for light in the crowded forests is necessary. Hence, economic reasous would point to the maintenance and conservative manage- ment of the existing forests of Longleaf Pine and their renewal by natural reproduction, and perhaps best the method of selection which under the present conditions appears the most practi- cable, involving chiefly methods of protection. By this method all or most of the mature trees, corresponding in their proportions to the most desirable quality of timber, are cut and the rest left to grow till they reach similar dimensions, to be in their turn replaced by the second growth, which in the openings from time to time springs up. In fact, this method was followed in the earlier days of the timber industry in the several regions of the Longleaf Pine, where the forests were being culled for the best sizes at intervals of from fifteen to thirty years. But owing to the exhaustion of the mature pine from forests within distance of railroad lines and water courses, which necessitates great outlays of capital for constructing tramroads or waterways, the original practice of selection has been abandoned, no tree being spared at present that will make a stick of timber, however small, as long as it finds a sale in the market. Care should of course be taken to leave always enough seed trees evenly distributed, and the chief care is to be directed to the protection of the seedlings aud other young growth from the destructive agencies mentioned— fire, cattle, and the encroach- ment of invading species. A forest under such management would necessarily present a great diversity in the growth of the trees, aud the length of time between one cutting and the next would be equally variable. It must be remarked that the demand of this species for the unhin- dered access of direct suuliglit during the time of germination and successive stages of growth might prove a serious obstacle to the continued success of this method of selection ; and the "group method," as described in the report of the chief of the Division of Forestry for 1894, might be sub- stituted with advantage. Where it is desired to reestablish the growth of Longleaf Pine upon denuded areas, the ground must be cleared of every obstacle in the way of free access of the rays of the sun before the sowing. Owing to the ease with which the seeds germinate and the seed- lings take root in the ground, but slight prei)aration of the same would be required, and there would be no difQculty in procuring a good stand. If transplanting is to be resorted to, the seed- lings should be taken up during the fall or winter succeeding the first season of their growth, before the further development of the rapidly growing taproot, the precaution always being taken to prevent any injury to the rootlets and their drying out before their transfer to the ground. Since the trees clear themselves easily of branches, the stand in the plantation in the earlier stages does not need to be as dense as with other species. In order to secure improvement and permanency of favorable soil conditions, the litter from the shedding of the leaves aud gradual decay of herbage should be left uu disturbed on the ground. There can be hardly auy doubt that the introduction of other shady species would greatly assist in improving soil conditions and producing more rapid development of the pine. Care would have to be taken to bring in these species later, say between fifteen and twenty years, when the pine has begun to make its rapid height growth and can escape the shade of its neighbors. For the present, however, the economic conditions are hardly yet ripe for any artificial reforestation, but the great importance of this valuable forest resource to the industrial and commercial development and prosiierity of the people living within its limits should be apparent enough to keei> them at least from preventing its natural reproduction. The growth of the young timber after the first few years is rapid enough, as may be seen from the table on page 57, aud 17433— No. 13 5 G6 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. after fifteen or twenty years, when the trees luive reached a diameter of lH inches, they can be tapped for resin and will give a coutiuuons revenue. Under careful management, and by tapping only the treses which should be removed in thinnings to make light for tlie rest, this revenue can be obtained without in any way impairing the final harvest value. rONCLVSION. From the southern frontier of \'irginia, throughout the lower part of the Southi^ru kStates, to the limits of high and compact forest growth west of the Mississippi Kiver, spread over an area of from !tO,()0(» to 10(),()()() square; iiiih's, tlie forests of the Longleaf Pine present yet a stupendous tim- ber wealth. Yet, if we deduct the farm lands, and consider that large areas have been culled or entirely denuded of the original growth, we may estimate that the amount of timber standing can at best not exceed 1(10, 000, 000, 000 feet, and is probably much less, while the cut, which at present does not fall short of 3,700,000,000 feet, board measure, is bound, as the Northern i)ine is giving out, to increase at even greater rate than in the past. Under such a strain, outstripping by far the possibilities of their I'eproduction, the exhaustion of the resources of these forests within the ueai' future is inevitable, and if the devastation under present managenuMit by the luival store industry and the destruction caused by fire and domestic animals is continued their extermi- nation as far as practical purposes are concerned must be regarded as equally certain. APPENDIX. THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. The resiuous product of the Loiigleaf Kiue furnishes tlie raw material for the production of naval stores, one of the most important industries in connection with the resources of the American forests. At present the bulli of tliese stores used in the world is derived from the forests of Longieaf Pine, and hence this industry is almost entirely confined to the coast pine belt of the Southern States, the proportion contributed by France, Austria, and other countries being insignificant. For the year 1S92 the foreign export of spirits of turpentine alone amounted to over 200,000 casks and the total production exceeded 350,000 casks. To produce this amount of spirits at least 2,500,000 acres must have been in orchard, and since over one-third of the total production is furnisiied by orchards being worked for the first year, over 800,000 aci'es of virgin forest must be attacked annually to supply present demands. Under the name of naval stores are comprised the products derived directly or indirectly from the resinous exudation of cone-bearing trees, mostly pines, including tar, the product of the destructive distillation of the wood of pines highly charged with resinous matter. The name is undoubtedly derived from tlieir extensive consumption in the shii)yards and on board of vessels. These jiroducts are: KESIN, OK CRUDE TUUPENTINK. The resin of the Longieaf Pino recently exuded is almost colorless, or of a pale straw color, of the consistency of honey, having a terebinthinous odor and taste, and like all substances of the same class is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and spirits of turpentine. It con- sists of a volatile oil and a solid resin held in solution partially suspended in the former. The best quality is obtained during the first year the tree is worked, known as "virgin dip" or "soft white gum," which is almost colorless and contains the largest (quantity of volatile oil. In the following year it is of a deeper yellowish color, the "yellow dij)," which with each succeeding year becomes darker in color, more viscid, and poorer in volatile oil.' The resin toward the close of the season produced on the tree under the influence of a cooler temperature is called hard gum, or scrape. This solidified resin of whitish to yellowish color contains only half of the quantity of the spirits of turpentine obtained from the diji or soft gum. By the distillation of the crude turpentine the naval stores of most importance to trade are obtained. SPIRITS (IF TURPENTINE, OR OIL OF TURPENTINE. Si)irits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine, is the volatile constituent of the resin. This liquid when freshly prepared is colorless, of a peculiar odor and taste, of a density varying between 0.85 and 0.87, volatile at ordinary temperatures, boiling between .'5040 and 320° F. It turns polar- ized light to the riglit, a characteristic feature of the American spirits of turpentine, most of the spirits from other sources polarizing the light to the left. In its pure state this volatile oil is free from oxygen, being a hydrocarbon of the composition of CjoHie. It is highly inflammable and ' It is still an open question wliether this deterioration is necessary or only owing to fanlty manipulation. Experiments to settle this (luestiou are now in progress in the Forestry Division. 67 68 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. burns with a sooty flame. It is a good solvent for many resins, wax, fats, caoutchouc, sulphur, and phosphorus, and is used in the arts and industries for the jjreparation of varnishes, in paints, the rubber industry, etc. Hefore the introduction of kerosene oil it was used extensively for an iliuniinator; it is also used in medicine internally and externally and often as an adulterant of various essential oils. ItOSlN, OR COLOI'IIOXV. The solid constituent of the crude turpentine which forms the residue remaining after its dis- tillation. It is of different degrees of heaviness, according to the quantities of volatile oil retained after distillation, is brittle, easily jiowdered, of a glassy luster, and of the specific gravity of 1.07, almost without taste, of a faint terebiuthinous odor. It becomes soft at about 17(5- F., melts between 194° and 212^ F., and is soluble in the same solvents as crude resin. According to the nature of the crude turpentine, depending upon the number of seasons the trees have been worked, it shows ditferent properties in regard to the transmission of light, and in tolor. It is either perfectly transparent, translucent, or almost opaque and almost colorless, or a pale straw color to golden yellow, reddish yellow, through all shades to dark brown and almost black. The market value of this article is entirely regulated by these properties. In the American market the follow- ing grades are distinguished: WW (Water ^Yhite'l and WG (Window Glass), the lightest and highest-priced grades, obtained from the -'virgin dip;'' N (Extra Pale). M (Pale), K (Low Pale), I (Good No. 1), H (No. 1), F (Good No. 2), E (No. 2), 1) (Good Strain), C (Strain), B (Common Strain), and A (Black). PINE TAR. This is not exactly a by-product of the turpentine orchard, but is produced by the destructive distillation of the wood itself. It is chiefly produced in North Carolina, where this industry has been carried on since the earliest colonial times. Small quantities are produced in other sections of the Southern pine belt, mostly lor home consumption. Perfectly dry wood of the Longleaf Tine, dead limbs and trunks seasoned on the stump, from which the sapwood has rotted, are cut in suitable billets, piled into a conical stack, in a circular i)it, lined with clay, the center communi- cating by a depressed channel with a receptacle — a hole in the ground — at a distance of ;> to 4 feet from the pile. The pile is covered with sod and earth, and otherwise treated and managed like a charcoal pit, being fired from apertures at the base, giving only enough draft to nuiintain slow smoldering combustion. After the ninth day the tar begins to flow and continues for several weeks. It is dipped from the i)it into barrels of 3l'ii jiounds, the standard weight. One cord of dry '■ fat" or " lightwood " furnishes from 40 to oO gallons of tar. The price of pine tar is quoted as low as -81.05 a barrel. Since considerable quantities of tar are produced incidentally in the destructive distillation of wood in iron retorts for charcoal and other products, the price has been greatly depressed. COMMON- PITCH. riic best quality is obtained by boiling down tar until it has lost about one-third or more of its weight. The naval i)itch of commerce has more or less rosin of the lowest grade aidded to it. Pitch is also obtained as the residue remaining from the dry distillation of rosin for rosin oil. UISTORICAI, REMARKS. The tapping of the trees for the crude turpentine and the manufacture of tar and pitch was first resorted to by the earliest settlers of North Carolina, and in later colonial times these products furnished the largest part of the exports of the colony. In the three years from 17(;8 to 1770 the exports of crude turpentine, tar, and pitch represented on the average for each year a value of •8215,000 of our present currency. IMost of the crude turpentine was shipped to England. Later the distillation of spirits of turpentine was carried on in clumsy iron retorts in North Carolina and in Xorthern cities. Tlie introduction of the copper still in 1S34 resulted in a largely increased yield of spirits of turpentine, and the industry received a great impetus. With the new demand for spirits of turpentine in the manufacture of rubber goods, and its increased use as an illuminator, the number of stills increased greatly, aiul turpentine orcharding was rapidly eitended south and west beyond its original limit. The large consumption of spirits of turi cutine Bjllelln No 13, Diuisior nl Fo Plate VIII. HISTORICAL REMARKS. 69 caused sucli an increase in its production tliat the residuary product, rosin, became largely in excess of the demand, and, in conseriuence, much depreciated. This reduction of profits in the business caused the transfer of the stills from the leading- markets to the source of the raw material, the forest. Fiom that time, 1844, dates the great progress made in the extension of this industry. ITp to that time more than half of the crude turx)entine was distilled in North Carolina, but thenceforth the industry spread into the States of South Carolina, (ieorgia, Florida, and the Gulf States to the Mississippi River. At the close of the war the demand for spirits of turpentine was not so great as before, petroleum products of several kinds having Ijeen found to take its place not only for illuminating, but also for other purposes. With the general extension of arts and manufactures all over the world, there has since been an increasing demand for si)irits of turpentine and rosin. The exports of these articles in the year 1S90 amounted to $8,135,339 in value. TCKPENTINE ORCHARIIING IX THE I'OUESTS OF LONGLEAF PINE. In the establishment of a turpentine orchard and a still, two points must be considered, namely, proper facilities of transportation to shipping points and a suflicient supply of water for the condenser connected witli the still. The copper stills generally in use have a capacity of about 800 gallons, or a charge of 20 to 25 barrels of crude turpentine. For such a still to be charged twice in twenty-four hours during the working season, 4,000 acres of pine land of a good average stand of timber are required. This a)ea is divided into twenty parcels each of 10,000 boxes, as the receptacles are called, which are cut into the tree to receive the exuding resin. Such a parcel is termed a crop, constituting the allotment to one laborer for the task of chipping. The work in a turpentine orchard is started in the earlier part of the wiiitei- with the cutting of the boxes. Until some years past no trees were boxed of a diameter less than 14 inches; of late, however, saplings under 10 inches in diameter are boxed. Trees of full growth, according to their circumference, receive from two to four boxes, so that the 10,000 boxes are distributed among 4,000 to 5,000 trees on an area of 200 acres. The boxes are cut (see PI. VIII) from 8 to 12 inches above the base of the tree, 7 inches deep and slanting from the outside to the interior, with an angle of about 35^. In the adult trees they are 14 inches in greatest diameter and 4 inches iu greatest width, of a capacity of about 3 pints. The cut above this reservoir forms a gash of the same depth and about 7 inches of greatest height. In the meantime the ground is laid bare around the tree for a distance of 2.} to 3 feet, and all com bustil)le material loose on the ground is raked in heaps to be burned, in order to protect the trees against danger of catching fire during the conflagrations which are ft-equently started iu the pine forests by design or carelessness. The employment of lire for the protection of the turpentine orchard against the same destructive agency necessarily involves the total destruction of the smaller tree growth, and if left to spread without control beyond the proper limit, often carries ruin to the adjoining forests. During the first days of spring the turpentine begins to flow and chipping is begun, as the work of scariticatiou is termed, by which the surface of tiie tree above the box is laid bare beyond the youngest layers of the wood to a depth of about an inch from the outside of the bark. The removal of the bark and of the outermost layers of the wood — the "chipping" or "hacking" — is done with a peculiar tool, the "hacker" (lig. 9, e, /'), a strong knife with a curved edge, fastened to the end of a handle bearing on its lower end an iron ball about 4 i)ouiids in weight, to give increased force to the stroke inflicted on the tree, and thus to lighten the labor of chipping. As soon as the scarified surface ceases to discharge turpentine freely, fresh incisions are made with the hacker. The chipping is repeated every week from aiarch to October or November, extending generally over thirty-two weeks, and the height of the chip is increased about 1.^ to 2 inclies every montli. Tlie resin accumulated in the boxes is dipped into a pail by a flat trowel-shaped dipper (tig. 9,«) and then transferred to a barrel for transportation to tlie still. In the first sisason from six to eight dippings are made. The 10,000 boxes yield at each dip 40 barrels of "dip" or " soft gum," as it is reckoned in Alabama, to be of 240 pounds net weight. The flow is most copious during the height of the summer (July and August), diminishes with the advent of the cooler season, and ceases in October or November. As soon as the exudation of the resin is arrested and 70 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. the resiii begins to harden under the influence of a lower temperature it is carefully scraped from the scarified surface and the boxes with a narrow, keen-edged knife attached to a long wooden handle (fig. 9, h, c). In the first season the average yield of dip amounts to 280 barrels and of the liard gum or scrape to 70 barrels. The first yields G.^ gallons sj)irits of turpentine to the barrel of 240 pounds net, and the latter 31 pounds to the barrel, resulting iu the production of 2,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and 200 pounds of rosin of higher and highest grades. The dil)pings of the first season are called " virgin dip," from which the finest quality of rosin is obtained, graded in tiie market as Water White (WW) and Window Glass (WG). In the second year from five to six dippings are made, the crop averaging 225 barrels of soft tiu'pentine and 120 barrels of scrai)e, making altogether about 1.000 gallons si>irits of turpentine. The rosin, of which about 200 barrels are produced, is of a lighter or deeper amber color, and jjerfectly transparent, of medium quality graded as I, H, and (!. In the third and fourth years the number of dippings is reduced to three. With the flow over a more extended surface, the turpentine thickens under prolonged exposure to the air and loses some of its volatile oil, jjartly by evaporation and partly by oxidation. In the third season the d\\) amounts to about 120 \J bed Fin. 9.— 'I'oiils usfii in Inriiciitiiif* nrcli.-irdiii;: : n, (iiiijicr; h, jnisluT; e. (t]irii j>nUer: (/, rlnned imllor : e,f. h.iokpr (front .iiul roar view). barrels and the 8(;ia])e to about 10(1 banels, yielding about 1,100 gallons spirils of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosin of a more or less daik ciolor, less trans])arent, and graded as 1"', 10, and D. In the fourth and last year three dii)piiigs of a somewhat smaller (juantity of soft turpentine than that obtained the season before and 100 barrels of scrape are obtained, with a yield scarcely realizing ;'>00 gallons of s|)irits of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosin of lowest finality, classed as C, B, and A. iVfter the fourlli year the turi)entine orchard is generally abandone THE CoNniTIONS OF THE FOREST. In the present management of the turpentine orchards in the Southern pine forests a great deal of crude turpentine is wasted, nnach of the valuable spirits of turpentine is lost by volatilization in passing over the long chip face on its way to the box, and much of the resin is lowered in its grade aiul value by oxidation consequent to exposure and by admixture of foreign substances — bark, coal, dust, etc. Concerning the ellect of the tapping of the trees upon the timber, there exists no reason on physiological or anatomical grounds for considering it injurious, and the opinion held by many, that the (jualities of timlx'r are impaired by bleeding, finds no support when it is considered that the heartwood remains unattected. The resinous contents of the heartwood being solidified and the formation of the resin taking place only in the newly formed wood, the heartwood can not l)articipate in the flow of the resin, the discharge being necessarily confined to the sapwood. This fact has been fully substantiated by tlie work of the Division of Forestry, by which it has not only been shown tliat the strength of the heartwood, the most important if not the only part of the tree used for lumber, has in no wise been diminished, but also that the durability of the timber, as far as it depends upon its resinous contents, can not be imjiaired by bleeding. It is only in that part of the butt log aiDund lace in the living trees prostratefl by the winds during the summer, the broods of which rapidly infest the standing trees, which invariably succund) to the pest the same season. In con.sequence, the forests invade3(> (1824). • • /',■„„. r.hen^lx C.v\s.h:n-h i„ Mem. Am. Acad., viii, pt. 2, 530 (1863), not Ilort. ex (.or,l. ( 1N>S). Pi,,„., r»f«-Hsi..< var. (»-//,™r«,-p« Wright in Grisoliacb, Cat. PI. Cul.eii., 21, (IHM. 1'inu.s elliottn Enselmann ex Vassey, Cat. Forest Ticoa, 30; in Rep. Com. Ag. I8/o, 1 ,8 (18,6). ;>in».s elUoini Kn.i;elmaiin in Tran.s. St. Lonis Acad., i v, ISli, t. 1, 2. 3 ( 1879). Pinmhetcroiihylla (Ell.) .Snihvorth in Bull. Torr. Bot. CI. XX, 45 (18U3). COMMON OK LOCAL NAME.-^. Slash Bine (Ala.. Miss., Ca., Fla.). ri'tT'^V' WCa ^ Swan.p Bine (Fla.. Miss., Ala.), in part. ^l'" i;!*'=Vr ' J F ; ^ Bastanl Bine (Ala. lun>ber,nen, Fla.). •^'"' "^"T..^'"';; Ji^' Meadow Biue (Cal., Fla., E. Miss.), in part. »^Bn'<=« !"'"« f«»- ^l*-)- 74 THE CUBAN PINE. By Charles Mohr. I'U. D. INTRODUCTORY. Conflned within narrow limits along the coast of the extreme Southern States east of the Mississippi River, little known and mostly confouuded witli its allied species, the value of the Cuban Pine has been scarcely recognized. A closer investigation of the properties of its wood, of its life history, and of the part it plays among the forest growtli soon discloses its economic importance. Convinced that to meet proper appreciation the merits jjossessed by this pine need only to be made more generally known, their consideration in this place among the biological investigations of the more important timber trees of the coniferous order will explain Itself. This tree was not known to the earlier American botanists. Elliott first' took notice of it as a distinct form, and he regarded it as a variety of the Loblolly I'iue. It remained still practically unknown as a separate species for another half century, until near the beginning of the past decade, when it was again brought to notice of botanists by Dr. Millishani]), of liluffton, S. C; Dr. Engelmanu exhibited clearly its specific characters, and for the first time directed attention to the economic value of this pine by discussing the development of the tree and the qualities of its timber.^ On account of the coarser grain of its wood and the large amount of sapwood, this timber was held to be of little value, and the tree received little or no attention by the lumberman. It is only very lately, especially since kiln-drying has become more general, that its value is being recognized and appreciated, and under the name of "Slash i'ine" it is cut and sold without discrimination with the Longleaf Pine, with which it is usually associated. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Cuban Pine is a tree of the coast region in the subtropical. region of North America east of the ^Mississippi River, and also of the neighboring tropics, being found in Honduras and Cuba (see PI. III). In the United States the tree is conflned to the eastern belt of the Anstroripariau or Louisiauian life zone of American biologists, from 33° north latitude in South Carolina along the coast to the extremity of the peninsula of Florida. Toward the west the tree extends along the coast of the Cult to the I'eaii River Valley. It is principally restricted to the coast plain, but on the Gulf Coast and along the water courses it extends inland to a distance of fully CO nules from the sea. On the Atlantic Coast it penetrates the interior nearly to the limit of the coast pine belt, as has been observed in (ieorgia in the valley of the Ocmulgee River, over 100 miles distant from tide water. Groves of the Cuban pine skirt the low shores of the numerous inlets and estuaries of these coasts, and cover the outlying islands. More or less associated with the Loblolly and the Longleaf Pine, it forms a part of the timber growth of the open pine forests which in unbroken monotony cover the flats for long distances. It is only in the lower part of Florida, where the tree extends from the Atlantic across to the Gulf of Mexico, south of Cape Canaveral and Biscayne Bay, that, as the only pine there, the Cuban pine forms forests by itself. Toward the interior it occurs scattered among the varied growth of broad-leafed evergreens and cone-bearing trees which cover the swamps along the streams. Since it is invariably cut and sold ' Elliott, sketch 2, page 263. = EngelmaQii: Revision of the genus Piniui and description of PiiiKs elliallii. Transactions St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. i, 1880. 75 70 TIMHER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. without distinction, no figures can be given of its annual consumption, nor is it possible to form even an a])proximatc (vstiniate of the standing supplies. The old tinilicr jiocs, of cmrse, as fast as that of the Longleaf I'ine, but in its reproduction it outstrips the latter. Wherever in the coast plain the original growth of the Lougleaf Pine has been removed, the Cuban Pine takes, in a great measure, possession of the ground, in some localities associated with the Loblolly Pine. Young forests in every stage of growth are seen covering tractts of greater or lesser extent, promising imiwrtant supplies of resinous products, timber, and fuel. PKODUCTS. As a timber tree the Ouban Pine is little inferior to the Longleaf Pine. It furnishes sticks of larg<' dinu^nsions free from blemish, rivaling in that respect that superior variety of the Loblolly Pine called Itosemary Pine, and there is no doubt that it was often confounded with this tree in the shipitients of masts and long si)ars made in former years from the southern Atlantic and eastern (rulf ports. In the lumber mills on the Atlantic Coast the timber of this tree is indiscriminately sawn and shipped with that of the Longleaf Pine. It remains yet to be proved whether the coarser structure of the wood of the Cuban I'ine would render it less durable. It is certain, however, that this very cause, which might interfere with its resistance to atmospheric influences or to contact with the soil, will be found an advantage if the preservation of the timber is to bo secured by its impregnation with antiseptic solutions, more open structure permitting readier infiltration. licsinous ]n-()(lucts.^This pine iibounds in resinous matter. The oleoresin, resin, or crude turpentine, when freshly exuded, is perfectly limpid, of honey-yellow color, less viscid than the resinous [n-oduct of the Longleaf Pine, and to all appearances richer in volatile oil or spirits of turpentine. Judging by the smaller amountof hard gum or scrape formed on the tree. A sam])leof the dip of the first year from South Carolina was to all appearance exposed for a short time in the box to atmosiiheric influences. Examined by Prof. E. Kremers, University of AMsconsin, the resin showed an emulsion-like appearau(;e and separated upon standing into heavier grannies aiul into a lighter, transjjarent, yellowish liquid. Its specific gravity at 20° C. was found 1.02.53. D=32.42.3o (determined in 1C.2G p(^r cent alcoholic solution). Distilled with water, the sanijile yielded 10 per cent of oil of the specific gravity 0.865 (20° C). I) =9.020. In view of the rapid destruction of the forests of Longleaf I'ine, the princijjal source of resin, the future importance of the Cuban Pine in the production of naval stores becomes at once apparent, esi)ecially when it is considered that it reproduces itself so much more readily. Even now, on the coast of South (lai'olina and (rcorgia, a large jn'oportion of resinous proilucts is derived from the young growth of this pine, which, after the removal of the original timber growth, took pos.session of the ground. It is claimed by the turpentine gatherers in these States that at an age of from thirty to forty years the trees are sniliciently large for tapping with advantage, and that protected against lire a spontaneous renewal takes place, and after a period of forty years the new crop is ready for profitable exploitation. In Washington (bounty, Ala., on the more or less extensive Hats that intervene between the low ridges covered with Longleaf Pine, the Cuban Pine furnishes considerable sni)i)lies of ('rude turpentine of superior (piality. In this .section liie tree is known mi(ltr the name of Spruce I'ine, a misnomer, leading to its confusion with an entirely difi'erent tree, tin! true Southern Spruce Pine (I'inun (jhibrii). CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATUUK. I'iiiiix lictiropln/Ud is closely allied to tln^ Longleaf Pine, forming witli this and two other species inhaiiiting the nearcist troi)ical I'cgions— (3uba and Mexico— lunler the subgenus ])iiiaster, a natural group of trees with heavy resinous wood, rigid long leaves from two to live in a sheath, and subterminal or lateral, horizontal or reflexed cones, designated by Englemann as the group of the Enanstrales, or loiigh^af [)ines. l<"'irst distinguished by Elliott as I'linix tivdti ww.hitcrophjiJIit ami remaining subse(|uently unknown for more than fifty years, the specific characters of this [)ine were first recognized and fnlly described by Dr. Engelmann. who in honor of its discoverer ilistingnished the tree under the name of rinm olliotlii, finding himself soon afterwards couviueed of the identity liOTANICAL DESCRIPTION CUBAN PINE. 77 of liis species with Pinux vubensis of Uiisebiicli. Recently these various forms were fouud to be the same as Elliott's, to which they have been referred with his varietal name heteropkyUa raised to specific rank. The tree is little known among the inhabitants of the region of its growth; it is generally regarded as a mere variety or bastard form of the Longleaf or the Loblolly Pine. In Florida, where best known, it is distinguished as the Slash Pine, or Swamp Pine; and in the flat woods along the seashore in Alabama and Mississippi as Meadow Pine. In a few localities in Alabama it is generally called Spruce Pine. DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOftlCAL CHAliACTERS. The leaves, two or three in a bundle, are surrounded by a smooth sheath from one-half to nearly an inch in length, wliich, close and smooth during the first season, become loose and shriveled in the second year (PI. X, d). The leaves are from 8 to 12, mostly 0 inches in length and three-fourths of a line wide, glossy, of a deep-green color and closely serrulate with a short, rigid point, rounded on the Itack, the binary leaves deeply concave and tlie ternate bluntly keeled! They arise from the axils of fringed deciduous bracts, are densely crowded toward the end of the branches, and are shed by the close of the second season. Bundles with two leaves are most frequently observed in younger trees and almost invariably on the fertile branclilets. The resin ducts are internal, variable in size, and in number from four to six and over, close to the thin-walled bundle sheaths, which inclose two closely approximate flbrovascular bundles, often coalescing. The flbrovascular region, like the ducts, shows no hypodermal or strengthening cells. The hypodermal cells underlying the epidermis are as large as the epidermal cells, in the angles of one or several layers. Fh)wers.~T\x& catkin-like male flowers (PI. X, n, h), from lA to 2 inches long, are of dark purple (royal purple) color, supported on a short stalk and surrounded by about a dozen involucral coriaceous bracts, of which the lowest pair is strongly keeled (I'l. X, /*, slightly magnified), the others being oblong with fringed edges. Prom ten to twenty of these cylindrical flowers are crowded in dense clusters below the apex of the youngest shoots, and are shed almost immediately after the discharge of their abundant pollen. The anthers are crowned with a purplish crescent-shaped denticulate crest. The female flowers form an oval, pink-colored anient borne on a stalk, from one- half to 1 incli in length, which singly, more frequently several in number, are produced close to the terminal bud of the shoot of the season (PI. X, d). First erect, they are, at the lapse of a month, horizontally reflected, the shoot bearing them increasing rapidly in length during the same time, long before the unfolding of its leaf buds. The involucral scales or bracts which surround the female catkin are more numerous, narrower, longer, and more membranaceous than those form- ing the involucra of the male flowers. The carpellary scales are round with a slender, erect tip, their lower half covere'd by the broad retuse bract. A tree discovered l)y Dr. Mellichamps near Blutt'ton, S. C, showed the remarkable anomaly of producing androgynous flowers regularly every season. In most of the specimens examined every one of the male flowers clustering around the base of the terminal bud of the very young shoot had the upper i)art of the floral axis covered with female flowers, appearing like a distinct inflorescence superimposed upon the stamiuodial column, occupying generally one-third of its height. In one of the flowers they were seen to extend near to its base. In a single instance it was observed that the female flowers extended on one side of the staniinodial column in a narrow streak among the stamens. In a specimen from the same locality the terminal shoot of the season, exceeding in length the male flowers by which its base was surrounded, was bearing a normal subterminal female anient. The short-stalked cones are ovate or conical, rather obtuse, horizontally reflexed, from i to o inches long, about 2.\ inches greatest width, of glossy leather-brown or hazel color (PL XI, a and b); scales about 2 inches long averaging flve-eighths of an inch in width, somewhat flexible, the prominent ridge of the pyramidal striated umbo with a short, mostly straight, strong prickle (PL Xr, c and d). By the end of the first season the conelets are scarcely an inch hmg (PL X, d). Before the close of the summer of the succeeding year, the cones have reached their full size, maturing during tlie month of October. In the ripe cones, already described, the apophyses of the scales in the lower rows are almost pointless, becoming on the upper strongly nuD-ronate The cones remain on the tree until the approach of the next summer, leaving on their separation the lowest rows of the scales behind. EXI'LANATION <)1' I'LATK X. '.Fissures natural sizti, (iM-t-pt wIht*- otiierw ise noted.] Fig. a, brjiiich with yoiiu:;- shoot of the soasou bearing a cluster of iiialo liowers; b, male llower detached showing basal iiivolitcral brads, magnified three diameters; r, branch bearing three subtermiual female liowers; (/, ri, characteristically reliexed immature cones of one season's growth. 78 Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry, Plate X. 'aOv-Szwi^i^ PlNU,S HETEROPHVLLA: MALE AND FEMALE Fl WOOD OF CUBAN PINE. 79 The triangular black rougliish seeds 2^- to a little over 3 liues long, with a few faint ridges- the brown, obtuse, and somewhat oblique wing (PI. XI, e,/, g) about 1 inch in length is deciduous ill germination. This species at all stages of growth can be distinguished from the Loblolly Tine by the deep-green foliage, the glaucous hue of the young, tender shoots, and varying number of leaves in a bundle— from the Longieaf Pine by the thinner, almost smooth, terminal buds, and in the adult state, from both of these species, with which it is found frequently associated, by its cones. THE WOOD. As in the Loblolly, the sapwood is wide in the young trees, measuring usually about 4 inches and forming in thrifty trees fifty to seventy years old about 80 per cent of the total volume. As the trees grow older, however, this preponderance of sapwood ceases, and in trees one hundred and fifty to two hundred years old only 35 to 50 per cent of the total volume of the trunk was found to be composed of sapwood. As in the case of the pines already mentioned, the cliange from sap wood to heartwood begins when the tree (or disk) is about twenty-five to thirty years old, and the process is retarded as the tree (or disk) grows older, so that when any one disk is sixty years old the sapwood contains about forty rings, and reaches eighty rings or more by the time the tree (or disk) is two hundred years of age. As a consequence the sapwood of the disks of the main part of the trunk in old trees is formed of nearly the same number of rings, and oidy near the top a marked diminution appears, while in a tree sixty years old the sapwood of the stump may have forty rings and that of a disk 40 feet from the ground only twenty-five rings. As in other pines, the width of the sapwood is (juite variable and is always greatest in young and thrifty trees. When green the wood of this species is too heavy to float well; its weight varies chiefly with the amount of sapwood, and is therefore greatest in sapling timber. The sapwood itself is frequently heavier than water, and where the water in the sapwood and a large amount of resin in the heartwood combine, the weight of the entire disk frequently approaches 60 pounds to the cubic foot. Kiln-dried, the wood of trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old was found on an average to weigh about 39 pounds per cubic foot, thus excelling in weight even the valuable Long- leaf Pine. The wood of very young trees is decidedly lighter, as is also that of very old trees, the heaviest wood being formed during the age of thriftiest growth or between the twentieth and eightieth year. The presence of resin in the heartwood, as conspicuous in this species as in Long- leaf Pine, materially adds to the weight of the wood, so that the heartwood of old trees is invari- ably heavier than the same wood had been while in a sapwood condition. As in other pines, the butt is heaviest and the toplog lightest; thus in trees over one hundred and fifty years of age the wood at the butt weighs 44 pounds per cubic foot, 37 pounds at 38 feet, and only :','2 pounds at (!0 feet from the stump, a difference amounting to over 2.5 per cent. This difference is greatest in the young sapling and is remarkably uniform for all adult trees examined. In strength, as in weight, the wood of Cuban Pine excels. The following figures represent the general average of a long series of experiments on wood especially collected : Lbs. per 3a. inch. Molace; /, seed with wing detacl'ed; g, seed and wing intact. Bulletin Nn. 13, Division of Forestry. Plate XI. U. x^L-ZaL ~ i'Vi ?i I Q.HtiD£>--\P\U. xr PiNUS HETEROPHYLLA: CONE AND SEEC DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN PINE. 81 The slirinkage during drying is very considerable for sapwood, and therefore all young timber, but is not as great for old timber as might be expected on account of the great weight of the wood. Young timber shrinks from 12 to 13 per cent of its volume, the wood of old trees (over one hundred and fifty years) only about 11 per cent, and in all trees the amount of shrinkage is greatest in the heaviest disk of the bntt and decreases upward very much in proportion of the deci'ease in weight. In its structure the wood resembles that of the Loblolly in every respect. Summerwood and springwood aie sharply defined, giving rise to alternating bands of light-colored, soft and dark colored hard bands of wood conspicuous in every section. For details of structure see the comparative study by Mr. Both appended to these monographs. PKOGEESS OF DEVELOPMENT. This is the earliest flowering of the Southern pines. The buds of the male flowers make their appearance in tlie early part of December, and the flowers open during the last days of January and during the first week of February. This species produces abundant crops of cones every year, almost without failure; they ripen in the fall of the second year; the seeds are discharged through the winter of the second year nntil spring. Germinating easily, their seedlings are found to come up copiously from early in the spring to the beginning of the summer in old flclds and on every opening in the vicinity of the parent trees, wherever the rays of the sun reach the ground. The plantlets bear sis to seven seed leaves (cotyledons). As soon as these have fairly expanded the terminal bud develops rapidly, and the first interno 'e of the stem, increasing quickly in length, is densely covered with the soft, narrow, linear, pointed, primary leaves, which are fully an inch long. Before the end of the second month, in the axils of some of the leaves, the undeveloped branchlets, bearing the fascicle of the foliage leaves, make their appearance. With the further development of the foliage leaves, increasing in number during the growing season, the primary leaves wither away. By the close of the first season the plantlets are from 8 to D inches high, with a very slender taproot and many lateral rootlets near its upper end. After the beginning of the second season but few of the primary leaves are found to support the buds of the foliage leaves. The tendency to the produ(;tiou of secondary axes becomes manifest by the appearance of a single branchlet ; on having reached the end of their second year the plants are from 12 to 15 inches high, with a taproot not more than 4 inches long; at the end of their third year they average little less than 2 feet in height, with the taproot C inches long — the laterals being much longer. The crown from this period develops in regular whorls for a long succession of years. The Cuban Pine, in its rate of growth and when fully grown, exceeds in its dimensions the Longleaf Pine. The taproot, less powerful than in its allies, is assisted by mighty lateral roots running near the surface of the ground to support the tall, sturdy trunk, rising to a height of 110 or 115 feet, with a diameter of 2i, not unfrequently exceeding 3, feet, clear of limbs for a height of from GO to 70 feet above the ground. The heavy limbs are horizontally spreading, from 22 to 21 feet at their greatest length, somewhat irregularly disposed; they form in the trees of full growth a rather dense crown of rounded outline. Trees of the dimensions mentioned, having passed the fullness of their growth, are found to be from one hundred to one hundred and forty years old, according to the surrounding conditions. The thick bark is of a clear, reddish color, laminated, and exfoliating in thin, broad, purplish flakes. Seedlings of the Longleaf Pine, which those of the Cuban Pine somewhat resemble, can be readily distinguished at this period by the disproportion of height and diameter and absence of branch growth in the former. The rate of growth ditters, of course, according to the conditions of soil and exposure. Saplings showing Ave rings of annual growth were found from 4i to nearly 6 feet in height, with a diameter of from three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch; between the age of from ten to twelve years the trees measure from 10 to 18 feet in height, with the stem clear for over half its length — even when grown in the open — and from 2 up to 1 inches in diameter. From this stage on the rate of growth proceeds most rapidly. At eighteen and twenty years heights of 40 to 50 feet and over, and diameters from 9 to 10 inches across the stump, cut close to the ground, are attained. 17433 -No. 13 G 82 TIMBER I'INES OF THE SOUTHEKN UNITED STATES. The trees of the extensive groves of Cubau Pine in the vicinity of Mobile iii)on the h)aniy lauds of the ('(nist phiiii, which have sprnng up since ISOt, when tiiese lands were completely stripi)ed of all arboreal fjrowth, average at ])resent between oO and <>0 feet in height by a diameter of from 14 to l(i indies breast high. Trees of second growth, forming open groves on lands of similar chara(;ter, and also more or less deficient in drainage, forty-five to sixty-live years old, measure from 65 to 85 feet in height and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter breast high. At the edge of a heavily wooded swamp, in a perjietnally wet, sandy, and mucky soil and skirted by large Longleaf Pines occupying the steep slope rising from the bottom, a tree measur ing 114 feet in height, with a diameter of 24 inches breast high, the trunk dear of limbs for a length of fully (10 feet, showed one hundred and thirty-five rings of annual growth. Another tree felled deeper in the same swamp, of lank growth, with a poorly developed crown, rising to a height of SS feet and towering above the dense growth of black gums, swamp maples, and white bays, was found to measure only 15^ inches in diameter, with almost the same number of annual rings. Trees of second growth which have sprung up in clearings with a drier surface soil under- laid by a clayey substratum, with tree exposure to sunlight and air, reach in little over ludf tiie time the full size of those produced in the forest-covered swam])s. Tablk I. — Croirlh of Cuban Pine thiriiu/ Jirst .v(«;/c,v erfectly clear for 52 feet: sap, 2^ inches. Timber jierfect for 60 feet. g 25 145 21* do Exposure free: somewhat suppressed by do lougleaf pine : edge of swamp. Exposure free : lank, tall ; red heart above 2''8 do 54 feet. Base of hili: a fine-looking tree; timber 2*^9 do clear for 50 feet. Sw: Z |^.rPfs-...-..^ _i- t af I'ine is a tree of the i)lain and the foothills, in the South rarely ascending to an elevation over 2,.'>()0 feet, and at its nortlicrii confines not over 1,000 feet (in tlie Ozark Hills). East of the Mississippi Kiver the tree appears sparsely scattered among the hard-wood trees; along the border of the Carolinian and within the Austro-riparian zone it becomes more frequent, and often the jiredominating tree. West of the Mississippi Kiver the Shortleaf Pint; linds its region of greatest profusion, forming forests of vast extent on the uplands of the undulating plain and the table-lands of the hill country, which in their timber wealth and economic im])ortance rival the great lumbering regions farther south. CIIARACTEKISTICH OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. On the Atlantic Coast, from southern New York to Virginia, judging from the statements of earlier writers, this tree must have formed originally a considerable part of the forests of coniferous evergreens covering the belt of light silicious soils of the Tertiary strata. A. ■Nlichaux mentions tliis species "as not found beyond certain districts in Connecticut, it being multiplied in the lower part of New Jersey, and still more on the eastern shore of Maryland and the lower part of A'irginia." From the remarks of this writer on tlfe extensive use of the timber of the Yellow Pine (Shortleaf) it appears that at the time of his writing — the beginning of this century — it must have been quite abundant in those parts. This appears clearly by his statement that "in the Northern and iMiddle States (of tlie Atlan- tic Seaboard) and in Virginia, where, to a distance of 150 miles from the sea, all houses are built of wood, the lioors, chasings of doors, wainscots, and sashes are made of this species, as being more solid and lasting than any other indigenous wood. In the upper part of the Carolinas the houses are constructed wholly of Yellow Pine, and are covered with it." Further on we learn that immense (juantities were used in tlie dockyards of New York, Phila(lcl])liia. and P.altimore, and that Yellow Pine luiiilicr formed a considerable part of the exports to (heat Britain and the West Indies. Since tliat time this tree has in the region mentioned not only long ceased to be a source of timber, but has generally become (piite scarce. According to the information of Dr. N. L. Brilton, "it grows on the coast of New York naturally only on Statcn Island, and only about twenty-five trees arc to be lound in Pichmond County. It is fairly abundant in the ])()rtioii of New Jersey from the Itaritan River to Delaware Bay, forming forests, on a tr;ict not more than .S miles, and it is also found in Delaware on tln^ same Ibrmation outcrop of (Ireen Sand."' With the appearance of the Longleaf Pine south of Virginia the Shortleaf Pine recedes from the coast and is found chiellyin the upjier (interior) part of the Southern coast pine belt, scattered among the mixed growth of conilerous and decidunus trees. Above the ui)pt'r limit of tlic l>ongleaf Pine belt the Shortleaf Pine extends, in the Southern Atlantic States, thnmghout the interior to the lower ranges of the mountain region. West of the Alleghany Mountains, in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, it occurs only widely scattered, and hence is practically of no importance to the lumbering industry. In North Carolina the Shortleaf Pine is Ibiind from the coast to the mountains, thongli in tlie lower districts enters more rarely into the composition of the upland forests. According to Hale's report on the woods of North Carolina the trei' is found in the majority of counties of the State, but is most abundant in \he middle district, where, with upland oaks and hickcuies, it is the prevailing tree. 1 1 is found about Asheville, at an altitude of 2,.500 feet. The Shortleaf Pine used to form 12.") per cent or more of the forest growth in many ])laces, but such areas are not now fre(pient aitywhere. In the Litest report on the forests of North Carolina' it is stated that there 'W. W. Aslio: TUo Forests. Forest Lands, and Forest liesonrces of Eastern North Carolina. Bulletins, Geol. Survey, N. C, 1891, pago 41. DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 89 are possibly 300,000,000 feet, Loaid measure, Shortleaf I'iiie stamliiiy- in the (•(unities border iiiy the oak uplands iu tlie eastern part of tlie State. In South Carolina this pine is similarly distributed sparingly in the coast region and more frequent in the midland country to the lower mountain ranges. In (ieorgia, in the lower part of the coast pine belt, the Shortleaf Pine is rarely met with. On the sandhills in the center of the State, forming the northern bolder of the pine belt, it occurs mixed with the Longleaf Pine among the inferior hard-wood timber. In the regidu of crystalline rocks, which embraces the more or less mountainous ujiper half of the State, covering over 10,000 square miles, at an average elevation of about 2,500 feet, this tree is most frerpieut, in many parts predominating. In the three States last named the Shortleaf Pine was originally most abundant iu the regions now most densely populated, and hence their snpjdies of timber are more or less exhausted, much of the so-called North Carolina Pine .sent to market being Loblolly Pine. Young forests, however, of this tree are seen everywhere on the hills and mountain .slopes, where the original timber growth lias been removed, and on the worn-out lands abandoned by the cultivator. Iu Florida the Shortleaf Pine is conlined to the uplands along the northern border of the State, scattered among the Longleaf Pine and hard wood trees. In the northwestern part, it approaches the seashore within a distance of from 2.~» to oO miles on the isolated patches of red loam lands, where, together with the Longleaf Pine, it is associated with the Southern Spruce Pine (Piitns t/lahra). In Alabama and Mississippi the Shortleaf Pine is rarely seen in the lower jmrt of the coast pine belt, but forms a more or less conspicuous part of the forest covering of the uplands in the central and upper sections, and sometimes predominates to such an extent over the hard woods as to impart to the woodlands the somber aspect of a pure pine forest. In the region of crystalline rocks, with its arid ranges in Alabama, covering an area a little over 3,000 square miles, between the Coosa lliver and the southern tributaries of the Tallapoosa, the tree is less frequent than in the region of the same formation in Georgia, the Longleaf here taking its place. In the northern part of Alabama, on the table land of the Warrior coal field over an area of fully 5,000 S(iuare miles, mostly in forest, the Shortleaf Pine forms a more prominent feature of the growth. This is the case particularly in the eastern part of this area, where the tree occupies mostly the summits and steej) declines with a thin, dry soil, while in the (b'c|)er and moister soils the Loblolly Pine takes its place. In ('ullmaii County, altitude SOO feet, where numerous acre measurements have been made, rarely over 2,000 feet, board measure, of this timber have been found upon one acre, and it can safely be said that in the localities where it is more frequently met with the average stand docs not exceed 1,500 feet to the acre on this table-land. The supplies of Slnntleaf I'ine timber are rapidly diminishing before the demands of a rapidly increasing population and of the adjacent centers of the mining industry, and their total exhaustion is sure to be effected within a short time. Wherever the original timber growth has been removed on these uplands the young growth of the Shortleaf I'unt is rapidly spreading and Dredominates over tlie deciduous trees. The timber trees of full growth average on these table-lands about 22 inches in diameter breast high and 05 feet in height, furnishing clear sticks of from 35 to 45 feet in length. Such trees have been found with from 90 to 135 rings of annual growth on the stump. Four trees felled iu the vicinity of Cullman showed the following dimen.sions: Measuremoils of four trees. DLamnter Lenstb of Height of Kings on broasthigh. timber. tree. stump. Inches. Feet. Feet. 22 42 101 109 21 41 75 111 20 40 87 132 24 45 92 120 On the gravelly hills of tlie northern extension of the central pine belt in Alabama the Shortleaf Pine becomes frequently the predominating tree in the forest of oak and hickory. In Lamar County, Ala., and in northeastern Mississii)pi it forms forests which in the latter State give 90 TIMBEK PINES OK THE SOUTHERN' UNITED STATES. ri.se to a (■oiisideniblc lumbcriug iiulustry. These forests are, however, rapidly (Iccimated aloug the Memphis and Charleston Kailroad, where the products of the mill find ready markcit throughout north >Iississii)pi and at ^leniphis. Through the northern half of .Mississippi, on the divide which separates the waters tlowing into the Mississijjpi Kiver from those of the Tombigbee, extends a region of imdulating uplands of oak, luckory, and JShortleaf Pine over an area little §hort of n, 000 s(juare miles; on this long, narrow belt the Shortleaf Pine can be said to form 12 to 1.*) ])er cent of the tree covering. These forest.s furinsh an ample supi)ly of pine lumber for local demands. It appears, however, that in tho eastern Gulf States generally the existing supplies of Hliortleaf Pine are scarcely suflicient to cover home demand. On these uplands the Shortleaf Pine takes rapid possession of the openings in the forest and the old fields. Here, as has been elsewhere observed in the central and uortliern parts of these States, this tree can truly be considered the timber tree of the future. Since it is rarely found in compact bodies, but associated with other trees widely scattered, any attempt at an estimate of the amount of the timber standing in these States must ai)pear futile. The amount of timber cut can also liardly be approximated, since it forms only a part of the cut of the mills in these States. West of the Mississippi Eiver, north of the region of the Longleaf Pine, the Shortleaf Pine is found most abundant and in fullest jierfection. It is in these Western forests that the Short- leaf Pine linds its best development, and forms pure forests, extending over many hundreds of square miles with but little interruption. The forests of Shortleaf Pine in northwestern Louisiana, Arkansas, soutliern Jlissouri, and northeastern Texas are scarcely surpassed in their timber wealth. The Tenth Census estimates the amount of merchantable timber of Shortleaf Pine standing in 1880 in these Western forests at 87,000,000,000 feet, boai'd measure, exclusive of the forests in southern ^lissouri and the Indian Territory. In Louisiana the Shortleaf I'ine is unequally distributed over the uplands north of the Longleaf Pine region between the Ouachita River and the eastern boundary of Texas, embracing an area of a little over 8,000 square miles. Along the northern extent of the Louisiana and Texas State line this pine forms ])ure forests, and also prevails in many localities on the ui)land along the border of Arkansas. The resources of pine timber in these mixed forests of oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, removed as they are from the highways of traffic, have been but slightly drawn upon. In Arkansas, in the hilly and mountainous region on both sides of tlie Arkansas Itiver, over 19,000 s{piare miles in extent, tlie Shortleaf Pine forms a large ])art of the tree covering of the siliceous rocky soil and I'rcquently extensive forests on the wide table-lands. On the uplands of yellow loam south of the hills the tree predominates, especially on the low ridges of gravel and, loam, th(^ hard woods encroaching where the soil conditions become more favorable. The low ridges rising above the L(il)l()lly Pine forests of the flood [)lain of the Ouachita and Little Missouri rivers are covered with open forests almost e.xclusively of Shortleaf Pine, interspersed with a few \\"hite Oaks, Post and Spanish Oaks, rarely above medium size. In tlie \icinity of Gurdon, in ("lark County, upon one acre rei)resenting average conditions, L'l! Shortleaf Pines have been counted from 12 to '2') inches in diameter, with no pines of smaller growth ann)ng the scattered undergrowth of dogwood, huckleberries, scrubby oaks, IJlack Gum, and hickories. Of this number, 8 trees measured from 21 to 25 inches; (» trees from 18 to 20 inches; to IV inches and 2 trees 12 to 11 inches in diameter breast high, indicating a stand i>i'r acre of about 0,000 feet, board measure. Five trees, representing the average timber growth of the forest selected for timber tests, were found of the following dimensions: McMuremcntu of five trccH. Diainctor Length of breast high, timber. Height of tree. jRings on stump. Sapwood. Incnet. ■>a 24 18 IS 25 Frrt. 00 40 ;io 45 Feel. no lOG 10!) 95 717 120 132 102 120 143 Inches. P 3 3 On the arid hills of llinty sandstone the trees are of inferior growth, as observed in Hot Springs County, in tho vicinity of Malvern. On their steep slopes the piues are rarely found to exceed 18 DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF TINE. 91 inches in diameter breast bigli and 75 feet in height, clear of limb for the lengtli of about ."..") feet. In a number of trees from 120 to 125 rings were counted on the stump. The wood ijrodnced on these hills is of a lighter color, less resinous, and of a fine grain. Specimens of tinished lumber from such timber resemble somewhat that of the White Pine. The hard-wood trees, mostly Spanish Oak and Post Oak, scattered beneath the pines, are scrubby and of no value for tbeir timber. Along the railroad lines the forests have become exhausted for a distance of from 5 to 10 miles oii either side, and the timber from the virgin forests is conveyed to the mills on steam tramroads. It appears that of late years about 550,000,000 to 500,000,000 feet, board measure, of pine timber are sawn annually in Arkansas south of the Arkansas liiver. In this amount the Loblolly Pine lumber is included, which is indiscriminately sawu and put with the Shortleaf Pine on the market as Arkansas Yellow Pine. The bulk of the product of the sawmills in tliis section is shijiped by rail to the markets of the Northwest. In the northern part of Texas, east of the prairie region, from the Ued Itiver A'alley to the northern Iwrder of the Longleaf Pine region (under latitud,- :V2o N.), extends an area of oak, hickory, and Shortleaf Pine uplands, stated in the agricultural report as covering 35,000 square miles. In the southern extent of this area the districts where the Shortleaf Pine prevails are popularly known as tlie "Pineries." North of the Sabine River, from Longview through (\iss and Bowie counties, the Shortleaf Pine forms compact forests over niiiny hundreds of square miles. Near Beviiis, in Cass County, where the pine forests were more closely investigated, the moderately dense timber growth covers the undulating country down to the lowlands of the Ped Riv(>r in Louisiana. The saudy gray loam forming the rather compact soil of the surface is underlaid by laminated stiff clayey marls, which at the depth of about 4 feet become quite impervious to water. Blackjack, Spanish Oak, and Post Oak of stunted growth are scattered beneath the pine. The pine appears to be of slower growth; trees of full size— that is, from 20 to 21 inches in diameter— were found to have reached an age of from 195 to 210 years. The upper part of the timber of such old trees is frequently affected by rot, a defect undoubtedly to be ascribed to the cold, impervious subsoil. From 0,000 to 7,000 feet of merchantable timber are claimed as an average stand for these timber lands. Every tree above 10 inches in diameter at breast height is cut for the mills. After the removal of the pine the hard woods gain ra])idly in the rate of their growth, soon shading the ground completely. Young pines are rarely seen in the natural openings, the seedlings being too freiiuently destroyed by lire. In the clearings, where the original tree growth has been conq)]etely removed and the pine takes quick possession of the ground, the second growth, if not killed outright by the tires which again and again devour the surrounding tall weeds and broom grasses becomes too severely injured to be of any promise. Four trees, selected as representing fairly the average merchantable timber of the Shortleaf Pine forests of northeastern Texas, showed the following record : Measurements of Jour trees. DiaTuoter Length of Height of Rings ia Sapwood breast high. timber. tree. Stlllll]). on stump. Inches. Feet. Feet. Inches. 24 36 120 195 3 23 40 109 205 3 18 45 95 102 5J 17 42 91 102 54 The forests of Shortleaf Pine near Longview, which was in ISSO the site of a most active lumber industry, have been nearly exhausted, and with diminished supplies along the New Orleans and Pacific Railway the business has greatly declined. The annual output of the 30 mills situated along this road, and its branch from Carthage to Panola, does not at present in the aggregate exceed 70,000,000 feet, board measure. From the information obtained in 1892 it appears that in 1891-92,200.000,000 feet, board measure, were handled in Texarkana, the product of the mills at that place and immediate vicinity, and also that the shipmen-ts of the mills south of the Red River iuthe same year reached about 105,000,000 feet, board measure. 92 TIMBER PINKS OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. ]u Missouri tlie rugged hills and tablelands of the southern sloj.e of the Ozark :\I(mntains, rising to an elevation of ironi 800 to 1,000 feet, are covered with forests of Short leaf Pine, which, lou-hly estimated, extend over little more than .3.000.000 acres. In the counties bordering ou the \riraiisas State line (Terry. Ozark, and Douglas counties) the pine is said to yield on the average not over l.',000 feet of timber to the acre. The forests in the basin of the Current and Black rivers are heavily timbered, as observed at Grandiu. The density of the timber growth varies, however, on these broken lands with the soil conditions, a fact demonstrated by actual measurements on several plats, upon which the amount j.er acre varied fr.un .3,000 to l.-.,000 feet of timber. After years of experience, the average yield of the timber lands ..f the Grandm Lumber and Mining Company is estimated at G.OOO feet of merchantable timber to the acre, iucludnig trees ot K) inches in diameter. , ,. . , The trees felled to serve as material for the United States timber tests, and lairly representing the average timber growth, showed the following record : Measurements of fire trees. Diameter Length of Height of Rings on breast high. timber. tree. s'ump.a Inches. FmI. Feet. 31 40 103 174 20 50 99 150 17 35 92 140 22 40 88 180 24 50 109 218 oSapwooil on radius of stump averaging 2J inches. The timber IVom these most northern of the forests of Shortleaf Pine is remarkably free from resin, of a fine, .•los.- grain, almost white, and claimed to be lighter and softer than the timber grown father south, and like the timber occasionally Ibund on the dry, rocky hills in Hot Spring County, Ark resembling the wood of the White Pine. In these forests the flue tall pines tower high above the .stunted Scarlet, Black, and White Oaks and hickories, but the growth of these hard woods almost completely overi)()wers the second growth of pine. In close connection with the great markets of the North, and nearest to the timberless region of the Northwest, th